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[ [ "February 28" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*202 BC – Liu Bang is enthroned as the Emperor of China, beginning four centuries of rule by the Han dynasty.", "* 870 – The Fourth Council of Constantinople closes.", "*1525 – Aztec king Cuauhtémoc is executed on the order of conquistador Hernán Cortés.===1601–1900===*1638 – The Scottish National Covenant is signed in Edinburgh.", "*1835 – Elias Lönnrot signed and dated the first version of the ''Kalevala'', the so-called foreword to the ''Old Kalevala''.", "*1844 – A gun explodes on board the steam warship ''USS Princeton'' during a pleasure cruise down the Potomac River, killing six, including Secretary of State Abel Upshur.", "President John Tyler, who was also on board, was not injured from the blast.===1901–present===*1922 – The United Kingdom ends its protectorate over Egypt through a Unilateral Declaration of Independence.", "*1925 – The Charlevoix-Kamouraska earthquake strikes northeastern North America.", "*1947 – February 28 Incident: In Taiwan, civil disorder is put down with the death of an estimated 28,000 civilians.", "*1958 – A school bus in Floyd County, Kentucky hits a wrecker truck and plunges down an embankment into the rain-swollen Levisa Fork river.", "The driver and 26 children die in one of the worst school bus accidents in U.S.", "history.", "*1959 – ''Discoverer 1'', an American spy satellite that is the first object intended to achieve a polar orbit, is launched but fails to achieve orbit.", "*1966 – A NASA T-38 Talon crashes into the McDonnell Aircraft factory while attempting a poor-visibility landing at Lambert Field, St. Louis, killing astronauts Elliot See and Charles Bassett.", "*1969 – The 1969 Portugal earthquake hits Portugal, Spain and Morocco.", "*1974 – The British election ended in a hung parliament after the Jeremy Thorpe-led Liberal Party achieved their biggest vote.", "*1975 – In London, an underground train fails to stop at Moorgate terminus station and crashes into the end of the tunnel, killing 43 people.", "*1983 – The final episode of ''M*A*S*H'' airs, with almost 110 million viewers.", "*1985 – The Provisional Irish Republican Army carries out a mortar attack on the Royal Ulster Constabulary police station at Newry, killing nine officers.", "*1986 – Olof Palme, 26th Prime Minister of Sweden, is assassinated in Stockholm.", "*1993 – The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms agents raid the Branch Davidian church in Waco, Texas with a warrant to arrest the group's leader David Koresh starting a 51-day standoff.", "*1997 – An earthquake in northern Iran is responsible for about 1,100 deaths.", "* 1997 – A Turkish military memorandum resulted with collapse of the government in Turkey.", "*2001 – The 2001 Nisqually earthquake, having a moment magnitude of 6.8, with epicenter in the southern Puget Sound, damages Seattle metropolitan area.", "*2002 – During the religious violence in Gujarat, 97 people are killed in the Naroda Patiya massacre and 69 in the Gulbarg Society massacre.", "*2013 – Pope Benedict XVI resigns as the pope of the Catholic Church, becoming the first pope to do so since Pope Gregory XII, in 1415.", "*2023 – Two trains collide south of the Vale of Tempe in Greece, leading to the deaths of at least 57 people and leaving 58 missing and 85 injured." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1261 – Margaret of Scotland, Queen of Norway (d. 1283)*1518 – Francis III, Duke of Brittany, Duke of Brittany (d. 1536)*1533 – Michel de Montaigne, French philosopher and author (d. 1592)*1535 – Cornelius Gemma, Dutch astronomer and astrologer (d. 1578)*1552 – Jost Bürgi, Swiss mathematician and clockmaker (d. 1632)===1601–1900===*1675 – Guillaume Delisle, French cartographer (d. 1726)*1683 – René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur, French entomologist and academic (d. 1757)*1704 – Louis Godin, French astronomer and academic (d. 1760)*1848 – Arthur Giry, French historian and academic (d. 1899)*1858 – Tore Svennberg, Swedish actor and director (d. 1941)*1866 – Vyacheslav Ivanov, Russian poet and playwright (d. 1949) *1878 – Pierre Fatou, French mathematician and astronomer (d. 1929)*1884 – Ants Piip, Estonian lawyer and politician, 7th Prime Minister of Estonia (d. 1942)*1887 – William Zorach, Lithuanian-American sculptor and painter (d. 1966)*1894 – Ben Hecht, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1964)*1896 – Philip Showalter Hench, American physician and endocrinologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1965)*1898 – Zeki Rıza Sporel, Turkish footballer (d. 1969)===1901–present===*1901 – Linus Pauling, American chemist and activist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1994)*1906 – Bugsy Siegel, American gangster (d. 1947)*1907 – Milton Caniff, American cartoonist (d. 1988)*1908 – Billie Bird, American actress (d. 2002)*1909 – Stephen Spender, English author and poet (d. 1995)*1915 – Ketti Frings, American author, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 1981)* 1915 – Peter Medawar, Brazilian-English biologist and immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987)*1919 – Alfred Marshall, American businessman, founded Marshalls (d. 2013)*1920 – Jadwiga Piłsudska, Polish soldier, pilot, and architect (d. 2014)*1921 – Marah Halim Harahap, Indonesian military officer, Governor of North Sumatra (d. 2015)*1922 – Radu Câmpeanu, Romanian politician (d. 2016)*1924 – Robert A. Roe, American soldier and politician (d. 2014)*1925 – Harry H. Corbett, Burmese-English actor (d. 1982)*1928 – Stanley Baker, Welsh actor and producer (d. 1976)* 1928 – Tom Aldredge, American actor (d. 2011)* 1928 – Sylvia del Villard, actress, dancer, choreographer and Afro-Puerto Rican activist (d. 1990)*1929 – Hayden Fry, American football player and coach (d. 2019)* 1929 – John Montague, American-Irish poet and academic (d. 2016)* 1929 – Frank Gehry, Canadian-born American architect and designer*1930 – Leon Cooper, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate*1931 – Peter Alliss, English golfer and sportscaster (d. 2020)*1931 – Gavin MacLeod, American actor, Christian activist, and author (d. 2021)* 1931 – Len Newcombe, Welsh footballer and scout (d. 1996)*1932 – Don Francks, Canadian actor, singer, and jazz musician (d. 2016)*1933 – Rein Taagepera, Estonian political scientist and politician*1937 – Jeff Farrell, American swimmer*1939 – Daniel C. Tsui, Chinese-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate* 1939 – Tommy Tune, American actor, dancer, singer, theatre director, producer, and choreographer*1940 – Mario Andretti, Italian-American racing driver*1942 – Frank Bonner, American actor and television director (d. 2021)* 1942 – Brian Jones, English guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 1969)* 1942 – Dino Zoff, Italian footballer*1943 – Barbara Acklin, American singer-songwriter (d. 1998)*1944 – Kelly Bishop, American actress* 1944 – Edward Greenspan, Canadian lawyer and author (d. 2014)* 1944 – Sepp Maier, German footballer and manager* 1944 – Storm Thorgerson, English graphic designer (d. 2013)*1945 – Bubba Smith, American football player and actor (d. 2011)*1946 – Robin Cook, Scottish educator and politician, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (d. 2005)* 1946 – Syreeta Wright, American singer-songwriter (d. 2004)*1947 – Salvador Flamenco, Salvadorean footballer*1948 – Steven Chu, American physicist and politician, 12th United States Secretary of Energy, Nobel Prize laureate* 1948 – Bernadette Peters, American actress, singer, and author* 1948 – Mercedes Ruehl, American actress*1949 – Zoia Ceaușescu, Romanian mathematician, daughter of Communist leader Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wife Elena Ceaușescu (d. 2006)*1953 – Paul Krugman, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate* 1953 – Ricky Steamboat, American professional wrestler*1954 – Brian Billick, American football player, coach, and sportscaster*1955 – Adrian Dantley, American basketball player and coach* 1955 – Gilbert Gottfried, American comedian, actor, and singer (d. 2022)* 1956 – Francis Hughes, Irish Republican, hunger striker (d. 1981)*1956 – Terry Leahy, English businessman*1957 – Ian Smith, New Zealand cricketer and sportscaster* 1957 – John Turturro, American actor and director* 1957 – Cindy Wilson, American singer-songwriter*1958 – Manuel Torres Félix, Mexican criminal and narcotics trafficker (d. 2012)* 1958 – David R. Ross, Scottish historian and author (d. 2010)*1961 – Barry McGuigan, Irish-British boxer*1963 – Claudio Chiappucci, Italian cyclist*1966 – Paulo Futre, Portuguese footballer* 1966 – Archbishop Jovan VI of Ohrid*1967 – Colin Cooper, English footballer and manager* 1967 – Seth Rudetsky, American musician, actor, writer, and radio host*1969 – Sean Farrel, English footballer* 1969 – Butch Leitzinger, American race car driver* 1969 – Robert Sean Leonard, American actor* 1969 – Pat Monahan, American singer, songwriter and actor*1970 – Noureddine Morceli, Algerian runner* 1970 – Daniel Brochu, Canadian actor*1971 – Junya Nakano, Japanese pianist and composer*1972 – Ville Haapasalo, Finnish actor and screenwriter*1973 – Eric Lindros, Canadian ice hockey player* 1973 – Scott McLeod, New Zealand rugby player* 1973 – Nicolas Minassian, French race car driver* 1973 – Masato Tanaka, Japanese wrestler*1974 – Lee Carsley, English-Irish footballer and manager* 1974 – Alexander Zickler, German footballer and manager*1975 – Mike Rucker, American football player*1976 – Ali Larter, American actress and model*1977 – Jason Aldean, American singer-songwriter* 1977 – Lance Hoyt, American football player and wrestler*1978 – Benjamin Raich, Austrian skier* 1978 – Jamaal Tinsley, American basketball player* 1978 – Mariano Zabaleta, Argentinian tennis player*1979 – Sébastien Bourdais, French race car driver* 1979 – Ivo Karlović, Croatian tennis player*1980 – Pascal Bosschaart, Dutch footballer* 1980 – Christian Poulsen, Danish footballer* 1980 – Tayshaun Prince, American basketball player*1981 – Brian Bannister, American baseball player and scout*1982 – Natalia Vodianova, Russian-French model and actress*1984 – Karolína Kurková, Czech model and actress*1985 – Tim Bresnan, English cricketer* 1985 – Jelena Janković, Serbian tennis player* 1985 – Diego Ribas da Cunha, Brazilian footballer*1987 – Akito, Japanese professional wrestler* 1987 – Antonio Candreva, Italian footballer*1988 – Aroldis Chapman, Cuban baseball player*1989 – Carlos Dunlap, American football player* 1989 – Charles Jenkins, American basketball player* 1989 – Kevin Proctor, New Zealand rugby league player*1990 – Takayasu Akira, Japanese sumo wrestler*1994 – Arkadiusz Milik, Polish footballer*1999 – Luka Dončić, Slovenian basketball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 628 – Khosrow II, Shah of Iran, Sasanian Empire (b.", ")===1601–1900===*1621 – Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b.", "1590)*1740 – Pietro Ottoboni, Italian cardinal and patron of the arts (b.", "1667)*1857 – André Dumont, Belgian geologist and academic (b.", "1809)*1882 – Adolf Zytogorski, Polish-British chess master and translator (b.", ")===1901–present===*1929 – Clemens von Pirquet, Austrian physician and immunologist (b.", "1874)*1932 – Guillaume Bigourdan, French astronomer and academic (b.", "1851)*1936 – Charles Nicolle, French biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1866)*1955 – Isak Penttala, Finnish politician (b.", "1883)*1966 – Charles Bassett, American captain, engineer, and astronaut (b.", "1931)* 1966 – Elliot See, American commander, engineer, and astronaut (b.", "1927)*1975 – Neville Cardus, English cricket and music writer (b.", "1888)*1977 – Eddie \"Rochester\" Anderson, American actor and comedian (b.", "1905) *1978 – Zara Cully, American actress (b.", "1892)* 1993 – Ruby Keeler, Canadian-American actress and dancer (b.", "1909)*1998 – Arkady Shevchenko, Ukrainian diplomat (b.", "1930)*2002 – Mary Stuart, American actress and singer (b.", "1926)* 2002 – Helmut Zacharias, German violinist and composer (b.", "1920)*2003 – Chris Brasher, Guyanese-English runner and journalist, co-founded the London Marathon (b.", "1928)*2004 – Daniel J. Boorstin, American historian and librarian (b.", "1914)*2005 – Chris Curtis, English singer and drummer (b.", "1941)*2006 – Owen Chamberlain, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1920)* 2007 – Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. American historian and critic (b.", "1917)*2009 – Paul Harvey, American radio host (b.", "1918)*2011 – Annie Girardot, French actress (b.", "1931)*2013 – Donald A. Glaser, American physicist and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1926)*2014 – Hugo Brandt Corstius, Dutch linguist and author (b.", "1935)*2015 – Yaşar Kemal, Turkish journalist and author (b.", "1923)*2016 – George Kennedy, American actor (b.", "1925)*2019 – André Previn, German-American pianist, conductor, and composer.", "(b.", "1929)*2020 – Joe Coulombe, founder of Trader Joe's (b.", "1930)* 2020 – Freeman Dyson, British-born American physicist and mathematician (b.", "1923)* 2020 – Sir Lenox Hewitt, Australian public servant (b.", "1917)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**February 28 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Kalevala Day, also known as the Finnish Culture Day (Finland)*National Science Day (India)*Peace Memorial Day (Taiwan)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 28" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Flambards" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Flambards''''' is a novel for children or young adults by K. M. Peyton, first published by Oxford University Press in 1967 with illustrations by Victor Ambrus.", "Alternatively, \"Flambards\" is the trilogy (1967–1969) or series (1967–1981) named after its first book.", "The series is set in England just before, during, and after World War I.The novel ''Flambards'' (book one) features a teenage orphan and heiress Christina Parsons, who comes to live at Flambards, the impoverished Essex estate owned by her crippled and tyrannical uncle, William Russell, and his two sons, Mark and Will." ], [ "Novel summary", "Christina Parsons, who has been shunted around the family since she was orphaned at the age of five years in 1901, is sent to live at Flambards with her mother's half-brother, the crippled Russell.", "Her Aunt Grace speculates that Russell plans for Christina to marry his son Mark to restore Flambards to its former glory using the money that she will inherit on her twenty-first birthday.", "Mark is as brutish as his father, with a great love for hunting, whereas the younger son William is terrified of horses after a hunting accident and aspires to be an aviator.", "Christina soon finds friendship with the injured William, who challenges her ideas on class boundaries, as well as her love for horses and hunting.", "William and Christina eventually fall in love and run away from the hunt ball to London, hoping to marry." ], [ "Series", "The fourth book controversially reversed the ending of the original trilogy, twelve years later and following the television series.", "* ''Flambards'' (Oxford, 1967)* ''The Edge of the Cloud'' (Oxford, 1969)* ''Flambards in Summer'' (Oxford, 1969)* ''Flambards Divided'' (1981)For ''The Edge of the Cloud'', Peyton won the annual Carnegie Medal from the Library Association, recognising the year's best children's book by a British subject.", "She was a commended runner-up for both the first and third books, the latter in competition with her Medal-winning work.She also won the 1970 Guardian Children's Fiction Prize, conferred by ''The Guardian'' newspaper and judged by a panel of British children's writers.", "Ordinarily the prize recognises one fiction book published during the preceding calendar year; exceptionally Peyton won for the Flambards trilogy completed in 1969.The trilogy was adapted as a 13-part television series in 1979, ''Flambards'', starring Christine McKenna as Christina Parsons.World Publishing issued a US edition of the first book in 1968, retaining the Ambrus illustrations.", "World (Cleveland and New York) also published US editions of the second and third books in 1969 and 1970, also with the original illustrations, although all three novels were reset with a greater page-counts." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* —immediately, first US edition* * a ''Flambards'' forum* Flying Dreams – a ''Flambards'' fan page* a ''Flambards'' fan page" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Father Ted" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Father Ted''''' is a sitcom created by Irish writers Graham Linehan and Arthur Mathews and produced by British production company Hat Trick Productions for British television channel Channel 4.It aired over three series from 21 April 1995 until 1 May 1998, including a Christmas special, for a total of 25 episodes.", "It aired on Nine Network (series 1) and ABC Television (series 2 and 3) in Australia, and on TV2 in New Zealand.Set on the fictional Craggy Island, a remote location off Ireland's west coast, ''Father Ted'' stars Dermot Morgan as Father Ted Crilly, alongside fellow priests Father Dougal McGuire (Ardal O'Hanlon) and Father Jack Hackett (Frank Kelly).", "Dishonourably exiled on the island by Bishop Leonard Brennan (Jim Norton) for various reasons, the priests live together in the parochial house with their housekeeper Mrs Doyle (Pauline McLynn).", "The show subverts parodies of low-brow humour as it portrays nuanced themes of loneliness, agnosticism, existentialism and purgatory experienced by its title character; this deeper meaning of the show has been much acclaimed.", "''Father Ted'' won several British Academy Television Awards—including twice for Best Comedy Series, and remains a popular sitcom in Ireland and the UK.", "In a 2001 Channel 4 poll, Dougal was ranked fifth on their list of the 100 Greatest TV Characters.", "In 2019, ''Father Ted'' was named the second-greatest British sitcom (after ''Fawlty Towers)'' by a panel of comedy experts for ''Radio Times''." ], [ "Synopsis", "The show follows the misadventures of three Irish Roman Catholic priests who live in a parish on the fictional Craggy Island, located off the west coast of Ireland.", "Father Ted Crilly, Father Dougal McGuire and Father Jack Hackett live chaotically together in Craggy Island's parochial house, along with their housekeeper Mrs Doyle, who always wants to serve them tea.The three priests answer to Bishop Len Brennan, who has banished them to Craggy Island as punishment for different incidents in their past: Ted for alleged financial impropriety (apparently involving some money \"resting\" in his account and a child being deprived of a visit to Lourdes so that Ted could go to Las Vegas), Dougal for an event only referred to as the \"Blackrock Incident\" (resulting in \"many nuns' lives being irreparably damaged\"), and Jack for his alcoholism and womanising, particularly for an unspecified incident at a wedding in Athlone.The show revolves around the priests' lives on Craggy Island, sometimes dealing with matters of the church but more often dealing with Father Ted's schemes to either resolve a situation with the parish or other Craggy Island residents, or to win games of one-upmanship against his enemy, Father Dick Byrne of the nearby Rugged Island parish." ], [ "Episodes" ], [ "Production", "===Writing===Linehan and Mathews first met while working at ''Hot Press''.", "In the late 1980s, Mathews, Paul Woodfull and Kieran Woodfull formed The Joshua Trio, a U2 tribute band.", "The trio began writing comedy sketches to accompany their act.", "Mathews created the Father Ted character for his short-lived stand-up routine.", "Before The Joshua Trio played at gigs, Mathews would occasionally come on-stage as Father Ted and tell jokes involving his great friend, Father Dougal McGuire.In 1991, Mathews left his job at ''Hot Press'' and moved into Linehan's London home.", "Over the next three to four years, they worked on rough ideas for shows while at the same time writing for sketch shows such as ''The All New Alexei Sayle Show'' and ''The Fast Show''.", "One of these ideas was for a comedy mockumentary series called ''Irish Lives'', with six episodes, each focusing on a different character living somewhere in Ireland.", "They scripted an episode centring on a priest named Father Ted Crilly, who visits his friends in the seminary in Maynooth College.", "Producer Geoffrey Perkins suggested that the episode's concept be dramatised and rewritten as a sitcom.In the January 1994 issue of ''In Dublin'' (Vol 19, No2), Mathews and Linehan told Damian Corless, who had initially introduced the pair to each other, of their work in progress, describing Ted as \"basically a nice man\", Dougal as \"nice but really stupid\" and Jack as \"a hideous creature\".", "Linehan revealed: \"They've all been sent to this isolated place called Craggy Island because they're crap priests.\"", "Mathews elaborated: \"They've each a terrible secret which is why they've been banished to this place, and the terrible thing is that they can't get away from each other.", "Obviously it's not entirely reality-based.\"", "Mathews was originally intended to play Ted, but decided he lacked the acting ability the role required.", "Maurice O'Donoghue, who plays Father Dick in the series, was their second choice for the role of Ted, being the right age and having a similar look and lightness.", "Mathews always preferred Dermot Morgan; Linehan was initially reluctant, fearing he would play Ted the same as \"Father Trendy\", a character he played on the RTÉ television show ''The Live Mike'', but Morgan lobbied hard for the role and was cast.The show was pitched directly to the UK's Hat Trick Productions and Channel 4 by the duo, contrary to rumours that RTÉ (the Irish national broadcaster) were originally offered the series but rejected it.===Recording===Three series and one Christmas special were aired.", "Declan Lowney directed the first two series and the Christmas special, while the third series was directed by Linehan (location scenes) and Andy De Emmony (studio scenes).", "In addition, Morgan and O'Hanlon hosted an hour of Comic Relief in character, during which Kelly and McLynn also made brief guest appearances.", "One day after the shooting of series three wrapped, Dermot Morgan died of a heart attack, aged 45.As a mark of respect, the third series was first broadcast a week later than originally planned.The show was already scheduled to conclude with the third series prior to Morgan's death, as Morgan said that he did not want to continue playing the role of Father Ted for fear of being typecast: \"I don't want to be the next Clive Dunn and end up playing the same character for years.", "\"Following Morgan's death, the production company received calls from numerous agents and casting directors suggesting either new actors for the role of Ted or spin-offs without the character; Linehan and Mathews declined all offers.===Music===In 1994, the writers asked alternative rock band Pulp to compose the theme music for ''Father Ted'', requesting a parody of a typical sitcom theme.", "When Pulp said no, they contacted Neil Hannon, frontman of Northern Irish chamber pop band The Divine Comedy.", "Hannon's first effort, a jaunty composition, was rejected on Geoffrey Perkins's advice.", "Hannon composed a second theme, which the team found acceptable.", "This theme was recorded by Hannon and co-producer Darren Allison at The Jesus and Mary Chain's private studio.", "One of William Reid's guitars was selected by Allison and Hannon to carry the main tune, which was played by Hannon.", "Both themes were also reworked, with new lyrics, for inclusion on The Divine Comedy's 1996 album ''Casanova'': the final ''Father Ted'' theme became \"Songs of Love\", while Hannon's rejected theme became \"A Woman of the World\".In 2010, Linehan discussed the dramatic effect this choice had on the tone of the series: \"'Woman of the World' was kind of like a jaunty, plinky-plonky song, and we wanted that song.", "He Hannon gave us two choices: he gave us that, and 'Songs of Love', and we wanted the plinky-plonky song because our idea was we were making fun of sitcoms.", "We were saying, you know, we don't like sitcoms.", "This is a parody of sitcoms.", "This is a kind of satire on sitcoms.", "And I remember Geoffrey Perkins looking really glum and sad about this, you know?", "And then he said, 'Why do you want to make fun of your characters?'", "He said, 'People will love these characters.'", "And that was just a real revelation for me, and after that, whatever he said went, as far as I was concerned.", "\"The Divine Comedy also contributed most of the show's original music, including the songs \"Big Men in Frocks\" (for the episode \"Rock-a-Hula Ted\"), \"My Lovely Horse\" and \"The Miracle is Mine\" (for \"A Song for Europe\"), and \"My Lovely Mayo Mammy\" (for \"Night of the Nearly Dead\").", "Neil Hannon also provided Ted and Dougal's vocals in the dream sequence version of \"My Lovely Horse\", which was produced by Allison and Hannon, and later appeared as a B-side on the band's single \"Gin Soaked Boy\".===Location===The farmhouse in the Burren northeast of Kilnaboy which was used for external shots of the parochial house (pictured in 2016)The interior scenes were recorded at the London Studios in front of a live studio audience, while exterior filming was at various locations in Ireland.", "Location work for ''Father Ted'' was done mostly in County Clare, including locations at Corofin, Ennis, Kilfenora, Ennistymon, and Kilnaboy.", "The Parochial House is McCormack's at Glenquin, on the Boston road from Kilnaboy.", "The cinema featured in \"The Passion of St Tibulus\" was the Ormonde Cinema, Greystones, County Wicklow and \"The Field\", the location for Funland in \"'Good Luck, Father Ted'\", is in Portrane, North County Dublin.", "The 'Very Dark Caves' featured in \"The Mainland\" were the Aillwee caves in the Burren, County Clare.Some exterior shots for the episode \"And God Created Woman\" were filmed in Dún Laoghaire, South County Dublin.", "The opening sequence (including shots of the ''Plassy'' shipwreck) were filmed over Inisheer — the smallest of the Aran Islands." ], [ "Comedic style", "The series is set in a humorously surreal world in which Ted is the only fully rounded normal character among \"caricatures\", according to Graham Linehan: \"exaggerated-over-friendly, over-quiet, over-stupid, over-dull ... they really only got one thing, they've got one job.", "\"Embarrassment plays a role in many storylines, in a similar fashion to ''Fawlty Towers''.", "Linehan says, \"if Ted is in a situation that is slightly embarrassing we get him out of it ... by having him lying or cheating, basically digging a massive hole for himself\".", "Arthur Mathews has described ''Seinfeld'' as a major influence on the comedy of ''Father Ted'', with himself and Linehan being \"big fans\" of the show.", "''Father Ted'' also contains references to pop culture, and some film parodies, such as the episode \"Speed 3\".Regarding the series's religious content, Linehan says \"Ted doesn't have an anti-religious view of life, but a non-religious view.", "It's a job to him.", "He doesn't care about religion.\"", "While writing, he says the show's creators imagined Ted and Dougal as \"just two people who happen to be priests\"." ], [ "Reception", "''Father Ted'' was met with critical acclaim and is the most popular sitcom in Irish TV history.", "The Irish media frequently uses the series as a point of comparison in political stories.In 1996 and 1999, the show won the BAFTA award for Best Comedy, while Morgan also won Best Comedy Performance.", "In 1995 the show won Best New TV Comedy at the British Comedy Awards, with O'Hanlon receiving Top TV Comedy Newcomer Award.", "At the 1996 British Comedy Awards the show won Top Channel 4 Sitcom Award, McLynn took the Top TV Comedy Actress award.", "In 1997 the show was given the Best Channel 4 Sitcom Award.", "It was also ranked at number 50 in the BFI's 2000 list of the 100 greatest British television programmes of the 20th century, the highest ranking Channel 4 production on the list.", "In 2004, it came 11th in the poll for Britain's Best Sitcom.", "In August 2012, Channel 4 viewers voted the series as the No 1 in ''C4's 30 Greatest Comedy Shows''.Notable fans of the show include director Steven Spielberg, musicians Liam Gallagher, Madonna, Cher and Moby, actors Jim Carrey and Steve Martin, comedian Ricky Gervais, and wrestler Sheamus.", "Maurice Gibb of the Bee Gees was buried with a copy of the DVD box set.", "Singer-songwriter Sinéad O'Connor was a fan, and attended the recording of the Christmas special.", "Irish musician Bono also requested to appear in the series.In January 2007, a dispute arose between Inisheer and Inishmore over which island can claim to be Craggy Island, and thereby host a three-day Friends of Ted Festival.", "The dispute was settled by a five-a-side football match that February.", "Inishmore won 2–0 allowing them to use the title of Craggy Island until February 2008, while Inisheer was given the title of Rugged Island.", "The Friends of Ted Festival, better known as Ted Fest, has been held annually as a ''Father Ted'' fan convention since 2007.In August 2020 An Post released a set of commemorative postage stamps, each with a catchphrase from the series on a background of the parochial house's lurid wallpaper, in a booklet listing Mrs Doyle's guesses for the name of Father Todd Unctious.Several quotes from the series have entered the popular lexicon, such as \"These are ''small'', but the ones out there are ''far away''.", "Small.", "Far away.", "\", \"Down with this sort of thing\", and \"I hear you're a racist now, Father\"." ], [ "Derivatives", "On 1 January 2011, Channel 4 dedicated a night of programmes to celebrate the show's 15th anniversary year.", "This included \"Father Ted: Unintelligent Design\", a documentary on the show's influences, and \"Small, Far Away: The World of Father Ted\", a documentary revisiting the show's history with the writers and many of the surviving cast (Pauline McLynn was unable to take part as she was working in another country).===Roles reprised===In 2001, Pauline McLynn reprised her role as Mrs Doyle in a run of advertisements for the UK's Inland Revenue, reminding people to get their taxes in on time with her catchphrase from the programme (\"Go on, go on, go on...\").", "It was voted in an Adwatch poll of 1,000 people as the year's worst advertisement.Later in 2001, Ardal O'Hanlon returned to the role of Father Dougal for a series of PBS advertisements to coincide with ''Father Ted''s American broadcast; these segments were included on later DVD releases as \"Fundraising with Father Dougal\".In 2012, Frank Kelly made a brief appearance as Father Jack on an episode of ''The One Show'' with Graham Norton.In 2014, guest star Ben Keaton returned to the role of Father Austin Purcell, performing a stand-up routine and hosting the pub quiz \"Arse Biscuits\" in-character.", "In 2015, he launched the spin-off web series ''Cook Like a Priest''.In February 2016, Over The Top Wrestling marked the anniversary of Morgan's death with \"Ah Ted\", an event held in Dublin's Tivoli Variety Theatre.", "During the main-event tag-team match between The Lads From the Flats and The Kings of the North, Patrick McDonnell, Joe Rooney and Michael Redmond reprised their roles as Eoin McLove, Father Damo Lennon and Father Paul Stone respectively.", "McLove entered the ring first, withstanding one wrestler's attack on his crotch because he has \"no willy\", but was soon attacked by Father Damo, who brought the whistle he stole from Benson.", "Father Stone served as a special guest referee, performing a three-count so slow that one wrestler kicked out after two.", "In 2017, Rooney appeared as Father Damo in the video for Brave Giant's \"The Time I Met the Devil\", which follows him on the way to give Mass after a night of alcohol and sex.===Potential remakes===Since the end of the series, several attempts to remake ''Father Ted'' have been reported, but none has yet materialised.In July 2003, it was announced that the show would be remade for the American market.", "The remake would be scripted by Spike Feresten, who previously wrote for US sitcoms ''Seinfeld'' and ''The Simpsons''.", "Ferensten stated: \"I was raised Catholic and this show just felt right to me.", "The essence of the show is about men who are also priests and, as men, they have many foibles.\"", "Hat Trick founders Denise O'Donoghue and Jimmy Mulville were set to produce.", "The US production company was Pariah Productions, which previously adapted ''The Kumars at No.", "42'' for an American audience.In March 2004, Supanet Limited reported that an American remake was in development.", "This version would be set on a fictional island off the coast of New York.", "Steve Martin and Graham Norton would reportedly play Ted and Dougal.", "Martin had not been expected to take the role because of his stature, but agreed because he was a fan of the original series, and would reportedly be paid £500,000 per episode.", "Norton was cast based on his popularity with American audiences, and in reference to his appearance as Father Noel Furlong in the original series.In November 2007, a separate American remake was announced.", "Rather than Craggy Island, this version would be set in an unfortunate fishing village in New England.", "American actor John Michael Higgins was cast as Ted, but expressed concerns about the show's religious themes: \"The English have a very robust history of being unkind about religion.", "We don't have that in our country, we're frightened of it.", "It's basically that you guys are doing an Irish joke also, we don't have that.", "So I'll be Father Ted, we'll see how it goes.\"", "Filming was scheduled to begin in January 2008.In January 2015, Linehan said that there had been \"a few attempts\" by US broadcasters to remake the show, including one which would have been set in Boston – an idea Linehan considered \"ridiculous\".===Musical===In an interview with ''Radio Times'' in January 2015, Linehan said that he wanted to revive ''Father Ted'' as a musical stage production.", "He stated that he would never revive the television series, \"because of the risk you poison people's memories of the original\", but that the completely new format would make the project worthwhile.", "He mentioned the possibility of a dance number with \"spinning cardinals\".", "He said that the musical would have to reference the Catholic child abuse scandals, saying, \"The jokes would have to have a little bit more edge, because you just can't ignore this stuff.\"", "Mathews was \"not as convinced\" of the musical idea, though Linehan insisted it could work.In December, Mathews said that he and Paul Woodfull were developing a Joshua Trio musical and a show focusing on a \"Father Michael Cleary-type character\", and that the ''Father Ted'' musical may follow.", "He expressed concerns that it would \"dilute the product\" or be seen as a \"cash-in\", but said that he believed there was an audience for the project.", "In April 2017, Linehan said that the musical would draw inspiration from ''The Book of Mormon'', and would \"go for the jugular ... You get all the things people loved about it, all the innocence and all the sweetness, but introduce a harder edge.\"", "Linehan also said that, being a special event, the musical would need to focus on a \"world-shaking\" story, possibly with Ted becoming Pope due to \"some weird succession thing\".In June 2018, Linehan announced that ''Pope Ted: The Father Ted Musical'' was nearing completion, with a script by Linehan and Mathews.", "Linehan said, \"It's the real final episode of ''Father Ted ...'' This was the right idea.", "Arthur and I have been laughing our arses off while writing it.", "Just like the old days.\"", "The Divine Comedy frontman Neil Hannon, who wrote the television show's music, composed the music.In March 2022, Linehan said the musical had been cancelled by producers following the controversy over his views on transgender rights.", "He said that the musical was \"ready to go\", with a completed story and songs, but \"just because a group of people have decided that anybody who speaks up against this ideology is evil, the producers have just kind of rolled over for those people.", "No one is standing up for me.\"", "Hannon, a longtime friend of Linehan's, said the project was difficult and said about the controversy around Linehan: \"It's been difficult to watch what's happened.", "I believe in free speech, but I also very much believe in people's perfect right to remain completely silent on issues that they don't feel they can speak on.", "And that's all I want to say about it.", "\"In December 2020, Linehan said he was seeking legal advice regarding Hat Trick Productions who he argued were preventing the musical from going into production owing to ''\"activists\"'' within the company." ], [ "Home video", "===United Kingdom and Ireland=== '''UK and Ireland Releases''' Title Format Episodes Release date BBFC Rating ''Series 1 – The Opening Chapters'' VHS 3 21 October 1996  '''15'''  ''Series 1 – The Closing Chapters'' VHS 3 21 October 1996  '''15'''  ''The Second Sermon – Chapter 1'' VHS 3 20 October 1997  '''15'''  ''The Second Sermon – Chapter 2'' VHS 3 20 October 1997  '''15'''  ''The Very Best of Father Ted'' VHS 5 2 November 1998  '''15'''  ''5 Hilarious Episodes'' VHS 5 15 November 1999  '''12'''  ''The Final Revelations'' VHS 8 27 November 2000  '''15'''  ''The Complete 1st Series'' VHS & DVD 6 20 August 2001  '''15'''  ''Series 2 – Part 1'' VHS & DVD 6 15 October 2001  '''15'''  ''Series 2 – Part 2'' VHS & DVD 5 25 February 2002  '''12'''  ''The Complete 3rd Series'' VHS & DVD 8 20 May 2002  '''15'''  ''The Very Best of Father Ted'' DVD 6 18 November 2002  '''15'''  ''The Complete Series'' DVD 25 20 November 2002  '''15'''  ''The Definitive Collection'' DVD 25 29 October 2007  '''15'''  ''A Christmassy Ted'' DVD 1 19 October 2009  '''12'''  ''The Complete Boxset'' DVD 25 12 November 2012  '''15'''  ''Series 1'' DVD 6 11 March 2013  '''15'''  ''Series 2'' DVD 11 11 March 2013  '''15'''  ''Series 3'' DVD 8 11 March 2013  '''15''' ===United States=== '''U.S.", "Releases''' Title Format Episodes Release date Rating ''Volume 1'' VHS 3 15 May 2001 Not Rated ''Volume 2'' VHS 3 15 May 2001 Not Rated ''Volume 3'' VHS 3 5 March 2002 Not Rated ''Volume 4'' VHS 3 5 March 2002 Not Rated ''A Christmassy Ted'' VHS 1 17 September 2002 Not Rated ''The Complete Series 1'' DVD 6 5 June 2001 Not Rated ''The Complete Series 2'' DVD 10 5 March 2002 Not Rated ''The Complete Series 3'' DVD 9 4 March 2003 Not Rated ''The Holy Trilogy'' DVD 25 2 March 2004 Not Rated ''The Definitive Collection'' DVD 25 19 February 2008 Not Rated===Australia=== '''Australian Releases''' Title Format Episodes Release date Rating ''The Complete 1st Series'' DVD 6 18 August 2003  '''M'''  ''Series 2 – Part 1'' DVD 6 August 2003  '''PG'''  ''Series 2 – Part 2'' DVD 5 September 2003  '''M'''  ''The Complete 3rd Series'' DVD 8 Late 2003  '''M'''  ''The Definitive Collection'' DVD 25 5 November 2009  '''M'''  ''The Complete 1st Series'' DVD 6 4 March 2010  '''M'''  ''The Complete 2nd Series'' DVD 11 4 March 2010  '''M'''  ''The Complete 3rd Series'' DVD 8 4 March 2010  '''M'''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Father Ted: The Complete Scripts'' by Graham Linehan and Arthur Mathews, 1999, Boxtree Press, UK," ], [ "External links", "* * ''Father Ted'' at EpisodeWorld.com* ''Father Ted Filming Locations'' * ''Father Ted'' at British TV Resources* * * ''Father Ted – the TV Series'' – h2g2 at bbc.co.uk* ''Father Ted'' at TheFatherTedGuide.co.uk" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Foster's Lager" ], [ "Introduction", "Beer bottle'''Foster's Lager''' is an internationally distributed brand of Australian lager.", "It is owned by the Japanese brewing group Asahi Group Holdings, and is brewed under licence in a number of countries, including its biggest market, the UK, where the European rights to the brand are owned by Heineken International.While Foster's is the largest-selling Australian beer brand in the world, it is not as popular and relatively rare compared with other beers in Australia, particularly when compared to current Carlton & United Breweries beers such as Victoria Bitter and Carlton Draught." ], [ "History", "Foster's was created by two American brothers, William M. and Ralph R. Foster, who arrived in Melbourne from New York in 1886.The brothers began brewing Foster's Lager in November 1888.It was made available to the public from February 1889.The product was first exported in 1901, when bottles were sent to Australian combatants in the Boer War.In 1907, the company merged with five other brewing companies to form Carlton & United Breweries (CUB).", "Then only available in bottles, Foster's Lager was considered to be CUB's premium brand.In 1958, steel cans were introduced.", "Foster's Lager was first imported into the UK in 1971 and was launched in the US in 1972.Commencing 1981, the brand was brewed under licence in the UK by Watney Mann and Truman Brewers.", "In 1986, Courage Brewery obtained the rights to brew and distribute Foster's alongside Watney Mann and Truman Brewers, which Courage took over in 1990.In 2011, CUB and its product lines, including Foster's, were bought by the South African and British conglomerate SABMiller, which in turn was incorporated into the multinational (Belgian, Brazilian, and American) Anheuser-Busch InBev in 2016.In 2019, Anheuser-Busch InBev agreed to sell CUB including Fosters to Asahi Breweries.", "The deal was completed in 2020." ], [ "Production", "Advertising from the early 20th century claimed Foster's Lager was adjuncted with cane sugar.", "A number of breweries advertised a sugar content, (e.g.", "Bulimba), as it implied a lighter less bitter brew than was commonly sold.", "(Rice malt and very light barley malts replaced sugar, which can be troublesome for brewers.", ")The Tim Foster's yeast in use today was brought to Carlton in 1923 from Professor Jorgensen in Denmark.The lager is hopped with selected oil extracts of Super Pride of Ringwood hops, which like any modern beer, is added after fermentation to minimise losses to the yeast sediment.", "The hop is sourced from the only two farms in Australia that grow it.The product is 4% ABV in Europe, Australia and India, and 5% in the US.The Latin American and European rights to the beer are owned by Heineken International, who brews and distributes a 4% ABV Foster's in most European countries.", "In the United States and Canada, rights to the brand are owned by Molson Coors.", "Heineken also acquired Brasil Kirin which previously had the right to the beer in Latin America.In the UK, Foster's is produced by Heineken at the Royal Brewery in Manchester.Production of the Australian regular brand recommenced in 2014, but it was only briefly promoted.", "It had been in continuous production from November 1888 to about 2002, making it the longest-lived beer label in Australia.", "Once a \"premium\" brand, Foster's Lager has been bypassed by the Foster's Group's favoured premium brands of Carlton Crown Lager and Stella Artois.In Australia until the end of the 1970s, Foster's Lager was a reasonably popular bottled and canned beer with a somewhat premium image.", "Then in the early 1980s there were major changes in the Australian brewing industry, including the merger of Castlemaine (Brisbane), Swan (Perth) and Toohey's (Sydney) into a national brewing group, as a result of acquisitions by Perth entrepreneur Alan Bond.Faced with inroads into its non-Victorian markets, Carlton and United Beverages (CUB) reviewed its product range and attempted to re-position some of its brands.", "Foster's Draught was introduced, served on tap alongside established draught brands such as Castlemaine XXXX and Toohey's Draught.", "Despite some initial success, bolstered by heavy advertising, the brand did not prove to be popular and was eventually withdrawn from sale.The Foster's Group has tended to promote the brands of Carlton Draught (mainstream market) and Victoria Bitter (working class male market).The CUB Yatala Road Brewery south of Brisbane, the site of the former Power's Brewery, brews all CUB mainstream and contract beers that are sold outside of Victoria.", "The Yatala Brewery is the largest in the Southern Hemisphere.", "CUB's Abbotsford Brewery (Abbot's Lager) now only supplies Victoria and South Australia.", "The Victoria (Vic Bitter) and Carlton (Carlton Draft) breweries were closed in the late 20th century and the CUB headquarters moved to Abbotsford.", "In late 2014 Foster's enjoyed some renewed success in the Australian market, due to returning to wide-release sale in Australian liquor stores with some renewed nostalgic brand recognition.", "Foster's lager was marketed as \"Foster's Classic\" and sold in 375ml cans with 4.0% ABV.In November 2020, CUB announced that it would \"relaunch\" the brand in Australia, boosting local production by 300% and price it competitively against rival brands." ], [ "Global market", "In April 2006, Scottish & Newcastle plc announced that it had agreed to acquire the Foster's brand in Europe (including Turkey), the Russian Federation and other countries in the Commonwealth of Independent States for approximately £309 million.", "In August 2006, SABMiller, now owned by AB InBev, announced that it had bought back rights to the Foster's brand in India for a reported $120m from private investors.An unusual case emerged in 2015 when a New York consumer of Foster's Lager sued the brewer after – he claimed – discovering it was not brewed in Australia.", "He proposed a class action on the grounds of deceptive marketing.", "The suit cited advertising slogans such as 'Foster's Australian for Beer' and 'How to Speak Australian' were intended to trick consumers into believing the beer is made in Australia – which in turn meant the beer could be sold at a higher, premium price.A number of companies own marketing rights to Foster's including Heineken International in Latin America, Europe and CIS and Molson Coors in the U.S. and Canada." ], [ "Variants", "Scottish & Newcastle launched Foster's Twist, a beer with a hint of citrus that was marketed as a refreshing alternative to other heavier beers and Premium Packaged Spirits such as Smirnoff Ice.", "Foster's Twist was 4.5% abv.", "It has since been withdrawn from the market.There also exists Foster's Super Chilled, which is served at a colder temperature and is available in pubs and bars.In 2008, Foster's was introduced with a widget called a \"scuba\" placed into the can to ensure good mixing.", "This variant is only currently available in the UK.In the UK, customers are also able to purchase a keg of Foster's for private parties, collecting and returning the keg at a participating store or public house.Also, there is Fosters Gold which has a slightly higher alcohol percentage of 4.5% sold only in bottles." ], [ "Sponsorship", "From 1964, the brand was promoted in the UK by comedian Barry Humphries and his ''Private Eye'' character Barry McKenzie, a bumbling Foster's swilling Australian expatriate.Foster's Lager used the slogan \"The Amber Nectar\" in Australia and the UK, and \"Australian for Beer\", elsewhere overseas.", "The overseas advertising of the product often focuses on the Australian connotations of the beer, e.g.", "with reference to stereotypical Australian imagery such as kangaroos, exaggerated accents, and cork hats.", "This was true of a campaign in the 1980s fronted by the Australian comedian Paul Hogan.The 2009 campaign for Foster's contains two 40-second adverts, \"Backpacker\" and \"Deep Sea\"; both end with the slogan, \"Foster's – get some Australian in you.", "\"The Foster's Lager brand was used as an advertising sponsorship deal with Norwich City F.C.", "from 1986 to 1989 (a period which included two top five finishes and a run to the FA Cup semi-finals).", "At its commencement, the sponsorship by Foster's was the most lucrative sponsorship ever given to an English football club.The brand sponsored Formula One events regularly from 1986 to 2006.During this period it was the title sponsor for the Australian GP (1986–1993 and 2002–2006), the British GP (1990–1993 and 2000–2006) and the San Marino GP (2003–2006).", "It also was the prime sponsor and trackside sponsor of many other Grands Prix during this time.", "The brand was also used in a sponsorship deal with the A1 Team Australia from 2005 to 2007.The UK division of the Foster's brand has focused on cultivating comedy-centric advertising and sponsorship arrangements and on 9 November 2011 they launched a trailer for their sponsored, online-only version of the hit 90s' television show ''The Fast Show''.", "The six weekly episodes started on 10 November and featured the original cast (with the exception of Mark Williams) and many of the characters from the previous series.From 2010 to 2015 Foster's adverts featured \"Good call\", in which numerous Britons phone up Australians Brad and Dan for general advice.", "The campaign was revived in 2019." ], [ "See also", "* Lager* List of breweries in Australia" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official UK Website, www.fosters.co.uk* Official US Website, www.fostersbeer.com* Official UK Fosters Funny Campaign Website, www.fostersfunny.co.uk* Interview with Trevor O'Hoy, CEO of Foster's Group in 2006.", "* Foster's History, www.australianbeers.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Friends" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Friends''''' is an American television sitcom created by David Crane and Marta Kauffman, which aired on NBC from September 22, 1994, to May 6, 2004, lasting ten seasons.", "With an ensemble cast starring Jennifer Aniston, Courteney Cox, Lisa Kudrow, Matt LeBlanc, Matthew Perry and David Schwimmer, the show revolves around six friends in their 20s and early 30s who live in Manhattan, New York City.", "The original executive producers were Kevin S. Bright, Kauffman, and Crane.Kauffman and Crane began developing ''Friends'' under the working title ''Insomnia Cafe'' between November and December 1993.They presented the idea to Bright, and together they pitched a seven-page treatment of the show to NBC.", "After several script rewrites and changes, including title changes to ''Six of One'' and ''Friends Like Us'', the series was finally named ''Friends''.", "Filming took place at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California.", "The series was produced by Bright/Kauffman/Crane Productions and Warner Bros. Television.The show ranked within the top ten of the final television season ratings; it ultimately reached the number-one spot in its eighth season.", "The series finale aired on May 6, 2004, and was watched by around 52.5 million American viewers, making it the fifth-most-watched series finale in television history and the most-watched television episode of the 2000s.", "''Friends'' received acclaim throughout its run, becoming one of the most popular television shows of all time.", "The series was nominated for 62 Primetime Emmy Awards, winning the Outstanding Comedy Series award in 2002 for its eighth season.", "The show ranked 21 on ''TV Guide''s 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time, and 5 on ''Empire'' magazine's The 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time.", "In 1997, the episode \"The One with the Prom Video\" was ranked 100 on ''TV Guide''s 100 Greatest Episodes of All-Time.", "In 2013, ''Friends'' ranked 24 on the Writers Guild of America's 101 Best Written TV Series of All Time, and 28 on ''TV Guide''s 60 Best TV Series of All Time.", "The sitcom's cast members returned for ''Friends: The Reunion'', a reunion special which was released on HBO Max on May 27, 2021." ], [ "Premise", "Set in New York City, New York, this series follows the eventful day-to-day lives of a group of six friends in their 20s as they live, work, and love in the city." ], [ "Cast and characters", "File:Jennifer Aniston 08.jpg|alt=Jennifer Aniston|Jennifer Aniston as Rachel GreenFile:CourteneyCoxFeb09.jpg|alt=Courteney Cox|Courteney Cox as Monica GellerFile:Lisa Kudrow crop.jpg|alt=Lisa Kudrow|Lisa Kudrow as Phoebe BuffayFile:Matt LeBlanc, Arqiva British Academy Television Awards, 2013.jpg|alt=Matt LeBlanc|Matt LeBlanc as Joey TribbianiFile:Matthew Perry 2013.jpg|alt=Matthew Perry|Matthew Perry as Chandler BingFile:David Schwimmer (5208598833).jpg|alt=David Schwimmer|David Schwimmer as Ross Geller* Jennifer Aniston as Rachel Green: A fashion enthusiast and Monica Geller's best friend from childhood.", "Rachel first moves in with Monica in season one after nearly marrying Barry Farber.", "Rachel and Ross Geller are later involved in an on-again, off-again relationship throughout the series.", "Rachel dates other men during the series, such as Italian neighbor, Paolo, in season one; Joshua Bergin, a client from Bloomingdale's, in season four; Tag Jones, her assistant, in season seven; and Joey Tribbiani, one of her close friends, in season ten.", "Rachel's first job is as a waitress at the coffee house Central Perk, but she later becomes an assistant buyer at Bloomingdale's in season three, and a buyer at Ralph Lauren in season five.", "Rachel and Ross have a daughter named Emma in \"The One Where Rachel Has a Baby, Part Two\" at the end of season eight.", "In the final episode of the series, Ross and Rachel confess their love for each other, and Rachel gives up a dream fashion job at Louis Vuitton in Paris to be with him.", "It is heavily implied in the spin-off series, ''Joey'', that Rachel married Ross after the series finale.", "* Courteney Cox as Monica Geller: The \"mother hen\" of the group and a chef, known for her perfectionist, bossy, competitive, and obsessive-compulsive nature.", "Monica was overweight as a child.", "She works as a chef in various restaurants throughout the show.", "Monica's first serious relationship is with a long-time family friend Richard Burke, who is 21 years her senior.", "The two maintain a strong relationship for some time until Richard expresses that he does not want to have children.", "Monica and Chandler, one of her best friends, later start a relationship after spending a night with each other in London in the season four finale, leading to their marriage in season seven and the adoption of twins at the end of the series.", "* Lisa Kudrow as Phoebe Buffay: A masseuse and self-taught musician.", "As a child, Phoebe lived in upstate New York with her mother, until her mother committed suicide and Phoebe took to the streets.", "She writes and sings her own strange songs, accompanying herself on the guitar.", "She has an identical twin named Ursula, who shares few of Phoebe's traits.", "Phoebe has three serious relationships over the show's run: David, a scientist, in season one, with whom she breaks up when he moves to Minsk on a research grant; Gary, a police officer whose badge she finds, in season five; and an on-and-off relationship with Mike Hannigan in seasons nine and ten.", "In season nine, Phoebe and Mike break up due to his desire not to marry.", "David returns from Minsk, leading to the two getting back together, but she eventually rejects him for Mike when both of them propose to her.", "Phoebe and Mike marry in season ten.", "* Matt LeBlanc as Joey Tribbiani: A struggling actor and food lover who becomes famous for his role on soap opera ''Days of Our Lives'' as Dr. Drake Ramoray.", "Joey has many short-term girlfriends.", "Despite his womanizing, Joey is innocent, caring, and well-intentioned.", "Joey often uses the catchphrase pick-up line \"How ''you'' doin'?\"", "in his attempts to win over most of the women he meets.", "Joey rooms with his best friend Chandler for years, and later with Rachel.", "He falls in love with Rachel in season eight, but Rachel politely tells Joey that she does not share his feelings.", "They eventually date briefly in season ten, but after realizing it will not work due to their friendship and Rachel's complicated relationship with Ross, they return to being friends.", "At the end of the series, he is the only remaining single member of the group, and becomes the main protagonist of the sequel series ''Joey''.", "* Matthew Perry as Chandler Bing: An executive in statistical analysis and data reconfiguration for a large, multinational corporation.", "Chandler hates this job, although it pays well.", "He attempts to quit during season one but is lured back with a new office and a pay raise.", "He eventually quits this job in season nine due to a transfer to Tulsa, Oklahoma.", "He becomes a junior copywriter at an advertising agency later that season.", "Chandler has a peculiar family history being the son of an erotic novelist mother and a gay, cross-dressing Las Vegas star father.", "Chandler is known for his sarcastic sense of humor and bad luck in relationships.", "Chandler marries Monica, one of his best friends, in season seven, and they adopt twins at the end of the series.", "Before his relationship with Monica, Chandler dated Janice Hosenstein in season one and subsequently broke up with her many times.", "* David Schwimmer as Ross Geller: Monica's \"geeky\" older brother, a PhD-carrying palaeontologist working at the American Museum of Natural History, and later a tenured professor of palaeontology at New York University.", "Ross is involved in an on-again, off-again relationship with Rachel throughout the series.", "He has three failed marriages during the series: Carol Willick, a lesbian who is also the mother of his son, Ben Geller; Emily Waltham, who divorces him after he accidentally says Rachel's name instead of hers during their wedding vows; and Rachel, as the two drunkenly marry in Las Vegas.", "His divorces become a running joke within the series.", "Following a one-night stand, he and Rachel have a daughter, Emma, by the end of season eight.", "They finally confess that they are still in love with each other in the series finale.", "It is heavily implied in the spin-off series, ''Joey'', that Ross married Rachel after the series finale.James Michael Tyler appears as Gunther, a barista at Central Perk, in every season of the show, but is only ever credited as a guest star.", "Gunther has a mostly secret profound love for Rachel throughout the entire series.", "At one point he becomes the manager of the coffee house.", "It is revealed that Gunther speaks Dutch in addition to English, as well as being a former soap opera actor.In their original contracts for the first season, cast members were paid $22,500 per episode.", "The cast members received different salaries in the second season, beginning from the $20,000 range to $40,000 per episode.", "Before their salary negotiations for the third season, the cast decided to enter collective negotiations, despite Warner Bros.' preference for individual deals.", "The actors were given the salary of the least paid cast member.", "The stars were each paid $75,000 per episode in season three, $85,000 in season four, $100,000 in season five, $125,000 in season six, $750,000 in seasons seven and eight, and $1 million in seasons nine and ten, making Aniston, Cox, and Kudrow the highest-paid TV actresses of all time.", "The cast also received syndication royalties beginning in 2000 after renegotiations.", "At the time, that financial benefit of a piece of the show's lucrative back-end profits had only been given out to stars who had ownership rights in a show, like Jerry Seinfeld and Bill Cosby.Series creator David Crane wanted all six actors to be equally prominent, and the series was lauded as being \"the first true 'ensemble' show.\"", "The cast members made efforts to keep the ensemble format and not allow one member to dominate; they entered themselves in the same acting categories for awards, opted for collective salary negotiations, and asked to appear together on magazine cover photos in the first season.", "The cast members also became best friends off-screen, so much so that recurring guest star Tom Selleck reported that he sometimes felt left out.The cast remained good friends after the series run, most notably Cox and Aniston, with Aniston being godmother to Cox and David Arquette's daughter, Coco.", "In the official farewell commemorative book ''Friends 'Til the End'', each separately acknowledged in interviews that the cast had become their family." ], [ "Season synopses", "''Friends'' in first season.", "Front: Cox, Aniston.", "Back: LeBlanc, Kudrow, Schwimmer, Perry.=== Season 1 ===The first season introduces the six main characters who live in New York City: Rachel Green, a waitress; professional chef Monica Geller; her paleontologist brother, Ross Geller; free-spirited masseuse Phoebe Buffay; struggling actor Joey Tribbiani, and Ross's college friend, Chandler Bing, whose precise occupation at a corporation is unknown.", "Rachel arrives at Central Perk, wearing her wedding dress, after leaving her fiancé, Barry, an orthodontist, at the altar.", "She moves into her high school friend Monica's apartment, and gets a waitress job at Central Perk.Ross, who has had a crush on Rachel since high school, often attempts to declare his feelings for her.", "However many obstacles stand in his way, including his insecurities, Rachel dating an Italian neighbor named Paolo, and the fact that he is expecting a baby with his lesbian ex-wife, Carol, who gives birth to Ben later in the season.", "Joey never has a steady girlfriend and constantly sleeps with a variety of women.", "Phoebe is rather odd and complex, mostly due to her mother's suicide when she was a child and having lived on the streets for a time.", "However, the gang loves her regardless.Chandler breaks up with his girlfriend, Janice (Maggie Wheeler), only to find himself reconnecting with her throughout the series.", "Near the end of the season, while Ross is at a paleontology dig in China, Chandler accidentally lets slip that Ross loves Rachel, who then realizes that she also cares for him.", "The season ends with Rachel waiting at the airport for Ross, who is returning from China.=== Season 2 ===Rachel greets Ross at the airport only to discover that he has returned with Julie (Lauren Tom), someone he knew from graduate school.", "Rachel's attempts to tell Ross that she loves him initially mirror his failed attempts in the first season.", "After he breaks up with Julie for Rachel, friction between them develops when Rachel discovers Ross's list of the cons of dating her.", "They eventually begin a relationship after Rachel sees an old home video from her and Monica's prom night and realizes Ross was going to stand in for her prom date who nearly stood her up.Monica is promoted to head chef at the Iridium restaurant, then gets fired for accepting gifts from a supplier, which is against company policy.", "Needing money, she is forced to take an embarrassing job as a waitress at a 1950s-style diner.", "She begins dating Richard Burke (Tom Selleck), a recently divorced family friend who is 21 years her senior.", "They eventually break up when Monica realizes that Richard, already a father, does not want more children.", "Joey is cast in a fictional version of the soap opera, ''Days of Our Lives'' as neurosurgeon Dr. Drake Ramoray.", "He moves out of his and Chandler's apartment, forcing Chandler to get a new roommate, Eddie (Adam Goldberg).However, Eddie is annoying and somewhat deranged.", "When Joey claims in a soap opera magazine interview that he writes many of his own lines, offending the show's writer, his character is killed off.", "No longer able to afford his expensive new apartment, Joey moves back in with Chandler, kicking Eddie out in the process.", "In the season finale, Chandler talks to an anonymous woman in an online chat room.", "When they agree to meet in person, the woman turns out to be Janice.=== Season 3 ===Season 3 takes on a significantly more serialized format.", "Chandler and Janice date for several episodes until Joey catches Janice kissing her soon-to-be ex-husband.", "Not wanting to destroy her family, Chandler urges Janice to go back to her husband, then becomes depressed over the breakup for several episodes.", "Rachel quits her job at Central Perk and begins working at Bloomingdale's, an upscale department store chain.", "Ross soon becomes jealous of her colleague Mark and frustrated by Rachel's long work hours.", "She is tired of his constant jealousy and insecurity, and decides they need a relationship break.Ross, hurt and somewhat drunk, immediately sleeps with Chloe, \"the hot girl from the Xerox place,\" causing Rachel to break up with him completely.", "Although Phoebe initially believes she has no family except her twin sister Ursula (Lisa Kudrow), she learns she has a half-brother, Frank Jr. (Giovanni Ribisi) and discovers her birth mother, Phoebe Abbott (Teri Garr) over the course of the season.", "Joey falls in love with his acting partner Kate (Dina Meyer), but is jealous of her dating the director of their play.", "They begin a brief relationship that ends when she takes an acting job in Los Angeles.Monica dates millionaire Pete Becker (Jon Favreau), despite her initially not being attracted to him.", "However, she breaks up with Pete after he is seriously hurt trying to become the Ultimate Fighting Champion and refuses to quit.", "Phoebe sets Ross up on a date with her friend, Bonnie (Christine Taylor), inciting Rachel's jealousy.", "She tries sabotaging the relationship by coercing Bonnie to shave her head bald, and eventually admits to Ross that she still has feelings for him.", "The season closes with Ross having to choose between Rachel and Bonnie.=== Season 4 ===In the season 4 premiere, after Ross breaks up with Bonnie, he and Rachel briefly reconcile after Ross pretends to read a long letter that Rachel wrote for him.", "However, Ross continues to insist that the two were on a break when he slept with Chloe, so they break up again.", "Joey dates Kathy (Paget Brewster), a girl that Chandler has a crush on.", "Kathy and Chandler later kiss, which causes drama between Chandler and Joey.", "Joey only forgives Chandler and allows him to date Kathy after Chandler spends Thanksgiving in a box as punishment.Chandler's relationship with Kathy ends after he discovers that she cheated on him due to an argument.", "Phoebe loses her job as a masseuse after making out with one of her clients and she accompanies Monica, who has become a caterer for hire.", "They soon start a catering business together but Monica, after negatively reviewing a restaurant, Allesandro's, is offered the position of head chef.", "Despite initially being pressured by the wrath of her co-workers, Monica eventually asserts her dominance in the kitchen.", "Phoebe becomes a surrogate for her brother and his wife, Alice (Debra Jo Rupp).Monica and Rachel are forced to switch apartments with Joey and Chandler after losing a bet during a quiz game, but manage to switch back by bribing them with Knicks season tickets and a one-minute kiss (off-screen) between each other.", "After her boss dies, Rachel is demoted to personal shopping and meets and later dates a customer named Joshua (Tate Donovan).", "Ross begins dating an English woman named Emily (Helen Baxendale), and they quickly get engaged.", "Rachel struggles to cope and hastily suggests to Joshua that they marry, after which he rejects her.", "In the season finale, the group, apart from a heavily pregnant Phoebe and Rachel, travel to Ross and Emily's wedding in London.", "Chandler and Monica sleep together, and Rachel, realizing that she is still in love with Ross, rushes to London to stop Ross and Emily's wedding, but changes her mind when she sees them happy together.", "While saying his vows, Ross accidentally says Rachel's name at the altar, shocking his bride and the guests.=== Season 5 ===Ross and Emily marry, but an angry and humiliated Emily flees the reception.", "Rachel soon admits her love for Ross, but realizing how ridiculous this is, advises him to work on his marriage to Emily.", "She develops a crush on her neighbor Danny and they date briefly, until she realizes that he is too close with his sister.", "Monica and Chandler try to keep their new relationship a secret from their friends.", "Phoebe gives birth to triplets in the show's 100th episode.", "She gives birth to a boy, Frank Jr. Jr., and two girls, Leslie and Chandler, the latter of whom was supposed to be a boy, but was later revealed to be a girl.After weeks of trying to contact her, Emily agrees to reconcile with Ross and move to New York if he breaks off all communication with Rachel.", "Ross agrees, but later attends a dinner with all his friends, Rachel included.", "Emily phones Ross, discovers Rachel is there, realizes she does not trust him and ends their marriage.", "Ross takes out his anger at work, resulting in him being indefinitely suspended from the museum, and he moves in with Chandler and Joey until eventually getting a new apartment across the street from them.Rachel gets a new job at Ralph Lauren.", "Phoebe has a brief relationship with a police officer, Gary (Michael Rapaport), after finding his badge and using it as her own.", "Monica and Chandler go public with their relationship, to the surprise and delight of their friends.", "They decide to get married on a trip to Las Vegas, but change their plans after witnessing Ross and Rachel drunkenly stumbling out of the wedding chapel.=== Season 6 ===In the season 6 premiere, Ross and Rachel's marriage turns out to be a drunken mistake that neither remembers until the other friends mention it.", "Ross promises Rachel he will get them an annulment, then secretly does nothing because he cannot face having three failed marriages.", "By the time Rachel discovers they are still married, an annulment is impossible due to their history; they are forced to get a divorce.", "After ignoring the numerous signs that they should get married, Monica and Chandler decide to live together, forcing Rachel to move in with Phoebe.", "Joey gets a new roommate, Janine (Elle Macpherson).They develop feelings for each other and date briefly until Janine criticizes Monica and Chandler, ending the relationship.", "After Janine moves out, Joey struggles with paying his bills so he takes a job at Central Perk.", "He soon lands a role on a cable TV series called ''Mac and C.H.E.E.S.E.", "'', starring alongside a crime-fighting robot.", "Ross gets a teaching job at New York University.", "He dates Elizabeth (Alexandra Holden), a student, despite it being against university policy.", "Elizabeth's father, Paul (Bruce Willis), disapproves of Ross but falls for Rachel, and they start dating.Both relationships soon end: Elizabeth is too immature for Ross, and previously reserved Paul opens up emotionally and is more than Rachel can handle.", "Phoebe and Rachel's apartment catches fire, and Rachel moves in with Joey, while Phoebe stays with Chandler and Monica, though they later switch.", "While at a museum that has a two-year wait for weddings, Monica puts her name on the reservation list as a joke.", "When Chandler intercepts the museum's phone call about a cancellation, he panics; however, Chandler has been planning to propose while pretending he may never want to marry.While dining at a fancy restaurant, Chandler's planned proposal is subverted by Monica's ex-boyfriend Richard Burke, who unexpectedly shows up.", "Richard later tells Monica he wants to marry her and have children.", "Monica becomes upset at Chandler, believing his ruse about not wanting to marry.", "Chandler believes Monica has left him until he comes home to find their apartment decorated with candles and her waiting to propose to him.", "When she becomes too emotional to continue, Chandler proposes and she accepts.=== Season 7 ===The seventh season mainly follows Monica and Chandler as they plan their wedding amid various problems.", "Joey's television series, ''Mac and C.H.E.E.S.E'' is canceled, but he is offered his old role on ''Days of Our Lives''; the show is retconned with the revelation that Dr. Drake Ramoray has been in a four-year coma and is revived with a brain transplant from another character.", "Phoebe's repaired apartment now has one large bedroom instead of the original two, so Rachel permanently stays at Joey's.", "Rachel is promoted at Ralph Lauren and impulsively hires a young assistant, Tag Jones (Eddie Cahill), based on his looks, passing over a more qualified woman.", "Tag discovers her feelings about him at Thanksgiving dinner, and they begin dating, hiding it from co-workers.", "However, on her 30th birthday, Rachel ends their relationship, realizing Tag is too young and immature, particularly if she intends to follow her marriage schedule.Hours before Monica and Chandler's wedding ceremony, Chandler panics and goes into hiding just as Phoebe and Rachel find a positive pregnancy test in Monica and Chandler's bathroom.", "They assume Monica is pregnant.", "Ross and Phoebe find Chandler and convince him to return for the ceremony, though he briefly bolts again after overhearing Phoebe and Rachel discussing the pregnancy test.", "He quickly returns, embracing the idea of fatherhood.", "After the ceremony, Monica denies she is pregnant; unbeknown to everyone, the positive pregnancy test is Rachel's.=== Season 8 ===Season 8 begins at Monica and Chandler's wedding reception.", "Phoebe and Monica discover Rachel's pregnancy and persuade her to take another test to confirm it.", "Phoebe initially claims the test is negative, badly disappointing Rachel, then reveals it is positive, saying Rachel now knows how she really feels about having a baby.", "Ross is eventually revealed to be the father, and the season revolves around Rachel's pregnancy.", "Rachel and Ross agree to be co-parents without resuming their romantic relationship; Ross begins dating Mona (Bonnie Somerville), who is Monica's co-worker from Allesandro's.Joey takes Rachel out to quell her fears about motherhood, and realizes he has romantic feelings for her.", "While suppressing his feelings, he encourages Rachel to stay at Ross's apartment so he can be involved in the pregnancy.", "The arrangement is too much for Mona, and she breaks up with Ross.", "Joey tells Ross about his feelings for Rachel.", "Ross initially is angry, then gives his blessing.", "Joey tells Rachel that he loves her, but she realizes she does not feel the same way, and they remain friends.", "When Rachel goes into labor, Ross's mother gives him a family heirloom ring and encourages him to propose to Rachel.", "Ross hesitates, and puts the ring in his jacket, which he later leaves in Rachel's room.After Monica jokes about having kids, she and Chandler decide to have a baby, starting while they are still at the hospital.", "After a prolonged labor, during which numerous other expectant mothers, including Janice, are taken to the delivery room, Rachel gives birth to baby Emma.", "She is left saddened and afraid after Janice later says that Ross may not always be there for her and the baby.", "When Joey comforts Rachel, the ring falls from Ross's jacket to the floor.", "Joey kneels to pick it up, and Rachel, believing he is proposing, impulsively says yes.", "Meanwhile, Ross intends to ask Rachel if she wants to resume their relationship.=== Season 9 ===Season nine begins with Ross and Rachel cohabitating with their daughter Emma, after Joey and Rachel clear up the proposal misunderstanding.", "Monica and Chandler run into obstacles as they try for a baby: Chandler unknowingly agrees to a work transfer to Tulsa just as Monica is offered a head chef job at a new restaurant, Javu, resulting in Chandler commuting back and forth.", "After being apart from Monica during Christmas, Chandler quits to pursue a new career in advertising, starting as an unpaid intern at an ad agency, and eventually being hired as a junior copywriter.", "Monica and Chandler discover they are physically incompatible to conceive and after considering multiple options, decide to adopt.Phoebe begins dating Mike Hannigan (Paul Rudd) for most of the season until Mike says that he never wants to marry again.", "Phoebe dates her ex-boyfriend from season 1, David (Hank Azaria) who plans on proposing to her, but Mike proposes first.", "Phoebe rejects both proposals but gets back together with Mike, only needing the reassurance that they have a future together.", "Rachel, believing that her co-worker Gavin (Dermot Mulroney) is trying to steal her job while she is on maternity leave, returns to Ralph Lauren early.", "She discovers at her birthday party that Gavin has feelings for her.", "They kiss but do not pursue a relationship due to her history with Ross.Meanwhile, Ross, having seen the kiss, retaliates by dating other women.", "After realizing that her and Ross's living situation is too weird, Rachel and Emma move in with Joey.", "Rachel develops a crush on him, only to be disheartened when he starts dating Charlie (Aisha Tyler), a new palaeontology professor to whom Ross is attracted.", "In the finale, the group travels to Barbados for Ross's keynote speech at a conference.", "Joey and Charlie break up upon realizing they have nothing in common.", "Joey then learns about Rachel's feelings for him, but says they cannot pursue this because of Ross.", "However, upon seeing Ross and Charlie kiss each other, he goes to Rachel's hotel room, and the finale ends with them kissing.=== Season 10 ===The tenth season brings several long-running story lines to a close.", "Joey and Rachel try to contend with Ross's feelings about their relationship, and after disastrous attempts to consummate, decide it is best they remain friends.", "Charlie breaks up with Ross to get back together with her ex-boyfriend.", "Mid-season, Joey officiates Phoebe and Mike's wedding outside the Central Perk coffee house after a snow storm paralyzes the city, preventing them and guests getting to the wedding venue.", "Monica and Chandler are chosen by a pregnant woman named Erica (Anna Faris) to adopt her baby.Following this, Monica and Chandler prepare to move to a house in the suburbs to raise their family, saddening everyone, particularly Joey, who is coping with all the changes in his life.", "In the series finale, Erica gives birth to fraternal twins, much to Monica and Chandler's surprise.", "Rachel is fired from Ralph Lauren after her boss overhears her interviewing for a job at Gucci.", "She encounters her former Bloomingdale co-worker Mark, who offers her a new job at Louis Vuitton in Paris.", "Ross, believing Rachel wants to stay, tries bribing Mr. Zelner to rehire her until he realizes Rachel wants to go to Paris.", "When Rachel says a tearful personal goodbye to everyone except Ross at her going away party, a hurt and angry Ross confronts Rachel, and they end up sleeping together.Rachel leaves, and Ross – realizing how much he loves Rachel – chases her to the airport.", "When he reaches her, Rachel says she has to go to Paris.", "Before the plane takes off, Rachel calls Ross's home phone and leaves a voice mail, apologizing for the way it ended.", "While speaking, she realizes that she loves him too, and gets off the plane at the last minute.", "The series ends with all the friends, plus Monica and Chandler's new babies, leaving the empty apartment together for a final cup of coffee at Central Perk.", "The show ends first with a shot of everyone's keys to Monica and Chandler's apartment left on the counter top, and then pans to a shot of the apartment's purple door." ], [ "Production", "=== Conception ===David Crane and Marta Kauffman began developing three new television pilots that would premiere in 1994 after their sitcom ''Family Album'' was cancelled by CBS in 1993.Kauffman and Crane decided to pitch the series about \"six people in their 20s making their way in Manhattan\" to NBC since they thought it would fit best there.", "(Film director and screenwriter Cameron Crowe has asserted that the concept originated with Warner Bros. Television wanting him to make his 1992 movie ''Singles'' into a television show.", "Crowe alleges that when he refused permission, the idea was then taken over by Crane and Kaufman, who changed some details from the premise of the movie while developing the show.", ")Crane and Kauffman presented the idea to their production partner Kevin Bright, who had served as executive producer on their HBO series ''Dream On''.", "The idea for the series was conceived when Crane and Kauffman began thinking about the time when they had finished college and started living by themselves in New York; Kauffman believed they were looking at a time when the future was \"more of a question mark.\"", "They found the concept to be interesting, as they believed \"everybody knows that feeling\", and because it was also how they felt about their own lives at the time.", "The team titled the series ''Insomnia Cafe'' and pitched the idea as a seven-page treatment to NBC in December 1993.At the same time, Warren Littlefield, the then-president of NBC Entertainment, was seeking a comedy involving young people living together and sharing expenses.", "Littlefield wanted the group to share memorable periods of their lives with friends, who had become \"new, surrogate family members.\"", "However, Littlefield found difficulty in bringing the concept to life and found the scripts developed by NBC to be terrible.", "When Kauffman, Crane and Bright pitched ''Insomnia Cafe'', Littlefield was impressed that they knew who their characters were.", "NBC bought the idea as a put pilot, meaning they risked financial penalties if the pilot was not filmed.Kauffman and Crane took three days to write the pilot script for a show they titled ''Friends Like Us.''", "Littlefield wanted the series to \"represent Generation X and explore a new kind of tribal bonding\", but the rest disagreed.", "Crane argued that it was not a series for one generation, and wanted to produce a series that everyone would enjoy watching.", "NBC liked the script and ordered the series.", "They changed the title to ''Six of One'', mainly because they felt ''Friends Like Us'' was too similar to the ABC sitcom ''These Friends of Mine''.=== Casting ===The producers wanted Courteney Cox (''pictured'') to portray Rachel; however, Cox wanted to play Monica and co-creator Marta Kauffman agreed after watching the audition.Once it became apparent that the series was a favored project at NBC, Littlefield reported that he was getting calls from every agent in town, wanting their client to be a part of the series.", "Auditions for the lead roles took place in New York and Los Angeles.", "The casting director shortlisted 1,000 actors who had applied for each role down to 75.Those who received a callback read in front of Crane, Kauffman and Bright.", "At the end of March, the number of potential actors had been reduced to three or four for each part, and these actors were asked to read for Les Moonves, then president of Warner Bros. Television.Having worked with David Schwimmer in the past, the series creators wrote the character of Ross with him in mind, and he was the first actor cast.", "Cox wanted to play the role of Monica because she liked the \"strong\" character, but the producers had her in mind to play Rachel because of her \"cheery, upbeat energy\", which was not how they envisioned Monica; after Cox's audition, though, Kauffman agreed with Cox, and she got the role.", "When Matt LeBlanc auditioned for Joey, he put a \"different spin\" on the character.", "He played Joey more simple-minded than intended and gave the character heart.", "Although Crane and Kauffman did not want LeBlanc for the role at the time, they were told by the network to cast him.", "Jennifer Aniston, Matthew Perry and Lisa Kudrow were cast based on their auditions.", "Perry and Aniston, both still under contract to other shows that year, were cast days before shooting of the pilot began.More changes occurred to the series's storylines during the casting process.", "The writers found that they had to adjust the characters they had written to suit the actors, and the discovery process of the characters occurred throughout the first season.", "Kauffman acknowledged that Joey's character became \"this whole new being\", and that \"it wasn't until we did the first Thanksgiving episode that we realized how much fun Monica's neuroses are.", "\"=== Writing ===In the weeks after NBC's pick up of ''Friends'', Crane, Kauffman and Bright reviewed sent-in scripts that writers had originally prepared for other series, mainly unproduced ''Seinfeld'' episodes.", "Kauffman and Crane hired a team of seven young writers because \"When you're 40, you can't do it anymore.", "The networks and studios are looking for young people coming in out of college.\"", "The creators felt that using six equal characters, rather than emphasizing one or two, would allow for \"myriad storylines and give the show legs.\"", "The majority of the storyline ideas came from the writers, although the actors added ideas.", "Although the writers originally planned the big love story to be between Joey and Monica, the idea of a romantic interest between Ross and Rachel emerged during the period when Kauffman and Crane wrote the pilot script.During the production of the pilot, NBC requested that the script be changed to feature one dominant storyline and several minor ones, but the writers refused, wanting to keep three storylines of equal weight.", "NBC also wanted the writers to include an older character to balance out the young ones.", "Crane and Kauffman were forced to comply and wrote a draft of an early episode that featured \"Pat the Cop\".", "who would be used to provide advice to the other characters.", "Crane found the storyline to be terrible, and Kauffman joked, \"You know the book, ''Pat the Bunny''?", "We had Pat the Cop.\"", "NBC eventually relented and dropped the idea.Each summer, the producers would outline the storylines for the subsequent season.", "Before an episode went into production, Kauffman and Crane would revise the script written by another writer, mainly if something concerning either the series or a character felt foreign.", "The hardest episodes to write were always \"the first one and the last one of each season.\"", "Unlike other storylines, the idea for a relationship between Joey and Rachel was decided on halfway through the eighth season.", "The creators did not want Ross and Rachel to get back together so soon, and while looking for a romantic impediment, a writer suggested Joey's romantic interest in Rachel.The storyline was incorporated into the season; however, when the actors feared that the storyline would make their characters unlikable, the storyline was wrapped up, until it again resurfaced in the season's finale.", "For the ninth season, the writers were unsure about the amount of storyline to give to Rachel's baby, as they wanted the show neither to revolve around a baby nor pretend there to be none.", "Crane said that it took them a while to accept the idea of a tenth season, which they decided to do because they had enough stories left to tell to justify the season.", "Kauffman and Crane would not have signed on for an eleventh season, even if all the cast members had wanted to continue.The episode title format—\"The One ...\"—was created when the producers realized that the episode titles would not be featured in the opening credits, and therefore would be unknown to most of the audience.", "Episode titles officially begin with \"The One ...\" except the title of the pilot episode and the series finale \"The Last One\".", "The season 5 episode \"The One Hundredth\" has the alternative title of \"The One With The Triplet\".=== Filming ===The Greenwich Village building, 90 Bedford Street, used as the friends' apartment block in establishing shotsThe first season was shot on Stage 5 at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California.", "NBC executives had worried that the coffee house setting was too hip and asked for the series to be set in a diner, but eventually consented to the coffee house concept.", "The opening title sequence was filmed in a fountain at the Warner Bros. Ranch at 4:00 am, while it was particularly cold for a Burbank morning.", "At the beginning of the second season, production moved to the larger Stage 24, which was renamed The \"Friends\" Stage after the series finale.Filming for the series began during the summer of 1994 in front of a live audience, who were given a summary of the series to familiarize themselves with the six main characters.", "A hired comedian entertained the studio audience between takes.", "Each 22-minute episode took six hours to film—twice the length of most sitcom tapings—mainly due to the several retakes and rewrites of the script.Although the producers always wanted to find the right stories to take advantage of being on location, ''Friends'' was never shot in New York.", "Bright felt that filming outside the studio made episodes less funny, even when shooting on the lot outside, and that the live audience was an integral part of the series.", "When the series was criticized for incorrectly depicting New York, with the financially struggling group of friends being able to afford huge apartments, Bright noted that the set had to be big enough for the cameras, lighting, and \"for the audience to be able to see what's going on\".", "The apartments also needed to provide a place for the actors to execute the actions in the scripts.The fourth-season finale was shot on location in London because the producers were aware of the series' popularity in the UK.", "The scenes were shot in a studio with three audiences each made up of 500 people.", "These were the show's largest audiences throughout its run.", "The fifth-season finale, set in Las Vegas, was filmed at Warner Bros. Studios, although Bright met people who thought it was filmed on location." ], [ "Series finale", "The cast became very emotional while filming the final episode.", "Jennifer Aniston explained, \"We're like very delicate china right now, and we're speeding toward a brick wall.", "\"The series's creators completed the first draft of the hour-long finale in January 2004, four months before its original airing.", "Crane, Kauffman and Bright watched the finales of other sitcoms to prepare the episode's outline, paying attention to what worked and what did not.", "They liked the ones that stayed true to the series, citing the finale of ''The Mary Tyler Moore Show'' as the gold standard.", "Crane, Kauffman, and Bright had difficulty writing the finale.", "They did not want to do \"something high concept, or take the show out of the show.\"", "The most critical parts of the finale were shot without an audience and with a minimum number of crew members.", "The main cast enjoyed the finale and were confident that the fans would react similarly:NBC heavily promoted the series finale, which was preceded by weeks of media hype.", "Local NBC affiliates organized viewing parties around the U.S., including an event at Universal CityWalk featuring a special broadcast of the finale on an outdoor Astrovision screen.", "The finale was the subject of two episodes of ''Dateline NBC'', one of which ran for two hours.", "A one-hour retrospective of clips from previous episodes was shown before the airing of the episode.", "Following the finale, ''The Tonight Show with Jay Leno'' was filmed on the set of the ''Friends'' Central Perk coffee house, which featured the cast as guests.", "The advertising rates for the finale averaged $2 million for 30 seconds of commercial time, breaking the record held by the ''Seinfeld'' finale at $1.7 million.In the U.S., 52.5 million viewers watched the finale on May 6, 2004, making it the most-watched entertainment telecast since the ''Seinfeld'' finale in 1998.The finale was the fifth most-watched series finale in television history, only behind the finales of ''M*A*S*H'', ''Cheers'', ''The Fugitive'', and ''Seinfeld'', which were respectively watched by 105, 80.4, 78.0 and 76.3 million viewers.", "The retrospective episode was watched by fewer than 36 million viewers, and the finale was the second most-watched television broadcast of the year in the United States, only behind the Super Bowl.", "Following the finales of ''Friends'' and ''Frasier'', media critics speculated about the fate of the sitcom genre.", "Opinions varied between a signalling of the end of the sitcom genre, a small decline in the large history of the genre, and a general reduction of scripted television in favor of reality shows." ], [ "Reunion special", "On November 12, 2019, ''The Hollywood Reporter'' announced that Warner Bros TV was developing a ''Friends'' reunion for HBO Max that would feature the whole cast and creators returning.", "On February 21, 2020, HBO confirmed that the unscripted reunion special, tentatively named \"The One Where They Got Back Together\", was set to be released in May the same year, along with the 236 original episodes of the series.", "On March 18, 2020, it was announced that the special, which was set to film on the ''Friends'' stage on March 23 and 24, had been postponed indefinitely, due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "In November 2020, Matthew Perry tweeted that the reunion is set to start filming in March 2021.On May 13, 2021, a teaser trailer was released officially announcing ''Friends'': The Reunion also known as \"The One Where They Get Back Together\".", "The reunion special was released on HBO Max on May 27, 2021." ], [ "Reception", "=== Critical reception ===Early reviews of the series were mixed; the first season holds a Metacritic score of 65 out of 100, based on 24 sampled reviews, indicating \"generally favourable reviews\".", "Tom Feran of ''The Plain Dealer'' wrote that the series traded \"vaguely and less successfully on the hanging-out style of ''Seinfeld''\", while Ann Hodges of the ''Houston Chronicle'' called it \"the new ''Seinfeld'' wannabe, but it will never be as funny as ''Seinfeld''.\"", "In the ''Los Angeles Daily News'', Ray Richmond named the series as \"one of the brighter comedies of the new season\", and the ''Los Angeles Times'' called it \"flat-out the best comedy series of the new season.", "\"The ''Chicago Sun-Times'' Ginny Holbert found Joey and Rachel's characters to be underdeveloped, while Richmond commended the cast as a \"likeable youth ensemble\" with \"good chemistry.\"", "Robert Bianco of ''USA Today'' was complimentary of Schwimmer, calling him \"terrific.\"", "He also praised the female leads, but was concerned that Perry's role as Chandler was \"undefined\" and that LeBlanc was \"relying too much on the same brain-dead stud routine that was already tired the last two times he tried it.\"", "The authors of ''Friends Like Us: The Unofficial Guide to Friends'' thought that the cast was \"trying just a little too hard\"; in particular, Perry and Schwimmer.As the series progressed, reviews became more positive, and ''Friends'' became one of the most popular sitcoms of its time.", "It is now often ranked among the all-time best TV shows.", "Critics commended the series for having consistently sharp writing and for the chemistry between the main actors.", "Noel Holston of ''Newsday'', who had dismissed the pilot as a \"so-so ''Seinfeld'' wannabe\" in 1994, repudiated his earlier review after rewatching the episode and felt like writing an apology to the writers.", "Heather Havrilesky of Salon.com thought that the series \"hit its stride\" in the second season.", "Havrilesky found the character-specific jokes and situations \"could reliably make you laugh out loud a few times each episode\", and the quality of writing allowed the stories to be \"original and innovative.", "\"Bill Carter of ''The New York Times'' called the eighth season a \"truly stunning comeback.\"", "Carter found that by \"generating new hot storylines and high-decibel laughs\", the series made its way \"back into the hearts of its fans.\"", "However, Liane Bonin of ''Entertainment Weekly'' felt that the direction of the ninth season was a \"disappointing buzzkill\", criticizing it for the non-stop celebrity guest spots and going into jump the shark territory.", "Although disappointed with the season, Bonin noted that \"the writing was still sharp.\"", "Havrilesky thought that the tenth season was \"alarmingly awful, far worse than you would ever imagine a show that was once so good could be.\"", "''Friends'' was featured on ''Time''s list of \"The 100 Best TV Shows of All-Time\", saying, \"the well-hidden secret of this show was that it called itself ''Friends'', and was really about family.", "\"Reviews of the series finale were mostly positive.", "''USA Today''s Robert Bianco described the finale as entertaining and satisfying and praised it for deftly mixing emotion and humor while highlighting each of the stars.", "Sarah Rodman of the ''Boston Herald'' praised Aniston and Schwimmer for their acting, but felt that their characters' reunion was \"a bit too neat, even if it was what most of the show's legions of fans wanted.\"", "Roger Catlin of the ''Hartford Courant'' felt that newcomers to the series would be \"surprised at how laughless the affair could be, and how nearly every strained gag depends on the sheer stupidity of its characters.\"", "Ken Parish Perkins, writing for ''Fort Worth Star-Telegram'', pointed out that the finale was \"more touching than comical, more satisfying in terms of closure than knee-slappingly funny.", "\"In a 2021 program on ITV, ''Mr.", "Bean'' writer Richard Curtis accused the ''Friends'' writers of stealing the joke which involved Joey getting a turkey stuck on his head in \"The One with All the Thanksgivings\" from the 1992 episode \"Merry Christmas, Mr. Bean\".", "In that episode, Mr Bean got a turkey stuck on his head after losing his watch while stuffing the turkey and put his head in to try and retrieve it.", "Rowan Atkinson, however, argued that jokes are meant to be stolen, or to inspire.=== Awards ===To maintain the series's ensemble format, the main cast members decided to enter themselves in the same acting categories for awards.", "Beginning with the eighth season, the actors decided to submit themselves in the lead actor balloting, rather than in the supporting actor fields.", "The series was nominated for 62 Primetime Emmy Awards, winning six.Aniston and Kudrow are the only main cast members to win an Emmy, while Cox is the only actor not to be nominated.", "The series won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series in 2002, receiving nominations in 1995, 1996, 1999, 2000, and 2003.The series also won an American Comedy Award, one GLAAD Media Award, one Golden Globe Award, three Logie Awards, six People's Choice Awards, one Satellite Award, and one Screen Actors Guild Award.=== Ratings ===The table below shows the ratings of ''Friends'' in the United States, where it consistently ranked within the top ten of the final television season ratings.", "\"Rank\" refers to how well ''Friends'' rated compared to other television series that aired during primetime hours of the corresponding television season.", "It is shown in relation to the total number of series airing on the then-six major English-language networks in a given season.", "\"Viewers\" refers to the average number of viewers for all original episodes, broadcast during the television season in the series' regular timeslot.", "The \"season premiere\" is the date that the first episode of the season aired, and the \"season finale\" is the date that the final episode of the season aired.", "Following the September 11 attacks, ratings increased 17% over the previous season.+Ratings table Season Timeslot Season premiere Season finale TV season Rank Viewers(in millions) Most-watched episode Title Viewers(in millions) 1 Thursday 8:30 pm (1–16) Thursday 9:30 pm (17–24) September 22, 1994 May 18, 1995 1994–95 8 24.3 \"The One Where Rachel Finds Out\" 31.3 2 Thursday 8:00 pm September 21, 1995 May 16, 1996 1995–96 3 30 \"The One After the Superbowl\" 52.9 3 September 19, 1996 May 15, 1997 1996–97 4 24.9 \"The One Where Chandler Can't Remember Which Sister\" 29.80 4 September 25, 1997 May 7, 1998 1997–98 4 24.0 \"The One with Ross's Wedding\" 31.61 5 September 24, 1998 May 20, 1999 1998–99 2 23.5 \"The One After Ross Says Rachel\" 31.12 6 September 23, 1999 May 18, 2000 1999–2000 5 20.7 \"The One with the Proposal\" 30.73 7 October 12, 2000 May 17, 2001 2000–01 5 20.2 \"The One with Monica and Chandler's Wedding\" 30.05 8 September 27, 2001 May 16, 2002 2001–02 1 24.5 \"The One Where Rachel Has a Baby\" 34.91 9 September 26, 2002 May 15, 2003 2002–03 2 21.8 \"The One Where No One Proposes\" 34.01 10 September 25, 2003 May 6, 2004 2003–04 4 22.8 \"The Last One\" 52.46=== Syndication ===Because of syndication revenue, ''Friends'' continues to generate approximately $1 billion each year for Warner Bros. That translates into about $20 million in annual residuals each for Jennifer Aniston, Courteney Cox, Lisa Kudrow, Matt LeBlanc, Matthew Perry and David Schwimmer, who each get 2% of syndication income for ''Friends''.All episodes became available on Netflix on January 1, 2015, introducing a new generation to the show.", "UK ''Friends'' reruns' ratings in 2015 increased by more than 10% annually.", "The 2016 reruns' US weekly audience, not including streaming, of 16 million would make it a hit on network television were the show still being produced.", "In the US, the series has a syndication deal through multiple networks, including Nick at Nite, TBS, and Paramount Network.", "In July 2019, it was announced that from the beginning of 2020, ''Friends'' would not be available on Netflix in the US and instead would be shown on Warner Bros.", "Discovery's video-streaming service HBO Max, which launched in May 2020." ], [ "Cultural impact", "The set of Central Perk at Warner Bros. StudiosAlthough the producers thought of ''Friends'' as \"only a TV show\", psychologists investigated the cultural impact of ''Friends'' during the series' run.", "Aniston's hairstyle was nicknamed \"The Rachel\" and copied around the world.", "Joey's catchphrase, \"How ''you'' doin'?", "\", became a popular part of Western English slang, often used as a pick-up line or when greeting friends.", "The series also influenced the English language, according to a study by the University of Toronto that found that the characters used the emphasized word \"''so''\" to modify adjectives more often than any other intensifier.", "Although the preference had already made its way into the American vernacular, usage on the series may have accelerated the change.", "Chandler's habit of ending a sentence unfinished for sarcasm also influenced viewers' speech.", "''Friends'' has also been credited in helping non-English speaking students to learn the language.", "A 2012 poll by Kaplan International English Colleges found that more than a quarter (26%) of its students cited the sitcom as the best show for helping them improve their English.", "Notable individuals who have also said that the sitcom helped them learn English include Liverpool F.C.", "manager Jürgen Klopp, BTS member RM and Belgian professional golfer Thomas Pieters.", "''Friends'' was parodied in the twelfth season ''Murder, She Wrote'' episode \"Murder Among Friends\".", "In the episode, amateur sleuth Jessica Fletcher (Angela Lansbury) investigates the murder of a writer for ''Buds'', a fictional television series about the daily lives of a group of city friends.", "The episode was devised after CBS moved ''Murder, She Wrote'' from its regular Sunday night timeslot to a Thursday night timeslot directly opposite ''Friends'' on NBC; Angela Lansbury was quoted by Bruce Lansbury, her brother and ''Murder, She Wrote''s supervising producer, as having \"a bit of an attitude\" about the move to Thursday, but he saw the plot as \"a friendly setup, no mean-spiritedness.", "\"Jerry Ludwig, the writer of the episode, researched the \"flavor\" of ''Buds'' by watching episodes of ''Friends''.", "Producers of ''Married... with Children'' attempted to create a spinoff series called ''Enemies'', which was intended to act as an antithesis to ''Friends'' in the same way ''Married... with Children'' had been to family sitcoms such as ''The Cosby Show''.", "However, the Fox network declined to pick up the series.The Central Perk coffee house, one of the principal settings of the series, is part of the Warner Bros.", "Studio Tour Hollywood.", "People sometimes propose marriage on the couch, and many tourists cry when they sit on it.", "The coffee house has inspired various imitations worldwide.", "In 2006, Iranian businessman Mojtaba Asadian started a Central Perk franchise, registering the name in 32 countries.", "The decor of the coffee houses is inspired by ''Friends'', featuring replica couches, counters, neon signage and bricks.", "The coffee houses contain paintings of the various characters from the series, and televisions playing ''Friends'' episodes.", "James Michael Tyler, who plays the Central Perk manager in the series, Gunther, attended the grand opening of the Dubai café, where he worked as a waiter.Central Perk was rebuilt as part of a museum exhibit at Warner Bros. Studios and was shown on ''The Ellen DeGeneres Show'' in October 2008.Jennifer Aniston visited the set for the first time since the series finale in 2004.From September 24 to October 7, 2009, a Central Perk replica was based at Broadwick Street, Soho, London.", "The coffee house sold coffee to customers and featured a display of ''Friends'' memorabilia and props, such as the Geller Cup from the season three episode \"The One with the Football\".", "In Beijing, business owner Du Xin opened a coffee shop named Central Perk in March 2010.After filming on the finale concluded, Stage 24 at Warner Bros. Studios, where ''Friends'' had been filmed since season 2, was renamed \"The Friends Stage\".In India, there are six ''Friends''-themed cafes, located in Chandigarh (named Central Perk); Kolkata; and West Bengal (named F.R.I.E.N.D.S.", "Cafe), which features many icons from the original T.V.", "series, including Chandler and Joey's ugly dog statue, the orange sofa, the purple door of Monica and Rachel's apartment, and Phoebe's pink bicycle.", "The other three cafes are located in Delhi, Gurgaon; Bhubaneswar, Odisha; and Pune, Maharashtra.There are two ''Friends'' themed cafes in Pakistanone in Lahore, Punjab, known as \"Friends Cafe\" and the other in Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa called \"Central Perk\".", "Both cafes have an iconic couch, a guitar and foosball table, quotes from the show on the walls and episode reruns on a projector.", "They're planning to have their own Gunther at the bar.In 2016, a Central Perk replica was opened in Outram, Singapore.", "It is the only Central Perk that has been given the intellectual property rights by Warner Bros. outside of the United States.", "The café includes feature walls, replicating the walls of the main characters' apartments and memorabilia and props used on the show.", "In August 2019, it was announced that a Central Perk Lego set would be launched to mark the show's 25 anniversary.", "''Friends'' has also developed an alternative family lifestyle by representing young people who live unconventional domestic lives.", "It presents the idea that \"all you need are good friends\" and can construct families through choice.", "The audience is able to identify with the program through the troubles seen on weekly episodes.", "It portrays a new way of living life and developing relationships which are not normally seen in conventional society.", "According to a pop-culture expert at the University at Buffalo, ''Friends'' is \"one of those rare shows that marked a change in American culture.\"", "The images of youth and the roles they portray are better defined and represent a lifestyle that centres around creating and sustaining relationships between friends running their own lives and seeking help from each other.The ''Friends'' Experience exhibit at Yorkdale Shopping Centre in Toronto in 2022''Vox'' stated that ''Friends'' had an impact on the creation of other conflictless \"hangout sitcoms\", with groups of adult friends who are funny and have similar character traits.", "One example of this is ''How I Met Your Mother'', which ''The Guardian''s TV and radio blog notes also shares its setting with ''Friends'', Manhattan.", "Other examples include ''The Big Bang Theory'', ''New Girl'', and ''Happy Endings''.Readers of ''TV Guide'' voted the cast of ''Friends'' their Best Comedy cast of all time, ranking at 29% of the votes, beating ''Seinfeld'', which registered 18%.", "A poll undertaken by ''60 Minutes'' and ''Vanity Fair'' named ''Friends'' the third-greatest sitcom of all time.", "In 2014, the series was ranked by ''Mundo Estranho'' the Best TV Series of All Time.", "A 2015 survey by ''The Hollywood Reporter'' of 2,800 actors, producers, directors, and other industry people named ''Friends'' as their No.", "1 favorite show." ], [ "Distribution", "=== Broadcast ======= United States ====After the produced pilot lived up to NBC's hopes, the series premiered with the name ''Friends'' on September 22, 1994, in the coveted Thursday 8:30 p.m. time slot.", "The pilot aired between ''Mad About You'' and ''Seinfeld'', and was watched by almost 22 million American viewers.", "The series was a huge success throughout its run and was a staple of NBC's Thursday night line-up, dubbed by the network as Must See TV.", "When Crane told reporters in 2001 that the ninth season was a possibility, critics believed that he was posturing and that at least two of the cast members would not sign on for another season.", "When it was confirmed that ''Friends'' would return for a ninth season, the news was mainly about the amount of money—$7 million per episode—that it took to bring the series back for another season.After year-long expectations that the ninth season would be the series's last, NBC signed a deal in late December 2002 to bring the series back for a final tenth season.", "The series' creative team did not want to extend negotiations into the next year and wanted to start writing the rest of the ninth-season episodes and a potential series finale.", "NBC agreed to pay $10 million to Warner Bros. for the production of each tenth-season episode, the highest price in television history for a 30-minute series.", "Although NBC was unable to bring in enough advertising revenue from commercials to cover the costs, the series was integral to the Thursday night schedule, which brought high ratings and profits to the other television series.", "The cast demanded that the tenth season be reduced from the usual 24 episodes to 18 episodes to allow them to work on outside projects.In fall 2001, Warner Bros.", "Domestic Cable made a deal with sister network TBS (both were owned by Time Warner) to air the series in rerun syndication.", "Warner Bros.", "Domestic Cable announced that it had sold additional cable rights to ''Friends'' to Nick at Nite which began airing in the fall of 2011 (unlike the TBS and broadcast syndication airings, Nick at Nite broadcasts of the series, which began airing as part of a seven-night launch marathon on September 5, 2011, replace the end credit tag scenes with marginalized credits featuring promotions for the series and other Nick at Nite programs).", "Warner Bros. was expected to make $200 million in license fees and advertising from the deal.", "Nick at Nite paid $500,000 per episode to air the episodes after 6 pm.", "ET for six years through fall 2017.In syndication until 2005, ''Friends'' had earned $4 million per episode in cash license fees for a total of $944 million.Comedy Central began airing reruns of ''Friends'' in October 2019.==== International ====Having already made huge success in the United States, ''Friends'' producers decided to air the show in Europe.", "It premiered in the United Kingdom on April 28, 1995.Season 1 was broadcast until September 1995 on Channel 4 at 9:30 PM on Friday nights, and immediately was a success.", "The popularity of the show allowed the theme song by the Rembrandts to hit number 3 on the UK Singles Charts in September 1995.The popularity of the show in Britain led to an episode being produced in London at the end of the fourth season, starring British actress Helen Baxendale, who became a leading cast member in seasons four and five during her character's relationship with Ross.", "The show has since aired on different channels in the UK in their original, unedited international versions prior to their being re-edited for US broadcast and syndication.", "These versions, with additional footage not seen domestically, have aired on such stations as Channel 4, Sky1, E4, and Comedy Central UK.In September 2011, ''Friends'' officially ended on E4 after the channel re-ran the series since 2004.Comedy Central took over the rights to air the program from October 2011.Since 2018 Channel 5 started airing the program.", "In the Republic of Ireland, each season of the show made its European debut on RTÉ2.After 2004 RTÉ2 began to repeat the series from the start before moving over to TV3 and its digital channel 3e in 2010., repeats of the show have returned to RTÉ2 while also broadcasting on Comedy Central Ireland.Season 10's finale in the UK, broadcast on May 28, 2004, was on Channel 4.It was broadcast from 9 pm to 10 pm and attracted ''Friends''' largest UK audiences.", "It attracted almost 10 million viewers, and is currently standing at Number 10 in Channel 4's most-watched shows.", "''Big Brother'' was moved to 10 pm, which ''Friends'' had beaten.", "''Friends'' got 9.6 million viewers at 9 pm, while ''Big Brother 5''s launch attracted 7.2 million viewers at 10 pm, which is the most-watched premiere on UK TV ever.", "However, on January 3, 2007, ''Celebrity Big Brother 5''s launch was watched by 7.3 million viewers, and its eviction on January 19, 2007, was watched by 8.7 million viewers.", "''Friends'' has previously aired in Australia on the Seven Network (season 1), Nine Network (season 2–10), Network Ten (2007–09, repeats), Arena, 111 Hits, 9Gem (2012–2018, repeats), and TVHits.", "It currently airs on 10 Peach and on pay TV channel Comedy, both of which broadcast the high-definition version of the series.", "The show is broadcast on TV2 in New Zealand.In Canada, the series was broadcast on Global.", "In later years, it was syndicated on several of its cable sibling networks, including Slice, DTour, and TVTropolis, its previous incarnation.", "The series is now syndicated to Bell Media owned CTV Comedy Channel.In Latin America, the first seven seasons aired on Sony, and the remaining seasons on Warner.", "In Brazil, free-to-air networks RedeTV!", "and SBT also aired a few seasons.In India, the show is broadcast by Comedy Central at various times.", "It is the most-watched English language show in the country.In the Philippines, the show was originally aired on ABC-5from 1996 to 2005 and ETC from 2005 to 2014.In Greece, the show was broadcast on Star Channel.", "In Cyprus, ''Friends'' aired on CyBC 2 while reruns air on TVOne.In 2022, Bilibili, iQIYI, Tencent Video, and Youku began distributing edited ''Friends'' episodes in China.", "These edited versions of episodes removed most LGBT content, not edited in original Chinese airings.", "Chinese fans of the show reacted negatively online.=== Remaster ===Beginning in March 2012, high definition versions of all 236 ''Friends'' episodes were made available to local broadcast stations, starting with the pilot episode.", "For the remastered episodes, Warner Bros. restored previously cropped images on the left and right sides of the screen, using the original 35 mm film source, to use the entire 16:9 widescreen frame.", "Because the show was not originally filmed for widescreen, but rather filmed in 4-perf format and protected for 4:3, some cropping problems arise in some shots where information from the top and bottom of the frame is removed, and some expanded shots reveal unintentional artifacts, including set edges, boom mics and body doubles replacing some of the main cast.In early versions of the HD remasters, there were also a few shots, including chroma effects shots, which were sourced from standard-definition videotape sources, as not all of the footage had been located in time for the remaster.", "The original film sources for these shots were later rescanned for later broadcast and release.", "These masters had been airing in New Zealand on TV2 since January 2011, and the earlier HD prints continue to air on Comedy Central in the United Kingdom as of 2020.Netflix added all ten seasons of ''Friends'' in high definition to its streaming service in the United States in January 2015 before the platform discontinued the series in late 2019." ], [ "Home media", "=== Streaming ===In October 2014, Warner Bros. chairman and chief executive officer, Kevin Tsujihara, announced that the company had licensed the North American streaming rights of all ten seasons of ''Friends'' to Netflix, in a deal said to be worth around $500,000 an episode, or about $120 million in total.", "The show became available on Netflix from January 1, 2015.The Netflix airings are the versions aired on NBC rather than the longer international versions, as discussed below.", "The series left Netflix in the US on January 1, 2020, as it began streaming on HBO Max on May 27, 2020.The series left Netflix in Canada for Crave on December 31, 2020.=== Blu-ray and DVD ===All ten seasons have been released on DVD individually and as a box set.", "Each Region 1 season release contains special features and are presented in their aforementioned original international broadcast versions, although Region 2 releases are as originally aired domestically.", "For the first season, each episode is updated with color correction and sound enhancement.", "A wide range of ''Friends'' merchandise has been produced by various companies.", "In September 1995, WEA Records released the first album of music from ''Friends'', the ''Friends Original TV Soundtrack'', containing music featured in previous and future episodes.", "The soundtrack debuted on the ''Billboard'' 200 at number 46, and sold 500,000 copies in November 1995.In 1999, a second soundtrack album entitled ''Friends Again'' was released.", "Other merchandise includes a ''Friends'' version of the DVD game \"Scene It?", "\", and a quiz video game for PlayStation 2 and PC entitled ''Friends: The One with All the Trivia''.", "On September 28, 2009, a box set was released in the UK celebrating the show's 15th anniversary.", "The box set contained extended episodes, an episode guide, and original special features.Warner Home Video released a complete series collection on Blu-ray on November 13, 2012.The collection does not feature the extra deleted scenes and jokes that were included on prior DVD releases, and are therefore presented in their NBC broadcast versions.In Australia, the original DVD releases were fold out box sets which contained three discs, and released as follows: Season 1 and Season 2 on March 13, 2002, Season 3 and Season 4 on July 9, 2002, Season 5, 6 and 7 on July 29, 2002, Season 8 on March 18, 2003, Season 9 on February 11, 2004, and Season 10 on November 24, 2004.Repackaged sets, slimmed into regular DVD cases also containing three discs were released from 2003 to 2004.Collector's Edition sets were released from September 9, 2003, through to February 1, 2006, these sets contains 4 discs, in fat DVD cases, with extra bonus material.On October 4, 2006, the individual seasons were repackaged into regular DVD case sets and marked as \"Including Brand New Bonus Disc\".", "Once again each individual season were repackaged with new artwork on March 31, 2010.The first complete series boxset on DVD was released around 2004 or 2005, this was titled 'The One With All Ten Seasons\" and the packaging was a black box with a lift up lid and contains exclusive packaging for all ten seasons.The second complete series boxset was released August 21, 2013 and was a red box which contained the 2010 individual season sets inside.", "On October 1, 2014, was the 20th Anniversary boxset, this was a white box and contained the same 2010 individual releases inside.", "On October 7, 2015, another boxset was released 'The One With All Ten Seasons\", the same name used on the original boxset, however this time slimmed down and contains the 2010 individual releases inside.", "The outer box is open on insert side for the cases to slide in and out, more of a budget release.", "In 2016, a repackaged 'The Complete Series' Blu-ray boxset was issued, containing the same 10 individual seasons in the original set, however the box is more cut down and is opened on one side, and also does not include the book that contained the episode guide.", "DVD name Eps DVD release dates Blu-ray release dates Region 1 Region 2 Region 4 Region A Region B UK Region B Australia The Complete First Season 24 April 30, 2002 May 29, 2000 October 4, 2006 April 30, 2013 The Complete Second Season 24 September 3, 2002 May 29, 2000 October 4, 2006 April 30, 2013 The Complete Third Season 25 April 1, 2003 May 29, 2000 October 4, 2006 The Complete Fourth Season 24 July 15, 2003 May 29, 2000 October 4, 2006 The Complete Fifth Season 24 November 4, 2003 May 29, 2000 October 4, 2006 The Complete Sixth Season 25 January 27, 2004 July 17, 2000 October 4, 2006 The Complete Seventh Season 24 April 6, 2004 October 25, 2004 October 4, 2006 The Complete Eighth Season 24 November 9, 2004 October 25, 2004 October 4, 2006 The Complete Ninth Season 24 March 8, 2005 October 25, 2004 October 4, 2006 The Complete Tenth Season 18 November 15, 2005 October 25, 2004 October 4, 2006 The Complete Series 236 November 15, 2005November 14, 2006April 16, 2013September 17, 2019 October 2, 2006November 12, 2007September 28, 2009 November 13, 2012 November 12, 2012 November 21, 2012August 21, 2013" ], [ "Spin-off", "Joey'', \"probably the least evolved character\" on ''Friends'' would become more developed.After the series finale in 2004, LeBlanc signed on for the spin-off series, ''Joey'', following Joey's move to Los Angeles to pursue his acting career.", "Kauffman and Crane were not interested in the spin-off, although Bright agreed to executive produce the series with Scott Silveri and Shana Goldberg-Meehan.", "NBC heavily promoted ''Joey'' and gave it ''Friends'' Thursday 8:00 pm timeslot.The pilot was watched by 18.6 million American viewers, but ratings continually decreased throughout the series's two seasons, averaging 10.2 million viewers in the first season and 7.1 million in the second.", "The final broadcast episode on March 7, 2006, was watched by 7.09 million viewers; NBC cancelled the series on May 15, 2006, after two seasons, leaving eight episodes unaired.", "Bright blamed the collaboration between NBC executives, the studio and other producers for quickly ruining the series:" ], [ "See also", "* ''Friends 'Til the End''* The Friends Experience* Music of ''Friends''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* '''Articles concerning the cultural influence of the program:'''* * * Harrison, Andrew (September 12, 2014).", "\"The Hunting of the Snark: ''Friends'', 20 Years On\".", "''New Statesman''." ], [ "External links", "* * * ''Friends'' on Rotten Tomatoes* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Frankish" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frankish ''' may refer to:* Franks, a Germanic tribe and their culture** Frankish language or its modern descendants, Franconian languages, a group of Low Germanic languages also commonly referred to as \"Frankish\" varieties* Francia, a post-Roman state in France and Germany* East Francia, the successor state to Francia in Germany* West Francia, the successor state to Francia in France* Crusaders* Levantines (Latin Christians)" ], [ "See also", "* Name of the Franks* Franks (disambiguation)* Franconian (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "FBI Most Wanted Terrorists" ], [ "Introduction", "Banner used by the FBI since inception on October 10, 2001, as the main title for the web site pages of both the group of wanted terrorists, and also on the wanted poster of each suspected terrorist fugitive.", "The three overlapping seals on the left are the seal of the U.S. Department of State (similar to the Great Seal of the United States) and the seal of the Federal Bureau of Investigation while on the right is the seal of the U.S. Department of JusticeThe '''FBI Most Wanted Terrorists''' is a list created and first released on October 10, 2001, with the authority of United States President George W. Bush, following the September 11 attacks(9/11 incident).", "Initially, the list contained 22 of the top suspected terrorists chosen by the FBI, all of whom had earlier been indicted for acts of terrorism between 1985 and 1998.None of the 22 had been captured by US or other authorities by that date.", "Of the 22, only Osama Bin Laden was by then already listed on the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list.", "No particular legal consequences flowed from the creation of and inclusion on the list.", "On January 17, 2002, the FBI released a third major FBI wanted list, which has now become known as the FBI Seeking Information – War on Terrorism list, to enlist the public's help in reporting information which may prevent future terrorist attacks.", "The information sought to be reported is not necessarily relating to any person on any of the FBI wanted lists." ], [ "Initial persons alleged to be terrorist fugitives", "On the fugitive group wanted poster, the FBI did not list the persons in any particular stated order, except perhaps for the consistent placing of bin Laden in the number one position of the top row.", "However, the 22 can easily fit into distinct categories over the two decades, based on the terrorist attacks in which they were, according to US authorities, involved.For organization and ease of reference here, the 22 on the list are grouped by the attack for which they were placed on the list.Photo Name Alleged terrorist activity Date of activity Status Imad MughniyehTWA Flight 847 June 14, 1985'''Killed'''Killed on February 12, 2008, by a car bomb that was detonated by the Mossad and the CIA as he passed by on foot in Damascus, Syria.", "60px Ali AtwaTWA Flight 847 June 14, 1985'''Deceased'''Died of cancer in Lebanon in October 2021.Hassan Izz-Al-Din Hassan Izz-Al-DinTWA Flight 847 June 14, 1985'''At large'''Abdul Rahman Yasin in 2002 Abdul Rahman Yasin 1993 World Trade Center bombing November 17, 1996'''At large'''Accused of constructing bombs in the 1993 World Trade Center bombing.", "Yasin was allegedly a prisoner of Saddam Hussein in 2002, but has since gone missing from Iraq.", "He was not located during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.", "Khalid Shaikh Mohammed Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Bojinka plot 1994–1995'''Captured'''Captured in Pakistan on March 1, 2003.60px Ahmed Ibrahim Al-Mughassil Khobar Towers bombing June 25, 1996'''At large'''Al-Mughassil was reportedly captured in Lebanon on August 7, 2015, and extradited to Saudi Arabia.", "However, he was not taken into US custody and is still wanted by the FBI.", "Ali Saed Bin Ali El-Hoorie Khobar Towers bombing June 25, 1996'''At large''' 60px Ibrahim Salih Mohammed Al-Yacoub Khobar Towers bombing June 25, 1996'''At large''' 60px Abdelkarim Hussein Mohamed Al-Nasser Khobar Towers bombing June 25, 1996'''At large''' Alleged by the U.S. government to be the leader of Hezbollah Al-Hejaz.", "Mohammed Atef Mohammed Atef 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998'''Killed'''Killed in Afghanistan on November 14, 2001, by a Predator missile attack on his home outside of Kabul.", "Osama bin Laden Osama bin Laden 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998'''Killed'''Killed by U.S. Navy Seals in a compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan; announced dead May 2, 2011.He was placed on the Most Wanted Terrorists list for his involvement in the bombings of the U.S. embassies in Nairobi, Kenya and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.", "Ayman al-Zawahiri Ayman al-Zawahiri 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998'''Killed'''Osama bin-Laden's successor as Al-Qaeda's chieftain, Ayman al-Zawahiri was under indictment in the United States for his suspected role in the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Nairobi, Kenya.", "The Rewards for Justice Program of the U.S. Department of State was offering a reward of up to US$25 million for information about his location and capture.", "On July 31, 2022, he was killed by a drone strike in Kabul, Afghanistan carried out by the U.S.", "He is listed as deceased by the FBI.", "Fazul Abdullah Mohammed Fazul Abdullah Mohammed 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998'''Killed'''Reports surfaced on June 11, 2011, that he was killed in Somalia.", "Kenyan police stated, through DNA testing, that they were certain he was killed by Somalian forces on June 8.Officially listed as deceased on the FBI website by June 12.Mustafa Mohamed Fadhil Mustafa Mohamed Fadhil 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998'''Killed'''Killed in Afghanistan.", "He was removed from the list in May 2005.Fahid Mohammed Ally Msalam Fahid Mohammed Ally Msalam 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998'''Killed'''Killed January 1, 2009, in an unmanned aerial strike in Pakistan along with Sheikh Ahmed Salim Swedan.", "Ahmed Khalfan Ghailani Ahmed Ghailani 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998'''Captured'''Captured in Pakistan on July 25, 2004, and later held in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.", "Ghailani was tried by a civilian court in New York in 2010 and convicted of conspiring to bomb the American embassies in Tanzania and Kenya.", "The jury however acquitted him of all other 284 charges, including attempted murder.", "Sheikh Ahmed Salim Swedan 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998'''Killed'''Killed January 1, 2009, in an unmanned aerial strike in Pakistan along with Fahid Mohammed Ali Msalam.", "Abdullah Ahmed Abdullah Abdullah Ahmed Abdullah 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998'''Killed''' Abdullah, also known as Abu Mohammed al-Masri, was reported to have been killed in Tehran, Iran on August 7, 2020, by Israeli Mossad operatives working on behalf of the United States government.", "His death was reported 3 months later.", "His death was confirmed by the United States Secretary of State Mike Pompeo on January 12, 2021.Abu Anas al-Libi 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998'''Died in captivity'''Al-Libi was captured in Tripoli, Libya on October 5, 2013, by Delta Force commandos.", "Abu Anas al-Libi died on January 2, 2015, at a hospital in New York, aged 50, while in United States custody.", "He had liver disease as a result of hepatitis C. Saif al-Adel 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998'''At large''' Believed to be the current ''de facto'' leader of al-Qaeda as of 2023.Ahmed Mohammed Hamed Ali Ahmed Mohammed Hamed Ali 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998'''Killed'''Reported as killed in a drone strike in 2010 in Pakistan by the National Counterterrorism Center.", "He was removed from the list in 2012.Muhsin Musa Matwalli Atwah Muhsin Musa Matwalli Atwah 1998 United States embassy bombings August 7, 1998'''Killed'''Killed April 12, 2006, along with 6 other alleged militants by Pakistani forces in a helicopter gunship raid on the village of Naghar Kalai near the Afghan border.", "Villagers reported that armed men removed the bodies.", "Atwah's death was confirmed by US officials on October 24, 2006, following DNA testing, and he was removed from the list." ], [ "FBI Seeking Information – War on Terrorism list", "Whereas the Most Wanted Terrorists list is reserved for terrorist fugitives who have been indicted by federal grand juries, the FBI recognized a further need to achieve a much quicker response time in order to prevent any future attacks which may be in the current planning stages.", "To enlist the public's help in this effort, the FBI sought a way to deliver the early known suspected terror attack information, often very limited, out to the public as quickly as possible.", "So, on January 17, 2002, the third major FBI wanted list was first released, which has now become known as the FBI Seeking Information – Terrorism list.As the name of this list implies, the FBI's intent is to acquire any critical information from the public, as soon as possible, about the suspected terrorists, who may be in the planning stages of terror attacks against United States nationals at home and abroad.", "The first such list profiled five persons about whom little was known, but who were suspected of plotting terrorist attacks in martyrdom operations.", "The main evidence against the five was five videos they had produced, found in the rubble of Mohammed Atef's destroyed home outside Kabul, Afghanistan." ], [ "Additions to the list", "By 2006, more than four years had passed since the FBI had listed the original 22 alleged terrorists on the Most Wanted Terrorist list.", "Of those 22, by then four had been qualified for removal from the list, due to death or capture.", "Also by then, the FBI determined that new persons qualified to be listed as Most Wanted Terrorists.", "Some of these persons were indicted for attacks and plots that had taken place since the original list had been compiled.", "The original indictments had been for incidents only through 1998.Since then, the U.S. had become victim to at least two major terror attacks, which would generate some of the new indictments for the Most Wanted Terrorists, notably:* USS ''Cole'' bombing in 2000, which killed 17 American sailors and wounded 40 on October 12, 2000, off the port coast of Aden, Yemen* September 11, 2001 attacks in Manhattan, Washington, D.C., and PennsylvaniaIn addition, after the original 2001 list had been compiled and released to the public, the U.S. had foiled and issued indictments for numerous other plots, involving some new listed Most Wanted Terrorists.", "Those notable other plots involved:* The Buffalo Six, a Buffalo, New York, cell, or Lackawanna Cell, exposed September 2002* Palestinian Islamic Jihad, on Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) charges for plots based from Syria since 1995* Abu Sayyaf kidnappings and murders of foreign nationals in the PhilippinesIn February 2006, the FBI completed two groups of additions to the Most Wanted Terrorists list, the first such additions in over four years.", "On February 24, 2006, the day after adding two names to the list, the FBI added an additional six fugitive terrorists, for various plots and attacks.", "One of the entries was for an indictment dating back to the June 14, 1985, hijacking of TWA flight 847 by Hezbollah (see above).Additionally, the FBI also added to the Seeking Information – War on Terrorism list an additional three persons, most notably, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, the notorious leader of Al-Qaeda in Iraq.", "This marked the first time that al-Zarqawi had appeared on any of the three major FBI wanted lists.", "On June 8, 2006, ABC News reported that Abu Musab al-Zarqawi was confirmed to have been killed in Baghdad in a bombing raid by a United States task force.", "His death was confirmed by multiple sources in Iraq, including the United States government.Photo Name Alleged terrorist activity Date of Activity Date Added to List Status Jamel Ahmed Mohammed Ali Al-Badawi Jamal Ahmad Mohammad Al Badawi USS Cole bombing October 12, 2000 February 23, 2006'''Killed'''Rewards for Justice offered $5 million for information leading to his capture or conviction.", "He was killed in a drone strike on January 1, 2019, in Ma'rib Governorate, Yemen.", "Jaber A. Elbaneh Jaber A. Elbaneh Buffalo Six Sometime in 2002 February 23, 2006'''At large'''Surrendered to Yemeni authorities on May 20, 2007.However, after serving a 5-year sentence there, he was not given into US custody and is still wanted by the FBI.", "Mohammed Ali Hammadi Mohammed Ali Hamadei TWA Flight 847 June 14, 1985 February 24, 2006'''At large'''Arrested by West German police on January 13, 1987, and released on December 15, 2005.Rewards for Justice is offering $5 million for information leading to his capture or conviction.", "60px Ramadan Abdullah Mohammad Shallah Palestinian Islamic Jihad, on RICO Since 1995 February 24, 2006'''Deceased'''Wanted for conspiracy to conduct the affairs of the designated international terrorist organization known as the \"Palestinian Islamic Jihad\".", "Shalah died on June 6, 2020, in Lebanon after a long illness.", "Abd Al Aziz Awda Abd Al Aziz Awda Palestinian Islamic Jihad, on RICO Since 1995 February 24, 2006'''At large'''Co-founder of the PIJ.", "Khadafi Abubakar Janjalani Khadafi Abubakar Janjalani Abu Sayyaf kidnaps & murders in the Philippines Early 1990s - 2000s (decade) February 24, 2006'''Killed'''Died of gunshot wounds on September 4, 2006.Philippine marines found the remains of his body on December 27, 2006.Death was confirmed by DNA testing on January 20, 2007.Listed as deceased as of January 22, 2007.Removed from list as of February 21.Jainal Antel Sali Jainal Antel Sali Abu Sayyaf kidnaps & murders in the Philippines Early 1990s - 2000s (decade) February 24, 2006'''Killed'''Killed by Philippines special forces on January 16, 2007.Isnilon Totoni Hapilon Isnilon Totoni Hapilon Abu Sayyaf kidnaps & murders in the Philippines Early 1990s - 2000s (decade) February 24, 2006'''Killed'''Killed by the Philippine Army on October 16, 2017.Adam Yahiye Gadahn Adam Yahiye Gadahn Treason 2003–2015 October 11, 2006'''Killed'''Gadahn was removed by the FBI from the Seeking Information - War on Terrorism list on October 11, 2006, and placed instead on the FBI Most Wanted Terrorists list.", "Also, on October 11, 2006, Gadahn was indicted on a treason charge by a federal grand jury in Santa Ana, California making him the first American charged with treason since 1952.Rewards for Justice offered $1 million for information leading to his capture.", "He was killed in a drone strike in Pakistan on January 19, 2015.Daniel Andreas San Diego Chiron and Shaklee bombings August 28, 2003September 26, 2003 April 11, 2009'''At large'''San Diego was added to the FBI Most Wanted Terrorists list in connection with two Animal Liberation Brigade bombings in Northern California in 2003.He is the second United States citizen, and the first domestic terrorist, to appear on the list.", "The FBI is offering $250,000.00 for information leading to his arrest.", "Fahd al-Quso USS Cole bombing October 12, 2000 November 2, 2009'''Killed'''Sought for his role in the October 2000 bombing of the USS Cole in Yemen, in which 17 American sailors were killed.", "Rewards for Justice offered $5 million for information leading to his capture or conviction He was killed in a drone strike in Yemen on May 6, 2012.Husayn Muhammed al-Umari Pan Am Flight 830 August 11, 1982 November 2, 2009'''At large'''Also known as Abu Ibrahim, is wanted in connection with the 1982 bombing of Pan Am Flight 830.Wadoud Muhammad Hafiz Al-Turki Pan Am Flight 73 September 5, 1986 December 3, 2009'''At large'''Wanted for his role in the hijacking of Pan American World Airways Flight 73.Convicted in Pakistan in 1988, but allegedly deported to Palestine in 2009.Jamal Saeed Abdul Rahim Pan Am Flight 73 September 5, 1986 December 3, 2009'''At large'''Wanted for his role in the hijacking of Pan American World Airways Flight 73.Convicted in Pakistan in 1988, but allegedly deported to Palestine in 2009.Pakistani officials claimed that he was killed on January 9, 2010, by a U.S. airstrike, but the reports have never been confirmed and he is still on the list.", "Muhammad Abdullah Khalil Hussain Ar-Rahayyal Pan Am Flight 73 September 5, 1986 December 3, 2009'''At large''' Wanted for his role in the hijacking of Pan American World Airways Flight 73.Convicted in Pakistan in 1988, but allegedly deported to Palestine in 2009.Muhammad Ahmed Al-Munawar Pan Am Flight 73 September 5, 1986 December 3, 2009'''At large'''Wanted for his role in the hijacking of Pan American World Airways Flight 73.Convicted in Pakistan in 1988, but allegedly deported to Palestine in 2009.Adnan G. El Shukrijumah Adnan Gulshair el Shukrijumah 2009 New York City Subway and United Kingdom plot September 2009 July 8, 2010'''Killed'''Wanted for his alleged role in the plot against New York City's subway system, uncovered in September 2009.He was killed in a manhunt operation by Pakistan Army in South Waziristan on 6 December 2014.Fauzi AyubPassport fraudOctober 2000July 6, 2011'''Killed'''Hezbollah member charged with using a false passport to enter Israel in order to conduct a bombing.", "Killed by members of the Free Syrian Army in May 2014.Abu Mansoor Al-Amriki (born ''Omar Shafik Hammami'')Membership in al-ShabaabNovember 2006 - June 2013November 14, 2012'''Killed'''Joined al-Shabaab in 2006 and became one of its top leaders.", "After splitting from the organization in June 2013, he was killed by its militants on September 12 of that year.", "Radullan SahironRadullan SahironKidnapping for Abu SayyafNovember 14, 1993November 14, 2012'''At large'''Alleged leader of Abu Sayyaf since 2005.Wanted for a particular kidnapping in 1993, but believed to be responsible for other abductions.", "Assata Shakur Assata Shakur (née ''JoAnne Deborah Byron'', married name ''JoAnne Chesimard'') Murder of Trooper Werner Foerster May 2, 1973 May 2, 2013'''At large''' Former Black Liberation Army member openly living in Cuba after she escaped from a New Jersey prison in 1979.Two million dollar reward offered.Ahmad AbousamraAttempting to obtain terrorist training2002 - 2004December 18, 2013'''Killed'''Wanted for travelling to Pakistan and Yemen between 2002 and 2004 in order to receive terrorist training.", "Killed by an airstrike in Syria in January 2017.Liban Haji MohamedRecruitment for al-ShabaabSince July 5, 2012January 29, 2015'''At large'''Alleged to have departed the U.S. on July 5, 2012, to join al-Shabaab, and to have acted as a recruiter for the organization.", "Detained by Somali authorities on March 2, 2015, but is still on the list.", "Ahlam TamimiAhlam TamimiSbarro restaurant suicide bombingAugust 9, 2001March 14, 2017'''At large''' Arrested and imprisoned in Israel, but freed as part of the 2011 Gilad Shalit prisoner exchange.", "Sajid Mir Sajid Mir2008 Mumbai attacks26 November 2008 - 29 November 2008March 22, 2019 '''At large''' Arrested by Pakistani authorities on April 21, 2022, then convicted and sentenced to years in prison on May 16 of that year.", "He was not extradited and remains on the list as of February 2023." ], [ "Rewards", "Since 1984, the United States government has also used the Rewards for Justice Program, which pays monetary rewards of up to $25 million, or now, in some cases more, upon special authorization by the United States Secretary of State, to individuals who provide information which substantially leads to countering of terrorist attacks against United States persons.", "More than $100 million had been paid to over 60 people through this program.The Rewards for Justice Program was established by the 1984 Act to Combat International Terrorism, Public Law 98-533, and is administered by the Bureau of Diplomatic Security, within the U.S. Department of State." ], [ "See also", "* FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives* Terrorist incidents* War on terror* Weapons of mass destruction" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* DSS Rewards for Justice* FBI Most Wanted Terrorists currently listed page* America's Most Wanted - slideshow by ''Life magazine''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Francis Bacon" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Francis Bacon''', '''1st Viscount St Alban''' PC (; 22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626), known as '''Lord Verulam''' between 1618 and 1621, was an English philosopher and statesman who served as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England under King James I. Bacon led the advancement of both natural philosophy and the scientific method and his works remained influential even in the late stages of the Scientific Revolution.Bacon has been called the father of empiricism.", "He argued for the possibility of scientific knowledge based only upon inductive reasoning and careful observation of events in nature.", "He believed that science could be achieved by the use of a sceptical and methodical approach whereby scientists aim to avoid misleading themselves.", "Although his most specific proposals about such a method, the Baconian method, did not have long-lasting influence, the general idea of the importance and possibility of a sceptical methodology makes Bacon one of the later founders of the scientific method.", "His portion of the method based in scepticism was a new rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, whose practical details are still central to debates on science and methodology.", "He is famous for his role in the scientific revolution, promoting scientific experimentation as a way of glorifying God and fulfilling scripture.Bacon was a patron of libraries and developed a system for cataloguing books under three categories – history, poetry, and philosophy – which could further be divided into specific subjects and subheadings.", "About books he wrote, \"Some books are to be tasted; others swallowed; and some few to be chewed and digested.\"", "The Shakespearean authorship thesis, a fringe theory which was first proposed in the mid-19th century, contends that Bacon wrote at least some and possibly all of the plays conventionally attributed to William Shakespeare.Bacon was educated at Trinity College at the University of Cambridge, where he rigorously followed the medieval curriculum, which was presented largely in Latin.", "He was the first recipient of the Queen's counsel designation, conferred in 1597 when Elizabeth I reserved him as her legal advisor.", "After the accession of James I in 1603, Bacon was knighted, then created Baron Verulam in 1618 and Viscount St Alban in 1621.He had no heirs and so both titles became extinct on his death of pneumonia in 1626 at the age of 65.He is buried at St Michael's Church, St Albans, Hertfordshire." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life and education===National Portrait Gallery painting; the inscription around Bacon's head reads: ''Si tabula daretur digna animum mallem'', Latin for \"If one could but paint his mind\".Italianate entry to York House, built around 1626 in Strand, the year of Bacon's deathFrancis Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 at York House near Strand in London, the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon (Lord Keeper of the Great Seal) by his second wife, Anne (Cooke) Bacon, the daughter of the noted Renaissance humanist Anthony Cooke.", "His mother's sister was married to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, making Burghley Bacon's uncle.Biographers believe that Bacon was educated at home in his early years owing to poor health, which would plague him throughout his life.", "He received tuition from John Walsall, a graduate of Oxford with a strong leaning toward Puritanism.", "He attended Trinity College at the University of Cambridge on 5 April 1573 at the age of 12, living there for three years along with his older brother Anthony Bacon under the personal tutelage of Dr John Whitgift, future Archbishop of Canterbury.", "Bacon's education was conducted largely in Latin and followed the medieval curriculum.", "It was at Cambridge that Bacon first met Queen Elizabeth, who was impressed by his precocious intellect, and was accustomed to calling him \"The young lord keeper\".His studies brought him to the belief that the methods and results of science as then practised were erroneous.", "His reverence for Aristotle conflicted with his rejection of Aristotelian philosophy, which seemed to him barren, argumentative and wrong in its objectives.On 27 June 1576, he and Anthony entered ''de societate magistrorum'' at Gray's Inn.", "A few months later, Francis went abroad with Sir Amias Paulet, the English ambassador at Paris, while Anthony continued his studies at home.", "The state of government and society in France under Henry III afforded him valuable political instruction.", "For the next three years he visited Blois, Poitiers, Tours, Italy, and Spain.", "There is no evidence that he studied at the University of Poitiers.", "During his travels, Bacon studied language, statecraft, and civil law while performing routine diplomatic tasks.", "On at least one occasion he delivered diplomatic letters to England for Walsingham, Burghley, Leicester, and for the queen.The sudden death of his father in February 1579 prompted Bacon to return to England.", "Sir Nicholas had laid up a considerable sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so, and Francis was left with only a fifth of that money.", "Having borrowed money, Bacon got into debt.", "To support himself, he took up his residence in law at Gray's Inn in 1579, his income being supplemented by a grant from his mother Lady Anne of the manor of Marks near Romford in Essex, which generated a rent of £46.===Parliamentarian===Bacon's statue at Gray's Inn in London's South SquareBacon stated that he had three goals: to uncover truth, to serve his country, and to serve his church.", "He sought to achieve these goals by seeking a prestigious post.", "In 1580, through his uncle, Lord Burghley, he applied for a post at court that might enable him to pursue a life of learning, but his application failed.", "For two years he worked quietly at Gray's Inn, until he was admitted as an outer barrister in 1582.His parliamentary career began when he was elected MP for Bossiney, Cornwall, in a by-election in 1581.In 1584 he took his seat in Parliament for Melcombe in Dorset, and in 1586 for Taunton.", "At this time, he began to write on the condition of parties in the church, as well as on the topic of philosophical reform in the lost tract ''Temporis Partus Maximus''.", "Yet he failed to gain a position that he thought would lead him to success.", "He showed signs of sympathy to Puritanism, attending the sermons of the Puritan chaplain of Gray's Inn and accompanying his mother to the Temple Church to hear Walter Travers.", "This led to the publication of his earliest surviving tract, which criticized the English church's suppression of the Puritan clergy.", "In the Parliament of 1586, he openly urged execution for the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots.About this time, he again approached his powerful uncle for help; this move was followed by his rapid progress at the bar.", "He became a bencher in 1586 and was elected a Reader in 1587, delivering his first set of lectures in Lent the following year.", "In 1589, he received the valuable appointment of reversion to the Clerkship of the Star Chamber, although he did not formally take office until 1608; the post was worth £1,600 a year.In 1588 he became MP for Liverpool and then for Middlesex in 1593.He later sat three times for Ipswich (1597, 1601, 1604) and once for Cambridge University (1614).He became known as a liberal-minded reformer, eager to amend and simplify the law.", "Though a friend of the crown, he opposed feudal privileges and dictatorial powers.", "He spoke against religious persecution.", "He struck at the House of Lords in its usurpation of the Money Bills.", "He advocated for the union of England and Scotland, which made him a significant influence toward the consolidation of the United Kingdom; and he later would advocate for the integration of Ireland into the Union.", "Closer constitutional ties, he believed, would bring greater peace and strength to these countries.===Final years of Elizabeth's reign===Memorial to Bacon in the chapel of Trinity College, CambridgeBacon soon became acquainted with Robert Devereux, the 2nd Earl of Essex, Queen Elizabeth's favourite.", "By 1591 he acted as the earl's confidential adviser.", "In 1592, he was commissioned to write a tract in response to the Jesuit Robert Parson's anti-government polemic, which he titled ''Certain Observations Made upon a Libel'', identifying England with the ideals of democratic Athens against the belligerence of Spain.", "Bacon took his third parliamentary seat for Middlesex when in February 1593 Elizabeth summoned Parliament to investigate a Roman Catholic plot against her.", "Bacon's opposition to a bill that would levy triple subsidies in half the usual time offended the Queen: opponents accused him of seeking popularity, and for a time the Court excluded him from favour.When the office of Attorney General fell vacant in 1594, Lord Essex's influence was not enough to secure the position for Bacon and it was given to Sir Edward Coke.", "Likewise, Bacon failed to secure the lesser office of Solicitor General in 1595, the Queen pointedly snubbing him by appointing Sir Thomas Fleming instead.", "To console him for these disappointments, Essex presented him with a property at Twickenham, which Bacon subsequently sold for £1,800.In 1597 Bacon became the first Queen's Counsel designate, when Queen Elizabeth reserved him as her legal counsel.", "In 1597, he was also given a patent, giving him precedence at the Bar.", "Despite his designations, he was unable to gain the status and notoriety of others.", "In a plan to revive his position he unsuccessfully courted the wealthy young widow Lady Elizabeth Hatton.", "His courtship failed after she broke off their relationship upon accepting marriage to Sir Edward Coke, a further spark of enmity between the men.", "In 1598 Bacon was arrested for debt.", "Afterward, however, his standing in the Queen's eyes improved.", "Gradually, Bacon earned the standing of one of the learned counsels.", "His relationship with the Queen further improved when he severed ties with Essex—a shrewd move, as Essex would be executed for treason in 1601.With others, Bacon was appointed to investigate the charges against Essex.", "A number of Essex's followers confessed that Essex had planned a rebellion against the Queen.", "Bacon was subsequently a part of the legal team headed by the Attorney General Sir Edward Coke at Essex's treason trial.", "After the execution, the Queen ordered Bacon to write the official government account of the trial, which was later published as ''A DECLARATION of the Practices and Treasons attempted and committed by Robert late Earle of Essex and his Complices, against her Majestie and her Kingdoms ...'' after Bacon's first draft was heavily edited by the Queen and her ministers.According to his personal secretary and chaplain, William Rawley, as a judge Bacon was always tender-hearted, \"looking upon the examples with the eye of severity, but upon the person with the eye of pity and compassion\".", "And also that \"he was free from malice\", \"no revenger of injuries\", and \"no defamer of any man\".===James I comes to the throne===Bacon, 1618The succession of James I brought Bacon into greater favour.", "He was knighted in 1603.In another shrewd move, Bacon wrote his ''Apologies'' in defence of his proceedings in the case of Essex, as Essex had favoured James to succeed to the throne.", "The following year, during the course of the uneventful first parliamentary session, Bacon married Alice Barnham.", "In June 1607, he was at last rewarded with the office of Solicitor General and in 1608 he began working as the Clerkship of the Star Chamber.", "Despite a generous income, old debts still could not be paid.", "He sought further promotion and wealth by supporting King James and his arbitrary policies.", "In 1610 the fourth session of James's first Parliament met.", "Despite Bacon's advice to him, James and the Commons found themselves at odds over royal prerogatives and the King's embarrassing extravagance.", "The House was finally dissolved in February 1611.Throughout this period Bacon managed to stay in favour with the King while retaining the confidence of the Commons.In 1613 Bacon was finally appointed Attorney General, after advising the King to shuffle judicial appointments.", "As Attorney General, Bacon, by his zealous efforts—which included torture—to obtain the conviction of Edmund Peacham for treason, raised legal controversies of high constitutional importance; and successfully prosecuted Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset and his wife, Frances Howard, Countess of Somerset for murder in 1616.The so-called Prince's Parliament of April 1614 objected to Bacon's presence in the seat for Cambridge and to the various royal plans that Bacon had supported.", "Although he was allowed to stay, Parliament passed a law that forbade the Attorney General to sit in Parliament.", "His influence over the King had evidently inspired resentment or apprehension in many of his peers.", "Bacon, however, continued to receive the King's favour, which led to his appointment in March 1617 as temporary Regent of England (for a period of a month), and in 1618 as Lord Chancellor.", "On 12 July 1618 the King created Bacon Baron Verulam of Verulam in the Peerage of England; he then became known as Francis, Lord Verulam.Bacon continued to use his influence with the King to mediate between the throne and Parliament, and in this capacity he was further elevated in the same peerage as Viscount St Alban on 27 January 1621.===Lord Chancellor and public disgrace===Parliament on the day of his 1621 political fallBacon's public career ended in disgrace in 1621.After he fell into debt, a parliamentary committee on the administration of the law charged him with 23 separate counts of corruption.", "His lifelong enemy, Sir Edward Coke, who had instigated these accusations, was one of those appointed to prepare the charges against the chancellor.", "To the lords, who sent a committee to enquire whether a confession was really his, he replied, \"My lords, it is my act, my hand, and my heart; I beseech your lordships to be merciful to a broken reed.\"", "He was sentenced to a fine of £40,000 and committed to the Tower of London at the king's pleasure; the imprisonment lasted only a few days and the fine was remitted by the king.", "More seriously, parliament declared Bacon incapable of holding future office or sitting in parliament.", "He narrowly escaped undergoing degradation, which would have stripped him of his titles of nobility.", "Subsequently, the disgraced viscount devoted himself to study and writing.There seems little doubt that Bacon had accepted gifts from litigants, but this was an accepted custom of the time and not necessarily evidence of deeply corrupt behaviour.", "While acknowledging that his conduct had been lax, he countered that he had never allowed gifts to influence his judgement and, indeed, he had on occasion given a verdict against those who had paid him.", "He even had an interview with King James in which he assured:He also wrote the following to George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham:As the conduct of accepting gifts was ubiquitous and common practice, and the Commons was zealously inquiring into judicial corruption and malfeasance, it has been suggested that Bacon served as a scapegoat to divert attention from Buckingham's own ill practice and alleged corruption.The true reason for his acknowledgement of guilt is the subject of debate, but some authors speculate that it may have been prompted by his sickness, or by a view that through his fame and the greatness of his office he would be spared harsh punishment.", "He may even have been blackmailed, with a threat to charge him with sodomy, into confession.The British jurist Basil Montagu wrote in Bacon's defense, concerning the episode of his public disgrace:===Personal life=======Religious beliefs====Bacon was a devout Anglican.", "He believed that philosophy and the natural world must be studied inductively, but argued that we can only study arguments for the existence of God.", "Information about God's attributes (such as nature, action, and purposes) can only come from special revelation.", "Bacon also held that knowledge was cumulative, that study encompassed more than a simple preservation of the past.", "\"Knowledge is the rich storehouse for the glory of the Creator and the relief of man's estate,\" he wrote.", "In his Essays, he affirms that \"a little philosophy inclineth man's mind to atheism, but depth in philosophy bringeth men's minds about to religion.", "\"Bacon's idea of idols of the mind may have self-consciously represented an attempt to Christianize science at the same time as developing a new, reliable scientific method; Bacon gave worship of Neptune as an example of the idola tribus fallacy, hinting at the religious dimensions of his critique of the idols.Bacon was against the splintering within Christianity, believing that it would ultimately lead to the creation of atheism as a dominant worldview, as indicated with his quote that \"The causes of atheism are: divisions in religion, if they be many; for any one main division, addeth zeal to both sides; but many divisions introduce atheism.", "Another is, scandal of priests; when it is come to that which St. Bernard saith \"One cannot now say the priest is as the people, for the truth is that the people are not so bad as the priest\".", "A third is, custom of profane scoffing in holy matters; which doth by little and little deface the reverence of religion.", "And lastly, learned times, specially with peace and prosperity; for troubles and adversities do more bow men's minds to religion.\"", "====Architectural projects====Bacon built Verulam House to his own designs.", "It has been suggested that this building was derivative of Sir Rowland Hill's building at Soulton Hall.", "====Marriage to Alice Barnham====Engraving of Alice BarnhamWhen he was 36, Bacon courted Elizabeth Hatton, a young widow of 20.Reportedly, she broke off their relationship upon accepting marriage to a wealthier man, Bacon's rival, Sir Edward Coke.", "Years later, Bacon still wrote of his regret that the marriage to Hatton had not taken place.At the age of 45, Bacon married Alice Barnham, the 13-year-old daughter of a well-connected London alderman and MP.", "Bacon wrote two sonnets proclaiming his love for Alice.", "The first was written during his courtship and the second on his wedding day, 10 May 1606.When Bacon was appointed lord chancellor, \"by special Warrant of the King\", Lady Bacon was given precedence over all other Court ladies.", "Bacon's personal secretary and chaplain, William Rawley, wrote in his biography of Bacon that his marriage was one of \"much conjugal love and respect\", mentioning a robe of honour that he gave to Alice and which \"she wore unto her dying day, being twenty years and more after his death\".However, an increasing number of reports circulated about friction in the marriage, with speculation that this may have been due to Alice's making do with less money than she had once been accustomed to.", "It was said that she was strongly interested in fame and fortune, and when household finances dwindled, she complained bitterly.", "Bunten wrote in her ''Life of Alice Barnham''  that, upon their descent into debt, she went on trips to ask for financial favours and assistance from their circle of friends.", "Bacon disinherited her upon discovering her secret romantic relationship with Sir John Underhill, rewriting his will (which had generously planned to leave her lands, goods, and income) and revoking her entirely as a beneficiary.====Sexuality====Several authors believe that, despite his marriage, Bacon was primarily attracted to men.", "Forker, for example, has explored the \"historically documentable sexual preferences\" of both Francis Bacon and King James I and concluded they were both oriented to \"masculine love\", a contemporary term that \"seems to have been used exclusively to refer to the sexual preference of men for members of their own gender.", "\"The well-connected antiquary John Aubrey noted in his ''Brief Lives'' concerning Bacon, \"He was a Pederast.", "His Ganimeds and Favourites tooke Bribes\".", "(; \"ganimed\" derives from the mythical prince abducted by Zeus to be his cup-bearer and bed warmer.", ")The Jacobean antiquarian Sir Simonds D'Ewes (Bacon's fellow Member of Parliament) implied there had been a question of bringing him to trial for buggery, which his brother Anthony Bacon had also been charged with.In his ''Autobiography and Correspondence'', in the diary entry for 3 May 1621, the date of Bacon's censure by Parliament, D'Ewes describes Bacon's love for his Welsh serving-men, in particular Godrick, a \"very effeminate-faced youth\" whom he calls \"his catamite and bedfellow\".This conclusion has been disputed by others, who point to lack of consistent evidence, and consider the sources to be more open to interpretation.", "Publicly, at least, Bacon distanced himself from the idea of homosexuality.", "In his ''New Atlantis'', he described his utopian island as being \"the chastest nation under heaven\", and \"as for masculine love, they have no touch of it\".===Death===St Michael's Church in St AlbansOn 9 April 1626, Bacon died of pneumonia while at Arundel mansion at Highgate outside London.", "An influential account of the circumstances of his death was given by John Aubrey's ''Brief Lives''.", "Aubrey's vivid account, which portrays Bacon as a martyr to experimental scientific method, had him journeying to High-gate through the snow with the King's physician when he is suddenly inspired by the possibility of using the snow to preserve meat:After stuffing the fowl with snow, Bacon contracted a fatal case of pneumonia.", "Some people, including Aubrey, consider these two contiguous, possibly coincidental events as related and causative of his death:Aubrey has been criticized for his evident credulousness in this and other works; on the other hand, he knew Thomas Hobbes, Bacon's fellow-philosopher and friend.Being unwittingly on his deathbed, the philosopher dictated his last letter to his absent host and friend Lord Arundel:Another account appears in a biography by William Rawley, Bacon's personal secretary and chaplain:He was buried in St Michael's Church in St Albans.", "At the news of his death, over 30 great minds collected together their eulogies of him, which were then later published in Latin.He left personal assets of about £7,000 and lands that realised £6,000 when sold.", "His debts amounted to more than £23,000, equivalent to more than £4m at current value." ], [ "Philosophy and works", "''Sylva sylvarum'', Bacon's history of ten centuriesFront page of a 1651 copy of ''Sylva sylvarum''Francis Bacon's philosophy is displayed in the vast and varied writings he left, which might be divided into three great branches:* ''Scientific works'' in which his ideas for a universal reform of knowledge into scientific methodology and the improvement of mankind's state using the Scientific method are presented.", "* ''Religious and literary works'' in which he presents his moral philosophy and theological meditations.", "* ''Juridical works'' in which his reforms in English law are proposed." ], [ "Influence and legacy", "===Science===Statue of Bacon in the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.National Portrait Gallery painting of the front cover of ''The History of Royal-Society of London'', picturing Bacon (right) among the founding influences of Royal SocietyBacon's seminal work ''Novum Organum'' was influential in the 1630s and 1650s among scholars, in particular Sir Thomas Browne, who in his encyclopedia ''Pseudodoxia Epidemica'' (1646–72) frequently adheres to a Baconian approach to his scientific enquiries.", "This book entails the basis of the scientific method as a means of observation and induction.According to Bacon, learning and knowledge all derive from the basis of inductive reasoning.", "Through his belief in experimental encounters, he theorised that all the knowledge that was necessary to fully understand a concept could be attained using induction.", "In order to get to the point of an inductive conclusion, one must consider the importance of observing the particulars (specific parts of nature).", "\"Once these particulars have been gathered together, the interpretation of Nature proceeds by sorting them into a formal arrangement so that they may be presented to the understanding.\"", "Experimentation is essential to discovering the truths of Nature.", "When an experiment happens, parts of the tested hypothesis are started to be pieced together, forming a result and conclusion.", "Through this conclusion of particulars, an understanding of Nature can be formed.", "Now that an understanding of Nature has been arrived at, an inductive conclusion can be drawn.", "\"For no one successfully investigates the nature of a thing in the thing itself; the inquiry must be enlarged to things that have more in common with it.", "\"Bacon explains how we come to this understanding and knowledge because of this process in comprehending the complexities of nature.", "\"Bacon sees nature as an extremely subtle complexity, which affords all the energy of the natural philosopher to disclose her secrets.\"", "Bacon described the evidence and proof revealed through taking a specific example from nature and expanding that example into a general, substantial claim of nature.", "Once we understand the particulars in nature, we can learn more about it and become surer of things occurring in nature, gaining knowledge and obtaining new information all the while.", "\"It is nothing less than a revival of Bacon's supremely confident belief that inductive methods can provide us with ultimate and infallible answers concerning the laws and nature of the universe.\"", "Bacon states that when we come to understand parts of nature, we can eventually understand nature better as a whole because of induction.", "Because of this, Bacon concludes that all learning and knowledge must be drawn from inductive reasoning.During the Restoration, Bacon was commonly invoked as a guiding spirit of the Royal Society founded under Charles II in 1660.During the 18th-century French Enlightenment, Bacon's non-metaphysical approach to science became more influential than the dualism of his French contemporary Descartes, and was associated with criticism of the ''Ancien Régime''.", "In 1733 Voltaire introduced him to a French audience as the \"father\" of the scientific method, an understanding which had become widespread by the 1750s.", "In the 19th century his emphasis on induction was revived and developed by William Whewell, among others.", "He has been reputed as the \"Father of Experimental Philosophy\".He also wrote a long treatise on Medicine, ''History of Life and Death'', with natural and experimental observations for the prolongation of life.One of his biographers, the historian William Hepworth Dixon, states: \"Bacon's influence in the modern world is so great that every man who rides in a train, sends a telegram, follows a steam plough, sits in an easy chair, crosses the channel or the Atlantic, eats a good dinner, enjoys a beautiful garden, or undergoes a painless surgical operation, owes him something.", "\"In 1902 Hugo von Hofmannsthal published a fictional letter, known as ''The Lord Chandos Letter'', addressed to Bacon and dated 1603, about a writer who is experiencing a crisis of language.===North America===Newfoundland stamp, which reads: \"Lord Bacon – the guiding spirit in colonization scheme\"Bacon played a leading role in establishing the British colonies in North America, especially in Virginia, the Carolinas and Newfoundland in northeastern Canada.", "His government report on \"The Virginia Colony\" was submitted in 1609.In 1610 Bacon and his associates received a charter from the king to form ''the Tresurer and the Companye of Adventurers and planter of the Cittye of London and Bristoll for the Collonye or plantacon in Newfoundland'', and sent John Guy to found a colony there.", "Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States, wrote: \"Bacon, Locke and Newton.", "I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical and Moral sciences\".In 1910, Newfoundland issued a postage stamp to commemorate Bacon's role in establishing the colony.", "The stamp describes Bacon as \"the guiding spirit in Colonization Schemes in 1610\".", "Moreover, some scholars believe he was largely responsible for the drafting, in 1609 and 1612, of two charters of government for the Virginia Colony.", "William Hepworth Dixon considered that Bacon's name could be included in the list of Founders of the United States.===Law===Although few of his proposals for law reform were adopted during his lifetime, Bacon's legal legacy was considered by the magazine ''New Scientist'' in 1961 as having influenced the drafting of the Napoleonic Code as well as the law reforms introduced by 19th-century British Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel.", "The historian William Hepworth Dixon referred to the Napoleonic Code as \"the sole embodiment of Bacon's thought\", saying that Bacon's legal work \"has had more success abroad than it has found at home\", and that in France \"it has blossomed and come into fruit\".Harvey Wheeler attributed to Bacon, in ''Francis Bacon's Verulamium—the Common Law Template of The Modern in English Science and Culture'', the creation of these distinguishing features of the modern common law system:* using cases as repositories of evidence about the \"unwritten law\";* determining the relevance of precedents by exclusionary principles of evidence and logic;* treating opposing legal briefs as adversarial hypotheses about the application of the \"unwritten law\" to a new set of facts.As late as the 18th century, some juries still declared the law rather than the facts, but already before the end of the 17th century Sir Matthew Hale explained modern common law adjudication procedure and acknowledged Bacon as the inventor of the process of discovering unwritten laws from the evidences of their applications.", "The method combined empiricism and inductivism in a new way that was to imprint its signature on many of the distinctive features of modern English society.", "Paul H. Kocher writes that Bacon is considered by some jurists to be the father of modern Jurisprudence.Bacon is commemorated with a statue in Gray's Inn, South Square in London where he received his legal training, and where he was elected Treasurer of the Inn in 1608.More recent scholarship on Bacon's jurisprudence has focused on his advocating torture as a legal recourse for the crown.", "Bacon himself was not a stranger to the torture chamber; in his various legal capacities in both Elizabeth I's and James I's reigns, Bacon was listed as a commissioner on five torture warrants.", "In 1613(?", "), in a letter addressed to King James I on the question of torture's place within English law, Bacon identifies the scope of torture as a means to further the investigation of threats to the state: \"In the cases of treasons, torture is used for discovery, and not for evidence.\"", "For Bacon, torture was not a punitive measure, an intended form of state repression, but instead offered a modus operandi for the government agent tasked with uncovering acts of treason.===Organization of knowledge===Francis Bacon developed the idea that a classification of knowledge must be universal while handling all possible resources.", "In his progressive view, humanity would be better if access to educational resources were provided to the public, hence the need to organise it.", "His approach to learning reshaped the Western view of knowledge theory from an individual to a social interest.The original classification proposed by Bacon organised all types of knowledge into three general groups: history, poetry, and philosophy.", "He did that based on his understanding of how information is processed: memory, imagination, and reason, respectively.", "His methodical approach to the categorization of knowledge goes hand-in-hand with his principles of scientific methods.", "Bacon's writings were the starting point for William Torrey Harris's classification system for libraries in the United States by the second half of the 1800s.The phrase \"\" (or \"\"), meaning \"knowledge is power\", is commonly attributed to Bacon: the expression \"\" (\"knowledge itself is power\") occurs in his ''Meditationes Sacrae'' (1597)." ], [ "Historical debates", "===Bacon and Shakespeare===The Baconian hypothesis of Shakespearean authorship, first proposed in the mid-19th century, contends that Francis Bacon wrote some or even all of the plays conventionally attributed to William Shakespeare.===Occult theories===An old volume of Bacon and a roseFrancis Bacon often gathered with the men at Gray's Inn to discuss politics and philosophy, and to try out various theatrical scenes that he admitted writing.", "Bacon's alleged connection to the Rosicrucians and the Freemasons has been widely discussed by authors and scholars in many books.", "However, others, including Daphne du Maurier in her biography of Bacon, have argued that there is no substantive evidence to support claims of involvement with the Rosicrucians.", "Frances Yates does not make the claim that Bacon was a Rosicrucian, but presents evidence that he was nevertheless involved in some of the more closed intellectual movements of his day.", "She argues that Bacon's movement for the advancement of learning was closely connected with the German Rosicrucian movement, while Bacon's ''New Atlantis'' portrays a land ruled by Rosicrucians.", "He apparently saw his own movement for the advancement of learning to be in conformity with Rosicrucian ideals.The link between Bacon's work and the Rosicrucians' ideals which Yates allegedly found was the conformity of the purposes expressed by the Rosicrucian Manifestos and Bacon's plan of a \"Great Instauration\", for the two were calling for a reformation of both \"divine and human understanding\", as well as both, had in view the purpose of mankind's return to the \"state before the Fall\".Another major link is said to be the resemblance between Bacon's ''New Atlantis'' and the German Rosicrucian Johann Valentin Andreae's ''Description of the Republic of Christianopolis'' (1619).", "Andreae describes a utopic island in which Christian theosophy and applied science ruled, and in which the spiritual fulfilment and intellectual activity constituted the primary goals of each individual, the scientific pursuits being the highest intellectual calling—linked to the achievement of spiritual perfection.", "Andreae's island also depicts a great advancement in technology, with many industries separated in different zones which supplied the population's needs—which shows great resemblance to Bacon's scientific methods and purposes.While rejecting occult conspiracy theories surrounding Bacon and the claim Bacon personally identified as a Rosicrucian, intellectual historian Paolo Rossi has argued for an occult influence on Bacon's scientific and religious writing.", "He argues that Bacon was familiar with early modern alchemical texts and that Bacon's ideas about the application of science had roots in Renaissance magical ideas about science and magic facilitating humanity's domination of nature.", "Rossi further interprets Bacon's search for hidden meanings in myth and fables in such texts as ''The Wisdom of the Ancients'' as succeeding earlier occultist and Neoplatonic attempts to locate hidden wisdom in pre-Christian myths.", "As indicated by the title of his study, however, Rossi claims Bacon ultimately rejected the philosophical foundations of occultism as he came to develop a form of modern science.Rossi's analysis and claims have been extended by Jason Josephson-Storm in his study, ''The Myth of Disenchantment''.", "Josephson-Storm also rejects conspiracy theories surrounding Bacon and does not make the claim that Bacon was an active Rosicrucian.", "However, he argues that Bacon's \"rejection\" of magic actually constituted an attempt to purify magic of Catholic, demonic, and esoteric influences and to establish magic as a field of study and application paralleling Bacon's vision of science.", "Furthermore, Josephson-Storm argues that Bacon drew on magical ideas when developing his experimental method.", "Josephson-Storm finds evidence that Bacon considered nature a living entity, populated by spirits, and argues Bacon's views on the human domination and application of nature actually depend on his spiritualism and personification of nature.The Rosicrucian organization AMORC claims that Bacon was the \"Imperator\" (leader) of the Rosicrucian Order in both England and the European continent, and would have directed it during his lifetime.Bacon's influence can also be seen on a variety of religious and spiritual authors, and on groups that have utilized his writings in their own belief systems." ], [ "Bibliography", "Front page of a 1779 copy of Bacon's ''Novum Organum'', authored in 1620Some of the more notable works by Bacon are:* ''Essays''** 1st edition with 10 essays (1597)** 2nd edition with 38 essays (1612)** 3rd/final edition with 58 essays (1625)* ''The Advancement and Proficience of Learning Divine and Human'' (1605)* ''Instauratio magna'' (The Great Instauration) (1620) – a multi-part work including ''Distributio operis'' (Plan of the Work); ''Novum Organum'' (The New ''Organon''); ''Parasceve ad historiam naturalem'' (Preparatory for Natural History) and ''Catalogus historiarum particularium'' (Catalogue of Particular Histories)* ''De augmentis scientiarum'' (1623) – an enlargement of ''The Advancement of Learning'' translated into Latin* ''New Atlantis'' (1626)" ], [ "See also", "* ''Cestui que'' (defence and comment on Chudleigh's Case)* Romanticism and Bacon* ''Scientia potentia est''* Works by Francis Bacon" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "===Primary sources===* Bacon, Francis.", "''The Essays and Counsels, Civil and Moral of Francis Bacon: all 3 volumes in a single file.''", "B&R Samizdat Express, 2014.", "* * ===Secondary sources===* * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Contains English translations of** ''Temporis Partus Masculus''** ''Cogitata et Visa''** ''Redargutio Philosophiarum''* * * * * * Serjeantson, Richard.", "\"Francis Bacon and the 'Interpretation of Nature' in the Late Renaissance,\" ''Isis'' (December 2014) 105#4 pp.", "681–705." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * Contains the New Organon, slightly modified for easier reading* Lord Macaulay's essay ''Lord Bacon'' (''Edinburgh Review'', 1837) Lord Bacon* ''Francis Bacon of Verulam.", "Realistic Philosophy and its Age'' by Kuno Fischer, translated from the German by John Oxenford London 1857* ''Bacon'' by Thomas Fowler (1881) public domain at Internet Archive* The Francis Bacon Society* Six Degrees of Francis Bacon* Journals of the Francis Bacon Society from 1886 to 1999* English translation of Hugo von Hofmannsthal's fictional ''The Lord Chandos Letter'', addressed to Bacon* The George Fabyan Collection at the Library of Congress is rich in the works of Francis Bacon.", "* Francis Bacon Research Trust* Sir Francis Bacon's New Advancement of Learning* * Letterbook and correspondence by Sir Francis Bacon at Columbia University.", "Rare Book & Manuscript Library." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "February 2" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 506 – Alaric II, eighth king of the Visigoths, promulgates the Breviary of Alaric (''Breviarium Alaricianum'' or ''Lex Romana Visigothorum''), a collection of \"Roman law\".", "* 880 – Battle of Lüneburg Heath: King Louis III of France is defeated by the Norse Great Heathen Army at Lüneburg Heath in Saxony.", "* 962 – ''Translatio imperii'': Pope John XII crowns Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor, the first Holy Roman Emperor in nearly 40 years.", "*1032 – Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor becomes king of Burgundy.", "*1141 – The Battle of Lincoln, at which Stephen, King of England is defeated and captured by the allies of Empress Matilda.", "*1207 – Terra Mariana, eventually comprising present-day Latvia and Estonia, is established.", "*1428 – An intense earthquake struck the Principality of Catalonia, with the epicenter near Camprodon.", "Widespread destruction and heavy casualties were reported.", "*1438 – Nine leaders of the Transylvanian peasant revolt are executed at Torda.", "*1461 – Wars of the Roses: The Battle of Mortimer's Cross results in the death of Owen Tudor.", "*1536 – Spaniard Pedro de Mendoza founds Buenos Aires, Argentina.===1601–1900===*1645 – Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms: Battle of Inverlochy.", "*1653 – New Amsterdam (later renamed The City of New York) is incorporated.", "*1709 – Alexander Selkirk is rescued after being shipwrecked on a desert island, inspiring Daniel Defoe's adventure book ''Robinson Crusoe''.", "*1814 – The last of the River Thames frost fairs comes to an end.", "*1848 – Mexican–American War: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is signed.", "*1850 – Brigham Young declares war on Timpanogos in the Battle at Fort Utah.", "*1868 – Pro-Imperial forces capture Osaka Castle from the Tokugawa shogunate and burn it to the ground.", "*1870 – ''The Seven Brothers'' (''Seitsemän veljestä''), a novel by Finnish author Aleksis Kivi, is published first time in several thin booklets.", "*1876 – The National League of Professional Baseball Clubs of Major League Baseball is formed.", "*1881 – The sentences of the trial of the warlocks of Chiloé are imparted.", "*1887 – In Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, the first Groundhog Day is observed.", "*1899 – The Australian Premiers' Conference held in Melbourne decides to locate Australia's capital city, Canberra, between Sydney and Melbourne.", "*1900 – Boston, Detroit, Milwaukee, Baltimore, Chicago and St. Louis, agree to form baseball's American League.===1901–present===*1901 – Funeral of Queen Victoria.", "*1909 – The Paris Film Congress opens, an attempt by European producers to form an equivalent to the MPCC cartel in the United States.", "*1913 – Grand Central Terminal opens in New York City.", "*1920 – The Tartu Peace Treaty is signed between Estonia and Russia.", "*1922 – ''Ulysses'' by James Joyce is published.", "* 1922 – The uprising called the \"pork mutiny\" starts in the region between Kuolajärvi and Savukoski in Finland.", "*1925 – Serum run to Nome: Dog sleds reach Nome, Alaska with diphtheria serum, inspiring the Iditarod race.", "*1934 – The Export-Import Bank of the United States is incorporated.", "*1935 – Leonarde Keeler administers polygraph tests to two murder suspects, the first time polygraph evidence was admitted in U.S.", "courts.", "*1942 – The Osvald Group is responsible for the first, active event of anti-Nazi resistance in Norway, to protest the inauguration of Vidkun Quisling.", "*1943 – World War II: The Battle of Stalingrad comes to an end when Soviet troops accept the surrender of the last organized German troops in the city.", "*1954 – The Detroit Red Wings played in the first outdoor hockey game by any NHL team in an exhibition against the Marquette Branch Prison Pirates in Marquette, Michigan.", "*1959 – Nine experienced ski hikers in the northern Ural Mountains in the Soviet Union die under mysterious circumstances.", "*1966 – Pakistan suggests a six-point agenda with Kashmir after the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965.", "*1971 – Idi Amin replaces President Milton Obote as leader of Uganda.", "* 1971 – The international Ramsar Convention for the conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands is signed in Ramsar, Mazandaran, Iran.", "*1980 – Reports surface that the FBI is targeting allegedly corrupt Congressmen in the Abscam operation.", "*1982 – Hama massacre: The government of Syria attacks the town of Hama.", "*1987 – After the 1986 People Power Revolution, the Philippines enacts a new constitution.", "*1989 – Soviet–Afghan War: The last Soviet armoured column leaves Kabul.", "*1990 – Apartheid: F. W. de Klerk announces the unbanning of the African National Congress and promises to release Nelson Mandela.", "*1998 – Cebu Pacific Flight 387 crashes into Mount Sumagaya in the Philippines, killing all 104 people on board.", "*2000 – First digital cinema projection in Europe (Paris) realized by Philippe Binant with the DLP CINEMA technology developed by Texas Instruments.", "*2004 – Swiss tennis player Roger Federer becomes the No.", "1 ranked men's singles player, a position he will hold for a record 237 weeks.", "*2005 – The Government of Canada introduces the ''Civil Marriage Act''.", "This legislation would become law on July 20, 2005, legalizing same-sex marriage.", "*2007 – Police officer Filippo Raciti is killed when a clash breaks out in the Sicily derby between Catania and Palermo, in the Serie A, the top flight of Italian football.", "This event led to major changes in stadium regulations in Italy.", "*2012 – The ferry MV ''Rabaul Queen'' sinks off the coast of Papua New Guinea near the Finschhafen District, with an estimated 146–165 dead.", "*2021 – The Burmese military establishes the State Administration Council, the military junta, after deposing the democratically elected government in the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*450 – Justin I, Byzantine emperor (d. 527)*1208 – James I of Aragon (d. 1276)*1425 (or 1426) – Eleanor of Navarre, Queen regnant of Navarre (d. 1479)*1443 – Elisabeth of Bavaria, Electress of Saxony (d. 1486)*1455 – John, King of Denmark (d. 1513)*1457 – Peter Martyr d'Anghiera, Italian-Spanish historian and author (d. 1526)*1467 – Columba of Rieti, Italian Dominican sister (d. 1501)*1494 – Bona Sforza, queen of Sigismund I of Poland (d. 1557)*1502 – Damião de Góis, Portuguese philosopher and historian (d. 1574)*1506 – René de Birague, Italian-French cardinal and politician (d. 1583)*1509 – John of Leiden, Dutch Anabaptist leader (d. 1536)*1517 – Gotthard Kettler, the last Master of the Livonian Order and the first Duke of Courland and Semigallia (d. 1587)*1522 – Lodovico Ferrari, Italian mathematician and academic (d. 1565)*1536 – Piotr Skarga, Polish writer (d. 1612)*1551 – Nicolaus Reimers, German astronomer (d. 1600)*1576 – Alix Le Clerc, French Canoness Regular and foundress (d. 1622)*1585 – Judith Quiney, William Shakespeare's youngest daughter (d. 1662)* 1585 – Hamnet Shakespeare, William Shakespeare's only son (baptised; d. 1596)*1588 – Georg II of Fleckenstein-Dagstuhl, German nobleman (d. 1644)*1600 – Gabriel Naudé, French librarian and scholar (d. 1653)===1601–1900===*1611 – Ulrik of Denmark, Danish prince-bishop (d. 1633)*1613 – Noël Chabanel, French missionary and saint (d. 1649)*1621 – Johannes Schefferus, Swedish author and hymn-writer (d. 1679)*1650 – Pope Benedict XIII (d. 1730)* 1650 – Nell Gwyn, English actress, mistress of King Charles II of England (d. 1687)*1651 – William Phips, Royal governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay (d. 1695)*1669 – Louis Marchand, French organist and composer (d. 1732)*1677 – Jean-Baptiste Morin, French composer (d. 1745)*1695 – William Borlase, English geologist and archaeologist (d. 1772)* 1695 – François de Chevert, French general (d. 1769)*1700 – Johann Christoph Gottsched, German author and critic (d. 1766)*1711 – Wenzel Anton, Prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg (d. 1794)*1714 – Gottfried August Homilius, German organist and composer (d. 1785)*1717 – Ernst Gideon von Laudon, Austrian field marshal (d. 1790)*1754 – Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, French politician, Prime Minister of France (d. 1838)*1782 – Henri de Rigny, French admiral and politician, French Minister of War (d. 1835)*1786 – Jacques Philippe Marie Binet, French mathematician, physicist, and astronomer (d. 1856)*1802 – Jean-Baptiste Boussingault, French chemist and academic (d. 1887)*1803 – Albert Sidney Johnston, American general (d. 1862)*1829 – Alfred Brehm, German zoologist and illustrator (d. 1884)* 1829 – William Stanley, English engineer and philanthropist (d. 1909)*1841 – François-Alphonse Forel, Swiss limnologist and hydrologist (d. 1912)*1842 – Julian Sochocki, Polish-Russian mathematician and academic (d. 1927)*1849 – Pavol Országh Hviezdoslav, Slovak poet and playwright (d. 1921)*1851 – José Guadalupe Posada, Mexican illustrator and engraver (d. 1913)*1856 – Frederick William Vanderbilt, American railway magnate (d. 1938)* 1856 – Makar Yekmalyan, Armenian composer (d. 1905)*1857 – Jan Drozdowski, Polish pianist and music teacher (d. 1918)*1860 – Curtis Guild, Jr., American journalist and politician, 43rd Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1915)*1861 – Solomon R. Guggenheim, American businessman and philanthropist, founded the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum (d. 1949)*1862 – Émile Coste, French fencer (d. 1927)* 1862 – Cornelius McKane, American physician, educator, and hospital founder (d. 1912)*1866 – Enrique Simonet, Spanish painter and academic (d. 1927)*1869 – Alexander Atabekian, Armenian physician and anarchist publisher (d. 1933)*1873 – Leo Fall, Austrian composer (d. 1925)* 1873 – Konstantin von Neurath, German politician and diplomat, 13th German Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1956)*1875 – Fritz Kreisler, Austrian-American violinist and composer (d. 1962)*1877 – Frank L. Packard, Canadian author (d. 1942)*1878 – Joe Lydon, American boxer (d. 1937)*1880 – Frederick Lane, Australian swimmer (d. 1969)*1881 – Orval Overall, American baseball player and manager (d. 1947)*1882 – Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark (d. 1944)* 1882 – James Joyce, Irish novelist, short story writer, and poet (d. 1941)*1883 – Johnston McCulley, American author and screenwriter, created ''Zorro'' (d. 1958)* 1883 – Julia Nava de Ruisánchez, Mexican activist and writer (d. 1964)* 1885 – Mikhail Frunze, Soviet revolutionary, politician, army officer and military theorist (d. 1925)*1886 – William Rose Benét, American poet and author (d. 1950)*1887 – Ernst Hanfstaengl, German businessman (d. 1975)*1889 – Jean de Lattre de Tassigny, French general (d. 1952)*1890 – Charles Correll, American actor and screenwriter (d. 1972)*1892 – Tochigiyama Moriya, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 27th Yokozuna (d. 1959)*1893 – Cornelius Lanczos, Hungarian mathematician and physicist (d. 1974)* 1893 – Raoul Riganti, Argentinian race car driver (d. 1970)* 1893 – Damdin Sükhbaatar, Mongolian soldier and politician (d. 1924)*1895 – George Halas, American football player and coach (d. 1983)* 1895 – Robert Philipp, American painter (d. 1981)* 1895 – George Sutcliffe, Australian public servant (d. 1964)*1896 – Kazimierz Kuratowski, Polish mathematician and logician (d. 1980)*1897 – Howard Deering Johnson, American businessman, founded Howard Johnson's (d. 1972)* 1897 – Gertrude Blanch, Russian-American mathematician (d. 1996)* 1900 – Willie Kamm, American baseball player and manager (d. 1988)===1901–present===*1901 – Jascha Heifetz, Lithuanian-American violinist and educator (d. 1987)*1902 – Newbold Morris, American lawyer and politician (d. 1966)* 1902 – John Tonkin, Australian politician, 20th Premier of Western Australia (d. 1995)*1904 – Bozorg Alavi, Iranian author and activist (d. 1997)*1905 – Ayn Rand, Russian-born American novelist and philosopher (d. 1982)*1908 – Wes Ferrell, American baseball player and manager (d. 1976)*1909 – Frank Albertson, American actor (d. 1964)*1911 – Jack Pizzey, Australian politician, 29th Premier of Queensland (d. 1968)*1912 – Millvina Dean, English civil servant and cartographer (d. 2009)* 1912 – Burton Lane, American songwriter and composer (d. 1997)*1913 – Poul Reichhardt, Danish actor and singer (d. 1985)*1914 – Eric Kierans, Canadian economist and politician, 1st Canadian Minister of Communications (d. 2004)*1915 – Abba Eban, South African-Israeli politician and diplomat, 1st Israel Ambassador to the United Nations (d. 2002)* 1915 – Stan Leonard, Canadian golfer (d. 2005)* 1915 – Khushwant Singh, Indian journalist and author (d. 2014)*1916 – Xuân Diệu, Vietnamese poet and author (d. 1985)*1917 – Mary Ellis, British World War II ferry pilot (d. 2018)* 1917 – Đỗ Mười, Vietnamese politician, 5th Prime Minister of Vietnam (d. 2018)*1918 – Hella Haasse, Indonesian-Dutch author (d. 2011)*1919 – Lisa Della Casa, Swiss soprano and actress (d. 2012)* 1919 – Georg Gawliczek, German footballer and manager (d. 1999)*1920 – George Hardwick, English footballer and coach (d. 2004)* 1920 – John Russell, American Olympic equestrian (d. 2020)* 1920 – Arthur Willis, English footballer player-manager (d. 1987)*1922 – Kunwar Digvijay Singh, Indian field hockey player (d. 1978)* 1922 – Robert Chef d'Hôtel, French athlete (d. 2019)* 1922 – Stoyanka Mutafova, Bulgarian actress (d. 2019)* 1922 – James L. Usry, American politician, first African-American mayor of Atlantic City, New Jersey (d. 2002)*1923 – Jean Babilée, French dancer and choreographer (d. 2014) * 1923 – James Dickey, American poet and novelist (d. 1997)* 1923 – Svetozar Gligorić, Serbian and Yugoslav chess grandmaster (d.2012)* 1923 – Bonita Granville, American actress and producer (d. 1988)* 1923 – Red Schoendienst, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 2018)* 1923 – Liz Smith, American journalist and author (d. 2017)* 1923 – Clem Windsor, Australian rugby player and surgeon (d. 2007)*1924 – Sonny Stitt, American saxophonist and composer (d. 1982)* 1924 – Elfi von Dassanowsky, Austrian-American singer, pianist, producer (d. 2007)*1925 – Elaine Stritch, American actress and singer (d. 2014)*1926 – Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, French academic and politician, 20th President of France (d. 2020)*1927 – Stan Getz, American saxophonist (d. 1991)* 1927 – Doris Sams, American baseball player (d. 2012)*1928 – Ciriaco De Mita, 47th Prime minister of Italy (d. 2022)* 1928 – Gamal Hamdan, Egyptian scholar and geographer (d. 1993)* 1928 – Jay Handlan, American basketball player and engineer (d. 2013)* 1928 – Tommy Harmer, English footballer and youth team coach (d. 2007)*1929 – Sheila Matthews Allen, American actress and producer (d. 2013)* 1929 – George Band, English engineer and mountaineer (d. 2011)* 1929 – Věra Chytilová, Czech actress, director, and screenwriter (d. 2014)* 1929 – John Henry Holland, American computer scientist and academic (d. 2015)* 1929 – Waldemar Kmentt, Austrian operatic tenor (d. 2015)*1931 – Les Dawson, English comedian and author (d. 1993)* 1931 – Glynn Edwards, Malaysian-English actor (d. 2018)* 1931 – John Paul Harney, Canadian educator and politician (d. 2021)* 1931 – Dries van Agt, Dutch politician, diplomat and jurist, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 2024)* 1931 – Judith Viorst, American journalist and author*1932 – Arthur Lyman, American jazz vibraphone and marimba player (d. 2002)* 1932 – Robert Mandan, American actor (d. 2018)*1933 – M'el Dowd, American actress and singer (d. 2012)* 1933 – Tony Jay, English-American actor (d. 2006)* 1933 – Orlando \"Cachaíto\" López, Cuban bassist and composer (d. 2009)* 1933 – Than Shwe, Burmese general and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Burma*1934 – Khalil Ullah Khan, Bangladeshi actor (d. 2014)*1935 – Pete Brown, American golfer (d. 2015)* 1935 – Evgeny Velikhov, Russian physicist and academic*1936 – Metin Oktay, Turkish footballer and manager (d. 1991)*1937 – Don Buford, American baseball player and coach* 1937 – Eric Arturo Delvalle, Panamanian lawyer and politician, President of Panama (d. 2015)* 1937 – Anthony Haden-Guest, British journalist, poet, and critic* 1937 – Remak Ramsay, American actor* 1937 – Tom Smothers, American comedian, actor, and activist (d. 2023)* 1937 – Alexandra Strelchenko, Ukrainian actress and singer (d. 2019)*1938 – Norman Fowler, English journalist and politician, Secretary of State for Transport* 1938 – Bo Hopkins, American actor (d. 2022)* 1938 – Gene MacLellan, Canadian singer-songwriter (d. 1995)*1939 – Jackie Burroughs, English-born Canadian actress (d. 2010)* 1939 – Mary-Dell Chilton, American chemist and inventor and one of the founders of modern plant biotechnology* 1939 – Dale T. Mortensen, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2014)*1940 – Alan Caddy, English guitarist and producer (d. 2000)* 1940 – Thomas M. Disch, American author and poet (d. 2008)* 1940 – Wayne Fontes, American football player and coach* 1940 – David Jason, English actor, director, and producer*1941 – Terry Biddlecombe, English jockey (d. 2014)* 1941 – Lee Redmond, American woman with the longest fingernails (d. 2023) *1942 – Bo Hopkins, American actor (d. 2022)* 1942 – Graham Nash, English-American singer-songwriter and guitarist *1944 – Andrew Davis, English organist and conductor* 1944 – Geoffrey Hughes, English actor (d. 2012)* 1944 – Ursula Oppens, American pianist and educator*1945 – John Eatwell, Baron Eatwell, English economist and academic*1946 – John Armitt, English engineer and businessman* 1946 – Blake Clark, American comedian and actor* 1946 – Alpha Oumar Konaré, Malian academic and politician, 3rd President of Mali* 1946 – Constantine Papadakis, Greek-American businessman and academic (d. 2009)*1947 – Greg Antonacci, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2017)* 1947 – Farrah Fawcett, American actress and producer (d. 2009)*1948 – Ina Garten, American chef and author* 1948 – Al McKay, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer* 1948 – Roger Williamson, English race car driver (d. 1973)*1949 – Duncan Bannatyne, Scottish businessman and philanthropist* 1949 – Jack McGee, American actor* 1949 – Yasuko Namba, Japanese mountaineer (d. 1996)* 1949 – Brent Spiner, American actor and singer* 1949 – Ross Valory, American bass player and songwriter*1950 – Osamu Kido, Japanese wrestler (d. 2023)* 1950 – Libby Purves, British journalist and author* 1950 – Bárbara Rey, Spanish singer and actress* 1950 – Barbara Sukowa, German actress* 1950 – Genichiro Tenryu, Japanese wrestler*1951 – Vangelis Alexandris, Greek basketball player and coach* 1951 – Ken Bruce, Scottish radio host*1952 – Dave Casper, American football player* 1952 – John Cornyn, American lawyer and politician, 49th Attorney General of Texas* 1952 – Park Geun-hye, South Korean politician, 11th President of South Korea* 1952 – Ralph Merkle, American computer scientist and academic* 1952 – Carol Ann Susi, American actress (d. 2014)*1953 – Duane Chapman, American bounty hunter* 1953 – Jerry Sisk, Jr., American gemologist, co-founded Jewelry Television (d. 2013)*1954 – Christie Brinkley, American actress, model, and businesswoman* 1954 – Hansi Hinterseer, Austrian skier and actor* 1954 – Nelson Ne'e, Solomon Islander politician (d. 2013)* 1954 – John Tudor, American baseball player*1955 – Leszek Engelking, Polish poet and author (d. 2022)* 1955 – Bob Schreck, American author* 1955 – Michael Talbott, American actor* 1955 – Kim Zimmer, American actress*1956 – Adnan Oktar, Turkish cult leader*1957 – Phil Barney, Algerian-French singer-songwriter*1958 – Michel Marc Bouchard, Canadian playwright*1959 – Dexter Manley, American football player*1961 – Abraham Iyambo, Namibian politician (d. 2013)* 1961 – Lauren Lane, American actress and academic*1962 – Philippe Claudel, French author, director, and screenwriter* 1962 – Andy Fordham, English darts player (d. 2021)* 1962 – Paul Kilgus, American baseball player* 1962 – Kate Raison, Australian actress * 1962 – Michael T. Weiss, American actor*1963 – Ilya Byakin, Russian ice hockey player* 1963 – Eva Cassidy, American singer and guitarist (d. 1996)* 1963 – Kjell Dahlin, Swedish ice hockey player* 1963 – Andrej Kiska, Slovak entrepreneur and philanthropist, President of Slovakia* 1963 – Philip Laats, Belgian martial artist* 1963 – Stephen McGann, English actor* 1963 – Vigleik Storaas, Norwegian pianist*1965 – Carl Airey, English footballer* 1965 – Naoki Sano, Japanese wrestler and mixed martial artist*1966 – Andrei Chesnokov, Russian tennis player and coach* 1966 – Robert DeLeo, American bass player, songwriter, and producer * 1966 – Adam Ferrara, American actor and comedian* 1966 – Michael Misick, Caicos Islander politician, Premier of the Turks and Caicos Islands*1967 – Artūrs Irbe, Latvian ice hockey player and coach* 1967 – Laurent Nkunda, Congolese general*1968 – Kenny Albert, American sportscaster* 1968 – Sean Elliott, American basketball player and sportscaster* 1968 – Scott Erickson, American baseball player and coach*1969 – Dana International, Israeli singer-songwriter* 1969 – Valeri Karpin, Estonian-Russian footballer and manager*1970 – Roar Strand, Norwegian footballer* 1970 – Erik ten Hag, Dutch footballer and manager* 1970 – Jennifer Westfeldt, American actress and singer*1971 – Michelle Gayle, English singer-songwriter and actress* 1971 – Arly Jover, Spanish actress* 1971 – Isaac Kungwane, South African footballer and sportscaster (d. 2014)* 1971 – Rockwilder, American rapper and producer* 1971 – Hwang Seok-jeong, South Korean actress* 1971 – Jason Taylor, Australian rugby league player and coach*1972 – Hisashi, Japanese musician* 1972 – Melvin Mora, Venezuelan baseball player* 1972 – Aleksey Naumov, Russian footballer*1973 – Andrei Luzgin, Estonian tennis player and coach* 1973 – Aleksander Tammert, Estonian discus thrower* 1973 – Marissa Jaret Winokur, American actress and singer*1975 – Todd Bertuzzi, Canadian ice hockey player* 1975 – Donald Driver, American football player* 1975 – Ieroklis Stoltidis, Greek footballer*1976 – Ryan Farquhar, Northern Irish motorcycle racer* 1976 – James Hickman, English swimmer* 1976 – Ana Roces, Filipino actress*1977 – Shakira, Colombian singer-songwriter, producer, and actress* 1977 – Libor Sionko, Czech footballer*1978 – Adam Christopher, New Zealand writer* 1978 – Barry Ferguson, Scottish footballer and manager* 1978 – Dan Gadzuric, Dutch basketball player* 1978 – Lee Ji-ah, South Korean actress* 1978 – Rich Sommer, American actor* 1978 – Faye White, English footballer*1979 – Urmo Aava, Estonian race car driver* 1979 – Fani Chalkia, Greek hurdler and sprinter* 1979 – Christine Lampard, Irish television host* 1979 – Shamita Shetty, Indian actress* 1979 – Irini Terzoglou, Greek shot putter*1980 – Teddy Hart, Canadian wrestler* 1980 – Zhang Jingchu, Chinese actress* 1980 – Oleguer Presas, Spanish footballer*1981 – Lance Allred, American basketball player and activist* 1981 – Emre Aydın, Turkish singer-songwriter* 1981 – Michelle Bass, English model and singer* 1981 – Salem al-Hazmi, Saudi Arabian terrorist, hijacker of American Airlines Flight 77 (d. 2001)*1982 – Sergio Castaño Ortega, Spanish footballer* 1982 – Kelly Mazzante, American basketball player* 1982 – Kan Mi-youn, South Korean singer, model, and host*1983 – Ronny Cedeño, Venezuelan baseball player* 1983 – Carolina Klüft, Swedish heptathlete and jumper* 1983 – Jordin Tootoo, Canadian ice hockey player* 1983 – Jason Vargas, American baseball player* 1983 – Vladimir Voskoboinikov, Estonian footballer* 1983 – Alex Westaway, English singer-songwriter and guitarist*1984 – Brian Cage, American wrestler* 1984 – Chin-Lung Hu, Taiwanese baseball player* 1984 – Mao Miyaji, Japanese actress* 1984 – Rudi Wulf, New Zealand rugby player*1985 – Morris Almond, American basketball player* 1985 – Masoud Azizi, Afghan sprinter* 1985 – Renn Kiriyama, Japanese actor* 1985 – Kristo Saage, Estonian basketball player* 1985 – Silvestre Varela, Portuguese footballer*1986 – Gemma Arterton, English actress and singer* 1986 – Miwa Asao, Japanese volleyball player*1987 – Anthony Fainga'a, Australian rugby player* 1987 – Saia Fainga'a, Australian rugby player* 1987 – Faydee, Australian singer* 1987 – Athena Imperial, Filipino journalist, Miss Earth-Water 2011* 1987 – Mimi Page, American singer-songwriter and composer* 1987 – Gerard Piqué, Spanish footballer* 1987 – Javon Ringer, American football player* 1987 – Jill Scott, English footballer* 1987 – Martin Spanjers, American actor and producer*1988 – JuJu Chan, Hong Kong-American actress, martial artist, singer, and writer* 1988 – Zosia Mamet, American actress* 1988 – Brad Peacock, American baseball player*1989 – Harrison Smith, American football player* 1989 – Southside, American record producer*1991 – Nathan Delfouneso, English footballer* 1991 – Gregory Mertens, Belgian footballer (d. 2015)* 1991 – Shohei Nanba, Japanese actor*1992 – Lammtarra, American race horse (d. 2014)* 1992 – Joonas Tamm, Estonian footballer*1993 – Bobby Decordova-Reid, English footballer* 1993 – Ravel Morrison, English footballer*1994 – Caterina Bosetti, Italian volleyball player*1995 – Paul Digby, English footballer* 1995 – Aleksander Jagiełło, Polish footballer* 1995 – Arfa Karim, Pakistani student and computer prodigy (d. 2012)* 1995 – Curtis Lazar, Canadian ice hockey player*1996 – Christian Dvorak, American ice hockey player* 1996 – Paul Mescal, Irish actor* 1996 – Harry Winks, English footballer*1997 – Ellie Bamber, English actress*1998 – Shiho Katō, Japanese singer and model*1999 – Jeff Okudah, American football player*2000 – Munetaka Murakami, Japanese baseball player*2004 – Eleonore Caburet, French rhythmic gymnast" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 619 – Laurence of Canterbury, English archbishop and saint* 880 – Bruno, duke of Saxony*1124 – Bořivoj II, Duke of Bohemia (b.", "1064)*1218 – Konstantin of Rostov (b.", "1186)*1237 – Joan, Lady of Wales*1250 – Eric XI of Sweden (b.", "1216)*1294 – Louis II, Duke of Bavaria (b.", "1229)*1347 – Thomas Bek, Bishop of Lincoln, was the bishop of Lincoln (b.", "1282)*1348 – Narymunt, Prince of Pinsk*1416 – Racek Kobyla of Dvorce*1435 – Joan II of Naples, Queen of Naples (b.", "1371)*1446 – Vittorino da Feltre, Italian humanist (b.", "1378)*1448 – Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Egyptian jurist and scholar (b.", "1372)*1461 – Owen Tudor, Welsh founder of the Tudor dynasty (b. )", "*1512 – Hatuey, Caribbean tribal chief*1529 – Baldassare Castiglione, Italian soldier and diplomat (b.", "1478)*1580 – Bessho Nagaharu, Japanese daimyō (b.", "1558)*1594 – Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Italian composer and educator (b.", "1525)===1601–1900===*1648 – George Abbot, English author and politician (b.", "1603)*1660 – Gaston, Duke of Orléans (b.", "1608)* 1660 – Govert Flinck, Dutch painter (b.", "1615)*1661 – Lucas Holstenius, German geographer and historian (b.", "1596)*1675 – Ivan Belostenec, Croatian linguist and lexicographer (b.", "1594)*1688 – Abraham Duquesne, French admiral (b.", "1610)*1704 – Guillaume de l'Hôpital, French mathematician and academic (b.", "1661)*1712 – Martin Lister, English physician and geologist (b.", "1639)*1714 – John Sharp, English archbishop (b.", "1643)*1723 – Antonio Maria Valsalva, Italian anatomist and physician (b.", "1666)*1768 – Robert Smith, English mathematician and theorist (b.", "1689)*1769 – Pope Clement XIII (b.", "1693)*1798 – Ferdinand Ashmall, English centenarian, Catholic priest, died in 73rd year of his ministry (b.", "1695)*1802 – Welbore Ellis, 1st Baron Mendip, English politician, Secretary of State for the Colonies (b.", "1713)*1804 – George Walton, American lawyer and politician, Governor of Georgia (b.", "1749)*1831 – Vincenzo Dimech, Maltese sculptor (b.", "1768)*1836 – Letizia Ramolino, Italian noblewoman (b.", "1750)*1861 – Théophane Vénard, French Catholic missionary (b.", "1829)*1881 – Henry Parker, English-Australian politician, 3rd Premier of New South Wales (b.", "1808)===1901–present===*1904 – Ernest Cashel, American-Canadian criminal (b.", "1882)* 1904 – William Collins Whitney, American financier and politician, 31st United States Secretary of the Navy (b.", "1841)*1905 – Henri Germain, French banker and politician, founded Le Crédit Lyonnais (b.", "1824)*1907 – Dmitri Mendeleev, Russian chemist and academic (b.", "1834)*1909 – Carlo Acton, Italian pianist and composer (b.", "1829)*1913 – Gustaf de Laval, Swedish engineer (b.", "1845)*1918 – John L. Sullivan, American boxer (b.", "1858)*1919 – Julius Kuperjanov, Estonian lieutenant (b.", "1894)*1925 – Antti Aarne, Finnish historian and academic (b.", "1867)* 1925 – Jaap Eden, Dutch speed skater and cyclist (b.", "1873)*1926 – Vladimir Sukhomlinov, Russian general and politician (b.", "1848)*1932 – Agha Petros, Assyrian general and politician (b.", "1880)*1939 – Amanda McKittrick Ros, Irish author and poet (b.", "1860)* 1939 – Bernhard Gregory, Estonian-German chess player (b.", "1879)*1942 – Ado Birk, Estonian lawyer and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Estonia (b.", "1883)* 1942 – Daniil Kharms, Russian poet and playwright (b.", "1905)* 1942 – Hugh D. McIntosh, Australian businessman (b.", "1876)*1945 – Alfred Delp, German priest and philosopher (b.", "1907)* 1945 – Carl Friedrich Goerdeler, German economist and politician (b.", "1884)* 1945 – Johannes Popitz, German lawyer and politician (b.", "1884)*1948 – Thomas W. Lamont, American banker and philanthropist (b.", "1870)* 1948 – Bevil Rudd, South African runner and journalist (b.", "1894)*1950 – Constantin Carathéodory, Greek mathematician and academic (b.", "1873)*1952 – Callistratus of Georgia, Georgian patriarch (b.", "1866)*1954 – Hella Wuolijoki, Estonian-Finnish author and politician (b.", "1886)*1955 – Mariah binti Ahmad, Indonesian homemaker and first wife of Zakaria bin Muhammad Amin*1956 – Charley Grapewin, American actor (b.", "1869)* 1956 – Truxtun Hare, American football player and hammer thrower (b.", "1878)* 1956 – Pyotr Konchalovsky, Russian painter (b.", "1876)*1957 – Grigory Landsberg, Russian physicist and academic (b.", "1890)*1962 – Shlomo Hestrin, Canadian-Israeli biochemist and academic (b.", "1914)*1966 – Hacı Ömer Sabancı, Turkish businessman (b.", "1906)*1968 – Tullio Serafin, Italian conductor and director (b.", "1878)*1969 – Boris Karloff, English actor (b.", "1887)*1970 – Lawrence Gray, American actor (b.", "1898)* 1970 – Bertrand Russell, English mathematician and philosopher, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1872)*1972 – Natalie Clifford Barney, American author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1876)*1973 – Hendrik Elias, Belgian academic and politician, 9th Mayor of Ghent (b.", "1902)*1974 – Imre Lakatos, Hungarian-English mathematician and philosopher (b.", "1922)*1975 – Gustave Lanctot, Canadian historian and academic (b.", "1883)*1979 – Jim Burke, Australian cricketer (b.", "1930)* 1979 – Sid Vicious, English singer and bass player (b.", "1957)*1980 – William Howard Stein, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1911)*1982 – Paul Desruisseaux, Canadian lawyer and politician (b.", "1905)*1983 – Sam Chatmon, American singer and guitarist (b.", "1897)*1986 – Anita Cobby, Australian murder victim (b.", "1959)* 1986 – Gino Hernandez, American wrestler (b.", "1957)*1987 – Carlos José Castilho, Brazilian footballer and manager (b.", "1927)* 1987 – Alistair MacLean, Scottish novelist and screenwriter (b.", "1922)*1988 – Marcel Bozzuffi, French actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1929)*1989 – Ondrej Nepela, Slovak figure skater and coach (b.", "1951)* 1989 – Arnold Nordmeyer, New Zealand minister and politician, 30th New Zealand Minister of Finance (b.", "1901)*1990 – Paul Ariste, Estonian linguist and academic (b.", "1905)* 1990 – Joe Erskine, Welsh boxer (b.", "1934)*1992 – Bert Parks, American actor, singer, television personality; Miss America telecast presenter (b.", "1914)*1993 – François Reichenbach, French director and screenwriter (b.", "1921)*1994 – Marija Gimbutas, Lithuanian-American archeologist (b.", "1921)*1995 – Thomas Hayward, American tenor and actor (b.", "1917)* 1995 – Fred Perry, English tennis player (b.", "1909)* 1995 – Donald Pleasence, English-French actor (b.", "1919)*1996 – Gene Kelly, American actor, singer, dancer, and director (b.", "1912)*1997 – Erich Eliskases, Austrian chess player (b.", "1913)* 1997 – Sanford Meisner, American actor and coach (b.", "1904)*1998 – Haroun Tazieff, German-French geologist and cinematographer (b.", "1914)*1999 – David McComb, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1962)*2002 – Paul Baloff, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1960)* 2002 – Claude Brown, American author (b.", "1937)*2003 – Lou Harrison, American composer and educator (b.", "1917)*2004 – Bernard McEveety, American director and producer (b.", "1924)*2005 – Birgitte Federspiel, Danish actress (b.", "1925)* 2005 – Max Schmeling, German boxer (b.", "1905)*2007 – Vijay Arora, Indian actor (b.", "1944)* 2007 – Billy Henderson, American singer (b.", "1939)* 2007 – Joe Hunter, American pianist (b.", "1927)* 2007 – Filippo Raciti, Italian police officer (b.", "1967)* 2007 – Eric Von Schmidt, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1931)* 2007 – Masao Takemoto, Japanese gymnast (b.", "1919)*2008 – Barry Morse, Canadian actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1918)* 2008 – Katoucha Niane, Guinean model and author (b.", "1960)*2011 – Edward Amy, Canadian general (b.", "1918)* 2011 – Defne Joy Foster, Turkish actress (b.", "1975)* 2011 – Margaret John, Welsh actress (b.", "1926)*2012 – Joyce Barkhouse, Canadian author (b.", "1913)* 2012 – Frederick William Danker, American lexicographer and scholar (b.", "1920)* 2012 – George Esper, American journalist and academic (b.", "1932)* 2012 – Dorothy Gilman, American author (b.", "1923)* 2012 – James F. Lloyd, American pilot and politician (b.", "1922)*2013 – Abraham Iyambo, Namibian politician (b.", "1961)* 2013 – John Kerr, American actor and lawyer (b.", "1931)* 2013 – Chris Kyle, American soldier and sniper (b.", "1974)* 2013 – Lino Oviedo, Paraguayan general and politician (b.", "1943)* 2013 – Pepper Paire, American baseball player (b.", "1924)* 2013 – P. Shanmugam, Indian politician, 13th Chief Minister of Puducherry (b.", "1927)* 2013 – Walt Sweeney, American football player (b.", "1941)* 2013 – Guy F. Tozzoli, American architect (b.", "1922)*2014 – Gerd Albrecht, German conductor (b.", "1935)* 2014 – Tommy Aquino, American motorcycle racer (b.", "1992)* 2014 – Nicholas Brooks, English historian (b.", "1941)* 2014 – Eduardo Coutinho, Brazilian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1933)* 2014 – Philip Seymour Hoffman, American actor, director, and producer (b.", "1967)* 2014 – Luis Raúl, Puerto Rican comedian and actor (b.", "1962)* 2014 – Bunny Rugs, Jamaican singer (b.", "1948)* 2014 – Nigel Walker, English footballer (b.", "1959)*2015 – Joseph Alfidi, American pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1949)* 2015 – Dave Bergman, American baseball player (b.", "1953)* 2015 – Andriy Kuzmenko, Ukrainian singer-songwriter and actor (b.", "1968)* 2015 – Molade Okoya-Thomas, Nigerian businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1935)* 2015 – Stewart Stern, American screenwriter (b.", "1922)* 2015 – The Jacka, American rapper and producer (b.", "1977)*2016 – Bob Elliott, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter (b.", "1923)*2020 – Bernard Ebbers, Canadian businessman, the co-founder and CEO of WorldCom (b.", "1941)*2021 – Captain Sir Tom Moore, British Army officer and charity campaigner (b.", "1920)*2023 – K. Viswanath, Indian actor, director and screenwriter (b.", "1930)* 2023 – Butch Miles, American jazz drummer (b.", "1944)* 2024 – Don Murray, American actor (b.", "1929)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Mosaic of the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple* Groundhog Day* Anniversary of Treaty of Tartu (Estonia)* Christian Feast Day:** Adalbard** Cornelius the Centurion** Martyrs of Ebsdorf** February 2 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Constitution Day (Philippines)* Day of Youth (Azerbaijan)* Earliest day on which Shrove Monday can fall, while March 8 is the latest; celebrated on Monday before Ash Wednesday (Christianity), and its related observances:** Bun Day (Iceland)** Fastelavn (Denmark/Norway)** Nickanan Night (Cornwall)** Rosenmontag (Germany)* Feast of the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple or Candlemas (Western Christianity), and its related observances:** A quarter day in the Christian liturgical calendar (due to Candlemas).", "(Scotland)** Celebration of Yemanja or Our Lady of Navigators (Candomblé)** Chandeleur (France)** Liichtmëssdag (Luxembourg)** Our Lady of the Candles (Filipino Catholics)** Virgin of Candelaria (Tenerife, Spain)* Victory of the Battle of Stalingrad (Russia)*World Wetlands Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 2" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "February 3" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1112 – Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, and Douce I, Countess of Provence, marry, uniting the fortunes of those two states.", "*1451 – Sultan Mehmed II inherits the throne of the Ottoman Empire.", "*1488 – Bartolomeu Dias of Portugal lands in Mossel Bay after rounding the Cape of Good Hope, becoming the first known European to travel so far south.", "*1509 – The Portuguese navy defeats a joint fleet of the Ottoman Empire, the Republic of Venice, the Sultan of Gujarat, the Mamlûk Burji Sultanate of Egypt, the Zamorin of Calicut, and the Republic of Ragusa at the Battle of Diu in Diu, India.", "*1583 – Battle of São Vicente takes place off Portuguese Brazil where three English warships led by navigator Edward Fenton fight off three Spanish galleons sinking one in the process.===1601–1900===*1637 – Tulip Mania collapses within the Dutch Republic.", "*1639 – The House of Assembly of Barbados meets for the first time.", "*1661 – Maratha forces under Chattrapati Shivaji Maharaj defeat the Mughals in the Battle of Umberkhind.", "*1690 – The colony of Massachusetts issues the first paper money in the Americas.", "*1706 – During the Battle of Fraustadt Swedish forces defeat a superior Saxon-Polish-Russian force by deploying a double envelopment.", "*1716 – The 1716 Algiers earthquake sequence began with an 7.0 mainshock that caused severe damage and killed 20,000 in Algeria.", "*1781 – American Revolutionary War: British forces seize the Dutch-owned Caribbean island Sint Eustatius.", "*1783 – Spain–United States relations are first established.", "*1787 – Militia led by General Benjamin Lincoln crush the remnants of Shays' Rebellion in Petersham, Massachusetts.", "*1807 – A British military force, under Brigadier-General Sir Samuel Auchmuty captures the Spanish Empire city of Montevideo, now the capital of Uruguay.", "*1809 – The Territory of Illinois is created by the 10th United States Congress.", "*1813 – José de San Martín defeats a Spanish royalist army at the Battle of San Lorenzo, part of the Argentine War of Independence.", "*1830 – The London Protocol of 1830 establishes the full independence and sovereignty of Greece from the Ottoman Empire as the final result of the Greek War of Independence.", "*1862 – Moldavia and Wallachia formally unite to create the Romanian United Principalities.", "*1870 – The Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, guaranteeing voting rights to male citizens regardless of race.===1901–present===*1913 – The Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, authorizing the Federal government to impose and collect an income tax.", "*1916 – The Centre Block of the Parliament buildings in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada burns down with the loss of seven lives.", "*1917 – World War I: The American entry into World War I begins when diplomatic relations with Germany are severed due to its unrestricted submarine warfare.", "*1918 – The Twin Peaks Tunnel in San Francisco, California begins service as the longest streetcar tunnel in the world at long.", "*1927 – A revolt against the military dictatorship of Portugal breaks out at Oporto.", "*1930 – The Communist Party of Vietnam is founded at a \"Unification Conference\" held in Kowloon, British Hong Kong.", "*1931 – The Hawke's Bay earthquake, New Zealand's worst natural disaster, kills 258.", "*1933 – Adolf Hitler announces that the expansion of ''Lebensraum'' into Eastern Europe, and its ruthless Germanisation, are the ultimate geopolitical objectives of Nazi foreign policy.", "*1943 – The is sunk by a German U-boat.", "Only 230 of 902 men aboard survive.", "*1944 – World War II: During the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign, U.S. Army and Marine forces seize Kwajalein Atoll from the defending Japanese garrison.", "*1945 – World War II: As part of Operation Thunderclap, 1,000 B-17s of the Eighth Air Force bomb Berlin, a raid which kills between 2,500 and 3,000 and another 120,000.", "* 1945 – World War II: The United States and the Philippine Commonwealth begin a month-long battle to retake Manila from Japan.", "*1953 – The Batepá massacre occurred in São Tomé when the colonial administration and Portuguese landowners unleashed a wave of violence against the native creoles known as ''forros''.", "*1958 – Founding of the Benelux Economic Union, creating a testing ground for a later European Economic Community.", "*1959 – Rock and roll musicians Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens, and J. P. \"The Big Bopper\" Richardson are killed in a plane crash along with the pilot near Clear Lake, Iowa, an event later known as The Day the Music Died.", "* 1959 – Sixty-five people are killed when American Airlines Flight 320 crashes into the East River on approach to LaGuardia Airport in New York City.", "*1960 – British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan speaks of \"a wind of change\", signalling that his Government was likely to support decolonisation.", "*1961 – The United States Air Force begins Operation Looking Glass, and over the next 30 years, a \"Doomsday Plane\" is always in the air, with the capability of taking direct control of the United States' bombers and missiles in the event of the destruction of the SAC's command post.", "*1966 – The Soviet Union's Luna 9 becomes the first spacecraft to make a soft landing on the Moon, and the first spacecraft to take pictures from the surface of the Moon.", "*1971 – New York Police Officer Frank Serpico is shot during a drug bust in Brooklyn and survives to later testify against police corruption.", "*1972 – The first day of the seven-day 1972 Iran blizzard, which would kill at least 4,000 people, making it the deadliest snowstorm in history.", "*1984 – Doctor John Buster and a research team at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center in the United States announce history's first embryo transfer, from one woman to another resulting in a live birth.", "* 1984 – Space Shuttle program: STS-41-B is launched using Space Shuttle Challenger.", "*1989 – After a stroke two weeks previously, South African President P. W. Botha resigns as leader of the National Party, but stays on as president for six more months.", "* 1989 – A military coup overthrows Alfredo Stroessner, dictator of Paraguay since 1954.", "*1994 – Space Shuttle program: STS-60 is launched, carrying Sergei Krikalev, the first Russian cosmonaut to fly aboard the Shuttle.", "*1995 – Astronaut Eileen Collins becomes the first woman to pilot the Space Shuttle as mission STS-63 gets underway from Kennedy Space Center in Florida.", "*1998 – Cavalese cable car disaster: A United States military pilot causes the death of 20 people when his low-flying plane cuts the cable of a cable-car near Trento, Italy.", "*2005 – One hundred five people are killed when Kam Air Flight 904 crashes in the Pamir Mountains in Afghanistan.", "*2007 – A Baghdad market bombing kills at least 135 people and injures a further 339.", "*2014 – Two people are shot and killed and 29 students are taken hostage at a high school in Moscow, Russia.", "*2023 – 2023 Ohio train derailment: A freight train containing vinyl chloride and other hazardous materials derails and burns in East Palestine, Ohio, United States, releasing hydrogen chloride and phosgene into the air and contaminating the Ohio River." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1338 – Joanna of Bourbon (d. 1378)*1393 – Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland, English nobleman and military commander (d. 1455)*1428 – Helena Palaiologina, Queen of Cyprus (d. 1458) *1478 – Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham (d. 1521)*1504 – Scipione Rebiba, Italian cardinal (d. 1577)===1601–1900===*1677 – Jan Santini Aichel, Czech architect, designed the Karlova Koruna Chateau (d. 1723)*1689 – Blas de Lezo, Spanish admiral (d. 1741)*1721 – Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz, Prussian general (d. 1773)*1736 – Johann Georg Albrechtsberger, Austrian composer and theorist (d. 1809)*1747 – Samuel Osgood, American soldier and politician, 1st United States Postmaster General (d. 1813)*1757 – Joseph Forlenze, Italian ophthalmologist and surgeon (d. 1833)*1763 – Caroline von Wolzogen, German author (d. 1847)*1777 – John Cheyne, Scottish physician and author (d. 1836)*1780 – Mihail G. Boiagi, Aromanian grammarian and professor (d. uncertain)*1790 – Gideon Mantell, English scientist (d. 1852)*1795 – Antonio José de Sucre, Venezuelan general and politician, 2nd President of Bolivia (d. 1830)*1807 – Joseph E. Johnston, American general and politician (d. 1891)*1809 – Felix Mendelssohn, German pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1847)*1811 – Horace Greeley, American journalist and politician (d. 1872)*1816 – Ram Singh Kuka, Indian credited with starting the Non-cooperation movement*1815 – Edward James Roye, 5th President of Liberia (d. 1872)*1817 – Achille Ernest Oscar Joseph Delesse, French geologist and mineralogist (d. 1881)* 1817 – Émile Prudent, French pianist and composer (d. 1864)*1821 – Elizabeth Blackwell, American physician and educator (d. 1910)*1824 – Ranald MacDonald, American explorer and educator (d. 1894)*1826 – Walter Bagehot, English journalist and businessman (d. 1877)*1830 – Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1903)*1840 – Allan McLean, Scottish-Australian politician, 19th Premier of Victoria (d. 1911)*1842 – Sidney Lanier, American composer and poet (d. 1881)*1843 – William Cornelius Van Horne, American-Canadian businessman (d. 1915)*1857 – Giuseppe Moretti, Italian sculptor, designed the Vulcan statue (d. 1935)*1859 – Hugo Junkers, German engineer, designed the Junkers J 1 (d. 1935)*1862 – James Clark McReynolds, American lawyer and judge (d. 1946)*1867 – Charles Henry Turner, American biologist, educator and zoologist (d. 1923)*1872 – Lou Criger, American baseball player and manager (d. 1934)*1874 – Gertrude Stein, American novelist, poet, playwright, (d. 1946)*1878 – Gordon Coates, New Zealand soldier and politician, 21st Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1943)*1878 – Grigory Petrovsky, Ukrainian Soviet revolutionary and politician (d. 1958)*1887 – Georg Trakl, Austrian pharmacist and poet (d. 1914)*1889 – Artur Adson, Estonian poet, playwright, and critic (d. 1977)* 1889 – Carl Theodor Dreyer, Danish director and screenwriter (d. 1968)* 1889 – Risto Ryti, Finnish lawyer, politician and the Governor of the Bank of Finland; 5th President of Finland (d. 1956)*1892 – Juan Negrín, Spanish physician and politician, 67th Prime Minister of Spain (d. 1956)*1893 – Gaston Julia, Algerian-French mathematician and academic (d. 1978)*1894 – Norman Rockwell, American painter and illustrator (d. 1978)*1898 – Alvar Aalto, Finnish architect, designed the Finlandia Hall and Aalto Theatre (d. 1976)*1899 – Café Filho, Brazilian journalist, lawyer, and politician, 18th President of Brazil (d. 1970)*1900 – Mabel Mercer, English-American singer (d. 1984)===1901–present===*1903 – Douglas Douglas-Hamilton, 14th Duke of Hamilton, Scottish soldier, pilot, and politician (d. 1973)*1904 – Pretty Boy Floyd, American gangster (d. 1934)*1905 – Paul Ariste, Estonian linguist and academic (d. 1990)* 1905 – Arne Beurling, Swedish-American mathematician and academic (d. 1986)*1906 – George Adamson, Indian-English author and activist (d. 1989) *1907 – James A. Michener, American author and philanthropist (d. 1997)*1909 – André Cayatte, French lawyer and director (d. 1989)* 1909 – Simone Weil, French mystic and philosopher (d. 1943)*1911 – Jehan Alain, French organist and composer (d. 1940)*1912 – Jacques Soustelle, French anthropologist and politician (d. 1990)*1914 – Mary Carlisle, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2018)*1915 – Johannes Kotkas, Estonian wrestler and hammer thrower (d. 1998)*1917 – Shlomo Goren, Polish-Israeli rabbi and general (d. 1994)*1918 – Joey Bishop, American actor and producer (d. 2007)* 1918 – Helen Stephens, American runner, baseball player, and manager (d. 1994)*1920 – Russell Arms, American actor and singer (d. 2012)* 1920 – Tony Gaze, Australian race car driver and pilot (d. 2013)* 1920 – Henry Heimlich, American physician and author (d. 2016)*1924 – Martial Asselin, Canadian lawyer and politician, 25th Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (d. 2013)* 1924 – E. P. Thompson, English historian and author (d. 1993)*1925 – Shelley Berman, American actor and comedian (d. 2017)* 1925 – John Fiedler, American actor (d. 2005)*1926 – Hans-Jochen Vogel, German lawyer and politician, 8th Mayor of Berlin (d. 2020)*1927 – Kenneth Anger, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2023)* 1927 – Blas Ople, Filipino journalist and politician, 21st President of the Senate of the Philippines (d. 2003)*1933 – Paul Sarbanes, American lawyer and politician (d. 2020)*1934 – Juan Carlos Calabró, Argentinian actor and screenwriter (d. 2013)*1935 – Johnny \"Guitar\" Watson, American blues, soul, and funk singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1996)*1936 – Elizabeth Peer, American journalist (d. 1984)* 1936 – Bob Simpson, Australian cricketer and coach*1937 – Billy Meier, Swiss author and photographer*1938 – Victor Buono, American actor (d. 1982)* 1938 – Emile Griffith, American boxer and trainer (d. 2013)*1939 – Michael Cimino, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2016)*1940 – Fran Tarkenton, American football player and sportscaster*1941 – Dory Funk, Jr., American wrestler and trainer* 1941 – Howard Phillips, American lawyer and politician (d. 2013)*1943 – Blythe Danner, American actress* 1943 – Dennis Edwards, American soul/R&B singer (d. 2018)* 1943 – Eric Haydock, English bass player (d. 2019)* 1943 – Shawn Phillips, American-South African singer-songwriter and guitarist*1945 – Johnny Cymbal, Scottish-American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 1993)* 1945 – Bob Griese, American football player and sportscaster*1947 – Paul Auster, American novelist, essayist, and poet* 1947 – Dave Davies, English musician* 1947 – Stephen McHattie, Canadian actor and director* 1947 – Melanie, American singer-songwriter (d. 2024)*1948 – Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo, East Timorese Roman Catholic bishop and Nobel Peace Prize laureate * 1948 – Henning Mankell, Swedish author and playwright (d. 2015)*1949 – Jim Thorpe, American golfer*1950 – Morgan Fairchild, American actress* 1950 – Pamela Franklin, Japanese-English actress* 1950 – Grant Goldman, Australian radio and television host (d. 2020)*1951 – Arsène Auguste, Haitian footballer* 1951 – Eugenijus Riabovas, Lithuanian footballer and manager* 1951 – Michael Ruppert, American journalist and author (d. 2014)*1952 – Fred Lynn, American baseball player and sportscaster*1954 – Tiger Williams, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1956 – John Jefferson, American football player and coach* 1956 – Nathan Lane, American actor and comedian* 1956 – Lee Ranaldo, American musician and songwriter*1957 – Eric Lander, American mathematician, geneticist, and academic*1958 – Joe F. Edwards, Jr., American commander, pilot, and astronaut* 1958 – Douglas Holtz-Eakin, American economist* 1958 – Greg Mankiw, American economist and academic*1959 – Thomas Calabro, American actor* 1959 – Lol Tolhurst, English musician and songwriter* 1959 – Óscar Iván Zuluaga, Colombian economist and politician, 67th Colombian Minister of Finance*1960 – Marty Jannetty, American wrestler* 1960 – Joachim Löw, German footballer and manager*1961 – Linda Eder, American singer and actress*1962 – Michele Greene, American actress, singer, and author*1963 – Vũ Đức Đam, Vietnamese politician* 1963 – Raghuram Rajan, Indian economist and academic*1964 – Indrek Tarand, Estonian historian, journalist, and politician*1965 – Maura Tierney, American actress and producer*1966 – Frank Coraci, American director and screenwriter* 1966 – Danny Morrison, New Zealand cricketer and sportscaster *1967 – Tim Flowers, English footballer and coach* 1967 – Mixu Paatelainen, Finnish footballer and coach*1968 – Vlade Divac, Serbian-American basketball player and sportscaster* 1968 – Marwan Khoury, Lebanese singer, songwriter, and composer* 1968 – František Kučera, Czech ice hockey player*1969 – Beau Biden, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 44th Attorney General of Delaware (d. 2015)* 1969 – Retief Goosen, South African golfer*1970 – Óscar Córdoba, Colombian footballer* 1970 – Warwick Davis, English actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1970 – Anthony Russo, American film director, producer, and screenwriter*1971 – Elisa Donovan, American actress* 1971 – Sarah Kane, English playwright (d. 1999)* 1971 – Hong Seok-cheon, South Korean actor*1972 – Jesper Kyd, Danish pianist and composer*1973 – Ilana Sod, Mexican journalist and producer*1976 – Mathieu Dandenault, Canadian ice hockey player* 1976 – Isla Fisher, Omani-Australian actress * 1976 – Tim Heidecker, American actor, comedian, and musician* 1976 – Eihi Shiina, Japanese fashion model and actress*1977 – Maitland Ward, American actress and model* 1977 – Daddy Yankee, Puerto Rican singer, songwriter, rapper, actor and record producer* 1977 – Marek Židlický, Czech ice hockey player*1978 – Joan Capdevila, Spanish footballer* 1978 – Amal Clooney, British-Lebanese barrister and activist*1979 – Paul Franks, English cricketer and coach*1982 – Becky Bayless, American wrestler * 1982 – Marie-Ève Drolet, Canadian speed skater* 1982 – Bridget Regan, American actress*1984 – Elizabeth Holmes, American fraudster, founder of Theranos* 1984– Matthew Moy, American actor*1985 – Angela Fong, Canadian wrestler and actress* 1985 – Andrei Kostitsyn, Belarusian ice hockey player*1986 – Lucas Duda, American baseball player* 1986 – Mathieu Giroux, Canadian speed skater* 1986 – Kanako Yanagihara, Japanese actress*1987 – Elvana Gjata, Albanian singer*1988 – Cho Kyu-hyun, South Korean singer*1989 – Jia, Chinese singer and actress* 1989 – Slobodan Rajković, Serbian footballer*1990 – Sean Kingston, American-Jamaican singer-songwriter*1992 – Olli Aitola, Finnish ice hockey player* 1992 – James White, American football player*1994 – Rougned Odor, Venezuelan baseball player*1995 – Tao Tsuchiya, Japanese actress*1998 – Tyler Huntley, American football player* 1998 – Isaiah Roby, American basketball player*1999 – Kanna Hashimoto, Japanese actress*2001 – Tre Mann, American basketball player* 2001 – Rhys Williams, English footballer*2004 – Scoot Henderson, American basketball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===*6 – Ping, emperor of the Han Dynasty (b.", "9 BC)* 456 – Sihyaj Chan K'awiil II, ruler of Tikal* 639 – K'inich Yo'nal Ahk I, ruler of Piedras Negras* 699 – Werburgh, English nun and saint* 865 – Ansgar, Frankish archbishop (b.", "801)* 929 – Guy, margrave of Tuscany* 938 – Zhou Ben, Chinese general (b.", "862)* 994 – William IV, duke of Aquitaine (b.", "937)*1014 – Sweyn Forkbeard, king of Denmark and England (b.", "960)*1116 – Coloman, king of Hungary*1161 – Inge I, king of Norway (b.", "1135)*1252 – Sviatoslav III, Russian Grand Prince (b.", "1196)*1399 – John of Gaunt, Belgian-English politician, Lord High Steward (b.", "1340)*1428 – Ashikaga Yoshimochi, Japanese shōgun (b.", "1386)*1451 – Murad II, Ottoman sultan (b.", "1404)*1468 – Johannes Gutenberg, German publisher, invented the printing press (b.", "1398)*1475 – John IV, Count of Nassau-Siegen, German count (b.", "1410)*1537 – Thomas FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Kildare (b.", "1513)*1566 – George Cassander, Flemish theologian and author (b.", "1513)===1601–1900===*1618 – Philip II, duke of Pomerania (b.", "1573)*1619 – Henry Brooke, 11th Baron Cobham, English politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (b.", "1564)*1737 – Tommaso Ceva, Italian mathematician and academic (b.", "1648)*1802 – Pedro Rodríguez, Spanish statesman and economist (b.", "1723)*1813 – Juan Bautista Cabral, Argentinian sergeant (b.", "1789)*1820 – Gia Long, Vietnamese emperor (b.", "1762)*1832 – George Crabbe, English surgeon and poet (b.", "1754)*1862 – Jean-Baptiste Biot, French physicist, astronomer, and mathematician (b.", "1774)*1866 – François-Xavier Garneau, Canadian poet, author, and historian (b.", "1809)*1873 – Isaac Baker Brown, English gynecologist and surgeon (b.", "1811)*1899 – Geert Adriaans Boomgaard, Dutch supercentenarian (b.", "1788)===1901–present===*1922 – Christiaan de Wet, South African general and politician, State President of the Orange Free State (b.", "1854)* 1922 – John Butler Yeats, Irish painter and illustrator (b.", "1839)*1924 – Woodrow Wilson, American historian, academic, and politician, 28th President of the United States, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1856)*1929 – Agner Krarup Erlang, Danish mathematician and engineer (b.", "1878)*1935 – Hugo Junkers, German engineer, designed the Junkers J 1 (b.", "1859)*1944 – Yvette Guilbert, French singer and actress (b.", "1865)*1945 – Roland Freisler, German lawyer and judge (b.", "1893)*1947 – Marc Mitscher, American admiral and pilot (b.", "1887)*1952 – Harold L. Ickes, American journalist and politician, 32nd United States Secretary of the Interior (b.", "1874)*1955 – Vasily Blokhin, Russian general (b.", "1895)*1956 – Émile Borel, French mathematician and academic (b.", "1871)* 1956 – Johnny Claes, English-Belgian race car driver and trumpet player (b.", "1916)*1959 – The Day the Music Died** The Big Bopper, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1930)** Buddy Holly, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1936)** Ritchie Valens, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1941)*1960 – Fred Buscaglione, Italian singer and actor (b.", "1921)*1961 – William Morrison, 1st Viscount Dunrossil, Scottish-Australian captain and politician, 14th Governor-General of Australia (b.", "1893)* 1961 – Anna May Wong, American actress (b.", "1905)*1963 – Benjamin R. Jacobs, American biochemist (b.", "1879)*1967 – Joe Meek, English songwriter and producer (b.", "1929)*1969 – C. N. Annadurai, Indian journalist and politician, 7th Chief Minister of Madras State (b.", "1909)* 1969 – Eduardo Mondlane, Mozambican activist and academic (b.", "1920)*1975 – William D. Coolidge, American physicist and engineer (b.", "1873)* 1975 – Umm Kulthum, Egyptian singer-songwriter and actress (b.", "1904)*1985 – Frank Oppenheimer, American physicist and academic (b.", "1912)*1989 – John Cassavetes, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1929)* 1989 – Lionel Newman, American pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1916)*1991 – Nancy Kulp, American actress (b.", "1921)*1993 – Françoys Bernier, Canadian pianist and conductor (b.", "1927)*1996 – Audrey Meadows, American actress and banker (b.", "1922)*1999 – Gwen Guthrie, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b.", "1950)*2005 – Zurab Zhvania, Georgian biologist and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Georgia (b.", "1963)* 2005 – Ernst Mayr, German-American biologist and ornithologist (b.", "1904)*2006 – Al Lewis, American actor and activist (b.", "1923)*2009 – Sheng-yen, Chinese monk and scholar, founded the Dharma Drum Mountain (b.", "1930)*2010 – Dick McGuire, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1926)* 2010 – Frances Reid, American actress (b.", "1914)*2011 – Maria Schneider, French actress (b.", "1952)*2012 – Toh Chin Chye, Singaporean academic and politician, 1st Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore (b.", "1921)* 2012 – Ben Gazzara, American actor and director (b.", "1930)* 2012 – Terence Hildner, American general (b.", "1962)* 2012 – Raj Kanwar, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1961)* 2012 – Zalman King, American actor, director, and producer (b.", "1942)* 2012 – Andrzej Szczeklik, Polish physician and academic (b.", "1938)*2013 – Cardiss Collins, American politician (b.", "1931)* 2013 – Oscar Feltsman, Ukrainian-Russian composer and producer (b.", "1921)* 2013 – James Muri, American soldier and pilot (b.", "1918)* 2013 – Jam Mohammad Yousaf, Pakistani politician, Chief Minister of Balochistan (b.", "1954)*2015 – Martin Gilbert, English historian, author, and academic (b.", "1936)* 2015 – Mary Healy, American actress and singer (b.", "1918)* 2015 – Charlie Sifford, American golfer (b.", "1922)* 2015 – Nasim Hasan Shah, Pakistani lawyer and judge, 12th Chief Justice of Pakistan (b.", "1929)*2016 – Joe Alaskey, American actor (b.", "1952)* 2016 – Balram Jakhar, Indian lawyer and politician, 23rd Governor of Madhya Pradesh (b.", "1923)* 2016 – József Kasza, Serbian politician and economist (b.", "1945)*2017 – Dritëro Agolli, Albanian poet, writer and politician (b.", "1931)*2019 – Julie Adams, American actress (b.", "1926)* 2019 – Kristoff St. John, American actor (b.", "1966)*2020 – George Steiner, French-American philosopher, author, and critic (b.", "1929)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Aaron the Illustrious (Syriac Orthodox Church)** Ansgar** Berlinda of Meerbeke** Blaise** Celsa and Nona** Claudine Thévenet** Dom Justo Takayama (Philippines and Japan)** Hadelin** Margaret of England** Werburgh** February 3 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Day of the Virgin of Suyapa (Honduras)* Earliest day on which Shrove Tuesday can fall, while March 9 is the latest; celebrated on Tuesday before Ash Wednesday (Christianity)* Four Chaplains Day (United States, also considered a Feast Day by the Episcopal Church)* Communist Party of Vietnam Foundation Anniversary (Vietnam)* Day of Finnish architecture and design, birthday of Alvar Aalto (Finland)* Heroes' Day (Mozambique)* Martyrs' Day (São Tomé and Príncipe)* Setsubun (Japan)* Veterans' Day (Thailand)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 3" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Free On-line Dictionary of Computing" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Free On-line Dictionary of Computing''' ('''FOLDOC''') is an online, searchable, encyclopedic dictionary of computing subjects." ], [ "History", "FOLDOC was founded in 1985 by Denis Howe and was hosted by Imperial College London.", "In May 2015, the site was updated to state that it was \"no longer supported by Imperial College Department of Computing\".", "Howe has served as the editor-in-chief since the dictionary's inception, with visitors to the website able to make suggestions for additions or corrections to articles." ], [ "Open sourcing", "The dictionary incorporates the text of other free resources, such as the Jargon File, as well as covering many other computing-related topics.", "Due to its availability under the GNU Free Documentation License, a copyleft license, it has in turn been incorporated in whole or part into other free content projects, such as Wikipedia." ], [ "Recognition", "* This site's brief 2001 review by a Ziff Davis publication begins \"Despite this online dictionary’s pale user interface, it offers impressive functionality.", "\"* Oxford University Press knows of them, and notes that it \"is maintained by volunteers.", "\"* A university tells its students that FOLDOC can be used to find information about \"companies, projects, history, in fact any of the vocabulary you might expect to find in a computer dictionary.\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "First-order predicate" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematical logic, a '''first-order predicate''' is a predicate that takes only individual(s) constants or variables as argument(s).", "Compare second-order predicate and higher-order predicate.This is not to be confused with a '''one-place predicate''' or monad, which is a predicate that takes only one argument.", "For example, the expression \"is a planet\" is a one-place predicate, while the expression \"is father of\" is a '''two-place predicate'''." ], [ "See also", "*First-order predicate calculus*Monadic predicate calculus" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Snap (gridiron football)" ], [ "Introduction", "The center snaps the ball between his legs.A '''snap''' (colloquially called a \"hike\", \"snapback\", or \"pass from center\") is the backward passing of the ball in gridiron football at the start of play from scrimmage." ], [ "Action", "Illustration showing positions of the men just before the ball is passedThe ball begins on the ground with its long axis parallel to the sidelines of the field, its ends marking each team's line of scrimmage in American football; in Canadian football, the line of scrimmage of the team without the ball is 1 yard past their side of the ball.", "The player snapping the ball (known officially as the \"snapper\" in rule books) delivers the ball to another player, and that action is the snap.", "The snapper may hand, throw, or even roll the ball to the other player.", "The snap must be a quick and continuous movement of the ball by one or both hands of the snapper, and the ball must leave the snapper's hands.", "The various rules codes have additional requirements, all of which have the effect of requiring the ball to go backward.", "The snapper almost always passes the ball between his legs, but only in Canadian football is that required.In the standard gridiron football formation, the center/centre is the snapper and is situated in the middle of the line of scrimmage.", "Only in arena football is the center required by rule to be the snapper.", "In other codes, a guard, tackle, running back, tight end or split end can legally deliver the snap; such scenarios, known as an ''unbalanced line'', are seldom used outside of trick plays and novelties.Exchange of the snap between the center's legsFor a handed snap, the snapper will usually have his head up, facing opponents.", "For a thrown snap, especially in formations wherein the ball may be snapped to players in different positions, the snapper will commonly bend over looking between his legs.", "Because of the vulnerability of a player in such a position, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and the National Federation of State High School Associations (\"Fed\") have adopted rules providing that if a player is positioned at least seven yards behind the neutral zone to receive a snap, opponents are not to deliberately contact the snapper until one second after the snap (NCAA), or until the snapper has a chance to react (Fed).", "However, in professional football it is common for a center to be able to practice a single \"shotgun\" formation thrown snap enough to keep his head up and toss it blindly.A snap is considered a backward pass, therefore if the ball is snapped and it hits the ground without any player gaining control of the ball the play is ruled as a fumble." ], [ "Snap count", "The team entitled to snap the ball will usually know in advance the moment when the snap is to occur as one of their players calls out signals, which usually include a loud sound such as \"hut\" voiced one or more times, the number of which they know; they are thus said to know the \"snap count\".", "Therefore, they have a considerable advantage over their opponents.", "The Center is not, however, allowed to make motions simulating part of the snap-action; therefore their opponents can be confident the first motion of the ball or the Center's hands is the beginning of the snap.The snap count is decided on in the huddle, usually expressed as \"...on .\"", "being the final words spoken by the quarterback after calling the play but before the huddle breaks and the players go to the line of scrimmage.", "The snap count allows offensive players to have a small head start.", "The defensive players want to predict the snap, and build up speed such that they cross the line of scrimmage exactly as the play begins, to increase their chances of getting a tackle for a loss or a sack.", "By varying the snap count, a quarterback forces the defensive players to react to the movement of the offensive players, or risk being called for an offsides or encroachment penalty.", "Unfortunately for the offense, this advantage can sometimes become a disadvantage.", "When faced with an exceptionally loud stadium, players may be unable to hear the snap count and are forced to concentrate more on visual cues (silent snap count or a hard count), or risk false start penalties.The offense must also be mindful of the play clock.", "If they fail to snap the ball in time they incur a delay of game penalty.", "Also, with a dwindling play clock, the defense has better chances of guessing when the ball will be snapped.", "It is easier to predict when the ball will be snapped with 2 seconds left on the play clock, rather than 5 seconds.The defensive team is not allowed to simulate, by calling out numbers, the offense's snap count.", "Successfully simulating the count would cause members of the offensive team to act too early ruining co-ordination of the play and inviting penalties.", "Current rules, unlike earlier rules, position officials so far from the line of scrimmage for 50 minutes of the 60-minute game that it is extremely difficult to hear if the defense is simulating the count." ], [ "History and rationale", "The snap, the set scrum and ruck in today's rugby union, and the play-the-ball in rugby league have common origins in rugby football.", "As the rules of rugby's scrimmage were written when the game came to North America, they had a significant flaw which was corrected by custom elsewhere, but by the invention of the snap-in American football.The rule adopted by a committee for American football in 1880 first provided for the uncontested right of one side to play the ball by foot (in any direction) for a scrimmage.", "A certain use of the foot on the ball which had the same effect as heeling it back was known as a \"snap\".", "Later in the 19th century, the option of snapping the ball back by hand was added.", "The option to play the ball with the foot was preserved, however, for several decades, although by early in the 20th Century it was restricted to kicking the ball forward.", "The kick forward in scrimmage was a surprise play that did not work against a prepared defense.", "Also for several decades alternatives to the scrimmage for playing the ball from across the sideline after it had gone out of bounds—a throw-in or \"fair\", and \"bounding in\"—existed.", "Until well into the 20th century, rather than an official readying the ball for scrimmage, the side entitled to the snap had complete custody of the ball and could snap it from the required spot at any time; for instance, a tackled ball carrier might feign injury, then suddenly snap the ball while recumbent, there being no stance requirement yet.", "The neutral zone and the right of the Center not to be contacted by an opponent before the snap also was not an original feature.", "As the 20th Century drew to a close, the NCAA and National Federation of State High School Associations extended that protection to some time the snap, in cases where a player is positioned at least 7 yards deep to receive a thrown snap.Canadian football used the rugby scrimmage unaltered until near the end of the 19th century, when, regionally at first, under the influence of the American scrimmage, the number of players in the scrimmage was limited to three—a \"centre scrimmager\" bound on either side by props called \"side scrimmagers\".", "The centre scrimmager was later renamed the \"snap\", and in intercollegiate play one side was given the right to put foot to ball first.", "Beginning regionally again and universally by 1923, the Burnside rules led to the 3-man scrimmage being reduced to the centre alone, the number of players on the field being reduced commensurately from 14 to 12, and a snap rule and neutral zone similar to that of American football was adopted.", "In addition to the between-the-legs requirement noted above, for several years after the adoption of the hand snap, a hand-to-hand snap was illegal, the ball required to be thrown instead, in Canadian football.", "(Though it was technically legal, the hand-to-hand snap was not used on the American side of the border until the 1930s.)", "Apparently, a complete break was desired from system of backheeling, and the T formation having gone into eclipse in American football at the time, the Canadian snap was modeled on the formations then in common use in the US, such as the single-wing formation.The game design rationale for requiring the snap to be a quick and continuous motion to the backfield is to eliminate the need for rules provisions for a live ball in scrimmage.", "In rugby union the ball may be retained by the forwards and played for a time via the foot in a scrummage (which rugby league has as well) or ruck, or by the hands in a maul, necessitating additional restrictions on play and player positioning during those intervals.", "In American and Canadian football, the ball as it is put in play is only held in the line (by the Center) for a fraction of a second.", "The uncontested possession also, as Walter Camp pointed out, allows for better offensive and defensive planning by the side entitled to snap the ball and their opposition, respectively.", "A muffed snap can be recovered by either team." ], [ "See also", "*Glossary of American football" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "FIFO (computing and electronics)" ], [ "Introduction", "Representation of a FIFO queueIn computing and in systems theory, '''first in, first out''' (the first in is the first out), acronymized as '''FIFO''', is a method for organizing the manipulation of a data structure (often, specifically a data buffer) where the oldest (first) entry, or \"head\" of the queue, is processed first.Such processing is analogous to servicing people in a queue area on a first-come, first-served (FCFS) basis, i.e.", "in the same sequence in which they arrive at the queue's tail.FCFS is also the jargon term for the FIFO operating system scheduling algorithm, which gives every process central processing unit (CPU) time in the order in which it is demanded.", "FIFO's opposite is LIFO, last-in-first-out, where the youngest entry or \"top of the stack\" is processed first.", "A priority queue is neither FIFO or LIFO but may adopt similar behaviour temporarily or by default.", "Queueing theory encompasses these methods for processing data structures, as well as interactions between strict-FIFO queues." ], [ "Computer science", "Representation of a FIFO queue with enqueue and dequeue operations.Depending on the application, a FIFO could be implemented as a hardware shift register, or using different memory structures, typically a circular buffer or a kind of list.", "For information on the abstract data structure, see Queue (data structure).", "Most software implementations of a FIFO queue are not thread safe and require a locking mechanism to verify the data structure chain is being manipulated by only one thread at a time.The following code shows a linked list FIFO C++ language implementation.", "In practice, a number of list implementations exist, including popular Unix systems C sys/queue.h macros or the C++ standard library std::list template, avoiding the need for implementing the data structure from scratch.#include #include using namespace std;template class FIFO { struct Node { T value; shared_ptr next = nullptr; Node(T _value): value(_value) {} }; shared_ptr front = nullptr; shared_ptr back = nullptr;public: void enqueue(T _value) { if (front == nullptr) { front = make_shared(_value); back = front; } else { back->next = make_shared(_value); back = back->next; } } T dequeue() { if (front == nullptr) throw underflow_error(\"Nothing to dequeue\"); T value = front->value; front = move(front->next); return value; }};In computing environments that support the pipes-and-filters model for interprocess communication, a FIFO is another name for a named pipe.Disk controllers can use the FIFO as a disk scheduling algorithm to determine the order in which to service disk I/O requests, where it is also known by the same FCFS initialism as for CPU scheduling mentioned before.Communication network bridges, switches and routers used in computer networks use FIFOs to hold data packets in route to their next destination.", "Typically at least one FIFO structure is used per network connection.", "Some devices feature multiple FIFOs for simultaneously and independently queuing different types of information." ], [ "Electronics", "A FIFO scheduleFIFOs are commonly used in electronic circuits for buffering and flow control between hardware and software.", "In its hardware form, a FIFO primarily consists of a set of read and write pointers, storage and control logic.", "Storage may be static random access memory (SRAM), flip-flops, latches or any other suitable form of storage.", "For FIFOs of non-trivial size, a dual-port SRAM is usually used, where one port is dedicated to writing and the other to reading.The first known FIFO implemented in electronics was by Peter Alfke in 1969 at Fairchild Semiconductor.", "Alfke was later a director at Xilinx.=== Synchronicity ===A synchronous FIFO is a FIFO where the same clock is used for both reading and writing.", "An asynchronous FIFO uses different clocks for reading and writing and they can introduce metastability issues.", "A common implementation of an asynchronous FIFO uses a Gray code (or any unit distance code) for the read and write pointers to ensure reliable flag generation.", "One further note concerning flag generation is that one must necessarily use pointer arithmetic to generate flags for asynchronous FIFO implementations.", "Conversely, one may use either a leaky bucket approach or pointer arithmetic to generate flags in synchronous FIFO implementations.A hardware FIFO is used for synchronization purposes.", "It is often implemented as a circular queue, and thus has two pointers:* Read pointer / read address register* Write pointer / write address register=== Status flags ===Examples of FIFO status flags include: full, empty, almost full, and almost empty.", "A FIFO is empty when the read address register reaches the write address register.", "A FIFO is full when the write address register reaches the read address register.", "Read and write addresses are initially both at the first memory location and the FIFO queue is ''empty''.In both cases, the read and write addresses end up being equal.", "To distinguish between the two situations, a simple and robust solution is to add one extra bit for each read and write address which is inverted each time the address wraps.", "With this set up, the disambiguation conditions are:* When the read address register equals the write address register, the FIFO is empty.", "* When the read and write address registers differ only in the extra most significant bit and the rest are equal, the FIFO is full." ], [ "See also", "* FIFO and LIFO accounting* FINO* Queueing theory* SCHED_FIFO" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " \t* Cummings et al., Simulation and Synthesis Techniques for Asynchronous FIFO Design with Asynchronous Pointer Comparisons, SNUG San Jose 2002" ] ]
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[ [ "Firewall (construction)" ], [ "Introduction", "Firewall residential construction, separating the building into two separate residential units, and fire areasfirewall used to inhibit the spread of a fire at an electrical substationA '''firewall''' is a fire-resistant barrier used to prevent the spread of fire.", "Firewalls are built between or through buildings, structures, or electrical substation transformers, or within an aircraft or vehicle." ], [ "Applications", "Firewalls can be used to subdivide a building into separate fire areas and are constructed in accordance with the locally applicable building codes.", "Firewalls are a portion of a building's passive fire protection systems.Firewalls can be used to separate-high value transformers at an electrical substation in the event of a mineral oil tank rupture and ignition.", "The firewall serves as a fire containment wall between one oil-filled transformer and other neighboring transformers, building structures, and site equipment." ], [ "Types", "A building under construction, showing the structurally independent cinderblock firewalls subdividing the buildingBuilding 4 of the Waynesboro Outlet Village, showing a concrete firewall running through the buildingConcrete firewalls still standing on Building 7 of the former Waynesboro Outlet Village, following a firefighter training exercise which intentionally burned the buildingThere are three main classifications of ''fire rated walls'': fire walls, fire barriers, and fire partitions.", "*A ''firewall'' is an assembly of materials used to delay the spread of fire a wall assembly with a prescribed fire resistance duration and independent structural stability.", "This allows a building to be subdivided into smaller sections.", "If a section becomes structurally unstable due to fire or other causes, that section can break or fall away from the other sections in the building.", "*A ''fire barrier wall'', or a ''fire partition'', is a fire-rated wall assembly that are not structurally self-sufficient.", "Fire barrier walls are typically continuous from an exterior wall to an exterior wall, or from a floor below to a floor or roof above, or from one fire barrier wall to another fire barrier wall, having a fire resistance rating equal to or greater than the required rating for the application.", "Fire barriers are continuous through concealed spaces (e.g., above a ceiling) to the floor deck or roof deck above the barrier.", "Fire partitions are not required to extend through concealed spaces if the construction assembly forming the bottom of the concealed space, such as the ceiling, has a fire resistance rating at least equal to or greater than the fire partition.", "*A ''high challenge fire wall'' is a wall used to subdivide a building with high fire challenge occupancies, having enhanced fire resistance ratings and enhanced appurtenance protection to prevent the spread of fire, and having structural stability.Portions of structures that are subdivided by fire walls are permitted to be considered separate buildings, in that fire walls have sufficient structural stability to maintain the integrity of the wall in the event of the collapse of the building construction on either side of the wall." ], [ "Characteristics", "*Fire rating - Fire walls are constructed in such a way as to achieve a code-determined fire-resistance rating, thus forming part of a fire compartment's passive fire protection.", "Germany includes repeated impact force testing upon new fire wall systems.", "Other codes require impact resistance on a performance basis*Design loads – Fire wall must withstand a minimum , and additional seismic loads.", "*Substation transformer firewalls are typically free-standing modular walls custom designed and engineered to meet application needs.", "*Building fire walls typically extend through the roof and terminate at a code-determined height above it.", "They are usually finished off on the top with flashing (sheet metal cap) for protection against the elements.===Materials===Firewalls between the old buildings in Ulan-Ude*Building and structural fire walls in North America are usually made of concrete, concrete blocks, or reinforced concrete.", "Older fire walls, built prior to World War II, used brick materials.", "*Fire barrier walls are typically constructed of drywall or gypsum board partitions with wood or metal framed studs.", "*Penetrations – Penetrations through fire walls, such as for pipes and cables, must be protected with a listed firestop assembly designed to prevent the spread of fire through wall penetrations.", "Penetrations (holes) must not defeat the structural integrity of the wall, such that the wall cannot withstand the prescribed fire duration without threat of collapse.", "*Openings – Other openings in fire walls, such as doors and windows, must also be fire-rated ''fire door assemblies'' and ''fire window assemblies''." ], [ "Performance based design", "Firewalls are used in varied applications that require specific design and performance specifications.", "Knowing the potential conditions that may exist during a fire are critical to selecting and installing an effective firewall.", "For example, a firewall designed to meet National Fire Protection Agency, (NFPA), 221-09 section A.5.7 which indicates an average temperature of , is not designed to withstand higher temperatures such as would be present in higher challenge fires, and as a result would fail to function for the expected duration of the listed wall rating.Performance based design takes into account the potential conditions during a fire.", "Understanding thermal limitations of materials is essential to using the correct material for the application.", "Laboratory testing is used to simulate fire scenarios and wall loading conditions.", "The testing results in an assigned listing number for the fire-rated assembly that defines the expected fire resistance duration and wall structural integrity under the tested conditions.", "Designers may elect to specify a listed fire wall assembly or design a wall system that would require performance testing to certify the expected protections before use of the designed fire-rated wall system." ], [ "High-voltage transformer fire barriers", "Fire barriers are used around large electrical transformers as firewalls.", "These barriers are used to isolate one transformer in case of fire or explosions, preventing fire propagation to neighboring transformers." ], [ "See also", "*Firebreak (forestry)*Fireproofing*Firestop (construction)*Firewall (engine)*Listing and approval use and compliance*High-voltage transformer fire barriers" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* FAA Regulation about firewalls in aircraft" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fenrir (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fenrir''', '''Fenrisulfr''', or '''Fenris''' is a Norse mythological wolf.", "It may also refer to:*Fenrir (moon), a moon of Saturn named after Fenrisulfr*Fenris, designation of a battlemech in the science-fiction series ''BattleTech''*Fenrir, a monster card in the ''Yu-Gi-Oh!''", "Trading Card Game*Fenris, homeworld of the Space Wolves Space Marine chapter in the ''Warhammer 40,000'' universe*Fenrir Inc, Japanese developer of the Sleipnir web browser*Fenris Glacier, a glacier in eastern Greenland" ], [ "Printed media", "*Fenris Ulf, or Maugrim, a character in C.S.", "Lewis's ''The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe''*Fenrir Greyback, a lycanthrope in the ''Harry Potter'' series*The Lord of Terror (''Oh My Goddess!", "''), from the anime series ''Oh My Goddess!", "''*Fenris, character in the comic series ''Lucifer''* Fenris Wolf (Marvel Comics), a comic character based on the Norse wolf*Fenris (comics), a terrorist organization led by Andrea von Strucker and Andreas von Strucker, the twin children of the Marvel Comics villain Baron von Strucker*''The Fenris Device'', a novel/weapon in the Hooded Swan*Fenris, the varg's God in the book ''The Sight''" ], [ "Video games", "*Get of Fenris, a werewolf tribe in the roleplaying game ''Dark Ages: Werewolf''*Fenris, a character in the ''Quest for Glory'' series*The Fenris Brood, a Zerg faction in StarCraft*GTC Fenris-class cruiser in the ''FreeSpace'', series*In ''Xenogears'', Fenrir is the name of Citan's Omnigear*In ''Eve Online'', Fenrir is the name of the Minmatar freighter*In ''Dragon Age II'', Fenris is an elven warrior companion*In the ''Ace Combat'' series, Fenrir has been used as a squadron name on multiple occasions*In ''Final Fantasy VII: Dirge of Cerberus'', Fenrir is what Cloud calls his motorcycle*In ''Etrian Odyssey Untold: The Millennium Girl'', Fenrir is the name of the first stratum's final boss*In ''Danganronpa'', Fenrir is the name of Mukuro's Military Corporation*In ''Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege'', Fenrir is the name of a Defending operator" ], [ "See also", "*Fenriz (born 1971), stage name of member in Norwegian black metal band Darkthrone" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Frigg" ], [ "Introduction", "Frigg sits enthroned and facing the spear-wielding goddess Gná, flanked by two goddesses, one of whom (Fulla) carries her ''eski'', a wooden box.", "Illustrated (1882) by Carl Emil Doepler.", "'''Frigg''' (; Old Norse: ) is a goddess, one of the Æsir, in Germanic mythology.", "In Norse mythology, the source of most surviving information about her, she is associated with marriage, prophecy, clairvoyance and motherhood, and dwells in the wetland halls of Fensalir.", "In wider Germanic mythology, she is known in Old High German as '''''', in Langobardic as '''''', in Old English as '''''', in Old Frisian as '''''Frīa''''', and in Old Saxon as '''''', all ultimately stemming from the Proto-Germanic theonym *''Frijjō''.", "Nearly all sources portray her as the wife of the god Odin.In Old High German and Old Norse sources, she is specifically connected with Fulla, but she is also associated with the goddesses Lofn, Hlín, Gná, and ambiguously with the Earth, otherwise personified as an apparently separate entity Jörð (Old Norse: 'Earth').", "The children of Frigg and Odin include the gleaming god Baldr.The English weekday name Friday (ultimately meaning 'Frigg's Day') bears her name.", "After Christianization, the mention of Frigg continued to occur in Scandinavian folklore.", "During modern times, Frigg has appeared in popular culture, has been the subject of art and receives veneration in Germanic Neopaganism." ], [ "Name and origin", "=== Etymology ===The theonyms ''Frigg'' (Old Norse), ''Frīja'' (Old High German), ''Frīg'' (Old English), ''Frīa'' (Old Frisian), and ''Frī'' (Old Saxon) are cognates (linguistic siblings from the same origin).", "They stem from the Proto-Germanic feminine noun ''*Frijjō'', which emerged as a substantivized form of the adjective *''frijaz'' ('free') via Holtzmann's law.", "In a clan-based societal system, the meaning 'free' arose from the meaning 'related'.", "The name is indeed etymologically close to the Sanskrit ''priyā'' and the Avestan ''fryā'' ('own, dear, beloved'), all ultimately descending from the Proto-Indo-European stem *''priH-o-'', denoting 'one's own, beloved'.", "The Proto-Germanic verb ''*frijōnan'' ('to love'), as well as the nouns *''frijōndz'' ('friend') and *''frijađwō'' ('friendship, peace'), are also related.An -a suffix has been sometimes applied by modern editors to denote femininity, resulting in the form ''Frigga''.", "This spelling also serves the purpose of distancing the goddess from the English word ''frig''.", "Several place names refer to Frigg in what are now Norway and Sweden, although her name is altogether absent in recorded place names in Denmark.=== Origin of Frigg ===The connection with and possible earlier identification of the goddess Freyja with Frigg in the Proto-Germanic period is a matter of scholarly debate (see Frigg and Freyja common origin hypothesis).", "Like the name of the group of gods to which Freyja belongs, the Vanir, the name ''Freyja'' is not attested outside of Scandinavia.", "This is in contrast to the name of the goddess ''Frigg'', who is also attested as a goddess among West Germanic peoples.", "Evidence is lacking for the existence of a common Germanic goddess from which Old Norse ''Freyja'' descends, but scholars have commented that this may simply be due to the scarcity of surviving sources.Regarding the Freyja–Frigg common origin hypothesis, scholar Stephan Grundy writes that \"the problem of whether Frigg or Freyja may have been a single goddess originally is a difficult one, made more so by the scantiness of pre-Viking Age references to Germanic goddesses, and the diverse quality of the sources.", "The best that can be done is to survey the arguments for and against their identity, and to see how well each can be supported.", "\"=== Origin of ''Friday'' ===The English weekday name ''Friday'' comes from Old English ''Frīġedæġ'', meaning 'day of Frig'.", "It is cognate with Old Frisian ''Frīadei'' (≈ ''Fri(g)endei''), Middle Dutch ''Vridach'' (≈ ''Vriendach''), Middle Low German ''Vrīdach'' (≈ ''Vrīgedach''), and Old High German ''Frîatac''.", "The Old Norse ''Frjádagr'' was borrowed from a West Germanic language.", "All of these terms derive from Late Proto-Germanic *''Frijjōdag'' ('Day of Frijjō'), a calque of Latin ''Veneris dies'' ('Day of Venus'; cf.", "modern Italian ''venerdì'', French ''vendredi'', Spanish ''viernes'').The Germanic goddess' name has substituted for the Roman name of a comparable deity, a practice known as ''interpretatio germanica''.", "Although the Old English theonym ''Frīg'' is only found in the name of the weekday, it is also attested as a common noun in ''frīg'' ('love, affections plural, embraces in poetry').", "The Old Norse weekday ''Freyjudagr'', a rare synonym of ''Frjádagr'', saw the replacement of the first element with the genitive of ''Freyja''." ], [ "Attestations", "===''Origo Gentis Langobardorum'' and ''Historia Langobardorum''===Godan and Frigg look down from their window in the heavens to the Winnili women in an illustration by Emil Doepler, 1905Winnili women with their hair tied as beards look up at Godan and Frigg in an illustration by Emil Doepler, 1905The 7th-century ''Origo Gentis Langobardorum'', and Paul the Deacon's 8th-century ''Historia Langobardorum'' derived from it, recount a founding myth of the Langobards, a Germanic people who ruled a region of what is now Italy (see Lombardy).", "According to this legend, a \"small people\" known as the ''Winnili'' were ruled by a woman named Gambara who had two sons, Ybor and Agio.", "The Vandals, ruled by Ambri and Assi, came to the Winnili with their army and demanded that they pay them tribute or prepare for war.", "Ybor, Agio, and their mother Gambara rejected their demands for tribute.", "Ambra and Assi then asked the god Godan for victory over the Winnili, to which Godan responded (in the longer version in the ''Origo''): \"Whom I shall first see when at sunrise, to them will I give the victory.", "\"Meanwhile, Ybor and Agio called upon Frea, Godan's wife.", "Frea counseled them that \"at sunrise the Winnili should come, and that their women, with their hair let down around the face in the likeness of a beard should also come with their husbands\".", "At sunrise, Frea turned Godan's bed around to face east and woke him.", "Godan saw the Winnili, including their whiskered women, and asked \"who are those Long-beards?\"", "Frea responded to Godan, \"As you have given them a name, give them also the victory\".", "Godan did so, \"so that they should defend themselves according to his counsel and obtain the victory\".", "Thenceforth the Winnili were known as the ''Langobards'' (Langobardic \"long-beards\").===Second Merseburg Incantation===\"Wodan Heals Balder's Horse\" by Emil Doepler, 1905A 10th-century manuscript found in what is now Merseburg, Germany, features an invocation known as the Second Merseburg Incantation.", "The incantation calls upon various continental Germanic gods, including Old High German Frija and a goddess associated with her—Volla, to assist in healing a horse::Old High German::''Phol ende uuodan uuoran zi holza.", "'':''du uuart demo balderes uolon sin uuoz birenkit.", "'':''thu biguol en sinthgunt, sunna era suister,'':''thu biguol en friia, uolla era suister'':''thu biguol en uuodan, so he uuola conda:'':''sose benrenki, sose bluotrenki, sose lidirenki:'':''ben zi bena, bluot si bluoda,'':''lid zi geliden, sose gelimida sin!", "'':Bill Griffiths translation::Phol and Woden travelled to the forest.", ":Then was for Baldur's foal its foot wrenched.", ":Then encharmed it Sindgund (and) Sunna her sister,:then encharmed it Frija (and) Volla her sister,:then encharmed it Woden, as he the best could,:As the bone-wrench, so for the blood wrench, (and) so the limb-wrench:bone to bone, blood to blood,:limb to limb, so be glued.===''Poetic Edda''===In the ''Poetic Edda'', compiled during the 13th century from earlier traditional material, Frigg is mentioned in the poems ''Völuspá'', ''Vafþrúðnismál'', the prose of ''Grímnismál'', ''Lokasenna'', and ''Oddrúnargrátr''.Frigg receives three mentions in the ''Poetic Edda'' poem ''Völuspá''.", "In the first mention the poem recounts that Frigg wept for the death of her son Baldr in Fensalir.", "Later in the poem, when the future death of Odin is foretold, Odin is referred to as the \"beloved of Frigg\" and his future death is referred to as the \"second grief of Frigg\".", "Like the reference to Frigg weeping in Fensalir earlier in the poem, the implied \"first grief\" is a reference to the grief she felt upon the death of her son, Baldr.The goddess Frigg and her husband, the god Odin, sit in Hliðskjálf and gaze into \"all worlds\" and make a wager as described in ''Grímnismál'' in an illustration by Lorenz Frølich, 1895Frigg plays a prominent role in the prose introduction to the poem, ''Grímnismál''.", "The introduction recounts that two sons of king Hrauðungr, Agnar (age 10) and Geirröðr (age 8), once sailed out with a trailing line to catch small fish, but wind drove them out into the ocean and, during the darkness of night, their boat wrecked.", "The brothers went ashore, where they met a crofter.", "They stayed on the croft for one winter, during which the couple separately fostered the two children: the old woman fostered Agnar and the old man fostered Geirröðr.", "Upon the arrival of spring, the old man brought them a ship.", "The old couple took the boys to the shore, and the old man took Geirröðr aside and spoke to him.", "The boys entered the boat and a breeze came.The boat returned to the harbor of their father.", "Geirröðr, forward in the ship, jumped to shore and pushed the boat, containing his brother, out and said \"go where an evil spirit may get thee.\"", "Away went the ship and Geirröðr walked to a house, where he was greeted with joy; while the boys were gone, their father had died, and now Geirröðr was king.", "He \"became a splendid man.\"", "The scene switches to Odin and Frigg sitting in Hliðskjálf, \"looking into all the worlds.\"", "Odin says: \"'Seest thou Agnar, thy foster-son, where he is getting children a giantess Old Norse ''gȳgi'' in a cave?", "while Geirröd, my foster son, is a king residing in his country.'", "Frigg answered, 'He is so inhospitable that he tortures his guests, if he thinks that too many come.", "'\"Odin replied that this was a great untruth and so the two made a wager.", "Frigg sent her \"waiting-maid\" Fulla to warn Geirröðr to be wary, lest a wizard who seeks him should harm him, and that he would know this wizard by the refusal of dogs, no matter how ferocious, to attack the stranger.", "While it was not true that Geirröðr was inhospitable with his guests, Geirröðr did as instructed and had the wizard arrested.", "Upon being questioned, the wizard, wearing a blue cloak, said no more than that his name is ''Grímnir''.", "Geirröðr has Grímnir tortured and sits him between two fires for 8 nights.", "Upon the 9th night, Grímnir is brought a full drinking horn by Geirröðr's son, Agnar (so named after Geirröðr's brother), and the poem continues without further mention or involvement of Frigg.In the poem ''Lokasenna'', where Loki accuses nearly every female in attendance of promiscuity and/or unfaithfulness, an aggressive exchange occurs between the god Loki and the goddess Frigg (and thereafter between Loki and the goddess Freyja about Frigg).", "A prose introduction to the poem describes that numerous gods and goddesses attended a banquet held by Ægir.", "These gods and goddesses include Odin and, \"his wife\", Frigg.===''Prose Edda''===Frigg is mentioned throughout the ''Prose Edda'', compiled in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson.", "Frigg is first mentioned in the ''Prose Edda'' Prologue, wherein a euhemerized account of the Norse gods is provided.", "The author describes Frigg as the wife of Odin, and, in a case of folk etymology, the author attempts to associate the name ''Frigg'' with the Latin-influenced form ''Frigida''.", "The Prologue adds that both Frigg and Odin \"had the gift of prophecy.", "\"In the next section of the ''Prose Edda'', ''Gylfaginning'', High tells Gangleri (the king Gylfi in disguise) that Frigg, daughter of Fjörgynn (Old Norse ''Fjörgynsdóttir'') is married to Odin and that the Æsir are descended from the couple, and adds that \"the earth ''Jörðin'' was Odin's daughter and his wife.\"", "According to High, the two had many sons, the first of which was the mighty god Thor.Frigg reaches into a box presented to her by a handmaid, Ludwig Pietsch, 1865Later in ''Gylfaginning'', Gangleri asks about the ''ásynjur'', a term for Norse goddesses.", "High says that \"highest\" among them is Frigg and that only Freyja \"is highest in rank next to her.\"", "Frigg dwells in Fensalir \"and it is very splendid.\"", "In this section of ''Gylfaginning'', Frigg is also mentioned in connection to other ''ásynjur'': Fulla carries Frigg's ashen box, \"looks after her footwear and shares her secrets;\" Lofn is given special permission by Frigg and Odin to \"arrange unions\" among men and women; Hlín is charged by Frigg to protect those that Frigg deem worthy of keeping from danger; and Gná is sent by Frigg \"into various worlds to carry out her business.", "\"In section 49 of ''Gylfaginning'', a narrative about the fate of Frigg's son Baldr is told.", "According to High, Baldr once started to have dreams indicating that his life was in danger.", "When Baldr told his fellow Æsir about his dreams, the gods met together for a thing and decided that they should \"request immunity for Baldr from all kinds of danger.\"", "Frigg subsequently receives promises from the elements, the environment, diseases, animals, and stones, amongst other things.", "The request successful, the Æsir make sport of Baldr's newfound invincibility; shot or struck, Baldr remained unharmed.", "However, Loki discovers this and is not pleased by this turn of events, so, in the form of a woman, he goes to Frigg in Fensalir.There, Frigg asks this female visitor what the Æsir are up to assembled at the thing.", "The woman says that all of the Æsir are shooting at Baldr and yet he remains unharmed.", "Frigg explains that \"Weapons and wood will not hurt Baldr.", "I have received oaths from them all.\"", "The woman asks Frigg if all things have sworn not to hurt Baldr, to which Frigg notes one exception; \"there grows a shoot of a tree to the west of Val-hall.", "It is called mistletoe.", "It seemed young to me to demand the oath from.\"", "Loki immediately disappears.Frigg grips her dead son, Baldr, in an illustration by Lorenz Frølich, 1895Now armed with mistletoe, Loki arrives at the thing where the Æsir are assembled and tricks the blind Höðr, Baldr's brother, into shooting Baldr with a mistletoe projectile.", "To the horror of the assembled gods, the mistletoe goes directly through Baldr, killing him.", "Standing in horror and shock, the gods are initially only able to weep due to their grief.", "Frigg speaks up and asks \"who there was among the Æsir who wished to earn all her love and favour and was willing to ride the road to Hel and try if he could find Baldr, and offer Hel a ransom if she would let Baldr go back to Asgard.", "\"Hermóðr, Baldr's brother, accepts Frigg's request and rides to Hel.", "Meanwhile, Baldr is given a grand funeral attended by many beings—foremost mentioned of which are his mother and father, Frigg and Odin.", "During the funeral, Nanna dies of grief and is placed in the funeral pyre with Baldr, her dead husband.", "Hermóðr locates Baldr and Nanna in Hel.", "Hermodr secures an agreement for the return of Baldr and with Hermóðr Nanna sends gifts to Frigg (a linen robe) and Fulla (a finger-ring).", "Hermóðr rides back to the Æsir and tells them what has happened.", "However, the agreement fails due to the sabotage of a jötunn in a cave named Þökk (Old Norse 'thanks'), described as perhaps Loki in disguise.Frigg is mentioned several times in the ''Prose Edda'' section ''Skáldskaparmál''.", "The first mention occurs at the beginning of the section, where the Æsir and Ásynjur are said to have once held a banquet in a hall in a land of gods, Asgard.", "Frigg is one of the twelve ásynjur in attendance.===''Heimskringla'' and sagas===In ''Ynglinga saga'', the first book of ''Heimskringla'', a Euhemerized account of the origin of the gods is provided.", "Frigg is mentioned once.", "According to the saga, while Odin was away, Odin's brothers Vili and Vé oversaw Odin's holdings.", "Once, while Odin was gone for an extended period, the Æsir concluded that he was not coming back.", "His brothers started to divvy up Odin's inheritance, \"but his wife Frigg they shared between them.", "However, a short while afterwards, Odin returned and took possession of his wife again.In ''Völsunga saga'', the great king Rerir and his wife (unnamed) are unable to conceive a child; \"that lack displeased them both, and they fervently implored the gods that they might have a child.", "It is said that Frigg heard their prayers and told Odin what they asked.\"" ], [ "Archaeological record", "An illustration of what may be Frigg in the Schleswig Cathedral.A 12th century depiction of a cloaked but otherwise nude woman riding a large cat appears on a wall in the Schleswig Cathedral in Schleswig-Holstein, Northern Germany.", "Beside her is similarly a cloaked yet otherwise nude woman riding a distaff.", "Due to iconographic similarities to the literary record, these figures have been theorized as depictions of Freyja and Frigg respectively." ], [ "Scholarly reception and interpretation", "Due to numerous similarities, some scholars have proposed that the Old Norse goddesses Frigg and Freyja descend from a common entity from the Proto-Germanic period.", "Regarding a Freyja-Frigg common origin hypothesis, scholar Stephan Grundy comments that \"the problem of whether Frigg or Freyja may have been a single goddess originally is a difficult one, made more so by the scantiness of pre-Viking Age references to Germanic goddesses, and the diverse quality of the sources.", "The best that can be done is to survey the arguments for and against their identity, and to see how well each can be supported.", "\"Unlike Frigg but like the name of the group of gods to which Freyja belongs, the Vanir, the name ''Freyja'' is not attested outside of Scandinavia, as opposed to the name of the goddess ''Frigg'', who is attested as a goddess common among the Germanic peoples, and whose name is reconstructed as Proto-Germanic *''Frijjō''.", "Similar proof for the existence of a common Germanic goddess from which ''Freyja'' descends does not exist, but scholars have commented that this may simply be due to the scarcity of evidence outside of the North Germanic record." ], [ "Modern influence", "Frigg is referenced in art and literature into the modern period.", "In the 18th century, Gustav III of Sweden, king of Sweden, composed ''Friggja'', a play, so named after the goddess, and H. F. Block and Hans Friedrich Blunck's ''Frau Frigg und Doktor Faust'' in 1937.Other examples include fine art works by K. Ehrenberg (''Frigg, Freyja'', drawing, 1883), John Charles Dollman (''Frigga Spinning the Clouds'', painting, c. 1900), Emil Doepler (''Wodan und Frea am Himmelsfenster'', painting, 1901), and H. Thoma (''Fricka'', drawing, date not provided)." ], [ "See also", "* Frigga* 77 Frigga" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* MyNDIR (My Norse Digital Image Repository) Illustrations of Frigg from manuscripts and early print books." ] ]
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[ [ "Freehold" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Freehold''' may refer to:" ], [ "In real estate", "*Freehold (law), the tenure of property in fee simple*Customary freehold, a form of feudal tenure of land in England*Parson's freehold, where a Church of England rector or vicar of holds title to benefice property" ], [ "Places", "*Freehold, Greater Manchester, an area of Oldham, in North West England**Freehold Metrolink station, a light rail stop in Greater Manchester, England*Freehold, a Victorian terraced area in the north east of Lancaster, Lancashire, England*Freehold, New Jersey (disambiguation)**Freehold Borough, New Jersey, United States**Freehold Township, New Jersey, United States*Freehold, New York, United States*Freehold Township, Warren County, Pennsylvania, United States" ], [ "In fiction", "*''Farnham's Freehold'', 1965 science fiction novel by Robert A. Heinlein*''Freehold'' (novel), 2004 science fiction novel by Michael Z. Williamson" ], [ "Other", "*, a United States Navy minesweeper and tug in commission from 1917 to 1919*Freehold Stakes, an American Thoroughbred horse race* Freehold, Iowa, fictional town" ] ]
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[ [ "Felix Wankel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Felix Heinrich Wankel''' (; 13 August 1902 – 9 October 1988) was a German mechanical engineer and inventor after whom the Wankel engine was named." ], [ "Early life", "Wankel was born in 1902 in Lahr in what was then the Grand Duchy of Baden in the Upper Rhine Plain of present-day southwestern Germany.", "He was the only son of Gerty Wankel (née Heidlauff) and Rudolf Wankel, a forest assessor.", "His father died in World War I.", "Thereafter, the family moved to Heidelberg.", "He went to high schools in Donaueschingen, Heidelberg, and Weinheim, and left school without Abitur in 1921.He learned the trade of purchaser at the Carl Winter Press in Heidelberg and worked for the publishing house until June 1926.He and some friends had already run an unofficial afterwork machine shop in a backyard shed in Heidelberg since 1924.Wankel was now determined to receive unemployment benefits and to focus on the machine shop.", "One of his friends, who had graduated from university, gave his name and transformed the shop into an official garage for DKW and Cleveland motor bikes in 1927, where Wankel worked from time to time until his arrest in 1933.Wankel was gifted since childhood with an ingenious spatial imagination and became interested in the world of machines, especially combustion engines.", "After his mother was widowed, Wankel could not afford university education or even an apprenticeship.", "He was, however, able to teach himself technical subjects.", "At age 17 he told friends that he had dreamt of constructing a car with \"a new type of engine, half turbine, half reciprocating.", "It is my invention!\".", "True to this prediction, he conceived the Wankel engine in 1924 and won his first patent in 1929." ], [ "Wankel and the Nazi Party", "During the early 1920s Wankel was a member of various radical anti-Semitic organizations.", "In 1921 he joined the Heidelberg branch of the Deutschvölkischer Schutz- und Trutzbund and in 1922 he became a member of the NSDAP, the National Socialist German Workers Party (or \"Nazi Party\"), which was banned soon afterwards.", "Wankel founded and led youth groups associated with a cover-up organization of the NSDAP.", "With them he conducted paramilitary training, scouting games and night walks.", "When his high esteem for technical innovations was not widely shared among the German Youth Movement, he was offered instead the opportunity to talk about the issue of technology and education to Adolf Hitler and other leading National Socialists in 1928.In the meantime Wankel's mother, Gerty had helped founding the local chapter of the NSDAP in his hometown of Lahr.", "Here Wankel not only rejoined the party in 1926, but also met the local Gauleiter, i.e.", "regional head of the NSDAP party, Robert Heinrich Wagner.", "In 1931 Wagner entrusted Wankel with the leadership of the Hitler Youth in Baden.", "But they soon fell out with each other, because Wankel tried to put a stronger emphasis on military training, whereas Wagner wished for the Hitler Youth to be a primarily political organization.", "In a particularly bitter and ugly controversy Wankel publicly accused Wagner of corruption.", "Wagner retaliated by stripping Wankel of his office by early 1932 and managed to have him expelled from the party in October 1932.Wankel, who sympathized with the social-revolutionary wing of the NSDAP with Gregor Strasser, then founded his own National Socialist splinter group in Lahr and continued his attacks on Wagner.", "Since the Nazis' seizure of power on 30 January 1933 had strengthened his position, Wagner had Wankel arrested and imprisoned in the Lahr jail in March 1933.Only by intervention of Hitler's economic adviser Wilhelm Keppler and Hitler himself, was Wankel set free in September 1933.A fellow native of Baden and member of Reichstag from 1933 to 1945, Keppler had been a friend of Wankel and an ardent supporter of his technological endeavors since 1927.He now helped Wankel to get state contracts and his own ''Wankels Versuchs Werkstätten'' experimental workshop in Lindau.Wankel tried to rejoin the NSDAP in 1937, but was turned down.", "With the help of Keppler, however, he was admitted to the SS in 1940 in the rank of Obersturmbannführer.", "Two years later his membership was revoked for unknown reasons." ], [ "Career", "Wankel engine, type DKM54 (1957)During World War II, Wankel developed seals and rotary valves for German air force aircraft and navy torpedoes, as well as for companies such as BMW and Daimler-Benz.", "After the war, the region was occupied by France.", "Wankel was imprisoned by French authorities for several months in 1945 and his laboratory was closed by French occupation troops.", "Wankel's work was confiscated and he was prohibited from doing any more work.", "However, by 1951, he got funding from the Goetze AG company to furnish the new Technical Development Center in his privately owned house in Lindau on Lake Constance.", "He began development of the engine at NSU Motorenwerke AG, leading to the first running prototype on 1 February 1957.Unlike modern Wankel engines, this 21 horsepower version had both the rotor and housing rotating.", "His engine design was first licensed by Curtiss-Wright in New Jersey, United States.On 19 January 1960 the rotary engine was presented for the first time to specialists and the press in a meeting of the German Engineers' Union at the Deutsches Museum in Munich.", "In the same year, with the KKM 250, the first practically applied rotary engine was presented in a converted NSU Prinz automobile.", "At around this time the term \"Wankel engine\" became synonymous with the rotary type of engine, whereas previously it was referred to as the \"Motor nach System NSU/Wankel\".", "At the 1963 IAA motor show in Frankfurt, the NSU company presented the NSU Wankel-Spider, the first consumer vehicle with a rotary engine, which went into production in 1964.Great attention was received by the NSU in August 1967 for the very modern NSU Ro 80 sedan, which had a 115-horsepower engine with two rotors.", "It was the first German car named \"Car of the Year\" in 1968.In Japan, the manufacturer Mazda licensed the engine and successfully solved various problems relating to chatter marks.", "The engine was used successfully by Mazda in several generations of their RX-series of coupés and sedans, including the Mazda Cosmo (1967), R100 (1968), the RX-7 (1978–2002), and the RX-8 (2003–2012).", "Mazda has planned to reintroduce the engine, albeit as a range extender, in their MX-30 R-EV in 2023.Mercedes-Benz fitted one of its C111 experimental models in 1969 with a three-rotor Wankel engine.", "In 1970, the next model had a four-rotor Wankel engine and could reach top speed 290 km/h but never reached production.Wankel became a success in business by securing license agreements for the engine to manufacturers around the world.", "By 1958 Wankel and partners had founded the Wankel GmbH company, providing Wankel with a share of the profits for marketing the engine.", "Among the licensees were Daimler-Benz since 1961, General Motors since 1970, Toyota since 1971.Among those who paid higher fees for Wankel RCE rights was a state-owned engineering firm of the DDR.", "Royalties received by Wankel's own company from licensing were 40% at first, which later dropped to 36%.", "In 1971 Wankel sold his share in licensing royalties for 50 million Deutschmarks (adjusted for inflation, approximately €87m in 2021) to the English conglomerate Lonrho.", "A year later he got his Technical Development Center back from the Fraunhofer Society research organization.", "From 1986 the Felix Wankel Institute entered cooperation agreement with Daimler Benz, which covered the institute's operating costs in return for research rights.", "Wankel later sold the institute to Daimler Benz for 100 million Deutschmarks.In the context of the developed Wankel engine, \"rotary\" is something of a misnomer.", "The Wankel principle applied only to a \"rotary piston\" and not to the engine as a whole which was a stationary assembly, unlike rotary engines employed in WW1 aircraft in which the entire engine rotated about a fixed crankshaft." ], [ "Personal life", "Wankel's grave in HeidelbergWankel married Emma \"Mi\" Kirn in 1936.Though married for life, they had no children.", "She died in 1975.He never had a driving license, because he was extremely near-sighted.", "He was, however, the owner of an NSU Ro 80 with a Wankel engine, which was chauffeur driven for him.In 1969, Wankel was granted an honorary Doctorate of Engineering from Technical University Munich.", "He was known for his championing of animal rights and opposition to the use of animals in testing.Wankel died in Heidelberg in October 1988, aged 86.His grave is in the Bergfriedhof of Heidelberg.After his death, the Felix Wankel Foundation sold its real estate property to Volkswagen AG.", "The Heidelberg Fire Department showcases his last workshop.", "Wankel's papers are archived in the Technoseum in Mannheim.", "Furthermore, there is an exhibition \"AUTOVISION · Tradition & Forum\" in Altlußheim, a permanent showing of over 80 rotary engines and many cars equipped with Wankel motors.===Licenses=== Licensing date Company Country Licensed for21 October 1958 Curtiss-Wright Corp.", "US Without restriction, no series29 December 1960 Fichtel & Sachs AG Germany Industrial engine and boat, 0.5–30 PS25 February 1961 Yanmar Diesel Co. Ltd Japan Gasoline and Diesel engine, 1–100 PS, 1–300 PS27 February 1961 Toyo Kogyo, Co. Ltd. (Mazda) Japan Gasoline 1–200 PS land vehicles4 October 1961 Klöckner-Humboldt-Deutz AG Germany Diesel engine without restriction26 October 1961 Daimler-Benz AG Germany Gasoline 50 PS upwards30 October 1961 MAN AG Germany Diesel engine without restriction2 November 1961 Friedrich Krupp AG Germany Diesel engine without restriction12 March 1964 Daimler-Benz AG Germany Diesel engine without restriction15 April 1964 S.p.A. Alfa Romeo Italy Gasoline engine 50–300 PS or Passenger car17 February 1965 Rolls-Royce Motors Ltd. UK Diesel and hybrid engines 100–850 Ps18 February 1965 IFA VEB Germany Gasoline engine 0.5–25 PS and 50–150 PS2 March 1965 Porsche Germany Gasoline engine 50–1000 Ps1 March 1966 Outboard Marine Corp.", "US Gasoline engine 50–400 Ps11 May 1967 Comotor S.A. Luxembourg Gasoline and Diesel engine 40–200 PS12 September 1967 Graupner/O.S.", "Engines Germany/Japan 0,1–3 PS model engines28 August 1969 Savkel Ltd. Israel Gasoline 0.5–30 PS industrial engines1 October 1970 Nissan Japan Gasoline engines 80–120 Ps10 November 1970 General Motors US Everything, except aircraft engines24 November 1970 Suzuki Japan Gasoline engines 20–60 PS for motorcycle25 May 1971 Toyota Japan Gasoline engines 75–150 PS29 November 1971 Ford-Werke AG, Köln Germany Gasoline engines 80–200 PS (1974 quit)25 July 1972 BSA Ltd. UK Gasoline engines 35–60 PS for motorcycle29 September 1972 Yamaha Japan Gasoline engines 20–80 PS for motorcycle4 October 1971 Kawasaki Heavy Industries Ltd. Japan Gasoline engines 20–80 PS for motorcycle3 February 1973 American Motors (AMC) US Gasoline engines 20–200 PS" ], [ "Honors and awards", "*Honorary doctorate degree from Technische Universität München, 5 December 1969.", "*The Federation of German Engineers (VDI) Gold Medal, 1969.", "*The Grand Federal Service Cross, Germany's highest civilian honor, 1970*John Price Wetherill Medal, Philadelphia, 1971.", "*The Bavarian Service Medal, 1973.", "*The \"Honour Citizen\" of Lahr, 1981, and the title of Professor in 1987.", "*The Soichiro Honda Medal, 1987.", "*Honorary citizenship of Lindau (declined)" ], [ "See also", "*German inventors and discoverers*NSU Ro 80*Citroën GS Birotor*Mazda RX-7*Mazda RX-8*AvtoVAZ*Hercules W2000*Norton Classic*Norton Commander*Suzuki RE5*Van Veen OCR1000 *MidWest AE series" ], [ "References" ], [ "Cited sources", "*" ], [ "External links", "** Animated Engines, Wankel – Animations of Wankel and other engines, i.e.", "steam, stirling, internal combustion." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "February 4" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre–1600===* 211 – Following the death of the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus at Eboracum (modern York, England) while preparing to lead a campaign against the Caledonians, the empire is left in the control of his two quarrelling sons, Caracalla and Geta, whom he had instructed to make peace.", "* 960 – Zhao Kuangyin declares himself Emperor Taizu of Song, ending the Later Zhou and beginning the Song dynasty.", "*1169 – A strong earthquake strikes the Ionian coast of Sicily, causing tens of thousands of injuries and deaths, especially in Catania.", "*1454 – Thirteen Years' War: The Secret Council of the Prussian Confederation sends a formal act of disobedience to the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, sparking the Thirteen Years' War.", "*1555 – John Rogers is burned at the stake, becoming the first English Protestant martyr under Mary I of England.===1601–1900===*1703 – In Edo (now Tokyo), all but one of the Forty-seven Ronin commit seppuku (ritual suicide) as recompense for avenging their master's death.", "*1758 – The city of Macapá in Brazil is founded by Sebastião Veiga Cabral.", "*1789 – George Washington is unanimously elected as the first President of the United States by the U.S.", "Electoral College.", "*1794 – The French legislature abolishes slavery throughout all territories of the French First Republic.", "It would be reestablished in the French West Indies in 1802.", "*1797 – The Riobamba earthquake strikes Ecuador, causing up to 40,000 casualties.", "*1801 – John Marshall is sworn in as Chief Justice of the United States.", "*1810 – Napoleonic Wars: Britain seizes Guadeloupe.", "*1820 – The Chilean Navy under the command of Lord Cochrane completes the two-day long Capture of Valdivia with just 300 men and two ships.", "*1825 – The Ohio Legislature authorizes the construction of the Ohio and Erie Canal and the Miami and Erie Canal.", "*1846 – The first Mormon pioneers make their exodus from Nauvoo, Illinois, westward towards Salt Lake Valley.", "*1859 – The Codex Sinaiticus is discovered in Egypt.", "*1861 – American Civil War: In Montgomery, Alabama, delegates from six breakaway U.S. states meet and initiate the process that would form the Confederate States of America on February 8.", "*1899 – The Philippine–American War begins when four Filipino soldiers enter the \"American Zone\" in Manila, igniting the Battle of Manila.===1901–present===*1932 – Second Sino-Japanese War: Harbin, Manchuria, falls to Japan.", "*1938 – Adolf Hitler appoints himself as head of the Armed Forces High Command.", "*1941 – The United Service Organization (USO) is created to entertain American troops.", "*1945 – World War II: Santo Tomas Internment Camp is liberated from Japanese authority.", "* 1945 – World War II: The Yalta Conference between the \"Big Three\" (Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin) opens at the Livadia Palace in the Crimea.", "* 1945 – World War II: The British Indian Army and Imperial Japanese Army begin a series of battles known as the Battle of Pokoku and Irrawaddy River operations.", "*1948 – Ceylon (later renamed Sri Lanka) becomes independent within the British Commonwealth.", "*1961 – The Angolan War of Independence and the greater Portuguese Colonial War begin.", "*1966 – All Nippon Airways Flight 60 plunges into Tokyo Bay, killing 133.", "*1967 – Lunar Orbiter program: Lunar Orbiter 3 lifts off from Cape Canaveral's Launch Complex 13 on its mission to identify possible landing sites for the Surveyor and Apollo spacecraft.", "*1974 – The Symbionese Liberation Army kidnaps Patty Hearst in Berkeley, California.", "* 1974 – M62 coach bombing: The Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) explodes a bomb on a bus carrying off-duty British Armed Forces personnel in Yorkshire, England.", "Nine soldiers and three civilians are killed.", "*1975 – Haicheng earthquake (magnitude 7.3 on the Richter scale) occurs in Haicheng, Liaoning, China.", "*1976 – In Guatemala and Honduras an earthquake kills more than 22,000.", "*1977 – A Chicago Transit Authority elevated train rear-ends another and derails, killing 11 and injuring 180, the worst accident in the agency's history.", "*1992 – A coup d'état is led by Hugo Chávez against Venezuelan President Carlos Andrés Pérez.", "*1997 – En route to Lebanon, two Israeli Sikorsky CH-53 troop-transport helicopters collide in mid-air over northern Galilee, Israel, killing 73.", "* 1997 – The Bojnurd earthquake measuring 6.5 strikes Iran.", "With a Mercalli intensity of VIII, it kills at least 88 and damages 173 villages.", "*1998 – The 5.9 Afghanistan earthquake shakes the Takhar Province with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII (''Very strong'').", "With 2,323 killed, and 818 injured, damage is considered extreme.", "*1999 – Unarmed West African immigrant Amadou Diallo is shot 41 times by four plainclothes New York City police officers on an unrelated stake-out, inflaming race relations in the city.", "*2000 – The World Summit Against Cancer for the New Millennium, Charter of Paris is signed by the President of France, Jacques Chirac and the Director General of UNESCO, Koichiro Matsuura, initiating World Cancer Day which is held on February 4 every year.", "*2003 – The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia adopts a new constitution, becoming a loose confederacy between Montenegro and Serbia.", "*2004 – Facebook, a mainstream online social networking site, is founded by Mark Zuckerberg and Eduardo Saverin.", "*2008 – Civic mobilizations in Colombia against FARC, under the name ''A million voices against the FARC''.", "*2015 – TransAsia Airways Flight 235, with 58 people on board, en route from the Taiwanese capital Taipei to Kinmen, crashes into the Keelung River just after takeoff, killing 43 people.", "*2020 – The COVID-19 pandemic causes all casinos in Macau to be closed down for 15 days." ], [ "Births", "===Pre–1600===*1447 – Lodovico Lazzarelli, Italian poet (d. 1500)*1495 – Francesco II Sforza, Duke of Milan (d. 1535)* 1495 – Jean Parisot de Valette, Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller (d. 1568)*1505 – Mikołaj Rej, Polish poet and author (d. 1580)*1575 – Pierre de Bérulle, French cardinal and theologian, founded the French school of spirituality (d. 1629)===1601–1900===*1646 – Hans Erasmus Aßmann, German poet and politician (d. 1699)*1677 – Johann Ludwig Bach, German violinist and composer (d. 1731)*1688 – Pierre de Marivaux, French author and playwright (d. 1763)*1725 – Dru Drury, English entomologist and author (d. 1804)*1740 – Carl Michael Bellman, Swedish poet and composer (d. 1795)*1778 – Augustin Pyramus de Candolle, Swiss botanist, mycologist, and academic (d. 1841)*1799 – Almeida Garrett, Portuguese journalist and author (d. 1854)*1818 – Emperor Norton, San Francisco eccentric and visionary (d. 1880)*1831 – Oliver Ames, American financier and politician, 35th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1895)*1848 – Jean Aicard, French poet, author, and playwright (d. 1921)*1849 – Jean Richepin, French poet, author, and playwright (d. 1926)*1862 – Édouard Estaunié, French novelist (d. 1942)*1865 – Abe Isoo, Japanese minister and politician (d. 1949)*1868 – Constance Markievicz, Irish revolutionary and first woman elected to the UK House of Commons (d. 1927)*1869 – Bill Haywood, American labor organizer (d. 1928)*1871 – Friedrich Ebert, German lawyer and politician, first President of Germany (d. 1925)*1872 – Gotse Delchev, Bulgarian and Macedonian revolutionary activist (d. 1903)*1873 – Étienne Desmarteau, Canadian shot putter and discus thrower (d. 1905)*1875 – Ludwig Prandtl, German physicist and engineer (d. 1953)*1877 – Eddie Cochems, American football player and coach (d. 1953)*1881 – Eulalio Gutiérrez, Mexican general and politician, President of Mexico (d. 1939)* 1881 – Fernand Léger, French painter and sculptor (d. 1955)* 1881 – Kliment Voroshilov, Soviet politician and Marshal of the Soviet Union, People's Commissar for Defence (d. 1969)*1883 – Reinhold Rudenberg, German-American inventor and a pioneer of electron microscopy (d. 1961)*1891 – M. A. Ayyangar, Indian lawyer and politician, second Speaker of the Lok Sabha (d. 1978)*1892 – E. J. Pratt, Canadian poet and academic (d. 1964)*1893 – Raymond Dart, Australian paleoanthropologist (d. 1988)*1895 – Nigel Bruce, English actor (d. 1953)*1896 – Friedrich Glauser, Austrian-Swiss author (d. 1938)* 1896 – Friedrich Hund, German physicist and academic (d. 1997)*1897 – Ludwig Erhard, German soldier and politician, second Chancellor of West Germany (d. 1977)*1899 – Virginia M. Alexander, American physician and founder of the Aspiranto Health Home (d. 1949)*1900 – Jacques Prévert, French poet and screenwriter (d. 1977)===1901–present===*1902 – Charles Lindbergh, American pilot and explorer (d. 1974)* 1902 – Hartley Shawcross, Baron Shawcross, German-English lawyer and politician, Attorney General for England and Wales (d. 2003)*1903 – Alexander Imich, Polish-American chemist, parapsychologist, and academic (d. 2014)*1904 – MacKinlay Kantor, American author and screenwriter (d. 1977)* 1904 – Deng Yingchao, Chinese politician, Chairwoman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (d. 1968)*1905 – Hylda Baker, English comedian, actress and music hall performer (d. 1986)*1906 – Dietrich Bonhoeffer, German pastor and theologian (d. 1945)* 1906 – Letitia Dunbar-Harrison, Irish librarian (d. 1994)* 1906 – Clyde Tombaugh, American astronomer and academic, discovered Pluto (d. 1997)*1908 – Julian Bell, English poet and academic (d. 1937)*1912 – Ola Skjåk Bræk, Norwegian banker and politician, Norwegian Minister of Industry (d. 1999)* 1912 – Erich Leinsdorf, Austrian-American conductor (d. 1993)* 1912 – Byron Nelson, American golfer and sportscaster (d. 2006)*1913 – Rosa Parks, American civil rights activist (d. 2005)*1914 – Alfred Andersch, German-Swiss author and publisher (d. 1980)*1915 – William Talman, American actor and screenwriter (d. 1968)* 1915 – Norman Wisdom, English comedian, actor and singer-songwriter (d. 2010)*1917 – Yahya Khan, Pakistan general and politician, third President of Pakistan (d. 1980)*1918 – Ida Lupino, English-American actress and director (d. 1995)* 1918 – Luigi Pareyson, Italian philosopher and author (d. 1991)*1920 – Janet Waldo, American actress and voice artist (d. 2016)*1921 – Betty Friedan, American author and feminist (d. 2006)* 1921 – Lotfi Zadeh, Iranian-American mathematician and computer scientist and founder of fuzzy logic (d. 2017)*1922 – Bhimsen Joshi, Indian vocalist of the Hindustani classical music tradition (d. 2011)*1923 – Conrad Bain, Canadian-American actor (d. 2013)*1925 – Russell Hoban, American author and illustrator (d. 2011)* 1925 – Stanley Karnow, American journalist and historian (d. 2013)* 1925 – Christopher Zeeman, English mathematician and academic (d. 2016)*1926 – Gyula Grosics, Hungarian footballer and manager (d. 2014)*1927 – Rolf Landauer, German-American physicist and academic (d. 1999)*1928 – Oscar Cabalén, Argentinian racing driver (d. 1967)* 1928 – Osmo Antero Wiio, Finnish journalist, academic, and politician (d. 2013)*1929 – Jerry Adler, American actor, director, and producer* 1929 – Paul Burlison, American musician (d. 2003)* 1929 – Neil Johnston, American basketball player (d. 1978)*1930 – Tibor Antalpéter, Hungarian volleyball player and diplomat, Hungarian Ambassador to the United Kingdom (d. 2012)* 1930 – Arthur E. Chase, American businessman and politician (d. 2015)* 1930 – Jim Loscutoff, American basketball player and coach (d. 2015)*1931 – Isabel Perón, Argentinian dancer and politician, 41st President of Argentina*1935 – Wallis Mathias, Pakistani cricketer (d. 1994)* 1935 – Martti Talvela, Finnish opera singer (d. 1989)* 1935 – Collin Wilcox, American actress (d. 2009)*1936 – David Brenner, American comedian, actor, and author (d. 2014)* 1936 – Gary Conway, American actor* 1936 – Claude Nobs, Swiss businessman, founded the Montreux Jazz Festival (d. 2013)*1937 – Birju Maharaj, Indian dancer, composer, singer and exponent of the Lucknow \"Kalka-Bindadin\" Gharana of Kathak dance (d. 2022)* 1937 – David Newman, American director and screenwriter (d. 2003)*1938 – Frank J. Dodd, American businessman and politician, president of the New Jersey Senate (d. 2010)*1939 – Stan Lundine, American lawyer and politician, Lieutenant Governor of New York*1940 – George A. Romero, American director and producer (d. 2017)* 1940 – John Schuck, American actor*1941 – Russell Cooper, Australian politician, 33rd Premier of Queensland* 1941 – Ron Rangi, New Zealand rugby player (d. 1988)* 1941 – Jiří Raška, Czech skier and coach (d. 2012)* 1941 – John Steel, English musician and songwriter*1943 – Alberto João Jardim, Portuguese journalist and politician, second President of the Regional Government of Madeira* 1943 – Wanda Rutkiewicz, Lithuanian-Polish mountaineer (d. 1992)* 1943 – Ken Thompson, American computer scientist and programmer, co-developed the B programming language*1944 – Florence LaRue, American singer and actress*1944 – Alan Shields, American artist and ship captain (d. 2005)*1947 – Dennis C. Blair, American admiral and politician, third Director of National Intelligence* 1947 – Dan Quayle, American sergeant, lawyer, and politician, 44th Vice President of the United States*1948 – Alice Cooper, American singer-songwriter * 1948 – Mienoumi Tsuyoshi, Japanese sumo wrestler*1949 – Michael Beck, American actor* 1949 – Rasim Delić, Bosnian general (d. 2010)*1951 – Patrick Bergin, Irish actor *1952 – Lisa Eichhorn, American actress, writer, and producer* 1952 – Jenny Shipley, New Zealand politician, Prime Minister of New Zealand* 1952 – Thomas Silverstein, American criminal and prisoner (d. 2019)*1955 – Mikuláš Dzurinda, Slovak politician, Prime Minister of Slovakia*1957 – Matthew Cobb, British zoologist and author*1958 – Tomasz Pacyński, Polish journalist and author (d. 2005)*1959 – Christian Schreier, German footballer and manager* 1959 – Lawrence Taylor, American football player*1960 – Siobhan Dowd, English author and activist (d. 2007)* 1960 – Jonathan Larson, American lyricist, composer, and playwright (d. 1996)*1961 – Denis Savard, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1962 – Clint Black, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer* 1962 – Vern Fleming, American basketball player*1963 – Noodles, American musician and songwriter* 1963 – Pirmin Zurbriggen, Swiss skier*1964 – Elke Philipp, German Paralympic equestrian*1965 – Jerome Brown, American football player (d. 1992)*1966 – Viatcheslav Ekimov, Russian cyclist*1967 – Sergei Grinkov, Russian figure skater (d. 1995)*1970 – Gabrielle Anwar, English-American actress* 1970 – Hunter Biden, American attorney and lobbyist*1971 – Rob Corddry, American actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1971 – Michael A. Goorjian, American actor, director, and writer*1972 – Giovanni, Brazilian footballer and manager* 1972 – Dara Ó Briain, Irish comedian and television host*1973 – Oscar De La Hoya, American boxer *1975 – Natalie Imbruglia, Australian singer-songwriter and actress*1976 – Cam'ron, American rapper and actor*1977 – Gavin DeGraw, American singer-songwriter *1979 – Giorgio Pantano, Italian racing driver*1980 – Raimonds Vaikulis, Latvian basketball player*1981 – Jason Kapono, American basketball player* 1981 – Johan Vansummeren, Belgian cyclist*1982 – Ivars Timermanis, Latvian basketball player*1983 – Hannibal Buress, American comedian and actor* 1983 – Rebecca White, Australian politician*1984 – Doug Fister, American baseball player* 1984 – Mauricio Pinilla, Chilean footballer*1986 – Maximilian Götz, German racing driver* 1986 – Mahmudullah Riyad, Bangladeshi cricketer*1987 – Darren O'Dea, Irish footballer* 1987 – Lucie Šafářová, Czech tennis player*1988 – Charlie Barnett, American actor* 1988 – Carly Patterson, American gymnast and singer*1989 – Lavoy Allen, American basketball player*1996 – Mohamed Sherif, Egyptian footballer*1998 – Malik Monk, American basketball player* 1998 – Maximilian Wöber, Austrian footballer*2003 – Kyla Kenedy, American actress* 2003 – Rasmus Højlund, Danish footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre–1600===* 211 – Septimius Severus, Roman emperor (b.", "145)* 708 – Pope Sisinnius (b.", "650)* 856 – Rabanus Maurus, Frankish archbishop and theologian (b.", "780)* 870 – Ceolnoth, archbishop of Canterbury*1169 – John of Ajello, Bishop of Catania *1498 – Antonio del Pollaiuolo, Italian artist (b.", "1429/1433)*1505 – Jeanne de Valois, daughter of Louis XI of France (b.", "1464)*1508 – Conrad Celtes, German poet and scholar (b.", "1459)*1555 – John Rogers, English clergyman and translator (b.", "1505)*1590 – Gioseffo Zarlino, Italian composer and theorist (b.", "1517)===1601–1900===*1615 – Giambattista della Porta, Italian playwright and scholar (b.", "1535)*1617 – Lodewijk Elzevir, Dutch publisher, co-founded the House of Elzevir (b.", "1546)*1713 – Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury, English philosopher and politician (b.", "1671)*1774 – Charles Marie de La Condamine, French mathematician and geographer (b.", "1701)*1781 – Josef Mysliveček, Czech composer (b.", "1737)*1799 – Étienne-Louis Boullée, French architect and educator (b.", "1728)*1843 – Theodoros Kolokotronis, Greek general (b.", "1770)*1891 – Pelagio Antonio de Labastida y Dávalos, Roman Catholic archbishop and Mexican politician who served as regent during the Second Mexican Empire (b.", "1816)===1901–present===*1905 – Louis-Ernest Barrias, French sculptor and academic (b.", "1841)*1912 – Franz Reichelt, French tailor and inventor (b.", "1878)*1926 – İskilipli Âtıf Hodja, Turkish author and scholar (b.", "1875)*1928 – Hendrik Lorentz, Dutch physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1853)*1933 – Archibald Sayce, English linguist and educator (b.", "1846)*1936 – Wilhelm Gustloff, German-Swiss soldier, founded Swiss NSDAP/AO (b.", "1895)*1940 – Nikolai Yezhov, Russian police officer and politician (b.", "1895)*1943 – Frank Calder, English-Canadian ice hockey player and journalist (b.", "1877)*1944 – Arsen Kotsoyev, Russian author and translator (b.", "1872)*1956 – Savielly Tartakower, Russian-French chess player, journalist, and author (b.", "1887)*1958 – Henry Kuttner, American author and screenwriter (b.", "1915)*1959 – Una O'Connor, Irish-American actress (b.", "1880)*1968 – Neal Cassady, American novelist and poet (b.", "1926)*1970 – Louise Bogan, American poet and critic (b.", "1897)*1974 – Satyendra Nath Bose, Indian physicist, mathematician, and academic (b.", "1894)*1975 – Louis Jordan, American singer-songwriter and saxophonist (b.", "1908)*1982 – Alex Harvey, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1935)* 1982 – Georg Konrad Morgen, German lawyer and judge (b.", "1909)*1983 – Karen Carpenter, American singer (b.", "1950)*1987 – Liberace, American singer-songwriter and pianist, (b.", "1919)* 1987 – Meena Keshwar Kamal, Afghan activist, founded the Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (b.", "1956)* 1987 – Carl Rogers, American psychologist and academic (b.", "1902)*1990 – Whipper Billy Watson, Canadian-American wrestler and trainer (b.", "1915)*1992 – John Dehner, American actor (b.", "1915)*1995 – Patricia Highsmith, American novelist and short story writer (b.", "1921)*2000 – Carl Albert, American lawyer and politician, 54th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (b.", "1908)*2002 – Count Sigvard Bernadotte of Wisborg (b.", "1907)*2003 – Benyoucef Benkhedda, Algerian pharmacist and politician (b.", "1920)*2005 – Ossie Davis, American actor, director, and playwright (b.", "1917)*2006 – Betty Friedan, American author and activist (b.", "1921)*2007 – José Carlos Bauer, Brazilian footballer and manager (b.", "1925)* 2007 – Ilya Kormiltsev, Russian-English poet and translator (b.", "1959)* 2007 – Barbara McNair, American singer and actress (b.", "1934)* 2007 – Jules Olitski, Ukrainian-American painter and sculptor (b.", "1922)* 2007 – Alfred Worm, Austrian journalist, author, and academic (b.", "1945)*2008 – Augusta Dabney, American actress (b.", "1918)* 2008 – Stefan Meller, Polish academic and politician, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Poland (b.", "1942)*2010 – Kostas Axelos, Greek-French philosopher and author (b.", "1924)* 2010 – Helen Tobias-Duesberg, Estonian-American composer (b.", "1919) *2011 – Martial Célestin, Haitian lawyer and politician, first Prime Minister of Haiti (b.", "1913)*2012 – István Csurka, Hungarian journalist and politician (b.", "1934)* 2012 – Florence Green, English soldier (b.", "1901)* 2012 – Robert Daniel, American farmer, soldier, and politician (b.", "1936)* 2012 – Mike deGruy, American director, producer, and cinematographer (b.", "1951)* 2012 – Susanne Suba, Hungarian-born watercolorist and illustrator, active in the United States (b.", "1913)*2013 – Donald Byrd, American trumpet player (b.", "1932)* 2013 – Reg Presley, English singer-songwriter (b.", "1941)*2014 – Keith Allen, Canadian-American ice hockey player, coach, and manager (b.", "1923)* 2014 – Eugenio Corti, Italian soldier, author, and playwright (b.", "1921)* 2014 – Dennis Lota, Zambian footballer (b.", "1973)\t* 2015 – Fitzhugh L. Fulton, American colonel and pilot (b.", "1925) \t*2016 – Edgar Mitchell, American captain, pilot, and astronaut (b.", "1930)*2017 – Steve Lang, Canadian bass player (b.", "1949)* 2017 – Bano Qudsia, Pakistani writer (b.", "1928)*2018 – John Mahoney, English-American actor, voice artist, and comedian (b.", "1940) *2019 – Matti Nykänen, Finnish Olympic-winning ski jumper and singer (b.", "1963)*2020 – Daniel arap Moi, Former President of Kenya (b.", "1924)*2021 – Millie Hughes-Fulford, American astronaut, molecular biologist and NASA payload specialist (b.", "1945)*2023 – Vani Jairam, Indian playback singer (b.", "1945)* 2023 – Sherif Ismail, 53rd Prime Minister of Egypt (b.", "1955)*2024 – Barry John, Welsh rugby player (b.", "1945)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Andrew Corsini**Gilbert of Sempringham**John de Brito**Goldrofe of Arganil**Blessed Rabanus Maurus**Rimbert**February 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Day of the Armed Struggle (Angola)*Earliest day on which Ash Wednesday can fall, while March 10 is the latest; celebrated on the first day of Lent (Western Christianity)*Independence Day (Sri Lanka)*Rosa Parks Day (California and Missouri, United States)*World Cancer Day*International Day of Human Fraternity==References==" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 4" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "February 8" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 421 – Constantius III becomes co-emperor of the Western Roman Empire.", "*1238 – The Mongols burn the Russian city of Vladimir.", "*1250 – Seventh Crusade: Crusaders engage Ayyubid forces in the Battle of Al Mansurah.", "*1347 – The Byzantine civil war of 1341–47 ends with a power-sharing agreement between John VI Kantakouzenos and John V Palaiologos.", "*1587 – Mary, Queen of Scots is executed on suspicion of having been involved in the Babington Plot to murder her cousin, Queen Elizabeth I.===1601–1900===*1601 – Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, unsuccessfully rebels against Queen Elizabeth I.", "*1693 – The College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, the second-oldest institution of higher education in the Thirteen Colonies, is granted a charter by King William III and Queen Mary II.", "*1807 – Napoleon defeats the coalition forces of Russian General Bennigsen and Prussian General L'Estocq at the Battle of Eylau.", "*1817 – An army led by Grand Marshal Las Heras crosses the Andes to join San Martín in the liberation of Chile from Spain.", "*1837 – Richard Johnson becomes the first and only Vice President of the United States chosen by the Senate.", "*1865 – Delaware refuses to ratify the Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, delaying the criminalization of slavery until the amendment's national adoption on December 6, 1865.The amendment is ultimately ratified by Delaware on February 12, 1901, the 92nd anniversary of Abraham Lincoln's birth.", "*1879 – Sandford Fleming first proposes the adoption of Universal Standard Time at a meeting of the Royal Canadian Institute.", "* 1879 – England's cricket team, led by Lord Harris, is attacked in a riot during a match in Sydney.", "*1885 – The first Japanese immigrants arrive in Hawaii.", "*1887 – The Dawes Act is enacted, authorizing the U.S. President to divide Native American tribal land into individual allotments.===1901–present===*1904 – Japanese forces launch a surprise attack against Russian-controlled Port Arthur, marking the start of the Russo-Japanese war.", "* 1904 – The Dutch Colonial Army's Marechaussee regiment led by General G.C.E.", "van Daalen launch a military campaign in the Dutch East Indies' Northern Sumatra region, leading to the deaths of thousands of civilians.", "*1910 – The Boy Scouts of America is incorporated by William D.", "Boyce.", "*1915 – D. W. Griffith's controversial landmark film ''The Birth of a Nation'' premieres in Los Angeles.", "*1924 – The first state execution in the United States by gas chamber takes place in Nevada.", "*1937 – Spanish Civil War: Republican forces establish the Interprovincial Council of Santander, Palencia and Burgos in Cantabria.", "*1942 – World War II: Japan invades Singapore.", "*1945 – World War II: British and Canadian forces commence Operation Veritable to occupy land between the Maas and Rhine rivers.", "* 1945 – World War II: Mikhail Devyataev escapes with nine other Soviet POWs from a Nazi concentration camp in Peenemünde, Usedom.", "* 1946 – The People's Republic of Korea is dissolved in the North and replaced by the communist-controlled Provisional People's Committee of North Korea.", "*1950 – The Stasi, the secret police of East Germany, is established.", "*1960 – Queen Elizabeth II issues an Order-in-Council, proclaiming the House of Windsor and declaring that her descendants will take the name Mountbatten-Windsor.", "* 1960 – The Hollywood Walk of Fame is founded.", "*1962 – Nine protestors are killed at Charonne station, Paris, by French police under the command of ex-Vichy official and Parisian Prefect of Police Maurice Papon.", "* 1963 – The regime of Prime Minister of Iraq Abd al-Karim Qasim is overthrown by the Ba'ath Party.", "*1965 – Eastern Air Lines Flight 663 crashes into the Atlantic Ocean and explodes, killing all 84 people onboard.", "*1968 – American civil rights movement: An attack on Black students from South Carolina State University who are protesting racial segregation leaves three dead and 28 injured in Orangeburg, South Carolina.", "*1971 – The NASDAQ stock market index opens for the first time.", "* 1971 – South Vietnamese ground troops launch an incursion into Laos to try to cut off the Ho Chi Minh trail and stop communist infiltration into the country.", "*1974 – The crew of Skylab 4, the last mission to visit the American space station Skylab, returns to Earth after 84 days in space.", "*1983 – A dust storm hits Melbourne, resulting in the worst drought on record and severe weather conditions in the city.", "* 1983 – Irish race horse Shergar is stolen and allegedly killed by gunmen in a ransom attempt by the PIRA.", "*1986 – Twenty-three people are killed when a VIA Rail passenger train collides with a Canadian National freight train near the town of Hinton, Alberta, making it one of the worst rail accidents in Canada.", "*1989 – Independent Air Flight 1851 strikes Pico Alto mountain while on approach to Santa Maria Airport in the Azores, killing all 144 passengers on board.", "* 1993 – An Iran Air Tours Tupolev Tu-154 and an Iranian Air Force Sukhoi Su-24 collide mid-air near Qods, Iran, killing all 133 people onboard both aircraft.", "*2010 – Over of road are buried after a storm in the Hindu Kush mountains of Afghanistan triggers a series of avalanches, killing at least 172 people and trapping over 2,000 others.", "*2013 – A blizzard kills at least 18 and leaves hundreds of thousands of people without electricity in the northeastern United States and parts of Canada.", "*2014 – A hotel fire in Medina, Saudi Arabia, kills 15 Egyptian pilgrims with 130 others injured." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*120 – Vettius Valens, Greek astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer (d. ~175)* 412 – Proclus, Greek mathematician and philosopher (d. ~485)* 882 – Muhammad ibn Tughj al-Ikhshid, Egyptian commander and politician, Abbasid Governor of Egypt (d. 946)*1191 – Yaroslav II of Vladimir (d. 1246)*1291 – Afonso IV of Portugal, Portuguese king (d. 1357)*1405 – Constantine XI Palaiologos, Byzantine emperor (d. 1453)*1487 – Ulrich, Duke of Württemberg, German duke (d. 1550)*1514 – Daniele Barbaro, Venetian churchman, diplomat and scholar (d. 1570)*1552 – Agrippa d'Aubigné, French poet and soldier (d. 1630)*1577 – Robert Burton, English priest, physician, and scholar (d. 1640)*1591 – Guercino, Italian painter (d. 1666)===1601–1900===*1685 – Charles-Jean-François Hénault, French historian and author (d. 1770)*1700 – Daniel Bernoulli, Dutch-Swiss mathematician and physicist (d. 1782)*1720 – Emperor Sakuramachi, Japanese emperor (d. 1750)*1741 – André Grétry, Belgian-French organist and composer (d. 1813)*1762 – Gia Long, Vietnamese emperor (d. 1820)*1764 – Joseph Leopold Eybler, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1846)*1792 – Caroline Augusta of Bavaria, German princess (d. 1873)*1798 – Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich of Russia, Russian grand duke (d. 1849)*1807 – Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins, English sculptor and zoologist (d. 1889)*1817 – Richard S. Ewell, American general (d. 1872)*1819 – John Ruskin, English author, critic, and academic (d. 1900)*1820 – William Tecumseh Sherman, American general (d. 1891)*1822 – Maxime Du Camp, French photographer and journalist (d. 1894)*1825 – Henry Walter Bates, English geographer, biologist, and explorer (d. 1892)*1828 – Jules Verne, French author, poet, and playwright (d. 1905)*1829 – Vital-Justin Grandin, French-Canadian bishop and missionary (d. 1902)*1834 – Dmitri Mendeleev, Russian chemist and academic (d. 1907)*1850 – Kate Chopin, American author (d. 1904)*1860 – Adella Brown Bailey, American politician and suffragist (d. 1937)*1866 – Moses Gomberg, Ukrainian-American chemist and academic (d. 1947)*1876 – Paula Modersohn-Becker, German painter (d. 1907)*1878 – Martin Buber, Austrian-Israeli philosopher and academic (d. 1965)*1880 – Franz Marc, German soldier and painter (d. 1916)* 1880 – Viktor Schwanneke, German actor and director (d. 1931)*1882 – Thomas Selfridge, American lieutenant and pilot (d. 1908)*1883 – Isak Penttala, Finnish politician (d. 1955)* 1883 – Joseph Schumpeter, Czech-American economist and political scientist (d. 1950)*1884 – Snowy Baker, Australian boxer, rugby player, and actor (d. 1953)*1886 – Charlie Ruggles, American actor (d. 1970)*1888 – Edith Evans, English actress (d. 1976)*1890 – Claro M. Recto, Filipino lawyer, jurist, and politician (d. 1960)*1893 – Ba Maw, Burmese lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Burma (d. 1977)*1894 – King Vidor, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1982)*1897 – Zakir Husain, Indian academic and politician, 3rd president of India (d. 1969)*1899 – Lonnie Johnson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1970)===1901–present===*1902 – Demchugdongrub, Mongol prince and politician, head of state of Mengjiang (d. 1966)*1903 – Greta Keller, Austrian-American singer and actress (d. 1977)* 1903 – Tunku Abdul Rahman, 1st Prime Minister of Malaysia (d. 1990)*1906 – Chester Carlson, American physicist and lawyer, invented Xerography (d. 1968)*1909 – Elisabeth Murdoch, Australian philanthropist (d. 2012)*1911 – Elizabeth Bishop, American poet and author (d. 1979)*1913 – Betty Field, American actress (d. 1973)* 1913 – Danai Stratigopoulou, Greek singer-songwriter (d. 2009)*1914 – Bill Finger, American author and screenwriter, co-created Batman (d. 1974)*1915 – Georges Guétary, Egyptian-French singer, dancer, and actor (d. 1997)*1918 – Freddie Blassie, American wrestler and manager (d. 2003)*1921 – Barney Danson, Canadian colonel and politician, 21st Canadian Minister of National Defence (d. 2011)* 1921 – Nexhmije Hoxha, Albanian politician (d. 2020)* 1921 – Balram Singh Rai, Guyanese politician, 1st Minister of Home Affairs (d. 2022) * 1921 – Lana Turner, American actress (d. 1995)*1922 – Audrey Meadows, American actress and banker (d. 1996)*1925 – Jack Lemmon, American actor (d. 2001)*1926 – Neal Cassady, American author and poet (d. 1968)* 1926 – Birgitte Reimer, Danish film actress (d. 2021)*1930 – Alejandro Rey, Argentinian-American actor and director (d. 1987)*1931 – James Dean, American actor (d. 1955)*1931 – Shadia, Egyptian actress and singer (d. 2017)*1932 – Cliff Allison, English racing driver and businessman (d. 2005)* 1932 – John Williams, American pianist, composer, and conductor*1933 – Elly Ameling, Dutch soprano*1937 – Joe Raposo, American pianist and composer (d. 1989)* 1937 – Harry Wu, Chinese human rights activist (d. 2016)*1939 – Jose Maria Sison, Filipino activist and theorist (d. 2022)*1940 – Sophie Lihau-Kanza, Congolese politician (d. 1999)* 1940 – Ted Koppel, English-American journalist*1941 – Nick Nolte, American actor and producer* 1941 – Tom Rush, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer* 1941 – Jagjit Singh, Indian singer-songwriter (d. 2011)*1942 – Robert Klein, American comedian, actor, and singer* 1942 – Terry Melcher, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2004)*1943 – Creed Bratton, American actor and musician* 1943 – Valerie Thomas, American scientist and inventor*1944 – Roger Lloyd-Pack, English actor (d. 2014)* 1944 – Sebastião Salgado, Brazilian photographer and journalist*1948 – Dan Seals, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2009)*1949 – Brooke Adams, American actress, producer, and screenwriter* 1949 – Niels Arestrup, French actor, director, and screenwriter*1952 – Marinho Chagas, Brazilian footballer and coach (d. 2014)*1953 – Mary Steenburgen, American actress*1955 – John Grisham, American lawyer and author* 1955 – Jim Neidhart, American wrestler (d. 2018)*1956 – Marques Johnson, American basketball player and sportscaster*1957 – Karine Chemla, French historian of mathematics and sinologist*1958 – Sherri Martel, American wrestler and manager (d. 2007)* 1958 – Marina Silva, Brazilian environmentalist and politician*1959 – Henry Czerny, Canadian actor* 1959 – Heinz Gunthardt, Swiss tennis player* 1959 – Andrew Hoy, Australian equestrian rider* 1959 – Mauricio Macri, Argentinian businessman and politician, President of Argentina*1960 – Benigno Aquino III, Filipino politician, 15th President of the Philippines (d. 2021)* 1960 – Dino Ciccarelli, Canadian ice hockey player*1961 – Vince Neil, American singer-songwriter and actor*1963 – Mohammad Azharuddin, Indian cricketer and politician*1964 – Arlie Petters, Belizean-American mathematical physicist and academic* 1964 – Santosh Sivan, Indian director, cinematographer, producer, and actor* 1964 – Trinny Woodall, English fashion designer and author*1966 – Kirk Muller, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1966 – Hristo Stoichkov, Bulgarian footballer and manager*1967 – Michael Ansley, American basketball player*1968 – Gary Coleman, American actor (d. 2010)*1969 – Pauly Fuemana, New Zealand-Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2010)* 1969 – Mary Robinette Kowal, American puppeteer and author* 1969 – Mary McCormack, American actress and producer*1970 – Stephanie Courtney, American actress and comedian* 1970 – John Filan, Australian footballer and coach* 1970 – Alonzo Mourning, American basketball player and executive*1971 – Aidy Boothroyd, English footballer and manager* 1971 – Mika Karppinen, Swedish-Finnish drummer and songwriter* 1971 – Susan Misner, American actress*1972 – Big Show, American wrestler and actor*1973 – Michelle Brogan, Australian basketball player*1974 – Guy-Manuel de Homem-Christo, French musician, singer, composer, and record producer* 1974 – Seth Green, American actor, voice artist, comedian, producer, writer, and director* 1974 – Joshua Morrow, American actor* 1974 – Kimbo Slice, Bahamian-American mixed martial artist (d. 2016)*1976 – Khaled Mashud, Bangladeshi cricketer* 1976 – Nicolas Vouilloz, French rally driver and mountain biker*1977 – Dave Farrell, American musician and songwriter* 1977 – Roman Kostomarov, Russian ice dancer*1978 – Ranveer Brar, Indian chef, author, restauranteur, and television personality* 1978 – Mick de Brenni, Australian politician*1979 – Aaron Cook, American baseball player*1980 – William Jackson Harper, American actor*1981 – Steve Gohouri, Ivorian footballer (d. 2015)* 1981 – Myriam Montemayor Cruz, Mexican singer* 1981 – Jim Parrack, American actor*1983 – Jermaine Anderson, Canadian basketball player* 1983 – Cory Jane, New Zealand rugby player*1984 – Sean Bergenheim, Finnish ice hockey player* 1984 – Cecily Strong, American actress* 1984 – Panagiotis Vasilopoulos, Greek basketball player*1985 – Petra Cetkovská, Czech tennis player* 1985 – Jeremy Davis, American bass player and songwriter* 1985 – Félix Pie, Dominican baseball player* 1985 – Brian Randle, American basketball player and coach*1986 – Anderson .Paak, American singer, songwriter, rapper, and record producer*1987 – Javi García, Spanish footballer* 1987 – Carolina Kostner, Italian figure skater*1988 – Keegan Meth, Zimbabwean cricketer*1989 – Zac Guildford, New Zealand rugby player* 1989 – JaJuan Johnson, American basketball player* 1989 – Julio Jones, American football player* 1989 – Brendan Smith, Canadian ice hockey player* 1989 – Courtney Vandersloot, American-Hungarian basketball player*1990 – Bethany Hamilton, American surfer* 1990 – Klay Thompson, American basketball player*1991 – Nam Woo-hyun, South Korean singer*1992 – Bruno Martins Indi, Portuguese-Dutch footballer*1994 – Hakan Çalhanoğlu, Turkish footballer* 1994 – Nikki Yanofsky, Canadian singer-songwriter*1995 – Gabriel Deck, Argentine basketball player* 1995 – Joshua Kimmich, German footballer*1996 – Kenedy, Brazilian footballer* 1996 – Leighton Vander Esch, American football player*1997 – Kathryn Newton, American actress*1998 – Rui Hachimura, Japanese basketball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 538 – Severus of Antioch, patriarch of Antioch (b.", "465)*1204 – Alexios IV Angelos, Byzantine emperor (b.", "1182)*1229 – Ali ibn Hanzala, sixth ''Dāʿī al-Muṭlaq'' of Tayyibi Isma'ilism*1250 – Robert I, Count of Artois (b.", "1216)* 1250 – William II Longespée, Earl of Salisbury, English martyr (b.", "1212)*1265 – Hulagu Khan, Mongol ruler (b.", "1217)*1285 – Theodoric of Landsberg (b.", "1242)*1296 – Przemysł II of Poland (b.", "1257)*1314 – Helen of Anjou, queen of Serbia (b.", "1236)*1382 – Blanche of France, Duchess of Orléans (b.", "1328)*1537 – Saint Gerolamo Emiliani, Italian humanitarian (b.", "1481)*1599 – Robert Rollock, Scottish theologian and academic (b.", "1555)===1601–1900===*1676 – Alexis of Russia (b.", "1629)*1696 – Ivan V of Russia (b.", "1666)*1709 – Giuseppe Torelli, Italian violinist and composer (b.", "1658)*1725 – Peter the Great, Russian emperor (b.", "1672)*1749 – Jan van Huysum, Dutch painter (b.", "1682)*1750 – Aaron Hill, English playwright and poet (b.", "1685)*1772 – Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha (b.", "1719)*1849 – François Habeneck, French violinist and conductor (b.", "1781)* 1849 – France Prešeren, Slovenian poet and lawyer (b.", "1800)*1856 – Agostino Bassi, Italian entomologist and academic (b.", "1773)===1901–present===*1907 – Hendrik Willem Bakhuis Roozeboom, Dutch chemist and academic (b.", "1854)*1910 – Hans Jæger, Norwegian philosopher and activist (b.", "1854)*1915 – François Langelier, Canadian journalist, lawyer, and politician, 10th Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (b.", "1838)*1921 – George Formby Sr, English actor and singer (b.", "1876)* 1921 – Peter Kropotkin, Russian zoologist, geographer, and philologist (b.", "1842)*1928 – Theodor Curtius, German chemist (b.", "1857)*1932 – Yordan Milanov, Bulgarian architect, designed the Sveti Sedmochislenitsi Church (b.", "1867)*1935 – Eemil Nestor Setälä, Finnish linguist and politician, Minister for Foreign Affairs (b.", "1864)*1936 – Charles Curtis, American lawyer and politician, 31st Vice President of the United States (b.", "1860)*1938 – Olga Taratuta, Ukrainian Jewish anarchist (b.", "1876)*1945 – Italo Santelli, Italian fencer and coach (b.", "1866)*1956 – Connie Mack, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1862)*1957 – Walther Bothe, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1891)* 1957 – John von Neumann, Hungarian-American mathematician and physicist (b.", "1903)*1959 – William J. Donovan, American head of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) (b.", "1883)*1960 – J. L. Austin, English philosopher and academic (b.", "1911)* 1960 – Giles Gilbert Scott, English architect and engineer, designed the Red telephone box and Liverpool Cathedral (b.", "1880)*1963 – George Dolenz, Italian-American actor (b.", "1908)*1964 – Ernst Kretschmer, German psychiatrist and author (b.", "1888)*1970 – Cahir Healy, Northern Irish republican and politician (b.", "1877) *1971 – Kanaiyalal Munshi, Indian independence movement activist, politician, writer and educationist (b.", "1887)*1972 – Markos Vamvakaris, Greek singer-songwriter and bouzouki player (b.", "1905)*1975 – Robert Robinson, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.1886)*1977 – Eivind Groven, Norwegian composer and theorist (b.", "1901)*1979 – Dennis Gabor, Hungarian-English physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1900)*1980 – Nikos Xilouris, Greek singer-songwriter (b.", "1936)*1982 – John Hay Whitney, American financier and diplomat, United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom (b.", "1904)*1985 – William Lyons, English businessman, co-founded Swallow Sidecar Company (b.", "1901)*1987 – Harriet E. MacGibbon, American actress (b.", "1905)*1990 – Del Shannon, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1934)* 1990 – Ernest Titterton, British Australian nuclear physicist (b.", "1916)*1992 – Stanley Armour Dunham, American sergeant (b.", "1918)*1994 – Raymond Scott, American pianist and composer (b.", "1908)*1996 – Del Ennis, American baseball player (b.", "1925)*1997 – Corey Scott, American motorcycle stunt rider (b.", "1968)*1998 – Halldór Laxness, Icelandic author, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1902)* 1998 – Enoch Powell, English soldier and politician, Secretary of State for Health (b.", "1912)* 1998 – Julian Simon, American economist and author (b.", "1932)*1999 – Iris Murdoch, Irish-born British novelist and philosopher (b.", "1919)*2000 – Sid Abel, Canadian-American ice hockey player, coach, and sportscaster (b.", "1918)* 2000 – Derrick Thomas, American football player (b.", "1967)*2001 – Ivo Caprino, Norwegian director and screenwriter (b.", "1920)*2002 – Ong Teng Cheong, Singaporean architect and politician, 5th President of Singapore (b.", "1936)*2004 – Julius Schwartz, American journalist and author (b.", "1915)*2005 – A. Chandranehru, Sri Lankan sailor and politician (b.", "1944)*2006 – Elton Dean, English saxophonist, songwriter, and producer (b.", "1945)* 2006 – Thierry Fortineau, French actor (b.", "1953)* 2006 – Akira Ifukube, Japanese composer (b.", "1914)*2007 – Anna Nicole Smith, American model and actress (b.", "1967)* 2007 – Ian Stevenson, Canadian-American psychiatrist and academic (b.", "1918)*2008 – Ruby Garrard Woodson, American educator and cultural historian (b.", "1931)*2010 – John Murtha, American colonel and politician (b.", "1932)*2011 – Tony Malinosky, American baseball player and soldier (b.", "1909)*2012 – Wando, Brazilian singer-songwriter (b.", "1945)* 2012 – Luis Alberto Spinetta, Argentinian singer-songwriter (b.", "1950)*2013 – Giovanni Cheli, Italian cardinal (b.", "1918)* 2013 – James DePreist, American conductor and educator (b.", "1936)* 2013 – Maureen Dragone, American journalist and author (b.", "1920)* 2013 – Nevin Scrimshaw, American scientist (b.", "1918)*2014 – Els Borst, Dutch physician and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands (b.", "1932)* 2014 – Maicon Pereira de Oliveira, Brazilian footballer (b.", "1988)* 2014 – Nancy Holt, American sculptor and painter (b.", "1938)*2015 – Rauni-Leena Luukanen-Kilde, Finnish physician and parapsychologist (b.", "1939)*2016 – Amelia Bence, Argentine actress (b.", "1914)* 2016 – Nida Fazli, Indian poet and songwriter (b.", "1938)* 2016 – Margaret Forster, English historian, author, and critic (b.", "1938)* 2016 – Violette Verdy, French ballerina (b.", "1933)*2017 – Peter Mansfield, English physicist, Nobel laureate (b.", "1933)* 2017 – Rina Matsuno, Japanese idol singer (b.", "1998)* 2017 – Alan Simpson, English scriptwriter (b.", "1929)*2020 – Robert Conrad, American actor (b.", "1935)*2021 – Marty Schottenheimer, American football player and coach (b.", "1943)* 2021 – Mary Wilson, American singer (b.", "1944)*2023 – Arto Heiskanen, Finnish professional hockey player (b.", "1963)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Cuthmann of Steyning**Elffled of Whitby**Gerolamo Emiliani**Josephine Bakhita**Juventius of Pavia**Mengold of Huy**Stephen of Muret**February 8 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Parinirvana Day (some Mahayana Buddhism traditions; most celebrate on February 15)*Prešeren Day (Slovenia)*Propose Day (India)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 8" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "February 9" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 474 – Zeno is crowned as co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire.", "*1003 – Boleslaus III is restored to authority with armed support from Bolesław I the Brave of Poland.", "*1098 – A First Crusade army led by Bohemond of Taranto wins a major battle against the Seljuq emir Ridwan of Aleppo during the siege of Antioch*1539 – The first recorded race is held on Chester Racecourse, known as the Roodee.", "*1555 – Bishop of Gloucester John Hooper is burned at the stake.===1601–1900===*1621 – Gregory XV becomes Pope, the last Pope elected by acclamation.", "*1654 – The Capture of Fort Rocher takes place during the Anglo-Spanish War.", "*1775 – American Revolutionary War: The British Parliament declares Massachusetts in rebellion.", "*1778 – Rhode Island becomes the fourth US state to ratify the Articles of Confederation.", "*1822 – Haiti attacks the newly established Dominican Republic on the other side of the island of Hispaniola.", "*1825 – After no candidate receives a majority of electoral votes in the US presidential election of 1824, the United States House of Representatives elects John Quincy Adams as sixth President of the United States in a contingent election.", "*1849 – The new Roman Republic is declared.", "*1861 – American Civil War: Jefferson Davis is elected the Provisional President of the Confederate States of America by the Provisional Confederate Congress at Montgomery, Alabama*1870 – US president Ulysses S. Grant signs a joint resolution of Congress establishing the U.S.", "Weather Bureau.", "*1889 – US president Grover Cleveland signs a bill elevating the United States Department of Agriculture to a Cabinet-level agency.", "*1893 – Verdi's last opera, ''Falstaff'' premieres at La Scala, Milan.", "*1895 – William G. Morgan creates a game called Mintonette, which soon comes to be referred to as volleyball.", "*1900 – The Davis Cup competition is established.===1901–present===*1904 – Russo-Japanese War: Battle of Port Arthur concludes.", "*1907 – The Mud March is the first large procession organised by the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS).", "*1913 – A group of meteors is visible across much of the eastern seaboard of the Americas, leading astronomers to conclude the source had been a small, short-lived natural satellite of the Earth.", "*1920 – Under the terms of the Svalbard Treaty, international diplomacy recognizes Norwegian sovereignty over Arctic archipelago Svalbard, and designates it as demilitarized.", "*1922 – Brazil becomes a member of the Berne Convention copyright treaty.", "*1929 – Members of the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng assassinate the labor recruiter Bazin, prompting a crackdown by French colonial authorities.", "*1932 – Prohibition law is abolished in Finland after a national referendum, where 70% voted for a repeal of the law.", "*1934 – The Balkan Entente is formed between Greece, Romania, Yugoslavia, and Turkey.", "*1941 – World War II: Bombing of Genoa: The Cathedral of San Lorenzo in Genoa, Italy, is struck by a bomb which fails to detonate.", "*1942 – Year-round Daylight saving time (aka War Time) is reinstated in the United States as a wartime measure to help conserve energy resources.", "*1943 – World War II: Pacific War: Allied authorities declare Guadalcanal secure after Imperial Japan evacuates its remaining forces from the island, ending the Battle of Guadalcanal.", "*1945 – World War II: Battle of the Atlantic: sinks ''U-864'' off the coast of Fedje, Norway, in a rare instance of submarine-to-submarine combat.", "* 1945 – World War II: A force of Allied aircraft unsuccessfully attack a German destroyer in Førdefjorden, Norway.", "*1950 – Second Red Scare: US Senator Joseph McCarthy accuses the United States Department of State of being filled with Communists.", "*1951 – Korean War: The two-day Geochang massacre begins as a battalion of the 11th Division of the South Korean Army kills 719 unarmed citizens in Geochang, in the South Gyeongsang district of South Korea.", "*1959 – The R-7 Semyorka, the first intercontinental ballistic missile, becomes operational at Plesetsk, USSR.", "*1961 – The Beatles at The Cavern Club: Lunchtime – The Beatles perform under this name at The Cavern Club for the first time following their return to Liverpool from Hamburg.", "*1964 – The Beatles make their first appearance on ''The Ed Sullivan Show'', performing before a record-setting audience of 73 million viewers across the United States.", "*1965 – Vietnam War: The United States Marine Corps sends a MIM-23 Hawk missile battalion to South Vietnam, the first American troops in-country without an official advisory or training mission.", "*1971 – The 6.5–6.7 Sylmar earthquake hits the Greater Los Angeles Area with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (''Extreme''), killing 64 and injuring 2,000.", "* 1971 – Satchel Paige becomes the first Negro league player to be voted into the USA's Baseball Hall of Fame.", "* 1971 – Apollo program: Apollo 14 returns to Earth after the third human Moon landing.", "*1975 – The Soyuz 17 Soviet spacecraft returns to Earth.", "*1976 – Aeroflot Flight 3739, a Tupolev Tu-104, crashes during takeoff from Irkutsk Airport, killing 24.", "*1978 – The Budd Company unveils its first SPV-2000 self-propelled railcar in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.", "*1982 – Japan Air Lines Flight 350 crashes near Haneda Airport in an attempted pilot mass murder-suicide, killing 24 of the 174 people on board.", "*1986 – Halley's Comet last appeared in the inner Solar System.", "*1991 – Dissolution of the Soviet Union: Voters in Lithuania vote for independence from the Soviet Union.", "*1996 – The Provisional Irish Republican Army declares the end to its 18-month ceasefire and explodes a large bomb in London's Canary Wharf, killing two people.", "* 1996 – Copernicium is discovered by Sigurd Hofmann, Victor Ninov et al.", "*2001 – The Ehime Maru and USS Greeneville collision takes place, killing nine of the thirty-five people on board the Japanese fishery high-school training ship ''Ehime Maru'', leaving the USS ''Greeneville'' (SSN-772) with US $2 million in repairs, at Pearl Harbor.", "*2016 – Two passenger trains collide in the German town of Bad Aibling in the state of Bavaria.", "Twelve people die and 85 others are injured.", "*2018 – Winter Olympics: Opening ceremony is performed in Pyeongchang County in South Korea.", "*2020 – Salvadoran President Nayib Bukele has the army soldiers enter the Legislative Assembly to assist in pushing for the approval for a better government security plan, causing a brief political crisis.", "*2021 – Second impeachment trial of Donald Trump begins." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1060 – Honorius II, pope of the Catholic Church (d. 1130)*1274 – Louis of Toulouse, French bishop (d. 1297)*1313 – Maria of Portugal, Queen of Castile, Portuguese infanta (d. 1357)*1344 – Meinhard III, count of Tyrol (d. 1363)*1441 – Ali-Shir Nava'i, Turkic poet, linguist, and painter (d. 1501)*1533 – Shimazu Yoshihisa, Japanese daimyō (d. 1611)*1579 – Johannes Meursius, Dutch classical scholar (d. 1639)===1601–1900===*1651 – Procopio Cutò, French entrepreneur (d. 1727)*1666 – George Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney, Scottish field marshal (d. 1737)*1711 – Luis Vicente de Velasco e Isla, Spanish sailor and commander (d. 1762)*1737 – Thomas Paine, English-American philosopher, author, and activist (d. 1809)*1741 – Henri-Joseph Rigel, German-French composer (d. 1799)*1748 – Sir John Duckworth, 1st Baronet, English admiral and politician, Commodore Governor of Newfoundland (d. 1817)*1763 – Louis I, Grand Duke of Baden (d. 1830)*1769 – George W. Campbell, Scottish-American lawyer and politician, 5th United States Secretary of the Treasury (d. 1848)*1773 – William Henry Harrison, American general and politician, 9th President of the United States (d. 1841)*1775 – Farkas Bolyai, Hungarian mathematician and academic (d. 1856)*1781 – Johann Baptist von Spix, German biologist and explorer (d. 1826)*1783 – Vasily Zhukovsky, Russian poet and translator (d. 1852)*1789 – Franz Xaver Gabelsberger, German engineer, invented Gabelsberger shorthand (d. 1849)*1800 – Hyrum Smith, American religious leader (d. 1844)*1814 – Samuel J. Tilden, American lawyer and politician, 28th Governor of New York (d. 1886)*1815 – Federico de Madrazo, Spanish painter (d. 1894)*1830 – Abdülaziz of the Ottoman Empire, Turkish emperor (d. 1876)*1834 – Felix Dahn, German lawyer, historian, and author (d. 1912)*1826 – Keelikōlani, Hawaiian royal and governor (d. 1883)*1837 – José Burgos, Filipino priest and revolutionary (d. 1872)*1839 – Silas Adams, American colonel, lawyer, and politician (d. 1896)*1846 – Wilhelm Maybach, German engineer and businessman, founded Maybach (d. 1929)* 1846 – Whitaker Wright, English businessman and financier (d. 1904)*1847 – Hugh Price Hughes, Welsh-English clergyman and theologian (d. 1902)*1854 – Aletta Jacobs, Dutch physician and suffrage activist (d. 1929)*1856 – Hara Takashi, Japanese politician, 10th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1921)*1859 – Akiyama Yoshifuru, Japanese general (d. 1930)*1863 – Anthony Hope, English author and playwright (d. 1933)*1864 – Miina Härma, Estonian organist, composer, and conductor (d. 1941)*1865 – Mrs. Patrick Campbell, English-French actress (d. 1940)* 1865 – Erich von Drygalski, German geographer and geophysicist (d. 1949)*1867 – Natsume Sōseki, Japanese author and poet (d. 1916)*1871 – Howard Taylor Ricketts, American pathologist and physician (d. 1910)*1874 – Amy Lowell, American poet, critic, and educator (d. 1925)*1876 – Arthur Edward Moore, New Zealand-Australian politician, 23rd Premier of Queensland (d. 1963)*1878 – Jack Kirwan, Irish international footballer (d. 1959)*1880 – Lipót Fejér, Hungarian mathematician and academic (d. 1959)*1883 – Jules Berry, French actor and director (d. 1951)*1885 – Alban Berg, Austrian composer and educator (d. 1935)* 1885 – Clarence H. Haring, American historian and author (d. 1960)*1889 – Larry Semon, American actor, producer, director and screenwriter (d. 1928) *1891 – Ronald Colman, English-American actor (d. 1958)*1891 – Pietro Nenni, Italian journalist and politician, Secretary of the Italian Socialist Party (d. 1980)*1892 – Peggy Wood, American actress (d. 1978)*1893 – Georgios Athanasiadis-Novas, Greek lawyer and politician, 163rd Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1987)*1895 – Hermann Brill, German lawyer and politician, 8th Minister-President of Thuringia (d. 1959)*1896 – Alberto Vargas, Peruvian-American painter and illustrator (d. 1982)*1897 – Charles Kingsford Smith, Australian captain and pilot (d. 1935)*1898 – Jūkichi Yagi, Japanese poet and educator (d. 1927)===1901–present===*1901 – Brian Donlevy, American actor (d. 1972)* 1901 – James Murray, American actor (d. 1936)*1905 – David Cecil, 6th Marquess of Exeter, English hurdler and politician (d. 1981)*1906 – André Kostolany, Hungarian-French economist and journalist (d. 1999)*1907 – Trường Chinh, Vietnamese politician, 4th President of Vietnam (d. 1988)* 1907 – Dit Clapper, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1978)* 1907 – Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter, English-Canadian mathematician and academic (d. 2003)*1909 – Marjorie Ogilvie Anderson, Scottish historian (d. 2002)* 1909 – Heather Angel, English-American actress (d. 1986)* 1909 – Carmen Miranda, Portuguese-Brazilian actress, singer, and dancer (d. 1955)* 1909 – Dean Rusk, American colonel and politician, 54th United States Secretary of State (d. 1994)*1910 – Jacques Monod, French biochemist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1976)*1911 – William Orlando Darby, American general (d. 1945)* 1911 – Esa Pakarinen, Finnish actor and musician (d. 1989)*1912 – Ginette Leclerc, French actress (d. 1992)* 1912 – Futabayama Sadaji, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 35th Yokozuna (d. 1968)*1914 – Ernest Tubb, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1984)*1916 – Tex Hughson, American baseball player (d. 1993)*1918 – Lloyd Noel Ferguson, American chemist (d. 2011)*1919 – John Abramovic, American basketball player (d. 2000)*1920 – Fred Allen, New Zealand rugby player and coach (d. 2012)* 1920 – Enrico Schiavetti, Italian football player (d. 1993)*1922 – Kathryn Grayson, American actress and soprano (d. 2010)* 1922 – Jim Laker, English cricketer and broadcaster (d. 1986)* 1922 – C. P. Krishnan Nair, Indian businessman, founded The Leela Palaces, Hotels and Resorts (d. 2014)* 1922 – Robert E. Ogren, American zoologist (d. 2005)*1923 – Brendan Behan, Irish rebel, poet, and playwright (d. 1964)* 1923 – Tonie Nathan, American radio host, producer, and politician (d. 2014)*1925 – John B. Cobb, American philosopher and theologian* 1925 – Burkhard Heim, German physicist and academic (d. 2001)*1926 – Garret FitzGerald, Irish lawyer and politician, 7th Taoiseach of Ireland (d. 2011)*1927 – Richard A.", "Long, American historian and author (d. 2013)*1928 – Frank Frazetta, American painter and illustrator (d. 2010)* 1928 – Rinus Michels, Dutch footballer and coach (d. 2005)* 1928 – Roger Mudd, American journalist (d. 2021)*1929 – A. R. Antulay, Indian social worker and politician, 8th Chief Minister of Maharashtra (d. 2014)* 1929 – Clement Meadmore, Australian-American sculptor (d. 2005)*1930 – Garner Ted Armstrong, American evangelist and author (d. 2003)*1931 – Thomas Bernhard, Austrian author, poet, and playwright (d. 1989)* 1931 – Josef Masopust, Czech footballer and coach (d. 2015)* 1931 – Robert Morris, American sculptor and painter (d. 2018)*1932 – Tatsuro Hirooka, Japanese baseball player and manager* 1932 – Gerhard Richter, German painter and photographer*1935 – Lionel Fanthorpe, English-Welsh priest, journalist, and author*1936 – Callistus Ndlovu, Zimbabwean academic and politician (d. 2019)* 1936 – Clive Swift, English actor and singer-songwriter (d. 2019)*1937 – Clete Boyer, American baseball player and manager (d. 2007)*1939 – Mahala Andrews, English vertebrae palaeontologist (d. 1997)* 1939 – Barry Mann, American pianist, songwriter, and producer* 1939 – Janet Suzman, South African-British actress and director*1940 – Brian Bennett, English drummer and songwriter * 1940 – J. M. Coetzee, South African-Australian novelist, essayist, and linguist, Nobel Prize laureate*1941 – Kermit Gosnell, American abortionist and serial killer* 1941 – Sheila Kuehl, American actress, lawyer, gay rights activist, and politician*1942 – Carole King, American singer-songwriter and pianist*1943 – Barbara Lewis, American singer-songwriter* 1943 – Joe Pesci, American actor* 1943 – Joseph Stiglitz, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate*1944 – Derryn Hinch, New Zealand-Australian radio and television host and politician* 1944 – Alice Walker, American novelist, short story writer, and poet*1945 – Mia Farrow, American actress, activist, and model* 1945 – Yoshinori Ohsumi, Japanese biologist, 2016 Nobel Prize Laureate in Physiology or Medicine* 1945 – Carol Wood, American mathematician and academic*1946 – Bob Eastwood, American golfer* 1946 – Vince Papale, American football player and sportscaster* 1946 – Jim Webb, American captain and politician, 18th United States Secretary of the Navy*1947 – Carla Del Ponte, Swiss lawyer and diplomat* 1947 – Joe Ely, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1947 – Major Harris, American singer (d. 2012) * 1947 – Alexis Smirnoff, Canadian-American wrestler and actor (d. 2019)*1948 – Guy Standing, English economist and academic*1949 – Bernard Gallacher, Scottish golfer and journalist* 1949 – Judith Light, American actress *1950 – Richard F. Colburn, American sergeant and politician*1951 – David Pomeranz, American singer, musician, and composer*1952 – Danny White, American football player and sportscaster*1953 – Ciarán Hinds, Irish actor* 1953 – Ezechiele Ramin, Italian missionary, priest, and martyr (d. 1985)* 1953 – Gabriel Rotello, American journalist and author, founded ''OutWeek''*1954 – Jo Duffy, American author* 1954 – Chris Gardner, American businessman and philanthropist* 1954 – Kevin Warwick, English scientist *1955 – Jerry Beck, American historian and author* 1955 – Jimmy Pursey, English singer-songwriter and producer * 1955 – Charles Shaughnessy, English actor*1956 – Phil Ford, American basketball player and coach* 1956 – Mookie Wilson, American baseball player and coach*1957 – Terry McAuliffe, American businessman and politician, 72nd Governor of Virginia* 1957 – Gordon Strachan, Scottish footballer and manager*1958 – Sandy Lyle, Scottish golfer* 1958 – Chris Nilan, American ice hockey player, coach, and radio host*1960 – Holly Johnson, English singer-songwriter and bass player * 1960 – David Simon, American journalist, author, screenwriter, and television producer* 1960 – Peggy Whitson, American biochemist and astronaut*1961 – John Kruk, American baseball player and sportscaster*1962 – Anik Bissonnette, Canadian ballerina*1963 – Brian Greene, American physicist * 1963 – Peter Rowsthorn, Australian comedian and actor* 1963 – Travis Tritt, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor*1964 – Alejandro Ávila, Mexican actor* 1964 – Debrah Miceli, Italian-American wrestler and manager* 1964 – Dewi Morris, English rugby player* 1964 – Ernesto Valverde, Spanish footballer and manager*1965 – Dieter Baumann, German runner* 1965 – Julie Warner, American actress*1966 – Harald Eia, Norwegian comedian, actor, and screenwriter*1967 – Gaston Browne, Antiguan and Barbudan Prime Minister* 1967 – Venus Lacy, American basketball player* 1967 – Todd Pratt, American baseball player and coach* 1967 – Dan Shulman, Canadian sportscaster*1968 – Alejandra Guzmán, Mexican singer-songwriter and actress* 1968 – Derek Strong, American basketball player and race car driver* 1968 – Gloria Trevi, Mexican singer and actress*1969 – Jimmy Smith, American football player*1970 – Glenn McGrath, Australian cricketer and sportscaster*1971 – Sharon Case, American actress and model* 1971 – Matt Gogel, American golfer* 1971 – Johan Mjällby, Swedish footballer and manager*1972 – Darren Ferguson, Scottish footballer and manager* 1972 – Jason Winston George, American actor and model*1973 – Svetlana Boginskaya, Belarusian gymnast* 1973 – Colin Egglesfield, American actor* 1973 – Makoto Shinkai, Japanese animator, director, and screenwriter*1974 – Jordi Cruyff, Dutch footballer and manager* 1974 – Brad Maynard, American football player* 1974 – Amber Valletta, American model * 1974 – John Wallace, American basketball player and coach*1975 – Kurt Asle Arvesen, Norwegian cyclist and coach* 1975 – Clinton Grybas, Australian journalist and sportscaster (d. 2008)* 1975 – Vladimir Guerrero, Dominican-American baseball player*1976 – Charlie Day, American actor, producer, and screenwriter*1977 – A. J. Buckley, Irish-Canadian actor, director, and screenwriter*1979 – Akinori Iwamura, Japanese baseball player* 1979 – Irina Slutskaya, Russian figure skater* 1979 – Zhang Ziyi, Chinese actress and model*1980 – Angelos Charisteas, Greek footballer* 1980 – Margarita Levieva, Russian-American actress* 1980 – Manu Raju, American journalist*1981 – Tom Hiddleston, English actor* 1981 – John Walker Lindh, American Taliban member* 1981 – Daisuke Sekimoto, Japanese wrestler* 1981 – The Rev, American musician*1982 – Domingo Cisma, Spanish footballer* 1982 – Jameer Nelson, American basketball player* 1982 – Ami Suzuki, Japanese singer-songwriter and actress* 1982 – Chris Weale, English footballer and manager*1983 – Mikel Arruabarrena, Spanish footballer*1984 – Maurice Ager, American basketball player, singer, and producer* 1984 – Dioner Navarro, Venezuelan baseball player* 1984 – Shōhōzan Yūya, Japanese sumo wrestler*1985 – Nigel Dawes, Canadian-Kazakhstani ice hockey player* 1985 – David Gallagher, American actor *1987 – Michael B. Jordan, American actor* 1987 – Davide Lanzafame, Italian footballer* 1987 – Rose Leslie, Scottish actress* 1987 – Magdalena Neuner, German biathlete*1989 – Maxime Dufour-Lapointe, Canadian skier*1990 – Randall Delgado, Panamanian baseball player* 1990 – Tariq Sims, Australian-Fijian rugby league player* 1990 – Camille Winbush, American actress*1991 – Logan Ryan, American football player*1992 – Avan Jogia, Canadian actor*1993 – Wataru Endō, Japanese footballer* 1993 – K. J. McDaniels, American basketball player* 1993 – Despina Papamichail, Greek tennis player* 1993 – Niclas Füllkrug, German footballer*1995 – André Burakovsky, Swedish ice hockey player* 1995 – Mario Pašalić, Croatian footballer* 1995 – Sheraldo Becker, Surinamese footballer*1996 – Jimmy Bennett, American actor* 1996 – Kelli Berglund, American actress* 1996 – Chungha, South Korean singer* 1996 – Sebastián Driussi, Argentinian footballer*1997 – Jaire Alexander, American football player* 1997 – Saquon Barkley, American football player* 1997 – Valentini Grammatikopoulou, Greek tennis player*1998 – Cem Bölükbaşı, Turkish racing driver and former sim racer* 1998 – Isabella Gomez, Colombian-American actress*2002 – Jalen Green, American basketball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 966 – Ono no Michikaze, Japanese calligrapher (b.", "894)* 967 – Sayf al-Dawla, emir of Aleppo (b.", "916)* 978 – Luitgarde, duchess consort of Normandy*1011 – Bernard I, Duke of Saxony*1014 – Yang Yanzhao, Chinese general*1135 – Tai Zong, Chinese emperor (b.", "1075)*1199 – Minamoto no Yoritomo, Japanese shōgun (b.", "1147)*1251 – Matthias II, duke of Lorraine*1407 – William I, margrave of Meissen (b.", "1343)*1450 – Agnès Sorel, French mistress of Charles VII of France (b.", "1421)*1555 – John Hooper, English bishop and martyr (b.", "1495)* 1555 – Rowland Taylor, English priest and martyr (b.", "1510)*1588 – Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz, Spanish admiral (b.", "1526)*1600 – John Frederick, Duke of Pomerania (b.", "1542)===1601–1900===*1619 – Lucilio Vanini, Italian physician and philosopher (b.", "1585)*1670 – Frederick III of Denmark (b.", "1609)*1675 – Gerrit Dou, Dutch painter (b.", "1613)*1709 – François Louis, Prince of Conti (b.", "1664)*1777 – Seth Pomeroy, American general and gunsmith (b.", "1706)*1803 – Jean François de Saint-Lambert, French soldier, poet, and philosopher (b.", "1716)*1857 – Dionysios Solomos, Greek poet and translator (b.", "1798)*1874 – Jules Michelet, French historian, philosopher, and academic (b.", "1798)*1881 – Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Russian novelist, short story writer, essayist, and philosopher (b.", "1821)*1891 – Johan Jongkind, Dutch painter (b.", "1819)===1901–present===*1903 – Charles Gavan Duffy, Irish-Australian politician, 8th Premier of Victoria (b.", "1816)*1906 – Paul Laurence Dunbar, American author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1872)*1928 – William Gillies, Australian politician, 21st Premier of Queensland (b.", "1868)*1930 – Richard With, Norwegian captain and businessman, founded Hurtigruten (b.", "1846)*1932 – Junnosuke Inoue, Japanese businessman and banker (b.", "1869)* 1932 – A.K.", "Golam Jilani, Bangladeshi soldier and activist (b.", "1904)*1935 – Bob Diry, Austrian-born wrestler and boxer (b.", "1884)*1942 – Lauri Kristian Relander, Finnish politician, 2nd President of Finland (b.", "1883)*1945 – Ella D. Barrier, American educator (b.", "1852)*1950 – Ted Theodore, Australian politician, 20th Premier of Queensland (b.", "1884)*1951 – Eddy Duchin, American pianist, bandleader, and actor (b.", "1910)*1957 – Miklós Horthy, Hungarian admiral and politician, Regent of Hungary (b.", "1868)*1960 – Alexandre Benois, Russian painter and critic (b.", "1870)* 1960 – Ernő Dohnányi, Hungarian pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1877)*1965 – Khan Bahadur Ahsanullah, Bangladeshi theologian and educator (b.", "1874)*1966 – Sophie Tucker, Russian-born American singer (b.", "1884)*1969 – George \"Gabby\" Hayes, American actor and singer (b.", "1885)*1976 – Percy Faith, Canadian composer and conductor (b.", "1908)*1977 – Sergey Ilyushin, Russian engineer and businessman, founded the Ilyushin Design Bureau (b.", "1894)*1978 – Costante Girardengo, Italian cyclist and coach (b.", "1893)*1979 – Allen Tate, American poet and academic (b.", "1899)*1980 – Tom Macdonald, Welsh journalist and author (b.", "1900)*1981 – M. C. Chagla, Indian jurist and politician, Indian Minister of External Affairs (b.", "1900)* 1981 – Bill Haley, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1925)*1984 – Yuri Andropov, Russian lawyer and politician (b.", "1914)*1989 – Osamu Tezuka, Japanese illustrator, animator, and producer (b.", "1928)*1994 – Howard Martin Temin, American geneticist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1934)*1995 – J. William Fulbright, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1905)* 1995 – Kalevi Keihänen, Finnish entrepreneur (b.", "1924)* 1995 – David Wayne, American actor (b.", "1914)*1998 – Maurice Schumann, French journalist and politician, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (b.", "1911)*2001 – Herbert A. Simon, American political scientist, economist, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1916)*2002 – Isabelle Holland, Swiss-American author (b.", "1920)* 2002 – Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon (b.", "1930)*2003 – Masatoshi Gündüz Ikeda, Japanese-Turkish mathematician and academic (b.", "1926)*2004 – Claude Ryan, Canadian journalist and politician (b.", "1925)*2005 – Robert Kearns, American engineer, invented the intermittent windscreen wiper (b.", "1927)*2006 – Freddie Laker, English pilot and businessman, founded Laker Airways (b.", "1922)*2007 – Hank Bauer, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1922)* 2007 – Ian Richardson, Scottish actor (b.", "1934)*2008 – Christopher Hyatt, American occultist and author (b.", "1943)* 2008 – Carm Lino Spiteri, Maltese architect and politician (b.", "1932)* 2008 – Jazeh Tabatabai, Iranian painter, poet, and sculptor (b.", "1931)*2009 – Orlando \"Cachaíto\" López, Cuban bassist and composer (b.", "1933)*2010 – Walter Frederick Morrison, American businessman, invented the Frisbee (b.", "1920)*2011 – Miltiadis Evert, Greek lawyer and politician, 69th Mayor of Athens (b.", "1939)*2012 – O. P. Dutta, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1922)* 2012 – John Hick, English philosopher and academic (b.", "1922)* 2012 – Joe Moretti, Scottish-South African guitarist and songwriter (b.", "1938)*2013 – Richard Artschwager, American painter, illustrator, and sculptor (b.", "1923)* 2013 – Keiko Fukuda, Japanese-American martial artist and trainer (b.", "1913)* 2013 – Jimmy Smyth, Irish hurler (b.", "1931)*2014 – Gabriel Axel, Danish actor, director, and producer (b.", "1918)* 2014 – Hal Herring, American football player and coach (b.", "1924)* 2014 – Logan Scott-Bowden, English general (b.", "1920)*2015 – Liu Han, Chinese businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1965)* 2015 – Ed Sabol, American film producer, co-founded NFL Films (b.", "1916)*2016 – Sushil Koirala, Nepalese politician, 37th Prime Minister of Nepal (b.", "1939)* 2016 – Zdravko Tolimir, Bosnian Serb military commander (b.", "1948)*2017 – André Salvat, French Army colonel (b.", "1920)*2018 – Reg E. Cathey, American actor of stage, film, and television (b.", "1958)* 2018 – Jóhann Jóhannsson, Icelandic composer (b.", "1969)* 2018 – John Gavin, American actor and United States ambassador to Mexico (b.", "1931)*2021 – Chick Corea, American jazz composer (b.", "1941)*2022 – Johnny Raper, Australian rugby league player and coach (b.", "1939)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Alto of Altomünster*Blessed Anne Catherine Emmerich*Ansbert of Rouen*Apollonia*Bracchio*Einion the King (Western Orthodoxy)*Blessed Leopold of Alpandeire*Maron (Maronite Church)*Miguel Febres Cordero*Nebridius*Sabinus of Canosa*Teilo (Wales)*February 9 is the earliest day on which Clean Monday can fall, while March 15 is the latest; celebrated on the first Monday of Great Lent.", "(Eastern Christianity)*February 9 is the earliest day on which People's Sunday can fall, while March 15 is the latest; celebrated on the first Sunday of Lent.", "(Malta)*St. Maroun's Day (public holiday in Lebanon)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 9" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "February 16" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1249 – Andrew of Longjumeau is dispatched by Louis IX of France as his ambassador to meet with the Khagan of the Mongol Empire.", "*1270 – The Grand Duchy of Lithuania defeats the Livonian Order in the Battle of Karuse.===1601–1900===*1630 – Dutch forces led by Hendrick Lonck capture Olinda in what was to become part of Dutch Brazil.", "*1646 – Battle of Torrington, Devon: The last major battle of the First English Civil War.", "*1699 – First Leopoldine Diploma is issued by the Holy Roman Emperor, recognizing the Greek Catholic clergy enjoyed the same privileges as Roman Catholic priests in the Principality of Transylvania.", "*1742 – Spencer Compton, Earl of Wilmington, becomes British Prime Minister.", "*1796 – Colombo in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) falls to the British, completing their invasion of Ceylon.", "*1804 – First Barbary War: Stephen Decatur leads a raid to burn the pirate-held frigate .", "*1862 – American Civil War: General Ulysses S. Grant captures Fort Donelson, Tennessee.", "*1866 – Spencer Compton Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington becomes British Secretary of State for War.", "*1881 – The Canadian Pacific Railway is incorporated by Act of Parliament at Ottawa (44th Vic., c.1).", "*1899 – Iceland's first football club, Knattspyrnufélag Reykjavíkur, is founded.", "*1900 – The Southern Cross expedition led by Carsten Borchgrevink achieved a new Farthest South of 78° 50'S, making the first landing at the Great Ice Barrier.===1901–present===*1918 – The Council of Lithuania unanimously adopts the Act of Independence, declaring Lithuania an independent state.", "*1923 – Howard Carter unseals the burial chamber of Pharaoh Tutankhamun.", "*1930 – The Romanian Football Federation joins FIFA.", "*1934 – The Austrian Civil War ends with the defeat of the Social Democrats and the Republikanischer Schutzbund.", "*1936 – The Popular Front wins the 1936 Spanish general election.", "*1937 – Wallace H. Carothers receives a United States patent for nylon.", "*1940 – World War II: Altmark incident: The German tanker Altmark is boarded by sailors from the British destroyer .", "A total of 299 British prisoners are freed.", "*1942 – World War II: In Athens, the Greek People's Liberation Army is established* 1942 – World War II: Attack on Aruba, first World War II German shots fired on a land based object in the Americas.", "*1943 – World War II: In the early phases of the Third Battle of Kharkov, Red Army troops re-enter the city.", "*1945 – World War II: American forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines.", "* 1945 – The Alaska Equal Rights Act of 1945, the first anti-discrimination law in the United States, was signed into law.", "*1959 – Fidel Castro becomes Premier of Cuba after dictator Fulgencio Batista was overthrown on January 1.", "*1960 – The U.S. Navy submarine begins Operation Sandblast, setting sail from New London, Connecticut, to begin the first submerged circumnavigation of the globe.", "*1961 – Explorer program: Explorer 9 (S-56a) is launched.", "*1962 – The Great Sheffield Gale impacts the United Kingdom, killing nine people; the city of Sheffield is devastated, with 150,000 homes damaged.", "* 1962 – Flooding in the coastal areas of West Germany kills 315 and destroys the homes of about 60,000 people.", "*1968 – In Haleyville, Alabama, the first 9-1-1 emergency telephone system goes into service.", "* 1968 – Civil Air Transport Flight 010 crashes near Shongshan Airport in Taiwan, killing 21 of the 63 people on board and one more on the ground.", "*1978 – The first computer bulletin board system is created (CBBS in Chicago).", "*1983 – The Ash Wednesday bushfires in Victoria and South Australia kill 75.", "*1985 – Hezbollah is founded.", "*1986 – The Soviet liner runs aground in the Marlborough Sounds, New Zealand.", "* 1986 – China Airlines Flight 2265 crashes into the Pacific Ocean near Penghu Airport in Taiwan, killing all 13 aboard.", "*1991 – Nicaraguan Contras leader Enrique Bermúdez is assassinated in Managua.", "*1996 – A Chicago-bound Amtrak train, the ''Capitol Limited'', collides with a MARC commuter train bound for Washington, D.C., killing 11 people.", "*1998 – China Airlines Flight 676 crashes into a road and residential area near Chiang Kai-shek International Airport in Taiwan, killing all 196 aboard and seven more on the ground.", "*2000 – Emery Worldwide Airlines Flight 17 crashes near Sacramento Mather Airport in Rancho Cordova, California, killing all three aboard.", "*2005 – The Kyoto Protocol comes into force, following its ratification by Russia.", "* 2005 – The National Hockey League cancels the entire 2004–05 regular season and playoffs.", "*2006 – The last Mobile army surgical hospital (MASH) is decommissioned by the United States Army.", "*2013 – A bomb blast at a market in Hazara Town, Quetta, Pakistan kills more than 80 people and injures 190 others.", "*2021 – Five thousand people gathered in the town of Kherrata, Bejaia Province to mark the two year anniversary of the Hirak protest movement.", "Demonstrations had been suspended because of the COVID-19 pandemic in Algeria." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1222 – Nichiren, founder of Nichiren Buddhism (d. 1282)*1304 – Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür, Chinese emperor (d. 1332)*1331 – Coluccio Salutati, Italian political leader (d. 1406)*1419 – John I, Duke of Cleves (d. 1481)*1470 – Eric I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1540)*1471 – Krishnadevaraya, emperor of the Vijayanagara Empire (d. 1529)*1497 – Philip Melanchthon, German astronomer, theologian, and academic (d. 1560)*1514 – Georg Joachim Rheticus, Austrian cartographer and instrument maker (d. 1574)*1519 – Gaspard II de Coligny, French admiral (d. 1572)*1543 – Kanō Eitoku, Japanese painter and educator (d. 1590)===1601–1900===*1620 – Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg (d. 1688)*1643 – John Sharp, English archbishop (d. 1714)*1698 – Pierre Bouguer, French mathematician, geophysicist, and astronomer (d. 1758)*1727 – Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin, Austrian botanist, chemist, and mycologist (d. 1817)*1740 – Giambattista Bodoni, Italian publisher and engraver (d. 1813)*1761 – Jean-Charles Pichegru, French general (d. 1804)*1774 – Pierre Rode, French violinist and composer (d. 1830)*1786 – Maria Pavlovna, Russian Grand Duchess (d. 1859)*1802 – Phineas Quimby, American mystic and philosopher (d. 1866)*1804 – Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold, German physiologist and zoologist (d. 1885)*1812 – Henry Wilson, American colonel and politician, 18th Vice President of the United States (d. 1875)*1821 – Heinrich Barth, German explorer and scholar (d. 1865)*1822 – Francis Galton, English biologist and statistician (d. 1911)*1824 – Peter Kosler, Slovenian lawyer, geographer, and cartographer (d. 1879)*1826 – Joseph Victor von Scheffel, German poet and author (d. 1886)*1830 – Lars Hertervig, Norwegian painter (d. 1902)*1831 – Nikolai Leskov, Russian author, playwright, and journalist (d. 1895)*1834 – Ernst Haeckel, German biologist, physician, and philosopher (d. 1919)*1838 – Henry Adams, American journalist, historian, and author (d. 1918)*1841 – Armand Guillaumin, French painter (d. 1927)*1843 – Henry M. Leland, American engineer and businessman, founded Cadillac and Lincoln (d. 1932)*1845 – George Kennan, American journalist and explorer (d. 1924)*1848 – Hugo de Vries, Dutch botanist, geneticist, and academic (d. 1935)* 1848 – Octave Mirbeau, French journalist, novelist, and playwright (d. 1917)*1856 – Ossian Everett Mills, American academic, founded Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia (d. 1920)*1866 – Billy Hamilton, American baseball player and manager (d. 1940)*1873 – Radoje Domanović, Serbian journalist and author (d. 1908)*1876 – G. M. Trevelyan, English historian and academic (d. 1962)*1877 – Tom Crean, Irish seaman and Antarctic explorer (d. 1938) *1878 – Pamela Colman Smith, English occultist and illustrator (d. 1951)* 1878 – James Colosimo, Italian-American mob boss (d. 1920)*1884 – Robert J. Flaherty, American director and producer (d. 1951)*1887 – Kathleen Clifford, American actress (d. 1962)*1891 – Hans F. K. Günther, German eugenicist and academic (d. 1968)*1893 – Katharine Cornell, American actress and producer (d. 1974)*1896 – Eugénie Blanchard, French super-centenarian (d. 2010)===1901–present===*1901 – Wayne King, American singer-songwriter and conductor (d. 1985)* 1901 – Chester Morris, American actor (d. 1970)*1902 – Cyril Vincent, South African cricketer (d. 1968)*1903 – Edgar Bergen, American ventriloquist and actor (d. 1978)*1904 – James Baskett, American actor and singer (d. 1948)* 1904 – George F. Kennan, American historian and diplomat, United States Ambassador to the Soviet Union (d. 2005)*1905 – Henrietta Barnett, English Women's Royal Air Force officer (d. 1985)*1906 – Vera Menchik, Russian-Czechoslovak-British chess player (d. 1944)*1909 – Hugh Beaumont, American actor and director (d. 1982)* 1909 – Richard McDonald, American businessman, co-founded McDonald's (d. 1998)*1914 – Jimmy Wakely, American country music singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1982)*1916 – Bill Doggett, American pianist and composer (d. 1996)*1919 – Georges Ulmer, Danish-French actor and composer (d. 1989)*1920 – Anna Mae Hays, American general (d. 2018)*1921 – Jean Behra, French race car driver (d. 1959)* 1921 – John Galbraith Graham, English priest and academic (d. 2013)* 1921 – Vera-Ellen, German-American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 1981)*1922 – Heinz-Wolfgang Schnaufer, German soldier and pilot (d. 1950)*1923 – Samuel Willenberg, Polish-Israeli sculptor and painter (d. 2016)*1925 – Ed Emshwiller, American illustrator and experiment film maker (d. 1990)*1926 – Margot Frank, German-Dutch holocaust victim (d. 1945)* 1926 – John Schlesinger, English actor and director (d. 2003)*1927 – June Brown, English actress (d. 2022)*1929 – Gerhard Hanappi, Austrian footballer and architect (d. 1980)* 1929 – Peter Porter, Australian-English poet and educator (d. 2010)*1931 – Otis Blackwell, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2002)* 1931 – Bernie Geoffrion, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2006)* 1931 – Ken Takakura, Japanese actor and singer (d. 2014)*1932 – Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, Sierra Leonean economist, lawyer, and politician, 3rd President of Sierra Leone (d. 2014)* 1932 – Gretchen Wyler, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2007)*1934 – August Coppola, American author and academic (d. 2009)* 1934 – Marlene Hagge, American golfer (d. 2023)*1935 – Brian Bedford, English-American actor and director (d. 2016)*1934 – Ken Brown, English footballer and manager* 1935 – Sonny Bono, American actor, singer, and politician (d. 1998)* 1935 – Stephen Gaskin, American activist, co-founded The Farm (d. 2014)* 1935 – Bradford Parkinson, American colonel and engineer* 1935 – Kenneth Price, American painter and sculptor (d. 2012)*1936 – Carl Icahn, American businessman and investor*1937 – Paul Bailey, British novelist, critic, and biographer* 1937 – Valentin Bondarenko, Soviet aviator and cosmonaut (d. 1961)* 1937 – Yuri Manin, Russian-German mathematician and academic (d. 2023)*1938 – John Corigliano, American composer and academic*1939 – Adolfo Azcuna, Filipino lawyer and judge*1940 – Hannelore Schmatz, German mountaineer (d. 1979)*1941 – Kim Jong Il, North Korean commander and politician, 2nd Supreme Leader of North Korea (d. 2011)*1944 – Glyn Davies, Welsh farmer and politician* 1944 – Richard Ford, American novelist and short story writer* 1944 – António Mascarenhas Monteiro, Cape Verdean politician, 2nd President of Cape Verde (d. 2016)*1947 – Jaroslav Kubera, Czech politician (d. 2020)*1948 – Kaiketsu Masateru, Japanese sumo wrestler and coach (d. 2014)*1950 – Peter Hain, Welsh politician, Secretary of State for Wales*1951 – William Katt, American actor*1952 – James Ingram, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2019)* 1952 – Peter Kitchen, English footballer*1953 – John Bradbury, English musician, songwriter, and producer (d. 2015)* 1953 – Lanny McDonald, Canadian ice hockey player and manager* 1953 – Roberta Williams, American video game designer, co-founded Sierra Entertainment*1954 – Iain Banks, Scottish author and playwright (d. 2013)* 1954 – Margaux Hemingway, American model and actress (d. 1996)* 1954 – Michael Holding, Jamaican cricketer and sportscaster*1956 – Vincent Ward, New Zealand director and screenwriter*1957 – LeVar Burton, American actor, director, and producer*1958 – Natalie Angier, American author * 1958 – Ice-T, American rapper and actor* 1958 – Oscar Schmidt, Brazilian basketball player* 1958 – Herb Williams, American basketball player and coach*1959 – John McEnroe, American tennis player and sportscaster* 1959 – Kelly Tripucka, American basketball player and sportscaster*1960 – Pete Willis, English guitarist and songwriter *1961 – Liu Kang, Chinese footballer and manager (d. 2013)* 1961 – Niko Nirvi, Finnish journalist* 1961 – Andy Taylor, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer *1962 – John Balance, English singer-songwriter (d. 2004)*1964 – Bebeto, Brazilian footballer and manager* 1964 – Christopher Eccleston, English actor*1965 – Dave Lombardo, Cuban-American musician and songwriter*1967 – Keith Gretzky, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1968 – Warren Ellis, English author and screenwriter*1970 – Angelo Peruzzi, Italian footballer and manager *1971 – Michael Avenatti, American attorney and pundit* 1971 – Craig Laundy, Australian politician*1972 – Jerome Bettis, American football player* 1972 – Zoran Čampara, Bosnian football player* 1972 – Sarah Clarke, American actress* 1972 – Naomi Nishida, Japanese actress*1973 – Cathy Freeman, Australian sprinter*1974 – Mahershala Ali, American actor* 1974 – José Dominguez, Portuguese footballer and manager*1976 – Eric Byrnes, American baseball player and sportscaster* 1976 – Kyo, Japanese singer-songwriter and producer*1977 – Ian Clarke, Irish-American computer scientist, founded Freenet* 1977 – Ahman Green, American football player* 1977 – Alexei Morozov, Russian ice hockey player and executive*1978 – Tia Hellebaut, Belgian high jumper and chemist* 1978 – Wasim Jaffer, Indian cricketer* 1978 – John Tartaglia, American actor, singer, and puppeteer*1979 – Stéphane Dalmat, French footballer* 1979 – Eric Mun, American-South Korean singer and actor * 1979 – Valentino Rossi, Italian motorcycle racer*1980 – Longineu W. Parsons III, French-American musician and songwriter *1981 – Jay Howard, English race car driver* 1981 – Susanna Kallur, Swedish sprint hurdler* 1981 – Jerry Owens, American baseball player* 1981 – Qyntel Woods, American basketball player*1982 – Manny Delcarmen, American baseball player* 1982 – Aleksandr Dmitrijev, Estonian footballer* 1982 – Lupe Fiasco, American rapper* 1982 – Rickie Lambert, English footballer*1983 – Agyness Deyn, English model, actress, and singer* 1983 – Tuomo Ruutu, Finnish ice hockey player and coach*1984 – Sofia Arvidsson, Swedish tennis player* 1984 – Oussama Mellouli, Tunisian swimmer*1985 – Simon Francis, English footballer* 1985 – Stacy Lewis, American golfer* 1985 – Ron Vlaar, Dutch footballer*1986 – Diego Godín, Uruguayan footballer * 1986 – Shawne Williams, American basketball player*1987 – Luc Bourdon, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2008)* 1987 – Theresa Goh, Singaporean swimmer* 1987 – Tommy Milone, American baseball player* 1987 – Jon Ossoff, American politician and filmmaker* 1987 – Hasheem Thabeet, Tanzanian basketball player*1988 – Diego Capel, Spanish footballer* 1988 – Denílson, Brazilian footballer* 1988 – Korbinian Holzer, German ice hockey player* 1988 – Zhang Jike, Chinese table tennis player* 1988 – Andrea Ranocchia, Italian footballer* 1988 – Kim Soo-hyun, South Korean actor and singer*1989 – Elizabeth Olsen, American actress *1990 – The Weeknd, Canadian singer-songwriter and producer*1991 – Sergio Canales, Spanish footballer*1992 – Nicolai Boilesen, Danish footballer* 1992 – Zsófia Susányi, Hungarian tennis player*1994 – Annika Beck, German tennis player* 1994 – Federico Bernardeschi, Italian footballer* 1994 – Ava Max, American singer and songwriter*1995 – Katy Dunne, English tennis player* 1995 – Carina Witthöft, German tennis player*1997 – Jordan Greenway, American ice hockey player*1999 – Ignatius Ganago, Cameroonian footballer* 1999 – Marie Ulven Ringheim, Norwegian singer, songwriter and music producer*2000 – Koffee, Jamaican singer, songwriter and rapper* 2000 – Coby White, American basketball player*2001 – Yuki Naito, Japanese tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 549 – Zhu Yi, Chinese general (b.", "483)* 902 – Mary the Younger, Byzantine saint (b.", "875)*1184 – Richard of Dover, Archbishop of Canterbury*1247 – Henry Raspe, Landgrave of Thuringia (b.", "1204)*1279 – Afonso III of Portugal (b.", "1210)*1281 – Gertrude of Hohenberg, queen consort of Germany (b. c. 1225)*1390 – Rupert I, Elector Palatine (b.", "1309)*1391 – John V Palaiologos, Byzantine emperor (b.", "1332)*1531 – Johannes Stöffler, German mathematician and astronomer (b.", "1452)*1560 – Jean du Bellay, French cardinal and diplomat (b.", "1493)*1579 – Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, Spanish explorer (b.", "1509)===1601–1900===*1645 – Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Spanish general and politician, 24th Governor of the Duchy of Milan (b.", "1585)*1710 – Esprit Fléchier, French bishop and author (b.", "1632)*1721 – James Craggs the Younger, English politician, Secretary of State for the Southern Department (b.", "1686)*1754 – Richard Mead, English physician (b.", "1673)*1820 – Georg Carl von Döbeln, Swedish general (b.", "1758)*1862 – William Pennington, American lawyer and politician, 13th Governor of New Jersey, 23rd Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (b.", "1796)*1898 – Thomas Bracken, Irish-New Zealand journalist, poet, and politician (b.", "1843)*1899 – Félix Faure, French merchant and politician, 7th President of France (b.", "1841)===1901–present===*1907 – Giosuè Carducci, Italian poet and educator, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1835)*1912 – Nicholas of Japan, Russian-Japanese monk and saint (b.", "1836)*1917 – Octave Mirbeau, French journalist, novelist, and playwright (b.", "1848)*1919 – Vera Kholodnaya, Ukrainian actress (b.", "1893)*1928 – Eddie Foy Sr., American actor and dancer (b.", "1856)*1932 – Ferdinand Buisson, French academic and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1841)* 1932 – Edgar Speyer, American-English financier and philanthropist (b.", "1862)*1944 – Dadasaheb Phalke, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1870)*1957 – Josef Hofmann, Polish-American pianist and composer (b.", "1876)*1961 – Dazzy Vance, American baseball player (b.", "1891)*1964 – James M. Canty, American educator, school administrator, and businessperson (b.", "1865)*1967 – Smiley Burnette, American singer-songwriter and actor (b.", "1911)*1974 – John Garand, Canadian-American engineer, designed the M1 Garand Rifle (b.", "1888)*1975 – Morgan Taylor, American hurdler and coach (b.", "1903)*1977 – Janani Luwum, bishop, Church of Uganda, martyr (b. c.1922)* 1977 – Rózsa Péter, Hungarian mathematician (b.", "1905)*1980 – Erich Hückel, German physicist and chemist (b.", "1895)*1984 – M. A. G. Osmani, Bangladeshi general (b.", "1918)*1988 – Ye Shengtao, Chinese writer, educator, and politician (b.", "1894)*1990 – Keith Haring, American painter and activist (b.", "1958)*1991 – Enrique Bermúdez, Nicaraguan lieutenant and engineer (b.", "1932)*1992 – Angela Carter, English novelist, short story writer (b.", "1940)* 1992 – Jânio Quadros, Brazilian politician, 22nd President of Brazil (b.", "1917)* 1992 – Herman Wold, Norwegian-Swedish economist and statistician (b.", "1908)*1996 – Roberto Aizenberg, Argentinian painter and sculptor (b.", "1922)* 1996 – Roger Bowen, American actor and author (b.", "1932)* 1996 – Pat Brown, American lawyer and politician, 32nd Governor of California (b.", "1905)* 1996 – Brownie McGhee, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1915)*1997 – Chien-Shiung Wu, Chinese-American physicist and academic (b.", "1912)*1998 – Mary Amdur, American toxicologist and public health researcher (b.", "1908)* 1998 – Sheu Yuan-dong, Taiwanese politician (b.", "1927)*2000 – Marceline Day, American actress (b.", "1908)* 2000 – Lila Kedrova, Russian-French actress and singer* 2000 – Karsten Solheim, Norwegian-American businessman, founded PING (b.", "1911)*2001 – Howard W. Koch, American director and producer (b.", "1916)* 2001 – William Masters, American gynecologist and sexologist (b.", "1915)*2002 – Walter Winterbottom, English footballer and manager (b.", "1913)*2003 – Rusty Magee, American actor and composer (b.", "1955)*2004 – Doris Troy, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1937)*2006 – Johnny Grunge, American wrestler (b.", "1966)* 2006 – Ernie Stautner, German-American football player and coach (b.", "1925)*2009 – Stephen Kim Sou-hwan, South Korean cardinal (b.", "1921)*2011 – Len Lesser, American actor (b.", "1922)* 2011 – Justinas Marcinkevičius, Lithuanian poet and playwright (b.", "1930)*2012 – Gary Carter, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1954)* 2012 – Elyse Knox, American model, actress, and fashion designer (b.", "1917)* 2012 – John Macionis, American swimmer and lieutenant (b.", "1916)* 2012 – Anthony Shadid, American journalist (b.", "1968)*2013 – Colin Edwards, Guyanese footballer (b.", "1991)* 2013 – Grigory Pomerants, Russian philosopher and author (b.", "1918)* 2013 – Tony Sheridan, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1940)*2014 – Ken Farragut, American football player (b.", "1928)* 2014 – Kralle Krawinkel, German guitarist (b.", "1947)* 2014 – Michael Shea, American author (b.", "1946)*2015 – Lasse Braun, Algerian-Italian director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1936)* 2015 – Lesley Gore, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1946)* 2015 – R. R. Patil, Indian lawyer and politician, Deputy Chief Minister of Maharashtra (b.", "1957)* 2015 – Lorena Rojas, Mexican actress and singer (b.", "1971)*2016 – Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Egyptian politician and diplomat, 6th Secretary-General of the United Nations (b.", "1922)*2019 – Bruno Ganz, Swiss actor (b.", "1941)*2021 – Gustavo Noboa, Ecuadorian politician, 42nd President of Ecuador (b.", "1937)*2024 – Alexei Navalny, Russian activist (b.", "1976)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Abda of Edessa**Elias and companions**Juliana of Nicomedia (Catholic Church)**Onesimus**Charles Todd Quintard (Episcopal Church (USA))**February 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Day of the Shining Star (Kim Jong Il's birthday) (North Korea)*Restoration of Lithuania's Statehood Day, celebrate the independence of Lithuania from Russia and Germany in 1918 (Lithuania)* Elizabeth Peratrovich Day (Alaska)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 16" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "February 18" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1229 – The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, signs a ten-year truce with al-Kamil, regaining Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem with neither military engagements nor support from the papacy.", "*1268 – The Battle of Wesenberg is fought between the Livonian Order and Dovmont of Pskov.", "*1332 – Amda Seyon I, Emperor of Ethiopia begins his campaigns in the southern Muslim provinces.", "*1478 – George, Duke of Clarence, convicted of treason against his older brother Edward IV of England, is executed in private at the Tower of London.===1601–1900===*1637 – Eighty Years' War: Off the coast of Cornwall, England, a Spanish fleet intercepts an important Anglo-Dutch merchant convoy of 44 vessels escorted by six warships, destroying or capturing 20 of them.", "*1735 – The ballad opera called ''Flora, or Hob in the Well'' went down in history as the first opera of any kind to be produced in North America (Charleston, S.C.) *1781 – Fourth Anglo-Dutch War: Captain Thomas Shirley opens his expedition against Dutch colonial outposts on the Gold Coast of Africa (present-day Ghana).", "*1791 – Congress passes a law admitting the state of Vermont to the Union, effective 4 March, after that state had existed for 14 years as a de facto independent largely unrecognized state.", "*1797 – French Revolutionary Wars: Sir Ralph Abercromby and a fleet of 18 British warships invade Trinidad.", "*1814 – Napoleonic Wars: The Battle of Montereau.", "*1861 – In Montgomery, Alabama, Jefferson Davis is inaugurated as the provisional President of the Confederate States of America.", "* 1861 – With Italian unification almost complete, Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont, Savoy and Sardinia assumes the title of King of Italy.", "*1873 – Bulgarian revolutionary leader Vasil Levski is executed by hanging in Sofia by the Ottoman authorities.", "*1878 – John Tunstall is murdered by outlaw Jesse Evans, sparking the Lincoln County War in Lincoln County, New Mexico.", "*1885 – ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' by Mark Twain is published in the United States.", "*1900 – Second Boer War: Imperial forces suffer their worst single-day loss of life on Bloody Sunday, the first day of the Battle of Paardeberg.===1901–present===*1906 – Édouard de Laveleye forms the Belgian Olympic Committee in Brussels.", "*1911 – The first official flight with airmail takes place from Allahabad, United Provinces, British India (now India), when Henri Pequet, a 23-year-old pilot, delivers 6,500 letters to Naini, about away.", "*1915 – U-boat Campaign: The Imperial German Navy institutes unrestricted submarine warfare in the waters around Great Britain and Ireland.", "*1930 – While studying photographs taken in January, Clyde Tombaugh discovers Pluto.", "* 1930 – Elm Farm Ollie becomes the first cow to fly in a fixed-wing aircraft and also the first cow to be milked in an aircraft.", "*1932 – The Empire of Japan creates the independent state of Manzhouguo (the obsolete Chinese name for Manchuria) free from the Republic of China and installed former Chinese Emperor Aisin Gioro Puyi as Chief Executive of the State.", "*1938 – Second Sino-Japanese War: During the Nanking Massacre, the Nanking Safety Zone International Committee is renamed \"Nanking International Rescue Committee\", and the safety zone in place for refugees falls apart.", "*1942 – World War II: The Imperial Japanese Army begins the systematic extermination of perceived hostile elements among the Chinese in Singapore.", "*1943 – World War II: The Nazis arrest the members of the White Rose movement.", "* 1943 – World War II: Joseph Goebbels delivers his ''Sportpalast'' speech.", "*1946 – Sailors of the Royal Indian Navy mutiny in Bombay harbour, from where the action spreads throughout the Provinces of British India, involving 78 ships, twenty shore establishments and 20,000 sailors*1947 – First Indochina War: The French gain complete control of Hanoi after forcing the Viet Minh to withdraw to mountains.", "*1954 – The first Church of Scientology is established in Los Angeles.", "*1955 – Operation Teapot: Teapot test shot \"Wasp\" is successfully detonated at the Nevada Test Site with a yield of 1.2 kilotons.", "Wasp is the first of fourteen shots in the Teapot series.", "*1957 – Kenyan rebel leader Dedan Kimathi is executed by the British colonial government.", "* 1957 – Walter James Bolton becomes the last person legally executed in New Zealand.", "*1965 – The Gambia becomes independent from the United Kingdom.", "*1970 – The Chicago Seven are found not guilty of conspiring to incite riots at the 1968 Democratic National Convention.", "*1972 – The California Supreme Court in the case of ''People v. Anderson'', (6 Cal.3d 628) invalidates the state's death penalty and commutes the sentences of all death row inmates to life imprisonment.", "* 1977 – The Xinjiang 61st Regiment Farm fire started during Chinese New Year when a firecracker ignited memorial wreaths of the late Mao Zedong, killing 694 personnel.", "It remains the deadliest fireworks accident in the world.", "*1977 – A thousand armed soldiers raid Kalakuta Republic, the commune of Nigerian singer Fela Kuti, leading to the death of Funmilayo Anikulapo Kuti.", "*1977 – The Space Shuttle ''Enterprise'' test vehicle is carried on its maiden \"flight\" on top of a Boeing 747.", "*1979 – Richard Petty wins a then-record sixth Daytona 500 after leaders Donnie Allison and Cale Yarborough crash on the final lap of the first NASCAR race televised live flag-to-flag.", "*1983 – Thirteen people die and one is seriously injured in the Wah Mee massacre in Seattle.", "It is said to be the largest robbery-motivated mass-murder in U.S.", "history.", "*1991 – The IRA explodes bombs in the early morning at Paddington station and Victoria station in London.", "*2001 – FBI agent Robert Hanssen is arrested for spying for the Soviet Union.", "He is ultimately convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment.", "* 2001 – Sampit conflict: Inter-ethnic violence between Dayaks and Madurese breaks out in Sampit, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, ultimately resulting in more than 500 deaths and 100,000 Madurese displaced from their homes.", "*2003 – 192 people die when an arsonist sets fire to a subway train in Daegu, South Korea.", "*2004 – Up to 295 people, including nearly 200 rescue workers, die near Nishapur, Iran, when a runaway freight train carrying sulfur, petrol and fertilizer catches fire and explodes.", "*2010 – WikiLeaks publishes the first of hundreds of thousands of classified documents disclosed by the soldier now known as Chelsea Manning.", "*2013 – Armed robbers steal a haul of diamonds worth $50 million during a raid at Brussels Airport in Belgium.", "*2014 – At least 76 people are killed and hundreds are injured in clashes between riot police and demonstrators in Kyiv, Ukraine.", "*2018 – 66 people die when Iran Aseman Airlines Flight 3704 crashes in the Dena sub-range in the Zagros Mountains of Iran.", "*2021 – Perseverance, a Mars rover designed to explore Jezero crater on Mars, as part of NASA's Mars 2020 mission, lands successfully." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1201 – Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Persian scientist and writer (d. 1274)*1372 – Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Egyptian jurist and scholar (d. 1448)*1486 – Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Indian monk and saint (d. 1534)*1516 – Mary I of England (d. 1558)*1530 – Uesugi Kenshin, Japanese daimyō (d. 1578)*1543 – Charles III, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1608)*1547 – Bahāʾ al-dīn al-ʿĀmilī, founder of Isfahan School of Islamic Philosophy (d. 1621)*1559 – Isaac Casaubon, Swiss philologist and scholar (d. 1614)*1589 – Henry Vane the Elder, English politician (d. 1655)* 1589 – Maarten Gerritsz Vries, Dutch explorer (d. 1646)===1601–1900===*1602 – Per Brahe the Younger, Swedish soldier and politician, Governor-General of Finland (d. 1680)* 1602 – Michelangelo Cerquozzi, Italian painter (d. 1660)*1609 – Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, English historian and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1674)*1626 – Francesco Redi, Italian physician (d. 1697)*1632 – Giovanni Battista Vitali, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1692)*1642 – Marie Champmeslé, French actress (d. 1698)*1658 – Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre, French philosopher and author (d. 1743)*1732 – Johann Christian Kittel, German organist and composer (d. 1809)*1745 – Alessandro Volta, Italian physicist, invented the battery (d. 1827)*1754 – Emanuel Granberg, Finnish church painter (d. 1797)*1814 – Samuel Fenton Cary, American lawyer and politician (d. 1900)*1817 – Lewis Armistead, American general (d. 1863)*1818 – John O'Shanassy, Irish-Australian politician, 2nd Premier of Victoria (d. 1883)*1836 – Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Indian mystic and yogi (d. 1886)*1838 – Ernst Mach, Austrian physicist and philosopher (d. 1916)*1846 – Wilson Barrett, English actor, playwright, and manager (d. 1904)*1848 – Louis Comfort Tiffany, American stained glass artist (d. 1933)*1849 – Alexander Kielland, Norwegian author, playwright, and politician (d. 1906)*1850 – George Henschel, German-English singer-songwriter, pianist, and conductor (d. 1934)*1855 – Jean Jules Jusserand, French historian, author, and diplomat, French Ambassador to the United States (d. 1932)*1860 – Anders Zorn, Swedish artist (d. 1920) *1862 – Charles M. Schwab, American businessman, co-founded Bethlehem Steel (d. 1939)*1867 – Hedwig Courths-Mahler, German writer (d. 1950)*1870 – William Laurel Harris, American painter and author (d. 1924)*1871 – Harry Brearley, English inventor (d. 1948)*1883 – Nikos Kazantzakis, Greek philosopher, author, and playwright (d. 1957)*1885 – Henri Laurens, French sculptor and illustrator (d. 1954)*1893 – Maksim Haretski, Belarusian prose writer, journalist and activist (d. 1938)*1890 – Edward Arnold, American actor (d. 1956)* 1890 – Adolphe Menjou, American actor (d. 1963)*1892 – Wendell Willkie, American captain, lawyer, and politician (d. 1944)*1896 – Li Linsi, Chinese educator and diplomat (d. 1970) *1898 – Luis Muñoz Marín, Puerto Rican poet and politician, 1st Governor of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (d. 1980)*1899 – Arthur Bryant, English historian and journalist (d. 1985)===1901–present===*1903 – Nikolai Podgorny, Ukrainian engineer and politician (d. 1983)*1906 – Hans Asperger, Austrian pediatrician and academic (d. 1980)*1909 – Wallace Stegner, American novelist, short story writer, and essayist (d. 1993)*1914 – Pee Wee King, American singer-songwriter and fiddler (d. 2000)*1915 – Phyllis Calvert, English actress (d. 2002)* 1915 – Joe Gordon, American baseball player and manager (d. 1978)*1918 – Freddie Blassie, American wrestler and manager (d. 2003)*1919 – Jack Palance, American boxer and actor (d. 2006)*1920 – Rolande Falcinelli, French organist, pianist, composer, and pedagogue (d. 2006)*1921 – Mary Amdur, American toxicologist and public health researcher (d. 1998)* 1921 – Oscar Feltsman, Ukrainian-Russian pianist and composer (d. 2013)*1922 – Eric Gairy, Grenadan politician, 1st Prime Minister of Grenada (d. 1997)* 1922 – Helen Gurley Brown, American journalist and author (d. 2012)* 1922 – Connie Wisniewski, American baseball player (d. 1995)*1925 – George Kennedy, American actor (d. 2016)*1926 – Wallace Berman, American painter and illustrator (d. 1976)*1927 – Fazal Mahmood, Pakistani cricketer (d. 2005)*1929 – Len Deighton, English historian and author* 1929 – André Mathieu, Canadian pianist and composer (d. 1968)*1931 – Johnny Hart, American cartoonist, co-created ''The Wizard of Id'' (d. 2007)* 1931 – Toni Morrison, American novelist and editor, Nobel Prize laureate (d.", "2019).", "*1932 – Miloš Forman, Czech-American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2018)*1933 – Yoko Ono, Japanese-American multimedia artist and musician * 1933 – Bobby Robson, English footballer and manager (d. 2009)* 1933 – Mary Ure, Scottish-English actress (d. 1975)*1934 – Audre Lorde, American writer and activist (d. 1992)*1936 – Jean M. Auel, American author*1939 – Claude Ake, Nigerian political scientist and academic (d. 1996)*1940 – Fabrizio De André, Italian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1999)*1941 – Irma Thomas, American singer-songwriter*1946 – Michael Buerk, English journalist* 1946 – Jess Walton, American actress*1947 – Dennis DeYoung, American musician, singer, and songwriter*1950 – Nana Amba Eyiaba I, Ghanaian queen mother and advocate* 1950 – John Hughes, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2009)* 1950 – Cybill Shepherd, American actress*1951 – Queen Komal of Nepal* 1951 – Isabel Preysler, Filipino-Spanish journalist*1952 – Randy Crawford, American jazz and R&B singer* 1952 – Maurice Lucas, American basketball player (d. 2010)* 1952 – Juice Newton, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1954 – John Travolta, American actor, singer and producer *1955 – Lisa See, American writer and novelist*1957 – Marita Koch, German sprinter* 1957 – Vanna White, American television personality*1959 – Jayne Atkinson, English-American actress*1960 – Andy Moog, Canadian ice hockey player* 1960 – Greta Scacchi, Italian-Australian actress*1964 – Matt Dillon, American actor*1965 – Dr. Dre, American rapper, record producer, and entrepreneur*1966 – Phillip DeFreitas, Dominican-English cricketer *1967 – Roberto Baggio, Italian footballer* 1967 – Colin Jackson, Welsh sprinter and hurdler*1968 – Molly Ringwald, American actress*1969 – Alexander Mogilny, Russian ice hockey player*1971 – Thomas Bjørn, Danish golfer*1974 – Carrie Ann Baade, American painter and academic* 1974 – Radek Černý, Czech footballer* 1974 – Julia Butterfly Hill, American environmentalist and author* 1974 – Jillian Michaels, American personal trainer and television personality*1975 – Gary Neville, English footballer*1977 – Ike Barinholtz, American actor and comedian* 1977 – Kristoffer Polaha, American actor*1980 – Nik Antropov, Kazakhstani-Canadian ice hockey player* 1980 – Regina Spektor, Russian-American musician and songwriter*1981 – Andrei Kirilenko, Russian-American basketball player* 1981 – Alex Ríos, American baseball player*1982 – Christian Tiffert, German footballer*1983 – Kara Braxton, American basketball player* 1983 – Jermaine Jenas, English footballer* 1983 – Jason Maxiell, American basketball player*1984 – Carlos Kameni, Cameroonian footballer*1986 – Kyle Weaver, American basketball player*1988 – Sarah Sutherland, American actress* 1988 – Maiara Walsh, American-Brazilian actress* 1988 – Roman Neustädter, German-Russian footballer*1989 – Sonja Vasić, Serbian basketball player*1990 – Monica Aksamit, American saber fencer* 1990 – Didi Gregorius, Dutch baseball player* 1990 – Cody Hodgson, Canadian ice hockey player* 1990 – Bryan Oviedo, Costa Rican footballer*1991 – Sebastian Neumann, German footballer*1992 – Le'Veon Bell, American football player* 1992 – Martin Marinčin, Slovak ice hockey player* 1992 – Logan Miller, American actor*1993 – Kentavious Caldwell-Pope, American basketball player*1994 – J-Hope, South Korean rapper, singer-songwriter, dancer, and record producer* 1994 – Paul Zipser, German basketball player*1995 – Nathan Aké, Dutch footballer*1996 – Tyler Dorsey, American-Greek basketball player*2000 – Giacomo Raspadori, Italian footballer* 2000 – Zakaria Aboukhlal, Moroccan footballer*2001 – Jaime Jaquez Jr., American basketball player* 2001 – Tanguy Coulibaly, French footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 675 – Colmán, bishop of Lindisfarne* 814 – Angilbert, Frankish monk and diplomat (b.", "760)* 901 – Thābit ibn Qurra, Arab astronomer and physician (b.", "826)*999 – Gregory V, pope of the Catholic Church (b.", "972)*1139 – Yaropolk II, Grand Prince of Kiev (b.", "1082)*1218 – Berthold V, duke of Zähringen (b.", "1160)*1225 – Hugh Bigod, 3rd Earl of Norfolk, Norman nobleman*1294 – Kublai Khan, Mongol emperor (b.", "1215)*1379 – Albert II, duke of Mecklenburg (b.", "1318)*1397 – Enguerrand VII, French nobleman (b.", "1340)*1455 – Fra Angelico, Italian priest and painter (b.", "1395)*1478 – George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, English nobleman (b.", "1449)*1502 – Hedwig Jagiellon, duchess of Bavaria (b.", "1457)*1535 – Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, German magician, astrologer, and theologian (b.", "1486)*1546 – Martin Luther, German priest and theologian, leader of the Protestant Reformation (b.", "1483)*1564 – Michelangelo, Italian sculptor and painter (b.", "1475)===1601–1900===*1654 – Jean-Louis Guez de Balzac, French author (b.", "1594)*1658 – John Villiers, 1st Viscount Purbeck, English courtier (b. c. 1591)*1683 – Nicolaes Pieterszoon Berchem, Dutch painter (b.", "1620)*1695 – William Phips, governor of Massachusetts (b.", "1650)*1712 – Louis, Dauphin of France, (b.", "1682)*1743 – Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici, Italian noble (b.", "1667)*1748 – Otto Ferdinand von Abensberg und Traun, Austrian field marshal (b.", "1677)*1772 – Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von Bernstorff, Danish politician (b.", "1712)*1778 – Joseph Marie Terray, French economist and politician, Controller-General of Finances (b.", "1715)*1780 – Kristijonas Donelaitis, Lithuanian pastor and poet (b.", "1714)*1788 – John Whitehurst, English geologist and clockmaker (b.", "1713)*1803 – Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim, German poet and educator (b.", "1719)*1851 – Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, German mathematician and academic (b.", "1804)*1873 – Vasil Levski, Bulgarian activist, founded the Internal Revolutionary Organization (b.", "1837)*1880 – Nikolay Zinin, Russian organic chemist (b.", "1812)*1893 – Serranus Clinton Hastings, American lawyer and politician, 1st Chief Justice of California (b.", "1814)===1901–present===*1902 – Charles Lewis Tiffany, American businessman, founded Tiffany & Co. (b.", "1812)*1910 – Lucy Stanton, American activist (b.", "1831)*1915 – Frank James, American soldier and criminal (b.", "1843)*1933 – James J. Corbett, American boxer and actor (b.", "1866)*1938 – David King Udall, American missionary and politician (b.", "1851)*1956 – Gustave Charpentier, French composer (b.", "1860)*1960 – Gertrude Vanderbilt, American stage actress (b.", ")*1966 – Grigory Nelyubov, Soviet pilot and military officer (b.", "1934)*1967 – J. Robert Oppenheimer, American physicist and academic (b.", "1904)*1969 – Dragiša Cvetković, Serbian lawyer and politician, 17th Prime Minister of Yugoslavia (b.", "1893)*1977 – Andy Devine, American actor (b.", "1905)*1981 – Jack Northrop, American engineer and businessman, founded the Northrop Corporation (b.", "1895)*1982 – Ngaio Marsh, New Zealand author (b.", "1895)*2001 – Balthus, Polish-Swiss painter and illustrator (b.", "1908)* 2001 – Dale Earnhardt, American racer and NASCAR seven times champion (b.", "1951)*2014 – Mavis Gallant, Canadian-French author and playwright (b.", "1922)* 2014 – Maria Franziska von Trapp, Austrian-American singer (b.", "1914)*2015 – Elchanan Heilprin, Czechoslovakian-born English rabbi (b.", "1920 or 1922)*2019 – Alessandro Mendini, Italian designer and architect (b.", "1931)*2020 – Flavio Bucci, Italian actor and voice actor (b.", "1947)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Bernadette Soubirous (France)**Colmán of Lindisfarne**Flavian of Constantinople**Geltrude Comensoli**Simeon of Jerusalem (Western Christianity)**February 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Dialect Day (Amami Islands, Japan)*Independence Day, celebrates the independence of the Gambia from the United Kingdom in 1965*Kurdish Students Union Day (Iraqi Kurdistan)*National Democracy Day, celebrates the 1951 overthrow of the Rana dynasty (Nepal)==References==" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 18" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fabio Taglioni" ], [ "Introduction", "Fabio Taglioni (right) and Bruno Spaggiari at the 1972 Imola 200'''Fabio Taglioni''' (10 September 1920 – 18 July 2001) was an Italian engineer.Born in Lugo di Romagna, he was chief designer and technical director of Ducati from 1954 until 1989.His desmodromic 90° V-twin engine design is still used in all current Ducati motorcycle engines.", "Among the many race victories of his early desmo twin, the 1978 legendary return of Mike Hailwood at the Isle of Man is perhaps the most memorable.After World War II, Taglioni designed engines for Ceccato motorcycles and Mondial before joining Ducati in 1954.He began by designing Ducati's OHC four-stroke singles, and in 1963 designed the prototype V4 Ducati Apollo.", "This led to the 1972 Ducati 750 Imola Desmo, and the 1970s and 1980s production Ducati L-twin motorcycles.He died in Bologna in 2001." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Fabio Taglioni: Motorcycle Engine Designer" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fourth-generation programming language" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''fourth-generation programming language''' ('''4GL''') is a high-level computer programming language that belongs to a class of languages envisioned as an advancement upon third-generation programming languages (3GL).", "Each of the programming language generations aims to provide a higher level of abstraction of the internal computer hardware details, making the language more programmer-friendly, powerful, and versatile.", "While the definition of 4GL has changed over time, it can be typified by operating more with large collections of information at once rather than focusing on just bits and bytes.", "Languages claimed to be 4GL may include support for database management, report generation, mathematical optimization, GUI development, or web development.", "Some researchers state that 4GLs are a subset of domain-specific languages.The concept of 4GL was developed from the 1970s through the 1990s, overlapping most of the development of 3GL, with 4GLs identified as \"non-procedural\" or \"program-generating\" languages, contrasted with 3GLs being algorithmic or procedural languages.", "While 3GLs like C, C++, C#, Java, and JavaScript remain popular for a wide variety of uses, 4GLs as originally defined found uses focused on databases, reports, and websites.", "Some advanced 3GLs like Python, Ruby, and Perl combine some 4GL abilities within a general-purpose 3GL environment, and libraries with 4GL-like features have been developed as add-ons for most popular 3GLs, producing languages that are a mix of 3GL and 4GL, blurring the distinction.In the 1980s and 1990s, there were efforts to develop fifth-generation programming languages (5GL)." ], [ "History", "Though used earlier in papers and discussions, the term 4GL was first used formally by James Martin in his 1981 book ''Applications Development Without Programmers'' to refer to non-procedural, high-level specification languages.", "In some primitive way, early 4GLs were included in the Informatics MARK-IV (1967) product and Sperry's MAPPER (1969 internal use, 1979 release).The motivations for the '4GL' inception and continued interest are several.", "The term can apply to a large set of software products.", "It can also apply to an approach that looks for greater semantic properties and implementation power.", "Just as the 3GL offered greater power to the programmer, so too did the 4GL open up the development environment to a wider population.The early input scheme for the 4GL supported entry of data within the 72-character limit of the punched card (8 bytes used for sequencing) where a card's tag would identify the type or function.", "With judicious use of a few cards, the 4GL deck could offer a wide variety of processing and reporting capability whereas the equivalent functionality coded in a 3GL could subsume, perhaps, a whole box or more of cards.The 72-character format continued for a while as hardware progressed to larger memory and terminal interfaces.", "Even with its limitations, this approach supported highly sophisticated applications.As interfaces improved and allowed longer statement lengths and grammar-driven input handling, greater power ensued.", "An example of this is described on the Nomad page.", "::Another example of Nomad's power is illustrated by Nicholas Rawlings in his comments for the Computer History Museum about NCSS (see citation below).", "He reports that James Martin asked Rawlings for a Nomad solution to a standard problem Martin called the ''Engineer's Problem'': \"give 6% raises to engineers whose job ratings had an average of 7 or better.\"", "Martin provided a \"dozen pages of COBOL, and then just a page or two of Mark IV, from Informatics.\"", "Rawlings offered the following single statement, performing a set-at-a-time operation...The development of the 4GL was influenced by several factors, with the hardware and operating system constraints having a large weight.", "When the 4GL was first introduced, a disparate mix of hardware and operating systems mandated custom application development support that was specific to the system in order to ensure sales.", "One example is the MAPPER system developed by Sperry.", "Though it has roots back to the beginning, the system has proven successful in many applications and has been ported to modern platforms.", "The latest variant is embedded in the BIS offering of Unisys.", "MARK-IV is now known as VISION:BUILDER and is offered by Computer Associates.Santa Fe railroad used MAPPER to develop a system, in a project that was an early example of 4GL, rapid prototyping, and programming by users.", "The idea was that it was easier to teach railroad experts to use MAPPER than to teach programmers the \"intricacies of railroad operations\".One of the early (and portable) languages that had 4GL properties was Ramis developed by Gerald C. Cohen at Mathematica, a mathematical software company.", "Cohen left Mathematica and founded Information Builders to create a similar reporting-oriented 4GL, called FOCUS.Later 4GL types are tied to a database system and are far different from the earlier types in their use of techniques and resources that have resulted from the general improvement of computing with time.An interesting twist to the 4GL scene is realization that graphical interfaces and the related reasoning done by the user form a 'language' that is poorly understood." ], [ "Types", "A number of different types of 4GLs exist:* Table-driven (codeless) programming, usually running with a runtime framework and libraries.", "Instead of using code, the developer defines their logic by selecting an operation in a pre-defined list of memory or data table manipulation commands.", "In other words, instead of coding, the developer uses table-driven algorithm programming (see also control tables that can be used for this purpose).", "These types of tools can be used for business application development usually consisting in a package allowing for both business data manipulation and reporting, therefore they come with GUI screens and report editors.", "They usually offer integration with lower level DLLs generated from a typical 3GL for when the need arise for more hardware/OS specific operations.", "* Report-generator programming languages take a description of the data format and the report to generate and from that they either generate the required report directly or they generate a program to generate the report.", "See also RPG*Similarly, forms generators manage online interactions with the application system users or generate programs to do so.", "* More ambitious 4GLs (sometimes termed ''fourth generation environments'') attempt to automatically generate whole systems from the outputs of CASE tools, specifications of screens and reports, and possibly also the specification of some additional processing logic.", "* Data management 4GLs such as SAS, SPSS, and Stata provide sophisticated coding commands for data manipulation, file reshaping, case selection, and data documentation in the preparation of data for statistical analysis and reporting.", "*So-called \"XTalk\" languages, developed initially with Apple's Hypercard in 1987.Hypercard was the progenitor of more modern and powerful programs such as SuperCard, Toolbook and LiveCode.Some 4GLs have integrated tools that allow for the easy specification of all the required information:* James Martin's version of data engineering systems development methodology was automated to allow the input of the results of system analysis and design in the form of data flow diagrams, entity relationship diagrams, entity life history diagrams etc., from which hundreds of thousands of lines of COBOL would be generated overnight.", "* More recently Oracle Corporation's Oracle Designer and Oracle Developer Suite 4GL products could be integrated to produce database definitions and the forms and reports programs." ], [ "Low code environments", "In the twenty-first century, 4GL systems have emerged as \"low code\" environments or platforms for the problem of rapid application development in short periods of time.", "Vendors often provide sample systems such as CRM, contract management, bug tracking from which development can occur with little programming." ], [ "Examples", "===General use / versatile===*4th Dimension*Accell/SQL (4GL) from Unify Corporation.", "*Broadcom 2e Formerly Synon 4GL RPG/COBOL Generator*CA-Telon 4GL Cobol/PLI generator *Clarion*Clipper*Cognos PowerHouse 4GL*DataFlex (Microsoft Windows, web, mobile)*DATATRIEVE*dBase*FileMaker*FOCUS*Forté TOOL (transactional object-oriented language)*GeneXus*Harbour*HyperCard (development and support were ended)*IBM Rational EGL (Enterprise Generation Language)*LabVIEW*LANSA*LINC*LiveCode*M-Power*NATURAL*Omnis Studio SDK*Oracle Application Development Framework*OutSystems (Productivity/PaaS)*Jmix/CUBA Platform (Productivity/Framework)*PowerBuilder*R:Base*SheerPower4GL (Microsoft Windows only)*SQLWindows/Team Developer*Uniface*Unix Shell*Visual FoxPro (development and support were ended)*XBase++*Xojo*ZIM:X===Database query languages===*FOCUS*4D QL*Informix-4GL*NATURAL*OpenEdge ABL*OpenROAD (Ingres 4GL)*Ramis*SQL*ZIM:X===Report generators===*LINC*Oracle Reports*Progress 4GL Query/Results*RPG-II*ZIM:XExtract data from files or database to create reports in a wide range of formats is done by the report generator tools.===Data manipulation, analysis, and reporting languages===*Ab Initio*ABAP*Audit Command Language*Clarion Programming Language*CorVision*Culprit*ADS/Online (plus transaction processing)*Easytrieve*FOCUS*GraphTalk*IDL*IGOR Pro*Informix-4GL*JSL*Judoscript*LANSA*M-Power*LabVIEW*LiveCode*MANTIS*MAPPER (Unisys/Sperry) now part of BIS*MARK-IV (Sterling/Informatics) now VISION:BUILDER of CA*Simulink a component of MATLAB*NATURAL*Nomad*Octave*PL/SQL*Progress 4GL*R*Ramis*S*Scilab*SAS*SPSS*SQL PL*SQR*Stata*Synon*Wolfram Language*XBase++*XQuery*XSLT *ZIM:X===Software creators===*4th Dimension (Software)*LiveCode*MATLAB's GUIDE*Omnis Studio*OpenROAD*Progress 4GL AppBuilder*SuperTalk*Visual DataFlex*Xojo*XUL Can be used with XQuery*ZIM:X===Mathematical optimization===*AIMMS*AMPL*GAMS*Mathematica*MathProg*MATLAB*ZIM:X===Database-driven GUI application development===*C/AL*Genexus*SB+/SystemBuilder*Unify VISION*ZIM:X===Low code / No code development platforms===Source:*1C:Enterprise programming language *Appcelerator*Appian*Bizagi*DronaHQ*K2*Kony*LANSA*M-Power*Mendix*Microsoft Power Automate*N8n*Node-RED*OutSystems*Pegasystems*PNMsoft*Progress*ServiceNow*Servoy*ViziApps*WEM===Screen painters and generators===*Oracle Forms*Progress 4GL ProVision*SB+/SystemBuilder*ZIM:X===Web development languages===*ActiveVFP*CFML*LANSA*OutSystems*Wavemaker*ZIMWEB===Music Programming language===*MaxMSP" ], [ "See also", "* List of fourth-generation programming languages* Domain-specific language* Rapid application development" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Frank Capra" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frank Russell Capra''' (born '''Francesco Rosario Capra'''; May 18, 1897 – September 3, 1991) was an Italian-American film director, producer, and screenwriter who was the creative force behind some of the major award-winning films of the 1930s and 1940s.", "Born in Italy and raised in Los Angeles from the age of five, his rags-to-riches story has led film historians such as Ian Freer to consider him the \"American Dream personified\".Capra became one of America's most influential directors during the 1930s, winning three Academy Awards for Best Director from six nominations, along with three other Oscar wins from nine nominations in other categories.", "Among his leading films were ''It Happened One Night'' (1934), ''Mr.", "Deeds Goes to Town'' (1936), ''You Can't Take It with You'' (1938), and ''Mr.", "Smith Goes to Washington'' (1939).", "During World War II, Capra served in the U.S. Army Signal Corps and produced propaganda films, such as the ''Why We Fight'' series.After World War II, Capra's career declined as his later films, such as ''It's a Wonderful Life'' (1946), performed poorly when they were first released.", "Beginning in 1950, his cinematic output slowed.", "In the ensuing decades, however, ''It's a Wonderful Life'' and other Capra films were revisited favorably by critics.", "Outside of directing, Capra was active in the film industry, engaging in various political and social activities.", "He served as President of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, worked alongside the Writers Guild of America, and was head of the Directors Guild of America." ], [ "Early life", "Capra was born Francesco Rosario Capra in Bisacquino, a village near Palermo, Sicily, Italy.", "He was the youngest of seven children of Salvatore Capra, a fruit grower, and the former Rosaria \"Sara\" Nicolosi.", "Capra's family was Roman Catholic.", "Frank's siblings were Luigia, Ignazia, Benedetto, Antonino Giuseppe, Antonia, and Anne.", "The name \"Capra\", notes Capra's biographer, Joseph McBride, represents his family's closeness to the land, and means \"goat\".", "He notes that the English word \"capricious\" derives from it, \"evoking the animal's skittish temperament\", adding that \"the name neatly expresses two aspects of Frank Capra's personality: emotionalism and obstinacy.", "\"In 1903, when he was five, Capra's family emigrated to the United States, traveling in a steerage compartment of the steamship ''Germania'' — the cheapest way to make the passage.", "For Capra, the 13-day journey remained one of the worst experiences of his life:Capra remembers the ship's arrival in New York Harbor, where he saw \"a statue of a great lady, taller than a church steeple, holding a torch above the land we were about to enter\".", "He recalls his father's exclamation at the sight:The family settled in Los Angeles's East Side (today Lincoln Heights) on Avenue 18, which Capra described in his autobiography as an Italian \"ghetto\".", "Capra's father worked as a fruit picker and young Capra sold newspapers after school for ten years until he graduated from high school.", "He attended the Manual Arts High School, with Jimmy Doolittle and Lawrence Tibbett as classmates.", "Instead of working after graduating, as his parents wanted, he enrolled in college.", "He worked through college at the California Institute of Technology, playing banjo at nightclubs and taking odd jobs like working at the campus laundry, waiting tables, and cleaning engines at a local power plant.", "He studied chemical engineering and graduated in the spring of 1918.Capra later wrote that his college education had \"changed his whole viewpoint on life from the viewpoint of an alley rat to the viewpoint of a cultured person\"." ], [ "World War I and later", "Soon after graduating from college, Capra was commissioned in the United States Army as a second lieutenant, having completed campus ROTC.", "In the Army, he taught mathematics to artillerymen at Fort Point, San Francisco.", "His father died during the war in an accident (1916).", "In the Army, Capra contracted Spanish flu and was medically discharged to return home to live with his mother.", "He became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1920, taking the name Frank Russell Capra.", "Living at home with his siblings and mother, Capra was the only family member with a college education, yet he was the only one who remained chronically unemployed.", "After a year without work, seeing how his siblings had steady jobs, he felt he was a failure, which led to bouts of depression.Chronic abdominal pains were later discovered to have been an undiagnosed burst appendix.", "After recovering at home, Capra moved out and spent the next few years living in flophouses in San Francisco and hopping freight trains, wandering the Western United States.", "To support himself, he took odd jobs on farms, as a movie extra, playing poker, and selling local oil well stocks.During this time the 24-year-old Capra directed a 32-minute documentary film titled ''La Visita Dell'Incrociatore Italiano Libya a San Francisco''.", "Not only did it document the visit of the Italian naval vessel ''Libya'' to San Francisco, but also the reception given to the crew of the ship by San Francisco's L'Italia Virtus Club, now known as the San Francisco Italian Athletic Club.At 25, Capra took a job selling books written and published by American philosopher Elbert Hubbard.", "Capra recalled that he \"hated being a peasant, being a scrounging new kid trapped in the Sicilian ghetto of Los Angeles.", "... All I had was cockiness—and let me tell you that gets you a long way.\"" ], [ "Career", "=== Silent film comedies ===During his book sales efforts—and nearly broke—Capra read a newspaper article about a new movie studio opening in San Francisco.", "Capra phoned them saying he had moved from Hollywood and falsely implied that he had experience in the budding film industry.", "Capra's only prior exposure in films was in 1915 while attending Manual Arts High School.", "The studio's founder, Walter Montague, was nonetheless impressed by Capra and offered him $75 to direct a one-reel silent film.", "Capra, with the help of a cameraman, made the film in two days and cast it with amateurs.After that first serious job in films, Capra began efforts to finding similar openings in the film industry.", "He took a position with another minor San Francisco studio and subsequently received an offer to work with producer Harry Cohn at his new studio in Los Angeles.", "During this time, he worked as a property man, film cutter, title writer, and assistant director.Capra later became a gag writer for Hal Roach's ''Our Gang'' series.", "He was twice hired as a writer for a slapstick comedy director, Mack Sennett, in 1918 and 1924.Under him, Capra wrote scripts for comedian Harry Langdon and produced by Mack Sennett, the first being ''Plain Clothes'' in 1925.According to Capra, it was he who invented Langdon's character, the innocent fool living in a \"naughty world\"; however, Langdon was well into this character by 1925.When Langdon eventually left Sennett to make longer, feature-length movies with First National Studios, he took Capra along as his personal writer and director.", "They made three feature films together during 1926 and 1927, all of them successful with critics and the public.", "The films made Langdon a recognized comedian in the caliber of Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton.", "Following the production of ''Long Pants'' (1927), Capra argued with Langdon over the direction his next project would take.", "Langdon's other confidant was writer-director Arthur Ripley, a fellow Sennett alumnus, and Langdon followed Ripley's suggestions.", "Capra quit, and the split was disastrous for Langdon, who took matters into his own hands and directed his films himself, to poor reception.After Capra split with Langdon, he directed a picture for First National, ''For the Love of Mike'' (1927).", "This was a silent comedy about three bickering godfathers—a German, a Jew, and an Irishman—starring a budding actress, Claudette Colbert.", "The movie was considered a failure and is a lost film.=== Columbia Pictures ===Capra returned to Harry Cohn's studio, now named Columbia Pictures, which was then producing short films and two-reel comedies for \"fillers\" to play between main features.", "Columbia was one of many start-up studios on \"Poverty Row\" in Los Angeles.", "Like the others, Columbia was unable to compete with larger studios, which often had their own production facilities, distribution, and theaters.", "Cohn rehired Capra in 1928 to help his studio produce new, full-length feature films, to compete with the major studios.", "Capra would eventually direct 20 films for Cohn's studio, including many of his classics.Because of Capra's engineering education, he adapted more easily to the new sound technology than most directors.", "He welcomed the transition to sound, recalling, \"I wasn't at home in silent films.\"", "Most studios were unwilling to invest in the new sound technology, assuming it was a passing fad.", "Many in Hollywood considered sound a threat to the industry and hoped it would pass quickly; McBride notes that \"Capra was not one of them.\"", "When he saw Al Jolson singing in ''The Jazz Singer'' in 1927, considered the first talkie, Capra recalled his reaction:Few of the studio heads or crew were aware of Capra's engineering background until he began directing ''The Younger Generation'' in 1929.The chief cinematographer who worked with Capra on a number of films was likewise unaware.", "He describes this early period in sound for film:During his first year with Columbia, Capra directed nine films, some of which were successful.", "After the first few, Harry Cohn said: \"it was the beginning of Columbia making a better quality of pictures.\"", "According to Barson, \"Capra became ensconced as Harry Cohn's most trusted director.\"", "His films soon established Capra as a \"bankable\" director known throughout the industry, and Cohn raised Capra's initial salary of $1,000 per film to $25,000 per year.", "Capra directed a film for MGM during this period, but soon realized he \"had much more freedom under Harry Cohn's benevolent dictatorship\", where Cohn also put Capra's \"name above the title\" of his films, a first for the movie industry.", "Capra wrote of this period and recalled the confidence that Cohn placed in Capra's vision and directing:Capra directed his first \"real\" sound picture, ''The Younger Generation'', in 1929.It was a rags-to-riches romantic comedy about a Jewish family's upward mobility in New York City, with their son later trying to deny his Jewish roots to keep his rich, gentile girlfriend.", "According to Capra biographer Joseph McBride, Capra \"obviously felt a strong identification with the story of a Jewish immigrant who grows up in the ghetto of New York ... and feels he has to deny his ethnic origins to rise to success in America.\"", "Capra, however, denied any connection of the story with his own life.Nonetheless, McBride insists that ''The Younger Generation'' abounds with parallels to Capra's own life.", "McBride notes the \"devastatingly painful climactic scene\", where the young social-climbing son, embarrassed when his wealthy new friends first meet his parents, passes his mother and father off as house servants.", "That scene, notes McBride, \"echoes the shame Capra admitted feeling toward his own family as he rose in social status\".During his years at Columbia, Capra worked often with screenwriter Robert Riskin (husband of Fay Wray), and cameraman Joseph Walker.", "In many of Capra's films, the wise-cracking and sharp dialogue was often written by Riskin, and he and Capra went on to become Hollywood's \"most admired writer-director team\".=== Film career (1934–1941) ======= ''It Happened One Night'' (1934) ====Capra's films in the 1930s enjoyed immense success at the Academy Awards.", "''It Happened One Night'' (1934) became the first film to win all five top Oscars (Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actor, Best Actress, and Best Adapted Screenplay).", "Written by Robert Riskin, it is one of the first screwball comedies, and with its release in the Great Depression, critics considered it an escapist story and a celebration of the American Dream.", "The film established the names of Capra, Columbia Pictures, and stars Clark Gable and Claudette Colbert in the movie industry.", "The film has been called \"picaresque\".", "It was one of the earliest road movies and inspired variations on that theme by other filmmakers.He followed the film with ''Broadway Bill'' (1934), a screwball comedy about horse racing.", "The film was a turning point for Capra, however, as he began to conceive an additional dimension to his movies.", "He started using his films to convey messages to the public.", "Capra explains his new thinking:This added goal was inspired after meeting with a Christian Scientist friend who told him to view his talents in a different way:Capra began to embody messages in subsequent films, many of which conveyed \"fantasies of goodwill\".", "The first of those was ''Mr.", "Deeds Goes to Town'' (1936), for which Capra won his second Best Director Oscar.", "Critic Alistair Cooke observed that Capra was \"starting to make movies about themes instead of people\".In 1938, Capra won his third Director Oscar in five years for ''You Can't Take It with You'', which also won Best Picture.", "In addition to his three directing wins, Capra received directing nominations for three other films (''Lady for a Day'', ''Mr.", "Smith Goes to Washington'', and ''It's a Wonderful Life'').", "On May 5, 1936, Capra hosted the 8th Academy Awards ceremony.==== ''Mr.", "Smith Goes to Washington'' (1939) ====Although ''It's a Wonderful Life'' is his best-known film, Friedman notes that it was ''Mr.", "Smith Goes to Washington'' (1939), which most represented the \"Capra myth\".", "That film expressed Capra's patriotism more than any others, and \"presented the individual working within the democratic system to overcome rampant political corruption\".The film, however, became Capra's most controversial.", "In his research before filming, he was able to stand close to President Franklin D. Roosevelt during a press conference after the recent acts of war by Germany in Europe.", "Capra recalls his fears:When the filming was completed, the studio sent preview copies to Washington.", "Joseph P. Kennedy Sr., U.S. ambassador to the UK, wrote to Columbia head Harry Cohn, \"Please do not play this picture in Europe.\"", "Politicians were concerned about the potential negative effect the film might have on the morale of the United States' allies, as World War II had begun.", "Kennedy wrote to President Roosevelt that, \"In foreign countries this film must inevitably strengthen the mistaken impression that the United States is full of graft, corruption and lawlessness.\"", "Many studio heads agreed, nor did they want negative feelings about Hollywood instilled in political leaders.Nonetheless, Capra's vision of the film's significance was clear:Capra pleaded with Cohn to allow the film to go into distribution and remembers the intensity of their decision making:Cohn and Capra chose to ignore the negative publicity and demands and released the film as planned.", "It was later nominated for 11 Academy Awards, only winning one (for Best Original Story) partly because the number of major pictures that were nominated that year was 10, including ''The Wizard of Oz'' and ''Gone with the Wind''.", "Hollywood columnist Louella Parsons called it a \"smash patriotic hit\" and most critics agreed, seeing that audiences left the theaters with \"an enthusiasm for democracy\" and \"in a glow of patriotism.", "\"The significance of the film's message was established further in France, shortly after World War II began.", "When the French public was asked to select which film they wanted to see most, having been told by the Vichy government that soon no more American films would be allowed in France, the overwhelming majority chose it over all others.", "To a France soon to be invaded and occupied by Nazi forces, the film most expressed the \"perseverance of democracy and the American way.", "\"===Impasse===Capra became enchanted with a German-made film biography of composer Frédéric Chopin.", "He purchased the film himself as a basis for his new production, and recruited one of Columbia's leading writers, Sidney Buchman, to fashion a screenplay.", "Capra spent a full year working on the Chopin project, and the film was ready to go into production.", "Capra wanted to make the film in the costly Technicolor process—a first for Columbia—but Columbia's New York office balked at the expense.", "As Cohn's biographer Bob Thomas recounted, \"They were aghast at the prospect of trying to sell an expensive costume film about a piano player and a woman novelist who wore pants and smoked cigars.", "The opposition was strong enough to veto the project.\"", "The enraged Capra quit Columbia.", "Harry Cohn tried to lure him back with an unprecedented profit-sharing split of 50/50, but Capra accepted a million-dollar cash offer from Warner Bros. Columbia ultimately went ahead with the Chopin biography, in Technicolor, under the direction of Charles Vidor: ''A Song to Remember'' (1945).==== ''Meet John Doe'' (1941) ====Walter Brennan, Gary Cooper, Irving Bacon, Barbara Stanwyck, and James Gleason in ''Meet John Doe''Capra's first Warner project was ''Meet John Doe'' (1941).", "So important was the Capra name that Warner Bros. took its own name off the main title.", "Instead of the usual \"Warner Bros. Pictures presents\", ''Meet John Doe'' begins with \"Presenting\".Some consider ''Meet John Doe'' to be Capra's most controversial movie.", "The film's hero, played by Gary Cooper, is a former baseball player now bumming around, lacking goals.", "He is selected by a news reporter to represent the \"common man,\" to capture the imagination of ordinary Americans.", "The film was released shortly before America became involved in World War II, and citizens were still in an isolationist mood.", "According to some historians, the film was made to convey a \"deliberate reaffirmation of American values,\" though ones that seemed uncertain with respect to the future.Film author Richard Glazer speculates that the film may have been autobiographical, \"reflecting Capra's own uncertainties\".", "Glazer describes how, \"John's accidental transformation from drifter to national figure parallels Capra's own early drifting experience and subsequent involvement in movie making ... ''Meet John Doe'', then, was an attempt to work out his own fears and questions.\"" ], [ "World War II years (1941–1945)", "=== Joining the Army after Pearl Harbor ===Capra editing film as a Major during World War IIWithin four days after the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Capra quit his successful directing career in Hollywood and received a commission as a major in the United States Army.", "He also gave up his presidency of the Screen Directors Guild.", "Being 44 years of age, he was not asked to enlist, but, notes Friedman, \"Capra had an intense desire to prove his patriotism to his adopted land.", "\"Capra recalls some personal reasons for enlisting:=== ''Why We Fight'' series ===During the next four years of World War II, Capra's job was to head a special section on morale to explain to soldiers \"why the hell they're in uniform\", writes Capra, and were not \"propaganda\" films like those created by the Nazis and Japan.", "Capra directed or co-directed seven documentary war information films.Capra was assigned to work directly under Chief of Staff George C. Marshall, the most senior officer in command of the Army, who later created the Marshall Plan and was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize.", "Marshall chose to bypass the usual documentary film-making department, Signal Corps, because he felt they were not capable of producing \"sensitive and objective troop information films\".", "One colonel explained the importance of these future films to Capra:Distinguished Service Medal from General George C. Marshall, 1945During his first meeting with General Marshall, Capra was told his mission:Capra ended up directing a seven-episode ''Why We Fight'' series: ''Prelude to War'' (1942), ''The Nazis Strike'' (1942), ''Divide and Conquer'' (1943), ''The Battle of Britain'' (1943), ''The Battle of Russia'' (1943), ''The Battle of China'' (1944), and ''War Comes to America'' (1945).", "Additionally, Capra directed or co-directed the propaganda films ''Tunisian Victory'' (1945) ''Know Your Enemy: Japan'' (1945), ''Here Is Germany'' (1945), and ''Two Down and One to Go'' (1945), which do not bear the ''Why We Fight'' banner.", "Capra also produced the critically-acclaimed ''The Negro Soldier'' (1944), which was directed by Stuart Heisler.", "Capra also directed, uncredited, the 13-minute film ''Your Job in Germany'' (1945), which was meant for US troops headed to Allied-occupied Germany.After he completed the first few documentaries, government officials and U.S. Army staff felt they were powerful messages and excellent presentations of why it was necessary for the United States to fight in the war.", "All footage came from military and government sources, whereas during earlier years, many newsreels secretly used footage from enemy sources.", "Animated charts were created by Walt Disney and his animators.", "A number of Hollywood composers wrote the background music, including Alfred Newman and Russian-born composer Dimitri Tiomkin.", "After the first complete film was viewed by General Marshall along with U.S. Army staff—and Franklin Roosevelt—Marshall approached Capra: \"Colonel Capra, how did you do it?", "That is a most wonderful thing.", "\"FDR was effusive: \"I want every American to see this motion picture.", "General--please make all necessary arrangements\".", "''Prelude To War'' was distributed by 20th Century-Fox, and was nationally acclaimed.", "Fox also released Capra's ''Why We Fight'' opus, ''The Battle Of Russia''.", "Released to service audiences in two-parts to accommodate hour-long periods during induction training, the nine-reel (nearly 90 minutes) epic detailed Russian history using excerpts of the films of Sergei Eisenstein, then proceeded to recent history through captured Nazi newsreels and those supplied reluctantly by Stalin.", "When he was shown the film in Moscow, Stalin was effusive and ordered one thousand 35mm prints.", "He was so anxious that his people should see the film that he did not bother creating a Russian soundtrack.", "Capra laughed in amazement years later when re-counting the tale: \"Stalin had interpreters at the side of the stage in all the theatres.", "They simply translated the film on the fly, yelling like hell to be heard over the music and sound effects\".", "The series was seen in theaters throughout the U.S.", "They were also translated into French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Chinese for screening in other countries, under the aegis of Robert Riskin.", "Winston Churchill ordered that all of them be shown to the British public in theaters.Following a shifting of alliances at the end of World War II, some of the ''Why We Fight'' films were effectively banned.", "''The Battle Of Russia'', due to its positivity toward the Soviet Union, was essentially banned until the 1980s.", "Conversely, some of the other films, which spoke negatively of the Germans and Japanese, were taken out of print, as these countries were now allies.", "''Know Your Enemy: Japan'', which barely saw a release because its release date came just days before the Japanese surrender, was kept under wraps afterwards as well: Capra noted that the U.S. \"suddenly needed friendly relations with the Japs and the film, along with several others, was locked up\".The ''Why We Fight'' series is widely considered a masterpiece of war information documentaries.", "''Prelude to War'', the first in the series, won the 1942 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature.", "When his career ended, Capra regarded these films as his most important works.", "He was discharged from the service in 1945 as a colonel, having been awarded the Legion of Merit in 1943, the Distinguished Service Medal in 1945, the World War I Victory Medal (for his service in World War I), the American Defense Service Medal, the American Campaign Medal and the World War II Victory Medal." ], [ "Post-war career (1946–1961)", "=== ''It's a Wonderful Life'' (1946) ===After the war ended, along with directors William Wyler and George Stevens, Capra founded Liberty Films.", "Their studio became the first independent company of directors since United Artists in 1919 whose goal was to make films without interference by studio bosses.", "However, the only pictures completed by the studio were ''It's a Wonderful Life'' (1946) and ''State of the Union'' (1948).", "The first of these was a box office disappointment but was nominated for five Academy Awards.The copyright status of ''It's a Wonderful Life'' remains in flux (see the wikiarticle for detailed explanation).", "In 1998, the American Film Institute (AFI) named it one of the best films ever made, putting it at 11th on AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies list of the top American films of all time.", "In 2006, the AFI put the film at the top of its AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers list, ranking what AFI considers the most inspirational American movies of all time.", "It would become Capra's last film to win major acclaim—his successful years were now behind him, although he directed five more films over the next 14 years.For ''State of the Union'' (1948), Capra changed studios.", "It would be the only time he ever worked for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.", "Although the project had an excellent pedigree with stars Spencer Tracy and Katharine Hepburn, the film was not a success, and Capra's statement, \"I think ''State of the Union'' was my most perfect film in handling people and ideas\" has few adherents today.=== Representing U.S. at International Film Festival ===In January 1952, the U.S.", "Ambassador to India asked Capra to represent the U.S. film industry at an International Film Festival to be held in India.", "A State Department friend of Capra asked him and explained why his trip would be important:After two weeks in India, Capra discovered that Bowles' fears were warranted, as many film sessions were used by Russian and Chinese representatives to give long political speeches.", "At a lunch with 15 Indian directors and producers, he stressed that \"they must preserve freedom as artists, and that any government control would hinder that freedom.", "A totalitarian system—and they would become nothing but publicity men for the party in power.\"", "Capra had a difficult time communicating this, however, as he noted in his diary:When he returned to Washington to give his report, Secretary of State Dean Acheson gave Capra his commendation for \"virtually single-handedly forestalling a possible Communist take-over of Indian films\".", "Ambassador Bowles also conveyed gratitude to Capra for \"one helluva job\".=== Disillusionment period and later years ===Following ''It's a Wonderful Life'' and ''State of the Union,'' which were done soon after the war ended, Capra's themes were becoming out of step with changes in the film industry and the public mood.", "Friedman finds that while Capra's ideas were popular with depression-era and prewar audiences, they became less relevant to a prospering postwar America.", "Capra didn't help his own cause when he consulted old 1930s scripts for his latest productions.", "Capra had become \"disconnected from an American culture that had changed\" during the previous decade.", "Biographer Joseph McBride argues that Capra's disillusionment was more related to the negative effect that the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) had on the film industry in general.", "The HUAC interrogations in the early 1950s ended many Hollywood careers.", "Capra himself was not called to testify, although he was a prime target of the committee due to his past associations with many Hollywood blacklisted screenwriters.Capra blamed his early retirement from films on the rising power of stars, which forced him to continually compromise his artistic vision.", "He also claimed that increasing budgetary and scheduling demands had constrained his creative abilities.", "Film historian Michael Medved agreed with Capra, noting that he walked away from the movie business because \"he refused to adjust to the cynicism of the new order.\"", "In his autobiography, written in 1971, Capra expressed his feelings about the shifting film industry:Capra added that in his opinion, \"practically all the Hollywood film-making of today is stooping to cheap salacious pornography in a crazy bastardization of a great art to compete for the 'patronage' of deviates and masturbators.", "\"Capra remained employable in Hollywood during and after the HUAC hearings but chose nonetheless to demonstrate his loyalty by attempting to re-enlist in the Army at the outbreak of the Korean War, in 1950.He was rejected due to his age.", "He was later invited to join the Defense Department's newly formed Think Tank project, VISTA, but was denied the necessary clearance.", "According to Friedman, \"these two rejections were devastating to the man who had made a career of demonstrating American ideals in film\", along with his directing award-winning documentary films for the Army.=== Later films (1950–1961) ===Capra directed two films at Paramount Pictures starring Bing Crosby, ''Riding High'' (1950, a remake of 1934's ''Broadway Bill'') and ''Here Comes the Groom'' (1951).", "By 1952, at the age of 55, Capra effectively retired from Hollywood filmmaking; he shifted to working with the California Institute of Technology, his alma mater, to produce educational films on science topics.From 1952 to 1956, Capra produced four science-related television specials in color for The Bell System Science Series: ''Our Mr. Sun'' (1956), ''Hemo the Magnificent'' (1957), ''The Strange Case of the Cosmic Rays'' (1957), and ''Meteora: The Unchained Goddess'' (1958).", "These educational science documentaries were popular favorites for school science classrooms for around 30 years.", "It was eight years before he directed another theatrical film, ''A Hole in the Head'' (1959) with Frank Sinatra and Edward G. Robinson, his first feature film in color.", "His final theatrical film was with Glenn Ford and Bette Davis, named ''Pocketful of Miracles'' (1961), a remake of his 1933 film ''Lady for a Day''.", "In the mid-1960s he worked on pre-production for an adaptation of Martin Caidin's novel ''Marooned,'' but he felt he could not make the movie on the $3 million budget he was given, and abandoned the project.", "(A film adaptation was finally made in 1969, directed by John Sturges with an $8 million budget.", ")Capra's final film, ''Rendezvous in Space'' (1964), was an industrial film made for the Martin Marietta Company and shown at the 1964 New York World's Fair.", "It was exhibited at the New York Hall of Science after the Fair ended." ], [ "Directing style", "Capra's directing style relied on improvisation to a great extent.", "He was noted for going on the set with no more than the master scenes written.", "He explained his reasoning:According to some experts, Capra used great, unobtrusive craftsmanship when directing, and felt it was bad directing to distract the audience with fancy technical gimmicks.", "Film historian and author William S. Pechter described Capra's style as one \"of almost classical purity\".", "He adds that his style relied on editing to help his films sustain a \"sequence of rhythmic motion\".", "Pechter describes its effect:Film critic John Raeburn discusses an early Capra film, ''American Madness'' (1932), as an example of how he had mastered the movie medium and expressed a unique style:As for Capra's subject matter, film author Richard Griffith tries to summarize Capra's common theme:Capra's personality when directing gave him a reputation for \"fierce independence\" when dealing with studio bosses.", "On the set he was said to be gentle and considerate, \"a director who displays absolutely no exhibitionism.\"", "As Capra's films often carry a message about basic goodness in human nature, and show the value of unselfishness and hard work, his wholesome, feel-good themes have led some cynics to term his style \"Capra-corn\".", "However, those who hold his vision in higher regard prefer the term \"Capraesque\".Capra's basic themes of championing the common man, as well as his use of spontaneous, fast-paced dialogue and goofy, memorable lead and supporting characters, made him one of the most popular and respected filmmakers of the 20th century.", "His influence can be traced in the works of many directors, including Robert Altman, Ron Howard, Masaki Kobayashi, Akira Kurosawa, John Lasseter, David Lynch, John Milius, Martin Scorsese, Steven Spielberg, Oliver Stone and François Truffaut." ], [ "Personal life", "Capra (right) 1970s–1980sCapra married actress Helen Howell in 1923.They divorced in 1928.He married Lucille Warner in 1932, with whom he had a daughter and three sons, one of whom, Johnny, died at age 3 following a tonsillectomy.Capra was four times president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences and three times president of the Directors Guild of America, which he helped found.", "Under his presidency, he worked to give directors more artistic control of their films.", "During his career as a director, he retained an early ambition to teach science, and after his career declined in the 1950s, he made educational television films related to science subjects.Physically, Capra was short, stocky, and vigorous, and enjoyed outdoor activities, such as hunting, fishing, and mountain climbing.", "In his later years, he spent time writing short stories and songs, along with playing guitar.", "He collected fine and rare books during the 1930s and 1940s.", "Six hundred forty items from his \"distinguished library\" were sold by Parke-Bernet Galleries at auction in New York in April 1949, realizing $68,000 ($ today).His son, Frank Capra Jr., was the president of EUE Screen Gems Studios in Wilmington, North Carolina, until his death on December 19, 2007.His grandsons, brothers Frank Capra III and Jonathan Capra, have both worked as assistant directors; Frank III worked on the 1995 film ''The American President'', which referred to Frank Capra in the film's dialogue.=== Political views ===Capra's political views coalesced in his movies, which promoted and celebrated the spirit of American individualism.", "A conservative Republican, Capra railed against Franklin D. Roosevelt during his tenure as governor of New York and opposed his presidency during the years of the Depression.", "Capra stood against government intervention during the national economic crisis.In his later years, Capra became a self-described pacifist and was very critical of the Vietnam War.=== Religious views ===Capra wrote in his early adulthood that he was a \"Christmas Catholic\".", "In his later years, Capra returned to the Catholic Church and described himself as \"a Catholic in spirit; one who firmly believes that the anti-moral, the intellectual bigots, and the Mafias of ill will may destroy religion, but they will never conquer the cross\"." ], [ "Death", "In 1985, aged 88, Capra suffered the first of a series of strokes.", "On September 3, 1991, he died of a heart attack in his sleep at his home in La Quinta, California, at the age of 94.He was interred at Coachella Valley Public Cemetery in Coachella, California.He left part of his ranch in Fallbrook, California, to the California Institute of Technology, to be used as a retreat center.", "Capra's personal papers and some film-related materials are contained in the Wesleyan University Cinema Archives, which allows scholars and media experts full access." ], [ "Legacy", "During the golden age of Hollywood, Capra's \"fantasies of goodwill\" made him one of the two or three most famous and successful directors in the world.", "Film historian Ian Freer notes that at the time of his death in 1991, his legacy remained intact:Director/actor John Cassavetes contemplating Capra's contribution to film quipped: \"Maybe there really wasn't an America, it was only Frank Capra.\"", "Capra's films were his love letters to an idealized America—a cinematic landscape of his own invention.", "The performances his actors gave were invariable portrayals of personalities developed into recognizable images of popular culture, \"their acting has the bold simplicity of an icon ...\"Like his contemporary, director John Ford, Capra defined and aggrandized the tropes of mythic America where individual courage invariably triumphs over collective evil.", "Film historian Richard Griffith speaks of Capra's \"... reliance on sentimental conversation and the ultimate benevolence of ordinary America to resolve all deep conflicts.\"", "\"Average America\" is visualized as \"... a tree-lined street, undistinguished frame houses surrounded by modest areas of grass, a few automobiles.", "For certain purposes, it assumed that all ''real ''Americans live in towns like this, and so great is the power of myth, even the born city-dweller is likely to believe vaguely that he too lives on this shady street, or comes from it, or is going to.", "\"NYU professor Leonard Quart writes:Although Capra's stature as a director had declined in the 1950s, his films underwent a revival in the 1960s:French film historian John Raeburn, editor of ''Cahiers du cinéma'', noted that Capra's films were unknown in France, but there too his films underwent a fresh discovery by the public.", "He believes the reason for his renewed popularity had to do with his themes, which he made credible \"an ideal conception of an American national character\":In 1982, the American Film Institute honored Capra by giving him their AFI Life Achievement Award.", "The event was used to create the television film, ''The American Film Institute Salute to Frank Capra'', hosted by James Stewart.", "In 1986, Capra received the National Medal of Arts.", "During his acceptance speech for the AFI award, Capra stressed his most important values:Capra expanded on his visions in his 1971 autobiography, ''The Name Above the Title'':" ], [ "Awards and honors", "The ''Why We Fight'' series earned Capra the Legion of Merit in 1943 and the Distinguished Service Medal in 1945.In 1957, Capra was awarded the George Eastman Award, given by George Eastman House for distinguished contribution to the art of film.Los Angeles Mayor Sam Yorty, by a vote of the city council, declared May 12, 1962 as \"Frank Capra Day\".", "George Sidney, President of the Directors Guild stated that \"This is the first time in the history of Hollywood, that the city of Los Angeles has officially recognized a creative talent.\"", "At the event ceremony, director John Ford announced that Capra had also received an honorary Order of the British Empire (OBE) on the recommendation of Winston Churchill.", "Ford suggested publicly to Capra:In 1966, Capra was awarded the Distinguished Alumni Award from his alma mater Caltech.", "(see section \"Early Life\", supra)In 1972, Capra received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.In 1974, Capra was awarded the Inkpot Award.In 1975, Capra was awarded the Golden Anchor Award by the U.S Naval Reserve's Combat Camera Group for his contribution to World War II Naval photography and production of the \"Why We Fight\" series.", "The award ceremony included a video salute by President Ford.", "Attending were many of Capra's favorite actors including Jimmy Stewart, Donna Reed, Pat O'Brien, Jean Arthur, and others.An annual ''It's a Wonderful Life'' celebration that Capra attended in 1981, during which he said, \"This is one of the proudest moments of my life,\" was recounted in ''The New Yorker''.He was nominated six times for Best Director and seven times for Outstanding Production/Best Picture.", "Out of six nominations for Best Director, Capra received the award three times.", "He briefly held the record for winning the most Best Director Oscars when he won for the third time in 1938, until this record was matched by John Ford in 1941, and then later surpassed by Ford in 1952.William Wyler also matched this record upon winning his third Oscar in 1959.The Academy Film Archive has preserved two of Capra's films, ''The Matinee Idol'' (1928) and ''Two Down and One to Go'' (1945).===Academy Awards===YearFilmCategoryResult1933''Lady for a Day'' Outstanding Production Best Director 1934''It Happened One Night'' Outstanding Production (with Harry Cohn) Best Director 1936''Mr.", "Deeds Goes to Town'' Outstanding Production Best Director 1937 ''Lost Horizon'' Outstanding Production 1938''You Can't Take It with You'' Outstanding Production Best Director 1939''Mr.", "Smith Goes to Washington'' Outstanding Production Best Director 1943 ''Prelude to War'' Best Documentary 1944 ''The Battle of Russia'' Best Documentary Feature 1946''It's a Wonderful Life'' Best Picture Best Director ===Other awards===;American Film Institute* Life Achievement Award (1982);Directors Guild of America* Best Director Nomination for ''A Hole in the Head'' (1959)* Life Achievement Award (1959)* Best Director Nomination for ''Pocketful of Miracles'' (1961);Golden Globe Award* Best Director Award for ''It's a Wonderful Life'' (1946);Venice Film Festival* Mussolini Cups for best foreign film Nomination for ''It Happened One Night'' (1934)* Mussolini Cups for best foreign film Nomination for ''Mr.", "Deeds Goes to Town'' (1936)* Golden Lion (1982);American Film Institute recognition* AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition)** ''It's a Wonderful Life'' ... #20** ''Mr.", "Smith Goes to Washington'' ... #26** ''It Happened One Night'' ... #46* AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers** ''It's a Wonderful Life'' ... #1** ''Mr.", "Smith Goes to Washington'' ... #5** ''Meet John Doe'' ... #49** ''Mr.", "Deeds Goes to Town'' ... #83* AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs** ''It Happened One Night'' ... #8** ''Arsenic and Old Lace'' ... #30** ''Mr.", "Deeds Goes to Town'' ... #70* AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions** ''It's a Wonderful Life'' ... #8** ''It Happened One Night'' ... #38* AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains** 50 greatest movie heroes** ''It's a Wonderful Life'' ... George Bailey ... #9** ''Mr.", "Smith Goes to Washington'' ... Jefferson Smith ... #11** 50 greatest movie villains** ''It's a Wonderful Life'' ... Mr. Potter ... #6* AFI's 10 Top 10** Fantasy*** ''It's a Wonderful Life'' ... #3** Romantic Comedies*** ''It Happened One Night'' ... #3;United States National Film Registry* ''The Strong Man'' (1926)* ''It Happened One Night'' (1934)* ''Lost Horizon'' (1937)* ''Mr.", "Smith Goes to Washington'' (1939)* ''Why We Fight'' series of seven films (1942)* ''It's a Wonderful Life'' (1946)" ], [ "Filmography" ], [ "See also", "* The Bell System Science Series* Frank Capra at the First International Film Festival of India, 1952" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Barney, Richard A.", "''David Lynch: Interviews'' (Conversations with Filmmakers Series).", "Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi, 2009.", "* Barson, Michael.", "''The Illustrated Who's Who of Hollywood Directors: The Sound Era. ''", "New York: Noonday Press, 1995.", "* Beauchamp, Cari.", "''Joseph P. Kennedy Presents: His Hollywood Years.''", "New York: Vintage, 2010.", "* Brooks, Patricia and Johnathan.", "\"Chapter 8: East L.A. and the Desert.\"", "''Laid to Rest in California: A Guide to the Cemeteries and Grave Sites of the Rich and Famous''.", "Guilford, Connecticut: Globe Pequot Press, 2006.", "* Capra, Frank.", "''Frank Capra, The Name Above the Title: An Autobiography''.", "New York: The Macmillan Company, 1971.. :*Digitized on the HathiTrust Digital Library, Limited view (search only) .", "* Chandler, Charlotte.", "''The Girl Who Walked Home Alone: Bette Davis, A Personal Biography''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006.", "* Dickstein, Morris.", "''Dancing in The Dark: A Cultural History of The Great Depression.''", "New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2010.", "* Dixon, Wheeler W. ''The Early Film Criticism of Francois Truffaut.''", "Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1993.", "* Freer, Ian.", "''Movie Makers: 50 Iconic Directors from Chaplin to the Coen Brothers.''", "London: Quercus Publishing Plc, 2009.", "* Kotsabilas-Davis, James and Myrna Loy.", "''Being and Becoming''.", "New York: Primus, Donald I Fine Inc., 1987.", "* Lazere, Donald.", "''American Media and Mass Culture: Left Perspectives.''", "Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1987.", "* Medved, Michael.", "''Hollywood vs. America: Popular Culture and the War on Traditional Values.''", "New York: HarperCollins, 1992.", "* McBride, Joseph.", "''Frank Capra: The Catastrophe of Success''.", "New York: Touchstone Books, 1992.", "* Oderman, Stuart.", "''Talking To the Piano Player: Silent Film Stars, Writers and Directors Remember''.", "Albany, Georgia: BearManor Media, 2005.", "* Poague, Leland.", "''Frank Capra: Interviews'' (Conversations With Filmmakers Series).", "Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi, 2004.", "* Pendergast, Tom and Sara, eds.", "''St.", "James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture, Vol.", "1.''", "Detroit: St. James Press, 2000.", "* Stevens, George Jr. ''Conversations with the Great Moviemakers of Hollywood's Golden Age.''", "New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006.", "* * Wakeman, John, ed.", "''World Film Directors: Volume One, 1890–1945.''", "New York: H.W.", "Wilson Co., 1987.", "* Wiley, Mason and Damien Bona.", "''Inside Oscar: The Unofficial History of the Academy Awards''.", "New York: Ballantine Books, 1987.", "* Wilson, Victoria.", "''A Life of Barbara Stanwyck: Steel-True 1907–1940''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster, 2013," ], [ "External links", "* Capra Smith and Doe: Filming the American Hero from American Studies at the University of Virginia* * Bibliography* Capra before he became \"Capraesque\" BFI ''Sight & Sound'' magazine November 2010 article on Capra's early career, by Joseph McBride* * * * * * * Frank Capra at the 1971 San Francisco International Festival" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "FIFA World Cup" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''FIFA World Cup''', often simply called the '''World Cup''', is an international association football competition between the senior men's national teams of the members of the '''' (FIFA), the sport's global governing body.", "The tournament has been held every four years since the inaugural tournament in 1930, with the exception of 1942 and 1946 due to the Second World War.", "The reigning champions are Argentina, who won their third title at the 2022 tournament.The contest starts with the qualification phase, which takes place over the preceding three years to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase.", "In the tournament phase, 32 teams compete for the title at venues within the host nation(s) over the course of about a month.", "The host nation(s) automatically qualify for the group stage of the tournament.", "The competition is scheduled to expand to 48 teams, starting with the 2026 tournament.As of the 2022 FIFA World Cup, 22 final tournaments have been held since the event's inception in 1930, and a total of 80 national teams have competed.", "The trophy has been won by eight national teams.", "Brazil, with five wins, are the only team to have played in every tournament.", "The other World Cup winners are Germany and Italy, with four titles each; Argentina, with three titles; France and inaugural winner Uruguay, each with two titles; and England and Spain, with one title each.The World Cup is the most prestigious association football tournament in the world, as well as the most widely viewed and followed single sporting event in the world.", "The viewership of the 2018 World Cup was estimated to be 3.57 billion, close to half of the global population, while the engagement with the 2022 World Cup was estimated to be 5 billion, with about 1.5 billion people watching the final match.Seventeen countries have hosted the World Cup, most recently Qatar, who hosted the 2022 event.", "The 2026 tournament will be jointly hosted by Canada, the United States and Mexico, which will give Mexico the distinction of being the first country to host games in three World Cups." ], [ "History", "===Previous international competitions===The world's first international football match was a challenge match played in Glasgow in 1872 between Scotland and England.", "The first international tournament for nations, the inaugural British Home Championship, took place in 1884 and included games between England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland.", "As football grew in popularity in other parts of the world at the start of the 20th century, it was held as a demonstration sport with no medals awarded at the 1900 and 1904 Summer Olympics; however, the International Olympic Committee has retroactively upgraded their status to official events, as well as the 1906 Intercalated Games.After FIFA was founded in 1904, it tried to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906.These were very early days for international football, and the official history of FIFA describes the competition as having been unsuccessful.At the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, football became an official Olympic sport.", "Planned by The Football Association (FA), England's football governing body, the event was for amateur players only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition.", "Great Britain (represented by the England national amateur football team) won the gold medals.", "They repeated the feat at the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm.With the Olympic event continuing to be a contest between amateur teams only, Sir Thomas Lipton organised the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy tournament in Turin in 1909.The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs (not national teams) from different nations, each of which represented an entire nation.", "The competition is sometimes described as ''The First World Cup'', and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy, Germany and Switzerland, but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to send a professional team.", "Lipton invited West Auckland, an amateur side from County Durham, to represent England instead.", "West Auckland won the tournament and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title.", "Prior to the Lipton competition, from 1876 to 1904, games that were considered to be the \"football world championship\" were meetings between leading English and Scottish clubs, such as the 1895 game between Sunderland A.F.C.", "and the Heart of Midlothian F.C., which Sunderland won.In 1914, FIFA agreed to recognise the Olympic tournament as a \"world football championship for amateurs\", and took responsibility for managing the event.", "This paved the way for the world's first intercontinental football competition for nations, at the 1920 Summer Olympics, contested by Egypt and 13 European teams, and won by Belgium.", "Uruguay won the next two Olympic football tournaments in 1924 and 1928.Those were also the first two open world championships, as 1924 was the start of FIFA's professional era, and is the reason why Uruguay is allowed to wear 4 stars.===World Cups before World War II===FIFA president Jules Rimet convinced the confederations to promote an international football tournamentDue to the success of the Olympic football tournaments, FIFA, with President Jules Rimet as the driving force, again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics.", "On 28 May 1928, the FIFA Congress in Amsterdam decided to stage a world championship.", "With Uruguay now two-time official football world champions and to celebrate their centenary of independence in 1930, FIFA named Uruguay as the host country of the inaugural World Cup tournament.The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides, especially in the midst of the Great Depression.", "As such, no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition.", "Rimet eventually persuaded teams from Belgium, France, Romania, and Yugoslavia to make the trip.", "In total, 13 nations took part: seven from South America, four from Europe, and two from North America.Estadio Centenario, the location of the first World Cup final in 1930 in Montevideo, UruguayThe first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930, and were won by France and the United States, who defeated Mexico 4–1 and Belgium 3–0 respectively.", "The first goal in World Cup history was scored by Lucien Laurent of France.", "In the final, Uruguay defeated Argentina 4–2 in front of 93,000 spectators in Montevideo, and became the first nation to win the World Cup.", "After the creation of the World Cup, FIFA and the IOC disagreed over the status of amateur players; football was dropped from the 1932 Summer Olympics.", "After the IOC and FIFA worked out their differences, Olympic football returned at the 1936 Summer Olympics, but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup.The issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel, and war.", "Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the 1934 World Cup and all North and South American nations except Brazil and Cuba boycotted the 1938 tournament.", "Brazil was the only South American team to compete in both.", "The 1942 and 1946 competitions, which Germany and Brazil sought to host, were cancelled due to World War II.===World Cups after World War II===The opening game of the Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, shortly before the 1950 FIFA World CupThe 1950 World Cup, held in Brazil, was the first to include British football associations.", "Scotland, England, Wales, and Northern Ireland had withdrawn from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football.", "The teams rejoined in 1946 following FIFA's invitation.", "The tournament also saw the return of 1930 champions Uruguay, who had boycotted the previous two World Cups.", "Uruguay won the tournament again after defeating the host nation Brazil, in the match called \"Maracanazo\" (Portuguese: ''Maracanaço'').In the tournaments between 1934 and 1978, 16 teams competed in each tournament, except in 1938, when Austria was absorbed into Germany after qualifying, leaving the tournament with 15 teams, and in 1950, when India, Scotland, and Turkey withdrew, leaving the tournament with 13 teams.", "Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America, with a small minority from North America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania.", "These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams.", "Until 1982, the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were: United States, semi-finalists in 1930; Cuba, quarter-finalists in 1938; North Korea, quarter-finalists in 1966; and Mexico, quarter-finalists in 1970.===Expansion to 24 and 32 teams===Inside Soccer City in Johannesburg, South Africa, during a match at the 2010 FIFA World CupThe tournament was expanded to 24 teams in 1982, and then to 32 in 1998, allowing more teams from Africa, Asia and North America to take part.", "Since then, teams from these regions have enjoyed more success, with several having reached the quarter-finals: Mexico, quarter-finalists in 1986; Cameroon, quarter-finalists in 1990; South Korea, finishing in fourth place in 2002; Senegal, along with USA, both quarter-finalists in 2002; Ghana, quarter-finalists in 2010; Costa Rica, quarter-finalists in 2014; and Morocco, finishing in fourth place in 2022.European and South American teams continue to dominate, e.g., the quarter-finalists in 1994, 1998, 2006 and 2018 were all from Europe or South America and so were the finalists of all tournaments so far.Two hundred teams entered the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification rounds.", "198 nations attempted to qualify for the 2006 FIFA World Cup.", "A record 204 countries entered qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup.===Expansion to 48 teams===In October 2013, Sepp Blatter spoke of guaranteeing the Caribbean Football Union's region a position in the World Cup.", "In the edition of 25 October 2013 of the ''FIFA Weekly'' Blatter wrote that: \"From a purely sporting perspective, I would like to see globalisation finally taken seriously, and the African and Asian national associations accorded the status they deserve at the FIFA World Cup.", "It cannot be that the European and South American confederations lay claim to the majority of the berths at the World Cup.\"", "Those two remarks suggested to commentators that Blatter could be putting himself forward for re-election to the FIFA Presidency.Following the magazine's publication, Blatter's would-be opponent for the FIFA Presidency, UEFA President Michel Platini, responded that he intended to extend the World Cup to 40 national associations, increasing the number of participants by eight.", "Platini said that he would allocate an additional berth to UEFA, two each to the Asian Football Confederation and the Confederation of African Football, two shared between CONCACAF and CONMEBOL, and a guaranteed place for the Oceania Football Confederation.", "Platini was clear about why he wanted to expand the World Cup.", "He said: \"The World Cup is not based on the quality of the teams because you don't have the best 32 at the World Cup ... but it's a good compromise. ...", "It's a political matter so why not have more Africans?", "The competition is to bring all the people of all the world.", "If you don't give the possibility to participate, they don't improve.", "\"In October 2016, FIFA president Gianni Infantino stated his support for a 48-team World Cup in 2026.On 10 January 2017, FIFA confirmed the 2026 World Cup will have 48 finalist teams.===2015 FIFA corruption case===By May 2015, the games were under a particularly dark cloud because of the 2015 FIFA corruption case, allegations and criminal charges of bribery, fraud and money laundering to corrupt the issuing of media and marketing rights (rigged bids) for FIFA games, with FIFA officials accused of taking bribes totaling more than $150 million over 24 years.", "In late May, the U.S. Department of Justice announced a 47-count indictment with charges of racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering conspiracy against 14 people.", "Arrests of over a dozen FIFA officials were made since that time, particularly on 29 May and 3 December.", "By the end of May 2015, a total of nine FIFA officials and five executives of sports and broadcasting markets had already been charged on corruption.", "At the time, FIFA president Sepp Blatter announced he would relinquish his position in February 2016.On 4 June 2015, Chuck Blazer while co-operating with the FBI and the Swiss authorities admitted that he and the other members of FIFA's then-executive committee were bribed in order to promote the 1998 and 2010 World Cups.", "On 10 June 2015, Swiss authorities seized computer data from the offices of Sepp Blatter.", "The same day, FIFA postponed the bidding process for the 2026 FIFA World Cup in light of the allegations surrounding bribery in the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 tournaments.", "Then-secretary general Jérôme Valcke stated, \"Due to the situation, I think it's nonsense to start any bidding process for the time being.\"", "On 28 October 2015, Blatter and FIFA VP Michel Platini, a potential candidate for presidency, were suspended for 90 days; both maintained their innocence in statements made to the news media.On 3 December 2015 two FIFA vice-presidents were arrested on suspicion of bribery in the same Zurich hotel where seven FIFA officials had been arrested in May.", "An additional 16 indictments by the US Department of Justice were announced on the same day.=== Biennial World Cup proposition ===A biennial World Cup plan was first proposed by the Saudi Arabian Football Federation at the 71st FIFA Congress on 21 May 2021 and prominently backed by former Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger and national federations in Africa and Asia.Continental confederations such as UEFA and CONMEBOL are not on board with the plan but, in total, the idea is supported by 166 of the 210 member associations of FIFA.===Other FIFA tournaments===BC Place in Vancouver hosting a 2015 Women's World Cup matchAn equivalent tournament for women's football, the FIFA Women's World Cup, was first held in 1991 in China.", "The women's tournament is smaller in scale and profile than the men's, but is growing; the number of entrants for the 2007 tournament was 120, more than double that of 1991.Men's football has been included in every Summer Olympic Games except 1896 and 1932.Unlike many other sports, the men's football tournament at the Olympics is not a top-level tournament, and since 1992, an under-23 tournament with each team allowed three over-age players.", "Women's football made its Olympic debut in 1996.The FIFA Confederations Cup was a tournament held one year before the World Cup at the World Cup host nation(s) as a dress rehearsal for the upcoming World Cup.", "It is contested by the winners of each of the six FIFA confederation championships, along with the FIFA World Cup champion and the host country.", "The first edition took place in 1992 and the last edition was played in 2017.In March 2019, FIFA confirmed that the tournament would no longer be active owing to an expansion of the FIFA Club World Cup in 2021.FIFA also organises international tournaments for youth football (FIFA U-20 World Cup, FIFA U-17 World Cup, FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup, FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup), club football (FIFA Club World Cup), and football variants such as futsal (FIFA Futsal World Cup) and beach soccer (FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup).", "The latter three do not have a women's version, although a FIFA Women's Club World Cup has been proposed.The FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup is held biannually, including the year before each Women's World Cup.", "Both tournaments were awarded in a single bidding process on three occasions, with the U-20 tournament serving as a dress rehearsal for the larger competition each time (2010, 2014 and 2018)." ], [ "Trophy", "Jules Rimet trophy, awarded from 1930 to 1970From 1930 to 1970, the ''Jules Rimet Trophy'' was awarded to the World Cup winning team.", "It was originally simply known as the ''World Cup'' or ''Coupe du Monde'', but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA president Jules Rimet who set up the first tournament.", "In 1970, Brazil's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently.", "However, the trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered, apparently melted down by the thieves.The current trophy (held by Kylian Mbappé in 2018) was designed by Italian Silvio Gazzaniga and first awarded in 1974After 1970, a new trophy, known as the FIFA World Cup Trophy, was designed.", "The experts of FIFA, coming from seven countries, evaluated the 53 presented models, finally opting for the work of the Italian designer Silvio Gazzaniga.", "The new trophy is high, made of solid 18 carat (75%) gold and weighs .The base contains two layers of semi-precious malachite while the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since 1974.The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was: \"The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world.", "From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory.", "\"This new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently.", "World Cup winners retain the trophy only until the post-match celebration is finished.", "They are awarded a gold-plated replica rather than the solid gold original immediately afterwards.All members (players, coaches, and managers) of the top three teams receive medals with an insignia of the World Cup Trophy; winners' (gold), runners-up' (silver), and third-place (bronze).", "In the 2002 edition, fourth-place medals were awarded to hosts South Korea.", "Before the 1978 tournament, medals were only awarded to the eleven players on the pitch at the end of the final and the third-place match.", "In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals.Since 2006, winners of the competition are also awarded the right to wear the FIFA Champions Badge, up until the time at which the winner of the next competition is decided." ], [ "Format", "===Qualification===Since the second World Cup in 1934, qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament.", "They are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa, Asia, North and Central America and Caribbean, South America, Oceania, and Europe), overseen by their respective confederations.", "For each tournament, FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand, generally based on the relative strength of the confederations' teams.The qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two-year period.", "The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations.", "Usually, one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinental play-offs.", "For example, the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth-placed team from the Asian zone entered a play-off for a spot in the 2010 World Cup.", "From the 1938 World Cup onwards, host nations receive automatic qualification to the final tournament.", "This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002, but was withdrawn from the 2006 FIFA World Cup onward, requiring the champions to qualify.", "Brazil, winners in 2002, were the first defending champions to play qualifying matches.===Final tournament===The final tournament format since 1998 has had 32 national teams competing over the course of a month in the host nations.", "There are two stages: the group stage, followed by the knockout stage.In the group stage, teams compete within eight groups of four teams each.", "Eight teams are seeded, including the hosts, with the other seeded teams selected using a formula based on the FIFA World Rankings or performances in recent World Cups, and drawn to separate groups.", "The other teams are assigned to different \"pots\", usually based on geographical criteria, and teams in each pot are drawn at random to the eight groups.", "Since 1998, constraints have been applied to the draw to ensure that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation.Each group plays a round-robin tournament in which each team is scheduled for three matches against other teams in the same group.", "This means that a total of six matches are played within a group.", "The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams.", "The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage.", "Points are used to rank the teams within a group.", "Since 1994, three points have been awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss (before, winners received two points).Considering all possible outcomes (win, draw, loss) for all six matches in a group, there are 729 (= 36) combinations possible.", "However, 207 of these combinations lead to ties between the second and third places.", "In such case, the ranking among these teams is determined by:# Greatest combined goal difference in all group matches# Greatest combined number of goals scored in all group matches# If more than one team remain level after applying the above criteria, their ranking will be determined as follows:## Greatest number of points in head-to-head matches among those teams## Greatest goal difference in head-to-head matches among those teams## Greatest number of goals scored in head-to-head matches among those teams## Fair play points, defined by the number of yellow and red cards received in the group stage:### Yellow card: minus 1 point### Indirect red card (as a result of a second yellow card): minus 3 points### Direct red card: minus 4 points### Yellow card and direct red card: minus 5 points# If any of the teams above remain level after applying the above criteria, their ranking will be determined by the drawing of lotsThe knockout stage is a single-elimination tournament in which teams play each other in one-off matches, with extra time and penalty shootouts used to decide the winner if necessary.", "It begins with the round of 16 (or the second round) in which the winner of each group plays against the runner-up of another group.", "This is followed by the quarter-finals, the semi-finals, the third-place match (contested by the losing semi-finalists), and the final.On 10 January 2017, FIFA approved a new format, the 48-team World Cup (to accommodate more teams), which was to consist of 16 groups of three teams each, with two teams qualifying from each group, to form a round of 32 knockout stage, to be implemented by 2026.On 14 March 2023, FIFA approved a revised format of the 2026 tournament, which features 12 groups of four teams each, with the top 8 third-placed teams joining the group winners and runners-up in a new round of 32." ], [ "Hosts", "===Selection process===A map of FIFA World Cup final hosts, 1930–2022.Green: once; dark green: twice; light green: plannedEarly World Cups were given to countries at meetings of FIFA's congress.", "The locations were controversial because South America and Europe were by far the two centres of strength in football and travel between them required three weeks by boat.", "The decision to hold the first World Cup in Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing.", "The next two World Cups were both held in Europe.", "The decision to hold the second of these in France was disputed, as the South American countries understood that the location would alternate between the two continents.", "Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the 1938 FIFA World Cup.Since the 1958 FIFA World Cup, to avoid future boycotts or controversy, FIFA began a pattern of alternating the hosts between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the 1998 FIFA World Cup.", "The 2002 FIFA World Cup, hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan, was the first one held in Asia, and the first tournament with multiple hosts.", "South Africa became the first African nation to host the World Cup in 2010.The 2014 FIFA World Cup was hosted by Brazil, the first held in South America since Argentina 1978, and was the first occasion where consecutive World Cups were held outside Europe.Russian delegates celebrate being chosen as the host of the 2018 FIFA World CupThe host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA's Council.", "This is done under an exhaustive ballot system.", "The national football association of a country desiring to host the event receives a \"Hosting Agreement\" from FIFA, which explains the steps and requirements that are expected from a strong bid.", "The bidding association also receives a form, the submission of which represents the official confirmation of the candidacy.", "After this, a FIFA designated group of inspectors visit the country to identify that the country meets the requirements needed to host the event and a report on the country is produced.", "The decision on who will host the World Cup is usually made six or seven years in advance of the tournament.", "There have been occasions where the hosts of multiple future tournaments were announced at the same time, as was the case for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups, which were awarded to Russia and Qatar, with Qatar becoming the first Middle Eastern country to host the tournament.For the 2010 and 2014 World Cups, the final tournament was rotated between confederations, allowing only countries from the chosen confederation (Africa in 2010, South America in 2014) to bid to host the tournament.", "The rotation policy was introduced after the controversy surrounding Germany's victory over South Africa in the vote to host the 2006 tournament.", "However, the policy of continental rotation did not continue beyond 2014, so any country, except those belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments, can apply as hosts for World Cups starting from 2018.This is partly to avoid a similar scenario to the bidding process for the 2014 tournament, where Brazil was the only official bidder.The 2026 FIFA World Cup was chosen to be held in the United States, Canada and Mexico, marking the first time a World Cup has been shared by three host nations.", "The 2026 tournament will be the biggest World Cup ever held, with 48 teams playing 104 matches.", "Sixty matches will take place in the US, including all matches from the quarter-finals onward, while Canada and Mexico will host 10 games each.===Selection results===+ Total of World Cup competitions hosted by each confederation (1930–2026)'''' Confederation Total Hosts Asian Football Confederation(AFC)2 2002: , 2022: '''''2034''''': Confederation of African Football(CAF) 2 2010: '''''2030''''': Confederation of North, Central America and Caribbean Association Football(CONCACAF) 4 1970: 1986: 1994: '''''2026''''': , , South American Football Confederation(CONMEBOL) 5 1930: 1950: 1962: 1978: 2014: Oceania Football Confederation(OFC) 0   Union of European Football Associations(UEFA) 12 1934: 1938: 1954: 1958: 1966: 1974: *1982: 1990: 1998: 2006: *2018: '''''2030''''': , ''Two competitions cancelled due to World War II'' 0 ''19421946''''*'' West Germany was the host of the 1974 Cup, and (reunited) Germany host to the one in 2006===Performances===Six of the eight champions have won one of their titles while playing in their own homeland, the exceptions being Brazil, who finished as runners-up after losing the deciding match on home soil in 1950 and lost their semi-final against Germany in 2014, and Spain, which reached the second round on home soil in 1982.England (1966) won its only title while playing as a host nation.", "Uruguay (1930), Italy (1934), Argentina (1978), and France (1998) won their first titles as host nations but have gone on to win again, while Germany (1974) won their second title on home soil.Other nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament.", "Switzerland (quarter-finals 1954), Sweden (runners-up in 1958), Chile (third place in 1962), South Korea (fourth place in 2002), Russia (quarter-finals 2018), and Mexico (quarter-finals in 1970 and 1986) all have their best results when serving as hosts.", "So far, South Africa (2010) and Qatar (2022) failed to advance beyond the first round." ], [ "Attendance", " Year Hosts Venues/Cities Totalattendance † Matches Averageattendance Highest attendances ‡ NumberVenue Game(s) 19303/1590,5491832,80893,000Estadio Centenario, MontevideoUruguay 6–1 Yugoslavia, semi-final 19348/8363,0001721,35355,000Stadio Nazionale PNF, RomeItaly 2–1 Czechoslovakia, final 1938375,7001820,87258,455Olympique de Colombes, ParisFrance 1–3 Italy, quarter-final 19506/61,045,2462247,511173,850Maracanã Stadium, Rio de JaneiroBrazil 1–2 Uruguay, deciding match 19546/6768,6072629,56263,000Wankdorf Stadium, BernWest Germany 3–2 Hungary, final 195812/12819,8103523,42350,928Ullevi Stadium, GothenburgBrazil 2–0 Soviet Union, group stage 19624/4893,1723227,91268,679Estadio Nacional, SantiagoBrazil 4–2 Chile, semi-final 19668/71,563,1353248,84898,270Wembley Stadium, LondonEngland 4–2 West Germany, final 19705/51,603,9753250,124108,192Estadio Azteca, Mexico CityMexico 1–0 Belgium, group stage 19749/91,865,7533849,09983,168Olympiastadion, MunichWest Germany 1–0 Chile, group stage 19786/51,545,7913840,67971,712Estadio Monumental, Buenos AiresItaly 1–0 Argentina, group stage 198217/142,109,7235240,57295,500Camp Nou, BarcelonaArgentina 0–1 Belgium, Opening match 198612/112,394,0315246,039114,600Estadio Azteca, Mexico CityMexico 1–1 Paraguay, group stageArgentina 3–2 West Germany, final 199012/122,516,2155248,38974,765San Siro, MilanWest Germany 4–1 Yugoslavia, group stage 19949/93,587,5385268,99194,194Rose Bowl, Pasadena, CaliforniaBrazil 0–0 (3–2p) Italy, final199810/102,785,1006443,51780,000Stade de France, Saint-DenisBrazil 0–3 France, final 200220/202,705,1976442,26969,029International Stadium, Yokohama, JapanBrazil 2–0 Germany, final 200612/123,359,4396452,49172,000Olympiastadion, BerlinGermany 1–1 (4–2p) Argentina, quarter-final 201010/93,178,8566449,67084,490Soccer City, JohannesburgSpain 1–0 Netherlands, final 201412/123,429,8736453,59274,738Maracanã Stadium, Rio de JaneiroGermany 1–0 Argentina, final 201812/113,031,7686447,37178,011Luzhniki Stadium, MoscowFrance 4–2 Croatia, final 20228/5 3,404,252 64 53,191 88,966 Lusail Stadium, Qatar Argentina 3–3 (4–2p) France, final ''2026'''''' 16/16 ''104'' ''2030'''' ''104'' ''2034'''''' ''104'' Overall'''43,936,730''''''964'''45,577173,850Maracanã Stadium, Rio de Janeiro (1950) Source: FIFA The best-attended single match has been the final in 11 of the 21 World Cups .", "Another match or matches drew more attendance than the final in 1930, 1938, 1958, 1962, 1970–1982, 1990, and 2006." ], [ "Broadcasting and promotion", "A Coca-Cola bottle promoting the 2002 World Cup in South Korea and JapanThe World Cup was first televised in 1954 and is the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world.", "The cumulative viewership of all matches of the 2006 World Cup was estimated to be 26.29 billion.", "715.1 million individuals watched the final match of the tournament, almost a ninth of the entire population of the planet.", "The 2006 World Cup draw, which decided the distribution of teams into groups, was watched by 300 million viewers.", "The World Cup attracts major sponsors such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's and Adidas.", "For these companies and many more, being a sponsor strongly impacts their global brands.", "Host countries typically experience a multimillion-dollar revenue increase from the month-long event.The governing body of the sport, FIFA, generated $4.8 billion in revenue from the 2014 tournament, and $6.1 billion from the 2018 tournament.Manufactured by Adidas since the 1970 World Cup, official match balls displayed at FIFA headquarters in ZürichEach FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its own mascot or logo.", "''World Cup Willie'', the mascot for the 1966 competition, was the first World Cup mascot.", "World Cups feature official match balls specially designed for each tournament.", "After Slazenger produced the ball for the 1966 World Cup Adidas became the official supplier to FIFA.", "Each World Cup also has an official song, which have been performed by artists ranging from Shakira to Will Smith.", "Other songs, such as “Nessun dorma”, performed by The Three Tenors at four World Cup concerts, have also become identified with the tournament.Forming a partnership with FIFA in 1970, Panini published its first sticker album for the 1970 World Cup.", "Since then, collecting and trading stickers and cards has become part of the World Cup experience, especially for the younger generation.", "FIFA has licensed World Cup video games since 1986, sponsored by Electronic Arts." ], [ "Results", " YearHost Final Third-place play-off Champion Score Runner-up Third Score Fourth 11930 '''''''''4–2''' Estadio Centenario, Montevideo1321934 '''''''''2–1''' Stadio Nazionale PNF, Rome'''3–2''' Stadio Giorgio Ascarelli, Naples1631938 '''''''''4–2''' Stade de Colombes, Paris'''4–2''' Parc Lescure, Bordeaux15 – 1942 ''(Not held because of World War II)'' – 194641950 '''''''''2–1''' Maracanã, Rio de Janeiro'''3–1''' Pacaembu, São Paulo1351954 '''''''''3–2''' Wankdorfstadion, Bern'''3–1''' Hardturm, Zürich1661958 '''''''''5–2''' Råsundastadion, Solna'''6–3''' Ullevi, Gothenburg1671962 '''''''''3–1''' Estadio Nacional, Santiago'''1–0''' Estadio Nacional, Santiago1681966 '''''''''4–2''' Wembley Stadium, London'''2–1''' Wembley Stadium, London1691970 '''''''''4–1''' Estadio Azteca, Mexico City'''1–0''' Estadio Azteca, Mexico City16101974 '''''''''2–1''' Olympiastadion, Munich'''1–0''' Olympiastadion, Munich16111978 '''''''''3–1''' Monumental de Núñez, Buenos Aires'''2–1''' Monumental de Núñez, Buenos Aires16121982 '''''''''3–1''' Santiago Bernabéu, Madrid'''3–2''' Estadio José Rico Pérez, Alicante24131986 '''''''''3–2''' Estadio Azteca, Mexico City'''4–2''' Estadio Cuauhtémoc, Puebla24141990 '''''''''1–0''' Stadio Olimpico, Rome'''2–1''' Stadio San Nicola, Bari24151994 '''''''''0–0''' Rose Bowl, Pasadena'''4–0''' Rose Bowl, Pasadena24161998 '''''''''3–0''' Stade de France, Saint-Denis'''2–1''' Parc des Princes, Paris32172002 '''''''''2–0''' International Stadium, Yokohama'''3–2''' Daegu Stadium, Daegu32182006 '''''''''1–1''' Olympiastadion, Berlin'''3–1''' Gottlieb-Daimler-Stadion, Stuttgart32192010 '''''''''1–0''' Soccer City, Johannesburg'''3–2''' Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium, Port Elizabeth32202014 '''''''''1–0''' Maracanã, Rio de Janeiro'''3–0''' Estádio Nacional, Brasília32212018 '''''''''4–2''' Luzhniki Stadium, Moscow'''2–0''' Krestovsky Stadium, Saint Petersburg32222022 '''''''''3–3''' Lusail Stadium, Lusail'''2–1''' Khalifa International Stadium, Al Rayyan32''23''''2026'' ''''''''''''MetLife Stadium, East RutherfordHard Rock Stadium, Miami Gardens48''24''''2030'' ''''''''''''48''25''''2034'' ''''48;NotesIn all, 80 nations have played in at least one World Cup.", "Of these, eight national teams have won the World Cup, and they have added stars to their badges, with each star representing a World Cup victory.", "(Uruguay, however, chose to display four stars on their badge, representing their two gold medals at the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics, which are recognized by FIFA as World Championships, and their two World Cup titles in 1930 and 1950).With five titles, Brazil are the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to have played in every World Cup (22) to date.", "Brazil were also the first team to win the World Cup for the third (1970), fourth (1994) and fifth (2002) time.", "Italy (1934 and 1938) and Brazil (1958 and 1962) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles.", "West Germany (1982–1990) and Brazil (1994–2002) are the only nations to appear in three consecutive World Cup finals.", "Germany has made the most top-four finishes (13), medals (12), as well as the most finals (8).Map of countries' best results===Teams reaching the top four===+ Teams reaching the top four Team Titles Runners-up Third place Fourth place Top 4 total 5 (1958, 1962, 1970, 1994, 2002)2 (1950*, 1998)2 (1938, 1978)2 (1974, 2014*) 1114 (1954, 1974*, 1990, 2014)4 (1966, 1982, 1986, 2002)4 (1934, 1970, 2006*, 2010)1 (1958) 134 (1934*, 1938, 1982, 2006)2 (1970, 1994)1 (1990*)1 (1978) 83 (1978*, 1986, 2022)3 (1930, 1990, 2014) 62 (1998*, 2018)2 (2006, 2022)2 (1958, 1986)1 (1982) 72 (1930*, 1950)3 (1954, 1970, 2010) 51 (1966*)2 (1990, 2018) 31 (2010)1 (1950) 23 (1974, 1978, 2010)1 (2014)1 (1998) 5a2 (1938, 1954) 222 (1934, 1962) 21 (1958*)2 (1950, 1994)1 (1938) 41 (2018)2 (1998, 2022) 32 (1974, 1982) 21 (1954)1 (1934) 21 (1966)1 (2006) 21 (2018)1 (1986) 21 (1930) 11 (1962*) 11 (2002) 132 (1930, 1962) 241 (1966) 11 (1994) 11 (2002*) 11 (2022) 1: ''hosts'':1 ''includes results representing West Germany between 1954 and 1990'': 2 ''includes results representing the Czechoslovakia'': 3 ''includes results representing Yugoslavia and FR Yugoslavia'': 4 ''includes results representing the Soviet Union and CIS''===Best performances by confederations===South Koreans watching their nation on the big screens in Seoul Plaza during the 2002 World Cup when they became the first Asian country to reach the semi-finalsTo date, the final of the World Cup has only been contested by teams from the UEFA (Europe) and CONMEBOL (South America) confederations.", "European nations have won twelve titles, while South American nations have won ten.", "Only three teams from outside these two continents have ever reached the semi-finals of the competition: United States (North, Central America and Caribbean) in 1930; South Korea (Asia) in 2002; and Morocco (Africa) in 2022.Only one Oceanian qualifier, Australia in 2006, has advanced to the second round, a feat they later reaccomplished in 2022.Brazil, Argentina, Spain and Germany are the only teams to win a World Cup hosted outside their continental confederation; Brazil came out victorious in Europe (1958), North America (1970 and 1994) and Asia (2002).", "Argentina won a World Cup in North America in 1986 and in Asia in 2022.Spain won in Africa in 2010.In 2014, Germany became the first European team to win in the Americas.", "Only on five occasions have consecutive World Cups been won by teams from the same continent; the longest streak of tournaments won by a single confederation is four, with the 2006, 2010, 2014, and 2018 tournaments all won by UEFA teams (Italy, Spain, Germany, and France, respectively).+ Total times teams qualified by confederation ConfederationAFCCAFCONCACAFCONMEBOLOFCUEFA Total Teams 43 49 46 89 4 258 489 Top 16 9 11 15 37 1 99 172 Top 8 2 4 5 36 0 105 152 Top 4 1 1 1 23 0 62 88 Top 2 0 0 0 15 0 29 44 4th 1 1 0 5 0 15 22 3rd 0 0 1 3 0 18 22 2nd 0 0 0 5 0 17 22 1st 0 0 0 10 0 12 22" ], [ "Records and statistics", "Argentina's Lionel Messi has played a record 26 World Cup matches across a joint-record five tournaments.Cristiano Ronaldo is the first and only player to score in five tournaments.Six players share the record for playing in the most World Cups; Mexico's Antonio Carbajal (1950–1966).", "Rafael Márquez (2002–2018), and Andrés Guardado (2006-2022); Germany's Lothar Matthäus (1982–1998); Argentina's Lionel Messi (2006–2022); and Portugal's Cristiano Ronaldo (2006–2022) all played in five tournaments, with Ronaldo also being the first and only player to score in five tournaments.", "Messi has played the most World Cup matches overall, with 26 appearances.", "Brazil's Djalma Santos (1954–1962), West Germany's Franz Beckenbauer (1966–1974), and Germany's Philipp Lahm (2006–2014) are the only players to be named to three World Cup All-Star Teams.Miroslav Klose of Germany (2002–2014) is the all-time top scorer at the World Cup with 16 goals.", "He broke Ronaldo of Brazil's record of 15 goals (1998–2006) during the 2014 semi-final match against Brazil.", "West Germany's Gerd Müller (1970–1974) is third, with 14 goals.", "The fourth-placed goalscorer, France's Just Fontaine, holds the record for the most goals scored in a single World Cup; all his 13 goals were scored in the 1958 tournament.Pelé is the only person to win the World Cup three times as a player.In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals.", "This made Brazil's Pelé the only player to have won three World Cup winners' medals (1958, 1962, and 1970, although he did not play in the 1962 final due to injury), with 20 other players who have won two winners' medals.", "Seven players have collected all three types of World Cup medals (winners', runner- ups', and third-place); five players were from West Germany's squad of 1966–1974: Franz Beckenbauer, Jürgen Grabowski, Horst-Dieter Höttges, Sepp Maier, and Wolfgang Overath (1966–1974), Italy's Franco Baresi (1982, 1990, 1994) and the most recent has been Miroslav Klose of Germany (2002–2014) with four consecutive medals.Brazil's Mário Zagallo, West Germany's Franz Beckenbauer and France's Didier Deschamps are the only people to date to win the World Cup as both player and head coach.", "Zagallo won in 1958 and 1962 as a player and in 1970 as head coach.", "Beckenbauer won in 1974 as captain and in 1990 as head coach, and Deschamps repeated the feat in 2018, after having won in 1998 as captain.", "Italy's Vittorio Pozzo is the only head coach to ever win two World Cups (1934 and 1938).", "All World Cup-winning head coaches were natives of the country they coached to victory.Among the national teams, Brazil has played the most World Cup matches (114), Germany appeared in the most finals (8), semi-finals (13), and quarter-finals (16), while Brazil has appeared in the most World Cups (22), has the most wins (76) and has scored the most goals (237).", "The two teams have played each other twice in the World Cup, in the 2002 final and in the 2014 semi-final.===Top goalscorers===;IndividualMiroslav Klose scored a record 16 goals across four World Cups.RankPlayerGoalsMatchesGoals per game1 Miroslav Klose16242 Ronaldo15193 Gerd Müller14134 Just Fontaine136 '''Lionel Messi'''13266 '''Kylian Mbappé'''1214 Pelé12148 Sándor Kocsis115 Jürgen Klinsmann111710 Helmut Rahn1010 Gabriel Batistuta1012 Gary Lineker1012 Teófilo Cubillas1013 '''Thomas Müller'''1019 Grzegorz Lato1020;CountryRankNational teamGoals scored 1 237 2 232 3 152 4 136 5 128 6 108 7 104 8 96 9 89 10 87" ], [ "Awards", "At the end of each World Cup, awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament.", "*There are five post-tournament awards from the FIFA Technical Study Group:Diego Maradona (holding the World Cup) received the Golden Ball for best player at the 1986 World Cup.", "**the '''Golden Ball''' (named for its sponsor \"Adidas Golden Ball\") for best player, first awarded in 1982;**the '''Golden Boot''' (named for its sponsor \"Adidas Golden Boot\", formerly known as the \"adidas Golden Shoe\" from 1982 to 2006) for top goalscorer, first awarded in 1982;**the '''Golden Glove''' (named for its sponsor \"Adidas Golden Glove\", formerly known as the \"Lev Yashin Award\" from 1994 to 2006) for best goalkeeper, first awarded in 1994;**the '''FIFA Young Player Award''' (formerly known as the \"Best Young Player Award\" from 2006 to 2010) for best player under 21 years of age at the start of the calendar year, first awarded in 2006;**the '''FIFA Fair Play Trophy''' for the team that advanced to the second round with the best record of fair play, first awarded in 1970.", "*There is currently one award voted on by fans during the tournament.", ":**the '''Player of the Match''' (currently commercially termed \"Budweiser Player of the Match\", formerly known as the \"Man of the Match\" from 2002 to 2018) for outstanding performance during each match of the tournament, first awarded in 2002.", "*There are two awards voted on by fans after the conclusion of the tournament:**the '''Goal of the Tournament''', (currently commercially termed \"Hyundai Goal of the Tournament\") for the fans' best goal scored during the tournament, first awarded in 2006;**the '''Most Entertaining Team''' during the World Cup final tournament, as determined by a poll of the general public.", "*One other award was given between 1994 and 2006:**an '''All-Star Team''' comprising the best players of the tournament chosen by the FIFA Technical Study Group.", "From 2010 onwards, all Dream Teams or Statistical Teams are unofficial, as reported by FIFA itself.World CupGolden BallGolden BootGoalsGolden GloveClean sheetsFIFA Young Player AwardFIFA Fair Play Trophy 1930 Uruguay''Not Awarded'' Guillermo Stábile8''Not Awarded''''N/A''''Not Awarded''''Not Awarded'' 1934 Italy Oldřich Nejedlý 5 1938 France Leônidas7 1950 Brazil Ademir8 1954 Switzerland Sándor Kocsis11 1958 Sweden Just Fontaine13 Pelé 1962 Chile Flórián Albert Garrincha Vavá Valentin Ivanov Dražan Jerković Leonel Sánchez4 Flórián Albert 1966 England Eusébio9 Franz Beckenbauer 1970 Mexico Gerd Müller10 Teófilo Cubillas 1974 West Germany Grzegorz Lato7 Władysław Żmuda 1978 Argentina Mario Kempes6 Antonio Cabrini 1982 Spain Paolo Rossi Paolo Rossi6 Manuel Amoros 1986 Mexico Diego Maradona Gary Lineker6 Enzo Scifo 1990 Italy Salvatore Schillaci Salvatore Schillaci6 Robert Prosinečki 1994 United States Romário Oleg Salenko Hristo Stoichkov6 Michel Preud'homme2 Marc Overmars 1998 France Ronaldo Davor Šuker6 Fabien Barthez5 Michael Owen 2002 South Korea/Japan Oliver Kahn Ronaldo8 Oliver Kahn5 Landon Donovan 2006 Germany Zinedine Zidane Miroslav Klose5 Gianluigi Buffon5 Lukas Podolski 2010 South Africa Diego Forlán Thomas Müller5 Iker Casillas5 Thomas Müller 2014 Brazil Lionel Messi James Rodríguez6 Manuel Neuer4 Paul Pogba 2018 Russia Luka Modrić Harry Kane6 Thibaut Courtois3 Kylian Mbappé 2022 Qatar Lionel Messi Kylian Mbappé8 Emiliano Martínez3 Enzo Fernández" ], [ "See also", "* List of FIFA World Cup finals* FIFA World Cup records and statistics* FIFA World Cup awards* FIFA U-20 World Cup* FIFA U-17 World Cup* FIFA Club World Cup* FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup* FIFA Futsal World Cup* FIFA Confederations Cup* List of association football competitions" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Cited works", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * World Cup overview at the RSSSF" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus''', surnamed '''Cunctator''' ( 280 – 203 BC), was a Roman statesman and general of the third century BC.", "He was consul five times (233, 228, 215, 214, and 209 BC) and was appointed dictator in 221 and 217 BC.", "He was censor in 230 BC.", "His agnomen, ''Cunctator'', usually translated as \"the delayer\", refers to the strategy that he employed against Hannibal's forces during the Second Punic War.", "Facing an outstanding commander with superior numbers, he pursued a then-novel strategy of targeting the enemy's supply lines, and accepting only smaller engagements on favourable ground, rather than risking his entire army on direct confrontation with Hannibal himself.", "As a result, he is regarded as the originator of many tactics used in guerrilla warfare." ], [ "Beginnings", "Born at Rome c. 280 BC, Fabius was a descendant of the ancient patrician Fabia gens.", "He was the son or grandson of Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges, three times consul and ''princeps senatus'', and grandson or great-grandson of Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus, a hero of the Samnite Wars, who like Verrucosus held five consulships, as well as the offices of dictator and censor.", "Many earlier ancestors had also been consuls.", "His cognomen, ''Verrucosus'', or \"warty\", used to distinguish him from other members of his family, derived from a wart on his upper lip.According to Plutarch, Fabius possessed a mild temper and slowness in speaking.", "As a child, he had difficulties in learning, engaged in sports with other children cautiously and appeared submissive in his interactions with others.", "All the above were perceived by those who knew him superficially to be signs of inferiority.", "However, according to Plutarch, these traits proceeded from stability, greatness of mind, and lion-likeness of temper.", "By the time he reached adulthood and was roused by active life, his virtues exerted themselves; consequently, his lack of energy displayed during his earlier years was revealed as a result of a lack of passion and his slowness was recognised as a sign of prudence and firmness.While still a youth in 265 BC, Fabius was consecrated an augur.", "It is unknown whether he participated in the First Punic War, fought between the Roman Republic and Carthage from 264 to 241 BC, or what his role might have been.", "Fabius' political career began in the years following that war.", "He was probably quaestor in 237 or 236 BC, and curule aedile about 235.During his first consulship, in 233 BC, Fabius was awarded a triumph for his victory over the Ligurians, whom he defeated and drove into the Alps.", "He was censor in 230, then consul a second time in 228.It is possible that he held the office of dictator for a first time around this time: according to Livy, Fabius's tenure of the dictatorship in 217 was his second term in that office, with Gaius Flaminius as his deputy and magister equitum during the first term: however Plutarch suggests that Flaminius was deputy instead to Marcus Minucius Rufus – presumably Fabius's great political rival of that name, who later served as deputy to Fabius himself (see below).", "It is of course possible that Flaminius was successively deputy to both, after Minucius's apparently premature deposition following bad augural omens: and also possible that little of note (other than, possibly, holding elections during the absence of consuls) was accomplished during either dictatorship.According to Livy, in 218 BC Fabius took part in an embassy to Carthage, sent to demand redress for the capture of the supposedly neutral town of Saguntum in Spain.", "After the delegation had received the Carthaginians' reply, it was Fabius himself who, addressing the Carthaginian senate, issued a formal declaration of war between Carthage and the Roman Republic.", "However, Cassius Dio, followed by Zonaras, calls the ambassador ''Marcus Fabius'', suggesting that it was his cousin, Marcus Fabius Buteo, who issued the declaration of war against the Carthaginians." ], [ "Dictatorship during the Second Punic War", "When the consul Tiberius Sempronius Longus was defeated in the Battle of the Trebia in December 218 BC Fabius advised that the Romans should simply bide their time and deny Hannibal any chance at a general engagement, instead letting the invasion peter out while making sure the cities of their Italian Allies were supported or protected.", "However, consul Gaius Flaminius opposed this and joined his colleague Gnaeus Servilius Geminus in raising two consular armies to confront Hannibal in central Italy.", "Flaminius' plan came to a disastrous end when he was killed during the decisive Roman defeat at the Battle of Lake Trasimene in 217 BC, with panic sweeping Rome.With consular armies destroyed in these two major battles, and Hannibal approaching Rome's gates, the Romans feared the imminent destruction of their city.", "The Roman Senate decided to appoint a dictator, and chose Fabius for the role – possibly for the second time, though evidence of a previous term seems to be conflicting – in part due to his advanced age and experience.", "However, he was not allowed to appoint his own Magister Equitum; instead, the Romans chose a political enemy, Marcus Minucius.Fabius sought to calm the Roman people promptly by asserting himself as a strong dictator, in a crisis perceived as the worst in Roman history.", "He asked the Senate to allow him to ride on horseback, which dictators were never allowed to do.", "He then caused himself to be accompanied by the full complement of twenty-four lictors, and ordered the surviving consul, Gnaeus Servilius Geminus, to dismiss his lictors (in essence, acknowledging the seniority of the dictator), and to present himself before Fabius as a private citizen.Plutarch tells us that Fabius believed that the disaster at Lake Trasimene was due, in part, to the fact that the gods had become neglected.", "Before that battle, a series of omens had been witnessed, including a series of lightning bolts, which Fabius had believed were warnings from the gods.", "He had warned Flaminius of this, but Flaminius had ignored the warnings.", "And so Fabius, as dictator, next sought to please the gods.", "He ordered a massive sacrifice of the whole product of the next harvest season throughout Italy, in particular that of cows, goats, swine, and sheep.", "In addition, he ordered that musical festivities be celebrated, and then told his fellow citizens to each spend a precise sum of 333 sestertii and 333 denarii.", "Plutarch isn't sure exactly how Fabius came up with this number, although he believes it was to honor the perfection of the number three, as it is the first of the odd numbers and one of the first of the prime numbers.", "It is not known if Fabius truly believed that these actions had won the gods over to the Roman side, although the actions probably did (as intended) convince the average Roman that the gods had finally been won over.===Fabian strategy===Fabius respected Hannibal's military genius and so refused to engage him directly in pitched battle.", "Instead, he kept his troops close to Hannibal, hoping to exhaust him in a long war of attrition.", "Fabius was able to harass the Carthaginian foraging parties, limiting Hannibal's ability to wreak destruction while conserving his own military force, and implementing a \"scorched earth\" practice to prevent Hannibal's forces from obtaining grain and other resources.The Romans were unimpressed with this defensive strategy and at first gave Fabius his epithet Cunctator (delayer) as an insult.", "The strategy was in part ruined because of a lack of unity in the command of the Roman army, since Fabius' Master of the Horse, Minucius, was a political enemy of Fabius.", "At one point, Fabius was called by the priests to assist with certain sacrifices, so Fabius left the command of the army in the hands of Minucius during his absence.", "Fabius had told Minucius not to attack Hannibal in his absence, but Minucius disobeyed and attacked anyway.The attack, though of no strategic value, resulted in the retreat of several enemy units, and so the Roman people, desperate for good news, believed Minucius to be a hero.", "On hearing of this, Fabius became enraged, and as dictator, could have ordered Minucius' execution for his disobedience.", "One of the plebeian tribunes (chief representatives of the people) for the year, Metilius, was a partisan of Minucius, and as such he sought to use his power to help Minucius.", "The plebeian tribunes were the only magistrates independent of the dictator, and so with his protection, Minucius was relatively safe.", "Plutarch states that Metilius \"boldly applied himself to the people in the behalf of Minucius\", and had Minucius granted powers equivalent to those of Fabius.", "By this, Plutarch probably means that as a plebeian tribune, Metilius had the Plebeian Council, a popular assembly which only tribunes could preside over, grant Minucius quasi-dictatorial powers.Roman senators killed during the Battle of Cannae, statue by Sébastien Slodtz, 1704, LouvreFabius did not attempt to fight the promotion of Minucius, but rather decided to wait until Minucius' rashness caused him to run headlong into some disaster.", "He realized what would happen when Minucius was defeated in battle by Hannibal.", "Fabius, we are told, reminded Minucius that it was Hannibal, and not he, who was the enemy.", "Minucius proposed that they share the joint control of the army, with command rotating between the two every other day.", "Fabius rejected this, and instead let Minucius command half of the army, while he commanded the other half.", "Minucius openly claimed that Fabius was cowardly because he failed to confront the Carthaginian forces.Near Larinum in Samnium, Hannibal had taken up position in a town called Geronium.", "In the leadup to the battle of Geronium, Minucius decided to make a broad frontal attack on Hannibal's troops in the valley between Larinum and Geronium.", "Several thousand men were involved on either side.", "It appeared that the Roman troops were winning, but Hannibal had set a trap.", "Soon the Roman troops were being slaughtered.", "Upon seeing the ambush of Minucius' army, Fabius cried \"O Hercules!", "how much sooner than I expected, though later than he seemed to desire, hath Minucius destroyed himself!\"", "On ordering his army to join the battle and rescue their fellow Romans, Fabius exclaimed \"we must make haste to rescue Minucius, who is a valiant man, and a lover of his country.", "\"Fabius rushed to his co-commander's assistance and Hannibal's forces immediately retreated.", "After the battle, there was some feeling that there would be conflict between Minucius and Fabius; however, the younger soldier marched his men to Fabius' encampment and is reported to have said, \"My father gave me life.", "Today you saved my life.", "You are my second father.", "I recognize your superior abilities as a commander.\"", "When Fabius' term as dictator ended, consular government was restored, and Gnaeus Servilius Geminus and Marcus Atilius Regulus assumed the consulship for the remainder of the year.The once-looked-down-upon tactics employed by Fabius came then to be respected.", "It is said, asserts Plutarch, that even Hannibal acknowledged and feared the Fabian strategy and the Roman inexhaustible manpower.", "After Fabius lured him away from Apulia into the Bruttian territory and then proceeded to besiege Tarentum by treachery in 209 BC, Hannibal commented, \"It seems that the Romans have found another Hannibal, for we have lost Tarentum in the same way that we took it.\"" ], [ "After his dictatorship", "Shortly after Fabius had laid down his dictatorship, Gaius Terentius Varro and Lucius Aemilius Paullus were elected as consuls.", "They rallied the people through the assemblies, and won their support for Varro's plan to abandon Fabius' strategy, and engage Hannibal directly.", "Varro's rashness did not surprise Fabius, but when Fabius learned of the size of the army (eighty-eight thousand soldiers) that Varro had raised, he became quite concerned.", "Unlike the losses that had been suffered by Minucius, a major loss by Varro had the potential to kill so many soldiers that Rome might have had no further resources with which to continue the war.", "Fabius had warned the other consul for the year, Aemilius Paullus, to make sure that Varro remained unable to directly engage Hannibal.", "According to Plutarch, Paullus replied to Fabius that he feared the votes in Rome more than Hannibal's army.When word reached Rome of the disastrous Roman defeat under Varro and Paullus at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC, the Senate and the People of Rome turned to Fabius for guidance.", "They had believed his strategy to be flawed before, but now they thought him to be as wise as the gods.", "He walked the streets of Rome, assured as to eventual Roman victory, in an attempt to comfort his fellow Romans.", "Without his support, the senate might have remained too frightened to even meet.", "He placed guards at the gates of the city to stop the frightened Romans from fleeing, and regulated mourning activities.", "He set times and places for this mourning, and ordered that each family perform such observances within their own private walls, and that the mourning should be complete within a month; following the completion of these mourning rituals, the entire city was purified of its blood-guilt in the deaths.", "Although he did not again hold the office of dictatorand indeed, it was granted to others over himhe might as well have been one unofficially at this time, because whatever measures he proposed were immediately adopted with little or no further debate.===Honors and death===''Cunctator'' became an honorific title, and his delaying tactic was followed in Italy for the rest of the war.", "Fabius' own military success was small, aside from the reconquest of Tarentum in 209 BC.", "For this victory, Plutarch tells us, he was awarded a second triumph that was even more splendid than the first.", "When Marcus Livius Macatus, the governor of Tarentum, claimed the merit of recovering the town, Fabius rejoined, \"Certainly, had you not lost it, I would have never retaken it.\"", "After serving as dictator, he served as a consul twice more (in 215 BC and 214 BC), and for a fifth time in 209 BC.", "He was also chief augur (at a very young age) and pontifex, but never ''pontifex maximus'' according to Gaius Stern (citing Livy on Fabius).", "The holding of seats in the two highest colleges was not repeated until either Julius Caesar or possibly Sulla.In the senate, he opposed the young and ambitious Scipio Africanus, who wanted to carry the war to Africa.", "Fabius continued to argue that confronting Hannibal directly was too dangerous.", "Scipio planned to take Roman forces to Carthage itself and force Hannibal to return to Africa to defend the city.", "Scipio was eventually given limited approval, despite continuous opposition from Fabius, who blocked levies and restricted Scipio's access to troops.", "Fabius wished to ensure that sufficient forces remained to defend Roman territory if Scipio was defeated.", "Another motive mentioned by Plutarch was personal jealousy of Scipio's popularity, so that Fabius continued to argue against the African expedition even after its initial successes.", "Fabius became gravely ill and died in 203 BC, shortly after Hannibal's army left Italy, and before the eventual Roman victory over Hannibal at the Battle of Zama won by Scipio.Part of his eulogy is preserved on a fragment, which praised his delaying strategy in his altercations with Hannibal during the Second Punic War.", "The inscription reads as follows: \"...as censor he conducted the first revision of the senate membership and held committal elections in the consulship of Marcus Junius Pera and Marcus Barbula; he besieged and recaptured Tarentum and the strong-hold of Hannibal, and obtained enormous booty?", "; he won surpassing glory by his military exploits?.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "Later, he became a legendary figure and the model of a tough, courageous Roman, and was bestowed the honorific title, \"The Shield of Rome\" (similar to Marcus Claudius Marcellus being named the \"Sword of Rome\").", "According to Ennius, ''unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem''\"one man, by delaying, restored the state to us.\"", "Virgil, in the Aeneid, has Aeneas' father Anchises mention Fabius Maximus while in Hades as the greatest of the many great Fabii, quoting the same line.", "While Hannibal is mentioned in the company of history's greatest generals, military professionals have bestowed Fabius' name on an entire strategic doctrine known as \"Fabian strategy\", and George Washington has been called \"the American Fabius\".", "Mikhail Kutuzov has likewise been called \"the Russian Fabius\" for his strategy against Napoleon.According to its own ancient legend, the Roman princely family of Massimo descends from Fabius Maximus." ], [ "See also", "* Fabian Society, a British socialist society founded at the end of the 19th century and still active today.", "Their name derives from the tactics of Quintus Fabius Maximus.", "* Gens Fabia* List of ancient Romans" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "===Primary sources===* ''Fabius'', by Plutarch===Secondary material===* Encyclopædia Britannica, Fabius Maximus Cunctator* Plutarch ''Makers of Rome'' translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert 1965, Penguin Books, London * Livy ''The War with Hannibal'' translated by Aubrey de Selincourt 1974, Penguin Books, London" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * McCall, Jeremiah (2018).", "''Clan Fabius, Defenders of Rome: A History of the Republic's Most Illustrious Family''.", "Barnslet: Pen and Sword.", ".", "*" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Floating-point arithmetic" ], [ "Introduction", "Z3, included floating-point arithmetic (replica on display at Deutsches Museum in Munich).In computing, '''floating-point arithmetic''' ('''FP''') is arithmetic that represents subsets of real numbers using an integer with a fixed precision, called the significand, scaled by an integer exponent of a fixed base.Numbers of this form are called '''floating-point numbers'''.For example, 12.345 is a floating-point number in base ten with five digits of precision:However, unlike 12.345, 12.3456 is not a floating-point number in base ten with five digits of precision—it needs six digits of precision; the nearest floating-point number with only five digits is 12.346.In practice, most floating-point systems use base two, though base ten (decimal floating point) is also common.Floating-point arithmetic operations, such as addition and division, approximate the corresponding real number arithmetic operations by rounding any result that is not a floating-point number itself to a nearby floating-point number.For example, in a floating-point arithmetic with five base-ten digits of precision, the sum 12.345 + 1.0001 = 13.3451 might be rounded to 13.345.The term ''floating point'' refers to the fact that the number's radix point can \"float\" anywhere to the left, right, or between the significant digits of the number.", "This position is indicated by the exponent, so floating point can be considered a form of scientific notation.A floating-point system can be used to represent, with a fixed number of digits, numbers of very different orders of magnitude — such as the number of meters between galaxies or between protons in an atom.", "For this reason, floating-point arithmetic is often used to allow very small and very large real numbers that require fast processing times.", "The result of this dynamic range is that the numbers that can be represented are not uniformly spaced; the difference between two consecutive representable numbers varies with their exponent.Single-precision floating-point numbers on a number line: the green lines mark representable values.signs of representable valuesOver the years, a variety of floating-point representations have been used in computers.", "In 1985, the IEEE 754 Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic was established, and since the 1990s, the most commonly encountered representations are those defined by the IEEE.The speed of floating-point operations, commonly measured in terms of FLOPS, is an important characteristic of a computer system, especially for applications that involve intensive mathematical calculations.A floating-point unit (FPU, colloquially a math coprocessor) is a part of a computer system specially designed to carry out operations on floating-point numbers." ], [ "Overview", "=== Floating-point numbers ===A number representation specifies some way of encoding a number, usually as a string of digits.There are several mechanisms by which strings of digits can represent numbers.", "In standard mathematical notation, the digit string can be of any length, and the location of the radix point is indicated by placing an explicit \"point\" character (dot or comma) there.", "If the radix point is not specified, then the string implicitly represents an integer and the unstated radix point would be off the right-hand end of the string, next to the least significant digit.", "In fixed-point systems, a position in the string is specified for the radix point.", "So a fixed-point scheme might use a string of 8 decimal digits with the decimal point in the middle, whereby \"00012345\" would represent 0001.2345.In scientific notation, the given number is scaled by a power of 10, so that it lies within a specific range—typically between 1 and 10, with the radix point appearing immediately after the first digit.", "As a power of ten, the scaling factor is then indicated separately at the end of the number.", "For example, the orbital period of Jupiter's moon Io is seconds, a value that would be represented in standard-form scientific notation as seconds.Floating-point representation is similar in concept to scientific notation.", "Logically, a floating-point number consists of:* A signed (meaning positive or negative) digit string of a given length in a given base (or radix).", "This digit string is referred to as the ''significand'', ''mantissa'', or ''coefficient''.", "The length of the significand determines the ''precision'' to which numbers can be represented.", "The radix point position is assumed always to be somewhere within the significand—often just after or just before the most significant digit, or to the right of the rightmost (least significant) digit.", "This article generally follows the convention that the radix point is set just after the most significant (leftmost) digit.", "* A signed integer exponent (also referred to as the ''characteristic'', or ''scale''), which modifies the magnitude of the number.To derive the value of the floating-point number, the ''significand'' is multiplied by the ''base'' raised to the power of the ''exponent'', equivalent to shifting the radix point from its implied position by a number of places equal to the value of the exponent—to the right if the exponent is positive or to the left if the exponent is negative.Using base-10 (the familiar decimal notation) as an example, the number , which has ten decimal digits of precision, is represented as the significand together with 5 as the exponent.", "To determine the actual value, a decimal point is placed after the first digit of the significand and the result is multiplied by to give , or .", "In storing such a number, the base (10) need not be stored, since it will be the same for the entire range of supported numbers, and can thus be inferred.Symbolically, this final value is:where is the significand (ignoring any implied decimal point), is the precision (the number of digits in the significand), is the base (in our example, this is the number ''ten''), and is the exponent.Historically, several number bases have been used for representing floating-point numbers, with base two (binary) being the most common, followed by base ten (decimal floating point), and other less common varieties, such as base sixteen (hexadecimal floating point), base eight (octal floating point), base four (quaternary floating point), base three (balanced ternary floating point) and even base 256 and base .A floating-point number is a rational number, because it can be represented as one integer divided by another; for example is (145/100)×1000 or /100.The base determines the fractions that can be represented; for instance, 1/5 cannot be represented exactly as a floating-point number using a binary base, but 1/5 can be represented exactly using a decimal base (, or ).", "However, 1/3 cannot be represented exactly by either binary (0.010101...) or decimal (0.333...), but in base 3, it is trivial (0.1 or 1×3−1) .", "The occasions on which infinite expansions occur depend on the base and its prime factors.The way in which the significand (including its sign) and exponent are stored in a computer is implementation-dependent.", "The common IEEE formats are described in detail later and elsewhere, but as an example, in the binary single-precision (32-bit) floating-point representation, , and so the significand is a string of 24 bits.", "For instance, the number π's first 33 bits are:In this binary expansion, let us denote the positions from 0 (leftmost bit, or most significant bit) to 32 (rightmost bit).", "The 24-bit significand will stop at position 23, shown as the underlined bit above.", "The next bit, at position 24, is called the ''round bit'' or ''rounding bit''.", "It is used to round the 33-bit approximation to the nearest 24-bit number (there are specific rules for halfway values, which is not the case here).", "This bit, which is in this example, is added to the integer formed by the leftmost 24 bits, yielding:When this is stored in memory using the IEEE 754 encoding, this becomes the significand .", "The significand is assumed to have a binary point to the right of the leftmost bit.", "So, the binary representation of π is calculated from left-to-right as follows:where is the precision ( in this example), is the position of the bit of the significand from the left (starting at and finishing at here) and is the exponent ( in this example).It can be required that the most significant digit of the significand of a non-zero number be non-zero (except when the corresponding exponent would be smaller than the minimum one).", "This process is called ''normalization''.", "For binary formats (which uses only the digits and ), this non-zero digit is necessarily .", "Therefore, it does not need to be represented in memory, allowing the format to have one more bit of precision.", "This rule is variously called the ''leading bit convention'', the ''implicit bit convention'', the ''hidden bit convention'', or the ''assumed bit convention''.=== Alternatives to floating-point numbers ===The floating-point representation is by far the most common way of representing in computers an approximation to real numbers.", "However, there are alternatives:* Fixed-point representation uses integer hardware operations controlled by a software implementation of a specific convention about the location of the binary or decimal point, for example, 6 bits or digits from the right.", "The hardware to manipulate these representations is less costly than floating point, and it can be used to perform normal integer operations, too.", "Binary fixed point is usually used in special-purpose applications on embedded processors that can only do integer arithmetic, but decimal fixed point is common in commercial applications.", "* Logarithmic number systems (LNSs) represent a real number by the logarithm of its absolute value and a sign bit.", "The value distribution is similar to floating point, but the value-to-representation curve (''i.e.", "'', the graph of the logarithm function) is smooth (except at 0).", "Conversely to floating-point arithmetic, in a logarithmic number system multiplication, division and exponentiation are simple to implement, but addition and subtraction are complex.", "The (symmetric) level-index arithmetic (LI and SLI) of Charles Clenshaw, Frank Olver and Peter Turner is a scheme based on a generalized logarithm representation.", "* Tapered floating-point representation, which does not appear to be used in practice.", "* Some simple rational numbers (''e.g.", "'', 1/3 and 1/10) cannot be represented exactly in binary floating point, no matter what the precision is.", "Using a different radix allows one to represent some of them (''e.g.", "'', 1/10 in decimal floating point), but the possibilities remain limited.", "Software packages that perform rational arithmetic represent numbers as fractions with integral numerator and denominator, and can therefore represent any rational number exactly.", "Such packages generally need to use \"bignum\" arithmetic for the individual integers.", "* Interval arithmetic allows one to represent numbers as intervals and obtain guaranteed bounds on results.", "It is generally based on other arithmetics, in particular floating point.", "* Computer algebra systems such as Mathematica, Maxima, and Maple can often handle irrational numbers like or in a completely \"formal\" way (symbolic computation), without dealing with a specific encoding of the significand.", "Such a program can evaluate expressions like \"\" exactly, because it is programmed to process the underlying mathematics directly, instead of using approximate values for each intermediate calculation." ], [ "History", "Leonardo Torres Quevedo, in 1914 published an analysis of floating point based on the analytical engineIn 1914, the Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo published ''Essays on Automatics'', where he designed a special-purpose electromechanical calculator based on Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine and described a way to store floating-point numbers in a consistent manner.", "He stated that numbers will be stored in exponential format as ''n'' x 10, and offered three rules by which consistent manipulation of floating-point numbers by machines could be implemented.", "For Torres, \"''n'' will always be the same number of digits (e.g.", "six), the first digit of ''n'' will be of order of tenths, the second of hundredths, etc, and one will write each quantity in the form: ''n''; ''m''.\"", "The format he proposed shows the need for a fixed-sized significand as is presently used for floating-point data, fixing the location of the decimal point in the significand so that each representation was unique, and how to format such numbers by specifying a syntax to be used that could be entered through a typewriter, as was the case of his Electromechanical Arithmometer in 1920.Konrad Zuse, architect of the Z3 computer, which uses a 22-bit binary floating-point representationIn 1938, Konrad Zuse of Berlin completed the Z1, the first binary, programmable mechanical computer; it uses a 24-bit binary floating-point number representation with a 7-bit signed exponent, a 17-bit significand (including one implicit bit), and a sign bit.", "The more reliable relay-based Z3, completed in 1941, has representations for both positive and negative infinities; in particular, it implements defined operations with infinity, such as , and it stops on undefined operations, such as .Zuse also proposed, but did not complete, carefully rounded floating-point arithmetic that includes and NaN representations, anticipating features of the IEEE Standard by four decades.", "In contrast, von Neumann recommended against floating-point numbers for the 1951 IAS machine, arguing that fixed-point arithmetic is preferable.The first ''commercial'' computer with floating-point hardware was Zuse's Z4 computer, designed in 1942–1945.In 1946, Bell Laboratories introduced the Model V, which implemented decimal floating-point numbers.The Pilot ACE has binary floating-point arithmetic, and it became operational in 1950 at National Physical Laboratory, UK.", "Thirty-three were later sold commercially as the English Electric DEUCE.", "The arithmetic is actually implemented in software, but with a one megahertz clock rate, the speed of floating-point and fixed-point operations in this machine were initially faster than those of many competing computers.The mass-produced IBM 704 followed in 1954; it introduced the use of a biased exponent.", "For many decades after that, floating-point hardware was typically an optional feature, and computers that had it were said to be \"scientific computers\", or to have \"scientific computation\" (SC) capability (see also Extensions for Scientific Computation (XSC)).", "It was not until the launch of the Intel i486 in 1989 that ''general-purpose'' personal computers had floating-point capability in hardware as a standard feature.The UNIVAC 1100/2200 series, introduced in 1962, supported two floating-point representations:* ''Single precision'': 36 bits, organized as a 1-bit sign, an 8-bit exponent, and a 27-bit significand.", "* ''Double precision'': 72 bits, organized as a 1-bit sign, an 11-bit exponent, and a 60-bit significand.The IBM 7094, also introduced in 1962, supported single-precision and double-precision representations, but with no relation to the UNIVAC's representations.", "Indeed, in 1964, IBM introduced hexadecimal floating-point representations in its System/360 mainframes; these same representations are still available for use in modern z/Architecture systems.", "In 1998, IBM implemented IEEE-compatible binary floating-point arithmetic in its mainframes; in 2005, IBM also added IEEE-compatible decimal floating-point arithmetic.Initially, computers used many different representations for floating-point numbers.", "The lack of standardization at the mainframe level was an ongoing problem by the early 1970s for those writing and maintaining higher-level source code; these manufacturer floating-point standards differed in the word sizes, the representations, and the rounding behavior and general accuracy of operations.", "Floating-point compatibility across multiple computing systems was in desperate need of standardization by the early 1980s, leading to the creation of the IEEE 754 standard once the 32-bit (or 64-bit) word had become commonplace.", "This standard was significantly based on a proposal from Intel, which was designing the i8087 numerical coprocessor; Motorola, which was designing the 68000 around the same time, gave significant input as well.In 1989, mathematician and computer scientist William Kahan was honored with the Turing Award for being the primary architect behind this proposal; he was aided by his student Jerome Coonen and a visiting professor, Harold Stone.Among the x86 innovations are these:* A precisely specified floating-point representation at the bit-string level, so that all compliant computers interpret bit patterns the same way.", "This makes it possible to accurately and efficiently transfer floating-point numbers from one computer to another (after accounting for endianness).", "* A precisely specified behavior for the arithmetic operations: A result is required to be produced as if infinitely precise arithmetic were used to yield a value that is then rounded according to specific rules.", "This means that a compliant computer program would always produce the same result when given a particular input, thus mitigating the almost mystical reputation that floating-point computation had developed for its hitherto seemingly non-deterministic behavior.", "* The ability of exceptional conditions (overflow, divide by zero, etc.)", "to propagate through a computation in a benign manner and then be handled by the software in a controlled fashion." ], [ "Range of floating-point numbers", "A floating-point number consists of two fixed-point components, whose range depends exclusively on the number of bits or digits in their representation.", "Whereas components linearly depend on their range, the floating-point range linearly depends on the significand range and exponentially on the range of exponent component, which attaches outstandingly wider range to the number.On a typical computer system, a ''double-precision'' (64-bit) binary floating-point number has a coefficient of 53 bits (including 1 implied bit), an exponent of 11 bits, and 1 sign bit.", "Since 210 = 1024, the complete range of the positive normal floating-point numbers in this format is from 2−1022 ≈ 2 × 10−308 to approximately 21024 ≈ 2 × 10308.The number of normal floating-point numbers in a system (''B'', ''P'', ''L'', ''U'') where* ''B'' is the base of the system,* ''P'' is the precision of the significand (in base ''B''),* ''L'' is the smallest exponent of the system,* ''U'' is the largest exponent of the system,is .There is a smallest positive normal floating-point number,: Underflow level = UFL = ,which has a 1 as the leading digit and 0 for the remaining digits of the significand, and the smallest possible value for the exponent.There is a largest floating-point number,: Overflow level = OFL = ,which has ''B'' − 1 as the value for each digit of the significand and the largest possible value for the exponent.In addition, there are representable values strictly between −UFL and UFL.", "Namely, positive and negative zeros, as well as subnormal numbers." ], [ "IEEE 754: floating point in modern computers {{anchor|IEEE 754}}", "The IEEE standardized the computer representation for binary floating-point numbers in IEEE 754 (a.k.a.", "IEC 60559) in 1985.This first standard is followed by almost all modern machines.", "It was revised in 2008.IBM mainframes support IBM's own hexadecimal floating point format and IEEE 754-2008 decimal floating point in addition to the IEEE 754 binary format.", "The Cray T90 series had an IEEE version, but the SV1 still uses Cray floating-point format.The standard provides for many closely related formats, differing in only a few details.", "Five of these formats are called ''basic formats'', and others are termed ''extended precision formats'' and ''extendable precision format''.", "Three formats are especially widely used in computer hardware and languages:* Single precision (binary32), usually used to represent the \"float\" type in the C language family.", "This is a binary format that occupies 32 bits (4 bytes) and its significand has a precision of 24 bits (about 7 decimal digits).", "* Double precision (binary64), usually used to represent the \"double\" type in the C language family.", "This is a binary format that occupies 64 bits (8 bytes) and its significand has a precision of 53 bits (about 16 decimal digits).", "* Double extended, also ambiguously called \"extended precision\" format.", "This is a binary format that occupies at least 79 bits (80 if the hidden/implicit bit rule is not used) and its significand has a precision of at least 64 bits (about 19 decimal digits).", "The C99 and C11 standards of the C language family, in their annex F (\"IEC 60559 floating-point arithmetic\"), recommend such an extended format to be provided as \"long double\".", "A format satisfying the minimal requirements (64-bit significand precision, 15-bit exponent, thus fitting on 80 bits) is provided by the x86 architecture.", "Often on such processors, this format can be used with \"long double\", though extended precision is not available with MSVC.", "For alignment purposes, many tools store this 80-bit value in a 96-bit or 128-bit space.", "On other processors, \"long double\" may stand for a larger format, such as quadruple precision, or just double precision, if any form of extended precision is not available.Increasing the precision of the floating-point representation generally reduces the amount of accumulated round-off error caused by intermediate calculations.Other IEEE formats include:* Decimal64 and decimal128 floating-point formats.", "These formats (especially decimal128) are pervasive in financial transactions because, along with the decimal32 format, they allow correct decimal rounding.", "* Quadruple precision (binary128).", "This is a binary format that occupies 128 bits (16 bytes) and its significand has a precision of 113 bits (about 34 decimal digits).", "* Half precision, also called binary16, a 16-bit floating-point value.", "It is being used in the NVIDIA Cg graphics language, and in the openEXR standard.Any integer with absolute value less than 224 can be exactly represented in the single-precision format, and any integer with absolute value less than 253 can be exactly represented in the double-precision format.", "Furthermore, a wide range of powers of 2 times such a number can be represented.", "These properties are sometimes used for purely integer data, to get 53-bit integers on platforms that have double-precision floats but only 32-bit integers.The standard specifies some special values, and their representation: positive infinity (), negative infinity (), a negative zero (−0) distinct from ordinary (\"positive\") zero, and \"not a number\" values (NaNs).Comparison of floating-point numbers, as defined by the IEEE standard, is a bit different from usual integer comparison.", "Negative and positive zero compare equal, and every NaN compares unequal to every value, including itself.", "All finite floating-point numbers are strictly smaller than and strictly greater than , and they are ordered in the same way as their values (in the set of real numbers).=== Internal representation ===Floating-point numbers are typically packed into a computer datum as the sign bit, the exponent field, and the significand or mantissa, from left to right.", "For the IEEE 754 binary formats (basic and extended) which have extant hardware implementations, they are apportioned as follows:TypeBitsExponentbiasBitsprecisionNumber ofdecimal digitsSignExponentSignificandTotalHalf (IEEE 754-2008)1510161511~3.3Single18233212724~7.2Double1115264102353~15.9x86 extended precision11564801638364~19.2Quad11511212816383113~34.0While the exponent can be positive or negative, in binary formats it is stored as an unsigned number that has a fixed \"bias\" added to it.", "Values of all 0s in this field are reserved for the zeros and subnormal numbers; values of all 1s are reserved for the infinities and NaNs.", "The exponent range for normal numbers is −126, 127 for single precision, −1022, 1023 for double, or −16382, 16383 for quad.", "Normal numbers exclude subnormal values, zeros, infinities, and NaNs.In the IEEE binary interchange formats the leading 1 bit of a normalized significand is not actually stored in the computer datum.", "It is called the \"hidden\" or \"implicit\" bit.", "Because of this, the single-precision format actually has a significand with 24 bits of precision, the double-precision format has 53, and quad has 113.For example, it was shown above that π, rounded to 24 bits of precision, has:* sign = 0 ; ''e'' = 1 ; ''s'' = 110010010000111111011011 (including the hidden bit)The sum of the exponent bias (127) and the exponent (1) is 128, so this is represented in the single-precision format as* 0 10000000 10010010000111111011011 (excluding the hidden bit) = 40490FDB as a hexadecimal number.An example of a layout for 32-bit floating point isnoneand the 64-bit (\"double\") layout is similar." ], [ "Other notable floating-point formats", "In addition to the widely used IEEE 754 standard formats, other floating-point formats are used, or have been used, in certain domain-specific areas.", "* The Microsoft Binary Format (MBF) was developed for the Microsoft BASIC language products, including Microsoft's first ever product the Altair BASIC (1975), TRS-80 LEVEL II, CP/M's MBASIC, IBM PC 5150's BASICA, MS-DOS's GW-BASIC and QuickBASIC prior to version 4.00.QuickBASIC version 4.00 and 4.50 switched to the IEEE 754-1985 format but can revert to the MBF format using the /MBF command option.", "MBF was designed and developed on a simulated Intel 8080 by Monte Davidoff, a dormmate of Bill Gates, during spring of 1975 for the MITS Altair 8800.The initial release of July 1975 supported a single-precision (32 bits) format due to cost of the MITS Altair 8800 4-kilobytes memory.", "In December 1975, the 8-kilobytes version added a double-precision (64 bits) format.", "A single-precision (40 bits) variant format was adopted for other CPU's, notably the MOS 6502 (Apple //, Commodore PET, Atari), Motorola 6800 (MITS Altair 680) and Motorola 6809 (TRS-80 Color Computer).", "All Microsoft language products from 1975 through 1987 used the Microsoft Binary Format until Microsoft adopted the IEEE-754 standard format in all its products starting in 1988 to their current releases.", "MBF consists of the MBF single-precision format (32 bits, \"6-digit BASIC\"), the MBF extended-precision format (40 bits, \"9-digit BASIC\"), and the MBF double-precision format (64 bits); each of them is represented with an 8-bit exponent, followed by a sign bit, followed by a significand of respectively 23, 31, and 55 bits.", "* The Bfloat16 format requires the same amount of memory (16 bits) as the IEEE 754 half-precision format, but allocates 8 bits to the exponent instead of 5, thus providing the same range as a IEEE 754 single-precision number.", "The tradeoff is a reduced precision, as the trailing significand field is reduced from 10 to 7 bits.", "This format is mainly used in the training of machine learning models, where range is more valuable than precision.", "Many machine learning accelerators provide hardware support for this format.", "* The TensorFloat-32 format combines the 8 bits of exponent of the Bfloat16 with the 10 bits of trailing significand field of half-precision formats, resulting in a size of 19 bits.", "This format was introduced by Nvidia, which provides hardware support for it in the Tensor Cores of its GPUs based on the Nvidia Ampere architecture.", "The drawback of this format is its size, which is not a power of 2.However, according to Nvidia, this format should only be used internally by hardware to speed up computations, while inputs and outputs should be stored in the 32-bit single-precision IEEE 754 format.", "* The Hopper architecture GPUs provide two FP8 formats: one with the same numerical range as half-precision (E5M2) and one with higher precision, but less range (E4M3).+ Bfloat16, TensorFloat-32, and the two FP8 formats, compared with IEEE 754 half-precision and single-precision formatsTypeSignExponentTrailing significand fieldTotal bitsFP8 (E4M3)1438FP8 (E5M2)1528Half-precision151016Bfloat1618716TensorFloat-32181019Single-precision182332" ], [ "Representable numbers, conversion and rounding {{anchor|Representable numbers}}", "By their nature, all numbers expressed in floating-point format are rational numbers with a terminating expansion in the relevant base (for example, a terminating decimal expansion in base-10, or a terminating binary expansion in base-2).", "Irrational numbers, such as π or √2, or non-terminating rational numbers, must be approximated.", "The number of digits (or bits) of precision also limits the set of rational numbers that can be represented exactly.", "For example, the decimal number 123456789 cannot be exactly represented if only eight decimal digits of precision are available (it would be rounded to one of the two straddling representable values, 12345678 × 101 or 12345679 × 101), the same applies to non-terminating digits (.", "to be rounded to either .55555555 or .55555556).When a number is represented in some format (such as a character string) which is not a native floating-point representation supported in a computer implementation, then it will require a conversion before it can be used in that implementation.", "If the number can be represented exactly in the floating-point format then the conversion is exact.", "If there is not an exact representation then the conversion requires a choice of which floating-point number to use to represent the original value.", "The representation chosen will have a different value from the original, and the value thus adjusted is called the ''rounded value''.Whether or not a rational number has a terminating expansion depends on the base.", "For example, in base-10 the number 1/2 has a terminating expansion (0.5) while the number 1/3 does not (0.333...).", "In base-2 only rationals with denominators that are powers of 2 (such as 1/2 or 3/16) are terminating.", "Any rational with a denominator that has a prime factor other than 2 will have an infinite binary expansion.", "This means that numbers that appear to be short and exact when written in decimal format may need to be approximated when converted to binary floating-point.", "For example, the decimal number 0.1 is not representable in binary floating-point of any finite precision; the exact binary representation would have a \"1100\" sequence continuing endlessly:: ''e'' = −4; ''s'' = 1100110011001100110011001100110011...,where, as previously, ''s'' is the significand and ''e'' is the exponent.When rounded to 24 bits this becomes: ''e'' = −4; ''s'' = 110011001100110011001101,which is actually 0.100000001490116119384765625 in decimal.As a further example, the real number π, represented in binary as an infinite sequence of bits is: 11.0010010000111111011010101000100010000101101000110000100011010011...but is: 11.0010010000111111011011when approximated by rounding to a precision of 24 bits.In binary single-precision floating-point, this is represented as ''s'' = 1.10010010000111111011011 with ''e'' = 1.This has a decimal value of: '''3.141592'''7410125732421875,whereas a more accurate approximation of the true value of π is: '''3.14159265358979323846264338327950'''...The result of rounding differs from the true value by about 0.03 parts per million, and matches the decimal representation of π in the first 7 digits.", "The difference is the discretization error and is limited by the machine epsilon.The arithmetical difference between two consecutive representable floating-point numbers which have the same exponent is called a unit in the last place (ULP).", "For example, if there is no representable number lying between the representable numbers 1.45a70c22hex and 1.45a70c24hex, the ULP is 2×16−8, or 2−31.For numbers with a base-2 exponent part of 0, i.e.", "numbers with an absolute value higher than or equal to 1 but lower than 2, an ULP is exactly 2−23 or about 10−7 in single precision, and exactly 2−53 or about 10−16 in double precision.", "The mandated behavior of IEEE-compliant hardware is that the result be within one-half of a ULP.=== Rounding modes ===Rounding is used when the exact result of a floating-point operation (or a conversion to floating-point format) would need more digits than there are digits in the significand.", "IEEE 754 requires ''correct rounding'': that is, the rounded result is as if infinitely precise arithmetic was used to compute the value and then rounded (although in implementation only three extra bits are needed to ensure this).", "There are several different rounding schemes (or ''rounding modes'').", "Historically, truncation was the typical approach.", "Since the introduction of IEEE 754, the default method (''round to nearest, ties to even'', sometimes called Banker's Rounding) is more commonly used.", "This method rounds the ideal (infinitely precise) result of an arithmetic operation to the nearest representable value, and gives that representation as the result.", "In the case of a tie, the value that would make the significand end in an even digit is chosen.", "The IEEE 754 standard requires the same rounding to be applied to all fundamental algebraic operations, including square root and conversions, when there is a numeric (non-NaN) result.", "It means that the results of IEEE 754 operations are completely determined in all bits of the result, except for the representation of NaNs.", "(\"Library\" functions such as cosine and log are not mandated.", ")Alternative rounding options are also available.", "IEEE 754 specifies the following rounding modes:* round to nearest, where ties round to the nearest even digit in the required position (the default and by far the most common mode)* round to nearest, where ties round away from zero (optional for binary floating-point and commonly used in decimal)* round up (toward +∞; negative results thus round toward zero)* round down (toward −∞; negative results thus round away from zero)* round toward zero (truncation; it is similar to the common behavior of float-to-integer conversions, which convert −3.9 to −3 and 3.9 to 3)Alternative modes are useful when the amount of error being introduced must be bounded.", "Applications that require a bounded error are multi-precision floating-point, and interval arithmetic.The alternative rounding modes are also useful in diagnosing numerical instability: if the results of a subroutine vary substantially between rounding to + and − infinity then it is likely numerically unstable and affected by round-off error.=== Binary-to-decimal conversion with minimal number of digits ===Converting a double-precision binary floating-point number to a decimal string is a common operation, but an algorithm producing results that are both accurate and minimal did not appear in print until 1990, with Steele and White's Dragon4.Some of the improvements since then include:* David M. Gay's ''dtoa.c'', a practical open-source implementation of many ideas in Dragon4.", "* Grisu3, with a 4× speedup as it removes the use of bignums.", "Must be used with a fallback, as it fails for ~0.5% of cases.", "* Errol3, an always-succeeding algorithm similar to, but slower than, Grisu3.Apparently not as good as an early-terminating Grisu with fallback.", "* Ryū, an always-succeeding algorithm that is faster and simpler than Grisu3.", "* Schubfach, an always-succeeding algorithm that is based on a similar idea to Ryū, developed almost simultaneously and independently.", "Performs better than Ryū and Grisu3 in certain benchmarks.Many modern language runtimes use Grisu3 with a Dragon4 fallback.=== Decimal-to-binary conversion ===The problem of parsing a decimal string into a binary FP representation is complex, with an accurate parser not appearing until Clinger's 1990 work (implemented in dtoa.c).", "Further work has likewise progressed in the direction of faster parsing." ], [ "Floating-point operations", "For ease of presentation and understanding, decimal radix with 7 digit precision will be used in the examples, as in the IEEE 754 ''decimal32'' format.", "The fundamental principles are the same in any radix or precision, except that normalization is optional (it does not affect the numerical value of the result).", "Here, ''s'' denotes the significand and ''e'' denotes the exponent.=== Addition and subtraction ===A simple method to add floating-point numbers is to first represent them with the same exponent.", "In the example below, the second number is shifted right by three digits, and one then proceeds with the usual addition method: 123456.7 = 1.234567 × 10^5 101.7654 = 1.017654 × 10^2 = 0.001017654 × 10^5 Hence: 123456.7 + 101.7654 = (1.234567 × 10^5) + (1.017654 × 10^2) = (1.234567 × 10^5) + (0.001017654 × 10^5) = (1.234567 + 0.001017654) × 10^5 = 1.235584654 × 10^5In detail: e=5; s=1.234567 (123456.7) + e=2; s=1.017654 (101.7654) e=5; s=1.234567 + e=5; s=0.001017654 (after shifting) -------------------- e=5; s=1.235584654 (true sum: 123558.4654)This is the true result, the exact sum of the operands.", "It will be rounded to seven digits and then normalized if necessary.", "The final result is e=5; s=1.235585 (final sum: 123558.5)The lowest three digits of the second operand (654) are essentially lost.", "This is round-off error.", "In extreme cases, the sum of two non-zero numbers may be equal to one of them: e=5; s=1.234567 + e=−3; s=9.876543 e=5; s=1.234567 + e=5; s=0.00000009876543 (after shifting) ---------------------- e=5; s=1.23456709876543 (true sum) e=5; s=1.234567 (after rounding and normalization)In the above conceptual examples it would appear that a large number of extra digits would need to be provided by the adder to ensure correct rounding; however, for binary addition or subtraction using careful implementation techniques only a ''guard'' bit, a ''rounding'' bit and one extra ''sticky'' bit need to be carried beyond the precision of the operands.Another problem of loss of significance occurs when ''approximations'' to two nearly equal numbers are subtracted.", "In the following example ''e'' = 5; ''s'' = 1.234571 and ''e'' = 5; ''s'' = 1.234567 are approximations to the rationals 123457.1467 and 123456.659.e=5; s=1.234571 − e=5; s=1.234567 ---------------- e=5; s=0.000004 e=−1; s=4.000000 (after rounding and normalization)The floating-point difference is computed exactly because the numbers are close—the Sterbenz lemma guarantees this, even in case of underflow when gradual underflow is supported.", "Despite this, the difference of the original numbers is ''e'' = −1; ''s'' = 4.877000, which differs more than 20% from the difference ''e'' = −1; ''s'' = 4.000000 of the approximations.", "In extreme cases, all significant digits of precision can be lost.", "This ''cancellation'' illustrates the danger in assuming that all of the digits of a computed result are meaningful.", "Dealing with the consequences of these errors is a topic in numerical analysis; see also Accuracy problems.=== Multiplication and division ===To multiply, the significands are multiplied while the exponents are added, and the result is rounded and normalized.", "e=3; s=4.734612 × e=5; s=5.417242 ----------------------- e=8; s=25.648538980104 (true product) e=8; s=25.64854 (after rounding) e=9; s=2.564854 (after normalization)Similarly, division is accomplished by subtracting the divisor's exponent from the dividend's exponent, and dividing the dividend's significand by the divisor's significand.There are no cancellation or absorption problems with multiplication or division, though small errors may accumulate as operations are performed in succession.", "In practice, the way these operations are carried out in digital logic can be quite complex (see Booth's multiplication algorithm and Division algorithm).For a fast, simple method, see the Horner method.=== Literal syntax ===Literals for floating-point numbers depend on languages.", "They typically use e or E to denote scientific notation.", "The C programming language and the IEEE 754 standard also define a hexadecimal literal syntax with a base-2 exponent instead of 10.In languages like C, when the decimal exponent is omitted, a decimal point is needed to differentiate them from integers.", "Other languages do not have an integer type (such as JavaScript), or allow overloading of numeric types (such as Haskell).", "In these cases, digit strings such as 123 may also be floating-point literals.Examples of floating-point literals are:* 99.9* -5000.12* 6.02e23* -3e-45* 0x1.fffffep+127 in C and IEEE 754==Dealing with exceptional cases == Floating-point computation in a computer can run into three kinds of problems:* An operation can be mathematically undefined, such as ∞/∞, or division by zero.", "* An operation can be legal in principle, but not supported by the specific format, for example, calculating the square root of −1 or the inverse sine of 2 (both of which result in complex numbers).", "* An operation can be legal in principle, but the result can be impossible to represent in the specified format, because the exponent is too large or too small to encode in the exponent field.", "Such an event is called an overflow (exponent too large), underflow (exponent too small) or denormalization (precision loss).Prior to the IEEE standard, such conditions usually caused the program to terminate, or triggered some kind of trap that the programmer might be able to catch.", "How this worked was system-dependent, meaning that floating-point programs were not portable.", "(The term \"exception\" as used in IEEE 754 is a general term meaning an exceptional condition, which is not necessarily an error, and is a different usage to that typically defined in programming languages such as a C++ or Java, in which an \"exception\" is an alternative flow of control, closer to what is termed a \"trap\" in IEEE 754 terminology.", ")Here, the required default method of handling exceptions according to IEEE 754 is discussed (the IEEE 754 optional trapping and other \"alternate exception handling\" modes are not discussed).", "Arithmetic exceptions are (by default) required to be recorded in \"sticky\" status flag bits.", "That they are \"sticky\" means that they are not reset by the next (arithmetic) operation, but stay set until explicitly reset.", "The use of \"sticky\" flags thus allows for testing of exceptional conditions to be delayed until after a full floating-point expression or subroutine: without them exceptional conditions that could not be otherwise ignored would require explicit testing immediately after every floating-point operation.", "By default, an operation always returns a result according to specification without interrupting computation.", "For instance, 1/0 returns +∞, while also setting the divide-by-zero flag bit (this default of ∞ is designed to often return a finite result when used in subsequent operations and so be safely ignored).The original IEEE 754 standard, however, failed to recommend operations to handle such sets of arithmetic exception flag bits.", "So while these were implemented in hardware, initially programming language implementations typically did not provide a means to access them (apart from assembler).", "Over time some programming language standards (e.g., C99/C11 and Fortran) have been updated to specify methods to access and change status flag bits.", "The 2008 version of the IEEE 754 standard now specifies a few operations for accessing and handling the arithmetic flag bits.", "The programming model is based on a single thread of execution and use of them by multiple threads has to be handled by a means outside of the standard (e.g.", "C11 specifies that the flags have thread-local storage).IEEE 754 specifies five arithmetic exceptions that are to be recorded in the status flags (\"sticky bits\"):* '''inexact''', set if the rounded (and returned) value is different from the mathematically exact result of the operation.", "* '''underflow''', set if the rounded value is tiny (as specified in IEEE 754) ''and'' inexact (or maybe limited to if it has denormalization loss, as per the 1985 version of IEEE 754), returning a subnormal value including the zeros.", "* '''overflow''', set if the absolute value of the rounded value is too large to be represented.", "An infinity or maximal finite value is returned, depending on which rounding is used.", "* '''divide-by-zero''', set if the result is infinite given finite operands, returning an infinity, either +∞ or −∞.", "* '''invalid''', set if a real-valued result cannot be returned e.g.", "sqrt(−1) or 0/0, returning a quiet NaN.Fig.", "1: resistances in parallel, with total resistance The default return value for each of the exceptions is designed to give the correct result in the majority of cases such that the exceptions can be ignored in the majority of codes.", "''inexact'' returns a correctly rounded result, and ''underflow'' returns a value less than or equal to the smallest positive normal number in magnitude and can almost always be ignored.", "''divide-by-zero'' returns infinity exactly, which will typically then divide a finite number and so give zero, or else will give an ''invalid'' exception subsequently if not, and so can also typically be ignored.", "For example, the effective resistance of n resistors in parallel (see fig.", "1) is given by .", "If a short-circuit develops with set to 0, will return +infinity which will give a final of 0, as expected (see the continued fraction example of IEEE 754 design rationale for another example).", "''Overflow'' and ''invalid'' exceptions can typically not be ignored, but do not necessarily represent errors: for example, a root-finding routine, as part of its normal operation, may evaluate a passed-in function at values outside of its domain, returning NaN and an ''invalid'' exception flag to be ignored until finding a useful start point." ], [ "Accuracy problems", "The fact that floating-point numbers cannot accurately represent all real numbers, and that floating-point operations cannot accurately represent true arithmetic operations, leads to many surprising situations.", "This is related to the finite precision with which computers generally represent numbers.For example, the decimal numbers 0.1 and 0.01 cannot be represented exactly as binary floating-point numbers.", "In the IEEE 754 binary32 format with its 24-bit significand, the result of attempting to square the approximation to 0.1 is neither 0.01 nor the representable number closest to it.", "The decimal number 0.1 is represented in binary as ; , which isSquaring this number givesSquaring it with rounding to the 24-bit precision givesBut the representable number closest to 0.01 isAlso, the non-representability of π (and π/2) means that an attempted computation of tan(π/2) will not yield a result of infinity, nor will it even overflow in the usual floating-point formats (assuming an accurate implementation of tan).", "It is simply not possible for standard floating-point hardware to attempt to compute tan(π/2), because π/2 cannot be represented exactly.", "This computation in C:/* Enough digits to be sure we get the correct approximation.", "*/double pi = 3.1415926535897932384626433832795;double z = tan(pi/2.0);will give a result of 16331239353195370.0.In single precision (using the tanf function), the result will be −22877332.0.By the same token, an attempted computation of sin(π) will not yield zero.", "The result will be (approximately) 0.1225 in double precision, or −0.8742 in single precision.While floating-point addition and multiplication are both commutative ( and ), they are not necessarily associative.", "That is, is not necessarily equal to .", "Using 7-digit significand decimal arithmetic: a = 1234.567, b = 45.67834, c = 0.0004 (a + b) + c: 1234.567 (a) + 45.67834 (b) ____________ 1280.24534 rounds to 1280.245 1280.245 (a + b) + 0.0004 (c) ____________ 1280.2454 rounds to '''1280.245''' ← (a + b) + c a + (b + c): 45.67834 (b) + 0.0004 (c) ____________ 45.67874 1234.567 (a) + 45.67874 (b + c) ____________ 1280.24574 rounds to '''1280.246''' ← a + (b + c)They are also not necessarily distributive.", "That is, may not be the same as : 1234.567 × 3.333333 = 4115.223 1.234567 × 3.333333 = 4.115223 4115.223 + 4.115223 = 4119.338 but 1234.567 + 1.234567 = 1235.802 1235.802 × 3.333333 = 4119.340In addition to loss of significance, inability to represent numbers such as π and 0.1 exactly, and other slight inaccuracies, the following phenomena may occur:=== Incidents ===* On 25 February 1991, a loss of significance in a MIM-104 Patriot missile battery prevented it from intercepting an incoming Scud missile in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, contributing to the death of 28 soldiers from the U.S. Army's 14th Quartermaster Detachment.=== Machine precision and backward error analysis ===''Machine precision'' is a quantity that characterizes the accuracy of a floating-point system, and is used in backward error analysis of floating-point algorithms.", "It is also known as unit roundoff or ''machine epsilon''.", "Usually denoted , its value depends on the particular rounding being used.With rounding to zero,whereas rounding to nearest,where ''B'' is the base of the system and ''P'' is the precision of the significand (in base ''B'').This is important since it bounds the ''relative error'' in representing any non-zero real number within the normalized range of a floating-point system:Backward error analysis, the theory of which was developed and popularized by James H. Wilkinson, can be used to establish that an algorithm implementing a numerical function is numerically stable.", "The basic approach is to show that although the calculated result, due to roundoff errors, will not be exactly correct, it is the exact solution to a nearby problem with slightly perturbed input data.", "If the perturbation required is small, on the order of the uncertainty in the input data, then the results are in some sense as accurate as the data \"deserves\".", "The algorithm is then defined as ''backward stable''.", "Stability is a measure of the sensitivity to rounding errors of a given numerical procedure; by contrast, the condition number of a function for a given problem indicates the inherent sensitivity of the function to small perturbations in its input and is independent of the implementation used to solve the problem.As a trivial example, consider a simple expression giving the inner product of (length two) vectors and , thenand sowherewhereby definition, which is the sum of two slightly perturbed (on the order of Εmach) input data, and so is backward stable.", "For more realistic examples in numerical linear algebra, see Higham 2002 and other references below.=== Minimizing the effect of accuracy problems ===Although individual arithmetic operations of IEEE 754 are guaranteed accurate to within half a ULP, more complicated formulae can suffer from larger errors for a variety of reasons.", "The loss of accuracy can be substantial if a problem or its data are ill-conditioned, meaning that the correct result is hypersensitive to tiny perturbations in its data.", "However, even functions that are well-conditioned can suffer from large loss of accuracy if an algorithm numerically unstable for that data is used: apparently equivalent formulations of expressions in a programming language can differ markedly in their numerical stability.", "One approach to remove the risk of such loss of accuracy is the design and analysis of numerically stable algorithms, which is an aim of the branch of mathematics known as numerical analysis.", "Another approach that can protect against the risk of numerical instabilities is the computation of intermediate (scratch) values in an algorithm at a higher precision than the final result requires, which can remove, or reduce by orders of magnitude, such risk: IEEE 754 quadruple precision and extended precision are designed for this purpose when computing at double precision.For example, the following algorithm is a direct implementation to compute the function which is well-conditioned at 1.0, however it can be shown to be numerically unstable and lose up to half the significant digits carried by the arithmetic when computed near 1.0.double A(double X){ double Y, Z; // 1 Y = X - 1.0; Z = exp(Y); if (Z != 1.0) Z = Y / (Z - 1.0); // 2 return Z;}If, however, intermediate computations are all performed in extended precision (e.g.", "by setting line 1 to C99 ), then up to full precision in the final double result can be maintained.", "Alternatively, a numerical analysis of the algorithm reveals that if the following non-obvious change to line 2 is made:Z = log(Z) / (Z - 1.0);then the algorithm becomes numerically stable and can compute to full double precision.To maintain the properties of such carefully constructed numerically stable programs, careful handling by the compiler is required.", "Certain \"optimizations\" that compilers might make (for example, reordering operations) can work against the goals of well-behaved software.", "There is some controversy about the failings of compilers and language designs in this area: C99 is an example of a language where such optimizations are carefully specified to maintain numerical precision.", "See the external references at the bottom of this article.A detailed treatment of the techniques for writing high-quality floating-point software is beyond the scope of this article, and the reader is referred to, and the other references at the bottom of this article.", "Kahan suggests several rules of thumb that can substantially decrease by orders of magnitude the risk of numerical anomalies, in addition to, or in lieu of, a more careful numerical analysis.", "These include: as noted above, computing all expressions and intermediate results in the highest precision supported in hardware (a common rule of thumb is to carry twice the precision of the desired result, i.e.", "compute in double precision for a final single-precision result, or in double extended or quad precision for up to double-precision results); and rounding input data and results to only the precision required and supported by the input data (carrying excess precision in the final result beyond that required and supported by the input data can be misleading, increases storage cost and decreases speed, and the excess bits can affect convergence of numerical procedures: notably, the first form of the iterative example given below converges correctly when using this rule of thumb).", "Brief descriptions of several additional issues and techniques follow.As decimal fractions can often not be exactly represented in binary floating-point, such arithmetic is at its best when it is simply being used to measure real-world quantities over a wide range of scales (such as the orbital period of a moon around Saturn or the mass of a proton), and at its worst when it is expected to model the interactions of quantities expressed as decimal strings that are expected to be exact.", "An example of the latter case is financial calculations.", "For this reason, financial software tends not to use a binary floating-point number representation.", "The \"decimal\" data type of the C# and Python programming languages, and the decimal formats of the IEEE 754-2008 standard, are designed to avoid the problems of binary floating-point representations when applied to human-entered exact decimal values, and make the arithmetic always behave as expected when numbers are printed in decimal.Expectations from mathematics may not be realized in the field of floating-point computation.", "For example, it is known that , and that , however these facts cannot be relied on when the quantities involved are the result of floating-point computation.The use of the equality test (if (x==y) ...) requires care when dealing with floating-point numbers.", "Even simple expressions like 0.6/0.2-3==0 will, on most computers, fail to be true (in IEEE 754 double precision, for example, 0.6/0.2 - 3 is approximately equal to -4.44089209850063e-16).", "Consequently, such tests are sometimes replaced with \"fuzzy\" comparisons (if (abs(x-y) , where epsilon is sufficiently small and tailored to the application, such as 1.0E−13).", "The wisdom of doing this varies greatly, and can require numerical analysis to bound epsilon.", "Values derived from the primary data representation and their comparisons should be performed in a wider, extended, precision to minimize the risk of such inconsistencies due to round-off errors.", "It is often better to organize the code in such a way that such tests are unnecessary.", "For example, in computational geometry, exact tests of whether a point lies off or on a line or plane defined by other points can be performed using adaptive precision or exact arithmetic methods.Small errors in floating-point arithmetic can grow when mathematical algorithms perform operations an enormous number of times.", "A few examples are matrix inversion, eigenvector computation, and differential equation solving.", "These algorithms must be very carefully designed, using numerical approaches such as iterative refinement, if they are to work well.Summation of a vector of floating-point values is a basic algorithm in scientific computing, and so an awareness of when loss of significance can occur is essential.", "For example, if one is adding a very large number of numbers, the individual addends are very small compared with the sum.", "This can lead to loss of significance.", "A typical addition would then be something like 3253.671 + 3.141276 ----------- 3256.812The low 3 digits of the addends are effectively lost.", "Suppose, for example, that one needs to add many numbers, all approximately equal to 3.After 1000 of them have been added, the running sum is about 3000; the lost digits are not regained.", "The Kahan summation algorithm may be used to reduce the errors.Round-off error can affect the convergence and accuracy of iterative numerical procedures.", "As an example, Archimedes approximated π by calculating the perimeters of polygons inscribing and circumscribing a circle, starting with hexagons, and successively doubling the number of sides.", "As noted above, computations may be rearranged in a way that is mathematically equivalent but less prone to error (numerical analysis).", "Two forms of the recurrence formula for the circumscribed polygon are:** First form: * second form: * , converging as Here is a computation using IEEE \"double\" (a significand with 53 bits of precision) arithmetic: i 6 × 2i × ti, first form 6 × 2i × ti, second form --------------------------------------------------------- 0 ''''''.4641016151377543863 ''''''.4641016151377543863 1 ''''''.2153903091734710173 ''''''.2153903091734723496 2 ''''''596599420974940120 ''''''596599420975006733 3 ''''''60862151314012979 ''''''60862151314352708 4 ''''''27145996453136334 ''''''27145996453689225 5 ''''''8730499801259536 ''''''8730499798241950 6 ''''''6627470548084133 ''''''6627470568494473 7 ''''''6101765997805905 ''''''6101766046906629 8 ''''''70343230776862 ''''''70343215275928 9 ''''''37488171150615 ''''''37487713536668 10 ''''''9278733740748 ''''''9273850979885 11 ''''''7256228504127 ''''''7220386148377 12 ''''''717412858693 ''''''707019992125 13 ''''''189011456060 ''''''78678454728 14 ''''''717412858693 ''''''46593073709 15 ''''''19358822321783 ''''''8571730119 16 ''''''717412858693 ''''''6566394222 17 ''''''810075796233302 ''''''6065061913 18 ''''''717412858693 ''''''939728836 19 ''''''4061547378810956 ''''''908393901 20 ''''''05434924008406305 ''''''900560168 21 ''''''00068646912273617 ''''''8608396 22 ''''''349453756585929919 ''''''8122118 23 ''''''00068646912273617 ''''''95552 24 ''''''.2245152435345525443 ''''''68907 25 ''''''62246 26 ''''''62246 27 ''''''62246 28 ''''''62246 The true value is ''''''While the two forms of the recurrence formula are clearly mathematically equivalent, the first subtracts 1 from a number extremely close to 1, leading to an increasingly problematic loss of significant digits.", "As the recurrence is applied repeatedly, the accuracy improves at first, but then it deteriorates.", "It never gets better than about 8 digits, even though 53-bit arithmetic should be capable of about 16 digits of precision.", "When the second form of the recurrence is used, the value converges to 15 digits of precision.=== \"Fast math\" optimization ===The aforementioned lack of associativity of floating-point operations in general means that compilers cannot as effectively reorder arithmetic expressions as they could with integer and fixed-point arithmetic, presenting a roadblock in optimizations such as common subexpression elimination and auto-vectorization.", "The \"fast math\" option on many compilers (ICC, GCC, Clang, MSVC...) turns on reassociation along with unsafe assumptions such as a lack of NaN and infinite numbers in IEEE 754.Some compilers also offer more granular options to only turn on reassociation.", "In either case, the programmer is exposed to many of the precision pitfalls mentioned above for the portion of the program using \"fast\" math.In some compilers (GCC and Clang), turning on \"fast\" math may cause the program to disable subnormal floats at startup, affecting the floating-point behavior of not only the generated code, but also any program using such code as a library.In most Fortran compilers, as allowed by the ISO/IEC 1539-1:2004 Fortran standard, reassociation is the default, with breakage largely prevented by the \"protect parens\" setting (also on by default).", "This setting stops the compiler from reassociating beyond the boundaries of parentheses.", "Intel Fortran Compiler is a notable outlier.A common problem in \"fast\" math is that subexpressions may not be optimized identically from place to place, leading to unexpected differences.", "One interpretation of the issue is that \"fast\" math as implemented currently has a poorly defined semantics.", "One attempt at formalizing \"fast\" math optimizations is seen in ''Icing'', a verified compiler." ], [ "See also", "* Arbitrary-precision arithmetic* C99 for code examples demonstrating access and use of IEEE 754 features.", "* Computable number* Coprocessor* Decimal floating point* Double precision* Experimental mathematics – utilizes high precision floating-point computations* Fixed-point arithmetic* Floating-point error mitigation* FLOPS* Gal's accurate tables* GNU MPFR* Half-precision floating-point format* IEEE 754 – Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic* IBM Floating Point Architecture* Kahan summation algorithm* Microsoft Binary Format (MBF)* Minifloat* Q (number format) for constant resolution* Quadruple-precision floating-point format (including double-double)* Significant figures* Single-precision floating-point format" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* (NB.", "Classic influential treatises on floating-point arithmetic.", ")* * * * (NB.", "Edition with source code CD-ROM.", ")* * (1213 pages) (NB.", "This is a single-volume edition.", "This work was also available in a two-volume version.", ")* *" ], [ "External links", "* (NB.", "This page gives a very brief summary of floating-point formats that have been used over the years.", ")* (NB.", "A compendium of non-intuitive behaviors of floating point on popular architectures, with implications for program verification and testing.", ")* OpenCores.", "(NB.", "This website contains open source floating-point IP cores for the implementation of floating-point operators in FPGA or ASIC devices.", "The project ''double_fpu'' contains verilog source code of a double-precision floating-point unit.", "The project ''fpuvhdl'' contains vhdl source code of a single-precision floating-point unit.", ")*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "First Epistle to the Corinthians" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''First Epistle to the Corinthians''' () is one of the Pauline epistles, part of the New Testament of the Christian Bible.", "The epistle is attributed to Paul the Apostle and a co-author, Sosthenes, and is addressed to the Christian church in Corinth.", "Despite the name, it is not believed to be the first such letter.", "Scholars believe that Sosthenes was the amanuensis who wrote down the text of the letter at Paul's direction.", "It addresses various issues that had arisen in the Christian community at Corinth and is composed in a form of Koine Greek." ], [ "Authorship", "There is a consensus among historians and theologians that Paul is the author of the First Epistle to the Corinthians ().", "The letter is quoted or mentioned by the earliest of sources and is included in every ancient canon, including that of Marcion of Sinope.", "Some scholars point to the epistle's potentially embarrassing references to the existence of sexual immorality in the church as strengthening the case for the authenticity of the letter.However, the epistle does contain a passage that is widely believed to have been interpolated into the text by a later scribe:Verses 34–35 are included in all extant manuscripts.", "Part of the reason for suspecting that this passage is an interpolation is that in several manuscripts in the Western tradition, it is placed at the end of chapter 14 instead of at its canonical location.", "This kind of variability is generally considered by textual critics to be a sign that a note, initially placed in the margins of the document, has been copied into the body of the text by a scribe.", "As E. Earle Ellis and Daniel B. Wallace note, however, a marginal note may well have been written by Paul himself.", "The loss of marginal arrows or other directional devices could explain why the scribe of the Western ''Vorlage'' placed it at the end of the chapter.", "The absence of an asterisk or obelisk in the margin of any manuscript – a common way of indicating doubt of authenticity – they argue, a strong argument that Paul wrote the passage and intended it in its traditional place.", "The passage has also been taken to contradict 11:5, where women are described as praying and prophesying in church.Furthermore, some scholars believe that the passage 1 Corinthians 10:1–22 constitutes a separate letter fragment or scribal interpolation because it equates the consumption of meat sacrificed to idols with idolatry, while Paul seems to be more lenient on this issue in 8:1–13 and 10:23–11:1.Such views are rejected by other scholars who give arguments for the unity of 8:1–11:1." ], [ "Composition", "About the year AD 50, towards the end of his second missionary journey, Paul founded the church in Corinth before moving on to Ephesus, a city on the west coast of today's Turkey, about by sea from Corinth.", "From there he traveled to Caesarea and Antioch.", "Paul returned to Ephesus on his third missionary journey and spent approximately three years there.", "It was while staying in Ephesus that he received disconcerting news of the community in Corinth regarding jealousies, rivalry, and immoral behavior.", "It also appears that, based on a letter the Corinthians sent Paul, the congregation was requesting clarification on a number of matters, such as marriage and the consumption of meat previously offered to idols.By comparing Acts of the Apostles 18:1–17 and mentions of Ephesus in the Corinthian correspondence, scholars suggest that the letter was written during Paul's stay in Ephesus, which is usually dated as being in the range of AD 53–57.Anthony C. Thiselton suggests that it is possible that 1 Corinthians was written during Paul's first (brief) stay in Ephesus, at the end of his second journey, usually dated to early AD 54.However, it is more likely that it was written during his extended stay in Ephesus, where he refers to sending Timothy to them.Despite the attributed title \"1 Corinthians,\" this letter was not the first written by Paul to the church in Corinth, only the first canonical letter.", "1 Corinthians is the second known letter of four from Paul to the church in Corinth, as evidenced by Paul's mention of his previous letter in 1 Corinthians 5:9.The other two being what is called the Second Epistle to the Corinthians and a \"tearful, severe\" letter mentioned in 2 Corinthians 2:3–4.The book called the Third Epistle to the Corinthians is generally not believed by scholars to have been written by Paul, as the text claims." ], [ "Surviving early manuscripts", "The original manuscript of this book is lost, and the text of surviving manuscripts varies.", "The oldest manuscripts containing some or all of the text of this book include:* Papyrus 46 (AD 175–225)* Codex Vaticanus (AD 325–350)* Codex Sinaiticus (330–360)* Papyrus 123 (4th century)* Codex Alexandrinus (400–440)* Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (~450)* Codex Freerianus (~450)* Codex Claromontanus (~550)* Codex Coislinianus (~550)* Papyrus 14 (6th century)* Papyrus 11 (7th century;)" ], [ "Structure", "1 Corinthians 1:1–21 in Codex Amiatinus from the 8th century.1 Corinthians 1:1–2a in Minuscule 223 from the 14th century.The epistle may be divided into seven parts:# Salutation (1:1–3)## Paul addresses the issue regarding challenges to his apostleship and defends the issue by claiming that it was given to him through a revelation from Christ.", "The salutation (the first section of the letter) reinforces the legitimacy of Paul's apostolic claim.# Thanksgiving (1:4–9)## The thanksgiving part of the letter is typical of Hellenistic letter writing.", "In a thanksgiving recitation the writer thanks God for health, a safe journey, deliverance from danger, or good fortune.## In this letter, the thanksgiving \"introduces charismata and gnosis, topics to which Paul will return and that he will discuss at greater length later in the letter\".# Division in Corinth (1:10–4:21)## Facts of division## Causes of division## Cure for division# Immorality in Corinth (5:1–6:20)## Discipline an immoral Brother## Resolving personal disputes## Sexual purity# Difficulties in Corinth (7:1–14:40)## Marriage## Christian liberty## Worship# Doctrine of Resurrection (15:1–58)# Closing (16:1–24)## Paul's closing remarks in his letters usually contain his intentions and efforts to improve the community.", "He would first conclude with his paraenesis and wish them peace by including a prayer request, greet them with his name and his friends with a holy kiss, and offer final grace and benediction:" ], [ "Content", "The foundation of Christ (1 Corinthians 3:11); posted at the Menno-Hof Amish and Mennonite Museum in Shipshewana, Indianain the twinkling of an eye, ''at the last trump'': for the trumpet shall sound, and the dead shall be raised incorruptible, and we shall be changed.\"", "1 Corinthians 15:52.Illumination from Beatus de Facundus, 1047.Some time before 2 Corinthians was written, Paul paid the church at Corinth a second visit to check some rising disorder, and wrote them a letter, now lost.", "The church had also been visited by Apollos, perhaps by Peter, and by some Jewish Christians who brought with them letters of commendation from Jerusalem.Paul wrote 1 Corinthians letter to correct what he saw as erroneous views in the Corinthian church.", "Several sources informed Paul of conflicts within the church at Corinth: Apollos, a letter from the Corinthians, \"those of Chloe\", and finally Stephanas and his two friends who had visited Paul.", "Paul then wrote this letter to the Corinthians, urging uniformity of belief (\"that ye all speak the same thing and that there be no divisions among you\", 1:10) and expounding Christian doctrine.", "Titus and a brother whose name is not given were probably the bearers of the letter to the church at Corinth.In general, divisions within the church at Corinth seem to be a problem, and Paul makes it a point to mention these conflicts in the beginning.", "Specifically, pagan roots still hold sway within their community.", "Paul wants to bring them back to what he sees as correct doctrine, stating that God has given him the opportunity to be a \"skilled master builder\" to lay the foundation and let others build upon it.1 Corinthians 6:9-10 contains a notable condemnation of homosexuality, idolatry, thievery, drunkenness, slandering, swindling, adultery, and other acts the authors consider sexually immoral.The majority of early manuscripts end chapter 6 with the words .", "The Textus Receptus adds , which the New King James Version translates as \"and in your spirit, which are (i.e.", "body and spirit) God's\".", "The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges notes that \"these words are not found in many of the best MSS.", "and versions, and they somewhat weaken the force of the argument, which is intended to assert the dignity of the body.", "They were perhaps inserted by some who, missing the point of the Apostle's argument, thought that the worship of the spirit was unduly passed over.", "\"Later, Paul wrote about immorality in Corinth by discussing an immoral brother, how to resolve personal disputes, and sexual purity.", "Regarding marriage, Paul states that it is better for Christians to remain unmarried, but that if they lacked self-control, it is better to marry than \"burn\" ().", "The epistle may include marriage as an apostolic practice in 1 Corinthians 9:5, \"Do we not have the right to be accompanied by a believing wife, as do the other apostles and the brothers of the Lord and Cephas (Peter)?\"", "(In the last case, the letter concurs with Matthew 8:14, which mentions Peter having a mother-in-law and thus, by inference, a wife.)", "However, the Greek word for 'wife' is the same word for 'woman'.", "The Early Church Fathers, including Tertullian, Jerome, and Augustine state the Greek word is ambiguous and the women in 1 Corinthians 9:5 were women ministering to the Apostles as women ministered to Christ, and were not wives, and assert they left their \"offices of marriage\" to follow Christ.", "Paul also argues that married people must please their spouses, just as every Christian must please God.Throughout the letter, Paul presents issues that are troubling the community in Corinth and offers ways to fix them.", "Paul states that this letter is to \"admonish\" them as beloved children.", "They are expected to become imitators of Jesus and follow the ways in Christ as he, Paul, teaches in all his churches.This epistle contains some well-known phrases, including: \"all things to all men\",\"through a glass, darkly\", and:===\"Through a glass, darkly\"===1 Corinthians 13:12 contains the phrase , which was translated in the 1560 Geneva Bible as \"For now we see through a glass darkly\" (without a comma).", "This wording was used in the 1611 KJV, which added a comma before \"darkly\".", "This passage has inspired the titles of many works, with and without the comma.The Greek word (genitive; nominative: ), here translated \"glass\", is ambiguous, possibly referring to a mirror or a lens.", "Influenced by Strong's Concordance, many modern translations conclude that this word refers specifically to a mirror.", "Example English language translations include:* \"Now we see but a poor reflection as in a mirror\" (New International Version)* \"What we see now is like a dim image in a mirror\" (Good News Bible)Paul's usage is in keeping with rabbinic use of the term , a borrowing from the Latin .", "This has the same ambiguous meaning, although Adam Clarke concluded that it was a reference to , clear polished stones used as lenses or windows.", "One way to preserve this ambiguity is to use the English cognate, ''speculum''.", "Rabbi Judah ben Ilai (2nd century) was quoted as saying \"All the prophets had a vision of God as He appeared through nine specula\" while \"Moses saw God through one speculum.\"", "The Babylonian Talmud states similarly \"All the prophets gazed through a speculum that does not shine, while Moses our teacher gazed through a speculum that shines.", "\"===Women must remain silent===The letter is also notable for mentioning the role of women in churches, that for instance they must remain silent, and yet they have a role of prophecy and apparently speaking tongues in churches.", "If verse 14:34–35 is not an interpolation, certain scholars resolve the tension between these texts by positing that wives were either contesting their husband's inspired speeches at church, or the wives/women were chatting and asking questions in a disorderly manner when others were giving inspired utterances.", "Their silence was unique to the particular situation in the Corinthian gatherings at that time, and on this reading, Paul did not intend his words to be universalized for all women of all churches of all eras.=== Head covering ===opaque hanging veil worn by a Conservative Anabaptist woman belonging to the Charity Christian Fellowship1 Corinthians 11:2-16 contains an admonishment that Christian women cover their hair while praying and that Christian men leave their heads uncovered while praying.", "These practices were countercultural; the surrounding pagan Greek women prayed unveiled and Jewish men prayed with their heads covered.", "The King James Version of 1 Corinthians 11:10 reads \"For this cause ought the woman to have power on her head because of the angels.\"", "Other versions translate \"power\" as \"authority\".", "In many early biblical manuscripts (such as certain vg, cop, and arm), is rendered with the word \"veil\" () rather than the word \"authority\" (); the Revised Standard Version reflects this, displaying 1 Corinthians 11:10 as follows: \"That is why a woman ought to have a veil on her head, because of the angels.\"", "Similarly, a scholarly footnote in the New American Bible notes that presence of the word \"''authority'' () may possibly be due to mistranslation of an Aramaic word for ''veil''\".", "This mistranslation may be due to \"the fact that in Aramaic the roots of the word ''power'' and ''veil'' are spelled the same.\"", "The last-known living connection to the apostles, Irenaeus, penned verse 10 using the word \"veil\" () instead of \"authority\" () in ''Against Heresies'', as did other Church Fathers in their writings, including Hippolytus, Origen, Chrysostom, Jerome, Epiphanius, Augustine, and Bede.This ordinance continued to be handed down after the apostolic era to the next generations of Christians; writing 150 years after Paul, the early Christian apologist Tertullian stated that the women of the church in Corinth—both virgins and married—practiced veiling, given that Paul the Apostle delivered the teaching to them: \"the Corinthians themselves understood him in this manner.", "In fact, at this very day, the Corinthians do veil their virgins.", "What the apostles taught, their disciples approve.\"", "From the period of the early Church to the late modern period, 1 Corinthians 11 was universally understood to enjoin the wearing of the headcovering throughout the day—a practice that has since waned in Western Europe but has continued in certain parts of the world, such as in the Middle East, Eastern Europe, Northern Africa and the Indian subcontinent, as well as everywhere by Conservative Anabaptists (such as the Conservative Mennonite Churches and the Dunkard Brethren Church), who count veiling as being one of the ordinances of the Church.", "The early Church Father John Chrysostom explicates that 1 Corinthians 11 enjoins the continual wearing the headcovering by referencing Paul the Apostle's view that being shaven is always dishonourable and his pointing to the angels:=== ''Agape'' ===Chapter 13 of 1 Corinthians is one of many definitional sources for the original Greek word .", "In the original Greek, the word is used throughout chapter 13.This is translated into English as \"charity\" in the King James version; but the word \"love\" is preferred by most other translations, both earlier and more recent.1 Corinthians 11:17-34 contains a condemnation of what the authors consider inappropriate behavior at Corinthian gatherings that appeared to be agape feasts.=== Resurrection of Jesus ===After discussing his views on worshipping idols, Paul ends the letter with his views on resurrection and the Resurrection of Jesus.", "Key verses are often cited as a concise summary of core Christian doctrine or kerygma, and are used in the construction of various Christian creeds:Belief in the death, burial, resurrection, and reappearance to Peter and the Twelve in verses 3–5, are assumed to be an early pre-Pauline kerygma or creedal statement.", "Biblical scholars note the antiquity of the creed, possibly transmitted from the Jerusalem apostolic community.", "though the core formula may have originated in Damascus, with the specific appearances reflecting the Jerusalem community.", "It may be one of the earliest kerygmas about Jesus' death and resurrection, though it is also possible that Paul himself joined together the various statements, as proposed by Urich Wilckens.", "It is also possible that \"he appeared\" was not specified in the core formula, and that the specific appearances are additions.", "According to Hannack, line 3b-4 form the original core, while line 5 and line 7 contain competing statements from two different factions.", "Prive also argues that line 5 and line 7 reflect the tensions between Petrus and James.The kerygma has often been dated to no more than five years after Jesus' death by Biblical scholars, though Bart Ehrman states \"Among scholars I personally know, except for evangelicals, I don't now''sic'' anyone who thinks this at all.\"", "Gerd Lüdemann maintains that \"the elements in the tradition are to be dated to the first two years after the crucifixion of Jesus... not later than three years\".For orthodox Christians, the resurrection, believed by them to be a physical resurrection, is the central event of the Christian faith.", "While the authenticity of line 6a and 7 is disputed, MacGregor argues that linguistic analysis suggests that the version received by Paul seems to have included verses 3b–6a and 7.According to Christian apolgist Gary R. Habermas, in \"Corinthians 15:3–8, Paul records an ancient oral tradition(s) that summarizes the content of the Christian gospel.\"", "N.T Wright describes it as \"the very early tradition that was common to all Christians.", "\"In dissent from the majority view, Robert M. Price, Hermann Detering, John V. M. Sturdy, and David Oliver Smith have each argued that 1 Corinthians 15:3–7 is a later interpolation.", "According to Price, the text is not an early Christian creed written within five years of Jesus' death, nor did Paul write these verses.", "In his assessment, this was an Interpolation possibly dating to the beginning of the 2nd century.", "Price states that \"The pair of words in verse 3a, \"received / delivered\" (paralambanein / paradidonai) is, as has often been pointed out, technical language for the handing on of rabbinical tradition\", so it would contradict Paul's account of his conversion given in Galatians 1:13–24, which explicitly says that Paul had been taught the gospel of Christ by Jesus himself, not by any other man.===Resurrection of the body===''Resurrection of the Flesh'' () by Luca Signorelli – based on 1 Corinthians 15:52: \"the trumpet shall sound, and the dead shall be raised incorruptible, and we shall be changed.\"", "Chapel of San Brizio, Orvieto Cathedral, Italy Paul then asks: \"Now if Christ is preached as raised from the dead, how can some of you say that there is no resurrection of the dead?\"", "Chapter 15 closes with an account of the nature of the resurrection, claiming that in the Last Judgement the dead will be raised and both the living and the dead transformed into \"spiritual bodies\" (verse 44).===Psalm 8 reference===1 Corinthians 15:27 refers to Psalm 8:6.Ephesians 1:22 also refers to this verse of Psalm 8.===Evil company corrupts good habits===1 Corinthians 15:33 contains the aphorism \"evil company corrupts good habits\", from classical Greek literature.", "According to the church historian Socrates of Constantinople it is taken from a Greek tragedy of Euripides, but modern scholarship, following Jerome attributes it to the comedy by Menander, or Menander quoting Euripides.", "Hans Conzelmann remarks that the quotation was widely known.", "Whatever the proximate source, this quote does appear in one of the fragments of Euripides' works.===Baptism of the dead===1 Corinthians 5:29 argues it would be pointless to baptise the dead if people are not raised from the dead.", "This verse suggests that there existed a practice at Corinth whereby a living person would be baptized in the stead of some convert who had recently died.", "Teignmouth Shore, writing in Ellicott's ''Commentary for Modern Readers'', notes that among the \"numerous and ingenious conjectures\" about this passage, the only tenable interpretation is that there existed a practice of baptising a living person to substitute those who had died before that sacrament could have been administered in Corinth, as also existed among the Marcionites in the second century, or still earlier than that, among a sect called \"the Corinthians\".", "The Jerusalem Bible states that \"What this practice was is unknown.", "Paul does not say if he approved of it or not: he uses it merely for an ''ad hominem'' argument\".The Latter Day Saint movement interprets this passage to support the practice of baptism for the dead.", "This principle of vicarious work for the dead is an important work of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in the dispensation of the fulness of times.", "This interpretation is rejected by other denominations of Christianity." ], [ "Commentaries", "St. John Chrysostom, bishop of Constantinople and Doctor of the Catholic Church, wrote a commentary on 1 Corinthians, formed by 44 homilies." ], [ "See also", "* Pauline privilege* Second Epistle to the Corinthians* Textual variants in the First Epistle to the Corinthians* Third Epistle to the Corinthians" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Blenkinsopp, Joseph, ''The Corinthian Mirror: a Study of Contemporary Themes in a Pauline Epistle'' i.e.", "in First Corinthians, Sheed and Ward, London, 1964.", "* Erdman, Charles R., ''The First Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians'', Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1966.", "* Conzelmann, Hans ''Der erste Brief an die Korinther'', KEK V, Göttingen 1969.", "* Fitzmyer, Joseph A., ''First Corinthians : new translation with introduction and commentary'', Anchor Yale Bible, Yale University Press, 2008.", "* * Robertson, A. and A. Plumber, ''A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the First Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians'' (Edinburgh 1961).", "* Thiselton, Anthony C., ''The First Epistle to the Corinthians: a commentary on the Greek text'' NIGTC, Wm.", "B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids 2000.", "* Yung Suk Kim.", "''Christ's Body in Corinth: The Politics of a Metaphor'' (Fortress, 2008)." ], [ "External links", "* Multiple bible versions at ''Bible Gateway'' (NKJV, NIV, NRSV etc.", ")* English Translation with Parallel Latin Vulgate* International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: ''1 Corinthians''* Various versions" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of Scots" ], [ "Introduction", " Flag of Scotland'''List of Scots''' is an incomplete list of notable people from Scotland." ], [ "Actors" ], [ "Architects and master masons", "* James Adam (1732–1794), son of William Adam* John Adam (1721–1792), eldest son of William Adam* Robert Adam (1728–1792), architect, son of William Adam* William Adam (1689–1748), father of James, John and Robert; architect and mason* James Alison (1862-1932), architect responsible for the appearance of late Victorian Hawick* John Macvicar Anderson (1835–1915)* Robert Rowand Anderson (1834–1921)* George Ashdown Audsley (1838–1925), architect, artist, illustrator, writer, and pipe organ designer* William James Audsley (1833–1907)* Ormrod Maxwell Ayrton (1874–1960), FRIBA* John Baird (1798–1859), influential figure in the development of Glasgow Georgian and Victorian Architecture* Andrew Balfour (1863–1943), architect, work including Holmlea Primary School, Glasgow * Isobel Hogg Kerr Beattie (1900–1970), possibly the first woman to practise architecture in Scotland* John Begg (1866–1937), architect who practised in London, South Africa and India, and taught at Edinburgh College of Art* William Bryce Binnie (c. 1885–c.", "1963)* Alexander Black (c.1790–1858)* Hippolyte Blanc (1844–1917)* Thomas Bonnar (c.1770–1847), interior designer and architect* James MacLellan Brown (c. 1886–1967), city architect of Dundee, designer of the Mills Observatory* Thomas Brown (1781–1850), architect, works including Bellevue Church, Edinburgh* Thomas Brown (1806–1872), architect notable for prison design* Sir George Washington Browne (1853–1939)* Sir William Bruce (c. 1630–1710)* David Bryce (1803–1876)* William Burn (1789–1870)* John Burnet (1814–1901), architect who lived and practised in Glasgow* Sir John James Burnet (1857–1938), Edwardian architect, son of John Burnet* James Burton (1761–1837), famous London property developer and architect; father of Decimus Burton and James Burton (Egyptologist)* James Byres of Tonley (1733–1817), architect, antiquary and dealer in Old Master paintings and antiquities* Edward Calvert (c. 1847–1914)* Charles Cameron (1743–1812)* Alexander Buchanan Campbell (1914–2007)* Alexander Lorne Campbell (1871–1944), architect founder of Scott & Campbell* Colen Campbell (1676–1729)* Colin Robert Vaughan Campbell, 7th Earl Cawdor (born 1962)* John Campbell (1857–1942)* John Chesser (1819–1892), architect largely based in Edinburgh* Sir John Ninian Comper (1864–1960), Gothic Revival architect * George Corson (1829–1910)* David Cousin (1809–1878), architect, landscape architect and planner* James Craig (1739–1795)* James Hoey Craigie (1870–1930)* Alexander Hunter Crawford (1865–1945), architect and businessman, owner of Crawford's Biscuits* Alexander Davidson (1839–1908), architect active in Australia* William Gordon Dey (1911–1997), architect who specialised in college buildings* John Douglas of Pinkerton (c.1709–1778), architect who designed and reformed several country houses * Sir Robert Drummond of Carnock (died 1592), Master of Work to the Crown of Scotland* Sir James Duncan Dunbar-Nasmith, (1927–2023), leading conservation architect* Alan Dunlop (born 1958)* John Murray Easton (1889–1975), architect, winner of the Royal Gold Medal for architecture* Alexander Edward (1651–1708), Episcopalian clergyman, draughtsman, architect and landscape designer* Archibald Elliot (1760–1823)* Reginald Francis Joseph Fairlie (1883–1952), architect of the National Library of Scotland* James Fergusson (1808–1886)* Claude Waterlow Ferrier (1879–1935), architect, specialising in the Art Deco style* James Leslie Findlay (1868–1952)* Kathryn Findlay (born 1954)* Robert Findlay (1859–1951)* George Topham Forrest (1872–1945)* William Fowler (1824–1906), architect * Malcolm Fraser (born 1959)* Patrick Allan Fraser (1812–1890), architect and painter* Andrew Frazer (died 1792)* Thomas Gildard (died 1895), architect of Britannia Music Hall* James Gibbs (1682–1754)* Charles Lovett Gill (1880–1960)* James Gowan (1923–2015), postmodernist architect of the \"engineering style\"* Sir James Gowans (1821–1890), maverick Edinburgh architect and builder* James Gillespie Graham (1776–1855)* John Edgar Gregan (1813–1855)* David Hamilton (1768–1843)* Sir James Hamilton of Finnart (c.1495–1540), Master of Work to the Crown of Scotland* Thomas Hamilton (1784–1858)* John Henderson (1804–1862), architect chiefly remembered as a church architect* James Macintyre Henry (1852–1929)* William Hastie (1753/1763–1832)* Gareth Hoskins (1967–2016), architect, UK Architect of the year 2006* Edith Mary Wardlaw Burnet Hughes (1888–1971), considered Britain's first practising woman architect, who established her own firm in 1920* Ernest Auldjo Jamieson (1880–1937), architect specialising in country houses, largely for wealthy family friends* George Meikle Kemp (1795–1844), carpenter, draughtsman, and architect, best known as the designer of the Scott Monument* Robert Kerr (1823–1904), co-founder of the Architectural Association* Sir William Hardie Kininmonth (1904–1988), architect whose work mixed a modern style with Scottish vernacular* Alexander Laing (1752–1823), architect* William Leiper (1839–1916)* David Lennox (1788–1873), bridge-builder and master stonemason, working in Australia* John Lessels (1809–1883)* Ian G Lindsay (1906–1966)* Robert Lorimer (1864–1929)* David MacGibbon (1831–1902)* Kate Macintosh (born 1937), architect of Dawson's Heights in Southwark* Alexander George Robertson Mackenzie (1879–1963), architect, in London and Aberdeen* Alexander Marshall Mackenzie (1848–1933)* Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1868–1928), architect, designer and watercolourist; husband and business partner of Margaret McDonald* James Marjoribanks MacLaren (1853–1890), associated with the Arts and Crafts movement and Scottish Vernacular architecture* Thomas MacLaren (1863–1928), architect who worked in worked in London, and the United States* Andy MacMillan (1928–2014), architect, educator, writer and broadcaster* Ebenezer James MacRae (1881–1951), City Architect for Edinburgh* Thomas P. Marwick (1854–1927), architect based in Edinburgh, important to the architectural character of Marchmont* Robert Matheson (1808–1877), architect and Clerk of Works for Scotland * Robert Matthew (1906–1975)* John McAslan, CBE (born 1954), designed many buildings around the world, such as the new departures concourse at London King's Cross railway station, the Iron Market in Port-au-Prince and the Olympia Park in Moscow* Alexander McGill (died 1734), mason and architect, who worked in partnership with James Smith* John McLachlan (1843–1893), architect * George McRae (1858–1923), architect who migrated to Australia and pursued his career in Sydney* Sir Frank Charles Mears (1880–1953)* Adam Menelaws (born between 1748 and 1756–1831)* James Miller (1860–1947)* Sydney Mitchell (1856–1930)* Robert Morham (1839–1912), City Architect for Edinburgh* Richard Murphy (born 1955), architect, winner of the 2016 RIBA House of the year * Gordon Murray (born 1954)* Sir James Murray of Kilbaberton (died 1634), master wright and architect* John Mylne (died 1621), master mason* John Mylne of Perth (c. 1585–1657), master mason* John Mylne (1611–1667), master mason and architect* Robert Mylne (1633–1710), stonemason and architect, last Master Mason to the Crown of Scotland* Robert Mylne (1733–1811), architect and civil engineer, remembered for Blackfriars Bridge, London* Walter Newall (1780–1863)* Peter Nicholson (1765–1844)* John Paterson (died 1832)* Robert Hamilton Paterson (1843–1911), partner in the architectural practice, Hamilton-Paterson and Rhind* David Paton (1801–1882), architect and builder, who worked in the United States in the 1830s* John Dick Peddie (1824–1891)* John More Dick Peddie (1853–1921)* Frederick Thomas Pilkington (1832–1898)* James Playfair (1755–1794), father of William Henry* William Henry Playfair (1790–1857)* B. Marcus Priteca (1889–1971)* Robert Reid Raeburn (1819–1888), architect who worked in and around Edinburgh* Robert Reid (1774–1856), King's architect and surveyor for Scotland* David Rhind (1808–1883)* James Robert Rhind (1854–1918)* John Rhind (1836–1889), architect from Inverness* George Richardson (c. 1737–c.", "1813), architectural and decorative draftsman* John Thomas Rochead (1814–1878)* Thomas Ross (1839–1930)* Fred Rowntree (1860–1927), Arts and Crafts architect* Witold Rybczynski (born 1943)* James Salmon (1873–1924), grandson of James Salmon (1805–1888)* James Salmon (1805–1888), grandfather of James Salmon (1873–1924)* William Schaw (c. 1550–1602), Master of Works to James VI of Scotland for building castles and palaces* John Scrimgeour of Myres (fl.", "16th century), Master of Work for royal buildings for James V and Mary, Queen of Scots* James Robb Scott (1882–1965), chief architect of the Southern Railway* James Sellars (1843–1888)* Richard Norman Shaw (1831–1912), architect known for his country houses and for commercial buildings* Archibald Simpson (1790–1847), one of the major architects of Aberdeen* James Smith (c. 1645–1731)* James Smith of Jordanhill (1782–1867), architect, merchant, antiquarian, geologist, biblical critic and man of letters* John Smith (1781–1852), first official city architect of Aberdeen* Robert Smith (1722–1777), emigrant to America* William Smith (1817–1891)* John Soutar (1881–1951)* James Souttar (1840–1922), worked in Sweden* Basil Spence (1907–1976)* John James Stevenson (1831–1908)* James Stirling (1926–1992)* John Tait (1787–1856), architect based in Edinburgh* Thomas S. Tait (1882–1954)* Bruce James Talbert (1838–1881), architect and interior designer* Sir Andrew Thomas Taylor (1850–1937), architect and Conservative Party municipal councillor* Alexander \"Greek\" Thomson (1817–1875)* James Thomson (died 1927), City Engineer, City Architect, and Housing Director of Dundee* Ramsay Traquair, architect and academic with strong links to Canada* James Campbell Walker (1821–1888), architect specialising in poorhouses and schools* William Wallace (died 1631)* Frederick Walters (1849–1931), notable for Roman Catholic churches* George Henry Walton (1867–1933)* Thomas Lennox Watson (c. 1850–1920)* William Weir (1865–1950)* Charles Wilson (1810–1863)* Robert Wilson (1834–1901), architect for the Edinburgh Board of Education * George Wittet (1878–1926), architect working mostly in Bombay, India* William Young (1843–1900), designer of Glasgow City Chambers" ], [ "Artists" ], [ "Businesspersons", "* Robert Aitken (1734–1802), Philadelphia printer, the first to publish an English language Bible in the United States*Alexander Aikman (1755–1838), Jamaican printer, newspaper publisher, and landowner.", "*Arthur Anderson (1792–1868), co-founder of P&O* Alexander Arbuthnot (died 1585), printer, work including George Buchanan's first History of Scotland* Sir George Gough Arbuthnot (1848–1929), businessman and civic leader in British India* John Bartholomew, Sr. (1805–1861), cartographer and engraver, founder of John Bartholomew and Son Ltd* John Bartholomew Jr. (1831–1893), cartographer* John Christopher Bartholomew (1923–2008), cartographer and geographer* John George Bartholomew (1860–1920), cartographer and geographer* John (Ian) Bartholomew (1890–1962), cartographer and geographer* William Beardmore, 1st Baron Invernairn (1856–1936), founder of William Beardmore and Company engineers and shipbuilders* James Gordon Bennett, Sr. (1795–1872), founder and publisher of the ''New York Herald''* Alexander Berry (1781–1873), town of Berry is named after him, possibly the first millionaire in Australia* David Berry (1795–1889), livestock breeder, landowner and benefactor; brother of Alexander Berry* Peter Buchan (1790–1854), editor, publisher, and collector of ballads and folktales* David Buick (1854–1929), founded the Buick car company* Sir George Burns, 1st Baronet (1795–1890), shipping magnate* Sir James Burns (1846–1923), businessman, shipowner and philanthropist in Australia* James Burns (1789–1871), shipowner born in Glasgow* John Burns, 1st Baron Inverclyde (1829–1901), shipowner, chairman of Cunard* Agnes Campbell, Lady Roseburn (1637–1716), printer, described as \"Scotland's wealthiest early modern printer\".", "* Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919), steel magnate, major philanthropist* Thomas Catto, 1st Baron Catto (1879–1959), businessman, Governor of the Bank of England.", "* William Chambers of Glenormiston (1800–1883), publisher* Sir Arnold Clark (1928–2017), founder of Arnold Clark motor group* Catherine Cranston (1849–1934), leading figure in the development of tea rooms, patron of Charles Rennie Mackintosh and others* William Cunninghame of Lainshaw (1731–1799), tobacco merchant* David Dale (1739–1806), merchant and businessman, established the weaving community of New Lanark* William Davidson (1740–1890), entrepreneur and founder of the first colony in New Brunswick, Canada* Adam Dawson (1793–1873), Linlithgow and owner of St Magdalene distillery* George Dempster of Dunnichen and Skibo (1732–1818), advocate, landowner, agricultural improver, politician and business man* Peter Denny (1821–1895), shipbuilder and shipowner, with William Denny and Brothers* John Dewar, Sr. (1805–1880), founder of John Dewar & Sons, Scotch whisky distillers* Dr. Henry Duncan (1774–1846), Church of Scotland Minister; started the world's first savings bank in Ruthwell, Dumfries and Galloway* John Elder (1824–1869), marine engineer and shipbuilder* Sir Tom Farmer (born 1940), entrepreneur* Robert Fleming (1845–1933), financier, founder of Robert Fleming & Co. merchant bank* B. C. Forbes (1880–1954), founder of ''Forbes'' magazine* Alexander Fordyce (died 1789), banker, involved in the bank run on Neal, James, Fordyce and Down in 1772* Hugh Fraser (1817–1853), founder of House of Fraser group of department stores* Anita Margaret Frew (born 1957), businessperson* Martin Gilbert (born 1955), Chief Executive of Aberdeen Asset Management* James Gillespie (1726–1797), snuff-maker and philanthropist* Ann Gloag (born 1942), co-founder of Stagecoach Group, born in Perth* Thomas Blake Glover (1838–1911), Nagasaki-based trader in 19th-century Japan* Robert Gordon (1668–1731), founder of the Robert Gordon University* Sir Angus Grossart (1937–2022), chairman of merchant bank Noble Grossart* Andrew Halyburton (died 1507), merchant, 'Conservator of the Scottish privileges in the Low Countries'* Willie Haughey (born 1956), entrepreneur and founder of City Refrigeration Holdings* George Heriot (1563–1624), goldsmith and founder of George Heriot's School* Tom Hunter (born 1961), entrepreneur and philanthropist, founder of Sports Division* John Lawson Johnston (1839–1900), creator of Bovril* Irvine Laidlaw (born 1942), Scotland's 6th richest man and founder of the modern conference company* John Law (1671–1729), advocate of paper money and founder of the Mississippi Company* Sir Thomas Lipton (1848–1931), founder of Lipton's Tea* Sir George Mathewson, (born 1940), former chairman of the Royal Bank of Scotland* Jim McColl (born 1951), founder of Clyde Blowers* William McEwan (1827–1913), founder of McEwans brewers* Stewart Milne (born 1950), founder of Stewart Milne Group and majority shareholder of Aberdeen F.C.", "* Michelle Mone (born 1971), founder of Ultimo* Sir David Murray (born 1951), founder of Murray International Metals* Thomas Napier (1802–1881), builder, emigrant to Australia* William Paterson (1658–1719), founder of Bank of Scotland and Bank of England* Alexander Cameron Sim (1840–1900), pharmacist and entrepreneur active in Japan, founder of the Kobe Regatta & Athletic Club* Robert Smith, Baron Smith of Kelvin (born 1944), Chair of the Green Investment Bank* Brian Souter (born 1954), entrepreneur and co-founder of Stagecoach Group* James Stirling (1800–1876), builder of steam locomotives, brother of Robert Stirling* Thomas Sutherland (1834–1922), founder of The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation and HSBC Holdings plc* David Couper Thomson (1861–1954), proprietor of the newspaper and publishing company D. C. Thomson & Co. Ltd* George Thomson (1815–1866), marine engineer and shipbuilder* William Walls (1819–1893), lawyer and industrialist, influenced the development of 19th-century Glasgow* William Douglas Weir, 1st Viscount Weir (1877–1959), industrialist, engineer and politician* George Watson (1654–1723), first chief accountant of the Bank of Scotland; founder of George Watson's College* Wilson, Sons, founded in 1837 by Edward and Fleetwood Pellow Wilson; one of South America's largest shipping brokers* Andrew Yule (1834–1902), businessman who founded Andrew Yule and Company in India* Sir David Yule, 1st Baronet (1858–1928), businessman based in India* George Yule (1829–1892), merchant in England and India, fourth President of the Indian National Congress" ], [ "Composers", "* Robert Burns (1759–1796)* Robert Carver (c. 1485–c.", "1570)* Ronald Center (1913–1973)* Erik Chisholm (1904–1965)* James Clapperton (born 1968)* John Clerk of Penicuik (1676–1755)* James Dillon (born 1950)* Thomas Erskine, 6th Earl of Kellie (1732–1781)* Iain Hamilton (1922–2000)* Tobias Hume (c.1579–1645)* Hamish MacCunn (1868–1916)* John Blackwood McEwen (1868–1948)* Edward McGuire (born 1948)* Alexander Mackenzie (1847–1935)* Charles Macintosh (1839–1922), composer, performer and naturalist* Robert Mackintosh (c.1745–1807)* James MacMillan (born 1959)* Stuart MacRae (born 1976)* William Marshall (1748–1833)* John McLeod (1934–2022)* Gordon McPherson (born 1965)* Stuart Mitchell (born 1965)* Thea Musgrave (born 1928)* James Oswald (1710–1769)* Morris Pert (1947–2010)* Francis George Scott (1880–1958)* James Scott Skinner (1843–1927), composer, dancing master, and fiddler* Robert Archibald Smith (1780–1829), composer known for his collection ''Scotish Minstrel''* Ronald Stevenson (1928–2015)* William Sweeney (born 1950)* Julian Wagstaff (born 1970)* William Wallace (1860–1940)* Judith Weir (born 1954)* Thomas Wilson (1927–2001)" ], [ "Criminals", "* William Armstrong of Kinmont (Kinmont Willie) (fl.", "16th century), border reiver* Sawney Bean, semi-mythical head of a clan in 15th- or 16th-century Scotland, reportedly executed for mass murder and cannibalism* Bible John, nickname of supposed serial killer * Robert Black (born 1947), serial killer convicted of the kidnapping and murder of four girls* Geordie Bourne (died 1597), border reiver* Ian Brady (1938–2017), one of the Moors murderers* Deacon Brodie (1741–1788), Edinburgh city councillor and burglar* Michael Brown (born 1966), fraudster* Henry John Burnett (1942–1963), murderer, last man to be hanged in Scotland* Colonel Francis Charteris (c. 1675–1732), nicknamed \"The Rape-Master General\"* Robert Crichton, 8th Lord Crichton of Sanquhar (died 1612), peer, executed for the murder of a fencing teacher, John Turner* Williamina \"Minnie\" Dean (1844–1895), emigrant to New Zealand, found guilty of infanticide and hanged; the only woman to receive the death penalty in New Zealand* William John Duff (born 1962), dentist convicted for fraud and reckless endangerment* Paul John Ferris (born 1963), gangster and author* Donald Forbes (1935–2008), murderer, convicted of two separate murders* Arthur Furguson (1883–1938), con artist* Jimmy Gauld (1931–2004), footballer and match fixing ringleader* John Gow (c. 1698–1725), notorious pirate* Sir Robert Graham of Kinpont (died 1437), assassin of James I of Scotland* Sir Archibald Grant 2nd Baronet (1696–1778), fraudster, expelled from parliament, and agricultural improver* David Haggart (1801–1821), thief and murderer* Archibald Hall (a.k.a.", "Roy Fontaine) (1924–2002), serial killer and thief* James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh and Woodhouselee (died 1581) assassin of James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray, Regent of Scotland* Thomas Watt Hamilton (1952–1996), perpetrator of the Dunblane school massacre* John the Painter (1752–1777), highwayman, burglar, shoplifter, robber, and rapist, who committed acts of terror in British naval dockyards in 1776–77* William Kidd (1645–1701), mutineer and pirate* Sonny Leitch (born c. 1933), career criminal and jailbreaker* \"Captain\" James MacLaine (1724–1750), highwayman, known as the \"Gentleman Highwayman\"* Jamie Macpherson (1675–1700), outlaw* Peter Manuel (1927–1958), serial killer* John Maxwell, 9th Lord Maxwell (c. 1583–1613), Catholic nobleman, murderer of the Laird of Johnstone* Edith McAlinden (born 1968), murderer, guilty of triple murder in Glasgow* Ian McAteer (born 1961), Glasgow gangster* William McCoy (c. 1763 – 1798), sailor and a mutineer on board HMS ''Bounty''* Thomas McGraw (1952–2007), known as \"The Licensee\" or \"Wan-Baw McGraw\", gangster * Frank McPhee (1948–2000), Glasgow gangland boss* Patrick Meehan (1927–1994), safe blower, convicted of murder but given a royal pardon* Anthony Joseph Miller (1941–1960), the last teenager to be executed in the United Kingdom* Robert Mone (born 1948), convicted murderer* James Morrison (1760–1807) seaman and mutineer who took part in the Mutiny on the Bounty* Susan Newell (1893–1923), murderer, the last woman to be hanged in Scotland* Dennis Nilsen (born 1945), serial killer* Colin Norris (born 1976), nurse convicted of murdering four elderly patients in a hospital in Leeds* Dora Noyce (1900–1977), Edinburgh brothel keeper* Johnny Ramensky (1905–1972), career criminal who used his safe-cracking abilities as a commando during World War II* Robert Sempill, 3rd Lord Sempill (c. 1505–1576), lord of Parliament, murderer* Robert Stewart, Master of Atholl (died 1437), assassin of James I of Scotland* Walter Stewart, Earl of Atholl (died 1437), assassin of James I of Scotland* Arthur Thompson (1931–1993), Glasgow gangster* Peter Tobin (born 1946), convicted serial killer and sex offender* Andrew Walker (1954–2021), army corporal who killed three colleagues in a payroll robbery" ], [ "Economists", "* Sir Kenneth Alexander (1922–2001), university administrator* Adam Anderson (1692/1693–1765), economic historian* Duncan Black (1908–1991), social choice theorist* Sir Alexander Cairncross (1911–1998), founder of the UK Government Economic Service* Frances Anne Cairncross (born 30 August 1944), economist, journalist and academic* John Marcus Fleming (1911–1976), IMF deputy director of research* David Greenaway (born 1952), university administrator* John Law (c. 1671–1729), founder of Banque Générale in France* James Loch (1780–1855), economist, advocate, barrister, estate commissioner and Member of Parliament* Joseph Lowe (died 1831), journalist and political economist* Ronald MacDonald (born 1955)* Henry Dunning Macleod (1821–1902), credit theorist* Ailsa McKay (1963–2014), feminist economist, Professor of Economics at Glasgow Caledonian University and United Nations adviser* Sir James Mirrlees (1936–2018), Nobel Laureate* Anton Muscatelli (born 1962), Principal and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Glasgow* Brian Quinn (born 1936), former Deputy Governor of the Bank of England and Chairman of Celtic FC* John Rae (1796–1872), polymath* Gavin Clydesdale Reid (born 1946)* Adam Smith (1723–1790), moral philosopher, author of ''The Wealth of Nations'', the first modern work on economics" ], [ "Engineers and inventors", "* James Abernethy (1814–1896), civil engineer* Neil Arnott (1788–1874), physician and inventor of the Arnott waterbed* Sir William Arrol (1839–1913), bridge builder* Alexander Bain (1810–1877), inventor and engineer, first to invent and patent the electric clock and fax machine* Charles Baird (1766–1843), engineer who played an important part in the industrial and business life of St. Petersburg* Francis Baird (1802–1864), engineer in St. Petersburg; son of Charles Baird* Hugh Baird (1770–1827), civil engineer, who designed and built the Union Canal* John Logie Baird (1888–1946), television* Nicol Hugh Baird (1796–1849), surveyor, engineer and inventor who emigrated to Canada* Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922), telephone, National Geographic Society, hydrofoil* Henry Bell (1767–1830), ran Europe's first commercially successful steamboat* Rev Patrick Bell (1799–1869), Church of Scotland minister, and inventor of the reaping machine* George Bennie (1891–1957), the Bennie Railplane* Sir James Black (1924–2010), beta-blockers* Robert Blair (1748–1828), aplanatic telescope* Benjamin Blyth (1819–1866), civil engineer* Benjamin Blyth II (1849–1917), civil engineer* Sir Thomas Bouch (1822–1880), railway engineer, designer of the original Tay Rail Bridge * Robert Henry Bow (1827–1909), civil engineer and photographer* James Braid (1795–1860), hypnosis* James Bremner (1784–1856), naval architect, harbour builder and ship-raiser* David Brewster (1781–1868), lenticular stereoscope* George Brown (1650–1730), arithmetician and inventor* Walter Brown (1886–1957), engineer and mathematician* Sir George Bruce of Carnock (c.1550–1625), merchant and mining engineer* Richard Henry Brunton (1841–1901), \"father of Japanese lighthouses\"* Dorothy Donaldson Buchanan (1899–1985), civil engineer, first woman member of the Institution of Civil Engineers* Duncan Cameron (1825–1901), inventor of the \"Waverley\" pen nib, owner of ''The Oban Times'' newspaper* James Chalmers (1782–1853), adhesive postage stamp* Sir Dugald Clark (a.k.a.", "''Clerk'') (1854–1932), first two stroke cycle engine (the Clark cycle)* Archibald Cochrane, 9th Earl of Dundonald (1749–1831), made many general useful inventions, particularly in the navy* Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald (1775–1860), designed many inventions to do with naval technology and steam engines* Dr James C. Crow (1789–1856), creator of the sour mash process for creating bourbon whiskey* Robert Davidson (1804–1894), first electric locomotive* James Dewar (1842–1923), inventor of the Thermos flask and co-developer of cordite* William Dickson (1860–1935), motion picture camera and the world's first film* Captain Thomas Drummond (1797–1840) army officer, civil engineer, and pioneer in use of the Drummond light* Victoria Drummond (1894–1978), marine engineer, first woman member of Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology* John Boyd Dunlop (1840–1921), the modern rubber tyre* Henry Dyer (1848–1918), engineer, contributor to Western-style technical education in Japan* Sir Peter Fairbairn (1799–1861), engineer and inventor, and mayor of Leeds, West Yorkshire* Sir William Fairbairn, 1st Baronet (of Ardwick) (1789–1874), civil engineer, structural engineer and shipbuilder* Patrick Ferguson (1744–1780), the Ferguson rifle* Sir Alexander Fleming (1881–1955), isolated penicillin from the fungus ''Penicillium notatum''* Sir Sandford Fleming, (1827–1915), engineer and inventor, who emigrated to Canada; he proposed worldwide standard time zones, and engineered much of the Intercolonial Railway and the Canadian Pacific Railway* Alexander John Forsyth (1768–1843), Presbyterian clergyman who invented the percussion cap* William George Nicholson Geddes (1913–1993), civil engineer* David Gow (born 1957), inventor of the i-Limb prosthetic hand* Thomas Lomar Gray (1850–1908), engineer noted for his pioneering work in seismology* James Gregory (1638–1675), the Gregorian telescope* Thomas Graeme Nelson Haldane (1897–1981), engineer* William Handyside (1793–1850), engineer involved in important construction projects in St. Petersburg* James Harrison (1816–1893), pioneer in mechanical refrigeration* George Johnston (1855–1945), engineer, designer and constructor of Scotland's first automobile* James Kennedy (1797–1886), locomotive and marine engineer* David Kirkaldy (1820–1897), engineer, whose pioneering testing works now houses the Kirkaldy Testing Museum* James Bowman Lindsay (1799–1862), inventor of the constant electric light bulb* Charles Macintosh (1766–1843), patented waterproofing* Kirkpatrick MacMillan (1813–1878), bicycle* John Loudon McAdam (1756–1836), modern road construction* Sir Robert McAlpine (''Concrete Bob'') (1847–1934), road builder* Thomas McCall (1834–1904), cartwright, developer of the bicycle* Andrew Meikle (1719–1811), mechanical engineer, inventor of the threshing machine* Patrick Miller (1730–1815), steamboat pioneer* Thomas Morton (1781–1832), shipwright and inventor of the patent slip* William Murdoch (1754–1839), pioneer of gas lighting* David Napier (1790–1869), marine engineer* David Napier (1785–1873), engineer, founder of D. Napier & Son, an early precision engineering company which later made automobiles and aero engines* James Robert Napier (1821–1879), engineer and inventor of Napier's diagram* John Napier (1550–1617), Logarithm* Robert Napier (1791–1876), marine engineer, \"the father of Clyde Shipbuilding\"* Robert D. Napier (1821–1885), engineer* James Nasmyth (1808–1890), steam hammer* Robert Stirling Newall (1812–1889), engineer, improved wire rope and submarine cable laying* James Newlands (1813–1871), civil engineer, Borough Engineer of Liverpool as Borough Engineer* Murdoch Paterson (1826–1898), Inverness engineer and architect, chief engineer of the Highland Railway* William Paterson (1658–1719), the Bank of England* William John Macquorn Rankine (1820–1872), developed a complete theory of the steam engine and indeed of all heat engines* John Rennie the Elder (1761–1821), engineer, designer of the \"new\" 19th-century London Bridge* John Shepherd-Barron (1925–2010), inventor of the automatic teller machine* Hugh Smellie (1840–1891), engineer, Locomotive Superintendent* Thomas Smith (1752–1814), early lighthouse engineer* Charles Spalding (1738–1783), Edinburgh confectioner and improver of the diving bell* Alan Stevenson (1807–1865), lighthouse engineer* Charles Alexander Stevenson (1855–1950), lighthouse engineer* David Stevenson (1815–1886), lighthouse designer* David Alan Stevenson (1854–1938), lighthouse engineer* Robert Stevenson (1772–1850), civil engineer, designer and builder of lighthouses* Thomas Stevenson (1818–1887), pioneering lighthouse designer and meteorologist; father of Robert Louis Stevenson* Matthew Stirling (1856–1931), Locomotive Superintendent of the Hull and Barnsley Railway * Patrick Stirling (1820–1895), railway engineer, and Locomotive Superintendent of the Great Northern Railway* Reverend Dr Robert Stirling (1790–1878), clergyman, and inventor of the Stirling engine* William Symington (1764–1831), engineer, built the first practical steam boat* Thomas Telford (1757–1834), architect, civil engineer, bridge designer* Robert William Thomson (1822–1873)* Sir Robert Watson-Watt (1893–1973), developed radar* James Watt (1736–1819), engineer, significantly improved the steam engine* James Young (1811–1883), invented a way of extracting paraffin oil" ], [ "Explorers", "* Albert Armitage (1864–1943), Royal Navy Captain who was part of the Jackson–Harmsworth Expedition, which explored Franz Josef Land and rescued Fridtjof Nansen and his men from certain death; later part of the Discovery Expedition in Antarctica* John Arthur, OBE (1881–1952), British Army Captain and medical missionary for over thirty years in Kenya; known simply as ''Doctor Arthur'' to generations of Africans* William Balfour Baikie (1824–1864), naturalist, philologist and surgeon on the 1854 Niger Expedition; explored the Benue River and helped open up Nigeria to British trade while supporting the abolition of the slave trade* Peter Belches (1796–1890), Royal Navy Lieutenant who explored the Swan River and its surrounding area while aboard Admiral Sir James Stirling's * Alexander Berry (1781–1873), merchant and surgeon who established the first European settlement on the south coast of New South Wales* Henry Robertson Bowers (1883–1912), Royal Navy Lieutenant who was part of the ill-fated Terra Nova Expedition, which attempted to be the first to reach the South Pole* Robert Brown (1842–1895), scientist, explorer, and author* James Bruce (1730–1794), traveller and travel writer who spent more than a dozen years in North Africa and then Ethiopia, where he traced the origins of the Blue Nile* William Speirs Bruce (1867–1921), naturalist, oceanographer, polar scientist and leader of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition; established the first permanent weather station there and became the first to widely explore the Weddell Sea* David Buchan (1780–1838), Royal Navy Captain who conducted expeditions in Newfoundland and Labrador and Spitsbergen* Sir Alexander Burnes (1805–1841), diplomat and explorer of Afghanistan* Colin Campbell (1686–1757), entrepreneur, merchant and co-founder of the Swedish East India Company, the largest trading company in Sweden throughout the 18th century; King Frederick I of Sweden's ambassador to the Emperor of China* Hugh Clapperton (1788–1827), Royal Navy Captain and traveller who explored many lakes and rivers in Africa; one of the first white people to see Lake Chad* John Dundas Cochrane (1793–1825), Royal Navy Captain and traveller who crossed Eurasia on foot to reach the Kamchatka Peninsula* William Cormack (1796–1868), agriculturalist, author and philanthropist; first European to explore the interior of Newfoundland and Labrador, while also building friendly relations with the native Beothuk people* Robert Bontine Cunninghame Graham (1852–1936), ''Don Roberto'', adventurer, journalist, politician and writer who carried out many activities in Argentina, Mexico, Morocco, Spain and the United States* David Douglas (1799–1834), botanist and gardener who explored parts of the remote Scottish Highlands, as well as North America and Hawaii; second person to summit Mauna Loa volcano; introduced hundreds of plants to Great Britain, including the Douglas fir* Douglas Douglas–Hamilton (1903–1973), ''Lord Clydesdale'', aviator and the first to see Mount Everest from above while carrying out the first detailed scientific survey of the Himalayas, the extremities he endured also helped demonstrate the need for pressurised cabins inside aircraft* Alexander Forbes (1778–1862), author and merchant; first British consul to Mexico; published one of the first accounts in English of California (then a province of Mexico)* Henry Ogg Forbes (1851–1932), botanist and ornithologist in both the Maluku Islands and New Guinea; director of the Canterbury Museum in New Zealand for three years* Simon Fraser (1776–1862), fur trader who was employed by the North West Company and charted much of what is now the Canadian province of British Columbia; built the area's first trading ports; explored the 854-mile Fraser River* George Glas (1725–1765), adventurer, merchant and seaman who traded between Brazil, the Canary Islands and north-western Africa* Sir Alexander Richard Glen (1912–2004), explorer of the Arctic, and wartime intelligence officer* Robert Gordon (1580–1661), antiquary, cartographer, geographer, mathematician and poet who created and revised many maps, including the first atlas of Scotland after being asked via a letter from King Charles I of England* James Augustus Grant (1827–1892), British Army Lieutenant who accompanied John Hanning Speke in the search and discovery of the source of the River Nile; the Grant's gazelle is named in his honour* Sir James Hector (1834–1907), geologist, naturalist and surgeon on the Palliser Expedition, the main goal of which was to find possible routes for the Canadian Pacific Railway; went on to manage what is now the Royal Society of New Zealand for thirty-five years* Isobel Wylie Hutchison (1889–1982), Arctic traveller and botanist* Alexander Keith Johnston (1844–1879), cartographer and geographer to a commission for the survey of Paraguay; died while leading the Royal Geographical Society's expedition to Lake Malawi* John Kirk (1832–1922), botanist, naturalist and physician; British administrator in Zanzibar; supported the abolition of the slave trade along with his associate David Livingstone* Alexander Gordon Laing (1793–1826), British Army Major who was the first Westerner to discover the ancient city of Timbuktu* Macgregor Laird (1808–1861), merchant and shipbuilder; pioneered British trade on the Niger River; his ship ''Sirius'' was the first to cross the Atlantic Ocean run entirely on steam power; supported the abolition of the slave trade* William Lithgow (1582–1645), alleged spy, traveller and writer who claimed to have peregrinated over 35,000 miles throughout various parts of the world* David Livingstone (1813–1873), medical missionary and one of Africa's most celebrated explorers; discovered Victoria Falls, among other things; strongly opposed the slave trade; his meeting with H. M. Stanley gave rise to the quotation \"Dr. Livingstone, I presume?", "\"* Gregor MacGregor (1786–1845), adventurer, coloniser, land speculator and soldier who fought in South America during the Spanish American wars of independence, before later helping to colonise parts of the continent* John MacGregor (1825–1892), artist, barrister, philanthropist and travel writer; descendant of Rob Roy MacGregor; developed canoe sailing and popularised canoeing as a recreational sport, paddling and sailing them in both Europe and the Middle East* Alistair Mackay (1878–1914), doctor and polar explorer, one of the first expedition to reach the south magnetic pole* Sir Alexander Mackenzie (1764–1820), merchant who traced the 1,080-mile Mackenzie River and completed the first east to west overland crossing of the Americas (north of Mexico) to reach the Pacific Ocean; this predated the Lewis and Clark Expedition by a decade* Harry McNish (1874–1930), carpenter on Sir Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans–Antarctic Expedition; later responsible for much of the work that ensured the crew's survival after the ship was destroyed* Archibald Menzies (1754–1852), botanist, naturalist and surgeon on the Vancouver Expedition, which circumnavigated the globe, touched five continents and changed the course of history for the American indigenous people and the continent's European colonisation* Sir Thomas Mitchell (1792–1855), British Army Lieutenant Colonel and surveyor in south-eastern Australia who became the Surveyor General of New South Wales; led several expeditions along the Darling River and beyond* John Muir (1838–1914), author and naturalist whose conservation and preservation activism led to the creation of many national parks in the United States; founded the Sierra Club in California, one of the most important conservation organisations in America* Sir John Murray (1841–1914), pioneering limnologist, marine biologist and oceanographer who assisted Charles Wyville Thomson on the Challenger expedition; first to note the existence of oceanic trenches, as well as the Mid–Atlantic Ridge* William Hutchison Murray (1913–1996), mountaineer and writer who helped discover a route through the ice fields of Khumbu Glacier to the South Col of Mount Everest's summit, later used by Sir Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay during their historic ascent* Walter Oudney (1790–1824), physician and African explorer, one of the first Europeans to accomplish a north–south crossing of the Sahara Desert* Mungo Park (1771–1806), botanist and surgeon who conducted many journeys to Africa and was the first Westerner to encounter the central portion of the Niger River* William Paterson (1755–1810), botanist, British Army Colonel and lieutenant governor, best known for leading early settlement in Tasmania* John Rae (1813–1893), physician who explored Northern Canada, mainly surveying parts of the Northwest Passage; later reported the fate of the lost Franklin Expedition* Sir John Richardson (1787–1865), naturalist and naval surgeon; traveled with Sir John Franklin in search of the Northwest Passage on the Coppermine Expedition of 1819–1822; they later surveyed 1,878 miles of previously unmapped coast and made many natural history discoveries* Sir James Clark Ross (1800–1862), Royal Navy Admiral who led the first successful expedition to reach the north magnetic pole; discovered the Ross Sea, Victoria Land, and volcanoes Mount Erebus and Mount Terror in Antarctica* Sir John Ross (1777–1856), Royal Navy Admiral who discovered the Boothia Peninsula, the Gulf of Boothia and King William Island while exploring the Arctic* John Ross (1817–1903), drover who explored deserts, mountain ranges and rivers in South Australia, before later leading an expedition to establish a route for the Australian Overland Telegraph Line* Alexander Selkirk (1676–1721), sailor who spent four years as a castaway after being marooned on the Juan Fernández Islands off the coast of Chile; his story is the inspiration behind Daniel Defoe's well-known character and novel ''Robinson Crusoe''* Henry Sinclair (c. 1345–c.", "1400), nobleman rumoured to have explored Greenland and North America one hundred years before Christopher Columbus* Sir James Stirling (1791–1865), colonial administrator and Royal Navy Admiral who established the Swan River Colony and became the first Governor of Western Australia* John McDouall Stuart (1815–1866), surveyor and one of Australia's most famous explorers; led the first expedition to successfully traverse the continent from south to north and return* Sir Charles Wyville Thomson (1830–1882), marine zoologist, natural historian and the chief scientist on the pioneering Challenger Expedition, which lay the foundation for modern oceanography* Joseph Thomson (1858–1895), geologist and an important figure in the Scramble for Africa; headed many expeditions, including taking over one following the death of Alexander Keith Johnston; the Thomson's gazelle is named in his honour* Tom Weir, MBE (1914–2006), author, broadcaster and climber who is best known for his long-running television series, ''Weir's Way'', which helped popularise hillwalking and the great outdoors* Thomas Braidwood Wilson (c. 1792–1843), surgeon and explorer in Australia* John Wood (1812–1871), cartographer, naval officer and surveyor who explored many Asian rivers and compiled several maps of South Asia, which remained standard for most of the 19th century* Sir James Wordie (1889–1962), geologist, chief of scientific staff on Sir Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans–Antarctic Expedition==Humorists==* Stanley Baxter (born 1926)* Danny Bhoy (born 1974)* Frankie Boyle (born 1972)* Rory Bremner (born 1961)* Kevin Bridges (born 1986)* Janet Brown (1924–2011)* Fred Cairns (1857–1896)* Susan Calman* Rhona Cameron (born 1965)* Stephen Carlin* Des Clarke* Alun Cochrane (born 1975)* Billy Connolly (born 1942)* Ronald Balfour Corbett (born 1930), known better as Ronnie Corbett* Ivor Cutler (1923–2006)* Karen Dunbar (born 1971)* Craig Ferguson (born 1962)* Gregor Fisher (born 1953), known better as the character Rab C. Nesbitt* Rikki Fulton (1924–2004)* George Gale (1929–2003), political cartoonist* Graeme Garden (born 1943)* Janey Godley (born 1961)* Greg Hemphill (born 1969)* Craig Hill* Armando Iannucci (born 1963)* Phil Kay* Ford Kiernan (born 1962)* Harry Lauder (1870–1950)* David Law (1908–1971), cartoonist* Brian Limond (born 1974)* Jimmy Logan (1928–2001)* Fred MacAulay (born 1956)* Doon Mackichan (born 1962)* Chic Murray (1919–1985)* Jerry Sadowitz (born 1961)* Iain Stirling (born 1988)* Ian Tough (born 1947), one half of The Krankies* Janette Tough (born 1947), A.K.A.", "Wee Jimmy Krankie* Danny Wallace (born 1976)" ], [ "Military", "* General James Abercrombie (1706–1781), British Army commander-in-chief of forces in North America during the French and Indian War* Sir James Abercrombie, 1st Baronet of Edinburgh (died 1724), British Army officer and politician* Major Sir Ralph Anstruther, 7th Baronet (1921–2002), British Army officer and courtier, awarded the Military Cross* Major General Robert Keith Arbuthnott, 15th Viscount of Arbuthnott (1897–1966), senior British Army officer, serving in both World War I and World War II* William Baillie, professional soldier in Swedish and Scottish Covenanter service* General Sir David Baird, 1st Baronet (1757–1829), military leader* Gilbert Balfour, 16th-century mercenary captain, probably having a leading role in the murder of Lord Darnley* Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, Russian field marshal and minister of war during Napoleon's invasion in 1812 and War of the Sixth Coalition* Sir Andrew Barton (c. 1466–1511), sailor from Leith, served as High Admiral of the Kingdom of Scotland* King Robert the Bruce (1274–1329), Scotland's hero king and greatest warrior * Calgacus* Donald Cameron of Lochiel (c. 1700–1748), Jacobite commander during the 1745 rising* Richard Cameron (c. 1648–1680), Republican Covenanter and founder of the \"Cameronians\"* Lady Agnes Campbell (1526–1601), military leader in Ireland* Colin Campbell, 1st Baron Clyde (1792–1863)* Sir Colin Campbell (died 1296), warrior of Clan Campbell* Sandy Campbell (1898–1940), second lieutenant in the Royal Engineers, 9th Bomb Disposal Company; awarded the George Cross* Sir Alexander Inglis Cochrane (1758–1832), senior Royal Navy commander during the Napoleonic Wars, achieving the rank of admiral* Captain Archibald Cochrane (1783–1829), Royal Navy officer* Colonel Hugh Stewart Cochrane (1829–1884), recipient of the Victoria Cross for his actions during the Indian Mutiny* Air Chief Marshal the Honourable Sir Ralph Alexander Cochrane (1895–1977), pilot and Royal Air Force officer* Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald (1775–1860), Admiral in the Royal Navy* Sir Thomas John Cochrane (1789–1872), Royal Navy First Sea Lord* Ninian Cockburn (died 1579), soldier, officer of the Garde Écossaise, political intriguer* Major General Samuel Cockburn (or Cobron) (c. 1574–1621), soldier in the service of Sweden* General Sir James Henry Craig (1748–1812), British military officer and colonial administrator* General Sir Alan Gordon Cunningham (1887–1983), British Army officer* Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope (1883–1963), admiral of the World War II, brother of Alan* James Currie (1756–1805), biographer of Robert Burns, early advocate of hydropathy* Mark John Currie (1795–1874), explorer, founder settler of Western Australia, Admiral in the Royal Navy* Field Marshal John Dalrymple, 2nd Earl of Stair (1673–1747), soldier and diplomat, commander at the Battle of Dettingen* Tam Dalyell of the Binns (1615–1685), general* Sir Archibald Douglas (c. 1298–1333), Regent of Scotland and leader of Scots forces at the Battle of Halidon Hill* Sir James Douglas (c. 1287–1329), Warden of the Scottish Marches, military leader* Air Chief Marshal Hugh Caswall Tremenheere Dowding, 1st Baron Dowding (1882–1970), Air Officer Commanding RAF Fighter Command during the Battle of Britain* George Keith Elphinstone, 1st Viscount Keith (1746–1823), admiral active throughout the Napoleonic Wars* Major-General William George Keith Elphinstone (1782–1842), British Army officer* Lieutenant Francis Anthony Blair Fasson, (1913–1942), Royal Navy officer, posthumously awarded George Cross, who captured codebooks vital to breaking the Enigma cipher* Sir Adam Ferguson (1771–1855), keeper of the regalia in Scotland* John Forbes (1707–1759), general* Captain Douglas Ford (1918–1943), Royal Scots officer, prisoner of war, awarded the George Cross* Gregor Fraser, Pipe Major, 92nd (Gordon Highlanders) Regiment of Foot* Brigadier Simon Fraser, 15th Lord Lovat (1911–1995), prominent British Commando during the World War II* Air Vice Marshal Sir Matthew Brown Frew (1895–1974), senior officer in the Royal Air Force and World War I flying ace* Sir James Alexander Gordon (1782–1869), distinguished British officer in the Royal Navy* Patrick Leopold Gordon of Auchleuchries (1635–1699), general and rear admiral in Russia* James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose (1612–1650), Covenanter and Royalist leader of Highland Armies* John Graham, Viscount (Bonnie) Dundee (c. 1648–1689), Jacobite Highland Army leader* General Sir Thomas Graham, Lord Lynedoch (1748–1843), leading Napoleonic general* Aleksey Samuilovich Greig (1775–1845), Russian admiral* Samuel Greig (1736–1788), Russian admiral* Douglas Haig (1861–1928), Commander of British Forces during World War I* General Sir James Aylmer Lowthorpe Haldane (1862–1950), senior British Army officer* Lieutenant General Sir David Henderson (1862–1921), British Army officer, authority on tactical intelligence, first commander of the Royal Flying Corps, instrumental in establishing the Royal Air Force* Captain Ian Henry David Henderson (1896–1918), World War I flying ace* General Henry Sinclair Horne, 1st Baron Horne (1861–1929), World War I general* James Innes (c. 1700–1759), military commander and political figure in the Province of North Carolina* James John McLeod Innes (1830–1907), recipient of the Victoria Cross for action during the Indian Rebellion of 1857* John Paul Jones (1747–1792), father of the American Navy* Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven (1582–1661), general, soldier in Dutch, Swedish and Scottish Covenanter service* David Leslie, 1st Lord Newark (c. 1600–1682), cavalry officer and general in Swedish and Scottish Covenanter service* Major-General Edward Douglas Loch, 2nd Baron Loch (1873–1942), senior British Army officer* Granville Gower Loch (1813–1853), captain in the Royal Navy, killed in action in Burma* Henry Brougham Loch, 1st Baron Loch (1827–1900), soldier and colonial administrator* Sir Niall mac Cailein (died 1316), (Neil Campbell), nobleman and warrior in the service of King Robert I of Scotland* Alasdair Mac Colla (c. 1610–1647), Royalist soldier* Rob Roy MacGregor (1671–1734)* Hugh Mackay (c. 1640–1692), general who served during the Revolution of 1688* Colin Mackenzie (c. 1754–1821), soldier in British India* Alexander Slidell MacKenzie, U.S. Navy* Ranald Slidell Mackenzie, U.S. cavalryman* General Sir Harry Aubrey de Vere Maclean (1848–1920), general, commander of the Moroccan Army* Major-General Sir Fitzroy Maclean, 1st Baronet (1911–1996), soldier, writer and politician; reputed to be one of the men composing the compound of \"Commando types\" who inspired the Ian Fleming character James Bond* Sam McDonald (1762–1802), \"Big Sam\", fencibles and gatekeeper for the Prince of Wales, noted for his unusual height* Archie McKellar (1912–1940), Battle of Britain ace pilot* Hugh Mercer (1726–1777), Continental Army general, fatally wounded at the Battle of Princeton* Bill Millin (1922–2010), personal piper to Simon Fraser, 15th Lord Lovat* Robert Monro (died c. 1680), general* Richard Montgomery, Continental Army* Admiral Sir Graham Moore (1764–1843), career officer in the Royal Navy, brother of Sir John Moore* Lieutenant-General Sir John Moore (1761–1809), general, victor of the Battle of Corunna* Andrew Moray (died 1297), military leader during the Scottish Wars of Independence* Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray (c. 1278–1332), fought with King Robert I and James Lord of Douglas to regain Scotland's independence * Admiral Sir Charles John Napier (1786–1860), naval officer and MP* Captain Ian Patrick Robert Napier (1895–1977), World War I flying ace credited with twelve aerial victories* William Napier, 9th Lord Napier (1786–1834), Royal Navy officer, politician and diplomat* John Pitcairn (1722–1775), Marine officer, killed at the battle of Bunker Hill* John Reid (1721–1807), British general and musical composer, who left a bequest to fund a chair in Music at the University of Edinburgh* Acting Sergeant John Rennie (1920–1943), posthumously awarded the George Cross* Roderick Sinclair, 19th Earl of Caithness (1906–1965), British brigadier, 1st Commander of the Sri Lanka Army* Sir James Shaw Kennedy (1788–1865), general and military writer* John Small (died 1796), British Army officer and Lieutenant-Governor of Guernsey* Dr John Small (1823–1879), British Deputy Surgeon General* James Dunlop Smith (1858–1921), official in the Indian Army* Somerled (died 1164), 12th-century warlord* Sir David Stirling (1915–1990), British Army colonel and founder of the Special Air Service* Sir James Stirling (1791–1865), 1st governor of Western Australia, admiral in the Royal Navy* Lord Stirling, American Revolutionary War General* Prince Charles Edward Stuart (1720–1788), Jacobite field marshal and heir to the throne of Great Britain* Sir John Urry (or Hurry) (died 1650), professional soldier* William Wallace (c. 1270–1305), a.k.a.", "''The Wallace''* Sir Andrew Wood of Largo (died 1515), sea captain and Lord High Admiral of Scotland" ], [ "Monarchs and royalty" ], [ "Musicians" ], [ "Philosophers", "* John Abercrombie (1780–1844)* John Anderson (1726–1796), philosopher, radical and benefactor of Anderson's Institution* John Anderson (1893–1962)* Alexander Bain (1818–1903), philosopher and educationalist* Hector Boece (1465–1536), known in Latin as Boethius, first Principal of King's College in Aberdeen* H. Bricmore (fl.", "14th century), scholastic philosopher* Thomas Brown (1778–1820)* Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881)* William Cleghorn (1718–1754), philosopher* Adam Ferguson (1723–1816)* Sir William Hamilton (1788–1888)* Henry Home, Lord Kames (1696–1782)* David Hume (1711–1776), inspired Immanuel Kant (himself of Scottish Heritage through his mother)* Alasdair MacIntyre (born 1929)* John Macmurray (1891–1976)* John Mair, otherwise known as ''Major'' (1467–1550), teacher of George Buchanan, John Knox, and influencer of Calvin and Loyola* William Manderstown (c. 1485–1552), philosopher and Rector of the University of Paris* James McCosh (1811–1894)* Thomas Reid (1710–1796), played an integral role in the Scottish Enlightenment* Duns Scotus (1265–1308), teacher of William of Ockham* William Small (1734–1775), Professor of Natural Philosophy at the College of William and Mary and member of the Lunar Society* Adam Smith (1723–1790), economist, free trade, division of labour* Dugald Stewart (1753–1828), common sense philosopher" ], [ "Physicians and medical professionals", "* David Abercromby (died c.1702), physician and writer* Francis Adams (1796–1861), medical doctor and translator of Greek medical works* Dr John Adamson (1809–1870), physician, pioneer photographer, physicist, lecturer and museum curator* James Ormiston Affleck (1840–1922), physician and medical author* Margaret Forbes Alexander (living), nurse, educator, researcher and writer* William Pulteney Alison (1790–1859), physician, social reformer and philanthropist* John Maxwell Anderson (1928–1982), surgeon and cancer specialist* Sir Thomas McCall Anderson (1836–1908), professor of practice of medicine at the University of Glasgow* Archibald Arnott (1772–1855), British Army surgeon best remembered as Napoleon's last doctor on St. Helena* Asher Asher (1837–1889), first Scottish Jew to enter the medical profession* Matthew Baillie (1761–1823), physician and pathologist* Sir Dugald Baird (1899–1986), specializing in obstetrics and fertility* Sir Andrew Balfour (1873–1931), medical officer who specialised in tropical medicine* Edward Balfour (1813–1889), surgeon, orientalist and pioneering environmentalist in India* George William Balfour (1823–1903), physician, known as a heart specialist* Thomas Graham Balfour (1813–1891), physician noted for his work in medical statistics* Sir George Ballingall (1780–1855), Regius Professor of military surgery* William Mitchell Banks (1842–1904), surgeon* Major General William Burney Bannerman (1858–1924), military surgeon* Andrew Whyte Barclay (1817–1884), physician, Lumleian Lecturer, and Harveian Orator* George Steward Beatson (died 1874), surgeon-general, Honorary Physician to the Queen* Colonel Sir George Thomas Beatson (1848–1933), physician, pioneer in the field of oncology* William Beattie (1793–1875), physician and writer* James Begbie (1798–1869), physician, president of the Medico-Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh and of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh* James Warburton Begbie (1826–1876), physician* Benjamin Bell of Hunthill (1749–1806), considered to be the first Scottish scientific surgeon* Sir Charles Bell (1774–1842), surgeon, anatomist, neurologist and philosophical theologian* John Bell (1763–1820), anatomist and surgeon* Sir James Whyte Black (1924–2010), physician and pharmacologist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine* Dame Emily Mathieson Blair (1892–1963), nurse, Matron-in-Chief of the Princess Mary's Royal Air Force Nursing Service and the British Red Cross Society* Sir Gilbert Blane of Blanefield (1749–1834), physician who instituted health reform in the Royal Navy* James Borthwick of Stow (1615–1675), surgeon and first teacher of anatomy* James Braid (1795–1860), surgeon and \"gentleman scientist\", influential pioneer of hypnotism and hypnotherapy* John Milne Bramwell (1852–1925), physician, surgeon and medical hypnotist* William A. F. Browne (1805–1885), one of the most significant asylum doctors of the nineteenth century* Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton (1844–1916), physician known for treatment of angina pectoris* William Buchan (1729–1805), physician, writer on medicine for a lay readership* Maura Buchanan (living), nursing administrator, former president of the Royal College of Nursing* Francis Buchanan-Hamilton (1762–1829), physician who made significant contributions as a geographer, zoologist, and botanist while living in India* Sir Thomas Burnet (1638–1704), physician to Charles II, James II, William and Mary, and Queen Anne* Ewan Cameron (1922–1991), physician who worked with Linus Pauling on Vitamin C research* Murdoch Cameron (1847–1930), Regius Professor of Midwifery at the University of Glasgow* Robina Thomson Cameron (1892–1971), district nurse, community leader and nursing inspector* Dugald Campbell (died 1940), doctor from the isle of Arran; government physician on Hawaii* Sir James Cantlie (1851–1926), physician, pioneer of First aid* John Cheyne (1777–1836), physician, and medical writer; identified Cheyne–Stokes respiration, with William Stokes* Colin Chisholm (1755–1825), surgeon, medical writer and Fellow of the Royal Society* Mairi Lambert Gooden-Chisholm of Chisholm (1896–1981), military nurse and ambulance driver during World War I, awarded the Military Medal* Sir Robert Christison (1797–1882), toxicologist and physician * Sir James Clark (1788–1870), physician who was Physician-in-Ordinary to Queen Victoria * Hugh Francis Clarke Cleghorn of Stravithie (1820–1895), physician, botanist, and forester who worked in India* Sir Thomas Smith Clouston (1840–1915), psychiatrist* Dr Samuel Cockburn (1823–1915), advocate and practitioner of homeopathy* John Coldstream (1806–1863), physician* James Copland (1791–1870), physician and prolific medical writer* John Craig (died 1620), physician and astronomer; physician to James VI of Scotland* David Craigie (1793–1866), physician and medical writer* Sir Alexander Crichton (1763–1856), physician, including the Emperor of Russia's personal physician, and author* Sir James Crichton-Browne (1840–1938), leading psychiatrist and medical psychologist* William Cumin (died 1854), Regius Professor of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at the University of Glasgow* David Douglas Cunningham (1843–1914), doctor and researcher in India, pioneer in aerobiology* Daniel John Cunningham (1850–1909), physician, zoologist, and anatomist; author of medical textbooks* Sir David Deas (1807–1876), medical officer in the Royal Navy* Ian Donald (1910–1987), physician, pioneer of the use of diagnostic ultrasound in medicine* Sir David Dumbreck (1805–1876), British Army medical officer* Andrew Duncan, the elder (1744–1828), physician, professor at Edinburgh University, pioneer of forensic medicine* Andrew Duncan, the younger (1773–1832), physician, first professor of medical jurisprudence at Edinburgh University* James Matthews Duncan (1826–1890), physician, practitioner of and author on obstetrics* William Ronald Dodds Fairbairn (1889–1964), psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, central figure in the development of the object relations theory of psychoanalysis* Sir Walter Farquhar (1738–1819), physician, whose clientele included the future King George IV and William Pitt the Younger* William Fergusson (1773–1846), inspector-general of military hospitals; medical writer* Charles Finnigan (1901–1967), dental surgeon, Surgeon Rear-Admiral in the Royal Navy, Honorary Dental Surgeon to the Queen* James Forbes (1779–1837), inspector-general of army hospitals* George Fordyce (1736–1802), physician, lecturer on medicine, and chemist* Sir William Fordyce (1724–1792), physician, voted a gold medal for his work on rhubarb by the Society of Arts* David Kennedy Fraser (1888–1962), psychologist, educator and amateur mathematician* Margaret Neill Fraser (1880–1915), First World War nurse and notable amateur golfer, who died in Serbia* John Gairdner (1790–1876), physician and president of the College of Surgeons of Edinburgh* Sir William Tennant Gairdner (1824–1907), Professor of Medicine in the University of Glasgow* Maxwell Garthshore (1732–1812), physician* Marion Gilchrist (1864–1952), first female graduate of the University of Glasgow; first woman to qualify in medicine from a Scottish university; leading activist in Women's suffrage movement* Theodore Gordon (1786–1845), inspector of army hospitals* Robert Edmond Grant (1793–1874), physician and biologist* James Gregory (1753–1821), physician and classicist* Jane Stocks Greig (1872–1939), medical doctor and public health specialist in Australia* Robert Marcus Gunn (1850–1909), ophthalmologist* Daniel Rutherford Haldane (1824–1887), prominent physician, president of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh* Evelina Haverfield (1867–1920), suffragette and World War I nurse in Serbia* Alexander Henderson (1780–1863), physician and author* David Kennedy Henderson (1884–1965), psychiatrist* Sir James William Beeman Hodsdon (1858–1928) eminent surgeon, president of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh 1914–1917* Thomas Charles Hope (1766–1844), physician and chemist, discoverer of the element strontium* Joseph Hume (1777–1855), physician and Radical MP* John Hunter (1728–1793), surgeon, after whom the Hunterian Museum at the Royal College of Surgeons is named* Sir Robert Hutchison (1871–1960), physician and paediatrician* Elsie Inglis (1864–1917), medical reformer and suffragette* John Scott Inkster, (1924-2011) anesthesiologist* Robert Jackson (1750–1827), physician-surgeon, reformer, and inspector-general of army hospitals* Louisa Jordan (1878–1915), nurse who died in Serbia during the First World War; NHS Louisa Jordan Hospital was named after her* James Keill (1673–1719), physician, philosopher, medical writer and translator* John Martin Munro Kerr (1868–1960), Regius Professor of Midwifery at the University of Glasgow* R. D. Laing (1927–1989), psychiatrist and author* Thomas Latta (1796–1833), pioneer of the saline solution method of treatment* John Lauder (1683–1737), surgeon, deacon of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh* Robert Lee (1793–1877), obstetrician, and personal physician to Prince Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov, Governor-General of the Crimea* Lieutenant-General Sir William Boog Leishman (1865–1926), pathologist and army medical officer* Sir John Liddell (1794–1868), Director-General of the Medical Department of the Royal Navy; senior medical officer of the Royal Hospital at Greenwich* James Lind (1716–1794), physician, pioneer of naval hygiene in the Royal Navy* Sir Henry Duncan Littlejohn (1826–1914), surgeon, forensic scientist and public health pioneer* Robert Lumsden (1903–1973), ear, nose and throat (ENT) surgeon* Sir William Macewen (1848–1924), surgeon, pioneer in modern brain surgery* Jessie MacLaren MacGregor (1863–1906), one of the first women to be awarded an MD from the University of Edinburgh* William Mackenzie (1791–1868), ophthalmologist, who wrote one of the first British textbooks of ophthalmology* Sir William Alexander Mackinnon (1830–1897), Director-General of the British Army Medical Service* Thomas John MacLagan (1838–1903), Dundee doctor and pharmacologist* Patrick Manson (1844–1922), physician who made important discoveries in parasitology, founder of the field of tropical medicine* Mary Adamson Anderson Marshall (1837–1910), physician, one of the members of the Edinburgh Seven, the first women to study medicine at the University of Edinburgh* Douglas Mary McKain (1789–1873), New Zealand nurse, midwife and businesswoman* Agnes McLaren (1837–1913), doctor, first to give medical assistance to women in India * Gavin Milroy (1805–1886), physician and medical writer* Alexander Monteith of Auldcathie (1660–1713), surgeon, deacon of the Incorporation of Surgeons of Edinburgh* Neil Gordon Munro (1863–1942), physician and anthropologist, who studied the Ainu people* Flora Murray (1869–1923), medical pioneer, and a member of the Women's Social and Political Union suffragettes* Sir Robin MacGregor Murray (born 1944), psychiatrist and Professor of Psychiatric Research* Duncan Napier, Victorian botanist and medical herbalist* Sir Alexander Nisbet (1795–1874), naval surgeon, H.M.", "Inspector of Hospitals for the Royal Navy* William Nisbet (1759–1822), physician, author of widely used medical books that emphasized practice* Sir Alexander Ogston (1844–1929), surgeon, famous for his discovery of Staphylococcus* Alexander Pennycuik (1605–1695), military surgeon, Surgeon General of the Scots forces in Ireland* David Pitcairn (1749–1809), physician* Archibald Pitcairne (1652–1713), physician and author* Richard Poole (1783–1871), physician, psychiatrist, and phrenologist* George Hogarth Pringle (1830–1872), surgeon, pioneer of antiseptic surgery in Australia* John James Pringle (1855–1922), dermatologist* Laidlaw Purves (1842–1917), aural and ophthalmic surgeon* John Rattray (1707–1771), surgeon, surgeon to Prince Charles Edward Stuart and golfer* David Boswell Reid (1805–1863), physician, chemist and inventor* Agnes Reston (1771–1856), wartime nurse during the Peninsular War, known as the Heroine of Matagorda, for her outstanding bravery* John Roberton (1776–1840), physician and social reformer* John Roberton (1797–1876), physician and social reformer* Thomas Ferguson Rodger (1907–1978), physician, Royal Army Medical Corps brigadier, and Professor of Psychological Medicine* Elizabeth Ness MacBean Ross (1878–1915), physician who worked in Persia, and died in Serbia* Catherine Murray Roy, military nurse during World War I, awarded the Military Medal for conspicuous gallantry* John Rutherford (1695–1779), physician and professor at the University of Edinburgh Medical School; grandfather of Sir Walter Scott* Helenus Scott (1760–1821), physician, active in India* Lyall Stuart Scott (1920–1977), surgeon and urologist* Thomas Shortt (1788–1843), army physician, who drafted Napoleon's official autopsy report* James Young Simpson (1811–1870), introduced chloroform into surgery* David Skae (1814–1873), physician who specialised in psychological medicine* Alexander Small (1710–1794), surgeon and scholar* John Smith (1825–1910), dentist, philanthropist and pioneering educator, founder of the Edinburgh school of dentistry* James Carmichael Smyth (1741–1821), physician and medical writer* William Somerville (1771–1860), physician, inspector of the Army Medical Board, husband of Mary Somerville* James Syme (1799–1870), pioneering surgeon* Michael Waistell Taylor (1824–1892), physician and antiquary* Thomas Stewart Traill (1781–1862), physician, chemist, mineralogist, meteorologist, zoologist and scholar of medical jurisprudence* Gordon Turnbull, psychiatrist and author* Andrew Ure (1778–1857), physician, scholar and chemist* Charles Howard Usher (1865–1942), ophthalmologist* James Wardrop (1782–1869), surgeon and ophthalmologist* Robert Watt (1774–1819), physician and bibliographer* Alexander Allan Innes Wedderburn (9 May 1935 – 23 February 2017), psychologist and Emeritus Professor of Psychology at the Heriot-Watt University.", "* Sir David Wilkie (1882–1938), surgeon, pioneer of surgical research and undergraduate teaching* Robert Willis (1799–1878), physician, librarian, and medical historian* James Wilson (1765–1821), anatomist* Professor Nairn Hutchison Fulton Wilson (born 1950), Honorary Professor of Dentistry, former Dean and Head of King's College London Dental Institute* Alexander Wood (1725–1807), surgeon, and friend of the poet Robert Burns* Alexander Wood (1817–1884), physician, inventor of the first true hypodermic syringe* John McLeod (surgeon) (c. 1777 – 1820), naval surgeon and travel writer" ], [ "Rulers and politicians", "* Sir William Arbuthnot, 1st Baronet (1766–1829), Lord Provost of Edinburgh and Lord Lieutenant of the City of Edinburgh* James Abercromby, 1st Baron Dunfermline (1776–1858), barrister and Speaker of the House of Commons between 1835 and 1839* Sir Andrew Agnew, 7th Baronet (1793–1849), politician and prominent promoter of Sunday Sabbatarianism* James Alexander (1691–1756), attorney general of New Jersey* John Baird (1790–1820), revolutionary* Robert Barton of Over Barnton (died 1540), merchant, sailor and politician; as Comptroller, Master of the Mint and Lord High Treasurer* Cardinal David Beaton (c. 1494–1546)* Dr. James Beaton (1473–1539), church leader, and the Keeper of the Great Seal of Scotland* Sir Robert Duncan Bell (1878–1953), colonial administrator in India; Acting Governor of Bombay in 1937* Tony Blair (born 1953), Labour Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1997–2007)* Henry Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux (1778–1868), statesman, one of the founders of the Edinburgh Review, Lord Chancellor* Gordon Brown (born 1951), Labour Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (2007–2010)* James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce, (1838–1922), academic, jurist, historian and Liberal politician* Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman (1836–1908), statesman, Liberal Party politician and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1905–1908)* Alexander Chalmers (Polish: ''Aleksander Czamer'') (1645–1703), four time mayor of Warsaw* Charles I of Scotland and of England (1625–1649)* Sir Hugh Cleghorn (1752–1837), first colonial secretary to Ceylon* Adam Cockburn, Laird of Ormiston, Lord Ormiston (1656–1735), administrator, politician and judge* Sir Alexander Cockburn, 12th Baronet (1802–1880), lawyer, politician and judge, Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales* Archibald Cockburn (c. 1738–1820), politician* John Cockburn of Ormiston (died 1583), early supporter of the Scottish Reformation* John Cockburn of Ormiston (died 1758), politician, known as the father of Scottish husbandry* Sir Richard Cockburn of Clerkington (died 1627), senior government official, Keeper of the Privy Seal of Scotland* James Connolly (1868–1916), Irish socialist leader, executed by firing squad following the Easter Rising* John Crawfurd (1783–1868), colonial administrator, diplomat, physician and author* Dubacan of Angus (fl 10th century), first named mormaer, Mormaer of Angus* Robert Bontine Cunninghame Graham (\"Don Roberto\") (1852–1936), first socialist Member of Parliament (MP)* Sir Frederick Currie, 1st Baronet (1799–1875)* James Dalrymple, 1st Viscount of Stair (1619–1695), lawyer and statesman* John Dalrymple, 1st Earl of Stair, Secretary of State over Scotland, implicated in the Massacre of Glencoe* Tam Dalyell (1932–2017), British Labour politician* Ian Davidson (born 1950), Labour Co-operative politician* Ruth Davidson (born 1978), leader of the Scottish Conservative Party since 2011* Donald Dewar (1937–2000), former First Minister of Scotland* Robert Dinwiddie (1693–1770), Lieutenant-Governor of Virginia 1751–1758* James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton (1525–1581), Regent of Scotland* Alec Douglas-Home (1903–1995), Conservative Prime minister of the United Kingdom* Iain Duncan Smith (born 1954), leader of the Conservative party* Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville (1742–1811), advocate and Tory politician* Mountstuart Elphinstone (1779–1859), statesman and historian, associated with the government of British India* William Elphinstone (1431–1514), statesman, Bishop of Aberdeen and founder of the University of Aberdeen* Alex Fergusson (1949–2018), third Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament* Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun (1653–1716)* Archibald Fletcher (1746–1828), political reformer* Liam Fox (born 1961), Conservative politician* George Galloway (born 1954), Respect Party* Annabel Goldie (born 1950), former leader of the Scottish Conservative Party* Charles Grant, 1st Baron Glenelg (1778–1866), politician and colonial administrator* Sir Robert Grant (1779–1838), lawyer and politician* Iain Gray (born 1957), Scottish Labour Party politician* Jo Grimond (1913–1993), Liberal Party leader from 1956 to 1967* James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran (1516–1575), Regent of Scotland* Andrew Hardie (died 1820), revolutionary* Keir Hardie (1856–1915)* Patrick Harvie (born 1973), co-convenor of the Scottish Greens since 2003* Alexander Henderson (c. 1583–1646), theologian, ecclesiastical statesman and co-author of the National Covenant* David B. Henderson (1840–1906), politician and Speaker of the United States House of Representatives from 1899 to 1903* Hugh Henry (born 1952), Scottish Labour politician* Francis Horner (1778–1817), Whig politician, journalist, lawyer and political economist* King James IV (1473–1513)* James VI of Scotland and I of England (1603–1625)* Archibald Johnston, Lord Warriston (1611–1663), judge, statesman and co-author of the National Covenant* James Johnston (1655–1737), envoy extraordinary to Prussia, Secretary of State over Scotland, and Lord Clerk Register* Charles Kennedy (1959–2015), leader of the Liberal Democrats 1999–2006* Sir William Kirkcaldy of Grange (c. 1520–1573), politician and soldier, who held Edinburgh Castle on behalf of Mary, Queen of Scots* Johann Lamont (born 1957), leader of the Scottish Labour Party since 2011* John Loughton (born 1987), political campaigner and winner of reality show Big Brother: Celebrity Hijack in 2008* Sir John Lyon, Thane of Glamis (c1340–1382), Chamberlain of Scotland between 1377 and 1382* Arthur MacArthur, Sr.", "Governor of Wisconsin and grandfather of Gen. Douglas MacArthur* Macbeth of Scotland (c. 1005–1057), High King of Scotland* John MacCormick (1904–1961), nationalist* John A. Macdonald (1815–1891), first Prime Minister of Canada* Malcolm MacDonald (1901–1981)* Ramsay MacDonald (1866–1937), Prime Minister of the United Kingdom* Ken Macintosh (born 1962), fifth Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament* Alexander Mackenzie (1822–1892), second Prime Minister of Canada* John P Mackintosh (1929–1978), Labour MP, Politics Professor at Edinburgh University and proponent of devolution* John MacLean (1879–1923), revolutionary* Máel Coluim, Earl of Angus (fl 13th century), mormaer of Angus c.1214-1240; last of the male line with that title* Tricia Marwick (born 1953), fourth Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament* Mary, Queen of Scots (1542–1587)* Jimmy Maxton (1885–1946), leader of the Independent Labour Party* Jack McConnell (born 1960), First Minister of Scotland (2001–2007)* Christina McKelvie (born 1968), Scottish National Party* William McKinley (1843–1901), US President* Henry McLeish (born 1948), former First Minister* Duncan McNeill, 1st Baron Colonsay (1793–1874), advocate, judge and Tory politician* George Mealmaker (1768–1808), radical organiser and writer* Thomas Muir (1765–1799), political reformer* John Murdoch (1818–1903), land reform campaigner, newspaper owner and editor * Jim Murphy (born 1967), Labour Party* Robert Dale Owen (1801–1877), American social reformer and politician* Jerry Rawlings (born 1947), former president of Ghana; partly of Scottish descent* George Reid (born 1939), second Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament 2003–2007 * Jimmy Reid (1932–2010), trade union activist, orator, politician, and journalist* Willie Rennie (born 1967), leader of the Scottish Liberal Democrats since 2011* Alex Salmond (born 1954), former First Minister of Scotland (2007–14) and former leader of the Scottish National Party* Sir John Scot, Lord Scotstarvit (1585–1670), laird, advocate, judge, politician and author* Tavish Scott (born 1956), former leader of the Scottish Liberal Democrats* Tommy Sheridan (born 1964), Solidarity* Jim Sillars (born 1937), founder of Scottish Labour Party, MP* Archibald Sinclair, 1st Viscount Thurso (1890–1970), Liberal Party leader from 1935 to 1945* William Skirving (c. 1745–1796), radical* Ian Smith (1919–2007), Prime Minister of Rhodesia* John Smith (1938–1994), Labour Party leader* David Steel (born 1938), Liberal Party leader from 1976 to 1988, first Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament* Nicol Stephen (born 1960), former leader of the Scottish Liberal Democrats* Nicola Sturgeon (born 1970), First Minister of Scotland (since 2014) and Leader of the Scottish National Party* John Swinney (born 1964), Scottish National Party (SNP) politician* Alexander Wedderburn, 1st Earl of Rosslyn (1733–1805), Lord Chancellor of Great Britain from 1793 to 1801* Sir William Wedderburn, 4th Baronet (1838–1918), civil servant in India and politician* Elizabeth (Eliza) Wigham (1820–1899), leading suffragist and abolitionist* Jane Wigham (née Smeal) (1801–1888), leading Scottish abolitionist* James Wilson (1760–1820), revolutionary* James Wilson (1742–1798), one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, signatory of the United States Declaration of Independence* Robert Crichton Wyllie (1798–1865), physician and businessman, Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Kingdom of Hawaii" ], [ "Scientists" ], [ "Sportspeople", "* Gary Anderson (born 1970), professional darts player* Robert Archibald (1980–2020), first Scottish NBA player* John Baird (1870–1905), footballer* Imogen Bankier (born 1987), badminton player, winner of the national championships* Alain Baxter (born 1973), alpine skier* Jim Baxter (1939–2001), footballer* Andy Beattie (1913–1983), professional football player and manager, the first manager of the Scottish national team* Eric Brown (1925–1986), professional golfer* Hamish Brown (born 1934), first person to walk all the Munros in a single trip* Kathryn Bryce (born 1997), cricketer in Scotland women's national cricket team, first Scots cricketer in the top ten of the ICC Women's Player Rankings* Sarah Bryce (born 2000), cricketer in Scotland women's national cricket team* Ken Buchanan (born 1945), world champion boxer* Euan Burton (born 1979), judo expert, who represented Great Britain at the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics in the Half-Middleweight (under 81 kg) Judo event* Sir Matt Busby (1909–1994), former football manager, won the European Cup in 1968* John Bute (also known as Johnny Dumfries) (1958-2021), peer and racing driver, winner of the 1988 24 Hours of Le Mans* Willie Carson (born 1942), jockey* Jim Clark (1936–1968), Formula One driver* John Cochrane (1798–1878), chess player* Steph Cook (born 1972), modern pentathlete, Olympic gold medallist* Gillian Cooke (born 1982), athlete and bobsledder* Davie Cooper (1956–1995), footballer* Kay Copland, sport shooter* David Coulthard (born 1971), Formula One driver* Stevie Crawford, professional football player and coach of Dunfermline Athletic F.C.", "* Kenny Dalglish (born 1951), retired footballer and former manager of Liverpool F.C.", "* George Fairbairn, professional rugby league footballer and Scotland coach* Crawford Fairbrother (1936–1986), Olympic high jumper* Sir Alex Ferguson (born 1941), retired footballer and former manager of Manchester United F.C.", "* Darren Fletcher (born 1984), international footballer* Ron Flockhart (1923–1962), racing driver, twice winner of the 24 Hours of Le Mans* David Florence (born 1982), slalom canoeist* Dario Franchitti (born 1973), Indy car driver* Marino Franchitti (born 1978), American Le Mans driver* Steve Frew (born 1973), gymnast, gold medallist in Commonwealth games 2002* Adam Kelso Fulton (1929–1994), international rugby player* Bernard Gallacher (born 1949), professional golfer* Drew Galloway (born 1985), professional wrestler* Richie Gray (born 1989), rugby player* Jack Grimmer (born 1994), footballer* Wyndham Halswelle (1882–1915), Olympic champion runner* Dougal Haston (1940–1977), mountaineer* Joe Hendry (1886–1966), footballer* Stephen Hendry (born 1969), professional snooker player, 7 time world champion* John Higgins (born 1975), professional snooker player, three-time world champion* Chris Hoy (born 1976), world, Olympic and Commonwealth champion track cyclist* Gerry Hughes (born 1958), sailor, first single-handed Atlantic crossing by a deaf person* Gary Jacobs, Scottish, British, Commonwealth, and European (EBU) welterweight champion boxer* Jimmy Johnstone (1944–2006), football player* George Kerr (born 1937), judo expert, winner of the 1957 gold medal in the European Judo Championships* John Kerr (born 1980), ice dancer* Sinead Kerr (born 1978), ice dancer* Dominic Kinnear (born 1967), former soccer player, now the head coach of Houston Dynamo in Major League Soccer* Billy Kirkwood (born 1958), football player* Martin Laird (born 1982), golfer* Denis Law (born 1940), football player* Paul Lawrie (born 1969), golfer, winner 1999 Open Championship* Andrew Lemoncello (born 1982), long-distance runner* Eric Liddell (1902–1945), athlete, one of the two subjects of ''Chariots of Fire''* Patricia Littlechild (born 1965), sport shooter* Jackie Lockhart (born 1965), curler, skip of Scotland team which won the 2002 world championships* Sandy Lyle (born 1958), golfer, winner of 1985 Open Championship and 1988 Masters Tournament* Benny Lynch (1913–1946), world champion boxer* Hamish MacInnes (1930–2020), mountaineer* Craig MacLean (born 1971), world, Olympic and Commonwealth champion track cyclist* Shona Marshall, sport shooter* Rhona Martin (born 1966), curler, Olympic gold medallist* Catriona Matthew (born 1969), golfer* Ally McCoist (born 1962), football player* Robert McCoig (1937–1998) badminton player.", "* James McFadden (born 1983), footballer* William McGregor (1846–1911), founder of the Football League in England* Neil McMenemy, triple jumper* Jackie McNamara (born 1973), footballer and manager* Billy McNeill (born 1940), footballer and a manager of Celtic F.C.", "* Allan McNish (born 1969), racing driver* Colin McRae (1968–2007), world champion rally driver* Dick McTaggart (born 1935), boxer* Micky Mellon (born 1972), ex-footballer, football manager* David Millar (born 1977), road cyclist* Robert Millar (born 1958), professional cyclist, \"King of the Mountains\" in 1984 Tour de France* Willie Miller (born 1955), international footballer and captain of Aberdeen when they won the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1983* Colin Montgomerie (born 1963), golfer, winner of European Tour Order of Merit a record 8 times* Janice Moodie (born 1973), golfer* Hugh Munro (1856–1919), mountaineer, known for his list of mountains* Bernard Murphy (born 18??", "), footballer* Andy Murray (born 1987), tennis player, singles, Wimbledon winner 2013, 2016 gentleman's singles, 2012 Olympic Champion, men's singles, US Open champion 2012, men's singles.", "* Jamie Murray (born 1986), tennis player, doubles, Wimbledon winner 2007 mixed doubles* Steve Nicol (born 1961), footballer, most notably of Liverpool F.C.", "* Peter Niven (born 19??", "), jockey* Graeme Obree (born 1965), world record holding cyclist* Stewart Pitt (born 1968), slalom canoeist* Graeme Randall (born 1975), judo expert, World Judo Championships gold medallist* Shirley Robertson (born 1968), sailor and Olympic gold medallist* Bill Shankly (1913–1981), one of Liverpool F.C.", "'s most successful managers* Graeme Souness (born 1953), football player and manager* Ian Stark (born 1954), equestrian* Jock Stein (1922–1985), football manager, won the European Cup with Celtic F.C.", "* Sir Jackie Stewart (born 1939), world champion Formula One driver* Frederick Guthrie Tait (1870–1900), amateur golfer and soldier* Bobby Thomson (1923–2010), Scots-born American baseball player* Sam Torrance (born 1953), golfer* Lawrence Tynes (born 1978), Scots-born kicker for the New York Giants and Kansas City Chiefs* Steven Vidler (born 1977), middleweight judo expert, Commonwealth games bronze medallist* Andrew Watson (1856–1921), world's first black international football player, captain and administrator* Jim Watt (born 1948), world champion boxer, won the WBC World Lightweight title* Harry Weld-Forester (born 1981), cricketer* David Wilkie (born 1954), swimmer* Jocky Wilson (1950–2012), world professional darts champion in 1982 and 1989* Mike Zagorski (born 1979), cyclist" ], [ "Television and radio personalities", "* Kaye Adams (born 1962)* Ronni Ancona (born 1968)* Dougie Anderson (born 1976)* Fiona Armstrong (born 1956)* Jackie Bird (born 1962)* Edith Bowman (born 1975)* Frankie Boyle (born 1972), comedian* Gordon Buchanan (born 1972), wildlife filmmaker* Bryan Burnett, television and radio presenter* Nicky Campbell (born 1962)* Kelly Cates (born 1975)* Kate Copstick* Stuart Cosgrove (born 1952)* Tam Cowan (born 1969)* Cat Cubie (born 1981)* Romana D'Annunzio (born 1972)* Jim Delahunt* Dominik Diamond (born 1969)* Jack Docherty (born 1962)* John Dunn (1934–2004), radio presenter* Kieron Elliot* Jenni Falconer (born 1976)* Craig Ferguson (born 1962)* Tommy Flanagan (born 1965)* Sandy Gall (born 1927)* Kirsty Gallacher (born 1976)* George Galloway (born 1954)* Graeme Garden (born 1943)* Muriel Gray (born 1959), journalist* Amanda Hamilton (born 1974)* Sarah Heaney (born 1971)* Stuart Henry (1942–1995), disc jockey* Mikey Hughes (born 1974)* Hazel Irvine (born 1965)* Stephen Jardine (born 1963)* Alan Johnston (born 1962), journalist* Nicci Jolly (born 1981)* Lorraine Kelly (born 1959)* Fiona Kennedy* Ross King (born 1961)* John Leslie (born 1965)* Viv Lumsden (born 1952)* Fred MacAulay (born 1956)* Cathy MacDonald* Phil MacHugh (born 1985)* Sarah Mack (born 1973)* John MacKay* Aggie MacKenzie (born 1955)* Sally Magnusson (born 1955)* Eddie Mair (born 1965)* Andrew Marr (born 1959)* Colin McAllister (born 1968)* Ian McCaskill (1938–2016)* Scottie McClue (born 1956)* Sheena McDonald (born 1954)* Gail McGrane (born 1975)* Paul McGuire* Gillian McKeith (born 1959)* Andrea McLean (born 1969)* Rhona McLeod* Michelle McManus (born 1980)* Cameron McNeish* Aasmah Mir (born 1971)* Paul Mitchell (born 1968)* Arthur Montford (1929–2014)* Nick Nairn (born 1959), celebrity chef* Shereen Nanjiani (born 1961)* Neil Oliver (born 1967)* Dawn Porter (born 1979)* Gail Porter (born 1971)* Angus Purden (born 1974)* Judith Ralston* Gordon Ramsay (born 1966), celebrity chef* Heather Reid (born 1969)* Fyfe Robertson (1902–1987)* Tom Russell (born 1948)* Justin Ryan (born 1967)* Isla St Clair (born 1952)* Catriona Shearer (born 1981)* Angus Simpson* Carol Smillie (born 1961)* Sarah Smith (born 1968)* Iain Stirling (born 1988)* Grant Stott* Cameron Stout (born 1971)* Heather Suttie* Brian Taylor (born 1955)* Bill Torrance (born 1946)* Alison Walker (born 1963)* Kirsty Wark (born 1955), journalist* Tom Weir (1914–2006)* Jim White* Kirsty Young (born 1968)" ], [ "Theologians, pastors and missionaries", "* David Laird Adams (1837–1892), minister and academic, professor of Hebrew and oriental languages at the University of Edinburgh.", "* Patrick Adamson, 16th-century Archbishop of St Andrews* Reverend William Menzies Alexander (1858–1929), medical and theological writer, Professor of Divinity* Tom Allan (died 1965), minister and evangelist, pioneer of practical church outreach in social work, primarily in the city of Glasgow* Charles Arbuthnot (1737–1820), Scottish abbot of the Scots Monastery, Regensburg* George Husband Baird (1761–1840), minister, educational reformer, linguist and Principal of the University of Edinburgh* Donald Macpherson Baillie (1887–1954), theologian, ecumenist, and parish minister* John Baillie (1886–1960), theologian and Church of Scotland minister* James Bannerman, (1807–1868), Free Church of Scotland theologian* William Barclay (1907–1978), author, Church of Scotland minister, Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism at the University of Glasgow* James Barr (1924–2006)* John Blackadder (c. 1622–1685), eminent Presbyterian Covenanter preacher* Robert Blackadder (d. 1508), first archbishop of Glasgow * Hugh Blair (1718–1800), minister of religion, author and rhetorician* James Blair (1656–1743), Church of England clergyman, missionary and founder of the College of William & Mary, in Williamsburg, Virginia* Robert Blair (1837–1907), Church of Scotland minister* David Bogue (1750–1825), nonconformist leader, and missionary to Penang* Thomas Boston (1676–1732), pastor and theologian* Claudius Buchanan (1766–1815), theologian, minister of the Church of England, and missionary to India* William Chalmers Burns (1815–1868), revival preacher, missionary to China* Richard Cameron (c. 1648–1680), a leader of the Covenanters* Andrew Cant (1590–1663), Presbyterian minister and leader of the Covenanters* Very Rev Alexander Carlyle (1722–1805), church leader, and autobiographer* James Chalmers (1841–1901), missionary, active in New Guinea* Dugald Christie (1855–1936), medical missionary in Mukden, China* William Robinson Clark (1829–1912), Dean of Taunton and later professor in Toronto* Thomas Richardson Colledge (1796–1879), medical missionary in China, founder and first president of the Medical Missionary Society of China* Daniel \"Dan\" Crawford (1870–1926), known as 'Konga Vantu', missionary of the Plymouth Brethren in central-southern Africa* William Cunningham (1805–1861), leading Free Church pastor and professor* David Dickson (c. 1583–1663), theologian and Covenanter* David Dickson (1780–1842), minister and writer* John Dudgeon (1837–1901), doctor, surgeon, translator, and medical missionary* Rev Alexander Duff (1806–1878), first overseas missionary of the Church of Scotland to India* Ebenezer Erskine (1680–1754), minister whose actions led to the establishment of the Secession Church* Ralph Erskine (1685–1752), preacher and poet* Andrew Martin Fairbairn (1838–1912), theological scholar, principal of Mansfield College, Oxford* Patrick Fairbairn (1805–1874), minister and theologian* Henry Faulds (1843–1930), missionary to Japan, physician, and scientist noted for the development of fingerprinting* Alexander Penrose Forbes (1817–1875)* George Hay Forbes (1821–1875), priest of the Scottish Episcopal Church, founder of the Pitsligo Press* John Forbes (1571–1606), Capuchin friar, known as Father Archangel* Peter Taylor Forsyth (1848–1921), theologian, principal of Hackney College, London* James Frazer (1854–1941), anthropologist of comparative religion and myth* Alexander Geddes (1737–1802), theologian and scholar* Alexander Gerard (1728–1795), minister, academic and philosophical writer* John George Govan (1861–1927), founder of the Faith Mission* Patrick Graham (d. 1478), first Archbishop of St Andrews* Daniel Gunn (1774–1848), Scottish congregational minister, latterly in Christchurch, Hampshire* Thomas Guthrie (1803–1873), divine and philanthropist* William Guthrie (1620–1665), author of \"The Christian's Great Interest\"* James Alexander Haldane (1768–1851), independent church leader* Robert Haldane (1764–1842), missionary preacher and lecturer; wrote a commentary on Romans* Patrick Hamilton (1504–1528), first Protestant martyr in Scotland, burnt at the stake in 1528* William Hastie (1842–1903), clergyman, theologian and translator of the Universal Natural History and Theory of Heaven by Immanuel Kant* Alexander Henderson (1583–1646)* James Hog (c. 1658–1734), minister at Carnock, known for his role in the Marrow controversy within the Church of Scotland* Richard Holloway (born 1933)* William Irvine (1863–1947), evangelist and founder of the Cooneyite and Two by Two sects* Robert Reid Kalley (1809–1888), physician and Presbyterian missionary notable for work in Portuguese-speaking territories* Dr John Kennedy (1819–1884), Highland preacher, author of ''Days of the Fathers in Ross-shire''* John Knox (c. 1513–1572), leader of the Scottish Reformation* Thomas Leishman (1825–1904), minister and liturgical scholar* David Lindsay, 1st Duke of Montrose (1440–1495), first Scottish non-royal duke, Lord High Admiral of Scotland, Master of the Royal Household of Scotland, Great Chamberlain and Justiciar* David Livingstone (1813–1873), missionary and explorer in Africa* Alexander Mackay (1849–1890), Presbyterian missionary to Uganda* Hugh Martin (1822–1885), pastor and writer* Matilda, Countess of Angus, (fl.", "13th century), heiress of Maol Choluim, countess in her own right* Robert Murray M'Cheyne (1813–1843), minister of the Gospel, missionary to the Jewish people* Thomas M'Crie the Elder (1772–1835), pastor and historian (wrote the 'Life of John Knox')* William Milligan (1821–1892), theologian, professor at the University of Aberdeen* Robert Moffat (1795–1883), missionary to Africa* Saint Mungo (also known as Saint Kentigern) (d. 614)* John Murray (1898–1975), Calvinist theologian and Presbyterian minister* George Newlands* John Paton (1824–1907), Protestant missionary to the New Hebrides Islands of the South Pacific* Alexander Peden (1626–1686), leading figures in the Covenanter movement* William Pettigrew (1869–1943), missionary to the Tangkhul Naga* Dr John Philip (1775–1851), missionary in South Africa* Robert Pont (or Kylpont) (1524–1606), reformer, lord of session, minister in Edinburgh and St. Andrews* The Revd Professor Norman Walker Porteous (1898–2003), translator of the Bible* Andrew Purves (born 1946), theologian* James Renwick (1662–1688), covenanter and martyr* Samuel Rutherford (c. 1600–1661), Presbyterian pastor, theologian and author, one of the Scottish Commissioners to the Westminster Assembly* John Duns Scotus (c. 1266–1308)* James Sharp (1613–1679), assassinated Archbishop of St Andrews* John Simson (c. 1668–1740), New Licht theologian, involved in a long investigation for heresy* Mary Slessor (1848–1915), missionary and advocate for women's rights* George Washington Sprott (1829–1909), minister and liturgical scholar* George Thomson (1819–1878), missionary and botanist in Cameroon* Thomas Torrance (1871–1959), missionary to China* Thomas F. Torrance (1913–2007), theologian* James Wedderburn (1585–1639), bishop of Dunblane, grandson of the poet James Wedderburn* John Welsh of Ayr (1568–1622), pastor exiled for faithful preaching; son-in-law to John Knox* John Willock (c. 1515–1585), Protestant reformer* George Wishart (1513–1546), Protestant reformer and martyr" ], [ "Writers" ], [ "Other notable people", "* John Adair (c. 1655–1722), surveyor and cartographer* Dr Hely Hutchinson Almond (1832–1903), educator and rugby union promoter* Jane Arthur (1827–1907), feminist and activist* Col. David Barclay (1610–1686), 1st Laird of Urie, a convert to Quakerism* Robert Barclay (1648–1690), Quaker, governor of the East Jersey colony* Andrew Bell (1753–1832), developer of the Madras system of education* Harry Benson (born 1929), celebrity and pop culture photographer* John Boyd (1925–2018), milliner based in London* James Braidwood (1800–1861), founder of the world's first municipal fire service in Edinburgh in 1824, and first director of the London Fire Engine Establishment* Thomas Braidwood (1715–1806), teacher of the deaf* John Brown (1826–1883), servant of Queen Victoria* John Brown (1627–1685), Covenanter martyr* Kenn Burke, ballet dancer* John Cairncross (1913–1995), intelligence officer and spy during World War II, alleged to be the fifth member of the Cambridge Five* Charles Cameron (1927–2001), magician, godfather of bizarre magic* Ajahn Candasiri (born 1947), Theravāda Buddhist nun who co-founded Chithurst Buddhist Monastery* Michael Caton-Jones (born 1957), film director* William Chambers (born 1979), award-winning hat designer* Walter Chepman (fl.", "c. 1500), merchant, notary and civil servant; in partnership with Androw Myllar in Scotland's first printing press* Mary Crudelius (née Maclean, 1839–1877), campaigner for women's education, and a supporter of women's suffrage* Alexander Cruden (1699–1770), compiler of an early concordance to the Bible* Lord Curriehill (1549–1617), prosecutor, ambassador, and judge* Alexander Dalrymple (1737–1808), geographer and the first Hydrographer of the British Admiralty* James Dawson (1806–1900), prominent champion of Australian Aborigines' interests* Dervorguilla of Galloway (c. 1210–1290), a 'lady of substance' in 13th-century Scotland, mother of king John I of Scotland, and founder of Sweetheart Abbey* Alexander Donaldson (1727–1794), appellant in the copyright case, ''Donaldson v Beckett''; founder/publisher of the ''Edinburgh Advertiser''* James Donaldson (1751–1830), publisher of the ''Edinburgh Advertiser''; founder of Donaldson's Hospital* Bill Douglas (1934–1991), film director* The Rev.", "John Archibald Dunbar-Dunbar (1849–1905), philatelist, one of the \"Fathers of Philately\"* Helen Duncan (1897–1956), last woman to be tried under the Witchcraft Act 1735* William Dunlop (c. 1654–1700), Covenanter, adventurer, and Principal of the University of Glasgow* John Fairbairn (1794–1864), newspaper proprietor, educator, financier and politician of the Cape Colony* Sir David Ferrier (1843–1928), pioneering neurologist and psychologist* Donald Findlay (born 1951)* John Finlaison (1783–1860), first president of the Institute of Actuaries* Alexander Kinloch Forbes (1821–1865), scholar of the Gujarati language* William Forsyth (1737–1804), horticulturist, founding member of the Royal Horticultural Society, after whom the genus ''Forsythia'' is named* Lord Fountainhall (1646–1722), one of Scotland's leading jurists* Alexander Yule Fraser (1857–1890), mathematician, one of the founders of the Edinburgh Mathematical Society * Jenny Geddes (c. 1600–c.", "1660), market trader, threw a stool at the Dean of Edinburgh in protest against the new prayer book* Patrick Geddes (1854–1932), biologist, sociologist, geographer, philanthropist and pioneering town planner* Sir Andrew Gilchrist (1910–1993), diplomat* Gilleasbaig of Menstrie (fl.", "13th century), earliest attested member Campbell family, father of Sir Colin Campbell* Ewen Gillies (born 1825), serial emigrant and adventurer from St. Kilda, Scotland* Anna Gordon or Brown (1747–1810), ballad collector* Robert Gordon of Straloch (1580–1661), cartographer, poet, mathematician, antiquary, and geographer* Janet Gourlay (1863–1912) Egyptologist, born in Glasgow* Patrick Grant (born 1972), fashion designer* Angelica Gray (born 1990), model* Alasdair George Hay (born 1961), first and current Chief Fire Officer of the Scottish Fire and Rescue Service* Robert Hay (1799–1863), traveller, antiquarian, and Egyptologist* Margaret Henderson (1921–2007), Scottish dancer* Amanda Hendrick (born 1990), model* William Vallance Douglas Hodge (1903–1975), mathematician, geometer* Isobel Hoppar (born c. 1490), landowner, governess and political figure* John Horrocks (1816–1881), founder and innovator of modern European fly fishing* Kirsty Hume (born 1976), model* Sir John Ritchie Inch (1911–1993), police officer, Chief Constable of Edinburgh City Police* David Jones (born 1966), games programmer and entrepreneur, known for creating the ''Grand Theft Auto'' video game franchise* Princess Kaiulani Cleghorn of Hawaii (1876–1899), daughter of Archibald Cleghorn and Princess Miriam Likelike (sister of Queen Lili'iuokalani)* Christopher Kane (born 1982), fashion designer* James Kennedy (1930–1973), security guard for British Rail Engineering Limited, posthumously awarded the George Cross* Simon Somerville Laurie (1829–1909), educator* Mikhail Lermontov, 19th-century Russian author of Scottish origin* Hercules Linton (1837–1900), surveyor, designer, shipbuilder, antiquarian and local councillor, designer of the ''Cutty Sark''* James Loch (1780–1855), economist, advocate, barrister, estate commissioner* Sir Robert Hamilton Bruce Lockhart (1887–1970), diplomat, journalist and secret agent* Mary Lyon (1797–1849), first woman principal in America* Flora Macaulay (1859–1958), editor of ''The Oban Times'' newspaper * Flora MacDonald (1722–1790), Jacobite and United Empire Loyalist* Gillies MacKinnon, film director, writer and painter* Iain Macmillan (1938–2006), photographer, took the photograph for The Beatles' album ''Abbey Road''* Jamie Macpherson (1675–1700), outlaw and author of MacPherson's Lament or Rant* Dame Sarah Elizabeth Siddons Mair (1846–1941), campaigner for women's education and women's suffrage* Gary McKinnon (born 1966), computer hacker* Lorna McNee, chef* Robert McQueen, Lord Braxfield (1722–1799), advocate and judge* James Murdoch (1856–1921), journalist and teacher* William McMaster Murdoch (1873–1912), First Officer aboard the RMS ''Titanic''* Keith Murray, Baron Murray of Newhaven (1903–1993), academic and Rector of Lincoln College, Oxford* Androw Myllar (fl.1503–1508), first Scottish printer, in partnership with Walter Chepman* Eunice Olumide (born 1987), model* James Orrock (1829–1913), collector of art and Oriental ceramics* Robert Paterson (1715–1801), stonemason, who suggested to Sir Walter Scott the character of \"Old Mortality\"* Duncan Phyfe (1770–1854), United States most celebrated cabinetmaker* Natalie Pike (born 1983), model* James Pillans (1778–1864), classical scholar and educational reformer* Allan Pinkerton (1819–1884), North American detective* Timothy Pont (c. 1565–1614), cartographer and topographer, the first to produce a detailed map of Scotland* John Charles Walsham Reith (1889–1971), first Director General of the BBC* John Rennie (1842–1918), naval architect, Naval Constructor and Instructor for the Chinese Government* Jonathan Saunders, fashion designer* James Small (1835–1900), last laird of Dirnanean* Archibald Smith (1813–1872), mathematician and lawyer* William Stewart Easton Stephen (1903–1975), philatelist* Flora Stevenson (1839–1905), social reformer, interested in education* Louisa Stevenson (1835–1908), campaigner for women's university education, women's suffrage and well-organised nursing* Jock Stewart (1918–1989), executioner* Charlotte Carmichael Stopes (1840–1929), author, and campaigner for women's rights* Marie Charlotte Carmichael Stopes (1880–1958), author, palaeobotanist and campaigner for eugenics and women's rights* John Guthrie Tait (1861–1945), educator, principal of the Central College of Bangalore, and sportsman* Stella Tennant (born 1970), model * Mary Anne MacLeod Trump (1912–2000), philanthropist, mother of Donald Trump* John Thomson (1837–1921), photographer* James Tytler (1745–1804), apothecary, editor of the second edition of ''Encyclopædia Britannica''; first person in Britain to fly (by ascending in a hot air balloon)* John Walker (1731–1803), minister of religion, natural historian and professor* Albert Watson (born 1942), fashion and celebrity photographer* Alexander Wilson (d. 1922), noted amateur photographer, working in Dundee* Margaret Wilson (c. 1667–1685), Covenanter martyr* Roderick Wright (1940–2005), disgraced Catholic bishop" ], [ "See also", "* Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen (1857)* List of fictional Scots* List of women Senators of the College of Justice * Scottish Diaspora * Scottish Americans * Scotch-Irish Americans* Scottish Australians * Scottish Argentines * Scottish Brazilians * Scots-Quebecer* Scottish Canadians * Scottish New Zealanders" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of South Africans" ], [ "Introduction", " Flag of South AfricaThis is a '''list of notable and famous South Africans''' who are the subjects of Wikipedia articles." ], [ "Academics", "Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr===Academics===*Shulamith Behr, art historian (1946-2023)*Estian Calitz, academic (born 1949)*Jakes Gerwel, academic and anti-apartheid activist (1946–2012)*Adam Habib, political scientist (born 1965)*Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, academic and politician (1894–1948)*Thamsanqa Kambule, South African Mathematician and Educator (1921–2009)*Tshilidzi Marwala, academic and businessman (born 1971)*Revil Mason, archeologist (1929 - 2020) *Shula Marks, historian (born 1938) *Njabulo Ndebele, Principal of the University of Cape Town (born 1948)*D. C. S. Oosthuizen, philosopher, (1926–1968)*Adriaan N Pelzer, historian and Vice-Principal University Pretoria (1915–1981)*Michiel Daniel Overbeek, South African amateur astronomer and prolific variable star observers (1920–2001)*Pierre de Villiers Pienaar, pioneering role in speech language therapy and lexicography in South Africa (1904–1978)*Calie Pistorius, academic and Principal of the University of Pretoria (born 1958)*Milton Shain, academic and professor of Modern Jewish history at the University of Cape Town (born 1949)*Benedict Wallet Vilakazi, author, educator, and first black South African to receive a PhD (1906–1947)*David Webster, anthropologist (1945–1989)===Medical and veterinary===*Abraham Manie Adelstein, UK Chief Medical Statistician (1916–1992)*Christiaan Barnard, pioneering heart surgeon (1922–2001)*Wouter Basson, medical scientist (born 1950)*John Borthwick (veterinary surgeon), veterinary surgeon in the Cape Colony (1867–1936)*Mary Malahlela, first black woman to register as a medical doctor in South Africa (1916–1981)*Joan Morice, first female veterinary surgeon in South Africa (1904–1944)*Anna Coutsoudis, public health scientist (born 1952)*Patrick Soon-Shiong, surgeon, founder Abraxis BioScience, billionaire (born 1952)*Arnold Theiler, veterinarian (1867–1936)*Max Theiler, virologist, 1951 Nobel Prize winner (1899–1972)*Lindiwe Sidali, surgeon (born 1984)===Scientists===*Andrew Geddes Bain, geologist (1797–1864)*Peter Beighton, geneticist (born 1934)*Wilhelm Bleek, linguist (1827–1875)*Robert Broom, palaeontologist (1866–1951)*Sydney Brenner, biologist, 2002 Physiology or Medicine Nobel Prize winner (1927–2019)*Phillip Clancey, ornithologist (1918–2001)*Allan McLeod Cormack, physicist (1924–1998)*Zodwa Dlamini, biochemist *Clement Martyn Doke, linguist (1893–1980)*Mulalo Doyoyo, professor and inventor (born 1970)*Alexander du Toit, geologist (1878–1948)*Robert Allen Dyer, botanist (1900–1987)*Melville Edelstein, sociologist, killed due to Soweto uprising (1919–1976) *Wendy Foden, conservation biologist*J. W. B. Gunning, zoologist (1860–1913)*Quarraisha Abdool Karim, Associate Scientific Director of the Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA) (born 1960)*Salim Abdool Karim, South African epidemiologist and infectious diseases specialist (born 1960)*David Lewis-Williams, archaeologist (born 1934)*Lucy Lloyd, anthropologist (1834–1914)*Thebe Medupe, astrophysicist (born 1973)*Hans Merensky, geologist (1871–1952)*Austin Roberts, zoologist (1883–1948)*Peter Sarnak, mathematician (born 1953)*Ramotholo Sefako, astrophysicist (born 1971)*Buyisiwe Sondezi, physicist (born 1976)*Basil Schonland, physicist (1896–1972)*J.L.B.", "Smith, ichthyologist (1897–1968)*Phillip Tobias, palaeontologist (1925–2012)===Theologians===Also see: Prelates, clerics and evangelists*David Bosch (1929–1992)*John W. de Gruchy (born 1939)*Dion Forster (born 1972)*Johan Heyns (1928–1994)" ], [ "Writers", "===Authors===John Maxwell CoetzeeNadine Gordimer *Lady Anne Barnard, travel writer and artist (1750–1825)*Herman Charles Bosman, author (1905–1951)*André P. Brink, author (1935–2015)*Justin Cartwright, novelist (1943–2018)*John Maxwell Coetzee, 2003 Nobel Prize-winning author (born 1940)*K. Sello Duiker, novelist (1974–2005)*Sir Percy FitzPatrick, writer, businessman and politician (1862–1931)*Graeme Friedman, author and clinical psychologist*Damon Galgut, author (born 1963)*Nadine Gordimer, 1991 Nobel Prize-winning author (1923–2014)*Alfred Hutchinson, South African author, teacher and activist (1924–1972)*C. J. Langenhoven, writer and poet (1873–1932)*Pule Lechesa, essayist, literary critic, and poet (born 1976)*Kgotso Pieter David Maphalla, the Sesotho language writer (1955–2021)*Dalene Matthee, author (1938–2005)*Gcina Mhlope, author, storyteller, playwright, director, actor (born 1959)*Deon Meyer, author (born 1958)*Phaswane Mpe, novelist (1970–2004)*Sizwe Mpofu-Walsh, author and musician (born 1989)*Alan Paton, author (1903–1988)*Margaret Roberts, herbalist and writer (1937–2017)*Karel Schoeman, novelist and historian (1939–2017)*Olive Schreiner, author (1855–1920)*Mongane Wally Serote, poet and writer (born 8 May 1944)*Wilbur Smith, novelist (1933–2021)*J. R. R. Tolkien, author of The Lord of The Rings (1892–1973)*Etienne van Heerden, novelist (born 1956)*Marlene van Niekerk, novelist (born 1954)*Lyall Watson, writer (1939–2008)*David Yudelman, writer*Rachel Zadok, London-based South African writer (born 1972)===Editors===*Kojo Baffoe, magazine editor (born 1972)*Khanyi Dhlomo, magazine editor (born 1975)*Laurence Gandar, Rand Daily Mail editor (1915–1998)*Niel Hammann, editor of magazines (born 1937)*John Tengo Jabavu, political activist and newspaper editor (1859–1921)*Aggrey Klaaste, journalist and editor (1940–2004)*Max du Preez, newspaper editor (born 1951)===Poets===See also: South African poets and Afrikaans language poetsMongane Wally Serote*Roy Campbell, poet (1901–1957)*Judy Croome, poet (born 1958)*Sheila Cussons, poet (1922–2004)*Jonty Driver (born 1939)*Jakob Daniël du Toit, poet a.k.a.", "Totius (1877–1953)*Elisabeth Eybers, poet (1915–2007)*Stephen Gray, writer and poet (1941–2020)*Ingrid Jonker, poet (1933–1965)*Antjie Krog, poet, novelist and playwright (born 1952)*Laurence Lerner, poet (1925–2016)*Lucas Malan, Afrikaans academic and poet (1946–2010)*Chris Mann, poet (1948–2021)*Eugène Nielen Marais, poet, writer, lawyer and naturalist (1871–1936)*Thomas Pringle, poet and journalist (1789–1834)*N.S.", "Puleng, poet and author (born 1958)*N. P. van Wyk Louw, poet (1906–1970)*Mongane Wally Serote, poet, activist and politician (born 1944)*Stephen Watson, poet (1954–2011)===Journalists===Sol Plaatje*Jani Allan, journalist and radio personality (born 1953)*George Claassen, journalist (born 1949)*Robyn Curnow, CNN television reporter and anchor*John Charles Daly, television journalist, executive and game show host (1914–1991)*Arnold S de Beer, journalist and academic (1942–2021)*Frene Ginwala, journalist and politician (born 1932)*Arthur Goldstuck, journalist (born 1959)*Niel Hammann, journalist (born 1937)*Noni Jabavu, journalit, editor and the first black South African woman to publish an autobiography (1919–2008) *Archibald Campbell Jordan (1906–1968)*Lara Logan, CBS television reporter/correspondent (born 1971)*Peter Magubane, South African photographer (born 1932) *John Matisonn, print and radio journalist for both South African and United States broadcasters (born 1949)*Zakes Mda, journalist (born 1948)*Nathaniel Ndazana Nakasa, South African journalist and short story writer (1937–1965)*Sam Nzima, South African photographer, who took image of Hector Pieterson for the Soweto uprising (1934–2018)*Henry Nxumalo, investigative journalist under apartheid (1917–1957)*Sol Plaatje, journalist and political activist (1877–1932)*Percy Qoboza, journalist, editorial writer, and political activist (1938–1988)*Barry Streek, journalist, political activist, author, parliamentary media manager (1948–2006)*Redi Tlhabi, journalist and broadcaster (born 1978)*Eric Lloyd Williams, journalist and war correspondent (1915–1988)*Donald Woods, journalist and anti-apartheid activist (1933–2001)" ], [ "Artists", "Dave Matthews===Performing artists=======Actors and actresses====*Anel Alexander, actress, producer (born 1979)*Lesley-Ann Brandt, South African born actress, notable for her role as Mazikeen in the show ''Lucifer'' (born 1981)*Ayanda Borotho, actress (born 1981)*Ivan Botha, actor (born 1984)*Kai Luke Brümmer, actor (born 1993)*Presley Chweneyagae, actor (born 1984)*Peter Cartwright, actor (1935–2013)*Baby Cele, actress (born 1972)*Sharlto Copley, actor, (''District 9'') (born 1973)*Katlego Danke, actress (born 1978)*Embeth Davidtz, actress (born 1965)*Gopala Davies, actor and director (born 1988)*Ryan de Villiers, actor (born 1992)*Sindi Dlathu, actress (born 1974)*Pallance Dladla, actor (born 1992)*Lillian Dube, South African actress (born 1945)*Vinette Ebrahim, actress (born 1957)*Kim Engelbrecht, actress (born 1980)*Willie Esterhuizen, actor*Connie Ferguson, actress (born 1970)*Shona Ferguson, actor (1972–2021)*Brett Goldin, actor (1977–2006)*Zoe Gail, actress (1920–2020)*Gugu Gumede, actress (born 1991)*Roxane Hayward, actress (born 1991)*Hennie Jacobs, actor (born 1981)*David James, actor, stage, television, and film actor (born 1972)*Sid James, film and television actor (1913–1976)*Glynis Johns, actress (1923–2024)*Adhir Kalyan, actor (born 1983)*Atandwa Kani, actor (born 1984)*John Kani, actor, entertainer and writer (born 1943)*Dawn Thandeka King, actress (born 1977)*Shannon Kook (born 1987)*Paballo Koza, actor (born 2002)*Alice Krige, actress (born 1954)*Deon Lotz, actor (born 1964)*Sello Maake Ka-Ncube, actor (born 1960)*Gail Mabalane, actress (born 1984)*Joe Mafela, actor, writer and singer (1942–2017)*Maps Maponyane, actor (born 1990)*Warren Masemola, actor (born 1983)*Khanyi Mbau, radio and television personality and actress notable for Happiness Is a Four-letter Word (born 1985)*Nomzamo Mbatha, actress (born 1990)*Michelle Mosalakae, actress (born 1994)*Thuso Mbedu, actress (born 1991)*Sean Michael (South African actor), (born 1969)*Enhle Mbali Mlotshwa, actress (born 1988)*Masoja Msiza, actor (born 1964)*Patrick Mynhardt, actor (1932–2007)*Themba Ndaba, actor (born 1965)*Menzi Ngubane, actor (born 1967)*Jessica Nkosi, actress (born 1990)*Kenneth Nkosi, actor (born 1973)*Winnie Ntshaba, actress (born 1975)*Winston Ntshona, actor (1941–2018)*Nandi Nyembe, South African actress (born 1950)*Tanit Phoenix, actress (Death Race: Inferno, Lord of War, Safe House, Femme Fatales, Mad Buddies) (born 1984)*Terry Pheto, actress (born 1981)*Sasha Pieterse, actress (born 1996)*Madelaine Petsch, actress (born 1994)*Sandra Prinsloo, South African actress (The Gods Must Be Crazy, Quest for Love) (born 1947)*Ama Qamata, actress (born 1998)*Basil Rathbone, actor (1892–1967)*Jo-anne Reyneke, actress (born 1988)*Ian Roberts, actor, playwright, singer (born 1952)*Angelique Rockas pioneer of multi-racial theatre in the UK (born 1951)*Buhle Samuels*Stelio Savante, actor (born 1970)*Clive Scott, actor (1937–2021)*Rapulana Seiphemo, actor (born 1967)*Cliff Severn, actor (1925–2014)*Raymond Severn, actor (1930–1994)*Antony Sher, actor, author and painter (1949–2021)*Cliff Simon, actor (1962–2021)*William Smith, TV teacher and presenter (born 1939)*Linda Sokhulu, actress (born 1976)*Shaleen Surtie-Richards, actress (1955–2021)*Janet Suzman, actress (born 1939)*Reine Swart, actress, producer *Charlize Theron, actress (born 1975)*Pearl Thusi, actress, model, MC (born 1988)*Siyabonga Thwala, actor (born 1969)*Pieter-Dirk Uys, political satirist and entertainer (born 1945)*Brümilda van Rensburg, actress (born 1956)*Musetta Vander, actress (born 1969)*Arnold Vosloo, actor (The Mummy, The Mummy Returns, 24) (born 1962)====Dancers====* Juliet Prowse, dancer (1936–1996)* Bontle Modiselle, dancer (born 1990)====Playwrights and film directors====*Neill Blomkamp, director, ''District 9'' (born 1979)*Charles J. Fourie, playwright (born 1965)*Athol Fugard, playwright (born 1932)*Ronald Harwood, playwright and writer (1934–2020)*Oliver Hermanus, film director and writer (born 1983)*Gray Hofmeyr South African film director (born 1949)*Gavin Hood, film director, wrote and directed the Academy Award-winning ''Tsotsi'' (2005) (born 1963)*Rob De Mezieres, film director and writer*Mbongeni Ngema, playwright, actor, choreographer and director (born 1955)*Michael Oblowitz film director (born 1952)*Mthuli ka Shezi, playwright and political activist (1947–1972)*Leon Schuster, filmmaker, comedian, actor and prankster (born 1951)*Jamie Uys, film director (1921–1996)====Singers, musicians and composers====*AKA (rapper), South African Kiernan Forbes (1988–2023)*Zain Bhikha, world-renowned singer-songwriter of the Nasheed genre*Michael Blake, classical composer (born 1951)*Johan Botha, opera singer (1965–2016)*Al Bowlly, popular singer (1898–1941)*Don Clarke, Singer-songwriter (born 1955)*Johnny Clegg, musician (1953–2019)*Mimi Coertse, opera singer (born 1932)*Fanie de Jager, operatic tenor (born 1949)*Lucky Dube, reggae singer (1964–2007)*Brenda Fassie, anti-apartheid Afropop singer, songwriter, dancer and activist (1964–2004)*Daniel Friedman (\"Deep Fried Man\"), musical comedian (born 1981)*Steve Kekana, singer and songwriter (1958–2021)*Jabu Khanyile, musician and lead vocalist (1957–2006)*Claire Johnston, singer (born 1967)*David Kramer, singer and playwright (born 1951)*Clare Loveday, classical composer (born 1967)*Lira (singer), singer (born 1979)*Sipho Mabuse, singer (born 1951)*Ringo Madlingozi, South African singer, songwriter, producer, and member of parliament (born 1964)*Arthur Mafokate, kwaito musician and producer (born 1962)*Winston Ngozi Mankunku, tenor sax player (1943–2009)*Mahlathini, ''mbaqanga'' singer (1938–1999)*Miriam Makeba, singer and civil rights activist (1932–2008)*Rebecca Malope, multi-award-winning South African gospel singer (born 1968)*Manfred Mann, musician (born 1940)*Hugh Masekela, jazz trumpeter and singer (1939–2018)*Gwendolyn Masin, violinist, author, pedagogue (born 1977)*Lebo Mathosa, popular South African kwaito singer (1977–2006)*Dave Matthews, leader of the Dave Matthews Band (born 1967)*Shaun Morgan, lead singer of the award-winning band Seether (born 1978)*Ray Phiri, jazz, fusion and Mbhaqanga musician (1947–2017)*Aquiles Priester, drummer (born 1971)*Rex Rabanye, jazz, fusion and soulful pop musician (1944–2010)*Trevor Rabin, musician, composer, former member of progressive rock band Yes (born 1954)*Koos Ras, comedian, singer, writer, composer (1928–1997)*Charles Segal (pianist), composer, arranger, Guinness World Record holder (born 1929)*Enoch Sontonga, composer of national anthem (1873–1905)*Joseph Shabalala, founder and director of Ladysmith Black Mambazo (1941–2020)*ZP Theart, singer, ex Dragonforce (born 1975)*Costa Titch, Amapiano rapper and dancer (1995–2023) *Hilda Tloubatla, lead singer of Mahotella Queens (born 1942)*Watkin Tudor Jones, rapper, performance artist, band member of Die Antwoord (born 1974)*Arnold van Wyk, classical composer (1916–1983)*Yolandi Visser, rapper, performance artist, band member of Die Antwoord (born 1984)*Amor Vittone, singer, performing artist and gold-disc recording artist (born 1972)*Kevin Volans, classical composer (born 1949)====Models, socialites and media personalities====*Jani Allan, radio personality, journalist (born 1953)*Gina Athans, model, international socialite (born 1984)*Riaan Cruywagen, TV news reader (born 1945)*Lasizwe Dambuza, television personality (born 1998)*Belle Delphine, Social Media Personality (born 1999)*Trevor Denman, horse racing announcer (born 1952)*Minnie Dlamini, TV presenter, TV personality, model and actress (born 1990)*Jade Fairbrother, model, fitness bikini competitor, Playboy Playmate (born 1986)*Watkin Tudor Jones (Ninja) singer, rapper, actor, director (born 1974)*Roxy Ingram, model (born 1982)*Alan Khan, radio and television personality (born 1971)*Caspar Lee, YouTube personality and actor (born 1994)*Jeremy Maggs, journalist, radio host and television presenter (born 1961)*Jeremy Mansfield, radio and TV personality*Maps Maponyane, media socialite, model and actor (born 1990)*Robert Marawa, sports journalist, television and radio personality (born 1973)*Megan McKenzie, model (born 1980)*Trevor Noah, comedian, actor, radio- and television host (born 1984)*Debora Patta, broadcast journalist and television producer (born 1964)*Tanit Phoenix, ''Sports Illustrated'' model and actress (born 1984)*Lunga Shabalala, TV presenter, model and actor (born 1989)*Linda Sibiya, radio personality, radio producer, television host, television producer and broadcaster.", "*Troye Sivan, YouTube personality, actor and singer (born 1995)*Reeva Steenkamp, model (1983–2013)*Candice Swanepoel, Victoria's Secret model (born 1988)*Charlize Theron, actress, film producer (born 1975)*Lesego Tlhabi, comedian and satirist (as Coconut Kelz) (born 1988)*Yolandi Visser singer, rapper, actor (born 1984)*Minki van der Westhuizen, model and TV presenter (born 1984)*Eddie Zondi, radio personality and music composer (1967–2014)===Visual artists=======Cartoonists====*T.O.", "Honiball, cartoonist (1905–1990)*Jeremy Nell, cartoonist (born 1979)*Zapiro, cartoonist (born 1958)====Painters====Thomas Baines*Thomas Baines, colonial painter and explorer (1820–1875)*Tamlin Blake, mixed media artist (1974)*Leon Botha, painter and disc jockey (1985–2011)*Garth Erasmus, visual artist (born 1956)*Clinton Fein, artist, activist, photographer (born 1964)*C. G. Finch-Davies, painter and ornithologist (1875–1920)*Ronald Harrison, painter (1940–2011)*William Kentridge, painter (born 1955)*Maggie Laubser, painter (1886–1973)*Neville Lewis, artist (1895–1972)*Esther Mahlangu, painter (born 1935)*Ernest Mancoba, avant-garde artist (1904–2002)*Judith Mason, artist (1938–2016) *Conor Mccreedy, artist (born 1987)*Brett Murray, artist (born 1961)*Charles Ernest Peers, painter (born 1875)*George Pemba, visual artist (1912–2001)*Pierneef, artist (1886–1957)*Gerard Sekoto, artist and musician (1913–1993)*Cecil Skotnes, painter (1926–2009)*Irma Stern, painter (1894–1966)*Vladimir Tretchikoff, painter (1913–2006)====Photographers====*Kevin Carter (1961–1994)*Ernest Cole (1940–1990)*Caroline Gibello (born 1974)*David Goldblatt, photographer (1930–2018)*Bob Gosani (1934–1972)*Alf Kumalo (1930–2012)*Peter Magubane (born 1932)*Jürgen Schadeberg (1931–2020)*Austin Stevens (born 1951)====Sculptors====*Anton van Wouw (1862–1945)====Performance artists====*Steven Cohen (born 1962)*Tracey Rose (born 1974)====Architects====Herbert Baker, architect* Herbert Baker (1862–1946)* Gerard Moerdijk (1890–1958)" ], [ "Business", "*Raymond Ackerman, businessman (1931–2023)*Barney Barnato, mining magnate (1852–1897)*Roelof Botha, venture capitalist and company director (born 1973)*David Brink, businessman (born 1939)*John Fairbairn, founder of Mutual Life (1794–1864)*Vanessa Gounden, South Africa's richest businesswoman (born 1961)*Morris Kahn, Israeli billionaire, founder and chairman of Aurec Group (born 1930)*Sol Kerzner, hotel magnate (1935–2020)*Basetsana Kumalo, former Miss South Africa, presenter and businesswoman (born 1974)*Richard Maponya, richest business man, former owner of Maponya Mall; founder and first president of the National African Federated Chamber of Commerce (NAFCOC) (1920–2020)*Sammy Marks, businessman (1844–1920)*Nthato Motlana, prominent South African businessman, physician and anti-apartheid activist (1925–2008)*Bridgette Motsepe, businesswoman (born 1960)*Patrice Motsepe, businessman (born 1962)*Elon Musk, Internet and space launch entrepreneur (born 1971)*Nicky Newton-King, first female CEO of JSE from 2012 to 2019 (born 1966)*Phiwa Nkambule, Co-founder and CEO of Riovic, founder of Cybatar (born 1992)*Harry Oppenheimer, businessman (1908–2000)*William G. Pietersen, international businessman, CEO, author, professor (born 1937)*Charles Purdon, agricultural pioneer (1838–1926)*Mamphela Ramphele, political activist, academic, businesswoman and mother to the son of Steve Biko (born 1947)*Cyril Ramaphosa, politician and businessman (born 1952)*George Rex, pioneer entrepreneur of the Southern Cape (1765–1839)*Cecil Rhodes, businessman (1853–1902)*Anton Rupert, businessman and conservationist (1916–2006)*Johann Rupert, businessman, son of Anton Rupert (born 1950)*Tokyo Sexwale, politician and businessman (born 1953)*Mark Shuttleworth, web entrepreneur, founder of Thawte and Ubuntu Linux, space tourist (born 1973)" ], [ "Legal, police and military", "Dr Beric Croome addressing the \"100 years of Taxation in South Africa\" conference at University of Cape Town in 2014.Professor Roeleveld of UCT looks on.", "*Lourens Ackermann, constitutional court judge (born 1934)*Ismail Ayob, lawyer (born 1942)*Vernon Berrangé, human rights advocate (1900–1983)*George Bizos, lawyer (1927–2020)*Louis Botha, Boer War General, captured Winston Churchill during the Second Boer War, also one of the signatories of the Treaty of Vereeniging (1862–1919)*Annie Botha, philanthropist and civic leader, wife of Louis Botha*Arthur Chaskalson, judge (1931–2012)*Piet Cronjé, Boer general and commander-in-chief of ZAR's military forces (1840–1911)*Beric John Croome, chartered accountant (South Africa), Advocate of the High Court of South Africa, PhD, tax law author and pioneer in taxpayers' rights in South Africa (1960–2019)*Garnet de la Hunt, the Chief Scout of the Boy Scouts of South Africa, Vice-Chairman of the Africa Scout Committee, and South African World Scout Committee (1933–2014)*Koos de la Rey, Boer general (1847–1914)*Pierre de Vos, constitutional law scholar (born 1963)*Christiaan Rudolph de Wet, Boer general and acting President of the Orange Free State (1854–1922)*Johannes Christiaan de Wet, legal academic (1912–1990)*Bram Fischer, advocate QC and political activist (1908–1975)*Johannes Geldenhuys, South African military commander (1935–2018)*Ian Gleeson, South African Army officer (1934–2021)*Richard Goldstone, ex-constitutional court judge (born 1938)*Harold Hanson, advocate QC (1904–1973)*Sydney Kentridge, former advocate of the Supreme Court and Acting Justice of the Constitutional Court (born 1922)*Mervyn E. King, former judge of the Supreme Court of South Africa and chairman of the King Committee on Corporate Governance (born 1937)*Joel Joffe, Baron Joffe, CBE lawyer and Labour peer in the House of Lords (1932–2017)*Pius Langa, former chief justice of constitutional court (1939–2013)*Magnus Malan, minister of defence and chief of the South African Defence Force (1930–2011)*Cecil Margo, judge (1915–2000)*Richard Mdluli, head of Police Crime Intelligence (born 1958)*Dunstan Mlambo, Judge President of the Gauteng Division of the High Court of South Africa (born 1960)*Mogoeng Mogoeng, Chief Justice of South Africa (born 1961)*Yvonne Mokgoro, former justice of the Constitutional Court of South Africa (born 1950) *Phetogo Molawa, first black female helicopter pilot in the South African Air Force and the South African National Defence Force*Sandile Ngcobo, former Chief Justice of South Africa (born 1953)*Bulelani Ngcuka, director of public prosecutions (born 1954)*Marmaduke Pattle, highest scoring Allied Air Ace of World War Two (1914–1941)*Riah Phiyega, national police commissioner*Vejaynand Ramlakan, South African military commander (1957–2020)*Barry Roux, defence advocate who has represented Oscar Pistorius, Dave King and Lothar Neethling (born 1955)*Albie Sachs, justice in constitutional court (born 1935)*Harry Heinz Schwarz, lawyer (1924–2010)*Jackie Selebi, national commissioner of police (1950–2015)*Thembile Skweyiya, South African Constitutional Court judge (1939–2015)*Percy Sonn, former head of the Directorate of Special Operations (1947–2007)*Sir Robert Clarkson Tredgold, Chief Justice of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1899–1977)*Percy Yutar, South Africa's first Jewish attorney-general and prosecutor of Nelson Mandela in the 1963 Rivonia Treason Trial (1911–2002)" ], [ "Political", "===Activists and trade unionists===Albertina Sisulu*Elizabeth 'Nanna' Abrahams, political activist and trade unionist (1925–2008)*Zackie Achmat, AIDS activist (born 1962)*Neil Aggett, political activist and trade unionist (1953–1982)*Neville Alexander, revolutionary and proponent of a multilingual South Africa (1936–2012)*Abdul Kader Asmal, South African politician (1934–2011)*Abu Baker Asvat, founding member of Azapo (1943–1989)*Zainab Asvat, South African anti-apartheid activist (1920–2013)*Frances Baard, trade unionist, organiser for the African National Congress Women's League and a Patron of the United Democratic Front (1909–1997)*Esther Barsel, South African political activist, long-standing member of the South African Communist Party and wife to Hymie Barsel (1924–2008)*Hymie Barsel, South African activist (1920–1987)*Jeremy Baskin, trade unionist (born 1956)*Jean Bernadt, anti-apartheid activist (1914–2011)*Lionel Bernstein, anti-apartheid activist and political prisoner (1920–2002)*Edward Bhengu, founder member of the PAC (1934–2010)*Sibusiso Bengu, politician (born 1934)*Steve Biko, nonviolent political activist (1946–1977)*Sonia Bunting, journalist, political and anti-apartheid activist (1922–2001)*Amina Cachalia, South African anti-Apartheid activist, women's rights activist, and politician (1930–2013)*Ismail Ahmed Cachalia, South African political activist and a leader of Transvaal Indian Congress and the African National Congress (1908–2003)*Fort Calata, political activist and one of The Cradock Four (1956–1985)*James Calata, political activist and ANC secretary (1895–1983)*Collins Chabane, South African Minister of Public Service and Administration (1960–2015)*Laloo Chiba, South African politician and revolutionary (1930–2017)*Yusuf Dadoo, South African Communist and an anti-apartheid activist (1909–1983)*Eddie Daniels, anti-apartheid activist (1928–2017)*Nosipho Dastile, community and anti-Apartheid activist (1938–2009)*Sophia De Bruyn, political activist (born 1938)*Amina Desai, political prisoner (1920–2009)*Lilian Diedericks, South African activist (1925–2021)*Bettie du Toit, trade unionist and anti-apartheid activist (1910–2002)*Ebrahim Ebrahim, South African anti-apartheid activist (1937–2021)*Colin Eglin, South African politician (1925–2013)*Farid Esack, political activist and opposition to apartheid (born 1959)*Lucinda Evans, women's right activist (born 1972)*Ruth First, South African anti-apartheid activist, scholar and wife to Joe Slovo (1925–1982)*Pregs Govender, human rights activist, former ANC MP, anti-apartheid campaigner (born 1960)*Irene Grootboom, housing rights activist (c. 1969–2008)*Denis Goldberg, political activist (1933–2020)*Arthur Goldreich, abstract painter and anti-apartheid (1929–2011)*John Gomomo, South African Unionist and activist (1945–2008)*Matthew Goniwe, political activist and one of the Cradock four (1946–1985)*Zainunnisa Gool, anti-apartheid political and civil rights leader (1897–1963)*Joe Nzingo Gqabi, political activist (1929–1981)*Archibald Gumede, anti-apartheid activist, lawyer and politician (1914–1998)*Josiah Tshangana Gumede, political activist (1867–1946)*Harry Gwala, revolutionary leader in the African National Congress and South African Communist Party (1920–1995)*Nkululeko Gwala, prominent member of the shackdwellers' social movement Abahlali baseMjondolo (died 2013)*Alcott Skei Gwentshe, shopkeeper and political activist (died 1966)*Bertha Gxowa, anti-apartheid, women's rights activist and trade unionist (1934–2010)*Chris Hani, political activist (1942–1993)*Harold Hanson, politician and advocate (1904–1973)*Frederick John Harris, South African schoolteacher and anti-apartheid (1937–1965)*Abdullah Haron, South African Muslim cleric and anti-apartheid activist (1924–1969)*Ruth Hayman, anti-apartheid campaigner (1913–1981)*Alexander Hepple, trade unionist, politician, anti-apartheid activist and author and the last leader of the original South African Labour Party (1904–1983)*Bob Hepple, political activist, leader in the fields of labour law, equality and human rights (1934–2015)*Bavelile Gloria Hlongwa, South African chemical engineer and politician (1981–2019)*Bantu Holomisa, political activist (born 1955)*Timothy Peter Jenkin, anti-apartheid activist, political prisoner and writer (born 1948)*Helen Joseph, anti-apartheid activist (1905–1992)*Mthuli ka Shezi, South African playwright, political activist (1947–1972)*James Kantor, politician, lawyer and writer (1927–1974)*Ahmed Kathrada, political activist (1929–2017)*Philip Kgosana, political activist (1936–2017)*Winnie Kgware, anti-Apartheid activist (1917–1998)*Alice Kinloch (born 1863), human rights activist and writer*Wolfie Kodesh, South African Communist party activist (1918–2002)*Moses Kotane, anti-apartheid activist (1907–1978)*Ashley Kriel, South African activist (1966–1987)* Duma Kumalo, South African human rights activist and one of the Sharpeville Six (died 2006)* Dumisani Kumalo, South African politician (1947–2019)*Ellen Kuzwayo, political activist (1914–2006)*Lennox Lagu, political activist (1938—2011)*Stephen Bernard Lee, anti-apartheid and political prisoner (born 1951)*Anton Lembede, political activist (1914–1947)*Moses Mabhida, anti-apartheid activist (1923–1986)*Phakamile Mabija, anti-apartheid activist (died 1977)*Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, political activist and former 2nd wife to Nelson Mandela (1936–2018)*Zacharias Richard Mahabane, political activist (1881–1971)*Mac Maharaj, political activist (born 1935)*Solomon Mahlangu, Umkhonto we Sizwe operative (1956–1979)*Vusumzi Make, political activist (1931–2006)*Sefako Makgatho, political activist (1861–1951)*Mbuyisa Makhubo, anti-Apartheid activist (born 1957/1958)*Clarence Makwetu, political activist (1928–2016)*Adolph Malan, fighter pilot and civil rights activist (1910–1963)*Zollie Malindi, political activist (1924–2008)*Nelson Mandela, political activist and first President of South Africa (1918–2013)*Mosibudi Mangena, South Africa politician (born 1947)*Isaac Lesiba Maphotho, political activist (1931–2019)*J.", "B.", "Marks, politician activist (1903–1972)*Jafta Masemola, political activist (1929–1990)*Emma Mashinini, trade unionist and political leader (1929–2017)*Tsietsi Mashinini, South African anti-Apartheid activist and student leader of the Soweto uprising on 16 June 1976 (1957–1990)*Joseph Mathunjwa, Trade union leader and the head of the Association of Mineworkers and Construction Union (AMCU) (born 1965)*Florence Matomela, South African anti-pass law activist (1910–1969)*Joe Matthews, political activist and son of ZK Matthews (1929–2010)*Z. K. Matthews, political activist (1901–1968)*Seth Mazibuko, youngest member of the South African Students' Organisation that planned and led the Soweto uprising*Epainette Mbeki, political activist, mother of Thabo Mbeki and wife to Govan Mbeki (1916–2014)*Govan Mbeki, political activist and father of Thabo Mbeki (1910–2001)*Robert McBride, anti-apartheid assassin and later police chief (born 1963)*A. P. Mda, co-founder of the African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) and Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (1916–1993)*Fatima Meer, scientist and political activist (1928–2010)*Raymond Mhlaba, political activist and the former Premier of the Eastern Cape (1920–2005)*Sicelo Mhlauli, political activist and one of the Cradock four (1952–1985)*Jean Middleton, anti-apartheid activist and wife to Harold Strachan (1928–2010)*Clarence Mini, anti-apartheid activist (1951–2020)*Vuyisile Mini, unionist and Umkhonto we Sizwe activist (1920–1964)*Nomhlangano Beauty Mkhize, political activist, shop steward and wife to Saul Mkhize (1946–1977)*Sparrow Mkhonto, political activist and one of the Cradock four (1951–1985)*Wilton Mkwayi, political activist (1923–2004)*Johnson Mlambo, political activist (1940–2021)*Andrew Mlangeni, political activist (1925–2020)*Thamsanga Mnyele, anti-apartheid (1948–1985)*Billy Modise, political activist (1930–2018)*Joe Modise, political activist (1929–2001)*Thabo Edwin Mofutsanyana, political activist (1899–1995)*Mapetla Mohapi, political activist (1947–1976)*Yunus Mohamed, (sometimes Mahomed) South African lawyer and activist (1950–2008)*Peter Mokaba, political activist (1959–2002)*Priscilla Mokaba, political activist and mother of Peter Mokaba (died 2013)*Ruth Mompati, political activist (1925–2015)*Moosa Moolla, political activist (1934–2023)*Strini Moodley, founding member of the Black Consciousness Movement in South Africa (1946–2006)*Rahima Moosa, anti-apartheid activist (1922–1993)*James Moroka, political activist (1891–1985)*Zephania Mothopeng, political activist (1913–1990)*Nthato Motlana, physician and anti-apartheid activist (1925–2008)*Caroline Motsoaledi, political activist and wife to Elias Motsoaledi (died c.2015)*Elias Motsoaledi, political activist (1924–1994)*James Mpanza, political activist (1889–1970)*Oscar Mpetha, political activist and unionist (1909–1994)*Griffiths Mxenge, anti-apartheid activist (1935–1981)*Victoria Mxenge, anti-apartheid activist (1942–1985)*George Naicker, anti-apartheid activist (1919–1998)*Monty Naicker, South African anti-apartheid activist and medical doctor (1910–1978)*Ama Naidoo, anti-apartheid activist (1908–1993)*Naransamy Roy Naidoo, political (1901–1953)*Billy Nair, political activist (1929–2008)*Rita Ndzanga, anti-apartheid activist and trade unionist (1933–2022)*Mary Ngalo, South African anti-apartheid activist and was also active in fighting for women's rights (died 1973)*Lilian Ngoyi, anti-apartheid activist (1911–1980)*Looksmart Ngudle, political activist (1922–1963)*Joe Nhlanhla, African National Congress national executive and the former South African Minister of Justice (Intelligence Affairs) (1936–2008)*John Nkadimeng, politician and anti-apartheid activist (1927–2020)*Vernon Nkadimeng, political activist (1958–1985)*Nkwenkwe Nkomo, SASO nine member*William Frederick Nkomo, medical doctor, community leader, political activist and teacher (1915–1972) *Duma Nokwe, political activist (1927–1978)*Jabulile Nyawose, trade unionist and anti-apartheid activist (1948–1982)*Alfred Nzo, political activist (1925–2000)*Albert Nzula, political activist (1905–1934)*Abdullah Mohamed Omar, anti-Apartheid activist and lawyer (1934–2004)*Roy Padayachie, politician and Minister of Public Service and Administration of the Republic of South Africa (1950–2012)*Aziz Pahad, political activist (born 1940)*Essop Pahad, political activist (born 1939)*Sabelo Phama, revolutionary (1949–1994)*Motsoko Pheko, politician, lawyer, author, historian, theologian and academic (born 1933)*Joyce Piliso-Seroke, South-African educator, activist, feminist and community organizer (born 1933)*Sol Plaatje, political activist (1876–1932)*John Nyathi Pokela, political activist (1922/1923–1985)*Maggie Resha, political activist and wife of Robert Resha (1923–2003)*Robert Resha, political activist (1920–1978)*Fabian Ribeiro, South African doctor and anti-apartheid activist (1933–1986)*Florence Ribeiro, anti-apartheid activist and wife of Fabian Ribeiro (1933–1986)*Walter Rubusana, first deputy president of the ANC (1856–1936)*Albie Sachs, political activist (born 1935)*Harry Schwarz, South African lawyer, statesman and long-time political opposition leader against apartheid in South Africa (1924–2010)*Jackie Sedibe, South African National Defence Force (SANDF) Major General and politician activist and wife to Joe Modise (born 1945)*Molefi Sefularo, Deputy Minister of Health (1957–2010)*James Seipei, teenage United Democratic Front (UDF) activist (1974–1989)*Nimrod Sejake, labour leader in South Africa, leading member of the Congress of South African Trade Unions and secretary of the Iron Steel Workers (1920–2004)*Dulcie September, South African anti-apartheid political activist (1935–1988)*Reggie September, activist (1923–2013)*Nomvuzo Shabalala, politician (1960–2020) *Gertrude Shope, South African trade unionist and politician (born 1925)*Gert Sibande, political activist (1907–1987)*Archie Sibeko, political activist and trade unionist (1928–2018)*David Sibeko, South Africa politician and journalist (1938–1979)*Letitia Sibeko, political activist and wife to Archie Sibeko (1930–??", ")*Joyce Nomafa Sikakane, South African journalist and activist (born 1943)*Annie Silinga, South African anti-pass laws and anti-apartheid political activist (1910–1984)*Jack Simons, political activist (1907–1995)*Rachel Simons, communist and trade unionist and wife to Jack Simons (1914–2004)*Albertina Sisulu, political activist and wife of Walter Sisulu (1918–2011)*Walter Sisulu, political activist (1912–2003)*Zola Skweyiya, political activist (1942–2018)*Joe Slovo, South African politician, and an opponent of the apartheid system (1926–1995) *Robert Sobukwe, political activist and founder of PAC (1924–1978)*Veronica Sobukwe, political activist and wife to Robert Sobukwe (1927–2018)*Makhenkesi Stofile, political activist (1944–2016)*Harold Strachan, anti-apartheid activist (1925–2020)*Helen Suzman, South African anti-apartheid activist and politician (1917–2009)*Isaac Bangani Tabata, political activist (1909–1990)*Dora Tamana, South African anti-apartheid activist (1901–1983)*Adelaide Tambo political activist and wife to Oliver Tambo (1929–2007)*Oliver Tambo, political activist (1917–1993)*Selope Thema, South African political activist and leader (1886–1955)*Mary Thipe, anti-apartheid and human rights activist (1917–2002)*Mohammed Tikly, South African educator and struggle veteran (1939–2020)*Ahmed Timol, anti-apartheid activist, political leader and activist in the underground South African Communist Party (SACP) (1941–1971)*Abram Onkgopotse Tiro, South African student political activist (1945–1974)*Steve Tshwete, political activist (1938–2002)*Ben Turok, anti-apartheid activist and Economics Professor (1927–2019)*Moses Twebe, South African politician (1916–2013)*Zwelinzima Vavi, former general secretary of COSATU, and Trade union leader SAFTU (born 1962)*Randolph Vigne, anti-apartheid activist (1928–2016)*Sheila Weinberg, anti-apartheid activist (1945–2004)*AnnMarie Wolpe, sociologist, feminist, anti-apartheid activist and wife to Harold Wolpe (1930–2018)*Harold Wolpe, lawyer, sociologist, political economist and anti-apartheid activist (1926–1996)*Khoisan X, political activist (1955–2010)*Alfred Xuma, political activist and ANC president (1893–1962)*Tony Yengeni, anti-Apartheid activist (born 1954)===Apartheid operatives===Eugène Terre'Blanche*Wouter Basson, apartheid scientist (born 1950)*Dirk Coetzee, apartheid covert operative (1945–2013)*Eugene de Kock, apartheid assassin (born 1949)*Clive Derby-Lewis, assassin and former parliamentarian (1936–2016)*Jimmy Kruger, apartheid Minister of Justice and the Police (1917–1987)*Lothar Neethling, apartheid forensic scientist (1935–2005)*Barend Strydom, convicted murderer and white supremacist activist (born 1965)*Eugène Terre'Blanche, white supremacist activist (1941–2010)*Adriaan Vlok, apartheid Minister of Law and Order (born 1937)*Craig Williamson, apartheid spy (born 1949)===Colonial and Union Governors===Sir George GreyJan van Riebeeck*George Grey, Cape governor (1812–1898)*Jan Willem Janssens, Cape Governor (1762–1838)* Benjamin d'Urban, Cape Governor (1834–1837)*Benjamin Pine, Natal governor (1809–1891)*Harry Smith, Cape governor 1847–52 (1787–1860)*Andries Stockenström, governor of British Kaffraria (1792–1864)*Simon van der Stel, first Cape governor (1639–1712)*Willem Adriaan van der Stel, second Cape governor (1664–1723)*Jan van Riebeeck, founder of Cape settlement (1619–1677)*Nicolaas Jacobus de Wet, Chief Justice of South Africa and acting Governor-General (1873–1960)===Leaders and politicians===Patricia de LilleAbba EbanWinnie Mandela*Ken Andrew, politician (born 1943)*Kader Asmal, an activist, politician and professor of human rights (1934–2011)*Sibusiso Bengu, politician (born 1934)*Steve Biko, nonviolent political activist (1946–1977)*Thozamile Botha, politician (born 1948)*Cheryl Carolus, politician (born 1958)*Yusuf Dadoo, doctor and politician (1909–1983)*Patricia de Lille, politician (born 1951)*Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, politician (born 1949)*John Langalibalele Dube, founder and first president of ANC (1871–1946)*Abba Eban, Israeli diplomat and politician, and President of the Weizmann Institute of Science (1915–2002)*De Villiers Graaff, United Party opposition leader (1913–1999)*Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, journalist and politician (1845–1909)*Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, academic and politician (1894–1948)*Danny Jordaan, politician and soccer administrator (born 1951)*Tony Leon, DA opposition leader (born 1956)*Albert Luthuli, President of the African National Congress, 1952–67 (1898–1967)*Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, politician and second wife of Nelson Mandela (1936–2018)*Trevor Manuel, minister of finance (born 1956)*Lindiwe Mazibuko, former Parliamentary Leader for the opposition Democratic Alliance (born 1980)*Govan Mbeki, political activist and father of Thabo Mbeki (1910–2001)*Roelf Meyer, politician and businessman (born 1947)*Raymond Mhlaba, political activist and the former Premier of the Eastern Cape (1920–2005)*Vuyisile Mini, unionist and Umkhonto we Sizwe activist (1920–1964)*Johnson Mlambo, political activist (1940–2021)*Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, deputy president (born 1955)*Pieter Mulder, leader of the Freedom Front Plus and former deputy minister of agriculture (born 1951)*Gagathura (Monty) Mohambry Naicker, medical doctor and politician (1910–1978)*Bulelani Ngcuka, politician (born 1954)*Dullah Omar, politician (1934–2004)*Andries Pretorius, Boer leader and commandant-general (1799–1853)*Deneys Reitz, boer commando, deputy Prime Minister and High Commissioner to London (1882–1944)*Pixley ka Isaka Seme, ANC founder member (1881–1951)*Mbhazima Shilowa, trade unionist and premier (born 1958)*Walter Sisulu, political activist (1912–2003)*Ruth First-Slovo, political activist and wife to Joe Slovo (1924–1982)*Joe Slovo, politician (1926–1995)*Harry Schwarz, lawyer, politician, ambassador to United States and anti-apartheid leader (1924–2010)*Robert Sobukwe, political activist and founder of PAC (1924–1978)*Helen Suzman, politician (1917–2009)*Oliver Tambo, political activist (1917–1993)*Catherine Taylor, politician (1914–1992)*Frederik van Zyl Slabbert, PFP opposition leader (1940–2010)*Helen Zille, former DA opposition leader, former premier of the Western Cape (born 1951)*Jacob Zuma, former president (born 1942)===Prime Ministers and presidents===Frederik de Klerk and Nelson MandelaThabo Mbeki*Jacobus Boshoff, 2nd President of the Orange Free State (1808–1881)*Louis Botha, Boer commander-in-chief and 1st Prime Minister of South Africa (1862–1919)*Pieter Willem Botha, 9th and last Prime Minister and 8th State President of South Africa (1916–2006)*Johannes Henricus Brand, 4th President of the Orange Free State (1823–1888)*Thomas François Burgers, 4th President of South African Republic (1871–1877)*Schalk Willem Burger, 6th and last President of South African Republic (1852–1918)*Frederik Willem de Klerk, 9th and last State President of South Africa (1990–1994) and joint Nobel Peace Prize winner (1936–2021)*Nicolaas Johannes Diederichs, 4th State President of South Africa (1903–1978)*Jacobus Johannes Fouché, 3rd State President of South Africa (1898–1980)*James Barry Munnik Hertzog, Boer general and 3rd Prime Minister of South Africa (1866–1942)*Josias Hoffman, 1st President of the Orange Free State (1807–1879)*Petrus Jacobus Joubert, Boer general and member of the Troika in the South African Republic (1834–1900)*Paul Kruger, member of the Troika, 5th President of South African Republic (1825–1904)*Daniel François Malan, 5th Prime Minister of South Africa and is responsible for laying the groundwork for Apartheid (1874–1959)*Nelson Mandela, 1st democratically elected President of South Africa and joint Nobel Peace Prize winner (1918–2013)*Thabo Mbeki, 2nd post-apartheid President of South Africa (born 1942)*John X. Merriman, last prime minister of the Cape Colony (1841–1926)*Kgalema Motlanthe, 3rd post-apartheid President of South Africa (born 1949)*Tom Naudé, 2nd State President of South Africa (1889–1969)*Marthinus Wessel Pretorius, 3rd President of the Orange Free State, 1st and 3rd President of the ZAR (1819–1901)*Marthinus Prinsloo, 1st President of the Republic of Graaff-Reinet (1751–1825)*Cyril Ramaphosa, 5th post-apartheid President of South Africa (born 1952)*Francis William Reitz, 5th President of the Orange Free State (1844–1934)*Jan Smuts, Boer general, British field marshal, 2nd and 4th Prime Minister of South Africa (1870–1950)*Johannes Strijdom, 6th Prime Minister of South Africa (1893–1958)*Hermanus Steyn, 1st and last President of the Republic of Swellendam (1743–1804)*Martinus Theunis Steyn, 6th and last President of the Orange Free State (1857–1916)*Charles Robberts Swart, last Governor-General of the Union of South Africa and 1st State President of the RSA (1894–1982)*Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd, 7th Prime Minister of South Africa and primary architect of Apartheid (1901–1966)*Marais Viljoen, 5th and 7th State President of South Africa (1915–2007)*Balthazar Johannes Vorster, 8th Prime Minister and 6th State President of South Africa (1915–1983)*Jacob Zuma, 4th post-apartheid President of South Africa (born 1942)===Provincial Premiers===Mosiuoa LekotaTokyo Sexwale*Nosimo Balindlela, 3rd Premier of the Eastern Cape (born 1949)*Lynne Brown, (interim) 6th Premier of the Western Cape (born 1961)*Ivy Matsepe-Casaburri, 2nd Premier of the Free State (1937–2009)*Grizelda Cjiekella, (acting) Premier of the Northern Cape (1970–2012)*Manne Dipico, 1st Premier of the Northern Cape (born 1959)*Winkie Direko, 3rd Premier of the Free State (1929–2012)*Hazel Jenkins, 3rd Premier of the Northern Cape (born 1960)*Noxolo Kiviet, 5th Premier of the Eastern Cape (born 1963)*Hernus Kriel, 1st Premier of the Western Cape (1941–2015)*Mosiuoa Lekota, 1st Premier of the Free State (born 1948)*Sylvia Lucas, 4th Premier of the Northern Cape (born 1964)*David Mabuza, 4th Premier of Mpumalanga (born 1960)*Ace Magashule, 5th Premier of the Free State (born 1959)*Supra Mahumapelo, 5th Premier of North West (born 1968)*David Makhura, 6th Premier of Gauteng (born 1968)*Thabang Makwetla, 3rd Premier of Mpumalanga (born 1957)*Peter Marais, 3rd Premier of the Western Cape (born 1948)*Beatrice Marshoff, 4th Premier of the Free State (born 1957)*Paul Mashatile, 4th Premier of Gauteng (born 1961)*Stanley Mathabatha, 4th Premier of Limpopo (born 1957)*Cassel Mathale, 3rd Premier of Limpopo (born 1961)*Senzo Mchunu, 6th Premier of KwaZulu-Natal (born 1958)*Willies Mchunu, 7th Premier of KwaZulu-Natal (born 1948)*Frank Mdlalose, 1st Premier of KwaZulu-Natal (1931–2021)*Raymond Mhlaba, 1st Premier of the Eastern Cape (1920–2005)*Zweli Mkhize, 5th Premier of KwaZulu-Natal (born 1956)*Thandi Modise, 4th Premier of North West (born 1959)*Maureen Modiselle, 3rd Premier of North West (born 1941)*Job Mokgoro, 6th Premier of North West (born 1948)*Nomvula Mokonyane, 5th Premier of Gauteng (born 1963)*Popo Molefe, 1st Premier of North West (born 1952)*Edna Molewa, 2nd Premier of North West (1957–2018) *Sello Moloto, 2nd Premier of Limpopo (born 1964)*Gerald Morkel, 2nd Premier of the Western Cape (1941–2018)*Mathole Motshekga, 2nd Premier of Gauteng (born 1949)*Lionel Mtshali, 3rd Premier of KwaZulu-Natal (1935–2015)*Refilwe Mtsweni-Tsipane, 5th Premier of Mpumalanga (born 1972/73)*S'bu Ndebele, 4th Premier of KwaZulu-Natal (born 1948)*Ben Ngubane, 2nd Premier of KwaZulu-Natal (1941–2021)*Sisi Ntombela, 6th Premier of the Free State (born 1956/1957)*Dipuo Peters, 2nd Premier of the Northern Cape (born 1960)*Mathews Phosa, 1st Premier of Mpumalanga (born 1952)*Ngoako Ramathlodi, 1st Premier of Limpopo (born 1955)*Leonard Ramatlakane, (acting) Premier of the Western Cape (born 1953)*Ebrahim Rasool, 5th Premier of the Western Cape (born 1962)*Zamani Saul, 5th Premier of the Northern Cape (born 1972)*Tokyo Sexwale, 1st Premier of Gauteng (born 1953)*Mbhazima Shilowa, 3rd Premier of Gauteng (born 1958) *Mbulelo Sogoni, 4th Premier of the Eastern Cape (born 1966)*Makhenkesi Stofile, 2nd Premier of the Eastern Cape (1944–2016)*Marthinus van Schalkwyk, 4th Premier of the Western Cape (born 1959)*Alan Winde, 8th Premier of the Western Cape (born 1965)*Sihle Zikalala, 8th Premier of KwaZulu-Natal (born 1973)*Helen Zille, 7th Premier of the Western Cape (born 1951)===Homelands Leaders===Mangosuthu ButheleziBantubonke Holomisa*Prince Mangosuthu Buthelezi, Chief Executive Councillor and Chief Minister of KwaZulu (1928–2023)*Oupa Gqozo, President of Ciskei (born 1952)*Gen. Bantu Holomisa, Prime Minister of Transkei (born 1955)*Chief Thandathu Jongilizwe Mabandla, chief executive officer; Chief Executive Councillor and Chief Minister of Ciskei (1926–2021)*Dr. Enos John Mabuza, Chief Minister of KaNgwane (1939–1997)*Prince James Mahlangu, Chief Minister of KwaNdebele (1953–2005)*Rocky Malebane-Metsing, President of Bophuthatswana (1949–2016)*Kgosi Lucas Mangope, chief executive officer; Chief Executive Councillor; Chief Minister and President of Bophuthatswana (1923–2018)*Chief George Matanzima, Prime Minister of Transkei (1918–2000)*King Kaiser Matanzima, Chief Minister; Prime Minister and President of Transkei (1915–2003)*Edward Mhinga, acting Chief Minister of Gazankulu (1927–2017)*Job Mokgoro, Administrator (Transitional Executive Council) of Bophuthatswana (born 1948)*Kenneth Mopeli, Chief Executive Councillor and Chief Minister of Qwaqwa (1930–2014)*Chief Patrick Mphephu, chief executive officer; Chief Executive Councillor; Chief Minister and the President of Venda (1924–1988)*King Tutor Vulindlela Ndamase, President of Transkei (1921–1997)*Hudson William Edison Ntsanwisi, Chief of Minister of Gazankulu (1920–1993)*Samuel Dickenson Nxumalo, Chief Minister of Gazankulu (1926–2017)*Dr. Cedric Phatudi, Chief Minister of Lebowa (1912–1987)*Gabriel Ramushwana, Head of State of Venda (1941–2015)*Frank Ravele, Head of State of Venda (1926–1999)*Lt. Gen. Charles Sebe, acting Chief Minister of Ciskei (died c.1991)*Chief Lennox Sebe, Chief Minister and President of Ciskei (1926–1994)*King Botha Sigcau, President of Transkei and father of Stella Sigcau (died c.1978)*Stella Sigcau, Prime of Transkei (1937–2006)*Tjaart van der Walt, Administrator Transitional Executive Council of Bophuthatswana (1934–2019)===Administrators of former provinces===Nicolaas Frederic de WaalJan Hendrik Hofmeyr*Cornelius Botha, 12th and last Administrator of the Natal Province (1932–2014)*Stoffel Botha, 10th Administrator of the Natal Province (1929–1998)*Radclyffe Cadman, 11th Administrator of the Natal Province (1924–2011)*Dr Willem Adriaan Cruywagen, 10th Administrator of the Transvaal Province (1921–2013)*Nicolaas Frederic de Waal, 1st Administrator of the Cape Province (1853–1932)*Jim Fouché, 8th Administrator of the Orange Free State Province (1898–1980)*Theo Gerdener, 8th Administrator of the Natal Province (1916–2013)*Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, 3rd Administrator of the Transvaal Province (1894–1948)*Gene Louw, 13th Administrator of the Cape Province (1931–2015)*Nico Malan, 10th Administrator of the Cape Province*William Nico, 7th Administrator of the Transvaal Province (1887–1967)*Frans Hendrik Odendaal, 8th Administrator of the Transvaal Province (1898–1966)*Denis Gem Shepstone, 6th Administrator of the Natal Province (1888–1966)*Alfred Ernest Trollip, 7th Administrator of the Natal Province (1895–1972)*Johannes Van Rensburg, 6th Administrator of the Orange Free State Province (1898–1966)*Gideon Brand van Zyl, 5th Administrator of the Cape Province (1873–1956)*Sir Cornelius Hermanus Wessels, 2nd Administrator of the Orange Free State Province (1851–1924)" ], [ "Royalty", "===Kings, queens, princes and princesses===Dinuzulu kaCetshwayoFaku kaNgqungqusheHintsa ka KhawutaLangalibaleleMakobo ModjadjiMzilikaziSekhukhune*Cetshwayo kaMpande, 4th Zulu king (1826–1884)*Cyprian Bhekuzulu kaSolomon, 7th Zulu king (1924–1945)*Goodwill Zwelethini, 8th king of the Zulu nation (1948–2021)*Mantifombi Dlamini, wife of Goodwill Zweilithini and former Queen of Zulu nation (1956–2021)*Mangosuthu Buthelezi, politician and a Zulu prince (1928–2023)*Dingane kaSenzangakhona, 2nd Zulu king and half-brother of Shaka (1795–1840)*Dinuzulu kaCetshwayo, 5th Zulu king, not officially recognized (1868–1913)*Buyelekhaya Dalindyebo, Aa!", "Zwelibanzi!", "King of the Thembu (born 1964)*Sabata Dalindyebo, Aa!", "Jonguhlanga!", "King of the Thembu (1928–1986)*Faku kaNgqungqushe, King of the Mpondo (1780–1867)*Hintsa ka Khawuta, Aa!", "Zanzolo!", "King of Xhosa Nation (1780–1835)*Khawuta kaGcaleka, Aa!", "Khala!", "King of the Xhosa Nation (1761–1804)*Langalibalele, Hlubi king (1814–1889)*Ingwenyama Mayitjha II, 7th Ndebele, king of Ndzundza-Mabhoko (1947–2005)*Magogo kaDinuzulu, Zulu princess and mother of Mangosuthu Buthelezi (1900–1984)*Mampuru II, king of the Marota (or Bapedi) (died c.1883)*Lwandile Matanzima, Aa!", "Zwelenkosi!", "King of the Western Thembu (1970/71–2010)*Luzuko Matiwane, Aa!", "Zwelozuko!", "King of AmaMpondomise (born 1978)*Maselekwane Modjadji, Balobedu's 1st Rain Queen (died 1854)*Masalanabo Modjadji, Balobedu's 2nd Rain Queen (died 1894)*Khetoane Modjadji, Balobedu's 3rd Rain Queen (1869–1959)*Makoma Modjadji, Balobedu's 4th Rain Queen (1905–1980)*Mokope Modjadji, Balobedu's 5th Rain Queen (1936–2001)*Makobo Modjadji, Balobedu's 6th Rain Queen (1978–2005)*Mkabayi kaJama, Zulu princess and sister of Senzangakhona (1750–1843)*Mpande, 3rd Zulu king and half-brother of Shaka (1798–1872)*Mthimkhulu II, King of the AmaHlubi (1778–1818) *Mzilikazi, king of the Matabele (1790–1868)*Nandi, Mhlongo princess and mother of Shaka (1760–1827)*Tutor Vulindlela Ndamase, Nyangelizwe!", "King of the Western Pondo (1921–1997)*Ngqungqushe kaNyawuza, Mpondo King (1715/1760–1810/1815)*Ngubengcuka, Aa!", "Ndaba!", "prominent king of the abaThembu (died 1830)*Emma Sandile, (1842–1892), Aa!", "Emma!", "Xhosa Princess and the daughter of King Mgolombane Sandile (1842–1892)*Mgolombane Sandile, Aa!", "Mgolombane!", "Xhosa king of the Right Hand House of the Xhosa Nation (1820–1878)*Zanesizwe Sandile, Aa!", "Zanesizwe!", "King of the Right Hand House of the Xhosa Nation (1956–2011)*Noloyiso Sandile, Aa!", "Noloyiso!", "Zulu Princess and Rharhabe Regent Queen (1963–2020)*Sarili kaHintsa, Aa!", "Krili!", "King Of The Xhosa Nation (c. 1810–1892)*Botha Sigcau, Jongilizwe!", "King of the Eastern Pondo (died 1978)*Xolilizwe Sigcawu, Aa!", "Xolilizwe!", "Xhosa King (1926–2005)*Zwelonke Sigcawu, Aa!", "Zwelonke!", "Xhosa king (1968–2019)*Sekhukhune, king of the Marota (or Bapedi) (1814–1882)*Senzangakhona kaJama, Zulu king and father of Shaka (1762–1816)*Shaka, founder of the Zulu nation (1787–1828)*Solomon kaDinuzulu, 6th Zulu king, not officially recognized (1891–1933)*Victor Thulare III, king of the Pedi (1980–2021)*uZibhebhu kaMaphitha, Zulu prince and chief (1841–1904)===Tribal leaders and prophets===See also: Gcaleka rulers, Rharhabe rulersNdwandwe people, Xhosa Chiefs Bhambatha (on the right) with an attendantAdam KokChief Maqoma*Bambatha kaMancinza, Zulu chief of the amaZondi clan and Bambatha Rebellion (1865–1906)*Chief Albert Luthuli, Zulu chief and political activist (1898–1967)*Adam Kok, Griqua leader (1811–1875)*David Stuurman, Khoi chief and political activist (1773–1830)*Thandatha Jongilizwe Mabandla, Aa!", "Jongilizwe!", "amaBhele chief, Tyume Valley, Alice, Ciskei (1926–2021)*Makhanda, amaXhosa prophet (died 1819)*Maqoma, Aa!", "Jongumsobomvu!", "amaRharhabe chief (1798–1873)*Chief Mqalo, Amakhuze chief, Ciskei region (1916–2008)*Moshoeshoe I, Basotho chief (c. 1786–1870)*Nongqawuse, millennialist amaXhosa prophetess (c. 1840–1898)*Ntsikana, amaXhosa prophet (1780–1821)*Lennox Sebe, Chief of AmaNtinde (1926–1994) *Nkosi Ntsikayezwe Sigcau, traditional leader of Lwandlolubomvu Traditional Council (1947–1996) *Sigananda kaSokufa, Zulu aristocrat (c. 1815–1906)*Hendrik Spoorbek, prophet and magician (died 1845)*Mbongeleni Zondi, Zulu chief and great-grandson of Inkosi Bambatha kaMancinza (1969–2009)" ], [ "Atheists", "*Zackie Achmat, AIDS activist, (born 1962)*David Benatar, professor of philosophy (born 1966)*Barry Duke, activist, journalist, editor of The Freethinker (born 1947)*Nadine Gordimer, activist, writer, Nobel laureate (1923–2014)*Chris Hani, politician (1942–1993)*Ronnie Kasrils, politician (born 1938)*Govan Mbeki, political activist and father of Thabo Mbeki (1910–2001) *Jacques Rousseau, secular activist, social commentator (born 1971)*Harold Rubin, visual artist, musician (1932–2020)*Joe Slovo, politician (1926–1995)*Lewis Wolpert, author, biologist, broadcaster (1929–2021)" ], [ "Prelates, clerics and evangelists", "Desmond Tutu*William Anderson, missionary (1769–1852)*Nicholas Bhengu, evangelist and founder of Assemblies of God (1909–1986)*Allan Boesak, cleric and anti-apartheid activist (born 1945)*David Jacobus Bosch, missiologist and theologian (1929–1992)*Angus Buchan, evangelist (born 1947)*Frank Chikane, cleric and anti-apartheid activist (born 1951)*John William Colenso, Anglican bishop of Natal (1814–1883)*Ahmed Deedat (1918–2005)*S.J.", "du Toit, cleric, Afrikaans language pioneer and founder member of the Genootskap vir Regte Afrikaners (1847–1911)*Allan Hendrickse, cleric and MP (1927–2005)*Denis Hurley, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Durban (1915–2004)*Edward Lekganyane, the Zion Christian Church (ZCC) leader (1922–1967)*Engenas Lekganyane, the Zion Christian Church (ZCC) founder (1885–1948)*Albert Luthuli, cleric, politician and 1960 Nobel Peace Prize winner (c. 1898–1967)*Thabo Makgoba, current Archbishop of Cape Town and Primate of the Anglican Church of Southern Africa (born 1960)*Charlotte Maxeke, religious leader and political activist (1874–1939)*Ray McCauley, head of Rhema church (born 1949)*Robert Moffat, missionary, Bible translator and founder of Kuruman (1795–1883)*Smangaliso Mkhatshwa, Catholic priest (born 1939)*Frederick Samuel Modise, founder of the International Pentecostal Holiness Church (1914–1998)*Glayton Modise, the International Pentecostal Holiness Church leader (1940–2016)*Andrew Murray (1828–1917)*Zithulele Patrick Mvemve, South African Roman Catholic bishop (1941–2020)*Selby Mvusi, theologian and artist (1929–1967)*Wilfrid Napier, cardinal of the Catholic Church (born 1941)*Beyers Naudé, cleric and anti-apartheid activist (1915–2004)*Jozua Naudé, pastor, school founder and co-founder of the Afrikaner Broederbond (1873–1948)*Carl Niehaus, theologian and former spokesman of South African president Nelson Mandela (born 1959)*Albert Nolan, Catholic priest (born 1934)*John Philip, missionary (1775–1851)*Barney Pityana, human rights lawyer and theologian (born 1945)*Ambrose Reeves, Anglican bishop and opponent of Apartheid (1899–1980)*David Russell, South African Anglican bishop (1938–2014)* Isaiah Shembe, the Church of Nazareth founder (1865–1935)*Desmond Tutu, cleric and Nobel Peace Prize winner (1931–2021)*William Cullen Wilcox, missionary (1850–1928)" ], [ "Sport" ], [ "Conservationists", "*Ian Player (1927–2014)*James Stevenson-Hamilton (1867–1957)*John Varty (born 1950)" ], [ "Food", "* Bertus Basson (born 1979)* Karen Dudley (born 1968)* Prue Leith (born 1940)* Abigail Mbalo-Mokoena* Jenny Morris* Nompumelelo Mqwebu (born 1977)* Siba Mtongana (born 1984)* Kamini Pather (born 1983)* Reuben Riffel (born 1974)* Lesego Semenya (1982–2021)* Faldela Williams (1952–2014)" ], [ "Travelers, adventurers and pioneers", "*Alexander Biggar, colonial pioneer (1781–1838)*Jeanne M. Borle, missionary and naturalist (1880 – ca.", "1979)*William John Burchell, naturalist traveler (1781–1863)*Francisco de Almeida, adventurer buried in Cape Town (c. 1450–1510)*Bartolomeu Dias, explorer who reached eastern Cape (c. 1450–1500)*John Dunn, colonial pioneer (1833–1895)*Robert Jacob Gordon, explorer, soldier, naturalist (1743–1795)*Emil Holub, explorer (1847–1902)*Nathaniel Isaacs, Natal traveler (1808–1872)*Dick King, colonial pioneer (1813–1871)*François Levaillant, Cape naturalist traveler (1753–1824)*Karl Mauch, traveling geologist (1873–1875)*Harriet A. Roche, Transvaal traveler (1835–1921)*Carl Peter Thunberg, Cape naturalist traveler (1743–1828)*Sibusiso Vilane, first black African to summit Mount Everest (born 1970)*Kingsley Holgate, traveler and pioneer (born 1946)*Mike Horn, explorer, traveler, environmentalist, adventurer (born 1966)*James Alexander, explorer of the west coast and Namibia (1803–1885)*Saray Khumalo, explorer and mountaineer (born 1972)" ], [ "Criminals", "Daisy de Melker*Thabo Bester, convicted criminal, rapist and serial killer (born 1986)*Daisy de Melker, second woman to be hanged for murder under the Union of South Africa (1886–1932)*William Foster, leader of the Foster Gang*Allan Heyl, Stander Gang member and bank robber (died 2020)*Cedric Maake, serial killer (born 1965)*Bulelani Mabhayi, serial killer (born 1974)*Simon Majola, robber and serial killer who, with (born 1968)*Fanuel Makamu, robber, rapist and serial killer (born 1977)*Andries Makgae, serial killer and rapist (born 1962)*Lee McCall, Stander Gang member and bank robber (1950–1984)*Nicholas Lungisa Ncama, a rapist and serial killer*Velaphi Ndlangamandla, robber and serial killer (born 1966)*Solomon Ngobeni, the last person to be executed by the government of South Africa (died 1989)*Butana Almond Nofomela, murder (born 1957)*Gert van Rooyen, paedophile (1938–1990)*Khangayi Sedumedi, Killer South African serial killer and rapist (born 1977)*Schabir Shaik, convicted fraudster*Norman Afzal Simons, rapist and serial killer (born 1967)*Moses Sithole, convicted serial rapist and murderer (born 1964)*Rashied Staggie, crime boss (1961–2019)*Andre Stander, gang member (1946–1984)*Thozamile Taki, serial killer (born 1971)*Sipho Thwala, rapist and serial killer (born 1968) *Dorethea van der Merwe, first woman to be hanged for murder under the Union of South Africa*Bulelani Vukwana, spree killer (c. 1973–2002)*Elias Xitavhudzi, serial killer*Christopher Mhlengwa Zikode, rapist and serial killer (born 1975)" ], [ "Other", "*Sir Herbert Baker, influential in South African architecture (1862–1946)*Nozipho Bhengu, woman whose death was from an AIDS-related illness (1974–2006)*Fredie Blom, South African supercentenarian Fredie Blom (1904–2020)*Denise Darvall, considered to be donor for the first human heart transplant (1943–1967)*Ncoza Dlova, heralded as first black female head of University of KwaZulu-Natal's School of Clinical Medicine*Napoléon Eugène, last of Napoleons who died in Zulu war (1856–1879)*Emily Hobhouse, African British welfare campaigner for South Africans (1860–1926)*John Hutchinson, thorough contributor to South African botany (1884–1972)*Nkosi Johnson, child who died of AIDS (1989–2001)*Isabel Jean Jones, early consumer advocate journalist (died 2008)*Masego Kgomo, South African girl murdered (1999–2009)*Marie Koopmans-de Wet, South African philanthropist and hostess (1834–1906)*Sandra Laing, racial classification victim (born 1955)*Paul Lloyd Jr, first South African wrestler to wrestle in WWE, son of successful SA wrestling promoter Paul Lloyd (born 1981)*Asnath Mahapa, first female South African pilot (born 1979)*Joe Mamasela, former Apartheid government spy (born 1953)*Nomkhitha Virginia Mashinini, South African apartheid detainee, the mother of political figure Tsietsi Mashinini, and a community worker (1935–2008)*Leigh Matthews, South African university student, kidnapped and murdered (1983–2004)*Breaker Morant, Australian Boer War soldier executed by the British Army (1864–1902)*Uyinene Mrwetyana, South African student, raped and murdered (2000–2019)*Hastings Ndlovu, poster victim of the Soweto riots (1961–1976)*Hector Pieterson, poster victim of the Soweto riots (1964–1976)*Mrs. Ples, hominid fossil (born c. 2.6 to 2.8 million years ago)*Raymond Rahme, first African to reach a final table at a World Series of Poker Main Event, finishing third (born 1945)*Willem Ratte, soldier and criminal (born 1948)*Rosenkowitz sextuplets, first known set of sextuplets to survive their infancy (born 1974)*Maki Skosana, necklaced due to be suspected as a police informer (1961–1985)*Reeva Steenkamp, South African model and paralegal (1983–2013)*Adam Tas, colonial activist (1668–1722)*Andries Tatane, Ficksburg activist killed by police (1978–2011)*Taung Child, hominid fossil (born c. 2.5 million years ago)*Louis Washkansky, recipient of first human heart transplant (1913–1967)*Wolraad Woltemade, colonial hero figure (c. 1708–1773)" ], [ "See also", "*''Great South Africans'', television program listing the 100 greatest South Africans as voted for by viewers*List of South African office-holders*List of Southern Ndebele people*List of State leaders in the 20th century (1951–2000)*List of white Africans of European ancestry*List of Xhosa people*List of Zulu people*Lists of people by nationality*''They Shaped Our Century'', survey by Media24 in 1999 about 100 most influential South Africans (and people associated with South Africa) of the twentieth century" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "File manager" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''file manager''' or '''file browser''' is a computer program that provides a user interface to manage files and folders.", "The most common operations performed on files or groups of files include creating, opening (e.g.", "viewing, playing, editing or printing), renaming, copying, moving, deleting and searching for files, as well as modifying file attributes, properties and file permissions.", "Folders and files may be displayed in a hierarchical tree based on their directory structure." ], [ "Features", "=== File transfer ===Graphical file managers may support copying and moving of files through \"copy and paste\" and \"cut and paste\" respectively, as well as through drag and drop, and a separate menu for selecting the target path.While transferring files, a file manager may show the source and destination directories, transfer progress in percentage and/or size, progress bar, name of the file currently being transferred, remaining and/or total number of files, numerical transfer rate, and graphical transfer rate.", "The ability to pause the file transfer allows temporarily granting other software full sequential read access while allowing to resume later without having to restart the file transfer.Some file managers move multiple files by copying and deleting each selected file from the source individually, while others first copy all selected files, then delete them from the source afterwards, as described in .Conflicting file names in a target directory may be handled through renaming, overwriting, or skipping.", "Renaming is typically numerical.", "Overwriting may be conditional, such as when the source file is newer or differs in size.", "Files could technically be compared with checksums, but that would require reading through the entire source and target files, which would slow down the process significantly on larger files.=== User interface ===Some file managers contain features analogous to web browsers, including forward and back navigational buttons, an address bar, tabs, and a bookmark side bar.=== Networking ===Some file managers provide network connectivity via protocols, such as FTP, HTTP, NFS, SMB or WebDAV.", "This is achieved by allowing the user to browse for a file server (connecting and accessing the server's file system like a local file system) or by providing its own full client implementations for file server protocols." ], [ "Directory editors", "A term that the usage of ''file manager'' is ''directory editor''.", "An early directory editor, DIRED, was developed circa 1974 at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory by Stan Kugell.A directory editor was written for EXEC 8 at the University of Maryland, and was available to other users at that time.", "The term was used by other developers, including Jay Lepreau, who wrote the '''dired''' program in 1980, which ran on BSD.", "This was in turn inspired by an older program with the same name running on TOPS-20.", "'''Dired''' inspired other programs, including dired, the editor script (for emacs and similar editors), and '''ded'''." ], [ "File-list file manager", "The Alto Neptune file manager program''File-list'' file managers are lesser known and older than orthodox file managers.One such file manager was neptune.", "It ran on the Xerox Alto in the 1973-1974 time frame.It had some of the same features that would end up in orthodox file managers.Another such file manager is flist, which was introduced sometime before 1980 on the Conversational Monitor System.This is a variant of FULIST, which originated before late 1978, according to comments by its author, Theo Alkema.The flist program provided a list of files in the user's minidisk, and allowed sorting by any file attribute.", "The file attributes could be passed to scripts or function-key definitions, making it simple to use flist as part of CMS EXEC, EXEC 2 or XEDIT scripts.This program ran only on IBM VM/SP CMS, but was the inspiration for other programs, including filelist (a script run via the Xedit editor), and programs running on other operating systems, including a program also called flist, which ran on OpenVMS, and FULIST (from the name of the corresponding internal IBM program), which runs on Unix." ], [ "Orthodox file managers", "Midnight Commander, an orthodox file manager with a text-based user interfaceOrthodox file managers (sometimes abbreviated to \"OFM\") or command-based file managers are text-menu based file managers, that commonly have three windows (two panels and one command line window).", "Orthodox file managers are one of the longest running families of file managers, preceding graphical user interface-based types.", "Developers create applications that duplicate and extend the manager that was introduced by PathMinder and John Socha's Norton Commander for DOS.", "The concept dates to the mid-1980s—PathMinder was released in 1984, and Norton Commander version 1.0 was released in 1986.Despite the age of this concept, file managers based on Norton Commander are actively developed, and dozens of implementations exist for DOS, Unix, and Microsoft Windows.", "Nikolai Bezroukov publishes his own set of criteria for an OFM standard (version 1.2 dated June 1997).===Features===An orthodox file manager typically has three windows.", "Two of the windows are called panels and are positioned symmetrically at the top of the screen.", "The third is the command line, which is essentially a minimized command (shell) window that can be expanded to full screen.", "Only one of the panels is active at a given time.", "The active panel contains the \"file cursor\".", "Panels are resizable and can be hidden.", "Files in the active panel serve as the source of file operations performed by the manager.", "For example, files can be copied or moved from the active panel to the location represented in the passive panel.", "This scheme is most effective for systems in which the keyboard is the primary or sole input device.", "The active panel shows information about the current working directory and the files that it contains.", "The passive (inactive) panel shows the content of the same or another directory (the default target for file operations).", "Users may customize the display of columns that show relevant file information.", "The active panel and passive panel can be switched (often by pressing the tab key).The following features describe the class of orthodox file managers.", "* They present the user with a two-panel directory view with a command line below.", "Either panel may be selected to be active; the other becomes passive.", "The active panel becomes the working area for delete and rename operations, while the passive panel serves as a target for copy and move operations.", "Panels may be shrunk, exposing the terminal window hidden behind them.", "Normally, only the last line of the terminal window (the command line) is visible.", "* They provide close integration with an underlying OS shell via command line, using the associated terminal window that permits viewing the results of executing shell commands entered on the command line (e.g., via Ctrl-O shortcut in Norton Commander).", "* They provide the user with extensive keyboard shortcuts.", "* The file manager frees the user from having to use the mouse.", "* Users can create their own file associations and scripts that are invoked for certain file types and organize these scripts into a hierarchical tree (e.g., as a user script library or user menu).", "* Users can extend the functionality of the manager via a so-called ''User menu'' or ''Start menu'' and extensions menu.Other common features include:* Information on the \"active\" and \"passive\" panels may be used for constructing commands on the command line.", "Examples include current file, path to left panel, path to right panel, etc.", "* They provide a built-in viewer for (at least) the most basic file types.", "* They have a built-in editor.", "In many cases, the editor can extract certain elements of the panels into the text being edited.", "* Many support virtual file systems (VFS) such as viewing compressed archives, or working with files via an FTP connection.", "* They often have the word ''commander'' in the name, after Norton Commander.", "* Path: shows the source/destination location of the directory in use* Information about directory size, disk usage and disk name (usually at the bottom of the panels)* Panel with information about file name, extension, date and time of creation, last modification, and permissions (attributes).", "* Info panel with the number of files in directory, and the sum of the sizes of selected files.", "* Tabbed interface (usually in GUI file managers)* Function keys: F1–F10 have all the same functions under all orthodox file managers.", "Examples: F5 always copies file(s) from the active to the inactive panel, while F6 moves the file.====Tabbed panels====The introduction of tabbed panels in some file managers (for example Total Commander) made it possible to manipulate more than one active and passive directory at a time.====Portability====Orthodox file managers are among the most portable file managers.", "Examples are available on almost any platform, with both command-line and graphical interfaces.", "This is unusual among command line managers in that something purporting to be a standard for the interface is published.", "They are also actively supported by developers.", "This makes it possible to do the same work on different platforms without much relearning of the interface.====Dual-pane managers====Sometimes they are called dual-pane managers, a term that is typically used for programs such as the Windows File Explorer (see below).", "But they have three panes including a command line pane below (or hidden behind) two symmetric panes.", "Furthermore, most of these programs allow using just one of the two larger panes with the second hidden.", "Some also add an item to the Context Menu in Windows to \"Open two Explorers, side by side\".Notable ones include:* Altap Salamander* Commander One* Demos Commander* Directory Opus* DOS Navigator (DN) and derivatives* Double Commander* emelFM2* Far Manager* File Commander* ForkLift* GNOME Commander* Krusader* Midnight Commander (MC)* muCommander* Norton Commander (NC)* PathMinder* Ranger* SE-Explorer* Total Commander* Volkov Commander (VC)* WinSCP* XTree* ZTreeWin" ], [ "Navigational file manager", "File Manager in Windows 10, displaying the contents of partition X:NemoA '''navigational file manager''' is a newer type of file manager.", "Since the advent of GUIs, it has become the dominant type of file manager for desktop computers.Typically, it has two panes, with the filesystem tree in the left pane and the contents of the current directory in the right pane.", "For macOS, the Miller columns view in Finder (originating in NeXTStep) is a variation on the navigational file manager theme.Miller Column browser from GNUstep is a type of Navigational file manager.===Concepts===* The window displays the location currently being viewed.", "* The location being viewed (the current directory) can be changed by the user by opening directories, pressing a ''back button'', typing a location, or using the additional pane with the navigation tree representing all or part of the filesystem.", "* Icons represent files, programs, and directories.The interface in a navigational file manager often resembles a web browser, complete with ''back'' and ''forward'' buttons, and often ''reload'' buttons.", "Most also contain an address bar into which the file or directory path (or URI) can be typed.Most navigational file managers have two panes, the left pane being a tree view of the filesystem.", "This means that unlike orthodox file managers, the two panes are asymmetrical in their content and use.Selecting a directory in the Navigation pane on the left designates it as the current directory, displaying its contents in the Contents pane on the right.", "However, expanding (+) or collapsing (-) a portion of the tree without selecting a directory will not alter the contents of the right pane.", "The exception to this behavior applies when collapsing a parent of the current directory, in which case the selection is refocused on the collapsed parent directory, thus altering the list in the Contents pane.The process of moving from one location to another need not open a new window.", "Several instances of the file manager can be opened simultaneously and communicate with each other via drag-and-drop and clipboard operations, so it is possible to view several directories simultaneously and perform cut-and paste operations between instances.File operations are based on drag-and-drop and editor metaphors: users can select and copy files or directories onto the clipboard and then paste them in a different place in the filesystem or even in a different instance of the file manager.Notable examples of navigational file managers include:* Directory Opus* Dolphin in KDE* DOS Shell in MS-DOS/PC DOS* File Manager in Windows* macOS Finder* Nautilus in GNOME (default since v2.30)* File Explorer (Windows Explorer)* PC Shell in PC Tools* ViewMAX in DR DOS* XTree / ZTreeWin" ], [ "Spatial file manager", "The Nautilus file manager had a spatial mode, which was removed with the arrival of GNOME (and with it Nautilus) version 3.x.", "Each of these windows displays an open directory.", "'''Spatial file managers''' use a spatial metaphor to represent files and directories as if they were actual physical objects.", "A spatial file manager imitates the way people interact with physical objects.Some ideas behind the concept of a spatial file manager are:# A single window represents each opened directory# Each window is unambiguously and irrevocably tied to a particular directory.# Stability: files, directories, and windows go where the user moves them, stay where the user puts them (\"preserve their spatial state\"), and retain all their other \"physical\" characteristics (such as size, shape, color and location).# The same item can only be viewed in one window at a time.As in navigational file managers, when a directory is opened, the icon representing the directory changes—perhaps from an image showing a closed drawer to an opened one, perhaps the directory's icon turns into a silhouette filled with a pattern—and a new window is opened to represent that directory.Examples of file managers that use a spatial metaphor to some extent include:* Apple's Finder 5 to 9* Konqueror has the option to turn into spatial mode* RISC OS Filer* Amiga's Workbench* GNOME's Nautilus from version 2.6 (default until 2.29, completely removed in 3.0)* MATE's Caja (though the default mode is navigational)* BeOS's Tracker* Haiku's Tracker* OS/2's Workplace Shell* Digital Research's GEM (implemented in Atari TOS and as a somewhat reduced version for PCs)* ROX-Filer file manager (ROX Desktop)* E17 file managerDysfunctional spatial file managers:* Windows Explorer in Windows 95 was set as a spatial file manager model by default; because it also worked as a navigational file manager, directories could be opened in multiple windows, which made it fail all the above criteria.", "Later versions gradually abandoned the spatial model.", "* Apple's Finder in macOS was designed with a similar integration of spatial and navigational modes, meaning that the spatial mode did not actually work." ], [ "3D file managers", "File System Visualizer, one example of a 3D file managerIn Cubix, files sharing the same attributes are represented by cubes in a 3D environment.Some projects have attempted to implement a three-dimensional method of displaying files and directory structures.", "Three-dimensional file browsing has not become popular; the exact implementation tends to differ between projects, and there are no common standards to follow.Examples of three-dimensional file managers include:* File System Visualizer, or fsv, an open-source clone of fsn for modern Unix-like systems.", "* tdfsb, an open-source 3D file browser, where one enters directories by flying into them (using WASD).", "Runs on Linux, FreeBSD and BeOS.", "* BumpTop, a file manager using a three-dimensional representation of a desktop with realistic physics, intended for use with a stylus and touchscreen.", "* Real Desktop, a desktop replacement with similarities to BumpTop.", "* Cubix 3D Filer is a Windows file manager which organizes files according to different attributes.", "* GopherVR, a 3D visualisation of networked Gopher resources." ], [ "Web-based file managers", "Web-based file managers are typically scripts written in either PHP, Ajax, Perl, ASP or another server-side language.", "When installed on a local server or on a remote server, they allow files and directories located there to be managed and edited, using a web browser, without the need for FTP Access.More advanced, and usually commercially distributed, web-based file management scripts allow the administrator of the file manager to configure secure, individual user accounts, each with individual account permissions.", "Authorized users have access to documents stored on the server or in their individual user directories anytime, from anywhere, via a web browser.A web-based file manager can serve as an organization's digital repository.", "For example, documents, digital media, publishing layouts, and presentations can be stored, managed, and shared between customers, suppliers, and remote workers, or just internally.Web-based file managers are becoming increasingly popular due to the rise in popularity of dynamic web content management systems (CMS) and the need for non-technical website moderators to manage media on their websites powered by these platforms.An example is net2ftp, a PHP- and JavaScript-based FTP client." ], [ "File picker", "Operating systems typically ship a ''file picker'', which allows specifying in which location to save a file (usually accessed through the \"Save as\" option in software), and where to open a file from.", "Sometimes, a folder is selected instead of a file or destination path.Some file pickers also allow file management to some degree, such as searching, moving, copying, renaming, and copying the path to clipboard.Some software might have a customized file picker." ], [ "See also", "*Batch renaming*Comparison of file managers*Disk space analyzer*Desktop metaphor*Spatial navigation" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** The Orthodox File Manager (OFM) Paradigm: The History of Development of Norton Commander, by Nikolai Bezroukov, Softpanorama.org, 2009.Retrieved 2010-12-26.", "* Less is More: A rich functionality behind Spartan interface of Orthodox File Managers, by Nikolai Bezroukov, Softpanorama.org, 2012.Retrieved 2012-12-15.", "* About the Finder, by John Siracusa, Ars Technica, 2003.Retrieved 2010-12-26.", "* The Spatial Way, by Colin Charles, 2004.Retrieved 2010-12-26.", "* dired - directory editor.", "Archived from the original on 2008-04-03.Retrieved 2010-12-26.", "* flist, section 4.3.2.2.3 in Introduction to IBM/CMS, Users' Manual, Department of Computer Science, University of Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada.", "Retrieved 2010-12-26." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "File viewer" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''file viewer''' is utility application software on operating systems for example; Windows, MacOS and Linux, that handle the access of files that are located on data storage devices to be accessible by the user.", "File viewing utility software allows the user to open and read content on a Personal Computer (PC) or on a Mobile phone." ], [ "Overview", "File viewer applications can be split into the following categories:* '''File Viewer Only''' applications do not allow the user to edit files.", "* '''File Viewer and Converter''' applications allow both viewing data and exporting data in a different file format, or by copying information to the clipboard.", "* '''File Viewer and Editor''' applications allow the user to view existing files, create a new file of a specific type, or modify the content of an existing file.Such division of functionality was initially a result of software licensing for proprietary file formats, as all file formats can be read freely but software licenses may exist that limit file creation and modification algorithms to be used only by the licensor.", "For example, database software DBASE used a proprietary algorithm for creating .DBF files, but Norton Commander had a built-in viewer for .DBF files.", "Acrobat Reader supports viewing of .PDF files, but another software application such as Adobe Photoshop, LibreOffice or Microsoft Word is required to create .PDF files.File viewers need to have structural information about the file format to be viewed in order to handle different byte orders, code pages or newline styles.", "On the contrary, media file viewers, such as Video Player applications may have initially very small number of file formats or none recognized, but rely on video codecs to play various media, making their capability to read and represent media file data to the user expandable.Some file viewers may be classified as filters that translate binary files into plain text (e.g., antiword).", "However, depending on the competence of the translating routines, some information may be lost.Image viewers display graphic files on screen.", "Some viewers such as IrfanView are capable of reading multiple graphic file formats but some such as JPEGview are dedicated to a single format.", "Common image viewer features include thumbnail preview and creation, image zooming and rotation, color balance and gamma correction, resizing, etc.A web browser is a type of file viewer, which renders HTML markup into a human-friendly presentation.", "Although HTML is stored in plain text files, viewing an HTML file in a browser and in a text editor produces significantly different results.", "Web browsers may also be used to view multimedia files such as images, videos, pre-formatted documents, interactive environments, 3D models, augmented reality and virtual reality applets." ], [ "Examples", "===Plain text files===*Less (Unix)*gedit (Unix)*Most (Unix)*pg (Unix)*More (command)*vi*notepad===Microsoft Office documents===*Microsoft Word Viewer*Microsoft Excel Viewer*PowerPoint Viewer*Antiword===PDF files===*Adobe Acrobat*Atril*Evince*PDF.js*see :Category:PDF readers=== Image files ===*Directory Opus*IrfanView*ACDSee*XnView=== Video and audio files ===* Media Player Classic* Windows Media Player* VLC===Binary files===*Hiew*UltraEdit*Midnight Commander*ExifTool=== Programming languages source code files ===* Notepad++* VS Code=== VRML and 3D models files ===* VRML Viewer* FreeWRL* view3dscene* Microsoft 3D viewer===Microsoft Project plan files===*Microsoft Project*Seavus Project Viewer (software)" ], [ "See also", "*Binary file#Viewing binary files*Electronic document*Image viewer*Media player*Text editor*Web browser*Terminal pager" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "First Epistle of Peter" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''First Epistle of Peter''' is a book of the New Testament.", "The author presents himself as Peter the Apostle.", "The ending of the letter includes a statement that implies that it was written from “Babylon”, which may be a reference to Rome.", "The letter is addressed to the \"chosen pilgrims of the diaspora\" in Asia Minor suffering religious persecution.Papyrus 72; the left page shows the end of 1 Peter." ], [ "Authorship", "The authorship of 1 Peter has traditionally been attributed to the Apostle Peter because it bears his name and identifies him as its author (1:1).", "Although the text identifies Peter as its author, the language, dating, style, and structure of this letter have led most scholars to conclude that it is pseudonymous.", "Many scholars argue that Peter was not the author of the letter because its writer appears to have had a formal education in rhetoric and philosophy, and an advanced knowledge of the Greek language, none of which would be usual for a Galilean fisherman.New Testament scholar Graham Stanton rejects Petrine authorship because 1 Peter was most likely written during the reign of Domitian in AD 81, which is when he believes widespread Christian persecution began, which is long after the death of Peter.", "More recent scholars such as Travis Williams say that the persecution described does not appear to be describing official Roman persecutions after Peter's death, thus not directly ruling out an early date for the composition of the epistle.", "Another dating issue is the reference to \"Babylon\" in chapter 5 verse 13, generally agreed to be a claim the letter was written from Rome.", "It is believed that the identification of Rome with Babylon, the ancient enemy of the Jews, only came after the destruction of the Temple in AD 70.Other scholars doubt Petrine authorship because they are convinced that 1 Peter is dependent on the Pauline epistles and thus was written after Paul the Apostle's ministry because it shares many of the same motifs espoused in Ephesians, Colossians, and the Pastoral Epistles.", "Others argue that it makes little sense to ascribe the work to Peter when it could have been ascribed to Paul.", "Alternatively, one theory supporting legitimate Petrine authorship of 1 Peter is the \"secretarial hypothesis\", which suggests that 1 Peter was dictated by Peter and was written in Greek by his secretary, Silvanus (5:12).", "John Elliot disagrees, suggesting that the notion of Silvanus as secretary or author or drafter of 1 Peter introduces more problems than it solves, and claims that the Greek rendition of 5:12 suggests that Silvanus was not the secretary, but the courier/bearer of 1 Peter.", "Like English translations generally, the more recent NRSV (2021) translation of this verse from the Greek does not exclude understanding Silvanus as secretary: \"Through Silvanus, whom I consider a faithful brother, I have written this short letter to encourage you and to testify that this is the true grace of God.", "Stand fast in it.\"", "Some see Mark as a contributive amanuensis in the composition and writing of the work.", "On the one hand, some scholars such as Bart D. Ehrman are convinced that the language, dating, literary style, and structure of this text makes it implausible to conclude that 1 Peter was written by Peter.", "According to these scholars, it is more likely that 1 Peter is a pseudonymous letter, written later by an unknown Christian in his honor.", "On the other hand, some scholars argue that there is enough evidence to conclude that Peter did, in fact, write 1 Peter.", "For instance, there are similarities between 1 Peter and Peter's speeches in the Biblical book of Acts, allusions to several historical sayings of Jesus indicative of eyewitness testimony (e.g., compare Luke 12:35 with 1 Peter 1:13, Matthew 5:16 with 1 Peter 2:12, and Matthew 5:10 with 1 Peter 3:14), and early attestation of Peter's authorship found in 2 Peter (AD 60–160) and the letters of Clement (AD 70–140), all supporting genuine Petrine origin.", "Ultimately, the authorship of 1 Peter remains contested." ], [ "Oldest surviving manuscripts", "The original manuscript of this letter is lost, as are several centuries of copies.", "The text of the surviving manuscripts varies.", "The oldest surviving manuscripts that contain some or all of this book include:;In Greek*Papyrus 72 (3rd/4th century)*Papyrus 125 (3rd/4th century)*Papyrus 81 (4th century)*Codex Vaticanus (325–350)*Codex Sinaiticus (330–360)*Codex Alexandrinus (400–440)*Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (ca.", "450)*Papyrus 74 (7th century);In Latin*León palimpsest (7th century)" ], [ "Audience", "1 Peter is addressed to the \"elect resident aliens\" scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia.", "The five areas listed in 1:1 as the geographical location of the first readers were Roman provinces in Asia Minor.", "The order in which the provinces are listed may reflect the route to be taken by the messenger who delivered the circular letter.", "The recipients of this letter are referred to in 1:1 as \"exiles of the Dispersion\".", "In 1:17, they are urged to \"live in reverent fear during the time of your exile\".", "The social makeup of the addressees of 1 Peter is debatable because some scholars interpret \"strangers\" (1:1) as Christians longing for their home in heaven, some interpret it as literal \"strangers\", or as an Old Testament adaptation applied to Christian believers.While the new Christians have encountered oppression and hostility from locals, Peter advises them to maintain loyalty both to their religion and the Roman Empire (1 Peter 2:17).The author counsels (1) to steadfastness and perseverance under persecution (1–2:10); (2) to the practical duties of a holy life (2:11–3:13); (3) he adduces the example of Christ and other motives to patience and holiness (3:14–4:19); and (4) concludes with counsels to pastors and people (chap.", "5)." ], [ "Outline", "David Bartlett uses the following outline to structure the literary divisions of 1 Peter:Gravestone in the Czech Republic quoting 1 Peter 2:21 — \"To this you were called, because Christ suffered for you, leaving you an example, that you should follow in his steps.", "\"* Greeting (1:1–2)* Praise to God (1:3–12)* God's Holy People (1:13–2:10)* Life in Exile (2:11–4:11) * Steadfast in Faith (4:12–5:11)* Final Greeting (5:12–14)" ], [ "Context", "The Petrine author writes of his addressees undergoing \"various trials\" (1 Peter 1:6), being \"tested by fire\" (which isn't a physical reference but a metaphor for a spiritual warfare; 1:7), maligned \"as evildoers\" (2:12) and suffering \"for doing good\" (3:17).", "Based on such internal evidence, biblical scholar John Elliott summarizes the addressees' situation as one marked by undeserved suffering.", "Verse 3:19, \"Spirits in prison\", is a continuing theme in Christianity, and one considered by most theologians to be enigmatic and difficult to interpret.A number of verses in the epistle contain possible clues about the reasons Christians experienced opposition.", "Exhortations to live blameless lives (2:15; 3:9, 13, 16) may suggest that the Christian addressees were accused of immoral behavior, and exhortations to civil obedience (2:13–17) perhaps imply that they were accused of disloyalty to governing powers.However, scholars differ on the nature of persecution inflicted on the addressees of 1 Peter.", "Some read the epistle to be describing persecution in the form of social discrimination, while some read them to be official persecution.English translation of 1 Peter from the 1578 Geneva Bible.===Social discrimination of Christians===Some scholars believe that the sufferings the epistle's addressees were experiencing were social in nature, specifically in the form of verbal derision.", "Internal evidence for this includes the use of words like \"malign\" (2:12; 3:16), and \"reviled\" (4:14).", "Biblical scholar John Elliott notes that the author explicitly urges the addressees to respect authority (2:13) and even honor the emperor (2:17), strongly suggesting that they were unlikely to be suffering from official Roman persecution.", "It is significant to him that the author notes that \"your brothers and sisters in all the world are undergoing the same kinds of suffering\" (5:9), indicating suffering that is worldwide in scope.", "Elliott sees this as grounds to reject the idea that the epistle refers to official persecution, because the first worldwide persecution of Christians officially meted by Rome did not occur until the persecution initiated by Decius in AD 250.===Official persecution of Christians===On the other hand, scholars who support the official persecution theory take the exhortation to defend one's faith (3:15) as a reference to official court proceedings.", "They believe that these persecutions involved court trials before Roman authorities, and even executions.One common supposition is that 1 Peter was written during the reign of Domitian (AD 81–96).", "Domitian's aggressive claim to divinity would have been rejected and resisted by Christians.", "Biblical scholar Paul Achtemeier believes that persecution of Christians by Domitian would have been in character, but points out that there is no evidence of official policy targeted specifically at Christians.", "If Christians were persecuted, it is likely to have been part of Domitian's larger policy suppressing all opposition to his self-proclaimed divinity.", "There are other scholars who explicitly dispute the idea of contextualizing 1 Peter within Domitian's reign.", "Duane Warden believes that Domitian's unpopularity even among Romans renders it highly unlikely that his actions would have great influence in the provinces, especially those under the direct supervision of the senate such as Asia (one of the provinces 1 Peter is addressed to).Also often advanced as a possible context for 1 Peter is the trials and executions of Christians in the Roman province of Bithynia-Pontus under Pliny the Younger.", "Scholars who support this theory believe that a famous letter from Pliny to Emperor Trajan concerning the delation of Christians reflects the situation faced by the addressees of this epistle.", "In Pliny's letter, written in AD 112, he asks Trajan if the accused Christians brought before him should be punished based on the name 'Christian' alone, or for crimes associated with the name.", "For biblical scholar John Knox, the use of the word \"name\" in 4:14–16 is the \"crucial point of contact\" with that in Pliny's letter.", "In addition, many scholars in support of this theory believe that there is content within 1 Peter that directly mirrors the situation as portrayed in Pliny's letter.", "For instance, they interpret the exhortation to defend one's faith \"with gentleness and reverence\" in 3:15–16 as a response to Pliny executing Christians for the obstinate manner in which they professed to be Christians.", "Generally, this theory is rejected mainly by scholars who read the suffering in 1 Peter to be caused by social, rather than official, discrimination." ], [ "The Harrowing of Hell", "The author refers to Jesus, after his death, proclaiming to spirits in prison (3:18–20).", "This passage, and a few others (such as Matthew 27:52 and Luke 23:43), are the basis of the traditional Christian belief in the descent of Christ into hell, or the harrowing of hell.", "Though interpretations vary, some theologians see this passage as referring to Jesus, after his death, going to a place (neither heaven nor hell in the ultimate sense) where the souls of pre-Christian people waited for the Gospel.", "The first creeds to mention the harrowing of hell were Arian formularies of Sirmium (359), Nike (360), and Constantinople (360).", "It spread through the west and later appeared in the Apostles' Creed." ], [ "Submissiveness of women", "1 Peter 3:1 instructs women to submit to their husbands, echoing the instructions in the First Epistle to the Corinthians, which are of disputed authorship." ], [ "See also", "* Second Epistle of Peter* Textual variants in the First Epistle of Peter* Spirits in prison, 3:19." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* .", "* .", "* ." ], [ "External links", "===Online translations of the First Epistle of Peter===* NET Bible 1 Peter Bible Text, Study notes, Greek, with audio link* Early Christian writings: 1 Peter* ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org* Various versions* Multiple bible versions at ''Bible Gateway'' (NKJV, NIV, NRSV etc.", ")===Other===* ''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'': 1 Peter* ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'' 1897: First Epistle of Peter* Ernst R. Wendland, “Stand Fast in the True Grace of God!", "A Study of 1 Peter\"* 1 Peter The authenticity and authorship by Peter of the First Epistle of Peter defended* BibleProject Animated Overview (Evangelical Perspective)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "First Epistle of John" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''First Epistle of John''' is the first of the Johannine epistles of the New Testament, and the fourth of the catholic epistles.", "There is no scholarly consensus as to the authorship of the Johannine works.", "The author of the First Epistle is termed John the Evangelist, who most modern scholarsbelieve is not the same as John the Apostle.", "Most scholars believe the three Johannine epistles have the same author, but there is no consensus if this was also the author of the Gospel of John.This epistle was probably written in Ephesus between 95 and 110 AD.", "The author advises Christians on how to discern true teachers: by their ethics, their proclamation of Jesus in the flesh, and by their love.", "The original text was written in Koine Greek.", "The epistle is divided into five chapters." ], [ "Content", "The main themes of the epistle are love and fellowship with God.", "The author describes various tests by which readers may ascertain whether or not their communion with God is genuine, and teaches that the proof of spiritual regeneration is a life of active righteousness.", "It also distinguishes between the world (which is full of evil and under the dominion of Satan) and the children of God (who are set apart from the world)." ], [ "Style", "The epistle is not written in the same form as the other biblical epistles, as it lacks an epistolary opening or conclusion.", "The epistle is written in a simple style, without syntactical flourishes, and makes frequent use of asyndeton, where related thoughts are placed next to one another without conjunctions.", "In contrast to the linear style used in the Pauline epistles, biblical scholar Ernest DeWitt Burton suggests that John's thought \"moves in circles\", forming a slowly advancing sequence of thought.", "This is similar to the parallel structure of Hebrew poetry, in which the second verse of a couplet often carries the same meaning as the first, although in this epistle the frequent recapitulations of already expressed ideas serve also to add to what has previously been said.", "In summary, the epistle may be said to exhibit a paraenetic style which is \"marked by personal appeal, contrasts of right and wrong, true and false, and an occasional rhetorical question\".Some scholars have proposed the idea that the epistle is really John's commentary on a selection of traditional parallel couplets.", "While this theory, first propounded by Ernst von Dobschütz and Rudolf Bultmann, is not universally accepted, Amos Wilder writes that, \"It is at least clear that there are considerable and sometimes continuous elements in the epistle whose style distinguishes them from that of the author both with respect to poetic structure and syntactic usage.\"" ], [ "Authorship", "The epistle is traditionally held to have been composed by John the Evangelist, at Ephesus, when the writer was in advanced age.", "The epistle's content, language and conceptual style are very similar to the Gospel of John, 2 John, and 3 John.", "Thus, at the end of the 19th century scholar Ernest DeWitt Burton wrote that there could be \"no reasonable doubt\" that 1 John and the gospel were written by the same author.Beginning in the 20th century, however, critical scholars like Heinrich Julius Holtzmann and C. H. Dodd identified the Gospel of John and 1 John as works of different authors.", "Certain linguistic features of the two texts support this view.", "For instance, 1 John often uses a demonstrative pronoun at the beginning of a sentence, then a particle or conjunction, followed by an explanation or definition of the demonstrative at the end of the sentence—a stylistic technique which is not used in the gospel.", "The author of the epistle also \"uses the conditional sentence in a variety of rhetorical figures which are unknown to the gospel\".", "This indicates, at the very least, the linguistic characteristics changed over time.", "Today, following the work of J. Louis Martyn and Raymond Brown, the majority of scholars believe that John and 1 John were written by different members of the same community: the \"Johannine Community\".Most critical scholars conclude that John the Apostle wrote none of these works." ], [ "Purpose", "\"The Fourth Gospel addresses itself to the challenges posed by Judaism and others outside Johannine circles who have rejected the community's vision of Jesus as preexistent Son, sent by the Father.\"", "The New Jerome Biblical Commentary suggests that the three Johannine epistles \"describe the fracturing of the Johannine community itself\".The author wrote the epistle so that the joy of his audience would \"be full\" (1:4); that they would \"not practice sin\" (2:1); that they would not be deceived by false teachers (2:26); and that \"you who believe in the name of the Son of God... may continue to know that you have eternal life\" (5:13).", "There are two main approaches to understanding the overall purpose of the letter, tests of life (popularized by Robert Law) and tests of fellowship (popularized by John Mitchell and Zane Hodges).", "Whereas the Gospel of John was written for unbelievers (John 20:31), this epistle was written to those who were already believers (5:13).", "Ernest DeWitt Burton found it likely that its audience was largely gentile rather than Jewish, since it contains few Old Testament quotations or distinctly Jewish forms of expression.The epistle also partakes of the debate over Jesus's nature: the debate over \"flesh\" or the incarnation.", "In early Christianity, some advocated for docetism, a view that Christ had been a purely divine being.", "Most notably, the group that would eventually become the Gnostics were docetic.", "1 John fiercely denounces this belief in favor of the view that Jesus had a real appearance \"in the flesh\" on Earth.", "Chapter 4 writes that \"every spirit that confesses that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh is from God\" (NRSV), and other passages say that Jesus shed blood, and if he could not shed blood then his death was meaningless.", "Chapter 2 also includes a passage that refers to a group of proto-Gnostics: a group that was once with the church but have since left it and deny that the human Jesus was also the spiritual Christ.", "The author denounces these secessionists as \"antichrists\".", "The introduction possibly also addresses the issue, especially if the identification of the author as John, or a pseudepigraphic claim to have been a disciple, is assumed: Chapter 1 writes of having evidence of the truth via eyes and touch.", "The author may thus be claiming to have known the physical Jesus personally and is emphasizing his physicality as a flesh-and-blood person rather than a spirit or phantasm." ], [ "Surviving early manuscripts", "The end part of the Second Epistle of Peter (3:16–18) and the beginning of the First Epistle of John (1:1–2:9) on the same page of Codex Alexandrinus (AD 400–440)1 John 4:11-12, 14–17 in Papyrus 9 (P. Oxy.", "402; 3rd century)The earliest written versions of the epistle have been lost; some of the earliest surviving manuscripts include:;In Greek*Codex Vaticanus (AD 300–325)*Codex Sinaiticus (330–360)*Codex Alexandrinus (400–440)*Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (c. 450; fragmentary)*Papyrus 74 (7th century; fragmentary);In Latin*León palimpsest (7th century; extant verses 1 John 1:5–5:21, including the text of the Comma Johanneum (1 John 5:7).The Muratorian fragment, dated to AD 170, cites chapter 1, verses 1–3 within a discussion of the Gospel of John.", "Papyrus 9, dating from the 3rd century, has surviving parts of chapter 4, verses 11–12 and 14–17.Different versions of the Greek manuscript have different wording for some verses." ], [ "Prologue", "Verses 1-4 of the first chapter constitute a prologue or introduction concerning the Incarnate Word.", "Like the Prologue to John's Gospel, this introduction tells us that what the author proposes to write about is the Word which is the Life.", "Anglican commentator Alfred Plummer notes that \"the similarity to the opening of the Gospel is manifest\", but with a significant difference, in that the gospel refers to the existence of the , ''lógos'', word, before the creation, whereas here the point is that the word existed before the incarnation." ], [ "Johannine Comma", "Codex Montfortianus (1520) page 434 recto with 1 John 5 ''Comma Johanneum''.A Trinitarian gloss (marginal note) known as the Johannine Comma, added to Latin translations of the epistle in the 4th century, was interpolated (added to the main text) within 1 John 5:7-8 over the course of the Middle Ages.", "Although no Greek manuscripts before the 15th century include the passage, Erasmus added it to later editions of his edition of the New Testament, beginning in 1522.Bibles translated from his edition integrate the passage, including the King James Version (1611), which renders it as follows (''in italics''):Translations made since the 18th century and based on a critical edition do not include this text, or include it as a footnote.", "Because the addition supports the doctrine of trinitarianism, it featured in Protestant and Catholic debates on this subject in the early modern period." ], [ "Final verse", ":''Little children, keep yourselves from idols.", "Amen.", "''Plummer suggests that here, \"as at the end of John's Gospel and the Second Epistle, 'Amen' is the addition of a copyist\".", "The Textus Receptus version includes \"Ἀμήν\", ''Amen'', at the end but critical editions do not." ], [ "\"To the Parthians\"", "Around 415, Augustine of Hippo wrote a commentary in Latin ''On the Epistle of John to the Parthians'' (in Latin, ''ad Parthos''), in which he identifies the addressees of John's letter as Parthians.", "It has occasionally been suggested that this refers to a community of converts in the Jewish community of Babylonia.", "Around 730, Bede wrote that Athanasius of Alexandria had also believed in a Parthian destination for ''1 John''.", "This tradition, however, is known only from Latin sources.", "(Three late Greek manuscripts of ''2 John'' label it \"to the Parthians\".)", "On balance, it is likely that John's first letter was written for the Ephesian church and that the Parthian label results from a misreading or misunderstanding." ], [ "Uses", "===Music===\"1 John 4:16\" is a song title in the album \"''The Life of the World to Come''\" inspired by this verse that was released by the American band The Mountain Goats in 2009." ], [ "See also", "* If the world hates you* John the Apostle* John the Evangelist" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* Robert Dabney, \"The Doctrinal Various Readings of the New Testament Greek\", 1894: p. 32.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Various versions* English Translation with Parallel Latin Vulgate* ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)* Multiple bible versions at ''Bible Gateway'' (NKJV, NIV, NRSV etc.)" ] ]
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[ [ "First Vatican Council" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''First Ecumenical Council of the Vatican''', commonly known as the '''First Vatican Council''' or '''Vatican I''', was the 20th ecumenical council of the Catholic Church, held three centuries after the preceding Council of Trent which was adjourned in 1563.The council was convoked by Pope Pius IX on 29 June 1868, under the rising threat of the Kingdom of Italy encroaching on the Papal States.", "It opened on 8 December 1869 and was adjourned on 20 September 1870 after the Italian Capture of Rome.", "Its best-known decision is its definition of papal infallibility.The council's main purpose was to clarify Catholic doctrine in response to the rising influence of the modern philosophical trends of the 19th century.", "In the Dogmatic Constitution on the Catholic Faith (), the council condemned what it considered the errors of rationalism, anarchism, communism, socialism, liberalism, materialism, modernism, naturalism, pantheism, and secularism.", "Its other concern was the doctrine of the primacy (supremacy) and infallibility of the Bishop of Rome (the Pope), which it defined in the First Dogmatic Constitution on the Church of Christ ()." ], [ "Background", "As early as late 1864, Pope Pius IX had commissioned the cardinals resident in Rome to tender him their opinions as to the advisability of a council.", "The majority pronounced in favour of the scheme, dissenting voices being rare.", "After March 1865, the convocation of the council was no longer in doubt.", "Special bulls were reportedly issued with invitations to Eastern Orthodox and Protestant clerics as well as to other non-Catholics, but apparently none accepted the invitations.The council was summoned by the pope by a bull on 29 June 1868.The first session was held in St. Peter's Basilica on 8 December 1869.Preliminary sessions dealt with general administrative matters and committee assignments.", "Bishop Bernard John McQuaid complained of rainy weather, inadequate heating facilities, and boredom.", "Bishop James Roosevelt Bayley of Newark, New Jersey, noted the high prices in Rome.", "When Lord Houghton asked Cardinal Manning what had been going on, he answered: \"Well, we meet, and we look at one another, and then we talk a little, but when we want to know what we have been doing, we read ''The Times''.", "\"Unlike the five earlier general councils held in Rome, which met in the Lateran Basilica and are known as Lateran councils, it met in Saint Peter's Basilica in the Vatican, hence its name." ], [ "Papal infallibility", "The object of the council was a mystery for a while.", "The first revelation was given in February 1869 by an article in , a Jesuit periodical.", "It claimed, as the view of many Catholics in France, that the council would be of very brief duration, since the majority of its members were in agreement, and mentioned the proclamation of papal infallibility.", "Factions around the proposal arose across Europe, and some Italians even proposed setting up a rival council in Naples.", "However, before the council met all became quiet in view of the studied vagueness of the invitation.Pope Pius defined as dogma the Immaculate Conception of Mary, the mother of Jesus, in 1854.However, the proposal to define papal infallibility itself as dogma met with resistance, not because of doubts about the substance of the proposed definition, but because some considered it inopportune to take that step at that time.", "Richard McBrien divides the bishops attending Vatican I into three groups.", "The first group, which McBrien calls the \"active infallibilists\", was led by Henry Edward Manning and Ignatius von Senestrey.", "According to McBrien, the majority of the bishops were not so much interested in a formal definition of papal infallibility as they were in strengthening papal authority and, because of this, were willing to accept the agenda of the fallibilists.", "A minority, some 10% of the bishops, McBrien says, opposed the proposed definition of papal infallibility on both ecclesiastical and pragmatic grounds, because, in their opinion, it departed from the ecclesiastical structure of the early Christian church.", "From a pragmatic perspective, they feared that defining papal infallibility would alienate some Catholics, create new difficulties for union with non-Catholics, and provoke interference by governments in ecclesiastical affairs.", "Those who held this view included most of the German and Austro-Hungarian bishops, nearly half of the Americans, one third of the French, most of the Chaldaeans and Melkites, and a few Armenians.", "Only a few bishops appear to have had doubts about the dogma itself." ], [ "{{lang|la|Dei Filius}}", "On 24 April 1870, the dogmatic constitution on the Catholic faith was adopted unanimously.", "The draft presented to the council on 8 March drew no serious criticism, but a group of 35 English-speaking bishops, who feared that the opening phrase of the first chapter, \"\" ('Holy Roman Catholic Church'), might be construed as favouring the Anglican branch theory, later succeeded in having an additional adjective inserted, so that the final text read: \"\" ('Holy Catholic Apostolic Roman Church').", "The constitution thus set forth the teaching of the \"Holy Catholic Apostolic Roman Church\" on God, revelation and faith." ], [ "{{lang|la|Pastor aeternus}}", "Catholic ecclesiastics of several countries gathered in Rome for the councilThere was stronger opposition to the draft constitution on the nature of the church, which at first did not include the question of papal infallibility, but the majority party in the council, whose position on this matter was much stronger, brought it forward.", "It was decided to postpone discussion of everything in the draft except infallibility.", "The decree did not go forward without controversy; Cardinal , Archbishop of Bologna, proposed adding that the pope is assisted by \"the counsel of the bishops manifesting the tradition of the churches\".", "Pius IX rejected Guidi's view of the bishops as witnesses to the tradition, maintaining: \"I am the tradition.", "\"On 13 July 1870, a preliminary vote on the section on infallibility was held in a general congregation: 451 voted simply in favour (), 88 against (), and 62 in favour but on condition of some amendment ().", "This made evident what the final outcome would be, and some 60 members of the opposition left Rome so as not to be associated with approval of the document.", "The final vote, with a choice only between and , was taken on 18 July 1870, with 533 votes in favour and only 2 against defining as a dogma the infallibility of the pope when speaking .", "The two votes in opposition were cast by Bishops Aloisio Riccio and Edward Fitzgerald.The dogmatic constitution states, in chapter 4:9, that the pope has \"full and supreme power of jurisdiction over the whole Church\" (chapter 3:9); and that, when he:None of the bishops who had argued that proclaiming the definition was inopportune refused to accept it.", "Some Catholics, mainly of German language and largely inspired by the historian Ignaz von Döllinger, formed the separate Old Catholic Church in protest; von Döllinger did not formally join the new group himself." ], [ "Suspension and aftermath", "Drawing showing the First Vatican CouncilDiscussion of the rest of the document on the nature of the church was to continue when the bishops returned after a summer break.", "In the meanwhile, the Franco-Prussian War broke out.", "With the swift German advance and the capture of Emperor Napoleon III, French troops protecting papal rule in Rome withdrew from the city.On 20 October 1870, one month after the newly founded Kingdom of Italy had occupied Rome, Pope Pius IX, who then considered himself a prisoner in the Vatican, issued the bull , adjourning the council indefinitely.", "While some proposed to continue the council in the Belgian city of Mechlin, it was never reconvened.", "The council was formally closed in 1960 by Pope John XXIII, prior to the formation of the Second Vatican Council.In reaction to the political implications of the doctrine of infallibility on the sovereignty of secular states, some of the European kingdoms and republics took rapid action against the Catholic Church.", "The Austrian Empire annulled the Concordat arranged with the Roman Curia in 1855.In the Kingdom of Prussia, the anti-Catholic ''Kulturkampf'' broke out immediately afterwards, and in the French Third Republic the synod so accentuated the power of ultramontanism (an emphasis on the powers of the pope), that Republican France took steps to curb it by revoking the Concordat of 1801, and therefore completely separating the Church from the state." ], [ "Controversies and opposition", "The dogma of papal infallibility raised considerable opposition in some liberal theological circles in the Netherlands, Austria, Germany and Switzerland; the most notable theologian opposing the formulation of the dogma was Ignaz von Döllinger, who was excommunicated in 1871 by Archbishop Gregor von Scherr of Munich and Freising, for refusing to accept the council's decision.=== Old Catholic schism ===Following the council's decision, a minority of clergy and laity opposed to the newly proclaimed dogma united with the Jansenists, which had maintained a somewhat precarious existence in separation from Rome since the 18th century but had preserved an episcopal succession recognized by Rome as valid though illicit.", "The first consecration of the new order was that of Joseph H. Reinkens, who was made bishop in Germany by a sympathetic Jansenist bishop Johannes Heykamp of Utrecht.", "Such new group referred to itself as the Old Catholic Church (or the Christian Catholic Church in Switzerland).", "Old Catholics in Europe united into the Union of Utrecht in 1889, which entered into full communion with the Anglican Communion in 1931 through the Bonn Agreement.The Union of Utrecht still exists to this day and includes the Old Catholic Church of the Netherlands, the Catholic Diocese of the Old Catholics in Germany, the Old Catholic Church of Austria, the Old Catholic Church of the Czech Republic, the Polish-Catholic Church of the Republic of Poland and the Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland.", "The Union of Scranton, formed by more theologically conservative Old Catholics, was formed in 2008 and currently includes the Polish National Catholic Church and the Nordic Catholic Church." ], [ "See also", "* Second Vatican Council" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Bibliography ===* * * * * Hales, E. E. Y.", "\"The First Vatican Council.\"", "''Studies in Church History'' 7 (1971): 329–344.online* * Hennesey, James.", "\"National Traditions and the First Vatican Council.\"", "''Archivum Historiae Pontificiae'' (1969): 491–512.online* * * * * * This contains a detailed account of the course of the Council, and some commentary on the immediate political impact.", "* O'Malley, John W. ''Vatican I: the council and the making of the ultramontane church'' (Harvard University Press, 2018).", "* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Hales, E. E. Y.", "''Pio Nono'' (1954) biography of Pope Pius IX; online * * Hoppen, K. Theodore.", "\"First Vatican Council, 1869–70\" ''History Today'' (Oct 1969), Vol.", "19 Issue 10, pp.", "713–720 online* Kadić, Ante.", "\"Bishop Strossmayer and the First Vatican Council.\"", "'' Slavonic and East European Review'' 49.116 (1971): 382–409.online; he played a major role.", "* Noether, Emiliana P. \"Vatican Council I: Its Political and Religious Setting.\"", "''Journal of Modern History'' 40.2 (1968): 218–233.online.", "* Portier, William L. \"The First Vatican Council, John Henry Newman, and the Making of a Post-Christendom Church.\"", "''Newman Studies Journal'' 17.1 (2020): 123–144.excerpt* * Raymond, John.", "\"The First Vatican Council 1869–1870.\"", "''History Today'' (Nov 1962) 12#11 pp 759–767.online.", "* Verhoeven, Timothy.", "\"Transatlantic Connections: American Anti-Catholicism and the First Vatican Council (1869–70).\"", "'' Catholic Historical Review'' 100.4 (2014): 695–720.Anti-Catholics were outraged.", "excerpt* Wallace, L. P. ''The Papacy and European Diplomacy, 1869–1878'' (U North Carolina Press, 1948)" ], [ "External links", "* Text of the council's ruling" ] ]
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[ [ "First Council of the Lateran" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''First Council of the Lateran''' was the 9th ecumenical council recognised by the Catholic Church.", "It was convoked by Pope Callixtus II in December 1122, immediately after the Concordat of Worms.", "The council sought to bring an end to the practice of the conferring of ecclesiastical benefices by people who were laymen, free the election of bishops and abbots from secular influence, clarify the separation of spiritual and temporal affairs, re-establish the principle that spiritual authority resides solely in the Church and abolish the claim of the Holy Roman Emperor to influence papal elections.The council was significant in size: 300 bishops and more than 600 abbots assembled at Rome in March 1123, and Callixtus II presided in person.", "During the council, the decisions of the Concordat of Worms were read and ratified.", "Various other decisions were promulgated." ], [ "Background", "The First Lateran Council was called by Pope Callixtus II whose reign began on 1 February 1119.It demarcated the end of the Investiture Controversy, which had begun before the time of Pope Gregory VII.", "The issues had been contentious and had continued with unabated bitterness for almost a century.", "Guido, as he had been called before his elevation to the papacy, was the son of William I, Count of Burgundy.", "He was closely connected with nearly all the royal houses of Europe on both sides of his family.", "He had been named the papal legate to France by Pope Paschal II.", "During Guido's tenure in this office, Paschal II yielded to the military threats of Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor, and was induced to issue the Privilegium in 1111.By that document, the Church gave up much of what had been claimed and subsequently attained by Pope Gregory VII and his Gregorian Reforms.The concessions did not bring the expected peace but were received with violent reactionary opposition everywhere.", "Europe had come to expect an end to the Investiture Controversy and was not willing to return to the old days, when the Holy Roman Emperor named the pope.", "The greatest resistance was seen in France and was led by Guido, who still held the office of the papal legate.", "He had been present in the Lateran Synod of 1112 which had proclaimed the Privilegium of 1111.On his return to France, Guido convoked an assembly of the French and Burgundian bishops at Vienne (1112).", "There, the lay investiture of the clergy (the practice of the king, especially the Holy Roman Emperor, of naming bishops and the Pope) was denounced as heretical.", "A sentence of excommunication was pronounced against Henry V, who had extorted through violence from the Pope the concessions documented in the ''Privilegium''.", "The agreement was deemed to be opposed to the interests of the Church.", "The decrees from the assembly of Vienne which denounced the Privilegium were sent to Paschal II with a request for confirmation.", "Pope Paschal II confirmed them, which were received in general terms, on 20 October 1112.Guido was later created cardinal by Pope Paschal II.", "The latter did not seem to have been pleased with Guido's bold and forward attacks upon Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor.", "On the death of Paschal II, 21 January 1118, Gelasius II was elected pope.", "He was immediately seized by the Italian allies of Henry V and on his liberation by the populace, he fled to Gaeta, where he was crowned.", "Henry V demanded the confirmation of the ''Privilegium'' and received no satisfactory reply.", "He then set about naming Burdinus, the archbishop of Braga, as his own pope, who assumed the name Gregory VIII but came to be known as Antipope Gregory VIII.", "Burdinus had already been deposed and excommunicated because he had crowned Henry V as the Holy Roman Emperor in Rome in 1117.The excommunication of Burdinus was reiterated in Canon 6 of the document produced by Lateran I. Gelasius II promptly excommunicated the antipope Gregory VIII and Henry V. Gelasius was forced to flee under duress from the army of Henry V and took refuge in the monastery of Cluny, where he died in January 1119.On the fourth day after the death of Gelasius II, 1 February 1119, mainly by the exertions of Cardinal Cuno, Guido was elected pope and assumed the title of Callixtus II.", "He was crowned Pope at Vienne on 9 February 1119.Because of his close connection with the great royal families of Germany, France, England and Denmark, Callixtus II's papacy was received with much anticipation and celebration throughout Europe.", "There was a real hope throughout the Continent that the Investiture Controversy might be settled once and for all.", "In the interest of conciliation, even the papal embassy was received by Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor, at Strasburg.", "However, it soon became clear that Henry was not willing to concede his presumed and ancient right to name the pope and the bishops within his kingdom.", "Perhaps to demonstrate conciliation or because of political necessity, Henry withdrew his support for Antipope Gregory VIII.It was agreed that Henry and Pope Callixtus II would meet at Mousson.", "On 8 June 1119, Callixtus II held a synod at Toulouse to proclaim the disciplinary reforms he had worked to attain in the French Church.", "In October, 1119, he opened the council at Reims.", "Louis VI of France and most of the barons of France attended this council, along with more than 400 bishops and abbots.", "The Pope was also to meet with Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor at Mousson.", "However, Henry showed up with an army of 30,000 men.", "Callixtus II left Reims for Mousson, but upon learning of the warlike stance of Henry quickly retreated to Reims.", "There, the Church dealt with issues of simony and concubinage of the clergy.It was clear by now that Henry was in no mood to reconcile, and a compromise with him was not to be had.", "The conclave at Reims considered the situation and determined, as an entire Church, to formally excommunicate both Henry V and the antipope Gregory VIII.", "This occurred on October 30, 1119.While at Reims, Callixtus II tried to effect a settlement with Henry I of England and his brother Robert, which also met with failure.Callixtus II was determined to enter Rome, which was occupied by the German forces and Antipope Gregory VIII.", "There was an uprising by the population, which forced Gregory to flee the city.", "After much political and military intrigue in Rome and the southern Italian states, Gregory was formally deposed and Callixtus II was generally recognised as the legitimate Pope in 1121.Having become the established power in Italy, Callixtus II now returned the conflict with Henry V over the issue of lay investiture.", "Henry had been the recipient of great pressure from many of his barons in Germany over his conflict with the pope.", "Some had entered into open rebellion.", "Henry was forced by circumstances to seek a peace with Callixtus.", "Initial negotiations were conducted in October 1121 at Würzburg.", "Lambert, the Cardinal of Ostia, was dispatched to convoke a synod at Worms, which began on 8 September 1122.By 23 September, the Concordat of Worms, also called the Pactum Calixtinum, was concluded.", "On his side, the emperor gave up his claim to investiture with ring and crosier and granted the freedom of election to the episcopal sees.The elections of bishops could be witnessed by the emperor or his representatives.", "Callixtus II obtained the right to name bishops throughout Germany, but still did not have that power in much of Burgundy and Italy.The First Lateran Council was convoked to confirm the Concordat of Worms.", "The council was most representative with nearly three hundred bishops and six hundred abbots from every part of Catholic Europe being present.", "It convened on 18 March 1123.Decrees were also passed directed against simony, concubinage among the clergy, church robbers, and forgers of Church documents; the council also reaffirmed indulgences for Crusaders.", "The Council ruled that the crusades to the Holy Land and the Reconquista of Spain were of equal standing.", "In the remaining few years of his life, Callixtus II attempted to secure the status of the Church as it had existed at the end of the reign of Pope Gregory VII.", "He reorganized and reformed the churches around Rome, canonized Conrad of Constance, condemned the teaching of Peter de Bruis, confirmed the Bishop Thurston of York against the wishes of Henry I of England and affirmed the freedom of York from the see of Canterbury.", "Callixtus II died on December 13, 1124, and was succeeded by Pope Honorius II.Callixtus II was a strong figure who brought a relative, if tentative, peace between Germany and the Church.", "The Concordat of Worms and the First Lateran Council changed forever the belief in the divine right of kings to name the pope and bishops and reshaped the nature of church and state forever." ], [ "Text of the council", "Henry IV ceding his rule of the Holy Roman Empire to his son, Henry V.Texts of the First Lateran Council may vary in both wording and numbering of the canons depending on source.", "In this translation, the precepts of the Concordat of Worms are codified in Canons 2, 4 and 10.CANON I Summary.", "Ordinations and promotions made for pecuniary considerations are devoid of every dignity.Text.", "Following the example of the holy fathers and recognizing the obligation of our office, we absolutely forbid in virtue of the authority of the Apostolic See that anyone be ordained or promoted for money in the Church of God.", "Has anyone thus secured ordination or promotion in the Church, the rank acquired shall be devoid of every dignity.CANON 2Summary.", "Only a priest may be made provost, archpriest, and dean; only a deacon may be archdeacon.Text.", "No one except a priest shall be promoted to the dignity of provost, archpriest, or dean;and no one shall be made archdeacon unless he is a deacon.CANON 3Summary.", "Priests, deacons, and subdeacons are forbidden to live with women other than such as were permitted by the Nicene Council.Text.", "We absolutely forbid priests, deacons, and subdeacons to associate with concubines and women, or to live with women other than such as the Nicene Council (canon 3) for reasons of necessity permitted, namely, the mother, sister, or aunt, or any such person concerning whom no suspicion could arise.CANON 4Summary.", "Lay persons, no matter how pious they may be, have no authority to dispose of anything that belongs to the Church.Text.", "In accordance with the decision of Pope Stephen, we declare that lay persons, no matter how devout they may be, have no authority to dispose of anything belonging to the Church, but according to the Apostolic canon the supervision of all ecclesiastical affairs belongs to the bishop, who shall administer them conformably to the will of God.", "If therefore any prince or other layman shall arrogate to himself the right of disposition, control, or ownership of ecclesiastical goods or properties, let him be judged guilty of sacrilege.CANON 5Summary.", "Marriages between blood-relatives are forbidden.Text.", "We forbid marriages between blood-relatives because they are forbidden by the divine and secular laws.", "Those who contract such alliances, as also their offspring, the divine laws not only ostracize but declare accursed, while the civil laws brand them as infamous and deprive them of hereditary rights.", "We, therefore, following the example of our fathers, declare and stigmatize them as infamous.CANON 6Summary.", "Ordinations by Burdinus and the bishops consecrated by him are invalid.Text.", "The ordinations made by the heresiarch Burdinus after his condemnation by the Roman Church, as also those made by the bishops consecrated by him after that point of time, we declare to be invalid.CANON 7Summary.", "No one is permitted to arrogate to himself the episcopal authority in matters pertaining to the cura animarum and the bestowal of benefices.Text.", "No archdeacon, archpriest, provost, or dean shall bestow on another the care of souls or the prebends of a church without the decision or consent of the bishop; indeed, as the sacred canons point out, the care of souls and the disposition of ecclesiastical property are vested in the authority of the bishop.", "If anyone shall dare act contrary to this and arrogate to himself the power belonging to the bishop, let him be expelled from the Church.CANON 8Summary.", "Military persons are forbidden under penalty of anathema to invade or forcibly hold the city of Benevento.Text.", "Desiring with the grace of God to protect the recognized possessions of the Holy Roman Church, we forbid under pain of anathema any military person to invade or forcibly hold Benevento, the city of St. Peter.", "If anyone act contrary to this, let him be anathematized.CANON 9Summary.", "Those excommunicated by one bishop, may not be restored by others.Text.", "We absolutely forbid that those who have been excommunicated by their own bishops be received into the communion of the Church by other bishops, abbots, and clerics.Canons 2, 4 and 10 ended the practice of the Holy Roman Emperor naming bishops and the pope.CANON 10Summary.", "A bishop consecrated after an uncanonical election shall be deposed.Text.", "No one shall be consecrated bishop who has not been canonically elected.", "If anyone dare do this, both the consecrator and the one consecrated shall be deposed without hope of reinstatement.CANON 11Summary.", "To those who give aid to the Christians in the Orient is granted the remission of sins, and their families and possessions are taken under the protection of the Roman Church.Text.", "For effectively crushing the tyranny of the infidels, we grant to those who go to Jerusalem and also to those who give aid toward the defense of the Christians, the remission of their sins and we take under the protection of St. Peter and the Roman Church their homes, their families, and all their belongings, as was already ordained by Pope Urban II.", "Whoever, therefore, shall dare molest or seize these during the absence of their owners, shall incur excommunication.", "Those, however, who with a view of going to Jerusalem or to Spain (that is, against the Moors) are known to have attached the cross to their garments and afterward removed it, we command in virtue of our Apostolic authority to replace it and begin the journey within a year from the coming Easter.", "Otherwise we shall excommunicate them and interdict within their territory all divine service except the baptism of infants and the administration of the last rites to the dying.CANON 12Summary.", "The property of the porticani dying without heirs is not to be disposed of in a manner contrary to the wish of the one deceased.Text.", "With the advice of our brethren and of the entire Curia, as well as with the will and consent of the prefect, we decree the abolition of that evil custom which has hitherto prevailed among the porticani, namely, of disposing, contrary to the wish of the one deceased, of the property of porticani dying without heirs; with this understanding, however, that in future the porticani remain faithful to the Roman Church, to us and to our successors.CANON 13Summary.", "If anyone violates the truce of God and after the third admonition does not make satisfaction, he shall be anathematized.Text.", "If anyone shall violate the truce of God he shall be admonished three times by the bishop to make satisfaction.", "If he disregards the third admonition the bishop, either with the advice of the metropolitan or with that of two or one of the neighboring bishops, shall pronounce the sentence of anathema against the violator and in writing denounce him to all the bishops.", "CANON 14Summary.", "Laymen are absolutely forbidden to remove offerings from the altars of Roman churches.Text.", "Following the canons of the holy fathers, we absolutely and under penalty of anathema forbid laymen to remove the offerings from the altars of the churches of St. Peter, of The Savior (Lateran Basilica), of St. Mary Rotund, in a word, from the altars of any of the churches or from the crosses.", "By our Apostolic authority we forbid also the fortifying of churches and their conversion to profane uses.CANON 15Summary.", "Counterfeiters of money shall be excommunicated.Text.", "Whoever manufactures or knowingly expends counterfeit money, shall be cut off from the communion of the faithful (excommunicated) as one accursed, as an oppressor of the poor and a disturber of the city.CANON 16Summary.", "Robbers of pilgrims and of merchants shall be excommunicated.Text.", "If anyone shall dare attack pilgrims going to Rome to visit the shrines of the Apostles and the oratories of other saints and rob them of the things they have with them, or exact from merchants new imposts and tolls, let him be excommunicated till he has made satisfaction.CANON 17Summary.", "Abbots and monks may not have the cura animarum.Text.", "We forbid abbots and monks to impose public penances, to visit the sick, to administer extreme unction, and to sing public masses.", "The chrism, holy oil, consecration of altars, and ordination of clerics they shall obtain from the bishops in whose dioceses they reside.CANON 18Summary.", "The appointment of priests to churches belongs to the bishops, and without their consent they may not receive tithes and churches from laymen.Text.", "Priests shall be appointed to parochial churches by the bishops, to whom they shall be responsible for the care of souls and other matters pertaining to them.", "They are not permitted to receive tithes and churches from laics without the will and consent of the bishops.", "If they act otherwise, let them be subject to the canonical penalties.CANON 19Summary.", "Taxes paid to bishops by monks since Gregory VII must be continued.", "Monks may not by prescription acquire the possessions of churches and of bishops.Text.", "The tax (servitium) which monasteries and their churches have rendered to the bishops since the time of Gregory VII, shall be continued.", "We absolutely forbid abbots and monks to acquire by prescription after thirty years the possessions of churches and of shops.CANON 20Summary.", "Churches and their possessions, as well as the person and things connected with them, shall remain safe and unmolested.Text.", "Having in mind the example of our fathers and discharging the duty of our pastoral office, we decree that churches and their possessions, as well as the persons connected with them, namely, clerics and monks and their servants (conversi), also the laborers and the things they use, shall remain safe and unmolested.", "If anyone shall dare act contrary to this and, recognizing his crime, does not within the space of thirty days make proper amends, let him be cut off from the Church and anathematized.CANON 21Summary.", "Clerics in major orders may not marry, and marriages already contracted must be dissolved.Text.", "We absolutely forbid priests, deacons, subdeacons, and monks to have concubines or to contract marriage.", "We decree in accordance with the definitions of the sacred canons, that marriages already contracted by such persons must be dissolved, and that the persons be condemned to do penance.CANON 22Summary.", "The alienation of possessions of the exarchate of Ravenna is condemned, and the Ordinaries made by the intruders are invalid.Text.", "The alienation that has been made especially by Otto, Guido, Jerome, and perhaps by Philip of possessions of the exarchate of Ravenna, we condemn.", "In a general way we declare invalid the alienations in whatever manner made by bishops and abbots whether intruded or canonically elected, and also the ordinations conferred by them whether with the consent of the clergy of the Church or simoniacally.", "We also absolutely forbid any cleric in any way to alienate his prebend or any ecclesiastical benefice.", "If he has presumed to do this in the past or shall presume to do so in the future, his action shall be null and he shall be subject to the canonical penalties." ], [ "Results of the council", "Lateran I was the first of four Lateran Councils between the years 1123–1215.The first was not very original in its concept, nor one called to meet a pressing theological question.", "For the most part, Pope Callixtus II summoned the council to ratify the various meetings and concords which had been occurring in and around Rome for several years.", "The most pressing issue was that of the Investiture Controversy which had consumed nearly a century of contention and open warfare.", "At the heart of the question was the ancient right of the Holy Roman Emperor to name the pope as well as bishops and priests.", "These would be invested with some secular symbol such as a sword or scepter and the spiritual authority represented by a ring, miter and crosier.", "To an illiterate population, it appeared the bishop or abbot was now the king’s inferior and owed his position to the king.", "This issue came to the fore in the first part of the eleventh century when Rome and the pope sought autonomy from the Holy Roman Emperor.", "It had been a central issue in the reign of Pope Gregory VII and his battles with Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor.", "The issue was never settled.", "Years of teaching by Roman trained priests and bishops in Germany had led to an educated generation which rejected the idea of divine right of kings.", "Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor died leaving his kingdom in a much weakened condition.", "The Third Lateran Council and the Fourth Lateran Council are generally considered to be of much greater significance than Lateran I.", "However, Lateran I marked the first time a general and large Council had been held in the West.", "All previous Councils had been in the East and dominated by Greek theologians and philosophers.In the struggle between Stephen of England and Matilda, the daughter of Henry I of England, the English Church slipped away from the close control the Normans had exercised.", "Stephen was forced to make many concessions to the Church to gain some element of political control.", "Historians have largely considered his rule to be a disaster, calling it The Anarchy.Because of political necessity, the Holy Roman Emperors were restrained from directly naming bishops in the kingdom.", "In practicality, the process continued to a certain extent.", "The issue of separation of church and state was simply recast in a different direction.", "Of all the Gregorian Reforms which were embodied by Lateran I, celibacy of the clergy was the most successful.", "Simony was curtailed.", "As time progressed, secular interference into the politics of the Church was seen to continue, albeit in different ways from that of the Investiture Controversy.It has been argued by some historians that the Concordat of Worms and its reiteration by Lateran I were little more than face saving measures by the Church.", "Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor continued to name bishops within his kingdom.", "His control over the papacy was definitely abated.", "At the time, the Concordat of Worms was proclaimed as a great victory for Henry V inside the Holy Roman Empire.", "It did serve to constrain much of the most recent warfare in and outside the empire.", "In the end, Henry V died the monarch of a much diminished kingdom." ], [ "See also", "* Concordat of Worms* Charter of Liberties" ], [ "References", "* Medieval Sourcebook: First Lateran Council: Canons with annotations* First Lateran Council" ] ]
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[ [ "Four Noble Truths" ], [ "Introduction", "The Buddha teaching the Four Noble Truths.", "Sanskrit manuscript.", "Nālandā, Bihar, India.In Buddhism, the '''Four Noble Truths''' (; ; \"The Four Arya Satya\") are \"the truths of the Noble Ones\", the truths or realities for the \"spiritually worthy ones\".", "The truths are:* ''dukkha'' ('not being at ease', \"suffering,\" from ''dush-stha'', \"standing unstable,\") is an innate characteristic of the perpetual cycle (''samsara'', ) of grasping at things, ideas and habits;*''samudaya'' (origin, arising, combination; \"cause\"): there is ''dukkha'' (unease, disbalance) when there is, or it arises simultaneously with, ''taṇhā'' (\"craving,\" \"desire\" or \"attachment,\" ).", "*''nirodha'' (cessation, ending, confinement): ''dukkha'' can be ended or contained by the confinement or letting go of this ''taṇhā'';*''marga'' (path, Noble Eightfold Path) is the path leading to the confinement of ''tanha'' and ''dukkha''.The four truths appear in many grammatical forms in the ancient Buddhist texts, and are traditionally identified as the first teaching given by the Buddha.", "While often called one of the most important teachings in Buddhism, they have both a symbolic and a propositional function.", "Symbolically, they represent the awakening and liberation of the Buddha, and of the potential for his followers to reach the same liberation and freedom as him.", "As propositions, the Four Truths are a conceptual framework that appear in the Pali canon and early Hybrid Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures, as a part of the broader \"network of teachings\" (the \"''dhamma'' matrix\"), which have to be taken together.", "They provide a conceptual framework for introducing and explaining Buddhist thought, which has to be personally understood or \"experienced\".As a proposition, the four truths defy an exact definition, but refer to and express the basic orientation of Buddhism: unguarded sensory contact gives rise to craving and clinging to impermanent states and things, which are ''dukkha'', \"unsatisfactory,\" \"incapable of satisfying\" and painful.", "This craving keeps us caught in ''saṃsāra'', \"wandering\", usually interpreted as the endless cycle of repeated rebirth, and the continued ''dukkha'' that comes with it, but also referring to the endless cycle of attraction and rejection that perpetuates the ego-mind.", "There is a way to end this cycle, namely by attaining ''nirvana'', cessation of craving, whereafter rebirth and the accompanying ''dukkha'' will no longer arise again.", "This can be accomplished by following the eightfold path, confining our automatic responses to sensory contact by restraining oneself, cultivating discipline and wholesome states, and practicing mindfulness and ''dhyana'' (meditation).The function of the four truths, and their importance, developed over time and the Buddhist tradition slowly recognized them as the Buddha's first teaching.", "This tradition was established when ''prajna'', or \"liberating insight\", came to be regarded as liberating in itself, instead of or in addition to the practice of ''dhyana''.", "This \"liberating insight\" gained a prominent place in the sutras, and the four truths came to represent this liberating insight, as a part of the enlightenment story of the Buddha.The four truths grew to be of central importance in the Theravada tradition of Buddhism by about the 5th-century CE, which holds that the insight into the four truths is liberating in itself.", "They are less prominent in the Mahayana tradition, which sees the higher aims of insight into ''sunyata'', emptiness, and following the Bodhisattva path as central elements in their teachings and practice.", "The Mahayana tradition reinterpreted the four truths to explain how a liberated being can still be \"pervasively operative in this world\".", "Beginning with the exploration of Buddhism by western colonialists in the 19th century and the development of Buddhist modernism, they came to be often presented in the west as the central teaching of Buddhism, sometimes with novel modernistic reinterpretations very different from the historic Buddhist traditions in Asia." ], [ "The four truths", "===Full set – Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta===The four truths are best known from their presentation in the ''Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta'' text, which contains two sets of the four truths, while various other sets can be found in the Pāli Canon, a collection of scriptures in the Theravadan Buddhist tradition.", "The full set, which is most commonly used in modern expositions, contains grammatical errors, pointing to multiple sources for this set and translation problems within the ancient Buddhist community.", "Nevertheless, they were considered correct by the Pali tradition, which did not correct them.According to the Buddhist tradition, the ''Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta'', \"Setting the Wheel of Dhamma in Motion\", contains the first teachings that the Buddha gave after attaining full awakening, and liberation from rebirth.", "According to L. S. Cousins, many scholars are of the view that \"this discourse was identified as the first sermon of the Buddha only at a later date,\" and according to professor of religion Carol S. Anderson the four truths may originally not have been part of this sutta, but were later added in some versions.", "Within this discourse, the four noble truths are given as follows (\"bhikkus\" is normally translated as \"Buddhist monks\"):According to this sutra, with the complete comprehension of these four truths release from ''samsara'', the cycle of rebirth, was attained:The comprehension of these four truths by his audience leads to the opening of the ''Dhamma Eye'', that is, the attainment of right vision:===Basic set===According to K.R.", "Norman, the basic set is as follows:* ''idam dukkham'', \"this is pain\"* ''ayam dukkha-samudayo'', \"this is the origin of pain\"* ''ayam dukkha-nirodha'', \"this is the cessation of pain\"* ''ayam dukkha-nirodha-gamini patipada'', \"this is the path leading to the cessation of pain.\"", "The key terms in the longer version of this expression, ''dukkha-nirodha-gamini Patipada'', can be translated as follows::* ''Gamini'': leading to, making for:* ''Patipada'': road, path, way; the means of reaching a goal or destination===Mnemonic set===According to K. R. Norman, the Pali canon contains various shortened forms of the four truths, the \"mnemonic set\", which were \"intended to remind the hearer of the full form of the NTs.\"", "The earliest form of the mnemonic set was \"dukkham samudayo nirodho magga\", without the reference to the Pali terms ''sacca'' or ''arya'', which were later added to the formula.", "The four mnemonic terms can be translated as follows:# ''Dukkha'' – \"incapable of satisfying\", \"the unsatisfactory nature and the general insecurity of all conditioned phenomena\"; \"painful\".", "''Dukkha'' is most commonly translated as \"suffering\".", "According to Khantipalo, this is an incorrect translation, since it refers to the ultimately unsatisfactory nature of temporary states and things, including pleasant but temporary experiences.", "According to Emmanuel, ''Dukkha'' is the opposite of ''sukha'', \"pleasure\", and it is better translated as \"pain\".# ''Samudaya'' – \"origin\", \"source\", \"arising\", \"coming to existence\"; \"aggregate of the constituent elements or factors of any being or existence\", \"cluster\", \"coming together\", \"combination\", \"producing cause\", \"combination\", \"rising\".", "Conjunct of:## ''sam'' - \"with, together with\";## ''udaya'' - \"rising,\" \"swelling up\"; \"rising up, coming forth\"; \"elevation, exaltation, rise; growth\"; \"result, consequence\";# ''Nirodha'' – cessation; release; to confine; \"prevention, suppression, enclosing, restraint\"# ''Marga'' – \"path\".===Alternative formulations===According to L.S.", "Cousins, the four truths are not restricted to the well-known form where ''dukkha'' is the subject.", "Other forms take \"the world, the arising of the world\" or \"the āsavas, the arising of the āsavas\" as their subject.", "According to Cousins, \"the well-known form is simply shorthand for all of the forms.\"", "\"The world\" refers to the saṅkhāras, that is, all compounded things, or to the six sense spheres.The various terms all point to the same basic idea of Buddhism, as described in five skandhas and twelve nidānas.", "In the five skandhas, sense-contact with objects leads to sensation and perception; the saṅkhāra ('inclinations', c.q.", "craving etc.)", "determine the interpretation of, and the response to, these sensations and perceptions, and affect consciousness in specific ways.", "The ''twelve nidānas'' describe the further process: craving and clinging (''upādāna'') lead to ''bhava'' (becoming) and ''jāti'' (birth).In the orthodox interpretation, ''bhava'' is interpreted as ''kammabhava'', that is , ''karma'', while ''jāti'' is interpreted as rebirth: from sensation comes craving, from craving comes karma, from karma comes rebirth.", "The aim of the Buddhist path is to reverse this causal chain: when there is no (response to) sensation, there is no craving, no karma, no rebirth.", "In Thai Buddhism, ''bhava'' is interpreted as behavior which serves craving and clinging, while ''jāti'' is interpreted as the repeated birth of the ego or self-sense, which perpetuates the process of self-serving responses and actions.===Truths for the noble ones===The Pali terms ''ariya sacca'' (Sanskrit: ''arya satya'') are commonly translated as \"noble truths\".", "This translation is a convention started by the earliest translators of Buddhist texts into English.", "According to K.R.", "Norman, this is just one of several possible translations.", "According to Paul Williams,The term \"arya\" was later added to the four truths.", "The term ''ariya'' (Sanskrit: ''arya'') can be translated as \"noble\", \"not ordinary\", \"valuable\", \"precious\".", "\"pure\".", "Paul Williams:The term ''sacca'' (Sanskrit: ''satya'') is a central term in Indian thought and religion.", "It is typically translated as \"truth\"; but it also means \"that which is in accord with reality\", or \"reality\".", "According to Rupert Gethin, the four truths are \"four 'true things' or 'realities' whose nature, we are told, the Buddha finally understood on the night of his awakening.\"", "They function as \"a convenient conceptual framework for making sense of Buddhist thought.\"", "According to K. R. Norman, probably the best translation is \"the truths of the noble one (the Buddha)\".", "It is a statement of how things are seen by a Buddha, how things really are when seen correctly.", "It is the truthful way of seeing.", "Through not seeing things this way, and behaving accordingly, we suffer.===Symbolic and propositional function===Dharmacakra, often used to represent the Noble Eightfold PathAccording to Anderson, the four truths have both a symbolic and a propositional function:As a symbol, they refer to the possibility of awakening, as represented by the Buddha, and are of utmost importance:As a proposition, they are part of the matrix or \"network of teachings\", in which they are \"not particularly central\", but have an equal place next to other teachings, describing how release from craving is to be reached.", "A long recognized feature of the Theravada canon is that it lacks an \"overarching and comprehensive structure of the path to ''nibbana''.\"", "The sutras form a network or matrix, and the four truths appear within this \"network of teachings\", which have to be taken together.", "Within this network, \"the four noble truths are one doctrine among others and are not particularly central\", but are a part of \"the entire ''dhamma'' matrix\".", "The four noble truths are set and learnt in that network, learning \"how the various teachings intersect with each other\", and refer to the various Buddhist techniques, which are all explicitly and implicitly part of the passages which refer to the four truths.", "According to Anderson," ], [ "Explanation of the Four Truths", "===''Dukkha'' and its ending===As a proposition, the four truths defy an exact definition, but refer to and express the basic orientation of Buddhism: sensory contact gives rise to clinging and craving to temporary states and things, which is ultimately unsatisfactory, ''dukkha'', and sustains ''samsara'', the repeated cycle of ''bhava'' (becoming, habitual tendencies) and ''jāti'' (\"birth\", interpreted as either rebirth, the coming to be of a new existence; or as the arising of the sense of self as a mental phenomenon).", "By following the Buddhist path, craving and clinging can be confined, peace of mind and real happiness can be attained, and the repeated cycle of repeated becoming and birth will be stopped.The truth of ''dukkha'', \"incapable of satisfying\", \"painful\", from ''dush-stha'', \"standing unstable,\" is the basic insight that ''samsara'', life in this \"mundane world\", with its clinging and craving to impermanent states and things\" is ''dukkha'', unsatisfactory and painful.", "We expect happiness from states and things which are impermanent, and therefore cannot attain real happiness.The truth of ''samudaya'', \"arising\", \"coming together\", or ''dukkha-samudaya'', the origination or arising of ''dukkha'', is the truth that ''samsara'', and its associated ''dukkha'' arises, or continues, with taṇhā, \"thirst\", craving for and clinging to these impermanent states and things.", "In the orthodox view, this clinging and craving produces karma, which leads to renewed becoming, keeping us trapped in rebirth and renewed dissatisfaction.", "Craving includes ''kama-tanha'', craving for sense-pleasures; ''bhava-tanha'', craving to continue the cycle of life and death, including rebirth; and ''vibhava-tanha'', craving to not experience the world and painful feelings.", "While ''dukkha-samudaya'', the term in the basic set of the four truths, is traditionally translated and explained as \"the origin (or cause) of suffering\", giving a causal explanation of ''dukkha'', Brazier and Batchelor point to the wider connotations of the term ''samudaya'', \"coming into existence together\": together with ''dukkha'' arises ''tanha'', thirst.", "Craving does not cause ''dukkha'', but comes into existence together with ''dukkha'', or the five skandhas.", "It is this craving which is to be confined, as Kondanna understood at the end of the ''Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta'': \"whatever arises ceases\".The truth of ''nirodha'', \"cessation,\" \"suppression,\" \"renouncing,\" \"letting go\", or ''dukkha-nirodha'', the cessation of ''dukkha'', is the truth that ''dukkha'' ceases, or can be confined, when one renounces or confines craving and clinging, and nirvana is attained.", "Alternatively, ''tanha'' itself, as a response to ''dukkha'', is to be confined.", "''Nirvana'' refers to the moment of attainment itself, and the resulting peace of mind and happiness (''khlesa-nirvana''), but also to the final dissolution of the five skandhas at the time of death (''skandha-nirvana'' or ''parinirvana''); in the Theravada-tradition, it also refers to a transcendental reality which is \"known at the moment of awakening\".", "According to Gethin, \"modern Buddhist usage tends to restrict 'nirvāṇa' to the awakening experience and reserve 'parinirvāṇa' for the death experience.", "When ''nirvana'' is attained, no more karma is being produced, and rebirth and dissatisfaction will no longer arise again.", "Cessation is ''nirvana'', \"blowing out\", and peace of mind.", "Joseph Goldstein explains:The truth of ''magga'', refers to the path to the cessation of, or liberation from ''dukkha'' c.q.", "''tanha''.", "By following the Noble Eightfold Path, to ''moksha'', liberation, restraining oneself, cultivating discipline, and practicing mindfulness and meditation, one starts to disengage from craving and clinging to impermanent states and things, and rebirth and dissatisfaction will be ended.", "The term \"path\" is usually taken to mean the Noble Eightfold Path, but other versions of \"the path\" can also be found in the Nikayas.", "The Theravada tradition regards insight into the four truths as liberating in itself.The well-known eightfold path consists of the understanding that this world is fleeting and unsatisfying, and how craving keeps us tied to this fleeting world; a friendly and compassionate attitude to others; a correct way of behaving; mind-control, which means not feeding on negative thoughts, and nurturing positive thoughts; constant awareness of the feelings and responses which arise; and the practice of ''dhyana'', meditation.", "The tenfold path adds the right (liberating) insight, and liberation from rebirth.The four truths are to be internalised, and understood or \"experienced\" personally, to turn them into a lived reality.===Ending rebirth===Tibetan Bhavacakra or \"Wheel of Life\"The four truths describe ''dukkha'' and its ending as a means to reach peace of mind in this life, but also as a means to end rebirth.According to Geoffrey Samuel, \"the Four Noble Truths ... describe the knowledge needed to set out on the path to liberation from rebirth.\"", "By understanding the four truths, one can stop this clinging and craving, attain a pacified mind, and be freed from this cycle of rebirth and redeath.", "Patrick Olivelle explains that moksha is a central concept in Indian religions, and \"literally means freedom from samsara.\"", "Melvin E. Spiro further explains that \"desire is the cause of suffering because desire is the cause of rebirth.\"", "When desire ceases, rebirth and its accompanying suffering ceases.", "Peter Harvey explains:The last sermon, the ''Maha-parinibbana Sutta'' (Last Days of the Buddha, Digha Nikaya 16)\", states it as follows:===Other interpretations===According to Bhikkhu Buddhadasa, \"birth\" does refer not to physical birth and death, but to the birth and death of our self-concept, the \"emergence of the ego\".", "According to Buddhadhasa,Some contemporary teachers tend to explain the four truths psychologically, by taking ''dukkha'' to mean mental anguish in addition to the physical pain of life, and interpreting the four truths as a means to attain happiness in this life.", "In the contemporary Vipassana movement that emerged out of the Theravada Buddhism, freedom and the \"pursuit of happiness\" have become the main goals, not the end of rebirth, which is hardly mentioned in their teachings.Yet, though freedom and happiness is a part of the Buddhist teachings, these words refer to something different in traditional Asian Buddhism.", "According to Gil Fronsdal, \"when Asian teachers do talk about freedom, it is primarily in reference to what one is free from – that is, from greed, hate, delusion, grasping, attachment, wrong view, self, and most significantly, rebirth\".", "''Nibbana'' is the final freedom, and it has no purpose beyond itself.", "In contrast, freedom in the creative modern interpretation of Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path means living happily and wisely, \"without drastic changes in lifestyle\".", "Such freedom and happiness is not the goal of Four Noble Truths and related doctrines within traditional Buddhism, but the vipassana teachings in the West make no reference to traditional Theravada doctrines, instead they present only the pragmatic and experiential goals in the form of therapy for the audience's current lives.", "The creative interpretations are driven in part because the foundational premises of Buddhism do not make sense to audiences outside of Asia.", "According to Spiro, \"the Buddhist message is not simply a psychological message\", but an eschatological message." ], [ "Historical development in early Buddhism", "According to Anderson, \"the four truths are recognized as perhaps the most important teaching of the Buddha.\"", "Yet, as early as 1935 Caroline Rhys Davids wrote that for a teaching so central to Theravada Buddhism, it was missing from critical passages in the Pali canon.", "According to Gethin, the four truths and the eightfold path are only two lists of \"literally hundreds of similar lists covering the whole range of the theory and practice of ancient Buddhism.\"", "The position of the four truths within the canon raises questions, and has been investigated throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.===Scholarly analysis of the oldest texts===According to academic scholars, inconsistencies in the oldest texts may reveal developments in the oldest teachings.", "While the Theravada-tradition holds that the Sutta Pitaka is \"the definitive recension of the Buddha-word\", and Theravadins argue that it is likely that the sutras date back to the Buddha himself, in an unbroken chain of oral transmission, academic scholars have identified many such inconsistencies, and tried to explain them.", "Information of the oldest teachings of Buddhism, such as on the Four Noble Truths, has been obtained by analysis of the oldest texts and these inconsistencies, and are a matter of ongoing discussion and research.", "According to Schmithausen, three positions held by scholars of Buddhism can be distinguished regarding the possibility to retain knowledge of the oldest Buddhism:# \"Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and substantial authenticity of at least a considerable part of the Nikayic materials;\"# \"Scepticism with regard to the possibility of retrieving the doctrine of earliest Buddhism;\"# \"Cautious optimism in this respect.", "\"===Development=======Growing importance====Buddhologist Eviatar Shulman proposes that in its original form the Four Truths were rooted in meditative perception of mental events, building on his analysis of the Pāli term ayam which is equivalent, he claims, to an immediate perception, such as this here right now in front of me.According to Bronkhorst, the four truths may already have been formulated in earliest Buddhism, but did not have the central place they acquired in later buddhism.", "According to Anderson, only by the time of the commentaries, in the fifth century CE, did the four truths come to be identified in the Theravada tradition as the central teaching of the Buddha.", "According to Anderson,According to Feer and Anderson, the four truths probably entered the Sutta Pitaka from the Vinaya, the rules for monastic order.", "They were first added to enlightenment-stories which contain the Four Jhanas, replacing terms for \"liberating insight\".", "From there they were added to the biographical stories of the Buddha.====Substituting \"liberating insight\"====Scholars have noted inconsistencies in the presentations of the Buddha's enlightenment, and the Buddhist path to liberation, in the oldest sutras.", "They argue that these inconsistencies show that the Buddhist teachings evolved, either during the lifetime of the Buddha, or thereafter.", "According to the Japanese scholar Ui, the four truths are not the earliest representation of the Buddha's enlightenment.", "Instead, they are a rather late theory on the content of the Buddha's enlightenment.", "According to Vetter and Bronkhorst, the earliest Buddhist path consisted of a set of practices which culminate in the practice of ''dhyana'', leading to a calm of mind and awareness (mindfulness) which according to Vetter ''is'' the liberation which is being sought.", "Later on, \"liberating insight\" came to be regarded as equally liberating.", "This \"liberating insight\" came to be exemplified by ''prajna'', or the insight in the \"four truths\", but also by other elements of the Buddhist teachings.", "According to Vetter and Bronkhorst, this growing importance of \"liberating insight\" was a response to other religious groups in India, which held that a liberating insight was indispensable for ''moksha'', liberation from rebirth.", "This change is reflected in the canon, where, according to Bronkhorst,According to Vetter and Bonkhorst, the ideas on what exactly constituted this \"liberating insight\" was not fixed but developed over time.", "According to Bronkhorst, in earliest Buddhism the four truths did not serve as a description of \"liberating insight\".", "Initially the term ''prajna'' served to denote this \"liberating insight\".", "Later on, ''prajna'' was replaced in the suttas by the \"four truths\".", "This happened in those texts where practicing the four jhanas preceded the attainment of \"liberating insight\", and where this practice of the four jhanas then culminates in \"liberating insight\".", "This \"liberating insight\" came to be defined as \"insight into the four truths\", which is presented as the \"liberating insight\" which constituted the awakening, or \"enlightenment\" of the Buddha.", "When he understood these truths he was \"enlightened\" and liberated, as reflected in Majjhima Nikaya 26:42: \"his taints are destroyed by his seeing with wisdom.", "\"Bronkhorst points to an inconsistency, noting that the four truths refer here to the eightfold path as the means to gain liberation, while the attainment of insight into the four truths is portrayed as liberating in itself.", "According to Bronkhorst, this is an inconsistency which reveals a change which took place over time in the composition of the sutras.", "An example of this substitution, and its consequences, is Majjhima Nikaya 36:42–43, which gives an account of the awakening of the Buddha.According to Schmithausen, the four truths were superseded by ''pratityasamutpada'', and still later, in the Hinayana schools, by the doctrine of the non-existence of a substantial self or person.", "Schmithausen further states that still other descriptions of this \"liberating insight\" exist in the Buddhist canon:In contrast, Thanissaro Bikkhu presents the view that the four truths, pratityasamutpada and anatta are inextricably intertwined.===Acquiring the ''dhamma-eye'' and destroying the ''āsavās''===In their symbolic function, the sutras present the insight into the four truths as the culmination of the Buddha's path to awakening.", "In the ''Vinayapitaka'' and the ''Sutta-pitaka'' they have the same symbolic function, in a reenactment by his listeners of the Buddha's awakening by attaining the ''dhamma-eye''.", "In contrast, here this insight serves as the starting point to path-entry for his audience.", "These sutras present a repeated sequence of events:# ''Annupubbikathā'' (\"graduated talk\"), in which the Buddha explains the four truths; this talk frees the listener from the hindrances;# This talk opens the ''dhammacakkhu'' (\"dhamma eye\"), and knowledge arises: \"all that has the nature of arising has the nature of ending\";# The request to become a member of the Buddhist order;# A second talk by the Buddha, which destroys the ''āsavās'', impurities;# The statement that \"there are now ''x arahats'' in the world.", "\"Yet, in other sutras, where the four truths have a propositional function, the comprehension of the four truths destroys the corruptions.", "They do so in combination with the practice of the ''jhanas'' and the attainment of the divine eye, with which past lives and the working of rebirth are being seen.According to Anderson, following Schmithausen and Bronkhorst, these two presentations give two different models of the path to liberation, reflecting their function as a symbol and as a proposition.", "Most likely, the four truths were first associated with the culmination of the path in the destruction of the ''āsavās'', where they substituted the unspecified \"liberating insight\"; as the canon developed, they became more logically associated with the beginning of the Buddhist path.===Popularisation in the west===According to Anderson there is a strong tendency within scholarship to present the four truths as the most essential teaching of Buddhism.", "According to Anderson, the four truths have been simplified and popularized in western writings, due to \"the colonial project of gaining control over Buddhism.\"", "According to Crosby, the Buddhist teachings are reduced to a \"simple, single rationalized account\", which has parallels in the reinterpretation of the Buddha in western literature.The presentation of the four truths as one of the most important teachings of the Buddha \"has been done to reduce the four noble truths to a teaching that is accessible, pliable, and therefore readily appropriated by non-Buddhists.\"", "There is a great variety of teachings in the Buddhist literature, which may be bewildering for those who are unaware of this variety.", "The four truths are easily accessible in this regard, and are \"readily understood by those outside the Buddhist traditions.\"", "For example Walpola Rahula's ''What the Buddha Taught'', a widely used introductory text for non-Buddhists, uses the four truths as a framework to present an overview of the Buddhist teachings.According to Harris, the British in the 19th century crafted new representations of Buddhism and the Buddha.", "19th century missionaries studied Buddhism, to be more effective in their missionary efforts.", "The Buddha was de-mystified, and reduced from a \"superhuman\" to a \"compassionate, heroic human\", serving \"western historical method and the missionary agenda of situating the Buddha firmly below the divine.\"", "The four truths were discovered by the British by reading the Buddhist texts, and were not immediately granted the central position they later received.The writings of British missionaries show a growing emphasis on the four truths as being central to Buddhism, with somewhat different presentations of them.", "This colonial project had a strong influence on some strands of Buddhism, culminating in so-called Protestant Buddhism, which incorporated several essentially Protestant attitudes regarding religion, such as the emphasis on written texts.", "According to Gimello, Rahula's book is an example of this Protestant Buddhism, and \"was created in an accommodating response to western expectations, and in nearly diametrical opposition to Buddhism as it had actually been practised in traditional Theravada.", "\"Hendrik Kern proposed in 1882 that the model of the four truths may be an analogy with classical Indian medicine, in which the four truths function as a medical diagnosis, and the Buddha is presented as a physician.", "Kern's analogy became rather popular, but \"there is not sufficient historical evidence to conclude that the Buddha deliberately drew upon a clearly defined medical model for his fourfold analysis of human pain.", "\"According to Anderson, those scholars who did not place the four truths at the center of Buddhism, either \"located the four truths in a fuller reading of the Theravada canon and the larger context of South Asian literature\", or \"located the teaching within an experience of Buddhism as practiced in a contemporary setting.\"", "According to Anderson, \"these autors suggest a more complex reading of the four noble truths than those who locate the teaching as the key to or as a crucial element within the grand scheme of Buddhism.\"" ], [ "Appearance within the discourses", "The developing Buddhist tradition inserted the four truths, using various formulations, at various sutras.", "They are being used both as a symbol of all dhammas and the Buddha's awakening, and as a set of propositions which function within a matrix of teachings.", "According to Anderson, there is no single way to understand the teachings; one teaching may be used to explain another teaching, and vice versa.", "The teachings form a network, which should be apprehended as such to understand how the various teachings intersect with each other.===Symbolic function=======''Mahasaccaka Sutta''====The ''Mahasaccaka Sutta'' (\"The Greater Discourse to Saccaka\", Majjhima Nikaya 36) gives one of several versions of the Buddha's way to liberation.", "He attains the three knowledges, namely knowledge of his former lifes, knowledge of death and rebirth, and knowledge of the destruction of the taints, the Four Noble Truths.", "After going through the four dhyanas, and gaining the first two knowledges, the story proceeds:Bronkhorst dismisses the first two knowledges as later additions, and proceeds to notice that the recognition of the intoxicants is modelled on the four truths.", "According to Bronkhorst, those are added the bridge the original sequence of \"I directed my mind to the knowledge of the destruction of the intoxicants.", "My mind was liberated\", which was interrupted by the addition of the four truths.", "Bronkhorst points out that those do not fit here, since the four truths culminate in the knowledge of the path to be followed, while the Buddha himself is already liberated at that point.====''Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta''====A relief depicting the first discourse of the Buddha, from the 2nd century (Kushan).", "The Walters Art Museum.", "The Buddha's hand can be seen at right.According to the Buddhist tradition, the first talk of Gautama Buddha after he attained enlightenment is recorded in the ''Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta'' (\"Setting in Motion the Wheel of Dhamma\", Samyutta Nikaya 56.11).", "The ''Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta'' provides details on three stages in the understanding of each truth, for a total of twelve insights.", "The three stages for understanding each truth are:# ''sacca-ñāṇa'' – knowing the nature of the truth (e.g., acknowledgement, view, reflection)# ''kicca-ñāṇa'' – knowing what needs to be done in connection with that truth (e.g., practice; motivation; directly experiencing)# ''kata-ñāṇa'' – accomplishing what needs to be done (e.g., result, full understanding, knowing)These three stages of understanding are emphasized particularly in the Theravada tradition, but they are also recognized by some contemporary Mahayana teachers.According to Cousins, many scholars are of the view that \"this discourse was identified as the first sermon of the Buddha only at a later date.\"", "According to Stephen Batchelor, the ''Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta'' contains incongruities, and states thatAccording to Bronkhorst this \"first sermon\" is recorded in several sutras, with important variations.", "In the Vinaya texts, and in the ''Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta'' which was influenced by the Vinaya texts, the four truths are included, and Kondañña is enlightened when the \"vision of Dhamma\" arises in him: \"whatever is subject to origination is all subject to cessation.\"", "Yet, in the ''Ariyapariyesanā Sutta'' (\"The Noble Search\", Majjhima Nikaya 26) the four truths are not included, and the Buddha gives the five ascetics personal instructions in turn, two or three of them, while the others go out begging for food.", "The versions of the \"first sermon\" which include the four truths, such as the ''Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta'', omit this instruction, showing thatAccording to Bronkhorst, this indicates that the four truths were later added to earlier descriptions of liberation by practicing the four dhyanas, which originally was thought to be sufficient for the destruction of the arsavas.", "Anderson, following Norman, also thinks that the four truths originally were not part of this sutta, and were later added in some versions.According to Bronkhorst, the \"twelve insights\" are probably also a later addition, born out of unease with the substitution of the general term \"prajna\" for the more specific \"four truths\".====''Maha-parinibbana Sutta''====According to the Buddhist tradition, the ''Maha-parinibbana Sutta'' (Last Days of the Buddha, Digha Nikaya 16) was given near the end of the Buddha's life.", "This sutta \"gives a good general idea of the Buddha's Teaching:\"===Propositional function=======''Maha-salayatanika Sutta''====The ''Maha-salayatanika Sutta'', Majjhima Nikaya 149:3 plus 149:9, give an alternative presentation of the four truths:" ], [ "Emphasis within different traditions", "===Early Indian Buddhism===The Ekavyāvahārika sect emphasized the transcendence of the Buddha, asserting that he was eternally enlightened and essentially non-physical.", "According to the Ekavyāvahārika, the words of the Buddha were spoken with one transcendent meaning, and the Four Noble Truths are to be understood simultaneously in one moment of insight.", "According to the Mahīśāsaka sect, the Four Noble Truths should be meditated upon simultaneously.===Theravada===According to Carol Anderson, the four truths have \"a singular position within the Theravada canon and tradition.\"", "The Theravada tradition regards insight in the four truths as liberating in itself.", "As Walpola Rahula states, \"when the Truth is seen, all the forces which feverishly produce the continuity of samsara in illusion become calm and incapable of producing any more karma-formations ... he is free from ... the 'thirst' for becoming.\"", "This liberation can be attained in one single moment, when the four truths are understood together.", "Within the Theravada tradition, great emphasis is placed upon reading and contemplating ''The Discourse That Sets Turning the Wheel of Truth'', and other suttas, as a means to study the four noble truths and put them into practice.", "For example, Ajahn Sumedho states: Within the Theravada-tradition, three different stances on ''nirvana'' and the question what happens with the ''Arhat'' after death can be found.", "''Nirvana'' refers to the cessation of the defilements and the resulting peace of mind and happiness (''khlesa-nirvana''); to the final dissolution of the five skandhas at the time of death (''skandha-nirvana'' or ''parinirvana''); and to a transcendental reality which is \"known at the moment of awakening\".", "According to Gethin, \"modern Buddhist usage tends to restrict 'nirvāṇa' to the awakening experience and reserve 'parinirvāṇa' for the death experience.", "According to Geisler and Amano, in the \"minimal Theravada interpretation\", ''nirvana'' is a psychological state, which ends with the dissolution of the body and the total extinction of existence.", "According to Geisler and Amano, the \"orthodox Theravada interpretation\" is that nirvana is a transcendent reality with which the self unites.", "According to Bronkhorst, while \"Buddhism preached liberation in this life, i.e.", "before death\", there was also a tendency in Buddhism to think of liberation happening after death.", "According to Bronkhorst, thisAccording to Walpola Rahula, the cessation of ''dukkha'' is ''nirvana'', the ''summum bonum'' of Buddhism, and is attained in this life, not when one dies.", "''Nirvana'' is \"perfect freedom, peace, tranquility and happiness\", and \"Absolute Truth\", which simply ''is''.", "Jayatilleke also speaks of \"the attainment of an ultimate reality\".", "According to Bhikkhu Bodhi, the \"elimination of craving culminates not only in the extinction of sorrow, anguish and distress, but in the unconditioned freedom of nibbana, which is won with the ending of repeated rebirth.", "\"According to Spiro, most (lay) Theravada Buddhists do not aspire for ''nirvana'' and total extinction, but for a pleasurable rebirth in heaven.", "According to Spiro, this presents a \"serious conflict\" since the Buddhist texts and teaching \"describe life as suffering and hold up nirvana as the ''summum bonum.''\"", "In response to this deviation, \"monks and others emphasize that the hope for nirvana is the only legitimate action for Buddhist action.\"", "Nevertheless, according to Spiro most Burmese lay Buddhists do not aspire for the extinction of existence which is ''nirvana''.According to B.R.", "Ambedkar, the Indian Buddhist Dalit leader, the four truths were not part of the original teachings of the Buddha, but a later aggregation, due to Hindu influences.", "According to Ambedkar, total cessation of suffering is an illusion; yet, the Buddhist Middle Path aims at the reduction of suffering and the maximizing of happiness, balancing both sorrow and happiness.===Mahayana===The four truths are less prominent in the Mahayana traditions, which emphasize insight into Śūnyatā and the Bodhisattva path as a central elements in their teachings.", "If the sutras in general are studied at all, it is through various Mahayana commentaries.According to Makransky the Mahayana Bodhisattva ideal created tensions in the explanation of the four truths.", "In the Mahayana view, a fully enlightened Buddha does not leave ''samsara'', but remains in the world out of compassion for all sentient beings.", "The four truths, which aim at ending ''samsara'', do not provide a doctrinal basis for this view, and had to be reinterpreted.", "In the old view, ''klesas'' and ''karma'' are the cause of prolonged existence.", "According to Makransky, \"to remove those causes was, at physical death, to extinguish one's conditioned existence, hence to end forever one's participation in the world (Third Truth).\"", "According to Makransky, the question of how a liberated being can still be \"pervasively operative in this world\" has been \"a seminal source of ongoing doctrinal tension over Buddhahood throughout the history of the Mahayana in India and Tibet.", "\"====Tibetan Buddhism====Atisha, in his ''Bodhipathapradīpa'' (\"A Lamp for the Path to Awakening\"), which forms the basis for the Lamrim tradition, discerns three levels of motivation for Buddhist practitioners.", "At the beginning level of motivation, one strives toward a better life in ''samsara''.", "At the intermediate level, one strives to a liberation from existence in samsara and the end of all suffering.", "At the highest level of motivation, one strives after the liberation of all living beings.", "In his commentary on the text, Tsenshap Serkong Rinpoche explains that the four truths are to be meditated upon as a means of practice for the intermediate level.According to Geshe Tashi Tsering, within Tibetan Buddhism, the four noble truths are studied as part of the Bodhisattva path.", "They are explained in Mahayana commentaries such as the ''Abhisamayalamkara'', a summary of and commentary on the Prajna Paramita sutras, where they form part of the lower Hinayana teachings.", "The truth of the path (the fourth truth) is traditionally presented according to a progressive formula of five paths, rather than as the eightfold path presented in Theravada.", "According to Tsering, the study of the four truths is combined with the study of the sixteen characteristics of the four noble truths.Some contemporary Tibetan Buddhist teachers have provided commentary on the ''Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta'' and the noble eightfold path when presenting the dharma to Western students.====Nichiren Buddhism====Nichiren Buddhism is based on the teaching of the Japanese priest and teacher Nichiren, who believed that the Lotus Sūtra contained the essence of all of Gautama Buddha's teachings.", "The third chapter of the Lotus Sutra states that the Four Noble Truths was the early teaching of the Buddha, while the Dharma of the Lotus is the \"most wonderful, unsurpassed great Dharma\".", "The teachings on the four noble truths are a provisional teaching, which Shakyamuni Buddha taught according to the people’s capacity, while the Lotus Sutra is a direct statement of Shakyamuni’s own enlightenment.===Western Buddhism===For many western Buddhists, the rebirth doctrine in the Four Noble Truths teaching is a problematic notion.", "According to Lamb, \"Certain forms of modern western Buddhism ... see it as purely mythical and thus a dispensable notion.\"", "According to Coleman, the focus of most vipassana students in the west \"is mainly on meditation practice and a kind of down-to-earth psychological wisdom.\"", "According to Damien Keown, westerners find \"the ideas of karma and rebirth puzzling.\"", "According to Gowans, many Western followers and people interested in exploring Buddhism are skeptical and object to the belief in karma and rebirth foundational to the Four Noble Truths.", "According to Konik, According to Keown, it is possible to reinterpret the Buddhist doctrines such as the Four Noble Truths, since the final goal and the answer to the problem of suffering is nirvana, and not rebirth.", "Some Western interpreters have proposed what is sometimes referred to as \"naturalized Buddhism\".", "It is devoid of rebirth, karma, nirvana, realms of existence, and other concepts of Buddhism, with doctrines such as the Four Noble Truths reformulated and restated in modernistic terms.", "This \"deflated secular Buddhism\" stresses compassion, impermanence, causality, selfless persons, no Boddhisattvas, no nirvana, no rebirth, and a naturalist's approach to well-being of oneself and others.According to Melford Spiro, this approach undermines the Four Noble Truths, for it does not address the existential question for the Buddhist as to \"why live?", "why not commit suicide, hasten the end of ''dukkha'' in current life by ending life\".", "In traditional Buddhism, rebirth continues the ''dukkha'' and the path to cessation of ''dukkha'' isn't suicide, but the fourth reality of the Four Noble Truths.", "The \"naturalized Buddhism\", according to Gowans, is a radical revision to traditional Buddhist thought and practice, and it attacks the structure behind the hopes, needs and rationalization of the realities of human life to traditional Buddhists in East, Southeast and South Asia.", "According to Keown, it may not be necessary to believe in some of the core Buddhist doctrines to be a Buddhist, but the rebirth, karma, realms of existence and cyclic universe doctrines underpin the Four Noble Truths in Buddhism.Traditional Buddhist scholars disagree with these modernist Western interpretations.", "Bhikkhu Bodhi, for example, states that rebirth is an integral part of the Buddhist teachings as found in the sutras, despite the problems that \"modernist interpreters of Buddhism\" seem to have with it.", "Thanissaro Bhikkhu, as another example, rejects the \"modern argument\" that \"one can still obtain all the results of the practice without having to accept the possibility of rebirth.\"", "He states, \"rebirth has always been a central teaching in the Buddhist tradition.", "\"According to Owen Flanagan, the Dalai Lama states that \"Buddhists believe in rebirth\" and that this belief has been common among his followers.", "However, the Dalai Lama's belief, adds Flanagan, is more sophisticated than ordinary Buddhists, because it is not the same as reincarnation—rebirth in Buddhism is envisioned as happening without the assumption of an \"atman, self, soul\", but rather through a \"consciousness conceived along the anatman lines\".", "The doctrine of rebirth is considered mandatory in Tibetan Buddhism, and across many Buddhist sects.According to Christopher Gowans, for \"most ordinary Buddhists, today as well as in the past, their basic moral orientation is governed by belief in karma and rebirth\".", "Buddhist morality hinges on the hope of well being in this lifetime or in future rebirths, with nirvana (enlightenment) a project for a future lifetime.", "A denial of karma and rebirth undermines their history, moral orientation and religious foundations.", "According to Keown, most Buddhists in Asia do accept these traditional teachings, and seek better rebirth.===Navayana Buddhism===The Navayana, a modernistic interpretation of Buddhism by the Indian leader and Buddhist scholar B. R. Ambedkar, rejected much of traditional Buddhism, including the Four Noble Truths, karma and rebirth, thus turning his new religion into a vehicle for class struggle and social action.", "According to Ambedkar, Four Noble Truths was \"the invention of wrong-headed monks\"." ], [ "See also", "* List of Buddhist topics* Buddhist paths to liberation* Dependent Origination* Noble Eightfold Path* Pariyatti* Three marks of existence" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources=======Printed sources=========Sutta Pitaka=====* * * (See also Anguttara Nikaya)* * =====Buddhist teachers=====* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * =====Scholarly sources=====* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ====Web sources====" ], [ "Further reading", "===Historical background and development===* * , chapter 8* ===Theravada commentaries===* Walpola Rahula (1974), ''What the Buddha Taught'', Grove Press* Ajahn Sucitto (2010), ''Turning the Wheel of Truth: Commentary on the Buddha's First Teaching'', Shambhala.", "* Ajahn Sumedho (2002), '' The Four Noble Truths'', Amaravati Publications.", "* Bhikkhu Bodhi (2006), '' The Noble Eightfold Path: Way to the End of Suffering'', Pariyatti Publishing.===Tibetan Buddhism===* Chögyam Trungpa (2009), ''The Truth of Suffering and the Path of Liberation'', Shambhala.", "* Dalai Lama (1998), ''The Four Noble Truths'', Thorsons.", "* Geshe Tashi Tsering (2005), ''The Four Noble Truths: The Foundation of Buddhist Thought, Volume I'', Wisdom, Kindle Edition* Ringu Tulku (2005), ''Daring Steps Toward Fearlessness: The Three Vehicles of Tibetan Buddhism'', Snow Lion.", "(Part 1 of 3 is a commentary on the four truths)===Modern interpretations===* * Epstein, Mark (2004), ''Thoughts Without A Thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist Perspective.''", "Basic Books.", "Kindle Edition.", "(Part 1 examines the four truths from a Western psychological perspective)* Moffitt, Phillip (2008), ''Dancing with Life: Buddhist Insights for Finding Meaning and Joy in the Face of Suffering'', Rodale, Kindle Edition.", "(An explanation of how to apply the Four Noble Truths to daily life)* Thich Nhat Hanh (1999), ''The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching'', Three Rivers Press===Other scholarly explanations===* Gethin, Rupert (1998), ''Foundations of Buddhism'', Oxford University Press (Chapter 3 is a commentary of about 25 pages).", "* Lopez, Donald S. (2001), ''The Story of Buddhism'', HarperCollins (pp.", "42–54)." ], [ "External links", "* What are the Four Noble Truths?", "\"* The Four Noble Truths: an overview\", Berzin Archives* ''The Four Noble Truths.", "A Study Guide'', Thanissaro Bikkhu* Four Noble Truths, Rigpa Wiki" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "French Republican calendar" ], [ "Introduction", "French Republican Calendar of 1794, drawn by Philibert-Louis DebucourtThe '''French Republican calendar''' (), also commonly called the '''French Revolutionary calendar''' (), was a calendar created and implemented during the French Revolution, and used by the French government for about 12 years from late 1793 to 1805, and for 18 days by the Paris Commune in 1871, and meant to replace the Gregorian calendar.The revolutionary system was designed in part to remove all religious and royalist influences from the calendar, and it was part of a larger attempt at decimalisation in France (which also included decimal time of day, decimalisation of currency, and metrication).", "It was used in government records in France and other areas under French rule, including Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Malta, and Italy." ], [ "Beginning and ending", "The National Constituent Assembly at first intended to create a new calendar marking the \"era of Liberty\", beginning on 14 July 1789, the date of the Storming of the Bastille.", "However, on 2 January 1792 its successor the Legislative Assembly decided that Year IV of Liberty had begun the day before.", "Year I had therefore begun on 1 January 1789.On 21 September 1792, the French First Republic was proclaimed, and the new National Convention decided that 1792 was to be known as Year I of the French Republic.", "It decreed on 2 January 1793 that Year II of the Republic had begun the day before.", "However, the new calendar as adopted by the Convention in October 1793 made 22 September 1792 the first day of Year I.Ultimately, the calendar came to commemorate the Republic, and not the Revolution.", "The Common Era, commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, was abolished and replaced with , the Republican Era, signifying the \"age of reason\" overcoming superstition, as part of the campaign of dechristianization.", "The First Republic ended with the coronation of Napoleon I as Emperor on 11 Frimaire, Year XIII, or 2 December 1804.Despite this, the republican calendar continued to be used until 1 January 1806, when Napoleon declared it abolished.", "It was briefly used again for a few weeks of the Paris Commune, in May 1871." ], [ "Overview and origins", "=== Precursor ===The prominent atheist essayist and philosopher Sylvain Maréchal published the first edition of his ''Almanach des Honnêtes-gens'' (Almanac of Honest People) in 1788.The first month in the almanac is \"Mars, ou Princeps\" (March, or First), the last month is \"Février, ou Duodécembre\" (February, or Twelfth).", "The lengths of the months are the same as those in the Gregorian calendar; however, the 10th, 20th, and 30th days are singled out of each month as the end of a ''décade'' (group of ten days).", "Individual days were assigned, instead of to the traditional saints, to people noteworthy for mostly secular achievements.", "Later editions of the almanac would switch to the Republican Calendar.=== History ===A copy of the French Republican Calendar in the Historical Museum of LausanneThe days of the French Revolution and Republic saw many efforts to sweep away various trappings of the ''Ancien Régime'' (the old feudal monarchy); some of these were more successful than others.", "The new Republican government sought to institute, among other reforms, a new social and legal system, a new system of weights and measures (which became the metric system), and a new calendar.", "Amid nostalgia for the ancient Roman Republic, the theories of the Age of Enlightenment were at their peak, and the devisers of the new systems looked to nature for their inspiration.", "Natural constants, multiples of ten, and Latin as well as Ancient Greek derivations formed the fundamental blocks from which the new systems were built.The new calendar was created by a commission under the direction of the politician Gilbert Romme seconded by and Charles-François Dupuis.", "They associated with their work the chemist Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, the mathematician and astronomer Joseph-Louis Lagrange, the astronomer Jérôme Lalande, the mathematician Gaspard Monge, the astronomer and naval geographer Alexandre Guy Pingré, and the poet, actor and playwright Fabre d'Églantine, who invented the names of the months, with the help of André Thouin, gardener at the Jardin des plantes of the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris.", "As the rapporteur of the commission, Charles-Gilbert Romme presented the new calendar to the Jacobin-controlled National Convention on 23 September 1793, which adopted it on 24 October 1793 and also extended it proleptically to its epoch of 22 September 1792.It is because of his position as rapporteur of the commission that the creation of the republican calendar is attributed to Romme.The calendar is frequently named the \"French Revolutionary Calendar\" because it was created during the Revolution, but this is a slight misnomer.", "In France, it is known as the ''calendrier républicain'' as well as the ''calendrier révolutionnaire''.", "There was initially a debate as to whether the calendar should celebrate the Great Revolution, which began in July 1789, or the Republic, which was established in 1792.Immediately following 14 July 1789, papers and pamphlets started calling 1789 year I of Liberty and the following years II and III.", "It was in 1792, with the practical problem of dating financial transactions, that the legislative assembly was confronted with the problem of the calendar.", "Originally, the choice of epoch was either 1 January 1789 or 14 July 1789.After some hesitation the assembly decided on 2 January 1792 that all official documents would use the \"era of Liberty\" and that the year IV of Liberty started on 1 January 1792.This usage was modified on 22 September 1792 when the Republic was proclaimed and the Convention decided that all public documents would be dated Year I of the French Republic.", "The decree of 2 January 1793 stipulated that the year II of the Republic began on 1 January 1793; this was revoked with the introduction of the new calendar, which set 22 September 1793 as the beginning of year II.", "The establishment of the Republic was used as the epochal date for the calendar; therefore, the calendar commemorates the Republic, and not the Revolution.French coins of the period naturally used this calendar.", "Many show the year () in Arabic numbers, although Roman numerals were used on some issues.", "Year 11 coins typically have a XI date to avoid confusion with the Roman II.The French Revolution is usually considered to have ended with the coup of 18 Brumaire, Year VIII (9 November 1799), the coup d'état of Napoleon Bonaparte against the established constitutional regime of the ''Directoire''.The Son of Père Duchêne'', a newspaper published during the Paris Commune.The Concordat of 1801 re-established the Roman Catholic Church as an official institution in France, although not as the state religion of France.", "The concordat took effect from Easter Sunday, 28 Germinal, Year XI (8 April 1802); it restored the names of the days of the week to the ones from the Gregorian calendar, and fixed Sunday as the official day of rest and religious celebration.", "However, the other attributes of the republican calendar, the months, and years, remained as they were.The French Republic ended with the coronation of Napoleon as (Emperor of the French) on 11 Frimaire, Year XIII (2 December 1804), but the republican calendar would remain in place for another year.", "Napoleon finally abolished the republican calendar with effect from 1 January 1806 (the day after 10 Nivôse Year XIV), a little over twelve years after its introduction.", "It was, however, used again briefly in the ''Journal officiel'' for some dates during a short period of the Paris Commune, 6–23 May 1871 (16 Floréal–3 Prairial Year LXXIX).=== Calendar design ===L AN 2 DE LA REPUBLIQUE FR (Year 2 of the French Republic) on a barn near Geneva, dating to 1793 or 1794Years appear in writing as Roman numerals (usually), with epoch 22 September 1792, the beginning of the \"Republican Era\" (the day the French First Republic was proclaimed, one day after the Convention abolished the monarchy).", "As a result, Roman Numeral I indicates the first year of the republic, that is, the year before the calendar actually came into use.", "By law, the beginning of each year was set at midnight, beginning on the day the apparent autumnal equinox falls at the Paris Observatory.There were twelve months, each divided into three ten-day weeks called ''décades''.", "The tenth day, ''décadi'', replaced Sunday as the day of rest and festivity.", "The five or six extra days needed to approximate the solar or tropical year were placed after the final month of each year and called complementary days.", "This arrangement was an almost exact copy of the calendar used by the Ancient Egyptians, though in their case the year did not begin and end on the autumnal equinox.A period of four years ending on a leap day was to be called a \"Franciade\".", "The name \"Olympique\" was originally proposed but changed to Franciade to commemorate the fact that it had taken the revolution four years to establish a republican government in France.The leap year was called ''Sextile'', an allusion to the \"bissextile\" leap years of the Julian and Gregorian calendars, because it contained a sixth complementary day.=== Decimal time ===Each day in the Republican Calendar was divided into ten hours, each hour into 100 decimal minutes, and each decimal minute into 100 decimal seconds.", "Thus an hour was 144 conventional minutes (2.4 times as long as a conventional hour), a minute was 86.4 conventional seconds (44% longer than a conventional minute), and a second was 0.864 conventional seconds (13.6% shorter than a conventional second).Clocks were manufactured to display this decimal time, but it did not catch on.", "Mandatory use of decimal time was officially suspended 7 April 1795, although some cities continued to use decimal time as late as 1801.The numbering of years in the Republican Calendar by Roman numerals ran counter to this general decimalization tendency." ], [ "Months", "The Republican calendar year began the day the autumnal equinox occurred in Paris, and had twelve months of 30 days each, which were given new names based on nature, principally having to do with the prevailing weather in and around Paris and sometimes evoking the Medieval Labours of the Months.", "The extra five or six days in the year were not given a month designation, but considered Sansculottides or Complementary Days.", "* Autumn:** Vendémiaire (from French ''vendange'', derived from Latin ''vindemia'', \"vintage\"), starting 22, 23, or 24 September** Brumaire (from French ''brume'', \"mist\", from Latin ''brūma'', \"winter solstice; winter; winter cold\"), starting 22, 23, or 24 October** Frimaire (from French ''frimas'', \"frost\"), starting 21, 22, or 23 November* Winter:** Nivôse (from Latin ''nivosus'', \"snowy\"), starting 21, 22, or 23 December** Pluviôse (from French ''pluvieux'', derived from Latin ''pluvius'', \"rainy\"), starting 20, 21, or 22 January** Ventôse (from French ''venteux'', derived from Latin ''ventosus'', \"windy\"), starting 19, 20, or 21 February* Spring:** Germinal (from French ''germination''), starting 21 or 22 March** Floréal (from French ''fleur'', derived from Latin ''flos'', \"flower\"), starting 20 or 21 April** Prairial (from French ''prairie'', \"meadow\"), starting 20 or 21 May* Summer:** Messidor (from Latin ''messis'', \"harvest\"), starting 19 or 20 June** Thermidor (from Greek ''thermon'', \"summer heat\"), starting 19 or 20 July; on many printed calendars of Year II (1793–94), the month of ''Thermidor'' was named ''Fervidor'' (from Latin ''fervidus'', \"burning hot\")** Fructidor (from Latin ''fructus'', \"fruit\"), starting 18 or 19 AugustMost of the month names were new words coined from French, Latin, or Greek.", "The endings of the names are grouped by season.", "\"Dor\" means \"giving\" in Greek.In Britain, a contemporary wit mocked the Republican Calendar by calling the months: Wheezy, Sneezy and Freezy; Slippy, Drippy and Nippy; Showery, Flowery and Bowery; Hoppy, Croppy and Poppy.", "The historian Thomas Carlyle suggested somewhat more serious English names in his 1837 work ''The French Revolution: A History'', namely Vintagearious, Fogarious, Frostarious, Snowous, Rainous, Windous, Buddal, Floweral, Meadowal, Reapidor, Heatidor, and Fruitidor.", "Like the French originals, they are neologisms suggesting a meaning related to the season." ], [ "Ten days of the week", "French Revolutionary pocket watch showing ten-day ''décade'' names and thirty-day month numbers from the Republican Calendar, but with duodecimal time.", "On display at the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire (Neuchâtel) In Switzerland.The month is divided into three ''décades'' or \"weeks\" of ten days each, named simply:* ''primidi'' (first day)* ''duodi'' (second day)* ''tridi'' (third day)* ''quartidi'' (fourth day)* ''quintidi'' (fifth day)* ''sextidi'' (sixth day)* ''septidi'' (seventh day)* ''octidi'' (eighth day)* ''nonidi'' (ninth day)* ''décadi'' (tenth day)Décadis became official days of rest instead of Sundays, in order to diminish the influence of the Roman Catholic Church.", "They were used for the festivals of a succession of new religions meant to replace Catholicism: the Cult of Reason, the Cult of the Supreme Being, the Decadary Cult, and Theophilanthropy.", "Christian holidays were officially abolished in favor of revolutionary holidays.", "The law of 13 Fructidor year VI (August 30, 1798) required that marriages must only be celebrated on décadis.", "This law was applied from the 1st Vendémiaire year VII (September 22, 1798) to 28 Pluviôse year VIII (February 17, 1800).", "Décades were abandoned at the changeover from Germinal to Floréal an X (20 to 21 April 1802), after Napoleon's Concordat with the Pope." ], [ "Rural calendar", "The Roman Catholic Church used a calendar of saints, which named each day of the year after an associated saint.", "To reduce the influence of the Church, Fabre d'Églantine introduced a Rural Calendar in which each day of the year had a unique name associated with the rural economy, stated to correspond to the time of year.", "Every ''décadi'' (ending in 0) was named after an agricultural tool.", "Each ''quintidi'' (ending in 5) was named for a common animal.", "The rest of the days were named for \"grain, pasture, trees, roots, flowers, fruits\" and other plants, except for the first month of winter, Nivôse, during which the rest of the days were named after minerals.The following pictures, showing twelve allegories for the months, were illustrated by French painter Louis Lafitte (1779–1828), and engraved by (1750–1815).=== Autumn ====== Winter ====== Spring ====== Summer ===" ], [ "Complementary days", "Five extra days – six in leap years – were national holidays at the end of every year.", "These were originally known as ''les sans-culottides'' (after ''sans-culottes''), but after year III (1795) as ''les jours complémentaires'':* 1st complementary day: La Fête de la Vertu, \"Celebration of Virtue\", on 17 or 18 September* 2nd complementary day: La Fête du Génie, \"Celebration of Talent\", on 18 or 19 September* 3rd complementary day: La Fête du Travail, \"Celebration of Labour\", on 19 or 20 September* 4th complementary day: La Fête de l'Opinion, \"Celebration of Convictions\", on 20 or 21 September* 5th complementary day: La Fête des Récompenses, \"Celebration of Honors (Awards)\", on 21 or 22 September* 6th complementary day: La Fête de la Révolution, \"Celebration of the Revolution\", on 22 or 23 September (on leap years only)" ], [ "Converting from the Gregorian Calendar", "===During the Republic ===Fountain in Octon, Hérault with date ''5 Ventôse an 109'' (24 February 1901)Below are the Gregorian dates each year of the Republican Era (''Ere Républicain'' in French) began while the calendar was in effect.", "ER AD/CE I (1) 22 September 1792 II (2) 22 September 1793 III (3) 22 September 1794 IV (4) 23 September 1795* V (5) 22 September 1796 VI (6) 22 September 1797 VII (7) 22 September 1798 VIII (8) 23 September 1799* IX (9) 23 September 1800 X (10) 23 September 1801 XI (11) 23 September 1802 XII (12) 24 September 1803* XIII (13) 23 September 1804 XIV (14) 23 September 1805 LXXIX (79) 23 September 1870* Extra (sextile) day inserted before date, due to previous leap year===After the Republic===The Republican Calendar was abolished in the year XIV (1805).", "After this year, there are two historically attested calendars which may be used to determine dates.", "Both calendars gave the same dates for years 17 to 52 (1808-1844), always beginning on 23 September, and it was suggested, but never adopted, that the reformed calendar be implemented during this period, before the Republican Calendar was abolished.", "* '' Republican Calendar:'' The only legal calendar during the Republic.", "The first day of the year, 1 Vendémiaire, is always the day the autumn equinox occurs in Paris.", "About every 30 years, leap years are 5 years apart instead of 4, as happened between the leap years 15 and 20.The lengths of the first 524 years were calculated by Delambre.", "* ''Reformed Republican Calendar:'' Following a proposal by Delambre in order to make leap years regular and predictable, with leap years being every year divisible by 4, except years divisible by 100 and not by 400.Years divisible by 4000 would also be ordinary years.", "Intended to be implemented in year 3, the reformed calendar was abandoned after the death of the head of the calendar committee, Gilbert Romme.", "This calendar also has the benefit that every year in the third century of the Republican Era (1992–2091) begins on 22 September.", "ER AD/CE Republican ReformedXV (15)1806 23 September23 SeptemberXVI (16)180724 September* 23 SeptemberXVII (17)180823 September23 September*XVIII (18)180923 September23 SeptemberXIX (19)181023 September23 SeptemberXX (20)1811 23 September 23 September CCXXIX (229)202022 September22 September*CCXXX (230)2021 22 September22 SeptemberCCXXXI (231)202223 September*22 SeptemberCCXXXII (232)202323 September 22 SeptemberCCXXXIII (233)202422 September22 September*CCXXXIV (234)2025 22 September22 SeptemberCCXXXV (235)202623 September*22 SeptemberCCXXXVI (236)202723 September 22 SeptemberCCXXXVII (237)202822 September22 September*CCXXXVIII (238)202922 September22 SeptemberCCXXXIX (239)2030 22 September22 SeptemberCCXL (240)203123 September* 22 SeptemberCCXLI (241)203222 September22 September** Extra (sextile) day inserted before date, due to previous leap year" ], [ "Current date and time", "For this calendar, Delambre's revised method of calculating leap years is used.", "Other methods may differ by one day.", "Time may be cached and therefore not accurate.", "Decimal time is according to Paris mean time, which is 9 minutes 21 seconds (6.49 decimal minutes) ahead of Greenwich Mean Time.", "( This tool calibrates the time, if calibration is desired.)" ], [ "Criticism and shortcomings", "Clock dial displaying both decimal and duodecimal timeLeap years in the calendar are a point of great dispute, due to the contradicting statements in the establishing decree stating:and:These two specifications are incompatible, as leap years defined by the autumnal equinox in Paris do not recur on a regular four-year schedule.", "It was erroneously believed that one leap day would be skipped automatically every 129 years, on average, but actually five years would sometimes pass between leap years, about three times per century.", "Thus, the years III, VII, and XI were observed as leap years, and the years XV and XX were also planned as such, even though they were five years apart.Clock dial displaying both decimal (inside the circle) and duodecimal time (on the outer rim)A fixed arithmetic rule for determining leap years was proposed by Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre and presented to the Committee of Public Education by Gilbert Romme on 19 Floréal An III (8 May 1795).", "The proposed rule was to determine leap years by applying the rules of the Gregorian calendar to the years of the French Republic (years IV, VIII, XII, etc.", "were to be leap years) except that year 4000 (the last year of ten 400-year periods) should be a common year instead of a leap year.", "Shortly thereafter, Romme was sentenced to the guillotine and committed suicide, and the proposal was never adopted, although Jérôme Lalande repeatedly proposed it for a number of years.", "The proposal was intended to avoid uncertain future leap years caused by the inaccurate astronomical knowledge of the 1790s (even today, this statement is still valid due to the uncertainty in ΔT).", "In particular, the committee noted that the autumnal equinox of year 144 was predicted to occur at 11:59:40 pm local apparent time in Paris, which was closer to midnight than its inherent 3 to 4 minute uncertainty.The calendar was abolished by an act dated 22 Fructidor an XIII (9 September 1805) and signed by Napoleon, which referred to a report by Michel-Louis-Étienne Regnaud de Saint-Jean d'Angély and Jean Joseph Mounier, listing two fundamental flaws.# The rule for leap years depended upon the uneven course of the sun, rather than fixed intervals, so that one must consult astronomers to determine when each year started, especially when the equinox happened close to midnight, as the exact moment could not be predicted with certainty.# Both the era and the beginning of the year were chosen to commemorate a historical event that occurred on the first day of autumn in France, whereas the other European nations began the year near the beginning of winter or spring, thus being impediments to the calendar's adoption in Europe and America, and even a part of the French nation, where the Gregorian calendar continued to be used, as it was required for religious purposes.The report also noted that the 10-day décade was unpopular and had already been suppressed three years earlier in favor of the seven-day week, removing what was considered by some as one of the calendar's main benefits.", "The 10-day décade was unpopular with laborers because they received only one full day of rest out of ten, instead of one in seven, although they also got a half-day off on the fifth day (thus 36 full days and 36 half days in a year, for a total of 54 free days, compared to the usual 52 or 53 Sundays).", "It also, by design, conflicted with Sunday religious observances.Another criticism of the calendar was that despite the poetic names of its months, they were tied to the climate and agriculture of metropolitan France and therefore not applicable to France's overseas territories." ], [ "Famous dates and other cultural references", "ENSThe \"Coup of 18 Brumaire\" or \"Brumaire\" was the coup d'état of Napoleon Bonaparte on 18 Brumaire An VIII (9 November 1799), which many historians consider to be the end of the French Revolution.", "Karl Marx's 1852 essay ''The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte'' compares the coup d'état of 1851 of Louis Napoléon unfavorably to his uncle's earlier coup, with the statement \"History repeats ... first as tragedy, then as farce\".Another famous revolutionary date is 9 Thermidor An II (27 July 1794), the date the Convention turned against Maximilien Robespierre, who, along with others associated with the Mountain, was guillotined the following day.", "Based on this event, the term \"Thermidorian\" entered the Marxist vocabulary as referring to revolutionaries who destroy the revolution from the inside and turn against its true aims.", "For example, Leon Trotsky and his followers used this term about Joseph Stalin.Émile Zola's novel ''Germinal'' takes its name from the calendar's month of Germinal.The seafood dish Lobster Thermidor was named after the 1891 play ''Thermidor'', set during the Revolution.The French frigates of the ''Floréal'' class all bear names of Republican months.A decree of the National Convention on 9 Brumaire An III, 30 October 1794, established the École normale supérieure.", "The date appears prominently above the main door of the school.The French composer Fromental Halévy was born 7 Prairial VIII (27 May 1799), the day of ''fromental'' (oatgrass).Neil Gaiman's ''The Sandman'' series included a story called \"Thermidor\" that takes place in that month during the French Revolution." ], [ "See also", "* Agricultural cycle* Calendar reform* Dechristianisation of France* Decimal time* Soviet calendar* Solar Hijri calendar, astronomical equinox-based calendar used in Iran* World Calendar" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ozouf, Mona, 'Revolutionary Calendar' in Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, eds., ''Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution'' (1989)* Shaw, Matthew, ''Time and the French Revolution: a history of the French Republican Calendar, 1789-Year XIV'' (2011)" ], [ "External links", "* Date converter for numerous calendars, including this one* iCalendar files for the French Republican calendar, for use in Outlook, Google Calendar, etc.", "* Dials & Symbols of the French revolution.", "The Republican Calendar and Decimal time." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Freeman Dyson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Freeman John Dyson''' (15 December 1923 – 28 February 2020) was a British-American theoretical physicist and mathematician known for his works in quantum field theory, astrophysics, random matrices, mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics, condensed matter physics, nuclear physics, and engineering.", "He was professor emeritus in the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton and a member of the board of sponsors of the ''Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists''.Dyson originated several concepts that bear his name, such as Dyson's transform, a fundamental technique in additive number theory, which he developed as part of his proof of Mann's theorem; the Dyson tree, a hypothetical genetically engineered plant capable of growing in a comet; the Dyson series, a perturbative series where each term is represented by Feynman diagrams; the Dyson sphere, a thought experiment that attempts to explain how a space-faring civilization would meet its energy requirements with a hypothetical megastructure that completely encompasses a star and captures a large percentage of its power output; and Dyson's eternal intelligence, a means by which an immortal society of intelligent beings in an open universe could escape the prospect of the heat death of the universe by extending subjective time to infinity while expending only a finite amount of energy.Dyson disagreed with the scientific consensus on climate change.", "He believed that some of the effects of increased CO levels are favourable and not taken into account by climate scientists, such as increased agricultural yield, and further that the positive benefits of CO likely outweigh the negative effects.", "He was skeptical about the simulation models used to predict climate change, arguing that political efforts to reduce causes of climate change distract from other global problems that should take priority." ], [ "Biography", "=== Early life ===Dyson was born on 15 December 1923, in Crowthorne in Berkshire, England.", "He was the son of Mildred () and the composer George Dyson, who was later knighted.", "His mother had a law degree, and after Dyson was born she worked as a social worker.", "Dyson had one sibling, his older sister, Alice, who remembered him as a boy surrounded by encyclopedias and always calculating on sheets of paper.", "At the age of four he tried to calculate the number of atoms in the Sun.", "As a child, he showed an interest in large numbers and in the solar system, and was strongly influenced by the book ''Men of Mathematics'' by Eric Temple Bell.", "Politically, Dyson said he was \"brought up as a socialist\".From 1936 to 1941 Dyson was a scholar at Winchester College, where his father was Director of Music.", "At the age of 17 he studied pure mathematics with Abram Besicovitch as his tutor at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he won a scholarship at age 15.During this stay, Dyson also practiced night climbing on the university buildings, and once walked from Cambridge to London in a day with his friend Oscar Hahn, nephew of Kurt Hahn, who was a wheelchair user due to polio.At the age of 19 he was assigned to war work in the Operational Research Section (ORS) of RAF Bomber Command, where he developed analytical methods for calculating the ideal density for bomber formations to help the Royal Air Force bomb German targets during the Second World War.", "After the war, Dyson was readmitted to Trinity College, where he obtained a BA degree in mathematics.", "From 1946 to 1949 he was a fellow of his college, occupying rooms just below those of the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, who resigned his professorship in 1947.In 1947 Dyson published two papers in number theory.", "Friends and colleagues described him as shy and self-effacing, with a contrarian streak that his friends found refreshing but intellectual opponents found exasperating.", "\"I have the sense that when consensus is forming like ice hardening on a lake, Dyson will do his best to chip at the ice\", Steven Weinberg said of him.", "His friend the neurologist and author Oliver Sacks said: \"A favourite word of Freeman's about doing science and being creative is the word 'subversive'.", "He feels it's rather important not only to be not orthodox, but to be subversive, and he's done that all his life.", "\"=== Career in the United States ===On G. I. Taylor's advice and recommendation, Dyson moved to the United States in 1947 as a Commonwealth Fellow for postgraduate study with Hans Bethe at Cornell University (1947–1948).", "There he made the acquaintance of Richard Feynman.", "Dyson recognized the brilliance of the flamboyant American and worked with him.", "He then moved to the Institute for Advanced Study (1948–1949), before returning to England (1949–51), where he was a research fellow at the University of Birmingham.", "In 1949, Dyson demonstrated the equivalence of two formulations of quantum electrodynamics (QED): Richard Feynman's diagrams and the operator method developed by Julian Schwinger and Shin'ichirō Tomonaga.", "He was the first person after their creator to appreciate the power of Feynman diagrams and his paper written in 1948 and published in 1949 was the first to make use of them.", "He said in that paper that Feynman diagrams were not just a computational tool but a physical theory and developed rules for the diagrams that completely solved the renormalization problem.", "Dyson's paper and also his lectures presented Feynman's theories of QED in a form that other physicists could understand, facilitating the physics community's acceptance of Feynman's work.", "J. Robert Oppenheimer, in particular, was persuaded by Dyson that Feynman's new theory was as valid as Schwinger's and Tomonaga's.", "Also in 1949, in related work, Dyson invented the Dyson series.", "It was this paper that inspired John Ward to derive his celebrated Ward–Takahashi identity.Dyson joined the faculty at Cornell as a physics professor in 1951, though he still had no doctorate.", "In December 1952, Oppenheimer, the director of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, offered Dyson a lifetime appointment at the institute, \"for proving me wrong\", in Oppenheimer's words.", "Dyson remained at the Institute until the end of his career.", "In 1957 he became a US citizen.", "From 1957 to 1961 Dyson worked on Project Orion, which proposed the possibility of space-flight using nuclear pulse propulsion.", "A prototype was demonstrated using conventional explosives, but the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, in which Dyson was involved and which he supported, permitted only underground nuclear weapons testing, and the project was abandoned in 1965.In 1958 Dyson was a member of the design team under Edward Teller for TRIGA, a small, inherently safe nuclear reactor used throughout the world in hospitals and universities for the production of medical isotopes.In 1966, independently of Elliott H. Lieb and Walter Thirring, Dyson and Andrew Lenard published a paper proving that the Pauli exclusion principle plays the main role in the stability of matter.", "Hence it is not the electromagnetic repulsion between outer-shell orbital electrons that prevents two stacked wood blocks from coalescing into a single piece, but the exclusion principle applied to electrons and protons that generates the classical macroscopic normal force.", "In condensed matter physics, Dyson also analysed the phase transition of the Ising model in one dimension and spin waves.Dyson also did work in a variety of topics in mathematics, such as topology, analysis, number theory and random matrices.", "In 1973 the number theorist Hugh Lowell Montgomery was visiting the Institute for Advanced Study and had just made his pair correlation conjecture concerning the distribution of the zeros of the Riemann zeta function.", "He showed his formula to the mathematician Atle Selberg, who said that it looked like something in mathematical physics and that Montgomery should show it to Dyson, which he did.", "Dyson recognized the formula as the pair correlation function of the Gaussian unitary ensemble, which physicists have studied extensively.", "This suggested that there might be an unexpected connection between the distribution of primes (2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ...) and the energy levels in the nuclei of heavy elements such as uranium.Around 1979 Dyson worked with the Institute for Energy Analysis on climate studies.", "This group, under Alvin Weinberg's direction, pioneered multidisciplinary climate studies, including a strong biology group.", "Also during the 1970s, Dyson worked on climate studies conducted by the JASON defense advisory group.Dyson retired from the Institute for Advanced Study in 1994.In 1998 he joined the board of the Solar Electric Light Fund.", "he was president of the Space Studies Institute, the space research organization founded by Gerard K. O'Neill; as of 2013 he was on its board of trustees.", "Dyson was a longtime member of the JASON group.Dyson won numerous scientific awards, but never a Nobel Prize.", "Nobel physics laureate Steven Weinberg said that the Nobel committee \"fleeced\" Dyson, but Dyson remarked in 2009, \"I think it's almost true without exception if you want to win a Nobel Prize, you should have a long attention span, get hold of some deep and important problem and stay with it for ten years.", "That wasn't my style.\"", "Dyson was a regular contributor to ''The New York Review of Books'', and published a memoir, ''Maker of Patterns: An Autobiography Through Letters'' in 2018.In 2012 Dyson published (with William H. Press) a fundamental new result about the prisoner's dilemma in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.", "He wrote a foreword to a treatise on psychic phenomena in which he concluded that \"ESP is real... but cannot be tested with the clumsy tools of science\".=== Personal life and death ===Dyson married his first wife, the Swiss mathematician Verena Huber, on 11 August 1950.They had two children, Esther and George, before divorcing in 1958.In November 1958 he married Imme Jung (born 1936) and they had four more children: Dorothy, Mia, Rebecca, and Emily Dyson.Dyson's eldest daughter, Esther, is a digital technology consultant and investor; she has been called \"the most influential woman in all the computer world\".", "His son George is a historian of science, one of whose books is ''Project Orion: The Atomic Spaceship 1957–1965''.Dyson died on 28 February 2020 at a hospital near Princeton, New Jersey, from complications following a fall.", "He was 96." ], [ "Concepts", "===Biotechnology and genetic engineering===Dyson admitted his record as a prophet was mixed, but thought it is better to be wrong than vague, and that in meeting the world's material needs, technology must be beautiful and cheap.Dyson coined the term \"green technologies\", based on biology instead of physics or chemistry, to describe new species of microorganisms and plants designed to meet human needs.", "He argued that such technologies would be based on solar power rather than the fossil fuels whose use he saw as part of what he calls \"gray technologies\" of industry.", "He believed that genetically engineered crops, which he described as green, can help end rural poverty, with a movement based in ethics to end the inequitable distribution of wealth on the planet.===''The Origin of Life''===Dyson favored the dual origin theory: that life first formed as cells, then enzymes, and finally, much later, genes.", "This was first propounded by the Russian biochemist, Alexander Oparin.", "J.", "B. S. Haldane developed the same theory independently.", "In Dyson's version of the theory, life evolved in two stages, widely separated in time.", "Because of the biochemistry he regards it as too unlikely that genes could have developed fully blown in one process.", "Current cells contain adenosine triphosphate or ATP and adenosine 5'-monophosphate or AMP, which greatly resemble each other but have completely different functions.", "ATP transports energy around the cell, and AMP is part of RNA and the genetic apparatus.", "Dyson proposed that in a primitive early cell containing ATP and AMP, RNA and replication came into existence only because of the similarity between AMP and RNA.", "He suggested that AMP was produced when ATP molecules lost two of their phosphate radicals, and then one cell somewhere performed Eigen's experiment and produced RNA.There is no direct evidence for the dual origin theory, because once genes developed, they took over, obliterating all traces of the earlier forms of life.", "In the first origin, the cells were probably just drops of water held together by surface tension, teeming with enzymes and chemical reactions, and having a primitive kind of growth or replication.", "When the liquid drop became too big, it split into two drops.", "Many complex molecules formed in these \"little city economies\" and the probability that genes would eventually develop in them was much greater than in the prebiotic environment.Dyson swarm, or \"Dyson sphere\"=== Dyson sphere ===In 1960 Dyson wrote a short paper for the journal ''Science'' titled \"Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infrared Radiation\".", "In it he speculated that a technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilization might surround its native star with artificial structures to maximize the capture of the star's energy.", "Eventually the civilization would enclose the star, intercepting electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths from visible light downward and radiating waste heat outward as infrared radiation.", "One method of searching for extraterrestrial civilizations would be to look for large objects radiating in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum.Dyson conceived that such structures would be clouds of asteroid-sized space habitats, though science fiction writers have preferred a solid structure: either way, such an artifact is often called a Dyson sphere, although Dyson used the term \"shell\".", "Dyson said that he used the term \"artificial biosphere\" in the article to mean a habitat, not a shape.", "The general concept of such an energy-transferring shell had been created decades earlier by science fiction writer Olaf Stapledon in his 1937 novel ''Star Maker'', a source which Dyson credited publicly.===Dyson tree===Dyson also proposed the creation of a ''Dyson tree'', a genetically engineered plant capable of growing inside a comet.", "He suggested that comets could be engineered to contain hollow spaces filled with a breathable atmosphere, thus providing self-sustaining habitats for humanity in the outer Solar System.===Space colonies===Dyson was interested in space travel since he was a child, reading such science fiction classics as Olaf Stapledon's ''Star Maker''.", "As a young man, he worked for General Atomics on the nuclear-powered Orion spacecraft.", "He hoped Project Orion would put men on Mars by 1965, Saturn by 1970.For a quarter-century Dyson was unhappy about how the government conducts space travel:Dyson still hoped for cheap space travel, but was resigned to waiting for private entrepreneurs to develop something new and inexpensive.===Space exploration======Dyson's eternal intelligence===Dyson proposed that an immortal group of intelligent beings could escape the prospect of heat death by extending time to infinity while expending only a finite amount of energy.", "This is also known as the Dyson scenario.===Dyson's transform===His concept \"Dyson's transform\" led to one of the most important lemmas of Olivier Ramaré's theorem: that every even integer can be written as a sum of no more than six primes.===Dyson series===The Dyson series, the formal solution of an explicitly time-dependent Schrödinger equation by iteration, and the corresponding Dyson time-ordering operator an entity of basic importance in the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics, are also named after Dyson.Freeman Dyson in 2007 at the Institute for Advanced Study ===Quantum physics and prime numbers===Dyson and Hugh Montgomery discovered an intriguing connection between quantum physics and Montgomery's pair correlation conjecture about the zeros of the zeta function.", "The primes 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19,... are described by the Riemann zeta function, and Dyson had previously developed a description of quantum physics based on m by m arrays of totally random numbers.", "Montgomery and Dyson discovered that the ''eigenvalues'' of these matrices are spaced apart in exactly the same manner as Montgomery conjectured for the nontrivial zeros of the zeta function.", "Andrew Odlyzko has verified the conjecture on a computer, using his Odlyzko–Schönhage algorithm to calculate many zeros.There are in nature one, two, and three dimensional quasicrystals.", "Mathematicians define a quasicrystal as a set of discrete points whose Fourier transform is also a set of discrete points.", "Odlyzko has done extensive computations of the Fourier transform of the nontrivial zeros of the zeta function, and they seem to form a one-dimensional quasicrystal.", "This would in fact follow from the Riemann hypothesis.===Rank of a partition===The rank of a partition, shown as its Young diagramIn number theory and combinatorics rank of a partition of a positive integer is a certain integer associated with the partition.", "Dyson introduced the concept in a paper published in the journal ''Eureka''.", "It was presented in the context of a study of certain congruence properties of the partition function discovered by the mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan.===Crank of a partition===In number theory, the crank of a partition is a certain integer associated with the partition in number theory.", "Dyson first introduced the term without a definition in a 1944 paper in a journal published by the Mathematics Society of Cambridge University.", "He then gave a list of properties this yet-to-be-defined quantity should have.", "In 1988, George E. Andrews and Frank Garvan discovered a definition for the crank satisfying the properties Dyson had hypothesized.===Astrochicken===John von NeumannAstrochicken is the name given to a thought experiment Dyson expounded in his book ''Disturbing the Universe'' (1979).", "He contemplated how humanity could build a small, self-replicating automaton that could explore space more efficiently than a crewed craft could.", "He attributed the general idea to John von Neumann, based on a lecture von Neumann gave in 1948 titled ''The General and Logical Theory of Automata''.", "Dyson expanded on von Neumann's automata theories and added a biological component.===Lumpers and splitters===Dyson suggested that philosophers can be broadly, if simplistically, divided into lumpers and splitters.", "These roughly correspond to Platonists, who regard the world as made up of ideas, and materialists, who imagine it divided into atoms." ], [ "Views", "===Climate change===Dyson agreed that technically humans and additional CO emissions contribute to warming.", "However, he felt that the benefits of additional CO outweighed any associated negative effects.", "He said that in many ways increased atmospheric carbon dioxide is beneficial, and that it is increasing biological growth, agricultural yields and forests.", "He believed that existing simulation models of climate change fail to account for some important factors, and that the results thus contain too great a margin of error to reliably predict trends.", "He argued that political efforts to reduce the causes of climate change distract from other global problems that should take priority, and viewed the acceptance of climate change as comparable to religion.In 2009, Dyson criticised James Hansen's climate-change activism.", "\"The person who is really responsible for this overestimate of global warming is Jim Hansen.", "He consistently exaggerates all the dangers... Hansen has turned his science into ideology.\"", "Hansen responded that Dyson \"doesn't know what he's talking about...", "If he's going to wander into something with major consequences for humanity and other life on the planet, then he should first do his homework- which he obviously has not done on global warming\".", "Dyson replied that \"my objections to the global warming propaganda are not so much over the technical facts, about which I do not know much, but it's rather against the way those people behave and the kind of intolerance to criticism that a lot of them have.\"", "Dyson stated in an interview that the argument with Hansen was exaggerated by ''The New York Times'', stating that he and Hansen are \"friends, but we don't agree on everything.", "\"Since originally taking interest in climate studies in the 1970s, Dyson suggested that carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere could be controlled by planting fast-growing trees.", "He calculated that it would take a trillion trees to remove all carbon from the atmosphere.", "In a 2014 interview he said, \"What I'm convinced of is that we don't understand climate… It will take a lot of very hard work before that question is settled.", "\"Dyson was a member of the academic advisory council of the Global Warming Policy Foundation.===Warfare and weapons===At RAF Bomber Command, Dyson and colleagues proposed removing two gun turrets from Avro Lancaster bombers, to cut the catastrophic losses due to German fighters in the Battle of Berlin.", "A Lancaster without turrets could fly faster and be much more maneuverable.On hearing the news of the bombing of Hiroshima:In 1967, in his capacity as a military adviser, Dyson wrote an influential paper on the issue of possible US use of tactical nuclear weapons in the Vietnam War.", "When a general said in a meeting, \"I think it might be a good idea to throw in a nuke now and then, just to keep the other side guessing…\" Dyson became alarmed and obtained permission to write a report on the pros and cons of using such weapons from a purely military point of view.", "(This report, ''Tactical Nuclear Weapons in Southeast Asia'', published by the Institute for Defense Analyses, was obtained, with some redactions, by the Nautilus Institute for Security and Sustainability under the Freedom of Information act in 2002.)", "It was sufficiently objective that both sides in the debate based their arguments on it.", "Dyson says that the report showed that, even from a narrow military point of view, the US was better off not using nuclear weapons.Dyson opposed the Vietnam War, the Gulf War and the invasion of Iraq.", "He supported Barack Obama in the 2008 US presidential election and ''The New York Times'' described him as a political liberal.", "He was one of 29 leading US scientists who wrote Obama a strongly supportive letter about his administration's 2015 nuclear deal with Iran.===Science and religion===Dyson was raised in what he described as a \"watered-down Church of England Christianity\".", "He was a nondenominational Christian and attended various churches, from Presbyterian to Roman Catholic.", "Regarding doctrinal or Christological issues, he said, \"I am neither a saint nor a theologian.", "To me, good works are more important than theology.", "\"Dyson partially disagreed with the remark by his fellow physicist Steven Weinberg that \"With or without religion, good people can behave well and bad people can do evil; but for good people to do evil – that takes religion.", "\"Dyson identified himself as agnostic about some of the specifics of his faith.", "For example, in reviewing ''The God of Hope and the End of the World'' by John Polkinghorne, Dyson wrote:In ''The God Delusion'' (2006), evolutionary biologist and atheist activist Richard Dawkins singled out Dyson for accepting the Templeton Prize in 2000: \"It would be taken as an endorsement of religion by one of the world's most distinguished physicists.\"", "In 2000, Dyson declared that he was a (non-denominational) Christian, and he disagreed with Dawkins on several subjects, such as that group selection is less important than individual selection on the subject of evolution." ], [ "Named after Dyson", "* Dyson conjecture* Dyson equation* Dyson numbers* Dyson operator* Dyson series* Dyson sphere* Dyson tree* Dyson's crank* Dyson's eternal intelligence* Dyson's transform* Dyson–Maleev spin wave theory* Schwinger–Dyson equation* Thue–Siegel–Dyson–Roth theorem* Feynman diagram, also known as Dyson graphs* Wigner–Yamase–Dyson conjecture* Gordon Freeman, a fictional character named after Dyson" ], [ "Honors and awards", "* Dyson was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1952.", "* Dyson was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1958.", "* Dyson was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1964.", "* Dyson was awarded the Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics in 1965, Lorentz Medal in 1966, Max Planck Medal in 1969, the J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Prize in 1970, the Harvey Prize in 1977 and Wolf Prize in 1981.", "* Dyson was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1976.", "* In 1986, Dyson received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.", "* In 1989, Dyson was elected as an Honorary Fellow of Trinity College, University of Cambridge.", "* In 1990, Dyson taught at Duke University as a Fritz London Memorial Lecturer.", "* Dyson published a number of collections of speculations and observations about technology, science, and the future.", "In 1996, he was awarded the Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science.", "* In 1993, Dyson was given the Enrico Fermi Award.", "* In 1995, he gave the Jerusalem-Harvard Lectures at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, sponsored jointly by the Hebrew University and Harvard University Press that grew into the book ''Imagined Worlds''.", "* In 2000, Dyson was awarded the Templeton Prize for Progress in Religion.", "* In 2003, Dyson was awarded the Telluride Tech Festival Award of Technology in Telluride, Colorado.", "* In 2011, Dyson received as one of twenty distinguished Old Wykehamists at the ''Ad Portas'' celebration, the highest honor that Winchester College bestows.", "* In 2011, Dyson received the Arthur C. Clarke Lifetime Achievement Award from the Arthur C. Clarke Foundation.", "* In 2018, Dyson received the first Presidential Science and Humanism Award from the American University of Beirut." ], [ "Publications", "* * * * * * * * * * * (Winner of the National Book Critics Circle Award).", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A formerly secret document, declassified December 2002." ], [ "Documentaries", "* ''To Mars by A-Bomb: The Secret History of Project Orion''* ''The Oakes''* ''Atomic Dream''* ''2001: The Science of Futures Past''* ''Cool It''* ''Nuclear Dynamite''* ''Gaia Symphony III''* ''The Starship and the Canoe''* ''The Day After Trinity''* ''The Untold History of the United States''* ''The Uncertainty Has Settled''* ''A Glorious Accident''* ''Freeman Dyson: Space Dreamer''" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Further reading===*" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Oral history interview transcript with Freeman Dyson on 17 December 1986, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives===By Dyson===* Freeman Dyson at ''The New York Review of Books'' (content for subscribers only)* \"Heretical thoughts about science & society\", essay by Freeman Dyson 8.7.2007* Templeton Prize acceptance lecture 2000, by Freeman Dyson* ''Imagined Worlds'' by Freeman Dyson, 1996: Chapter 1* * A radio interview with Freeman Dyson Aired on the Lewis Burke Frumkes Radio Show in 2009.", "* Suzan Mazur interviewing Dyson, 2012, ''CounterPunch''* \"Pushing the Boundaries – A Conversation with Freeman Dyson\" , ''Ideas Roadshow'', 2014* , Arthur C. Clarke Center for Human Imagination, February 2019.", "* A ‘Rebel’ Without a Ph.D.===About Dyson===* \"Freeman Dyson's Brain\", interview by Stewart Brand at ''Wired'', 1998* 2008 Video Interview with Freeman Dyson by Atomic Heritage Foundation, Voices of the Manhattan Project* * * Remembering the Unstoppable Freeman Dyson* * Freeman J. Dyson, a Biographical Memoir by Ann Finkbeiner and William H. Press." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fourth Council of the Lateran" ], [ "Introduction", "Matthew Paris' illustration in the Chronica Maiora of the Fourth Lateran Council The '''Fourth Council of the Lateran''' or '''Lateran IV''' was convoked by Pope Innocent III in April 1213 and opened at the Lateran Palace in Rome on 11 November 1215.Due to the great length of time between the council's convocation and its meeting, many bishops had the opportunity to attend this council, which is considered by the Catholic Church to be the twelfth ecumenical council.", "The council addressed a number of issues, including the sacraments, the role of the laity, the treatment of Jews and heretics, and the organization of the church.The Council is viewed as both opening up many reforms, and as ushering in intolerance in European society, both to heretics and Jews, and thus plays a role in the development of anti-Semitism." ], [ "Background", "Innocent III first mooted organizing an ecumenical council in November 1199.In his letter titled ''Vineam Domini'', dated 19 April 1213, the Pope writes of the urgent need to recover the Holy Land and reform the Church.", "The letter, which also served as a summons to an ecumenical council, was included alongside the Pope's papal bull ''Quia maior''.", "In preparing for the council, the Pope spearheaded the extensive refurbishment of the old St. Peter's Basilica, which he designated as the \"centrepiece for display and decoration\" during the council.", "The lunette of the main door leading to the tomb of St. Peter had engravings of Old Testament prophets and twenty-four bishops, alongside the messages, \"Feed your Sheep\" and \"This is the Door of the Sheep\"." ], [ "Proceedings", "Innocent III deliberately chose for the Fourth Council to meet in November, during which there were numerous feast days.", "A preliminary legal session took place on 4 November, while the opening ceremony of the council was held on St. Martin's Day and began with a private morning Mass.", "Afterwards, at the start of the first plenary session in the Lateran Palace, the Pope led the singing of \"Veni Creator Spiritus\" and preached about Jesus' words to his disciples at the Last Supper, quoting from Luke 22.In his next two sermons, one on the need to recover the Holy Land and the other on dealing with heretics, the Pope was joined on stage by Raoul of Mérencourt and Thedisius of Agde respectively.On 14 November, there were violent scenes between the partisans of Simon de Montfort among the French bishops and those of the Count of Toulouse.", "Raymond VI of Toulouse, his son (afterwards Raymond VII), and Raymond-Roger of Foix attended the council to dispute the threatened confiscation of their territories; Bishop Foulques and Guy de Montfort (brother of Simon de Montfort) argued in favour of the confiscation.", "All of Raymond VI's lands were confiscated, save Provence, which was kept in trust to be restored to Raymond VII.", "Pierre-Bermond of Sauve's claim to Toulouse was rejected and Toulouse was awarded to de Montfort, while the lordship of Melgueil was separated from Toulouse and entrusted to the bishops of Maguelonne.The next day, in a ceremony attended by many council participants, the Pope consecrated the Basilica of Santa Maria in Trastevere, which had been rebuilt by Callixtus II.", "Four days later, the anniversary celebration at St. Peter's Basilica brought together such a large gathering that the Pope himself had trouble entering the premises.The second plenary session was held on 20 November; the Pope was scheduled to preach about church reform, but proceedings were disrupted by bishops who opposed the designation of Frederick II as Holy Roman Emperor.", "The council concluded on 30 November, Saint Andrew's Day, during which the Pope preached on the Nicene Creed and concluded his remarks by raising up a relic of the True Cross.", "The archbishop of Mainz attempted to interrupt the speech, although he complied with the Pope's raising of his handa command to stay silent." ], [ "Outcomes", "Lateran IV had three objectives: crusading, Church reform, and combating heresy.", "The seventy-one Lateran canons, which were not debated, were only formally adopted on the last day of the council; according to Anne J. Duggan, the \"scholarly consensus\" is that they were drafted by Innocent III himself.", "They cover a range of themes including Church reform and elections, taxation, matrimony, tithing, simony, and Judaism.", "After being recorded in the papal registers, the canons were quickly circulated in law schools.", "Effective application of the decrees varied according to local conditions and customs.===Jewish badges===The Council mandated that Jews separate and distinguish themselves, in order to \"protect\" Christians from their influence.===Canons===* Canon 1 (''De fide catholica'' or ''On the catholic faith''): Infallibly defined the teaching of the Catholic Church on transubstantiation, the doctrine which describes in precise scholastic language the transformation by which the bread and wine offered in the sacrament of the Eucharist becomes the actual blood and body of Christ.", "* Canon 2 (''De errore abbatis Ioachim'' or ''On the error of abbot Joachim''): Condemnation of the doctrines of Joachim of Fiore and Amalric of Bena.", "* Canon 3 (''De haereticis'' or ''On heretics''): Procedure and penalties against heretics and their protectors.", "If those suspected of heresy should neglect to prove themselves innocent, they are excommunicated.", "If they continue in the excommunication for twelve months they are to be condemned as heretics.", "Princes are to swear that they will banish all whom the church points out as heretics.", "* Canon 4 (''De superbia Graecorum contra Latinos'' or ''On the pride of Greeks towards Latins''): Exhortation to the Greeks to reunite with the Roman Church.", "* Canon 5 (''De dignitate patriarcharum'' or ''On the dignity of patriarchs''): Proclamation of the papal primacy recognized by all antiquity.", "After the pope, primacy is attributed to the patriarchs in the following order: Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem.", "* Canon 6 (''De conciliis provincialibus'' or ''On provincial councils''): Provincial councils must be held annually for the reform of morals, especially those of the clergy.", "This was to ensure that the canons adopted would be implemented.", "* Canon 7 (''De correctione excessuum'' or ''On the conviction of offences''): Sets down the responsibility of the bishops for the reform of their subjects.", "* Canon 8 (''De inquisitionibus'' or ''On inquests''): Procedure in regard to accusations against ecclesiastics.", "* Canon 9 (''De diversis ritibus in eadem fide'' or ''On different rites within the same faith''): Celebration of public worship in places where the inhabitants belong to nations following different rites.", "* Canon 10 (''De praedicatoribus instituendis'' or ''On appointing preachers''): Ordered the appointment of preachers and penitentiaries to assist in the discharge of the episcopal functions of preaching and penance.", "* Canon 11 (''De magistris scholasticis'' or ''On schoolmasters''): The decree of 1179, about a school in each cathedral having been entirely ignored, was re-enacted, and a lectureship in theology ordered to be founded in every cathedral.", "* Canon 12 (''De communibus capitulis monacborum'' or ''On general chapters of monks''): Abbots and priors are to hold their general chapter every three years.", "* Canon 13 (''De novis religionibus prohibitis'' or ''On the prohibition against new religious orders''): Forbade the establishment of new religious orders.", "* Canons 14 (''De incontinentia clericorum punienda'' or ''On punishing clerical incontinences''): Set out guidelines for punishing incontinence.", "* Canon 15 (''De arcenda ebrietate clericorum'' or ''On preventing drunkenness among the clergy''): Prohibited both drunkenness and the hunting of birds and dogs.", "* Canon 16 (''De indumentis clericorum'' or ''On the dress of clerics''): Prescribed dressing for clergy membersincluding a ban on embroidered or pointed shoesand prohibited gambling and spectating theatrical performances.", "* Canon 17 (''De comessationibus praelatorum et negligentia eorum super diviniis officiis'' or ''On prelates' feasts and their negligence at divine services''): Admonished clerics who excessively engaged in non-religious activities while infrequently attending mass.", "* Canon 18 (''De indicio sanguinis et duelli clericis interdicto'' or ''On sentences involving either the shedding of blood or a duel being forbidden to clerics''): Clerics may neither pronounce nor execute a sentence of death.", "Nor may they act as judges in extreme criminal cases, or take part in matters connected with judicial tests and trials by ordeal.", "* Canon 19 (''Ne ecclesiae mundanis suppellectilibus exponantur'' or ''That profane objects may not be introduced into churches''): Household goods must not be stored in churches unless there be an urgent necessity.", "Churches, church vessels, and the like must be kept clean.", "* Canon 20 (''De chrismate et eucharistia sub sera conservanda'' or ''On keeping the chrism and the eucharist under lock and key''): Ordering that the chrism and the Eucharist to be kept under lock and key, with a three-month suspension for leaving it out carelessly, and worse if \"anything unspeakable\" were to happen to it.", "* Canon 21 (''De confessione facienda et non revelanda a sacerdote et saltem in pascha communicando'' or ''On confession being made, and not revealed by the priest, and on communicating at least at Easter''): Introduced the mandate \"''Omnis utriusque sexus''\", which commands every Christian who has reached the years of discretion to confess all his, or her, sins at least once a year to their own priest.", "This canon did no more than confirm earlier legislation and custom (of the previous century), although it is sometimes incorrectly quoted as commanding the use of sacramental confession for the first time.", "* Canon 22 (''Quod infirmi prius provideant animae quam corpori'' or ''That the sick should provide for the soul before the body''): Before prescribing medicine for the sick, physicians shall be bound under pain of exclusion from the church, to exhort their patients to call in a priest, and thus provide for their spiritual welfare.", "* Canon 23 (''Quod ecclesia cathedralis vel regularis ultra tres menses non vacet'' or ''That a cathedral church or a church of the regular clergy is not to remain vacant for more than three months''): Mandated that a church is not to be without a prelate for more than three months.", "* Canon 24 (''De electione facienda per scrutinium vel compromissum'' or ''On making an election by ballot or by agreement''): Mandated that pastors are to be either elected or chosen by a committee acting on behalf of the congregation.", "* Canon 25 (''Quod electio facta per saecularem potestatem non valeat''): Specified that spiritual leaders may not be selected by non-Christians.", "* Canon 26 (''De poema indigue confirmantis electionem'' or ''On the penalty for improperly confirming an election''): Laid out the punishments for not adhering to electoral guidelines.", "* Canon 27 (''De instructione ordinandorum'' or ''On the instruction of ordinands''): Stressed the need for bishops to properly guide their disciples and not ordain the \"ignorant and unformed\".", "* Canon 28 (''Quod compellantur cedere qui postulaverunt licentiam cedendi'' or ''That those who have asked for permission to resign are to be compelled to do so''): Allowed members of the clergy to resign, with the caveat that their resignations would be irreversible.", "* Canon 29 (''Quod nullus babeat duo beneficia cum cura annexa'' or ''That nobody may hold two benefices with the cure of souls attached''): Forbade the holding of several ecclesiastical offices at any given time.", "* Canon 30 (''De idoneitate instituendorum in ecclesiis'' or ''On the suitability of those instituted to churches''): Forbade \"unworthy persons\" from working in churches.", "* Canon 31 (''De filiis canonicorum non instituendis cum patribus'' or ''On not instituting the sons of canons with their fathers''): Prohibited clergymen from having their sons succeed them.", "* Canon 32 (''Ut patroni compententem portionem dimittant clericis'' or ''That patrons shall leave a suitable portion to clerics''): Ruled that priests are entitled to a \"fitting portion from the revenues of the church\".", "* Canon 33 (''De procurationibus non accipiendis sine visitatione'' or ''On not receiving procurations without a visitation being made''): Dictated that bishops may only expect to be reasonably remunerated when visiting churches.", "* Canon 34 (''De subditis non gravandis sub praetextu servitii alicuius'' or ''On not burdening subjects under the pretext of some service''): Forbade prelates from charging for superfluous services.", "* Canon 35 (''De causa appellationis exprimenda'' or ''On stating the grounds for an appeal''): Defendants must not appeal without good cause before sentence is given; if they do, they are to be charged expenses.", "* Canon 36 (''Quod iudex possit interlocutoriam et comminatoriam sententiam revocare'' or ''That a judge can revoke an interlocutory and a comminatory sentence''): Judges may revoke comminatory and interlocutory sentences and proceed with the case.", "* Canon 37 (''De litteris non impetrandis ultra duas diaetas et sine specialis mandato'' or ''On not procuring letters which entail more than two days' journey and are without a special mandate''): Declared that plaintiffs may not impede trials by calling on faraway witnesses, unless the defendant agrees to it.", "* Canon 38 (''De scribendis actis, ut probari possint'' or ''On writing acts so that they can be proved''): Stipulated that trial proceedings must be recorded in writing.", "* Canon 39 (''De restitutione danda contra possessorem, quae non rapuit ipse'' or ''On granting restitution against a person in possession who was not the robber''): Ruled that stolen goods have to be returned to their original owner.", "* Canon 40 (''De vera possessione'' or ''On true possession''): Ruled that plaintiffs still have rightful ownership of goods withheld from them for more than a year.", "* Canon 41 (''De continuatione bonae fidei in omni praescriptione'' or ''On continuing good faith in every prescription''): Declared that all prescriptions have to be made in good faith.", "* Canon 42 (''De saeculari iustitia'' or ''On secular justice''): Stressed that religious law should not interfere with secular law, and vice versa.", "* Canon 43 (''Ne sine causa clericus fidelitatem laico faciat'' or ''On a cleric not doing fealty to a layman without good reason''): Clerics should not take oaths of fealty to laymen without lawful cause.", "* Canon 44 (''Quod constitutiones principum non praeiudicent ecclesiis'' or ''That the ordinances of princes should not be prejudicial to churches''): Lay princes should not usurp the rights of churches.", "* Canon 45 (''Patronus qui clericum ecclesiae occiderit vel mutilaverit, ius patronatus omittit'' or ''A patron who kills or mutilates a cleric of a church loses his right of patronage''): Forbade patrons of churches from killing clergymen.", "* Canon 46 (''De talliis a clericis non exigendis'' or ''On not exacting taxes from clerics''): Laid out exceptions to a Lateran III canon exempting clergymen from taxation.", "* Canon 47 (''De forma excommunicandi'' or ''On the form of an excommunication''): Decreed that excommunication may be imposed only after warning in the presence of suitable witnesses and for manifest and reasonable cause.", "* Canon 48 (''De more recusandi iudicem'' or ''On how to challenge a judge''): Laid out the guidelines to challenging a judge.", "* Canon 49 (''De poena excommunicantis iniuste'' or ''On the punishment for excommunicating someone unjustly''): Stipulated that excommunication is to be neither imposed nor lifted for payment.", "* Canons 50–52: There had been kings of France and Castile who had repudiated their wives and \"remarried\" with serious public consequences.", "Marriage, impediments of relationship, publication of banns were addressed in Canon 50.", "* Canon 53 (''De bis qui praedia sua in fraudem decimarum dant aliis excolenda'' or ''On those who give their fields to others to be cultivated so as to avoid paying tithes''): The council condemned those who had their property cultivated by others (non-Christians) in order to avoid tithes.", "* Canon 54 (''Ut decimae ante tributa solvantur'' or ''That tithes should be paid before taxes''): Ruled that tithe payments have priority over all other taxes and dues.", "* Canon 57 (''De interpretandis privilegiorum verbis'' or ''On interpreting the words of privileges''): Gave precise instructions on the interpretation of the privilege of celebrating religious services during interdict, enjoyed by some orders.", "* Canon 63 (''De simonia'' or ''On simony''): Prohibited simony, in that no fees are to be exacted for the consecration of bishops, the blessing of abbots or the ordination of clerics.", "* Canon 64 (''De eadem circa monachos et sanctimoniales'' or ''On the same with regard to monks and nuns''): Ruled that monks and nuns may not require payment for their entry into the religious life.", "* Canon 67 (''De usuris Iudaeorum'' or ''On the usury of Jews''): Prevented Jews from charging \"extortionate and excessive interest\".", "* Canon 68 (''Ut Iudaei discernantur a christianis in habitu'' or ''That Jews should be distinguished from Christians in their dress''): Mandated a special dress code for Jews and Saracens to distinguish them from Christians so that no Christian shall come to marry them ignorant of who they are.", "* Canon 69 (''Ne Iudaei publicis officiis praeficiantur'' or ''That Jews are not to hold public offices''): Disqualified Jews from holding public offices, incorporating into ecclesiastical law a decree of the Holy Christian Empire.", "* Canon 70 (''Ne conversi ad fidem de Iudaeis veterem ritum Iudaeorum retineant'' or ''That converts to the faith among the Jews may not retain their old rite''): Prescribed measures to prevent converted Jews from returning to their former belief.", "* Canon 71 (''Expeditio pro recuperanda Terra sancta'' or ''Expedition for the recovery of the holy Land''): Designated 1 June 1217 as the start of the Fifth Crusade.", "This canon was disregarded by canonists like Johannes Teutonicus Zemeke, who omitted it from his collection of Lateran IV canons, ''Compilatio quarta'', and Damasus Hungarus, who wrote, \"This constitution is temporary, and I do not care to gloss it.\"" ], [ "Records", "While the proceedings were not officially recorded, unlike in previous councils, evidence of the events have been found in various manuscripts by observers of the council.", "The ''Chronica Majora'' by Matthew Paris contains a line drawing of one of the sessions at the council which his abbot William of St Albans had personally attended.", "An extensive eyewitness account by an anonymous German cleric was copied into a manuscript that was published in 1964, in commemoration of the Second Vatican Council, and is now housed at the University of Giessen." ], [ "Legacy", "Henry of Segusio likened the council to the \"four great councils of antiquity\".", "Lateran IV is sometimes referred to as the \"Great Council of the Lateran\" due to the presence of 404 or 412 bishops (including 71 cardinals and archbishops) and over 800 abbots and priors representing some eighty ecclesiastical provinces, together with 23 Latin-speaking prelates from the Eastern Orthodox Church and representatives of several monarchs, including Frederick II, Otto IV, the Latin Emperor of Constantinople, John, King of England, Andrew II of Hungary, Philip II of France, and the kings of Aragon, Cyprus, and Jerusalem.", "This made it the largest ecumenical council between the Council of Chalcedon and the Second Vatican Council; Anne J. Duggan writes that \"it was the largest, most representative, and most influential council assembled under papal leadership before the end of the fourteenth century.\"", "According to F. Donald Logan, \"the Fourth Lateran Council was the most important general council of the church in the Middle Ages\", whose effects \"were felt for centuries.\"" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * * .", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Franconia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Franconia''' (, ; East Franconian: ''Franggn'' ; ) is a region of Germany, characterised by its culture and East Franconian dialect (German: ''Ostfränkisch'').Franconia is made up of the three ''Regierungsbezirke'' of Lower, Middle and Upper Franconia in Bavaria, the adjacent, Franconian-speaking, South Thuringia, south of the Thuringian Forest—which constitutes the language boundary between Franconian and Thuringian—and the eastern parts of Heilbronn-Franconia in Baden-Württemberg.Those parts of the Vogtland lying in Saxony (largest city: Plauen) are sometimes regarded as Franconian as well, because the Vogtlandian dialects are mostly East Franconian.", "The inhabitants of Saxon Vogtland, however, mostly do not consider themselves as Franconian.", "On the other hand, the inhabitants of the Hessian-speaking parts of Lower Franconia west of the Spessart (largest city: Aschaffenburg) do consider themselves as Franconian, although not speaking the dialect.", "Heilbronn-Franconia's largest city of Heilbronn and its surrounding areas are South Franconian-speaking, and therefore only sometimes regarded as Franconian.", "In Hesse, the east of the Fulda District is Franconian-speaking, and parts of the Oden Forest District are sometimes regarded as Franconian for historical reasons, but a Franconian identity did not develop there.Franconia's largest city is Nuremberg, which is contiguous with Erlangen and Fürth, with which it forms the Franconian conurbation with around 1.3 million inhabitants.", "Other important Franconian cities are Würzburg, Bamberg, Bayreuth, Ansbach and Coburg in Bavaria, Suhl and Meiningen in Thuringia, and Schwäbisch Hall in Baden-Württemberg.The German word ''Franken''—Franconians—also refers to the ethnic group, which is mainly to be found in this region.", "They are to be distinguished from the Germanic people of the Franks, and historically formed their easternmost settlement area.", "The origins of Franconia lie in the settlement of the Franks from the 6th century in the area probably populated until then mainly by the Elbe Germanic people in the Main River area, known from the 9th century as East Francia (''Francia Orientalis'').", "In the Middle Ages the region formed much of the eastern part of the Duchy of Franconia and, from 1500, the Franconian Circle.", "The restructuring of the south German states by Napoleon, after the demise of the Holy Roman Empire, saw most of Franconia awarded to Bavaria." ], [ "Etymology", "NurembergWürzburgBambergBasilica of the Fourteen Holy HelpersThe German name for Franconia, ''Franken'', comes from the dative plural form of ''Franke,'' a member of the Germanic people known as the Franks.The name of the Franks in turn derives from a word meaning \"daring, bold\", cognate with old Norwegian ''frakkr'', \"quick, bold\".", "Franks from the Middle and Lower Rhine gradually gained control of (and so gave their name to) what is now Franconia during the 6th to 8th centuries.English distinguishes between ''Franks'' (the early medieval Germanic people) and ''Franconians'' in reference to the high medieval stem duchy, following Middle Latin use of ''Francia'' for France vs. ''Franconia'' for the German duchy.", "In German the name ''Franken'' is equally used for both, while the French are called ''Franzosen'', after Old French ''françois'', from Latin ''franciscus'', from Late Latin ''Francus'', from ''Frank'', the Germanic people." ], [ "Geography", "=== Overview ===The Franconian lands lie principally in Bavaria, north and south of the sinuous River Main which, together with the left (southern) Regnitz tributary, including its Rednitz and Pegnitz headstreams, drains most of Franconia.", "Other large rivers include the upper Werra in Thuringia and the Tauber, as well as the upper Jagst and Kocher streams in the west, both right tributaries of the Neckar.", "In southern Middle Franconia, the Altmühl flows towards the Danube; the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal crosses the European Watershed.", "The man-made Franconian Lake District has become a popular destination for day-trippers and tourists.The landscape is characterized by numerous ''Mittelgebirge'' ranges of the German Central Uplands.", "The Western natural border of Franconia is formed by the Spessart and Rhön Mountains, separating it from the former Rhenish Franconian lands around Aschaffenburg (officially part of Lower Franconia), whose inhabitants speak Hessian dialects.", "To the north rise the Rennsteig ridge of the Thuringian Forest, the Thuringian Highland and the Franconian Forest, the border with the Upper Saxon lands of Thuringia.", "The Franconian lands include the present-day South Thuringian districts of Schmalkalden-Meiningen, Hildburghausen and Sonneberg, the historical ''Gau'' of Grabfeld, held by the House of Henneberg from the 11th century and later part of the Wettin duchy of Saxe-Meiningen.The present-day Upper, Lower and Middle Franconian administrative districts (in blue), with adjacent East Franconian language areas in Thuringia (tan) and in Baden-Württemberg (yellow)In the east, the Fichtel Mountains lead to Vogtland, Bohemian Egerland (''Chebsko'') in the Czech Republic, and the Bavarian Upper Palatinate.", "The hills of the Franconian Jura in the south mark the border with the Upper Bavarian region (''Altbayern''), historical Swabia, and the Danube basin.", "The northern parts of the Upper Bavarian Eichstätt District, territory of the historical Bishopric of Eichstätt, are also counted as part of Franconia.In the west, Franconia proper comprises the Tauber Franconia region along the Tauber river, which is largely part of the Main-Tauber-Kreis in Baden-Württemberg.", "The state's larger Heilbronn-Franken region also includes the adjacent Hohenlohe and Schwäbisch Hall districts.", "In the city of Heilbronn, beyond the Haller Ebene plateau, South Franconian dialects are spoken.", "Furthermore, in those easternmost parts of the Neckar-Odenwald-Kreis which had formerly belonged to the Bishopric of Würzburg, the inhabitants have preserved their Franconian identity.", "Franconian areas in East Hesse along Spessart and Rhön comprise Gersfeld and Ehrenberg.The two largest cities of Franconia are Nuremberg and Fürth.", "Though located on the southeastern periphery of the area, the Nuremberg metropolitan area is often identified as the economic and cultural centre of Franconia.", "Further cities in Bavarian Franconia include Würzburg, Erlangen, Bayreuth, Bamberg, Aschaffenburg, Schweinfurt, Hof, Coburg, Ansbach and Schwabach.", "The major (East) Franconian towns in Baden-Württemberg are Schwäbisch Hall on the Kocher — the imperial city declared itself \"Swabian\" in 1442 — and Crailsheim on the Jagst river.", "The main towns in Thuringia are Suhl and Meiningen.File:Rothenburg BW 4.JPG|Rothenburg is one of the best known towns in FranconiaFile:Walberla 2008.jpg|Walberla in FranconiaFile:Möhrendorf Vierzigmannrad Flügel.jpg|Water wheel at the RegnitzFile:Nuremberg panorama morning 3.jpg|Nuremberg is the largest city of FranconiaFile:Aerial image of the Coburg Fortress.jpg|Aerial view of the Veste Coburg=== Extent ===The ''Franconian Rake'' may be used as an indicator of whether a place is part of Franconia.Here: the vestry of Meiningen's municipal church in South Thuringia.", "The Franconian Rake may be seen on the leftFranconia may be distinguished from the regions that surround it by its peculiar historical factors and its cultural and especially linguistic characteristics, but it is not a political entity with a fixed or tightly defined area.", "As a result, it is debated whether some areas belong to Franconia or not.", "Pointers to a more precise definition of Franconia's boundaries include: the territories covered by the former Duchy of Franconia and former Franconian Circle, the range of the East Franconian dialect group, the common culture and history of the region and the use of the Franconian Rake on coats of arms, flags and seals.", "However, a sense of popular consciousness of being Franconian is only detectable from the 19th century onwards, which is why the circumstances of the emergence of a Frankish identity are disputed.", "Franconia has many cultural peculiarities which have been adopted from other regions and further developed.The following regions are counted as part of Franconia today: the Bavarian provinces of Lower Franconia, Upper Franconia and Middle Franconia, the municipality of Pyrbaum in the county of Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz, the northwestern part of the Upper Bavarian county of Eichstätt (covering the same area as the old county of Alt-Eichstätt), the East Franconian counties of South Thuringia, parts of Fulda and the Odenwaldkreis in Hesse, the Baden-Württemberg regions of Tauber Franconia and Hohenlohe as well as the region around the Badenian Buchen.In individual cases the membership of some areas is disputed.", "These include the Bavarian language area of Alt-Eichstätt and the Hessian-speaking region around Aschaffenburg, which was never part of the Franconian Imperial Circle.", "The affiliation of the city of Heilbronn, whose inhabitants do not call themselves Franks, is also controversial.", "Moreover, the sense of belonging to Franconia in the Frankish-speaking areas of Upper Palatinate, South Thuringia and Hesse is sometimes less marked.=== Administrative divisions ===The Bavarian provinces of Upper, Middle and Lower FranconiaThe region of Heilbronn-Franconia in Baden-WürttembergThe region of Franconia is divided among the states of Hesse, Thuringia, Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg.", "The largest part of Franconia, both by population and area, belongs to the Free State of Bavaria and is divided into the three administrative regions (''Regierungsbezirke'') of Middle Franconia (capital: Ansbach), Upper Franconia (capital: Bayreuth) and Lower Franconia (capital: Würzburg).", "The name of these regions, as in the case of Upper and Lower Bavaria, refers to their situation with respect to the river Main.", "Thus Upper Franconia lies on the upper reaches of the river, Lower Franconia on its lower reaches and Middle Franconia lies in between, although the Main itself does not flow through Middle Franconia.", "Where the boundaries of these three provinces meet (the 'tripoint') is the ''Dreifrankenstein'' (\"Three Franconias Rock\").Small parts of Franconia also belong to the Bavarian regions of Upper Palatinate and Upper Bavaria.The Franconian territories of Baden-Württemberg are the regions of Tauber Franconia and Hohenlohe (which belong to the Heilbronn-Franconia Region with its office in Heilbronn and form part of the Stuttgart Region) and the area around the Badenian Buchen in the Rhein-Neckar Region.The Franconian parts of Thuringia (Henneberg Franconia) lie within the Southwest Thuringia Planning Region.The Franconian regions in Hesse form the smaller parts of the districts of Fulda (Kassel region) and the Odenwaldkreis (Darmstadt region), or lie on the borders with Bavaria or Thuringia.=== Rivers and lakes ===The lake of Großer Brombachsee.", "View over Ramsberg looking east towards the damThe two most important rivers of the region are the Main and its primary tributary, the Regnitz.", "The tributaries of these two rivers in Franconia are the Tauber, Pegnitz, Rednitz and Franconian Saale.", "Other major rivers in the region are the Jagst and Kocher in Hohenlohe-Franconia, which empty into the Neckar north of Heilbronn in Baden-Württemberg, the Altmühl and the Wörnitz in Middle Franconia, both tributaries of the Danube, and the upper and middle reaches of the Werra, the right-hand headstream of the Weser.", "In the northeast of Upper Franconia rise two left-hand tributaries of the Elbe: the Saxon Saale and the Eger.The Main-Danube Canal connects the Main and Danube across Franconia, running from Bamberg via Nuremberg to Kelheim.", "It thus complements the Rhine, Main and Danube, helping to ensure a continuous navigable waterway between the North Sea and the Black Sea.", "In Franconia, there are only a few, often very small, natural lakes.", "This is due to fact that most natural lakes in Germany are glacial or volcanic in origin, and Franconia escaped both influences in recent earth history.", "Among the largest waterbodies are reservoirs, which are mostly used as water reserves for the relatively dry landscapes of Franconia.", "These include the waters of the Franconian Lake District, which was established in the 1970s and is also a tourist attraction.", "The heart of these lakes is the Großer Brombachsee, which has an area of 8.7 km2 and is thus the largest waterbody in Franconia by surface area.=== Hills, mountains and plains ===Several Central Upland ranges dominate the Franconian countryside.", "In the southeast, Franconia is shielded from the rest of Bavaria by the Franconian Jura.", "In the east, the Fichtel Mountains form the border; in the north are Franconian Forest, the Thuringian Forest, the Rhön Mountains and the Spessart form a kind of natural barrier.", "To the west are the Franconian Heights and the Swabian-Franconian Forest.", "In the Franconian part of South Hesse is the Odenwald.", "Parts of the southern Thuringian Forest border on Franconia.", "The most important hill ranges in the interior of the region are the Steigerwald and the Franconian Jura with their sub-ranges of Hahnenkamm and Franconian Switzerland.", "The highest mountain in Franconia is the Schneeberg in the Fichtel Mountains which is .", "Other well-known mountains include the Ochsenkopf (1,024m), the Kreuzberg (927.8m) and the Hesselberg (689.4m).", "The outliers of the region include the Hesselberg and the Gleichberge.", "The lowest point in Franconia is the water level of the river Main in Kahl which lies at a height of 100 metres above sea level.In addition to the hill and mountain ranges, there are also several very level areas, including the Middle Franconian Basin and the Hohenlohe Plain.", "In the south of Franconia are smaller parts of the flat Nördlinger Ries, one of the best preserved impact craters on earth.=== Forests, reserves, flora and fauna ===The Steinerne Rinne near Rohrbach, Ettenstatt, county of Weißenburg-GunzenhausenFranconia's flora is dominated by deciduous and coniferous forests.", "Natural forests in Franconia occur mainly in the ranges of the Spessart, Franconian Forest, Odenwald and Steigerwald.", "The Nuremberg ''Reichswald'' is another great forest, located within the metropolitan region of Nuremberg.", "Other large areas of forest in the region are the Mönchswald, the Reichsforst in the Fichtel Mountains and the Selb Forest.", "In the river valleys along the Main and Tauber, the countryside was developed for viticulture.", "In Spessart there are great oak forests.", "Also widespread are calcareous grasslands, extensively used pastures on very oligotrophic, poor sites.", "In particular, the southern Franconian Jura, with the Altmühl Valley, is characterized by poor grassland of this type.", "Many of these places have been designated as a protected areas.Franconia has several regions with sandy habitats that are unique for south Germany and are protected as the so-called Sand Belt of Franconia or ''Sandachse Franken''.", "When the Altmühlsee reservoir was built, a bird island was created and designated as a nature reserve where a variety of birds nest.", "Another important reserve is the Black Moor in the Rhön, which is one of the most important bog areas in Central Europe.", "A well known reserve is the Luisenburg Rock Labyrinth at Wunsiedel, a felsenmeer of granite blocks up to several metres across.", "The establishment of the first Franconian national park in the Steigerwald caused controversy and its designation was rejected in July 2011 by the Bavarian government.", "The reason was the negative attitude of local population.", "Conservationists are now demanding protection for parts of the Steigerwald by nominating it for a World Heritage Site.", "There are several nature parks in Franconia, including the Altmühl Valley Nature Park, which, since 1969, has been one of the largest in Germany.Other nature parks are the Swabian-Franconian Forest Nature Park in Baden-Württemberg, and the nature parks of Bavarian Rhön, Fichtel Mountains, Franconian Heights, Franconian Forest, Franconian Switzerland-Franconian Jura, Haßberge, Spessart and Steigerwald in Bavaria, as well as the Bergstraße-Odenwald Nature Park which straddles Bavaria, Baden-Württemberg and Hesse.", "Nature parks cover almost half the area of Franconia.In 1991 UNESCO recognised the Rhön as a biosphere reserve.", "Among the most picturesque geotopes in Bavaria, are the Franconian sites of ''Fossa Carolina'', the Twelve Apostle Rocks (''Zwölf-Apostel-Felsen''), the Ehrenbürg, the cave ruins of Riesenburg and the lake of Frickenhäuser See.", "The European Bird Reserves in Franconia are found mainly in uplands like the Steigerwald, in large forests like Nuremberg's Imperial Forest or along rivers like the Altmühl.", "There are also numerous Special Areas of Conservation and protected landscapes.", "In Franconia there are very many tufas, raised stream beds near river sources within the karst landscape that are known as 'stone runnels' (''Steinerne Rinnen'').", "There are protected examples at Heidenheim and Wolfsbronn.Like large parts of Germany, Franconia only has a few large species of wild animal.", "Forest dwellers include various species of marten, fallow deer, red deer, roe deer, wild boar and fox.", "In natural areas such as the Fichtel mountains there are populations of lynx and capercaillie, and beaver and otter have grown in numbers.", "There are occasional sightings of animals that had long been extinct in Central Europe, for example, the wolf.=== Geology ======= General ====Opened-up, copper-ore-bearing, Spessart crystalline rock in Sommerkahl near AschaffenburgFine sandstone, siltstone and argillites of the bunter sandstone layer (Lower Triassic) in the Seltenbach Gorge in the SpessartTower-like rocks of Upper Jurassic-Corallian Limestone in Tüchersfeld, northern Franconian Jura (Franconian Switzerland)Only in the extreme northeast of Franconia and in the Spessart are there Variscan outcrops of the crystalline basement, which were uplifted from below the surface when the Alps exerted a northwards-oriented pressure.", "These are rocks of pre-Permian vintage, which were folded during various stages of Variscan orogeny in the Late Palaeozoic - before about 380 to 300 million years ago - and, in places, were metamorphosed under high pressure and temperature or were crystallized by ascending magma in the Earth's crust.", "Rocks which were unchanged or only lightly metamorphosed, because they had been deformed at shallow crustal depths, include the Lower Carboniferous shale and greywacke of Franconian Forest.", "The Fichtel mountains, the Münchberg Plateau and the Spessart, by contrast, have more metamorphic rocks (phyllite, schist, amphibolite, gneiss).", "The Fichtel mountains are also characterized by large granite bodies, called post-kinematic plutons which, in the late phase of Variscan orogeny, intruded into the metamorphic rocks.", "In most cases these are S-type granites whose melting was caused by heated-up sedimentary rocks sunk deep into the Earth's crust.", "While the Fichtel and Franconian Forest can be assigned to the Saxo-Thuringian Zone of Central European Variscan orogeny, the Spessart belongs to the Central German Crystalline Zone.", "The Münchberg mass is variously attributed to the Saxo-Thuringian or Moldanubian Zones.A substantially larger part of the shallow subsurface in Franconia comprises Mesozoic, unmetamorphosed, unfolded rocks of the South German Scarplands.", "The regional geological element of the South German Scarplands is the Franconian Platform (''Süddeutsche Großscholle'').", "At the so-called Franconian Line, a significant fault line, the Saxo-Thuringian-Moldanubian basement was uplifted in places up to 2000 m above the Franconian Platform.", "The western two-thirds of Franconia is dominated by the Triassic with its sandstones, siltstones and claystones (so-called siliciclastics) of the bunter sandstone; the limestones and marls of the Muschelkalk and the mixed, but predominantly siliciclastic, sedimentary rocks of the Keuper.", "In the Rhön, the Triassic rocks are overlain and intruded by volcanic rock (basalts, basanites, phonolites and trachytes) of the Tertiary.", "The eastern third of Franconia is dominated by the Jurassic rocks of the Franconian Jura, with the dark shales of the Black Jura, the shales and ferruginous sandstones of the Brown Jura and, the weathering-resistant limestones and dolomitic rocks of the White Jura, which stand out from the landscape and form the actual ridge of the Franconian Jura itself.", "In the Jura, mostly siliciclastic sedimentary rocks formed in the Cretaceous have survived.The Mesozoic sediments have been deposited in largescale basin areas.", "During the Triassic, the Franconian part of these depressions was often part of the mainland, in the Jurassic it was covered for most of the time by a marginal sea of the western Tethys Ocean.", "At the time when the limestones and dolomites of the White Jura were being deposited, this sea was divided into sponge reefs and intervening lagoons.", "The reef bodies and the fine-grained lagoon limestones and marls are the material from which the majority of the Franconian Jura is composed today.", "Following a drop in the sea level towards the end of the Upper Jurassic, larger areas also became part of the mainland at the beginning of the subsequent Cretaceous period.", "During the Upper Cretaceous, the sea advanced again up to the area of the Franconian Jura.", "At the end of the Cretaceous, the sea then retreated again from the region.", "In addition, large parts of South and Central Germany experienced a general uplift -or in areas where the basement had broken through a substantial uplift - the course of formation of the Alps during the Tertiary.", "Since then, Franconia has been mainly influenced by erosion and weathering (especially in the Jura in the form of karst), which has ultimately led to formation of today's landscapes.==== Fossils ====Skull and forward cervical spine of ''Plateosaurus engelhardti'', probably the replica of a skeleton from EllingenThe so-called London Exemplar of ''Archaeopteryx'' (here a replica) comes from the Langenaltheim Quarry, west of Solnhofen.The oldest macrofossils in Franconia, which are also the oldest in Bavaria, are archaeocyatha, sponge-like, goblet-shaped marine organisms, which were discovered in 2013 in a limestone block of Late Lower Cambrian age, about 520 million years old.", "The block comes from the vicinity Schwarzenbach am Wald from the so-called Heinersreuth Block Conglomerate (''Heinersreuther Blockkonglomerat''), a Lower Carboniferous wildflysch.", "However, the aforementioned archaeocyathids are not three-dimensional fossils, but two-dimensional thin sections.", "These thin sections had already been prepared and investigated in the 1970s but the archaeocyathids among them were apparently overlooked at that time.Better known and more highly respected fossil finds in Franconia come from the unfolded sedimentary rocks of the Triassic and Jurassic.", "The bunter sandstone, however, only has a relatively small number of preserved whole fossils.", "Much more commonly, it contains trace fossils, especially the tetrapod footprints of ''Chirotherium''.", "The type locality for these animal tracks is Hildburghausen in the Thuringian part of Franconia, where it occurs in the so-called Thuringian Chirotherium Sandstone (''Thüringer Chirotheriensandstein'', main Middle Bunter Sandstone).", "''Chirotherium'' is also found in the Bavarian and Württemberg parts of Franconia.", "Sites include Aura near Bad Kissingen, Karbach, Gambach and Külsheim.", "There the deposits are somewhat younger (Upper Bunter Sandstone), and the corresponding stratigraphic interval is called the Franconian Chirotherium Beds (''Fränkische Chirotherienschichten'').", "Among the less significant body fossil records of vertebrates are the procolophonid ''Anomoiodon liliensterni'' from Reurieth in the Thuringian part of Franconia and ''Koiloskiosaurus coburgiensis'' from Mittelberg near Coburg, both from the Thuringian Chirotherium Sandstone, and the Temnospondyle ''Mastodonsaurus ingens'' (possibly identical with the mastodonsaurus, ''Heptasaurus cappelensis'') from the Upper Bunter at Gambach.As early as the first decade of the 19th century George, Count of Münster began systematic fossil gathering and digs and in the Upper Muschelkalk at Bayreuth.", "For example, the Oschenberg hill near Laineck became the type locality of two relatively well-known marine reptiles of the Triassic period, later found in other parts of Central Europe: the \"flat tooth lizard\", ''Placodus'' and the \"false lizard\", ''Nothosaurus''.In Franconia's middle Keuper (the Feuerletten) is one of the best known and most common species of dinosaurs of Central Europe: ''Plateosaurus engelhardti'', an early representative of the sauropodomorpha.", "Its type locality is located at Heroldsberg south of Nuremberg.", "When the remains of ''Plateosaurus'' were first discovered there in 1834, it was the first discovery of a dinosaur on German soil, and this occurred even before the name \"dinosauria\" was coined.", "Another important ''Plateosaurus'' find in Franconia was made at Ellingen.Far more famous than ''Plateosaurus'', ''Placodus'' and ''Nothosaurus'' is the ''Archaeopteryx'', probably the first bird geologically.", "It was discovered in the southern Franconian Jura, ''inter alia'' at the famous fossil site of Solnhofen in the Solnhofen Platform Limestone (''Solnhofener Plattenkalk'', (Solnhofen-Formation, early Tithonian, Upper Jurassic).", "In addition to ''Archaeopteryx'', in the very fine-grained, laminated lagoon limestones are the pterosaur ''Pterodactylus'' and various bony fishes as well as numerous extremely detailed examples of invertebrates e.g.", "feather stars and dragonflies.", "Eichstätt is the other \"big\" and similarly famous fossil locality in the Solnhofen Formation, situated on the southern edge of the Jura in Upper Bavaria.", "Here, as well as ''Archaeopteryx'', the theropod dinosaurs, ''Compsognathus'' and ''Juravenator'', were found.An inglorious episode in the history of paleontology took place in Franconia: fake fossils, known as Beringer's Lying Stones, were acquired in the 1720s by Würzburg doctor and naturalist, Johann Beringer, for a lot of money and then described in a monograph, along with genuine fossils from the Würzburg area.", "However, it is not entirely clear whether the Beringer forgeries were actually planted or whether he himself was responsible for the fraud.=== Climate ===Franconia has a humid cool temperate transitional climate, which is neither very continental nor very maritime.", "The average monthly temperatures vary depending on the area between about -1 to -2 °C in January and 17 to 19 °C in August, but may reach a peak of about 35 °C for a few days in the summer, especially in the large cities.", "The climate of Franconia is sunny and relatively warm.", "For part of the summer, for example, Lower Franconia is one of the sunniest areas in Germany.", "Daily temperatures in the Bavarian part of Franconia are an average of 0.1 °C higher than the average for Bavaria as a whole.", "Relatively less rain falls in Franconia, and likewise in the rest of North Bavaria rain than is usual for its geographic location; even summer storms are often less powerful than in other areas of South Germany.", "In southern Bavaria about 2,000 mm of precipitation falls annually and almost three times as much as in parts of Franconia (about 500–900 mm) in the rain shadow of the Spessart, Rhön and Odenwald.=== Quality of life ===Franconia, as part of Germany, has a high quality of life.", "In the ''Worldwide Quality of Living Survey'' by Mercer in 2010, the city of Nuremberg was one of the top 25 cities in the world in terms of quality of life and came sixth in Germany.", "In environmental ranking Nuremberg came thirteenth in the world and was the best German city In a survey by the German magazine, ''Focus'', on quality of life in 2014, the districts of Eichstätt and Fürth were among the top positions in the table.", "In the ''Glücksatlas'' by Deutsche Post Franconia achieved some of the highest scores, but the region slipped in 2013 to 13th place out of 19." ], [ "History", "===Name===Franconia is named after the Franks, a Germanic tribe who conquered most of Western Europe by the middle of the 8th century.", "Despite its name, Franconia is not the homeland of the Franks, but rather owes its name to being partially settled by Franks from the Rhineland during the 7th century following the defeat of the Alamanni and Thuringians who had dominated the region earlier.At the beginning of the 10th century a ''Duchy of Franconia'' () was established within East Francia, which comprised modern Hesse, Palatinate, parts of Baden-Württemberg and most of today's Franconia.", "After the dissolution of the so-called Stem duchy of Franconia, the Holy Roman Emperors created the Franconian Circle (German ''Fränkischer Reichskreis'') in 1500 to embrace the principalities that grew out of the eastern half of the former duchy.", "The territory of the Franconian Circle roughly corresponds with modern Franconia.", "The title of ''Duke of Franconia'' was claimed by the Würzburg bishops until 1803 and by the kings of Bavaria until 1918.Examples of Franconian cities founded by Frankish noblemen are Würzburg, first mentioned in the 7th century, Ansbach, first mentioned in 748, and Weissenburg, founded in the 7th century.=== Early history and Antiquity ===The Celts built the mighty fortress of Menosgada on the StaffelbergFossil finds show that the region was already settled by primitive man, ''Homo erectus'', in the middle Ice Age about 600,000 years ago.", "Probably the oldest human remains in the Bavarian part of Franconia were found in the cave ruins of Hunas at Pommelsbrunn in the county of Nuremberg Land.", "In the late Bronze Age, the region was probably only sparsely inhabited, as few noble metals occur here and the soils are only moderately fertile.", "In the subsequent Iron Age (from about 800 B.C.)", "the Celts became the first nation to be discernible in the region.", "In northern Franconia they built a chain of hill forts as a line of defence against the Germani advancing from the north.", "On the Staffelberg they built a powerful settlement, to which Ptolemy gave the name ''oppidum Menosgada'', and on the Gleichberge is the largest surviving ''oppidum'' in Central Germany, the Steinsburg.", "With the increased expansion of Rome in the first century B.C.", "and the simultaneous advance of the Elbe Germanic tribes from the north, the Celtic culture began to fall into decline.", "The southern parts of present-day Franconia soon fell under Roman control; however, most of the region remained in Free Germania.", "Initially, Rome tried to extend its direct influence far to the northeast; in the longer term, however, the Germanic-Roman frontier formed further southwest.A 1990 replica of the ''Porta decumana'' of the Biriciana.", "View over the camp ring roadUnder the emperors, Domitian (81-96), Trajan (98-117) and Hadrian (117-138), the Rhaetian Limes was built as a border facing the Germanic tribes to the north.", "This defensive line ran through the south of Franconia and described an arc across the region whose northernmost point lay at present-day Gunzenhausen.", "To protect it, the Romans built several forts like Biriciana at Weißenburg, but by the mid-third century, the border could no longer be maintained and by 250 A.D. the Alemanni occupied the areas up to the Danube.", "Fortified settlements such as the Gelbe Bürg at Dittenheim controlled the new areas.", "More such Gau forts have been detected north of the former Limes as well.", "Which tribe their occupants belonged to is unknown in most cases.", "However, it is likely that it was mainly Alemanni and Juthungi, especially in the south.By contrast, it was the Burgundians who settled on the Lower and Middle Main.", "Many of these hill forts appear to have been destroyed, however, no later than 500 A.D.", "The reasons are not entirely clear, but it could have been as a result of invasions by the Huns which thus triggered the Great Migration.", "In many cases, however, it was probably conquest by the Franks that spelt the end of these hilltop settlements.=== Middle Ages ===WestheimDuchy of Franconia around 800With their victories over the heartlands of the Alamanni and Thuringians in the 6th century, the present region of Franconia also fell to the Franks.", "After the division of the Frankish Empire, East Francia (''Francia orientialis'') was formed from the territories of the dioceses of Mainz, Worms, Würzburg and Speyer.", "Later, the diocese of Bamberg was added.", "In the 7th century, the Slavs started to populate the northeastern parts of the region from the east, because the area of today's Upper Franconia was very sparsely populated (Bavaria Slavica).", "However, in the 10th and 11th centuries, they largely gave up their own language and cultural tradition.", "The majority of the population of Franconia was pagan well into the Early Middle Ages, The first people to spread the Christian faith strongly were wandering Irish Anglo-Saxon monks in the early 7th century.", "Saint Kilian, who together with his companions, Saint Colman and Saint Totnan are considered to be the apostles to the Franks, suffering martyrdom in Würzburg in the late 7th century, probably did not encounter any pagans in the ducal court.", "It was probably Saint Boniface who carried the Christian mission deep into the heart of the ordinary population of Franconia.In the mid-9th century the tribal Duchy of Franconia emerged, one of the five tribal or stem duchies of East Francia.", "The territory of the stem duchy was far bigger than modern Franconia and covered the whole of present-day Hesse, northern Baden-Württemberg, southern Thuringia, large parts of Rhineland-Palatinate and parts of the Franconian provinces in Bavaria.", "It extended as far west as Speyer, Mainz, and Worms (west of the Rhine) and even included Frankfurt (\"ford of the Franks\").", "In the early 10th century, the Babenbergs and Conradines fought for power in Franconia.", "Ultimately this discord led to the Babenberg Feud which was fuelled and controlled by the crown.", "The outcome of this feud meant the loss of power for the Babenbergs, but indirectly resulted in the Conradines winning the crown of East Francia.", "Sometime around 906, Conrad succeeded in establishing his ducal hegemony over Franconia, but when the direct Carolingian male line failed in 911, Conrad was acclaimed King of the Germans, largely because of his weak position in his own duchy.", "Franconia, like Alamannia was fairly fragmented and the duke's position was often disputed between the chief families.", "Conrad had granted Franconia to his brother Eberhard on his succession, but when Eberhard rebelled against Otto I in 938, he was deposed from his duchy, which disintegrated in 939 on Eberhard's death into West or Rhenish Franconia (), and East Franconia ('''') and was directly subordinated to the Reich.", "Only after that was the former considered to be under the sphere of the bishops of Würzburg as the true Franconia, its territory gradually shrinking to its present area.Meanwhile, the inhabitants of parts of present-day Upper and Middle Franconia, who were not under the control of Würzburg, probably also considered themselves to be Franks at that time, and certainly their dialect distinguished them from the inhabitants of Bavaria and Swabia.Unlike the other stem duchies, Franconia became the homeland and power base of East Frankish and German kings after the Ottonians died out in 1024.As a result, in the High Middle Ages, the region did not become a strong regional force such as those which formed in Saxony, Bavaria and Swabia.", "In 1007, the later canonized Henry II founded the Bishopric of Bamberg and endowed it with rich estates.", "Bamberg became a favoured ''Pfalz'' and an important centre of the Empire.", "Because parts of the Bishopric of Würzburg also fell to Bamberg, Würzburg was enfeoffed several royal estates by King Henry II by way of compensation.Franconia around 1200From the 12th century Nuremberg Castle was the seat of the Burgraviate of Nuremberg.", "The burgraviate was ruled from about 1190 by the Zollerns, the Franconian line of the later House of Hohenzollern, which provided the German emperors of the 19th and 20th century.", "Under the Hohenstaufen kings, Conrad III and Frederick Barbarossa, Franconia became the centre of power in the Empire.", "During the time when there was no emperor, the Interregnum (1254–1273), some territorial princes became ever more powerful.", "After the Interregnum, however, the rulers succeeded in re-establishing a stronger royal lordship in Franconia.", "Franconia soon played an important role again for the monarchy at the time of Rudolf of Habsburg; the itineraries of his successors showing their preference for the Rhine-Main region.", "In 1376 the Swabian League of Cities was founded and was joined later by several Franconian imperial cities.", "During the 13th century the Teutonic Order was formed, taking over its first possession in Franconia in 1209, the Bailiwick of Franconia.", "The foundation of many schools and hospitals and the construction of numerous churches and castles in this area goes back to the work of this Roman Catholic military order.", "The residence place of the bailiwick was at Ellingen until 1789 when it was transferred to today's Bad Mergentheim.", "Other orders such as the Knights Templar could not gain a foothold in Franconia; the Order of St. John worked in the Bishopric of Würzburg and had short term commands.====Successor states of East Francia====As of the 13th century, the following states, among others, had formed in the territory of the former Duchy:* Bishopric of Würzburg* Abbacy of Fulda* County of Abenberg* County of Henneberg* County of Hohenlohe* County of Lauffen* County of Nassau* County Palatine of the Rhine* County of Löwenstein* County of Rieneck* County of Truhendingen* County of Vaihingen* County of Wertheim* County of Wildberg=== Modern Period ======= Early Modern Period ====Map of Franconia, 1642On 2 July 1500 during the reign of Emperor Maximilian I, as part of the Imperial Reform Movement, the Empire was divided into Imperial Circles.", "This led in 1512 to the formation of the Franconian Circle.", "Seen from a modern perspective, the Franconian Circle may be viewed as an important basis for the sense of a common Franconian identity that exists today.", "The Franconian Circle also shaped the geographical limits of the present-day Franconia.", "In the late Middle Ages and Early Modern Period, the Imperial Circle was severely affected by ''Kleinstaaterei'', the patchwork of tiny states in this region of Germany.", "As during the late Middle Ages, the bishops of Würzburg used the nominal title of Duke of Franconia during the time of the Imperial Circle.", "In 1559, the Franconian Circle was given jurisdiction over coinage (''Münzaufsicht'') and, in 1572, was the only Circle to issue its own police ordinance.Members of the Franconian Circle included the imperial cities, the prince-bishoprics, the Bailiwick of Franconia of the Teutonic Order and several counties.", "The Imperial Knights with their tiny territories, of which there was a particularly large number in Franconia, were outside the Circle assembly and, until 1806, formed the Franconian Knights Circle (''Fränkischer Ritterkreis'') consisting of six Knights' Cantons.", "Because the extent of Franconia, already referred to above, is disputed, there were many areas that might be counted as part of Franconia today, that lay outside the Franconian Circle.", "For example, the area of Aschaffenburg belonged to Electoral Mainz and was a part of the Electoral Rhenish Circle, the area of Coburg belonged to the Upper Saxon Circle and the Heilbronn area to the Swabian Circle.", "In the 16th century, the College of Franconian Counts was founded to represent the interests of the counts in Franconia.Franconia played an important role in the spread of the Reformation initiated by Martin Luther, Nuremberg being one of the places where the Luther Bible was printed.", "The majority of other Franconian imperial cities and imperial knights embraced the new confession.", "In the course of the counter-reformation several regions of Franconia returned to Catholicism, however, and there was also an increase in witch trials.", "In addition to Lutheranism, the radical reformatory baptist movement spread early on across the Franconian area.", "Important Baptist centres were Königsberg and Nuremberg.Extent of the uprisings in the Peasants' WarIn 1525, the burden of heavy taxation and socage combined with new, liberal ideas that chimed with the Reformation movement, unleashed the German Peasants' War.", "The Würzburg area was particularly hard hit with numerous castles and monasteries being burned down.", "In the end, however, the uprisings were suppressed and for centuries the lowest strata of society were excluded from all political activity.From 1552, Margrave Albert Alcibiades attempted to break the supremacy of the mighty imperial city of Nuremberg and to secularise the ecclesial estates in the Second Margrave War, to create a duchy over which he would rule.", "Large areas of Franconia were eventually devastated in the fighting until King Ferdinand I together with several dukes and princes decided to overthrow Albert.Part of Wallenstein's camp around Zirndorf and the Alte VesteIn 1608, the reformed princes merged into a so-called Union within the Empire.", "In Franconia, the margraves of Ansbach and Bayreuth as well as the imperial cities were part of this alliance.", "The Catholic side responded in 1609 with a counter-alliance, the League.", "The conflicts between the two camps ultimately resulted in the Thirty Years' War, which was the greatest strain on the cohesion of the Franconian Circle Initially, Franconia was not a theatre of war, although marauding armies repeatedly crossed its territory.", "However, in 1631, Swedish troops under Gustavus Adolphus advanced into Franconia and established a large encampment in summer 1632 around Nuremberg.", "However, the Swedes lost the Battle of the Alte Veste against Wallenstein's troops and eventually withdrew.", "Franconia was one of the poorest regions in the Empire and lost its imperial political significance.", "During the course of the war, about half the local population lost their lives.", "To compensate for these losses about 150,000 displaced Protestants settled in Protestant areas, including Austrian exiles.The Franconian Imperial Circle in 1789Franconia never developed into a unified territorial state, because the patchwork quilt of small states (''Kleinstaaterei'') survived the Middle Ages and lasted until the 18th century.", "As a result, the Franconian Circle had the important task of preserving peace, preventing abuses and to repairing war damage and had a regulatory role in the region until the end of the Holy Roman Empire.", "Until the War of the Spanish Succession, the Circle had become an almost independent organization and joined the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV as an almost sovereign state.", "The Circle also developed early forms of a welfare state.", "It also played a major role in the control of disease during the 16th and 17th centuries.", "After Charles Alexander abdicated in 1792, the former margraviates of Ansbach and Bayreuth were annexed by Prussia.", "Karl August Freiherr von Hardenberg was appointed as governor of these areas by Prussia.==== Later Modern Period ====Most of modern-day Franconia became part of Bavaria in 1803 thanks to Bavaria's alliance with Napoleon.", "Culturally it is in many ways different from Bavaria proper (\"Altbayern\", Old Bavaria), however.", "The ancient name was resurrected in 1837 by Ludwig I of Bavaria.", "During the Nazi period, Bavaria was broken up into several different Gaue, including Franconia and Main-Franconia.===== 19th century =====In 1803, what was to become the Kingdom of Bavaria was given large parts of Franconia through the enactment of the ''Reichsdeputationshauptschluss'' under pressure from Napoleon for secularization and mediatisation.", "In 1806, the Act of Confederation led to stronger ties between Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and other areas with France, whereupon the Holy Roman Empire including the Franconian Circle fell apart.", "As a reward Bavaria was promised other estates, including the city of Nuremberg.", "In the so-called ''Rittersturm'' of 1803, Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden seized the territories of the Imperial Knights and Franconian nobility, whose estates were often no bigger than a few parishes, even though the ''Reichsdeputationshauptschluss'' had not authorised this.", "In 1806 and 1810, Prussia had to release the territories of Ansbach and Bayreuth, which it had annexed in 1792, to Bavaria, whereby Prussia lost its supremacy in the region.In 1814, as a result of the Congress of Vienna, the territories of the Principality of Aschaffenburg and Grand Duchy of Würzburg went to the Kingdom of Bavaria.", "In order to merge the patchwork quilt of small states in Franconia and Swabia into a greater Bavaria, Maximilian Joseph Montgelas reformed the political structure.", "Out of this in January 1838 emerged the Franconian provinces with their present names of Middle, Upper and Lower Franconia.", "Considerable resentment arose in parts of the Franconian territories over their new membership of Bavaria.", "There were liberal demands for republican structures which erupted in the revolts of 1848 and 1849 and the Gaibach Festival in 1832.On the one hand the reconciliation policy of the Wittelsbachs and Montgelas' aforementioned policy of unification, and, on the other hand, the inclusion of Bavaria in the German Empire in 1871, which weakened her power Bavaria slightly, the conflict between Franconia and Bavaria eased considerably.From 1836 to 1846, the Kingdom of Bavaria built the Ludwig Canal from Bamberg to Kelheim, which was only abandoned in 1950.However, the canal lost much of its importance shortly after the arrival of the railways.", "Between 1843 and 1854, the Ludwig South-North Railway was established within Franconia, which ran from Lindau on Lake Constance via Nuremberg, Bamberg and Kulmbach to Hof.", "The first locomotive to run on German soil steamed 1835 from Nuremberg to Fürth on 7 December 1835.===== 20th century =====After the First World War the monarchy in Bavaria was abolished, but the state could not agree on a compromise between a Soviet system and parliamentarianism.", "This caused fighting between the opposing camps and the then prime minister was shot.", "As a result, the government fled to Bamberg in 1919, where the Bamberg Constitution was adopted while, in Munich, the Bavarian Soviet Republic reigned briefly.", "In 1919 the Free State of Coburg voted in a referendum against joining Thuringia and was instead united with Bavaria on 1 July 1920.Destruction in Nuremberg in 1945 (Egidienplatz)Destruction in Heilbronn in 1945The Pellerhaus in Nuremberg was one of the most important buildings of the Renaissance period from 1605 until the destruction of its façade in 1945.During the Nazi era Nuremberg played a prominent role in the self-expression of the National Socialists as the permanent seat of the Nazi Party.", "Gunzenhausen made its mark as one of the first towns in the Reich itself to exercise discrimination against the Jewish population.", "The first Hitler Monument in Germany was established there in April 1933.On 25 March 1934 the first anti-Jewish pogrom in Bavaria took place in Gunzenhausen.", "The attack brought the town negative press coverage worldwide.", "On 15 September, a Reichstag was specially convened in Nuremberg for the purpose of passing the Nuremberg Laws, under which the antisemitic ideology of the Nazis became a legal basis for such actions.Like all parts of the German Reich, Franconia was badly affected by Allied air raids.", "Nuremberg, as a major industrial centre and transportation hub, was hit particularly hard.", "Between 1940 and 1945 the city was the target of dozens of air raids.", "Many other places were also affected by air raids.", "For example, the air raid on 4 December 1944 on Heilbronn and the bombing of Würzburg on 16 March 1945, in which both old towns were almost completely destroyed, was a disaster for both cities.", "By contrast, the old town of Bamberg was almost completely spared.", "In order to protect cultural artefacts, the historic art bunker was built below Nuremberg Castle.", "In the closing stages of the Second World War, at the end of March and April 1945, Franconian towns and cities were captured by formations of the US Army who advanced from the west after the failure of the Battle of the Bulge and Operation Nordwind.", "The Battle of Nuremberg lasted five days and resulted in at least 901 deaths.", "The Battle of Crailsheim lasted 16 days, the Battle of Würzburg seven and the Battle of Merkendorf three days.Following the unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945, Bavarian Franconia became part of the American zone of occupation; whilst South Thuringia, with the exception of smaller enclaves like Ostheim, became part of the Soviet zone and the Franconian parts of today's Baden-Württemberg also went to the American zone The most important part of the Allied prosecution programme against leaders of the Nazi regime were the Nuremberg Trials against leaders of the German Empire during the Nazi era, held from 20 November 1945 to 14 April 1949.The Nuremberg Trials are considered a breakthrough for the principle that, for a core set of crimes, there is no immunity from prosecution.", "For the first time, the representatives of a sovereign state were held accountable for their actions.", "In autumn 1946, the Free State of Bavaria was reconstituted with the enactment of the Bavarian Constitution.The state of Württemberg-Baden was founded on 19 September 1945.On 25 April 1952 this state merged with Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern (both from the former French occupation zone) to create the present state of Baden-Württemberg.", "On 1 December 1945 the state of Hesse was founded.", "Beginning in 1945, refugees and displaced persons from Eastern Europe were settled particularly in rural areas.", "After 1945, Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg managed the transition from economies that were predominantly agriculture to become leading industrial states in the so-called ''Wirtschaftswunder''.", "In Lower and Upper Franconia, there was still the problem, however, of the zone along the Inner German Border which was a long way from the markets for its agricultural produce, and was affected by migration and relatively high unemployment, which is why these areas received special support from federal and state governments.By contrast, the state of Thuringia was restored by the Soviets in 1945.On 7 October 1949 the German Democratic Republic, commonly known as East Germany, was founded.", "In 1952 in the course of the 1952 administrative reform in East Germany, the state of Thuringia was relieved of its function.", "The Soviet occupying forces exacted a high level of reparations (especially the dismantling of industrial facilities) which made the initial economic conditions in East Germany very difficult.", "Along with the failed economic policies of the GDR, this led to a general frustration that fuelled the uprising of 17 June.", "There were protests in the Franconian territories too, for example in Schmalkalden.", "The village of Mödlareuth became famous because, for 41 years, it was divided by the Inner German Border and was nicknamed 'Little Berlin.", "After ''Die Wende'', the fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 and reunification on 3 October 1990, made possible mainly by mass demonstrations in East Germany and local exodus of East Germans, the state of Thuringia was reformed with effect from 14 October 1990.AnsbachIn the years from 1971 to 1980 an administrative reform was carried out in Bavaria with the aim of creating more efficient municipalities (''Gemeinden'') and counties (''Landkreise'').", "Against sometimes great protests by the population, the number of municipalities was reduced by a third and the number of counties by about a half.", "Among the changes was the transfer of the Middle Franconian county of Eichstätt to Upper Bavaria.", "On 18 May 2006, the Bavarian Landtag approved the introduction of Franconia Day (''Tag der Franken'') in the Franconian territories of the free state.Since ''Die Wende'', new markets have opened up for the Franconian region of Bavaria in the new (formerly East German) federal states and the Czech Republic, enabling the economy to recover.", "Today, Franconia is in the centre of the EU (at Oberwestern near Westerngrund; )." ], [ "Contemporary Franconia", "While Old Bavaria is overwhelmingly Roman Catholic, Franconia is a mixed area.", "Lower Franconia and the western half of Upper Franconia (Bamberg, Lichtenfels, Kronach) is predominantly Catholic, while most of Middle and the eastern half of Upper Franconia (Bayreuth, Hof, Kulmbach) are predominantly Protestant (Protestant Church in Germany).The city of Fürth in Middle Franconia historically (before the Nazi era) had a large Jewish population; Henry Kissinger was born there.===Population===A large part of the population of Franconia, which has a population of five million, consider themselves Franconians (''Franken'', in German homonymous with the name of the historical Franks), a sub-ethnic group of the German people alongside Alemanni, Swabians, Bavarians, Thuringians and Saxons.", "Such an ethnic identity is generally not shared by speakers of Central Franconian, Low Franconian, Rhenish Franconian or South Franconian, some of which may identify as Rhine Franconians (''Rheinfranken'') or Moselle Franconians (''Moselfranken'').The Free State of Bavaria counts Franconians as one of the \"four tribes of Bavaria\" (''vier Stämme Bayerns''), alongside Bavarians, Swabians and Sudeten Germans.=== Towns and cities ===With the exception of Schwäbisch Hall, all cities in Franconia and all towns with a population of over 40,000 are within the Free State of Bavaria.", "By far the largest city in Franconia is Nuremberg with more than 500,000 inhabitants.", "The other three major cities are Fürth, Würzburg and Erlangen.", "In Middle Franconia, in the metropolitan region of Nuremberg there is a densely populated urban area consisting of Nuremberg, Fürth, Erlangen and Schwabach with arround 1.4 million inhabitants.", "Nuremberg is the fourteenth largest city in Germany and the second largest in Bavaria.The largest settlements in Baden-Württemberg's Franconian region are Schwäbisch Hall (41,898 pop.)", "and Crailsheim (35,760) Öhringen (25,388) and Bad Mergentheim (24,564) The largest places in the Thuringian part are Suhl (37,009), Meiningen (25,177) and Sonneberg (23,507).The largest place in the Hessian part of Franconia is Gersfeld with just 5,516 inhabitants.", "The largest cities within Bavaria are Nuremberg (523,026), Fürth (131,433), Würzburg (127,810) and Erlangen (116,562).In the Middle Ages Franconia, with its numerous towns, was separate and not part of other territories such as the Duchy of Bavaria.", "In the late medieval period it was dominated by mainly smaller towns with a few hundred to a thousand inhabitants, whose size barely distinguished them from the villages.", "Many towns grew up along large rivers or were founded by the prince-bishops and nobility.", "Even the Hohenstaufens operated in many towns, most of which later became Imperial Cities with a strong orientation towards Nuremberg.", "The smallest town in Franconia is Thuringia's Ummerstadt with 457 inhabitants.", ";25 largest cities in Franconia+2022RankCityState200020202022growth(2000–2020) 1.Nuremberg Bavaria 488,400 515,543 523,026 +5.6% 100px 2.Fürth Bavaria 110,477 128,223 131,433 +16.1% 100px 3.Würzburg Bavaria 127,966 126,954 127,810 -0.8% 100px 4.Erlangen Bavaria 100,778 112,385 116,562 +11.5% 100px 5.Bamberg Bavaria 69,036 76,674 79,935 +11.1% 100px 6.Bayreuth Bavaria 74,153 74,048 74,506 -0.1% 100px 7.Aschaffenburg Bavaria 67,592 70,858 72,444 +4.8% 100px 8.Schweinfurt Bavaria 54,325 53,319 54,675 -1.9% 100px 9.Hof (Saale) Bavaria 50,741 45,173 46,656 -12.3% 100px 10.Ansbach Bavaria 40,163 41,681 42,221 +3.6% 100px 11.Schwäbisch Hall Baden-Württemberg 35,192 40,679 41,898 +15.6% 100px 12.Coburg Bavaria 43,277 40,842 41,842 -6.2% 100px 13.Schwabach Bavaria 37,947 41,056 41,227 +7.6% 100px 14.Suhl Thuringia 48,025 36,395 37,009 -24.2% 100px 15.Crailsheim Baden-Württemberg 32,063 34,661 35,760 +8.1% 100px 16.Forchheim Bavaria 30,665 32,374 32,972 +5.5% 100px 17.Lauf an der Pegnitz Bavaria 25,770 26,434 26,420 +2.6% 100px 18.Zirndorf Bavaria 24,950 25,748 26,234 +3.2% 100px 19.Kulmbach Bavaria 28,258 25,781 25,818 -8.8% 100px 20.Öhringen Baden-Württemberg 22,208 24,925 25,388 +12,2% 100px 21.Roth Bavaria 24,858 25,323 25,367 +1,9% 100px 22.Meiningen Thuringia 22,240 25,097 25,177 +12,8% 100px 23.Bad Mergentheim Baden-Württemberg 22,172 24,034 24,564 +8,4% 100px 24.Herzogenaurach Bavaria 23,108 23,616 24,404 +2.2% 100px 25.Sonneberg Thuringia 24,837 23,229 23,507 –6.5% 100px===Language===Distribution of the East Franconian dialects with transition zonesGerman is the official language and also the ''lingua franca''.", "Numerous other languages are spoken that come from other language regions or the native countries of immigrants.East Franconian German, the dialect spoken in Franconia, is entirely different from the Austro-Bavarian dialect continuum which is mainly to be found in the Upper Palatinate, Upper and Lower Bavaria, the greater part of Austria and some parts of Northern Italy.", "This is one of the reasons why hardly any Franconian would call himself a Bavarian.", "Even though there is no Franconian state, red and white are regarded as the state colours (''Landesfarben'') of Franconia (compared to blue and white for Bavaria).=== Religions ======= Christianity ====The proportion of Roman Catholics and Protestants among the population of Franconia is roughly the same, but varies from region to region.", "Large areas of Middle and Upper Franconia are mainly Protestant.The denominational orientation today still reflects the territorial structure of Franconia at the time of the Franconian Circle.", "For example, regions, that used to be under the care of the bishoprics of Bamberg, Würzburg and Eichstätt, are mainly Catholic today.", "On the other hand, all former territories of the imperial cities and the margraviates of Ansbach and Bayreuth have remained mainly Lutheran.", "The region around the city of Erlangen, which belonged to the Margraviate of Bayreuth, was a refuge for the Huguenots who fled there after the St Bartholomew's Day massacre in France.Following the success of the Reformation in Nuremberg under Andreas Osiander, it had been an exclusively Protestant imperial city and belonged to the Protestant league of imperial states, the Corpus Evangelicorum, within the ''Reichstag''.", "Subsequent historical events such as the stream of refugees after the Second World War and the increasing mobility of the population has since blurred denominational geographical boundaries, however.The influx of immigrants from Eastern Europe has also seen the establishment of an Orthodox community in Franconia.", "The Romanian Orthodox Metropolis of Germany, Central and Northern Europe has its headquarters in Nuremberg.==== Judaism ====Before the Nazi era Franconia was a region with significant Jewish communities, most of whom were Ashkenazi Jews.", "The first Jewish communities appeared in Franconia in the 12th and 13th centuries and thus later than, for example, in Regensburg.", "In the Middle Ages, Franconia was a stronghold of Torah studies.", "But Franconia also began to exclude the Jewish populations particularly early on.", "For example, there were two Jewish massacres - the Rintfleisch massacres of 1298 and the Armleder Uprising of 1336-1338 - and in the 15th and 16th centuries many cities exiled their Jewish populations, which is why many Jews settled in rural communities.", "Franconia also rose to early prominence in the discrimination of Jews during the Nazi era.", "One of the first casualties of the organized Nazi persecution of Jews took place on 21 March in Künzelsau and on 25/26 March 1933 in Creglingen, where police and SA troops under the leadership of ''Standartenführer'' Fritz Klein led so-called \"weapons search operations\".In 1818, about 65% of Bavarian Jews lived in the Bavarian part of Franconia, today there are Jewish communities only in Bamberg, Bayreuth, Erlangen, Fürth, Hof, Nuremberg and Würzburg and in Heilbronn in Baden-Württemberg.==== Islam ====Adherents of Islam continue to grow, especially in the larger cities, due to the influx of ''gastarbeiters'' and other immigrants from Muslim countries.", "As a result, many \"backyard mosques\" (''Hinterhofmoscheen'') have sprung up, which are gradually being replaced by purpose-built mosques.===Culture===Franconia has almost 300 small breweries.The northwestern parts, the areas around the river Main called Franconian wine region also produce a lot of wine.", "Food typical for the region includes Bratwurst (especially the famous small Nuremberger Bratwurst), ''Schäuferla'' (roast pork shoulder), Sauerbraten, dumplings, potato salad (typically made with broth), fried carp, Grupfder (seasoned cheese spread), ''Presssack'' (a type of Head cheese: pressed or jellied pork trimmings, like tongue, cheeks, etc.).", "Lebkuchen are a traditional type of gingerbread, and Küchla is a sort of sweet fried pastry.Image:Schaeufele 01.jpg| ''Schäuferla''Image:Nuernberg Drei im Weckla 001.JPG|Three Nuremberger Bratwürste in a roll (''Drei im Weckla'')Image:GravityTap.jpg|Schlenkerla Rauchbier straight from the caskFile:Bocksbeutels.jpg|Franconian wine is traditionally filled up in BocksbeutelsImage:Kroder Karpfen.JPG|Fried Carp with beer and salad=== Tourism ===One of the best known tourist attractions in Franconia is the town of Rothenburg ob der TauberSchloss Langenburg (Baden-Württemberg) lies on the Castle RoadThe tourism industry stresses the romantic character of Franconia, including the picturesque countryside and many historic buildings.", "Franconian wine, the rich tradition of beer brewing and local culinary specialties, such as ''Lebküchnerei'' or gingerbread baking, are also a draw.", "The Romantic Road links several tourist points in western Franconia.", "The Castle Road runs through the Franconian region with its numerous castles and other medieval structures.Cycling along the large rivers is very popular, for example along the Main Cycleway, the first German long distance cycleway to be awarded five stars by the Allgemeiner Deutscher Fahrrad-Club (ADFC).", "The Tauber Valley Cycleway, a 101 kilometre-long cycle trail in Tauber Franconia, was the second German long distance cycleway to receive five stars." ], [ "See also", "* * East Franconian German* Franconia (wine region)* Franconian Flag* Franconian Rake* Fränkel" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Footnotes====== Bibliography ===* Andert, Reinhold.", "''Der fränkische Reiter.''", "Dingsda-Verlag Querfurt, Leipzig, 2006, .", "* Beckstein, Günther (text) and Erich Weiß (photographs).", "''Franken, Mein Franken - Impressionen aus meiner Heimat.''", "Bamberg, 2009, .", "* Bernet, Claus.", "''Himmlisches Franken.''", "Norderstedt, 2012, .", "* Blessing, Werner K. and Dieter Weiß (eds.", "): ''Franken.", "Vorstellung und Wirklichkeit in der Geschichte.''", "(= ''Franconia.''", "Appendices to the Yearbook for Franconian State Research, Vol.", "1), Neustadt (Aisch), 2003.", "* Bogner, Franz X.", "''Franken aus der Luft.''", "Stürtz-Verlag Würzburg, 2008, .", "* Bogner, Franz X.", "''Oberfranken aus der Luft.''", "Ellwanger-Verlag, 128 pages.", "Bayreuth, 2011, .", "* Bötzinger, Martin.", "''Leben und Leiden während des Dreißigjährigen Krieges in Thüringen und Franken.''", "Langensalza, ²1997, .", "* Cantor, Norman.", "''The Civilization of the Middle Ages''.", "1993..* Elkar, Rainer S. ''Geschichtslandschaft Franken - wohlbestelltes Feld mit Lücken''.", "In: Jahrbuch für Regionalgeschichte 23 (2005), pp. 145–158.", "* Fischer,Berndt.", "''Naturerlebnis Franken.", "Streifzüge durch eine Seelenlandschaft.''", "Buch & Kunstverlag Oberpfalz, Amberg, 2001, .", "* Nestmeyer, Ralf: ''Franken.", "Ein Reisehandbuch.''", "Michael-Müller-Verlag, Erlangen, 2013, .", "* Peters, Michael.", "''Geschichte Frankens.", "Vom Ausgang der Antike bis zum Ende des Alten Reiches.''", "Katz Verlag, 2007, (c.f.", "review).", "* Petersohn, Jürgen.", "''Franken im Mittelalter.", "Identität und Profil im Spiegel von Bewußtsein und Vorstellung.''", "(Vorträge und Forschungen, Sonderband 51), Ostfildern, 2008 (c.f.", "the review).", "* Reuter, Timothy.", "''Germany in the Early Middle Ages 800–1056''.", "New York: Longman, 1991..* Scherzer, Conrad.", "''Franken, Land, Volk, Geschichte und Wirtschaft.''", "Verlag Nürnberger Presse Drexel, Merkel & Co., Nuremberg, 1955, .", "* Schiener, Anna.", "''Kleine Geschichte Frankens.''", "Verlag Friedrich Pustet, Regensburg, 2008, .", "* Stützel, Ada.", "''100 berühmte Franken.''", "Sutton Verlag, Erfurt, 2007, .", "* Wüst, Wolfgang (ed.", "): ''Frankens Städte und Territorien als Kulturdrehscheibe.", "Kommunikation in der Mitte Deutschlands.''", "Interdisciplinary conference 29 to 30 September 2006 in Weißenburg i. Bayern (Mittelfränkische Studien 19) Ansbach, 2008, ." ], [ "External links", "* Bezirk of Lower Franconia* Government of Lower Franconia* Bezirk of Middle Franconia* Government of Middle Franconia* Bezirk of Upper Franconia * Government of Upper Franconia English pages available* The Baden-Württemberg region of Heilbronn-Franken* Dukes of Franconia* Franconia images* The Franconian Dictionary" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "FileMan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''FileMan''' is a set of utilities written by George Timson in the late 1970s and early 1980s, using MUMPS, which provide a meta-data function for MUMPS applications.", "The FileMan utilities allow the definition of data structures, menus and security, reports, and forms, allowing someone to set up applications without tremendous experience in the MUMPS programming language.FileMan was designed to support the complex information storage and processing needs of hospitals.", "It was based on an active data dictionary that was able to invoke the full interpretive power of the MUMPS language from within a data reference.", "For example, a field called \"Length of Stay\" could invoke a MUMPS expression that would process the various dates, transfers, and discharges that would then be returned as if it were stored as a fixed data element.MUMPS differs from many languages in its handling of the null string.", "A large percentage of the FileMan internal data structures are null strings, in which the information is located in the name of the \"nothing\" being referenced.", "This approach does not fit the traditional Relational Data Model.Its first use was in the development of medical applications for the Veterans Administration, now called the Department of Veterans Affairs, a branch of the United States Government.Since it was a work created by the US federal government, a copyright cannot be placed on the source code, making the source code in the public domain.", "Because of this, it has been used for rapid development of applications across a number of organizations, including commercial products.FileMan may be used standalone, or may be used with the VA Kernel, which provides an operating system neutral environment for applications." ], [ "External links", "* Video Interview with Tom Munnecke, co-developer of FileMan" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court''' ('''FISC'''), also called the '''FISA Court''', is a U.S. federal court established under the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (FISA) to oversee requests for surveillance warrants against foreign spies inside the United States by federal law enforcement and intelligence agencies.", "FISA was created by the U.S. Congress based on the recommendations of the Senate's Church Committee, which was convened in 1975 to investigate illicit activities and civil rights abuses by the federal intelligence community.", "Pursuant to the law, the FISC reviews requests to conduct physical and electronic surveillance within the U.S. concerning \"foreign intelligence information\" between \"foreign powers\" and \"agents of foreign powers\" suspected of espionage or terrorism; such requests are made most often by the National Security Agency (NSA) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).", "From its opening in 1978 until 2009, the court was housed on the sixth floor of the Robert F. Kennedy Department of Justice Building; since 2009, it has been relocated to the E. Barrett Prettyman United States Courthouse in Washington, D.C." ], [ "Warrants", "Each application for one of these surveillance warrants (called a FISA warrant) is made before an individual judge of the court.", "The court may allow third parties to submit briefs as ''amici curiae''.", "When the U.S. Attorney General determines that an emergency exists, the Attorney General may authorize the emergency employment of electronic surveillance before obtaining the necessary authorization from the FISC, if the Attorney General or their designee notifies a judge of the court at the time of authorization and applies for a warrant as soon as practicable but not more than seven days after authorization of such surveillance, as required by .If an application is denied by one judge of the court, the federal government is not allowed to make the same application to a different judge of the court but may appeal to the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review.", "Such appeals are rare: the first appeal from the FISC to the Court of Review was made in 2002 (''In re Sealed Case No.", "02-001''), 24 years after the founding of the court.FISA warrant requests are rarely denied.", "During the 25 years from 1979 to 2004, 18,742 warrants were granted, while only four were rejected.", "Fewer than 200 requests had to be modified before being accepted, almost all of them in 2003 and 2004.The four rejected requests were all from 2003, and all four were partially granted after being submitted for reconsideration by the government.", "Of the requests that had to be modified, few were before the year 2000.During the next eight years, from 2004 to 2012, there were over 15,100 additional warrants granted, and another seven being rejected.", "Over the entire 33-year period, the FISA court granted 33,942 warrants, with only 12 denials – a rejection rate of 0.03 percent of the total requests.", "This does not include the number of warrants that were modified by the FISA court.+ FISA warrant requests for electronic surveillance Year # Requestssubmitted # Requestsapproved # Requestsmodified # Requestsdenied 1979 199 207 0 0 1980 319 322 1 0 1981 431 433 0 0 1982 473 475 0 0 1983 549 549 0 0 1984 635 635 0 0 1985 587 587 0 0 1986 573 573 0 0 1987 512 512 0 0 1988 534 534 0 0 1989 546 546 0 0 1990 595 595 0 0 1991 593 593 0 0 1992 484 484 0 0 1993 509 509 0 0 1994 576 576 0 0 1995 697 697 0 0 1996 839 839 0 0 1997 749 748 0 0 1998 796 796 0 0 1999 886 880 0 0 2000 1,005 1,012 1 0 2001 932 934 4 0 2002 1,228 1,228  2  0 0 2003 1,727 1,724 79 4 2004 1,758 1,754 94 0 2005 2,074 2,072 61 0 2006 2,181 2,176 73 1 2007 2,371 2,370 86 4 2008 2,082 2,083 2 1 2009 1,329 1,320 14 2 2010 1,511 1,506 14 0 2011 1,676 1,674 30 0 2012 1,789 1,788 40 0 2013 1,588 1,588 34 020141,3791,37919020151,4571,45680520161,4851,4513103420171,37294831034 '''Totals''' '''41,222''' '''40,668''' '''1,252''' '''85''''''Notes:'''On May 17, 2002, the court rebuffed Attorney General John Ashcroft, releasing an opinion that alleged that the FBI and Justice Department officials had \"supplied erroneous information to the court\" in more than 75 applications for search warrants and wiretaps, including one signed by FBI Director Louis J. Freeh.", "Whether this rejection was related to the court starting to require modification of significantly more requests in 2003 is unknown.On December 16, 2005, ''The New York Times'' reported that the Bush administration had been conducting surveillance against U.S. citizens without specific approval from the FISA court for each case since 2002.On December 20, 2005, Judge James Robertson resigned his position with the court, apparently in protest of the secret surveillance, and later, in the wake of the Snowden leaks of 2013, criticized the court-sanctioned expansion of the scope of government surveillance and its being allowed to craft a secret body of law.", "The government's apparent circumvention of the court started prior to the increase in court-ordered modifications to warrant requests.In 2011, the Obama administration secretly won permission from the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court to reverse restrictions on the National Security Agency's use of intercepted phone calls and e-mails, permitting the agency to search deliberately for Americans' communications in its massive databases.", "The searches take place under a surveillance program Congress authorized in 2008, under Section 702 of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Amendment Act (Section 1881a et seq in FISA).", "Under that law, the target must be a foreigner \"reasonably believed\" to be outside the United States, and the court must approve the targeting procedures in an order good for one year.", "But a warrant for each target would thus no longer be required.", "That means that communications with Americans could be picked up without a court first determining that there is probable cause that the people they were talking to were terrorists, spies or \"foreign powers\".", "The FISC also extended the length of time that the NSA is allowed to retain intercepted U.S. communications from five years to six years with an extension possible for foreign intelligence or counterintelligence purposes.", "Both measures were done without public debate or any specific authority from Congress." ], [ "Secrecy", "Because of the sensitive nature of its business, the court is a \"secret court\" – its hearings are closed to the public.", "While records of the proceedings are kept, they also are unavailable to the public, although copies of some records with classified information redacted have been made public.", "Due to the classified nature of its proceedings, usually only attorneys licensed to practice in front of the US government are permitted to appear before the court.", "Because of the nature of the matters heard before it, court hearings may need to take place at any time of day or night, weekdays or weekends; thus, at least one judge must be \"on call\" at all times to hear evidence and decide whether or not to issue a warrant.A heavily redacted version of a 2008 appeal by Yahoo!", "of an order issued with respect to NSA's PRISM program had been published for the edification of other potential appellants.", "The identity of the appellant was declassified in June 2013." ], [ "Criticism", "There has been growing criticism of the court since the September 11, 2001 attacks.", "This is partly because the court sits ''ex parte'' – in other words, in the absence of anyone but the judge and the government present at the hearings.", "This, combined with the minimal number of requests that are rejected by the court has led experts to characterize it as a rubber stamp (former National Security Agency analyst Russ Tice called it a \"kangaroo court with a rubber stamp\").", "The accusation of being a \"rubber stamp\" was rejected by FISA Court president Reggie B. Walton who wrote in a letter to Senator Patrick J. Leahy: \"The annual statistics provided to Congress by the Attorney General ... – frequently cited to in press reports as a suggestion that the Court's approval rate of application is over 99% – reflect only the number of ''final'' applications submitted to and acted on by the Court.", "These statistics do not reflect the fact that many applications are altered to prior or final submission or even withheld from final submission entirely, often after an indication that a judge would not approve them.\"", "He added: \"There is a rigorous review process of applications submitted by the executive branch, spearheaded initially by five judicial branch lawyers who are national security experts and then by the judges, to ensure that the court's authorizations comport with what the applicable statutes authorize.\"", "In a following letter Walton stated that the government had revamped 24.4% of its requests in the face of court questions and demands in time from July 1, 2013 to September 30, 2013.This figure became available after Walton decided in the summer of 2013 that the FISC would begin keeping its own tally of how Justice Department warrant applications for electronic surveillance fared – and would track for the first time when the government withdrew or resubmitted those applications with changes.", "Some requests are modified by the court but ultimately granted, while the percentage of denied requests is statistically negligible (11 denied requests out of around 34,000 granted in 35 years – equivalent to 0.03%).", "The accusation that the FISC is a \"rubber stamp\" court was also rejected by Robert S. Litt (General Counsel of Office of the Director of National Intelligence): \"When the Government prepares an application for a section 215 order, it first submits to the FISC what's called a \"read copy\", which the court staff will review and comment on.", "And they will almost invariably come back with questions, concerns, problems that they see.", "And there is an iterative process back and forth between the Government and the FISC to take care of those concerns so that at the end of the day, we're confident that we're presenting something that the FISC will approve.", "That is hardly a rubber stamp.", "It's rather extensive and serious judicial oversight of this process.", "\"A 2003 Senate Judiciary Committee ''Interim Report on FBI Oversight in the 107th Congress by the Senate Judiciary Committee: FISA Implementation Failures'' cited the \"unnecessary secrecy\" of the court among its \"most important conclusions\":===Allegations of bias===In a July 2013 interview, Senator and privacy advocate Ron Wyden described the FISC warrant process as \"the most one-sided legal process in the United States\".", "\"I don't know of any other legal system or court that really doesn't highlight anything except one point of view\", he said.", "Later in the interview he said Congress should seek to \"diversify some of the thinking on the court\".Elizabeth Goitein, a co-director of the Liberty and National Security Program of the Brennan Center for Justice at the New York University School of Law, has criticized the court as being too compromised to be an impartial tribunal that oversees the work of the NSA and other U.S. intelligence activities.", "Since the court meets in secret, hears only the arguments of the government prior to deciding a case, and its rulings cannot be appealed or even reviewed by the public, she has argued that: \"Like any other group that meets in secret behind closed doors with only one constituency appearing before them, they're subject to capture and bias.", "\"A related bias of the court results from what critics such as Julian Sanchez, a scholar at the Cato Institute, have described as the near certainty of the polarization or groupthink of the judges of the court.", "Since all of the judges are appointed by the same person (the Chief Justice of the United States), hear no opposing testimony and feel no pressure from colleagues or the public to moderate their rulings, Sanchez claims that \"group polarization is almost a certainty\", adding that \"there's the real possibility that these judges become more extreme over time, even when they had only a mild bias to begin with\".===Appointment process===The court's judges are appointed solely by the Chief Justice of the United States without confirmation or oversight by the U.S. Congress.", "This gives the chief justice the ability to appoint like-minded judges and create a court without diversity.", "\"The judges are hand-picked by someone who, through his votes on the Supreme Court, we have come to learn has a particular view on civil liberties and law enforcement\", Theodore Ruger, a professor at the University of Pennsylvania Law School, said with respect to Chief Justice John Roberts.", "\"The way the FISA is set up, it gives him unchecked authority to put judges on the court who feel the same way he does.\"", "And Stephen Vladeck, a law professor at the University of Texas School of Law, added, \"Since FISA was enacted in 1978, we've had three chief justices, and they have all been conservative Republicans, so I think one can worry that there is insufficient diversity.\"", "Since May 2014, however, four of the five judges appointed by Chief Justice Roberts to the FISA Court were appointed to their prior federal court positions by Presidents Bill Clinton and Barack Obama.There are some reform proposals.", "Senator Richard Blumenthal from Connecticut proposed that each of the chief judges of the 12 major appeals courts select a district judge for the surveillance court; the chief justice would still pick the review panel that hears rare appeals of the court's decisions, but six other Supreme Court justices would have to sign off.", "Another proposal authored by Representative Adam Schiff of California would give the president the power to nominate judges for the court, subject to Senate approval, while Representative Steve Cohen proposed that Congressional leaders pick eight of the court's members.===Judicial and public oversight===Stephen Vladeck, a professor at the University of Texas School of Law, has argued that, without having to seek the approval of the court (which he has said merely reviews certifications to ensure that theyand not the surveillance itself – comply with the various statutory requirements), the U.S. Attorney General and the Director of National Intelligence can engage in sweeping programmatic surveillance for one year at a time.", "There are procedures used by the NSA to target non-U.S. persons and procedures used by the NSA to minimize data collection from U.S. persons.", "These court-approved policies allow the NSA to do the following:*keep data that could potentially contain details of U.S. persons for up to five years;*retain and make use of \"inadvertently acquired\" domestic communications if they contain usable intelligence, information on criminal activity, threat of harm to people or property, are encrypted, or are believed to contain any information relevant to cybersecurity;*preserve \"foreign intelligence information\" contained within attorney–client communications; and*access the content of communications gathered from \"U.S. based machines\" or phone numbers in order to establish if targets are located in the U.S., for the purposes of ceasing further surveillance.Jameel Jaffer, the ACLU's deputy legal director, said in light of revelations that the government secured telephone records from Verizon and Internet data from some of the largest providers that safeguards that are supposed to be protecting individual privacy are not working.", "Elizabeth Goitein, co-director of the Liberty and National Security Program at the Brennan Center for Justice in New York, wrote in the Wall Street Journal that when courts make mistakes, the losing party has the right to appeal and the erroneous decision is reversed.", "\"That process cannot happen when a secret court considers a case with only one party before it.", "\"According to ''The Guardian'', \"The broad scope of the court orders, and the nature of the procedures set out in the documents, appear to clash with assurances from President Obama and senior intelligence officials that the NSA could not access Americans' call or email information without warrants\".", "Glenn Greenwald, who published details of the PRISM surveillance program, explained:Deputy Attorney General James M. Cole and NSA Deputy Director John C. Inglis cited the court's oversight in defending the constitutionality of the NSA's surveillance activities before during a hearing before the House Judiciary Committee in July 2013.Representative Jerrold Nadler, challenged Cole's defense of the program's constitutionality, and he said the secrecy in which the court functioned negated the validity of its review.", "\"The fact that a secret court unaccountable to public knowledge of what it's doing ... may join you in misusing or abusing the statutes is of no comfort whatsoever\", Nadler said.", "Orin Kerr, a law professor at George Washington University, said the secrecy that comes along with national security makes it difficult to evaluate how the administration carries out the wide authority Congress has given it.", "\"FISA court judges hear all of this and they think it's legal,\" Kerr said.", "\"What we really don't know, though, are what the FISA court's opinions say.", "\"===Secret law===In July 2013, ''The New York Times'' published disclosures from anonymous government whistleblowers of secret law written by the court holding that vast collections of data on all Americans (even those not connected in any way to foreign enemies) amassed by the NSA do not violate the warrant requirements of Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.", "It reported that anyone suspected of being involved in nuclear proliferation, espionage or cyber-attacks, according to the court, may be considered a legitimate target for warrantless surveillance.", "Acting like a parallel U.S. Supreme Court, the court greatly broadened the \"special-needs\" exception to do so.The newspaper reported that in \"more than a dozen classified rulings, the nation's surveillance court has created a secret body of law giving the National Security Agency the power to amass vast collections of data on Americans\".", "It also wrote, with respect to the court:The \"special-needs\" doctrine is an exemption to the Fourth Amendment's Warrants Clause which commands that \"no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be and seized\".", "The U.S. Supreme Court has recognized an exemption to the Warrants Clause \"outside the foreign intelligence context, in so-called 'special-needs' cases.", "In those cases, the Court excused compliance with the Warrant Clause when the purpose behind the governmental action went beyond routine law enforcement and insisting upon a warrant would materially interfere with the accomplishment of that purpose.", "See, ''Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton'', 515 U.S. 646, 653 (1995) (upholding drug testing of highschool athletes and explaining that the exception to the warrant requirement applied \"when special needs, beyond the normal need for law enforcement, make the warrant and probable-cause requirements impracticable (quoting ''Griffin v. Wisconsin'', 483 U.S. 868, 873 (1987))); ''Skinner v. Ry.", "Labor Execs.", "Ass'n'', 489 U.S. 602, 620 (1989) (upholding regulations instituting drug and alcohol testing of railroad workers for safety reasons); cf.", "''Terry v. Ohio'', 392 U.S. 1, 23-24 (1968) (upholding pat-frisk for weapons to protect officer safety during investigatory stop)\".", "The U.S. Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review concluded on August 22, 2008, in the case ''In re Directives redacted text Pursuant to Section 105B of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act'', that the \"special-needs\" doctrine applied by analogy to justify a foreign intelligence exception to the warrant requirement for surveillance undertaken for national security purposes and directed at a foreign power or an agent of a foreign power reasonably believed to be located outside the U.S.James Robertsona former judge for the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, who, in 2004, ruled against the Bush administration in the ''Hamdan v. Rumsfeld'' case, and also served on the FISC for three years between 2002 and 2005said he was \"frankly stunned\" by the newspaper's report that court rulings had created a new body of law broadening the ability of the NSA to use its surveillance programs to target not only terrorists but suspects in cases involving espionage, cyberattacks and weapons of mass destruction.", "Geoffrey R. Stone, a professor of constitutional law at the University of Chicago, said he was troubled by the idea that the court is creating a significant body of law without hearing from anyone outside the government, forgoing the adversarial system that is a staple of the American justice system.", "He said, \"That whole notion is missing in this process\".The court concluded that mass collection of telephone metadata (including the time of phone calls and numbers dialed) does not violate the Fourth Amendment as long as the government establishes a valid reason under national security regulations before taking the next step of actually examining the contents of an American's communications.", "This concept is rooted partly in the special needs doctrine.", "\"The basic idea is that it's O.K.", "to create this huge pond of data\", an unnamed U.S. official said, \"but you have to establish a reason to stick your pole in the water and start fishing\".", "Under the new procedures passed by the U.S. Congress in the FISA Amendments Act of 2008, even the collection of metadata must be considered \"relevant\" to a terrorism investigation or other intelligence activities.", "The court has indicated that while individual pieces of data may not appear \"relevant\" to a terrorism investigation, the total picture that the bits of data create may in fact be relevant, according to U.S. officials with knowledge of the decisions.A secret ruling made by the court that redefined the single word \"relevant\" enabled the NSA to gather phone data on millions of Americans.", "In classified orders starting in the mid-2000s, the court accepted that \"relevant\" could be broadened to permit an entire database of records on millions of people, in contrast to a more conservative interpretation widely applied in criminal cases, in which only some of those records would likely be allowed.", "Under the Patriot Act, the Federal Bureau of Investigation can require businesses to hand over \"tangible things\", including \"records\", as long as the FBI shows it is reasonable to believe the things are \"relevant to an authorized investigation\" into international terrorism or foreign intelligence activities.", "The history of the word \"relevant\" is key to understanding that passage.", "The Supreme Court in 1991 said things are \"relevant\" if there is a \"reasonable possibility\" that they will produce information related to the subject of the investigation.", "In criminal cases, courts previously have found that very large sets of information did not meet the relevance standard because significant portionsinnocent people's informationwould not be pertinent.", "But the court has developed separate precedents, centered on the idea that investigations to prevent national-security threats are different from ordinary criminal cases.", "The court's rulings on such matters are classified and almost impossible to challenge because of the secret nature of the proceedings.", "According to the court, the special nature of national-security and terrorism-prevention cases means \"relevant\" can have a broader meaning for those investigations, say people familiar with the rulings.People familiar with the system that uses phone records in investigations have said that the court's novel legal theories allow the system to include bulk phone records, as long as there are privacy safeguards to limit searches.", "NSA analysts may query the database only \"when there is a reasonable suspicion, based on specific facts, that the particular basis for the query is associated with a foreign terrorist organization\", according to Director of National Intelligence James Clapper.", "The NSA database includes data about people's phone calls numbers dialed, how long a call lastedbut not the actual conversations.", "According to Supreme Court rulings, a phone call's content is covered by the Constitution's Fourth Amendment, which restricts unreasonable searches, but the other types of data are not.", "\"Relevant\" has long been a broad standard, but the way the court is interpreting it, to mean, in effect, \"everything\", is new, said Mark Eckenwiler, a lawyer who until December 2012 was the Justice Department's primary authority on federal criminal surveillance law.", "\"I think it's a stretch\" of previous federal legal interpretations, said Eckenwiler.", "If a federal attorney \"served a grand-jury subpoena for such a broad class of records in a criminal investigation, he or she would be laughed out of court\".", "Given the traditional legal definition of relevant, Timothy Edgar, a former top privacy lawyer at the Office of the Director of National Intelligence and the National Security Council in the Bush and Obama administrations, noted it is \"a fair point\" to say that someone reading the law might believe it refers to \"individualized requests\" or \"requests in small batches, rather than in bulk database form\".", "From that standpoint, Edgar said, the reinterpretation of relevant amounts to \"secret law\"." ], [ "Controversies", "===2013 NSA controversy===In June 2013, a copy of a top-secret warrant, issued by the court on April 25, 2013, was leaked to London's ''The Guardian'' newspaper by NSA contractor Edward Snowden.", "That warrant orders Verizon Business Network Services to provide a daily feed to the NSA containing \"telephony metadata\" – comprehensive call detail records, including location data – about all calls in its system, including those that occur \"wholly within the United States, including local telephone calls\".", "The Obama administration published on July 31, 2013 a FISA Court ruling supporting an earlier order requiring a Verizon subsidiary to turn over all of its customers' phone logs for a three-month period, with rules that must be followed when accessing the data.The document leaked to ''The Guardian'' acted as a \"smoking gun\" and sparked a public outcry of criticism and complaints that the court exceeded its authority and violated the Fourth Amendment by issuing general warrants.", "''The Washington Post'' then reported that it knew of other orders, and that the court had been issuing such orders, to all telecommunication companies, every three months since May 24, 2006.Since the telephone metadata program was revealed, the intelligence community, some members of Congress, and the Obama administration have defended its legality and use.", "Most of these defenses involve the 1979 Supreme Court decision ''Smith v. Maryland'' which established that people do not have a \"reasonable expectation\" of privacy for electronic metadata held by third parties like a cellphone provider.", "That data is not considered \"content\", theoretically giving law enforcement more flexibility in collecting it.On July 19, 2013, the court renewed the permission for the NSA to collect Verizon customer records en masse.", "The U.S. government was relying on a part of the third-party doctrine.", "This notion said that when a person has voluntarily disclosed information to a third party – in this case, the telephony metadata – the customer no longer has a reasonable expectation of privacy over the numbers dialed nor their duration.", "Therefore, this doctrine argued, such metadata can be accessed by law enforcement with essentially no problem.", "The content of communications are, however, subject to the Fourth Amendment.", "The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court held in October 2011, citing multiple Supreme Court precedents, that the Fourth Amendment prohibition against unreasonable searches and seizures applies to the contents of all communications, whatever the means, because \"a person's private communications are akin to personal papers\".Former FISC judge Colleen Kollar-Kotelly, who provided the legal foundation for the NSA amassing a database of all Americans' phone records, told associates in the summer of 2013 that she wanted her legal argument out.", "Rulings for the plaintiff in cases brought by the ACLU on September 10 and 12, 2013, prompted James Clapper to concede that the government had overreached in its covert surveillance under part 215 of FISA and that the Act would likely be amended to reflect Congressional concern.The American Civil Liberties Union, a customer of Verizon, asked on November 22, 2013 a federal district court in Lower Manhattan, New York to end the NSA phone call data collection program.", "The ACLU argued that the program violated the U.S. Constitution's guarantees of privacy and information as well as exceeding the scope of its authorizing legislation, Section 215 of the Patriot Act.", "The U.S. government countered that the program is constitutional and that Congress was fully informed when it authorized and reauthorized Section 215.Moreover, a government lawyer said, the ACLU has no standing to bring the case because it cannot prove that its members have been harmed by the NSA's use of the data.===2016 presidential election controversy===In November 2016, Louise Mensch reported on the news website ''Heat Street'' that, after an initial June 2016 FBI request was denied, the FISA court had granted a more narrowly focused October request from the FBI \"to examine the activities of 'U.S.", "persons' in Donald Trump's campaign with ties to Russia\".", "On 12 January 2017, BBC journalist Paul Wood reported that, in response to an April 2016 tip from a foreign intelligence agency to the CIA about \"money from the Kremlin going into the US presidential campaign\", a joint taskforce had been established including representatives of the FBI, the Department of the Treasury, the Department of Justice, the CIA, the Office of the Director of National Intelligence and the National Security Agency.", "In June 2016, lawyers from the Department of Justice applied to the FISA court for \"permission to intercept the electronic records from two Russian banks\".", "According to Wood, this application was rejected, as was a more narrowly focused request in July, and the order was finally granted by a different FISA judge on 15 October, three weeks before the presidential election.", "On January 19, ''The New York Times'' reported that one of its sources had claimed \"intelligence reports based on some of the wiretapped communications had been provided to the White House\".On 13 March, the Senate Intelligence Committee demanded that the Trump administration provide evidence to support the President Trump's claim that former President Obama had wiretapped Trump Tower.", "On 16 March, the Committee reported that they had seen no evidence to support Trump's accusation that the Obama administration tapped his phones during the 2016 presidential campaign.On Fox News on 14 March, commentator Andrew Napolitano said, \"Three intelligence sources have informed Fox News that President Obama went outside the chain of command.", "...", "He used GCHQ.", "What is that?", "It's the initials for the British intelligence spying agency.", "Simply by saying to them, 'The president needs transcripts of conversations involving candidate Trump's conversations' he's able to get it and there's no American fingerprints on this.\"", "Two days later, on 16 March, White House press spokesperson, Sean Spicer, read this claim to the press.", "A GCHQ spokesman responded: \"Recent allegations made by media commentator Judge Andrew Napolitano about GCHQ being asked to conduct 'wiretapping' against the then president elect are nonsense.", "They are utterly ridiculous and should be ignored.\"", "On 17 March, the U.S. issued a formal apology to the United Kingdom for the accusation.On April 11, ''The Washington Post'' reported that the FBI had been granted a FISA warrant in the summer of 2016 to monitor then-Trump foreign policy adviser Carter Page.", "According to the report, \"The FBI and the Justice Department obtained the warrant targeting Carter Page's communications after convincing a Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court judge that there was probable cause to believe Page was acting as an agent of a foreign power, in this case Russia, according to the officials.\"", "The report also states that the warrant has been renewed multiple times since its first issue.", "These warrants were criticized in the controversial Nunes memo for allegedly being issued on the basis of evidence gathered by politically motivated sources." ], [ "Composition", "When the court was founded, it was composed of seven federal district judges appointed by the Chief Justice of the United States, each serving a seven-year term, with one judge being appointed each year.", "In 2001, the USA PATRIOT Act expanded the court from seven to eleven judges, and required that at least three of the Court's judges live within of the District of Columbia.", "No judge may be appointed to this court more than once, and no judge may be appointed to both the Court of Review and the FISA court.Chief Justice John Roberts has appointed all of the current judges.===Membership===''()''NameCourtStartEndPresiding StartPresiding EndFISC AppointerOriginal AppointerE.D.", "Va.''''present'''' – –D.", "Minn.'''' – –S.D.", "Miss.''''", "– –S.D.", "N.Y.'''' – –D.", "N.J.'''' – –N.D.", "Ohio'''' – –D.", "D.C.'''' – –D.", "Me.''''", "– –N.D.", "Ill.'''' – – ''seat vacant'' ===Former members===''Note that the start dates of service for some judges conflict among sources.", "''NameCourtStartEndPresiding StartPresiding EndFISC AppointerOriginal AppointerS.D.", "Fla. – –C.D.", "Ill. – –D.", "D.C.D.", "Utah – –D.", "D.C.S.D.", "N.Y. – –D.", "Ariz. – –D.", "N.J. – –E.D.", "Va. – –E.D.", "Va. – –N.D.", "Ohio – –D.", "Ariz. – –E.D.", "Ky. – –D.", "D.C.D.", "D.C.M.D.", "Fla. – –D.", "N.M. – –D.", "Me.", "– –N.D.", "Okla. – –D.", "Minn. – –E.D.", "N.Y. – –D.", "Minn – –N.D.", "Okla. – –E.D.", "La.", "– –D.", "Mass.", "– –D.", "Mass.", "– –D.", "D.C.D.", "D.C.E.D.", "Va. – –D.", "D.C.E.D.", "N.C. – –W.D.", "Va. – –S.D.", "Tex.", "– –S.D.", "N.Y. – –D.", "D.C.D.", "N.J.. – –D.", "D.C.E.D.", "Cal.", "– –S.D.", "N.Y. – –N.D.", "Ill. – –E.D.", "Pa. – –E.D.", "Mo.", "– – – –D.", "Ore. – –D.", "Md.", "– –S.D.", "Ind.E.D.", "Va. – –N.D.", "Ga. – –D.", "D.C. – –D.", "D.C. – –W.D.", "Ky. – –D.", "Mass.", "– –E.D.", "La.", "– –N.D.", "N.Y. – –D.", "D.C.N.D.", "Fla. – –W.D.", "Okla. – –N.D.", "Fla. – –D.", "D.C.E.D.", "Ark.", "– –N.D.", "Ill. – –" ], [ "Seat succession" ], [ "See also", "*Commission nationale de contrôle des interceptions de sécurité*''In re: Sealed Case No.", "02-001''*NSA call database*NSA warrantless surveillance (2001–07)*Operation CHAOS" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General references===" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "FC Den Bosch" ], [ "Introduction", "'''FC Den Bosch''' () is a football club from 's-Hertogenbosch, They currently compete in the Eerste Divisie.They were founded 18 August 1965, as FC Den Bosch/BVV.", "They are the successor of BVV (1906) and Wilhelmina (1890).", "Their stadium is called 'De Vliert', an 8,500 all-seater.", "Ruud van Nistelrooy started his professional career at this club.", "In 2005 they finished bottom of the Eredivisie and were relegated and currently compete in the Eerste Divisie." ], [ "History", "Historical chart of league performanceThe club were founded on 18 August 1965 as the successor to BVV, who were formed in 1906 and Dutch champions in 1948.They were champions of the 1965–66 Tweede Divisie B., They merged with Wilhelmina (1890) on 10 May 1967 to form F.C.", "Den Bosch '67, before being crowned champions of 1970–71 Eerste Divisie to secure promotion to the Eredivise for the first time in their history.", "Their first season in the Eredivisie, the 1971–72 season saw Den Bosch struggle with relegation all season, but they would eventually finish 16th, three points above the relegation zone, following a late-season upturn in form.", "Despite this the club lasted just two seasons in the Eredivise as they finished bottom of the 1972–73 Eredivisie and were relegated back to the Eerste Divisie.Den Bosch struggled following their return to the Eerste Divisie, failing to finish in the top half until the 1977–78 season.", "However, come the turn of the decade, Den Bosch were consistently challenging for promotion, with the club competing in the promotion play-off for the 1980–81 season, only to lose out to De Graafschap.", "However, they would win the promotion play-offs for the 1982–83 season, marking their return to the Eredivisie.", "The club's first season back in the Eredivisie saw them finish 10th in the Eredivisie, before the next two seasons saw 6th-place finishes for the club, with the latter seeing Den Bosch finish just 3 points off the UEFA Cup qualification places.", "This success did not last though as they were relegated back to the Eerste Divisie in the 1989–90 season, shortly after the club was renamed B.V.V.", "Den Bosch in 1988.The club saw promotions to the Eredivisie in the 1991–92, 1998–99, 2000–01 and the 2003–04 seasons (the latter three as champions), only to be relegated back to the Eerste Divisie each time.", "The club also changed its name back to FC Den Bosch in 1992.In the ten years following their relegation back to the Eerste Divisie, they competed in the promotion play-offs on six occasions bit failed to get promoted on any of them.In the summer of 2018, after years of financial problems and bad performances in Eerste Divisie a Georgian businessman Kakhi Jordania, decided to invest in the club with intent to purchase.", "His ownership group was allowed to start making changes in the management, while they were awaiting the approval of KNVB.", "The club had a best season in years.", "The team finished as winter champions in Eerste Divisie, but could not continue their good form after the winter break.", "Den Bosch still managed to qualify for the promotion playoffs, where they lost to Go Ahead Eagles.", "After a year of due diligence, KNVB decided not to grant the new ownership group the right to purchase the club.In November 2019, Den Bosch supporters racially abused SBV Excelsior player Ahmad Mendes Moreira in a match against the club, with Moreira having allegedly been called a 'negro and cotton-picker' prior to the match being halted after 30 minutes.", "Following the match, Moreira was labelled as a \"pathetic little man\" by Den Bosch's manager and the club originally stated that Moreira mistook 'crow sounds' for racist abuse, before later apologising for that statement.", "A few days after the match Den Bosch's manager apologised to Moreira.", "The \"pathetic little man\" label was about the way Moreira celebrated his goal and had nothing to do with racism.", "Moreira accepted these words.", "Following the incident and criticism from Netherlands internationals Memphis Depay and Georginio Wijnaldum, it was announced that players in the Dutch top two divisions would not play during the first minute of the following weekend's games in protest against racism in Dutch football as a result of the incident.", "In response to the incident, Den Bosch banned a number of supporters from attending games in January 2020.It was the first time a professional match in the Netherlands had to be halted as a result of racism.In September 2021, Pacific Media Group, Partners Path Capital, Chien Lee, Randy Frankel and Krishen Sud acquired 53% of FC Den Bosch.===Club name===*'''FC Den Bosch/BVV''' (1965–1967)*'''FC Den Bosch '67''' (1967–1988)*'''BVV Den Bosch''' (1988–1992)*'''FC Den Bosch''' (1992–present)" ], [ "Players", "===Current squad===" ], [ "Honours", "*'''Eredivisie'''/'''Dutch Champion'''**'''Winners:''' 1947–48 (as BVV)*'''Eerste Divisie'''**'''Winners:''' 1970–71, 1998–99, 2000–01, 2003–04**'''Promoted:''' 1982–83, 1991–92*'''Tweede Divisie'''**'''Winners:''' 1965–66**'''Promoted:''' 1962–63*'''KNVB Cup'''** '''Runners-up:''' 1990–91ImageSize = width:800 height:60PlotArea = left:10 right:10 bottom:30 top:10TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyyDateFormat = dd/mm/yyyyPeriod = from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/2023ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:1 start:1990Colors = id:bl1 value:rgb(0.9,0.9,0.3) id:bl2 value:rgb(0.5,0.8,0.5) id:rs value:rgb(0.8,0.6,0.6) id:rn value:rgb(0.9,0.1,0.1)PlotData= bar:Position width:15 color:white align:center from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 shift:(0,-4) text:17 from:01/01/1991 till:01/01/1992 shift:(0,-4) text:2 from:01/01/1992 till:01/01/1993 shift:(0,-4) text:17 from:01/01/1993 till:01/01/1994 shift:(0,-4) text:11 from:01/01/1994 till:01/01/1995 shift:(0,-4) text:18 from:01/01/1995 till:01/01/1996 shift:(0,-4) text:3 from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 shift:(0,-4) text:7 from:01/01/1997 till:01/01/1998 shift:(0,-4) text:4 from:01/01/1998 till:01/01/1999 shift:(0,-4) text:1 from:01/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 shift:(0,-4) text:18 from:01/01/2000 till:01/01/2001 shift:(0,-4) text:1 from:01/01/2001 till:01/01/2002 shift:(0,-4) text:16 from:01/01/2002 till:01/01/2003 shift:(0,-4) text:5 from:01/01/2003 till:01/01/2004 shift:(0,-4) text:1 from:01/01/2004 till:01/01/2005 shift:(0,-4) text:18 from:01/01/2005 till:01/01/2006 shift:(0,-4) text:7 from:01/01/2006 till:01/01/2007 shift:(0,-4) text:5 from:01/01/2007 till:01/01/2008 shift:(0,-4) text:3 from:01/01/2008 till:01/01/2009 shift:(0,-4) text:9 from:01/01/2009 till:01/01/2010 shift:(0,-4) text:7 from:01/01/2010 till:01/01/2011 shift:(0,-4) text:8 from:01/01/2011 till:01/01/2012 shift:(0,-4) text:6 from:01/01/2012 till:01/01/2013 shift:(0,-4) text:11 from:01/01/2013 till:01/01/2014 shift:(0,-4) text:4 from:01/01/2014 till:01/01/2015 shift:(0,-4) text:16 from:01/01/2015 till:01/01/2016 shift:(0,-4) text:17 from:01/01/2016 till:01/01/2017 shift:(0,-4) text:14 from:01/01/2017 till:01/01/2018 shift:(0,-4) text:11 from:01/01/2018 till:01/01/2019 shift:(0,-4) text:4 from:01/01/2019 till:01/01/2020 shift:(0,-4) text:12 from:01/01/2020 till:01/01/2021 shift:(0,-4) text:19 from:01/01/2021 till:01/01/2022 shift:(0,-4) text:11 from:01/01/2022 till:01/01/2023 shift:(0,-4) text:19 from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1992 color:bl1 shift:(0,13) text: \"Eerste Divisie\" from:01/01/1992 till:01/01/1993 color:bl2 shift:(0,13) text: \"Eredivisie\" from:01/01/1993 till:01/01/1999 color:bl1 shift:(0,13) text: \"Eerste Divisie\" from:01/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:bl2 shift:(0,13) text: \"Ere\" from:01/01/2000 till:01/01/2001 color:bl1 shift:(0,13) text: \"Eerste\" from:01/01/2001 till:01/01/2002 color:bl2 shift:(0,13) text: \"Ere\" from:01/01/2002 till:01/01/2004 color:bl1 shift:(0,13) text: \"Eerste Divisie\" from:01/01/2004 till:01/01/2005 color:bl2 shift:(0,13) text: \"Ere\" from:01/01/2005 till:01/01/2023 color:bl1 shift:(0,13) text: \"Eerste Divisie\"Below is a table with FC Den Bosch's domestic results since the introduction of professional football in 1956.Domestic Results since 1956Domestic leagueLeague resultQualification toKNVB Cup seasonCup result2022–23 Eerste Divisie19th –2022–23second round2021–22 Eerste Divisie11th –2021–22first round2020–21 Eerste Divisie19th –2020–21first round2019–20 Eerste Divisie11th –2019–20first round2018–19 Eerste Divisie4thpromotion/relegation play-offs: no promotion2018–19first round2017–18 Eerste Divisie11th –2017–18second round2016–17 Eerste Divisie14th –2016–17first round2015–16 Eerste Divisie17th –2015–16quarter-finals2014–15 Eerste Divisie16th –2014–15second round2013–14 Eerste Divisie4thpromotion/relegation play-offs: no promotion2013–14second round2012–13 Eerste Divisie11th –2012–13quarter-final2011–12 Eerste Divisie6thpromotion/relegation play-offs: no promotion2011–12third round2010–11 Eerste Divisie8thpromotion/relegation play-offs: no promotion2010–11third round2009–10 Eerste Divisie7thpromotion/relegation play-offs: no promotion2009–10third round2008–09 Eerste Divisie9th –2008–09third round2007–08 Eerste Divisie'''3rd'''promotion/relegation play-offs: no promotion2007–08round of 162006–07 Eerste Divisie5thpromotion/relegation play-offs: no promotion2006–07third round2005–06 Eerste Divisie7th –2005–06first round2004–05 Eredivisie18thEerste Divisie (relegation)2004–05quarter-final2003–04 Eerste Divisie'''1st'''Eredivisie (promotion)2003–04third round2002–03 Eerste Divisie5thpromotion/relegation play-offs: no promotion2002–03group stage2001–02 Eredivisie16thEerste Divisie (losing prom./releg.", "play-offs)2001–02round of 162000–01 Eerste Divisie'''1st'''Eredivisie (promotion)2000–01round of 161999–2000 Eredivisie18thEerste Divisie (relegation)1999–2000second round1998–99 Eerste Divisie'''1st'''Eredivisie (promotion)1998–99second round1997–98 Eerste Divisie4th –1997–98round of 161996–97 Eerste Divisie7th –1996–97group stage1995–96 Eerste Divisie'''3rd'''promotion/relegation play-offs: no promotion1995–96second round1994–95 Eerste Divisie18th –1994–95second round1993–94 Eerste Divisie11th –1993–94round of 161992–93 Eredivisie17thEerste Divisie (losing prom./releg.", "play-offs)1992–93'''semi-final'''1991–92 Eerste Divisie'''2nd'''Eredivisie (winning prom./releg.", "play-offs)1991–92third round1990–91 Eerste Divisie17th –1990–91'''final'''1989–90 Eredivisie17thEerste Divisie (relegation)1989–90round of 161988–89 Eredivisie7th –1988–89second round1987–88 Eredivisie7th –1987–88round of 161986–87 Eredivisie10th –1986–87quarter-final1985–86 Eredivisie6th –1985–86first round1984–85 Eredivisie6th –1984–85quarter-final1983–84 Eredivisie10th –1983–84first round1982–83 Eerste Divisie'''3rd'''Eredivisie (winning promotion competition)1982–83first round1981–82 Eerste Divisie5th –1981–82round of 161980–81 Eerste Divisie6thpromotion competition: no promotion1980–81second round1979–80 Eerste Divisie4th –1979–80second round1978–79 Eerste Divisie7th –1978–79round of 161977–78 Eerste Divisie8th –1977–78first round1976–77 Eerste Divisie12th –1976–77second round1975–76 Eerste Divisie10th –1975–76second round1974–75 Eerste Divisie10th –1974–75first round1973–74 Eerste Divisie17th –1973–74quarter-final1972–73 Eredivisie18thEerste Divisie (relegation)1972–73second round1971–72 Eredivisie16th –1971–72first round1970–71 Eerste Divisie'''1st'''Eredivisie (promotion)1970–71first round1969–70 Eerste Divisie5th –1969–70second round 1968–69 Eerste Divisie9th –1968–69first round 1967–68 Eerste Divisie'''3rd''' –1967–68group stage 1966–67 Eerste Divisie 1966–67 Tweede Divisie ''(as Wilhelmina)''5th 17th – merged into existing FC Den Bosch1966–67round of 16 ''did not participate'' 1965–66 Tweede Divisie ''(and as Wilhelmina)'''''1st''' (group B) 14th (group B)Eerste Divisie (promotion)  –1965–66round of 16 group stage 1964–65 Tweede Divisie ''(as BVV and Wilhelmina)''7th (group B) 12th (group B) –1964–65first round 1963–64 Eerste Divisie ''(as BVV)'' 1963–64 Tweede Divisie ''(as Wilhelmina)''16th 13th (group B)Tweede Divisie (relegation)  –1963–64first round quarter-final 1962–63 Tweede Divisie ''(as BVV and Wilhelmina)'''''2nd''' (group B) 15th (group B)Eerste Divisie (winning promotion play-off)  –1962–63first round 1961–62 Eerste Divisie ''(as BVV and Wilhelmina)''15th (group A) 17th (group B)Tweede Divisie (relegation)1961–62?", "1960–61 Eerste Divisie ''(as BVV)'' 1960–61 Tweede Divisie ''(as Wilhelmina)''11th (group A) '''3rd''' (group A) – Eerste Divisie (winning promotion play-off)1960–61?", "1959–60 Eerste Divisie ''(as BVV)'' 1959–60 Tweede Divisie ''(as Wilhelmina)''4th (group A) 6th (group A) –''not held''''not held''1958–59 Eerste Divisie ''(as BVV)'' 1958–59 Tweede Divisie ''(as Wilhelmina)''8th (group A) 12th (group A) –1958–59?", "1957–58 Eredivisie ''(as BVV)'' 1957–58 Tweede Divisie ''(as Wilhelmina)''18th '''2nd''' (group A)Eerste Divisie (relegation)  –1957–58?", "1956–57 Eredivisie ''(as BVV)'' 1956–57 Tweede Divisie ''(as Wilhelmina)''15th 11th (group B) –1956–57?" ], [ "Club staff", "PositionName Manager Jack de Gier Assistant manager William van Overbeek Assistant manager Jan de Hoon Assistant manager Taylor Sexton Assistant manager Marc Höcher Goalkeeping coach John Vos Teammananger Pieter Tuns Video analyst Edwin Guchelaar Technical manager Yousuf Sajjad" ], [ "Managerial history", "* Ben Tap (1965–70)* Jan Remmers (1970–74)* Nol de Ruiter (1974–76)* Ad Zonderland (1976–78)* Rinus Gosens (1979–80)* Ad Zonderland (1980)* Hans Verèl (1981–84)* Rinus Israel (1984–86)* Theo de Jong (1986–89)* Rinus Israel (1989–90)* Hans van der Pluijm (1990–95)* Chris Dekker (1995–96)* Kees Zwamborn (1996–98)* Martin Koopman (1998–00)* Mark Wotte (2000)* André Wetzel & Jan van Grinsven (2000)* Jan Poortvliet (2000–01)* Wiljan Vloet (2001–02)* Gert Kruys (2002–04)* Henk Wisman (2004–05)* J. van Grinsven, F. van der Hoorn & W. van der Horst (2005)* Theo Bos (2005–09)* J. van Grinsven, F. van der Hoorn & W. van der Horst (2009)* Marc Brys (2009–10)* Alfons Groenendijk (2010–12)* Jan Poortvliet (2012–13)* Ruud Kaiser (2013–15)* René van Eck (2015–16)* Wiljan Vloet (2016–17)* Wil Boessen (2017–19)* Erik van der Ven (2019–21)* William van Overbeek & Paul Verhaegh (2021)* Jack de Gier (2021–23)* Tomasz Kaczmarek (2023–)" ], [ "Statistics", " SEASONCLUB TOP SCORER GOALS DIVISION ATTENDANCE RANKMANAGER1965–66Frans Olde Riekerink'''17'''Tweede Divisie'''6.640''''''1'''Ben Tap1966–67Frans Olde Riekerink'''14'''Eerste Divisie'''6.895''''''5'''Ben Tap1967–68Ben Tinus'''17'''Eerste Divisie'''7.670''''''3'''Ben Tap1968–69Eef Mulders'''9'''Eerste Divisie'''5.350''''''9'''Ben Tap1969–70Eef Mulders'''10'''Eerste Divisie'''3.810''''''5'''Ben Tap1970–71Leo Ouwens'''11'''Eerste Divisie'''8.400''''''1'''Jan Remmers1971–72Ilja Mitić'''9'''Eredivisie'''11.870''''''16'''Jan Remmers1972–73Dick Beek'''5'''Eredivisie'''8.645''''''18'''Jan Remmers1973–74Dick Beek'''6'''Eerste Divisie'''2.895''''''17'''Jan Remmers1974–75Jos Peltzer'''10'''Eerste Divisie'''3.085''''''10'''Nol de Ruiter1975–76Jos Peltzer'''10'''Eerste Divisie'''2.210''''''10'''Nol de Ruiter1976–77Jan Peters'''18'''Eerste Divisie'''2.415''''''12'''Ad Zonderland1977–78Jan Peters'''19'''Eerste Divisie'''3.517''''''8'''Ad Zonderland1978–79Bert Nijdam'''9'''Eerste Divisie'''3.700''''''7'''Rinus Gosens1979–80Arie Romijn'''16'''Eerste Divisie'''4.700''''''4'''Rinus Gosens / Ad Zonderland ao1980–81Arie Romijn'''10'''Eerste Divisie'''2.355''''''6'''Ad Zonderland ao / Hans Verèl1981–82Arie Romijn'''16'''Eerste Divisie'''2.870''''''5'''Hans Verèl1982–83Wim van der Horst'''17'''Eerste Divisie'''2.788''''''3'''Hans Verèl1983–84Wim van der Horst'''14'''Eredivisie'''7.154''''''10'''Hans Verèl1984–85Peter van der Waart'''12'''Eredivisie'''5.406''''''6'''Rinus Israël1985–86Hans Gillhaus'''16'''Eredivisie'''6.367''''''6'''Rinus Israël1986–87Hans Gillhaus'''17'''Eredivisie'''5.309''''''10'''Theo de Jong1987–88Hendrie Krüzen'''12'''Eredivisie'''3.938''''''7'''Theo de Jong1988–89Mart van Duren'''15'''Eredivisie'''3.803''''''7'''Theo de Jong1989–90Peter Barendse'''7'''Eredivisie'''3.521''''''17'''Rinus Israël1990–91Jack de Gier'''23'''Eerste Divisie'''1.334''''''17'''Rinus Israël / Hans van der Pluym1991–92Geert Brusselers'''13'''Eerste Divisie'''2.007''''''2'''Hans van der Pluym1992–93Dirk Jan Derksen'''10'''Eerste Divisie'''3.231''''''19'''Hans van der Pluym1993–94Stefan Jansen'''14'''Eerste Divisie'''1.626''''''11'''Hans van der Pluym1994–95Orpheo Keizerweerd'''7'''Eerste Divisie'''1.198''''''18'''Hans van der Pluym1995–96Anthony Lurling'''19'''Eerste Divisie'''2.735''''''3'''Chris Dekker1996–97Ruud van Nistelrooy'''12'''Eerste Divisie'''2.034''''''7'''Kees Zwamborn1997–98Thijs Waterink'''14'''Eerste Divisie'''2.405''''''4'''Kees Zwamborn1998–99Harry van der Laan'''30'''Eerste Divisie'''3.245''''''1'''Kees Zwamborn / Martin Koopman1999–00Henk Vos'''11'''Eredivisie'''4.240''''''18'''Martin Koopman / Mark Wotte2000–01Bart Van Den Eede'''23'''Eerste Divisie'''3.330''''''1'''Mark Wotte / André Wetzel, Jan van Grinsven & Wiljan Vloet ao / Jan Poortvliet2001–02Bart Van Den Eede'''14'''Eredivisie'''5.190''''''16'''Wiljan Vloet2002–03Stefan Jansen'''20'''Eerste Divisie'''3.919''''''5'''Gert Kruys2003–04Stefan Jansen'''25'''Eerste Divisie'''3.701''''''1'''Gert Kruys2004–05Koen van de Laak'''6'''Eredivisie'''5.790''''''18'''Henk Wisman / Jan van Grinsven, Fred van der Hoorn & Wim van der Horst ao2005–06Berry Powel'''19'''Eerste Divisie'''3.388''''''7'''Theo Bos2006–07Frank Demouge'''12'''Eerste Divisie'''3.800''''''5'''Theo Bos2007–08Koen van der Biezen'''18'''Eerste Divisie'''4.000''''''3'''Theo Bos2008–09Adnan Barakat'''13'''Eerste Divisie'''3.900''''''9'''Theo Bos / Jan van Grinsven, Fred van der Hoorn & Arnold Scholten ao2009–10Fabio Caracciolo'''19'''Eerste Divisie'''4.000''''''7'''Marc Brys2010–11John Verhoek'''10'''Eerste Divisie'''4.150''''''8'''Alfons Groenendijk2011–12Tom van Weert'''15'''Eerste Divisie'''4.050''''''6'''Alfons Groenendijk2012–13Tom van Weert'''17'''Eerste Divisie'''3.950''''''11'''Jan Poortvliet2013–14Erik Quekel'''19'''Eerste Divisie'''3.750''''''4'''Ruud Kaiser2014–15Anthony Lurling / Barry Maguire / Alexander Mols'''6'''Eerste Divisie'''3.250''''''16'''Ruud Kaiser / René van Eck2015–16Arda Havar / Furhgill Zeldenrust'''8'''Eerste Divisie'''3.000''''''17'''René van Eck / Wiljan Vloet2016–17Romero Regales'''8'''Eerste Divisie'''2.850''''''14'''Wiljan Vloet2017–18Niek Vossebelt'''15'''Eerste Divisie'''2.790''''''11'''Wil Boessen2018–19Stefano Beltrame'''14'''Eerste Divisie'''3.790''''''4'''Wil Boessen / Erik van der Ven & Paul Beekmans ao2019–20Rúben Rodrigues'''12'''Eerste Divisie'''2.941''''''12'''Erik van der Ven 2020–21Jizz Hornkamp'''20'''Eerste Divisie''' ''''''19'''Erik van der Ven / William van Overbeek / Jack de Gier 2021–22Roy Kuijpers'''9'''Eerste Divisie'''3.337''''''11'''Jack de Gier" ], [ "See also", "*Dutch football league teams" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Female genital mutilation" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Female genital mutilation''' ('''FGM''') (also known as '''female genital cutting''', '''female genital mutilation/cutting''' ('''FGM/C''') and '''female circumcision''') is the ritual cutting or removal of some or all of the vulva.", "The practice is found in some countries of Africa, Asia and the Middle East, and within their respective diasporas.", ", UNICEF estimates that \"at least 200 million girls... in 31 countries\"—including Indonesia, Iraq, Yemen, and 27 African countries including Egypt—had been subjected to one or more types of female genital mutilation.Typically carried out by a traditional circumciser using a blade, FGM is conducted from days after birth to puberty and beyond.", "In half of the countries for which national statistics are available, most girls are cut before the age of five.", "Procedures differ according to the country or ethnic group.", "They include removal of the clitoral hood (type 1-a) and clitoral glans (1-b); removal of the inner labia (2-a); and removal of the inner and outer labia and closure of the vulva (type 3).", "In this last procedure, known as infibulation, a small hole is left for the passage of urine and menstrual fluid; the vagina is opened for intercourse and opened further for childbirth.The practice is rooted in gender inequality, attempts to control women's sexuality, and ideas about purity, modesty, and beauty.", "It is usually initiated and carried out by women, who see it as a source of honour, and who fear that failing to have their daughters and granddaughters cut will expose the girls to social exclusion.", "Adverse health effects depend on the type of procedure; they can include recurrent infections, difficulty urinating and passing menstrual flow, chronic pain, the development of cysts, an inability to get pregnant, complications during childbirth, and fatal bleeding.", "There are no known health benefits.There have been international efforts since the 1970s to persuade practitioners to abandon FGM, and it has been outlawed or restricted in most of the countries in which it occurs, although the laws are often poorly enforced.", "Since 2010, the United Nations has called upon healthcare providers to stop performing all forms of the procedure, including reinfibulation after childbirth and symbolic \"nicking\" of the clitoral hood.", "The opposition to the practice is not without its critics, particularly among anthropologists, who have raised questions about cultural relativism and the universality of human rights." ], [ "Terminology", "Samburu FGM ceremony, Laikipia plateau, Kenya, 2004Until the 1980s, FGM was widely known in English as \"female circumcision\", implying an equivalence in severity with male circumcision.", "From 1929 the Kenya Missionary Council referred to it as the sexual mutilation of women, following the lead of Marion Scott Stevenson, a Church of Scotland missionary.", "References to the practice as mutilation increased throughout the 1970s.", "In 1975 Rose Oldfield Hayes, an American anthropologist, used the term ''female genital mutilation'' in the title of a paper in ''American Ethnologist'', and four years later Fran Hosken called it mutilation in her influential ''The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females''.", "The Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children began referring to it as female genital mutilation in 1990, and the World Health Organization (WHO) followed suit in 1991.Other English terms include ''female genital cutting'' (FGC) and ''female genital mutilation/cutting'' (FGM/C), preferred by those who work with practitioners.In countries where FGM is common, the practice's many variants are reflected in dozens of terms, often alluding to purification.", "In the Bambara language, spoken mostly in Mali, it is known as ''bolokoli'' (\"washing your hands\") and in the Igbo language in eastern Nigeria as ''isa aru'' or ''iwu aru'' (\"having your bath\").", "A common Arabic term for purification has the root ''t-h-r'', used for male and female circumcision (''tahur'' and ''tahara'').", "It is also known in Arabic as ''khafḍ'' or ''khifaḍ''.", "Communities may refer to FGM as \"pharaonic\" for infibulation and \"''sunna''\" circumcision for everything else; ''sunna'' means \"path or way\" in Arabic and refers to the tradition of Muhammad, although none of the procedures are required within Islam.", "The term ''infibulation'' derives from ''fibula'', Latin for clasp; the Ancient Romans reportedly fastened clasps through the foreskins or labia of slaves to prevent sexual intercourse.", "The surgical infibulation of women came to be known as pharaonic circumcision in Sudan and as Sudanese circumcision in Egypt.", "In Somalia, it is known simply as ''qodob'' (\"to sew up\").Anatomy of the vulva, showing the clitoral glans, clitoral crura, corpora cavernosa, vestibular bulbs, and vaginal and urethral openings" ], [ "Methods", "The procedures are generally performed by a traditional circumciser (cutter or ''exciseuse'') in the girls' homes, with or without anaesthesia.", "The cutter is usually an older woman, but in communities where the male barber has assumed the role of health worker, he will also perform FGM.", "When traditional cutters are involved, non-sterile devices are likely to be used, including knives, razors, scissors, glass, sharpened rocks, and fingernails.", "According to a nurse in Uganda, quoted in 2007 in ''The Lancet'', a cutter would use one knife on up to 30 girls at a time.", "In several countries, health professionals are involved; in Egypt, 77 percent of FGM procedures, and in Indonesia over 50 percent, were performed by medical professionals as of 2008 and 2016." ], [ "Classification{{anchor|classification}}", "===Variation===The WHO, UNICEF, and UNFPA issued a joint statement in 1997 defining FGM as \"all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs whether for cultural or other non-therapeutic reasons\".", "The procedures vary according to ethnicity and individual practitioners; during a 1998 survey in Niger, women responded with over 50 terms when asked what was done to them.", "Translation problems are compounded by the women's confusion over which type of FGM they experienced, or even whether they experienced it.", "Studies have suggested that survey responses are unreliable.", "A 2003 study in Ghana found that in 1995 four percent said they had not undergone FGM, but in 2000 said they had, while 11 percent switched in the other direction.", "In Tanzania in 2005, 66 percent reported FGM, but a medical exam found that 73 percent had undergone it.", "In Sudan in 2006, a significant percentage of infibulated women and girls reported a less severe type.===Types===alt=diagramStandard questionnaires from United Nations bodies ask women whether they or their daughters have undergone the following: (1) cut, no flesh removed (symbolic nicking); (2) cut, some flesh removed; (3) sewn closed; or (4) type not determined/unsure/doesn't know.", "The most common procedures fall within the \"cut, some flesh removed\" category and involve complete or partial removal of the clitoral glans.", "The World Health Organization (a UN agency) created a more detailed typology in 1997: Types I–II vary in how much tissue is removed; Type III is equivalent to the UNICEF category \"sewn closed\"; and Type IV describes miscellaneous procedures, including symbolic nicking.====Type I====''Type I'' is \"partial or total removal of the clitoral glans (the external and visible part of the clitoris, which is a sensitive part of the female genitals), and/or the prepuce/clitoral hood (the fold of skin surrounding the clitoral glans)\".", "Type Ia involves removal of the clitoral hood only.", "This is rarely performed alone.", "The more common procedure is Type Ib (clitoridectomy), the complete or partial removal of the clitoral glans (the visible tip of the clitoris) and clitoral hood.", "The circumciser pulls the clitoral glans with her thumb and index finger and cuts it off.====Type II====''Type II'' (excision) is the complete or partial removal of the inner labia, with or without removal of the clitoral glans and outer labia.", "Type IIa is removal of the inner labia; Type IIb, removal of the clitoral glans and inner labia; and Type IIc, removal of the clitoral glans, inner and outer labia.", "''Excision'' in French can refer to any form of FGM.====Type III====''Type III'' (infibulation or pharaonic circumcision), the \"sewn closed\" category, is the removal of the external genitalia and fusion of the wound.", "The inner and/or outer labia are cut away, with or without removal of the clitoral glans.", "Type III is found largely in northeast Africa, particularly Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan (although not in South Sudan).", "According to one 2008 estimate, over eight million women in Africa are living with Type III FGM.", "According to UNFPA in 2010, 20 percent of women with FGM have been infibulated.", "In Somalia, according to Edna Adan Ismail, the child squats on a stool or mat while adults pull her legs open; a local anaesthetic is applied if available:The amputated parts might be placed in a pouch for the girl to wear.", "A single hole of 2–3 mm is left for the passage of urine and menstrual fluid.", "The vulva is closed with surgical thread, or agave or acacia thorns, and might be covered with a poultice of raw egg, herbs, and sugar.", "To help the tissue bond, the girl's legs are tied together, often from hip to ankle; the bindings are usually loosened after a week and removed after two to six weeks.", "If the remaining hole is too large in the view of the girl's family, the procedure is repeated.The vagina is opened for sexual intercourse, for the first time either by a midwife with a knife or by the woman's husband with his penis.", "In some areas, including Somaliland, female relatives of the bride and groom might watch the opening of the vagina to check that the girl is a virgin.", "The woman is opened further for childbirth (''defibulation'' or ''deinfibulation''), and closed again afterwards (''reinfibulation'').", "Reinfibulation can involve cutting the vagina again to restore the pinhole size of the first infibulation.", "This might be performed before marriage, and after childbirth, divorce and widowhood.", "Hanny Lightfoot-Klein interviewed hundreds of women and men in Sudan in the 1980s about sexual intercourse with Type III:====Type IV====''Type IV'' is \"all other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes\", including pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and cauterization.", "It includes nicking of the clitoris (symbolic circumcision), burning or scarring the genitals, and introducing substances into the vagina to tighten it.", "Labia stretching is also categorized as Type IV.", "Common in southern and eastern Africa, the practice is supposed to enhance sexual pleasure for the man and add to the sense of a woman as a closed space.", "From the age of eight, girls are encouraged to stretch their inner labia using sticks and massage.", "Girls in Uganda are told they may have difficulty giving birth without stretched labia.A definition of FGM from the WHO in 1995 included gishiri cutting and angurya cutting, found in Nigeria and Niger.", "These were removed from the WHO's 2008 definition because of insufficient information about prevalence and consequences.", "Angurya cutting is excision of the hymen, usually performed seven days after birth.", "Gishiri cutting involves cutting the vagina's front or back wall with a blade or penknife, performed in response to infertility, obstructed labour, and other conditions.", "In a study by Nigerian physician Mairo Usman Mandara, over 30 percent of women with gishiri cuts were found to have vesicovaginal fistulae (holes that allow urine to seep into the vagina)." ], [ "Complications", "===Short term===FGM awareness session run by the African Union Mission to Somalia at the Walalah Biylooley refugee camp, Mogadishu, 2014FGM harms women's physical and emotional health throughout their lives.", "It has no known health benefits.", "The short-term and late complications depend on the type of FGM, whether the practitioner has had medical training, and whether they used antibiotics and sterilized or single-use surgical instruments.", "In the case of Type III, other factors include how small a hole was left for the passage of urine and menstrual blood, whether surgical thread was used instead of agave or acacia thorns, and whether the procedure was performed more than once (for example, to close an opening regarded as too wide or re-open one too small).Common short-term complications include swelling, excessive bleeding, pain, urine retention, and healing problems/wound infection.", "A 2014 systematic review of 56 studies suggested that over one in ten girls and women undergoing any form of FGM, including symbolic nicking of the clitoris (Type IV), experience immediate complications, although the risks increased with Type III.", "The review also suggested that there was under-reporting.", "Other short-term complications include fatal bleeding, anaemia, urinary infection, septicaemia, tetanus, gangrene, necrotizing fasciitis (flesh-eating disease), and endometritis.", "It is not known how many girls and women die as a result of the practice, because complications may not be recognized or reported.", "The practitioners' use of shared instruments is thought to aid the transmission of hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV, although no epidemiological studies have shown this.===Long term===Late complications vary depending on the type of FGM.", "They include the formation of scars and keloids that lead to strictures and obstruction, epidermoid cysts that may become infected, and neuroma formation (growth of nerve tissue) involving nerves that supplied the clitoris.", "An infibulated girl may be left with an opening as small as 2–3 mm, which can cause prolonged, drop-by-drop urination, pain while urinating, and a feeling of needing to urinate all the time.", "Urine may collect underneath the scar, leaving the area under the skin constantly wet, which can lead to infection and the formation of small stones.", "The opening is larger in women who are sexually active or have given birth by vaginal delivery, but the urethra opening may still be obstructed by scar tissue.", "Vesicovaginal or rectovaginal fistulae can develop (holes that allow urine or faeces to seep into the vagina).", "This and other damage to the urethra and bladder can lead to infections and incontinence, pain during sexual intercourse and infertility.Painful periods are common because of the obstruction to the menstrual flow, and blood can stagnate in the vagina and uterus.", "Complete obstruction of the vagina can result in hematocolpos and hematometra (where the vagina and uterus fill with menstrual blood).", "The swelling of the abdomen and lack of menstruation can resemble pregnancy.", "Asma El Dareer, a Sudanese physician, reported in 1979 that a girl in Sudan with this condition was killed by her family.===Pregnancy, childbirth===Materials used to teach communities in Burkina Faso about FGMFGM may place women at higher risk of problems during pregnancy and childbirth, which are more common with the more extensive FGM procedures.", "Infibulated women may try to make childbirth easier by eating less during pregnancy to reduce the baby's size.", "In women with vesicovaginal or rectovaginal fistulae, it is difficult to obtain clear urine samples as part of prenatal care, making the diagnosis of conditions such as pre-eclampsia harder.", "Cervical evaluation during labour may be impeded and labour prolonged or obstructed.", "Third-degree laceration (tears), anal-sphincter damage and emergency caesarean section are more common in infibulated women.Neonatal mortality is increased.", "The WHO estimated in 2006 that an additional 10–20 babies die per 1,000 deliveries as a result of FGM.", "The estimate was based on a study conducted on 28,393 women attending delivery wards at 28 obstetric centres in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sudan.", "In those settings all types of FGM were found to pose an increased risk of death to the baby: 15 percent higher for Type I, 32 percent for Type II, and 55 percent for Type III.", "The reasons for this were unclear, but may be connected to genital and urinary tract infections and the presence of scar tissue.", "According to the study, FGM was associated with an increased risk to the mother of damage to the perineum and excessive blood loss, as well as a need to resuscitate the baby, and stillbirth, perhaps because of a long second stage of labour.===Psychological effects, sexual function===According to a 2015 systematic review there is little high-quality information available on the psychological effects of FGM.", "Several small studies have concluded that women with FGM develop anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder.", "Feelings of shame and betrayal can develop when women leave the culture that practices FGM and learn that their condition is not the norm, but within the practicing culture, they may view their FGM with pride because for them it signifies beauty, respect for tradition, chastity and hygiene.", "Studies on sexual function have also been small.", "A 2013 meta-analysis of 15 studies involving 12,671 women from seven countries concluded that women with FGM were twice as likely to report no sexual desire and 52 percent more likely to report dyspareunia (painful sexual intercourse).", "One-third reported reduced sexual feelings." ], [ "Distribution", "===Household surveys===Map showing the % of women and girls aged 15–49 years (unless otherwise stated) who have undergone FGM/C according to the March 2020 Global Response report.", "Grey countries' data are not covered.Aid agencies define the prevalence of FGM as the percentage of the 15–49 age group that has experienced it.", "These figures are based on nationally representative household surveys known as Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), developed by Macro International and funded mainly by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID); and Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) conducted with financial and technical help from UNICEF.", "These surveys have been carried out in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and elsewhere roughly every five years since 1984 and 1995 respectively.", "The first to ask about FGM was the 1989–1990 DHS in northern Sudan.", "The first publication to estimate FGM prevalence based on DHS data (in seven countries) was written by Dara Carr of Macro International in 1997.===Type of FGM===Questions the women are asked during the surveys include: \"Was the genital area just nicked/cut without removing any flesh?", "Was any flesh (or something) removed from the genital area?", "Was your genital area sewn?\"", "Most women report \"cut, some flesh removed\" (Types I and II).Type I is the most common form in Egypt, and in the southern parts of Nigeria.", "Type III (infibulation) is concentrated in northeastern Africa, particularly Djibouti, Eritrea, Somalia, and Sudan.", "In surveys in 2002–2006, 30 percent of cut girls in Djibouti, 38 percent in Eritrea, and 63 percent in Somalia had experienced Type III.", "There is also a high prevalence of infibulation among girls in Niger and Senegal, and in 2013 it was estimated that in Nigeria three percent of the 0–14 age group had been infibulated.", "The type of procedure is often linked to ethnicity.", "In Eritrea, for example, a survey in 2002 found that all Hedareb girls had been infibulated, compared with two percent of the Tigrinya, most of whom fell into the \"cut, no flesh removed\" category.===Prevalence===FGM is mostly found in what Gerry Mackie called an \"intriguingly contiguous\" zone in Africa—east to west from Somalia to Senegal, and north to south from Egypt to Tanzania.", "Nationally representative figures are available for 27 countries in Africa, as well as Indonesia, Iraqi Kurdistan and Yemen.", "Over 200 million women and girls are thought to be living with FGM in those 30 countries.The highest concentrations among the 15–49 age group are in Somalia (98 percent), Guinea (97 percent), Djibouti (93 percent), Egypt (91 percent), and Sierra Leone (90 percent).", "As of 2013, 27.2 million women had undergone FGM in Egypt, 23.8 million in Ethiopia, and 19.9 million in Nigeria.", "There is a high concentration in Indonesia, where according to UNICEF Type I (clitoridectomy) and Type IV (symbolic nicking) are practised; the Indonesian Ministry of Health and Indonesian Ulema Council both say the clitoris should not be cut.", "The prevalence rate for the 0–11 group in Indonesia is 49 percent (13.4 million).", "Smaller studies or anecdotal reports suggest that various types of FGM are also practised in various circumstances in Colombia, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, the United Arab Emirates, and India, but there are no representative data on the prevalence in these countries.", ", UNICEF reported that \"The highest levels of support for FGM can be found in Mali, Sierra Leone, Guinea, the Gambia, Somalia, and Egypt, where more than half of the female population thinks the practice should continue\".Prevalence figures for the 15–19 age group and younger show a downward trend.", "For example, Burkina Faso fell from 89 percent (1980) to 58 percent (2010); Egypt from 97 percent (1985) to 70 percent (2015); and Kenya from 41 percent (1984) to 11 percent (2014).", "Beginning in 2010, household surveys asked women about the FGM status of all their living daughters.", "The highest concentrations among girls aged 0–14 were in Gambia (56 percent), Mauritania (54 percent), Indonesia (49 percent for 0–11) and Guinea (46 percent).", "The figures suggest that a girl was one third less likely in 2014 to undergo FGM than she was 30 years ago.", "According to a 2018 study published in ''BMJ Global Health'', the prevalence within the 0–14 year old group fell in East Africa from 71.4 percent in 1995 to 8 percent in 2016; in North Africa from 57.7 percent in 1990 to 14.1 percent in 2015; and in West Africa from 73.6 percent in 1996 to 25.4 percent in 2017.If the current rate of decline continues, the number of girls cut will nevertheless continue to rise because of population growth, according to UNICEF in 2014; they estimate that the figure will increase from 3.6 million a year in 2013 to 4.1 million in 2050.===Rural areas, wealth, education===Surveys have found FGM to be more common in rural areas, less common in most countries among girls from the wealthiest homes, and (except in Sudan and Somalia) less common in girls whose mothers had access to primary or secondary/higher education.", "In Somalia and Sudan the situation was reversed: in Somalia, the mothers' access to secondary/higher education was accompanied by a rise in prevalence of FGM in their daughters, and in Sudan, access to any education was accompanied by a rise.===Age, ethnicity===FGM is not invariably a rite of passage between childhood and adulthood but is often performed on much younger children.", "Girls are most commonly cut shortly after birth to age 15.In half the countries for which national figures were available in 2000–2010, most girls had been cut by age five.", "Over 80 percent (of those cut) are cut before the age of five in Nigeria, Mali, Eritrea, Ghana and Mauritania.", "The 1997 Demographic and Health Survey in Yemen found that 76 percent of girls had been cut within two weeks of birth.", "The percentage is reversed in Somalia, Egypt, Chad, and the Central African Republic, where over 80 percent (of those cut) are cut between five and 14.Just as the type of FGM is often linked to ethnicity, so is the mean age.", "In Kenya, for example, the Kisi cut around age 10 and the Kamba at 16.A country's national prevalence often reflects a high sub-national prevalence among certain ethnicities, rather than a widespread practice.", "In Iraq, for example, FGM is found mostly among the Kurds in Erbil (58 percent prevalence within age group 15–49, as of 2011), Sulaymaniyah (54 percent) and Kirkuk (20 percent), giving the country a national prevalence of eight percent.", "The practice is sometimes an ethnic marker, but it may differ along national lines.", "For example, in the northeastern regions of Ethiopia and Kenya, which share a border with Somalia, the Somali people practise FGM at around the same rate as they do in Somalia.", "But in Guinea all Fulani women responding to a survey in 2012 said they had experienced FGM, against 12 percent of the Fulani in Chad, while in Nigeria the Fulani are the only large ethnic group in the country not to practise it.", "In Sierra Leone, the predominantly Christian Creole people are the only ethnicity not known to practice FGM or participate in Bondo society rituals." ], [ "Reasons", "===Support from women===Dahabo Musa, a Somali woman, described infibulation in a 1988 poem as the \"three feminine sorrows\": the procedure itself, the wedding night when the woman is cut open, then childbirth when she is cut again.", "Despite the evident suffering, it is women who organize all forms of FGM.", "Anthropologist Rose Oldfield Hayes wrote in 1975 that educated Sudanese men who did not want their daughters to be infibulated (preferring clitoridectomy) would find the girls had been sewn up after the grandmothers arranged a visit to relatives.", "Gerry Mackie has compared the practice to footbinding.", "Like FGM, footbinding was carried out on young girls, nearly universal where practised, tied to ideas about honour, chastity, and appropriate marriage, and \"supported and transmitted\" by women.Fuambai Ahmadu chose to undergo clitoridectomy as an adult.FGM practitioners see the procedures as marking not only ethnic boundaries but also gender differences.", "According to this view, male circumcision defeminizes men while FGM demasculinizes women.", "Fuambai Ahmadu, an anthropologist and member of the Kono people of Sierra Leone, who in 1992 underwent clitoridectomy as an adult during a Sande society initiation, argued in 2000 that it is a male-centred assumption that the clitoris is important to female sexuality.", "African female symbolism revolves instead around the concept of the womb.", "Infibulation draws on that idea of enclosure and fertility.", "\"Genital cutting completes the social definition of a child's sex by eliminating external traces of androgyny,\" Janice Boddy wrote in 2007.", "\"The female body is then covered, closed, and its productive blood bound within; the male body is unveiled, opened, and exposed.", "\"In communities where infibulation is common, there is a preference for women's genitals to be smooth, dry and without odour, and both women and men may find the natural vulva repulsive.", "Some men seem to enjoy the effort of penetrating an infibulation.", "The local preference for dry sex causes women to introduce substances into the vagina to reduce lubrication, including leaves, tree bark, toothpaste and Vicks menthol rub.", "The WHO includes this practice within Type IV FGM, because the added friction during intercourse can cause lacerations and increase the risk of infection.", "Because of the smooth appearance of an infibulated vulva, there is also a belief that infibulation increases hygiene.Common reasons for FGM cited by women in surveys are social acceptance, religion, hygiene, preservation of virginity, marriageability and enhancement of male sexual pleasure.", "In a study in northern Sudan, published in 1983, only 17.4 percent of women opposed FGM (558 out of 3,210), and most preferred excision and infibulation over clitoridectomy.", "Attitudes are changing slowly.", "In Sudan in 2010, 42 percent of women who had heard of FGM said the practice should continue.", "In several surveys since 2006, over 50 percent of women in Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Gambia, and Egypt supported FGM's continuance, while elsewhere in Africa, Iraq, and Yemen most said it should end, although in several countries only by a narrow margin.===Social obligation, poor access to information===Keur Simbara, Senegal, abandoned FGM in 1998 after a three-year program by Tostan.Against the argument that women willingly choose FGM for their daughters, UNICEF calls the practice a \"self-enforcing social convention\" to which families feel they must conform to avoid uncut daughters facing social exclusion.", "Ellen Gruenbaum reported that, in Sudan in the 1970s, cut girls from an Arab ethnic group would mock uncut Zabarma girls with ''Ya, ghalfa!''", "(\"Hey, unclean!\").", "The Zabarma girls would respond ''Ya, mutmura!''", "(A ''mutmara'' was a storage pit for grain that was continually opened and closed, like an infibulated woman.)", "But despite throwing the insult back, the Zabarma girls would ask their mothers, \"What's the matter?", "Don't we have razor blades like the Arabs?", "\"Because of poor access to information, and because circumcisers downplay the causal connection, women may not associate the health consequences with the procedure.", "Lala Baldé, president of a women's association in Medina Cherif, a village in Senegal, told Mackie in 1998 that when girls fell ill or died, it was attributed to evil spirits.", "When informed of the causal relationship between FGM and ill health, Mackie wrote, the women broke down and wept.", "He argued that surveys taken before and after this sharing of information would show very different levels of support for FGM.", "The American non-profit group Tostan, founded by Molly Melching in 1991, introduced community-empowerment programs in several countries that focus on local democracy, literacy, and education about healthcare, giving women the tools to make their own decisions.", "In 1997, using the Tostan program, Malicounda Bambara in Senegal became the first village to abandon FGM.", "By August 2019, 8,800 communities in eight countries had pledged to abandon FGM and child marriage.===Religion===Surveys have shown a widespread belief, particularly in Mali, Mauritania, Guinea, and Egypt, that FGM is a religious requirement.", "Gruenbaum has argued that practitioners may not distinguish between religion, tradition, and chastity, making it difficult to interpret the data.", "FGM's origins in northeastern Africa are pre-Islamic, but the practice became associated with Islam because of that religion's focus on female chastity and seclusion.", "According to a 2013 UNICEF report, in 18 African countries at least 10 percent of Muslim females had experienced FGM, and in 13 of those countries, the figure rose to 50–99 percent.", "There is no mention of the practice in the Quran.", "It is praised in a few ''daʻīf'' (weak) ''hadith'' (sayings attributed to Muhammad) as noble but not required, although it is regarded as obligatory by the Shafi'i version of Sunni Islam.", "In 2007 the Al-Azhar Supreme Council of Islamic Research in Cairo ruled that FGM had \"no basis in core Islamic law or any of its partial provisions\".There is no mention of FGM in the Bible.", "Christian missionaries in Africa were among the first to object to FGM, but Christian communities in Africa do practise it.", "In 2013 UNICEF identified 19 African countries in which at least 10 percent of Christian women and girls aged 15 to 49 had undergone FGM; in Niger, 55 percent of Christian women and girls had experienced it, compared with two percent of their Muslim counterparts.", "The only Jewish group known to have practised it is the Beta Israel of Ethiopia.", "Judaism requires male circumcision but does not allow FGM.", "FGM is also practised by animist groups, particularly in Guinea and Mali." ], [ "History", "===Antiquity===The practice's origins are unknown.", "Gerry Mackie has suggested that, because FGM's east–west, north–south distribution in Africa meets in Sudan, infibulation may have begun there with the Meroite civilization (c. 800 BCE – c. 350 CE), before the rise of Islam, to increase confidence in paternity.", "According to historian Mary Knight, Spell 1117 (c. 1991–1786 BCE) of the Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts may refer in hieroglyphs to an uncircumcised girl ('''m't''):The spell was found on the sarcophagus of Sit-hedjhotep, now in the Egyptian Museum, and dates to Egypt's Middle Kingdom.", "(Paul F. O'Rourke argues that '''m't'' probably refers instead to a menstruating woman.)", "The proposed circumcision of an Egyptian girl, Tathemis, is also mentioned on a Greek papyrus, from 163 BCE, in the British Museum: \"Sometime after this, Nephoris Tathemis's mother defrauded me, being anxious that it was time for Tathemis to be circumcised, as is the custom among the Egyptians.", "\"The examination of mummies has shown no evidence of FGM.", "Citing the Australian pathologist Grafton Elliot Smith, who examined hundreds of mummies in the early 20th century, Knight writes that the genital area may resemble Type III because during mummification the skin of the outer labia was pulled toward the anus to cover the pudendal cleft, possibly to prevent a sexual violation.", "It was similarly not possible to determine whether Types I or II had been performed, because soft tissues had deteriorated or been removed by the embalmers.The Greek geographer Strabo (c. 64 BCE – c. 23 CE) wrote about FGM after visiting Egypt around 25 BCE: \"This is one of the customs most zealously pursued by them the Egyptians: to raise every child that is born and to circumcise ''peritemnein'' the males and excise ''ektemnein'' the females ...\" Philo of Alexandria (c. 20 BCE – 50 CE) also made reference to it: \"the Egyptians by the custom of their country circumcise the marriageable youth and maid in the fourteenth (year) of their age when the male begins to get seed, and the female to have a menstrual flow.\"", "It is mentioned briefly in a work attributed to the Greek physician Galen (129 – c. 200 CE): \"When the clitoris sticks out to a great extent in their young women, Egyptians consider it appropriate to cut it out.\"", "Another Greek physician, Aëtius of Amida (mid-5th to mid-6th century CE), offered more detail in book 16 of his ''Sixteen Books on Medicine'', citing the physician Philomenes.", "The procedure was performed in case the clitoris, or ''nymphê'', grew too large or triggered sexual desire when rubbing against clothing.", "\"On this account, it seemed proper to the Egyptians to remove it before it became greatly enlarged,\" Aëtius wrote, \"especially at that time when the girls were about to be married\":The genital area was then cleaned with a sponge, frankincense powder and wine or cold water, and wrapped in linen bandages dipped in vinegar, until the seventh day when calamine, rose petals, date pits, or a \"genital powder made from baked clay\" might be applied.===Red Sea slave trade===Whatever the practice's origins, infibulation became linked to slavery.", "Research has indicated that linkes between the Red Sea slave trade and female genital mutilation.", "An investigation combining contemporary from data on slave shipments from 1400 to 1900 with data from 28 African countries has found that women belonging to ethnic groups historically victimized by the Red Sea slave trade were \"significantly\" more likely to suffer genital mutilation in the 21st-century, as well as \"more in favour of continuing the practice\".Women trafficked in the Red Sea slave trade were sold as concubines (sex slaves) in the Islamic Middle East up until as late as in the mid 20th-century, and the practice of infibulation was used to temporarily signal the virginity of girls, increasing their value on the slave market: \"According to descriptions by early travellers, infibulated female slaves had a higher price on the market because infibulation was thought to ensure chastity and loyalty to the owner and prevented undesired pregnancies\".Mackie cites the Portuguese missionary João dos Santos, who in 1609 wrote of a group near Mogadishu who had a \"custome to sew up their Females, especially their slaves being young to make them unable for conception, which makes these slaves sell dearer, both for their chastitie, and for better confidence which their Masters put in them\".", "Thus, Mackie argues, a \"practice associated with shameful female slavery came to stand for honor\".===Europe and the United States===Isaac Baker Brown \"set to work to remove the clitoris whenever he had the opportunity of doing so\".Some gynaecologists in 19th-century Europe and the United States removed the clitoris to treat insanity and masturbation.", "A British doctor, Robert Thomas, suggested clitoridectomy as a cure for nymphomania in 1813.In 1825 ''The Lancet'' described a clitoridectomy performed in 1822 in Berlin by Karl Ferdinand von Graefe on a 15-year-old girl who was masturbating excessively.Isaac Baker Brown, an English gynaecologist, president of the Medical Society of London and co-founder in 1845 of St. Mary's Hospital, believed that masturbation, or \"unnatural irritation\" of the clitoris, caused hysteria, spinal irritation, fits, idiocy, mania, and death.", "He, therefore \"set to work to remove the clitoris whenever he had the opportunity of doing so\", according to his obituary.", "Brown performed several clitoridectomies between 1859 and 1866.In the United States, J. Marion Sims followed Brown's work and in 1862 slit the neck of a woman's uterus and amputated her clitoris, \"for the relief of the nervous or hysterical condition as recommended by Baker Brown\".", "When Brown published his views in ''On the Curability of Certain Forms of Insanity, Epilepsy, Catalepsy, and Hysteria in Females'' (1866), doctors in London accused him of quackery and expelled him from the Obstetrical Society.Later in the 19th century, A. J. Bloch, a surgeon in New Orleans, removed the clitoris of a two-year-old girl who was reportedly masturbating.", "According to a 1985 paper in the ''Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey'', clitoridectomy was performed in the United States into the 1960s to treat hysteria, erotomania and lesbianism.", "From the mid-1950s, James C. Burt, a gynaecologist in Dayton, Ohio, performed non-standard repairs of episiotomies after childbirth, adding more stitches to make the vaginal opening smaller.", "From 1966 until 1989, he performed \"love surgery\" by cutting women's pubococcygeus muscle, repositioning the vagina and urethra, and removing the clitoral hood, thereby making their genital area more appropriate, in his view, for intercourse in the missionary position.", "\"Women are structurally inadequate for intercourse,\" he wrote; he said he would turn them into \"horny little mice\".", "In the 1960s and 1970s he performed these procedures without consent while repairing episiotomies and performing hysterectomies and other surgery; he said he had performed a variation of them on 4,000 women by 1975.Following complaints, he was required in 1989 to stop practicing medicine in the United States." ], [ "Opposition and legal status", "===Colonial opposition in Kenya===Protestant missionaries in British East Africa (present-day Kenya) began campaigning against FGM in the early 20th century, when Dr. John Arthur joined the Church of Scotland Mission (CSM) in Kikuyu.", "An important ethnic marker, the practice was known by the Kikuyu, the country's main ethnic group, as ''irua'' for both girls and boys.", "It involved excision (Type II) for girls and removal of the foreskin for boys.", "Unexcised Kikuyu women (''irugu'') were outcasts.Jomo Kenyatta, general secretary of the Kikuyu Central Association and later Kenya's first prime minister, wrote in 1938 that, for the Kikuyu, the institution of FGM was the \"''conditio sine qua non'' of the whole teaching of tribal law, religion and morality\".", "No proper Kikuyu man or woman would marry or have sexual relations with someone who was not circumcised, he wrote.", "A woman's responsibilities toward the tribe began with her initiation.", "Her age and place within tribal history were traced to that day, and the group of girls with whom she was cut was named according to current events, an oral tradition that allowed the Kikuyu to track people and events going back hundreds of years.Hulda Stumpf ''(bottom left)'' was murdered in Kikuyu in 1930 after opposing FGM.Beginning with the CSM in 1925, several missionary churches declared that FGM was prohibited for African Christians; the CSM announced that Africans practising it would be excommunicated, which resulted in hundreds leaving or being expelled.", "In 1929 the Kenya Missionary Council began referring to FGM as the \"sexual mutilation of women\", and a person's stance toward the practice became a test of loyalty, either to the Christian churches or to the Kikuyu Central Association.", "The stand-off turned FGM into a focal point of the Kenyan independence movement; the 1929–1931 period is known in the country's historiography as the female circumcision controversy.", "When Hulda Stumpf, an American missionary who opposed FGM in the girls' school she helped to run, was murdered in 1930, Edward Grigg, the governor of Kenya, told the British Colonial Office that the killer had tried to circumcise her.There was some opposition from Kenyan women themselves.", "At the mission in Tumutumu, Karatina, where Marion Scott Stevenson worked, a group calling themselves ''Ngo ya Tuiritu'' (\"Shield of Young Girls\"), the membership of which included Raheli Warigia (mother of Gakaara wa Wanjaũ), wrote to the Local Native Council of South Nyeri on 25 December 1931: \"We of the Ngo ya Tuiritu heard that there are men who talk of female circumcision, and we get astonished because they (men) do not give birth and feel the pain and even some die and even others become infertile, and the main cause is circumcision.", "Because of that, the issue of circumcision should not be forced.", "People are caught like sheep; one should be allowed to cut her own way of either agreeing to be circumcised or not without being dictated on one's own body.", "\"Elsewhere, support for the practice from women was strong.", "In 1956 in Meru, eastern Kenya, when the council of male elders (the ''Njuri Nchecke'') announced a ban on FGM in 1956, thousands of girls cut each other's genitals with razor blades over the next three years as a symbol of defiance.", "The movement came to be known as ''Ngaitana'' (\"I will circumcise myself\"), because to avoid naming their friends the girls said they had cut themselves.", "Historian Lynn Thomas described the episode as significant in the history of FGM because it made clear that its victims were also its perpetrators.", "FGM was eventually outlawed in Kenya in 2001, although the practice continued, reportedly driven by older women.===Growth of opposition===One of the earliest campaigns against FGM began in Egypt in the 1920s, when the Egyptian Doctors' Society called for a ban.", "There was a parallel campaign in Sudan, run by religious leaders and British women.", "Infibulation was banned there in 1946, but the law was unpopular and barely enforced.", "The Egyptian government banned infibulation in state-run hospitals in 1959, but allowed partial clitoridectomy if parents requested it.", "(Egypt banned FGM entirely in 2007.", ")In 1959, the UN asked the WHO to investigate FGM, but the latter responded that it was not a medical matter.", "Feminists took up the issue throughout the 1970s.", "The Egyptian physician and feminist Nawal El Saadawi criticized FGM in her book ''Women and Sex'' (1972); the book was banned in Egypt and El Saadawi lost her job as director-general of public health.", "She followed up with a chapter, \"The Circumcision of Girls\", in her book ''The Hidden Face of Eve: Women in the Arab World'' (1980), which described her own clitoridectomy when she was six years old:Edna Adan Ismail raised the health consequences of FGM in 1977.In 1975, Rose Oldfield Hayes, an American social scientist, became the first female academic to publish a detailed account of FGM, aided by her ability to discuss it directly with women in Sudan.", "Her article in ''American Ethnologist'' called it \"female genital mutilation\", rather than female circumcision, and brought it to wider academic attention.", "Edna Adan Ismail, who worked at the time for the Somalia Ministry of Health, discussed the health consequences of FGM in 1977 with the Somali Women's Democratic Organization.", "Two years later Fran Hosken, an Austrian-American feminist, published ''The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females'' (1979), the first to offer global figures.", "She estimated that 110,529,000 women in 20 African countries had experienced FGM.", "The figures were speculative but consistent with later surveys.", "Describing FGM as a \"training ground for male violence\", Hosken accused female practitioners of \"participating in the destruction of their own kind\".", "The language caused a rift between Western and African feminists; African women boycotted a session featuring Hosken during the UN's Mid-Decade Conference on Women in Copenhagen in July 1980.In 1979, the WHO held a seminar, \"Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children\", in Khartoum, Sudan, and in 1981, also in Khartoum, 150 academics and activists signed a pledge to fight FGM after a workshop held by the Babiker Badri Scientific Association for Women's Studies (BBSAWS), \"Female Circumcision Mutilates and Endangers Women – Combat it!\"", "Another BBSAWS workshop in 1984 invited the international community to write a joint statement for the United Nations.", "It recommended that the \"goal of all African women\" should be the eradication of FGM and that, to sever the link between FGM and religion, clitoridectomy should no longer be referred to as ''sunna''.The Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children, founded in 1984 in Dakar, Senegal, called for an end to the practice, as did the UN's World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in 1993.The conference listed FGM as a form of violence against women, marking it as a human-rights violation, rather than a medical issue.", "Throughout the 1990s and 2000s governments in Africa and the Middle East passed legislation banning or restricting FGM.", "In 2003 the African Union ratified the Maputo Protocol on the rights of women, which supported the elimination of FGM.", "By 2015 laws restricting FGM had been passed in at least 23 of the 27 African countries in which it is concentrated, although several fell short of a ban., UNICEF reported that \"in most countries in Africa and the Middle East with representative data on attitudes (23 out of 30), the majority of girls and women think the practice should end\", and that \"even among communities that practice FGM, there is substantial opposition to its continuation\".===United Nations===Female genital mutilation laws by country:In December 1993, the United Nations General Assembly included FGM in resolution 48/104, the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, and from 2003 sponsored International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation, held every 6 February.", "UNICEF began in 2003 to promote an evidence-based social norms approach, using ideas from game theory about how communities reach decisions about FGM, and building on the work of Gerry Mackie on the demise of footbinding in China.", "In 2005 the UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre in Florence published its first report on FGM.", "UNFPA and UNICEF launched a joint program in Africa in 2007 to reduce FGM by 40 percent within the 0–15 age group and eliminate it from at least one country by 2012, goals that were not met and which they later described as unrealistic.", "In 2008 several UN bodies recognized FGM as a human-rights violation, and in 2010 the UN called upon healthcare providers to stop carrying out the procedures, including reinfibulation after childbirth and symbolic nicking.", "In 2012 the General Assembly passed resolution 67/146, \"Intensifying global efforts for the elimination of female genital mutilations\".===Non-practising countries=======Overview====Immigration spread the practice to Australia, New Zealand, Europe, and North America, all of which outlawed it entirely or restricted it to consenting adults.", "Sweden outlawed FGM in 1982 with the ''Act Prohibiting the Genital Mutilation of Women'', the first Western country to do so.", "Several former colonial powers, including Belgium, Britain, France, and the Netherlands, introduced new laws or made clear that it was covered by existing legislation.", ", legislation banning FGM had been passed in 33 countries outside Africa and the Middle East.====North America====In the United States, an estimated 513,000 women and girls had experienced FGM or were at risk as of 2012.A Nigerian woman successfully contested deportation in March 1994, asking for \"cultural asylum\" on the grounds that her young daughters (who were American citizens) might be cut if she took them to Nigeria, and in 1996 Fauziya Kasinga from Togo became the first to be officially granted asylum to escape FGM.", "In 1996 the Federal Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act made it illegal to perform FGM on minors for non-medical reasons, and in 2013 the Transport for Female Genital Mutilation Act prohibited transporting a minor out of the country for the purpose of FGM.", "The first FGM conviction in the US was in 2006, when Khalid Adem, who had emigrated from Ethiopia, was sentenced to ten years for aggravated battery and cruelty to children after severing his two-year-old daughter's clitoris with a pair of scissors.", "A federal judge ruled in 2018 that the 1996 Act was unconstitutional, arguing that FGM is a \"local criminal activity\" that should be regulated by states.", "Twenty-four states had legislation banning FGM as of 2016, and in 2021 the STOP FGM Act of 2020 was signed into federal law.", "The American Academy of Pediatrics opposes all forms of the practice, including pricking the clitoral skin.Canada recognized FGM as a form of persecution in July 1994, when it granted refugee status to Khadra Hassan Farah, who had fled Somalia to avoid her daughter being cut.", "In 1997 section 268 of its Criminal Code was amended to ban FGM, except where \"the person is at least eighteen years of age and there is no resulting bodily harm\".", ", there had been no prosecutions.", "Officials have expressed concern that thousands of Canadian girls are at risk of being taken overseas to undergo the procedure, so-called \"vacation cutting\".====Europe====According to the European Parliament, 500,000 women in Europe had undergone FGM .", "In France up to 30,000 women were thought to have experienced it as of 1995.According to Colette Gallard, a family-planning counsellor, when FGM was first encountered in France, the reaction was that Westerners ought not to intervene.", "It took the deaths of two girls in 1982, one of them three months old, for that attitude to change.", "In 1991 a French court ruled that the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees offered protection to FGM victims; the decision followed an asylum application from Aminata Diop, who fled an FGM procedure in Mali.", "The practice is outlawed by several provisions of France's penal code that address bodily harm causing permanent mutilation or torture.", "The first civil suit was in 1982, and the first criminal prosecution in 1993.In 1999 a woman was given an eight-year sentence for having performed FGM on 48 girls.", "By 2014 over 100 parents and two practitioners had been prosecuted in over 40 criminal cases.Around 137,000 women and girls living in England and Wales were born in countries where FGM is practised, as of 2011.Performing FGM on children or adults was outlawed under the Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985.This was replaced by the Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003 and Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation (Scotland) Act 2005, which added a prohibition on arranging FGM outside the country for British citizens or permanent residents.", "The United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) asked the government in July 2013 to \"ensure the full implementation of its legislation on FGM\".", "The first charges were brought in 2014 against a physician and another man; the physician had stitched an infibulated woman after opening her for childbirth.", "Both men were acquitted in 2015." ], [ "Criticism of opposition", "===Tolerance versus human rights===Obioma Nnaemeka criticized the renaming of female circumcision to female genital mutilation.Anthropologists have accused FGM eradicationists of cultural colonialism, and have been criticized in turn for their moral relativism and failure to defend the idea of universal human rights.", "According to critics of the eradicationist position, the biological reductionism of the opposition to FGM, and the failure to appreciate FGM's cultural context, serves to \"other\" practitioners and undermine their agency—in particular when parents are referred to as \"mutilators\".Africans who object to the tone of FGM opposition risk appearing to defend the practice.", "The feminist theorist Obioma Nnaemeka, herself strongly opposed to FGM, argued in 2005 that renaming the practice ''female genital mutilation'' had introduced \"a subtext of barbaric African and Muslim cultures and the West's relevance (even indispensability) in purging it\".", "According to Ugandan law professor Sylvia Tamale, the early Western opposition to FGM stemmed from a Judeo-Christian judgment that African sexual and family practices, including not only FGM but also dry sex, polygyny, bride price and levirate marriage, required correction.", "African feminists \"take strong exception to the imperialist, racist and dehumanising infantilization of African women\", she wrote in 2011.Commentators highlight the voyeurism in the treatment of women's bodies as exhibits.", "Examples include images of women's vulvas after FGM or girls undergoing the procedure.", "The 1996 Pulitzer-prize-winning photographs of a 16-year-old Kenyan girl experiencing FGM were published by 12 American newspapers, without her consent either to be photographed or to have the images published.The debate has highlighted a tension between anthropology and feminism, with the former's focus on tolerance and the latter's on equal rights for women.", "According to the anthropologist Christine Walley, a common position in anti-FGM literature has been to present African women as victims of false consciousness participating in their own oppression, a position promoted by feminists in the 1970s and 1980s, including Fran Hosken, Mary Daly and Hanny Lightfoot-Klein.", "It prompted the French Association of Anthropologists to issue a statement in 1981, at the height of the early debates, that \"a certain feminism resuscitates (today) the moralistic arrogance of yesterday's colonialism\".===Comparison with other procedures=======Cosmetic procedures====Nnaemeka argues that the crucial question, broader than FGM, is why the female body is subjected to so much \"abuse and indignity\", including in the West.", "Several authors have drawn a parallel between FGM and cosmetic procedures.", "Ronán Conroy of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland wrote in 2006 that cosmetic genital procedures were \"driving the advance\" of FGM by encouraging women to see natural variations as defects.", "Anthropologist Fadwa El Guindi compared FGM to breast enhancement, in which the maternal function of the breast becomes secondary to men's sexual pleasure.", "Benoîte Groult, the French feminist, made a similar point in 1975, citing FGM and cosmetic surgery as sexist and patriarchal.", "Against this, the medical anthropologist Carla Obermeyer argued in 1999 that FGM may be conducive to a subject's social well-being in the same way that rhinoplasty and male circumcision are.", "Despite the 2007 ban in Egypt, Egyptian women wanting FGM for their daughters seek ''amalyet tajmeel'' (cosmetic surgery) to remove what they see as excess genital tissue.Martha Nussbaum: a key moral and legal issue with FGM is that it is mostly conducted on children using physical force.Cosmetic procedures such as labiaplasty and clitoral hood reduction do fall within the WHO's definition of FGM, which aims to avoid loopholes, but the WHO notes that these elective practices are generally not regarded as FGM.", "Some legislation banning FGM, such as in Canada and the United States, covers minors only, but several countries, including Sweden and the United Kingdom, have banned it regardless of consent.", "Sweden, for example, has banned operations \"on the outer female sexual organs with a view to mutilating them or bringing about some other permanent change in them, regardless of whether or not consent has been given for the operation\".", "Gynaecologist Birgitta Essén and anthropologist Sara Johnsdotter argue that the law seems to distinguish between Western and African genitals, and deems only African women (such as those seeking reinfibulation after childbirth) unfit to make their own decisions.The philosopher Martha Nussbaum argues that a key concern with FGM is that it is mostly conducted on children using physical force.", "The distinction between social pressure and physical force is morally and legally salient, comparable to the distinction between seduction and rape.", "She argues further that the literacy of women in practising countries is generally poorer than in developed nations, which reduces their ability to make informed choices.====Analogy to other genital-altering procedures ====FGM has been compared to other procedures that modify the human genitalia.", "Conservatives in the United States during the late 2010s and early 2020s have argued that FGM is similar to gender-affirming surgery for transgender individuals, which has led to bills being drafted in Republican states equating the two.", "Criticism of these ideas include the fact that the gender-affirming surgeries are approved by American medical authorities, are rare for minors, and are done after reviews by multiple medical professionals.", "Formerly, FGM was widely referred to as \"female circumcision\" in the academic literature, but this \"was rejected by international medical practitioners because it suggests a fallacious analogy to male circumcision.\"", "It has been argued that the genital alteration of intersex infants and children, who are born with anomalies that physicians choose to \"fix,\" is analogous to FGM." ], [ "See also", "* International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation* No FGM Australia" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Works cited==='''Books and book chapters'''************************************************'''Journal articles'''************************************************************'''United Nations reports'''************************" ], [ "Further reading", "* FGM: Survivors narrate experiences dealing with absence of the clitoris.", "* \"Circumcision, female\", The Kinsey Institute (bibliography 1960s–1980s).", "* FGM archive, ''The Guardian''.", "* Haworth, Abigail (18 November 2012).", "\"The day I saw 248 girls suffering genital mutilation\", ''The Observer''.", "* Lightfoot-Klein, Hanny (1989).", "''Prisoners of Ritual: An Odyssey Into Female Genital Circumcision in Africa''.", "New York: Routledge.", "* Westley, David M. (1999).", "\"Female circumcision and infibulation in Africa\", ''Electronic Journal of Africana Bibliography'', 4 (bibliography up to 1997).", "'''Personal stories'''* El Saadawi, Nawal (1975).", "''Woman at Point Zero''.", "London: Zed Books.", "* Dirie, Waris and Miller, Cathleen (1998).", "''Desert Flower''.", "New York: William Morrow.", "* Kassindja, Fauziya and Miller-Muro, Layli (1998).", "''Do They Hear You When You Cry''.", "New York: Delacorte Press.", "* Ali, Ayaan Hirsi (2007).", "''Infidel: My Life''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster." ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]
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[ [ "Fermentation (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fermentation''' is a metabolic process whereby electrons released from nutrients are ultimately transferred to molecules obtained from the breakdown of those same nutrients.", "'''Fermentation''' may also refer to:* Ethanol fermentation, the production of ethanol for use in food, alcoholic beverage, fuel and industry** Fermentation in food processing, the process of converting sugar to carbon dioxide and alcohol with yeast** Fermentation in winemaking, the process of fermentation used in wine-making* Enteric fermentation, a digestive process, for example in ruminants* Lactic acid fermentation, the biological process by which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose, are converted into cellular energy and the metabolic byproduct lactate* Industrial fermentation, the breakdown and re-assembly of biochemicals for industry, often in aerobic growth conditions* Fermentative hydrogen production, the fermentative conversion of organic substrate to biohydrogen manifested by a diverse group of bacteria* Fermentation, the term used in the tea industry in tea processing for the aerobic treatment of tea leaves to break down certain unwanted chemicals and modify others to develop the flavor of the tea" ], [ "See also", "* ''Ferment'' (TV series), a Canadian religious current affairs television miniseries* ''Ferment'' (album), a 1992 album by Catherine Wheel" ] ]
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[ [ "Forcemeat" ], [ "Introduction", "Squab forcemeat with cepes, anise, and combava juice'''Forcemeat''' (derived from the French ''farcir'', \"to stuff\") is a uniform mixture of lean meat with fat made by grinding or sieving the ingredients.", "The result may either be smooth or coarse.", "Forcemeats are used in the production of numerous items found in charcuterie, including quenelles, sausages, pâtés, terrines, roulades, and galantines.", "Forcemeats are usually produced from raw meat, except in the case of a ''gratin''.", "Meats commonly used include pork, fish (pike, trout, or salmon), seafood, game meats (venison, boar, or rabbit), poultry, game birds, veal, and pork livers.", "Pork fatback is preferred as a fat, as it has a somewhat neutral flavor." ], [ "History", "Forcemeats are an ancient food and are included in ''Apicius'', a collection of Roman cookery recipes usually thought to have been compiled in the late 4th or early 5th century AD." ], [ "Types", ";Straight: Produced by progressively grinding equal parts pork and pork fat with a third ingredient, a dominant meat, which can be pork or another meat.", "The portions are cubed and then seasoned, cured, rested, ground and finally placed into the desired vessel.", ";Country-style: A combination of pork and pork fat, often with the addition of pork liver and garnish ingredients.", "The texture of this finished product is coarse.", ";Gratin: Has a portion of the main protein browned.", ";Pliante: Thin slices of meat pressed together or folded, typically alternating in colour or texture, with fat layered between.", ";Mousseline: Very light in texture, utilizing lean cuts of meat usually from veal, poultry, fish, or shellfish.", "The resulting texture comes from the addition of eggs and cream to this forcemeat." ], [ "Secondary binders", "Often, the only binder in a forcemeat is the physical structure of the protein used.", "Sometimes a secondary binder is necessary to hold the mixture.", "These binders are generally needed when preparing country-style or ''gratin'' forcemeats.", "The three types of binders are eggs, dry milk powder, and panades.", "A panade can be made from starchy ingredients which aid in the binding process; these include well-cooked potatoes which have been puréed, cream-soaked bread, or pâte à choux." ], [ "See also", "*Ground beef*Minced meat*Pâté*Pemmican*Tourtière*Tsukune" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*The Culinary Institute of America.", "''Garde Manger: The Art and Craft of the Cold Kitchen''.", "3rd ed.", "Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2008.." ] ]
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[ [ "Forseti" ], [ "Introduction", "Forseti, 1680''Forseti Seated in Judgment'' (1881) by Carl Emil Doepler'''Forseti''' (Old Norse \"the presiding one\", \"president\" in modern Icelandic and Faroese) is the god of justice and reconciliation in Norse mythology.", "He is generally identified with '''Fosite''', a god of the Frisians." ], [ "Name", "Grimm took ''Forseti'', \"''praeses, princeps''\", to be the older form of the name, first postulating the Old High German equivalent ''*forasizo'' (cf.", "modern German ''Vorsitzender'' \"one who presides\", Old English ''fore-sittan'' 'to preside').", "but later preferring a derivation from ''fors'', a \"whirling stream\" or \"cataract\", connected to the spring and the god's veneration by seagoing peoples.", "It is plausible that ''Fosite'' is the older name and ''Forseti'' a folk etymology.", "According to the German philologist Hans Kuhn the Germanic form Fosite is linguistically identical to Greek ''Poseidon'', hence the original name may have been introduced before the Proto-Germanic sound change, possibly via Greek sailors purchasing amber (cf.", "''Phol'' as a cognate of ''Baldr'').", "The etymologist Wolfgang Laur, is highly critical, however, as the names of Germanic gods are composed almost exclusively of Germanic components.", "According to Laur, the name Forseti remains largely unexplained." ], [ "Old Norse ''Forseti''", "According to Snorri Sturluson in the Prose Edda, Forseti is the son of Baldr and Nanna.", "His is the best of courts; all those who come before him leave reconciled.", "This suggests skill in mediation and is in contrast to his fellow god Týr, who \"is not called a reconciler of men.\"", "However, as de Vries points out, the only basis for associating Forseti with justice seems to have been his name; there is no corroborating evidence in Norse mythology.", "'Puts to sleep all suits' or 'stills all strifes' may have been a late addition to the strophe Snorri cites, from which he derives the information.The first element in the name ''Forsetlund'' (Old Norse ''Forsetalundr''), a farm in the parish of Onsøy ('Odin's island'), in eastern Norway, seems to be the genitive case of Forseti, offering evidence he was worshipped there.===Glitnir==='''Glitnir''' (meaning \"one who shines\") is the hall of Forseti, and the seat of justice amongst gods and men.", "It is also noted to have been a place of dwelling for Baldr, Forseti's father in Norse and Germanic mythologies.", "Glitnir is symbolic of the importance of discussion rather than violence as a means of resolution of conflict within the Norse tradition.", "It has pillars of gold and is roofed with silver, which radiated light that could be seen from a great distance.", "The stories of Baldr and his son Forseti may have been contaminated with legends about king Guðmundr and his son Höfundr ('the judge'), who inhabited the otherworld land of Glæsisvellir.==Frisian ''Fosite''== According to Alcuin's Life of St. Willebrord, the saint visited an island between Frisia and Denmark that was sacred to Fosite and was called Fositesland after the god worshipped there.", "There was a sacred spring from which water had to be drawn in silence, it was so holy.", "Willebrord defiled the spring by baptizing people in it and killing a cow there.", "Altfrid tells the same story of St. Liudger.", "Adam of Bremen retells the story and adds that the island was ''Heiligland'', i.e., Heligoland.There is also a late-medieval legend of the origins of written Frisian laws.", "Wishing to assemble written lawcodes for all his subject peoples, Charlemagne summoned twelve representatives of the Frisian people, the ''asega's'' ('law-speakers'), and demanded they recite their people's laws.", "When they could not do so after several days, he let them choose between death, slavery, or being set adrift in a rudderless boat.", "They chose the last and prayed for help, whereupon a thirteenth man appeared, with a golden axe on his shoulder.", "He steered the boat to land with the axe, then threw it ashore; a spring appeared where it landed.", "He taught them laws and then disappeared.", "The stranger and the spring have traditionally been identified with Fosite and the sacred spring of Fositesland.This hypothesis has not met with universal acceptance." ], [ "Reception", "Jacob Grimm noted that if, as Adam of Bremen states, Fosite's sacred island was Heligoland, that would make him an ideal candidate for a deity known to both Frisians and Scandinavians, but that it is surprising he is never mentioned by Saxo Grammaticus." ], [ "In modern culture", "The German neofolk band Forseti named itself after the god.In the 2002 Ensemble Studios game ''Age of Mythology'', Forseti is one of 9 minor gods Norse players can worship.In the Cthulhu Mythos fictional universe, created by horror writer H.P.", "Lovecraft, Forseti is often implied to be a Norse representation of Cthulhu, the judge of the Outer Gods." ], [ "See also", "*Poetic Edda" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]
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[ [ "Fiorello La Guardia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fiorello Henry LaGuardia''' (; born '''Fiorello Raffaele Enrico LaGuardia''', ; December 11, 1882September 20, 1947) was an American attorney and politician who represented New York in the House of Representatives and served as the 99th Mayor of New York City from 1934 to 1946.He was known for his irascible, energetic, and charismatic personality and diminutive, rotund stature.", "A socialist member of the Republican Party, La Guardia was frequently cross-endorsed by parties other than his own, especially parties on the left under New York's electoral fusion laws.", "A panel of 69 scholars in 1993 ranked him first among the ten best mayors in American history.He was born to Italian immigrants in New York City.", "Before serving as mayor, La Guardia represented Manhattan in Congress and on the New York City Board of Aldermen.", "As mayor, during the Great Depression and World War II, La Guardia unified the city's transit system; expanded construction of public housing, playgrounds, parks, and airports; reorganized the New York Police Department; and implemented federal New Deal programs within the city.", "He pursued a long series of political reforms, curbing the power of the powerful Irish-controlled Tammany Hall political machine that controlled the Democratic Party in Manhattan.", "He also re-established merit-based employment and promotion within city administration.La Guardia was also a highly visible national political figure.", "His support for the New Deal and relationship with President Franklin D. Roosevelt crossed party lines, brought federal funds to New York City, and cut off patronage to La Guardia's Tammany enemies.", "La Guardia's WNYC radio program \"Talk to the People\", which aired from December 1941 until December 1945, expanded his public influence beyond the borders of the city." ], [ "Early life and education", "Fiorello La Guardia at age 13Fiorello Raffaele Enrico La Guardia, with Enrico later Americanized as Henry and Raffaele removed, was born in Greenwich Village, New York City, on December 11, 1882, to Achille Luigi Carlo La Guardia and Irene Luzzatto-Coen.", "He was named in honor of his maternal grandmother, paternal grandfather, and uncle.", "Achille was born in Foggia, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, on March 26, 1849, and his father, Don Raffaele La Guardia, was a municipal official.", "Achille visited the United States in 1878, while on tour with Adelina Patti.", "Irene, a member of the Sephardic Jewish Luzzatto family, was born in Trieste, Austria, on July 18, 1859.They married on June 3, 1880, after having known each other for half a year.", "Achille, a former Catholic, was an atheist and Irene was a nonpracticing Jew.", "Achille prohibited his children from speaking Italian and Fiorello would not become proficient in Italian until his time as a consular agent.Achille enlisted in the United States Army in 1885, and served in the 11th Infantry Regiment as a warrant officer and chief musician.", "His family lived in the Dakota Territory, New York, and the Arizona Territory during his time at Fort Sully, Madison Barracks, Fort Huachuca, and Whipple Barracks.", "Fiorello was enrolled in the Episcopal Church in Prescott, Arizona, and practiced that religion all his life.", "The onset of the Spanish–American War led to their transfer to St. Louis, Missouri, and then Achille was sent to Mobile, Alabama.", "Fiorello attempted to join the army, but was rejected.", "He was accepted as a war correspondent for the ''St.", "Louis Post-Dispatch''.", "Achille and Fiorello did not reach Cuba because Achille contracted hepatitis and malaria after consuming embalmed beef.", "He was discharged from the military on account of his illness and given a pension of $8 per month.", "The La Guardia family moved to Trieste, and Achille died in Capodistria on October 21, 1904." ], [ "Career", "Fiorello became a clerk at the US consulate in Budapest and worked there from 1901 to 1904.He then served as the agent in charge of the US consulate in Fiume from 1904 to 1906.He left Europe after failing to gain a promotion to consul-general in Fiume or an appointment as consul-general in Belgrade.", "He worked as an interpreter for the immigration services at Ellis Island from November 6, 1907, to 1910.He was a Croatian, Italian, and German interpreter and Felix Frankfurter, who met La Guardia during his time at Ellis Island, described him as \"a gifted interpreter\".Upon returning to America he worked as a fireproof brick manufacturer in Portsmouth, Ohio.", "He returned to New York City and worked a series of odd jobs such as a translator for the New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, a steamship company clerk, stenographer at Pratt Institute, and a clerk for Abercrombie & Fitch.", "In 1912, around 60,000 garment workers went on strike and La Guardia, who was friends with August Bellanca, gave speeches in Italian and Yiddish in support of the strike.La Guardia graduated from the Dwight School, a private school on the Upper West Side of New York City.", "He graduated from the New York University School of Law and was admitted to the bar in 1910.He became a member of the Garibaldi Lodge of the Masonic Order in 1913.Frederick C. Tanner recommended La Guardia for a job working for the Attorney General of New York on September 15, 1911, and he served as the deputy attorney general from January 1, 1915, to 1917.He left the American Bar Association in the 1930s stating that it devoted \"its efforts to special interests rather than to the uplift and welfare of the profession\".In 1925, La Guardia formed the La Guardia Publishing Company using his savings and a second mortgage to publish ''L'Americolo'', an Italian-language magazine.", "He competed against Generoso Pope's ''Il Progresso Italo-Americano'' and ''Corriere d'America''.", "The magazine failed with La Guardia losing $15,000 and his mortgage." ], [ "Early political career", "===Local politics===La Guardia joined the Republican club while attending NYU School of Law.", "He supported William Howard Taft during the 1912 presidential election and replaced William Chadbourne as district captain due to Chadbourne's support for Theodore Roosevelt's third party campaign.", "La Guardia refused to support John Purroy Mitchel's Fusion campaign during the 1913 mayoral election despite Mitchel's support among Republicans.Republican political boss Samuel S. Koenig convinced La Guardia to run in the 1919 special election for President of the New York City Board of Aldermen created by Al Smith's resignation to become governor.", "La Guardia defeated William M. Bennett for the Republican nomination and Paul Windels worked as his campaign manager.", "During the campaign he was endorsed by ''The New York Times'' and Citizens Union.", "He defeated Democratic nominee Robert L. Moran.", "Moran suffered from a spoiler effect caused by Michael Kelly, a former Democrat, running as the Liberty Party candidate.", "La Guardia resigned from the United States House of Representatives on December 31, 1919.La Guardia supported Republican presidential and gubernatorial candidates Warren G. Harding and Nathan L. Miller during the 1920 election.", "However, he later attacked Miller for his public transit policies and getting rid of welfare programs.", "His opposition to Miller ruined his chances in the 1921 mayoral election and the Republican nomination was given to Henry Curran.", "He attempted to defeat Curran in the primary, despite warnings from Koenig and Windels, and was defeated.", "La Guardia favored Smith, the Democratic nominee, during the 1928 presidential election.===U.S.", "House of Representatives=======Elections====La Guardia during the 70th United States Congress La Guardia ran for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives from New York's 14th congressional district during the 1914 election.", "He chose to run as he noticed during a 25th Assembly district Republican club meeting that nobody was nominated for it as Frederick Marshall unexpectedly withdrew.", "The district was a strongly Democratic and Tammany Hall.", "He lost to Democratic nominee Michael F. Farley, whom he accused of being illiterate.Clarence Fay, the Republican district leader in the 25th Assembly district, sought to have Hamilton Fish III nominated for the seat in the 1916 election.", "Tanner unsuccessfully attempted to convince La Guardia to not run.", "Fish withdrew before the primary and La Guardia won the Republican nomination.", "He appealed to the different ethnic groups in the district and was endorsed by ''New Yorker Staats-Zeitung'' which traditionally supported Democratic candidates.", "He defeated Farley by 357 votes.Tammany Hall and the Democrats supported La Guardia in the 1918 election in order to prevent an anti-war Socialist victory.", "He defeated Socialist nominee Scott Nearing in the election.La Guardia considered running in the 1922 gubernatorial election and published his ideas for the Republican state platform in the column in the ''New York Evening Journal'' given to him by William Randolph Hearst.", "Koenig was able to compromise with La Guardia to avoid a primary with Miller.", "He was given the Republican nomination for New York's 20th congressional district to succeed retiring Representative Isaac Siegel in the 1922 election.", "He defeated Democratic nominee Henry Frank and Socialist nominee William Karlin.La Guardia attended the Conference for Progressive Political Action in 1922.Koenig told La Guardia that his renomination was dependent on him supporting the Republicans in the 1924 presidential election.", "La Guardia considered supporting the Democrats, but declined to do so after the nomination of John W. Davis.", "He gave his support to Robert M. La Follette and the Progressive Party.", "La Guardia announced his departure from the Republican Party on the front page of ''The New York Times''.", "He and Gilbert Roe managed La Follette's presidential campaign in the eastern United States.", "La Guardia, running with the Socialist nomination, raised $3,764.25 () and defeated Frank and Siegel in the election.", "La Guardia's partisan affiliation in Congress was labeled as Socialist and Victor L. Berger, the only other Socialist in Congress, described him as \"my whip\".La Guardia returned to the Republican Party in the 1926 election and won by 55 votes against Democratic nominee H. Warren Hubbard and Socialist nominee George Dobsevage.", "He was the only Republican elected to the U.S. House from New York City.", "He defeated Democratic nominee Saul J. Dickheiser in the 1928 election.", "He defeated Democratic nominee Vincent H. Auleta in the 1930 election.", "La Guardia considered running for reelection to Congress as a Democrat in the 1932 election and the option received support from William Green, John L. Lewis, and Robert F. Wagner.", "Political boss John H. McCooey supported him running as a Democrat, but Tammany Hall leader James Joseph Hines opposed him and had the nomination given to James J. Lanzetta.", "Lanzetta defeated La Guardia in the election due to the coattail effect of Franklin D. Roosevelt's victory in the presidential election.", "Robert M. La Follette Jr. stated that \"the people have temporarily lost one of their most faithful servants\".====Tenure====Fiorello La Guardia wearing his aviator uniform in 1917.La Guardia was interested in airplanes and served as a director and attorney for Giuseppe Mario Bellanca's company.", "He enlisted to fight in World War I and was promoted to captain by October 1917.He and Major General William Ord Ryan trained Italian pilots in Foggia.", "La Guardia became certified to fly on December 12, 1917.King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy gave him the Flying Cross.He rose to the rank of major in command of a unit of Caproni Ca.44 bombers on the Italian-Austrian front.While he was away at war his office was managed by Harry Andrews and Marie Fisher while constituent services were handled by Representative Isaac Siegel.", "A petition with over 3,000 signatures was given to Speaker Champ Clark on January 8, 1918, asking for La Guardia's seat to be vacated, but Clark refused to allow a motion to vacate La Guardia's seat.During La Guardia's tenure in the U.S. House he served on the Judiciary committee.", "Oswald Garrison Villard, editor of ''The Nation'', stated that he was \"the most valuable member of Congress today\".", "La Guardia supported impeaching Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon on the grounds of him serving as a director of a private company, the Aluminum Company of America, while serving in the presidential cabinet.La Guardia requested the pardon of Thomas Mooney.", "In 1931, James Smith, a black railroad porter, was put on trial for assault, but was unable to pay for a lawyer.", "La Guardia took the case pro bono after being requested by A. Philip Randolph and Smith was acquitted on September 26.===1929 mayoral election===Results of the 1929 mayoral election, in which La Guardia did not carry a single State Assembly district.La Guardia's supporters wanted him to run for mayor in the 1925 election, but he declined as he would be unlikely to defeat Jimmy Walker.", "He received the Republican nomination on August 1,1929.In 1929, La Guardia ran for Mayor once again.", "This time, he received the Republican nomination, once again defeating William Bennett.", "However, he lost the general election to Walker in a landslide." ], [ "Mayor of New York", "===1933 mayoral election===Mayor Jimmy Walker and his Irish-run Tammany Hall were forced out of office by scandal and La Guardia was determined to replace him.", "La Guardia ran on the Fusion Party platform, which was supported by Republicans, reform-minded Democrats, and independents.", "La Guardia had enormous determination, high visibility, the support of reformer Samuel Seabury and a divisive primary contest.", "He also represented previously underrepresented communities, appealed to a wide range of cultural backgrounds with his lineage.", "He secured the nominations and expected an easy win against incumbent Mayor John P. O'Brien.", "However, Joseph V. McKee entered the race as the nominee of the new \"Recovery Party\" at the last minute.", "McKee was a formidable opponent, sponsored by Bronx Democratic boss Edward J. Flynn.", "La Guardia promised a more honest government, championing for greater efficiency and inclusiveness.", "La Guardia's win was based on a complex coalition of Republicans (mostly middle class German Americans in the boroughs outside Manhattan), a minority of reform-minded Democrats, Socialists, a large proportion of middle-class Jews, and the great majority of Italians, whose votes had previously been overwhelmingly loyal to Tammany.During his mayoralty, La Guardia served as president of the United States Conference of Mayors from 1935 until 1945.===Agenda===La Guardia and Franklin D. RooseveltLa Guardia came to office in January 1934 with five main goals:* Restore the financial health and break free from the bankers' control* Expand the federally funded work-relief program for the unemployed* End corruption in government and racketeering in key sectors of the economy* Replace patronage with a merit-based civil service, with high prestige* Modernize the infrastructure, especially transportation and parksHe achieved most of the first four goals in his first hundred days, as FDR gave him 20% of the entire national CWA budget for work relief.", "La Guardia then collaborated closely with Robert Moses, with support from the governor, Democrat Herbert Lehman, to upgrade the decaying infrastructure.", "The city was favored by the New Deal in terms of funding for public works projects.", "La Guardia's modernization efforts were publicized in the 1936 book ''New York Advancing: A Scientific Approach to Municipal Government,'' edited by Rebecca B. Rankin.===African-American politics===In 1935 a riot took place in Harlem.", "Termed the Harlem riot of 1935, it has been described as the first \"modern\" race riot, because it was committed primarily against property rather than persons.", "During the riots, La Guardia and Hubert Delany walked through the streets in an effort to calm the situation.", "After the riots, La Guardia convened the Mayor's Commission on Conditions of Harlem to determine the causes of the riot and a detailed report was prepared.", "The report identified \"injustices of discrimination in employment, the aggressions of the police, and the racial segregation\" as conditions which led to the outbreak of rioting.", "However, the Mayor shelved the committee's report, and did not make it public.", "The report would be unknown, except that a black New York newspaper, the ''Amsterdam News'', subsequently published it in serial form.===Ethnic politics===La Guardia governed in an uneasy alliance with New York's Jews and liberal WASPs, together with ethnic Italians and Germans.An unorthodox Republican, he also ran as the nominee of the American Labor Party, a union-dominated anti-Tammany left wing group that supported Roosevelt for president beginning in 1936.La Guardia supported Roosevelt, chairing the Committee of Independent Voters for Roosevelt and his running mate, Henry A. Wallace, with Senator George Norris during the 1940 presidential election.La Guardia was the city's first Italian-American mayor, but was not a typical Italian New Yorker.", "He was a Republican Episcopalian who had grown up in Arizona and had a Triestine Jewish mother and a lapsed Catholic father.", "He spoke several languages; when working at Ellis Island, he was certified as an interpreter for Italian, German, Yiddish, and Croatian.", "It served him well during a contentious congressional campaign in 1922.When Henry Frank, a Jewish opponent, accused him of anti-Semitism, La Guardia rejected the suggestion that he publicly disclose that his mother was Jewish as \"self-serving\".", "Instead, La Guardia dictated an open letter in Yiddish that was also printed in Yiddish.", "In it, he challenged Frank to publicly and openly debate the issues of the campaign entirely in the Yiddish language.", "Frank, although he was Jewish, could not speak the language and was forced to decline—and lost the election.La Guardia's 1933 campaign coincided with the rise of racial and religious hostilities in Germany, and he supported a more anti-Nazi response while in office.", "He publicly supported groups that engaged in boycotts of German goods and spoke alongside Rabbi Stephen S. Wise, leader of the American Jewish Congress.", "In 1935, La Guardia caused an international stir when he denied a masseur license to a German immigrant, stating that Germany had violated a treaty guaranteeing equal treatment of American professionals by discriminating against American Jews.", "Despite threats from Germany (including a bomb threat against New York City's German Consulate), La Guardia continued to use his position as mayor to denounce Nazism.", "During his reelection campaign in 1937, speaking before the Women's Division of the American Jewish Congress, he called for the creation of a special pavilion at the upcoming New York World's Fair, \"a chamber of horrors\" for \"that brown-shirted fanatic,\" referring to Hitler.", "He also led anti-Nazi rallies and promoted legislation to facilitate the U.S. rescue of the Jewish refugees.", "He also appointed more racially and religiously diverse judges to various New York courts, which was one of his most powerful weapons against Nazi prejudice.", "These appointments included Rosalie Loew Whitney, Herbert O'Brien, Jane Bolin, and Hubert Thomas Delany.", "La Guardia would soon regret appointing O'Brien, who used his position as Domestic Relations judge to oppose some New Deal policies, leading to La Guardia's condemnation of him with the famous line, \"Senator, I have made a lot of good appointments and I think I am good ... but when I make a mistake, it's a beaut.", "\"===Crime===La Guardia criticized the gangsters who brought a negative stereotype and shame to the Italian community.", "His first action as mayor was to order the chief of police to arrest mob boss Lucky Luciano on whatever charges could be found.", "La Guardia then went after the gangsters with a vengeance, stating in a radio address to the people of New York in his distinct voice, \"Let's drive the bums out of town.\"", "In 1934 he went on a search-and-destroy mission looking for mob boss Frank Costello's slot machines, rounding up thousands of the \"one armed bandits,\" swinging a sledgehammer and dumping them off a barge into the water for the newspapers and media.", "In 1935 La Guardia appeared at the Bronx Terminal Market to institute a citywide ban on the sale, display, and possession of artichokes, whose prices were inflated by mobsters.", "When prices went down, the ban was lifted.", "In 1936, La Guardia had special prosecutor Thomas E. Dewey, a future Republican presidential candidate, single out Lucky Luciano for prosecution.", "Dewey led a successful investigation into Luciano's lucrative prostitution operation, eventually sending Luciano to jail with a 30–50 year sentence.", "The case was made into the 1937 movie ''Marked Woman'', starring Bette Davis.La Guardia proved successful in shutting down the burlesque theaters, whose shows offended his sensibilities.", "However, he also came to the assistance of comic book creators Joe Simon and Jack Kirby, when they were openly threatened by sympathizers of Nazi Germany with their new superhero character, Captain America, when he arranged police protection.As part of his campaign against organized crime in the early 1940s, La Guardia banned pinball games, calling them gambling machines.", "The ban held until 1976, when avid player Roger Sharpe proved the actual skill involved in the game.", "La Guardia spearheaded major raids throughout the city, collecting thousands of machines.", "The mayor participated with police in destroying machines with sledgehammers before dumping the remnants into the city's rivers.===Public works===La Guardia's admirers credit him, among other things, with restoring the economy of New York City during and after the Great Depression.", "He is given credit for many massive public works programs administered by his powerful Parks Commissioner Robert Moses, which employed thousands of voters.", "The mayor's relentless lobbying for federal funds allowed New York to develop its economic infrastructure.To obtain large-scale federal money the mayor became a close ally of Roosevelt and New Deal agencies such as the CWA, PWA, and WPA, which poured $1.1 billion into the city from 1934 to 1939.In turn he gave FDR a showcase for New Deal achievement, helped defeat FDR's political enemies in Tammany Hall (the Democratic party machine in Manhattan).", "He and Moses built highways, bridges and tunnels, transforming the physical landscape of New York City.", "The West Side Highway, East River Drive, Brooklyn Battery Tunnel, Triborough Bridge, and two airports (LaGuardia Airport, and, later, Idlewild, now JFK Airport) were built during his mayoralty.In 1943, La Guardia saved the Mecca Temple on 55th Street from demolition.", "Together with New York City Council President Newbold Morris, La Guardia converted the building to the New York City Center of Music and Dance.", "On December 11, 1943, City Center opened its doors with a concert from the New York Philharmonic—La Guardia even conducted a rendition of \"The Star Spangled Banner.", "\"===1939===1939 was a busy year, as he opened the 1939 New York World's Fair at Flushing Meadows–Corona Park, Queens, opened New York Municipal Airport No.", "2 in Queens (later renamed Fiorello H. La Guardia Field), and had the city buy out the Interborough Rapid Transit Company and the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation, thus completing the public takeover of the New York City Subway system.", "The U.S. arrival of Georg and Maria Von Trapp and their children from Austria that fall at Ellis Island who would eventually become the Trapp Family Singers was another significant decade-ending event that year in La Guardia's mayoralty.===Reform===Responding to popular disdain for the sometimes corrupt City Council, La Guardia successfully proposed a reformed 1938 City Charter that created a powerful new New York City Board of Estimate, similar to a corporate board of directors.La Guardia was also a supporter of the Ives-Quinn Act, \"a law that would ban discrimination in employment on the bases of 'race, creed, color or national origin' and task a new agency, the New York State Commission Against Discrimination (SCAD), with education and enforcement.\"", "The bill passed in 1945, making New York the first state in the country to create an agency tasked with handling employment discrimination complaints.===World War II===In 1941 during the run-up to American involvement in World War II, President Roosevelt appointed La Guardia first director of the new Office of Civilian Defense (OCD).", "Roosevelt was an admirer of La Guardia; after meeting Winston Churchill for the first time he described him as \"an English Mayor La Guardia\".", "The OCD was the national agency responsible for preparing for blackouts, air raid wardens, sirens, and shelters in case of German air raids.", "The goal was to psychologically mobilize many thousands of middle class volunteers to make them feel part of the war effort.", "At the urging of aviation advocate Gill Robb Wilson, La Guardia, in his capacity as Director of the OCD, created the Civil Air Patrol with Administrative Order 9, signed by him on December 1, 1941, and published December 8, 1941.La Guardia remained Mayor of New York, shuttling back and forth with three days in Washington and four in the city in an effort to do justice to two herculean jobs.", "La Guardia focused on setting up air raid systems and training volunteer wardens.", "However, Roosevelt appointed his wife Eleanor Roosevelt as his assistant.", "She issued calls for actors to lead a volunteer talent program, and dancers to start a physical fitness program.", "That led to widespread ridicule and the president replaced both of them in December 1941 with a full-time director James M. Landis.The war ended the Great Depression in the city.", "Unemployment ended, and the city was a gateway for military supplies and soldiers sent to Europe, with the Brooklyn Navy Yard providing many of the warships and the garment trade providing uniforms.", "The city's great financiers, however, were less important in decision making than the policy makers in Washington, and very high wartime taxes were not offset by heavy war spending.", "New York was not a center of heavy industry and did not see a wartime boom, as defense plants were built elsewhere.FDR refused to make La Guardia a general and was unable to provide fresh money for the city.", "By 1944 the city was short of funds to pay for La Guardia's new programs.", "La Guardia was frustrated and his popularity slipped away and he ran so poorly in straw polls in 1945 that he did not run for a fourth term.In July 1945, when the city's newspapers were closed by a strike, La Guardia famously read the comics on the radio." ], [ "Political positions", "La Guardia opposed the Espionage Act of 1917 and stated that \"if you pass this bill and if it is enacted into law you change all that our flag ever stood for and stands for\".", "He supported the League of Women Voters in the 1920s.", "He voted in favor of the Child Labor Amendment.", "He proposed legislation to create a holiday in honor of Christopher Columbus.As a congressman, La Guardia was a tireless and vocal champion of progressive causes, including relaxed restriction on immigration, removal of U.S. troops from Nicaragua to speaking up for the rights and livelihoods of striking miners, impoverished farmers, oppressed minorities, and struggling families.", "He supported progressive income taxes, greater government oversight of Wall Street, and national employment insurance for workers idled by the Great Depression.", "He supported allowing the direct election of the Governor of Puerto Rico.In domestic policies he tended toward socialism and wanted to nationalize and regulate; however he was never close to the Socialist Party and never bothered to read Karl Marx.When Mussolini's Fascist Italy invaded Ethiopia on October 3, 1935, a Black protest of Italian vendors at the King Julius General Market on Lenox and 118th Street turned into a riot and 1,200 extra NYC policemen were deployed on \"war duty\" to quell the riot.", "In December 1935, at an Italian-American rally, attended by 20,000, in Madison Square Garden, La Guardia presented a $100,000 check to the Italian Consul General, part of a total $700,000 raised from Italian-Americans to help fund the invasion.===Economics===La Guardia sponsored labor legislation and railed against immigration quotas.", "His major legislation was the Norris–La Guardia Act, cosponsored with Nebraska senator George Norris in 1932.It circumvented Supreme Court limitations on the activities of labor unions, especially as those limitations were imposed between the enactment of the Clayton Antitrust Act in 1914 and the end of the 1920s.", "Based on the theory that the lower courts are creations not of the Constitution but of Congress, and that Congress therefore has wide power in defining and restricting their jurisdiction, the act forbids issuance of injunctions to sustain anti-union contracts of employment, to prevent ceasing or refusing to perform any work or remain in any relation of employment, or to restrain acts generally constituting component parts of strikes, boycotts, and picketing.", "It also said courts could no longer enforce yellow-dog contracts, which are labor contracts prohibiting a worker from joining a union.La Guardia opposed an attempt to raise the sales tax during the Great Depression and instead supported taxes on luxury items and a graduated income tax for people earning more than $100,000.===Foreign policy===La Guardia supported the League of Nations.", "He called for Fiume to be given to Italy despite it being promised to Yugoslavia by the Treaty of London.", "He supported the Russian Revolution, but criticized Ambassador David R. Francis for supporting Alexander Kerensky rather than Lavr Kornilov.Never an isolationist, he supported using American influence abroad on behalf of democracy or for national independence or against autocracy.", "Thus he supported the Irish independence movement and the anti-czarist Russian Revolution of 1917, but did not approve of Vladimir Lenin.", "By 1946 he was praising Moscow.", "Unlike most progressive colleagues who were isolationist, La Guardia consistently backed internationalism, speaking in favor of the League of Nations and the Inter-Parliamentary Union as well as peace and disarmament conferences.In 1946 President Harry Truman sent the ex-mayor as an envoy to Brazil, but diplomacy was not his forte.", "Truman then gave him as major job as head of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), with responsibility for helping millions of desperate refugees in Europe.", "La Guardia was exhausted and after seeing the horrors of war in Europe called for a massive aid program.", "Critics ridiculed that as worldwide WPA and the biggest boondoggle ever.", "He sided with Henry A. Wallace in calling for friendship with the Soviet Union, and attacked the new breed of Cold Warriors.", "He provided UNRRA funds to the Soviets despite warnings that the Kremlin used the money to rebuild its army.", "UNRRA shut down at the end of 1946.Despite his declining health La Guardia attacked the emerging \"Truman Doctrine\" that promised American financial help to stop the spread of Communism.===Prohibition===La Guardia opposed prohibition.", "He was one of the first Republicans in Congress to voice their opinions against prohibition.", "He testified to that effect before the first session of Congress in 1926.On June 19, 1926, La Guardia mixed near beer and malt extract, which were legal, to create 2% beer in order to protest prohibition.", "He was immune from prosecution as a member of Congress." ], [ "Personal life", "Fiorello La Guardia and his family during their time at Fort Whipple, Arizona, in the 1890sFiorello La Guardia and his wife Thea AlmerigottiLa Guardia met Thea Almerigotti, an immigrant from Trieste, while marching in a union picket line in 1913.They married on March 8, 1919, in a Catholic ceremony at St. Patrick's Cathedral.", "Their daughter, Fioretta Thea La Guardia, was born in June 1920, but died on May 8, 1921, and Thea died on November 29.The death of his wife was described as \"the greatest tragedy of La Guardia's life\" by M.R.", "Werner, who aided La Guardia when he wrote his autobiography.Fisher volunteered for La Guardia's 1916 congressional campaign and became his secretary after his election.", "They were married by Rev.", "Ole J. Kvale, a Lutheran like Fisher, on February 28, 1929.They adopted two children:* Eric Henry (born 1930), a Hobart College graduate who became a professor at the University of Washington,* Jean Marie (1928–1962), La Guardia's niece from his first marriage, the biological daughter of Thea's sister, a Barnard College graduate who later became an editor of ''Mademoiselle''.=== Nazi detention of sister, brother-in-law, and niece ===La Guardia's sister, the writer Gemma La Guardia Gluck and brother-in-law, Herman Gluck were living in Hungary and were arrested by the Gestapo on June 7, 1944, when the Nazis took control of Budapest.", "Adolf Eichmann and Heinrich Himmler knew that Gemma was La Guardia's sister and ordered her to be held as a political prisoner.", "She and Herman were deported to Mauthausen concentration camp in Austria.", "Gemma did not learn until her release that Herman had died at Mauthausen.Gemma was transferred from Mauthausen to the notorious women's concentration camp at Ravensbrück, fifty miles from Berlin, where—unbeknownst to Gemma at the time—her daughter Yolanda (whose husband also died in the camps) and baby grandson were also held for a year in a separate barracks.", "Gemma Gluck, who was held in Block II of the camp and assigned prisoner #44139, was one of the few survivors of Ravensbrück and wrote about her time there.The Germans abandoned Gluck, her daughter, and her grandson for a possible hostage exchange in April 1945 as the Soviets advanced on Berlin.", "After the liberation of the camps, Gemma later wrote, the Soviets were \"violating girls and women of all ages,\" and the three struggled as displaced persons in postwar Berlin, because they did not speak German and had no identity papers, money, or means of documenting where they had been.Gemma finally managed to get word to the Americans, who contacted Fiorello, who was then director of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) and had been unable to locate his sister and brother-in-law since their disappearance.", "He worked to get them on the immigration lists, but asserted in a letter, included in the appendix of Gemma's memoir, that her \"case was the same as that of hundreds of thousands of displaced people\" and \"no exceptions can be made.\"", "It took two years for her to be cleared and sent to the United States.", "She returned to New York in May 1947, where she was reunited with her brother only four months before his death.", "As he had made no provision for her, she lived the remainder of her life in very reduced circumstances in a public housing project in Queens until her death in 1962.Gluck is one of the few American-born women interned by the Nazis, along with Virginia d'Albert-Lake." ], [ "Death and legacy", "The grave of Fiorello La GuardiaLa Guardia was a man of short stature; his height is sometimes given as , but an article in ''The New York Times'' in 2006 gave his height as .La Guardia died of pancreatic cancer in his home at 5020 Goodridge Avenue, in the Fieldston neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx, on September 20, 1947, aged 64.La Guardia is interred at Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx.===Legacy===A 1993 survey of historians, political scientists, and urban experts conducted by Melvin G. Holli of the University of Illinois at Chicago ranked La Guardia as the best American big-city mayor to serve between the years 1820 and 1993.According to a biographer, Mason B. Williams, his close collaboration with Roosevelt's New Deal proved a striking success in linking national money and local needs.", "La Guardia enabled the political recognition of new groups that had been largely excluded from the political system, such as Jews and Italians.", "His administration (in cooperation with Robert Moses) gave New York its modern infrastructure.", "His far-sighted goals raised ambitions for new levels of urban possibility.", "According to Thomas Kessner, trends since his tenure mean that \"people would be afraid of allowing anybody to take that kind of power\".===Namesakes===14¢ Fiorello La Guardia U.S. postage stamp issued April 24, 1972The footstone of Fiorello La GuardiaNew York's LaGuardia Airport, LaGuardia Community College, LaGuardia Place, and various parks and buildings around New York City are named for him.Known for his love of music, La Guardia was noted for spontaneously conducting professional and student orchestras and was instrumental in the creation of the High School of Music & Art in 1936, now renamed the Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts.In 1972, the United States Postal Service honored La Guardia with a 14-cent postage stamp.La Guardia was a strong supporter of Zionism, and LaGuardia Street and LaGuardia interchange, both in Tel Aviv, Israel, were named in his honor.A street in Rijeka, Croatia, is named after Fiorello La Guardia.", "La Guardia worked in Rijeka as a U.S. Consular Agent from 1903 to 1906, when the city was known as Fiume and was under Hungarian administration.", "It was during this time that Rijeka's port played a vital role in connecting the Austro-Hungarian Empire to the United States, featuring direct passenger service between Rijeka and New York." ], [ "See also", "* Statue of Fiorello H. La Guardia, Manhattan* La Guardia and Wagner Archives* 1938 NYC Teamsters Truckers Strike*La Guardia Commission, a study on marijuana in U.S. society* List of mayors of New York City* New York City mayoral elections for votes in 1929, 1933, 1937 and 1941.", "* Timeline of New York City, 1930s–1940s* Mayor LaGuardia \"Talk to the people\" series on WNYC* Fiorello LaGuardia (The Compassion of New York's Famous Mayor)" ], [ "Publications", "* La Guardia, Fiorello H. (1948).", "''The Making of an Insurgent: An Autobiography''.", "Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Works cited", "* * * * * * .", "online*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Brooks, Emily (2023). ''", "Gotham’s War within a War: Policing and the Birth of Law-and-Order Liberalism in World War II–Era New York City''.", "University of North Carolina Press.", "* Brodsky, Alyn.", "(2003).", "''The Great Mayor: Fiorello La Guardia and the Making of the City of New York.''", "New York: Truman Talley Books.", "* Capeci, Dominic J.", "\"From Different Liberal Perspectives: Fiorello H. La Guardia, Adam Clayton Powell, Jr., and Civil Rights in New York City, 1941-1943.\"", "''Journal of Negro History'' 62#2 1977, pp.", "160–73.online and in JSTOR* * Elliott, Lawrence.", "(1983).", "''Little Flower: The Life and Times of Fiorello La Guardia''.", "New York: William Morrow.", ".", "online* Garrett, Charles.", "(1961).", "''The La Guardia Years: Machine and Reform Politics in New York City''.", "New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.", "* Goldstein, Richard.", "''Helluva Town: The Story of New York City During World War II'' (2010) Online review* * Heckscher II, August.", "(1978).", "''When La Guardia Was Mayor: New York's Legendary Years''.", "New York: W.W. Norton.", ".", "* Jeffers, H. Paul.", "(2002).", "''The Napoleon of New York: Mayor Fiorello La Guardia''.", "New York: John Wiley & Sons.", ".", "online.", "* Kaufman, Herbert.", "\"Fiorello H. La Guardia, Political Maverick\" ''Political Science Quarterly'' 1990 105(1): 113–122.in Jstor* Mann, Arthur H. (1959).", "''La Guardia: A Fighter Against His Times 1882–1933''.", "Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott; scholarly biography.", "online**''La Guardia comes to power: 1933'' (1965) online" ], [ "External links", "* Obituary, ''New York Times,'' September 21, 1947 ''La Guardia Is Dead; City Pays Homage To 3-Time Mayor''* La Guardia and Wagner Archives/Fiorello H. La Guardia Collection ** oral interviews from the La Guardia and Wagner Archives/Fiorello H. La Guardia Oral History database* Tiziano Thomas Dossena, \"Fiorello La Guardia\" in ''Bridge Apulia USA'', No.3 (Italy, 1998) * 1919 passport photo of Fiorello La Guardia* WNYC Archives blogs featuring Mayor La Guardia* Fiorello LaGuardia (The Compassion of New York's Famous Mayor)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Flag" ], [ "Introduction", "United Nations members' national flagsSetting up a flag could also possess the meaning of conquering something.", "Jaan Künnap with the flag of Estonia at the top of Lenin Peak () in 1989.A '''flag''' is a piece of fabric (most often rectangular) with a distinctive design and colours.", "It is used as a symbol, a signalling device, or for decoration.", "The term ''flag'' is also used to refer to the graphic design employed, and flags have evolved into a general tool for rudimentary signalling and identification, especially in environments where communication is challenging (such as the maritime environment, where semaphore is used).", "Many flags fall into groups of similar designs called flag families.", "The study of flags is known as \"vexillology\" from the Latin , meaning \"flag\" or \"banner\".National flags are patriotic symbols with widely varied interpretations that often include strong military associations because of their original and ongoing use for that purpose.", "Flags are also used in messaging, advertising, or for decorative purposes.Some military units are called \"flags\" after their use of flags.", "A ''flag'' (Arabic: ) is equivalent to a brigade in Arab countries.", "In Spain, a ''flag'' (Spanish: '''') is a battalion-equivalent in the Spanish Legion." ], [ "History", "Bronze flag Derafsh Shahdad found in Shahdad, Iran, third millennium BCThe origin of the flag is unknown and it remains unclear when the first flag was raised.Ships with vexilloids were represented on predynastic Egyptian pottery .", "In antiquity, field signs that can be categorised as vexilloid or \"flag-like\" were used in warfare, originating in ancient Egypt or Assyria.", "Examples include the Sassanid battle standard Derafsh Kaviani, and the standards of the Roman legions such as the eagle of Augustus Caesar's Xth legion and the dragon standard of the Sarmatians; the latter was allowed to fly freely in the wind, carried by a horseman, but depictions suggest that it bore more similarity to an elongated dragon kite than to a simple flag.While the origin of the flag remains a mystery, the oldest flag discovered is made of bronze: a Derafsh or 'flag-like' Shahdad, which was found in Shahdad, Iran, and dates back to .", "It features a seated man and a kneeling woman facing each other, with a star in between.", "This iconography was found in other Iranian Bronze Age pieces of art.Flags made of cloth were almost certainly the invention of the ancient peoples of the Indian subcontinent or the Zhou dynasty of Ancient China.", "Chinese flags had iconography such as a red bird, a white tiger, or a blue dragon, and royal flags were to be treated with a level of respect similar to that given to the ruler.", "Indian flags were often triangular and decorated with attachments such as a yak's tail and the state umbrella.", "Silk flags either spread to the Near East from China or it was just the silk itself, later fashioned by people who had independently conceptualized a rectangular cloth attached to a pole.", "Flags were probably transmitted to Europe via the Muslim world, where plainly coloured flags were used due to Islamic proscriptions.", "They are often mentioned in the early history of Islam and may have been copied from India.In Europe, during the High Middle Ages, flags came to be used primarily as a heraldic device in battle, allowing easier identification of a knight over only the heraldic icon painted on the shield.", "Already during the high medieval period, and increasingly during the Late Middle Ages, city states and communes such as those of the Old Swiss Confederacy also began to use flags as field signs.", "Regimental flags for individual units became commonplace during the Early Modern period.", "''Sujagi'' of Eo Jae-yeon, captured in 1871During the peak of the sailing age, beginning in the early 17th century, it was customary (and later a legal requirement) for ships to fly flags designating their nationality; these flags eventually evolved into the national flags and maritime flags of today.", "Flags also became the preferred means of communications at sea, resulting in various systems of flag signals; ''see, International maritime signal flags''.Use of flags beyond a military or naval context began with the rise of nationalism by the end of the 18th century, although some flags date back earlier.", "The flags of countries such as Austria, Denmark or Turkey have legendary origins while many others, including those of Poland and Switzerland, grew out of the heraldic emblems of the Middle Ages.", "The 17th century saw the birth of several national flags through revolutionary struggle.", "One of these was the flag of the Netherlands, which appeared during the 80-year Dutch rebellion which began in 1568 against Spanish domination.Political change and social reform, allied with a growing sense of nationhood among ordinary people, led to the creation of new nations and flags all over the world in the 19th and 20th centuries." ], [ "National flags", "Flags at half-mast outside Central Plaza, Hong Kong, after the 2008 Sichuan earthquake.", "The Flag of Saudi Arabia is exempted.Tribal flags at Meeting Place Monument/Flag Plaza at the Oklahoma State CapitolOne of the most popular uses of a flag is to symbolise a nation or country.", "Some national flags have been particularly inspirational to other nations, countries, or subnational entities in the design of their own flags.", "Some prominent examples include:The Danish national flag (Dannebrog) waving in Samsø * The flag of Denmark, the ''Dannebrog'', is attested in 1478, and is the oldest national flag still in use.", "It inspired the cross design of the other Nordic countries: Norway, Sweden, Iceland, Finland, and regional Scandinavian flags for the Faroe Islands, Åland, Scania and Bornholm, as well as flags for the non-Scandinavian Shetland and Orkney.", "* The flag of the Netherlands is the oldest tricolour.", "Its three colours of red, white and blue go back to Charlemagne's time, the ninth century.", "The coastal region of what today is the Netherlands was then known for its cloth in these colours.", "Maps from the early 16th century already put flags in these colours next to this region, like Texeira's map of 1520.A century before that, during the 15th century, the three colours were mentioned as the coastal signals for this area, with the three bands straight or diagonal, single or doubled.", "As state flag it first appeared around 1572 as the Prince's Flag in orange–white–blue.", "Soon the more famous red–white–blue began appearing, becoming the prevalent version from around 1630.Orange made a comeback during the civil war of the late 18th century, signifying the orangist or pro-stadtholder party.", "During World War II the pro-Nazi NSB used it.", "Any symbolism has been added later to the three colours, although the orange comes from the House of Orange-Nassau.", "This use of orange comes from Nassau, which today uses orange-blue, not from Orange, which today uses red-blue.", "However, the usual way to show the link with the House of Orange-Nassau is the orange pennant above the red-white-blue.", "It is said that the Dutch Tricolour has inspired many flags but most notably those of Russia, New York City, and South Africa (the 1928–94 flag as well the current flag).", "As the probable inspiration for the Russian flag, it is the source too for the pan-Slavic colours red, white and blue, adopted by many Slavic states and peoples as their symbols; examples are Slovakia, Serbia, and Slovenia.", "* The national flag of France was designed in 1794.As a forerunner of revolution, France's tricolour flag style has been adopted by other nations.", "Examples: Italy, Belgium, Ireland, Romania and Mexico.", "* The Union Flag (Union Jack) of the United Kingdom is the most commonly used.", "British colonies typically flew a flag based on one of the ensigns based on this flag, and many former colonies have retained the design to acknowledge their cultural history.", "Examples: Australia, Fiji, New Zealand, Tuvalu, and also the Canadian provinces of Manitoba, Ontario and British Columbia, and the American state of Hawaii; ''see commons:Flags based on British ensigns''.", "* The flag of the United States is nicknamed ''The Stars and Stripes'' or ''Old Glory''.", "Some nations imitated this flag to symbolise their similarity to the United States and/or the American Revolution.", "Examples: Liberia, Chile, Taiwan (ROC), and the French region of Brittany.The Flag of Ethiopia's colours inspired the colours of many African national flags.", "* Ethiopia was seen as a model by emerging African states of the 1950s and 1960s, as it was one of the oldest independent states in Africa.", "Accordingly, its flag became the source of the Pan-African colours, or 'Rasta colours'.", "Examples: Benin, Togo, Senegal, Ghana, Mali, Guinea.", "* The flag of Turkey, which is very similar to the last flag of the old Ottoman Empire, has been an inspiration for the flag designs of many other Muslim nations.", "During the time of the Ottomans the crescent began to be associated with Islam and this is reflected on the flags of Algeria, Azerbaijan, Comoros, Libya, Mauritania, Pakistan, Tunisia and Maldives.", "* The Pan-Arab colours, green, white, red and black, are derived from the flag of the Great Arab Revolt as seen on the flags of Jordan, Libya, Kuwait, Sudan, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, Western Sahara, Egypt, Iraq, Yemen and Palestine.", "* The Soviet flag, with its golden symbols of the hammer and sickle on a red field, was an inspiration to flags of other communist states, such as East Germany, the People's Republic of China, Vietnam, Angola, Afghanistan (1978–1980) and Mozambique.", "* The flag of Venezuela, created by Francisco de Miranda to represent the independence movement in Venezuela that later gave birth to the Gran Colombia, inspired the flags of Colombia, Ecuador, and the Federal Territories in Malaysia, all sharing three bands of yellow, blue and red with the flag of Venezuela.", "* The flag of Argentina, created by Manuel Belgrano during the war of independence, was the inspiration for the United Provinces of Central America's flag, which in turn was the origin for the flags of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua.National flag designs are often used to signify nationality in other forms, such as flag patches.===Civil flags===A ''civil'' flag is a version of the national flag that is flown by civilians on non-government installations or craft.", "The use of civil flags was more common in the past, in order to denote buildings or ships that were not crewed by the military.", "In some countries the civil flag is the same as the war flag or state flag, but without the coat of arms, such as in the case of Spain, and in others it is an alteration of the war flag.===War flags===Standard for the UK's Royal Air Force, the Ensign of the RAF displays the RAF roundel that is also displayed on the fuselage and wings of British warplanes.Several countries, including the Royal Air Force, British Army and the Royal Navy (White Ensign) of the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union have had unique flags flown by their armed forces separately, rather than the national flag.Other countries' armed forces (such as those of the United States or Switzerland) use their standard national flag; in addition, the U.S. has alongside flags and seals designed from long tradition for each of its six uniformed military services/military sub-departments in the Department of Defense and the Department of Homeland Security.", "The Philippines' armed forces may use their standard national flag, but during times of war the flag is turned upside down.", "Bulgaria's flag is also turned upside down during times of war.", "These are also considered war flags, though the terminology only applies to the flag's military usage.Large versions of the war flag flown on the warships of countries' navies are known as battle ensigns.", "In addition, besides flying the national standard or a military services' emblem flag at a military fort, base, station or post and at sea at the stern (rear) or main top mast of a warship, a Naval Jack flag and other maritime flags, pennants and emblems are flown at the bow (front).", "In times of war waving a white flag is a banner of truce, talks/negotiations or surrender.Four distinctive African flags currently in the collection of the National Maritime Museum in Britain were flown in action by Itsekiri ships under the control of Nana Olomu during the conflict in the late 19th century.", "One is the flag generally known as the Benin Empire flag and one is referred to as Nana Olomu's flag.===International flags===The Flag of the United Nations, sky blue field with north polar view looking down on a world map in white with two olive branches wreaths curved around.", "First version presented April–June 1945 to the United Nations Organization (UNO) at the San Francisco Conference, second version adopted by the U.N., December 1946Among international flags are the United Nations, Europe, Olympic, NATO and Paralympic flags." ], [ "Maritime flags", "Ensigns are flown on boats to indicate the country of registration of the boat.Flags are particularly important at sea, where they can mean the difference between life and death, and consequently where the rules and regulations for the flying of flags are strictly enforced.", "A national flag flown at sea is known as an ensign.", "A courteous, peaceable merchant ship or yacht customarily flies its ensign (in the usual ensign position), together with the flag of whatever nation it is currently visiting at the mast (known as a courtesy flag).", "To fly one's ensign alone in foreign waters, a foreign port or in the face of a foreign warship traditionally indicates a willingness to fight, with cannon, for the right to do so.", ", this custom is still taken seriously by many naval and port authorities and is readily enforced in many parts of the world by boarding, confiscation and other civil penalties.", "In some countries yacht ensigns are different from merchant ensigns in order to signal that the yacht is not carrying cargo that requires a customs declaration.", "Carrying commercial cargo on a boat with a yacht ensign is deemed to be smuggling in many jurisdictions.", "Traditionally, a vessel flying under the courtesy flag of a specific nation, regardless of the vessel's country of registry, is considered to be operating under the law of her 'host' nation.The international maritime signal flag ''Kilo'' (letter ''K'')There is a system of international maritime signal flags for numerals and letters of the alphabet.", "Each flag or pennant has a specific meaning when flown individually.", "As well, semaphore flags can be used to communicate on an ''ad hoc'' basis from ship to ship over short distances.Another category of maritime flag flown by some United States government ships is the distinctive mark.", "Although the United States Coast Guard has its own service ensign, all other U.S. government ships fly the national ensign their service ensign, following United States Navy practice.", "To distinguish themselves from ships of the Navy, such ships historically have flown their parent organisation's flag from a forward mast as a distinctive mark.", "Today, for example, commissioned ships of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) fly the NOAA flag as a distinctive mark." ], [ "Shapes and designs", "The flag of Nepal, a non-rectangular flag that is a double-pennonThe Ohio flag, a pennonThe flag of Mauritania, a yellow crescent and star on a green field between two red stripes.Flags are usually rectangular in shape (often in the ratio 2:3, 1:2, or 3:5), but may be of any shape or size that is practical for flying, including square, triangular, or swallow tailed.", "A more unusual flag shape is that of the flag of Nepal, which is in the shape of two stacked triangles.", "Other unusually shaped flags include the civil flags of Ohio (a swallowtail); Tampa, Florida; and Pike County, Ohio.Many flags are dyed through and through to be inexpensive to manufacture, such that the reverse side is the mirror image of the obverse (front) side, generally the side displayed when, from the observer's point of view, the flag flies from pole-side left to right.", "This presents two possibilities:# If the design is symmetrical in an axis parallel to the flag pole, obverse and reverse will be identical despite the mirror-reversal, such as the Indian Flag or Canadian Flag# If not, the obverse and reverse will present two variants of the same design, one with the hoist on the left (usually considered the obverse side), the other with the hoist on the right (usually considered the reverse side of the flag).", "This is very common and usually not disturbing if there is no text in the design.Some complex flag designs are not intended to be shown on both sides, requiring separate obverse and reverse sides if made correctly.", "In these cases there is a design element (usually text) which is not symmetric and should be read in the same direction, regardless of whether the hoist is to the viewer's left or right.", "These cases can be divided into two types:# The same (asymmetric) design may be duplicated on both sides.", "Such flags can be manufactured by creating two identical through and through flags and then sewing them back to back, though this can affect the resulting combination's responsiveness to the wind.", "Depictions of such flags may be marked with the symbol File:IFIS Equal.svg, indicating the reverse is congruent to (rather than a mirror image of) the obverse.# Rarely, the reverse design may differ, in whole or in part, from that of the obverse.", "Examples of flags whose reverse differs from the obverse include the flag of Paraguay, the flag of Oregon, and the historical flag of the Soviet Union.", "Depictions of such flags may be marked with the symbol File:IFIS Two-sided.svg.The flag of Kiribati, a banner of arms Common designs on flags include crosses, stripes, and divisions of the surface, or ''field'', into bands or quarters—patterns and principles mainly derived from heraldry.", "A heraldic coat of arms may also be flown as a banner of arms, as is done on both the state flag of Maryland and the flag of Kiribati.The ''de jure'' flag of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi, which consisted of a rectangular field of green, was for a long period the only national flag using a single colour and no design or insignia.", "However, other historical states have also used flags without designs or insignia, such as the short-lived Soviet Republic of Hungary and the more recent Sultanate of Muscat and Oman, whose flags were both a plain field of red.Colours are normally described with common names, such as \"red\", but may be further specified using colourimetry.The largest flag flown from a flagpole worldwide, according to Guinness World Records, is the flag of the United Arab Emirates flown in Sharjah.", "This flag was .", "The largest flag ever made was the flag of Qatar; the flag, which measures at , was completed in December 2013 in Doha.===Parts of a flag===The general parts of a flag are: canton (the upper inner section of the flag), field or ground (the entire flag except the canton), the hoist (the edge used to attach the flag to the hoist), and the fly (the furthest edge from the hoist end).===Vertical flags===Vertical flags are sometimes used in lieu of the standard horizontal flag in central and eastern Europe, particularly in the German-speaking countries.", "This practice came about because the relatively brisk wind needed to display horizontal flags is not common in these countries.upright=1.25The standard '''horizontal flag''' (no.", "1 in the preceding illustration) is nonetheless the form most often used even in these countries.Vertical flags seen in SwitzerlandThe '''vertical flag''' (German: ''Hochformatflagge'' or ''Knatterflagge''; no.", "2) is a vertical form of the standard flag.", "The flag's design may remain unchanged (No.", "2a) or it may change, e.g.", "by changing horizontal stripes to vertical ones (no.", "2b).", "If the flag carries an emblem, it may remain centred or may be shifted slightly upwards.The '''vertical flag for hoisting from a beam''' (German: ''Auslegerflagge'' or ''Galgenflagge''; no.", "3) is additionally attached to a horizontal beam, ensuring that it is fully displayed even if there is no wind.The '''vertical flag for hoisting from a horizontal pole''' (German: ''Hängeflagge''; no.", "4) is hoisted from a horizontal pole, normally attached to a building.", "The topmost stripe on the horizontal version of the flag faces away from the building.The '''vertical flag for hoisting from a crossbar''' or banner (German: ''Bannerflagge''; no.", "5) is firmly attached to a horizontal crossbar from which it is hoisted, either by a vertical pole (no.", "5a) or a horizontal one (no.", "5b).", "The topmost stripe on the horizontal version of the flag normally faces to the left." ], [ "Religious flags", "Flags can play many different roles in religion.", "In Buddhism, prayer flags are used, usually in sets of five differently coloured flags.", "Several flags and banners including the Black Standard are associated with Islam.", "Many national flags and other flags include religious symbols such as the cross, the crescent, or a reference to a patron saint.", "Flags are also adopted by religious groups and flags such as the Jain flag, Nishan Sahib (Sikhism), the Saffron flag (Hindu) and the Christian flag are used to represent a whole religion.File:Pro2.2.jpg|Poland (Gorzów Wlkp.).", "Religious flagsFile:Christian flag.svg|Christian flag adopted by several Protestant denominationsFile:In-jain.svg|Jain flag (on occasion, the bottom black bar is replaced with a dark blue one)File:Flag of Buddhism.svg|Buddhist flagFile:Nishan Sahib.svg|Nishan Sahib (the Sikh flag)" ], [ "In sports", "Because of their ease of signalling and identification, flags are often used in sports.", "* In association football, linesmen carry small flags along the touch lines.", "They use the flags to indicate to the referee potential infringements of the laws, or who is entitled to possession of the ball that has gone out of the field of play, or, most famously, raising the flag to indicate an offside offence.", "Officials called ''touch judges'' use flags for similar purposes in both codes of rugby.", "* In American and Canadian football, referees use penalty flags to indicate that a foul has been committed in game play.", "The phrase used for such an indication is ''flag on the play''.", "The flag itself is a small, weighted handkerchief, tossed on the field at the approximate point of the infraction; the intent is usually to sort out the details after the current play from scrimmage has concluded.", "In American football, the flag is yellow; in Canadian football the flag is orange, but at the professional level the flag is yellow.", "In both the Canadian Football League and National Football League, coaches also use red challenge flags to indicate that they wish to contest a ruling on the field.", "* In yacht racing, flags are used to communicate information from the race committee boat to the racers.", "Different flags hoisted from the committee boat may communicate a false start, changes in the course, a cancelled race, or other important information.", "Racing boats themselves may also use flags to symbolise a protest or distress.", "The flags are often part of the nautical alphabetic system of International maritime signal flags, in which 26 different flags designate the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet.car race * In auto and motorcycle racing, racing flags are used to communicate with drivers.", "Most famously, a checkered flag of black and white squares indicates the end of the race, and victory for the leader.", "A yellow flag is used to indicate caution requiring slow speed and a red flag requires racers to stop immediately.", "A black flag is used to indicate penalties.", ":* In addition, fans of almost all sports wave flags in the stands to indicate their support for the participants.", "Many sports teams have their own flags, and, in individual sports, fans will indicate their support for a player by waving the flag of his or her home country.", "* Capture the flag is a popular children's sport.", "* In Gaelic football and Hurling a green flag is used to indicate a goal while a white flag is used to indicate a point* In Australian rules football, the goal umpire will wave two flags to indicate a goal (worth six points) and a single flag to indicate a behind (worth one point).", "* For safety, dive flags indicate the locations of underwater scuba divers or that diving operations are being conducted in the vicinity.", "* In water sports such as wakeboarding and Water-Skiing, an orange flag is held in between runs to indicate someone is in the water.", "* In golf, the hole is almost always marked with a flag.", "The flagpole is designed to fit centered within the base of the hole and is removable.", "Many courses will use colour-coded flags to determine a hole location at the front, middle or rear of the green.", "However, colour-coded flags are not used in the professional tours.", "(A rare example of a golf course that does not use flags to mark the hole is the East Course of Merion Golf Club, which instead uses flagpoles topped by wicker baskets.", ")* Flag poles with flags of all shapes and sizes are used by marching bands, drum corps, and winter guard teams use flags as a method of visual enhancement in performances." ], [ "Diplomatic flags", "Some countries use diplomatic flags, such as the United Kingdom (see image of the Embassy flag) and the Kingdom of Thailand (see image of the Embassy flag).The socialist movement uses red flags to represent their cause.", "The anarchist movement has a variety of different flags, but the primary flag associated with them is the black flag.", "In the Spanish Civil War, the anarchists used the red-and-black bisected flag.", "In the 20th century, the rainbow flag was adopted as a symbol of the LGBT social movements.", "Its derivatives include the Bisexual pride and Transgender pride flags.Some of these political flags have become national flags, such as the red flag of the Soviet Union and national socialist banners for Nazi Germany.", "The present Flag of Portugal is based on what had been the political flag of the Portuguese Republican Party previous to the 5 October 1910 revolution which brought this party to power." ], [ "Personal flags", "Personal flag of Queen Elizabeth II Throughout history, monarchs have often had personal flags (including royal standards), representing the royal person, including in personal union of national monarchies." ], [ "Vehicle flags", "Flags are often representative of an individual's affinity or allegiance to a country, team or business and can be presented in various ways.", "A popular trend that has surfaced revolves around the idea of the 'mobile' flag in which an individual displays their particular flag of choice on their vehicle.", "These items are commonly referred to as car flags and are usually manufactured from high strength polyester material and are attached to a vehicle via a polypropylene pole and clip window attachment." ], [ "Swimming flags", "Open swimming areaClosed swimming areaRed flag at a beach in Ireland, indicating that the water is not safe for swimmingIn Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the Philippines, Ireland and the United Kingdom, a pair of red-yellow flags is used to mark the limits of the bathing area on a beach, usually guarded by surf lifesavers.", "If the beach is closed, the poles of the flags are crossed.", "The flags are coloured with a red triangle and a yellow triangle making a rectangular flag, or a red rectangle over a yellow rectangle.", "On many Australian beaches there is a slight variation with beach condition signalling.", "A red flag signifies a closed beach (in the UK also other dangers), yellow signifies strong current or difficult swimming conditions, and green represents a beach safe for general swimming.", "In Ireland, a red and yellow flag indicates that it is safe to swim; a red flag that it is unsafe; and no flag indicates that there are no lifeguards on duty.", "Blue flags may also be used away from the yellow-red lifesaver area to designate a zone for surfboarding and other small, non-motorised watercraft.Reasons for closing the beach include:* dangerous rip* hurricane warning* no lifeguards in attendance* overpolluted water* sharks* tsunami* waves too strongA surf flag exists, divided into four quadrants.", "The top left and bottom right quadrants are black, and the remaining area is white.Signal flag \"India\" (a black circle on a yellow square) is frequently used to denote a \"blackball\" zone where surfboards cannot be used but other water activities are permitted." ], [ "Railway flags", "Railways use a number of coloured flags.", "When used as wayside signals they usually use the following meanings (exact meanings are set by the individual railroad company):* red = stop* yellow = proceed with caution* green or white = proceed.", "* a flag of any colour waved vigorously means stop* a blue flag on the side of a locomotive means that it should not be moved because someone is working on it (or on the train attached to it).", "A blue flag on a track means that nothing on that track should be moved.", "The flag can only be removed by the person or group that placed it.", "In the railway dominated steel industry this principle of \"blue flag and tag\" was extended to all operations at Bethlehem Steel, Lackawanna, New York.", "If a man went inside a large machine or worked on an electrical circuit for example, his blue flag and tag was sacrosanct.", "The \"Lock Out/Tag Out\" practice is similar and now used in other industries to comply with safety regulations.At night, the flags are replaced with lanterns showing the same colours.Flags displayed on the front of a moving locomotive are an acceptable replacement for classification lights and usually have the following meanings (exact meanings are set by the individual railroad company):* white = extra (not on the timetable)* green = another section following* red = last sectionAdditionally, a railroad brakeman will typically carry a red flag to make his or her hand signals more visible to the engineer.", "Railway signals are a development of railway flags." ], [ "Flagpoles", "One of the two 60-foot-tall flagpoles in the Siena Cathedral.", "During the battle of Montaperti (1260), Bocca degli Abati, a Sienese spy, brought Florence's flag down, causing panic among the Florentine soldiers and ultimately their defeat.A flagpole, flagmast, flagstaff, or staff can be a simple support made of wood or metal.", "If it is taller than can be easily reached to raise the flag, a cord is used, looping around a pulley at the top of the pole with the ends tied at the bottom.", "The flag is fixed to one lower end of the cord, and is then raised by pulling on the other end.", "The cord is then tightened and tied to the pole at the bottom.", "The pole is usually topped by a flat plate or ball called a \"truck\" (originally meant to keep a wooden pole from splitting) or a finial in a more complex shape.", "Very high flagpoles may require more complex support structures than a simple pole, such as a guyed mast.Dwajasthambam are flagpoles commonly found at the entrances of South Indian Hindu temples.===Record heights===The former flagpole in Kew Gardens, taken shortly before its removal in 2007Since 26 December 2021, the tallest free-standing flagpole in the world is the Cairo Flagpole, located in the New Administrative Capital under construction in Egypt at a height of , exceeding the former record holders, the Jeddah Flagpole in Saudi Arabia (height: ), the Dushanbe Flagpole in Tajikistan (height: ) and the National Flagpole in Azerbaijan (height: ).", "The flagpole in North Korea is the fourth tallest flagpole in the world, however, it is not free-standing.", "It is a radio tower supported flagpole.", "Many of these were built by American company Trident Support: the Dushanbe Flagpole, the National Flagpole in Azerbaijan, the Ashgabat flagpole in Turkmenistan at ; the Aqaba Flagpole in Jordan at ; the Raghadan Flagpole in Jordan at ; and the Abu Dhabi Flagpole in the United Arab Emirates at .The current tallest flagpole in India (and the tallest flying the tricolour) is the flagpole in Belgaum, Karnataka which was first hoisted on 12 March 2018.The tallest flagpole in the United Kingdom from 1959 until 2013 stood in Kew Gardens.", "It was made from a Canadian Douglas-fir tree and was in height.The current tallest flagpole in the United States (and the tallest flying an American flag) is the pole completed before Memorial Day 2014 and custom-made with an base in concrete by wind turbine manufacturer Broadwind Energy.", "It is situated on the north side of the Acuity Insurance headquarters campus along Interstate 43 in Sheboygan, Wisconsin, and is visible from Cedar Grove.", "The pole can fly a 220-pound flag in light wind conditions and a heavier 350-pound flag in higher wind conditions.===Design===Flagpoles can be designed in one piece with a taper (typically a steel taper or a Greek entasis taper), or be made from multiple pieces to make them able to expand.", "In the United States, ANSI/NAAMM guide specification FP-1001-97 covers the engineering design of metal flagpoles to ensure safety.File:Bickleigh , Bickleigh Maize Maze - Flagpole - geograph.org.uk - 1223767.jpg|Flagpole of modest size, with simple truckFile:New Zealand flag at Auckland Airport.jpg|Large flagpole, showing structured truck (New Zealand)File:Two official flags of New Caledonia on same flagpole.png|New Caledonia has two flags, flown here in Nouméa, the capital city, on a single flagpole with a crossbarFile:Thanjavur periya kovil-tamil nadu.JPG|Dwajasthambam (flagpole) at Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India" ], [ "Hoisting the flag", "Flag of Australia at a flag-hoisting ceremony on Australian Citizenship Day 2011Hoisting the flag is the act of raising the flag on the flagpole.", "Raising or lowering flags, especially national flags, usually involves ceremonies and certain sets of rules, depending on the country, and usually involve the performance of a national anthem.A flag-raising squad is a group of people, usually troops, cadets, or students, that march in and bring the flags for the flag-hoisting ceremony.", "Flag-hoisting ceremonies involving flag-raising squads can be simple or elaborate, involving large numbers of squads.", "Elaborate flag-hoisting ceremonies are usually performed on national holidays.The cord or rope that ties a flag to its pole is called a halyard.", "Flags may have a strip of fabric along the hoist side called a ''heading'' for the halyard to pass through, or a pair of grommets for the halyard to be threaded through.", "Flags may also be held in position using Inglefield clips." ], [ "Flags in communication", "Semaphore signals for the letters of the English alphabetSemaphore is a form of communication that utilises flags.", "The signalling is performed by an individual using two flags (or lighted wands), the positions of the flags indicating a symbol.", "The person who holds the flags is known as the signalman.", "This form of communication is primarily used by naval signallers.", "This technique of signalling was adopted in the early 19th century and is still used in various forms today.The colours of the flags can also be used to communicate.", "For example; a white flag means, among other things, surrender or peace, a red flag can be used as a warning signal, and a black flag can mean war, or determination to defeat enemies.Orientation of a flag is also used for communication, though the practice is rarely used given modern communication systems.", "Raising a flag upside-down was indicative that the raising force controlled that particular area, but that it was in severe distress." ], [ "See also", ";Lists and galleries of flags* Gallery of sovereign state flags* List of flag names* Lists of flags* Timeline of national flags;Notable flag-related topics* Flag families* False flag* Flag Day* Flag desecration* Flag protocol* Flag patch* Flag semaphore* Flag throwing* Glossary of vexillology* Pledge of Allegiance (United States)* Standard-bearer (also enumerates various types of standards, both flag types and immobile ensigns)* Vexillology* Flags of the World, an Internet-based vexillological association and resource* Windsock" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "*Inglefield, Eric (1979 edition).", "''Flags''.", "Ward Lock, London." ], [ "External links", "* International Marine Signal Flags" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Father Dougal McGuire" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Father Dougal McGuire''' is a character in the Channel 4 sitcom ''Father Ted''.", "Created by Arthur Mathews and Graham Linehan, Dougal was portrayed by comedian Ardal O'Hanlon for the programme's three series.", "The character is a childlike, simple-minded Roman Catholic curate exiled to Craggy Island, a small island off the coast of Galway.Dougal originated as an unseen character in a short-lived stand-up routine performed by Mathews in the late 1980s.", "Portraying an early version of Father Ted Crilly on-stage, Mathews occasionally discussed Dougal as one of Ted's great friends.", "In 1994, the writers took ''Father Ted'' to television, casting O'Hanlon as the on-screen Dougal.", "In a 2001 poll conducted by Channel 4, Dougal was ranked fifth on their list of the 100 Greatest TV Characters." ], [ "Concept and creation", "Arthur Mathews created the character of Father Ted while working at ''Hot Press'' in 1987–89.During production weekends, he and Paul Woodfull had the idea for The Joshua Trio, a comedic U2 tribute band.", "The band performed various warm-up sketches written by Mathews, Woodfull, and Graham Linehan, who joined in a non-musical capacity.", "These sketches included stand-up performed by Mathews in-character as Father Ted Crilly.", "As Ted, Mathews sometimes read from a book, ''Notes from Africa'', purportedly written by Father Dougal McGuire, a missionary friend who described his experiences of being attacked and chased by natives.", "In one sketch, Ted discussed his concern for Dougal, who had been voted Most Unpopular Priest in Africa for two years running and was spending Christmas up a tree in the grounds of The Bob Geldof Centre.In 1990, Linehan and Mathews began writing ''Irish Lives'', a six-part comedy television series.", "The show would have taken the form of a mockumentary, with each episode focusing on interviewing a different character, one of whom was Father Ted Crilly.", "The story involved Ted returning to his seminary to catch up with old friends.", "When producer Geoffrey Perkins asked Linehan and Mathews to discard the mockumentary format and expand the Father Ted episode to a traditional sitcom, Father Dougal became one of the main characters.", "When writing Dougal, Linehan and Mathews drew on Stan Laurel, incorporating some of Linehan's own behaviour during moments of confusion." ], [ "Casting", "Linehan and Mathews saw O'Hanlon in a modernised Shakespeare play broadcast by RTÉ, and were impressed by the \"weird, gormless\" face he could pull.", "Linehan later said, \"That was Dougal right there.", "He was just spot-on and he became our secret weapon.", "The show took off so quickly because Ardal was so instantly funny.\"", "The writers have said that the only other actor they feel might have worked in the role is Don Wycherley, who plays Dougal's Rugged Island counterpart, Father Cyril McDuff, in the show.There have been several attempts to remake the show for American audiences.", "In 2004, it was reported that Graham Norton (who played Father Noel Furlong in ''Father Ted'') had signed on to play Dougal alongside Steve Martin as Ted.", "No remake has yet entered production, as of 2023." ], [ "Fictional character biography", "References to Dougal's family are rare.", "In \"Grant Unto Him Eternal Rest\", he mentions that his parents are dead, and also refers to an uncle who died after his heart stopped beating for a week.", "It is unclear how Dougal entered the priesthood, with Ted wondering, \"Dougal, how did you get into the Church?", "Was it, like, collect twelve crisp packets and become a priest?", "\"Dougal is dim-witted and childlike.", "In \"Chirpy Burpy Cheap Sheep\", it is revealed that Ted has made him write a list of things that do not exist, which is on a pull-down chart in their bedroom.", "Often he says things that Ted specifically told him not to say, such as by asking about Bishop Brennan's son, as well as shouting to Ted to ask if the Bishop found a large number of rabbits that they are hiding in the parochial house (fortunately for Ted, the bishop was more concerned about Dougal addressing him by his first name instead of using his proper title).", "In \"The Mainland\", he forgets to have any breakfast and fails to realise this until he and Ted are waiting for Father Jack at the optician.", "He also nearly gives a visiting bishop a heart attack when he screams in excitement after remembering the director's cut of ''Aliens'' is airing on television that night.Sometimes he talks more sense, however, such as when Ted inadvertently winds up his unravelled jumper upon discovering that it could provide a way out, and he asks what use it will be when all wound up.", "In \"Kicking Bishop Brennan Up the Arse\", he suggests that Ted use his fear of Bishop Brennan to his advantage to carry out the forfeit he was assigned by his rival, and to get Bishop Brennan into position, draws a crude watercolour painting on the skirting board, depicting a man wearing a bishop's hat.By the time the show begins, Dougal has been exiled to Craggy Island as punishment for unknown misdeeds.", "In an early interview, the writers stated that it involved \"a baptism gone wrong\".", "In \"The Passion of Saint Tibulus\", Bishop Brennan says that Dougal cannot be allowed back into \"the real world\" after \"the Blackrock incident\", in which hundreds of nuns' lives were \"irreparably damaged\".In \"A Christmassy Ted\", Dougal performs a funeral that Ted was meant to do, but forgot about.", "Ted is alarmed to learn from Mrs Doyle that Dougal is performing a funeral, and the consequences of Dougal performing the funeral are predictably disastrous.Bishop Brennan despises Dougal, at one point referring to him as a \"cabbage\".", "He also does not take kindly to Dougal calling him \"Len\", often shouting profanity at him when he does.Dougal is famously known for wearing an Irish football jersey when he is in bed.", "He and Ted share a bedroom, but owing to his childlike nature Dougal does not sleep with a normal blanket like Ted; instead he sleeps with a child's cartoon character bedspread (specifically ''Masters of the Universe'').On the Channel 4 website for Father Ted, the profile for Father Dougal states that 'Dougal was relegated to the island after an unfortunate incident on a SeaLink ferry that put the lives of hundreds of nuns in danger.", "'In \"Old Grey Whistle Theft\", Dougal mentions that he is 25 years old (soon to be 26)." ], [ "Personality", "In the 2011 documentary ''Unintelligent Design'', Linehan said that Dougal had been conceived as a cross between wide-eyed bartender Woody in ''Cheers'' and roadsweeper Trigger in ''Only Fools and Horses''.", "In another interview, they mentioned Latka Gravas from ''Taxi'' as an influence and compared the relationship between Ted and Dougal to that between Don Quixote and Sancho Panza: \"Alongside the wily priest who would lie at the drop of a hat we wanted a gormless idiot who was the very model of innocence.", "\"For his portrayal of Dougal, O'Hanlon turned to Laurel and Hardy and ''Fawlty Towers''s bumbling waiter Manuel.", "O'Hanlon also drew inspiration from his child sister, as well as dogs, explaining: \"Dougal had to be more than just stupid.", "He had to be otherworldly and very, very strange.", "I saw Dougal as very doglike, very puppyish and lovable, and really loyal to Ted.\"" ], [ "Reception and legacy", "After the first episode aired, Ben Thompson of ''The Independent'' singled out O'Hanlon as \"the real star of the show\", and said that Dougal's \"holy-fool innocence\" as \"worthy of James Stewart\".", "Writing for the ''Irish Examiner'', Ed Power said that while the \"meme-worthy\" Dougal and Jack received the most attention at the time of broadcast, Morgan's straight-man performance was the highlight in retrospect.", "Morgan attributed the show's success to the appealing double-act formed by Dougal, \"an idiot who knows nothing\", and Ted, \"an idiot who thinks he knows something but actually knows nothing.", "\"As testament to the character's enduring popularity, Irish bookmakers humorously began collecting bets on whether Dougal would succeed Pope John Paul II upon his death.", "The odds were 1,000-1 (better odds than some genuine candidates), and some small stakes were actually received.In 2001, O'Hanlon reprised the role of Dougal for a series of PBS advertisements to coincide with ''Father Ted''s American broadcast; these segments were included on later DVD releases as \"Fundraising with Father Dougal\"." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Flores" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Flores''' is one of the Lesser Sunda Islands, a group of islands in the eastern half of Indonesia.", "Including Komodo Island off its west coast (but excluding the Solor Archipelago to the east of Flores), the land area is 15,530.58 km2, and the population was 1,878,875 in the 2020 Census (including various offshore islands); the official estimate as of mid-2022 was 1,919,395.The largest towns are Maumere and Ende.", "The name ''Flores'' is of Portuguese origin, meaning \"Flowers\".Flores is located east of Sumbawa and the Komodo Islands, and west of the Solor Islands and the Alor Archipelago.", "To the southeast is Timor.", "To the south, across the Sumba Strait, is Sumba Island, and to the north, beyond the Flores Sea, is Sulawesi.Among all islands containing Indonesian territory, Flores is the 10th most populous after Java, Sumatra, Borneo (Kalimantan), Sulawesi, New Guinea, Bali, Madura, Lombok, and Timor and also the 10th biggest island of Indonesia.Until the arrival of modern humans, Flores was inhabited by ''Homo floresiensis'', a small archaic human." ], [ "Etymology", "Unlike most islands in the Indonesian archipelago, the modern name ''Flores'' was given by the Portuguese, from ''Cabo das Flores'' (Cape of Flowers), the Portuguese term for the eastern part of the island.", "This part of the island, originally called Kopondai, was so named by the Portuguese because of the flowering ''Delonix regia'' trees found there.", "The original name of Flores was ''Nipa'', referring to the serpent." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory===Before the arrival of modern humans, Flores was occupied by ''Homo floresiensis'', a small archaic human.", "The ancestors of ''Homo floresiensis'' arrived on the island between 1.3 and 1 million years ago.Remains of nine individuals have been found, and the dominant consensus is that these remains do represent a distinct species due to anatomical differences from modern humans.", "The most recent evidence shows that ''Homo floresiensis'' likely became extinct 50,000 years ago, around the time of modern human arrival to the archipelago.===Modern history===Ende, Flores.Flores was most likely first inhabited by Melanesians at least since 30,000 BC.", "This is shown in their DNA results which mirror those of Maluku and East Timor which are around half Melanesian and half Austronesian.Portuguese traders and missionaries came to Flores in the 16th century, mainly to Larantuka and Sikka.", "Their influence is still discernible in Sikka's language, culture, and religion.", "The first Portuguese visit took place in 1511, through the expedition of António de Abreu and his vice-captain Francisco Serrão, en route through the Sunda islands.The Dominican order played an important role on this island, as well as on the neighbouring islands of Timor and Solor.", "When the Dutch attacked the Fortress of Solor in 1613, the population of the fort, led by the Dominicans, moved to the harbor town of Larantuka on the eastern coast of Flores.", "This population was mixed, of Portuguese and local islander descent and Larantuqueiros, Topasses, or, as the Dutch knew them, the 'Black Portuguese' (Zwarte Portugezen).The Larantuqueiros or Topasses became the dominant sandalwood trading people of the region for the next 200 years.", "This group used Portuguese as the language for worship, Malay as the language of trade, and a mixed dialect as the mother tongue.", "This was observed by William Dampier, an English privateer visiting the Island in 1699:In the western part of Flores, the Manggarai came under the control of the Sultanate of Bima, in eastern Sumbawa; the Dutch effectively established their administration over western Flores in 1907 while in 1929, the Bimanese sultanate ceded any control over Manggarai.In 1846, the Dutch and Portuguese initiated negotiations towards delimiting the territories but these negotiations led nowhere.", "In 1851 Lima Lopes, the new governor of Timor, Solor and Flores, agreed to sell eastern Flores and the nearby islands to the Dutch in return for a payment of 200,000 Florins to support his impoverished administration.", "Lima Lopes did so without the consent of Lisbon and was dismissed in disgrace, but his agreement was not rescinded and in 1854 Portugal ceded all its historical claims on Flores.", "After this, Flores became part of the territory of the Dutch East Indies.During World War II a Japanese invasion force landed at Reo on 14 May 1942 and occupied Flores.", "After the war, Flores became part of independent Indonesia.On 12 December 1992, an earthquake measuring 7.8 on the Richter scale killed 2,500 people in and around Maumere, including islands off the north coast.In 2017 two men were killed in Flores due to land disputes between warrior clans; the Mbehel, a West Manggarai mountain tribe, and the Rangko from Sulawesi island who helped build Manggarai and were given land near Labuan Bajo by the Manggarai king." ], [ "Administration", "fishing boats on FloresFlores is part of the East Nusa Tenggara province.", "The island along with smaller minor islands is split into eight regencies (local government divisions); from west to east these are Manggarai Barat (West Manggarai), Manggarai (Central Manggarai), Manggarai Timur (East Manggarai), Ngada, Nagekeo, Ende, Sikka and part of Flores Timur (East Flores).", "Flores has 35.22% of the East Nusa Tenggara provincial population , and is the largest of all islands in the province, with the second-largest population (Timor has slightly more people).The eight regencies are listed below from east to west, with their areas and their populations at the 2010 Census and the 2020 Census, together with the official estimates as of mid-2022.Kode Wilayah Name ofCity orRegency Statute (including year established) Areainkm2 Pop'n 2010 Census Pop'n 2020 Census Pop'n mid-2022 Estimate Capital HDI2022 estimate 53.06 East Flores Regency (part)(Flores Timur) (a) UU 69/1958 Larantuka 0.6493 () 53.07 Sikka Regency UU 69/1958 Maumere 0.6606 () 53.08 Ende Regency UU 69/1958 Ende 0.6797 () 53.16 Nagekeo Regency UU 2/2007 Mbay 0.6622 () 53.09 Ngada Regency UU 69/1958 Bajawa 0.6826 () 53.19 East Manggarai Regency (Manggarai Timur) UU 36/2007 Borong 0.623 () 53.10 Manggarai Regency (Manggarai Tengah) UU 69/1958 Ruteng 0.6583 () 53.15 West Manggarai Regency (b) (Manggarai Barat) UU 8/2003 Labuan Bajo 0.6492 () '''Flores''' Notes: (a) only the eight districts of this regency actually on Flores Island are included in these figures; the three districts comprising Solor Island and the eight districts on Adonara Island are excluded.", "(b) West Manggarai Regency includes Komodo and Rinca islands off the west coast of Flores; these islands are part of a National Park and thus poorly inhabited.The main towns on Flores are Maumere, Ende, Ruteng, Larantuka, and Bajawa, listed with their populations as of mid-2022.", "* Maumere, 89,210 inhabitants* Ende, 87,599 inhabitants* Ruteng, 42,100 inhabitants* Larantuka, 41,884 inhabitants* Bajawa, 39,715 inhabitants" ], [ "Flora and fauna", "Komodo National ParkThe Komodo dragon is endemic to Flores and surrounding islands and has been continuously present on Flores for at least 1.4 million years.", "Today, it is confined to a handful of small areas on Flores itself.The endemic fauna of Flores includes some rats (Murinae), some of which are now extinct, ranging from small-sized forms such as ''Rattus hainaldi'', ''Paulamys'', and the Polynesian rat (which possibly originated on the island), medium-sized such as ''Komodomys'', and ''Hooijeromys'', and giant such as ''Spelaeomys'' and ''Papagomys,'' the largest species of which, the still living ''Papagomys armandvillei'' (Flores giant rat) is approximately the size of a rabbit, with a weight of up to 2.5 kilograms.Flores was also the habitat of several extinct dwarf forms of the proboscidean (elephant-relative) ''Stegodon'', the most recent (''Stegodon florensis insularis'') disappearing approximately 50,000 years ago.", "The island before modern human arrival was also inhabited by the giant stork ''Leptoptilos robustus'' and the vulture ''Trigonoceps''." ], [ "Seismology", "Flores Island is bounded by active tectonic regions, with the Sunda Trench to the south and the Flores back-arc thrust fault to the north.", "As a result, the island experiences many earthquakes each year and on occasion, tsunamis.", "The largest recorded earthquake in the region was the 1992 Flores earthquake and tsunami, a magnitude 7.8 event that caused Severe shaking on the Mercalli intensity scale.", "The Flores back-arc thrust is of particular interest to researchers as it is believed to accommodate the transition between the Sunda Trench in the west and the subduction of the Australian Plate in the east.", "The Flores Thrust is approximately 450 km long and consists of a deep rooted basal fault and many overlying imbricate thrust faults.", "The system is highly active, with more than 25 earthquakes of a magnitude 6 or above since 1960.In 2018, a large sequence of earthquakes (such as on the 5th of August and in July) in Lombok ruptured sections of the Flores Thrust.", "The dip of the main thrust fault of approximately 2-3° compared to the 3-4° dip of the subducting plate on the Sunda Trench leads some to believe that the fault could someday be the site of a subduction polarity reversal and begin subducting." ], [ "Culture", "Saint Angela Church in Labuan BajoThere are many languages spoken on the island of Flores, all of them belonging to the Austronesian family.", "In the west Manggarai is spoken; Riung, often classified as a dialect of Manggarai, is spoken in the north-central part of the island.", "In the centre of the island in the districts of Ngada, Nagekeo, and Ende there is what is variously called the Central Flores dialect chain or linkage.", "Within this area, there are slight linguistic differences in almost every village.", "At least six separate languages are identifiable.", "These are from west to east: Ngadha, Nage, Keo, Ende, Lio, and Palu'e, which is spoken on the island with the same name off the north coast of Flores.", "Locals would probably also add So'a and Bajawa to this list, which anthropologists have labeled dialects of Ngadha.", "To the east, Sika and Lamaholot can be found.===Religion===Jesus Statue in MaumereThe native peoples of Flores are mostly Roman Catholic Christians, whereas most other Indonesians are Muslim.", "As a consequence, Flores may be regarded as surrounded by a religious border.", "The prominence of Catholicism on the island resulted from its colonisation by Portugal in the east and early 20th-century support by the Dutch in the west.", "In other parts of Indonesia with significant Christian populations, such as the Maluku Islands and Sulawesi, the geographical divide is less rigid and Muslims and Christians sometimes live side by side.", "Flores thereby also has less religious violence than that which has sporadically occurred in other parts of Indonesia.", "There are several churches on the island.", "On 26 May 2019, Flores' St. Paul Catholic University of Indonesia was formally inaugurated by Indonesian Education Minister Mohamad Nasir, becoming the first Catholic University in Flores.", "Aside from Catholicism, Islam also has a presence on the island, especially in some coastal communities." ], [ "Tourism", "The most famous tourist attraction in Flores is the Kelimutu volcano, containing three colored lakes, located in the district of Ende close to the town of Moni, although there is also the Inierie volcano near Bajawa.", "These crater lakes are in the caldera of a volcano, and fed by a volcanic gas source, resulting in highly acidic water.", "The colored lakes change colors on an irregular basis, depending on the oxidation state of the lake from bright red to green and blue.There are snorkeling and diving locations along the north coast of Flores, most notably Maumere and Riung.", "However, due to the destructive practice of local fishermen using bombs to fish, and locals selling shells to tourists, combined with the after-effects of a devastating tsunami in 1992, the reefs have slowly been destroyed.Labuan Bajo, located on the western tip is often used by tourists as a base to visit Komodo and Rinca islands.", "Labuan Bajo also attracts scuba divers, as whale sharks inhabit the waters around Labuan Bajo.The Luba and Bena villages include traditional houses in Flores.", "Bena is also noted for its Stone Age megaliths.Larantuka, on the isle's eastern end, is known for its Holy Week festivals.In recent years, local tourist firms around Kelimutu have begun promoting cycling tours around Flores, some of which take up to five or six days depending on the particular program." ], [ "Economy", "In addition to tourism, the main economic activities on Flores are agriculture, fishing and seaweed production.", "The primary food crops being grown on Flores are rice, maize, sweet potato and cassava, while the main cash crops are coffee, coconut, candle nut and cashew.", "Flores is one of the newest origins for Indonesian coffee.", "Previously, most Arabica coffee (''Coffea arabica'') from Flores was blended with other origins.", "Now, demand is growing for this coffee because of its heavy body and sweet chocolate, floral and woody notes." ], [ "Gallery", "SundaIslands.A2003242.0225.500m.jpg|The Lesser Sunda Islands with Flores in the upper rightFlores Moni Kelimutu.jpg|KelimutuCOLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Ruines van een Portugees fort uit de 16e eeuw op Poelau Ende Midden-Flores TMnr 10001790.jpg|Ruins belonging to a Portuguese fort, dating from the 16th century near Ende.Ngada megalith.jpg|An ancient Ngada megalithBilanSina1.jpg|Dancers in WatublapiFile:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Man met hoofddoek en borstsieraden van een kampong te Flores TMnr 10005924.jpg|Villager with a headress and chest ornamentation" ], [ "Transport", "There are at least six airports in Flores distributed along the island, ordered from west to east:* Komodo Airport in Labuan Bajo* Frans Sales Lega Airport or Ruteng airport* Pahdamaleda Airport or Bajawa airport* Turelelo Soa Airport in Bajawa* H. Hasan Aroeboesman Airport or Ende airport* Frans Xavier Seda Airport or Maumere airport* Gewayantana Airport close to Larantuka city." ], [ "See also", "* Dutch Empire* Flores (Azores)* ''Homo floresiensis''* Kingdom of Larantuka* Manggarai people* Maunura* Nage tribe* Portuguese Empire* Simon Milward* Theodorus Verhoeven" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* *" ], [ "External links", "** * Flores & Komodo – History" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "First Punic War" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''First Punic War''' (264–241 BC) was the first of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean in the early 3rd century BC.", "For 23 years, in the longest continuous conflict and greatest naval war of antiquity, the two powers struggled for supremacy.", "The war was fought primarily on the Mediterranean island of Sicily and its surrounding waters, and also in North Africa.", "After immense losses on both sides, the Carthaginians were defeated.The war began in 264 BC with the Romans gaining a foothold on Sicily at Messana (modern Messina).", "The Romans then pressed Syracuse, the only significant independent power on the island, into allying with them and laid siege to Carthage's main base at Akragas.", "A large Carthaginian army attempted to lift the siege in 262 BC but was heavily defeated at the Battle of Akragas.", "The Romans then built a navy to challenge the Carthaginians', and using novel tactics inflicted several defeats.", "A Carthaginian base on Corsica was seized, but an attack on Sardinia was repulsed; the base on Corsica was then lost.", "Taking advantage of their naval victories the Romans launched an invasion of North Africa, which the Carthaginians intercepted.", "At the Battle of Cape Ecnomus the Carthaginians were again beaten; this was possibly the largest naval battle in history by the number of combatants involved.", "The invasion initially went well and in 255 BC the Carthaginians sued for peace; the proposed terms were so harsh they fought on, defeating the invaders.", "The Romans sent a fleet to evacuate their survivors and the Carthaginians opposed it at the Battle of Cape Hermaeum off Africa; the Carthaginians were heavily defeated.", "The Roman fleet, in turn, was devastated by a storm while returning to Italy, losing most of its ships and over 100,000 men.The war continued, with neither side able to gain a decisive advantage.", "The Carthaginians attacked and recaptured Akragas in 255 BC but, not believing they could hold the city, they razed and abandoned it.", "The Romans rapidly rebuilt their fleet, adding 220 new ships, and captured Panormus (modern Palermo) in 254 BC.", "The next year they lost 150 ships to a storm.", "In 251 BC the Carthaginians attempted to recapture Panormus, but were defeated in a battle outside the walls.", "Slowly the Romans had occupied most of Sicily; in 249 BC they besieged the last two Carthaginian strongholdsin the extreme west.", "They also launched a surprise attack on the Carthaginian fleet but were defeated at the Battle of Drepana.", "The Carthaginians followed up their victory and most of the remaining Roman warships were lost at the Battle of Phintias.", "After several years of stalemate, the Romans rebuilt their fleet again in 243 BC and effectively blockaded the Carthaginian garrisons.", "Carthage assembled a fleet that attempted to relieve them, but it was destroyed at the Battle of the Aegates Islands in 241 BC, forcing the cut-off Carthaginian troops on Sicily to negotiate for peace.A treaty was agreed.", "By its terms Carthage paid large reparations and Sicily was annexed as a Roman province.", "Henceforth Rome was the leading military power in the western Mediterranean, and increasingly the Mediterranean region as a whole.", "The immense effort of building 1,000 galleys during the war laid the foundation for Rome's maritime dominance for 600 years.", "The end of the war sparked a major but unsuccessful revolt within the Carthaginian Empire.", "The unresolved strategic competition between Rome and Carthage led to the eruption of the Second Punic War in 218 BC." ], [ "Primary sources", "The term ''Punic'' comes from the Latin word (or ), meaning \"Phoenician\", and is a reference to the Carthaginians' Phoenician ancestry.", "The main source for almost every aspect of the First Punic War is the historian Polybius ( –  BC), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage.", "His works include a now-lost manual on military tactics, but he is known today for ''The Histories'', written sometime after 146 BC or about a century after the end of the war.", "Polybius's work is considered broadly objective and largely neutral as between Carthaginian and Roman points of view.Carthaginian written records were destroyed along with their capital, Carthage, in 146 BC and so Polybius's account of the First Punic War is based on several, now-lost, Greek and Latin sources.", "Polybius was an analytical historian and wherever possible personally interviewed participants in the events he wrote about.", "Only the first book of the 40 comprising ''The Histories'' deals with the First Punic War.", "The accuracy of Polybius's account has been much debated over the past 150 years, but the modern consensus is to accept it largely at face value, and the details of the war in modern sources are almost entirely based on interpretations of Polybius's account.", "The modern historian Andrew Curry considers that \"Polybius turns out to be fairly reliable\"; while Craige B.", "Champion describes him as \"a remarkably well-informed, industrious, and insightful historian\".", "Other, later, histories of the war exist, but in fragmentary or summary form.", "Modern historians usually take into account the fragmentary writings of various Roman annalists, especially Livy (who relied on Polybius), the Sicilian Greek Diodorus Siculus, and the later Greek writers Appian and Cassius Dio.", "The classicist Adrian Goldsworthy states that \"Polybius' account is usually to be preferred when it differs with any of our other accounts\".", "Other sources include inscriptions, terrestrial archaeological evidence, and empirical evidence from reconstructions such as the trireme ''Olympias''.Since 2010, 19 bronze warship rams have been found by archaeologists in the sea off the west coast of Sicily, a mix of Roman and Carthaginian.", "Ten bronze helmets and hundreds of amphorae have also been found.", "The rams, seven of the helmets, and six intact amphorae, along with a large number of fragments, have since been recovered.", "It is believed the rams were each attached to a sunken warship when they were deposited on the seabed.", "The archaeologists involved stated that the location of artefacts so far discovered supports Polybius's account of where the Battle of the Aegates Islands took place.", "Based on the dimensions of the recovered rams, the archaeologists who have studied them believe they all came from triremes, contrary to Polybius's account that all the warships involved were quinqueremes.", "However, they believe that the many amphorae identified confirm the accuracy of other aspects of Polybius's account of this battle: \"It is the sought-after convergence of the archaeological and historical records.\"" ], [ "Background", "The Roman Republic had been aggressively expanding in the southern Italian mainland for a century before the First Punic War.", "It had conquered peninsular Italy south of the River Arno by 272 BC when the Greek cities of southern Italy (Magna Graecia) submitted at the conclusion of the Pyrrhic War.", "During this period Carthage, with its capital in what is now Tunisia, had come to dominate southern Spain, much of the coastal regions of North Africa, the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, and the western half of Sicily, in a military and commercial empire.", "Beginning in 480 BC Carthage had fought a series of inconclusive wars against the Greek city states of Sicily, led by Syracuse.", "By 264 BC Carthage and Rome were the preeminent powers in the western Mediterranean.", "The two states had several times asserted their mutual friendship via formal alliances: in 509 BC, 348 BC and around 279 BC.", "Relationships were good, with strong commercial links.", "During the Pyrrhic War of 280–275 BC, against a king of Epirus who alternately fought Rome in Italy and Carthage on Sicily, Carthage provided materiel to the Romans and on at least one occasion used its navy to ferry a Roman force.In 289 BC a group of Italian mercenaries known as Mamertines, previously hired by Syracuse, occupied the city of Messana (modern Messina) on the north-eastern tip of Sicily.", "Hard-pressed by Syracuse, the Mamertines appealed to both Rome and Carthage for assistance in 265 BC.", "The Carthaginians acted first, pressing Hiero II, king of Syracuse, into taking no further action and convincing the Mamertines to accept a Carthaginian garrison.", "According to Polybius, a considerable debate then took place in Rome as to whether to accept the Mamertines' appeal for assistance.", "As the Carthaginians had already garrisoned Messana acceptance could easily lead to war with Carthage.", "The Romans had not previously displayed any interest in Sicily and did not wish to come to the aid of soldiers who had unjustly stolen a city from its rightful owners.", "However, many of them saw strategic and monetary advantages in gaining a foothold in Sicily.", "The deadlocked Roman Senate, possibly at the instigation of Appius Claudius Caudex, put the matter before the popular assembly in 264 BC.", "Caudex encouraged a vote for action and held out the prospect of plentiful booty; the popular assembly decided to accept the Mamertines' request.", "Caudex was appointed commander of a military expedition with orders to cross to Sicily and place a Roman garrison in Messana.The war began with the Romans landing on Sicily in 264 BC.", "Despite the Carthaginian naval advantage, the Roman crossing of the Strait of Messina was ineffectively opposed.", "Two legions commanded by Caudex marched to Messana, where the Mamertines had expelled the Carthaginian garrison commanded by Hanno (no relation to Hanno the Great) and were besieged by both the Carthaginians and the Syracusans.", "The sources are unclear as to why, but first the Syracusans, and then the Carthaginians withdrew from the siege.", "The Romans marched south and in turn besieged Syracuse, but they had neither a strong enough force nor the secure supply lines to prosecute a successful siege, and soon withdrew.", "The Carthaginians' experience over the previous two centuries of warfare on Sicily was that decisive action was impossible; military efforts petered out after heavy losses and huge expense.", "The Carthaginian leaders expected that this war would run a similar course.", "Meanwhile, their overwhelming maritime superiority would allow the war to be kept at a distance, and even for them to continue to prosper.", "This would allow them to recruit and pay an army that would operate in the open against the Romans, while their strongly fortified cities could be supplied by sea and provide a defensive base from which to operate.=== Armies ===Adult male Roman citizens were liable for military service; most would serve as infantry with the wealthier minority providing a cavalry component.", "Traditionally the Romans would raise two legions, each of 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry.", "A small number of the infantry served as javelin-armed skirmishers.", "The balance were equipped as heavy infantry, with body armour, a large shield, and short thrusting swords.", "They were divided into three ranks, of which the front rank also carried two javelins, while the second and third ranks had a thrusting spear instead.", "Both legionary sub-units and individual legionaries fought in relatively open order.", "An army was usually formed by combining a Roman legion with a similarly sized and equipped legion provided by their Latin allies.Carthaginian citizens served in their army only if there was a direct threat to the city.", "In most circumstances Carthage recruited foreigners to make up its army.", "Many would be from North Africa which provided several types of fighters including: close-order infantry equipped with large shields, helmets, short swords and long thrusting spears; javelin-armed light infantry skirmishers; close-order shock cavalry (also known as \"heavy cavalry\") carrying spears; and light cavalry skirmishers who threw javelins from a distance and avoided close combat.", "Both Spain and Gaul provided experienced infantry; unarmoured troops who would charge ferociously, but had a reputation for breaking off if a combat was protracted.", "Most of the Carthaginian infantry would fight in a tightly packed formation known as a phalanx, usually forming two or three lines.", "Specialist slingers were recruited from the Balearic Islands.", "The Carthaginians also employed war elephants; North Africa had indigenous African forest elephants at the time.", "The sources are not clear as to whether they carried towers containing fighting men.=== Navies ===Quinqueremes, meaning \"five-oared\", provided the workhorse of the Roman and Carthaginian fleets throughout the Punic Wars.", "So ubiquitous was the type that Polybius uses it as a shorthand for \"warship\" in general.", "A quinquereme carried a crew of 300: 280 oarsmen and 20 deck crew and officers.", "It would also normally carry a complement of 40 marinesusually soldiers assigned to the shipif battle was thought to be imminent this would be increased to as many as 120.Getting the oarsmen to row as a unit, let alone to execute more complex battle manoeuvres, required long and arduous training.", "At least half of the oarsmen would need to have had some experience if the ship was to be handled effectively.", "As a result, the Romans were initially at a disadvantage against the more experienced Carthaginians.", "To counter this, the Romans introduced the ''corvus'', a bridge wide and long, with a heavy spike on the underside of the free end, which was designed to pierce and anchor into an enemy ship's deck.", "This allowed Roman legionaries acting as marines to board enemy ships and capture them, rather than employing the previously traditional tactic of ramming.All warships were equipped with rams, a triple set of bronze blades weighing up to positioned at the waterline.", "In the century prior to the Punic Wars, boarding had become increasingly common and ramming had declined, as the larger and heavier vessels adopted in this period lacked the speed and manoeuvrability necessary to ram, while their sturdier construction reduced the ram's effect even in case of a successful attack.", "The Roman adaptation of the was a continuation of this trend and compensated for their initial disadvantage in ship-manoeuvring skills.", "The added weight in the prow compromised both the ship's manoeuvrability and its seaworthiness, and in rough sea conditions the became useless." ], [ "Sicily 264–256 BC", "Much of the war was to be fought on, or in the waters near, Sicily.", "Away from the coasts, its hilly and rugged terrain made manoeuvring large forces difficult and favoured defence over offence.", "Land operations were largely confined to raids, sieges, and interdiction; in 23 years of war on Sicily there were only two full-scale pitched battlesAkragas in 262 BC and Panormus in 250 BC.", "Garrison duty and land blockades were the most common operations for both armies.It was the long-standing Roman procedure to appoint two men each year, known as consuls, to each lead an army.", "In 263 BC both consuls were sent to Sicily with a force of 40,000.Syracuse was again besieged, and with no Carthaginian assistance anticipated, Syracuse rapidly made peace with the Romans: it became a Roman ally, paid an indemnity of 100 talents of silver and, perhaps most importantly, agreed to help supply the Roman army in Sicily.", "Following the defection of Syracuse, several small Carthaginian dependencies switched to the Romans.", "Akragas (Latin: Agrigentum; modern Agrigento), a port city halfway along the south coast of Sicily, was chosen by the Carthaginians as their strategic centre.", "The Romans marched on it in 262 BC and besieged it.", "The Romans had an inadequate supply system, partly because the Carthaginian naval supremacy prevented them from shipping supplies by sea, and they were not in any case accustomed to feeding an army as large as 40,000 men.", "At harvest time most of the army was dispersed over a wide area to harvest the crops and to forage.", "The Carthaginians, commanded by Hannibal Gisco, sortied in force, taking the Romans by surprise and penetrating their camp; the Romans rallied and routed the Carthaginians; after this experience both sides were more guarded.Continued Roman advance 260–256 BCMeanwhile, Carthage had recruited an army, which assembled in Africa and was shipped to Sicily.", "It was composed of 50,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry and 60 elephants, and was commanded by Hanno, son of Hannibal; it was partly made up of Ligurians, Celts and Iberians.", "Five months after the siege began, Hanno marched to Akragas's relief.", "When he arrived, he merely camped on high ground, engaged in desultory skirmishing and trained his army.", "Two months later, in spring 261 BC, he attacked.", "The Carthaginians were defeated with heavy losses at the Battle of Akragas.", "The Romans, under both consulsLucius Postumius Megellus and Quintus Mamilius Vitulus pursued, capturing the Carthaginians' elephants and baggage train.", "That night the Carthaginian garrison escaped while the Romans were distracted.", "The next day the Romans seized the city and its inhabitants, selling 25,000 of them into slavery.After this success for the Romans, the war became fragmented for several years, with minor successes for each side, but no clear focus.", "In part this was because the Romans diverted many of their resources to an ultimately fruitless campaign against Corsica and Sardinia, and then into the equally fruitless expedition to Africa.", "After taking Akragas the Romans advanced westward to besiege Mytistraton for seven months, without success.", "In 259 BC they advanced toward Thermae on the north coast.", "After a quarrel, the Roman troops and their allies set up separate camps.", "Hamilcar took advantage of this to launch a counter-attack, taking one of the contingents by surprise as it was breaking camp and killing 4,000–6,000.Hamilcar went on to seize Enna, in central Sicily, and Camarina, in the south east, dangerously close to Syracuse.", "Hamilcar seemed close to overrunning the whole of Sicily.", "The following year the Romans retook Enna and finally captured Mytistraton.", "They then moved on Panormus (modern Palermo), but had to withdraw, although they did capture Hippana.", "In 258 BC they recaptured Camarina after a lengthy siege.", "For the next few years petty raiding, skirmishing and the occasional defection of a smaller town from one side to the other continued on Sicily." ], [ "Rome builds a fleet", "The war in Sicily reached a stalemate, as the Carthaginians focused on defending their well-fortified towns and cities; these were mostly on the coast and so could be supplied and reinforced without the Romans being able to use their superior army to interdict.", "The focus of the war shifted to the sea, where the Romans had little experience; on the few occasions they had previously felt the need for a naval presence they had usually relied on small squadrons provided by their Latin or Greek allies.", "In 260 BC Romans set out to construct a fleet and used a shipwrecked Carthaginian quinquereme as a blueprint for their own.", "As novice shipwrights, the Romans built copies that were heavier than the Carthaginian vessels, making them much slower and less maneuvrable.The Romans built 120 warships and despatched them to Sicily in 260 BC for their crews to carry out basic training.", "One of the consuls for the year, Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio, sailed with the first 17 ships to arrive to the Lipari Islands, a little way off the north-east coast of Sicily, in an attempt to seize the islands' main port, Lipara.", "The Carthaginian fleet was commanded by Hannibal Gisco, the general who had commanded the garrison of Akragas, and was based at Panormus, some from Lipara.", "When Hannibal heard of the Romans' move he despatched 20 ships under Boodes to the town.", "The Carthaginians arrived at night and trapped the Romans in the harbour.", "Boodes' ships attacked and Scipio's inexperienced men offered little resistance.", "Some Romans panicked and fled inland and the consul himself was taken prisoner.", "All of the Roman ships were captured, most with little damage.", "A little later, Hannibal was scouting with 50 Carthaginian ships when he encountered the full Roman fleet.", "He escaped, but lost most of his ships.", "It was after this skirmish that the Romans installed the on their ships.Scipio's fellow consul, Gaius Duilius, placed the Roman army units under subordinates and took command of the fleet.", "He promptly sailed, seeking battle.", "The two fleets met off the coast of Mylae in the Battle of Mylae.", "Hannibal had 130 ships, and the historian John Lazenby calculates that Duilius had approximately the same number.", "The Carthaginians anticipated victory, due to the superior experience of their crews, and their faster and more manoeuvrable galleys, and broke formation to close rapidly with the Romans.", "The first 30 Carthaginian ships were grappled by the and successfully boarded by the Romans, including Hannibal's ship – he escaped in a skiff.", "Seeing this, the remaining Carthaginians swung wide, attempting to take the Romans in the sides or rear.", "The Romans successfully countered and captured a further 20 Carthaginian vessels.", "The surviving Carthaginians broke off the action, and being faster than the Romans were able to escape.", "Duilius sailed to relieve the Roman-held city of Segesta, which had been under siege.From early 262 BC Carthaginian ships had been raiding the Italian coast from bases on Sardinia and Corsica.", "The year after Mylae, 259 BC, the consul Lucius Cornelius Scipio led part of the fleet against Aléria in Corsica and captured it.", "He then attacked Ulbia on Sardinia, but was repulsed, and also lost Aléria.", "In 258 BC a stronger Roman fleet engaged a smaller Carthaginian fleet at the Battle of Sulci off the city of Sulci, in western Sardinia, and inflicted a heavy defeat.", "The Carthaginian commander Hannibal Gisco, who abandoned his men and fled to Sulci, was later captured by his soldiers and crucified.", "Despite this victory, the Romanswho were attempting to support simultaneous offensives against both Sardinia and Sicilywere unable to exploit it, and the attack on Carthaginian-held Sardinia petered out.In 257 BC the Roman fleet happened to be anchored off Tyndaris in north-east Sicily when the Carthaginian fleet, unaware of its presence, sailed past in loose formation.", "The Roman commander, Gaius Atilius Regulus, ordered an immediate attack, initiating the Battle of Tyndaris.", "This led to the Roman fleet in turn putting to sea in a disordered manner.", "The Carthaginians responded rapidly, ramming and sinking nine of the leading ten Roman ships.", "As the main Roman force came into action they sank eight Carthaginian ships and captured ten.", "The Carthaginians withdrew, again being faster than the Romans and so able to make off without further loss.", "The Romans then raided both the Liparis and Malta." ], [ "Invasion of Africa", "1: Romans land and capture Apsis (256 BC)2: Roman victory at Adys (256 BC)3: Romans capture Tunis (256 BC)4: Xanthippus sets out from Carthage with a large army (255 BC)5: Romans are defeated at the Battle of Tunis.", "(255 BC)6: Romans retreat to Apsis and leave Africa.", "(254 BC)Rome's naval victories at Mylae and Sulci, and their frustration at the stalemate in Sicily, led them to adopt a sea-based strategy and to develop a plan to invade the Carthaginian heartland in North Africa and threaten Carthage (close to Tunis).", "Both sides were determined to establish naval supremacy and invested large amounts of money and manpower in maintaining and increasing the size of their navies.", "The Roman fleet of 330 warships and an unknown number of transports sailed from Ostia, the port of Rome, in early 256 BC, commanded by the consuls for the year, Marcus Atilius Regulus and Lucius Manlius Vulso Longus.", "The Romans embarked approximately 26,000 legionaries from the Roman forces on Sicily shortly before the battle.", "They planned to cross to Africa and invade what is now Tunisia.The Carthaginians knew of the Romans' intentions and mustered all their 350 warships under Hanno the Great and Hamilcar, off the south coast of Sicily to intercept them.", "With a combined total of about 680 warships carrying up to 290,000 crew and marines, the ensuing Battle of Cape Ecnomus was possibly the largest naval battle in history by the number of combatants involved.", "At the start of the battle the Carthaginians took the initiative, hoping their superior ship handling skills would tell.", "After a day of prolonged and confused fighting the Carthaginians were defeated, losing 30 ships sunk and 64 captured to Roman losses of 24 ships sunk.After the victory the Roman army, commanded by Regulus, landed in Africa near Aspis (modern Kelibia) on the Cape Bon Peninsula and began ravaging the Carthaginian countryside.", "After a brief siege, Aspis was captured.", "Most of the Roman ships returned to Sicily, leaving Regulus with 15,000 infantry and 500 cavalry to continue the war in Africa; Regulus laid siege to the city of Adys.", "The Carthaginians had recalled Hamilcar from Sicily with 5,000 infantry and 500 cavalry.", "Hamilcar, Hasdrubal and a third general called Bostar were placed in joint command of an army which was strong in cavalry and elephants and was approximately the same size as the Roman force.", "The Carthaginians established a camp on a hill near Adys.", "The Romans carried out a night march and launched a surprise dawn attack on the camp from two directions.", "After confused fighting the Carthaginians broke and fled.", "Their losses are unknown, although their elephants and cavalry escaped with few casualties.The Romans followed up and captured Tunis, only from Carthage.", "From Tunis the Romans raided and devastated the immediate area around Carthage.", "In despair, the Carthaginians sued for peace but Regulus offered such harsh terms that the Carthaginians decided to fight on.", "Charge of the training of their army was given to the Spartan mercenary commander Xanthippus.", "In 255 BC Xanthippus led an army of 12,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry and 100 elephants against the Romans and defeated them at the Battle of Tunis.", "Approximately 2,000 Romans retreated to Aspis; 500, including Regulus, were captured; the rest were killed.", "Xanthippus, fearful of the envy of the Carthaginian generals he had outdone, took his pay and returned to Greece.", "The Romans sent a fleet to evacuate their survivors.", "It was intercepted by a Carthaginian fleet off Cape Bon (in the north east of modern Tunisia) and in the Battle of Cape Hermaeum the Carthaginians were heavily defeated, losing 114 ships captured.", "The Roman fleet was devastated by a storm while returning to Italy, with 384 ships sunk from their total of 464 and 100,000 men lost, the majority non-Roman Latin allies.", "It is possible that the presence of the made the Roman ships unusually unseaworthy; there is no record of them being used after this disaster." ], [ "Sicily 255–248 BC", "Having lost most of their fleet in the storm of 255 BC, the Romans rapidly rebuilt it, adding 220 new ships.", "In 254 BC the Carthaginians attacked and captured Akragas, but not believing they could hold the city, they burned it, razed its walls and left.", "Meanwhile, the Romans launched a determined offensive in Sicily.", "Their entire fleet, under both consuls, attacked Panormus early in the year.", "The city was surrounded and blockaded, and siege engines set up.", "These made a breach in the walls which the Romans stormed, capturing the outer town and giving no quarter.", "The inner town promptly surrendered.", "The 14,000 inhabitants who could afford it ransomed themselves and the remaining 13,000 were sold into slavery.", "Much of western inland Sicily now went over to the Romans: Ietas, Solous, Petra, and Tyndaris all came to terms.In 253 BC the Romans changed their focus to Africa again and carried out several raids.", "They lost another 150 ships, from a fleet of 220, to a storm while returning from raiding the North African coast east of Carthage.", "They rebuilt again.", "The next year the Romans shifted their attention to north-west Sicily.", "They sent a naval expedition toward Lilybaeum.", "En route, the Romans seized and burned the Carthaginian hold-out cities of Selinous and Heraclea Minoa, but they failed to take Lilybaeum.", "In 252 BC they captured Thermae and Lipara, which had been isolated by the fall of Panormus.", "Otherwise they avoided battle in 252 and 251 BC, according to Polybius because they feared the war elephants which the Carthaginians had shipped to Sicily.C.", "Caecilius Metellus Caprarius, minted in 125 BC.", "The reverse depicts the triumph of his ancestor Lucius Caecilius Metellus, with the elephants he had captured at Panormus.In late summer 251 BC the Carthaginian commander Hasdrubalwho had faced Regulus in Africahearing that one consul had left Sicily for the winter with half of the Roman army, advanced on Panormus and devastated the countryside.", "The Roman army, which had been dispersed to gather the harvest, withdrew into Panormus.", "Hasdrubal boldly advanced most of his army, including the elephants, towards the city walls.", "The Roman commander Lucius Caecilius Metellus sent out skirmishers to harass the Carthaginians, keeping them constantly supplied with javelins from the stocks within the city.", "The ground was covered with earthworks constructed during the Roman siege, making it difficult for the elephants to advance.", "Peppered with missiles and unable to retaliate, the elephants fled through the Carthaginian infantry behind them.", "Metellus had opportunistically moved a large force to the Carthaginian's left flank, and they charged into their disordered opponents.", "The Carthaginians fled; Metellus captured ten elephants but did not permit a pursuit.", "Contemporary accounts do not report either side's losses, and modern historians consider later claims of 20,000–30,000 Carthaginian casualties improbable.Encouraged by their victory at Panormus, the Romans moved against the main Carthaginian base on Sicily, Lilybaeum, in 249 BC.", "A large army commanded by the year's consuls Publius Claudius Pulcher and Lucius Junius Pullus besieged the city.", "They had rebuilt their fleet, and 200 ships blockaded the harbour.", "Early in the blockade, 50 Carthaginian quinqueremes gathered off the Aegates Islands, which lie to the west of Sicily.", "Once there was a strong west wind, they sailed into Lilybaeum before the Romans could react and unloaded reinforcements and a large quantity of supplies.", "They evaded the Romans by leaving at night, evacuating the Carthaginian cavalry.", "The Romans sealed off the landward approach to Lilybaeum with earth and timber camps and walls.", "They made repeated attempts to block the harbour entrance with a heavy timber boom, but due to the prevailing sea conditions they were unsuccessful.", "The Carthaginian garrison was kept supplied by blockade runners, light and manoeuvrable quinqueremes with highly trained crews and experienced pilots.Pulcher decided to attack the Carthaginian fleet, which was in the harbour of the nearby city of Drepana (modern Trapani).", "The Roman fleet sailed by night to carry out a surprise attack, but became scattered in the dark.", "The Carthaginian commander Adherbal was able to lead his fleet out to sea before they were trapped and counter-attacked in the Battle of Drepana.", "The Romans were pinned against the shore and after a hard day's fighting were heavily defeated by the more manoeuvrable Carthaginian ships with their better-trained crews.", "It was Carthage's greatest naval victory of the war.", "Carthage turned to the maritime offensive, inflicting another heavy naval defeat at the Battle of Phintias and all but swept the Romans from the sea.", "It was to be seven years before Rome again attempted to field a substantial fleet, while Carthage put most of its ships into reserve to save money and free up manpower." ], [ "Conclusion", "By 248 BC the Carthaginians held only two cities on Sicily: Lilybaeum and Drepana; these were well-fortified and situated on the west coast, where they could be supplied and reinforced without the Romans being able to use their superior army to interfere.", "When Hamilcar Barca took command of the Carthaginians on Sicily in 247 BC he was only given a small army and the Carthaginian fleet was gradually withdrawn.", "Hostilities between Roman and Carthaginian forces declined to small-scale land operations, which suited the Carthaginian strategy.", "Hamilcar employed combined arms tactics in a Fabian strategy from his base at Eryx, north of Drepana.", "This guerrilla warfare kept the Roman legions pinned down and preserved Carthage's foothold in Sicily.After more than 20 years of war, both states were financially and demographically exhausted.", "Evidence of Carthage's financial situation includes their request for a 2,000 talent loan from Ptolemaic Egypt, which was refused.", "Rome was also close to bankruptcy and the number of adult male citizens, who provided the manpower for the navy and the legions, had declined by 17 percent since the start of the war.", "Goldsworthy describes Roman manpower losses as \"appalling\".In late 243 BC, realizing they would not capture Drepana and Lilybaeum unless they could extend their blockade to the sea, the Senate decided to build a new fleet.", "With the state's coffers exhausted, the Senate approached Rome's wealthiest citizens for loans to finance the construction of one ship each, repayable from the reparations to be imposed on Carthage once the war was won.", "The result was a fleet of approximately 200 quinqueremes, built, equipped, and crewed without government expense.", "The Romans modelled the ships of their new fleet on a captured blockade runner with especially good qualities.", "By now, the Romans were experienced at shipbuilding, and with a proven vessel as a model produced high-quality quinqueremes.", "Importantly, the was abandoned, which improved the ships' speed and handling but forced a change in tactics on the Romans; they would need to be superior sailors, rather than superior soldiers, to beat the Carthaginians.The Carthaginians raised a larger fleet which they intended to use to run supplies into Sicily.", "It would then embark much of the Carthaginian army stationed there to use as marines.", "It was intercepted by the Roman fleet under Gaius Lutatius Catulus and Quintus Valerius Falto, and in the hard-fought Battle of the Aegates Islands the better-trained Romans defeated the undermanned and ill-trained Carthaginian fleet.", "After achieving this decisive victory, the Romans continued their land operations in Sicily against Lilybaeum and Drepana.", "The Carthaginian Senate was reluctant to allocate the resources necessary to have another fleet built and manned.", "Instead, it ordered Hamilcar to negotiate a peace treaty with the Romans, which he left up to his subordinate Gisco.", "The Treaty of Lutatius was signed and brought the First Punic War to its end: Carthage evacuated Sicily, handed over all prisoners taken during the war, and paid an indemnity of 3,200 talents over ten years." ], [ "Aftermath", "The war lasted 23 years, the longest war in Romano-Greek history and the greatest naval war of the ancient world.", "In its aftermath Carthage attempted to avoid paying in full the foreign troops who had fought its war.", "Eventually they rebelled and were joined by many disgruntled local groups.", "They were put down with great difficulty and considerable savagery.", "In 237 BC Carthage prepared an expedition to recover the island of Sardinia, which had been lost to the rebels.", "Cynically, the Romans stated they considered this an act of war.", "Their peace terms were the ceding of Sardinia and Corsica and the payment of an additional 1,200-talent indemnity.", "Weakened by 30 years of war, Carthage agreed rather than enter into a conflict with Rome again; the additional payment and the renunciation of Sardinia and Corsica were added to the treaty as a codicil.", "These actions by Rome fuelled resentment in Carthage, which was not reconciled to Rome's perception of its situation, and are considered contributory factors in the outbreak of the Second Punic War.The leading role of Hamilcar Barca in the defeat of the mutinous foreign troops and African rebels greatly enhanced the prestige and power of the Barcid family.", "In 237 BC Hamilcar led many of his veterans on an expedition to expand Carthaginian holdings in southern Iberia (modern Spain).", "Over the following 20 years this was to become a semi-autonomous Barcid fiefdom and the source of much of the silver used to pay the large indemnity owed to Rome.For Rome, the end of the First Punic War marked the start of its expansion beyond the Italian Peninsula.", "Sicily became the first Roman province as Sicilia, governed by a former praetor.", "Sicily would become important to Rome as a source of grain.", "Sardinia and Corsica, combined, also became a Roman province and a source of grain, under a praetor, although a strong military presence was required for at least the next seven years, as the Romans struggled to suppress the local inhabitants.", "Syracuse was granted nominal independence and ally status for the lifetime of Hiero II.", "Henceforth Rome was the leading military power in the western Mediterranean, and increasingly the Mediterranean region as a whole.", "The Romans had built more than 1,000 galleys during the war, and this experience of building, manning, training, supplying and maintaining such numbers of ships laid the foundation for Rome's maritime dominance for 600 years.", "The question of which state was to control the western Mediterranean remained open, and when Carthage besieged the Roman-protected town of Saguntum in eastern Iberia in 218 BC it ignited the Second Punic War with Rome." ], [ "Notes, citations and sources", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Further reading===* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "False document" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''false document''' is a technique by which an author aims to increase verisimilitude in a work of fiction by inventing and inserting or mentioning documents that appear to be factual.", "The goal of a false document is to convince an audience that what is being presented is factual." ], [ "In politics", "A forged document, the Zinoviev Letter, helped bring the downfall of the first Labour Government in Britain.", "Conspiracies within secret intelligence services have occurred more recently, leading Harold Wilson to put in place rules in the 1960s to prevent phone tapping of members of Parliament, for example.", "''The Protocols of the Elders of Zion'', purporting to describe a Jewish plan for global domination, was first published in Russia in 1903, translated into multiple languages, and disseminated internationally in the early part of the 20th century." ], [ "In art", "Artist JSG Boggs's life and work have been extensively explored by author and journalist Lawrence Weschler.", "Boggs drew currency with exceptional care and accuracy, but he only ever drew one side.", "He then attempted to buy things with the piece of paper upon which he has drawn the currency.", "His goal was to pass each bill for its face value in common transactions.", "He bought lunch, clothes, and lodging in this manner, and after the transactions were complete, his bills fetched many times their face value on the art market.", "Boggs did not make any money from the much larger art market value of his work, only from reselling the goods bought, the change and receipts and other such materials.", "He was arrested in many countries, and there was much controversy surrounding his work.Orson Welles' ''F for Fake'' is a prime example of a film which is both about falsification (art forgery and the journalism surrounding art forgery) as well as having falsified moments within the film.", "The movie follows the exploits of a famous art forger, his biographer Clifford Irving, and the subsequent fake autobiography of Howard Hughes that Irving tries to publish.", "The issues of veracity and forgery are explored in the film, while at the same time, Welles tricks the audience by incorporating fake bits of narrative alongside the documentary footage." ], [ "In cross-marketing", "There is a long history of producers creating tie-in material to promote and merchandise movies and television shows.", "Tie-in materials as far-ranging as toys, games, lunch boxes, clothing and so on have all been created and in some cases generate as much or more revenue as the original programming.", "One big merchandising arena is publishing.", "In most cases such material is not considered canon within the show's mythology; however, in some instances the books, magazines, etc.", "are specifically designed by the creators to be canonical.", "With the rise of the Internet, in-canon online material has become more prominent." ], [ "Hoaxes", "A number of hoaxes have involved false documents:* Salamander Letter* ''The Report From Iron Mountain''* The Oera Linda book* The Hitler Diaries* The ''Dossiers Secrets d'Henri Lobineau''" ], [ "See also", "* Alternate reality game* A Racial Program for the Twentieth Century, an anti-Semitic forgery* Donation of Constantine* Epistolary novel* False documentation* Fictional book* Fictitious entry* Forgery* Found footage (film technique)* Frame tale* Literary forgery* Pseudepigrapha* Questioned document examination" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fernando Pessoa" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fernando António Nogueira Pessoa''' (; 13 June 1888 – 30 November 1935) was a Portuguese poet, writer, literary critic, translator, publisher, and philosopher, described as one of the most significant literary figures of the 20th century and one of the greatest poets in the Portuguese language.", "He also wrote in and translated from English and French.Pessoa was a prolific writer, and not only under his own name, for he created approximately seventy-five others, of which three stand out: Alberto Caeiro, Álvaro de Campos, and Ricardo Reis.", "He did not call them ''pseudonyms'' because he felt that this did not capture their true independent intellectual life and instead called them ''heteronyms''.", "These imaginary figures sometimes held unpopular or extreme views." ], [ "Early life", "Pessoa's birthplace: a large flat at São Carlos Square, just in front of Lisbon's opera.Pessoa was born in Lisbon on 13 June 1888.When Pessoa was five, his father, Joaquim de Seabra Pessôa, died of tuberculosis, and less than seven months later his younger brother Jorge, aged one, also died (2 January 1889).", "After the second marriage of his mother, Maria Magdalena Pinheiro Nogueira, by a proxy wedding to João Miguel dos Santos Rosa, Fernando sailed with his mother for South Africa in early 1896 to join his stepfather, a military officer appointed Portuguese consul in Durban, capital of the former British Colony of Natal.", "In a letter dated 8 February 1918, Pessoa wrote: Last year in Lisbon before moving to Durban, 1894, aged 6.The young Pessoa received his early education at St. Joseph Convent School, a Roman Catholic grammar school run by Irish and French nuns.", "He moved to the Durban High School in April 1899, becoming fluent in English and developing an appreciation for English literature.", "During the Matriculation Examination, held at the time by the University of the Cape of Good Hope (forerunner of the University of Cape Town), in November 1903, he was awarded the recently created Queen Victoria Memorial Prize for best paper in English.", "While preparing to enter university, he also attended the Durban Commercial High School during one year, taking night classes.Pessoa in Durban, 1898, aged 10.Meanwhile, Pessoa started writing short stories in English, some under the name of David Merrick, many of which he left unfinished.", "At the age of sixteen, ''The Natal Mercury'' (edition of 6 July 1904) published his poem \"Hillier did first usurp the realms of rhyme...\", under the name of C. R. Anon (anonymous), along with a brief introductory text: \"I read with great amusement...\".", "In December, ''The Durban High School Magazine'' published his essay \"Macaulay\".", "From February to June 1905, in the section \"The Man in the Moon\", ''The Natal Mercury'' also published at least four sonnets by Fernando Pessoa: \"Joseph Chamberlain\", \"To England I\", \"To England II\" and \"Liberty\".", "His poems often carried humorous versions of Anon as the author's name.", "Pessoa started using pen names quite young.", "The first one, still in his childhood, was Chevalier de Pas, supposedly a French noble.", "In addition to Charles Robert Anon and David Merrick, the young writer also signed up, among other pen names, as Horace James Faber, , and other meaningful names.In the preface to ''The Book of Disquiet'', Pessoa wrote about himself:Pessoa in 1901, aged 13.The young Pessoa was described by a schoolfellow as follows:Ten years after his arrival, he sailed for Lisbon by East through the Suez Canal on board the \"Herzog\", leaving Durban for good at the age of seventeen.", "This journey inspired the poems \"Opiário\" (dedicated to his friend, the poet and writer Mário de Sá-Carneiro) published in March 1915, in the literary journal ''Orpheu'' nr.1 and \"Ode Marítima\" (dedicated to the futurist painter Santa-Rita) published in June 1915, in ''Orpheu'' nr.2 by his heteronym Álvaro de Campos." ], [ "Lisbon revisited", "\"Ibis Enterprise\", the first firm established by Pessoa, in 1909.While his family remained in South Africa, Pessoa returned to Lisbon in 1905 to study diplomacy.", "After a period of illness, and two years of poor results, a student strike against the dictatorship of Prime Minister João Franco put an end to his formal studies.", "Pessoa became an autodidact, a devoted reader who spent a lot of time at the library.", "In August 1907, he started working as a practitioner at R.G.", "Dun & Company, an American mercantile information agency (currently D&B, Dun & Bradstreet).", "His grandmother died in September and left him a small inheritance, which he spent on setting up his own publishing house, the \"Empreza Ibis\".", "The venture was not successful and closed down in 1910, but the name ibis, the sacred bird of Ancient Egypt and inventor of the alphabet in Greek mythology, would remain an important symbolic reference for him.Pessoa returned to his uncompleted formal studies, complementing his British education with self-directed study of Portuguese culture.", "The pre-revolutionary atmosphere surrounding the assassination of King Charles I and Crown Prince Luís Filipe in 1908, and the patriotic outburst resulting from the successful republican revolution in 1910, influenced the development of the budding writer; as did his step-uncle, Henrique dos Santos Rosa, a poet and retired soldier, who introduced the young Pessoa to Portuguese poetry, notably the romantics and symbolists of the 19th century.", "In 1912, Fernando Pessoa entered the literary world with a critical essay, published in the cultural journal ''A Águia'', which triggered one of the most important literary debates in the Portuguese intellectual world of the 20th century: the polemic regarding a super-Camões.", "In 1915 a group of artists and poets, including Fernando Pessoa, Mário de Sá-Carneiro and Almada Negreiros, created the literary magazine ''Orpheu'', which introduced modernist literature to Portugal.", "Only two issues were published (Jan–Feb–Mar and Apr–May–Jun 1915), the third failed to appear due to funding difficulties.", "Lost for many years, this issue was finally recovered and published in 1984.Among other writers and poets, ''Orpheu'' published Pessoa, orthonym, and the modernist heteronym, Álvaro de Campos.", "Pessoa's last home, from 1920 till his death, in 1935, currently the Fernando Pessoa Museum Along with the artist Ruy Vaz, Pessoa also founded the art journal ''Athena'' (1924–25), in which he published verses under the heteronyms Alberto Caeiro and Ricardo Reis.", "Along with his profession, as free-lance commercial translator, Fernando Pessoa undertook intense activity as a writer, literary critic and political analyst, contributing to the journals and newspapers ''A Águia'' (1912–13), ''A República'' (1913), ''Theatro'' (1913), ''A Renascença'' (1914), ''O Raio'' (1914), ''A Galera'' (1915), ''Orpheu'' (1915), ''O Jornal'' (1915), ''Eh Real!''", "(1915), ''Exílio'' (1916), ''Centauro'' (1916), ''A Ideia Nacional'' (1916), ''Terra Nossa'' (1916), ''O Heraldo'' (1917), ''Portugal Futurista'' (1917), ''Acção'' (1919–20), ''Ressurreição'' (1920), ''Contemporânea'' (1922–26), ''Athena'' (1924–25), ''Diário de Lisboa'' (1924–35), ''Revista de Comércio e Contabilidade'' (1926), ''Sol'' (1926), ''O Imparcial'' (1927), ''Presença'' (1927–34), ''Revista Solução Editora'' (1929–1931), ''Notícias Ilustrado'' (1928–30), ''Girassol'' (1930), ''Revolução'' (1932), ''Descobrimento'' (1932), ''Fama'' (1932–33), ''Fradique'' (1934) and ''Sudoeste'' (1935)." ], [ "Pessoa the ''flâneur''", "After his return to Portugal, when he was seventeen, Pessoa barely left his beloved city of Lisbon, which inspired the poems \"Lisbon Revisited\" (1923 and 1926), written under the heteronym Álvaro de Campos.", "From 1905 to 1920, when his family returned from Pretoria after the death of his stepfather, he lived in fifteen different locations in the city, moving from one rented room to another depending on his fluctuating finances and personal troubles.Pessoa adopted the detached perspective of the flâneur , one of his heteronyms.", "This character was supposedly an accountant, working for Vasques, the boss of an office located in Douradores Street.", "Soares also supposedly lived in the same downtown street, a world that Pessoa knew quite well due to his long career as freelance correspondence translator.", "Indeed, from 1907 until his death in 1935, Pessoa worked in twenty-one firms located in Lisbon's downtown, sometimes in two or three of them simultaneously.", "In ''The Book of Disquiet'', Bernardo Soares describes some of these typical places and describes one's \"atmosphere\".", "In his daydream soliloquy he also wrote about Lisbon in the first half of the 20th century.", "Soares describes crowds in the streets, buildings, shops, traffic, the river Tagus, the weather, and even its author, Fernando Pessoa:Coffee house \"A Brasileira\", established in 1905, the year Pessoa returned to Lisbon.A statue of Pessoa sitting at a table (below) can be seen outside A Brasileira, one of the preferred places of young writers and artists of ''Orpheu''s group during the 1910s.", "This coffeehouse, in the aristocratic district of Chiado, is quite close to Pessoa's birthplace: 4, São Carlos Square (just in front of Lisbon's Opera House, where stands another statue of the writer), one of the most elegant neighborhoods of Lisbon.", "Later on, Pessoa was a frequent customer at Martinho da Arcada, a centennial coffeehouse in Comercio Square, surrounded by ministries, almost an \"office\" for his private business and literary concerns, where he used to meet friends in the 1920s and 1930s.In 1925, Pessoa wrote in English a guidebook to Lisbon but it remained unpublished until 1992." ], [ "Literature and mysticism", "Pessoa translated a number of Portuguese books into English, and into Portuguese ''The Scarlet Letter'' by Nathaniel Hawthorne, and the short stories \"The Theory and the Hound\", \"The Roads We Take\" and \"Georgia's Ruling\" by O. Henry.", "He has also translated into Portuguese the poems \"Godiva\" by Alfred Tennyson, \"Lucy\" by William Wordsworth, \"Catarina to Camoens\" by Elizabeth Barrett Browning, \"Barbara Frietchie\" by John Greenleaf Whittier, and \"The Raven\", \"Annabel Lee\" and \"Ulalume\" by Edgar Allan Poe who, along with Walt Whitman, strongly influenced him.As a translator, Pessoa had his own method:Pessoa's alleged mediumship: Automatic writing sample.In addition, Pessoa translated into Portuguese some books by the leading theosophists Helena Blavatsky, Charles Webster Leadbeater, Annie Besant, and Mabel Collins.Besant, Annie (1915), ''Os Ideaes da Theosophia'', Lisboa: Livraria Clássica Editora.Leadbeater, C. W. (1915), ''Compêndio de Theosophia'', Lisboa: Livraria Clássica Editora.Leadbeater, C. W. (1916), ''Auxiliares Invisíveis'', Lisboa: Livraria Clássica Editora.Leadbeater, C. W. (1916), ''A Clarividência'', Lisboa: Livraria Clássica Editora.Blavatsky, Helena (1916), ''A Voz do Silêncio'', Lisboa: Livraria Clássica Editora.Collins, Mabel (1916), ''Luz Sobre o Caminho e o Karma'', Lisboa: Livraria Clássica Editora.In 1912–14, while living with his aunt \"Anica\" and cousins, Pessoa took part in \"semi-spiritualist sessions\" that were carried out at home, but he was considered a \"delaying element\" by the other members of the sessions.", "Pessoa's interest in spiritualism was truly awakened in the second half of 1915, while translating theosophist books.", "This was further deepened in the end of March 1916, when he suddenly started having experiences where he believed he became a medium, having experimented with automatic writing.", "On 24 June 1916, Pessoa wrote an impressive letter to his aunt and godmother, then living in Switzerland with her daughter and son-in-law, in which he describes this \"mystery case\" that surprised him.Besides automatic writing, Pessoa stated also that he had \"astral\" or \"etherial visions\" and was able to see \"magnetic auras\" similar to radiographic images.", "He felt \"more curiosity than fear\", but was respectful towards this phenomenon and asked secrecy, because \"there is no advantage, but many disadvantages\" in speaking about this.", "Mediumship exerted a strong influence in Pessoa's writings, who felt \"sometimes suddenly being owned by something else\" or having a \"very curious sensation\" in the right arm, which was \"lifted into the air\" without his will.", "Looking in the mirror, Pessoa saw several times what appeared to be the heteronyms: his \"face fading out\" and being replaced by the one of \"a bearded man\", or in another instance, four men in total.heteronym ''Ricardo Reis'' by Fernando Pessoa.Pessoa also developed a strong interest in astrology, becoming a competent astrologer.", "He elaborated hundreds of horoscopes, including well-known people such as William Shakespeare, Lord Byron, Oscar Wilde, Chopin, Robespierre, Napoleon I, Benito Mussolini, Wilhelm II, Leopold II of Belgium, Victor Emmanuel III, Alfonso XIII, or the Kings Sebastian and Charles of Portugal, and Salazar.", "In 1915, he created the heteronym Raphael Baldaya, an astrologer who planned to write \"System of Astrology\" and \"Introduction to the Study of Occultism\".", "Pessoa established the pricing of his astrological services from 500 to 5,000 réis and made horoscopes of relatives, friends, customers, also of himself and astonishingly of the heteronyms and journals as ''Orpheu''.The characters of the three main heteronyms were designed according to their horoscopes, with special reference to Mercury, the planet of literature.", "Each was also assigned to one of the four astral elements: air, fire, water and earth.", "For Pessoa, his heteronyms, taken together with his actual self, embodied the full principles of ancient knowledge.", "Astrology was part of his everyday life and he actively practiced it until his death.Pessoa's last writing: 29-11-1935 \"I know not what tomorrow will bring\".", "He died the next day, 30 November 1935.As a mysticist, Pessoa was an enthusiast of esotericism, occultism, hermetism, numerology and alchemy.", "Along with spiritualism and astrology, he also paid attention to gnosticism, neopaganism, theosophy, rosicrucianism and freemasonry, which strongly influenced his literary work.", "He has declared himself a Pagan, in the sense of an \"intellectual mystic of the sad race of the Neoplatonists from Alexandria\" and a believer in \"the Gods, their agency and their real and materially superior existence\".", "His interest in occultism led Pessoa to correspond with Aleister Crowley and later helped him to elaborate a fake suicide, when Crowley visited Portugal in 1930.Pessoa translated Crowley's poem \"Hymn To Pan\" into Portuguese, and the catalogue of Pessoa's library shows that he possessed Crowley's books ''Magick in Theory and Practice'' and ''Confessions''.", "Pessoa also wrote on Crowley's doctrine of Thelema in several fragments, including ''Moral''.Pessoa declared about secret societies:Literary critic Martin Lüdke described Pessoa's philosophy as a kind of pandeism, especially those writings under the heteronym Alberto Caeiro." ], [ "Writing a lifetime", "Pessoa in 1929, drinking a glass of wine in a tavern of Lisbon's downtown.In his early years, Pessoa was influenced by major English classic poets such as Shakespeare, Milton and Pope, and romantics like Shelley, Byron, Keats, Wordsworth, Coleridge and Tennyson.", "After his return to Lisbon in 1905, Pessoa was influenced by French symbolists and decadents such as Charles Baudelaire, Maurice Rollinat, and Stéphane Mallarmé.", "He was also importantly influenced by the Portuguese poets as Antero de Quental, Gomes Leal, Cesário Verde, António Nobre, Camilo Pessanha and Teixeira de Pascoaes.", "Later on, he was also influenced by the modernists W. B. Yeats, James Joyce, Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot, among many other writers.During World War I, Pessoa wrote to a number of British publishers, namely Constable & Co. Ltd. (currently Constable & Robinson), trying to arrange publication of his collection of English verse ''The Mad Fiddler'' (unpublished during his lifetime), but it was refused.", "However, in 1920, the prestigious literary journal ''Athenaeum'' included one of those poems.", "Since the attempt at British publication failed, in 1918 Pessoa published in Lisbon two slim volumes of English verse: ''Antinous'' and ''35 Sonnets'', received by the British literary press without enthusiasm.", "Along with some friends, he founded another publishing house, Olisipo, which published in 1921 a further two English poetry volumes: ''English Poems I–II'' and ''English Poems III'' by Fernando Pessoa.", "In his publishing house, Pessoa also issued some books by his friends: ''A Invenção do Dia Claro'' (The Invention of the Clear Day) by José de Almada Negreiros, ''Canções'' (Songs) by António Botto, and ''Sodoma Divinizada'' (Deified Sodom) by Raul Leal (Henoch).", "Olisipo closed down in 1923, following the scandal known as \"Literatura de Sodoma\" (Literature of Sodom), which Pessoa started with his paper \"António Botto e o Ideal Estético em Portugal\" (António Botto and the Aesthetic Ideal in Portugal), published in the journal ''Contemporanea''.Politically, Pessoa described himself as \"a British-style conservative, that is to say, liberal within conservatism and absolutely anti-reactionary,\" and adhered closely to the Spencerian individualism of his upbringing.", "He described his brand of nationalism as \"mystic, cosmopolitan, liberal, and anti-Catholic.\"", "He was an outspoken elitist and aligned himself against communism, socialism, fascism and Catholicism.", "He initially rallied to the First Portuguese Republic but the ensuing instability caused him to reluctantly support the military coups of 1917 and 1926 as a means of restoring order and preparing the transition to a new constitutional normality.", "He wrote a pamphlet in 1928 supportive of the military dictatorship but after the establishment of the New State, in 1933, Pessoa became disenchanted with the regime and wrote critically of Salazar and fascism in general, maintaining a hostile stance towards its corporatist program, illiberalism, and censorship.", "In the beginning of 1935, Pessoa was banned by the Salazar regime, after he wrote in defense of Freemasonry.", "The regime also suppressed two articles Pessoa wrote in which he condemned Mussolini's invasion of Abyssinia and fascism as a threat to human liberty everywhere.Hieronymites Monastery since 1985.Pessoa's assets: the chest, with more than 25,000 pages, and part of his personal libraryOn 29 November 1935, Pessoa was taken to the Hospital de São Luís, suffering from abdominal pain and a high fever; there he wrote, in English, his last words: \"I know not what tomorrow will bring.\"", "He died the next day, 30 November 1935, around 8 pm, aged 47.His cause of death is commonly given as cirrhosis of the liver, due to alcoholism, though this is disputed: others attribute his death to pancreatitis (again from alcoholism), or other ailments.In his lifetime, he published four books in English and one alone in Portuguese: ''Mensagem'' (Message).", "However, he left a lifetime of unpublished, unfinished or just sketchy work in a domed, wooden trunk (25,574 manuscript and typed pages which have been housed in the Portuguese National Library since 1988).", "The heavy burden of editing this huge work is still in progress.", "In 1985 (fifty years after his death), Pessoa's remains were moved to the Hieronymites Monastery, in Lisbon, where Vasco da Gama, Luís de Camões, and Alexandre Herculano are also buried.", "Pessoa's portrait was on the 100-escudo banknote." ], [ "The triumphant day", "As the heteronym Coelho Pacheco, over a long period Pessoa's \"triumphant day\" was taken as real, however, it has been proved that this event was one more fiction created by Pessoa." ], [ "Heteronyms", "Pessoa's statue outside Lisbon's famous coffeehouse \"A Brasileira\".Pessoa's earliest heteronym, at the age of six, was '''Chevalier de Pas'''.", "Other childhood heteronyms included '''Dr.", "Pancrácio''' and '''David Merrick''', followed by '''Charles Robert Anon''', a young Englishman who became Pessoa's ''alter ego''.", "In 1905/7, when Pessoa was a student at the University of Lisbon, '''Alexander Search''' took the place of Anon.", "The main reason for this was that, although Search was English, he was born in Lisbon, as was his author.", "But Search represents a transition heteronym that Pessoa used while searching to adapt to the Portuguese cultural reality.", "After the republican revolution, in 1910, and consequent patriotic atmosphere, Pessoa created another ''alter ego'', '''Álvaro de Campos''', supposedly a Portuguese naval and mechanical engineer, who was born in Tavira, hometown of Pessoa's ancestors, and graduated in Glasgow.", "Translator and literary critic Richard Zenith notes that Pessoa eventually established at least seventy-two heteronyms.", "According to Pessoa himself, there are three main heteronyms: '''Alberto Caeiro''', '''Álvaro de Campos''' and '''Ricardo Reis'''.", "Pessoa's heteronyms differ from pen names, because they possess distinct biographies, temperaments, philosophies, appearances, writing styles and even signatures.", "Thus, heteronyms often disagree on various topics, argue and discuss with each other about literature, aesthetics, philosophy, etc.Pessoa wrote on the heteronyms:===Pessoa's heteronyms, pseudonyms, and characters=== No.", "Name Type Notes 1 Fernando Antonio Nogueira Pessoa Himself Commercial correspondent in Lisbon 2 Fernando Pessoa Orthonym Poet and prose writer 3 Fernando Pessoa Autonym Poet and prose writer 4 Fernando Pessoa Heteronym Poet; a pupil of Alberto Caeiro 5 Alberto Caeiro Heteronym Poet; author of ''O guardador de Rebanhos'', ''O Pastor Amoroso'' and ''Poemas inconjuntos''; master of heteronyms Fernando Pessoa, Álvaro de Campos, Ricardo Reis and António Mora 6 Ricardo Reis Heteronym Poet and prose writer, author of ''Odes'' and texts on the work of Alberto Caeiro 7 Federico Reis Heteronym / Para-heteronym Essayist; brother of Ricardo Reis, upon whom he writes 8 Álvaro de Campos Heteronym Poet and prose writer; a pupil of Alberto Caeiro 9 António Mora Heteronym Philosopher and sociologist; theorist of Neopaganism; a pupil of Alberto Caeiro 10 Claude Pasteur Heteronym / Semi-heteronym French translator of ''Cadernos de reconstrução pagã'' conducted by António Mora 11 Heteronym / Semi-heteronym Poet and prose writer; author of the second phase of ''The Book of Disquiet'' 12 Vicente Guedes Heteronym / Semi-heteronym Translator, poet; director of Ibis Press; author of a paper; author of the first phase of ''The Book of Disquiet'' 13 Gervasio Guedes Heteronym / Para-heteronym Author of the text \"A Coroação de Jorge Quinto\" 14 Heteronym Poet and short story writer 15 Charles James Search Heteronym / Para-heteronym Translator and essayist; brother of Alexander Search 16 Jean-Méluret of Seoul Heteronym / Proto-heteronym French poet and essayist 17 Rafael Baldaya Heteronym Astrologer; author of ''Tratado da Negação'' and ''Princípios de Metaphysica Esotérica'' 18 Barão de Teive Heteronym Prose writer; author of ''Educação do Stoica'' and ''Daphnis e Chloe'' 19 Charles Robert Anon Heteronym / Semi-heteronym Poet, philosopher and story writer 20 A.", "A. Crosse Pseudonym / Proto-heteronym Author and puzzle-solver 21 Thomas Crosse Heteronym / Proto-heteronym English epic character/occultist, popularized in Portuguese culture 22 I. I. Crosse Heteronym / Para-heteronym 23 David Merrick Heteronym / Semi-heteronym Poet, storyteller and playwright 24 Lucas Merrick Heteronym / Para-heteronym Short story writer; perhaps brother David Merrick 25 Pêro Botelho Heteronym / Pseudonym Short story writer and author of letters 26 Abilio Quaresma Heteronym / Character / Meta-heteronym Character inspired by Pêro Botelho and author of short detective stories 27 Inspector Guedes Character / Meta-heteronym?", "Character inspired by Pêro Botelho and author of short detective stories 28 Uncle Pork Pseudonym / Character Character inspired by Pêro Botelho and author of short detective stories 29 Frederick Wyatt Alias / Heteronym English poet and prose writer 30 Rev.", "Walter Wyatt Character Possibly brother of Frederick Wyatt 31 Alfred Wyatt Character Another brother of Frederick Wyatt and resident of Paris 32 Maria José Heteronym / Proto-heteronym Wrote and signed \"A Carta da Corcunda para o Serralheiro\" 33 Chevalier de Pas Pseudonym / Proto-heteronym Author of poems and letters 34 Efbeedee Pasha Heteronym / Proto-heteronym Author of humoristic stories 35 Faustino Antunes / A. Moreira Heteronym / Pseudonym Psychologist and author of ''Ensaio sobre a Intuição'' 36 Carlos Otto Heteronym / Proto-heteronym Poet and author of ''Tratado de Lucta Livre'' 37 Michael Otto Pseudonym / Para-heteronym Probably brother of Carlos Otto who was entrusted with the translation into English of ''Tratado de Lucta Livre'' 38 Sebastian Knight Proto-heteronym / Alias 39 Horace James Faber Heteronym / Semi-heteronym English short story writer and essayist 40 Navas Heteronym / Para-heteronym Translated Horace James Faber in Portuguese 41 Pantaleão Heteronym / Proto-heteronym Poet and prose writer 42 Torquato Fonseca Mendes da Cunha Rey Heteronym / Meta-heteronym Deceased author of a text Pantaleão decided to publish 43 Joaquim Moura Costa Proto-heteronym / Semi-heteronym Satirical poet; Republican activist; member of ''O Phosphoro'' 44 Sher Henay Proto-heteronym / Pseudonym Compiler and author of the preface of a sensationalist anthology in English 45 Anthony Gomes Semi-heteronym / Character Philosopher; author of \"Historia Cómica do Affonso Çapateiro\" 46 Professor Trochee Proto-heteronym / Pseudonym Author of an essay with humorous advice for young poets 47 Willyam Links Esk Character Signed a letter written in English on 13 April 1905 48 António de Seabra Pseudonym / Proto-heteronym Literary critic 49 João Craveiro Pseudonym / Proto-heteronym Journalist; follower of Sidonio Pereira 50 Tagus Pseudonym Collaborator in ''Natal Mercury'' (Durban, South Africa) 51 Pipa Gomes Draft heteronym Collaborator in ''O Phosphoro'' 52 Ibis Character / Pseudonym Character from Pessoa's childhood accompanying him until the end of his life; also signed poems 53 Dr. Gaudencio Turnips Proto-heteronym / Pseudonym English-Portuguese journalist and humorist; director of ''O Palrador'' 54 Pip Proto-heteronym / Pseudonym Poet and author of humorous anecdotes; predecessor of Dr. Pancrácio 55 Dr. Pancrácio Proto-heteronym / Pseudonym Storyteller, poet and creator of charades 56 Luís António Congo Proto-heteronym / Pseudonym Collaborator in ''O Palrador''; columnist and presenter of Eduardo Lança 57 Eduardo Lança Proto-heteronym / Pseudonym Luso-Brazilian poet 58 A. Francisco de Paula Angard Proto-heteronym / Pseudonym Collaborator in ''O Palrador''; author of \"Textos scientificos\" 59 Pedro da Silva Salles / Zé Pad Proto-heteronym / Alias Author and director of the section of anecdotes at ''O Palrador'' 60 José Rodrigues do Valle / Scicio Proto-heteronym / Alias Collaborator in ''O Palrador''; author of charades; literary manager 61 Dr. Caloiro Proto-heteronym / Pseudonym Collaborator in ''O Palrador''; reporter and author of ''A pesca das pérolas'' 62 Adolph Moscow Proto-heteronym / Pseudonym Collaborator in ''O Palrador''; novelist and author of ''Os Rapazes de Barrowby'' 63 Marvell Kisch Proto-heteronym / Pseudonym Author of a novel announced in ''O Palrador'', called ''A Riqueza de um Doido'' 64 Gabriel Keene Proto-heteronym / Pseudonym Author of a novel announced in ''O Palrador'', called ''Em Dias de Perigo'' 65 Sableton-Kay Proto-heteronym / Pseudonym Author of a novel announced in ''O Palrador'', called ''A Lucta Aérea'' 66 Morris & Theodor Pseudonym Collaborator in ''O Palrador''; author of charades 67 Diabo Azul Pseudonym Collaborator in ''O Palrador''; author of charades 68 Parry Pseudonym Collaborator in ''O Palrador''; author of charades 69 Gallião Pequeno Pseudonym Collaborator in ''O Palrador''; author of charades 70 Urban Accursio Alias Collaborator in ''O Palrador''; author of charades 71 Cecília Pseudonym Collaborator in ''O Palrador''; author of charades 72 José Rasteiro Proto-heteronym / Pseudonym Collaborator in ''O Palrador''; author of proverbs and riddles 73 Nympha Negra Pseudonym Collaborator in ''O Palrador''; author of charades 74 Diniz da Silva Pseudonym / Proto-heteronym Author of the poem \"Loucura\"; collaborator in ''Europe'' 75 Herr Prosit Pseudonym Translator of ''El estudiante de Salamanca'' by José Espronceda 76 Henry More Proto-heteronym Author and prose writer 77 Wardour Character?", "Poet 78 J. M. Hyslop Character?", "Poet 79 Vadooisf ?", "Character?", "Poet 80 Nuno Reis Pseudonym Son of Ricardo Reis 81 João Caeiro Character?", "Son of Alberto Caeiro and Ana Taveira===Alberto Caeiro===Alberto Caeiro was Pessoa's first great heteronym; it is summarized by Pessoa as follows: \"He sees things with the eyes only, not with the mind.", "He does not let any thoughts arise when he looks at a flower... the only thing a stone tells him is that it has nothing at all to tell him... this way of looking at a stone may be described as the totally unpoetic way of looking at it.", "The stupendous fact about Caeiro is that out of this sentiment, or rather, absence of sentiment, he makes poetry.", "\"What this means, and what makes Caeiro such an original poet is the way he apprehends existence.", "He does not question anything whatsoever; he calmly accepts the world as it is.", "The recurrent themes to be found in nearly all of Caeiro's poems are wide-eyed childlike wonder at the infinite variety of nature, as noted by a critic.", "He is free of metaphysical entanglements.", "Central to his world-view is the idea that in the world around us, all is surface: things are precisely what they seem, there is no hidden meaning anywhere.He manages thus to free himself from the anxieties that batter his peers; for Caeiro, things simply exist and we have no right to credit them with more than that.", "Caeiro attains happiness by not questioning, and by thus avoiding doubts and uncertainties.", "He apprehends reality solely through his eyes, through his senses.", "Octavio Paz called him the innocent poet.", "Paz made a shrewd remark on the heteronyms: In each are particles of negation or unreality.", "Reis believes in form, Campos in sensation, Pessoa in symbols.", "Caeiro doesn't believe in anything.", "He exists.Poetry before Caeiro was essentially interpretative; what poets did was to offer an interpretation of their perceived surroundings; Caeiro does not do this.", "Instead, he attempts to communicate his senses, and his feelings, without any interpretation whatsoever.Caeiro attempts to approach Nature from a qualitatively different mode of apprehension; that of simply perceiving (an approach akin to phenomenological approaches to philosophy).", "Poets before him would make use of intricate metaphors to describe what was before them; not so Caeiro: his self-appointed task is to bring these objects to the reader's attention, as directly and simply as possible.", "Caeiro sought a direct experience of the objects before him.As such it is not surprising to find that Caeiro has been called an anti-intellectual, anti-Romantic, anti-subjectivist, anti-metaphysical...an anti-poet, by critics; Caeiro simply-is.", "He is in this sense very unlike his creator Fernando Pessoa: Pessoa was besieged by metaphysical uncertainties; these were, to a large extent, the cause of his unhappiness; not so Caeiro: his attitude is anti-metaphysical; he avoided uncertainties by adamantly clinging to a certainty: his belief that there is no meaning behind things.", "Things, for him, simply-are.Caeiro represents a primal vision of reality, of things.", "He is the pagan incarnate.", "Indeed, Caeiro was not simply a pagan but paganism itself.The critic Jane M. Sheets sees the insurgence of Caeiro — who was Pessoa's first major heteronym — as essential in founding the later poetic ''personae'': By means of this artless yet affirmative anti-poet, Caeiro, a short-lived but vital member of his coterie, Pessoa acquired the base of an experienced and universal poetic vision.", "After Caeiro's tenets had been established, the avowedly poetic voices of Campos, Reis and Pessoa himself spoke with greater assurance.===Ricardo Reis===''Athena — Art Journal'' (5 issues edited by Pessoa and Ruy Vaz in 1924–1925), published poetry by Pessoa, ''Ricardo Reis'', and ''Alberto Caeiro'', as well as essays by ''Álvaro de Campos''.In a letter to William Bentley, Pessoa wrote that \"a ''knowledge'' of the language would be indispensable, for instance, to appraise the 'Odes' of Ricardo Reis, whose Portuguese would draw upon him the blessing of António Vieira, as his stile and diction that of Horace (he has been called, admirably I believe, 'a Greek Horace who writes in Portuguese')\".Reis, both a character and a heteronym of Fernando Pessoa himself, sums up his philosophy of life in his own words, admonishing, \"See life from a distance.", "Never question it.", "There's nothing it can tell you.\"", "Like Caeiro, whom he admires, Reis defers from questioning life.", "He is a modern pagan who urges one to seize the day and accept fate with tranquility.", "\"Wise is the one who does not seek.", "The seeker will find in all things the abyss, and doubt in himself.\"", "In this sense, Reis shares essential affinities with Caeiro.Believing in the Greek gods, yet living in a Christian Europe, Reis feels that his spiritual life is limited and true happiness cannot be attained.", "This, added to his belief in Fate as a driving force for all that exists, as such disregarding freedom, leads to his epicureanist philosophy, which entails the avoidance of pain, defending that man should seek tranquility and calm above all else, avoiding emotional extremes.Where Caeiro wrote freely and spontaneously, with joviality, of his basic, meaningless connection to the world, Reis writes in an austere, cerebral manner, with premeditated rhythm and structure and a particular attention to the correct use of the language when approaching his subjects of, as characterized by Richard Zenith, \"the brevity of life, the vanity of wealth and struggle, the joy of simple pleasures, patience in time of trouble, and avoidance of extremes\".In his detached, intellectual approach, he is closer to Fernando Pessoa's constant rationalization, as such representing the orthonym's wish for measure and sobriety and a world free of troubles and respite, in stark contrast to Caeiro's spirit and style.", "As such, where Caeiro's predominant attitude is that of joviality, his sadness being accepted as natural (\"My sadness is a comfort for it is natural and right.", "\"), Reis is marked by melancholy, saddened by the impermanence of all things.Ricardo Reis is the main character of José Saramago's 1986 novel ''The Year of the Death of Ricardo Reis''.===Álvaro de Campos===''Portugal Futurista'', the art journal that published ''Campos''' \"Ultimatum\" in 1917.Álvaro de Campos manifests, in a way, as a hyperbolic version of Pessoa himself.", "Of the three heteronyms he is the one who feels most strongly, his motto being 'to feel everything in every way.'", "'The best way to travel,' he wrote, 'is to feel.'", "As such, his poetry is the most emotionally intense and varied, constantly juggling two fundamental impulses: on the one hand a feverish desire to be and feel everything and everyone, declaring that 'in every corner of my soul stands an altar to a different god' (alluding to Walt Whitman's desire to 'contain multitudes'), on the other, a wish for a state of isolation and a sense of nothingness.As a result, his mood and principles varied between violent, dynamic exultation, as he fervently wishes to experience the entirety of the universe in himself, in all manners possible (a particularly distinctive trait in this state being his futuristic leanings, including the expression of great enthusiasm as to the meaning of city life and its components) and a state of nostalgic melancholy, where life is viewed as, essentially, empty.One of the poet's constant preoccupations, as part of his dichotomous character, is that of identity: he does not know who he is, or rather, fails at achieving an ideal identity.", "Wanting to be everything, and inevitably failing, he despairs.", "Unlike Caeiro, who asks nothing of life, he asks too much.", "In his poetic meditation 'Tobacco Shop' he asks:" ], [ "Summaries of selected works", "===''Message''===''Mensagem'', first edition, 1934.", "''Mensagem'', written in Portuguese, is a symbolist epic made up of 44 short poems organized in three parts or Cycles:The first, called \"Brasão\" (Coat-of-Arms), relates Portuguese historical protagonists to each of the fields and charges in the Portuguese coat of arms.", "The first two poems (\"The castles\" and \"The escutcheons\") draw inspiration from the material and spiritual natures of Portugal.", "Each of the remaining poems associates to each charge a historical personality.", "Ultimately they all lead to the Golden Age of Discovery.The second Part, called \"Mar Português\" (Portuguese Sea), references the country's Age of Portuguese Exploration and to its seaborne Empire that ended with the death of King Sebastian at El-Ksar el Kebir (''Alcácer-Quibir'' in Portuguese) in 1578.Pessoa brings the reader to the present as if he had woken up from a dream of the past, to fall in a dream of the future: he sees King Sebastian returning and still bent on accomplishing a Universal Empire.The third Cycle, called \"O Encoberto\" (\"The Hidden One\"), refers to Pessoa's vision of a future world of peace and the Fifth Empire (which, according to Pessoa, is spiritual and not material, because if it were material England would already have achieved it).", "After the Age of Force (Vis), and Taedium (Otium) will come Science (understanding) through a reawakening of \"The Hidden One\", or \"King Sebastian\".", "The Hidden One represents the fulfillment of the destiny of mankind, designed by God since before Time, and the accomplishment of Portugal.King Sebastian is very important, indeed he appears in all three parts of Mensagem.", "He represents the capacity of dreaming, and believing that it's possible to achieve dreams.One of the most famous quotes from ''Mensagem'' is the first line from ''O Infante'' (belonging to the second Part), which is ''Deus quer, o homem sonha, a obra nasce'' (which translates roughly to \"God wishes, man dreams, the work is born\").", "Another well-known quote from ''Mensagem'' is the first line from ''Ulysses'', \"O mito é o nada que é tudo\" (a possible translation is \"The myth is the nothing that is all\").", "This poem refers to Ulysses, king of Ithaca, as Lisbon's founder (recalling an ancient Greek myth).===Literary essays===''A Águia — Organ of the Portuguese Renaissance'' — issue nr.", "4, April 1912.In 1912, Fernando Pessoa wrote a set of essays (later collected as ''The New Portuguese Poetry'') for the cultural journal ''A Águia'' (The Eagle), founded in Oporto, in December 1910, and run by the republican association Renascença Portuguesa.", "In the first years of the Portuguese Republic, this cultural association was started by republican intellectuals led by the writer and poet Teixeira de Pascoaes, philosopher Leonardo Coimbra and historian Jaime Cortesão, aiming for the renewal of Portuguese culture through the aesthetic movement called Saudosismo.", "Pessoa contributed to the journal ''A Águia'' with a series of papers: 'The new Portuguese Poetry Sociologically Considered' (nr.", "4), 'Relapsing...' (nr.", "5) and 'The Psychological Aspect of the new Portuguese Poetry' (nrs.", "9,11 and 12).", "These writings were strongly encomiastic to saudosist literature, namely the poetry of Teixeira de Pascoaes and Mário Beirão.", "The articles disclose Pessoa as a connoisseur of modern European literature and an expert of recent literary trends.", "On the other hand, he does not care much for a methodology of analysis or problems in the history of ideas.", "He states his confidence that Portugal would soon produce a great poet – a super-Camões – pledged to make an important contribution for European culture, and indeed, for humanity.===Philosophical essays===The philosophical notes of the young Pessoa, mostly written between 1905 and 1912, illustrate his debt to the history of philosophy more through commentators than through a first-hand protracted reading of the Classics, ancient or modern.", "The issues he engages with pertain to every philosophical discipline and concern a large profusion of concepts, creating a vast semantic spectrum in texts whose length varies between half a dozen lines and half a dozen pages and whose density of analysis is extremely variable; simple paraphrasis, expression of assumptions and original speculation.Pessoa sorted the philosophical systems thus:A passage from his famous poem \"Mar Português\" from ''Message'', in the city of Lagos, Portugal.# Relative Spiritualism and relative Materialism privilege \"Spirit\" or \"Matter\" as the main pole that organizes data around Experience.# Absolute Spiritualist and Absolute Materialist \"deny all objective reality to one of the elements of Experience\".# The materialistic Pantheism of Spinoza and the spiritualizing Pantheism of Malebranche, \"admit that experience is a double manifestation of any thing that in its essence has no matter neither spirit\".# Considering both elements as an \"illusory manifestation\", of a transcendent and true and alone realities, there is Transcendentalism, inclined into matter with Schopenhauer, or into spirit, a position where Bergson could be emplaced.# A terminal system \"the limited and summit of metaphysics\" would not radicalize – as poles of experience – one of the single categories: matter, relative, absolute, real, illusory, spirit.", "Instead, matching all categories, it takes contradiction as \"the essence of the universe\" and defends that \"an affirmation is so more true insofar the more contradiction involves\".", "The transcendent must be conceived beyond categories.", "There ''is one only and eternal example of it.", "It is that cathedral of thought -the philosophy of Hegel.", "''Such pantheist transcendentalism is used by Pessoa to define the project that \"encompasses and exceeds all systems\"; to characterize the new poetry of '''Saudosismo''' where the \"typical contradiction of this system\" occurs; to inquire of the particular social and political results of its adoption as the leading cultural paradigm; and, at last, he hints that metaphysics and religiosity strive \"to find in everything a beyond\"." ], [ "Works", "* '' Antinous: a poem'', Lisbon: Monteiro & Co., 1918 (16 p., 20 cm).", "Portugal: PURL.", "*''35 Sonnets'', Lisbon: Monteiro & Co., 1918 (20 pp., 20 cm).", "Portugal: PURL.", "*'' English Poems'', 2 vols.", "(vol.", "1 part I – Antinous, part II – Inscriptions; vol.", "2 part III – Epithalamium), Lisbon: Olisipo, 1921 (vol.", "1, 20 pp.", "; vol.", "2, 16 pp., 24 cm).", "Portugal: PURL.", "*''Selected Poems'', tr.", "Edwin Honig, Swallow Press, 1971.ISBN B000XU4FE4*''Selected Poems'', tr.", "Peter Rickard, University of Texas Press, 1972*''The Book of Disquiet'' (first published 1982; multiple translations and editions exist)**''Fernando Pessoa: Self-Analysis and Thirty Other Poems'', tr.", "George Monteiro, Gavea-Brown Publications, 1989.", "*''Message'', tr.", "Jonathan Griffin, introduction by Helder Macedo, Menard Press, 1992.", "*'' The Anarchist Banker and Other Portuguese Stories''.", "Carcanet Press, 1996.", "*''The Keeper of Sheep'', bilingual edition, tr.", "Edwin Honig & Susan M. Brown, Sheep Meadow, 1997.", "**''Fernando Pessoa & Co: Selected Poems'', tr.", "Richard Zenith, Grove Press, 1999.", "*''Selected Poems: with New Supplement '' tr.", "Jonathan Griffin, Penguin Classics; 2nd edition, 2000.", "**''Sheep's Vigil by a Fervent Person: A Translation of Alberto Caeiro/Fernando Pessoa'', tr.", "Erin Moure, House of Anansi, 2001.", "*''The Education of the Stoic'', tr.", "Richard Zenith, afterwords by Antonio Tabucchi and Richard Zenith, Exact Change, 2005.", "*''A Little Larger Than the Entire Universe: Selected Poems'', tr.", "Richard Zenith, Penguin Classics, 2006.", "*''A Centenary Pessoa'', tr.", "Keith Bosley & L. C. Taylor, foreword by Octavio Paz, Carcanet Press, 2006.", "*******'' Philosophical Essays: A Critical Edition''.", "Edited with notes and introduction by Nuno Ribeiro.", "New York: Contra Mundum Press, 2012.", "*'' The Transformation Book — or Book of Tasks''.", "Edited with notes and introduction by Nuno Ribeiro and Cláudia Souza.", "New York: Contra Mundum Press, 2014.", "*''Un libro muy original | A Very Original Book'' as Alexander Search.", "Bilingual edition with notes by Natalia Jerez Quintero.", "Medellin: Tragaluz, 2014.", "*'' The Complete Works of Alberto Caeiro''.", "Edited by Jerónimo Pizarro and Patricio Ferrari, translated by Margaret Jull Costa and Patricio Ferrari.", "New York City: New Directions, 2020.", "*''Writings on Art & Poetical Theory'' (2022).", "Edited with notes and introduction by Nuno Ribeiro and Cláudia Souza.", "New York: Contra Mundum Press, 2022.", "*'' The Complete Works of Álvaro de Campos'', translated by Margaret Jull Costa and Patricio Ferrari.", "New York City: New Directions, 2023." ], [ "See also", "* Geração de Orpheu* Heteronym* Álvaro de Campos* ''The Book of Disquiet''* ''The Year of the Death of Ricardo Reis''* Portuguese poetry* ''Dreams of Speaking''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===Books===* Zenith, Richard.", "''Pessoa: A Biography''.", "New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2021, .", "Also published as ''Pessoa: An Experimental Life''.", "London: Allen Lane, 2021.", "* Jennings, Hubert D. and Carlos Pittella.", "''Fernando Pessoa, the Poet with Many Faces: A biography and anthology''.", "Providence, RI: Gavea-Brown, 2018.", "* Gray de Castro, Mariana (ed.).", "''Fernando Pessoa's modernity without frontiers: influences, dialogues, responses''.", "Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK.", "Rochester, NY; USA: Oxford: Tamesis, 2013, .", "* Jackson, Kenneth David.", "''Adverse Genres in Fernando Pessoa''.", "New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.", "* Klobucka, Anna and Mark Sabine, (eds.).", "''Embodying Pessoa: Corporeality, Gender, Sexuality''.", "Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007.", "* Santos, Maria Irene Ramalho Sousa.", "''Atlantic Poets: Fernando Pessoa's Turn in Anglo-American Modernism''.", "Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 2003.", "* ''Pessoa's Alberto Caeiro''.", "Dartmouth, Mass.", ": University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 2000.", "* Monteiro, George.", "''Fernando Pessoa and Nineteenth-century Anglo-American Literature''.", "Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2000.", "* Monteiro, George.", "''The Presence of Pessoa: English, American, and Southern African Literary Responses''.", "Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1998.", "* Sadlier, Darlene J.", "''An Introduction to Fernando Pessoa, Literary Modernist''.", "Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 1998.", "* Lancastre, Maria José de and Antonio Tabucchi.", "''Fernando Pessoa: Photographic Documentation and Caption.", "''Paris : Hazan, 1997.", "* Kotowicz, Zbigniew.", "''Fernando Pessoa: Voices of a Nomadic Soul''.", "London: Menard, 1996.", "* Lisboa, Eugénio and L. C. Taylor.", "''A Centenary Pessoa''.", "Manchester, England: Carcanet, 1995.", "* Terlinden-Villepin, Anne.", "''Fernando Pessoa: The Bilingual Portuguese Poet''.", "Brussels: Facultés universitaires Saint-Louis, 1990.", "* McGuirk, Bernard.", "''Three Persons on One: A Centenary Tribute to Fernando Pessoa''.", "Nottingham, England: University of Nottingham, 1988.", "* Green, J. C. R. ''Fernando Pessoa: The Genesis of the Heteronyms''.", "Isle of Skye: Aquila, 1982.", "* Monteiro, George.", "''The Man Who Never Was: Essays on Fernando Pessoa''.", "Providence, RI: Gávea-Brown, 1982.===Articles===* Anderson, R. N., \"The Static Drama of Pessoa, Fernando\", ''Hispanofila'' (104): 89–97 (January 1992).", "* Bloom, Harold, \"Fernando Pessoa\" in ''Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds''.", "New York: Warner Books, 2002.", "* Brown, S. M., \"The Whitman Pessoa Connection\", ''Walt Whitman Quarterly Review'' 9 (1): 1–14 SUM 1991.", "* Bunyan, D, \"The South-African Pessoa: Fernando 20th Century Portuguese Poet\", ''English in Africa'' 14 (1), May 1987, pp. 67–105.", "* Cruz, Anne J., \"Masked Rhetoric: Contextuality in Fernando Pessoa's Poems\", ''Romance Notes'', vol.", "XXIX, no.", "1 (Fall, 1988), pp. 55–60.", "* De Castro, Mariana, \"Oscar Wilde, Fernando Pessoa, and the art of lying\", ''Portuguese Studies'' 22 (2): 219, 2006.JSTOR* Dyer, Geoff, \"Heteronyms\" ''The New Statesman'', vol.", "4 (6 December 1991), p. 46.", "* Eberstadt, Fernanda, \"Proud of His Obscurity\", ''The New York Times Book Review'', vol.", "96, (1 September 1991), p. 26.", "* Ferrari, Patricio.", "\"Proverbs in Fernando Pessoa's works\", ''Proverbium'', vol.", "31, pp. 235–244.", "* Guyer, Leland, \"Fernando Pessoa and the Cubist Perspective\", ''Hispania'', vol.", "70, no.", "1 (March 1987), pp. 73–78.", "* Haberly, David T., \"Fernando Pessoa: Overview\" in Lesley Henderson (ed.", "), ''Reference Guide to World Literature'', 2nd ed.", "St. James Press, 1995.", "* Hicks, J., \"The Fascist imaginary in Pessoa and Pirandello\", ''Centennial Review'' 42 (2): 309–332 SPR 1998.", "* Hollander, John, \"Quadrophenia\", ''The New Republic'', 7 September 1987, pp. 33–6.", "* Howes, R. W., \"Pessoa, Fernando, Poet, Publisher, and Translator\", ''British Library Journal'' 9 (2): 161–170 1983.", "* Jennings, Hubert D., \"In Search of Fernando Pessoa\" ''Contrast 47 – South African Quarterly'', vol.", "12 no.", "3 (June 1979).", "* Lopes J. M., \"Cubism and intersectionism in Fernando Pessoa's 'Chuva Obliqua\", ''Texte'' (15–16),1994, pp.", "63–95.", "* Mahr, G., \"Pessoa, life narrative, and the dissociative process\" in ''Biography'' 21 (1) Winter 1998, pp. 25–35.", "* McNeill, Pods, \"The aesthetic of fragmentation and the use of personae in the poetry of Fernando Pessoa and W. B. Yeats\", ''Portuguese Studies'' 19: 110–121 2003.", "* Monteiro, George, \"The Song of the Reaper-Pessoa and Wordsworth\", ''Portuguese Studies'' 5, 1989, pp. 71–80.", "* Muldoon P., \"In the hall of mirrors: 'Autopsychography' by Fernando Pessoa\", ''New England Review'' 23 (4), Fall 2002, pp. 38–52.", "* Pasi, Marco, \"September 1930, Lisbon: Aleister Crowley’s lost diary of his Portuguese trip\" ''Pessoa Plural'', no.", "1 (Spring 2012), pp. 253–283.", "* Pasi, Marco & Ferrari, Patricio, \"Fernando Pessoa and Aleister Crowley: New discoveries and a new analysis of the documents in the Gerald Yorke Collection\", ''Pessoa Plural'', no.", "1 (Spring 2012), pp. 284–313.", "* Phillips, A., \"Pessoa's Appearances\" in ''Promises, Promises'', London: Faber and Faber Limited, 2000, pp. 113–124.", "* Polito, Robert, \"Fernando Pessoa\" ''Bomb Magazine'', Issue #65, October 1, 1998.", "* Ribeiro, A. S., \"A tradition of empire: Fernando Pessoa and Germany\", ''Portuguese Studies'' 21: 201–209, 2005* Riccardi, Mattia, \"Dionysus or Apollo?", "The heteronym Antonio Mora as moment of Nietzsche's reception by Pessoa\", ''Portuguese Studies'' 23 (1), 109, 2007.", "* Rosenthal, David H., \"Unpredictable Passions\", ''The New York Times Book Review'', 13 December 1987, p. 32.", "* Seabra, J.A., \"Pessoa, Fernando Portuguese Modernist Poet\", ''Europe'' 62 (660): 41–53 1984.", "* Severino, Alexandrino E., \"Fernando Pessoa's Legacy: The Presença and After\", ''World Literature Today'', vol.", "53, no.", "1 (Winter, 1979), pp. 5–9.", "* Severino, Alexandrino E., \"Pessoa, Fernando – A Modern Lusiad\", ''Hispania'' 67 (1): 52–60 1984.", "* Severino, Alexandrino E., \"Was Pessoa Ever in South Africa?\"", "''Hispania'' , vol.", "74, no.", "3 (September 1991).", "* Sheets, Jane M., \"Fernando Pessoa as Anti-Poet: Alberto Caeiro\", ''Bulletin of Hispanic Studies'', vol.", "XLVI, no.", "1 (January 1969), pp. 39–47.", "* Sousa, Ronald W., \"The Structure of Pessoa's Mensagem\", ''Bulletin of Hispanic Studies'', vol.", "LIX, no.", "1, January 1982, pp. 58–66.", "* Steiner, George, \"A man of many parts\", ''The Observer'', 3 June 2001.", "* Suarez, Jose, \"Fernando Pessoa's acknowledged involvement with the occult\", ''Hispania 90'' (2): (May 2007), 245–252.", "* Wood, Michael, \"Mod and Great\" ''The New York Review of Books'', vol.", "XIX, no.", "4 (21 September 1972), pp. 19–22.", "* Wood, Michael, \"The Sorcerer's Apprentice\" ''The New York Review of Books'' (24 October 1991).", "* Zenith, Richard, \"Pessoa, Fernando and the Theater of his Self\", ''Performing Arts Journal'' (44), May 1993, pp.", "47–49.===Videos===* Professor David Jackson: Adverse Genres in Fernando Pessoa 10:20.Yale University, 11/12/2009.Professor Jacksons research interests focus on Portuguese and Brazilian Literatures; modernist and inter-arts literature; Portuguese culture in Asia; and ethnomusicology.", "He has written and edited several books and other publications.", "We talk with Professor Jackson about his forthcoming book, Adverse Genres in Fernando Pessoa.", "* PESSOA & OTHER POETS IN THE PORTUGUESE: An Evening with Translator Richard Zenith 1:35:17.18 November 2013, at the Woodberry Poetry Room, Harvard University.As a part of our Omniglot Seminar series, Portuguese translator Richard Zenith read from his translations of Luís de Camões, Fernando Pessoa and Carlos Drummond de Andrade.", "He compared his experiences translating archaic vs. contemporary linguistic registers, highly formal poetry vs. free verse, and European vs. Brazilian Portuguese.", "And he discussed the unique challenge of translating (and researching a biography of) a poet such as Pessoa, with alter egos that wrote in radically different styles.", "* Fernando Pessoa: An Englishly Portuguese, Endlessly Multiple Poet 1:04:12.Library of Congress, 22/04/2015.Richard Zenith presented a lecture on Fernando Pessoa, one of Portugal's most important literary figures of the 20th century and a towering figure in modernism.", "* I Don't know How Many Souls I Have - Fernando Pessoa 02:16.WisdoMango, 15/11/2020.In this poem, Pessoa creates an inner struggle that the speaker has with trying to figure out whether it was fate or free will that has determined how his life panned out.", "By making the whole poem essentially one, elongated metaphor, Pessoa is able to give multiple interpretations to his poem.", "In the titular first line of the first stanza, Pessoa states \"I don’t know how many souls I have\".", "Automatically, Pessoa causes the speaker to question his morality and inner being.", "Line two of the first stanza has a literal translation of \"each time changed.\"", "When put in context, it becomes apparent that the speaker is referring to himself that changes so often.", "These two lines become the foundation for the rest of the poem, seeing as they set up a questioning within the speaker.", "The translations of these two lines are also crucial to fully grasp the meaning of the poem as a whole.", "* Fine Poetry - Poems of Fernando Pessoa 15:46.Richard Eggenberger, 31/01/2018.", "* \"Pop\" by Fernando Pessoa, translated by Richard Zenith 01:14.Poem read by David Novak, 07/01/2021." ], [ "External links", "* Pessoa's Museum in Lisbon Fernando Pessoa House* Pessoa's private library free downloads from the digital library at Pessoa's Museum* Digital Edition of Fernando Pessoa and heteronyms* ''Message'' the only Portuguese book by Fernando Pessoa published during his lifetime* Works by Fernando Pessoa at the Portuguese Digital Library* * * * * ''Pessoa Plural: Revista de Estudos Pessoanos – A Journal of Fernando Pessoa Studies'' * Project Estranhar Pessoa * ''Antinous'' free download from the Portuguese Digital Library* ''35 Sonnets'' free download from the Portuguese Digital Library* ''English Poems'' free download from the Portuguese Digital Library* ''Mensagem'' free download from the Portuguese Digital Library* \"Portugal Holds on to Words Few Can Grasp\" by Michael Kimmelman, ''The New York Times'', 15 July 2008* Poets.org Biography* Pessoa's trunk 13+ ways of looking at a poem* Kannada translation of 4 poems by Fernando Pessoa - Translated by S. Jayasrinivasa Rao - published in avadhimag.in* Kannada translation of 4 more poems by Fernando Pessoa - Translated by S. Jayasrinivasa Rao - published in Bhasha Bharathi: A Peer-Reviewed Kannada Triannual Journal, Vol.", "4, September-December 2021.Pp.", "86-94* Arquivo Pessoa* Pessoa by Eveleigh The many faces of Fernando Pessoa by Aldous Eveleigh* 35 English Sonnets by Fernando Pessoa (audio)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Full moon" ], [ "Introduction", "The supermoon of 14 November 2016 was away from the center of Earth.", "This occurs yearly.As the Earth revolves around the Sun, approximate axial parallelism of the Moon's orbital plane (tilted five degrees to the Earth's orbital plane) results in the revolution of the lunar nodes relative to the Earth.", "This causes an eclipse season approximately every six months, in which a lunar eclipse can occur at the full moon phase.The '''full moon''' is the lunar phase when the Moon appears fully illuminated from Earth's perspective.", "This occurs when Earth is located between the Sun and the Moon (when the ecliptic longitudes of the Sun and Moon differ by 180°).", "This means that the lunar hemisphere facing Earth—the near side—is completely sunlit and appears as an approximately circular disk.", "The full moon occurs roughly once a month.The time interval between a full moon and the next repetition of the same phase, a synodic month, averages about 29.53 days.", "Therefore, in those lunar calendars in which each month begins on the day of the new moon, the full moon falls on either the 14th or 15th day of the lunar month.", "Because a calendar month consists of a whole number of days, a month in a lunar calendar may be either 29 or 30 days long." ], [ "Characteristics", "A full moon is often thought of as an event of a full night's duration, although its phase seen from Earth continuously waxes or wanes, and is full only at the instant when waxing ends and waning begins.", "For any given location, about half of these maximum full moons may be visible, while the other half occurs during the day, when the full moon is below the horizon.", "As the Moon's orbit is inclined by 5.145° from the ecliptic, it is not generally perfectly opposite from the Sun during full phase, therefore a full moon is in general not perfectly full except on nights with a lunar eclipse as the Moon crosses the ecliptic at opposition from the Sun.Many almanacs list full moons not only by date, but also by their exact time, usually in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).", "Typical monthly calendars that include lunar phases may be offset by one day when prepared for a different time zone.The full moon is generally a suboptimal time for astronomical observation of the Moon because shadows vanish.", "It is a poor time for other observations because the bright sunlight reflected by the Moon, amplified by the opposition surge, then outshines many stars.=== Moon Phases ===There are eight phases of the moon, which vary from partial to full illumination.", "The moon phases are also called lunar phases.", "These stages have different names that come from its shape and size at each phase.", "For example, the crescent moon, which is banana the quarter moon, is D-shaped.", "When the moon phases are almost complete, the moon is called the gibbous moon.", "The crescent and gibbous Moons each last approximately a week.Each phase is also described in accordance to its position on the full 29.5 day cycle.The eight phases of the moon in order include:* new Moon* waxing crescent Moon* first quarter Moon* waxing gibbous Moon* full Moon* waning gibbous Moon* last quarter Moon* waning crescent Moon.=== Formula ===The date and approximate time of a specific full moon (assuming a circular orbit) can be calculated from the following equation::where ''d'' is the number of days since 1 January 2000 00:00:00 in the Terrestrial Time scale used in astronomical ephemerides; for Universal Time (UT) add the following approximate correction to ''d'':: dayswhere ''N'' is the number of full moons since the first full moon of 2000.The true time of a full moon may differ from this approximation by up to about 14.5 hours as a result of the non-circularity of the Moon's orbit.", "See New moon for an explanation of the formula and its parameters.The age and apparent size of the full moon vary in a cycle of just under 14 synodic months, which has been referred to as a full moon cycle.===Lunar eclipses===When the Moon moves into Earth's shadow, a lunar eclipse occurs, during which all or part of the Moon's face may appear reddish due to the Rayleigh scattering of blue wavelengths and the refraction of sunlight through Earth's atmosphere.", "Lunar eclipses happen only during a full moon and around points on its orbit where the satellite may pass through the planet's shadow.", "A lunar eclipse does not occur every month because the Moon's orbit is inclined 5.145° with respect to the ecliptic plane of Earth; thus, the Moon usually passes north or south of Earth's shadow, which is mostly restricted to this plane of reference.", "Lunar eclipses happen only when the full moon occurs around either node of its orbit (ascending or descending).", "Therefore, a lunar eclipse occurs about every six months, and often two weeks before or after a solar eclipse, which occurs during a new moon around the opposite node." ], [ "In folklore and tradition", "A full moon rising, seen through the Belt of VenusIn Buddhism, Vesak is celebrated on the full moon day of the Vaisakha month, marking the birth, enlightenment, and the death of the Buddha.In Arabic, badr (بدر ) means 'full moon', but it is often translated as 'white moon', referring to The White Days, the three days when the full moon is celebrated.Full moons are traditionally associated with insomnia (inability to sleep), insanity (hence the terms ''lunacy'' and ''lunatic'') and various \"magical phenomena\" such as lycanthropy.", "Psychologists, however, have found that there is no strong evidence for effects on human behavior around the time of a full moon.", "They find that studies are generally not consistent, with some showing a positive effect and others showing a negative effect.", "In one instance, the 23 December 2000 issue of the ''British Medical Journal'' published two studies on dog bite admission to hospitals in England and Australia.", "The study of the Bradford Royal Infirmary found that dog bites were twice as common during a full moon, whereas the study conducted by the public hospitals in Australia found that they were less likely.Symbol of the Triple GoddessThe symbol of the Triple Goddess is drawn with the circular image of the full moon in the center flanked by a left facing crescent and right facing crescent, on either side, representing a maiden, mother and crone archetype.===Full moon names===Historically, month names are names of moons (lunations, not necessarily full moons) in lunisolar calendars.", "Since the introduction of the solar Julian calendar in the Roman Empire, and later the Gregorian calendar worldwide, people no longer perceive month names as \"moon\" names.", "The traditional Old English month names were equated with the names of the Julian calendar from an early time, soon after Christianization, according to the testimony of Bede around AD 700.Some full moons have developed new names in modern times, such as \"blue moon\", as well as \"harvest moon\" and \"hunter's moon\" for the full moons of autumn.Lunar eclipses occur only at a full moon and often cause a reddish hue on the near side of the Moon.", "This full moon has been called a blood moon in popular culture.====Harvest and hunter's moons====A harvest moon.", "Its orange color is due to greater Rayleigh scattering as the Moon appears close above the horizon, rather than being unique to harvest moons.The \"harvest moon\" and the \"hunter's moon\" are traditional names for the full moons in late summer and in the autumn in the Northern Hemisphere, usually in September and October, respectively.", "People may celebrate these occurrences in festivities such as the Chinese Mid-Autumn Festival, which is as important as the Chinese New Year.The \"harvest moon\" (also known as the \"barley moon\" or \"full corn moon\") is the full moon nearest to the autumnal equinox (22 or 23 September), occurring anytime within two weeks before or after that date.", "The \"hunter's moon\" is the full moon following it.", "The names are recorded from the early 18th century.", "The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' entry for \"harvest moon\" cites a 1706 reference, and for \"hunter's moon\" a 1710 edition of ''The British Apollo'', which attributes the term to \"the country people\" (\"The Country People call this the Hunters-Moon.\")", "The names became traditional in American folklore, where they are now often popularly attributed to Native Americans.", "The Feast of the Hunters' Moon is a yearly festival in West Lafayette, Indiana, held in late September or early October each year since 1968.In 2010 the harvest moon occurred on the night of the equinox itself (some 5 hours after the moment of equinox) for the first time since 1991, after a period known as the Metonic cycle.All full moons rise around the time of sunset.", "Since the Moon moves eastward among the stars faster than the Sun, lunar culmination is delayed by about 50.47 minutes (on average) each day, thus causing moonrise to occur later each day.Due to the high lunar standstill, the harvest and hunter's moons of 2007 were special because the time difference between moonrises on successive evenings was much shorter than average.", "The moon rose about 30 minutes later from one night to the next, as seen from about 40° N or S latitude (because the full moon of September 2007 rose in the northeast rather than in the east).", "Hence, no long period of darkness occurred between sunset and moonrise for several days after the full moon, thus lengthening the time in the evening when there is enough twilight and moonlight to work to get the harvest in.====''Farmers' Almanacs''====The ''Maine Farmers' Almanac'' from around the 1930s began to publish Native American \"Indian\" full moon names, some of which had been adopted by colonial Americans.", "The ''Farmers' Almanac'' (since 1955 published in Maine, but not the same publication as the ''Maine Farmers' Almanac'') continues to do so.An early list of \"Indian month names\" was published in 1918 by Daniel Carter Beard in his ''The American Boy's Book of Signs, Signals and Symbols'' for use by the boy scouts.Such names have gained currency in American folklore.", "They appear in print more widely outside of the almanac tradition from the 1990s in popular publications about the Moon.", "''Mysteries of the Moon'' by Patricia Haddock (\"Great Mysteries Series\", Greenhaven Press, 1992) gave an extensive list of such names along with the individual tribal groups they were supposedly associated with.", "Haddock supposes that certain \"Colonial American\" moon names were adopted from Algonquian languages (which were formerly spoken in the territory of New England), while others are based in European tradition (e.g.", "the Colonial American names for the May moon, \"Milk Moon\", \"Mother's Moon\", \"Hare Moon\" have no parallels in the supposed native names, while the name of November, \"Beaver Moon\" is supposedly based in an Algonquian language).The Long Night's Moon is the last full moon of the year and the one nearest the winter solstice.", "\"Ice Moon\" is also used to refer to the first full moon of January or February.+Full moon names the ''Farmer's Almanac''MonthNames according to BeardNames from the ''Farmers Almanac''Other names January Difficulty Black Smoke Wolf Moon Old Moon Moon After Yule Winter Moon February Raccoon Bare Spots on the Ground Snow Moon Hunger Moon March Wind Little Grass, Sore-Eye Worm Moon Crow Moon Sap Moon Crust Moon Lenten Moon, Wind Moon April Ducks Goose-Eggs Pink Moon Seed Moon, Sprouting Grass Moon Fish Moon, Frog Moon Spring Moon, Awakening Moon Sap Moon May Green Grass Root-Food Flower Moon Milk Moon Corn Planting Moon Grass Moon Mother's Moon June Corn-Planting Strawberry Strawberry Moon Mead Moon Rose Moon Hot Moon Thunder Moon July Buffalo (Bull) Hot Sun Buck Moon Hay Moon Elk Moon Summer Moon Thunder Moon August Harvest Cow Buffalo Sturgeon Moon Red Moon Corn Moon Barley, Green Corn, Herb, or Grain Moon Dog Moon September Wild Rice Red Plum Harvest Moon Full Corn Moon Fruit Moon Barley Moon October Leaf-Falling Nuts Hunters' Moon Blood or Sanguine Moon Autumn Moon Pumpkin Moon Dying Moon November Deer-Mating Fur-Pelts Frosty Moon Dark Moon December Wolves Big Moon Cold Moon Oak Moon 13th Blue Moon |===Hindu full moon festivals===In Hinduism, most festivals are celebrated on auspicious days.", "Many Hindu festivals are celebrated on days with a full moon night, called the ''purnima''.", "Different parts of India celebrate the same festival with different names, as listed below:#Chaitra Purnima – Gudi Padua, Ugadi, Hanuman Jayanti (15 April 2014)#Vaishakha Purnima – Narasimha Jayanti, Buddha Jayanti (14 May 2014)#Jyeshtha Purnima – Savitri Vrata, Vat Purnima (8 June 2014)#Ashadha Purnima – Guru Purnima, Vyasa Purnima#Shravana Purnima – Upanayana ceremony, Avani Avittam, Raksha Bandhan, Onam #Bhadrapada Purnima – Start of Pitru Paksha, Madhu Purnima#Ashvin Purnima – Sharad Purnima#Kartika Purnima – Karthikai Deepam, Thrukkarthika#Margashirsha Purnima – Thiruvathira, Dattatreya Jayanti#Pushya Purnima – Thaipusam, Shakambhari Purnima#Magha Purnima#Phalguna Purnima – Holi" ], [ "Lunar and lunisolar calendars", "The December 2015 full moon coincided with Christmas.", "This last occurred in 1977 (for the American timezones).", "A small horizontal libration is visible comparing their appearances.", "By the 19-year metonic cycle the full moon will repeat on Christmas Day in 2034, 2053, 2072, and 2091.Most pre-modern calendars the world over were lunisolar, combining the solar year with the lunation by means of intercalary months.The Julian calendar abandoned this method in favour of a purely solar reckoning while conversely the 7th-century Islamic calendar opted for a purely lunar one.A continuing lunisolar calendar is the Hebrew calendar.", "Evidence of this is noted in the dates of Passover and Easter in Judaism and Christianity, respectively.", "Passover falls on the full moon on 15 Nisan of the Hebrew calendar.", "The date of the Jewish Rosh Hashana and Sukkot festivals along with all other Jewish holidays are dependent on the dates of the new moons.===Intercalary months===In lunisolar calendars, an intercalary month occurs seven times in the 19 years of the Metonic cycle, or on average every 2.7 years (19/7).", "In the Hebrew calendar this is noted with a periodic extra month of Adar in the early spring.==== Blue moon====In the modern system of \"traditional\" American full moon names tied to the solstice and equinox points, a supernumerary full moon in such a period is called a blue moon.", "The term \"blue moon\" used in this sense may date to as early as the 16th century, but it became well known in the United States due to the ''Farmers' Almanac'' (published since 1818).According to the pattern of use in the ''Farmers' Almanac'', a \"blue moon\" is the third full moon in any period between either a solstice and an equinox, or between an equinox and a solstice, (calculated using the mean tropical year), which contains four full moons.", "These seasons are equal in length, unlike the astronomical ones, which vary in length depending on the Earth's speed in its elliptical orbit round the Sun.", "To compare, in 1983 the equal-length mean-solar solar points and the ''actual'' astronomical (observed) dates are shown in the table below (all dates and times in GMT): Event Fictitious equal-length-season date Actual astronomical date Error (approximate) Spring equinox 1:48am, 23 March 1983 4:39am, 21 March 1983 −2 days Summer solstice 9:15am, 22 June 1983 11:09pm, 21 June 1983 −1.5 days Fall equinox 4:42pm, 21 September 1983 2:42pm, 23 September 1983 +2 days Winter solstice   12:10am, 22 December 1983 10:30am, 22 December 1983 −2 hoursAs a consequence of checking an inadequate number of old issues of the ''Farmers' Almanac'', the author of an article in the March 1946 issue of ''Sky & Telescope'' magazine wrongly concluded that the ''Farmers' Almanac'' had used \"blue moon\" to denote \"the second full moon in any month which contains two full moons\".The mistaken rule was retracted and declared \"erroneous\" in a 1999 ''Sky & Telescope'' article, which gave the corrected rule, based on order in seasons.Using the original meaning, \"blue moons\" occur with the same average frequency of intercalary months, 7 times in 19 years; the ''Farmers' Almanac'' system of full moon names effectively defines a functioning luni-solar calendar.", "Because the Sky & Telescope definition depends on calendar months and because February is shorter than a lunar month, there will be a higher frequency of blue moons under that definition (in years in which February squeezes in between two full moons), so that blue moons occur on average about 8 times in 19 years.It is a rare phenomenon to see an unusual blue color of the moon (not necessarily a full moon) when viewing the Moon.", "This phenomenon is caused by dust particles or smoke in the atmosphere, and was seen after the forest fires in Sweden and Canada in 1950 and 1951.In 1883, after the eruption of Krakatoa in Indonesia, the Moon was blue for almost two years.", "Other less violent volcanic explosions have been followed by blue moons.", "The blue Moon was also seen after the eruption of El Chichon in Mexico in 1983, Mount St. Helens in 1980, and Mount Pinatubo in 1991." ], [ "See also", "* Lunar eclipse* Lunar effect* Lunar phase* Near side of the Moon* Orbit of the Moon" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Moon Phase Calendar for any date" ] ]
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[ [ "Film format" ], [ "Introduction", "A cartridge of Kodak 35 mm (135) film for cameras.A '''film format''' is a technical definition of a set of standard characteristics regarding image capture on photographic film for still images or film stock for filmmaking.", "It can also apply to projected film, either slides or movies.", "The primary characteristic of a film format is its size and shape.In the case of motion picture film, the format sometimes includes audio parameters.", "Other characteristics usually include the film gauge, pulldown method, lens anamorphosis (or lack thereof), and film gate or projector aperture dimensions, all of which need to be defined for photography as well as projection, as they may differ." ], [ "Motion picture film formats", "* 35 mm movie film" ], [ "Digital camera formats" ], [ "Photographic film formats", "* 35mm film" ], [ "See also", "*Film base*Keykode*Large format*Medium format*Microform" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Film Formats and HDTV* Table of Film formats Archive by Mark Baldock* Kodak roll films starting with 101* The history of Kodak roll films* Classic camera film sizes, sources, and film adapters, with spool dimensions* American Widescreen Museum* Sub-35 mm movie film formats history webpage* Plate and tintype sizes* Michael Rogge's brief history of film formats" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Faster-than-light" ], [ "Introduction", "Because the sphere travels faster than light, the observer sees nothing until it has already passed.", "Then, two images appear: one of the sphere arriving (on the right) and one of it departing (on the left).", "'''Faster-than-light''' (also '''FTL''', '''superluminal''' or '''supercausal''') travel and communication are the conjectural propagation of matter or information faster than the speed of light ().", "The special theory of relativity implies that only particles with zero rest mass (i.e., photons) may travel ''at'' the speed of light, and that nothing may travel faster.Particles whose speed exceeds that of light (tachyons) have been hypothesized, but their existence would violate causality and would imply time travel.", "The scientific consensus is that they do not exist.", "\"Apparent\" or \"effective\" FTL, on the other hand, depends on the hypothesis that unusually distorted regions of spacetime might permit matter to reach distant locations in less time than light could in normal (\"undistorted\") spacetime.As of the 21st century, according to current scientific theories, matter is required to travel at '''slower-than-light''' (also '''STL''' or '''subluminal''') speed with respect to the locally distorted spacetime region.", "Apparent FTL is not excluded by general relativity; however, any apparent FTL physical plausibility is currently speculative.", "Examples of apparent FTL proposals are the Alcubierre drive, Krasnikov tubes, traversable wormholes, and quantum tunneling.", "Mostly, FTL proposals find loopholes around general relativity, such as by expanding or contracting space to make the object appear to be travelling greater than ''c''.", "Such proposals are still widely believed to be impossible as they still violate current understandings of causality, and they all require fanciful mechanisms to work (such as requiring exotic matter).", "However, given how little is known about the limits of causality and other speculative concepts related to FTL proposals, physicists continue to research and consider these proposals." ], [ "Superluminal travel of non-information", "In the context of this article, FTL is the transmission of information or matter faster than ''c'', a constant equal to the speed of light in vacuum, which is 299,792,458 m/s (by definition of the metre) or about 186,282.397 miles per second.", "This is not quite the same as traveling faster than light, since:*Some processes propagate faster than ''c'', but cannot carry information (see examples in the sections immediately following).", "*In some materials where light travels at speed ''c/n'' (where ''n'' is the refractive index) other particles can travel faster than ''c/n'' (but still slower than ''c''), leading to Cherenkov radiation (see phase velocity below).Neither of these phenomena violates special relativity or creates problems with causality, and thus neither qualifies as ''FTL'' as described here.In the following examples, certain influences may appear to travel faster than light, but they do not convey energy or information faster than light, so they do not violate special relativity.===Daily sky motion===For an earth-bound observer, objects in the sky complete one revolution around the Earth in one day.", "Proxima Centauri, the nearest star outside the Solar System, is about four and a half light-years away.", "In this frame of reference, in which Proxima Centauri is perceived to be moving in a circular trajectory with a radius of four light years, it could be described as having a speed many times greater than ''c'' as the rim speed of an object moving in a circle is a product of the radius and angular speed.", "It is also possible on a geostatic view, for objects such as comets to vary their speed from subluminal to superluminal and vice versa simply because the distance from the Earth varies.", "Comets may have orbits which take them out to more than 1000 AU.", "The circumference of a circle with a radius of 1000 AU is greater than one light day.", "In other words, a comet at such a distance is superluminal in a geostatic, and therefore non-inertial, frame.===Light spots and shadows===If a laser beam is swept across a distant object, the spot of laser light can easily be made to move across the object at a speed greater than ''c''.", "Similarly, a shadow projected onto a distant object can be made to move across the object faster than ''c''.", "In neither case does the light travel from the source to the object faster than ''c'', nor does any information travel faster than light.===Closing speeds===The rate at which two objects in motion in a single frame of reference get closer together is called the mutual or closing speed.", "This may approach twice the speed of light, as in the case of two particles travelling at close to the speed of light in opposite directions with respect to the reference frame.Imagine two fast-moving particles approaching each other from opposite sides of a particle accelerator of the collider type.", "The closing speed would be the rate at which the distance between the two particles is decreasing.", "From the point of view of an observer standing at rest relative to the accelerator, this rate will be slightly less than twice the speed of light.Special relativity does not prohibit this.", "It tells us that it is wrong to use Galilean relativity to compute the velocity of one of the particles, as would be measured by an observer traveling alongside the other particle.", "That is, special relativity gives the correct velocity-addition formula for computing such relative velocity.It is instructive to compute the relative velocity of particles moving at ''v'' and −''v'' in accelerator frame, which corresponds to the closing speed of 2''v'' > ''c''.", "Expressing the speeds in units of ''c'', ''β'' = ''v''/''c''::===Proper speeds===If a spaceship travels to a planet one light-year (as measured in the Earth's rest frame) away from Earth at high speed, the time taken to reach that planet could be less than one year as measured by the traveller's clock (although it will always be more than one year as measured by a clock on Earth).", "The value obtained by dividing the distance traveled, as determined in the Earth's frame, by the time taken, measured by the traveller's clock, is known as a proper speed or a proper velocity.", "There is no limit on the value of a proper speed as a proper speed does not represent a speed measured in a single inertial frame.", "A light signal that left the Earth at the same time as the traveller would always get to the destination before the traveller would.===Phase velocities above ''c''===The phase velocity of an electromagnetic wave, when traveling through a medium, can routinely exceed ''c'', the vacuum velocity of light.", "For example, this occurs in most glasses at X-ray frequencies.", "However, the phase velocity of a wave corresponds to the propagation speed of a theoretical single-frequency (purely monochromatic) component of the wave at that frequency.", "Such a wave component must be infinite in extent and of constant amplitude (otherwise it is not truly monochromatic), and so cannot convey any information.Thus a phase velocity above ''c'' does not imply the propagation of signals with a velocity above ''c''.===Group velocities above ''c''===The group velocity of a wave may also exceed ''c'' in some circumstances.", "In such cases, which typically at the same time involve rapid attenuation of the intensity, the maximum of the envelope of a pulse may travel with a velocity above ''c''.", "However, even this situation does not imply the propagation of signals with a velocity above ''c'', even though one may be tempted to associate pulse maxima with signals.", "The latter association has been shown to be misleading, because the information on the arrival of a pulse can be obtained before the pulse maximum arrives.", "For example, if some mechanism allows the full transmission of the leading part of a pulse while strongly attenuating the pulse maximum and everything behind (distortion), the pulse maximum is effectively shifted forward in time, while the information on the pulse does not come faster than ''c'' without this effect.", "However, group velocity can exceed ''c'' in some parts of a Gaussian beam in vacuum (without attenuation).", "The diffraction causes the peak of the pulse to propagate faster, while overall power does not.===Cosmic expansion===According to Hubble's law, the expansion of the universe causes distant galaxies to recede from us faster than the speed of light.", "However, the recession speed associated with Hubble's law, defined as the rate of increase in proper distance per interval of cosmological time, is not a velocity in a relativistic sense.", "Moreover, in general relativity, velocity is a local notion, and there is not even a unique definition for the relative velocity of a cosmologically distant object.", "Faster-than-light cosmological recession speeds are entirely a coordinate effect.There are many galaxies visible in telescopes with redshift numbers of 1.4 or higher.", "All of these have cosmological recession speeds greater than the speed of light.", "Because the Hubble parameter is decreasing with time, there can actually be cases where a galaxy that is receding from us faster than light does manage to emit a signal which reaches us eventually.However, because the expansion of the universe is accelerating, it is projected that most galaxies will eventually cross a type of cosmological event horizon where any light they emit past that point will never be able to reach us at any time in the infinite future, because the light never reaches a point where its \"peculiar velocity\" towards us exceeds the expansion velocity away from us (these two notions of velocity are also discussed in Comoving and proper distances#Uses of the proper distance).", "The current distance to this cosmological event horizon is about 16 billion light-years, meaning that a signal from an event happening at present would eventually be able to reach us in the future if the event was less than 16 billion light-years away, but the signal would never reach us if the event was more than 16 billion light-years away.===Astronomical observations===Apparent superluminal motion is observed in many radio galaxies, blazars, quasars, and recently also in microquasars.", "The effect was predicted before it was observed by Martin Rees and can be explained as an optical illusion caused by the object partly moving in the direction of the observer, when the speed calculations assume it does not.", "The phenomenon does not contradict the theory of special relativity.", "Corrected calculations show these objects have velocities close to the speed of light (relative to our reference frame).", "They are the first examples of large amounts of mass moving at close to the speed of light.", "Earth-bound laboratories have only been able to accelerate small numbers of elementary particles to such speeds.===Quantum mechanics===Certain phenomena in quantum mechanics, such as quantum entanglement, might give the superficial impression of allowing communication of information faster than light.", "According to the no-communication theorem these phenomena do not allow true communication; they only let two observers in different locations see the same system simultaneously, without any way of controlling what either sees.", "Wavefunction collapse can be viewed as an epiphenomenon of quantum decoherence, which in turn is nothing more than an effect of the underlying local time evolution of the wavefunction of a system and ''all'' of its environment.", "Since the underlying behavior does not violate local causality or allow FTL communication, it follows that neither does the additional effect of wavefunction collapse, whether real ''or'' apparent.The uncertainty principle implies that individual photons may travel for short distances at speeds somewhat faster (or slower) than ''c'', even in vacuum; this possibility must be taken into account when enumerating Feynman diagrams for a particle interaction.", "However, it was shown in 2011 that a single photon may not travel faster than ''c''.", "In quantum mechanics, virtual particles may travel faster than light, and this phenomenon is related to the fact that static field effects (which are mediated by virtual particles in quantum terms) may travel faster than light (see section on static fields above).", "However, macroscopically these fluctuations average out, so that photons do travel in straight lines over long (i.e., non-quantum) distances, and they do travel at the speed of light on average.", "Therefore, this does not imply the possibility of superluminal information transmission.There have been various reports in the popular press of experiments on faster-than-light transmission in optics — most often in the context of a kind of quantum tunnelling phenomenon.", "Usually, such reports deal with a phase velocity or group velocity faster than the vacuum velocity of light.", "However, as stated above, a superluminal phase velocity cannot be used for faster-than-light transmission of information.====Hartman effect====The Hartman effect is the tunneling effect through a barrier where the tunneling time tends to a constant for large barriers.", "This could, for instance, be the gap between two prisms.", "When the prisms are in contact, the light passes straight through, but when there is a gap, the light is refracted.", "There is a non-zero probability that the photon will tunnel across the gap rather than follow the refracted path.", "For large gaps between the prisms the tunnelling time approaches a constant and thus the photons appear to have crossed with a superluminal speed.However, the Hartman effect cannot actually be used to violate relativity by transmitting signals faster than ''c'', because the tunnelling time \"should not be linked to a velocity since evanescent waves do not propagate\".", "The evanescent waves in the Hartman effect are due to virtual particles and a non-propagating static field, as mentioned in the sections above for gravity and electromagnetism.====Casimir effect====In physics, the Casimir–Polder force is a physical force exerted between separate objects due to resonance of vacuum energy in the intervening space between the objects.", "This is sometimes described in terms of virtual particles interacting with the objects, owing to the mathematical form of one possible way of calculating the strength of the effect.", "Because the strength of the force falls off rapidly with distance, it is only measurable when the distance between the objects is extremely small.", "Because the effect is due to virtual particles mediating a static field effect, it is subject to the comments about static fields discussed above.====EPR paradox====The EPR paradox refers to a famous thought experiment of Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen that was realized experimentally for the first time by Alain Aspect in 1981 and 1982 in the Aspect experiment.", "In this experiment, the measurement of the state of one of the quantum systems of an entangled pair apparently instantaneously forces the other system (which may be distant) to be measured in the complementary state.", "However, no information can be transmitted this way; the answer to whether or not the measurement actually affects the other quantum system comes down to which interpretation of quantum mechanics one subscribes to.An experiment performed in 1997 by Nicolas Gisin has demonstrated non-local quantum correlations between particles separated by over 10 kilometers.", "But as noted earlier, the non-local correlations seen in entanglement cannot actually be used to transmit classical information faster than light, so that relativistic causality is preserved.", "The situation is akin to sharing a synchronized coin flip, where the second person to flip their coin will always see the opposite of what the first person sees, but neither has any way of knowing whether they were the first or second flipper, without communicating classically.", "See No-communication theorem for further information.", "A 2008 quantum physics experiment also performed by Nicolas Gisin and his colleagues has determined that in any hypothetical non-local hidden-variable theory, the speed of the quantum non-local connection (what Einstein called \"spooky action at a distance\") is at least 10,000 times the speed of light.====Delayed choice quantum eraser====The delayed-choice quantum eraser is a version of the EPR paradox in which the observation (or not) of interference after the passage of a photon through a double slit experiment depends on the conditions of observation of a second photon entangled with the first.", "The characteristic of this experiment is that the observation of the second photon can take place at a later time than the observation of the first photon, which may give the impression that the measurement of the later photons \"retroactively\" determines whether the earlier photons show interference or not, although the interference pattern can only be seen by correlating the measurements of both members of every pair and so it cannot be observed until both photons have been measured, ensuring that an experimenter watching only the photons going through the slit does not obtain information about the other photons in an FTL or backwards-in-time manner." ], [ "Superluminal communication", "Faster-than-light communication is, according to relativity, equivalent to time travel.", "What we measure as the speed of light in vacuum (or near vacuum) is actually the fundamental physical constant ''c''.", "This means that all inertial and, for the coordinate speed of light, non-inertial observers, regardless of their relative velocity, will always measure zero-mass particles such as photons traveling at ''c'' in vacuum.", "This result means that measurements of time and velocity in different frames are no longer related simply by constant shifts, but are instead related by Poincaré transformations.", "These transformations have important implications:*The relativistic momentum of a massive particle would increase with speed in such a way that at the speed of light an object would have infinite momentum.", "*To accelerate an object of non-zero rest mass to ''c'' would require infinite time with any finite acceleration, or infinite acceleration for a finite amount of time.", "*Either way, such acceleration requires infinite energy.", "*Some observers with sub-light relative motion will disagree about which occurs first of any two events that are separated by a space-like interval.", "In other words, any travel that is faster-than-light will be seen as traveling backwards in time in some other, equally valid, frames of reference, or need to assume the speculative hypothesis of possible Lorentz violations at a presently unobserved scale (for instance the Planck scale).", "Therefore, any theory which permits \"true\" FTL also has to cope with time travel and all its associated paradoxes, or else to assume the Lorentz invariance to be a symmetry of thermodynamical statistical nature (hence a symmetry broken at some presently unobserved scale).", "*In special relativity the coordinate speed of light is only guaranteed to be ''c'' in an inertial frame; in a non-inertial frame the coordinate speed may be different from ''c''.", "In general relativity no coordinate system on a large region of curved spacetime is \"inertial\", so it is permissible to use a global coordinate system where objects travel faster than ''c'', but in the local neighborhood of any point in curved spacetime we can define a \"local inertial frame\" and the local speed of light will be ''c'' in this frame, with massive objects moving through this local neighborhood always having a speed less than ''c'' in the local inertial frame." ], [ "Justifications", "===Casimir vacuum and quantum tunnelling===Special relativity postulates that the speed of light in vacuum is invariant in inertial frames.", "That is, it will be the same from any frame of reference moving at a constant speed.", "The equations do not specify any particular value for the speed of light, which is an experimentally determined quantity for a fixed unit of length.", "Since 1983, the SI unit of length (the meter) has been defined using the speed of light.The experimental determination has been made in vacuum.", "However, the vacuum we know is not the only possible vacuum which can exist.", "The vacuum has energy associated with it, called simply the vacuum energy, which could perhaps be altered in certain cases.", "When vacuum energy is lowered, light itself has been predicted to go faster than the standard value ''c''.", "This is known as the Scharnhorst effect.", "Such a vacuum can be produced by bringing two perfectly smooth metal plates together at near atomic diameter spacing.", "It is called a Casimir vacuum.", "Calculations imply that light will go faster in such a vacuum by a minuscule amount: a photon traveling between two plates that are 1 micrometer apart would increase the photon's speed by only about one part in 1036.Accordingly, there has as yet been no experimental verification of the prediction.", "A recent analysis argued that the Scharnhorst effect cannot be used to send information backwards in time with a single set of plates since the plates' rest frame would define a \"preferred frame\" for FTL signaling.", "However, with multiple pairs of plates in motion relative to one another the authors noted that they had no arguments that could \"guarantee the total absence of causality violations\", and invoked Hawking's speculative chronology protection conjecture which suggests that feedback loops of virtual particles would create \"uncontrollable singularities in the renormalized quantum stress-energy\" on the boundary of any potential time machine, and thus would require a theory of quantum gravity to fully analyze.", "Other authors argue that Scharnhorst's original analysis, which seemed to show the possibility of faster-than-''c'' signals, involved approximations which may be incorrect, so that it is not clear whether this effect could actually increase signal speed at all.It was later claimed by Eckle ''et al.''", "that particle tunneling does indeed occur in zero real time.", "Their tests involved tunneling electrons, where the group argued a relativistic prediction for tunneling time should be 500–600 attoseconds (an attosecond is one quintillionth (10−18) of a second).", "All that could be measured was 24 attoseconds, which is the limit of the test accuracy.", "Again, though, other physicists believe that tunneling experiments in which particles appear to spend anomalously short times inside the barrier are in fact fully compatible with relativity, although there is disagreement about whether the explanation involves reshaping of the wave packet or other effects.===Give up (absolute) relativity===Because of the strong empirical support for special relativity, any modifications to it must necessarily be quite subtle and difficult to measure.", "The best-known attempt is doubly special relativity, which posits that the Planck length is also the same in all reference frames, and is associated with the work of Giovanni Amelino-Camelia and João Magueijo.There are speculative theories that claim inertia is produced by the combined mass of the universe (e.g., Mach's principle), which implies that the rest frame of the universe might be ''preferred'' by conventional measurements of natural law.", "If confirmed, this would imply special relativity is an approximation to a more general theory, but since the relevant comparison would (by definition) be outside the observable universe, it is difficult to imagine (much less construct) experiments to test this hypothesis.", "Despite this difficulty, such experiments have been proposed.===Spacetime distortion===Although the theory of special relativity forbids objects to have a relative velocity greater than light speed, and general relativity reduces to special relativity in a local sense (in small regions of spacetime where curvature is negligible), general relativity does allow the space between distant objects to expand in such a way that they have a \"recession velocity\" which exceeds the speed of light, and it is thought that galaxies which are at a distance of more than about 14 billion light-years from us today have a recession velocity which is faster than light.", "Miguel Alcubierre theorized that it would be possible to create a warp drive, in which a ship would be enclosed in a \"warp bubble\" where the space at the front of the bubble is rapidly contracting and the space at the back is rapidly expanding, with the result that the bubble can reach a distant destination much faster than a light beam moving outside the bubble, but without objects inside the bubble locally traveling faster than light.", "However, several objections raised against the Alcubierre drive appear to rule out the possibility of actually using it in any practical fashion.", "Another possibility predicted by general relativity is the traversable wormhole, which could create a shortcut between arbitrarily distant points in space.", "As with the Alcubierre drive, travelers moving through the wormhole would not ''locally'' move faster than light travelling through the wormhole alongside them, but they would be able to reach their destination (and return to their starting location) faster than light traveling outside the wormhole.Gerald Cleaver and Richard Obousy, a professor and student of Baylor University, theorized that manipulating the extra spatial dimensions of string theory around a spaceship with an extremely large amount of energy would create a \"bubble\" that could cause the ship to travel faster than the speed of light.", "To create this bubble, the physicists believe manipulating the 10th spatial dimension would alter the dark energy in three large spatial dimensions: height, width and length.", "Cleaver said positive dark energy is currently responsible for speeding up the expansion rate of our universe as time moves on.===Lorentz symmetry violation===The possibility that Lorentz symmetry may be violated has been seriously considered in the last two decades, particularly after the development of a realistic effective field theory that describes this possible violation, the so-called Standard-Model Extension.", "This general framework has allowed experimental searches by ultra-high energy cosmic-ray experiments and a wide variety of experiments in gravity, electrons, protons, neutrons, neutrinos, mesons, and photons.The breaking of rotation and boost invariance causes direction dependence in the theory as well as unconventional energy dependence that introduces novel effects, including Lorentz-violating neutrino oscillations and modifications to the dispersion relations of different particle species, which naturally could make particles move faster than light.In some models of broken Lorentz symmetry, it is postulated that the symmetry is still built into the most fundamental laws of physics, but that spontaneous symmetry breaking of Lorentz invariance shortly after the Big Bang could have left a \"relic field\" throughout the universe which causes particles to behave differently depending on their velocity relative to the field; however, there are also some models where Lorentz symmetry is broken in a more fundamental way.", "If Lorentz symmetry can cease to be a fundamental symmetry at the Planck scale or at some other fundamental scale, it is conceivable that particles with a critical speed different from the speed of light be the ultimate constituents of matter.In current models of Lorentz symmetry violation, the phenomenological parameters are expected to be energy-dependent.", "Therefore, as widely recognized, existing low-energy bounds cannot be applied to high-energy phenomena; however, many searches for Lorentz violation at high energies have been carried out using the Standard-Model Extension.Lorentz symmetry violation is expected to become stronger as one gets closer to the fundamental scale.===Superfluid theories of physical vacuum===In this approach, the physical vacuum is viewed as a quantum superfluid which is essentially non-relativistic, whereas Lorentz symmetry is not an exact symmetry of nature but rather the approximate description valid only for the small fluctuations of the superfluid background.", "Within the framework of the approach, a theory was proposed in which the physical vacuum is conjectured to be a quantum Bose liquid whose ground-state wavefunction is described by the logarithmic Schrödinger equation.", "It was shown that the relativistic gravitational interaction arises as the small-amplitude collective excitation mode whereas relativistic elementary particles can be described by the particle-like modes in the limit of low momenta.", "The important fact is that at very high velocities the behavior of the particle-like modes becomes distinct from the relativistic one – they can reach the speed of light limit at finite energy; also, faster-than-light propagation is possible without requiring moving objects to have imaginary mass." ], [ "FTL neutrino flight results", "===MINOS experiment===In 2007 the MINOS collaboration reported results measuring the flight-time of 3 GeV neutrinos yielding a speed exceeding that of light by 1.8-sigma significance.", "However, those measurements were considered to be statistically consistent with neutrinos traveling at the speed of light.", "After the detectors for the project were upgraded in 2012, MINOS corrected their initial result and found agreement with the speed of light.", "Further measurements are going to be conducted.===OPERA neutrino anomaly===On September 22, 2011, a preprint from the OPERA Collaboration indicated detection of 17 and 28 GeV muon neutrinos, sent 730 kilometers (454 miles) from CERN near Geneva, Switzerland to the Gran Sasso National Laboratory in Italy, traveling faster than light by a relative amount of (approximately 1 in 40,000), a statistic with 6.0-sigma significance.", "On 17 November 2011, a second follow-up experiment by OPERA scientists confirmed their initial results.", "However, scientists were skeptical about the results of these experiments, the significance of which was disputed.", "In March 2012, the ICARUS collaboration failed to reproduce the OPERA results with their equipment, detecting neutrino travel time from CERN to the Gran Sasso National Laboratory indistinguishable from the speed of light.", "Later the OPERA team reported two flaws in their equipment set-up that had caused errors far outside their original confidence interval: a fiber-optic cable attached improperly, which caused the apparently faster-than-light measurements, and a clock oscillator ticking too fast." ], [ "Tachyons", "In special relativity, it is impossible to accelerate an object the speed of light, or for a massive object to move the speed of light.", "However, it might be possible for an object to exist which moves faster than light.", "The hypothetical elementary particles with this property are called tachyons or tachyonic particles.", "Attempts to quantize them failed to produce faster-than-light particles, and instead illustrated that their presence leads to an instability.Various theorists have suggested that the neutrino might have a tachyonic nature, while others have disputed the possibility." ], [ "General relativity", "General relativity was developed after special relativity to include concepts like gravity.", "It maintains the principle that no object can accelerate to the speed of light in the reference frame of any coincident observer.", "However, it permits distortions in spacetime that allow an object to move faster than light from the point of view of a distant observer.", "One such distortion is the Alcubierre drive, which can be thought of as producing a ripple in spacetime that carries an object along with it.", "Another possible system is the wormhole, which connects two distant locations as though by a shortcut.", "Both distortions would need to create a very strong curvature in a highly localized region of space-time and their gravity fields would be immense.", "To counteract the unstable nature, and prevent the distortions from collapsing under their own 'weight', one would need to introduce hypothetical exotic matter or negative energy.General relativity also recognizes that any means of faster-than-light travel could also be used for time travel.", "This raises problems with causality.", "Many physicists believe that the above phenomena are impossible and that future theories of gravity will prohibit them.", "One theory states that stable wormholes are possible, but that any attempt to use a network of wormholes to violate causality would result in their decay.", "In string theory, Eric G. Gimon and Petr Hořava have argued that in a supersymmetric five-dimensional Gödel universe, quantum corrections to general relativity effectively cut off regions of spacetime with causality-violating closed timelike curves.", "In particular, in the quantum theory a smeared supertube is present that cuts the spacetime in such a way that, although in the full spacetime a closed timelike curve passed through every point, no complete curves exist on the interior region bounded by the tube." ], [ "In fiction and popular culture", "FTL travel is a common trope in science fiction." ], [ "See also", "*Faster-than-light neutrino anomaly*Intergalactic travel*Krasnikov tube*Variable speed of light*Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory*Slow light" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "****" ], [ "External links", "* Measurement of the neutrino velocity with the OPERA detector in the CNGS beam* Encyclopedia of laser physics and technology on \"superluminal transmission\", with more details on phase and group velocity, and on causality* Markus Pössel: Faster-than-light (FTL) speeds in tunneling experiments: an annotated bibliography *Alcubierre, Miguel; ''The Warp Drive: Hyper-Fast Travel Within General Relativity'', Classical and Quantum Gravity 11 (1994), L73–L77* A systemized view of superluminal wave propagation* Relativity and FTL Travel FAQ* Usenet Physics FAQ: is FTL travel or communication Possible?", "* Relativity, FTL and causality*** Conical and paraboloidal superluminal particle accelerators* Relativity and FTL (=Superluminal motion) Travel Homepage" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "FTL" ], [ "Introduction", "'''FTL''' may stand for:" ], [ "Science and technology", "* Faster-than-light communication and travel* Ferritin light chain, encoded by the ''FTL'' gene* Flash Translation Layer* Foot-lambert ft-L, a measure of luminance* Olympus FTL, a camera* FreeMarker template language" ], [ "Games", "* Faster Than Light (software publisher), a British video game publisher* ''FTL: Faster Than Light'', a video game* FTL Games, an American video game developer" ], [ "Other uses", "* Fort Lauderdale, Florida, United States** Fort Lauderdale station, Amtrak code FTL* Freedom to Learn, in Michigan, United States* Fruit of the Loom, an American clothing manufacturer* Full truck load" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "FidoNet" ], [ "Introduction", " __ / \\ /|oo \\ (_| /_) _`@/_ \\ _ \\ \\\\ \\ )) ______ / \\// / FIDO \\ _// _\\ / (________) (_/(_|(____/ (c) John MadillFidoNet logo by John Madill'''FidoNet''' is a worldwide computer network that is used for communication between bulletin board systems (BBSes).", "It uses a store-and-forward system to exchange private (email) and public (forum) messages between the BBSes in the network, as well as other files and protocols in some cases.The FidoNet system was based on several small interacting programs, only one of which needed to be ported to support other BBS software.", "FidoNet was one of the few networks that was supported by almost all BBS software, as well as a number of non-BBS online services.", "This modular construction also allowed FidoNet to easily upgrade to new data compression systems, which was important in an era using modem-based communications over telephone links with high long-distance calling charges.The rapid improvement in modem speeds during the early 1990s, combined with the rapid decrease in price of computer systems and storage, made BBSes increasingly popular.", "By the mid-1990s there were almost 40,000 FidoNet systems in operation, and it was possible to communicate with millions of users around the world.", "Only UUCPNET came close in terms of breadth or numbers; FidoNet's user base far surpassed other networks like BITNET.The broad availability of low-cost Internet connections starting in the mid-1990s lessened the need for FidoNet's store-and-forward system, as any system in the world could be reached for equal cost.", "Direct dialing into local BBS systems rapidly declined.", "Although FidoNet has shrunk considerably since the late 1990s, it has remained in use even today despite internet connectivity becoming more widespread." ], [ "History", "===Origins===Hand-compiled list of Fido BBS systems, June 1984.This document formed the basis of the first nodelists.There are two major accounts of the development of the FidoNet, differing only in small details.====Tom Jennings' account====Around Christmas 1983, Tom Jennings started work on a new bulletin board system that would emerge as Fido BBS.", "It was called \"Fido\" because the assorted hardware together was \"a real mongrel\".", "Jennings set up the system in San Francisco sometime in early 1984.Another early user was John Madill, who was trying to set up a similar system in Baltimore on his Rainbow 100.Fido started spreading to new systems, and Jennings eventually started keeping an informal list of their phone numbers, with Jennings becoming #1 and Madill #2.Jennings released the first version of the FidoNet software in June 1984.In early 1985 he wrote a document explaining the operations of the FidoNet, along with a short portion on the history of the system.", "In this version, FidoNet was developed as a way to exchange mail between the first two Fido BBS systems, Jennings' and Madill's, to \"see if it could be done, merely for the fun of it\".", "This was first supported in Fido V7, \"sometime in June 84 or so\".====Ben Baker's account====In early 1984, Ben Baker was planning on starting a BBS for the newly forming computer club at the McDonnell Douglas automotive division in St. Louis.", "Baker was part of the CP/M special interest group within the club.", "He intended to use the seminal, CP/M-hosted, CBBS system, and went looking for a machine to run it on.", "The club's president told Baker that DEC would be giving them a Rainbow 100 computer on indefinite loan, so he made plans to move the CBBS onto this machine.", "The Rainbow contained two processors, an Intel 8088 and a Zilog Z80, allowing it to run both MS-DOS and CP/M, with the BBS running on the latter.", "When the machine arrived, they learned that the Z80 side had no access to the I/O ports, so CBBS could not communicate with a modem.", "While searching for software that would run on the MS-DOS side of the system, Baker learned of Fido through Madill.The Fido software required changes to the serial drivers to work properly on the Rainbow.", "A porting effort started, involving Jennings, Madill and Baker.", "This caused all involved to rack up considerable long distance charges as they all called each other during development, or called into each other's BBSes to leave email.", "During one such call \"in May or early June\", Baker and Jennings discussed how great it would be if the BBS systems could call each other automatically, exchanging mail and files between them.", "This would allow them to compose mail on their local machines, and then deliver it quickly, as opposed to calling in and typing the message in while on a long-distance telephone connection.Jennings responded by calling into Baker's system that night and uploading a new version of the software consisting of three files: FIDO_DECV6, a new version of the BBS program itself, FIDONET, a new program, and NODELIST.BBS, a text file.", "The new version of FIDO BBS had a timer that caused it to exit at a specified time, normally at night.", "As it exited it would run the separate FIDONET program.", "NODELIST was the list of Fido BBS systems, which Jennings had already been compiling.The FIDONET program was what later became known as a ''mailer''.", "The FIDO BBS software was modified to use a previously unused numeric field in the message headers to store a ''node number'' for the machine to which the message should be delivered to.", "When FIDONET ran, it would search through the email database for any messages with a number in this field.", "FIDONET collected all of the messages for a particular node number into a file known as a ''message packet''.", "After all the packets were generated, one for each node, the FIDONET program would look up the destination node's phone number in NODELIST.BBS, and call the remote system.", "Provided that FIDONET was running on that system, the two systems would handshake and, if this succeeded, the calling system would upload its packet, download a return packet if there was one, and disconnect.", "FIDONET would then unpack the return packet, place the received messages into the local system's database, and move onto the next packet.", "When there were no remaining packets, FIDONET would exit, and run the FIDO BBS program.In order to lower long-distance charges, the mail exchanges were timed to run late at night, normally 4 AM.", "This would later be known as ''national mail hour'', and, later still, as ''Zone Mail Hour''.===Up and running===By June 1984, Version 7 of the system was being run in production, and nodes were rapidly being added to the network.", "By August there were almost 30 systems in the nodelist, 50 by September, and over 160 by January 1985.As the network grew, the maintenance of the nodelist became prohibitive, and errors were common.", "In these cases, people would start receiving phone calls at 4 AM, from a caller that would say nothing and then hang up.", "In other cases the system would be listed before it was up and running, resulting in long-distance calls that accomplished nothing.In August 1984, Jennings handed off control of the nodelist to the group in St. Louis, mostly Ken Kaplan and Ben Baker.", "Kaplan had come across Fido as part of finding a BBS solution for his company, which worked with DEC computers and had been given a Rainbow computer and a USRobotics 1200bit/s modem.", "From then on, joining FidoNet required one to set up their system and use it to deliver a netmail message to a special system, Node 51.The message contained various required contact information.", "If this message was transmitted successfully, it ensured that at least some of the system was working properly.", "The nodelist team would then reply with another netmail message back to the system in question, containing the assigned node number.", "If delivery succeeded, the system was considered to be working properly, and it was added to the nodelist.", "The first new nodelist was published on 21 September 1984.===Nets and nodes===Growth continued to accelerate, and by the spring of 1985, the system was already reaching its limit of 250 nodes.", "In addition to the limits on the growth of what was clearly a popular system, nodelist maintenance continued to grow more and more time-consuming.It was also realized that Fido systems were generally clustered – of the 15 systems running by the start of June 1984, 5 of them were in St. Louis.", "A user on Jennings's system in San Francisco that addressed emails to different systems in St. Louis would cause calls to be made to each of those BBSes in turn.", "In the United States, local calls were normally free, and in most other countries were charged at a low rate.", "Additionally, the initial call setup, generally the first minute of the call, was normally billed at a higher rate than continuing an existing connection.", "Therefore, it would be less expensive to deliver all the messages from all the users in San Francisco to all of the users in St. Louis in a single call.", "Packets were generally small enough to be delivered within a minute or two, so delivering all the messages in a single call could greatly reduce costs by avoiding multiple first-minute charges.", "Once delivered, the packet would be broken out into separate packets for local systems, and delivered using multiple local free calls.The team settled on the concept of adding a new ''network number'' patterned on the idea of area codes.", "A complete network address would now consist of the network and node number pair, which would be written with a slash between them.", "All mail travelling between networks would first be sent to their local ''network host'', someone who volunteered to pay for any long distance charges.", "That single site would collect up all the netmail from all of the systems in their network, then re-package it into single packets destined to each network.", "They would then call any required network admin sites and deliver the packet to them.", "That site would then process the mail as normal, although all of the messages in the packet would be guaranteed to be local calls.The network address was placed in an unused field in the Fido message database, which formerly always held a zero.", "Systems running existing versions of the software already ignored the fields containing the new addressing, so they would continue to work as before; when noticing a message addressed to another node they would look it up and call that system.", "Newer systems would recognize the network number and instead deliver that message to the network host.", "To ensure backward compatibility, existing systems retained their original node numbers through this period.A huge advantage of the new scheme was that node numbers were now unique only within their network, not globally.", "This meant the previous 250 node limit was gone, but for a variety of reasons this was initially limited to about 1,200.This change also devolved the maintenance of the nodelists down to the network hosts, who then sent updated lists back to Node 51 to be collected into the master list.", "The St. Louis group now had to only maintain their own local network, and do basic work to compile the global list.At a meeting held in Kaplan's living room in St. Louis on 11 April 1985 the various parties hammered out all of the details of the new concept.", "As part of this meeting, they also added the concept of a ''region'', a purely administrative level that was not part of the addressing scheme.", "Regional hosts would handle any stragglers in the network maps, remote systems that had no local network hosts.", "They then divided up the US into ten regions that they felt would have roughly equal populations.By May, Jennings had early versions of the new software running.", "These early versions specified the routing manually through a new ROUTE.BBS file that listed network hosts for each node.", "For instance, an operator might want to forward all mail to St. Louis through a single node, node 10.ROUTE.BBS would then include a list of all the known systems in that area, with instructions to forward mail to each of those nodes through node 10.This process was later semi-automated by John Warren's NODELIST program.", "Over time, this information was folded into updated versions of the nodelist format, and the ROUTES file is no longer used.A new version of FIDO and FIDONET, 10C, was released containing all of these features.", "On 12 June 1985 the core group brought up 10C, and most Fido systems had upgraded within a few months.", "The process went much smoother than anyone imagined, and very few nodes had any problems.===Echomail===Sometime during the evolution of Fido, file attachments were added to the system, allowing a file to be referenced from an email message.", "During the normal exchange between two instances of FIDONET, any files attached to the messages in the packets were delivered after the packet itself had been up or downloaded.", "It is not clear when this was added, but it was already a feature of the basic system when the 8 February 1985 version of the FidoNet standards document was released, so this was added very early in Fido's history.At a sysop meeting in Dallas, the idea was raised that it would be nice if there was some way for the sysops to post messages that would be shared among the systems.", "In February 1986 Jeff Rush, one of the group members, introduced a new mailer that extracted messages from public forums that the sysop selected, similar to the way the original mailer handled private messages.", "The new program was known as a ''tosser/scanner''.", "The tosser produced a file that was similar (or identical) to the output from the normal netmail scan, but these files were then compressed and attached to a normal netmail message as an attachment.", "This message was then sent to a special address on the remote system.", "After receiving netmail as normal, the scanner on the remote system looked for these messages, unpacked them, and put them into the same public forum on the original system.In this fashion, Rush's system implemented a store and forward public message system similar to Usenet, but based on, and hosted by, the FidoNet system.", "The first such ''echomail'' forum was one created by the Dallas area sysops to discuss business, known as SYSOP.", "Another called TECH soon followed.", "Several public ''echos'' soon followed, including GAYNET and CLANG.", "These spawned hundreds of new echos, and led to the creation of the Echomail Conference List (Echolist) by Thomas Kenny in January 1987.Echomail produced world-spanning shared forums, and its traffic volume quickly surpassed the original netmail system.", "By the early 1990s, echo mail was carrying over 8 MB of compressed message traffic a day, many times that when uncompressed.Echomail did not necessarily use the same distribution pathways as normal netmail, and the distribution routing was stored in a separate setup file not unlike the original ROUTES.BBS.", "At the originating site a header line was added to the message indicating the origin system's name and address.", "After that, each system that the message traveled through added itself to a growing PATH header, as well as a SEENBY header.", "SEENBY prevented the message from looping around the network in the case of misconfigured routing information.Echomail was not the only system to use the file attachment feature of netmail to implement store-and-forward capabilities.", "Similar concepts were used by online games and other systems as well.===Zones and points===The evolution towards the net/node addressing scheme was also useful for reducing communications costs between continents, where time zone differences on either end of the connection might also come into play.", "For instance, the best time to forward mail in the US was at night, but that might not be the best time for European hosts to exchange.", "Efforts towards introducing a continental level to the addressing system started in 1986.At the same time, it was noted that some power users were interested in using FidoNet protocols as a way of delivering the large quantities of echomail to their local machines where it could be read offline.", "These users did not want their systems to appear in the nodelist - they did not (necessarily) run a bulletin board system and were not publicly accessible.", "A mechanism allowing netmail delivery to these systems without the overhead of nodelist maintenance was desirable.In October 1986 the last major change to the FidoNet network was released, adding ''zones'' and ''points''.", "Zones represented major geographical areas roughly corresponding to continents.", "There were six zones in total, North America, South America, Europe, Oceania, Asia, and Africa.", "Points represented non-public nodes, which were created privately on a host BBS system.", "Point mail was delivered to a selected host as if it was addressed to a user on that machine, but then re-packaged into a packet for the point to pick up on-demand.", "The complete addressing format was now zone:net/node.point, so a real example might be Bob Smith@1:250/250.10.Points were widely used only for a short time, the introduction of offline reader systems filled this role with systems that were much easier to use.", "Points remain in use to this day but are less popular than when they were introduced.===Other extensions===Although FidoNet supported file attachments from even the earliest standards.", "File attachments followed the normal mail routing through multiple systems and could back up transfers all along the line as the files were copied.", "Additionally, users could send files to other users and rack up long distance charges on a host systems.", "For these reasons, file transfers were normally turned off for most users, and only available to the system operators and tosser/scanners.A solution was offered in the form of ''file requests''.", "This reversed the flow of information, instead of being driven by the sending systems, these were driven by the calling system.", "This meant it was the receiver, the user trying to get the file, that paid for the connection.", "Additionally, requests were directly routed using one-time point-to-point connections instead of the traditional routing, so they did not cause the file to be copied multiple times.", "Two such standards became common, \"WaZOO\" and \"Bark\", which saw varying support among different mailers.", "Both worked similarly, with the mailer calling the remote system and sending a new handshake packet to request the files.Although FidoNet was, by far, the best known BBS-based network, it was by no means the only one.", "From 1988 on, PCBoard systems were able to host similar functionality known as RelayNet, while other popular networks included RBBSNet from the Commodore 64 world, and AlterNet.", "Late in the evolution of the FidoNet system, there was a proposal to allow mail (but not forum messages) from these systems to switch into the FidoNet structure.", "This was not adopted, and the rapid rise of the internet made this superfluous as these networks rapidly added internet exchange, which acted as a lingua franca.Rapid rise, 1996 peak, and slower decline in number of Fidonodes===Peak===FidoNet started in 1984 and listed 100 nodes by the end of that year.", "Steady growth continued through the 1980s, but a combination of factors led to rapid growth after 1988.These included faster and less expensive modems and rapidly declining costs of hard drives and computer systems in general.", "By April 1993, the FidoNet nodelist contained over 20,000 systems.", "At that time it was estimated that each node had, on average, about 200 active users.", "Of these 4 million users in total, 2 million users commonly used echomail, the shared public forums, while about 200,000 used the private netmail system.", "At its peak, FidoNet listed approximately 39,000 systems.Throughout its lifetime, FidoNet was beset with management problems and infighting.", "Much of this can be traced to the fact that the inter-net delivery cost real money, and the traffic grew more rapidly than decreases caused by improving modem speeds and downward trending long-distance rates.", "As they increased, various methods of recouping the costs were attempted, all of which caused friction in the groups.", "The problems were so bad that Jennings came to refer to the system as the \"fight-o-net\".===Decline===As modems reached speeds of 28.8 kbit/s, dial-up Internet became increasingly common.", "By 1995, the bulletin board market was reeling as users abandoned local BBS systems in favour of larger sites and web pages, which could be accessed worldwide for the same cost as accessing a local BBS system.", "This also made FidoNet less expensive to implement, because inter-net transfers could be delivered over the Internet as well, at little or no marginal cost.", "But this seriously diluted the entire purpose of the store-and-forward model, which had been built up specifically to address a long-distance problem that no longer existed.The FidoNet nodelist started shrinking, especially in areas with a widespread availability of internet connections.", "This downward trend continues but has levelled out at approximately 2,500 nodes.", "FidoNet remains popular in areas where Internet access is difficult to come by, or expensive.===Resurgence===Around 2014, a retro movement led to a slow increase in internet-connected BBS and nodes.", "Telnet, rlogin, and SSH are being used between systems.", "This means the user can telnet to any BBS worldwide as cheaply as ones next door.", "Also, Usenet and internet mail has been added, along with long file names to many newer versions of BBS software, some being freeware, resulting in increasing use.", "Nodelists are no longer declining in all cases." ], [ "FidoNet organizational structure", "FidoNet is governed in a hierarchical structure according to FidoNet policy, with designated coordinators at each level to manage the administration of FidoNet nodes and resolve disputes between members.", "Network coordinators are responsible for managing the individual nodes within their area, usually a city or similar sized area.", "Regional coordinators are responsible for managing the administration of the network coordinators within their region, typically the size of a state, or small country.", "Zone coordinators are responsible for managing the administration of all of the regions within their zone.", "The world is divided into six zones, the coordinators of which elect one of themselves to be the ''International Coordinator'' of FidoNet." ], [ "Technical structure", "FidoNet was historically designed to use modem-based dial-up access between bulletin board systems, and much of its policy and structure reflected this.The FidoNet system officially referred only to the transfer of ''Netmail''—the individual private messages between people using bulletin boards—including the protocols and standards with which to support it.", "A netmail message would contain the name of the person sending, the name of the intended recipient, and the respective FidoNet addresses of each.", "The FidoNet system was responsible for routing the message from one system to the other (details below), with the bulletin board software on each end being responsible for ensuring that only the intended recipient could read it.", "Due to the hobbyist nature of the network, any privacy between the sender and recipient was only the result of politeness from the owners of the FidoNet systems involved in the mail's transfer.", "It was common, however, for system operators to reserve the right to review the content of mail that passed through their system.Netmail allowed for the ''attachment'' of a single file to every message.", "This led to a series of ''piggyback'' protocols that built additional features onto FidoNet by passing information back and forth as file attachments.", "These included the automated distribution of files and transmission of data for inter-BBS games.By far the most commonly used of these piggyback protocols was ''Echomail'', public discussions similar to Usenet newsgroups in nature.", "Echomail was supported by a variety of software that collected up new messages from the local BBSes' public forums (the ''scanner''), compressed it using ARC or ZIP, attached the resulting archive to a Netmail message, and sent that message to a selected system.", "On receiving such a message, identified because it was addressed to a particular ''user'', the reverse process was used to extract the messages, and a ''tosser'' put them back into the new system's forums.Echomail was so popular that for many users, Echomail ''was'' the FidoNet.", "Private person-to-person Netmail was relatively rare.===Geographical structure===FidoNet is politically organized into a tree structure, with different parts of the tree electing their respective coordinators.", "The FidoNet hierarchy consists of ''zones'', ''regions'', ''networks'', ''nodes'' and ''points'' broken down more-or-less geographically.The highest level is the zone, which is largely continent-based:* Zone 1 is the United States and Canada* Zone 2 is Europe, Former Soviet Union countries, and Israel* Zone 3 is Australasia* Zone 4 is Latin America (except Puerto Rico)* Zone 5 was Africa* Zone 6 was Asia, Israel and the Asian parts of Russia, (which are listed in Zone 2).", "On 26 July 2007 zone 6 was removed, and all remaining nodes were moved to zone 3.Each zone is broken down into regions, which are broken down into nets, which consist of individual nodes.", "Zones 7-4095 are used for ''othernets''; groupings of nodes that use Fido-compatible software to carry their own independent message areas without being in any way controlled by FidoNet's political structure.", "Using un-used zone numbers would ensure that each network would have a unique set of addresses, avoiding potential routing conflicts and ambiguities for systems that belonged to more than one network.===FidoNet addresses===FidoNet addresses explicitly consist of a ''zone'' number, a ''network'' number (or region number), and a ''node'' number.", "They are written in the form Zone:Network/Node.", "The FidoNet structure also allows for semantic designation of region, host, and hub status for particular nodes, but this status is not directly indicated by the main address.For example, consider a node located in Tulsa, Oklahoma, United States with an assigned node number is 918, located in Zone 1 (North America), Region 19, and Network 170.The full FidoNet address for this system would be 1:170/918.The ''region'' was used for administrative purposes, and was only part of the address if the node was listed directly underneath the Regional Coordinator, rather than one of the networks that were used to divide the region further.FidoNet policy requires that each FidoNet system maintain a ''nodelist'' of every other member system.", "Information on each node includes the name of the system or BBS, the name of the node operator, the geographic location, the telephone number, and software capabilities.", "The nodelist is updated weekly, to avoid unwanted calls to nodes that had shut down, with their phone numbers possibly having been reassigned for voice use by the respective telephone company.To accomplish regular updates, coordinators of each network maintain the list of systems in their local areas.", "The lists are forwarded back to the International Coordinator via automated systems on a regular basis.", "The International Coordinator would then compile a new nodelist, and generate the list of changes (nodediff) to be distributed for node operators to apply to their existing nodelist.===Routing of FidoNet mail===In a theoretical situation, a node would normally forward messages to a ''hub''.", "The hub, acting as a distribution point for mail, might then send the message to the Net Coordinator.", "From there it may be sent through a Regional Coordinator, or to some other system specifically set up for the function.", "Mail to other zones might be sent through a Zone Gate.For example, a FidoNet message might follow the path:*1:170/918 ''(node)'' to 1:170/900 ''(hub)'' to 1:170/0 ''(net coordinator)'' to 1:19/0 ''(region coordinator)'' to 1:1/0 ''(zone coordinator)''.", "From there, it was distributed 'down stream' to the destination node(s).Originally there was no specific relationship between network numbers and the regions they reside in.", "In some areas of FidoNet, most notably in Zone 2, the relationship between region number and network number are entwined.", "For example, 2:201/329 is in Net 201 which is in Region 20 while 2:2410/330 is in Net 2410 which is in Region 24.Zone 2 also relates the node number to the hub number if the network is large enough to contain any hubs.", "This effect may be seen in the nodelist by looking at the structure of Net 2410 where node 2:2410/330 is listed under Hub 300.This is not the case in other zones.In Zone 1, things are much different.", "Zone 1 was the starting point and when Zones and Regions were formed, the existing nets were divided up regionally with no set formula.", "The only consideration taken was where they were located geographically with respect to the region's mapped outline.", "As net numbers got added, the following formula was used.Region number × 20Then when some regions started running out of network numbers, the following was also used.Region number × 200Region 19, for instance, contains nets 380-399 and 3800-3999 in addition to those that were in Region 19 when it was formed.Part of the objective behind the formation of local nets was to implement cost reduction plans by which all messages would be sent to one or more hubs or hosts in compressed form (ARC was nominally standard, but PKZIP is universally supported); one toll call could then be made during off-peak hours to exchange entire message-filled archives with an out-of-town uplink for further redistribution.In practice, the FidoNet structure allows for any node to connect directly to any other, and node operators would sometimes form their own toll-calling arrangements on an ad-hoc basis, allowing for a balance between collective cost saving and timely delivery.", "For instance, if one node operator in a network offered to make regular toll calls to a particular system elsewhere, other operators might arrange to forward all of their mail destined for the remote system, and those near it, to the local volunteer.", "Operators within individual networks would sometimes have cost-sharing arrangements, but it was also common for people to volunteer to pay for regular toll calls either out of generosity or to build their status in the community.This ad-hoc system was particularly popular with networks that were built on top of FidoNet.", "Echomail, for instance, often involved relatively large file transfers due to its popularity.", "If official FidoNet distributors refused to transfer Echomail due to additional toll charges, other node operators would sometimes volunteer.", "In such cases, Echomail messages would be routed to the volunteers' systems instead.The FidoNet system was best adapted to an environment in which local telephone service was inexpensive and long-distance calls (or intercity data transfer via packet-switched networks) costly.", "Therefore, it fared somewhat poorly in Japan, where even local lines are expensive, or in France, where tolls on local calls and competition with Minitel or other data networks limited its growth.===Points===As the number of messages in Echomail grew over time, it became very difficult for users to keep up with the volume while logged into their local BBS.", "''Points'' were introduced to address this, allowing technically-savvy users to receive the already compressed and batched Echomail (and Netmail) and read it locally on their own machines.To do this, the FidoNet addressing scheme was extended with the addition of a final address segment, the point number.", "For instance, a user on the example system above might be given point number 10, and thus could be sent mail at the address 1:170/918.10.In real-world use, points are fairly difficult to set up.", "The FidoNet software typically consisted of a number of small utility programs run by manually edited scripts that required some level of technical ability.", "Reading and editing the mail required either a \"sysop editor\" program or a BBS program to be run locally.In North America (Zone 1), where local calls are generally free, the benefits of the system were offset by its complexity.", "Points were used only briefly, and even then only to a limited degree.", "Dedicated offline mail reader programs such as Blue Wave, Squiggy and Silver Xpress (OPX) were introduced in the mid-1990s and quickly rendered the point system obsolete.", "Many of these packages supported the QWK offline mail standard.In other parts of the world, especially Europe, this was different.", "In Europe, even local calls are generally metered, so there was a strong incentive to keep the duration of the calls as short as possible.", "Point software employs standard compression (ZIP, ARJ, etc.)", "and so keeps the calls down to a few minutes a day at most.", "In contrast to North America, pointing saw rapid and fairly widespread uptake in Europe.Many regions distribute a pointlist in parallel with the nodelist.", "The pointlist segments are maintained by Net- and Region Pointlist Keepers and the Zone Point List Keeper assembles them into the Zone pointlist.", "At the peak of FidoNet there were over 120,000 points listed in the Zone 2 pointlist.", "Listing points is on a voluntary basis and not every point is listed, so how many points there really were is anybody's guess.", "As of June 2006, there are still some 50,000 listed points.", "Most of them are in Russia and Ukraine.===Technical specifications===FidoNet contained several technical specifications for compatibility between systems.", "The most basic of all is ''FTS-0001'', with which all FidoNet systems are required to comply as a minimum requirement.", "FTS-0001 defined:*Handshaking - the protocols used by mailer software to identify each other and exchange meta-information about the session.", "*Transfer protocol ''(XMODEM)'' - the protocols to be used for transferring files containing FidoNet mail between systems.", "*Message format - the standard format for FidoNet messages during the time which they were exchanged between systems.Other specifications that were commonly used provided for ''echomail'', different transfer protocols and handshake methods (''e.g.", ": Yoohoo/Yoohoo2u2, EMSI''), file compression, nodelist format, transfer over reliable connections such as the Internet (Binkp), and other aspects.===Zone mail hour===Since computer bulletin boards historically used the same telephone lines for transferring mail as were used for dial-in human users of the BBS, FidoNet policy dictates that at least one designated line of each FidoNet node must be available for accepting mail from other FidoNet nodes during a particular hour of each day.", "''Zone Mail Hour'', as it was named, varies depending on the geographic location of the node, and was designated to occur during the early morning.", "The exact hour varies depending on the time zone, and any node with only one telephone line is required to reject human callers.", "In practice, particularly in later times, most FidoNet systems tend to accept mail at any time of day when the phone line is not busy, usually during night." ], [ "FidoNet deployments", "Most FidoNet deployments were designed in a modular fashion.", "A typical deployment would involve several applications that would communicate through shared files and directories, and switch between each other through carefully designed scripts or batch files.", "However, monolithic software that encompassed all required functions in one package is available, such as D'Bridge.", "Such software eliminated the need for custom batch files and is tightly integrated in operation.", "The preference for deployment was that of the operator and there were both pros and cons of running in either fashion.Arguably the most important piece of software on a DOS-based Fido system was the '' FOSSIL driver'', which was a small device driver which provided a standard way for the Fido software to talk to the modem.", "This driver needed to be loaded before any Fido software would work.", "An efficient FOSSIL driver meant faster, more reliable connections.", "''Mailer software'' was responsible for transferring files and messages between systems, as well as passing control to other applications, such as the BBS software, at appropriate times.", "The mailer would initially answer the phone and, if necessary, deal with incoming mail via FidoNet transfer protocols.", "If the mailer answered the phone and a human caller was detected rather than other mailer software, the mailer would exit, and pass control to the BBS software, which would then initialise for interaction with the user.", "When outgoing mail was waiting on the local system, the mailer software would attempt to send it from time to time by dialing and connecting to other systems who would accept and route the mail further.", "Due to the costs of toll calls which often varied between peak and off-peak times, mailer software would usually allow its operator to configure the optimal times in which to attempt to send mail to other systems.", "''BBS software'' was used to interact with human callers to the system.", "BBS software would allow dial-in users to use the system's message bases and write mail to others, locally or on other BBSes.", "Mail directed to other BBSes would later be routed and sent by the mailer, usually after the user had finished using the system.", "Many BBSes also allowed users to exchange files, play games, and interact with other users in a variety of ways (i.e.", ": node to node chat).A ''scanner/tosser'' application, such as FastEcho, FMail, TosScan and Squish, would normally be invoked when a BBS user had entered a new FidoNet message that needed to be sent, or when a mailer had received new mail to be imported into the local messages bases.", "This application would be responsible for handling the packaging of incoming and outgoing mail, moving it between the local system's message bases and the mailer's inbound and outbound directories.", "The scanner/tosser application would generally be responsible for basic routing information, determining which systems to forward mail to.In later times, ''message readers'' or ''editors'' that were independent of BBS software were also developed.", "Often the System Operator of a particular BBS would use a devoted message reader, rather than the BBS software itself, to read and write FidoNet and related messages.", "One of the most popular editors in 2008 was GoldED+.", "In some cases, FidoNet nodes, or more often FidoNet points, had no public bulletin board attached and existed only for the transfer of mail for the benefit of the node's operator.", "Most nodes in 2009 had no BBS access, but only points, if anything.The original ''Fido BBS'' software, and some other FidoNet-supporting software from the 1980s, is no longer functional on modern systems.", "This is for several reasons, including problems related to the Y2K bug.", "In some cases, the original authors have left the BBS or shareware community, and the software, much of which was closed source, is no longer supported.Several DOS-based legacy FidoNet Mailers such as FrontDoor, Intermail, MainDoor and D'Bridge from the early 1990s can still be run today under Windows without a modem, by using the freeware NetFoss Telnet FOSSIL driver, and by using a Virtual Modem such as NetSerial.", "This allows the mailer to ''dial'' an IP address or hostname via Telnet, rather than dialing a real POTS phone number.", "There are similar solutions for Linux such as MODEMU (modem emulator) which has limited success when combined with DOSEMU (DOS emulator).Mail Tossers such as FastEcho and FMail are still used today under both Windows and Linux/DOSEMU.File queue in qcc, the ncurses UI for qico.", "The addresses are made-up.There are several modern Windows based FidoNet Mailers available today with source code, including Argus, Radius, and Taurus.", "MainDoor is another Windows based Fidonet mailer, which also can be run using either a modem or directly over TCP/IP.", "Two popular free and open source software FidoNet mailers for Unix-like systems are the binkd (cross-platform, IP-only, uses the binkp protocol) and qico (supports modem communication as well as the IP protocol of ifcico and binkp).On the ''hardware'' side, Fido systems were usually well-equipped machines, for their day, with quick CPUs, high-speed modems and 16550 UARTs, which were at the time an upgrade.", "As a Fidonet system was usually a BBS, it needed to quickly process any new mail events before returning to its 'waiting for call' state.", "In addition, the BBS itself usually necessitated lots of storage space.", "Finally, a FidoNet system usually had at least one dedicated phone line.", "Consequently, operating a Fidonet system often required significant financial investment, a cost usually met by the owner of the system." ], [ "FidoNet availability", "While the use of FidoNet has dropped dramatically compared with its use up to the mid-1990s, it is still used in many countries and especially Russia and former republics of the USSR.", "Some BBSes, including those that are now available for users with Internet connections via telnet, also retain their FidoNet netmail and echomail feeds.Some of FidoNet's echomail conferences are available via gateways with the Usenet news hierarchy using software like UFGate.", "There are also mail gates for exchanging messages between Internet and FidoNet.", "Widespread net abuse and e-mail spam on the Internet side has caused some gateways (such as the former 1:1/31 IEEE fidonet.org gateway) to become unusable or cease operation entirely." ], [ "FidoNews", "''FidoNews'' is the newsletter of the FidoNet community.", "Affectionately nicknamed ''The Snooze'', it is published weekly.", "It was first published in 1984.Throughout its history, it has been published by various people and entities, including the short-lived International FidoNet Association." ], [ "See also", "* PODSnet* RelayNet* UUCP" ], [ "References", ";Notes;Citations" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Alt URL" ], [ "External links", "* * Alternate US FidoNet Home Page* FidoNet Technical Standards Committee Home Page* FidoNews, the weekly newsletter of the FidoNet community* International Echolist Home Page* IFDC FileGate Project* Fidonet Showcase Project" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Falsification" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Falsification''' may refer to:* The act of disproving a proposition, hypothesis, or theory: see Falsifiability* Mathematical proof* Falsified evidence* Falsification of history, distortion of the historical record also known as Historical revisionism* Forgery, the act of producing something that lacks authenticity with the intent to commit fraud or deception* Self-falsification, e.g., the Liar's paradox" ], [ "See also", "* Falsificationism (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Flag of the United States" ], [ "Introduction", "The national flag of the United States, often referred to as the '''American flag''' or the '''U.S.", "flag''', consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton, referred to as the union and bearing fifty small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows, where rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternate with rows of five stars.", "The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 U.S. states, and the 13 stripes represent the thirteen British colonies that declared independence from Great Britain, which they obtained in their victory in the American Revolutionary War.During the Revolutionary War era, the \"Rebellious Stripes\" were considered as the most important element of United States flag designs, and were always mentioned before the stars.", "The \"Stripes and Stars\" was a popular phrase into the 19th century.", "Credit for the term \"Stars and Stripes\" has been given to the Marquis de Lafayette, a French soldier who volunteered his aid to the Continental Army, led by George Washington, in the Revolutionary War against Britain.Nicknames for the flag include the '''Stars and Stripes''', '''Old Glory''', and '''The Star-Spangled Banner'''." ], [ "History", "The current design of the U.S. flag is its 27th; the design of the flag has been modified officially 26 times since 1777.The 48-star flag was in effect for 47 years until the 49-star version became official on July 4, 1959.The 50-star flag was ordered by then president Eisenhower on August 21, 1959, and was adopted in July 1960.It is the longest-used version of the U.S. flag and has been in use for over years.===First flag===The flag of the East India Company, introduced in 1707 and flown at sea in the Indian OceanThe Grand Union Flag, also known as the Continental Colors, used between 1775 and 1777 The first flag resembling the modern stars and stripes was an unofficial flag sometimes called the Grand Union Flag, or \"the Continental Colors\".", "It consisted of 13 red-and-white stripes, with the Union Jack in the upper left-hand-corner.", "It first appeared on December 3, 1775, when Continental Navy Lieutenant John Paul Jones flew it aboard Captain Esek Hopkin's flagship ''Alfred'' in the Delaware River.", "It remained the national flag until June 14, 1777.At the time of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, there were no flags with any stars on them; the Second Continental Congress did not adopt flags with \"stars, white in a blue field\" for another year.", "The \"Grand Union Flag\" has historically been referred to as the first national flag of the United States.The Continental Navy raised the Colors as the ensign of the fledgling nation in the American War for Independence – likely by the expedient of transforming their previous British red ensign by adding white stripes.", "The name \"Grand Union\" was first applied to the Continental Colors by George Henry Preble in his 1872 book known as ''History of the American Flag''.The flag very closely resembles the flag of the British East India Company in that era.", "Sir Charles Fawcett argued in 1937 that the company flag inspired the design of the U.S. flag.", "Both flags could easily have been constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign, one of the three maritime flags used throughout the British Empire at the time.", "However, the East India Company flag could have from nine to 13 stripes and was not allowed to be flown outside the Indian Ocean.", "Benjamin Franklin once gave a speech endorsing the adoption of the company's flag by the United States as their national flag.", "He said to George Washington, \"While the field of your flag must be new in the details of its design, it need not be entirely new in its elements.", "There is already in use a flag, I refer to the flag of the East India Company.\"", "This was a way of symbolizing American loyalty to the Crown as well as the United States' aspirations to be self-governing, as was the East India Company.", "Some colonists also felt that the company could be a powerful ally in the American War of Independence, as they shared similar aims and grievances against the British government's tax policies.", "Colonists, therefore, flew the company's flag to endorse the company.The theory that the Grand Union Flag was a direct descendant of the flag of the East India Company has been criticized as lacking written evidence; on the other hand, the resemblance is obvious, and some of the Founding Fathers of the United States were aware of the East India Company's activities and of their free administration of India under Company rule.===Flag Resolution of 1777===On June 14, 1777, the Second Continental Congress passed the Flag Resolution which stated: \"''Resolved'', That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation.\"", "Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year.", "While scholars still argue about this, tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment.Both the stripes (barry) and the stars (mullets) have precedents in classical heraldry.", "Mullets were comparatively rare in early modern heraldry.", "However, an example of mullets representing territorial divisions predating the U.S. flag is the Valais 1618 coat of arms, where seven mullets stood for seven districts.Another widely repeated theory is that the design was inspired by the coat of arms of George Washington's family, which includes three red stars over two horizontal red bars on a white field.", "Despite the similar visual elements, there is \"little evidence\" or \"no evidence whatsoever\" to support the claimed connection with the flag design.", "The ''Digital Encyclopedia of George Washington'', published by the Fred W. Smith National Library for the Study of George Washington at Mount Vernon, calls it an \"enduring myth\" backed by \"no discernible evidence.\"", "The story seems to have originated with the 1876 play ''Washington: A Drama in Five Acts'', by the English poet Martin Farquhar Tupper, and was further popularized through repetition in the children's magazine ''St.", "Nicholas''.The first official U.S. flag flown during battle was on August 3, 1777, at Fort Schuyler (Fort Stanwix) during the Siege of Fort Stanwix.", "Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler.", "Soldiers cut up their shirts to make the white stripes; scarlet material to form the red was secured from red flannel petticoats of officers' wives, while material for the blue union was secured from Capt.", "Abraham Swartwout's blue cloth coat.", "A voucher is extant that Congress paid Capt.", "Swartwout of Dutchess County for his coat for the flag.The 1777 resolution was probably meant to define a naval ensign.", "In the late 18th century, the notion of a national flag did not yet exist or was only nascent.", "The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee.", "On May 10, 1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern that \"it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States.\"", "However, the term \"Standard\" referred to a national standard for the Army of the United States.", "Each regiment was to carry the national standard in addition to its regimental standard.", "The national standard was not a reference to the national or naval flag.The Flag Resolution did not specify any particular arrangement, number of points, nor orientation for the stars and the arrangement or whether the flag had to have seven red stripes and six white ones or vice versa.", "The appearance was up to the maker of the flag.", "Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows and some replaced a state's star with its initial.", "One arrangement features 13 five-pointed stars arranged in a circle, with the stars arranged pointing outwards from the circle (as opposed to up), the Betsy Ross flag.", "Experts have dated the earliest known example of this flag to be 1792 in a painting by John Trumbull.Despite the 1777 resolution, the early years of American independence featured many different flags.", "Most were individually crafted rather than mass-produced.", "While there are many examples of 13-star arrangements, some of those flags included blue stripes as well as red and white.", "Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, in an October 3, 1778, letter to Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies, described the American flag as consisting of \"13 stripes, alternately red, white, and blue, a small square in the upper angle, next to the flagstaff, is a blue field, with 13 white stars, denoting a new Constellation.\"", "John Paul Jones used a variety of 13-star flags on his U.S. Navy ships including the well-documented 1779 flags of the ''Serapis'' and the ''Alliance''.", "The Serapis flag had three rows of eight-pointed stars with red, white, and blue stripes.", "However, the flag for the ''Alliance'' had five rows of eight-pointed stars with 13 red and white stripes, and the white stripes were on the outer edges.", "Both flags were documented by the Dutch government in October 1779, making them two of the earliest known flags of 13 stars.===Designer of the first stars and stripes===Francis Hopkinson's flag for the U.S., an interpretation, with 13 six-pointed stars arranged in five rowsFrancis Hopkinson's flag for the U.S. Navy, an interpretationFrancis Hopkinson of New Jersey, a naval flag designer and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, designed a flag in 1777 while he was the chairman of the Continental Navy Board's Middle Department, sometime between his appointment to that position in November 1776 and the time that the flag resolution was adopted in June 1777.The Navy Board was under the Continental Marine Committee.", "Not only did Hopkinson claim that he designed the U.S. flag, but he also claimed that he designed a flag for the U.S. Navy.", "Hopkinson was the only person to have made such a claim during his own life when he sent a letter and several bills to Congress for his work.", "These claims are documented in the Journals of the Continental Congress and George Hasting's biography of Hopkinson.", "Hopkinson initially wrote a letter to Congress, via the Continental Board of Admiralty, on May 25, 1780.In this letter, he asked for a \"Quarter Cask of the Public Wine\" as payment for designing the U.S. flag, the seal for the Admiralty Board, the seal for the Treasury Board, Continental currency, the Great Seal of the United States, and other devices.", "However, in three subsequent bills to Congress, Hopkinson asked to be paid in cash, but he did not list his U.S. flag design.", "Instead, he asked to be paid for designing the \"great Naval Flag of the United States\" in the first bill; the \"Naval Flag of the United States\" in the second bill; and \"the Naval Flag of the States\" in the third, along with the other items.", "The flag references were generic terms for the naval ensign that Hopkinson had designed: a flag of seven red stripes and six white ones.", "The predominance of red stripes made the naval flag more visible against the sky on a ship at sea.", "By contrast, Hopkinson's flag for the United States had seven white stripes and six red ones – in reality, six red stripes laid on a white background.", "Hopkinson's sketches have not been found, but we can make these conclusions because Hopkinson incorporated different stripe arrangements in the Admiralty (naval) Seal that he designed in the Spring of 1780 and the Great Seal of the United States that he proposed at the same time.", "His Admiralty Seal had seven red stripes; whereas his second U.S. Seal proposal had seven white ones.", "Remnants of Hopkinson's U.S. flag of seven white stripes can be found in the Great Seal of the United States and the President's seal.", "When Hopkinson was chairman of the Navy Board, his position was like that of today's Secretary of the Navy.", "The payment was not made, most likely, because other people had contributed to designing the Great Seal of the United States, and because it was determined he already received a salary as a member of Congress.", "This contradicts the legend of the Betsy Ross flag, which suggests that she sewed the first Stars and Stripes flag at the request of the government in the Spring of 1776.On 10 May 1779, a letter from the War Board to George Washington stated that there was still no design established for a national standard, on which to base regimental standards, but also referenced flag requirements given to the board by General von Steuben.", "On 3 September, Richard Peters submitted to Washington \"Drafts of a Standard\" and asked for his \"Ideas of the Plan of the Standard,\" adding that the War Board preferred a design they viewed as \"a variant for the Marine Flag.\"", "Washington agreed that he preferred \"the standard, with the Union and Emblems in the center.\"", "The drafts are lost to history but are likely to be similar to the first Jack of the United States.Betsy Ross variant 13-star Cowpens flag variant The origin of the stars and stripes design has been muddled by a story disseminated by the descendants of Betsy Ross.", "The apocryphal story credits Betsy Ross for sewing one of the first flags from a pencil sketch handed to her by George Washington.", "No such evidence exists either in George Washington's diaries or the Continental Congress's records.", "Indeed, nearly a century passed before Ross's grandson, William Canby, first publicly suggested the story in 1870.By her family's own admission, Ross ran an upholstery business, and she had never made a flag as of the supposed visit in June 1776.Furthermore, her grandson admitted that his own search through the Journals of Congress and other official records failed to find corroborating evidence for his grandmother's story.George Henry Preble states in his 1882 text that no combined stars and stripes flag was in common use prior to June 1777, and that no one knows who designed the 1777 flag.", "Historian Laurel Thatcher Ulrich argues that there was no \"first flag\" worth arguing over.", "Researchers accept that the United States flag evolved, and did not have one design.", "Marla Miller writes, \"The flag, like the Revolution it represents, was the work of many hands.", "\"The family of Rebecca Young claimed that she sewed the first flag.", "Young's daughter was Mary Pickersgill, who made the Star-Spangled Banner Flag.", "She was assisted by Grace Wisher, a 13-year-old African American girl.===Later flag acts===In 1795, the number of stars and stripes was increased from 13 to 15 (to reflect the entry of Vermont and Kentucky as states of the Union).", "For a time the flag was not changed when subsequent states were admitted, probably because it was thought that this would cause too much clutter.", "It was the 15-star, 15-stripe flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write \"Defence of Fort M'Henry\", later known as \"The Star-Spangled Banner\", which is now the American national anthem.", "The flag is currently on display in the exhibition \"The Star-Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem\" at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History in a two-story display chamber that protects the flag while it is on view.On April 4, 1818, a plan was passed by Congress at the suggestion of U.S.", "Naval Captain Samuel C. Reid in which the flag was changed to have 20 stars, with a new star to be added when each new state was admitted, but the number of stripes would be reduced to 13 so as to honor the original colonies.", "The act specified that new flag designs should become official on the first July 4 (Independence Day) following the admission of one or more new states.In 1912, the 48-star flag was adopted.", "This was the first time that a flag act specified an official arrangement of the stars in the canton, namely six rows of eight stars each, where each star would point upward.", "The U.S. Army and U.S. Navy, however, has already been using standardized designs.", "Throughout the 19th century, different star patterns, both rectangular and circular, had been abundant in civilian use.In 1960, the current 50-star flag was adopted, incorporating the most recent change, from 49 stars to 50, when the present design was chosen, after Hawaii gained statehood in August 1959.Before that, the admission of Alaska in January 1959 had prompted the debut of a short-lived 49-star flag.===49- and 50-star unions===A U.S. flag with gold fringe and a gold eagle on top of the flag poleWhen Alaska and Hawaii were being considered for statehood in the 1950s, more than 1,500 designs were submitted to President Dwight D. Eisenhower.", "Although some were 49-star versions, the vast majority were 50-star proposals.", "At least three of these designs were identical to the present design of the 50-star flag.", "At the time, credit was given by the executive department to the United States Army Institute of Heraldry for the design.", "The 49- and 50-star flags were each flown for the first time at Fort McHenry on Independence Day, in 1959 and 1960 respectively.On July 4, 2007, the 50-star flag became the version of the flag in the longest use, surpassing the 48-star flag that was used from 1912 to 1959.===\"Flower Flag\" arrives in Asia===The U.S. flag was brought to the city of Canton (Guǎngzhōu) in China in 1784 by the merchant ship ''Empress of China'', which carried a cargo of ginseng.", "There it gained the designation \"Flower Flag\" ().", "According to a pseudonymous account first published in the ''Boston Courier'' and later retold by author and U.S. naval officer George H. Preble:In the above quote, the Chinese words are written phonetically based on spoken Cantonese.", "The names given were common usage in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.Olsen, Kay Melchisedech, ''Chinese Immigrants: 1850–1900'' (2001), p.", "7.\"", "Philadelphia's Chinatown: An Overview \", The Historical Society of Pennsylvania.Leonard, George, \" The Beginnings of Chinese Literature in America: the Angel Island Poems\".", "Chinese now refer to the United States as ''Měiguó'' from Mandarin ().", "''Měi'' is short for ''Měilìjiān'' (, phono-semantic matching of \"American\") and \"guó\" means \"country\", so this name is unrelated to the flag.", "However, the \"flower flag\" terminology persists in some places today: for example, American ginseng is called ''flower flag ginseng'' () in Chinese, and Citibank, which opened a branch in China in 1902, is known as ''Flower Flag Bank'' ().Similarly, Vietnamese also uses the borrowed term from Chinese with Sino-Vietnamese reading for the United States, as from (\"Flower Flag\").", "Even though the United States is also called ''nước Mỹ'' (or simpler ''Mỹ'') colloquially in Vietnamese before the name ''Měiguó'' was popular amongst Chinese, ''Hoa Kỳ'' is always recognized as the formal name for the United States with the Vietnamese state officially designates it as (, ).", "By that, in Vietnam, the U.S. is also nicknamed ''xứ Cờ Hoa'' (\"land of Flower Flag\") based on the ''Hoa Kỳ'' designation.Additionally, the seal of Shanghai Municipal Council in Shanghai International Settlement from 1869 included the U.S. flag as part of the top left-hand shield near the flag of the U.K., as the U.S. participated in the creation of this enclave in the Chinese city of Shanghai.", "It is also included in the badge of the Gulangyu Municipal Police in the International Settlement of Gulangyu, Amoy.President Richard Nixon presented a U.S. flag and Moon rocks to Mao Zedong during his visit to China in 1972.They are now on display at the National Museum of China.The U.S. flag took its first trip around the world in 1787–1790 on board the ''Columbia''.", "William Driver, who coined the phrase \"Old Glory\", took the U.S. flag around the world in 1831–32.The flag attracted the notice of the Japanese when an oversized version was carried to Yokohama by the steamer ''Great Republic'' as part of a round-the-world journey in 1871.=== Civil War and the flag ===''Our Banner in the Sky'' (1861) by Frederic Edwin ChurchPrior to the Civil War, the American flag was rarely seen outside of military forts, government buildings and ships.", "This changed following the Battle of Fort Sumter in 1861.The flag flying over the fort was allowed to leave with the Union troops as they surrendered.", "It was taken across Northern cities, which spurred a wave of \"Flagmania\".", "The Stars and Stripes, which had had no real place in the public conscious, suddenly became a part of the national identity.", "The flag became a symbol of the Union, and the sale of flags exploded at this time.Historian Adam Goodheart wrote:In the Civil War, the flag was allowed to be carried into battle, reversing the 1847 regulation which prohibited this.", "(During the American War of Independence and War of 1812 the army was not officially sanctioned to carry the United States flag into battle.", "It was not until 1834 that the artillery was allowed to carry the American flag; the army would be granted to do the same in 1841.However, in 1847, in the middle of the war with Mexico, the flag was limited to camp use and not allowed to be brought into battle.)", "Some wanted to remove the stars of the states which had seceded but Abraham Lincoln was opposed, believing it would give legitimacy to the Confederate states.===Historical progression of designs===In the following table depicting the 28 various designs of the United States flag, the star patterns for the flags are merely the ''usual'' patterns, often associated with the United States Navy.", "Canton designs, prior to the proclamation of the 48-star flag, had no official arrangement of the stars.", "Furthermore, the exact colors of the flag were not standardized until 1934.Number ofstars Number ofstripes Design(s) States representedby new stars Dates in use Duration 0 13 King's Colours before stars, red and white stripes represent Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Virginia 13 13 84px84px84px84px84px84x84px Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Virginia  – May 1, 1795 15 15 84px84px Vermont, Kentucky  – July 3, 1818 20 13 84px84px Tennessee, Ohio, Louisiana, Indiana, Mississippi  – July 3, 1819 21 13 84px Illinois  – July 3, 1820 23 13 84px Alabama, Maine  – July 3, 1822 24 13 84px Missouri  – July 3, 18361831 term \"Old Glory\" coined 25 13 84px84x84px84x84px Arkansas  – July 3, 1837 26 13 84px84px Michigan  – July 3, 1845 27 13 84px Florida  – July 3, 1846 28 13 84px Texas  – July 3, 1847 29 13 84px84px Iowa  – July 3, 1848 30 13 84px Wisconsin  – July 3, 1851 31 13 84px California  – July 3, 1858 32 13 84px Minnesota  – July 3, 1859 33 13 84pxborderborderborder Oregon  – July 3, 1861 34 13 84px84px Kansas  – July 3, 1863 35 13 84px84px West Virginia  – July 3, 1865 36 13 84px84px Nevada  – July 3, 1867 37 13 84px84px84px Nebraska  – July 3, 1877 38 13 84px84px Colorado  – July 3, 1890 43 13 84px North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho  – July 3, 1891 44 13 84px Wyoming  – July 3, 1896 45 13 84px Utah  – July 3, 1908 46 13 84px Oklahoma  – July 3, 1912 48 13 84px New Mexico, Arizona  – July 3, 1959 49 13 84px Alaska  – July 3, 1960 50 13 border 84x84px border Hawaii  – present years" ], [ "Symbolism", "The flag of the United States is the nation's most widely recognized symbol.", "Within the United States, flags are frequently displayed not only on public buildings but on private residences.", "The flag is a common motif on decals for car windows, and on clothing ornamentation such as badges and lapel pins.", "Owing to the United States's emergence as a superpower in the 20th century, the flag is among the most widely recognized symbols in the world, and is used to represent the United States.The flag has become a powerful symbol of Americanism, and is flown on many occasions, with giant outdoor flags used by retail outlets to draw customers.", "Reverence for the flag has at times reached religion-like fervor: in 1919 William Norman Guthrie's book ''The Religion of Old Glory'' discussed \"the cult of the flag\"and formally proposed .Despite a number of attempts to ban the practice, desecration of the flag remains protected as free speech under the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.", "Scholars have noted the irony that \"he flag is so revered because it represents the land of the free, and that freedom includes the ability to use or abuse that flag in protest\".", "Comparing practice worldwide, Testi noted in 2010 that the United States was not unique in adoring its banner, for the flags of Scandinavian countries are also \"beloved, domesticated, commercialized and sacralized objects\".===Color symbolism===When the flag was officially adopted in 1777, the colors of red, white and blue were not given an official meaning.", "However, when Charles Thomson, Secretary of the Continental Congress, presented a proposed U.S. seal in 1782, he explained its center section in this way: These meanings have broadly been accepted as official, with some variation, but there are other extant interpretations as well:* In 1986, president Ronald Reagan gave his own interpretation, saying, * Additionally, an interpretation attributed to George Washington claims that" ], [ "Design", "===Specifications===Diagram of the flag's designThe basic design of the current flag is specified by (1947): \"The flag of the United States shall be thirteen horizontal stripes, alternate red and white; and the union of the flag shall be forty-eight stars, white in a blue field.\"", "outlines the addition of new stars to represent new states, with no distinction made for the shape, size, or arrangement of the stars.", "Executive Order 10834 (1959) specifies a 50-star design for use after Hawaii was added as a state, and Federal Specification DDD-F-416F (2005) provides additional details about the production of physical flags for use by federal agencies.", "* Hoist (height) of the flag: ''A'' = 1.0* Fly (width) of the flag: ''B'' = 1.9* Hoist (height) of the canton (\"union\"): ''C'' = 0.5385 (''A'' × 7/13, spanning seven stripes)* Fly (width) of the canton: ''D'' = 0.76 (''B'' × 2/5, two-fifths of the flag width)* ''E'' = ''F'' = 0.0538 (''C''/10, one-tenth of the height of the canton)* ''G'' = ''H'' = 0.0633 (''D''/12, one twelfth of the width of the canton)* Diameter of star: ''K'' = 0.0616 (approximately ''L'' × 4/5, four-fifths of the stripe width)* Width of stripe: ''L'' = 0.0769 (''A''/13, one thirteenth of the flag height)Strictly speaking, the executive order establishing these specifications governs only flags made for or by the federal government.", "In practice, most U.S. national flags available for sale to the public follow the federal star arrangement, but have a different width-to-height ratio; common sizes are or (flag ratio 1.5), or (1.6), or or (1.667).", "Even flags flown over the U.S. Capitol for sale to the public through Representatives or Senators are provided in these sizes.", "Flags that are made to the prescribed 1.9 ratio are often referred to as \"G-spec\" (for \"government specification\") flags.===Colors===Federal Specification DDD-F-416F specifies the exact red, white, and blue colors to be used for physical flags procured by federal agencies with reference to the Standard Color Reference of America, 10th edition, a set of dyed silk fabric samples produced by The Color Association of the United States.", "The colors are \"White\", No.", "70001; \"Old Glory Red\", No.", "70180; and \"Old Glory Blue\", No.", "70075.CIE coordinates for the colors of the 9th edition of the Standard Color Reference were carefully measured and cross-checked by color scientists from the National Bureau of Standards in 1946, with the resulting coordinates adopted as a formal specification.", "These colors form the standard for cloth, and there is no perfect way to convert them to RGB for display on screen or CMYK for printing.", "The \"relative\" coordinates in the following table were found by scaling the luminous reflectance relative to the flag's white.+ Federal Specification DDD-F-416F cloth color specifications Name Absolute '''''Relative''''' CIELAB ''D''65 Munsell sRGB GRACoL 2006 ''L''* ''a''* ''b''* ''H'' ''V''/''C'' ''R'' ''G'' ''B'' 8-bit hex ''C'' ''M'' ''Y'' ''K'' 88.7 −0.2 5.4 2.5Y 8.8/0.7 1.000 1.000 1.000 .000 .000 .000 .000 33.9 51.2 24.7 5.5R 3.3/11.1 .698 .132 .203 .196 1.000 .757 .118 23.2 13.1 −26.4 8.2PB 2.3/6.1 .234 .233 .430 .886 .851 .243 .122As with the design, the official colors are only officially required for flags produced for the U.S. federal government, and other colors are often used for mass-market flags, printed reproductions, and other products intended to evoke flag colors.", "The practice of using more saturated colors than the official cloth is not new.", "As Taylor, Knoche, and Granville wrote in 1950: \"The color of the official wool bunting of the blue field is a very dark blue, but printed reproductions of the flag, as well as merchandise supposed to match the flag, present the color as a deep blue much brighter than the official wool.", "\"Sometimes, Pantone Matching System (PMS) alternatives to the dyed fabric colors are recommended by US government agencies for use in websites or printed documents.", "One set was given on the website of the U.S. embassy in London as early as 1996; the website of the U.S. embassy in Stockholm claimed in 2001 that those had been suggested by Pantone, and that the U.S. Government Printing Office preferred a different set.", "A third red was suggested by a California Military Department document in 2002.The website of the U.S. Embassy in Stockholm instead lists PMS 186 and PMS 288 as the colors specified by the U.S. Government Printing Office: \"Colors of the U.S.", "Flag\".", "United States Embassy Stockholm.", "November 2001.The Military Department of the State of California suggested PMS 200 for red in a 2002 document, \"Flags over California, a history and guide\".", "In 2001, the Texas legislature specified that the colors of the Texas flag should be \"(1) the same colors used in the United States flag; and (2) defined as numbers 193 (red) and 281 (dark blue) of the Pantone Matching System.\"", "The current internal style guide of the State Department Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs specifies PMS 282C blue and PMS 193C red, and gives RGB and CMYK conversions generated by Adobe InDesign.+ Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs style guidelines Pantone Identifier RGB CMYK ''R'' ''G'' ''B'' 8-bit hex ''C'' ''M'' ''Y'' ''K'' 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 PMS 193C 0.72 0.10 0.26 0.00 1.00 0.66 0.13 PMS 282C 0.04 0.19 0.38 1.00 0.68 0.00 0.54===Decoration===Traditionally, the flag may be decorated with golden fringe surrounding the perimeter of the flag as long as it does not deface the flag proper.", "Ceremonial displays of the flag, such as those in parades or on indoor posts, often use fringe to enhance the flag's appearance.", "Traditionally, the Army and Air Force use a fringed flag for parades, color guard and indoor display, while the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard use a fringeless flag for all occasions.The first recorded use of fringe on a flag dates from 1835, and the Army used it officially in 1895.No specific law governs the legality of fringe.", "Still, a 1925 opinion of the attorney general addresses the use of fringe (and the number of stars) \"... is at the discretion of the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy ...\" as quoted from a footnote in previous volumes of Title 4 of the United States Code law books.", "This opinion is a source for claims that a flag with fringe is a military ensign rather than a civilian.", "However, according to the Army Institute of Heraldry, which has official custody of the flag designs and makes any change ordered, there are no implications of symbolism in using fringe.Individuals associated with the sovereign citizen movement and tax protester conspiracy arguments have claimed, based on the military usage, that the presence of a fringed flag in a civilian courtroom changes the nature or jurisdiction of the court.", "Federal and state courts have rejected this contention." ], [ "Display and use", "The flag is customarily flown year-round at most public buildings, and it is not unusual to find private houses flying full-size () flags.", "Some private use is year-round, but becomes widespread on civic holidays like Memorial Day, Veterans Day, Presidents' Day, Flag Day, and on Independence Day.", "On Memorial Day, it is common to place small flags by war memorials and next to the graves of U.S. war veterans.", "Also, on Memorial Day, it is common to fly the flag at half staff until noon to remember those who lost their lives fighting in U.S. wars.File:American Embassy in Warsaw 1939.jpg|An American flag on the U.S. embassy in Warsaw during a German air raid in September 1939File:VAB aerial 1977.jpg|The NASA Vehicle Assembly Building in 1977.The VAB has the largest U.S. flag ever used on a building, with the Bicentennial Star opposite the flag.File:Graves at Arlington on Memorial Day.JPG|Gravestones at Arlington National Cemetery decorated with U.S. flags on Memorial Day.File:Flag Dumpster.JPG|A dumpster in Chicago painted to resemble the American flag.===Flag etiquette===The proper stationary vertical display.", "The union (blue box of stars) should always be in the upper-left corner.A tattered flag at Spokane Valley Police Headquarters, Spokane, WashingtonA proper and respectful manner of disposing of a damaged flag is a ceremonial burning (as seen here at Misawa Air Base)The United States Flag Code outlines certain guidelines for the flag's use, display, and disposal.", "For example, the flag should never be dipped to any person or thing, unless it is the ensign responding to a salute from a ship of a foreign nation.", "This tradition may come from the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, where countries were asked to dip their flag to King Edward VII: the American flag bearer did not.", "Team captain Martin Sheridan is famously quoted as saying, \"this flag dips to no earthly king\", though the true provenance of this quotation is unclear.The flag should never be allowed to touch the ground and should be illuminated if flown at night.", "The flag should be repaired or replaced if the edges become tattered through wear.", "When a flag is so tattered that it can no longer serve as a symbol of the United States, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning.", "The American Legion and other organizations regularly conduct flag retirement ceremonies, often on Flag Day, June 14.", "(The Boy Scouts of America recommends that modern nylon or polyester flags be recycled instead of burned due to hazardous gases produced when such materials are burned.", ")The Flag Code prohibits using the flag \"for any advertising purpose\" and also states that the flag \"should not be embroidered, printed, or otherwise impressed on such articles as cushions, handkerchiefs, napkins, boxes, or anything intended to be discarded after temporary use\".", "Both of these codes are generally ignored, almost always without comment.Section 8, entitled \"Respect For Flag\", states in part: \"The flag should never be used as wearing apparel, bedding, or drapery\", and \"No part of the flag should ever be used as a costume or athletic uniform\".", "Section 3 of the Flag Code defines \"the flag\" as anything \"by which the average person seeing the same without deliberation may believe the same to represent the flag of the United States of America\".", "An additional provision that is frequently violated at sporting events is part (c) \"The flag should never be carried flat or horizontally, but always aloft and free.", "\"Although the Flag Code is U.S. federal law, there is no penalty for a private citizen or group failing to comply with the Flag Code, and it is not widely enforced—punitive enforcement would conflict with the First Amendment right to freedom of speech.", "Passage of the proposed Flag Desecration Amendment would overrule the legal precedent that has been established.===Display on vehicles===Truck with backward flag stickerWhen the flag is affixed to the right side of a vehicle of any kind (e.g., cars, boats, planes, any physical object that moves), it should be oriented so that the canton is towards the front of the vehicle, as if the flag were streaming backward from its hoist as the vehicle moves forward.", "Therefore, U.S. flag decals on the right sides of vehicles may appear to be reversed, with the union to the observer's right instead of left as more commonly seen.The flag has been displayed on every U.S. spacecraft designed for crewed flight starting from John Glenn's ''Friendship 7'' flight in 1962, including Mercury, Gemini, Apollo Command/Service Module, Apollo Lunar Module, and the Space Shuttle.", "The flag also appeared on the S-IC first stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle used for Apollo.", "Nevertheless, Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo were launched and landed vertically and could not horizontal atmospheric flight as the Space Shuttle did on its landing approach, so the streaming convention was not followed.", "These flags were oriented with the stripes running horizontally, perpendicular to the direction of flight.===Display on uniforms===On some U.S. military uniforms, flag patches are worn on the right shoulder, following the vehicle convention with the union toward the front.", "This rule dates back to the Army's early history when mounted cavalry and infantry units would designate a standard-bearer who carried the Colors into battle.", "As he charged, his forward motion caused the flag to stream back.", "Since the Stars and Stripes are mounted with the canton closest to the pole, that section stayed to the right, while the stripes flew to the left.", "Several U.S. military uniforms, such as flight suits worn by members of the United States Air Force and Navy, have the flag patch on the left shoulder.Other organizations that wear flag patches on their uniforms can have the flag facing in either direction.", "The congressional charter of the Boy Scouts of America stipulates that Boy Scout uniforms should not imitate U.S. military uniforms; consequently, the flags are displayed on the right shoulder with the stripes facing front, the reverse of the military style.", "Law enforcement officers often wear a small flag patch, either on a shoulder or above a shirt pocket.Every U.S. astronaut since the crew of Gemini 4 has worn the flag on the left shoulder of his or her space suit, except for the crew of Apollo 1, whose flags were worn on the right shoulder.", "In this case, the canton was on the left.File:Amflagurban.jpg|A subdued-color flag patch, similar to the style worn on the United States Army's ACU uniform.", "The patch is customarily worn reversed on the right upper sleeve.File:Neil Armstrong pose.jpg|Flag of the United States on American astronaut Neil Armstrong's space suitFile:160803-N-RY232-012 - United States Navy Working Uniform (NWU) Type III U.S. flag patch.png|Patch with the union to the front, as seen on a Navy uniform.===Postage stamps===Flags depicted on U.S. postage stamp issuesImage of the Star-spangled-banner flag in the National Museum of American History, being observed by George W. BushThe flag did not appear on U.S. postal stamp issues until the Battle of White Plains Issue was released in 1926, depicting the flag with a circle of 13 stars.", "The 48-star flag first appeared on the General Casimir Pulaski issue of 1931, though in a small monochrome depiction.", "The first U.S. postage stamp to feature the flag as the sole subject was issued July 4, 1957, Scott catalog number 1094.Since then, the flag has frequently appeared on U.S. stamps.===Display in museums===In 1907 Eben Appleton, New York stockbroker and grandson of Lieutenant Colonel George Armistead (the commander of Fort McHenry during the 1814 bombardment), loaned the Star-Spangled Banner Flag to the Smithsonian Institution.", "In 1912 he converted the loan into a gift.", "Appleton donated the flag with the wish that it would always be on view to the public.", "In 1994, the National Museum of American History determined that the Star-Spangled Banner Flag required further conservation treatment to remain on public display.", "In 1998 teams of museum conservators, curators, and other specialists helped move the flag from its home in the Museum's Flag Hall into a new conservation laboratory.", "Following the reopening of the National Museum of American History on November 21, 2008, the flag is now on display in a special exhibition, \"The Star-Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem,\" where it rests at a 10-degree angle in dim light for conservation purposes.===Places of continuous display===Marine Corps War Memorial, Arlington, VirginiaFlags covering the National MallAstronaut James Irwin salutes the flag during the 1971 Apollo 15 lunar missionU.S.", "flags are displayed continuously at certain locations by presidential proclamation, acts of Congress, and custom.", "* Replicas of the Star-Spangled Banner Flag (15 stars, 15 stripes) are flown at two sites in Baltimore, Maryland: Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine and Flag House Square.", "* Marine Corps War Memorial (Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima), Arlington, Virginia.", "* The Battle Green in Lexington, Massachusetts, site of the first shots fired in the Revolution* The White House, Washington, D.C.* Fifty U.S. flags are displayed continuously at the Washington Monument, Washington, D.C.* At continuously open U.S. Customs and Border Protection Ports of Entry.", "* A Civil War era flag (for the year 1863) flies above Pennsylvania Hall (Old Dorm) at Gettysburg College.", "This building, occupied by both sides at various points of the Battle of Gettysburg, served as a lookout and battlefield hospital.", "* Grounds of the National Memorial Arch in Valley Forge NHP, Valley Forge, Pennsylvania* By custom, at the Maryland home, birthplace, and grave of Francis Scott Key; at the Worcester, Massachusetts war memorial; at the plaza in Taos, New Mexico (since 1861); at the United States Capitol (since 1918); and at Mount Moriah Cemetery in Deadwood, South Dakota.", "* Newark Liberty International Airport's Terminal A, Gate 17 (2001–2021) and Boston Logan Airport's Terminal B, Gate 32, and Terminal C, Gate 19 in memoriam of the events of September 11, 2001.", "* Slover Mountain (Colton Liberty Flag), in Colton, California.", "July 4, 1917, to & 1997 to 2012.", "* At the ceremonial South Pole as one of the 12 flags representing the signatory countries of the original Antarctic Treaty.", "* On the Moon: six crewed missions successfully landed at various locations and each had a flag raised at the site.", "Exhaust gases when the Ascent Stage launched to return the astronauts to their Command Module ''Columbia'' for return to Earth blew over the flag the Apollo 11 mission had placed.===Particular days for display===The New York Stock Exchange at Christmas timeThe flag should especially be displayed at full staff on the following days:* January: 1 (New Year's Day), third Monday of the month (Martin Luther King Jr. Day), and 20 (Inauguration Day, once every four years, which, by tradition, is postponed to the 21st if the 20th falls on a Sunday)* February: 12 (Lincoln's birthday) and the third Monday (legally known as Washington's Birthday but more often called Presidents' Day)* March–April: Easter Sunday (date varies)* May: Second Sunday (Mothers Day), third Saturday (Armed Forces Day), and last Monday (Memorial Day; half-staff until noon)* June: 14 (Flag Day), third Sunday (Father's Day)* July: 4 (Independence Day)* September: First Monday (Labor Day), 17 (Constitution Day), and last Sunday (Gold Star Mother's Day)* October: Second Monday (Columbus Day) and 27 (Navy Day)* November: 11 (Veterans Day) and fourth Thursday (Thanksgiving Day)* December: 25 (Christmas Day)* and such other days as may be proclaimed by the president of the United States; the birthdays of states (date of admission); and on state holidays.===Display at half-staff===An American flag now flies over Gate 17 of Terminal A at Newark Liberty International Airport in Newark, New Jersey, departure gate of United Airlines Flight 93 on 9/11.The flag is displayed at half-staff (half-mast in naval usage) as a sign of respect or mourning.", "Nationwide, this action is proclaimed by the president; statewide or territory-wide, the proclamation is made by the governor.", "In addition, there is no prohibition against municipal governments, private businesses, or citizens flying the flag at half-staff as a local sign of respect and mourning.", "However, many flag enthusiasts feel this type of practice has somewhat diminished the meaning of the original intent of lowering the flag to honor those who held high positions in federal or state offices.", "President Dwight D. Eisenhower issued the first proclamation on March 1, 1954, standardizing the dates and periods for flying the flag at half-staff from all federal buildings, grounds, and naval vessels; other congressional resolutions and presidential proclamations ensued.", "However, they are only guidelines to all other entities: typically followed at state and local government facilities and encouraged of private businesses and citizens.To properly fly the flag at half-staff, one should first briefly hoist it top of the staff, then lower it to the half-staff position, halfway between the top and bottom of the staff.", "Similarly, when the flag is to be lowered from half-staff, it should be first briefly hoisted to the top of the staff.Federal statutes provide that the flag should be flown at half-staff on the following dates:* May 15: Peace Officers Memorial Day (unless it is the third Saturday in May, Armed Forces Day, then full-staff)* Last Monday in May: Memorial Day (until noon)* September 11: Patriot Day* First Sunday in October: Start of Fire Prevention Week, in honor of the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial Service.", "* December 7: National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day* For 30 days: Death of a president or former president* For 10 days: Death of a vice president, Supreme Court chief justice/retired chief justice, or speaker of the House of Representatives.", "* From death until the day of interment: Supreme Court associate justice, member of the Cabinet, former vice president, president ''pro tempore'' of the Senate, or the majority and minority leaders of the Senate and House of Representatives.", "Also, for federal facilities within a state or territory, for the governor.", "* On the day after the death: Senators, members of Congress, territorial delegates, or the resident commissioner of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico===Desecration===U.S.", "flag being burned in protest on the eve of the 2008 electionThe flag of the United States is sometimes burned as a cultural or political statement, in protest of the policies of the U.S. government, or for other reasons, both within the U.S. and abroad.", "The United States Supreme Court in ''Texas v. Johnson'', , and reaffirmed in ''U.S.", "v. Eichman'', , has ruled that due to the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, it is unconstitutional for a government (whether federal, state, or municipal) to prohibit the desecration of a flag, due to its status as \"symbolic speech.\"", "However, content-neutral restrictions may still be imposed to regulate the time, place, and manner of such expression.", "If the flag that was burned was someone else's property (as it was in the ''Johnson'' case, since Johnson had stolen the flag from a Texas bank's flagpole), the offender could be charged with petty larceny (a flag usually sells at retail for less than US$20), or with destruction of private property, or possibly both.", "Desecration of a flag representing a minority group may also be charged as a hate crime in some jurisdictions." ], [ "Folding for storage", "Folding the U.S. flagThough not part of the official Flag Code, according to military custom, flags should be folded into a triangular shape when not in use.", "To properly fold the flag:# Begin by holding it waist-high with another person so that its surface is parallel to the ground.# Fold the lower half of the stripe section lengthwise over the field of stars, holding the bottom and top edges securely.# Fold the flag again lengthwise with the blue field on the outside.# Make a rectangular fold then a triangular fold by bringing the striped corner of the folded edge to meet the open top edge of the flag, starting the fold from the left side over to the right.# Turn the outer end point inward, parallel to the open edge, to form a second triangle.# The triangular folding is continued until the entire length of the flag is folded in this manner (usually thirteen triangular folds, as shown at right).", "On the final fold, any remnant that does not neatly fold into a triangle (or in the case of exactly even folds, the last triangle) is tucked into the previous fold.# When the flag is completely folded, only a triangular blue field of stars should be visible.There is also no specific meaning for each fold of the flag.", "However, there are scripts read by non-government organizations and also by the Air Force that are used during the flag folding ceremony.", "These scripts range from historical timelines of the flag to religious themes." ], [ "Use in funerals", "A flag prepared for presentation to the next of kinTraditionally, the flag of the United States plays a role in military funerals, and occasionally in funerals of other civil servants (such as law enforcement officers, fire fighters, and U.S. presidents).", "A burial flag is draped over the deceased's casket as a pall during services.", "Just prior to the casket being lowered into the ground, the flag is ceremonially folded and presented to the deceased's next of kin as a token of respect." ], [ "Surviving historical flags", "This is a list of surviving flags that have been displayed at or otherwise associated with notable historical battles or events.=== Revolutionary War ===* '''Forster Flag''' (1775) – Historians believe the Manchester Company of the First Essex County Militia Regiment carried this flag during the battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775.The militia unit was activated but was not involved in the day's fighting.", "This flag is historic because it is the oldest surviving flag depicting the 13 colonies.", "This flag may have been a British ensign flag that had its Union Jack removed and replaced with 13 white stripes before or after the battles of Lexington and Concord.", "The slight variation in the canton area suggests something else might have been sewn into place before.", "The flag gets its name from Samuel Forster, a First Lieutenant in the Manchester Company.", "He took possession of the flag, and his descendants passed it down until donating it to the American Flag Heritage Foundation in 1975, two hundred years later.", "In April 2014, the foundation sold the flag at auction.", "* '''Westmoreland Flag''' (1775?)", "– Flag used by the 1st Battalion of Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania.", "In 1774 the town of Hanna, the county seat of Westmoreland County, began preparations for a conflict with the mother country as tensions between the two sides began to heat up.", "The town decided in May 1775, following the battles of Lexington and Concord, to create two battalions.", "The town sheriff, John Proctor, would have command over the 1st, and the unit would see action at Trenton and Princeton.", "Due to the flag's remarkable condition, it is speculated that it never flew in many battles, if at all.", "The flag is said to have been made in the fall of 1775 from a standard British red ensign.", "This flag is one of two surviving revolutionary flags that feature a coiled rattlesnake, along with the flag of the United Company of the Train of Artillery.", "After the war in 1810, Alexander Craig, a captain in the 2nd battalion, was given the flag.", "It would stay with the Craig family until donated to the Pennsylvania State Library in 1914.", "* '''Brandywine Flag''' (1777) – This flag is stated in most research as being the flag of the 7th Pennsylvania Regiment.", "However, the Independence National Historical Park, which currently owns the flag, states it is the flag of the Chester County Militia.", "The flags gets its name for being used at the Battle of Brandywine which took place on September 11, 1777, less than three months after the passage of the first flag act making it one of the earliest stars and stripes.", "* '''Dansey Flag''' (1777) – Flag used by a Delaware militia early in the war.", "Before the Battle of Brandywine, a soldier with the British 33rd Regiment of foote named William Dansey captured the militia's flag during a skirmish in Newark, Delaware.", "Dansey would take the flag back to England as a war trophy.", "It would remain in his family until 1927, after being auctioned off to the Delaware Historical Society.", "This flag would have been one of the earliest to use 13 stripes to represent the united colonies.", "Another interesting note about this flag is that it was most likely a Division color instead of being used by one militia regiment.", "* '''First Pennsylvania Rifles Flag''' (1776?)", "– Battle colors for the First Pennsylvania Regiment This regiment, also known as the First Pennsylvania Rifles, was formed in 1775 following an act passed by the Continental Congress calling for ten companies of marksmen.", "The regiment would participate in many significant battles during the Revolution, such as the siege of Boston, Trenton, Princeton, Brandywine, and Monmouth.", "They would be dissolved in November 1783 following the treaty of Paris.", "The earliest mention of this flag was mentioned in a 1776 letter by one of its soldiers.", "The flag would be with the unit until the end of the war.", "* '''Third New York Regiment Flag''' (1779) – The Third New York was formed in 1775 on five-month enlistments that expired later that year.", "In 1776 however, the regiment would be re-established twice, once in January and the other in December.", "During the war, the Third New York saw action in Canada, White Plains, and New York, during which it participated in the defense of Fort Stanwix.", "In 1780 the soldiers of the third were transferred over to the 1st New York Regiment.", "While not the most famous of regiments in turns of battles fought, it does leave behind a legacy that can be seen in the flag of New York.", "In 1778 New York adopted a coat of arms for the state.", "The following year, the regiment's colonel Peter Gansevoort gifted the unit a blue regimental flag bearing the newly adopted arms.", "This flag would serve as the basis of the current flag of New York.=== War of 1812 ===* '''Star Spangled Banner Flag''' (1814) – Flag that flew over Fort McHenry during a British bombardment in the War of 1812.This flag is depicted by Francis Scott Key in the song \"Star-Spangled Banner\" which would later become the national anthem of the United States.", "Details : 30 x 34 ft. (Currently) 15 horizontal stripes alternating red and white stripes 14 stars (one missing) Stars arranged in a staggered 3-3-3-3-3 pattern=== Antebellum Period ===* '''Fillmore Flag''' — A historic Bennington flag currently maintained by the Bennington Museum, held to be an heirloom from president Millard Fillmore's family.", "Though it is sometimes taken to be an authentic artifact of the Battle of Bennington, curators date it no earlier than the 19th century based on its construction.", "The Bennington Museum estimates it was made sometime between 1812 and 1820, though one estimate places it as late as 1876.", "* '''Old Glory Flag''' – This flag was the first American Flag to be given the name \"Old Glory\".", "The flag was made in 1824 and was a gift to William Driver, a sea captain, by his mother.", "He named the flag 'Old Glory' and took it with him during his time at sea.", "In 1861 the flag's original stars were replaced with 34 new ones, and an anchor was added to the corner of the canton.", "During the Civil war, Driver hid his flag until Nashville became under union hands, to which he flew the flag above the Tennessee capitol building.", "* '''Matthew Perry Expedition Flag''' (1853) – On July 14, 1853, this flag was raised over Uraga, Japan, during the Perry Expedition, in doing so it became the first American Flag to officially fly in mainland Japan.", "In 1855 it was presented to the US Naval Academy.", "In 1913 it received a linen backing during preservation treatments by Amelia Fowler, who would also work on restoring the Star-Spangled Banner.", "Nearly a century after its historic voyage to Japan, in 1945, the flag once again returned and was present at the formal surrender of Japan on board the USS ''Missouri'' on September 2, 1945.Owing to its condition, it had to be presented on its reverse side.", "As of 2021, the U.S.", "Naval Academy possesses the flag.=== Civil War ===* '''Fort Sumter Flag''' (1861) – During the bombardment of Fort Sumter in April 1861, the flagpole was hit by artillery fire.", "The flag was raised again from a makeshift pole and was taken down after the Union garrison surrendered.", "The terms of surrender allowed the U.S. artillery to fire a salute for the flag.", "The flag was taken by the departing commander of the fort and was displayed to the public on a tour of the northern states.", "From this point, private citizens' display of the United States flag became much more common.", "Four years after the flag was lowered at Fort Sumter, it flew over the fort again on April 14, 1865, following the Confederate surrender.", "Later that day, Abraham Lincoln was assassinated.", "* '''Abraham Lincoln Assassination Flag''' (1865) – Flag that was placed under the head of President Abraham Lincoln following his fatal shooting while he was still in the presidential box.=== Reconstruction ===* '''Little Big Horn Guidon''' – Guidon used by the 7th U.S. Cavalry during the Battle of Little Big Horn in 1876.The battle is infamous, for all U.S. cavalry troops engaged in battle were killed, including Lt. Col George A. Custer.", "Sgt.", "Ferdinand Culbertson discovered this flag under the body of one of the slain soldiers.", "In 2010, this flag was sold for $2.2 million.=== World War II ===* '''Iwo Jima Flag''' (1945) – American flag that was raised above Mount Suribachi during the Battle of Iwo Jima in WW2.The photo of this flag being raised by U.S. Marines was captured in the 1945 Pulitzer Prize-winning photo ''Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima''.=== Cold War ===* '''''Freedom 7'' Flag''' (1961) – This American Flag flew on the ''Freedom 7'' mission to space, becoming the first American flag to leave the Earth's atmosphere.", "The flag was a last-minute addition after a local student council president asked a reporter if this flag could be taken on board.", "The reporter took it to the head of the NASA space task group, to which he agreed.", "In 1995, the flag was again taken to space to commemorate the 100th American crewed space mission.=== Modern day ===* '''9/11 Flag''' (2001) – Flag is believed to have been from a yacht called the \"Star of America\" owned by Shirley Dreifus and her late husband Spiros E. Kopelakis.", "The Yacht and its flag were docked in the Hudson River on the morning of 9/11.The flag was later found by three members of the New York Fire Department, George Johnson, Billy Eisengrein, and Dan McWilliams, who raised it over the rubble on a tilted flag pole (thought to be from the grounds of the Marriot hotel).", "This was captured in a photograph taken by Thomas Franklin, who worked for the New Jersey-based newspaper ''The Record''.", "The photograph soon made its way to the Associated Press, and from there, it became shown worldwide on many newspapers' front pages.", "The photo has been compared to Joe Rosenthal's WW2 \"Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima\".", "Lori Ginker and Ricky Flores captured other photos of the same event from different angles.", "Shortly after the famous photograph was taken, the flag disappeared.", "Another flag, thought to be the real one, was toured around the country, but it was later found that the size of this flag was not the same as the one in the photograph.", "The one in the photo was 3x5, while the one the city possessed was larger.", "The flag would remain missing for nearly 15 years until a man named Brian turned an American flag into a fire station along with its halyard.", "Investigators determined that his flag was genuine after comparing dust samples and event photographs.", "Today the 9/11 Memorial Museum possesses the flag." ], [ "Related flags", "The U.S. flag has inspired many other flags for regions, political movements, and cultural groups, resulting in a stars and stripes flag family.", "The other national flags belonging to this family are: Chile, Cuba, Greece, Liberia, Malaysia, Puerto Rico, Togo, and Uruguay.", "* The flag of Bikini Atoll is symbolic of the islanders' belief that a great debt is still owed to the people of Bikini because in 1954 the United States government detonated a thermonuclear bomb on the island as part of the Castle Bravo test.", "* The Republic of the United States of Brazil briefly used a flag inspired by the U.S. flag between 15 and 19 November 1889, proposed by the lawyer Ruy Barbosa.", "The flag had 13 green and yellow stripes, as well as a blue square with 21 white stars for the canton.", "The flag was vetoed by the then provisional president Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca citing concerns that it looked too similar to the American flag.", "* The flag of Liberia bears a close resemblance, showing the origin of the country in free people of color from North America and primarily the United States.", "The Liberian flag has 11 similar red and white stripes, which stand for the 11 signers of the Liberian Declaration of Independence, as well as a blue square with only a single large white star for the canton.", "The flag is the only current flag in the world modeled after and resembling the American flag, as Liberia is the only nation in the world that was founded, colonized, established, and controlled by settlers who were free people of color and formerly enslaved people from the United States and the Caribbean aided and supported by the American Colonization Society beginning in 1822.", "* Despite Malaysia having no historical connections with the U.S., the flag of Malaysia greatly resembles the U.S. flag.", "Some theories posit that the flag of the British East India Company influenced both the Malaysian and U.S.", "flag.", "* The flag of El Salvador from 1865 to 1912.El Salvador's flag at that time was based on the flag of the United States, with a field of alternating blue and white stripes and a red canton containing white stars.", "* The flag of Brittany was inspired in part by the American flag.", "* The flag of the Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus, an unrecognized state that existed from 1917 to 1922, during the Russian Civil War, was divided into seven horizontal stripes that altered between green and white.", "In the right top corner was placed a blue canton with seven five-pointed yellow stars.", "Six of those were placed in two horizontal rows, each containing three stars.", "Next to them, on the right, was placed another star, in the middle of the height of two rows.", "The stars were slightly sued to the left.", "The seven stars and seven stripes represented the seven regions of the country." ], [ "Possible future design of the flag", "An artist's rendering of one possible design for a 51-star flag, composed of 6 alternating rows of 9 and 8 starsAn artist's rendering of a possible design for a 52-star flag, comprising 8 alternating rows of 7 and 6 stars, such as might accommodate the admission of two additional states into the UnionIf a new U.S. state were to be admitted, it would require a new design of the flag to accommodate an additional star for a 51st state.", "51-star flags have been designed and used as a symbol by supporters of statehood in various jurisdictions.According to the U.S. Army Institute of Heraldry, the United States flag never becomes obsolete.", "Any approved American flag may continue to be used and displayed until no longer serviceable." ], [ "See also", "===Article sections===* Colors, standards and guidons § United States* Flag desecration § United States===Associated people===* Robert Anderson (1805–1871), lowered the Fort Sumter Flag, which became a national symbol, and he a hero* Francis Bellamy (1855–1931), creator of the Pledge of Allegiance* Thomas E. Franklin (1966–present), photographer of ''Ground Zero Spirit'', better known as ''Raising the Flag at Ground Zero''* Christopher Gadsden (1724–1805), after whom the Gadsden flag is named* Francis Hopkinson (1737–1791), designed the U.S. flag in 1777* Jasper Johns (born 1930), painter of ''Flag'' (1954–55), inspired by a dream of the flag* Katha Pollitt (1949–present), author of a controversial essay on post-9/11 America and her refusal to fly a U.S. flag* George Preble (1816–1885), author of ''History of the American Flag'' (1872) and photographer of the Fort McHenry flag* Joe Rosenthal (1911–2006), photographer of ''Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima''* Betsy Ross (1752–1836), said to have sewn the first U.S. flag in a popular legend, and after whom the Betsy Ross flag is named" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Allentown Art Museum.", "''The American Flag in the Art of Our Country.''", "Allentown Art Museum, 1976.", "* Herbert Ridgeway Collins.", "''Threads of History: Americana Recorded on Cloth 1775 to the Present.''", "Smithsonian Institution Press, 1979.", "* Grace Rogers Cooper.", "''Thirteen-star Flags: Keys to Identification.''", "Smithsonian Institution Press, 1973.", "* David D. Crouthers.", "''Flags of American History.''", "Hammond, 1978.", "* Louise Lawrence Devine.", "''The Story of Our Flag.''", "Rand McNally, 1960.", "* William Rea Furlong, Byron McCandless, and Harold D. Langley.", "''So Proudly We Hail: The History of the United States Flag.''", "Smithsonian Institution Press, 1981.", "* Scot M. Guenter, ''The American Flag, 1777–1924: Cultural Shifts from Creation to Codification.''", "Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.", "1990.online * George E. Hastings.", "''The Life and Works of Francis Hopkinson.''", "University of Chicago Press, 1926.", "* Kevin Keim & Peter Keim.", "''A Grand Old Flag: A History of the United States through its Flags''.", "DK Publishing.", "2007..* '' Flag: An American Biography''.", "Thomas Dunne Books/St.", "Martin's Press, 2005.", "* David Roger Manwaring.", "''Render Unto Caesar: The Flag-Salute Controversy.''", "University of Chicago Press, 1962.", "* Boleslaw Mastai and Marie-Louise D'Otrange Mastai.", "''The Stars and the Stripes: The American Flag as Art and as History from the Birth of the Republic to the Present.''", "Knopf, 1973.", "* Henry W. Moeller, Ph.D. \"Two Early American Ensigns on the Pennsylvania State Arms.\"", "''NAVA News'', Issue 173, Jan.–Mar.", "2002.", "* Milo Milton Quaife.", "''The Flag of the United States.''", "1942.", "* Milo Milton Quaife, Melvin J. Weig, and Roy Applebaum.", "''The History of the United States Flag, from the Revolution to the Present, Including a Guide to Its Use and Display.''", "Harper, 1961.", "* Richard S. Patterson and Richardson Dougall.", "The Eagle and the Shield: A History of the Great Seal of the United States.", "U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978 1976 i.e.", "1978.", "* Albert M. Rosenblatt. \"", "Flag Desecration Statutes: History and Analysis \", ''Washington University Law Quarterly'' 1972: 193–237.", "* George and Virginia Schaun.", "\"Historical Portrait of Mrs. Mary Young Pickersgill.\"", "The Greenberry Series on Maryland, Greenberry Publications.", "Volume 5.", "* Leonard A. Stevens.", "''Salute!", "The Case of The Bible vs.", "The Flag.''", "Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, 1973.", "* Arnaldo Testi.", "''Capture the Flag: The Stars and Stripes in American History'' (New York University Press; 2010) 192 pages.", "A European perspective on the symbolism and political, social, and cultural significance of the flag.", "* Earl P. Williams Jr. \" ''NAVA News'', Issue 216, Oct.–Dec.", "2012.", "* Paul M. Zall.", "\"Comical Spirit of Seventy-Six: The Humor of Francis Hopkinson.\"", "The Huntington Library, 1976.", "* Chadwick, Patricia. \"", "The Women Behind the Flag \"" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * Encyclopedia Smithsonian: Facts About the United States Flag* Text of the United States Flag Code (chap.", "1 of Title 4 of the United States Code)* Executive Order No.", "10798, with specifications and regulations for the current flag* July 1942: United We Stand – National Museum of American History online exhibition highlighting some 500 magazines featuring the American flag on their cover during World War II" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Federated States of Micronesia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Federated States of Micronesia''' (; abbreviated '''FSM'''), or simply '''Micronesia''', is an island country in Micronesia, a subregion of Oceania.", "The federation consists of four states—from west to east, Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae—that are spread across the western Pacific.", "Together, the states comprise around 607 islands (a combined land area of approximately ) that cover a longitudinal distance of almost just north of the equator.", "They lie northeast of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, south of Guam and the Marianas, west of Nauru and the Marshall Islands, east of Palau and the Philippines, about north of eastern Australia, southeast of Japan, and some southwest of the main islands of the Hawaiian Islands.While the FSM's total land area is relatively small, the country's waters occupy nearly of the Pacific Ocean, giving the country the 14th-largest exclusive economic zone in the world.", "The sovereign island nation's capital is Palikir, located on Pohnpei Island, while the largest city is Weno, located in the Chuuk Lagoon.Each of its four states is centered on one or more main volcanic islands, and all but Kosrae include numerous outlying atolls.", "The Federated States of Micronesia is spread across part of the Caroline Islands in the wider region of Micronesia, which consists of thousands of small islands divided among several countries.", "The term ''Micronesia'' may refer to the Federated States or to the region as a whole.The FSM was formerly a part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI), a United Nations Trust Territory under U.S. administration, but it formed its own constitutional government on May 10, 1979, becoming a sovereign state after independence was attained on November 3, 1986, under a Compact of Free Association with the United States.", "Other neighboring island entities, and also former members of the TTPI, formulated their own constitutional governments and became the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) and the Republic of Palau (ROP).", "The FSM has a seat in the United Nations and has been a member of the Pacific Community since 1983." ], [ "History", "The ancestors of the Micronesians settled over four thousand years ago.", "A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious culture centered on Yap Island.Manila Galleon in the Marianas and Carolinas, ''Boxer Codex''Nan Madol, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, consisting of a series of small artificial islands linked by a network of canals, is often called the Venice of the Pacific.", "It is located on the eastern periphery of the island of Pohnpei and used to be the ceremonial and political seat of the Saudeleur dynasty that united Pohnpei's estimated 25,000 people from about AD 500 until 1500, when the centralized system collapsed.European explorers—first the Portuguese in search of the Spice Islands (Indonesia) and then the Spanish—reached the Carolines in the sixteenth century.", "The Treaty of Tordesillas gave these lands to Spain and the Spanish incorporated the archipelago to the Spanish East Indies through the capital, Manila, and in the 19th century established a number of outposts and missions.", "In 1887, they founded the town of ''Santiago de la Ascensión'' in what today is Kolonia on the island of Pohnpei.In the 1870s, Germany began extending its sphere of influence in the Caroline Islands, leading to the Carolines Question of 1885 in which Pope Leo XIII was asked to determine if Germany or Spain had authority over the islands.", "The result was a confirmation of Spanish authority over the islands, but Germany would have free access to the islands.Following defeat in the Spanish–American War, the Spanish sold the archipelago to Germany in 1899 under the German–Spanish Treaty of 1899.Germany incorporated it into German New Guinea.", "(A few remote islands, notably Kapingamarangi, were not specifically named in the treaty, but this remained unnoticed until the late 1940s and, while acknowledging the historical curiosity in 1949, Spain has made no modern claims to the islands.", ")During World War I, it was captured by Japan.", "Following the war, the League of Nations awarded a mandate for Japan to administer the islands as part of the South Seas Mandate.During World War II, a significant portion of the Japanese fleet was based in Truk Lagoon.", "In February 1944, Operation Hailstone, one of the most important naval battles of the war, took place at Truk, in which many Japanese support vessels and aircraft were destroyed.Following World War II, it was administered by the United States under United Nations auspices in 1947 as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands pursuant to Security Council Resolution 21.On May 10, 1979, four of the Trust Territory districts ratified a new constitution to become the Federated States of Micronesia.", "Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands chose not to participate.", "The FSM signed a Compact of Free Association with the United States, which entered into force on November 3, 1986, marking Micronesia's emergence from trusteeship to independence.", "Independence was formally concluded under international law in 1990, when the United Nations officially ended the Trusteeship status pursuant to Security Council Resolution 683.The Compact was renewed in 2004.In February 2021, following a bitter leadership dispute, the Federated States of Micronesia announced it would quit the Pacific Islands Forum in its formal process of withdrawal." ], [ "Politics", "The Federated States of Micronesia is governed by the 1979 constitution, which guarantees fundamental human rights and establishes a separation of governmental powers.", "This constitution constructs the national government to be similar to – but not exactly alike – that of the United States.", "The unicameral Congress has fourteen members elected by popular vote.", "Four senators—one from each state—serve four-year terms; the remaining ten senators represent single-member districts based on population and serve two-year terms.", "Congress elects the President and Vice President from among the four state-based senators to serve four-year terms in the executive branch.", "Their congressional seats are then filled by special elections.An appointed cabinet supports the president and vice president.", "There are no formal political parties.===Defense and foreign affairs===Sea Hawk helicopter (US Navy) flies over the waters of Chuuk, Micronesia.The FSS ''Tosiwo Nakayama'', a Guardian-class patrol boat of the Federated States of MicronesiaIn international politics, the Federated States of Micronesia has often voted with the United States with respect to United Nations General Assembly resolutions.The FSM is a sovereign, self-governing state in free association with the United States of America, which is wholly responsible for its defense.", "The FSM National Police operates a Maritime Wing Unit.", "The Compact of Free Association allows FSM citizens to join the U.S. military without having to obtain U.S. permanent residency or citizenship, allows for immigration and employment for Micronesians in the U.S., and establishes economic and technical aid programs.FSM has foreign relations with 56 countries, including the Holy See and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta.", "FSM was admitted to the United Nations based on the Security Council's recommendation on August 9, 1991, in Resolution 703 and the General Assembly's approval on September 17, 1991, in Resolution 46/2.The FSM was an active member of the Pacific Islands Forum.", "However, in February 2021, FSM announced it would be formally withdrawing from the Forum in a joint statement with Marshall Islands, Kiribati and Nauru after a dispute regarding Henry Puna's election as the Forum's secretary-general.", "In February 2022, following Russian invasion of Ukraine, FSM severed diplomatic relations with Russia and called the invasion \"unjustified and brutal\".===Administrative divisions===A map of the Federated States of MicronesiaThe four states in the federation are, from west to east:FlagStatesCapitalCurrent GovernorLandPopulationPopulationdensitykm2sq miper km2per sq mi Yap Colonia Charles Chieng 118.1 45.6 16,436 94 243 Chuuk Weno Alexander R. Narruhn 127.4 49.2 54,595 420 1088 Pohnpei Kolonia Reed P. Oliver 345.5 133.4 34,685 98 255 Kosrae Tofol Tulensa Palik 109.6 42.3 7,686 66 170These states are further divided into municipalities." ], [ "Geography", "A view of Kolonia Town from Sokehs Ridge in PohnpeiThe Federated States of Micronesia consists of 607 islands extending across the archipelago of the Caroline Islands east of the Philippines.", "The islands have a combined area of .The islands are grouped into four states, which are Yap, Chuuk (called Truk until January 1990), Pohnpei (known as \"Ponape\" until November 1984), and Kosrae (formerly Kusaie).", "These four states are each represented by a white star on the national flag.", "The capital is Palikir, on Pohnpei.Two terrestrial ecoregions lie within the country's borders: Carolines tropical moist forests and Yap tropical dry forests.", "It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.55/10, ranking it 37th globally out of 172 countries.=== Biodiversity ===The major coastal communities are mangrove forests, seagrass beds, lagoons and coral reefs, biologically and physically linked.", "About 300 species of coral, 1000 species of fish and 1200 species of mollusks are recognized in Micronesia.", "In the mangrove forests there are shrimps, crabs and fish, as well as birds that feed on them.", "Seagrass meadows appear offshore following the mangroves.", "The lagoons provide food for the reef inhabitants and contain various kinds of plankton.", "The biodiversity and complexity of the coral reefs increases markedly from east to west, with 150 species of hard coral at Kosrae, 200 at Pohnpei and 300 at Chuuk.", "Coral productivity in this area is among the highest in the world, absorbing about 2500 grams of carbon per square meter per year, against 2200 grams in the tropical forest and 125 grams in the open sea.Inland, from the tidal zone to the top of the mountains there is a varied range of vegetation, cloud forest, upland, palm, plantation, areas dominated by climbers of the genus Merremia, savannas, native secondary forest, fragments of introduced trees, cultivated areas, freshwater swamps, swamps of the palm ''Nypa fruticans'', atoll forests, forests in rocky areas and beaches.", "There are about 1230 species of ferns and flowering plants, of which 782 are native, including 145 native fern species.", "On Pohnpei Island, there are about 750 plant species, of which 110 are endemic.", "Another 457 species have been introduced.=== Climate ===Satawal Island, Yap StateThe Federated States of Micronesia has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen: ''Af'').", "The weather is warm, humid and rainy all year round.", "The islands are located north of the equator and are affected by constant trade winds, which temper the climate.", "Minimum temperatures range all year round between 22 and 25 °C, and maximum temperatures between 30 and 32 °C.", "The abundant precipitations oscillate between 2500 and 5000 mm per year, although in the faces oriented to the wind they can surpass 6000 mm.", "Mount Nahnalaud, only 750 m high, on the island of Pohnpei, receives an average of 10,160 mm, being one of the rainiest places on earth, with almost always overcast skies.", "In general, the rains are produced by showers and storms of short duration but very intense.", "The driest places are the flat atolls, where rainfall can drop below 3000 mm.", "The driest months are January and February, with no less than 250 mm and 20 days of rain." ], [ "Transportation", "Transportation in the Federated States of MicronesiaThe Federated States of Micronesia is served by four international airports.", "* Pohnpei International Airport, on the main island of Pohnpei State.", "* Chuuk International Airport, located on the main island of Chuuk State.", "* Kosrae International Airport, located on the main island of Kosrae State.", "* Yap International Airport, located on the main island of Yap State." ], [ "Economy", "Fishing in Chuuk, 1931Economic activity in the Federated States of Micronesia consists primarily of subsistence farming and fishing.", "The islands have few mineral deposits worth exploiting, except for high-grade phosphate.", "Long line fishing of tuna is also viable with foreign vessels from China that operated in the 1990s.", "The potential for a tourist industry exists, but the remoteness of the location and a lack of adequate facilities hinder development.", "Financial assistance from the U.S. is the primary source of revenue, with the U.S. pledged to spend $1.3 billion in the islands in 1986–2001; when the Compact was amended in 2004, the United States committed to providing $110 million in development aid through 2023.The CIA World Factbook lists high dependence on U.S. aid as one of the main concerns of the FSM.", "Geographical isolation and a poorly developed infrastructure are major impediments to long-term growth." ], [ "Society", "===Demographics===People performing a welcome ceremony on the Ulithi atollThe indigenous population of the nation, which is predominantly Micronesian, consists of various ethnolinguistic groups.", "It has a nearly 100% Pacific Islander and Asian population: Chuukese 48.8%, Pohnpeian 24.2%, Kosraean 6.2%, Yapese 5.2%, Yap outer islands 4.5%, Asian 1.8%, Polynesian 1.5%, other 6.4%, unknown 1.4%.", "A sizable minority also have some Japanese ancestry, which is a result of intermarriages between Japanese settlers and Micronesians during the Japanese colonial period.There is also a growing expatriate population of Americans, Australians, Europeans, and residents from China and the Philippines since the 1990s.", "English has become the common language of the government, and for secondary and tertiary education.", "Outside of the main capital towns of the four FSM states, the local languages are primarily spoken.", "In the Catholic mission of Pohnpei, among the Mercedarian missionaries, considered an institution in the country, Spanish is also spoken.", "Growth remains high at more than 3% annually, offset somewhat by net emigration.===Languages===A beach in ChuukEnglish is the official and common language.", "Aside from English, the following Austronesian languages are spoken:+RankLanguageLanguage familyNumber of speakers1ChuukeseMicronesian45,9002Pohnpeian30,0003Kosraean8,0004Mortlockese5,9005YapeseAdmiralty Islands?5,1306UlithianMicronesian3,0007KapingamarangiPolynesian3,0008PingelapeseMicronesian3,0009Woleaian1,70010Mokilese1,50011Puluwat1,40012Pááfang1,30013Namonuito94014NukuoroPolynesian70015NgatikeseMicronesian70016Satawalese50017NguluwanAdmiralty Islands?5018Ngatikese CreoleCreole30===Religion===Cathedral of Ponape Belltower, in Kolonia, on the island of Pohnpei, built in 1909 by German Capuchin missionariesThe Federated States of Micronesia are 97% Christian.", "More than half of the population follows the Catholic Church (55%) and about 42% follow various Protestant Christian groups.", "In general this is due to Spanish and German colonial history.", "Spanish rule meant that a large part of the population remained Catholic.", "During the German colonial period, until 1914, Catholic and Protestant missionaries from the German Empire were deployed.", "Several Protestant denominations, as well as the Roman Catholic Church, are present in every Micronesian state.", "Most Protestant groups trace their roots to American Congregationalist missionaries.", "On the island of Kosrae, the population is approximately 7,800; 95 percent are Protestants.", "On Pohnpei, the population of 35,000 is evenly divided between Protestants and Catholics.", "Most immigrants are Filipino Catholics who have joined local Catholic churches, e.g.", "Our Lady of Mercy Catholic Church in Pohnpei.On Chuuk and Yap, an estimated 60 percent are Catholic and 40 percent are Protestant.", "Religious groups with small followings include Baptists, Assemblies of God, Salvation Army, Seventh-day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), and the Baháʼí Faith.", "There is a small group of Buddhists on Pohnpei, and a small group of Ahmadiyya Muslims in both Pohnpei and Kosrae.", "Attendance at religious services is generally high; churches are well supported by their congregations and play a significant role in civil society.In the 1890s, on the island of Pohnpei, intermissionary conflicts and the conversion of clan leaders resulted in religious divisions along clan lines which persist today.", "More Protestants live on the western side of the island, while more Catholics live on the eastern side.", "Missionaries of many religious traditions are present and operate freely.", "The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respects this right in practice.", "The US government received no reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious belief or practice in 2007.=== Health ===Life expectancy was 66 for men and 69 for women in 2018.Pingelap in Pohnpei State is notable for the prevalence of an extreme form of color blindness called Achromatopsia, and known locally as maskun.", "Approximately 5% of the atoll's 3000 inhabitants are afflicted." ], [ "Sport", "===Baseball===Baseball is very popular in the FSM.===Association football===The sport of association football in the Federated States of Micronesia is run by the Federated States of Micronesia Football Association.", "They control the Micronesian Games, the nation's football championship and the Micronesia national football team.===FSMAA===The Federated States of Micronesia Athletic Association is the governing body for the country's sports and athletics." ], [ "Culture", "A large (approximately 2.4 m or about 8 ft in height) example of Yapese stone money (Rai stones) in the village of GachparEach of the four states has its own culture and traditions, but there are also common cultural and economic bonds that are centuries old.", "Cultural similarities include the importance of the traditional extended family and clan systems and are found on all the islands.The island of Yap is notable for its \"stone money\" (Rai stones), large disks usually of calcite, up to in diameter, with a hole in the middle.", "The islanders, aware of the owner of a piece, do not necessarily move them when ownership changes.", "There are five major types: ''Mmbul'', ''Gaw'', ''Ray'', ''Yar'', and ''Reng'', the last being only in diameter.", "Their value is based on both size and history, many of them having been brought from other islands, as far as New Guinea, but most coming in ancient times from Palau.", "Approximately 6,500 of them are scattered around the island.Pohnpei is home to ''Nan Madol: Ceremonial Centre of Eastern Micronesia'', a UNESCO World Heritage Site, but the site is currently listed as ''In Danger'' due to natural causes.", "The government is working on the conservation of the site.===Music===Yapese men dancing in traditional dressA shop in Pohnpei selling traditional souvenirsTraditional dances on the main islands includes \"stick dancing\" on Pohnpei, Chuuk and Yap, standing dances on Chuuk and sitting dances on Yap and Chuuk.", "The Yapese are particularly known for their skills in dancing.", "The Yapese stick dance is performed by men, women and children together, while standing dances are performed either by women or men and boys, but never both together.", "The men participate in various dancing competitions, which are segregated by caste; the lower castes have some distinct dances, such as a woman's standing dance, but can only dance when authorized by a person of a higher caste.===Newspapers===The following papers have been published in the FSM:* Pohnpei** ''The Kaselehlie Press'' — from 2001.English.", "Published biweekly.", "** ''Senyavin Times'' — from 1967 to the 1970s.", "Bilingual (Pohnpeian and English).", "* Chuuk** ''Truk Chronicle'' — from 1979 to the 1980s.", "Published biweekly in English, with some articles in Carolinian.", "* Kosrae** ''Kosrae State Newsletter'' — from 1983 to 2004.Published monthly in Kosraean.", "* Yap** ''The Yap Networker'' — from 1999 to 2005.Published weekly in English.===Literature===There have been very few published literary writers from the Federated States of Micronesia.", "In 2008, Emelihter Kihleng became the first ever Micronesian to publish a collection of poetry in the English language." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of the Federated States of Micronesia* Index of Federated States of Micronesia–related articles" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "'''Government'''* Government of the Federated States of Micronesia* Chief of State and Cabinet Members'''General information'''* Federated States of Micronesia.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Federated States of Micronesia from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''* * Micronesia from the BBC News* Jane's Federated States of Micronesia Home Page * Trust Territory of the Pacific Archives at the University of Hawaii* Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute - ''Federated States of Micronesia''* Nature.org - Micronesia environmental conservation* myMicronesia.com Online resource center about the islands of Micronesia.", "Provides free listings and links to all Micronesian businesses, as well as civic, cultural, health and educational organizations.", "* Habele.org - Outer Islands Information about the remote islands and atolls outside the four state capitals of Micronesia from an educational nonprofit.", "* Development Forecasts for Federated States of Micronesia'''News media'''* The Kaselehlie Press – The Kaselehlie Press is a Pohnpei-based newspaper that covers stories throughout the FSM.", "* Pohnpei (Spanish)'''Maps'''* * Nan Madol islet complex Provides computer based reconstruction of the main islets and features'''Travel'''* Travel Overview of Micronesia* Yap Visitors Bureau'''Weather'''* NOAA's National Weather Service - Chuuk, FSM* NOAA's National Weather Service - Pohnpei & Kosrae, FSM* NOAA's National Weather Service - Yap, FSM" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frederick William''' (; 16 February 1620 – 29 April 1688) was Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia, thus ruler of Brandenburg-Prussia, from 1640 until his death in 1688.A member of the House of Hohenzollern, he is popularly known as \"'''the Great Elector'''\" ('''') because of his military and political achievements.", "Frederick William was a staunch pillar of the Calvinist faith, associated with the rising commercial class.", "He saw the importance of trade and promoted it vigorously.", "His shrewd domestic reforms gave Prussia a strong position in the post-Westphalian political order of Northern-Central Europe, setting Prussia up for elevation from duchy to kingdom, achieved under his son and successor." ], [ "Biography", "Frederick William in 1642, portrait by Mathias CzwiczekElector Frederick William was born in Berlin to George William, Elector of Brandenburg, and Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate.", "His inheritance consisted of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the Duchy of Cleves, the County of Mark, and the Duchy of Prussia.Owing to the disorder in Brandenburg during the Thirty Years' War, he spent part of his youth in the Netherlands, studying at Leiden University and learning something of war and statecraft under Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange.", "During his boyhood, a marriage had been suggested between him and Christina, heir to the throne of Sweden, but although the idea was revived during the peace negotiations between Sweden and Brandenburg, it came to nothing.When his father died in 1640, the 20-year-old's reign as elector began." ], [ "Foreign diplomacy", "Following the Thirty Years' War, which devastated much of the Holy Roman Empire, Frederick William focused on rebuilding his war-ravaged territories.", "Brandenburg-Prussia benefited from his policy of religious tolerance, and he used French subsidies to build up an army that took part in the 1655 to 1660 Second Northern War.", "This ended with the treaties of Labiau, Wehlau, Bromberg and Oliva; these changed the status of Ducal Prussia from that of a Polish fief to fully sovereign (after a brief period of control by Sweden).In 1672, Frederick William joined the Franco-Dutch War as an ally of the Dutch Republic, led by his nephew William of Orange but made peace with France in the June 1673 Treaty of Vossem.", "Although he rejoined the anti-French alliance in 1674, this left him diplomatically isolated; despite conquering much of Swedish Pomerania during the Scanian War, he was obliged to return most of it to Sweden in the 1679 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.", "In 1666 his title to Cleves, Jülich and Ravensberg was definitely recognized." ], [ "Military career", "Statue of Frederick William at Charlottenburg Palace, BerlinFrederick William was a military commander of wide renown, and his standing army would later become the model for the Prussian Army.", "He is notable for his joint victory with Swedish forces at the Battle of Warsaw, which, according to Hajo Holborn, marked \"the beginning of Prussian military history\", but the Swedes turned on him at the behest of King Louis XIV and invaded Brandenburg.", "After marching 250 kilometres in 15 days back to Brandenburg, he caught the Swedes by surprise and managed to defeat them on the field at the Battle of Fehrbellin, destroying the myth of Swedish military invincibility.", "He later destroyed another Swedish army that invaded the Duchy of Prussia during the Great Sleigh Drive in 1678.He is noted for his use of broad directives and delegation of decision-making to his commanders, which would later become the basis for the German doctrine of ''Auftragstaktik'', and for using rapid mobility to defeat his foes." ], [ "Domestic policies", "Since his capital Berlin had suffered greatly from the Swedish occupation during the Thirty Years' War, Friedrich Wilhelm commissioned the master engineer Johann Gregor Memhardt to plan a city fortification.", "Construction of the Berlin Fortress began in 1650 following the contemporary fortification model of bastion forts in northern Italy.", "Large parts were finished between 1658 and 1662, but the last ramparts only in 1683.Frederick William raised an army of 45,000 soldiers by 1678, through the General War Commissariat presided over by Joachim Friedrich von Blumenthal.", "He succeeded in his goal of centralizing the administration and increasing the revenue, and was an advocate of mercantilism, monopolies, subsidies, tariffs, and internal improvements.", "Following Louis XIV's revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Frederick William encouraged skilled French and Walloon Huguenots to emigrate to Brandenburg-Prussia with the Edict of Potsdam, bolstering the country's technical and industrial base.", "On Blumenthal's advice he agreed to exempt the nobility from taxes and in return they agreed to dissolve the Estates-General.", "He also simplified travel in Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia by connecting riverways with canals, a system that was expanded by later Prussian architects, such as Georg Steenke; the system is still in use today." ], [ "Legacy", "In his half-century reign, 1640–1688, the Great Elector transformed the small remote state of Prussia into a great power by augmenting and integrating the Hohenzollern family possessions in northern Germany and Prussia.", "When he became elector (ruler) of Brandenburg in 1640, the country was in ruins from the Thirty Years' War; it had lost half its population from war, disease and emigration.", "The capital Berlin had only 6,000 people left when the wars ended in 1648.He united the multiple separate domains that his family had acquired primarily by marriage over the decades, and built the powerful unified state of Prussia out of them.", "His success in rebuilding the lands and his astute military and diplomatic leadership propelled him into the ranks of the prominent rulers in an era of \"absolutism\".", "Historians compare him to his contemporaries such as Louis XIV of France (1643–1715), Peter the Great (1682–1725) of Russia, and Charles XI of Sweden (1660–1697).Although a strict Calvinist who stood ready to form alliances against the Catholic states led by France's Louis XIV, he was tolerant of Catholics and Jews.", "He settled some 20,000 Huguenot refugees from France in his domains, which helped establish industry and trade, as did the foreign craftsmen he brought in.", "He established local governments in each province, headed by a governor and a chancellor, but they reported to his central government in Berlin.", "The Great Elector is most famous for building a strong standing army, with an elite officer corps.", "In 1668 he introduced the Prussian General Staff; it became the model in controlling an army for other European powers.", "Funding the military through heavy taxes required building up new industry, such as wool, cotton, linen, lace, soap, paper, and iron.", "He paid attention to infrastructure, especially building the Frederick William Canal through Berlin, linking his capital city to ocean traffic.", "He was frustrated in building up naval power, lacking ports and sailors.", "A learned man, he founded a university and established the Berlin library.In 1682, at the suggestion of the Dutch merchant and privateer Benjamin Raule, he granted a charter to the Brandenburg Africa Company (BAC), marking the first organised and sustained attempt by a German state to take part in the Atlantic slave trade.", "As Brandenburg-Prussia remained economically impoverished after the Thirty Years War, he hoped to replicate the mercantile successes of the Dutch East India Company.", "The charter he granted to the BAC stipulated that they could establish a colony in West Africa, which was subsequently named the Brandenburger Gold Coast.", "Between 17,000 and 30,000 enslaved Africans were transported by the BAC to the Americas before the colony was sold to the Dutch in 1721.Significant ships named after Frederick William include two Imperial Navy ships of Germany named ''Grosser Kurfürst'': one built in 1875 and the other built in 1913.Shipping company Norddeutscher Lloyd (aka North German Lloyd) also built a cargo and passenger liner for North Atlantic service with the same name that was later taken into US Navy service." ], [ "Marriages", "Painting of his 1646 wedding ceremony by Johannes MytensFrederick William in 1687/88, portrait by Gedeon RomandonOn 7 December 1646 in The Hague, Frederick William entered into a marriage, proposed by Blumenthal as a partial solution to the Jülich-Berg question, with Luise Henriette of Nassau (1627–1667), daughter of Frederick Henry of Orange-Nassau and Amalia of Solms-Braunfels and his 1st cousin once removed through William the Silent.", "Their children were as follows:# William Henry, Electoral Prince of Brandenburg (1648–1649)# Charles, Electoral Prince of Brandenburg (1655–1674)# Frederick I of Prussia (1657–1713), his successor# Amalie (1664–1665)# Henry (1664–1664)# Louis (1666–1687), who married Ludwika Karolina RadziwiłłOn 13 June 1668 in Gröningen, Frederick William married Sophie Dorothea of Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, daughter of Philip, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg and Sophie Hedwig of Saxe-Lauenburg, widow of Christian Louis, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg.Their children were the following:# Philip William (1669–1711)# Marie Amelie (1670–1739)# Albert Frederick (1672–1731)# Charles Philip (1673–1695)# Elisabeth Sofie (1674–1748)# Dorothea (1675–1676)# Christian Ludwig (1677–1734)In both self-confident women he found political advisers who thought and acted pragmatically.", "Both accompanied him on his campaigns.", "Luise Henriette also distinguished herself through charity, Sophie Dorothea through extraordinary business acumen, which allowed her to increase both her own fortune (and thus the inheritance of her children) and to strengthen the state economy.", "Both also left behind impressive palace buildings that they had built on their fiefs from their own income.The suspicion that Dorothea worked towards a division of Brandenburg-Prussia in order to secure an income for her sons is regarded as refuted by historical scholarship.", "This negative perception is based on the fact that some publicists do not base their critical judgments on Dorothea on the primary sources, but on the centuries-old legends that are mainly based on publications after her death, especially by Karl Ludwig von Pöllnitz.", "There is no question, however, that the Elector's eldest surviving son and successor harbored at least corresponding fears about his stepmother." ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "See also", "*German colonial projects before 1871#Brandenburg-Prussian colonies" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Carsten, Francis L. \"The Great Elector and the foundation of the Hohenzollern despotism.\"", "''English Historical Review'' 65.255 (1950): 175–202.Online* Carsten, Francis L. \"The Great Elector\" ''History Today'' (1960) 10#2 pp. 83–89.", "* Clark, Christopher M. '' Iron kingdom: the rise and downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947'' (Harvard UP, 2006).", "*Citino, Robert.", "''The German Way of War.", "From the Thirty Years War to the Third Reich'' (UP Kansas, 2005).", "* Holborn, Hajo. ''", "A History of Modern Germany: Vol 2: 1648–1840'' (1982).", "* McKay, Derek.", "''The Great Elector: Frederick William of Brandenburg-Prussia'' (Routledge, 2018), standard scholarly biography* Mühlbach, L. ''The reign of the Great Elector'' (1900) online free* Richardson, Oliver H. \"Religious Toleration under the Great Elector and Its Material Results.\"", "''English Historical Review'' 25.97 (1910): 93–110 Online.", "* Schevill, Ferdinand.", "''The Great Elector'' (U of Chicago Press, 1947), outdated biography* Wilson, Peter H. \"The Great Elector.", "(Shorter Notices).\"", "''English Historical Review'' 117#472 (2002) pp. 714+.", "online review of McKay.", "* Upton, George P. Youth of the Great Elector (1909)" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "French horn" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''French horn''' (since the 1930s known simply as the '''horn''' in professional music circles) is a brass instrument made of tubing wrapped into a coil with a flared bell.", "The '''double horn in F/B''' (technically a variety of German horn) is the horn most often used by players in professional orchestras and bands, although the '''descant''' and '''triple''' horn have become increasingly popular.", "A musician who plays a horn is known as a horn player or hornist.Pitch is controlled through the combination of the following factors: speed of air through the instrument (controlled by the player's lungs and thoracic diaphragm); diameter and tension of lip aperture (by the player's lip muscles—the embouchure) in the mouthpiece; plus, in a modern horn, the operation of valves by the left hand, which route the air into extra sections of tubing.", "Most horns have lever-operated rotary valves, but some, especially older horns, use piston valves (similar to a trumpet's) and the Vienna horn uses double-piston valves, or pumpenvalves.", "The backward-facing orientation of the bell relates to the perceived desirability to create a subdued sound in concert situations, in contrast to the more piercing quality of the trumpet.", "A horn without valves is known as a natural horn, changing pitch along the natural harmonics of the instrument (similar to a bugle).", "Pitch may also be controlled by the position of the hand in the bell, in effect reducing the bell's diameter.", "The pitch of any note can easily be raised or lowered by adjusting the hand position in the bell.", "The key of a natural horn can be changed by adding different crooks of different lengths.Three valves control the flow of air in the ''single horn'', which is tuned to F or less commonly B.", "The more common ''double horn'' has a fourth, trigger valve, usually operated by the thumb, which routes the air to one set of tubing tuned to F or another tuned to B which expands the horn range to over four octaves and blends with flutes or clarinets in a woodwind ensemble.", "Triple horns with five valves are also made, usually tuned in F, B, and a descant E or F. There are also double horns with five valves tuned in B, descant E or F, and a stopping valve, which greatly simplifies the complicated and difficult hand-stopping technique, though these are rarer.", "Also common are ''descant'' doubles, which typically provide B and alto F branches.A crucial element in playing the horn deals with the mouthpiece.", "The mouthpiece is usually placed in the exact center of the lips, but, because of differences in the formation of the lips and teeth of different players, some tend to play with the mouthpiece slightly off center.", "Although the exact side-to-side placement of the mouthpiece varies for most horn players, the up-and-down placement of the mouthpiece is generally two-thirds on the upper lip and one-third on the lower lip.", "When playing higher notes, the majority of players exert a small degree of additional pressure on the lips using the mouthpiece.", "However, this is undesirable from the perspective of both endurance and tone: excessive mouthpiece pressure makes the horn sound forced and harsh and decreases the player's stamina due to the resulting constricted flow of blood to the lips and lip muscles.", "Added pressure from the lips to the mouthpiece can also result in tension in the face resulting in what brass players often call “pushing”.", "As mentioned before, this results in an undesirable sound, and loss of stamina." ], [ "Name", "The name \"French horn\" first came into use in the late 17th century.", "At that time, French makers were preeminent in the manufacture of hunting horns and were credited with creating the now-familiar, circular \"hoop\" shape of the instrument.", "As a result, these instruments were often called, even in English, by their French names: ''trompe de chasse'' or ''cor de chasse'' (the clear modern distinction between ''trompes'' trumpets and ''cors'' horns did not exist at that time).German makers first devised ''crooks'' to make such horns playable in different keys—so musicians came to use \"French\" and \"German\" to distinguish the simple hunting horn from the newer horn with crooks, which in England was also called the Italian name ''corno cromatico'' (chromatic horn).More recently, \"French horn\" is often used colloquially, though the adjective has normally been avoided when referring to the European orchestral horn, ever since the German horn began replacing the French-style instrument in British orchestras around 1930.The International Horn Society has recommended since 1971 that the instrument be simply called the ''horn''.There is also a more specific use of \"French horn\" to describe a particular horn type, differentiated from the German horn and Vienna horn.", "In this sense, \"French horn\" refers to a narrow-bore instrument () with three Périnet (piston) valves.", "It retains the narrow bell-throat and mouthpipe crooks of the orchestral hand horn of the late 18th century, and most often has an \"ascending\" third valve.", "This is a whole-tone valve arranged so that with the valve in the \"up\" position the valve loop is engaged, but when the valve is pressed the loop is cut out, raising the pitch by a whole tone." ], [ "History", "Perinet valvesGaston Phoebus (15th century)As the name indicates, humans originally used to blow on the actual horns of animals before starting to emulate naturally occurring horns with metal ones.", "The use of animal horns survives with the shofar, a ram's horn, which plays an important role in Jewish religious rituals.Early metal horns were less complex than modern horns, consisting of brass tubes, wound around a few times, with a slightly flared opening (the bell).", "These early \"hunting\" horns were originally played on a hunt, often while mounted, and the sound they produced was called a ).", "Change of pitch was controlled entirely by the lips (the horn not being equipped with valves until the 19th century.", "Without valves, only the notes within the harmonic series are available.", "By combining a long length with a narrow bore, the French horn's design allows the player to easily reach the higher overtones which differ by whole tones or less, thus making it capable of playing melodies before valves were invented.Early horns were commonly pitched in B alto, A, A, G, F, E, E, D, C, and B basso.", "Since the only notes available were those on the harmonic series of one of those pitches, horn-players had no ability to play in different keys.", "The remedy for this limitation was the use of crooks, i.e., sections of tubing of differing length that, when inserted, altered the length of the instrument, and thus its pitch.In the mid-18th century, horn players began to insert the right hand into the bell to change the length of the instrument, adjusting the tuning up to the distance between two adjacent harmonics depending on how much of the opening was covered.In 1818 the German makers Heinrich Stölzel and Friedrich Blümel patented the first valved horn, using rotary valves.", "François Périnet introduced piston valves in France about 1839.The use of valves initially aimed to overcome problems associated with changing crooks during a performance.", "Valves' unreliability, musical taste, and players' distrust, among other reasons, slowed their adoption into the mainstream.", "Many traditional conservatories and players refused to use them at first, claiming that the valveless horn, or ''natural horn'', was a better instrument.", "Some musicians who specialize in period instruments use a natural horn to play in original performance styles, to try to recapture the sound of an older piece's original performances.The use of valves, however, opened up a great deal more flexibility for playing in different keys; in effect, the horn became an entirely different instrument, fully chromatic for the first time.", "Valves were originally used primarily as a means to play in different keys without crooks, not for harmonic playing.", "That is reflected in compositions for horns, which only began to include chromatic passages in the late-19th century.", "There were many different versions of early valves, most being variants of the piston and rotary systems used in modern horns.", "Early valves by Blühmel are cited as possibly the first rotary valve, but the first confirmed rotary valve design was in 1832 by Joseph Riedl in Vienna." ], [ "Types", "Horns may be classified in single horn, double horn, compensating double horn, and triple horn as well as the versatility of detachable bells.Single horn in F, student model.===Single horn===Single horns use a single set of tubes connected to the valves.", "This allows for simplicity of use and a much lighter weight.", "They are usually in the keys of F or B, although many F horns have longer slides to tune them to E, and almost all B horns have a valve to put them in the key of A.", "The problem with single horns is the inevitable choice between accuracy or tone – while the F horn has the \"typical\" horn sound, above third-space C accuracy is a concern for the majority of players because, by its nature, one plays high in the horn's harmonic series where the overtones are closer together.", "This led to the development of the B horn, which, although easier to play accurately, has a less desirable sound in the mid and especially the low register where it is not able to play all of the notes.", "The solution has been the development of the double horn, which combines the two into one horn with a single lead pipe and bell.", "Both main types of single horns are still used today as student models because they are cheaper and lighter than double horns.", "In addition, the single B horns are sometimes used in solo and chamber performances and the single F survives orchestrally as the Vienna horn.", "Additionally, single F alto and B alto descants are used in the performance of some baroque horn concertos and F, B and F alto singles are occasionally used by jazz performers.Dennis Brain's benchmark recordings of the Mozart Horn Concerti were made on a single B instrument by Gebr.", "Alexander, now on display at the Royal Academy of Music in London.===Double horn===valves of a Conn 6D double horn.", "The three lever keys (above the large valves) can be depressed toward the large outer tube.", "The thumb key (''near the left-most valve'') moves inward toward the three finger keys.Scheme of a double horn (''view from underneath'')Despite the introduction of valves, the single F horn proved difficult for use in the highest range, where the partials grew closer and closer, making accuracy a great challenge.", "An early solution was simply to use a horn of higher pitch—usually B.", "The use of the F versus the B horn was extensively debated among horn players of the late 19th century, until the German horn maker Eduard Kruspe (namesake of his family's brass instrument firm) produced a prototype of the \"double horn\" in 1897.The double horn also combines two instruments into a single frame: the original horn in F, and a second, higher horn keyed in B.", "By using a fourth valve (usually operated by the thumb), the horn player can quickly switch from the deep, warm tones of the F horn to the higher, brighter tones of the B horn, or vice versa, as the horn player may choose to have the horn set into B by default by making a simple adjustment to the valves.", "The two sets of tones are commonly called \"sides\" of the horn.", "Using the fourth valve not only changes the basic length (and thus the harmonic series and pitch) of the instrument, it also causes the three main valves to use proportionate slide lengths.In the US, the two most common styles (\"wraps\") of double horns are named Kruspe and Geyer/Knopf, after the first instrument makers who developed and standardized them.", "The Kruspe wrap locates the B change valve above the first valve, near the thumb.", "The Geyer wrap has the change valve behind the third valve, near the little finger (although the valve's trigger is still played with the thumb).", "In effect, the air flows in a completely different direction on the other model.", "Kruspe wrap horns tend to be larger in the bell throat than the Geyer wrap horns.", "Traditionally, Kruspe models are constructed from nickel silver (also called German silver, an alloy of copper, nickel and zinc, containing no actual silver) while Geyer horns tend to be of yellow brass; although these differences in finish aren't as prevalent today - horns of both finishes can be found in either wrap.", "Both models have their own strengths and weaknesses, and while the choice of instrument is very personal, an orchestral horn section is usually found to have either one or the other, owing to the differences in tone color, response, and projection of the two different styles.In Europe the most popular horns are arguably those made by Gebr.", "Alexander, of Mainz (particularly the Alexander 103), and those made by Paxman in London.", "In Germany and the Benelux countries, the Alex 103 is extremely popular.", "These horns do not fit strictly into the Kruspe or Knopf camps, but have features of both.", "Alexander prefers the traditional medium bell size, which they have produced for many years, whereas Paxman do offer their models in a range of bell throat sizes.", "In the United States, the Conn 8D, a mass-produced instrument based on the Kruspe design, has been extremely popular in many areas (New York, Los Angeles, Cleveland, Philadelphia).", "Since roughly the early 1990s, however, for reasons ranging from changing tastes to a general dislike of Conn's newer 8Ds, orchestras have been moving away from the popular Conn 8D.", "Geyer model horns (by Carl Geyer, Karl Hill, Keith Berg, Steve Lewis, Jerry Lechniuk, Dan Rauch, and Ricco-Kuhn) are used in other areas (San Francisco, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Boston, Houston).", "The CF Schmidt double, with its unique piston change valve, is occasionally found in sections playing Geyer/Knopf model equipment.===Detachable bell===The horn, although not large, is awkward in its shape and does not lend itself well to transport where space is shared or limited, especially on planes.", "To compensate, horn makers can make the bell detachable; this allows for smaller and more manageable horn cases." ], [ "Related horns", "The variety in horn history necessitates consideration of the natural horn, Vienna horn, mellophone, marching horn, and Wagner tuba.===Natural horn===A natural horn has no valves, but can be tuned to a different key by inserting different tubing, as during a rest period.The natural horn is the ancestor of the modern horn.", "It is essentially descended from hunting horns, with its pitch controlled by air speed, aperture (opening of the lips through which air passes) and the use of the right hand moving around, as well as in and out of the bell.", "Although a few recent composers have written specifically for the natural horn (e.g., György Ligeti's ''Hamburg Concerto''), today it is played primarily as a period instrument.", "The natural horn can only play from a single harmonic series at a time because there is only one length of tubing available to the horn player.", "A proficient player can indeed alter the pitch by partially muting the bell with the right hand, thus enabling the player to reach some notes that are not part of the instrument's natural harmonic series – of course this technique also affects the quality of the tone.", "The player has a choice of key by using crooks to change the length of tubing.===Vienna horn===Vienna hornThe Vienna horn is a special horn used primarily in Vienna, Austria.", "Instead of using rotary valves or piston valves, it uses the pumpenvalve (or Vienna valve), which is a double-piston operating inside the valve slides, and usually situated on the opposite side of the corpus from the player's left hand, and operated by a long pushrod.", "Unlike the modern horn, which has grown considerably larger internally (for a bigger, broader, and louder tone), and considerably heavier (with the addition of valves and tubing in the case of the double horn) the Vienna horn very closely mimics the size and weight of the natural horn, (although the valves do add some weight, they are lighter than rotary valves) even using crooks in the front of the horn, between the mouthpiece and the instrument.", "Although instead of the full range of keys, Vienna horn players usually use an F crook and it is looked down upon to use others, though switching to an A or B crook for higher pitched music does happen on occasion.", "Vienna horns are often used with funnel shaped mouthpieces similar to those used on the natural horn, with very little (if any) backbore and a very thin rim.", "The Viennese horn requires very specialized technique and can be quite challenging to play, even for accomplished players of modern horns.", "The Vienna horn has a warmer, softer sound than the modern horn.", "Its pumpenvalves facilitate a continuous transition between notes (glissando); conversely, a more precise operating of the valves is required to avoid notes that sound out of tune.===Mellophone===Two instruments are called a ''mellophone''.", "The first is an instrument shaped somewhat like a horn, in that it is formed in a circle and is often referred to as a \"classic\" or \"concert\" mellophone.", "It has piston valves and is played with the right hand on the valves.", "Most are pitched in the key of F, with facility to switch to E, either by changing crooks/leadpipes, or by a valve dedicated to this purpose.", "Older examples often included the ability to be played in the keys of D and/or C as well.", "Manufacturing of this instrument sharply decreased in the middle of the 20th century, and this mellophone (or mellophonium) rarely appears today.The second instrument is used in modern brass bands and marching bands, and is more accurately called a \"marching mellophone\".", "A derivative of the F alto horn, it is keyed in F. It is shaped like a flugelhorn, with piston valves played with the right hand and a forward-pointing bell.", "These horns are generally considered better marching instruments than regular horns because their position is more stable on the mouth, they project better, and they weigh less.", "It is primarily used as the middle voice of drum and bugle corps.", "Though they are usually played with a V-cup cornet-like mouthpiece, their range overlaps the common playing range of the horn.", "This mouthpiece switch makes the mellophone louder, less mellow, and more brassy and brilliant, making it more appropriate for marching bands.", "Often now with the use of converters, traditional conical horn mouthpieces are used to achieve the more mellow sound of a horn to make the marching band sound more like a concert band.As they are pitched in F or G and their range overlaps that of the horn, mellophones can be used in place of the horn in brass and marching band settings.", "Mellophones are, however, sometimes unpopular with horn players because the mouthpiece change can be difficult and requires a different embouchure.", "Mouthpiece adapters are available so that a horn mouthpiece can fit into the mellophone lead pipe, but this does not compensate for the many differences that a horn player must adapt to.", "The \"feel\" of the mellophone can be foreign to a horn player.", "Another unfamiliar aspect of the mellophone is that it is designed to be played with the right hand instead of the left (though it can be played with the left).", "Intonation can also be an issue with the mellophone.While horn players may be asked to play the mellophone, it is unlikely that the instrument was ever intended as a substitute for the horn, mainly because of the fundamental differences described.", "As an instrument it compromises between the ability to sound like a horn, while being used like a trumpet or flugelhorn, a tradeoff that sacrifices acoustic properties for ergonomics.===Marching horn===The marching horn is quite similar to the mellophone in shape and appearance, but is pitched in the key of B, the same as the B side of a double horn.", "It is also available in F alto, one octave above the F side of a double horn.", "The marching horn is also played with a horn mouthpiece (unlike the mellophone, which needs an adapter to fit the horn mouthpiece).", "These instruments are primarily used in marching bands so the sound comes from a forward-facing bell, as dissipation of the sound from the backward-facing bell becomes a concern in open-air environments.", "Many college marching bands and drum corps, however, use mellophones instead, which, with many marching bands, better balance the tone of the other brass instruments; additionally, mellophones require less special training of trumpeters, who considerably outnumber horn players.===Wagner tuba===The Wagner tuba is a rare brass instrument that is essentially a horn modified to have a larger bell throat and a vertical bell.", "Despite its name and its somewhat tuba-shaped appearance, it is generally not considered part of the tuba family, because the instrument's relatively narrow bore causes it to play more like a horn.", "Invented for Richard Wagner specifically for his work ''Der Ring des Nibelungen'', it has since been written for by various other composers, including Bruckner, Stravinsky and Richard Strauss.", "It uses a horn mouthpiece and is available as a single tuba in B or F, or, more recently, as a double tuba similar to the double horn.", "It is usually played in a range similar to that of the euphonium, but its possible range is the same as that of the horn, extending from low F, below the bass clef staff to high C above the treble staff when read in F. The low pedal tones are substantially easier to play on the Wagner tuba than on the horn.", "Wagner viewed the regular horn as a woodwind rather than a brass instrument, evidenced by his placing of the horn parts in his orchestral scores in the woodwind group and not in their usual place above the trumpets in the brass section." ], [ "Repertoire", "Paxman hornsDiscussion of the repertoire of horns must recognize the different needs of orchestras and concert bands in contrast to marching bands, as above, but also the use of horns in a wide variety of music, including chamber music and jazz.===Orchestra and concert band===The horn is most often used as an orchestral and concert band instrument, with its singular tone being employed by composers to achieve specific effects.", "Leopold Mozart, for example, used horns to signify the hunt, as in his ''Jagdsinfonie'' (hunting symphony).", "Telemann wrote much for the horn, and it features prominently in the work of Handel and in Bach's ''Brandenburg Concerto no.", "1''.", "Once the technique of hand-stopping had been developed, allowing fully chromatic playing, composers began to write seriously for the horn.", "Gustav Mahler made great use of the horn's uniquely haunting and distant sound in his symphonies, notably the famous ''Nachtmusik'' (serenade) section of his Symphony No.", "7.Many composers have written works that have become favorites in the horn repertoire.", "These include Poulenc (''Elegie'') and Saint-Saëns (''Morceau de Concert for horn and orchestra'', op.", "94 and ''Romance'', op.", "36).", "Others, particularly Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, whose friend Joseph Leutgeb was a noted horn player, wrote extensively for the instrument, including concerti and other solo works.", "Mozart's ''A Musical Joke'' satirizes the limitations of contemporary horn playing, including the risk of selecting the wrong crook by mistake.The development of the valve horn was exploited by romantic composers such as Bruckner, Mahler, and Richard Strauss, whose father was a well-known professional horn player.", "Strauss's ''Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks'' contains one of the best known horn solos from this period, relying on the chromatic facility of the valved horn.", "Schumann's ''Konzertstück'' for four horns and orchestra is a notable three-movement work.", "Brahms had a lifelong love-affair with the instrument, with many prominently featured parts throughout his four symphonies.", "However players today typically play Brahms on modern valved instruments.===Chamber music===There is an abundance of chamber music repertoire for horn.", "It is a standard member of the wind quintet and brass quintet, and often appears in other configurations, such as Brahms' Horn Trio for violin, horn and piano (for which, however, Brahms specified the natural horn).", "Also, the horn can be used by itself in a horn ensemble or \"horn choir\".", "The horn choir is especially practical because the extended range of the horn provides the composer or arranger with more possibilities, registerally, sonically, and contrapuntally." ], [ "Orchestral and concert band horns", "A horn section in a military concert bandThe horn section in I Solisti Veneti, a chamber Baroque orchestraA classical orchestra usually has at least two French horn players.", "Typically, the first horn played a high part and the second horn played a low part.", "Composers from Beethoven (early 1800s) onwards commonly used four horns.", "Here, the first and second horns played as a pair (first horn being high, second horn being low), and the third and fourth horns played as another pair (third horn being high, fourth horn being low).Music written for the modern horn follows a similar pattern with the first and third horns being high and the second and fourth horns being low.", "This configuration serves multiple purposes.", "It is easier to play high when the adjacent player is playing low and vice versa.", "Pairing makes it easier to write for horns, as the third and fourth horns can take over from the first and second horns or play contrasting material.", "For example, if the piece is in C minor, the first and second horns might be in C, the tonic major key, which could get most of the notes, and the third and fourth horns might be in E, the relative major key, to fill in the gaps.Many orchestral horn sections in the 2010s also have an assistant who doubles the first horn part for selected passages, joining in loud parts, playing instead of the principal if there is a first horn solo approaching, or alternating with the principal if the part is tiring to play.", "Often the assistant is asked to play a passage after resting a long time.", "Also, he or she may be asked to enter in the middle of a passage, exactly matching the sound, articulation, and overall interpretation of the principal, thus enabling the principal horn to rest a bit." ], [ "In jazz", "The French horn was at first rarely used in jazz music.", "(Note that colloquially in jazz, the word \"horn\" refers to any wind instrument.)", "Notable exponents, however, began including French horn in jazz pieces and ensembles.", "These include composer/arranger Gil Evans who included the French horn as an ensemble instrument from the 1940s, first in Claude Thornhill's groups, and later with the pioneering cool jazz nonet (nine-piece group) led by trumpeter Miles Davis, and in many other projects that sometimes also featured Davis, as well as Don Ellis, a trumpet player from Stan Kenton's jazz band.", "Notable works of Ellis' jazz French horn include \"Strawberry Soup\" and other songs on the album ''Tears of Joy''.", "Notable improvising horn players in jazz include Julius Watkins, Willie Ruff, John Graas, David Amram, John Clark, Vincent Chancey, Giovanni Hoffer, Arkady Shilkloper, Adam Unsworth, and Tom Varner." ], [ "Notable horn players", "*Hermann Baumann – 1964 winner of the ARD International Music Competition and former principal horn in various orchestras, including the Stuttgart Radio Symphony Orchestra*Radek Baborák – famous Czech horn player, former principal horn in Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, 1994 winner of the ARD International Music Competition, winner of the Concertino Praga in 1988 and 1990, holder of a Grammy Award (1995)*Aubrey Brain – celebrated British horn player, father of Dennis Brain and a champion of the French style of instrument*Dennis Brain – former principal horn of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and the Philharmonia Orchestra, with whom Herbert von Karajan made well-known recordings of Mozart's horn concertos*Alan Civil – former principal horn of the Philharmonia Orchestra, the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, and the BBC Symphony Orchestra*John Cerminaro – former principal horn of the Seattle Symphony, New York Philharmonic, and Los Angeles Philharmonic*Dale Clevenger – former principal horn of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra (1966–2013)*Vincent DeRosa – former principal horn for a number of Hollywood studios and composers including John Williams*Stefan Dohr – current principal horn, Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra*Richard Dunbar – a player of the French horn, playing in the free jazz scene*Philip Farkas – former principal horn of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, developer of the Holton-Farkas horn and author of several books on horn and brass playing*Douglas Hill – former principal horn of the Madison Symphony Orchestra, notable teacher and composer*Julie Landsman – former Principal Horn for the Metropolitan Opera and well-known horn pedagogue*Stefan de Leval Jezierski – longest serving horn, Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra*Philip Myers – former principal horn of the New York Philharmonic*Jeff Nelsen – Canadian Brass hornist 2000–2004, 2007–2010; Indiana University Jacobs School of Music horn faculty since 2006*Giovanni Punto – horn virtuoso and hand-stopping pioneer, after whom the International Horn Society's annual horn playing award is named, also a violinist, concertmaster, and composer*David Pyatt – winner of the BBC Young Musician of the Year competition in 1988 and current principal horn of the London Philharmonic Orchestra*Gunther Schuller – former principal horn of the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra and Metropolitan Opera Orchestra, and played with Miles Davis*Barry Tuckwell – former principal horn of the London Symphony Orchestra and author of several books on horn playing*William VerMeulen – horn soloist and former principal horn of Honolulu Symphony Orchestra current principal Horn of the Houston Symphony Orchestra and professor at Rice University*Radovan Vlatković – 1983 winner of the ARD International Music Competition, former principal horn and soloist of the Berlin Radio Symphony Orchestra, and professor at the Mozarteum University of Salzburg*Sarah Willis – first female brass-player in the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, US-born, British ambassador for the horn and classical music through television programs such as ''Sarah's Music'' on Deutsche Welle.People who are more notable for their other achievements, but also play the horn, include actors Ewan McGregor and David Ogden Stiers, comedian and television host Jon Stewart, journalist Chuck Todd, The Who bassist and singer John Entwistle, and rapper and record producer B.o.B." ], [ "Gallery", "File:French horn.jpg|A modern full double hornFile:Viennese horn.jpg|A Vienna hornFile:Hunting horn 3.jpg|A hunting hornFile:Omnitonic horn 2.jpg|A French Omnitonic hornFile:Natural Horn (instrument).JPG|A natural horn at the Victoria and Albert MuseumFile:Stanford Natural Horn.JPG|A replica of a Mozart-era natural hornFile:Cordechasse.png|A hunting horn in EFile:Cor naturel.JPG|A natural hornFile:Three valves horn.jpg|An older, French-made ''cor à pistons'' in EFile:Brain-raoux.jpg|A French-made horn with piston valvesFile:Dennis-brain-alex.jpg|A horn by Alexander, once owned by Dennis BrainFile:French horn Berlin.jpg|A French horn in BerlinFile:French horn blue background.jpg|A rose gold French Horn" ], [ "See also", "* List of compositions for horn* List of horn makers* List of horn techniques" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Homepage of the International Horn Society, one of the largest organizations of horn players in the world.", "* British Horn Society, UK-based organisation for horn playing* First steps of making a horn by hand (QuickTime Movie) at Finke Horns* From mines to music: The venerable valve, by musicologist Edmund A. Bowles* Horn maintenance at Paxman, compiled with the assistance of Simon de Souza* How to dismantle a valve at Finke Horns* Horn Etudes - List of horn etudes" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fra Angelico" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fra Angelico''', OP (born '''Guido di Pietro'''; 18 February 1455) was a Dominican friar and Italian painter of the Early Renaissance, described by Giorgio Vasari in his ''Lives of the Artists'' as having \"a rare and perfect talent\".", "He earned his reputation primarily for the series of frescoes he made for his own friary, San Marco, in Florence, then worked in Rome and other cities.", "All his known work is of religious subjects.He was known to contemporaries as '''Fra Giovanni da Fiesole''' (Brother John of Fiesole) and '''Fra Giovanni Angelico''' (Angelic Brother John).", "In modern Italian he is called '''''Beato Angelico''''' (Blessed Angelic One); the common English name Fra Angelico means the \"Angelic friar\".In 1982, Pope John Paul II proclaimed him \"blessed\" in recognition of the holiness of his life, thereby making the title of \"Blessed\" official.", "Fiesole is sometimes misinterpreted as being part of his formal name, but it was merely the town where he had taken his vows as a Dominican friar, and would have been used by contemporaries to distinguish him from others with the same forename, Giovanni.", "He is listed in the Roman Martyrology as ''Beatus Ioannes Faesulanus, cognomento Angelicus''—\"Blessed John of Fiesole, surnamed 'the Angelic'\".Vasari wrote of Fra Angelico that \"it is impossible to bestow too much praise on this holy father, who was so humble and modest in all that he did and said and whose pictures were painted with such facility and piety.\"" ], [ "Biography", "===Early life, 1395–1436===Fra Angelico was born Guido di Pietro in the hamlet of Rupecanina in the Tuscan area of Mugello near Fiesole, not far from Florence, towards the end of the 14th century.", "Nothing is known of his parents.", "He was baptised Guido.", "As a child, he was probably known, as was the Italian fashion, as Guidolino (\"Little Guido\").", "The earliest recorded document concerning Fra Angelico dates from 17 October 1417, when he joined a religious confraternity or guild at the Carmine Church, still under the name Guido di Pietro.", "This record indicates that he was already a painter, as is evident from two records of payment to Guido di Pietro in January and February 1418, for work done in the church of Santo Stefano del Ponte.", "The first record of Angelico as a friar dates from 1423, the first reference to Fra Giovanni (Friar John), following the custom of those entering one of the older religious orders of taking a new name.", "He was a member of the convent of Fiesole.", "The Dominican Order is one of the medieval mendicant Orders.", "Mendicants generally lived not from the income of estates but from begging or donations.", "Fra, a contraction of ''frater'' (Latin for 'brother'), is a conventional title for a mendicant friar.According to Vasari, Fra Angelico's initial training was as an illuminator, possibly working with his older brother Benedetto, also a Dominican and an illuminator.", "The former Dominican convent of San Marco in Florence, now a state museum, holds several manuscripts thought to be entirely or partly by his hand.", "The painter Lorenzo Monaco may have contributed to his art training; the influence of the Sienese school is discernible in his work.", "He trained also with master Varricho in Milan Despite quite a few moves of the convents where he lived, this did little to constrain his artistic output, which rapidly acquired a reputation.", "According to Vasari, his first paintings were an altarpiece and a painted screen for the Charterhouse (Carthusian monastery) of Florence.", "Nothing remains of these today.From 1408 to 1418, Fra Angelico was at the Dominican friary of Cortona, where he painted frescoes, mostly now destroyed, in the Dominican Church, and may have been assistant to Gherardo Starnina, or a follower of his.", "Between 1418 and 1436 he was back in Fiesole, where he executed a number of frescoes for the church and the Fiesole Altarpiece.", "This was allowed to deteriorate, but has since been restored.", "A predella of the altarpiece remains intact and is conserved in the National Gallery, London; a great example of Fra Angelico's genius.", "It shows Christ in Glory surrounded by more than 250 figures, including beatified Dominicans.", "This period saw the painting of some of his masterpieces, including a version of ''The Madonna of Humility''.", "This is well preserved and the property of the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, on loan to the MNAC of Barcelona.", "Also completed at this time were an ''Annunciation'' and a ''Madonna of the Pomegranate'', at the Prado Museum.===San Marco, Florence, 1436–1445===Annunciation'', In 1436, Fra Angelico was one of a number of the friars from Fiesole who moved to the newly built convent or friary of San Marco in Florence.", "This propitious move, placing him at the heart of artistic life of the region, attracted the patronage of Cosimo de' Medici.", "He was one of the wealthiest and most powerful members of the city's governing authority (or \"Signoria\"), and founder of the dynasty that was set to dominate Florentine politics for much of the Renaissance.", "Cosimo had a cell reserved for himself at the friary so that he might ''retreat from the world''.", "It was, writes Vasari, at Cosimo's urging that Fra Angelico set about the task of decorating the convent, including the magnificent fresco of the Chapter House, the much reproduced Annunciation at the top of the stairs leading to the cells, the Maesta (or Coronation of the Madonna) with Saints (cell 9), and many other devotional frescoes, smaller in format but of a remarkable luminous quality, depicting aspects of the Life of Christ that adorn the walls of each cell.In 1439 Fra Angelico completed one of his most famous works, the ''San Marco Altarpiece'' at Florence.", "It broke new ground.", "Not unusual had been images of the enthroned Madonna and Child surrounded by saints, the custom was that the setting looked heaven-like, saints and angels hovering as ethereal presences rather than earthly substance.", "But in the ''San Marco Altarpiece'', the saints stand squarely within the space, grouped in a natural way as if conversing about their shared witness of the Virgin in glory.", "This fresh genre, Sacred Conversations, was to underlie major commissions of Giovanni Bellini, Perugino and Raphael.", "''San Marco Altarpiece''===The Vatican, 1445–1455===''The Crucified Christ'' (detail)In 1445 Pope Eugene IV summoned him to Rome to paint the frescoes of the Chapel of the Holy Sacrament at St Peter's, later demolished by Pope Paul III.", "Vasari suggests this might have been when Fra Angelico was offered the Archbishopric of Florence by Pope Nicholas V, to turn it down, recommending instead another friar.", "The story seems possible, and even likely.", "However, the detail does not tally.", "In 1445 the pope was Eugene IV.", "Nicholas was not to be elected until 6 March 1447.The archbishop in question during 1446–1459 was the Dominican Antoninus of Florence (Antonio Pierozzi), canonised by Pope Adrian VI in 1523.In 1447 Fra Angelico was in Orvieto with his pupil, Benozzo Gozzoli, executing works for the Cathedral.", "Among his other pupils were Zanobi Strozzi.From 1447 to 1449 Fra Angelico was back at the Vatican, designing the frescoes for the Niccoline Chapel for Nicholas V. The scenes from the lives of the two martyred deacons of the Early Christian Church, St. Stephen and St. Lawrence may have been executed wholly or in part by assistants.", "The small chapel, with its brightly frescoed walls and gold leaf decorations gives the impression of a jewel box.", "From 1449 until 1452, Fra Angelico was back at his old convent of Fiesole, where he was the Prior.===Death and beatification===Adoration of the Magi'' is a tondo of the scene when wise men from the east arrived.", "It is credited to Fra Angelico and Filippo Lippi and dates to c. 1440/1460.In 1455, Fra Angelico died while staying at a Dominican convent in Rome, perhaps on an order to work on Pope Nicholas' chapel.", "He was buried in the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva.", "The English writer and critic William Michael Rossetti wrote of the friar:Pope John Paul II beatified Fra Angelico on 3 October 1982, and in 1984 declared him patron of Catholic artists." ], [ "Evaluation", "San Marco, Florence,''The Day of Judgement'', upper panel of an altarpiece.", "It shows the precision, detail and colour required in a commissioned workA Thebaide, showing the activities in the lives of the saints, 1420===Background===Fra Angelico was working at a time when the style of painting was in a state of change.", "This process of change had begun a hundred years previous with the works of Giotto and several of his contemporaries, notably Giusto de' Menabuoi, both of whom had created their major works in Padua, although Giotto was trained in Florence by the great Gothic artist, Cimabue, and painted a fresco cycle of St Francis in the Bardi Chapel in the Basilica di Santa Croce.", "Giotto had many enthusiastic followers, who imitated his style in fresco, some of them, notably the Lorenzetti, achieving great success.===Patronage===The patrons of these artists were most often monastic establishments or wealthy families endowing a church.", "Because the paintings often had devotional purpose, the clients tended to be conservative.", "Frequently, it would seem, the wealthier the client, the more conservative the painting.", "There was a very good reason for this.", "The paintings that were commissioned made a statement about the patron.", "Thus the more gold leaf it displayed, the more it spoke to the patron's glory.", "The other valuable commodities in the paint-box were lapis lazuli and vermilion.", "Paint made from these colours did not lend itself to a tonal treatment.", "The azure blue made of powdered lapis lazuli went on flat, the depth and brilliance of colour being, like the gold leaf, a sign of the patron's ability to provide well.", "For these reasons, altarpieces are often much more conservatively painted than frescoes, which were often of almost life-sized figures and relied upon a stage-set quality rather than lavish display in order to achieve effect.===Contemporaries===Fra Angelico was the contemporary of Gentile da Fabriano.", "Gentile's altarpiece of the ''Adoration of the Magi'', 1423, in the Uffizi is regarded as one of the greatest works of the style known as International Gothic.", "At the time it was painted, another young artist, known as Masaccio, was working on the frescoes for the Brancacci Chapel at the church of the Carmine.", "Masaccio had fully grasped the implications of the art of Giotto.", "Few painters in Florence saw his sturdy, lifelike and emotional figures and were not affected by them.", "His work partner was an older painter, Masolino, of the same generation as Fra Angelico.", "Masaccio died at 27, leaving the work unfinished.===Altarpieces===The works of Fra Angelico reveal elements that are both conservatively Gothic and progressively Renaissance.", "In the altarpiece of the Coronation of the Virgin, painted for the Florentine church of Santa Maria Novella, are all the elements that a very expensive altarpiece of the 14th century was expected to provide; a precisely tooled gold ground, much azure, and much vermilion.", "The workmanship of the gilded haloes and gold-edged robes is exquisite and all very Gothic.", "What makes this a Renaissance painting, as against Gentile da Fabriano's masterpiece, is the solidity, three-dimensionality and naturalism of the figures and the realistic way in which their garments hang or drape around them.", "Even though it is clouds these figures stand upon, and not the earth, they do so with weight.Transfiguration'' shows the directness, simplicity and restrained palette typical of these frescoes.", "Located in a monk's cell at the Convent San' Marco, its apparent purpose is to encourage private devotion.===Frescoes===The series of frescoes that Fra Angelico painted for the Dominican friars at San Marcos realise the advancements made by Masaccio and carry them further.", "Away from the constraints of wealthy clients and the limitations of panel painting, Fra Angelico was able to express his deep reverence for his God and his knowledge and love of humanity.", "The meditational frescoes in the cells of the convent have a quieting quality about them.", "They are humble works in simple colours.", "There is more mauvish pink than there is red, and the brilliant and expensive blue is almost totally lacking.", "In its place is dull green and the black and white of Dominican robes.", "There is nothing lavish, nothing to distract from the spiritual experiences of the humble people who are depicted within the frescoes.", "Each one has the effect of bringing an incident of the life of Christ into the presence of the viewer.", "They are like windows into a parallel world.", "These frescoes remain a powerful witness to the piety of the man who created them.Vasari relates that Cosimo de' Medici seeing these works, inspired Fra Angelico to create a large Crucifixion scene with many saints for the Chapter House.", "As with the other frescoes, the wealthy patronage did not influence the Friar's artistic expression with displays of wealth.Masaccio ventured into perspective with his creation of a realistically painted niche at Santa Maria Novella.", "Subsequently, Fra Angelico demonstrated an understanding of linear perspective particularly in his Annunciation paintings set inside the sort of arcades that Michelozzo and Brunelleschi created at San' Marco's and the square in front of it.===Lives of the Saints===''Saint Lawrence distributing alms'' (1447), in the Vatican, incorporates the expensive pigments, gold leaf and elaborate design typical of Vatican commissions.When Fra Angelico and his assistants went to the Vatican to decorate the chapel of Pope Nicholas, the artist was again confronted with the need to please the very wealthiest of clients.", "In consequence, walking into the small chapel is like stepping into a jewel box.", "The walls are decked with the brilliance of colour and gold that one sees in the most lavish creations of the Gothic painter Simone Martini at the Lower Church of St Francis of Assisi, a hundred years earlier.", "Yet Fra Angelico has succeeded in creating designs which continue to reveal his own preoccupation with humanity, with humility and with piety.", "The figures, in their lavish gilded robes, have the sweetness and gentleness for which his works are famous.", "According to Vasari:It is probable that much of the actual painting was done by his assistants to his design.", "Both Benozzo Gozzoli and Gentile da Fabriano were highly accomplished painters.", "Benozzo took his art further towards the fully developed Renaissance style with his expressive and lifelike portraits in his masterpiece depicting the Journey of the Magi, painted in the Medici's private chapel at their palazzo.", "''Blessing Redeemer'' (1423)===Artistic legacy===Through Fra Angelico's pupil Benozzo Gozzoli's careful portraiture and technical expertise in the art of fresco we see a link to Domenico Ghirlandaio, who in turn painted extensive schemes for the wealthy patrons of Florence, and through Ghirlandaio to his pupil Michelangelo and the High Renaissance.Apart from the lineal connection, superficially there may seem little to link the humble priest with his sweetly pretty Madonnas and timeless Crucifixions to the dynamic expressions of Michelangelo's larger-than-life creations.", "But both these artists received their most important commissions from the wealthiest and most powerful of all patrons, the Vatican.When Michelangelo took up the Sistine Chapel commission, he was working within a space that had already been extensively decorated by other artists.", "Around the walls the ''Life of Christ'' and ''Life of Moses'' were depicted by a range of artists including his teacher Ghirlandaio, Raphael's teacher Perugino and Botticelli.", "They were works of large scale and exactly the sort of lavish treatment to be expected in a Vatican commission, vying with each other in the complexity of design, number of figures, elaboration of detail and skilful use of gold leaf.", "Above these works stood a row of painted Popes in brilliant brocades and gold tiaras.", "None of these splendours have any place in the work which Michelangelo created.", "Michelangelo, when asked by Pope Julius II to ornament the robes of the Apostles in the usual way, responded that they were very poor men.Within the cells of San'Marco, Fra Angelico had demonstrated that painterly skill and the artist's personal interpretation were sufficient to create memorable works of art, without the expensive trappings of blue and gold.", "In the use of the unadorned fresco technique, the clear bright pastel colours, the careful arrangement of a few significant figures and the skillful use of expression, motion and gesture, Michelangelo showed himself to be the artistic descendant of Fra Angelico.", "Frederick Hartt describes Fra Angelico as \"prophetic of the mysticism\" of painters such as Rembrandt, El Greco and Zurbarán." ], [ "Works", "''Virgin and Child with Saints'', detail, Fiesole (1428–1430)===Early works, 1408–1436==='''Unknown'''*''Saint James and Saint Lucy Predella'', five panels, tempera, c. 1426 to 1428'''Rome'''*''The Crucifixion'', panel, c. 1420–1423, Metropolitan Museum, New York.", "Possibly Fra Angelico's only signed work.", "'''Cortona'''*''Annunciation'', c. 1430, Diocesan Museum, Cortona'''Fiesole'''*''Coronation of the Virgin'', altarpiece with predellas of ''Miracles of St Dominic'', Church of San Domenico, Louvre, Paris*''Virgin and Child between Saints Thomas Aquinas, Barnabas, Dominic and Peter Martyr'', San Domenico, 1424*''Christ in Majesty'', predella, National Gallery, London.", "'''Florence, Basilica di San Marco''' *''Dormition of the Virgin'', 1431'''Florence, Santa Trinita''' *''Deposition of Christ'', said by Vasari to have been \"painted by a saint or an angel\", National Museum of San Marco, Florence.", "*''Coronation of the Virgin'', c. 1432, Uffizi, Florence*''Coronation of the Virgin'', c. 1434–1435, Louvre, Paris'''Florence, Santa Maria degli Angeli''' *''Last Judgement'', Accademia, Florence'''Florence, Santa Maria Novella''' *''Coronation of the Virgin'', altarpiece, Uffizi.===San Marco, Florence, 1436–1445===* Altarpiece for chancel – ''Virgin with Saints Cosmas and Damian, attended by Saints Dominic, Peter, Francis, Mark, John Evangelist and Stephen''.", "Cosmas and Damian were patrons of the Medici.", "The altarpiece was commissioned in 1438 by Cosimo de' Medici.", "It was removed and disassembled during the renovation of the convent church in the seventeenth century.", "Two of the nine predella panels remain at the convent; seven are in Washington, Munich, Dublin and Paris.", "Unexpectedly, in 2006 the last two missing panels, Dominican saints from the side panels, turned up in the estate of a modest collector in Oxfordshire, who had bought them in California in the 1960s.", "''The Deposition from the Cross'', Museo San MarcoThe Madonna enthroned with Saints Cosmas and Damian, Saint Mark and Saint John, Saint Lawrence and three Dominicans, Saint Dominic, Saint Thomas Aquinas and Saint Peter Martyr; San Marco, Florence* Altarpiece ?", "– ''Madonna and Child with Twelve Angels'' (life sized); Uffizi.", "* Altarpiece – ''The Annunciation''* San Marco Altarpiece* Two versions of the ''Crucifixion with St Dominic''; in the Cloister* Very large ''Crucifixion with Virgin and 20 Saints''; in the Chapter House* ''The Annunciation''; at the top of the Dormitory stairs.", "This is probably the most reproduced of all Fra Angelico's paintings.", "*''Virgin Enthroned with Four Saints''; in the Dormitory passageIn ''The Annunciation'', the interior reproduces that of the cell in which it is located.Each cell is decorated with a fresco which matches in size and shape of the single round-headed window beside it.", "The frescoes are apparently for contemplative purposes.", "They have a pale, serene, unearthly beauty.", "Many of Fra Angelico's finest and most reproduced works are among them.", "There are, particularly in the inner row of cells, some of the less inspiring quality and of the more repetitive subject, perhaps completed by assistants.", "Many pictures include Dominican saints as witnesses of the scene each in one of the nine traditional prayer postures depicted in De Modo Orandi.", "The friar using the cell could place himself in the scene.", "* ''The Adoration of the Magi''* ''The Transfiguration''* ''Noli me tangere''* ''The Three Marys at the Tomb''.", "* ''The Road to Emmaus'', with two Dominicans as the disciples* ''The Mocking of Christ''* There are many versions of ''the Crucifixion''===Late works, 1445–1455==='''Orvieto Cathedral'''Three segments of the ceiling in the Cappella Nuova, with the assistance of Benozzo Gozzoli.", "* ''Christ in Glory''* ''The Virgin Mary''* ''The Apostles'''''Niccoline Chapel'''The Chapel of Pope Nicholas V, at the Vatican, was probably painted with much assistance from Benozzo Gozzoli and Gentile da Fabriano.", "The entire surface of the wall and ceiling is sumptuously painted.", "There is much gold leaf for borders and decoration, and a great use of brilliant blue made from lapis lazuli.", "* ''The Life of St Stephen''* ''The Life of St Lawrence''* ''The Four Evangelists.", "''===Discovery of lost works===Worldwide press coverage reported in November 2006 that two missing masterpieces by Fra Angelico had turned up, having hung in the spare room of the late Jean Preston, in her terrace house in Oxford, England.", "Her father had bought them for £100 each in the 1960s then bequeathed them to her when he died.", "Preston, an expert medievalist, recognised them as being high-quality Florentine renaissance, but did not realize that they were works by Fra Angelico until they were identified in 2005 by Michael Liversidge of Bristol University.", "There was almost no demand at all for medieval art during the 1960s and no dealers showed any interest, so Preston's father bought them almost as an afterthought along with some manuscripts.", "The paintings are two of eight side panels of a large altarpiece painted in 1439 for Fra Angelico's monastery at San Marco, which was later split up by Napoleon's army.", "While the centre section is still at the monastery, the other six small panels are in German and US museums.", "These two panels were presumed lost forever.", "The Italian Government had hoped to purchase them but they were outbid at auction on 20 April 2007 by a private collector for £1.7M.", "Both panels are now restored and exhibited in the San Marco Museum in Florence." ], [ "See also", "*List of Italian painters*List of famous Italians*Early Renaissance painting*''Poor Man's Bible''*Fray Angelico Chavez – Franciscan friar, historian and artist who was named after Fra Angelico due to his interest in painting*Western painting" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "* Rossetti's article includes an assessment of the body of work, from the pre-Raphaelite viewpoint.", "*Hood, William.", "''Fra Angelico at San Marco''.", "Yale University Press, 1993.", "*Morachiello, Paolo.", "''Fra Angelico: The San Marco Frescoes''.", "Thames and Hudson, 1990.", "*Frederick Hartt.", "''A History of Italian Renaissance Art'', Thames & Hudson, 1970.", "*Giorgio Vasari.", "''Lives of the Artists''.", "first published 1568.Penguin Classics, 1965.", "*Donald Attwater.", "''The Penguin Dictionary of Saints''.", "Penguin Reference Books, 1965.", "*Luciano Berti.", "''Florence, the city and its Art.''", "Bercocci, 1979.", "*Werner Cohn.", "''Il Beato Angelico e Battista di Biagio Sanguigni.''", "Revista d'Arte, V, (1955): 207–221.", "*Stefano Orlandi.", "''Beato Angelico; Monographia Storica della Vita e delle Opere con Un'Appendice di Nuovi Documenti Inediti.''", "Florence: Leo S. Olschki Editore, 1964." ], [ "Further reading", "* Nathaniel Silver (ed.", "), ''Fra Angelico: Heaven of Earth'', Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston 2018* Gerardo de Simone, ''Il Beato Angelico a Roma.", "Rinascita delle arti e Umanesimo cristiano nell'Urbe di Niccolò V e Leon Battista Alberti'', Fondazione Carlo Marchi, Studi, vol.", "34, Olschki, Firenze 2017* Cyril Gerbron, ''Fra Angelico.", "Liturgie et mémoire'' (= ''Études Renaissantes'', 18), Brepols Publishers, Turnhout 2016.;* Gerardo de Simone, \"La bottega di un frate pittore: il Beato Angelico tra Fiesole, Firenze e Roma\", in ''Revista Diálogos Mediterrânicos'', n. 8, Curitiba (Brasil) 2015, ISSN 2237-6585, pp.", "48–85 – http://www.dialogosmediterranicos.com.br/index.php/RevistaDM* Gerardo de Simone, \"Fra Angelico: perspectives de recherche, passées et futures\", in ''Perspective, la revue de l'INHA.", "Actualités de la recherche en histoire de l'art'', 1/2013, pp.", "25–42* Gerardo de Simone, \"Velut alter Iottus.", "Il Beato Angelico e i suoi 'profeti trecenteschi'\", in ''1492.Rivista della Fondazione Piero della Francesca'', 2, 2009 (2010), pp.", "41–66* Gerardo de Simone, \"L'Angelico di Pisa.", "Ricerche e ipotesi intorno al Redentore benedicente del Museo Nazionale di San Matteo\", in ''Polittico'', Edizioni Plus – Pisa University Press, 5, Pisa 2008, pp.", "5–35* Gerardo de Simone, \"L'ultimo Angelico.", "Le \"Meditationes\" del cardinal Torquemada e il ciclo perduto nel chiostro di S. Maria sopra Minerva\", in ''Ricerche di Storia dell'Arte'', Carocci Editore, Roma 2002, pp.", "41–87* Creighton Gilbert, '' How Fra Angelico and Signorelli Saw the End of the World'', Penn State Press, 2002 * John T. Spike, ''Angelico'', New York 1997.", "* Georges Didi-Huberman, ''Fra Angelico: Dissemblance and Figuration''.", "University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1995.", "''Discussion of how Fra Angelico challenged Renaissance naturalism and developed a technique to portray \"unfigurable\" theological ideas.", "''* J.", "B. Supino, '' Fra Angelico'', Alinari Brothers, Florence, undated, from Project Gutenberg" ], [ "External links", "* Fra Angelico – Painter of the Early Renaissance* Fra Angelico in the \"History of Art\" * Ross Finocchio, Robert Lehman Collection, The Metropolitan Museum of Art* Fra Angelico Exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, (October 26, 2005January 29, 2006).", "* \"Soul Eyes\" Review of the Fra Angelico show at the Met, by Arthur C. Danto in ''The Nation'', (January 19, 2006).", "* ''Fra Angelico'', Catherine Mary Phillimore, (Sampson Low, Marston & Co., 1892)* Frescoes and paintings gallery * ''Italian Paintings: Florentine School'', a collection catalog containing information about the artist and his works (see pages: 77–82)." ] ]
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[ [ "Fra Bartolomeo" ], [ "Introduction", "Apparition of the Virgin to St Bernard'' (1504-1507), Uffizi'''Fra Bartolomeo''' or '''Bartolommeo''' (, , ; 28 March 1472 – 31 October 1517), also known as '''Bartolommeo di Pagholo''', '''Bartolommeo di San Marco''', '''Paolo di Jacopo del Fattorino''', and his original nickname '''Baccio della Porta''', was an Italian Renaissance painter of religious subjects.", "He spent all his career in Florence until his mid-forties, when he travelled to work in various cities, as far south as Rome.", "He trained with Cosimo Rosselli and in the 1490s fell under the influence of Savonarola, which led him to become a Dominican friar in 1500, renouncing painting for several years.", "Typically his paintings are of static groups of figures in subjects such as the Virgin and Child with Saints.He was instructed to resume painting for the benefit of his order in 1504, and then developed an idealized High Renaissance style, seen in his ''Vision of St Bernard'' of that year, now in poor condition but whose \"figures and drapery move with a seraphic grace that must have struck the young Raphael with the force of revelation\".", "He remained friends with Raphael, and each influenced the other.His portrait of Savonarola remains the best known image of the reformer.", "Fra Bartolomeo painted both in oils and fresco, and some of his drawings are pure landscape sketches that are the earliest of this type from any Italian artist." ], [ "Life", "''Holy Family with the Infant St John''He was born in Savignano di Prato, Tuscany.", "He received the nickname of Baccio della Porta (\"Baccio of the Gate\"), for his house was near the Gate of San Pier Gattolini.Starting from 1483 or 1484, by recommendation of Benedetto da Maiano, he apprenticed in the workshop of Cosimo Rosselli.", "In 1490 or 1491 he began a collaboration with Mariotto Albertinelli.", "In the late 1490s, Baccio was drawn to the teachings of Fra Girolamo Savonarola, who denounced what he viewed as vain and corrupt contemporary art.", "Savonarola argued for art serving as a direct visual illustration of the Bible to educate those unable to read the book.", "From 1498 is his famous portrait of Savonarola, now in the Museo Nazionale di San Marco in Florence.", "The following year he was commissioned a fresco of the ''Universal Judgement'' for the Ospedale di Santa Maria Nuova, completed by Albertinelli and Giuliano Bugiardini when Baccio became a Dominican friar on 26 July 1500.The following year he entered the convent of San Marco.He renounced painting for several years, not resuming until 1504 when he became the head of the monastery workshop in obedience to his superior.", "In that year he began a ''Vision of St. Bernard'' for Bernardo Bianco's family chapel in the Badia Fiorentina, finished in 1507.Soon thereafter, Raphael visited Florence and befriended the friar.", "Bartolomeo learned perspective from the younger artist, while Raphael added skills in coloring and handling of drapery, which was noticeable in the works he produced after their meeting.", "With Raphael, he remained on the friendliest terms, and when he departed from Rome, left in his hands two unfinished pictures which Raphael completed.At the beginning of 1508, Bartolomeo moved to Venice to paint a ''Holy Father, St. Mary Magdalene and St. Catherine of Siena'' for the Dominicans of San Pietro Martire in Murano, influenced somewhat by Venetian colorism.", "As the Dominicans did not pay for the work, he took it back to Lucca, where it can be seen now.", "Also in Lucca, in October 1509, he painted with Albertinelli an altarpiece of the ''Madonna and Child with Saints'' for the local cathedral.", "On 26 November 1510 Pier Soderini commissioned him an altarpiece for the Sala del Consiglio of Florence, now in the Museum of San Marco.", "Two years later he finished another altarpiece for the cathedral of Besançon.In 1513, he went to Rome, where he painted a ''Peter and Paul'', now in the Pinacoteca Vaticana, while from the following years are the ''St.", "Mark Evangelist'' of Palazzo Pitti in Florence and the frescoes in the Dominican convent of Pian di Mugnone, a frazione of Fiesole, just outside Florence.", "After a promised ''Feast of Venus'' for Duke Alfonso I d'Este of Ferrara, of which only drawings remain, his last work is a fresco of ''Noli me tangere'' also in Pian di Mugnone.Fra Bartolomeo: ''Christ with the Four Evangelists''He died in Florence in 1517." ], [ "Works", "===Style===''Pietà'' (1516).", "Palazzo Pitti, Florence.", "''The Adoration of the Christ Child'' (detail)Initially, his works showed the influence of Rosselli's assistant, Piero di Cosimo, and those of Domenico Ghirlandaio and Filippino Lippi.", "After his hiatus from 1500 to 1503, he seemed to change vision, taking from Raphael the representation of light and its effects over moving shapes.Fra Bartolomeo's figures are generally small and draped.", "These qualities were alleged against him as defects, and to prove that his style was not the result of want of power, he painted the magnificent figure of the ''St Mark Evangelist'' (ranked as his masterpiece), and the undraped figure of Saint Sebastian.", "It is alleged that the latter was felt to be so strongly expressive of suffering and agony, that it was found necessary to remove it from the place where it had been exhibited in the chapel of a convent.Fra Bartolomeo's compositions are remarkable for skill in the massing of light and shade, richness and delicacy of colouring, and for the admirable drapery of the figures, Bartolomeo having been the first to introduce and use the lay-figure with joints.Among his pupils were Cecchino del Frate, Benedetto Ciamfanini, Gabriel Rustici, Ridolfo Ghirlandaio (the son of Domenico Ghirlandaio), and Fra Paolo Pistolese.===Pieces===*''Assumption of Mary'' (1508) - Oil on canvas, Kaiser – Friedrich – Museum, Berlin (destroyed in 1945)*''Madonna in Glory with Saints'' (1512, with Albertinelli) - Oil on canvas, Cathedral of Besançon*''Holy Conversation'' (1512) - Oil on canvas, *''Christ Supported by Two Angels'' (c. 1514) - Oil on canvas, Casa Vasari, Arezzo*''St.", "Sebastian'' (1515) - Oil on canvas, Alaffre Collection, Pézenas, FranceImage:Bartolommeo, Fra ~ Annunciation, 1500, oil tempera on wood, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.jpg|''Annunciation'' (1500)Galleria degli Uffizi, FlorenceImage:Fra Bartolomeo 007.jpg|''Scene with Christ in the Temple'' (1516), Kunsthistorisches Museum, ViennaImage:Fra Bartolomeo 004.jpg|''Madonna in Glory with Saints'', Besançon Cathedral File:Fra bartolomeo, dio padre lucca.jpg|''God the Father with Sts Catherine of Siena and Mary Magdalene'', National Museum of Villa GuinigiFile:Girolamo Savonarola.jpg|''Girolamo Savonarola''File:Thomas Aquinas by Fra Bartolommeo.jpg|''Thomas Aquinas''File:Fra bartolomeo, cristo cornato di spine.jpg|''Christ Crowned with Thorns''File:Fra bartolomeo, giobbe.jpg|''Job''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * * .", "'''Attribution:'''*" ], [ "External links", "** Biography from Artist-Biography.info*'' Pieter Bruegel the Elder: Drawings and Prints'', a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which includes material on Fra Bartolomeo (see index)" ] ]
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[ [ "Frédéric Bazille" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jean Frédéric Bazille''' (December 6, 1841 – November 28, 1870) was a French Impressionist painter.", "Many of Bazille's major works are examples of figure painting in which he placed the subject figure within a landscape painted ''en plein air''." ], [ "Life and work", "''Studio in Rue de La Condamine,'' 1870, Musée d'Orsay, Paris.", "Among Bazille's friends portrayed are Pierre-Auguste Renoir sitting, and Édouard Manet next to Bazille, who portrays himself painting.Frédéric Bazille was born in Montpellier, Hérault, Languedoc-Roussillon, France, into a wealthy wine merchant Protestant family.", "Bazille grew up in the Le Domaine de Méric, a wine-producing estate in Castelnau-le-Lez, near Montpellier, owned by his family.", "He became interested in painting after seeing some works of Eugène Delacroix.", "His family agreed to let him study painting, but only if he also studied medicine.Bazille began studying medicine in 1859, and moved to Paris in 1862 to continue his studies.", "There he met Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Alfred Sisley, was drawn to Impressionist painting, and began taking classes in Charles Gleyre's studio.", "After failing his medical exam in 1864, he began painting full-time.", "His close friends included Claude Monet, Alfred Sisley and Édouard Manet.", "Bazille was generous with his wealth and helped support his less fortunate associates by giving them space in his studio and materials to use.Bazille was just twenty-three years old when he painted several of his best-known works, including ''The Pink Dress'' (c. 1864, Musée d'Orsay, Paris).", "This painting combines a portrait-like depiction of Bazille's cousin, Thérèse des Hours, who is seen from behind—and the sunlit landscape at which she gazes.", "His best-known painting is ''Family Reunion'', painted 1867–1868 (Musée d'Orsay, Paris).Frédéric Bazille joined a Zouave regiment in August 1870, a month after the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War.", "On November 28 of that year, he was with his unit at the Battle of Beaune-la-Rolande when, his officer having been injured, he took command and led an assault on the German position.", "He was hit twice in the failed attack and died on the battlefield at the age of twenty-eight.", "His father travelled to the battlefield a few days later to take his body back for burial at Montpellier in the Protestant cemetery over a week later." ], [ "Main works", "* ''La robe rose'', (1864) – 147 x 110 cm, Musée d'Orsay, Paris * ''Studio on Rue Furstenberg'', (1865) – 80 x 65 cm, Musée Fabre, Montpellier * ''Aigues-Mortes'', (1867) – 46 x 55 cm, Musée Fabre, Montpellier * ''Self-portrait'', (1865) – 109 x72 cm, Art Institute of Chicago * ''Family Reunion'', (1867) – 152 x 230 cm, Musée d'Orsay, Paris * ''Le Pécheur à l'épervier'', (1868) – 134 x 83 cm, Fondation Rau pour le tiers-monde, Zürich * ''View of the Village'', (1868) – 130 x 89 cm, Musée Fabre, Montpellier * ''Scène d'été'', (1869) – 158 x 158 cm, Cambridge, Harvard University * ''La Toilette'', (1870) – 132 x 127 cm., Musée Fabre, Montpellier * ''L'Atelier de la rue Condamine'', (1870) – 98 x 128.5 cm, Musée d'Orsay, Paris * ''Paysage au bord du Lez'', (1870) – 137.8 x 202.5 cm, The Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Minneapolis" ], [ "Gallery", "Pierre-Auguste Renoir, ''Frédéric Bazille painting The Heron''File:Bazille, Frédéric - Self Portrait.jpeg|''Self Portrait,'' unknown dateFile:Frédéric Bazille Study of Trees.jpg|''Study of Trees'', 1863File:Jean Frédéric Bazille - Reclining Nude - 1864.jpg|''Reclining Nude'', 1864File:Frédéric Bazille - The Pink Dress - Google Art Project.jpg|''The Pink Dress (View of Castelnau-le-Lez, Hérault),'' 1864, oil on canvas, Musée d'OrsayFile:Bazille, Frédéric - Chailly.jpeg|''Chailly'', 1865, Musée Fabre, MontpellierFile:Bazille Sutdio in the rue de Furstenberg.jpg|''Studio on Rue Furstenberg'', 1865, Musée Fabre, MontpellierFile:Jean Frédéric Bazille - Little Italian Street Singer 1866.jpg|''Little Italian Street Singer'', 1866File:Frédéric Bazille - The Little Gardener - Google Art Project.jpg|''Le Petit Jardinier (The Little Gardener),'' c. 1866–67, oil on canvas Museum of Fine Arts, HoustonFile:Frédéric Bazille - Nature morte avec du poisson.jpg|''Nature morte avec du poisson'', Still life with fish, c. 1866–67File:Renoir by Bazille.jpg|''Portrait of Renoir'', 1867, oil on canvas, Musée d'OrsayFile:Bazille, Frédéric - Aigues-Mortes.jpeg|''Aigues-Mortes'', 1867File:Réunion de famille - Frédéric Bazille - musée d'Orsay RF 2749.jpg|''The Family Reunion'', c. 1867, Musée d'OrsayFile:Bazille-Nature morte au héron.JPG|''Nature morte au héron'', 1867File:Jean Frédéric Bazille - Etude pour une vendange (left) 1868.jpg|''Etude pour une vendange'', 1868File:Bazille, Frédéric ~ View of the Village, 1868.jpg|''View of the Village'', 1868, Musée Fabre, MontpellierFile:Bazille - Pêcheur à l'épervier.jpg|''Fisherman with a Net'', 1868File:Bazille, Frédéric - Portrait of Alphonse Tissie.jpeg|''Portrait of Alphonse Tissie'', 1868, Musée Fabre, MontpellierFile:Bazille, Frederic — Flowers — 1868.jpg|''Flowers'', 1868File:Frédéric Bazille - Portrait de Paul Verlaine comme une Troubadour.jpg|''Portrait of Paul Verlaine'', 1868, Dallas Museum of ArtFile:Bazille, Frédéric ~ Summer Scene, 1869, Oil on canvas Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts.jpg|''Scène d'été,'' 1869, Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, MassachusettsFile:Bazille, Frédéric - Portrait of Edmond Maitre.jpeg|''Portrait of Edmond Maître'', 1869File:Bazille, Frédéric ~ La Toilette, 1869-70, Oil on canvas Musee Fabre, Montpelier.jpg|''La Toilette'', 1870, Musée FabreFile:Frédéric Bazille, Young Woman with Peonies, 1870, NGA 61356.jpg|''Black Woman with Peonies'', 1870, National Gallery of ArtFile:Frederic Bazille Paysage au bord du Lez.jpg|''Paysage au bord du Lez'', 1870, oil on canvas, Minneapolis Institute of Arts" ], [ "See also", "* ''A Studio at Les Batignolles''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*Pitman, Dianne W. (1998).", "''Bazille: Purity, Pose and Painting in the 1860s.''", "University Park: Penn State University Press.", ".", "*Rosenblum, Robert (1989).", "''Paintings in the Musée d'Orsay''.", "New York: Stewart, Tabori & Chang." ], [ "External links", "* Frédéric Bazille at the National Gallery of Art* Bazille Gallery at MuseumSyndicate * ''Impressionism: a centenary exhibition'', an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (PDF available online), which contains material on Bazille (p. 37–39)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ford Madox Brown" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ford Madox Brown''' (16 April 1821 – 6 October 1893) was a British painter of moral and historical subjects, notable for his distinctively graphic and often Hogarthian version of the Pre-Raphaelite style.", "Arguably, his most notable painting was ''Work'' (1852–1865).", "Brown spent the latter years of his life painting the twelve works known as ''The Manchester Murals'', depicting Mancunian history, for Manchester Town Hall." ], [ "Early life", "Brown, on the left, with William Holman Hunt.", "Caricature by Max Beerbohm from ''Rossetti and His Circle''.Brown was the grandson of the medical theorist John Brown, founder of the Brunonian system of medicine.", "His great-grandfather was a Scottish labourer.", "His father Ford Brown served as a purser in the Royal Navy, including a period serving under Sir Isaac Coffin and a period on HMS ''Arethusa''.", "He left the Navy after the end of the Napoleonic Wars.In 1818, Ford Brown married Caroline Madox, of an old Kentish family.", "Brown's parents had limited financial resources, and they moved to Calais to seek cheaper lodgings, where their daughter Elizabeth Coffin was born in 1819 and their son Ford Madox Brown in 1821.Brown's education was limited, as the family frequently moved between lodgings in the Pas-de-Calais and relatives in Kent, but he showed artistic talent in copying of Old Master prints.", "His father initially sought a naval career for his son, writing to his former captain Sir Isaac Coffin.", "The family moved to Bruges in 1835 so Brown could study at the academy under Albert Gregorius.", "Brown moved to Ghent in 1836 to continue his studies under Pieter van Hanselaere.", "He moved to Antwerp in 1837 to study under Gustaf Wappers.", "He continued to study in Antwerp after his mother's death in 1839.His sister died in 1840, and then his father in 1842." ], [ "Works", "The Last of England'' depicting an emigrating couple, 1855The Tate Gallery holds an early example of Brown's work, a portrait of his father.", "He first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1840, a work inspired by Lord Byron's poem ''The Giaour'' (now lost) and then completed a version of ''The Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots'', with his cousin and future wife Elisabeth Bromley as one of his models.", "He lived in Montmartre with his new wife and aging father in 1841.He painted ''Manfred on the Jungfrau'', inspired by Lord Byron's poem ''Manfred'' while he was in Paris.In 1843 he submitted work to the Westminster Cartoon Competition, for compositions to decorate the new Palace of Westminster.", "His entry, ''The Body of Harold Brought before William'', was not successful.", "His early works were, however, greatly admired by the young Dante Gabriel Rossetti, who asked him to become his tutor.", "Through Rossetti, Brown came into contact with the artists who went on to form the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.", "Though closely linked to them, he was never actually a member of the brotherhood itself, but adopted the bright colours and realistic style of William Holman Hunt and John Everett Millais.", "He was also influenced by the works of Holbein that he saw in Basel in 1845, and by Friedrich Overbeck and Peter Cornelius, whom he met in Rome in 1845–46.Brown struggled to make his mark in the 1850s, with his paintings failing to find buyers, and he considered emigrating to India.", "In 1852 he started work on two of his most significant works.One of his most famous images is ''The Last of England'', painted from 1852 to 1855, which was sold in March 1859 for 325 guineas (''2010: £'').", "It depicts a pair of stricken emigrants as they sail away on the ship that will take them from England forever.", "It was inspired by the departure of the Pre-Raphaelite sculptor Thomas Woolner, who had left for Australia.", "In an unusual tondo format, the painting is structured with Brown's characteristic linear energy, and emphasis on apparently grotesque and banal details, such as the cabbages hanging from the ship's side.", "The husband and wife are portraits of Brown and his second wife Emma.", "''Work'' (1852-1865) is Brown's best known paintingBrown's most important painting was ''Work'' (1852–1865), begun in Hampstead in 1852 and which he showed at his retrospective exhibition in 1865.Thomas Plint advanced funds to enable Brown to complete the work, in anticipation of obtaining the finished painting, but died in 1861 before the painting had been completed.", "In this painting, Brown attempted to depict the totality of the mid-Victorian social experience in a single image, depicting 'navvies' digging up a road (The Mount, off Heath Street in Hampstead, north London) and disrupting the old social hierarchies in the process.", "The image erupts into proliferating details from the dynamic centre of the action, as the workers tear a hole in the road – and, symbolically, in the social fabric.", "Each character represents a particular social class and role in the modern urban environment.Brown wrote a catalogue to accompany the special exhibition of ''Work''.", "This publication included an extensive explanation of ''Work'' that nevertheless leaves many questions unanswered.", "Brown's concern with the social issues addressed in ''Work'' prompted him to open a soup kitchen for Manchester's hungry, and to attempt to aid the city's unemployed to find work by founding a labour exchange.Brown found patrons in the north of England, including Plint, George Rae from Birkenhead, John Miller from Liverpool, and James Leathart from Newcastle.", "By the late 1850s he had lost patience with the poor reception he received at the Royal Academy and ceased to show his works there, rejecting an offer from Millais to support his becoming an associate member.", "He founded the Hogarth Club in 1858, with William Morris, Edward Burne-Jones, and his former pupil Rossetti.", "After a successful period of a few years, the club reached over 80 members, including several prominent members of the Royal Academy, but Brown resigned in 1860, and the club collapsed in 1861.From the 1860s, Brown also designed furniture and stained glass.", "He was a founder partner of William Morris's design company, Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co., in 1861, which dissolved in 1874 with Morris continuing on his own.", "He was a close friend of the landscape artist Henry Mark Anthony.Brown's major achievement after ''Work'' was ''The Manchester Murals'', a cycle of twelve paintings in the Great Hall of Manchester Town Hall depicting the history of the city.", "Brown would be 72 by the time he finished the murals.", "In total, he took six years perfecting the murals, which were his last major work." ], [ "Family", "''The Bromley Family''.", "Brown's first wife Elizabeth, lower right, 1844Grave of Elizabeth Madox Brown in Highgate CemeteryFord Madox Brown was married twice.", "His first wife Elizabeth Bromley was his first cousin, the daughter of his mother's sister Mary.", "They were married in Meopham in Kent in April 1841, shortly before his 20th birthday and less than a year after the sudden death of his sister Elizabeth.", "They lived in Montmartre in 1841 with Brown's invalid father who died the following summer.Their first child died young as an infant in November 1842.Their daughter Emma Lucy was born in 1843 and the family moved back to England in 1844.They travelled to Rome in 1845 to alleviate the illness of his wife, who was suffering from consumption (pulmonary tuberculosis).", "She died in Paris in June 1846, aged 27, on the journey back to England from Rome, and was buried on the western side of Highgate Cemetery.", "Christina Rossetti, Elizabeth Siddal and other members of the Rossetti family were later buried alongside.Emma Hill became a frequent model for Brown from 1848; for example, she is the wife in ''The Last of England''.", "She became his mistress, and they shared a house in London, but social convention discouraged him from marrying an illiterate daughter of a bricklayer.", "Their daughter Catherine Emily was born in 1850, and eventually they were married at St Dunstan-in-the-West in April 1853.Ford leased a house in Fitzroy Square.Their son, '''Oliver Madox Brown''' (1855–1874) (known as Nolly) showed promise both as an artist and poet, but died of blood poisoning before his maturity.", "The death of Nolly was a crushing blow for Brown, and he kept a room for his son's belongings as a shrine.", "Another son Arthur was born in September 1856.Brown used Arthur as the model for the baby held by a ragged girl in the foreground of ''Work'', but he died aged only ten months old in July 1857.", "''The Pretty Baa-Lambs''.", "Brown's mistress and later wife Emma and second daughter Cathy in 1851His daughters Lucy Madox Brown and Catherine Madox Brown were also competent artists.", "Lucy married William Michael Rossetti in 1874.Catherine, married Francis Hueffer; through Catherine, Brown was the grandfather of novelist Ford Madox Ford and great-grandfather of Labour Home Secretary Frank Soskice." ], [ "Death", "Brown's second wife died in October 1890, and he died in Primrose Hill, north London, in 1893.He is buried in the St Pancras and Islington Cemetery in East Finchley.", "He was given a secular funeral, and the funeral oration was delivered by the American Moncure D. Conway, the secularist after whom Conway Hall was later named.File:Lucy Madox Brown.jpg|Brown's first surviving daughter Lucy in 1849File:Catherine Madox Brown2.jpg|Catherine Madox BrownFile:Oliver Madox Brown.jpg|Oliver in 1855File:Arthur Madox Brown1.jpg|Arthur in 1856File:Ford Madox Brown - The Last of England - Portrait of Emma Hill - Google Art Project.jpg|Emma in 1852 (study for ''The Last of England'')File:Dante Gabriel Rossetti drawing of Ford Madox Brown 1867.jpg|''Ford Madox Brown'', 1867, drawn by Dante Gabriel Rossetti" ], [ "Legacy", "The Ford Madox Brown, a J D Wetherspoon pub in Oxford Road, Manchester, is named after Ford Madox Brown.", "It states on the Wetherspoon's website that \"This J D Wetherspoon pub is named after the much-travelled artist Ford Madox Brown, a one-time resident of Victoria Park, a suburb south of the pub.\"", "The pub opened in 2007." ], [ "Gallery", "File:James Leathart.jpg|''James Leathart''File:Traveller001.jpg|''Traveller'', 1868File:Ford Madox Brown - The Irish Girl - Google Art Project.jpg|''The Irish Girl'', 1860File:Cromwell, Protector of the Vaudois.jpg|''Cromwell, Protector of the Vaudois'', 1877File:Ford Madox Brown - Finding of Don Juan by Haidee - Google Art Project.jpg|''Finding of Don Juan by Haidee'', 1873File:Cordelia's Portion2.jpg|''Cordelia's Portion''File:Byron's Dream.jpg|''Byron's Dream''File:St Louis IX.jpg|The French saint King Louis IX in the stained glass of the East window of All Saints Church, CambridgeImage:Ford Madox Brown - Chaucer at the court of Edward III - Google Art Project.jpg|''Chaucer at the Court of Edward III'', oil on canvas painting by Ford Madox Brown, 1847–1851, Art Gallery of New South WalesImage:Romeo and juliet brown.jpg|''Romeo and Juliet'' parting on the balcony in Act III.", "Delaware Art Museum, 1870File:Ford Madox Brown - The Coat of Many Colours - Google Art Project.jpg|Brown's ''Jacob and Joseph's Coat'' at Museo de Arte de Ponce, Ponce, Puerto RicoFile:King Rene-s Honeymoon 1864.jpg|''King Rene's Honeymoon'', 1864, an imaginary scene in the life of the art-loving medieval king René of Anjou.File:Jesus washing Peter's feet.jpg|''Jesus washing Peter's feet''" ], [ "See also", "*List of paintings by Ford Madox Brown*British art*English art" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*Virginia Surtees (ed.", "), ''The Diary of Ford Madox Brown'', 1981, .", "*Kenneth Bendiner, ''Ford Madox Brown: Il Lavoro'', Turin: Lindau, 1991.", "*Kenneth Bendiner, ''The Art of Ford Madox Brown'', University Park, PA: Penn State Press, 1998.", "*Tessa Sidey (ed.", "), ''Ford Madox Brown: The Unofficial Pre-Raphaelite'', Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery, 2008, .", "*Julian Treuherz, ''Ford Madox Brown: Pre-Raphaelite Pioneer'', Philip Wilson Publishers, 2011, , p. 12.", "*Angela Thirlwell, ''Into the Frame: The Four Loves of Ford Madox Brown'', Pimlico, 2011, ." ], [ "External links", "* The iBiblio Web Museum exhibit on Brown*Some of his paintings in the Carol Gerten Fine Art library* Waiting: An English fireside of 1854–5*Spartacus Educational: Ford Madox Brown* Chronology on Britain Unlimited* Some stained glass designs by Ford Madox Brown* Ford Madox Brown in the ''History of Art'' * Phryne's list of pictures in public galleries* Photo of Ford Madox Brown's grave and a brief article about his time in Finchley* The Pre-Raph Pack Discover more about the artists, the techniques they used and a timeline spanning 100 years.", "* Ford Madox Brown: PreRaphaelite Pioneer Exhibition, Manchester Art Gallery, Saturday 24 September 2011 – Sunday 29 January 2012* \"The secret love of Ford Madox Brown\": essay on Ford Madox Brown and Mathilde Blind, by Angela Thirlwell, from ''TLS'', 8 October 2008* Birmingham Museums & Art Gallery's Pre-Raphaelite Online Resource includes almost two hundred paintings on canvas and works on paper by Ford Madox Brown* Tim Barringer, 'Brown, Ford Madox (1821–1893)', ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, May 2005 accessed 2 May 2014* Biography of Ford Madox Brown, Manchester Art Gallery*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Francis Crick" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Francis Harry Compton Crick''' (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004) was an English molecular biologist, biophysicist, and neuroscientist.", "He, James Watson, Rosalind Franklin, and Maurice Wilkins played crucial roles in deciphering the helical structure of the DNA molecule.Crick and Watson's paper in ''Nature'' in 1953 laid the groundwork for understanding DNA structure and functions.", "Together with Maurice Wilkins, they were jointly awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine \"for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material\".Crick was an important theoretical molecular biologist and played a crucial role in research related to revealing the helical structure of DNA.", "He is widely known for the use of the term \"central dogma\" to summarise the idea that once information is transferred from nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) to proteins, it cannot flow back to nucleic acids.", "In other words, the final step in the flow of information from nucleic acids to proteins is irreversible.During the remainder of his career, he held the post of J.W.", "Kieckhefer Distinguished Research Professor at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California.", "His later research centered on theoretical neurobiology and attempts to advance the scientific study of human consciousness.", "He remained in this post until his death; \"he was editing a manuscript on his death bed, a scientist until the bitter end\" according to Christof Koch." ], [ "Early life and education", "Crick was the first son of Harry Crick and Annie Elizabeth Crick (née Wilkins).", "He was born on 8 June 1916 and raised in Weston Favell, then a small village near the English town of Northampton, in which Crick's father and uncle ran the family's boot and shoe factory.", "His grandfather, Walter Drawbridge Crick, an amateur naturalist, wrote a survey of local foraminifera (single-celled protists with shells), corresponded with Charles Darwin, and had two gastropods (snails or slugs) named after him.At an early age, Francis was attracted to science and what he could learn about it from books.", "As a child, he was taken to church by his parents.", "But by about age 12, he said he did not want to go any more as he preferred a scientific search for answers over religious belief.Walter Crick, his uncle, lived in a small house on the south side of Abington Avenue; he had a shed at the bottom of his little garden where he taught Crick to blow glass, do chemical experiments and to make photographic prints.", "When he was eight or nine he transferred to the most junior form of the Northampton Grammar School, on the Billing Road.", "This was about from his home so he could walk there and back, by Park Avenue South and Abington Park Crescent, but he more often went by bus or, later, by bicycle.", "The teaching in the higher forms was satisfactory, but not as stimulating.", "After the age of 14, he was educated at Mill Hill School in London (on a scholarship), where he studied mathematics, physics, and chemistry with his best friend John Shilston.", "He shared the Walter Knox Prize for Chemistry on Mill Hill School's Foundation Day, Friday, 7 July 1933.He declared that his success was founded on the quality of teaching he received whilst a pupil at Mill Hill.Crick studied at University College London (UCL), a constituent college of the University of London and earned a Bachelor of Science degree awarded by the University of London in 1937.Crick began a PhD at UCL, but was interrupted by World War II.", "He later became a PhD student and Honorary Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge and mainly worked at the Cavendish Laboratory and the Medical Research Council (MRC) Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge.", "He was also an Honorary Fellow of Churchill College, Cambridge, and of University College, London.Crick began a PhD research project on measuring the viscosity of water at high temperatures (which he later described as \"the dullest problem imaginable\") in the laboratory of physicist Edward Neville da Costa Andrade at University College London, but with the outbreak of World War II (in particular, an incident during the Battle of Britain when a bomb fell through the roof of the laboratory and destroyed his experimental apparatus), Crick was deflected from a possible career in physics.", "During his second year as a PhD student, however, he was awarded the Carey Foster Research Prize, a great honour.", "He did postdoctoral work at the Brooklyn Collegiate and Polytechnic Institute, now part of the New York University Tandon School of Engineering.During World War II, he worked for the Admiralty Research Laboratory, from which many notable scientists emerged, including David Bates, Robert Boyd, Thomas Gaskell, George Deacon, John Gunn, Harrie Massey, and Nevill Mott; he worked on the design of magnetic and acoustic mines and was instrumental in designing a new mine that was effective against German minesweepers." ], [ "Post-World War Two life and work", "In 1947, aged 31, Crick began studying biology and became part of an important migration of physical scientists into biology research.", "This migration was made possible by the newly won influence of physicists such as Sir John Randall, who had helped win the war with inventions such as radar.", "Crick had to adjust from the \"elegance and deep simplicity\" of physics to the \"elaborate chemical mechanisms that natural selection had evolved over billions of years.\"", "He described this transition as, \"almost as if one had to be born again\".", "According to Crick, the experience of learning physics had taught him something important—hubris—and the conviction that since physics was already a success, great advances should also be possible in other sciences such as biology.", "Crick felt that this attitude encouraged him to be more daring than typical biologists who tended to concern themselves with the daunting problems of biology and not the past successes of physics.For the better part of two years, Crick worked on the physical properties of cytoplasm at Cambridge's Strangeways Research Laboratory, headed by Honor Bridget Fell, with a Medical Research Council studentship, until he joined Max Perutz and John Kendrew at the Cavendish Laboratory.", "The Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge was under the general direction of Sir Lawrence Bragg, who had won the Nobel Prize in 1915 at the age of 25.Bragg was influential in the effort to beat a leading American chemist, Linus Pauling, to the discovery of DNA's structure (after having been pipped at the post by Pauling's success in determining the alpha helix structure of proteins).", "At the same time Bragg's Cavendish Laboratory was also effectively competing with King's College London, whose Biophysics department was under the direction of Randall.", "(Randall had refused Crick's application to work at King's College.)", "Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins of King's College were personal friends, which influenced subsequent scientific events as much as the close friendship between Crick and James Watson.", "Crick and Wilkins first met at King's College and not, as erroneously recorded by two authors, at the Admiralty during World War II." ], [ "Personal life", "Crick married twice and fathered three children; his brother Anthony (born in 1918) predeceased him in 1966.Spouses:* Ruth Doreen Crick, née Dodd (m. 18 February 1940 – 8 May 1947), became Mrs. James Stewart Potter* Odile Crick, née Speed (m. 14 August 1949 – 28 July 2004)Children:* Michael Francis Compton (b.", "25 November 1940) by Doreen Crick* Gabrielle Anne (b.", "15 July 1951) by Odile Crick* Jacqueline Marie-Therese later Nichols (b.", "12 March 1954, d. 28 February 2011) by Odile Crick;Crick died of colon cancer on the morning of 28 July 2004 at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) Thornton Hospital in La Jolla; he was cremated and his ashes were scattered into the Pacific Ocean.", "A public memorial was held on 27 September 2004 at the Salk Institute, La Jolla, near San Diego, California; guest speakers included James Watson, Sydney Brenner, Alex Rich, Seymour Benzer, Aaron Klug, Christof Koch, Pat Churchland, Vilayanur Ramachandran, Tomaso Poggio, Leslie Orgel, Terry Sejnowski, his son Michael Crick, and his younger daughter Jacqueline Nichols.", "A private memorial for family and colleagues was held on 3 August 2004.Crick's Nobel Prize medal and diploma from the Nobel committee was sold at auction in June 2013 for $2,270,000.It was bought by Jack Wang, the CEO of Chinese medical company Biomobie.", "20% of the sale price of the medal was donated to the Francis Crick Institute in London." ], [ "Research", "Crick was interested in two fundamental unsolved problems of biology: how molecules make the transition from the non-living to the living, and how the brain makes a conscious mind.", "He realised that his background made him more qualified for research on the first topic and the field of biophysics.", "It was at this time of Crick's transition from physics to biology that he was influenced by both Linus Pauling and Erwin Schrödinger.", "It was clear in theory that covalent bonds in biological molecules could provide the structural stability needed to hold genetic information in cells.", "It only remained as an exercise of experimental biology to discover exactly which molecule was the genetic molecule.", "In Crick's view, Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, Gregor Mendel's genetics and knowledge of the molecular basis of genetics, when combined, revealed the secret of life.", "Crick had the very optimistic view that life would very soon be created in a test tube.", "However, some people (such as fellow researcher and colleague Esther Lederberg) thought that Crick was unduly optimistic.It was clear that some macromolecule such as a protein was likely to be the genetic molecule.", "However, it was well known that proteins are structural and functional macromolecules, some of which carry out enzymatic reactions of cells.", "In the 1940s, some evidence had been found pointing to another macromolecule, DNA, the other major component of chromosomes, as a candidate genetic molecule.", "In the 1944 Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment, Oswald Avery and his collaborators showed that a heritable phenotypic difference could be caused in bacteria by providing them with a particular DNA molecule.However, other evidence was interpreted as suggesting that DNA was structurally uninteresting and possibly just a molecular scaffold for the apparently more interesting protein molecules.", "Crick was in the right place, in the right frame of mind, at the right time (1949), to join Max Perutz's project at the University of Cambridge, and he began to work on the X-ray crystallography of proteins.", "X-ray crystallography theoretically offered the opportunity to reveal the molecular structure of large molecules like proteins and DNA, but there were serious technical problems then preventing X-ray crystallography from being applicable to such large molecules.===1949–1950===Crick taught himself the mathematical theory of X-ray crystallography.", "During the period of Crick's study of X-ray diffraction, researchers in the Cambridge lab were attempting to determine the most stable helical conformation of amino acid chains in proteins (the alpha helix).", "Linus Pauling was the first to identify the 3.6 amino acids per helix turn ratio of the alpha helix.", "Crick was witness to the kinds of errors that his co-workers made in their failed attempts to make a correct molecular model of the alpha helix; these turned out to be important lessons that could be applied, in the future, to the helical structure of DNA.", "For example, he learned the importance of the structural rigidity that double bonds confer on molecular structures which is relevant both to peptide bonds in proteins and the structure of nucleotides in DNA.===1951–1953: DNA structure===In 1951 and 1952, together with William Cochran and Vladimir Vand, Crick assisted in the development of a mathematical theory of X-ray diffraction by a helical molecule.", "This theoretical result matched well with X-ray data for proteins that contain sequences of amino acids in the alpha helix conformation.", "Helical diffraction theory turned out to also be useful for understanding the structure of DNA.Late in 1951, Crick started working with James Watson at Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, England.", "Using \"Photo 51\" (the X-ray diffraction results of Rosalind Franklin and her graduate student Raymond Gosling of King's College London, given to them by Gosling and Franklin's colleague Wilkins), Watson and Crick together developed a model for a helical structure of DNA, which they published in 1953.For this and subsequent work they were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962 with Wilkins.When Watson came to Cambridge, Crick was a 35-year-old graduate student (due to his work during WWII) and Watson was only 23, but had already obtained a PhD.", "They shared an interest in the fundamental problem of learning how genetic information might be stored in molecular form.", "Watson and Crick talked endlessly about DNA and the idea that it might be possible to guess a good molecular model of its structure.", "A key piece of experimentally-derived information came from X-ray diffraction images that had been obtained by Wilkins, Franklin, and Gosling.", "In November 1951, Wilkins came to Cambridge and shared his data with Watson and Crick.", "Alexander Stokes (another expert in helical diffraction theory) and Wilkins (both at King's College) had reached the conclusion that X-ray diffraction data for DNA indicated that the molecule had a helical structure—but Franklin vehemently disputed this conclusion.", "Stimulated by their discussions with Wilkins and what Watson learned by attending a talk given by Franklin about her work on DNA, Crick and Watson produced and showed off an erroneous first model of DNA.", "Their hurry to produce a model of DNA structure was driven in part by the knowledge that they were competing against Linus Pauling.", "Given Pauling's recent success in discovering the Alpha helix, they feared that Pauling might also be the first to determine the structure of DNA.Many have speculated about what might have happened had Pauling been able to travel to Britain as planned in May 1952.As it was, his political activities caused his travel to be restricted by the United States government and he did not visit the UK until later, at which point he met none of the DNA researchers in England.", "At any rate he was preoccupied with proteins at the time, not DNA.", "Watson and Crick were not officially working on DNA.", "Crick was writing his PhD thesis; Watson also had other work such as trying to obtain crystals of myoglobin for X-ray diffraction experiments.", "In 1952, Watson performed X-ray diffraction on tobacco mosaic virus and found results indicating that it had helical structure.", "Having failed once, Watson and Crick were now somewhat reluctant to try again and for a while they were forbidden to make further efforts to find a molecular model of DNA.Diagram that emphasises the phosphate backbone of DNA.", "Watson and Crick first made helical models with the phosphates at the centre of the helices.Of great importance to the model building effort of Watson and Crick was Rosalind Franklin's understanding of basic chemistry, which indicated that the hydrophilic phosphate-containing backbones of the nucleotide chains of DNA should be positioned so as to interact with water molecules on the outside of the molecule while the hydrophobic bases should be packed into the core.", "Franklin shared this chemical knowledge with Watson and Crick when she pointed out to them that their first model (from 1951, with the phosphates inside) was obviously wrong.Crick described what he saw as the failure of Wilkins and Franklin to cooperate and work towards finding a molecular model of DNA as a major reason why he and Watson eventually made a second attempt to do so.", "They asked for, and received, permission to do so from both William Lawrence Bragg and Wilkins.", "To construct their model of DNA, Watson and Crick made use of information from unpublished X-ray diffraction images of Franklin's (shown at meetings and freely shared by Wilkins), including preliminary accounts of Franklin's results/photographs of the X-ray images that were included in a written progress report for the King's College laboratory of Sir John Randall from late 1952.It is a matter of debate whether Watson and Crick should have had access to Franklin's results without her knowledge or permission, and before she had a chance to formally publish the results of her detailed analysis of her X-ray diffraction data which were included in the progress report.", "However, Watson and Crick found fault in her steadfast assertion that, according to her data, a helical structure was not the only possible shape for DNA—so they had a dilemma.", "In an effort to clarify this issue, Max Ferdinand Perutz later published what had been in the progress report, and suggested that nothing was in the report that Franklin herself had not said in her talk (attended by Watson) in late 1951.Further, Perutz explained that the report was to a Medical Research Council (MRC) committee that had been created to \"establish contact between the different groups of people working for the Council\".", "Randall's and Perutz's laboratories were both funded by the MRC.It is also not clear how important Franklin's unpublished results from the progress report actually were for the model-building done by Watson and Crick.", "After the first crude X-ray diffraction images of DNA were collected in the 1930s, William Astbury had talked about stacks of nucleotides spaced at 3.4 angström (0.34 nanometre) intervals in DNA.", "A citation to Astbury's earlier X-ray diffraction work was one of only eight references in Franklin's first paper on DNA.", "Analysis of Astbury's published DNA results and the better X-ray diffraction images collected by Wilkins and Franklin revealed the helical nature of DNA.", "It was possible to predict the number of bases stacked within a single turn of the DNA helix (10 per turn; a full turn of the helix is 27 angströms 2.7 nm in the compact A form, 34 angströms 3.4 nm in the wetter B form).", "Wilkins shared this information about the B form of DNA with Crick and Watson.", "Crick did not see Franklin's B form X-ray images (Photo 51) until after the DNA double helix model was published.One of the few references cited by Watson and Crick when they published their model of DNA was to a published article that included Sven Furberg's DNA model that had the bases on the inside.", "Thus, the Watson and Crick model was not the first \"bases in\" model to be proposed.", "Furberg's results had also provided the correct orientation of the DNA sugars with respect to the bases.", "During their model building, Crick and Watson learned that an antiparallel orientation of the two nucleotide chain backbones worked best to orient the base pairs in the centre of a double helix.", "Crick's access to Franklin's progress report of late 1952 is what made Crick confident that DNA was a double helix with antiparallel chains, but there were other chains of reasoning and sources of information that also led to these conclusions.As a result of leaving King's College for Birkbeck College, Franklin was asked by John Randall to give up her work on DNA.", "When it became clear to Wilkins and the supervisors of Watson and Crick that Franklin was going to the new job, and that Linus Pauling was working on the structure of DNA, they were willing to share Franklin's data with Watson and Crick, in the hope that they could find a good model of DNA before Pauling was able.", "Franklin's X-ray diffraction data for DNA and her systematic analysis of DNA's structural features were useful to Watson and Crick in guiding them towards a correct molecular model.", "The key problem for Watson and Crick, which could not be resolved by the data from King's College, was to guess how the nucleotide bases pack into the core of the DNA double helix.Diagrammatic representation of some key structural features of DNA.", "The similar structures of guanine:cytosine and adenine:thymine base pairs is illustrated.", "The base pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds.", "The phosphate backbones are anti-parallel.Another key to finding the correct structure of DNA was the so-called Chargaff ratios, experimentally determined ratios of the nucleotide subunits of DNA: the amount of guanine is equal to cytosine and the amount of adenine is equal to thymine.", "A visit by Erwin Chargaff to England, in 1952, reinforced the salience of this important fact for Watson and Crick.", "The significance of these ratios for the structure of DNA were not recognised until Watson, persisting in building structural models, realised that A:T and C:G pairs are structurally similar.", "In particular, the length of each base pair is the same.", "Chargaff had also pointed out to Watson that, in the aqueous, saline environment of the cell, the predominant tautomers of the pyrimidine (C and T) bases would be the amine and keto configurations of cytosine and thymine, rather than the imino and enol forms that Crick and Watson had assumed.", "They consulted Jerry Donohue who confirmed the most likely structures of the nucleotide bases.", "The base pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds, the same non-covalent interaction that stabilise the protein α-helix.", "The correct structures were essential for the positioning of the hydrogen bonds.", "These insights led Watson to deduce the true biological relationships of the A:T and C:G pairs.", "After the discovery of the hydrogen bonded A:T and C:G pairs, Watson and Crick soon had their anti-parallel, double helical model of DNA, with the hydrogen bonds at the core of the helix providing a way to \"unzip\" the two complementary strands for easy replication: the last key requirement for a likely model of the genetic molecule.", "As important as Crick's contributions to the discovery of the double helical DNA model were, he stated that without the chance to collaborate with Watson, he would not have found the structure by himself.Crick did tentatively attempt to perform some experiments on nucleotide base pairing, but he was more of a theoretical biologist than an experimental biologist.", "There was another near-discovery of the base pairing rules in early 1952.Crick had started to think about interactions between the bases.", "He asked John Griffith to try to calculate attractive interactions between the DNA bases from chemical principles and quantum mechanics.", "Griffith's best guess was that A:T and G:C were attractive pairs.", "At that time, Crick was not aware of Chargaff's rules and he made little of Griffith's calculations, although it did start him thinking about complementary replication.", "Identification of the correct base-pairing rules (A-T, G-C) was achieved by Watson \"playing\" with cardboard cut-out models of the nucleotide bases, much in the manner that Linus Pauling had discovered the protein alpha helix a few years earlier.", "The Watson and Crick discovery of the DNA double helix structure was made possible by their willingness to combine theory, modelling and experimental results (albeit mostly done by others) to achieve their goal.The DNA double helix structure proposed by Watson and Crick was based upon \"Watson-Crick\" bonds between the four bases most frequently found in DNA (A, C, T, G) and RNA (A, C, U, G).", "However, later research showed that triple-stranded, quadruple-stranded and other more complex DNA molecular structures required Hoogsteen base pairing.", "The entire field of synthetic biology began with work by researchers such as Erik T. Kool, in which bases other than A, C, T and G are used in a synthetic DNA.", "In addition to synthetic DNA there are also attempts to construct synthetic codons, synthetic endonucleases, synthetic proteins and synthetic zinc fingers.", "Using synthetic DNA, instead of there being 43 codons, if there are ''n'' new bases there could be as many as ''n''3 codons.", "Research is currently being done to see if codons can be expanded to more than 3 bases.", "These new codons can code for new amino acids.", "These synthetic molecules can be used not only in medicine, but in creation of new materials.The discovery was made on 28 February 1953; the first Watson/Crick paper appeared in ''Nature'' on 25 April 1953.Sir Lawrence Bragg, the director of the Cavendish Laboratory, where Watson and Crick worked, gave a talk at Guy's Hospital Medical School in London on Thursday 14 May 1953 which resulted in an article by Ritchie Calder in the ''News Chronicle'' of London, on Friday 15 May 1953, entitled \"Why You Are You.", "Nearer Secret of Life.\"", "The news reached readers of ''The New York Times'' the next day; Victor K. McElheny, in researching his biography, \"Watson and DNA: Making a Scientific Revolution\", found a clipping of a six-paragraph ''New York Times'' article written from London and dated 16 May 1953 with the headline \"Form of 'Life Unit' in Cell Is Scanned\".", "The article ran in an early edition and was then pulled to make space for news deemed more important.", "(''The New York Times'' subsequently ran a longer article on 12 June 1953).", "The university's undergraduate newspaper ''Varsity'' also ran its own short article on the discovery on Saturday 30 May 1953.Bragg's original announcement of the discovery at a Solvay conference on proteins in Belgium on 8 April 1953 went unreported by the British press.In a seven-page, handwritten letter to his son at a British boarding school on 19 March 1953 Crick explained his discovery, beginning the letter \"My Dear Michael, Jim Watson and I have probably made a most important discovery\".", "The letter was put up for auction at Christie's New York on 10 April 2013 with an estimate of $1 to $2 million, eventually selling for $6,059,750, the largest amount ever paid for a letter at auction.Sydney Brenner, Jack Dunitz, Dorothy Hodgkin, Leslie Orgel, and Beryl M. Oughton, were some of the first people in April 1953 to see the model of the structure of DNA, constructed by Crick and Watson; at the time they were working at Oxford University's Chemistry Department.", "All were impressed by the new DNA model, especially Brenner who subsequently worked with Crick at Cambridge in the Cavendish Laboratory and the new Laboratory of Molecular Biology.", "According to the late Dr. Beryl Oughton, later Rimmer, they all travelled together in two cars once Dorothy Hodgkin announced to them that they were off to Cambridge to see the model of the structure of DNA.", "Orgel also later worked with Crick at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies.National Science Museum in London.Soon after Crick's death, there have been allegations about him having used LSD when he came to the idea of the helix structure of the DNA.", "While he almost certainly did use LSD, it is unlikely that he did so as early as 1953.===Molecular biology===In 1954, at the age of 37, Crick completed his PhD thesis: \"''X-Ray Diffraction: Polypeptides and Proteins''\" and received his degree.", "Crick then worked in the laboratory of David Harker at Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute, where he continued to develop his skills in the analysis of X-ray diffraction data for proteins, working primarily on ribonuclease and the mechanisms of protein synthesis.", "David Harker, the American X-ray crystallographer, was described as \"the John Wayne of crystallography\" by Vittorio Luzzati, a crystallographer at the Centre for Molecular Genetics in Gif-sur-Yvette near Paris, who had worked with Rosalind Franklin.After the discovery of the double helix model of DNA, Crick's interests quickly turned to the biological implications of the structure.", "In 1953, Watson and Crick published another article in ''Nature'' which stated: \"it therefore seems likely that the precise sequence of the bases is the code that carries the genetical information\".Collagen triple helix.In 1956, Crick and Watson speculated on the structure of small viruses.", "They suggested that spherical viruses such as Tomato bushy stunt virus had icosahedral symmetry and were made from 60 identical subunits.After his short time in New York, Crick returned to Cambridge where he worked until 1976, at which time he moved to California.", "Crick engaged in several X-ray diffraction collaborations such as one with Alexander Rich on the structure of collagen.", "However, Crick was quickly drifting away from continued work related to his expertise in the interpretation of X-ray diffraction patterns of proteins.George Gamow established a group of scientists interested in the role of RNA as an intermediary between DNA as the genetic storage molecule in the nucleus of cells and the synthesis of proteins in the cytoplasm (the RNA Tie Club).", "It was clear to Crick that there had to be a code by which a short sequence of nucleotides would specify a particular amino acid in a newly synthesised protein.", "In 1956, Crick wrote an informal paper about the genetic coding problem for the small group of scientists in Gamow's RNA group.", "In this article, Crick reviewed the evidence supporting the idea that there was a common set of about 20 amino acids used to synthesize proteins.", "Crick proposed that there was a corresponding set of small \"adaptor molecules\" that would hydrogen bond to short sequences of a nucleic acid, and also link to one of the amino acids.", "He also explored the many theoretical possibilities by which short nucleic acid sequences might code for the 20 amino acids.Molecular model of a tRNA molecule.", "Crick predicted that such adaptor molecules might exist as the links between codons and amino acids.During the mid-to-late 1950s Crick was very much intellectually engaged in sorting out the mystery of how proteins are synthesised.", "By 1958, Crick's thinking had matured and he could list in an orderly way all of the key features of the protein synthesis process:* genetic information stored in the sequence of DNA molecules* a \"messenger\" RNA molecule to carry the instructions for making one protein to the cytoplasm* adaptor molecules (\"they might contain nucleotides\") to match short sequences of nucleotides in the RNA messenger molecules to specific amino acids* ribonucleic-protein complexes that catalyse the assembly of amino acids into proteins according to the messenger RNAThe adaptor molecules were eventually shown to be tRNAs and the catalytic \"ribonucleic-protein complexes\" became known as ribosomes.", "An important step was the realization by Crick and Brenner on 15 April 1960 during a conversation with François Jacob that messenger RNA was not the same thing as ribosomal RNA.", "Later that summer, Brenner, Jacob, and Matthew Meselson conducted an experiment which was the first to prove the existence of messenger RNA.", "None of this, however, answered the fundamental theoretical question of the exact nature of the genetic code.", "In his 1958 article, Crick speculated, as had others, that a triplet of nucleotides could code for an amino acid.", "Such a code might be \"degenerate\", with 4×4×4=64 possible triplets of the four nucleotide subunits while there were only 20 amino acids.", "Some amino acids might have multiple triplet codes.", "Crick also explored other codes in which, for various reasons, only some of the triplets were used, \"magically\" producing just the 20 needed combinations.", "Experimental results were needed; theory alone could not decide the nature of the code.", "Crick also used the term \"central dogma\" to summarise an idea that implies that genetic information flow between macromolecules would be essentially one-way::'''DNA → RNA → protein'''Some critics thought that by using the word \"dogma\", Crick was implying that this was a rule that could not be questioned, but all he really meant was that it was a compelling idea without much solid evidence to support it.", "In his thinking about the biological processes linking DNA genes to proteins, Crick made explicit the distinction between the materials involved, the energy required, and the information flow.", "Crick was focused on this third component (information) and it became the organising principle of what became known as molecular biology.", "Crick had by this time become a highly influential theoretical molecular biologist.Proof that the genetic code is a degenerate triplet code finally came from genetics experiments, some of which were performed by Crick.", "The details of the code came mostly from work by Marshall Nirenberg and others who synthesised synthetic RNA molecules and used them as templates for ''in vitro'' protein synthesis.", "Nirenberg first announced his results to a small audience in Moscow at a 1961 conference.", "Crick's reaction was to invite Nirenberg to deliver his talk to a larger audience." ], [ "Controversy", "===Use of other researchers' data===Watson and Crick's use of DNA X-ray diffraction data collected by Franklin and Wilkins has generated an enduring controversy.", "It arose from the fact that some of Franklin's unpublished data were used without her knowledge or consent by Watson and Crick in their construction of the double helix model of DNA.", "Of the four DNA researchers, only Franklin had a degree in chemistry; Wilkins and Crick had backgrounds in physics, Watson in biology.Prior to publication of the double helix structure, Watson and Crick had little direct interaction with Franklin herself.", "They were, however, aware of her work, more aware than she herself realised.", "Watson was present at a lecture, given in November 1951, where Franklin presented the two forms of the molecule, type A and type B, and discussed the position of the phosphate units on the external part of the molecule.", "She also specified the amount of water to be found in the molecule in accordance with other parts of it, data that have considerable importance in terms of the stability of the molecule.", "She was the first to discover and formulate these facts, which in fact constituted the basis for all later attempts to build a model of the molecule.", "Before this, both Linus Pauling and Watson and Crick had generated erroneous models with the chains inside and the bases pointing outwards.", "Her identification of the space group for DNA crystals revealed to Crick that the two DNA strands were antiparallel.In January 1953, Watson was shown an X-ray photograph of B-DNA (called photograph 51), by Wilkins.", "Wilkins had been given photograph 51 by Rosalind Franklin's PhD student Raymond Gosling.", "Wilkins and Gosling had worked together in the Medical Research Council's (MRC) Biophysics Unit before director John Randall appointed Franklin to take over both DNA diffraction work and guidance of Gosling's thesis.", "It appears that Randall did not communicate effectively with them about Franklin's appointment, contributing to confusion and friction between Wilkins and Franklin.In the middle of February 1953, Crick's thesis advisor, Max Perutz, gave Crick a copy of a report written for a Medical Research Council biophysics committee visit to King's in December 1952, containing data from the King's group, including some of Franklin's crystallographic calculations.Franklin was unaware that photograph 51 and other information had been shared with Crick and Watson.", "She wrote a series of three draft manuscripts, two of which included a double helical DNA backbone.", "Her two A form manuscripts reached Acta Crystallographica in Copenhagen on 6 March 1953, one day before Crick and Watson had completed their model.The X-ray diffraction images collected by Gosling and Franklin provided the best evidence for the helical nature of DNA.", "Franklin's experimental work thus proved crucial in Watson and Crick's discovery.", "Her experimental results provided estimates of the water content of DNA crystals, and these results were most consistent with the three sugar-phosphate backbones being on the outside of the molecule.", "Franklin's X-Ray photograph showed that the backbones had to be on the outside.", "Although she at first insisted vehemently that her data did not force one to conclude that DNA has a helical structure, in the drafts she submitted in 1953 she argues for a double helical DNA backbone.", "Her identification of the space group for DNA crystals revealed to Crick that the DNA strands were antiparallel, which helped Watson and Crick decide to look for DNA models with two antiparallel polynucleotide strands.In summary, Watson and Crick had three sources for Franklin's unpublished data: 1) her 1951 seminar, attended by Watson, 2) discussions with Wilkins, who worked in the same laboratory with Franklin, 3) a research progress report that was intended to promote coordination of Medical Research Council-supported laboratories.", "Watson, Crick, Wilkins and Franklin all worked in MRC laboratories.Crick and Watson felt that they had benefited from collaborating with Wilkins.", "They offered him a co-authorship on the article that first described the double helix structure of DNA.", "Wilkins turned down the offer, a fact that may have led to the terse character of the acknowledgement of experimental work done at King's College in the eventual published paper.", "Rather than make any of the DNA researchers at King's College co-authors on the Watson and Crick double helix article, the solution that was arrived at was to publish two additional papers from King's College along with the helix paper.", "Brenda Maddox suggests that because of the importance of her experimental results in Watson and Crick's model building and theoretical analysis, Franklin should have had her name on the original Watson and Crick paper in ''Nature''.", "Franklin and Gosling submitted their own joint \"second\" paper to ''Nature'' at the same time as Wilkins, Stokes, and Wilson submitted theirs (i.e.", "the \"third\" paper on DNA).Watson's portrayal of Franklin in ''The Double Helix'' was negative and gave the appearance that she was Wilkins' assistant and was unable to interpret her own DNA data.The X-ray diffraction images collected by Franklin provided the best evidence for the helical nature of DNA.", "While Franklin's experimental work proved important to Crick and Watson's development of a correct model, she herself could not realise it at the time.", "When she left King's College, Director Sir John Randall insisted that all DNA work belonged exclusively to King's and ordered Franklin to not even think about it.", "Franklin subsequently did superb work in J. D. Bernal's Lab at Birkbeck College with the tobacco mosaic virus extending ideas on helical construction.Crick was often described as very talkative, with Watson – in ''The Double Helix'' – implying lack of modesty.", "His personality combined with his scientific accomplishments produced many opportunities for Crick to stimulate reactions from others, both inside and outside the scientific world, which was the centre of his intellectual and professional life.", "Also described as an example of Crick's wide recognition and public profile are some of the times Crick was addressed as \"Sir Francis Crick\" with the assumption that someone so famous must have been knighted.", "Crick spoke rapidly, and rather loudly, and had an infectious and reverberating laugh, and a lively sense of humour.", "One colleague from the Salk Institute described him as \"a brainstorming intellectual powerhouse with a mischievous smile. ...", "Francis was never mean-spirited, just incisive.", "He detected microscopic flaws in logic.", "In a room full of smart scientists, Francis continually reearned his position as the heavyweight champ.", "\"===Eugenics===Crick occasionally expressed his views on eugenics, usually in private letters.", "For example, Crick advocated a form of positive eugenics in which wealthy parents would be encouraged to have more children.", "He once remarked, \"In the long run, it is unavoidable that society will begin to worry about the character of the next generation ...", "It is not a subject at the moment which we can tackle easily because people have so many religious beliefs and until we have a more uniform view of ourselves I think it would be risky to try and do anything in the way of eugenics ...", "I would be astonished if, in the next 100 or 200 years, society did not come round to the view that they would have to try to improve the next generation in some extent or one way or another.", "\"===Sexual harassment===Biologist Nancy Hopkins says when she was an undergraduate in the 1960s, Crick put his hands on her breasts during a lab visit.", "She described the incident: \"Before I could rise and shake hands, he had zoomed across the room, stood behind me, put his hands on my breasts and said, 'What are you working on?" ], [ "Views on religion", "Crick referred to himself as a humanist, which he defined as the belief \"that human problems can and must be faced in terms of human moral and intellectual resources without invoking supernatural authority.\"", "He publicly called for humanism to replace religion as a guiding force for humanity, writing:The human dilemma is hardly new.", "We find ourselves through no wish of our own on this slowly revolving planet in an obscure corner of a vast universe.", "Our questioning intelligence will not let us live in cow-like content with our lot.", "We have a deep need to know why we are here.", "What is the world made of?", "More important, what are we made of?", "In the past religion answered these questions, often in considerable detail.", "Now we know that almost all these answers are highly likely to be nonsense, having sprung from man's ignorance and his enormous capacity for self-deception ...", "The simple fables of the religions of the world have come to seem like tales told to children.", "Even understood symbolically they are often perverse, if not rather unpleasant ... Humanists, then, live in a mysterious, exciting and intellectually expanding world, which, once glimpsed, makes the old worlds of the religions seem fake-cosy and staleCrick was especially critical of Christianity:I do not respect Christian beliefs.", "I think they are ridiculous.", "If we could get rid of them we could more easily get down to the serious problem of trying to find out what the world is all about.Crick once joked, \"Christianity may be OK between consenting adults in private but should not be taught to young children.", "\"In his book ''Of Molecules and Men'', Crick expressed his views on the relationship between science and religion.", "After suggesting that it would become possible for a computer to be programmed so as to have a soul, he wondered: at what point during biological evolution did the first organism have a soul?", "At what moment does a baby get a soul?", "Crick stated his view that the idea of a non-material soul that could enter a body and then persist after death is just that, an imagined idea.", "For Crick, the mind is a product of physical brain activity and the brain had evolved by natural means over millions of years.", "He felt that it was important that evolution by natural selection be taught in schools and that it was regrettable that English schools had compulsory religious instruction.", "He also considered that a new scientific world view was rapidly being established, and predicted that once the detailed workings of the brain were eventually revealed, erroneous Christian concepts about the nature of humans and the world would no longer be tenable; traditional conceptions of the \"soul\" would be replaced by a new understanding of the physical basis of mind.", "He was sceptical of organised religion, referring to himself as a sceptic and an agnostic with \"a strong inclination towards atheism\".In 1960, Crick accepted an honorary fellowship at Churchill College, Cambridge, one factor being that the new college did not have a chapel.", "Some time later a large donation was made to establish a chapel and the College Council decided to accept it.", "Crick resigned his fellowship in protest.In October 1969, Crick participated in a celebration of the 100th year of the journal ''Nature'' in which he attempted to make some predictions about what the next 30 years would hold for molecular biology.", "His speculations were later published in ''Nature''.", "Near the end of the article, Crick briefly mentioned the search for life on other planets, but he held little hope that extraterrestrial life would be found by the year 2000.He also discussed what he described as a possible new direction for research, what he called \"biochemical theology\".", "Crick wrote \"so many people pray that one finds it hard to believe that they do not get some satisfaction from it\".Crick suggested that it might be possible to find chemical changes in the brain that were molecular correlates of the act of prayer.", "He speculated that there might be a detectable change in the level of some neurotransmitter or neurohormone when people pray.", "He might have been imagining substances such as dopamine that are released by the brain under certain conditions and produce rewarding sensations.", "Crick's suggestion that there might someday be a new science of \"biochemical theology\" seems to have been realised under an alternative name: there is now the new field of neurotheology.", "Crick's view of the relationship between science and religion continued to play a role in his work as he made the transition from molecular biology research into theoretical neuroscience.Crick asked in 1998 \"and if some of the Bible is manifestly wrong, why should any of the rest of it be accepted automatically? ...", "And what would be more important than to find our true place in the universe by removing one by one these unfortunate vestiges of earlier beliefs?", "\"In 2003 he was one of 22 Nobel laureates who signed the ''Humanist Manifesto''.===Creationism===Crick was a firm critic of young Earth creationism.", "In the 1987 United States Supreme Court case ''Edwards v. Aguillard'', Crick joined a group of other Nobel laureates who advised, Creation-science' simply has no place in the public-school science classroom.\"", "Crick was also an advocate for the establishment of Darwin Day as a British national holiday." ], [ "Directed panspermia", "During the 1960s, Crick became concerned with the origins of the genetic code.", "In 1966, Crick took the place of Leslie Orgel at a meeting where Orgel was to talk about the origin of life.", "Crick speculated about possible stages by which an initially simple code with a few amino acid types might have evolved into the more complex code used by existing organisms.", "At that time, proteins were thought to be the only kind of enzyme, and ribozymes had not yet been identified.", "Many molecular biologists were puzzled by the problem of the origin of a protein replicating system that is as complex as that which exists in organisms currently inhabiting Earth.", "In the early 1970s, Crick and Orgel further speculated about the possibility that the production of living systems from molecules may have been a very rare event in the universe, but once it had developed it could be spread by intelligent life forms using space travel technology, a process they called \"directed panspermia\".", "In a retrospective article, Crick and Orgel noted that they had been unduly pessimistic about the chances of abiogenesis on Earth when they had assumed that some kind of self-replicating protein system was the molecular origin of life.In 1976, Crick addressed the origin of protein synthesis in a paper with Sydney Brenner, Aaron Klug, and George Pieczenik.", "In this paper, they speculate that code constraints on nucleotide sequences allow protein synthesis without the need for a ribosome.", "It, however, requires a five base binding between the mRNA and tRNA with a flip of the anti-codon creating a triplet coding, even though it is a five-base physical interaction.", "Thomas H. Jukes pointed out that the code constraints on the mRNA sequence required for this translation mechanism is still preserved." ], [ "Neuroscience and other interests", "Results from an fMRI experiment in which people made a conscious decision about a visual stimulus.", "The small region of the brain coloured orange shows patterns of activity that correlate with the decision making process.", "Crick stressed the importance of finding new methods to probe human brain function.Crick's period at Cambridge was the pinnacle of his long scientific career, but he left Cambridge in 1977 after 30 years, having been offered (and having refused) the Mastership of Gonville and Caius.", "James Watson claimed at a Cambridge conference marking the 50th anniversary of the discovery of the structure of DNA in 2003:Now perhaps it's a pretty well kept secret that one of the most uninspiring acts of the University of Cambridge over this past century was to turn down Francis Crick when he applied to be the Professor of Genetics, in 1958.Now there may have been a series of arguments, which led them to reject Francis.", "It was really saying, don't push us to the frontier.The apparently \"pretty well kept secret\" had already been recorded in Soraya De Chadarevian's ''Designs For Life: Molecular Biology After World War II'', published by Cambridge University Press in 2002.His major contribution to molecular biology in Cambridge is well documented in ''The History of the University of Cambridge: Volume 4 (1870 to 1990)'', which was published by CUP in 1992.According to the University of Cambridge's genetics department official website, the electors of the professorship could not reach consensus, prompting the intervention of then University Vice-Chancellor Lord Adrian.", "Lord Adrian first offered the professorship to a compromise candidate, Guido Pontecorvo, who refused, and is said to have offered it then to Crick, who also refused.In 1976, Crick took a sabbatical year at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California.", "Crick had been a nonresident fellow of the Institute since 1960.Crick wrote, \"I felt at home in Southern California.\"", "After the sabbatical, Crick left Cambridge to continue working at the Salk Institute.", "He was also an adjunct professor at the University of California, San Diego.", "He taught himself neuroanatomy and studied many other areas of neuroscience research.", "It took him several years to disengage from molecular biology because exciting discoveries continued to be made, including the discovery of alternative splicing and the discovery of restriction enzymes, which helped make possible genetic engineering.", "Eventually, in the 1980s, Crick was able to devote his full attention to his other interest, consciousness.", "His autobiographical book, ''What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery'', includes a description of why he left molecular biology and switched to neuroscience.Upon taking up work in theoretical neuroscience, Crick was struck by several things:* there were many isolated subdisciplines within neuroscience with little contact between them* many people who were interested in behaviour treated the brain as a black box* consciousness was viewed as a taboo subject by many neurobiologistsCrick hoped he might aid progress in neuroscience by promoting constructive interactions between specialists from the many different subdisciplines concerned with consciousness.", "He also collaborated with neurophilosophers such as Patricia Churchland.", "In 1983, as a result of their studies of computer models of neural networks, Crick and Mitchison proposed that the function of REM sleep and dreaming is to remove certain modes of interactions in networks of cells in the mammalian cerebral cortex; they called this hypothetical process \"reverse learning\" or \"unlearning\".", "In the final phase of his career, Crick established a collaboration with Christof Koch that led to publication of a series of articles on consciousness during the period spanning from 1990 to 2005.Crick made the strategic decision to focus his theoretical investigation of consciousness on how the brain generates visual awareness within a few hundred milliseconds of viewing a scene.", "Crick and Koch proposed that consciousness seems so mysterious because it involves very short-term memory processes that are as yet poorly understood.", "In his book ''The Astonishing Hypothesis'', Crick described how neurobiology had reached a mature enough stage so that consciousness could be the subject of a unified effort to study it at the molecular, cellular and behavioural levels.", "Crick was sceptical about the value of computational models of mental function that are not based on details about brain structure and function.Crick was aware that research on consciousness was a difficult task, as he wrote to Martynas Yčas in April 1996:I don't think we shall fully understand consciousness by the end of this century, but it's possible we can get a glimpse of the answer by then.", "Whether it will all fall into place, as molecular biology did, without a vital force, or whether we need a radical formulation, only time will tell.", "Best wishes, Yours, Francis.", "P.S.", "By the way, I've not been knighted." ], [ "Awards and honours", "Caius College, in Cambridge, commemorating Francis Crick and representing the double helical structure of B-DNA.In addition to his third share of the 1962 Nobel prize for Physiology or Medicine, he received many awards and honours, including the Royal and Copley medals of the Royal Society (1972 and 1975), and also the Order of Merit (on 27 November 1991); he refused an offer of a CBE in 1963, but was often referred to in error as 'Sir Francis Crick' and even on occasions as 'Lord Crick'.", "He was elected an EMBO Member in 1964.The award of Nobel prizes to John Kendrew and Max Perutz, and to Crick, Watson, and Wilkins was satirised in a short sketch in the BBC TV programme ''That Was The Week That Was'' with the Nobel Prizes being referred to as 'The Alfred Nobel Peace Pools'.He was an elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1962), the United States National Academy of Sciences (1969), and the American Philosophical Society (1972).===Francis Crick Medal and Lecture===The Francis Crick Medal and Lecture was established in 2003 following an endowment by his former colleague, Sydney Brenner, joint winner of the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.", "The lecture is delivered annually in any field of biological sciences, with preference given to the areas in which Francis Crick himself worked.", "Importantly, the lectureship is aimed at younger scientists, ideally under 40, or whose career progression corresponds to this age.", ", Crick lectures have been delivered by Julie Ahringer, Dario Alessi, Ewan Birney, Simon Boulton, Jason Chin, Simon Fisher, Matthew Hurles, Gilean McVean, Duncan Odom, Geraint Rees, Sarah Teichmann, M. Madan Babu and Daniel Wolpert.===Francis Crick Institute===The Francis Crick Institute is a £660 million biomedical research centre located in north London, United Kingdom.", "The Francis Crick Institute is a partnership between Cancer Research UK, Imperial College London, King's College London, the Medical Research Council, University College London (UCL) and the Wellcome Trust.", "Completed in 2016, it is the largest centre for biomedical research and innovation in Europe.===Francis Crick Graduate Lectures===The University of Cambridge Graduate School of Biological, Medical and Veterinary Sciences hosts The Francis Crick Graduate Lectures.", "The first two lectures were by John Gurdon and Tim Hunt.===Other honours===* The inscription on the helices of a DNA sculpture (which was donated by James Watson) outside Clare College's Thirkill Court, Cambridge, England reads: \"The structure of DNA was discovered in 1953 by Francis Crick and James Watson while Watson lived here at Clare.\"", "and on the base: \"The double helix model was supported by the work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins.", "\"* Another sculpture entitled ''Discovery'', by artist Lucy Glendinning was installed on Tuesday, 13 December 2005 in Abington Street, Northampton.", "According to the late Lynn Wilson, chairman of the Wilson Foundation, \"The sculpture celebrates the life of a world class scientist who must surely be considered the greatest Northamptonian of all time — by discovering DNA he unlocked the whole future of genetics and the alphabet of life.", "\"* Westminster City Council unveiled a green plaque to Francis Crick on the front façade of 56 St George's Square, Pimlico, London SW1 on 20 June 2007; Crick lived in the first floor flat, together with Robert Dougall of BBC radio and later TV fame, a former Royal Navy associate.", "* In addition, Crick was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1959, a Fellow of the International Academy of Humanism, and a Fellow of CSICOP.", "* In 1987, Crick received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.", "* At a meeting of the executive council of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) (formerly CSICOP) in Denver, Colorado in April 2011, Crick was selected for inclusion in CSI's Pantheon of Skeptics.", "The Pantheon of Skeptics was created by CSI to remember the legacy of deceased fellows of CSI and their contributions to the cause of scientific scepticism.", "* A sculpted bust of Francis Crick by John Sherrill Houser, which incorporates a single \"Golden\" Helix, was cast in bronze in the artist's studio in New Mexico, US.", "The bronze was first displayed at the Francis Crick Memorial Conference (on Consciousness) at the University of Cambridge's Churchill College on 7 July 2012; it was bought by Mill Hill School in May 2013, and displayed at the inaugural Crick Dinner on 8 June 2013, and will be again at their Crick Centenary Dinner in 2016.", "* The Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences of the American Philosophical Society (2001), together with Watson.", "* Crick featured in the BBC Radio 4 series ''The New Elizabethans'' to mark the diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II in 2012.A panel of seven academics, journalists and historians named Crick among a group of 60 people in the UK \"whose actions during the reign of Elizabeth II have had a significant impact on lives in these islands and given the age its character\"." ], [ "Books", "* ''Of Molecules and Men'' (Prometheus Books, 2004; original edition 1967) * ''Life Itself: Its Origin and Nature'' (Simon & Schuster, 1981) * ''What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery'' (Basic Books reprint edition, 1990) * ''The Astonishing Hypothesis: The Scientific Search for the Soul'' (Scribner reprint edition, 1995) * Georg Kreisel: a Few Personal Recollections.", "In: ''Kreiseliana: About and Around Georg Kreisel'' (1996), pp.", "25–32." ], [ "See also", "* Crick, Brenner et al.", "experiment* Crick's wobble hypothesis* History of RNA biology* List of RNA biologists* Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids (article)* Neural correlates of consciousness" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* John Bankston, Francis Crick and James D. Watson; ''Francis Crick and James Watson: Pioneers in DNA Research'' (Mitchell Lane Publishers, Inc., 2002) .", "* Bill Bryson; ''A Short History of Nearly Everything'' (Broadway Books, 2003) .", "* Soraya De Chadarevian; ''Designs For Life: Molecular Biology After World War II'', CUP 2002, 444 pp; .", "* Roderick Braithwaite.", "''Strikingly Alive:'' ''The History of the Mill Hill School Foundation 1807–2007''; published Phillimore & Co. * Edwin Chargaff; ''Heraclitean Fire'', Rockefeller Press, 1978.", "* S. Chomet (Ed.", "), ''D.N.A.", "Genesis of a Discovery'', 1994, Newman- Hemisphere Press, London* Dickerson, Richard E.; ''Present at the Flood: How Structural Molecular Biology Came About'', Sinauer, 2005; .", "* Edward Edelson, ''Francis Crick And James Watson: And the Building Blocks of Life'', Oxford University Press, 2000, .", "* John Finch; ''A Nobel Fellow On Every Floor'', Medical Research Council 2008, 381 pp, .", "* Hager, Thomas; ''Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling'', Simon & Schuster 1995; * Graeme Hunter; ''Light Is A Messenger, the life and science of William Lawrence Bragg'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) .", "* Horace Freeland Judson, ''The Eighth Day of Creation.", "Makers of the Revolution in Biology''; Penguin Books 1995, first published by Jonathan Cape, 1977; .", "* Errol C. Friedberg; ''Sydney Brenner: A Biography'', pub.", "CSHL Press October 2010, .", "* Torsten Krude (Ed.", "); ''DNA Changing Science and Society'' () CUP 2003.", "(The Darwin Lectures for 2003, including one by Sir Aaron Klug on Rosalind Franklin's involvement in the determination of the structure of DNA).", "* Robert Olby; ''The Path to The Double Helix: Discovery of DNA''; first published in October 1974 by MacMillan, with foreword by Francis Crick; ; revised in 1994, with a 9-page postscript.", "* Robert Olby; Oxford National Dictionary article: Crick, Francis Harry Compton (1916–2004).", "In: ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', Oxford University Press, January 2008.", "* Anne Sayre.", "1975.", "''Rosalind Franklin and DNA''.", "New York: W.W. Norton and Company.", ".", "* James D. Watson; ''The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA'', Atheneum, 1980, (first published in 1968) is a very readable firsthand account of the research by Crick and Watson.", "The book also formed the basis of the award-winning television dramatisation ''Life Story'' by BBC Horizon (also broadcast as ''Race for the Double Helix'').", "The Norton Critical Edition, which was published in 1980, edited by Gunther S. Stent: * James D. Watson; ''Avoid Boring People and Other Lessons from a Life in Science'', New York: Random House.", "." ], [ "External links", "* The Francis Crick Institute* \"Francis Harry Compton Crick (1916–2004)\" by A. Andrei at the Embryo Project Encyclopedia* * '''Crick papers'''* Register of Francis Crick Personal Papers – MSS 660 Crick's personal papers at Mandeville Special Collections Library, Geisel Library, University of California, San Diego* Francis Crick Archive — Papers by Francis Crick are available for study at the Wellcome Library's Archives and Manuscripts department.", "These papers include those dealing with Crick's career after he moved to the Salk Institute in San Diego.", "The digitised papers are available at Codebreakers: Makers of Modern Genetics: the Francis Crick papers* Comprehensive list of pdf files of Crick's papers from 1950 to 1990 – National Library of Medicine.", "* Francis Crick papers – ''Nature.com''* Key Participants: Francis H. C. Crick – ''Linus Pauling and the Race for DNA: A Documentary History'''''Audio and video files'''* An interview with Francis Crick and Christof Koch, 2001 * Listen to Francis Crick* '' The Quest for Consciousness '' – ''The Quest for Consciousness'' – 65 minute audio program — a conversation on Consciousness with neurobiologist Francis Crick of the Salk Institute and neurobiologist Christof Koch from Caltech.", "* Listen to Francis Crick and James Watson talking on the BBC in 1962, 1972, and 1974.", "* The Impact of Linus Pauling on Molecular Biology – a 1995 talk delivered by Crick at Oregon State University'''About his work'''* The Crick Papers at the Wellcome Trust.", "* \"Quiet debut for the double helix\" by Professor Robert Olby, ''Nature'' '''421''' (23 January 2003): 402–405.", "* Reading list for discovery of DNA story from the National Centre for Biotechnology Education.", "* Papers of Francis Crick, 1953-1969 held at Churchill Archives Centre'''About his life'''* Olby's Australian lecture, March 2010* Salk Institute Press Release on the death of Francis Crick.", "* The Francis Crick Papers – Profiles in Science, National Library of Medicine* Obituary in ''The Times'' (London) of Francis Crick, 30 July 2004.", "* Francis Crick Obituary ''The Biochemist'''''Miscellaneous'''* National DNA Day, 25 April 2006 Moderated Chat Transcript Archive* ''Independent'' On Line article about Consciousness, 7 June 2006.", "* * 100 Scientists and Thinkers: James Watson and Francis Crick from ''Time'' magazine.", "* Francis Crick: Nobel Prize 1962, Physiology or Medicine* First press stories on DNA but for the \"second\" DNA story in ''The New York Times'', see: https://www.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/science/dna-article.pdf — for reproduction of the original text in June 1953.", "* 50th anniversary series of articles -from ''The New York Times''.", "* Quotes of Robert Olby on exactly who ''may'' have discovered the structure of DNA.", "* A celebration of Francis Crick's life in science.", "* Francis Crick tells his life story at Web of Stories* * Article by Mark Steyn from The Atlantic in 2004.", "* Review of ''Francis Crick: Hunter of Life's Secrets'' in ''Current Biology''." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Francis van Aarssens" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Baron Francis van Aarssens''' or ''' Baron François van Aerssen''' (27 September 1572 - 27 December 1641), from 1611 on lord of Sommelsdijk, was a diplomat and statesman of the United Provinces." ], [ "Biography", "He was born in Brussels, the son of Cornelis van Aarsens, also a statesman.", "His talents commended him to the notice of Advocate Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, who sent him, at the age of 26 years, as a diplomatic agent of the states-general to the court of France.", "He took a considerable part in the negotiations of the Twelve Years' Truce in 1609.His conduct of affairs having displeased the French king, he was recalled from his post by Oldenbarneveldt in 1614, after the French ambassador Benjamin Aubery du Maurier had demanded Aarsens' recall.", "Such was the hatred he henceforth conceived against his former benefactor, that he did his very utmost to effect Oldebarneveldt's ruin.", "However, he was not a member of the court that convicted Oldenbarnevelt in the Trial of Oldenbarnevelt, Grotius and Hogerbeets, as Chisholm mistakenly reports.He afterwards became the confidential counselor of Maurice, Prince of Orange, and afterwards of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, in their conduct of the foreign affairs of the republic.", "He was sent on special embassies to Venice, Germany and England, and displayed so much diplomatic skill and finesse that Cardinal Richelieu ranked him among the three greatest politicians of his time.", "He died, aged 69, in The Hague." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "**" ], [ "External links", "* Van Aerssen family archive inventory*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Frigate" ], [ "Introduction", "A sailing frigate of 1802.The French ''Penelope''.her class of frigates of the German Navy; currently the biggest frigates worldwide.A '''frigate''' () is a type of warship.", "In different eras, the roles and capabilities of ships classified as frigates have varied somewhat.The name frigate in the 17th to early 18th centuries was given to any full-rigged ship built for speed and manoeuvrability, intended to be used in scouting, escort and patrol roles.", "The term was applied loosely to ships varying greatly in design.", "In the second quarter of the 18th century, the 'true frigate' was developed in France.", "This type of vessel was characterised by possessing only one armed deck, with an unarmed deck below it used for berthing the crew.Late in the 19th century (British and French prototypes were constructed in 1858), armoured frigates were developed as powerful ironclad warships, the term frigate was used because of their single gun deck.", "Later developments in ironclad ships rendered the frigate designation obsolete and the term fell out of favour.", "During the Second World War the name 'frigate' was reintroduced to describe a seagoing escort ship intermediate in size between a corvette and a destroyer.", "After World War II, a wide variety of ships have been classified as frigates.", "Often there has been little consistency in usage.", "While some navies have regarded frigates as principally large ocean-going anti-submarine warfare (ASW) combatants, others have used the term to describe ships that are otherwise recognisable as corvettes, destroyers, and even nuclear-powered guided-missile cruisers.", "Some European navies use the term \"frigate\" for both their destroyers and frigates.", "The rank \"frigate captain\" derives from the name of this type of ship." ], [ "Age of sail", "===Origins===The term \"frigate\" (Italian: ''fregata''; Dutch: ''fregat''; Spanish/Catalan/Portuguese/Sicilian: ''fragata''; French: ''frégate'') originated in the Mediterranean in the late 15th century, referring to a lighter galley-type warship with oars, sails and a light armament, built for speed and maneuverability.Light frigate, circa 1675–1680The etymology of the word remains uncertain, although it may have originated as a corruption of ''aphractus'', a Latin word for an open vessel with no lower deck.", "''Aphractus'', in turn, derived from the Ancient Greek phrase ἄφρακτος ναῦς (''aphraktos naus'') – \"undefended ship\".", "In 1583, during the Eighty Years' War of 1568–1648, Habsburg Spain recovered the southern Netherlands from the Protestant rebels.", "This soon resulted in the use of the occupied ports as bases for privateers, the \"Dunkirkers\", to attack the shipping of the Dutch and their allies.", "To achieve this the Dunkirkers developed small, maneuverable, sailing vessels that came to be referred to as frigates.", "The success of these Dunkirker vessels influenced the ship design of other navies contending with them, but because most regular navies required ships of greater endurance than the Dunkirker frigates could provide, the term soon came to apply less exclusively to any relatively fast and elegant sail-only warship.", "In French, the term \"frigate\" gave rise to a verb – ''frégater'', meaning 'to build long and low', and to an adjective, adding more confusion.", "Even the huge English could be described as \"a delicate frigate\" by a contemporary after her upper decks were reduced in 1651.The navy of the Dutch Republic became the first navy to build the larger ocean-going frigates.", "The Dutch navy had three principal tasks in the struggle against Spain: to protect Dutch merchant ships at sea, to blockade the ports of Spanish-held Flanders to damage trade and halt enemy privateering, and to fight the Spanish fleet and prevent troop landings.", "The first two tasks required speed, shallowness of draft for the shallow waters around the Netherlands, and the ability to carry sufficient supplies to maintain a blockade.", "The third task required heavy armament, sufficient to stand up to the Spanish fleet.", "The first of the larger battle-capable frigates were built around 1600 at Hoorn in Holland.", "By the later stages of the Eighty Years' War the Dutch had switched entirely from the heavier ships still used by the English and Spanish to the lighter frigates, carrying around 40 guns and weighing around 300 tons.The effectiveness of the Dutch frigates became most evident in the Battle of the Downs in 1639, encouraging most other navies, especially the English, to adopt similar designs.", "The fleets built by the Commonwealth of England in the 1650s generally consisted of ships described as \"frigates\", the largest of which were two-decker \"great frigates\" of the third rate.", "Carrying 60 guns, these vessels were as big and capable as \"great ships\" of the time; however, most other frigates at the time were used as \"cruisers\": independent fast ships.", "The term \"frigate\" implied a long hull-design, which relates directly to speed (see hull speed) and which also, in turn, helped the development of the broadside tactic in naval warfare., of Louis Antoine de BougainvilleAt this time, a further design evolved, reintroducing oars and resulting in galley frigates such as of 1676, which was rated as a 32-gun fifth-rate but also had a bank of 40 oars set below the upper deck that could propel the ship in the absence of a favourable wind.", "In Danish, the word \"fregat\" often applies to warships carrying as few as 16 guns, such as , which the British classified as a sloop.", "Under the rating system of the Royal Navy, by the middle of the 18th century, the term \"frigate\" was technically restricted to single-decked ships of the fifth rate, though small 28-gun frigates classed as sixth rate.===Classic design===A Gun deck of the frigate The classic sailing frigate, or 'true frigate', well-known today for its role in the Napoleonic Wars, can be traced back to French developments in the second quarter of the 18th century.", "The French-built of 1740 is often regarded as the first example of this type.", "These ships were square-rigged and carried all their main guns on a single continuous upper deck.", "The lower deck, known as the \"gun deck\", now carried no armament, and functioned as a \"berth deck\" where the crew lived, and was in fact placed below the waterline of the new frigates.", "The typical earlier cruiser had a partially armed lower deck, from which it was known as a 'half-battery' or ''demi-batterie'' ship.", "Removing the guns from this deck allowed the height of the hull upperworks to be lowered, giving the resulting 'true-frigate' much improved sailing qualities.", "The unarmed deck meant that the frigate's guns were carried comparatively high above the waterline; as a result, when seas were too rough for two-deckers to open their lower deck gunports, frigates were still able to fight with all their guns (see the action of 13 January 1797, for an example when this was decisive).The Royal Navy captured a number of the new French frigates, including ''Médée'', during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) and were impressed by them, particularly for their inshore handling capabilities.", "They soon built copies (ordered in 1747), based on a French privateer named ''Tygre'', and started to adapt the type to their own needs, setting the standard for other frigates as the leading naval power.", "The first British frigates carried 28 guns including an upper deck battery of twenty-four 9-pounder guns (the remaining four smaller guns were carried on the quarterdeck) but soon developed into fifth-rate ships of 32 or 36 guns including an upper deck battery of twenty-six 12-pounder guns, with the remaining six or ten smaller guns carried on the quarterdeck and forecastle.", "Technically, 'rated ships' with fewer than 28 guns could not be classed as frigates but as \"post ships\"; however, in common parlance most post ships were often described as \"frigates\", the same casual misuse of the term being extended to smaller two-decked ships that were too small to stand in the line of battle.A total of fifty-nine French sailing frigates were built between 1777 and 1790, with a standard design averaging a hull length of and an average draught of .", "The new frigates recorded sailing speeds of up to , significantly faster than their predecessor vessels.===Heavy frigate=== (1817) a restored British 18-pounder, 38-gun heavy frigateIn 1778, the British Admiralty introduced a larger \"heavy\" frigate, with a main battery of twenty-six or twenty-eight 18-pounder guns (with smaller guns carried on the quarterdeck and forecastle).", "This move may reflect the naval conditions at the time, with both France and Spain as enemies the usual British preponderance in ship numbers was no longer the case and there was pressure on the British to produce cruisers of individually greater force.", "In reply, the first French 18-pounder frigates were laid down in 1781.The 18-pounder frigate eventually became the standard frigate of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.", "The British produced larger, 38-gun, and slightly smaller, 36-gun, versions and also a 32-gun design that can be considered an 'economy version'.", "The 32-gun frigates also had the advantage that they could be built by the many smaller, less-specialised shipbuilders.Frigates could (and usually did) additionally carry smaller carriage-mounted guns on their quarterdecks and forecastles (the superstructures above the upper deck).", "In 1778 the Carron Iron Company of Scotland produced a naval gun which would revolutionise the armament of smaller naval vessels, including the frigate.", "The carronade was a large calibre, short-barrelled naval cannon which was light, quick to reload and needed a smaller crew than a conventional long gun.", "Due to its lightness it could be mounted on the forecastle and quarterdeck of frigates.", "It greatly increased the firepower, measured in weight of metal (the combined weight of all projectiles fired in one broadside), of these vessels.", "The disadvantages of the carronade were that it had a much shorter range and was less accurate than a long gun.", "The British quickly saw the advantages of the new weapon and soon employed it on a wide scale.", "The US Navy also copied the design soon after its appearance.", "The French and other nations eventually adopted variations of the weapon in succeeding decades.", "The typical heavy frigate had a main armament of 18-pounder long guns, plus 32-pounder carronades mounted on its upper decks.===Super-heavy frigates===.The first 'super-heavy frigates', armed with 24-pounder long guns, were built by the naval architect F H Chapman for the Swedish navy in 1782.Because of a shortage of ships-of-the-line, the Swedes wanted these frigates, the ''Bellona'' class, to be able to stand in the battle line in an emergency.", "In the 1790s the French built a small number of large 24-pounder frigates, such as and ''Egyptienne'', they also cut-down (reduced the height of the hull to give only one continuous gun deck) a number of older ships-of-the-line (including ) to produce super-heavy frigates; the resulting ship was known as a ''rasée''.", "It is not known whether the French were seeking to produce very potent cruisers or merely to address stability problems in old ships.", "The British, alarmed by the prospect of these powerful heavy frigates, responded by rasée-ing three of their smaller 64-gun battleships, including , which went on to have a very successful career as a frigate.", "At this time the British also built a few 24-pounder-armed large frigates, the most successful of which was (1,277 tons).In 1797, three of the United States Navy's first six major ships were rated as 44-gun frigates, which operationally carried fifty-six to sixty 24-pounder long guns and 32-pounder or 42-pounder carronades on two decks; they were exceptionally powerful.", "These ships were so large, at around 1,500 tons, and well-armed that they were often regarded as equal to ships of the line, and after a series of losses at the outbreak of the War of 1812, Royal Navy fighting instructions ordered British frigates (usually of 38 guns or less) to never engage the large American frigates at any less than a 2:1 advantage.", ", preserved as a museum ship by the US Navy, is the oldest commissioned warship afloat, and is a surviving example of a frigate from the Age of Sail.", "''Constitution'' and her sister ships and were created in a response to deal with the Barbary Coast pirates and in conjunction with the Naval Act of 1794.Joshua Humphreys proposed that only live oak, a tree that grew only in America, should be used to build these ships.The British, wounded by repeated defeats in single-ship actions, responded to the success of the American 44s in three ways.", "They built a class of conventional 40-gun, 24-pounder armed frigates on the lines of ''Endymion''.", "They cut down three old 74-gun Ships-of-the-Line into ''rasées'', producing frigates with a 32-pounder main armament, supplemented by 42-pounder carronades.", "These had an armament that far exceeded the power of the American ships.", "Finally, and , 1,500-ton spar-decked frigates (with an enclosed waist, giving a continuous line of guns from bow to stern at the level of the quarterdeck/forecastle), were built, which were an almost exact match in size and firepower to the American 44-gun frigates.===Role===, the first iron-hulled armoured steam frigate – the hull survived as an oil terminal dock and was restored to its original appearance in the late 20th centuryFrigates were perhaps the hardest-worked of warship types during the Age of Sail.", "While smaller than a ship-of-the-line, they were formidable opponents for the large numbers of sloops and gunboats, not to mention privateers or merchantmen.", "Able to carry six months' stores, they had very long range; and vessels larger than frigates were considered too valuable to operate independently.Frigates scouted for the fleet, went on commerce-raiding missions and patrols, and conveyed messages and dignitaries.", "Usually, frigates would fight in small numbers or singly against other frigates.", "They would avoid contact with ships-of-the-line; even in the midst of a fleet engagement it was bad etiquette for a ship of the line to fire on an enemy frigate which had not fired first.", "Frigates were involved in fleet battles, often as \"repeating frigates\".", "In the smoke and confusion of battle, signals made by the fleet commander, whose flagship might be in the thick of the fighting, might be missed by the other ships of the fleet.", "Frigates were therefore stationed to windward or leeward of the main line of battle, and had to maintain a clear line of sight to the commander's flagship.", "Signals from the flagship were then repeated by the frigates, which themselves standing out of the line and clear from the smoke and disorder of battle, could be more easily seen by the other ships of the fleet.", "If damage or loss of masts prevented the flagship from making clear conventional signals, the repeating frigates could interpret them and hoist their own in the correct manner, passing on the commander's instructions clearly.", "For officers in the Royal Navy, a frigate was a desirable posting.", "Frigates often saw action, which meant a greater chance of glory, promotion, and prize money.Unlike larger ships that were placed in ordinary, frigates were kept in service in peacetime as a cost-saving measure and to provide experience to frigate captains and officers which would be useful in wartime.", "Frigates could also carry marines for boarding enemy ships or for operations on shore; in 1832, the frigate landed a party of 282 sailors and Marines ashore in the US Navy's first Sumatran expedition.", "Frigates remained a crucial element of navies until the mid-19th century.", "The first ironclads were classified as \"frigates\" because of the number of guns they carried.", "However, terminology changed as iron and steam became the norm, and the role of the frigate was assumed first by the protected cruiser and then by the light cruiser.Frigates are often the vessel of choice in historical naval novels due to their relative freedom compared to ships-of-the-line (kept for fleet actions) and smaller vessels (generally assigned to a home port and less widely ranging).", "For example, the Patrick O'Brian Aubrey–Maturin series, C. S. Forester's Horatio Hornblower series and Alexander Kent's Richard Bolitho series.", "The motion picture ''Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World'' features a reconstructed historic frigate, HMS ''Rose'', to depict Aubrey's frigate HMS ''Surprise''." ], [ "Age of steam", "paddle frigate Vessels classed as frigates continued to play a great role in navies with the adoption of steam power in the 19th century.", "In the 1830s, navies experimented with large paddle steamers equipped with large guns mounted on one deck, which were termed \"paddle frigates\".From the mid-1840s on, frigates which more closely resembled the traditional sailing frigate were built with steam engines and screw propellers.", "These \"screw frigates\", built first of wood and later of iron, continued to perform the traditional role of the frigate until late in the 19th century.===Armoured frigate===From 1859, armour was added to ships based on existing frigate and ship of the line designs.", "The additional weight of the armour on these first ironclad warships meant that they could have only one gun deck, and they were technically frigates, even though they were more powerful than existing ships-of-the-line and occupied the same strategic role.", "The phrase \"armoured frigate\" remained in use for some time to denote a sail-equipped, broadside-firing type of ironclad.During the 1880s, as warship design shifted from iron to steel and cruising warships without sails started to appear, the term \"frigate\" fell out of use.", "Vessels with armoured sides were designated as \"battleships\" or \"armoured cruisers\", while \"protected cruisers\" only possessed an armoured deck, and unarmoured vessels, including frigates and sloops, were classified as \"unprotected cruisers\"." ], [ "Modern era", "===World War II===A San Pedro, California, on 30 May 1944Modern frigates are related to earlier frigates only by name.", "The term \"frigate\" was readopted during the Second World War by the British Royal Navy to describe an anti-submarine escort vessel that was larger than a corvette (based on a mercantile design), while smaller than a destroyer.", "Equal in size and capability to the American destroyer escort, frigates are usually less expensive to build and maintain.", "Small anti-submarine escorts designed for naval use from scratch had previously been classified as sloops by the Royal Navy, and the s of 1939–1945 (propelled by steam turbines as opposed to cheaper triple-expansion steam engines) were as large as the new types of frigate, and more heavily armed.", "22 of these were reclassified as frigates after the war, as were the remaining 24 smaller s.The frigate was introduced to remedy some of the shortcomings inherent in the corvette design: limited armament, a hull form not suited to open-ocean work, a single shaft which limited speed and maneuverability, and a lack of range.", "The frigate was designed and built to the same mercantile construction standards (scantlings) as the corvette, allowing manufacture by yards unused to warship construction.", "The first frigates of the (1941) were essentially two sets of corvette machinery in one larger hull, armed with the latest Hedgehog anti-submarine weapon.The frigate possessed less offensive firepower and speed than a destroyer, including an escort destroyer, but such qualities were not required for anti-submarine warfare.", "Submarines were slow while submerged, and ASDIC sets did not operate effectively at speeds of over .", "Rather, the frigate was an austere and weatherly vessel suitable for mass-construction and fitted with the latest innovations in anti-submarine warfare.", "As the frigate was intended purely for convoy duties, and not to deploy with the fleet, it had limited range and speed.It was not until the Royal Navy's of 1944 that a British design classified as a \"frigate\" was produced for fleet use, although it still suffered from limited speed.", "These anti-aircraft frigates, built on incomplete hulls, were similar to the United States Navy's destroyer escorts (DE), although the latter had greater speed and offensive armament to better suit them to fleet deployments.", "The destroyer escort concept came from design studies by the General Board of the United States Navy in 1940, as modified by requirements established by a British commission in 1941 prior to the American entry into the war, for deep-water escorts.", "The American-built destroyer escorts serving in the British Royal Navy were rated as Captain-class frigates.", "The U.S. Navy's two Canadian-built and 96 British-influenced, American-built frigates that followed originally were classified as \"patrol gunboats\" (PG) in the U.S. Navy but on 15 April 1943 were all reclassified as '''patrol frigates (PF)'''.===Modern frigate=======Guided-missile role====Polish Navy ORP ''Generał Tadeusz Kościuszko''The Chilean Navy ''Almirante Blanco Encalada'', this class is also operated in Netherland, Belgium and Portugal.San Diego, California, in May 1978.She was classified as a guided-missile frigate (DLG-16) until 1975, when she was reclassified as a guided-missile cruiser (CG-16).The introduction of the surface-to-air missile after World War II made relatively small ships effective for anti-aircraft warfare: the \"guided-missile frigate\".", "In the USN, these vessels were called \"ocean escorts\" and designated \"DE\" or \"DEG\" until 1975 – a holdover from the World War II destroyer escort or \"DE\".", "The Royal Canadian Navy and British Royal Navy maintained the use of the term \"frigate\"; likewise, the French Navy refers to missile-equipped ships, up to cruiser-sized ships (, , and es), by the name of \"frégate\", while smaller units are named ''aviso''.", "The Soviet Navy used the term \"guard-ship\" (''сторожевой корабль'').From the 1950s to the 1970s, the United States Navy commissioned ships classed as guided-missile frigates (hull classification symbol DLG or DLGN, literally meaning guided-missile destroyer leaders), which were actually anti-aircraft warfare cruisers built on destroyer-style hulls.", "These had one or two twin launchers per ship for the RIM-2 Terrier missile, upgraded to the RIM-67 Standard ER missile in the 1980s.", "This type of ship was intended primarily to defend aircraft carriers against anti-ship cruise missiles, augmenting and eventually replacing converted World War II cruisers (CAG/CLG/CG) in this role.", "The guided-missile frigates also had an anti-submarine capability that most of the World War II cruiser conversions lacked.", "Some of these ships – and along with the and es – were nuclear-powered (DLGN).", "These \"frigates\" were roughly mid-way in size between cruisers and destroyers.", "This was similar to the use of the term \"frigate\" during the age of sail during which it referred to a medium-sized warship, but it was inconsistent with conventions used by other contemporary navies which regarded frigates as being smaller than destroyers.", "During the 1975 ship reclassification, the large American frigates were redesignated as guided-missile cruisers or destroyers (CG/CGN/DDG), while ocean escorts (the American classification for ships smaller than destroyers, with hull symbol DE/DEG (destroyer escort)) such as the ''Knox''-class were reclassified as frigates (FF/FFG), sometimes called \"fast frigates\".", "In the late 1970s, as a gradual successor to the ''Knox'' frigates, the US Navy introduced the 51-ship guided-missile frigates (FFG), the last of which was decommissioned in 2015, although some serve in other navies.", "By 1995 the older guided-missile cruisers and destroyers were replaced by the s and s.One of the most successful post-1945 designs was the British , which was used by several navies.", "Laid down in 1959, the ''Leander'' class was based on the previous Type 12 anti-submarine frigate but equipped for anti-aircraft use as well.", "They were used by the UK into the 1990s, at which point some were sold onto other navies.", "The ''Leander'' design, or improved versions of it, were licence-built for other navies as well.", "Nearly all modern frigates are equipped with some form of offensive or defensive missiles, and as such are rated as guided-missile frigates (FFG).", "Improvements in surface-to-air missiles (e.g., the Eurosam Aster 15) allow modern guided-missile frigates to form the core of many modern navies and to be used as a fleet defence platform, without the need for specialised anti-air warfare frigates.Modern destroyers and frigates have sufficient endurance and seaworthiness for long voyages and so are considered blue water vessels, while corvettes (even the largest ones capable of carrying an anti-submarine warfare helicopter) are typically deployed in coastal or littoral zones so are regarded as brown-water or green-water vessels.", "According to Dr. Sidharth Kaushal of the Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies, describing the difference between 21st century destroyers and frigates, the larger \"destroyers can more easily carry and generate the power for more powerful high-resolution radar and a larger number of vertical launch cells.", "They can thus provide theatre wide air and missile defence for forces such as a carrier battle group and typically serve this function\".", "By contrast the smaller \"frigates are thus usually used as escort vessels to protect sea lines of communication or as an auxiliary component of a strike group\".", "The largest and powerful destroyers are often classified as cruisers, such as the s, due to their extra armament and facilities to serve as fleet flagships.====Other uses====The Royal Navy Type 61 (''Salisbury'' class) were \"air direction\" frigates equipped to track aircraft.", "To this end they had reduced armament compared to the Type 41 (''Leopard''-class) air-defence frigates built on the same hull.", "Multi-role frigates like the MEKO 200, and es are designed for navies needing warships deployed in a variety of situations that a general frigate class would not be able to fulfill and not requiring the need for deploying destroyers.====Anti-submarine role==== of the Royal Navy.", "Type 23 frigates were built for anti-submarine warfare but are capable multi-purpose ships.At the opposite end of the spectrum, some frigates are specialised for anti-submarine warfare.", "Increasing submarine speeds towards the end of World War II (see German Type XXI submarine) greatly reduced the margin of speed superiority of frigate over submarine.", "The frigate could no longer be slow and powered by mercantile machinery and consequently postwar frigates, such as the , were faster.Such ships carry improved sonar equipment, such as the variable depth sonar or towed array, and specialised weapons such as torpedoes, forward-throwing weapons such as Limbo and missile-carried anti-submarine torpedoes such as ASROC or Ikara.", "The Royal Navy's original Type 22 frigate is an example of a specialised anti-submarine warfare frigate, though it also has Sea Wolf surface-to-air missiles for point defense plus Exocet surface-to-surface missiles for limited offensive capability.Especially for anti-submarine warfare, most modern frigates have a landing deck and hangar aft to operate helicopters, eliminating the need for the frigate to close with unknown sub-surface threats, and using fast helicopters to attack nuclear submarines which may be faster than surface warships.", "For this task the helicopter is equipped with sensors such as sonobuoys, wire-mounted dipping sonar and magnetic anomaly detectors to identify possible threats, and torpedoes or depth-charges to attack them.With their onboard radar helicopters can also be used to reconnoitre over-the-horizon targets and, if equipped with anti-ship missiles such as Penguin or Sea Skua, to attack them.", "The helicopter is also invaluable for search and rescue operation and has largely replaced the use of small boats or the jackstay rig for such duties as transferring personnel, mail and cargo between ships or to shore.", "With helicopters these tasks can be accomplished faster and less dangerously, and without the need for the frigate to slow down or change course.====Air defence role====Frigates designed in the 1960s and 1970s, such as the US Navy's , West Germany's , and Royal Navy's Type 22 frigate were equipped with a small number of short-ranged surface-to-air missiles (Sea Sparrow or Sea Wolf) for point defense only.By contrast newer frigates starting with the are specialised for \"zone-defense\" air defence, because of the major developments in fighter jets and ballistic missiles.", "Recent examples include the air defence and command frigate of the Royal Netherlands Navy.", "These ships are armed with VL Standard Missile 2 Block IIIA, one or two Goalkeeper CIWS systems, ( has two Goalkeepers, the rest of the ships have the capacity for another one.)", "VL Evolved Sea Sparrow Missiles, a special SMART-L radar and a Thales Active Phased Array Radar (APAR), all of which are for air defence.", "Another example is the of the Royal Danish Navy.====Further developments====The stealthy FREMM multipurpose frigate of the French NavyThe stealthy of the French Navy that introduced the Stealth Technology in the early 1990sStealth technology has been introduced in modern frigate design by the French design.", "Frigate shapes are designed to offer a minimal radar cross section, which also lends them good air penetration; the maneuverability of these frigates has been compared to that of sailing ships.", "Examples are the Italian and French with the Aster 15 and Aster 30 missile for anti-missile capabilities, the German and s, the Turkish type frigates with the MK-41 VLS, the Indian , and classes with the Brahmos missile system and the Malaysian with the Naval Strike Missile.The modern French Navy applies the term first-class frigate and second-class frigate to both destroyers and frigates in service.", "Pennant numbers remain divided between F-series numbers for those ships internationally recognised as frigates and D-series pennant numbers for those more traditionally recognised as destroyers.", "This can result in some confusion as certain classes are referred to as frigates in French service while similar ships in other navies are referred to as destroyers.", "This also results in some recent classes of French ships such as the being among the largest in the world to carry the rating of frigate.", "The ''Frégates de Taille Intermédiaire'' (FTI), which means frigates of intermediate size, is a French military program to design and create a planned class of frigates to be used by the French Navy.", "At the moment, the program consists of five ships, with commissioning planned from 2023 onwards.In the German Navy, frigates were used to replace aging destroyers; however in size and role the new German frigates exceed the former class of destroyers.", "The future German s are the largest class of frigates worldwide with a displacement of more than 7,200 tons.", "The same was done in the Spanish Navy, which went ahead with the deployment of the first Aegis frigates, the s. The Myanmar Navy is producing modern frigates with a reduced radar cross section known as the .", "Before the Kyan Sittha class, the Myanmar Navy also produced an .", "Although the size of the Myanmar Navy is quite small, it is producing modern guided-missile frigates with the help of Russia, China, and India.", "However, the fleets of the Myanmar Navy are still expanding with several on-going shipbuilding programmes, including one , 4,000-tonne frigate with the vertical missile launch systems.", "The four planned ''Tamandaré''-class frigates of the Brazilian Navy will be responsible for introducing ships with stealth technology in the national navy and the Latin American region, with the first boat expected to be launched in 2024.====Littoral combat ship (LCS)====, an of the United States NavySome new classes of ships similar to corvettes are optimized for high-speed deployment and combat with small craft rather than combat between equal opponents; an example is the U.S. littoral combat ship (LCS).", "As of 2015, all s in the United States Navy have been decommissioned, and their role partially being assumed by the new LCS.", "While the LCS class ships are smaller than the frigate class they will replace, they offer a similar degree of weaponry while requiring less than half the crew complement and offering a top speed of over .", "A major advantage for the LCS ships is that they are designed around specific mission modules allowing them to fulfill a variety of roles.", "The modular system also allows for most upgrades to be performed ashore and installed later into the ship, keeping the ships available for deployment for the maximum time.The latest U.S. deactivation plans mean that this is the first time that the U.S. Navy has been without a frigate class of ships since 1943 (technically is rated as a frigate and is still in commission, but does not count towards Navy force levels).", "The remaining 20 LCSs to be acquired from 2019 and onwards that will be enhanced will be designated as frigates, and existing ships given modifications may also have their classification changed to ''FF'' as well." ], [ "Frigates in preservation", "A few frigates have survived as museum ships.", "They are:===Original sailing frigates===* in Boston, United States.", "Second oldest commissioned warship in the world, oldest commissioned warship afloat.", "Active as the flagship of the United States Navy.", "* NRP ''Dom Fernando II e Glória'' in Almada, Portugal.", "* in Hartlepool, England.", "* in Dundee, Scotland.===Replica sailing frigates===* , sailing replica of the 1779 ''Hermione'' which carried Lafayette to the United States.", "* , originally named ''Grand Turk'' was built for the TV series ''Hornblower'' in 1997.She was sold to France in 2010 and renamed ''Étoile du Roy.", "''* , a sailing replica of Russia's first warship, homeported in Saint Petersburg, Russia.", "* in San Diego, United States, replica of HMS ''Rose'', used in the film, ''Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World''.===Steam frigates===* in Den Helder, Netherlands.", "* in Ebeltoft, Denmark.", "* , replica in Esashi, Japan.", "* in Portsmouth, England.", "* in Buenos Aires, Argentina.===Modern era frigates===* in Copenhagen, Denmark.", "* in Brisbane, Australia.", "* TCG ''Ege'' (F256), formerly in Izmit, Turkey.", "* ROKS ''Taedong'' (PF-63), formerly in South Korea.", "* ROKS ''Ulsan'' (FF-951), in Ulsan, South Korea.", "* ROKS ''Seoul'' (FF-952), in Seoul, South Korea.", "* HTMS ''Tachin'' (PF-1), formerly in Nakhon Nayok, Thailand.", "* HTMS ''Prasase'' (PF-2), formerly in Rayong Province, Thailand.", "* HTMS ''Phutthaloetla Naphalai'' in Sattahip, Thailand.", "* HTMS ''Phutthayotfa Chulalok'' in Sattahip, Thailand.", "* CNS ''Yingtan'' (FFG-531) in Qingdao, China.", "* CNS ''Xiamen'' (FFG-515) in Taizhou, China.", "* CNS ''Ji'an'' (FFG-518) in Wuxue, China.", "* CNS ''Siping'' (FFG-544) in Xingguo County, China* CNS ''Jinhua'' (FFG-534) in Hengdian, China* CNS ''Dangdong'' (FFG-543) in Dangdong, China* in Lucknow, India (Planned)* in London, England.", "* in London, England.", "* in Glasgow, Scotland (planned)* in Horten, Norway.", "* in Lumut, Malaysia.", "* in Yangon, Myanmar===Former museums===* Dominican frigate ''Mella'' was on display in the Dominican Republic from 1998 to 2003, when she was scrapped due to her deteriorating condition.", "* KD ''Rahmat'' was on display in Lumut, Malaysia from 2011 to 2017.She sank at her moorings due to poor condition, and was later scrapped.", "* RFS ''Druzhnyy'' was on display in Moscow, Russia from 2002 to 2016, until the museum plans fell through and was sold for scrap.", "* was on display in Birkenhead, England from 1990 to 2006, when the museum that operated her was forced to close.", "She was later scrapped in 2012.", "* CNS ''Nanchong'' (FF-502) was on display in Qingdao, China from 1988 to 2012, when her faulty material made preservation difficult and was later scrapped." ], [ "Operators", "===By country===* operates three ''Adhafer''-class frigates and two MEKO A-200AN frigates* operates six ''Espora''-class frigates/corvettes * operates a single modified and two ''Hamilton''-class patrol frigates from the United States* operates six s* operates three s purchased from Belgium* operates twelve s* operates 31 Jiangkai II-class frigates and two Jiang kai I-class frigates.", "* operates three Jiangwei I-class frigates transferred from the navy* operates four s* operates two s, converted from fishing trawlers* operates four ''Thetis''-class frigates and three s, two s.* operates two s purchased from Chile* operates one MEKO A-200EN frigate and a ''Black Swan''-class frigate used as training ship* operates a single -class frigate* operates six s.* operates four s, four s and three s with the latter sometimes classed as destroyers.", "* operates nine s purchased from the Netherlands, and four s* operates 12 frigates three s, six s, and three s.* operates two s, five s, purchased from the Netherlands, and three ''Bung Tomo''-class light frigates, purchased from the UK.", "* operates four s and three s.* operates two ''Thaon di Revel''-class patrol frigates, four s.* operates four s with more under construction and six ''Abukuma''-class frigates.", "* operates two s* operates six s, two s, and eight s.* operates two s* operates single ''Reformador''-class frigate* operates three ''Tarik Ben Ziyad''-class frigates.", "* operates two s and one * operates two ''Hamilton''-class patrol frigates from the United States, a single ''Aradu''-class frigate, though its operational status is doubtful, and a single ''Obuma''-class frigate used as training hulk.", "* operates four s (a variant of the Chinese Type 054 frigate)* operates seven s, with four being transferred from Italy* operates a single , transferred from the Navy* operates two s* operates three s* operates one ''Gremyashchiy''-class frigates/corvettes, seven ''Steregushchiy''-class frigates/corvettes, three s, three s, two s, two s and two s.* operates two s* operates four s* operates four s, made in Germany based on the MEKO A200 design* operates single and two old frigates used as training ships, the and .", "* operates four s, four s, and one s..* operates one ===By class======= current operator ====* operates three ships==== current operator ====* operates three ships* is building four ships==== current operator ====* operates eight ships* operates two ships==== FREMM multipurpose frigate current operator ====* operates two ''Bergamini''-class frigates from Italy, one ''Aquitaine''-class frigate from France* operates eight ''Aquitaine''-class frigates* operates ten ''Bergamini''-class frigates* operates one ''Aquitaine''-class frigate ordered from France==== current operator ====* operates six ships* operates two ships ordered from France==== current operator ====* operates two ships* operates four ships==== current operator ====* operates two ships purchased from The Netherlands* operates two ships purchased from The Netherlands* operates two ships* operates two ships purchased from the Netherlands==== current operator ====* operates six ships purchased from the US* operates two ships purchased from the US* operates four ships purchased from the US==== current operator ====* operates three ships* operates single ship* operates single ship==== current operator ====* operates six s, which are the Taiwanese variant of the French ''La Fayette'' class* operates five ships* operates three s, which are the Saudi variant of the French ''La Fayette'' class* operates six s, these are the Singapore variant of the French ''La Fayette'' class==== current operator ====* operates single ship donated from the US* operates two s purchased from Australia, these are the Australian variant of the US ''Oliver Hazard Perry'' class * operates 10 s, which are the Taiwanese variant of the US ''Oliver Hazard Perry'' class* operates four ships* operates single ship purchased from the US* operates two ships purchased from the US* Operates five s, these are the Spanish variant of the US ''Oliver Hazard Perry'' class* operates eight s purchased from the US==== current operator ====* operates single ship* operates single ship, though its operational status is doubtful* operates five ships==== Type 053 frigate current operator ====* operates two Jianghu II-class frigates and two Jianghu III-class frigates purchased from China* operates six Jianghu-class frigates and seven Jiangwei II-class frigates* operates two Jianghu II-class frigates purchased from China* operates four s and two s purchased from China* operates four s (a variant of the Chinese Type 053H3 frigate)* operates a single Jiangwei I-class frigate purchased from China==== Type 22 frigate current operator ====* operates single ship purchased from the UK* operates single ship purchased from the UK* operates two ships purchased from the UK==== Type 23 frigate current operator ====* operates three ships purchased from the UK* operates 11 ships==== Disputed classes ====These ships are classified by their respective nations as frigates, but are considered destroyers internationally due to size, armament, and role.", "* operates three s and four s.* operates four s.* operates four s.* operates the , classified as a destroyer until 2001.", "* operates five s." ], [ "Former operators", "* decommissioned its last true frigates, the in 1998.", "* decommissioned its last in 1998.", "* lost its entire fleet, including two s and the training frigate ''Ethiopia'', following the independence of Eritrea in 1991.", "* decommissioned EML ''Admiral Pitka'' in 2013.", "* decommissioned its last in 1985.", "* decommissioned all three s upon German Reunification in 1990.", "* lost its only operational frigate ''Ibn Khaldoum'' which was sunk in 2003.", "* decommissioned its last in 1959.", "* decommissioned both its ''Kotor''-class frigates in 2019.", "* transferred its two s to Montenegro upon their independence in 2006.", "* decommissioned its last two ''Visby''-class frigates in 1982, following defense reviews.", "* operated a single ''Hetman Sahaidachny'' which was scuttled in 2022.", "* decommissioned its last in 2015.", "* decommissioned its last in 2022.", "* transferred its six remaining ''Trần Quang Khải''-class frigates to the Philippines following the Fall of Saigon in 1975.The seventh ship was captured by North Vietnam and recommissioned into the Vietnam People's Navy." ], [ "Future development", "* ''Steregushchiy''-class frigate has ordered three ''Steregushchiy''-class frigates from Russia.", "* has ordered nine s. These ships are the Australian variant of the Type 26 frigates, and will carry the AEGIS combat system.", "* is planning to build two Anti-Submarine Warfare frigates to replace the current s. It is a joint project with the Netherlands.", "* has ordered four s. These ships will replace Brazil's aging s. * plans to order 15 Type 26 frigates as the design for the Canadian Surface Combatant.", "These ships will replace the decommissioned s and s.* is continuing to build Jiangkai II-class frigates.", "* is planning to build 10–15 new frigates to replace the aging ''Knox'' class and ''Cheng Kung'' class.", "* is planning to build four s. These vessels, despite their classification have been described as frigates by the Finnish defense ministry and lead to a debate over the classification in the Finnish Parliament.", "* is building five Amiral Ronarc'h-class frigates.", "* is currently planning to build six F126 frigates to replace the s.* is planning to build three ''Belharra''-class frigates as a part of plans for replacing its aging s. There is an option for a fourth ship.", "* is building a total of 11 frigates, seven s. 4 Admiral Grigorovich-class frigates.", "* is currently building one Type 31 frigate with another one planned.", "Indonesia will also order six ''Bergamini''-class frigates and two .", "* is building 16 ''Thaon di Revel''-class frigates.", "These vessels will replace the decommissioned s and s. Italy is also planning to commission two more ''Bergamini''-class frigates.", "* is currently building four more s. * is currently building four s. These ships 0will replace the s.* is currently building six s.* is currently building six s and currently planning for 12 ships for the class.", "* will commission one more ''Reformador''-class frigate.", "* is constructing a new frigate which is long and displaces 4,000 tonnes.", "* is planning to build two Anti-Submarine Warfare frigates to replace the current s. It is a joint project with Belgium.", "* is currently building three projekt 106 frigates to replace its aging ''Oliver Hazard Perry''-class frigates.", "* is currently building eight more s. Russia is also planning the construction of 12 Project 22350M frigates, known as the ''Super Gorshkov''-class.", "* ordered four upgraded versions of the from the United States.", "These ships are to replace the aging s.* is currently planning to build five s. These ships will replace Spain's s.* is currently building an additional .", "* is currently building the s as a part of the MILGEM project.", "* was building one ''Volodymyr Velykyi''-class frigate.", "Construction began in 2011, then suffered delays and was completely stopped in 2014.The Black Sea Shipyard responsible for the program went bankrupt in 2021, the ship was only 17% complete.", "It was hoped that this class would help rebuild the Ukrainian Navy, which has been depleted since the capture of most of its fleet following the 2014 Russian Annexation of Crimea.", "The United States has offered to transfer two ''Oliver Hazard Perry''-class frigates to Ukraine, the offer is still under consideration.", "* is currently building eight Type 26 frigates.", "These ships, along with five planned Type 31 frigates will replace the Type 23 frigates currently in service.", "Additionally, five Type 32 frigates are also planned to supplement the Royal Navy's strength.", "* is currently building 20 s. These ships are a variant of the FREMM multipurpose frigate and will replace the decommissioned ''Oliver Hazard Perry''-class frigates.", "As of late 2022, only three guided-missile frigates have been announced." ], [ "See also", "* Frigate 36, a sailboat design, named in honour of the warship class* , a destroyer design officially named Project 1155 ''Fregat'', which translates to frigate or frigatebird* List of escorteurs of the French Navy* List of frigate classes* List of frigate classes by country* List of frigates of World War II* United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * Bennett, G. (2001)''The Battle of Trafalgar'', Barnsley (2004).", ".", "* Constam, Angus & Bryan, Tony, British Napoleonic Ship-Of-The-Line, Osprey Publishing, 184176308X* * * * * * *Lambert, Andrew (1984) ''Battleships in Transition, the Creation of the Steam Battlefleet 1815–1860'', published Conway Maritime Press, .", "* *Lavery, Brian.", "(1983) ''The Ship of the Line, Volume 1: The Development of the Battlefleet, 1650–1850''.", "Annapolis, Md.", ": Naval Institute Press, .", "*Lavery, Brian.", "(1984) ''The Ship of the Line, Volume 2: Design, Construction and Fittings''.", "Annapolis, Md.", ": Naval Institute Press, .", "*Lavery, B.", "(2004) ''Ship'', Dorling Kindersly, Ltd .", ".", "*Mahan, A.T. (2007) ''The Influence of Sea Power Upon History 1660–1783'', Cosimo, Inc.*Marriott, Leo.", "''Royal Navy Frigates 1945–1983'', Ian Allan, 1983, .", "*Macfarquhar, Colin & Gleig, George (eds.", "), ((1797)) ''Encyclopædia Britannica: Or, A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', London, Volume 17, Third Edition.", "* *Sondhaus, L. ''Naval Warfare, 1815–1914''.", "*Winfield, Rif.", "(1997) ''The 50-Gun Ship''.", "London: Caxton Editions, , ." ], [ "External links", "* Frigates from battleships-cruisers.co.uk – history and pictures of United Kingdom frigates since World War II* Frigates from Destroyers OnLine – pictures, history, crews of United States frigates since 1963* The Development of the Full-Rigged Ship From the Carrack to the Full-Rigger" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Francisco Franco" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Francisco Franco Bahamonde''' (; 4 December 1892 – 20 November 1975) was a Spanish military general who led the Nationalist forces in overthrowing the Second Spanish Republic during the Spanish Civil War and thereafter ruled over Spain from 1939 to 1975 as a dictator, assuming the title ''Caudillo''.", "This period in Spanish history, from the Nationalist victory to Franco's death, is commonly known as Francoist Spain or as the Francoist dictatorship.Born in Ferrol, Galicia, into an upper-class military family, Franco served in the Spanish Army as a cadet in the Toledo Infantry Academy from 1907 to 1910.While serving in Morocco, he rose through the ranks to become a brigadier general in 1926 at age 33.Two years later, Franco became the director of the General Military Academy in Zaragoza.", "As a conservative and monarchist, Franco regretted the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of the Second Republic in 1931, and was devastated by the closing of his academy; nevertheless, he continued his service in the Republican Army.", "His career was boosted after the right-wing CEDA and PRR won the 1933 election, empowering him to lead the suppression of the 1934 uprising in Asturias.", "Franco was briefly elevated to Chief of Army Staff before the 1936 election moved the leftist Popular Front into power, relegating him to the Canary Islands.Initially reluctant, he joined the July 1936 military coup, which, after failing to take Spain, sparked the Spanish Civil War.", "During the war, he commanded Spain's African colonial army and later, following the deaths of much of the rebel leadership, became his faction's only leader, being appointed ''generalissimo'' and head of state in 1936.He consolidated all nationalist parties into the FET y de las JONS (creating a one-party state) and developed a cult of personality around his rule by founding the ''Movimiento Nacional''.", "Three years later the Nationalists declared victory, which extended Franco's dictatorship over Spain through a period of repression of political opponents.", "His dictatorship's use of forced labour, concentration camps and executions led to between 30,000 and 50,000 deaths.", "Combined with wartime killings, this brings the death toll of the White Terror to between 100,000 and 200,000.During World War II, he maintained Spanish neutrality, but supported the Axis—in recompense to Italy and Germany for their support during the Civil War—damaging the country's international reputation in various ways.", "During the start of the Cold War, Franco lifted Spain out of its mid-20th century economic depression through technocratic and economically liberal policies, presiding over a period of accelerated growth known as the \"Spanish miracle\".", "At the same time, his regime transitioned from a totalitarian state to an authoritarian one with limited pluralism.", "He became a leader in the anti-communist movement, garnering support from the West, particularly the United States.", "As the dictatorship relaxed its hard-line policies, Luis Carrero Blanco became Franco's ''éminence grise'', whose role expanded after Franco began struggling with Parkinson's disease in the 1960s.", "In 1973, Franco resigned as prime minister—separated from the office of head of state since 1967—due to his advanced age and illness.", "Nevertheless, he remained in power as the head of state and as commander-in-chief.", "Franco died in 1975, aged 82, and was entombed in the Valle de los Caídos.", "He restored the monarchy in his final years, being succeeded by Juan Carlos, King of Spain, who led the Spanish transition to democracy.The legacy of Franco in Spanish history remains controversial, as the nature of his dictatorship changed over time.", "His reign was marked by both brutal repression, with tens of thousands killed, and economic prosperity, which greatly improved the quality of life in Spain.", "His dictatorial style proved adaptable enough to allow social and economic reform, but still centred on highly centralised government, authoritarianism, nationalism, national Catholicism, anti-freemasonry and anti-communism." ], [ "Early life", "His parents with Francisco in arms, on the day of his baptism on 17 December 1892Francisco Franco Bahamonde was born on 4 December 1892 in the Calle Frutos Saavedra in Ferrol, Galicia, into a seafaring family.", "He was baptised thirteen days later at the military church of San Francisco, with the baptismal name Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo.After relocating to Galicia, the Franco family was involved in the Spanish Navy, and over the span of two centuries produced naval officers for six uninterrupted generations (including several admirals), down to Franco's father (22 November 1855 – 22 February 1942).His mother, (15 October 1865 – 28 February 1934), was from an upper-middle-class Roman Catholic family.", "Her father, Ladislao Bahamonde Ortega, was the commissar of naval equipment at the Port of El Ferrol.", "Franco's parents married in 1890 in the Church of San Francisco in El Ferrol.", "The young Franco spent much of his childhood with his two brothers, Nicolás and Ramón, and his two sisters, María del Pilar and María de la Paz.", "His brother Nicolás was a naval officer and diplomat who married María Isabel Pascual del Pobil.", "Ramón was an internationally known aviator and a Freemason, originally with leftist political leanings.", "He was also the second sibling to die, killed in an air accident on a military mission in 1938.Franco's father was a naval officer who reached the rank of vice admiral (''intendente general'').", "When Franco was fourteen, his father moved to Madrid following a reassignment and ultimately abandoned his family, marrying another woman.", "While Franco did not suffer any great abuse by his father's hand, he would never overcome his antipathy for his father and largely ignored him for the rest of his life.", "Years after becoming dictator, under the pseudonym Jaime de Andrade, Franco wrote a brief novel called ''Raza'', whose protagonist is believed by Stanley Payne to represent the idealised man Franco wished his father had been.", "Conversely, Franco strongly identified with his mother (who always wore widow's black once she realised her husband had abandoned her) and learned from her moderation, austerity, self-control, family solidarity and respect for Catholicism, though he would also inherit his father's harshness, coldness and implacability." ], [ "Military career", "=== Rif War and advancement through the ranks ===Francisco followed his father into the Navy, but as a result of the Spanish–American War the country lost much of its navy as well as most of its colonies.", "Not needing any more officers, the Naval Academy admitted no new entrants from 1906 to 1913.To his father's chagrin, Francisco decided to try the Spanish Army.", "In 1907, he entered the Infantry Academy in Toledo.", "At the age of fourteen, Franco was one of the youngest members of his class, with most boys being between sixteen and eighteen.", "He was short and was bullied for his small size.", "His grades were average; though his good memory meant he seldom struggled academically, his small stature was a hindrance in physical tests.", "He graduated in July 1910 as a second lieutenant, standing 251st out of 312 cadets in his class, though this might have had less to do with his grades than with his small size and young age.", "Stanley Payne observes that by the time civil war began, Franco had already become a major general and would soon be a ''generalissimo'', while none of his higher-ranking fellow cadets had managed to get beyond the rank of lieutenant-colonel.", "Franco was promoted to the rank of first lieutenant in June 1912 at age 19.Two years later, he obtained a commission to Morocco.", "Spanish efforts to occupy the new African protectorate provoked the Second Melillan campaign in 1909 against native Moroccans, the first of several Riffian rebellions.", "Their tactics resulted in heavy losses among Spanish military officers, and also provided an opportunity to earn promotion through merit on the battlefield.", "It was said that officers would receive either ''la caja o la faja'' (a coffin or a general's sash).", "Franco quickly gained a reputation as an effective officer.", "North Africa, 1925 In 1913, Franco transferred into the newly formed regulares: Moroccan colonial troops with Spanish officers, who acted as elite shock troops.", "In 1916, aged 23 with the rank of captain, Franco was shot in the abdomen by guerrilla gunfire during an assault on Moroccan positions at ''El Biutz'', in the hills near Ceuta; this was the only time he was wounded in ten years of fighting.", "The wound was serious, and he was not expected to live.", "His recovery was seen by his Moroccan troops as a spiritual event – they believed Franco to be blessed with ''baraka'' or protected by God.", "He was recommended for promotion to major and to receive Spain's highest honour for gallantry, the coveted ''Cruz Laureada de San Fernando''.", "Both proposals were denied, with the 23-year-old Franco's young age being given as the reason for denial.", "Franco appealed the decision to the king, who reversed it.", "Franco also received the ''Cross of Maria Cristina, First Class''.With that he was promoted to major at the end of February 1917 at age 24.This made him the youngest major in the Spanish army.", "From 1917 to 1920, he served in Spain.", "In 1920, Lieutenant Colonel José Millán Astray, a histrionic but charismatic officer, founded the Spanish Foreign Legion, along similar lines as the French Foreign Legion.", "Franco became the Legion's second-in-command and returned to Africa.", "In the Rif War, the poorly commanded and overextended Spanish Army was defeated by the Republic of the Rif under the leadership of the Abd el-Krim brothers, who crushed a Spanish offensive on 24 July 1921, at Annual.", "The Legion and supporting units relieved the Spanish city of Melilla after a three-day forced march led by Franco.", "In 1923, now a lieutenant colonel, he was made commander of the Legion.On 22 October 1923, Franco married María del Carmen Polo y Martínez-Valdès (11 June 1900 – 6 February 1988).", "Following his honeymoon Franco was summoned to Madrid to be presented to King Alfonso XIII.", "This and other occasions of royal attention would mark him during the Republic as a monarchical officer.Disappointed with the plans by Spain's Prime Minister, Lieutenant General Miguel Primo de Rivera, for a strategic retreat from the interior to the African coastline, Colonel Franco wrote in the April 1924 issue of ''Revista de Tropas Coloniales'' (''Colonial Troops Magazine'') that he would disobey orders of retreat given by a superior.", "As a result, Franco had a tense meeting with Primo de Rivera in July.", "Lieutenant Colonel Franco visited a fellow ''africanista'', General Gonzalo Queipo de Llano, on 21 September 1924 to propose that Queip de Llano organize a coup d'état against Primo.", "In the end, Franco complied with General Primo's orders, taking part in the retreat of Spanish soldiers from Xaouen in late 1924, and thus earning a promotion to colonel.Franco led the first wave of troops ashore at Al Hoceima (Spanish: ''Alhucemas'') in 1925.This landing in the heartland of Abd el-Krim's tribe, combined with the French invasion from the south, spelled the beginning of the end for the short-lived Republic of the Rif.", "Franco was eventually recognised for his leadership, and he was promoted to brigadier general on 3 February 1926, making him the youngest general in Europe at age 33, according to Payne and Palacios.", "On 14 September 1926, Franco and Polo had a daughter, María del Carmen.", "Franco would have a close relationship with his daughter and was a proud parent, though his traditionalist attitudes and increasing responsibilities meant he left much of the child-rearing to his wife.", "In 1928 Franco was appointed director of the newly created General Military Academy of Zaragoza, a new college for all Spanish army cadets, replacing the former separate institutions for young men seeking to become officers in infantry, cavalry, artillery, and other branches of the army.", "Franco was removed as Director of the Zaragoza Military Academy in 1931; when the Civil War began, the colonels, majors, and captains of the Spanish Army who had attended the academy when he was its director displayed unconditional loyalty to him as ''Caudillo''.=== During the Second Spanish Republic ===The municipal elections of 12 April 1931 were largely seen as a plebiscite on the monarchy.", "The Republican-Socialist alliance failed to win the majority of the municipalities in Spain but had a landslide victory in all the large cities and in almost all the provincial capitals.", "The monarchists and the army deserted Alfonso XIII and consequently the king decided to leave the country and go into exile, giving way to the Second Spanish Republic.", "Although Franco believed that the majority of the Spanish people still supported the crown, and although he regretted the end of the monarchy, he did not object, nor did he challenge the legitimacy of the republic.", "The closing of the academy in June by the provisional War Minister Manuel Azaña however was a major setback for Franco and provoked his first clash with the Spanish Republic.", "Azaña found Franco's farewell speech to the cadets insulting.", "In his speech Franco stressed the Republic's need for discipline and respect.", "Azaña entered an official reprimand into Franco's personnel file and for six months Franco was without a post and under surveillance.In December 1931, a new reformist, liberal, and democratic constitution was declared.", "It included strong provisions enforcing a broad secularisation of the Catholic country, which included the abolishing of Catholic schools and charities, which many moderate committed Catholics opposed.", "At this point, once the constituent assembly had fulfilled its mandate of approving a new constitution, it should have arranged for regular parliamentary elections and adjourned, according to historian Carlton J. H. Hayes.", "Fearing the increasing popular opposition, the Radical and Socialist majority postponed the regular elections, thereby prolonging their stay in power for two more years.", "This way the republican government of Manuel Azaña initiated numerous reforms to what in their view would \"modernize\" the country.Franco was a subscriber to the journal of Acción Española, a monarchist organisation, and a firm believer in a supposed Jewish-Masonic-Bolshevik conspiracy, or ''contubernio'' (conspiracy).", "The conspiracy suggested that Jews, Freemasons, Communists, and other leftists alike sought the destruction of Christian Europe, with Spain being the principal target.Franco in 1930On 5 February 1932, Franco was given a command in A Coruña.", "Franco avoided involvement in José Sanjurjo's attempted coup that year, and even wrote a hostile letter to Sanjurjo expressing his anger over the attempt.", "As a result of Azaña's military reform, in January 1933 Franco was relegated from first to 24th in the list of brigadiers.", "The same year, on 17 February he was given the military command of the Balearic Islands.", "The post was above his rank, but Franco was still unhappy that he was stuck in a position he disliked.", "The prime minister wrote in his diary that it was probably more prudent to have Franco away from Madrid.In 1932, the Jesuits, who were in charge of many schools throughout the country, were banned and had all their property confiscated.", "The army was further reduced, and landowners were expropriated.", "Home rule was granted to Catalonia, with a local parliament and a president of its own.", "In June 1933 Pope Pius XI issued the encyclical Dilectissima Nobis (Our Dearly Beloved), \"On Oppression of the Church of Spain\", in which he criticised the anti-clericalism of the Republican government.The elections held in October 1933 resulted in a centre-right majority.", "The political party with the most votes was the Confederación Español de Derechas Autónomas (\"CEDA\"), but president Alcalá-Zamora declined to invite the leader of the CEDA, Gil Robles, to form a government.", "Instead, he invited the Radical Republican Party's Alejandro Lerroux to do so.", "Despite receiving the most votes, CEDA was denied cabinet positions for nearly a year.", "After a year of intense pressure, CEDA, the largest party in the congress, was finally successful in forcing the acceptance of three ministries.", "The entrance of CEDA in the government, despite being normal in a parliamentary democracy, was not well accepted by the left.", "The Socialists triggered an insurrection that they had been preparing for nine months.", "The leftist Republican parties did not directly join the insurrection, but their leadership issued statements that they were \"breaking all relations\" with the Republican government.", "The Catalan ''Bloc Obrer i Camperol'' (BOC) advocated the need to form a broad workers' front and took the lead in forming a new and more encompassing ''Alianza Obrera'', which included the Catalan UGT and the Catalan sector of the PSOE, with the goal of defeating fascism and advancing the socialist revolution.", "The ''Alianza Obrera'' declared a general strike \"against fascism\" in Catalonia in 1934.A Catalan state was proclaimed by Catalan nationalist leader Lluis Companys, but it lasted just ten hours.", "Despite an attempt at a general stoppage in Madrid, other strikes did not endure.", "This left the striking Asturian miners to fight alone.In several mining towns in Asturias, local unions gathered small arms and were determined to see the strike through.", "It began on the evening of 4 October, with the miners occupying several towns, attacking and seizing local Civil and Assault Guard barracks.", "Thirty-four priests, six young seminarists with ages between 18 and 21, and several businessmen and civil guards were summarily executed by the revolutionaries in Mieres and Sama, 58 religious buildings including churches, convents and part of the university at Oviedo were burned and destroyed, and over 100 priests were killed in the diocese.", "Franco, already General of Division and aide to the war minister, Diego Hidalgo, was put in command of the operations directed to suppress the violent insurgency.", "Troops of the Spanish Army of Africa carried this out, with General Eduardo López Ochoa as commander in the field.", "After two weeks of heavy fighting (and a death toll estimated between 1,200 and 2,000), the rebellion was suppressed.The insurgency in Asturias in October 1934 sparked a new era of violent anti-Christian persecutions with the massacre of 34 priests, initiating the practice of atrocities against the clergy, and sharpened the antagonism between Left and Right.", "Franco and López Ochoa (who, prior to the campaign in Asturias, had been seen as a left-leaning officer) emerged as officers prepared to use \"troops against Spanish civilians as if they were a foreign enemy\".", "Franco described the rebellion to a journalist in Oviedo as, \"a frontier war and its fronts are socialism, communism and whatever attacks civilisation to replace it with barbarism.\"", "Though the colonial units sent to the north by the government at Franco's recommendation consisted of the Spanish Foreign Legion and the Moroccan Regulares Indigenas, the right-wing press portrayed the Asturian rebels as lackeys of a foreign Jewish-Bolshevik conspiracy.With this rebellion against legitimate established political authority, the socialists also repudiated the representative institutional system as the anarchists had done.", "The Spanish historian Salvador de Madariaga, an Azaña supporter, and an exiled vocal opponent of Francisco Franco is the author of a sharp critical reflection against the participation of the left in the revolt: \"The uprising of 1934 is unforgivable.", "The argument that Mr Gil Robles tried to destroy the Constitution to establish fascism was, at once, hypocritical and false.", "With the rebellion of 1934, the Spanish left lost even the shadow of moral authority to condemn the rebellion of 1936.", "\"At the start of the Civil War, López Ochoa was assassinated; his head was severed and paraded around the streets on a pole, with a card reading, 'This is the butcher of Asturias'.", "Sometime after these events, Franco was briefly commander-in-chief of the Army of Africa (from 15 February onwards), and from 19 May 1935, on, Chief of the General Staff.==== 1936 general election ====At the end of 1935, President Alcalá-Zamora manipulated a petty-corruption issue into a major scandal in parliament, and eliminated Alejandro Lerroux, the head of the Radical Republican Party, from the premiership.", "Subsequently, Alcalá-Zamora vetoed the logical replacement, a majority centre-right coalition, led by the CEDA, which would reflect the composition of the parliament.", "He then arbitrarily appointed an interim prime minister and after a short period announced the dissolution of parliament and new elections.Two wide coalitions formed: the Popular Front on the left, ranging from Republican Union to Communists, and the Frente Nacional on the right, ranging from the centre radicals to the conservative Carlists.", "On 16 February 1936 the elections ended in a virtual draw, but in the evening leftist mobs started to interfere in the balloting and in the registration of votes, distorting the results.", "Stanley G. Payne claims that the process was blatant electoral fraud, with widespread violation of the laws and the constitution.", "In line with Payne's point of view, in 2017 two Spanish scholars, Manuel Álvarez Tardío and Roberto Villa García published the result of a major research work in which they concluded that the 1936 elections were rigged, a view disputed by Paul Preston, and other scholars such as Iker Itoiz Ciáurriz, who denounces their conclusions as revisionist \"classic Francoist anti-republican tropes\".On 19 February, the cabinet presided over by Portela Valladares resigned, with a new cabinet being quickly set up, composed chiefly of members of the Republican Left and the Republican Union and presided over by Manuel Azaña.José Calvo Sotelo, who made anti-communism the focus of his parliamentary speeches, began spreading violent propaganda—advocating for a military coup d'état, formulating a catastrophist discourse of a dichotomous choice between \"communism\" or a markedly totalitarian \"National\" State, and setting the mood of the masses for a military rebellion.", "The diffusion of the myth about an alleged Communist coup d'état as well a pretended state of \"social chaos\" became pretexts for a coup.", "Franco himself along with General Emilio Mola had stirred an anti-Communist campaign in Morocco.On 23 February, Franco was sent to the Canary Islands to serve as the islands' military commander, an appointment perceived by him as a ''destierro'' (banishment).", "Meanwhile, a conspiracy led by General Mola was taking shape.Interested in the parliamentary immunity granted by a seat at the Cortes, Franco intended to stand as candidate of the Right Bloc alongside José Antonio Primo de Rivera for the by-election in the province of Cuenca programmed for 3 May 1936, after the results of the February 1936 election were annulled in the constituency.", "But Primo de Rivera refused to run alongside a military officer (Franco in particular) and Franco himself ultimately desisted on 26 April, one day before the decision of the election authority.", "By that time, PSOE politician Indalecio Prieto had already deemed Franco as a \"possible caudillo for a military uprising\".Disenchantment with Azaña's rule continued to grow and was dramatically voiced by Miguel de Unamuno, a republican and one of Spain's most respected intellectuals, who in June 1936 told a reporter who published his statement in El Adelanto that President Manuel Azaña should \"...debiera suicidarse como acto patriótico\" (\"commit suicide as a patriotic act\").In June 1936, Franco was contacted, and a secret meeting was held within La Esperanza forest on Tenerife to discuss starting a military coup.", "An obelisk (which has subsequently been removed) commemorating this historic meeting was erected at the site in a clearing at Las Raíces in Tenerife.Outwardly, Franco maintained an ambiguous attitude until nearly July.", "On 23 June 1936, he wrote to the head of the government, Casares Quiroga, offering to quell the discontent in the Spanish Republican Army, but received no reply.", "The other rebels were determined to go ahead ''con Paquito o sin Paquito'' (with ''Paquito'' or without ''Paquito''; ''Paquito'' being a diminutive of ''Paco'', which in turn is short for ''Francisco''), as it was put by José Sanjurjo, the honorary leader of the military uprising.", "After various postponements, 18 July was fixed as the date of the uprising.", "The situation reached a point of no return and as presented to Franco by Mola, the coup was unavoidable, and he had to choose a side.", "He decided to join the rebels and was given the task of commanding the Army of Africa.", "A privately owned DH 89 De Havilland Dragon Rapide, flown by two British pilots, Cecil Bebb and Hugh Pollard, was chartered in England on 11 July to take Franco to Africa.The coup underway was precipitated by the assassination of the right-wing opposition leader Calvo Sotelo in retaliation for the murder of assault guard José Castillo, which had been committed by a group headed by a civil guard and composed of assault guards and members of the socialist militias.", "On 17 July, one day earlier than planned, the Army of Africa rebelled, detaining their commanders.", "On 18 July, Franco published a manifesto and left for Africa, where he arrived the next day to take command.A week later the rebels, who soon called themselves the ''Nationalists'', controlled a third of Spain; most naval units remained under control of the Republican loyalist forces, which left Franco isolated.", "The coup had failed in the attempt to bring a swift victory, but the Spanish Civil War had begun." ], [ "From the Spanish Civil War to World War II", "Franco rose to power during the Spanish Civil War, which began in July 1936 and officially ended with the victory of his Nationalist forces in April 1939.Although it is impossible to calculate precise statistics concerning the Spanish Civil War and its aftermath, Payne writes that if civilian fatalities above the norm are added to the total number of deaths for victims of violence, the number of deaths attributable to the civil war would reach approximately 344,000.During the war, rape, torture, and summary executions committed by soldiers under Franco's command were used as a means of retaliation and to repress political dissent.The war was marked by foreign intervention on behalf of both sides.", "Franco's Nationalists were supported by Fascist Italy, which sent the ''Corpo Truppe Volontarie'' and by Nazi Germany, which sent the Condor Legion.", "Italian aircraft stationed on Majorca bombed Barcelona 13 times, dropping 44 tons of bombs aimed at civilians.", "These attacks were requested by General Franco as retribution against the Catalan population.", "Similarly, both Italian and German planes bombed the Basque town of Guernica at Franco's request.", "The Republican opposition was supported by communists, socialists, and anarchists within Spain as well as the Soviet Union and volunteers who fought in the International Brigades.=== The first months ===Twenty-six Republicans executed by Francoists at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, buried in a mass grave at EstéparFollowing the ''pronunciamiento'' of 18 July 1936, Franco assumed the leadership of the 30,000 soldiers of the Spanish Army of Africa.", "The first days of the insurgency were marked by an imperative need to secure control over the Spanish Moroccan Protectorate.", "On one side, Franco had to win the support of the native Moroccan population and their (nominal) authorities, and, on the other, he had to ensure his control over the army.", "His method was the summary execution of some 200 senior officers loyal to the Republic (one of them his own cousin).", "His loyal bodyguard was shot by Manuel Blanco.", "Franco's first problem was how to move his troops to the Iberian Peninsula, since most units of the Navy had remained in control of the Republic and were blocking the Strait of Gibraltar.", "He requested help from Benito Mussolini, who responded with an offer of arms and planes.", "In Germany Wilhelm Canaris, the head of the ''Abwehr'' military intelligence service, persuaded Hitler to support the Nationalists; Hitler sent 20 Ju 52 transport aircraft and six Heinkel biplane fighters, on the condition that they were not to be used in hostilities unless the Republicans attacked first.", "Mussolini sent 12 Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 transport/bombers, and a few fighter aircraft.", "From 20 July onward Franco was able, with this small squadron of aircraft, to initiate an air bridge that carried 1,500 soldiers of the Army of Africa to Seville, where these troops helped to ensure rebel control of the city.", "He successfully negotiated with Germany, and Italy for more military support, and above all for more aircraft.", "On 25 July aircraft began to arrive in Tetouan and on 5 August Franco was able to break the blockade, successfully deploying a convoy of fishing boats and merchant ships carrying some 3,000 soldiers; between 29 July and 15 August about 15,000 more men were moved.On 26 July, just eight days after the revolt had started, foreign allies of the Republican government convened an international communist conference at Prague to arrange plans to help the Popular Front forces in Spain.", "Communist parties throughout the world quickly launched a full scale propaganda campaign in support of the Popular Front.", "The Communist International (Comintern) immediately reinforced its activity, sending to Spain its Secretary-General, the Bulgarian Georgi Dimitrov, and Palmiro Togliatti the chief of the Communist Party of Italy.", "From August onward, aid from the Soviet Union began; by February 1937 two ships per day arrived at Spain's Mediterranean ports carrying munitions, rifles, machine guns, hand grenades, artillery, and trucks.", "With the cargo came Soviet agents, technicians, instructors and propagandists.The Communist International immediately started to organise the International Brigades, volunteer military units which included the Garibaldi Brigade from Italy and the Lincoln Battalion from the United States.", "The International Brigades were usually deployed as shock troops, and as a result they suffered high casualties.In early August, the situation in western Andalucia was stable enough to allow Franco to organise a column (some 15,000 men at its height), under the command of then Lieutenant-Colonel Juan Yagüe, which would march through Extremadura towards Madrid.", "On 11 August Mérida was taken, and on 15 August Badajoz, thus joining both nationalist-controlled areas.", "Additionally, Mussolini ordered a voluntary army, the ''Corpo Truppe Volontarie'' (CTV) of fully motorised units (some 12,000 Italians), to Seville, and Hitler added to them a professional squadron from the Luftwaffe (2JG/88) with about 24 planes.", "All these planes had the Nationalist Spanish insignia painted on them, but were flown by Italian and German nationals.", "The backbone of Franco's air force in those days was the Italian SM.79 and SM.81 bombers, the biplane Fiat CR.32 fighter and the German Junkers Ju 52 cargo-bomber and the Heinkel He 51 biplane fighter.On 21 September, with the head of the column at the town of Maqueda (some 80 km away from Madrid), Franco ordered a detour to free the besieged garrison at the Alcázar of Toledo, which was achieved on 27 September.", "This controversial decision gave the Popular Front time to strengthen its defences in Madrid and hold the city that year, but with Soviet support.", "Kennan alleges that once Stalin had decided to assist the Spanish Republicans, the operation was put in place with remarkable speed and energy.", "The first load of arms and tanks arrived as early as 26 September and was secretly unloaded at night.", "Advisers accompanied the armaments.", "Soviet officers were in effective charge of military operations on the Madrid front.", "Kennan believes that this operation was originally conducted in good faith with no other purpose than saving the Republic.Hitler's policy for Spain was shrewd and pragmatic.", "The minutes of a conference with his foreign minister and army chiefs at the Reich Chancellery in Berlin on 10 November 1937 summarised his views on foreign policy regarding the Spanish Civil War: \"On the other hand, a 100 percent victory for Franco was not desirable either, from the German point of view; rather were we interested in a continuance of the war and in the keeping up of the tension in the Mediterranean.\"", "Hitler distrusted Franco; according to the comments he made at the conference he wanted the war to continue, but he did not want Franco to achieve total victory.", "He felt that with Franco in undisputed control of Spain, the possibility of Italy intervening further or of its continuing to occupy the Balearic Islands would be prevented.By February 1937 the Soviet Union's military help started to taper off, to be replaced by limited economic aid.=== Rise to power ===Franco and other rebel commanders during the Civil War, The designated leader of the uprising, General José Sanjurjo, died on 20 July 1936 in a plane crash.", "In the nationalist zone, \"political life ceased\".", "Initially, only military command mattered: this was divided into regional commands (Emilio Mola in the North, Gonzalo Queipo de Llano in Seville commanding Andalucia, Franco with an independent command, and Miguel Cabanellas in Zaragoza commanding Aragon).", "The Spanish Army of Morocco was itself split into two columns, one commanded by General Juan Yagüe and the other commanded by Colonel José Varela.From 24 July a coordinating ''junta'', the National Defence Junta, was established, based at Burgos.", "Nominally led by Cabanellas, as the most senior general, it initially included Mola, three other generals, and two colonels; Franco was later added in early August.", "On 21 September it was decided that Franco was to be commander-in-chief (this unified command was opposed only by Cabanellas), and, after some discussion, with no more than a lukewarm agreement from Queipo de Llano and from Mola, also head of government.", "He was, doubtlessly, helped to this primacy by the fact that, in late July, Hitler had decided that all of Germany's aid to the Nationalists would go to Franco.Mola had been somewhat discredited as the main planner of the attempted coup that had now degenerated into a civil war, and was strongly identified with the Carlist monarchists and not at all with the Falange, a party with Fascist leanings and connections (\"phalanx\", a far-right Spanish political party founded by José Antonio Primo de Rivera), nor did he have good relations with Germany.", "Queipo de Llano and Cabanellas had both previously rebelled against the dictatorship of General Miguel Primo de Rivera and were therefore discredited in some nationalist circles, and Falangist leader José Antonio Primo de Rivera was in prison in Alicante (he would be executed a few months later).", "The desire to keep a place open for him prevented any other Falangist leader from emerging as a possible head of state.", "Franco's previous aloofness from politics meant that he had few active enemies in any of the factions that needed to be placated, and he had also cooperated in recent months with both Germany and Italy.On 1 October 1936, in Burgos, Franco was publicly proclaimed as ''Generalísimo'' of the National army and ''Jefe del Estado'' (Head of State).", "When Mola was killed in another air accident a year later on 2 June 1937 (which some believe was an assassination), no military leader was left from those who had organised the conspiracy against the Republic between 1933 and 1935.=== Military command ===Franco personally guided military operations from this time until the end of the war.", "Franco himself was not a strategic genius, but he was very effective at organisation, administration, logistics and diplomacy.", "After the failed assault on Madrid in November 1936, Franco settled on a piecemeal approach to winning the war, rather than bold manoeuvring.", "As with his decision to relieve the garrison at Toledo, this approach has been subject of some debate: some of his decisions, such as in June 1938 when he preferred to advance towards Valencia instead of Catalonia, remain particularly controversial from a military strategic viewpoint.", "Valencia, Castellon and Alicante saw the last Republican troops defeated by Franco.Although both Germany and Italy provided military support to Franco, the degree of influence of both powers on his direction of the war seems to have been very limited.", "Nevertheless, the Italian troops, despite not always being effective, were present in most of the large operations in large numbers.", "Germany sent insignificant numbers of combat personnel to Spain, but aided the Nationalists with technical instructors and modern matériel; including some 200 tanks and 600 aircraft which helped the Nationalist air force dominate the skies for most of the war.Franco's direction of the German and Italian forces was limited, particularly in the direction of the Condor Legion, but he was by default their supreme commander, and they declined to interfere in the politics of the Nationalist zone.", "For reasons of prestige it was decided to continue assisting Franco until the end of the war, and Italian and German troops paraded on the day of the final victory in Madrid.The Nationalist victory could be accounted for by various factors: the Popular Front government had reckless policies in the weeks prior to the war, where it ignored potential dangers and alienated the opposition, encouraging more people to join the rebellion, while the rebels had superior military cohesion, with Franco providing the necessary leadership to consolidate power and unify the various rightist factions.", "His foreign diplomacy secured military aid from Italy and Germany and, by some accounts, helped keep Britain and France out of the war.The rebels made effective use of a smaller navy, acquiring the most powerful ships in the Spanish fleet and maintaining a functional officer corps, while Republican sailors had assassinated a large number of their naval officers who sided with the rebels in 1936, as at Cartagena, and El Ferrol.", "The Nationalists used their ships aggressively to pursue the opposition, in contrast to the largely passive naval strategy of the Republicans.Not only did the Nationalists receive more foreign aid to sustain their war effort, but there is evidence that they made more efficient use of such aid.", "They augmented their forces with arms captured from the Republicans, and successfully integrated over half of Republican prisoners of war into the Nationalist army.", "The rebels were able to build a larger air force and make more effective use of their air force, particularly in supporting ground operations and bombing; and generally enjoyed air superiority from mid-1937 onwards; this air power contributed greatly to the Nationalist victory.The Republicans were subject to disunity and infighting, and were hampered by the destructive consequences of the revolution in the Republican zone: mobilisation was impeded, the Republican image was harmed abroad in democracies, and the campaign against religion aroused overwhelming and unwavering Catholic support for the Nationalists.=== Political command ===Francoist demonstration in Salamanca (1937) with the paraders carrying banners with the portrait of Franco and the populace giving the Roman salute.On 19 April 1937, Franco and Serrano Súñer, with the acquiescence of Generals Mola and Quiepo de Llano, forcibly merged the ideologically distinct national-syndicalist Falange and the Carlist monarchist parties into one party under his rule, dubbed ''Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista'' (FET y de las JONS), which became the only legal party in 1939.Unlike some other fascist movements, the Falangists had developed an official program in 1934, the \"Twenty-Seven Points\".", "In 1937, Franco assumed as the tentative doctrine of his regime 26 out of the original 27 points.", "Franco made himself ''jefe nacional'' (National Chief) of the new FET (''Falange Española Tradicionalista''; Traditionalist Spanish Phalanx) with a secretary, Political Junta and National Council to be named subsequently by himself.", "Five days later on 24 April the raised-arm salute of the Falange was made the official salute of the Nationalist regime.", "Also in 1937 the ''Marcha Real'' (\"Royal March\") was restored by decree as the national anthem in the Nationalist zone.", "It was opposed by the Falangists, who associated it with the monarchy and boycotted it when it was played, often singing their own anthem, ''Cara al Sol'' (Facing the Sun) instead.", "By 1939 the fascist style prevailed, with ritual rallying calls of \"Franco, Franco, Franco.", "\"Franco's advisor on Falangist party matters, Ramón Serrano Súñer, who was the brother-in-law of his wife Carmen Polo, and a group of Serrano Súñer's followers dominated the FET JONS, and strove to increase the party's power.", "Serrano Súñer tried to move the party in a more fascist direction by appointing his acolytes to important positions, and the party became the leading political organisation in Francoist Spain.", "The FET JONS failed to establish a fascist party regime, however, and was relegated to subordinate status.", "Franco placed the Carlist Manuel Fal Condé under house arrest and imprisoned hundreds of old Falangists, the so-called \"old shirts\" (''camisas viejas''), including the party leader Manuel Hedilla, to help secure his political future.", "Franco also appeased the Carlists by exploiting the Republicans' anti-clericalism in his propaganda, in particular concerning the \"Martyrs of the war\".", "While the Republican forces presented the war as a struggle to defend the Republic against fascism, Franco depicted himself as the defender of \"Catholic Spain\" against \"atheist communism\".=== The end of the Civil War ===By early 1939 only Madrid (see History of Madrid) and a few other areas remained under control of the government forces.", "On 27 February Chamberlain's Britain and Daladier's France officially recognised the Franco regime.", "On 28 March 1939, with the help of pro-Franco forces inside the city (the \"fifth column\" General Mola had mentioned in propaganda broadcasts in 1936), Madrid fell to the Nationalists.", "The next day, Valencia, which had held out under the guns of the Nationalists for close to two years, also surrendered.", "Victory was proclaimed on 1 April 1939, when the last of the Republican forces surrendered.", "On the same day, Franco placed his sword upon the altar of a church and vowed to never take it up again unless Spain itself was threatened with invasion.Although Germany had recognised the Franco Government, Franco's policy towards Germany was extremely cautious until spectacular German victories at the beginning of the Second World War.", "An early indication that Franco was going to keep his distance from Germany soon proved true.", "A rumoured state visit by Franco to Germany did not take place and a further rumour of a visit by Goering to Spain, after he had enjoyed a cruise in the Western Mediterranean, again did not materialise.", "Instead Goering had to return to Berlin.During the Civil War and in the aftermath, a period known as the White Terror took place.", "This saw mass executions of Republican and other Nationalist enemies, standing in contrast to the wartime Red Terror.", "Historical analysis and investigations estimate the number of executions by the Franco regime during this time to be between 100,000 and 200,000 dead.Stanley G. Payne says the total number of all kinds of executions in the Republican zone added up to about 56,000, and that those in the Nationalist zone probably amounted to at least 70,000, with an additional 28,000 executions after the war ended.", "Recent searches conducted with parallel excavations of mass graves in Spain by the Association for the Recovery of Historical Memory (Asociación para la Recuperación de la Memoria Histórica), ARMH) estimate that more than 35,000 people killed by the nationalist side are still missing in mass graves.Julián Casanova Ruiz, who was nominated in 2008 to join the panel of experts in the first judicial investigation, conducted by judge Baltasar Garzón, of Francoist crimes, as well as historians Josep Fontana and Hugh Thomas, estimate deaths in the White Terror to be around 150,000 in total.", "According to Paul Preston, 150,000 wartime civilian executions took place in the Francoist area, as well as 50,000 in the Republican area, in addition to approximately 20,000 civilians executed by the Franco regime after the end of the war.", "According to Helen Graham, the Spanish working classes became to the Francoist project what the Jews were to the German Volksgemeinschaft.According to Gabriel Jackson and Antony Beevor, the number of victims of the \"White Terror\" (executions and hunger or illness in prisons) between 1939 and 1943 was 200,000.Beevor \"reckons Franco's ensuing 'white terror' claimed 200,000 lives.", "The 'red terror' had already killed 38,000.\"", "Julius Ruiz concludes that \"although the figures remain disputed, a minimum of 37,843 executions were carried out in the Republican zone with a maximum of 150,000 executions (including 50,000 after the war) in Nationalist Spain.", "\"Moorish GuardDespite the end of the war, Spanish guerrillas exiled in France, and known as the ''Maquis''\", continued to resist Franco in the Pyrenees, carrying out sabotage and robberies against the Francoist regime.", "Several exiled Republicans also fought in the French resistance against the German occupation in Vichy France during World War II.", "In 1944, a group of republican veterans from the French resistance invaded the Val d'Aran in northwest Catalonia but were quickly defeated.", "The activities of the Maquis continued well into the 1950s.The end of the war led to hundreds of thousands of exiles, mostly to France, but also to Mexico, Chile, Cuba, and the United States.", "On the other side of the Pyrenees, refugees were confined in internment camps in France, such as Camp Gurs or Camp Vernet, where 12,000 Republicans were housed in squalid conditions (mostly soldiers from the Durruti Division).", "The 17,000 refugees housed in Gurs were divided into four categories: Brigadists, pilots, ''Gudaris'' and ordinary \"Spaniards\".", "The ''Gudaris'' (Basques) and the pilots easily found local backers and jobs, and were allowed to quit the camp, but the farmers and ordinary people, who could not find relations in France, were encouraged by the French government, in agreement with the Francoist government, to return to Spain.", "The great majority did so and were turned over to the Francoist authorities in Irún.", "From there they were transferred to the Miranda de Ebro camp for \"purification\" according to the Law of Political Responsibilities.After the proclamation by Marshal Philippe Pétain of the Vichy France regime, the refugees became political prisoners, and the French police attempted to round up those who had been liberated from the camp.", "Along with other \"undesirables\", they were sent to the Drancy internment camp before being deported to Nazi Germany.", "5,000 Spaniards thus died in Mauthausen concentration camp.", "The Chilean poet Pablo Neruda, who had been named by the Chilean President Pedro Aguirre Cerda special consul for immigration in Paris, was given responsibility for what he called \"the noblest mission I have ever undertaken\": shipping more than 2,000 Spanish refugees, who had been housed by the French in squalid camps, to Chile on an old cargo ship, the ''Winnipeg''.=== World War II ===Front row in order from left to right: Karl Wolff, Heinrich Himmler, Franco and Spain's Foreign Minister Serrano Súñer in Madrid, October 1940Franco and Adolf Hitler in Meeting at Hendaye, 1940In September 1939, World War II began.", "Franco had received important support from Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini during the Spanish Civil War, and he had signed the Anti-Comintern Pact.", "He made pro-Axis speeches, while offering various kinds of support to Italy and Germany.", "His spokesman Antonio Tovar commented at a Paris conference entitled 'Bolshevism versus Europe' that \"Spain aligned itself definitively on the side of...National Socialist Germany and Fascist Italy.\"", "However, Franco was reluctant to enter the war due to Spain recovering from its recent civil war and instead pursued a policy of \"non-belligerence\".On 23 October 1940, Hitler and Franco met in Hendaye, France to discuss the possibility of Spain's entry on the side of the Axis.", "Franco's demands, including large supplies of food and fuel, as well as Spanish control of Gibraltar and French North Africa, proved too much for Hitler.", "At the time Hitler did not want to risk damaging his relations with the new Vichy French government.", "(An oft-cited remark attributed to Hitler is that the German leader said that he would rather have some of his own teeth pulled out than to have to personally deal further with Franco).Some historians argue that Franco made demands he knew Hitler would not accede to, in order to stay out of the war.", "Other historians argue that Franco, as the leader of a destroyed and bankrupt country in chaos following a brutal three-year civil war, simply had little to offer the Axis and that the Spanish armed forces were not ready for a major war.", "It has also been suggested that Franco decided not to join the war after the resources he requested from Hitler in October 1940 were not forthcoming.Franco allowed Spanish soldiers to volunteer to fight in the German Army against the Soviet Union (the Blue Division) but forbade Spaniards to fight in the West against the democracies.", "Franco's common ground with Hitler was particularly weakened by Hitler's attempts to manipulate Christianity, which went against Franco's fervent commitment to defending Catholicism.", "Contributing to the disagreement was an ongoing dispute over German mining rights in Spain.According to some scholars, after the Fall of France in June 1940, Spain did adopt a pro-Axis stance (for example, German and Italian ships and U-boats were allowed to use Spanish naval facilities) before returning to a more neutral position in late 1943 when the tide of the war had turned decisively against the Axis Powers, and Italy had changed sides.", "Franco was initially keen to join the war before the UK could be defeated.Franco in Reus, 1940In the winter of 1940 and 1941, Franco toyed with the idea of a \"Latin Bloc\" formed by Spain, Portugal, Vichy France, the Vatican and Italy, without much consequence.", "Franco had cautiously decided to enter the war on the Axis side in June 1940, and to prepare his people for war, an anti-British and anti-French campaign was launched in the Spanish media that demanded French Morocco, Cameroon and Gibraltar.", "On 19 June 1940, Franco pressed along a message to Hitler saying he wanted to enter the war, but Hitler was annoyed at Franco's demand for the French colony of Cameroon, which had been German before World War I, and which Hitler was planning on taking back for Plan Z. Franco seriously considered blocking allied access to the Mediterranean Sea by invading British-held Gibraltar, but he abandoned the idea after learning that the plan would have likely failed due to Gibraltar being too heavily defended.", "In addition, declaring war on the UK and its allies would no doubt give them an opportunity to capture both the Canary Islands and Spanish Morocco, as well as possibly launch an invasion of mainland Spain itself.", "Franco was aware that his air force would be quickly defeated if going into action against the Royal Air Force, and the Royal Navy would easily be able to destroy Spain's small navy and blockade the entire Spanish coast to prevent imports of crucial materials such as oil.", "Spain depended on oil imports from the United States, which were almost certain to be cut off if Spain formally joined the Axis.", "Franco and Serrano Suñer held a meeting with Mussolini and Ciano in Bordighera, Italy on 12 February 1941.However, an affected Mussolini did not appear to be interested in Franco's help due to the defeats his forces had suffered in North Africa and the Balkans, and he even told Franco that he wished he could find any way to leave the war.", "When the invasion of the Soviet Union began on 22 June 1941, Franco's foreign minister Ramón Serrano Suñer immediately suggested the formation of a unit of military volunteers to join the invasion.", "Volunteer Spanish troops (the ''División Azul'', or \"Blue Division\") fought on the Eastern Front under German command from 1941 to 1944.Some historians have argued that not all of the Blue Division were true volunteers and that Franco expended relatively small but significant resources to aid the Axis powers' battle against the Soviet Union.Franco was initially disliked by Cuban President Fulgencio Batista, who, during World War II, suggested a joint U.S.-Latin American declaration of war on Spain to overthrow Franco's regime.", "Hitler may not have really wanted Spain to join the war, as he needed neutral harbours to import materials from countries in Latin America and elsewhere.", "He felt Spain would be a burden as it would be dependent on Germany for help.", "By 1941, Vichy French forces were proving their effectiveness in North Africa, reducing the need for Spanish help, and Hitler was wary about opening up a new front on the western coast of Europe as he struggled to reinforce the Italians in Greece and Yugoslavia.", "Franco signed a revised Anti-Comintern Pact on 25 November 1941.Spain continued to be able to obtain valuable German goods, including military equipment, as part of payment for Spanish raw materials, and traded wolfram with Germany until August 1944 when the Germans withdrew from the Spanish frontier.Spanish neutrality during World War II was publicly acknowledged by leading Allied statesmen.", "In November 1942, US President Roosevelt wrote to General Franco: \"...your nation and mine are friends in the best sense of the word.\"", "In May 1944, Winston Churchill stated in the House of Commons: \"In the dark days of the war the attitude of the Spanish Government in not giving our enemies passage through Spain was extremely helpful to us....", "I must say that I shall always consider that a service was rendered...by Spain, not only to the United Kingdom and to the British Empire and Commonwealth, but to the cause of the United Nations.\"", "According to the personal recollection of US Ambassador to Spain Carlton Hayes, similar gratitude was also expressed by the Provisional French Government at Algiers in 1943.Franco placed no obstacles to Britain's construction of a large air base extending from Gibraltar into Spanish territorial waters and welcomed the Anglo-American landings in North Africa.", "Spain did not intern any of the 1,200 American airmen who were forced to land in the country, but \"gave them refuge and permitted them to leave.", "\"After the war, the Spanish government tried to destroy all evidence of its cooperation with the Axis.", "In 2010, documents were discovered showing that on 13 May 1941, Franco ordered his provincial governors to compile a list of Jews while he negotiated an alliance with the Axis powers.", "Franco supplied Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, architect of the Nazis' Final Solution, with a list of 6,000 Jews in Spain.On 14 June 1940, Spanish forces in Morocco occupied Tangier (a city under international control) and did not leave until the war's end in 1945.After the war, Franco allowed many former Nazis, such as Otto Skorzeny and Léon Degrelle, and other fascists, to seek political asylum in Spain.=== Treatment of Jews ===Franco had a controversial association with Jews before and during World War II.", "He made antisemitic remarks in a speech in May 1939, and made similar remarks on at least six occasions during World War II.", "Franco believed in the existence of a \"Jewish-Masonic-Bolshevik conspiracy\", and he deliberately framed the Spanish Civil War as a conflict against Jews and Bolsheviks.", "In 2010, documents were discovered showing that on 13 May 1941, Franco ordered his provincial governors to compile a list of Jews while he negotiated an alliance with the Axis powers.", "Franco supplied Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, architect of the Nazis' Final Solution, with a list of 6,000 Jews in Spain.Contrarily, according to ''Anti-Semitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution'' (2005)::Throughout the war, Franco rescued many Jews.", "... Just how many Jews were saved by Franco's government during World War II is a matter of historical controversy.", "Franco has been credited with saving anywhere from approximately 30,000 to 60,000 Jews; most reliable estimates suggest 45,000 is a likely figure.Preston writes that, in the post-war years, \"a myth was carefully constructed to claim that Franco's regime had saved many Jews from extermination\" as a means to deflect foreign criticism away from allegations of active collaboration with the Nazi regime.", "As early as 1943, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs concluded that the Allies were likely to win the war.", "José Félix de Lequerica y Erquiza became Foreign Minister in 1944 and soon developed an \"obsession\" with the importance of the \"Jewish card\" in relations with the former Allied powers.Spain provided visas for thousands of French Jews to transit Spain en route to Portugal to escape the Nazis.", "Spanish diplomats protected about 4,000 Jews living in Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and Austria.", "At least some 20,000 to 30,000 Jews were allowed to pass through Spain in the first half of the War.", "Jews who were not allowed to enter Spain, however, were sent to the Miranda de Ebro concentration camp or deported to France.", "In January 1943, after the German embassy in Spain told the Spanish government that it had two months to remove its Jewish citizens from Western Europe, Spain severely limited visas, and only 800 Jews were allowed to enter the country.", "After the war, Franco exaggerated his contributions to saving Jews in order to improve Spain's image in the world and end its international isolation.After the war, Franco did not recognise Israeli statehood and maintained strong relations with the Arab world.", "Israel expressed disinterest in establishing relations, although there were some informal economic ties between the two countries in the later years of Franco's governance.", "In the aftermath of the Six-Day War in 1967, Franco's Spain was able to utilise its positive relationship with Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser and the Arab world (due to not having recognised the Israeli state) to allow 800 Egyptian Jews, many of Sephardic ancestry, safe passage out of Egypt on Spanish passports.", "This was undertaken through Francoist Spain's Ambassador to Egypt, Ángel Sagaz Zubelzu, on the understanding that emigrant Jews would not immediately emigrate to Israel and that they would not publicly use the case as political propaganda against Nasser's Egypt.", "On 16 December 1968, the Spanish government formally revoked the 1492 Edict of Expulsion against Spain's Jewish population.Franco personally and many in the government openly stated that they believed there was an international conspiracy of Freemasons and Communists against Spain, sometimes including Jews or \"Judeo-Masonry\" as part of this.", "While under the leadership of Francisco Franco, the Spanish government explicitly endorsed the Catholic Church as the religion of the nation state and did not endorse liberal ideas such as religious pluralism or separation of Church and State found in the Republican Constitution of 1931.Following the Second World War, the government enacted the \"Spanish Bill of Rights\" (''Fuero de los Españoles''), which extended the right to private worship of non-Catholic religions, including Judaism, though it did not permit the erection of religious buildings for this practice and did not allow non-Catholic public ceremonies.", "With the pivot of Spain's foreign policy towards the United States during the Cold War, the situation changed with the 1967 Law on Religious Freedom, which granted full public religious rights to non-Catholics.", "The overthrow of Catholicism as the explicit state religion of Spain and the establishment of state-sponsored religious pluralism would be realised in Spain in 1978, with the new Constitution of Spain, three years after Franco's death." ], [ "Spain under Franco", "Tolosa, 1948.Franco was recognised as the Spanish head of state by the United Kingdom, France, and Argentina in February 1939.Already proclaimed ''Generalísimo'' of the Nationalists and ''Jefe del Estado'' (Head of State) in October 1936, he thereafter assumed the official title of \"''Su Excelencia el Jefe de Estado''\" (\"His Excellency the Head of State\").", "He was also referred to in state and official documents as \"''Caudillo de España''\" (\"the Leader of Spain\"), and sometimes called \"''el Caudillo de la Última Cruzada y de la Hispanidad''\" (\"the Leader of the Last Crusade and of the Hispanic heritage\") and \"''el Caudillo de la Guerra de Liberación contra el Comunismo y sus Cómplices''\" (\"the Leader of the War of Liberation Against Communism and Its Accomplices\").On paper, Franco had more power than any Spanish leader before or since.", "For the first four years after taking Madrid, he ruled almost exclusively by decree.", "The \"Law of the Head of State,\" passed in August 1939, \"permanently confided\" all governing power to Franco; he was not required to even consult the cabinet for most legislation or decrees.", "According to Payne, Franco possessed far more day-to-day power than Hitler or Stalin possessed at the respective heights of their power.", "He noted that while Hitler and Stalin maintained rubber-stamp parliaments, this was not the case in Spain in the early years after the war – a situation that nominally made Franco's regime \"the most purely arbitrary in the world\".This changed in 1942, when Franco convened a parliament known as the Cortes Españolas.", "It was elected in accordance with corporatist principles, and had little real power.", "Notably, it had no control over government spending, and the government was not responsible to it; ministers were appointed and dismissed by Franco alone.On 26 July 1947, Franco proclaimed Spain a monarchy, but did not designate a monarch.", "This gesture was largely done to appease the monarchists in the ''Movimiento Nacional'' (Carlists and Alfonsoists).", "Franco left the throne vacant, proclaiming himself as a ''de facto'' regent for life.", "At the same time, Franco appropriated many of the privileges of a king.", "He wore the uniform of a captain general (a rank traditionally reserved for the king) and resided in El Pardo Palace.", "In addition he began walking under a canopy, and his portrait appeared on most Spanish coins and postage stamps.", "He also added \"by the grace of God\", a phrase usually part of the styles of monarchs, to his style.Franco initially sought support from various groups.", "His administration marginalised fascist ideologues in favour of technocrats, many of whom were linked with Opus Dei, who promoted economic modernisation.Franco adopted Fascist trappings, although Stanley Payne argued that very few scholars consider him to be a \"core fascist\".", "Regarding the regime, the ''Oxford Living Dictionary'' uses Franco's regime as an example of fascism, and it has also been variously presented as a \"fascistized dictatorship\", or a \"semi-fascist regime\".", "Francisco Cobo Romero writes that, besides neutering left-wing advances by using an essentially antiliberal brand of ultranationalism, \"in its attempt to emulate Fascism, Francoism resorted to the sacralization and mystification of the motherland, raising it into an object of cult, and coating it with a liturgic divinization of its leader\".All in all, some authors have pointed at a purported artificialness and failure of FET JONS in order to de-emphasise the Fascist weight within the regime whereas others have embedded those perceived features of \"weak party\" within the frame of a particular model of \"Spanish Fascism\".", "However, new research material has been argued to underpin the \"Fascist subject\", both on the basis of the existence of a pervasive and fully differentiated Fascist falangist political culture, and on the importance of the Civil War for falangism, which served as an area of experience, of violence, of memory, as well as for the generation of a culture of victory.", "Under the perspective of a comparative of European fascisms, Javier Rodrigo considers the Francoist regime to be paradigmatic for three reasons: for being the only authoritarian European regime with totalitarian aspirations, for being the regime that deployed the most political violence in times of rhetorical peace, and for being the regime deploying the most effective \"memoricidal\" apparatus.With the end of World War II, Spain suffered from the consequences of its isolation from the international economy.", "Spain was excluded from the Marshall Plan, unlike other neutral countries in Europe.", "This situation ended in part when, in the light of Cold War tensions and of Spain's strategic location, the United States of America entered into a trade and military alliance with Franco.", "This historic alliance commenced with the visit of US President Dwight Eisenhower to Spain in 1953, which resulted in the Pact of Madrid.", "Spain was then admitted to the United Nations in 1955.American military facilities in Spain built since then include Naval Station Rota, Morón Air Base, and Torrejón Air Base.=== Political repression ===According to Preston's estimates, Franco's forces killed about 420,000 Spaniards in the theatre of war, through extrajudicial killings during the Civil War, and in state executions immediately following its end in 1939.The first decade of Franco's rule following its end saw continued repression and the killing of an undetermined number of political opponents.", "In 1941 the prison population of Spain was 233,000, mostly political prisoners.", "According to Antony Beevor, recent research in more than half of Spain's provinces indicates at least 35,000 official executions in the country after the war, suggesting that the generally accepted figure of 35,000 official executions is low.", "Accounting for unofficial and random killings, and those who died during the war from execution, suicide, starvation and disease in prison, the total number is probably closer to 200,000.Lluís Companys, president of Catalonia under the Republic, who was executed by Franco in 1940By the start of the 1950s Franco's state had become less violent, but during his entire rule, non-government trade unions and all political opponents across the political spectrum, from communist and anarchist organisations to liberal democrats and Catalan or Basque separatists, were either suppressed or tightly controlled with all means, up to and including violent police repression.", "The ''Confederación Nacional del Trabajo'' (CNT) and the ''Unión General de Trabajadores'' (UGT) trade unions were outlawed, and replaced in 1940 by the corporatist ''Sindicato Vertical''.", "The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party and the ''Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya'' (ERC) were banned in 1939, while the Communist Party of Spain (PCE) went underground.", "The Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) went into exile, and in 1959 the ETA armed group was created to wage a low-intensity war against Franco.Franco's Spanish nationalism promoted a unitary national identity by repressing Spain's cultural diversity.", "Bullfighting and flamenco were promoted as national traditions while those traditions not considered \"Spanish\" were suppressed.", "Franco's view of Spanish tradition was somewhat artificial and arbitrary: while some regional traditions were suppressed, flamenco, an Andalucian tradition, was considered part of a larger, national identity.", "All cultural activities were subject to censorship, and many, such as the Sardana, the national dance of Catalonia, were plainly forbidden (often in an erratic manner).", "This cultural policy was relaxed over time, most notably during the late 1960s and early 1970s.Franco also used language politics in an attempt to establish national homogeneity.", "He promoted the use of Castilian Spanish and suppressed other languages such as Catalan, Galician, and Basque.", "The legal usage of languages other than Castilian was forbidden.", "All government, notarial, legal and commercial documents were to be drawn up exclusively in Castilian and any documents written in other languages were deemed null and void.", "The usage of any other language was forbidden in schools, in advertising, and on road and shop signs.", "For unofficial use, citizens continued to speak these languages.", "This was the situation throughout the 1940s and to a lesser extent during the 1950s, but after 1960 the non-Castilian Spanish languages were freely spoken and written, and they reached bookshops and stages, although they never received official status.Most country towns and rural areas were patrolled by pairs of ''Guardia Civil'', a military police force for civilians, which functioned as Franco's chief means of social control.", "Larger cities and capitals were mostly under the jurisdiction of the Policia Armada, or the ''grises'' (\"greys\", due to the colour of their uniforms) as they were called.Student revolts at universities in the late 1960s and early 1970s were violently repressed by the heavily armed ''Policía Armada'' (Armed Police), and plain-clothes police were present at lectures in Spanish universities.", "The enforcement by public authorities of traditional Catholic values was a stated intent of the regime, mainly by using a law (the ''Ley de Vagos y Maleantes'', Vagrancy Act) enacted by Azaña.", "The remaining nomads of Spain (Gitanos and Mercheros like El Lute) were especially affected.", "Through this law, homosexuality and prostitution were made criminal offences in 1954.=== The Spanish colonies and decolonisation ===Spain attempted to retain control of its colonies throughout Franco's rule.", "During the Algerian War (1954–62), Madrid became the base of the ''Organisation armée secrète'' (OAS), a right-wing French Army group which sought to preserve French Algeria.", "Despite this, Franco was forced to make some concessions.", "When Morocco became independent from France in 1956, he surrendered the territories of the Spanish protectorate to the new-born state, retaining only a few cities (the ''Plazas de soberanía'').", "The year after, Mohammed V invaded Spanish Sahara during the Ifni War (known as the \"Forgotten War\" in Spain).", "Only in 1975, with the Green March, did Morocco take control of all of the former Spanish territories in the Sahara.In 1968, under pressure from the United Nations, Spain granted Equatorial Guinea its independence, and the following year it ceded Ifni to Morocco.", "Under Franco, Spain also pursued a campaign to force a negotiation on the British overseas territory of Gibraltar, and closed its border with that territory in 1969.The border would not be fully reopened until 1985.=== Economic policy ===The Civil War ravaged the Spanish economy.", "Infrastructure had been damaged, workers killed, and daily business severely hampered.", "For more than a decade after Franco's victory, the devastated economy recovered very slowly.", "Franco initially pursued a policy of autarky, cutting off almost all international trade.", "The policy had devastating effects, and the economy stagnated.", "Only black marketeers could enjoy an evident affluence.1963 Spanish peseta coin with an image of Franco and lettering reading: \"Francisco Franco, Leader of Spain, by the grace of God\"On the brink of bankruptcy, a combination of pressure from the United States and the IMF managed to convince the regime to adopt a free market economy.", "Many of the old guard in charge of the economy were replaced by technocrats (''technocrata''), despite some initial opposition from Franco.", "The regime took its first faltering steps toward abandoning its pretensions of self-sufficiency and towards a transformation of Spain's economic system.", "Pre-Civil War industrial production levels were regained in the early 1950s, though agricultural output remained below prewar levels until 1958.The years from 1951 to 1956 were marked by substantial economic progress, but the reforms of the period were only sporadically implemented, and they were not well coordinated.", "From the mid-1950s there was a slow but steady acceleration in economic activity, but the relative lack of growth (compared to the rest of Western Europe) eventually forced the Franco regime to allow the introduction of liberal economic policies in the late 1950s.", "During the pre-stabilization years of 1957–1959, Spanish economic planners implemented partial measures such as moderate anti-inflationary adjustments and incremental moves to integrate Spain into the global economy, but external developments and a worsening domestic economic crisis forced them to adopt more sweeping changes.", "A reorganisation of the Council of Ministers in early 1957 had brought a group of younger men, most of whom were educated in economics and had experience, to the key ministries.", "The process of integrating the country into the world economy was further facilitated by the reforms of the 1959 Stabilization and Liberalization Plan.When Franco replaced his ideological ministers with the apolitical technocrats, the regime implemented several development policies that included deep economic reforms.", "After a recession, growth took off from 1959, creating an economic boom that lasted until 1974, and became known as the \"Spanish miracle\".Concurrent with the absence of social reforms, and the economic power shift, a tide of mass emigration commenced to other European countries, and to a lesser extent, to South America.", "Emigration helped the regime in two ways.", "The country got rid of populations it would not have been able to keep in employment, and the emigrants supplied the country with much needed monetary remittances.During the 1960s, the wealthy classes of Francoist Spain experienced further increases in wealth, particularly those who remained politically faithful, while a burgeoning middle class became visible as the \"economic miracle\" progressed.", "International firms established factories in Spain where salaries were low, company taxes very low, strikes forbidden and workers' health or state protections almost unheard of.", "State-owned firms like the car manufacturer SEAT, truck builder Pegaso, and oil refiner INH, massively expanded production.", "Furthermore, Spain was virtually a new mass market.", "Spain became the second-fastest growing economy in the world between 1959 and 1973, just behind Japan.", "By the time of Franco's death in 1975, Spain still lagged behind most of Western Europe but the gap between its per capita GDP and that of the leading Western European countries had narrowed greatly, and the country had developed a large industrialised economy." ], [ "Succession", "Juan Carlos in 1969In the late 1960s, the ageing Franco decided to name a monarch to succeed his regency, but the simmering tensions between the Carlists and the Alfonsoists continued.", "In 1969, Franco formally nominated as his heir-apparent Prince Juan Carlos de Borbón, who had been educated by him in Spain, with the new title of Prince of Spain, suggested by Laureano López Rodó to avoid a confrontation with Juan Carlos's father, Juan de Borbón, the Count of Barcelona.", "This designation came as a surprise to the Carlist pretender to the throne, Prince Xavier of Bourbon-Parma, as well as to Don Juan.As his final years progressed, tensions within the various factions of the ''Movimiento'' would consume Spanish political life, as varying groups jockeyed for position in an effort to win control of the country's future." ], [ "Honours" ], [ "Death and funeral", "Carlos Arias Navarro and Franco at his residence in October 1975, around one week before he fell into an irreversible comaOn 19 July 1974, the aged Franco fell ill from various health problems, and Juan Carlos took over as acting head of state.", "Franco recovered and on 2 September he resumed his duties as head of state.", "A year later he fell ill again, afflicted with further health problems, including a long battle with Parkinson's disease.", "Franco's last public appearance was on 1 October 1975 when, despite his gaunt and frail appearance, he gave a speech to crowds from the balcony at the Royal Palace of Madrid, warning the people that there was a \"Masonic, Leftist and Communist conspiracy against Spain.\"", "On 30 October 1975 he fell into a coma and was put on life support.", "Franco's family agreed to disconnect the life-support machines.", "Officially, he died a few minutes after midnight on 20 November 1975 from heart failure, at the age of 82 – on the same date as the death of José Antonio Primo de Rivera, the founder of the Falange, in 1936.Historian Ricardo de la Cierva claimed, however, that he had been told around 6 pm on 19 November that Franco had already died.As soon as news of Franco's death was made public, the government declared thirty days of official national mourning.", "On 22 November, Juan Carlos was officially proclaimed King of Spain.", "There was a public viewing of Franco's body at the chapel in the Royal Palace; a requiem mass and a military parade were held on the day of his burial.Franco's body was interred at the Valley of the Fallen (Spanish: ''Valle de los Caídos''), a colossal memorial built by the forced labour of political prisoners ostensibly to honour the casualties of both sides of the Spanish Civil War.", "It was located only 10 kilometres from the palace, monastery, and royal pantheon of El Escorial built for King Felipe II.", "On 1 April 1959, Franco had inaugurated its huge underground basilica as his monument and mausoleum, saying in his own words that it was built \"in memory of my victory over communism, which was trying to dominate Spain.\"", "The project's architect, Diego Méndez, had constructed a lead-lined tomb for Franco underneath the floor of the transept, behind the high altar of the church, in 1956, a fact unknown to the Spanish people until almost thirty years later.", "Franco was the only person interred in the Valley who did not die during the civil war.", "He was buried a few metres from the grave of the Falange's founder, Jose Antonio.A requiem mass and a military parade took place on the day of his burial, 23 November 1975.As the cortège with Franco's body arrived at the Valley of the Fallen, some 75,000 rightists wearing the blue shirts of the Falangists greeted it with rebel songs from the civil war and fascist salutes.The major European governments, who condemned Franco's regime, declined to send high-level representatives to his funeral.", "Some of the few foreign dignitaries and government representatives who attended were: Nelson Rockefeller, Vice-President of the United States, Lord Shepherd, Leader of the House of Lords of the United Kingdom (Harold Wilson caused controversy within the Labour Party by sending him to represent the UK Government), Prince Rainier III of Monaco, King Hussein of Jordan, Imelda Marcos, First Lady of the Philippines and the wife of Ferdinand Marcos, dictator of the Philippines, Hugo Banzer, military dictator of Bolivia, and General Augusto Pinochet, the dictator of Chile, for whom the Spanish ''Caudillo'' was a role-model.", "It was made clear to General Pinochet that he was not welcome at Juan Carlos's coronation.Following Franco's funeral, his widow, Carmen Polo, supervised the moving of crates of jewellery, antiques, artworks, and Franco's papers to the family's various estates in Spain or to safe havens in foreign countries.", "The family remained extremely rich after his death.", "Polo had a room in her apartment in which the walls were lined from floor to ceiling with forty columns of twenty drawers, some containing tiaras, necklaces, earrings, garlands, brooches and cameos.", "Others contained gold, silver, diamonds, emeralds, rubies, topazes, and pearls, but the most valuable jewels were kept in bank vaults." ], [ "Exhumation", "In 2019 Franco's body was removed from the monument of Santa Cruz del Valle de los Caídos, where it had lain since his funeral in 1975.On 11 May 2017, the Congress of Deputies approved, by 198–1 with 140 abstentions, a motion driven by the Socialist Workers' Party ordering the Government to exhume Franco's remains.On 24 August 2018, the Government of Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez approved legal amendments to the Historical Memory Law stating that only those who died during the Civil War would be buried at the Valle de los Caídos, resulting in plans to exhume Franco's remains for reburial elsewhere.", "Deputy Prime Minister Carmen Calvo Poyato stated that having Franco buried at the monument \"shows a lack of respect ... for the victims buried there\".", "The government gave Franco's family a 15-day deadline to decide Franco's final resting place, or else a \"dignified place\" would be chosen by the government.On 13 September 2018, the Congress of Deputies voted 176–2, with 165 abstentions, to approve the government's plan to remove Franco's body from the monument.Franco's family opposed the exhumation and attempted to prevent it by making appeals to the Ombudsman's Office.", "The family expressed its wish that Franco's remains be reinterred with full military honours at the Almudena Cathedral in the centre of Madrid, the burial place he had requested before his death.", "The demand was rejected by the Spanish Government, which issued another 15-day deadline to choose another site.", "Because the family refused to choose another location, the Spanish Government ultimately chose to rebury Franco at the Mingorrubio Cemetery in El Pardo, where his wife Carmen Polo and a number of Francoist officials, most notably prime ministers Luis Carrero Blanco and Carlos Arias Navarro, are buried.", "His body was to be exhumed from the Valle de los Caídos on 10 June 2019, but the Supreme Court of Spain ruled that the exhumation would be delayed until the family had exhausted all possible appeals.On 24 September 2019, the Supreme Court ruled that the exhumation could proceed, and the Sánchez government announced that it would move Franco's remains to the Mingorrubio cemetery as soon as possible.", "On 24 October 2019 his remains were moved to his wife's mausoleum which is located in the Mingorrubio Cemetery, and buried in a private ceremony.", "Though barred by the Spanish government from being draped in the Spanish flag, Francisco Franco's grandson, also named Francisco Franco, draped his coffin in the nationalist flag.", "According to a poll by the Spanish newspaper, ''El Mundo'', 43% of Spanish people approved of the exhumation while 32.5% opposed it.", "Opinions on the exhumation were divided by party line, with the Socialist party strongly in favour of the exhumation as well as the removal of his statue there.", "There seems to be no consensus on whether the statue should simply be moved or completely destroyed." ], [ "Legacy", "In Spain and abroad, the legacy of Franco remains controversial.", "The longevity of Franco's rule, his suppression of political opposition, and his government's effective propaganda sustained through the years have made a detached evaluation difficult.", "For almost 40 years, Spaniards, and particularly children at school, were told that Divine Providence had sent Franco to save Spain from chaos, atheism, and poverty.", "Historian Stanley Payne described Franco as being the most significant figure to dominate Spain since King Felipe II, while Michael Seidman argued that Franco was the most successful counter-revolutionary leader of the 20th century.A highly controversial figure within Spain, Franco is seen as a divisive leader.", "Supporters credit him for keeping Spain neutral and uninvaded during the Second World War.", "They emphasise his strong anti-communist and nationalist views, economic policies, and opposition to socialism as major factors in Spain's post-war economic success and later international integration.", "For Spain's neutrality during the war he was praised by Winston Churchill, Charles de Gaulle and Franklin D. Roosevelt.", "He was also supported by Konrad Adenauer and many American Catholics, but was later strongly opposed by the Truman administration.Franco greeting Gamal Abdel Nasser at Madrid airport, September 24, 1960The American conservative commentator William F. Buckley, Jr, was an admirer of Franco, and praised him effusively in his magazine, ''National Review'', where the staff were also ardent admirers of the dictator.", "In 1957, Buckley called him \"an authentic national hero\", who \"above others\", had the qualities needed to wrest Spain from \"the hands of the visionaries, ideologues, Marxists and nihilists\", i.e., from the democratically elected government of the country.Conversely, critics on the left have denounced him as a tyrant responsible for thousands of deaths in years-long political repression and have called him complicit in atrocities committed by Axis forces during the Second World War due to his support of the Axis governments.When he died in November 1975, the major parties of the left and the right in Spain agreed to follow the Pact of Forgetting.", "To secure the transition to democracy, they agreed not to have investigations or prosecutions dealing with the civil war or Franco.", "The agreement effectively lapsed after 2000, the year the Association for the Recovery of Historical Memory (''Asociación para la Recuperación de la Memoria Histórica'' (ARMH)) was founded and the public debate started.", "In 2006, a poll indicated that almost two-thirds of Spaniards favoured a \"fresh investigation into the war\".Franco served as a role model for several anti-communist dictators in South America.", "Augusto Pinochet is known to have admired Franco.", "Similarly, as recently as 2006, Franco supporters in Spain have honoured Pinochet.In 2006, the BBC reported that Maciej Giertych, an MEP of the clerical-nationalist League of Polish Families, had expressed admiration for Franco, stating that the Spanish leader \"guaranteed the maintenance of traditional values in Europe\".fascist salute before the empty plinth from which the equestrian statue of Franco in Madrid had been recently removed in March 2005Spaniards who suffered under Franco's rule have sought to remove memorials of his regime.", "Most government buildings and streets that were named after Franco during his rule have been reverted to their original names.", "Owing to Franco's human-rights record, the Spanish government in 2007 banned all official public references to the Franco regime and began the removal of all statues, street names and memorials associated with the regime, with the last statue reportedly being removed in 2008 in the city of Santander.", "Churches that retain plaques commemorating Franco and the victims of his Republican opponents may lose state aid.", "Since 1978, the national anthem of Spain, the ''Marcha Real'', does not include lyrics introduced by Franco.", "Attempts to give the national anthem new lyrics have failed due to lack of consensus.On 11 February 2004, Luis Yáñez-Barnuevo and others presented a motion for the \"Need for international condemnation of the Franco regime\" to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe.", "In March 2006, the Permanent Commission of the Parliamentary Assembly unanimously adopted a resolution \"firmly\" condemning the \"multiple and serious violations\" of human rights committed in Spain under the Francoist regime from 1939 to 1975.The resolution was at the initiative of Leo Brincat and of the historian Luis María de Puig and was the first international official condemnation of the repression enacted by Franco's regime.", "The resolution also urged that historians (professional and amateur) be given access to the various archives of the Francoist regime, including those of the private Francisco Franco National Foundation (FNFF) which, along with other Francoist archives, remain inaccessible to the public as of 2006.The FNFF received various archives from El Pardo Palace and is alleged to have sold some of them to private individuals.", "Furthermore, the resolution urged the Spanish authorities to set up an underground exhibit in the Valle de los Caidos monument to explain the \"terrible\" conditions in which it was built.", "Finally, it proposed the construction of monuments to commemorate Franco's victims in Madrid and other important cities.In Spain, a commission to \"repair the dignity\" and \"restore the memory\" of the \"victims of Francoism\" (''Comisión para reparar la dignidad y restituir la memoria de las víctimas del franquismo'') was approved in 2004 and is directed by the social-democratic deputy Prime Minister María Teresa Fernández de la Vega.Sign in Santa Cruz de Tenerife for a street bearing Franco's name which was renamed in 2008 Rambla de Santa Cruz.Recently the Association for the Recovery of Historical Memory (ARHM) initiated a systematic search for mass graves of people executed during Franco's regime, which has been supported since the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party's (PSOE) victory during the 2004 elections by José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero's government.", "A ''Ley de la memoria histórica de España'' (Law on the Historical Memory of Spain) was approved on 28 July 2006, by the Council of Ministers, but it took until 31 October 2007 for the Congress of Deputies to approve an amended version as: \"The Bill to recognise and extend rights and to establish measures in favour of those who suffered persecution or violence during the Civil War and the Dictatorship\" (in common parlance still known as Law of Historical Memory).", "The Senate approved the bill on 10 December 2007.Official endeavours to preserve the historical memory of Spanish life under the Franco regime include exhibitions like the one held at the Museu d'Història de Catalunya (Museum of Catalan History) in 2003–2004, titled \"Les presons de Franco\".", "This exposition depicted the experiences of prisoners in Franco's prison system and described other aspects of the penal system such as women's prisons, trials, the jailers, and prisoners' families.", "The Museum no longer maintains its online version of the exhibition.The accumulated wealth of Franco's family (including much real estate inherited from Franco, such as the ''Pazo de Meirás'', the ''Canto del Pico'' in Torrelodones and the '''' in A Coruña) and its provenance have also become matters of public discussion.", "Estimates of the family's wealth have ranged from 350 million to 600 million euros.", "While Franco was dying, the Francoist Cortes voted a large public pension for his wife Carmen Polo, which the later democratic governments kept paying.", "At the time of her death in 1988, Carmen Polo was receiving a pension of over 12.5 million pesetas (four million more than the salary of Felipe González, then head of the government)." ], [ "In popular media", "=== Cinema and television ===* ''Raza'' or ''Espíritu de una Raza'' (''Spirit of a Race'') (1941), based on a script by \"Jaime de Andrade\" (Franco himself), is the semi-autobiographical story of a military officer played by Alfredo Mayo.", "* ''Franco, ese hombre'' (''That man, Franco'') (1964) is a pro-Franco documentary film directed by José Luis Sáenz de Heredia* The movie ''Dragon Rapide'' (1986) deals with the events previous to the Spanish Civil War, with the actor Juan Diego playing Franco* Argentine actor José \"Pepe\" Soriano played both Franco and his double in ''Espérame en el cielo'' (''Wait for Me in Heaven'') (1988).", "* Ramon Fontserè played him in ''¡Buen Viaje, Excelencia!''", "(''Bon Voyage, Your Excellency!'')", "(2003).", "* Manuel Alexandre played Franco in the TV movie ''20-N: Los ultimos dias de Franco'' (''20-N: The Last Days of Franco'') (2008)* Juan Viadas played Franco in Álex de la Iglesia's movie ''Balada triste de trompeta'' (''The Last Circus'') (2010)* The first-season episode \"Cómo se reescribe el tiempo\" of the Spanish television series ''El Ministerio del Tiempo'' (2015) sets events around Franco's October 1940 meeting with Adolf Hitler at Hendaye.", "Franco is portrayed by actor Pep Mirás.", "* At the end of the movie ''La reina de España'' (''The Queen of Spain''), Franco, played by Carlos Areces, is spat on in the face by the fictional Macarena Granada (Penélope Cruz), a Spanish Hollywood star who has returned to Spain to film a movie during Franco's reign.=== Music ===* French singer-songwriter and anarchist Léo Ferré wrote \"Franco la muerte\", a song he recorded for his 1964 album ''Ferré 64''.", "In this highly confrontational song, he directly shouts at the dictator and lavishes him with contempt.", "Ferré refused to sing in Spain until Franco was dead.=== Literature ===* Franco is a character in CJ Sansom's book ''Winter in Madrid''* ''...Y al tercer año resucitó'' (''...And On the Third Year He Rose Again'') (1980) describes what would happen if Franco rose from the dead.", "* Franco is featured in the novel ''Triage'' (1998) by Scott Anderson.", "* Franco is the centrepiece of the satirical work ''El general Franquisimo o La muerte civil de un militar moribundo'' by Andalucian political cartoonist and journalist Andrés Vázquez de Sola.", "* Franco features in several novels by Caroline Angus Baker, including ''Vengeance in the Valencian Water,'' visiting the aftermath of the 1957 Valencia floods, and ''Death in the Valencian Dust,'' about the final executions handed down before his death in 1975." ], [ "See also", "* Military career and honours of Francisco Franco* Language politics in Francoist Spain* List of dictators in modern times* Symbols of Francoism* \"Generalissimo Francisco Franco is still dead\"" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Blinkhorn, Martin.", "(1988) Democracy and Civil war in Spain 1931–1939 Routledge.", ".", "* Carroll, Warren H. (2004) The Last Crusade: Spain 1936 Christendom Press.", ".", "* Cerdá, Néstor.", "(October 2011) \"Political Ascent and Military Commander: General Franco in the Early Months of the Spanish Civil War, July–October 1936\".", "''Journal of Military History''.", "'''75''' (4) pp. 1125–1157.", "*Franco, Pilar.", "(1980).", "Nosotros, Los Franco.", "La Familia Franco y toda la España contemporánea por un testigo de excepción: la hermana del Caudillo.", "Espejo de España, Editorial Planeta.", "268 Páginas.", "* Jerez Mir, Miguel; Luque, Javier.", "(2014) eds.", "Costa Pinto, António; Kallis, Aristotle.", "''Rethinking Fascism and Dictatorship in Europe''.", "\"State and Regime in Early Francoism, 1936–45: Power Structures, Main Actors and Repression Policy\".", "Palgrave Macmillan.", "pp. 176–197.", "* Lines, Lisa.", "(2017) \"Francisco Franco as Warrior: Is It Time for a Reassessment of His Military Leadership?\"", "''Journal of Military History'' '''81''' (2) pp. 513–534.", "* Tussell, Javier(1995) Franco, España y la II Guerra Mundial: Entre el Eje y la Neutralidad.", "Spanish.", "Ediciones Temas de Hoy.", ".", "* Tusell, Javier.", "(1992) Franco en la guerra civil – Una biografia política Spanish.", "Editorial Tusquets.", ".", "* Tusell, Javier.", "(1996) La Dictadura de Franco Spanish.", "Altaya.", ".=== Primary sources ===* Franco, Francisco.", "(1922) ''Marruecos : diario de una bandera''.", "Madrid Pueyo.", "434161881.", "* Hayes, Carlton J. H. (1945) '' Wartime mission in Spain, 1942–1945''.", "Macmillan Company.", ".", "* Hoare, Samuel.", "(1946) ''Ambassador on Special Mission''.", "UK.", "Collins.", "pp.", "124–125* Hoare, Samuel.", "(1947) ''Complacent Dictator'' A.A. Knopf.", "." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Flash Crowd" ], [ "Introduction", "First publication in ''Three Trips in Time and Space'', edited by Robert Silverberg and published by Hawthorn Books in 1973 with cover art by Ivan Seresin\"'''Flash Crowd'''\" is a 1973 English-language novella by science fiction author Larry Niven, one of a series about the social consequence of inventing an instant, practically free displacement booth.One consequence not foreseen by the builders of the system was that with the almost immediate reporting of newsworthy events, tens of thousands of people worldwide – along with criminals – would teleport to the scene of anything interesting, thus creating disorder and confusion.", "The plot centers around a television journalist who, after being fired for his inadvertent role in inciting a post-robbery riot in Los Angeles, seeks to independently investigate the teleportation system for the flaws in its design allowing for such spontaneous riots to occur.", "His investigation takes him to destinations and people around the world within the matter of less than 12 hours before he gets his chance to plead his case on television, and he encounters the wide-ranging effects of displacements upon aspects of human behavior such as settlement, crime, natural resources, agriculture, waste management and tourism." ], [ "Characters", "* Barry Jerome \"Jerryberry\" Jansen – \"newstaper\" (television correspondent and cameraman) for Central Broadcasting Association (CBA).", "Father Eric brought the family to ruin when attempting to participate in the massive investment rush for the then-burgeoning stock in displacement booths.", "* George Lincoln Bailey – CBA editor* Wash Evans – host for CBA's ''Tonight Show'' flagship news program* Janice Wolfe – friend of Jerryberry* Nils Kjerulf – manager of Los Angeles International, now far from the major depot of mass transit of yesteryear due to the decrease in need for air transport* Gregory Scheffer – customs guard.", "* Dr. Robin \"Robbie\" Whyte – inventor of the displacement booth* Harry McCord – former Los Angeles Police Department Chief.", "* Tahitian ticket-taker – formerly owned a house until squatters drove him and his family out and moved in" ], [ "Other Flash Crowd stories by Larry Niven", "*''The Alibi Machine''*''All the Bridges Rusting''*''A Kind of Murder''*''The Last Days of the Permanent Floating Riot Club''" ], [ "Use in other works", "In various other books, for example ''Ringworld'', Niven suggests that easy transportation might be disruptive to traditional behavior and open the way for new forms of parties, spontaneous congregations, or shopping trips around the world.", "The central character in ''Ringworld'', celebrating his birthday, teleports across time-zones to \"lengthen\" his birthday multiple times (particularly notable since the first edition had the error of the character heading the wrong direction, increasing that edition's value).Niven's essay \"Exercise in Speculation: The Theory and Practice of Teleportation\" was published in the collection ''All the Myriad Ways'' In it he discusses the ideas that underlie his teleportation stories." ], [ "Other reading", "*\"Flash Crowd\" is included in the short story collection ''The Flight of the Horse''.", "The story (or parts of it) was originally published as \"Flash Crowd\" in ''Three Trips in Time and Space'', by Robert Silverberg, ed.", "*\"The Last Days of the Permanent Floating Riot Club\" is included in the short story collection ''A Hole in Space''*Other stories in this series are in these two books and in ''All the Myriad Ways''." ], [ "Similar references", "On the World Wide Web, a similar phenomenon can occur, when a web site catches the attention of a large number of people, and gets an unexpected and overloading surge of traffic.", "This usage was first coined by John Pettitt of Beyond.com in 1996.Multiple other terms for the phenomenon exist, often coming from the name of a particular prominent, high-traffic site whose normal base of viewers can constitute a flash crowd when directed to a less famous website.", "Notorious examples include the \"Slashdot effect\", the \"Instalanche\" (when a smaller site gets links by the popular blog Instapundit), or a website being \"Farked\" or Drudged (where the target site is crashed due to the large number of hits in a short time)." ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "August Kekulé" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Friedrich August Kekulé''', later '''Friedrich August Kekule von Stradonitz''' ( , ; 7 September 1829 – 13 July 1896), was a German organic chemist.", "From the 1850s until his death, Kekulé was one of the most prominent chemists in Europe, especially in the field of theoretical chemistry.", "He was the principal founder of the theory of chemical structure and in particular the Kekulé structure of benzene." ], [ "Name", "Kekulé never used his first given name; he was known throughout his life as August Kekulé.", "After he was ennobled by the Kaiser in 1895, he adopted the name August Kekule von Stradonitz, without the French acute accent over the second \"e\".", "The French accent had apparently been added to the name by Kekulé's father during the Napoleonic occupation of Hesse by France, to ensure that French-speakers pronounced the third syllable." ], [ "Early years", "The son of a civil servant, Kekulé was born in Darmstadt, the capital of the Grand Duchy of Hesse.", "After graduating from secondary school (the Grand Ducal Gymnasium in Darmstadt), in the fall of 1847 he entered the University of Giessen, with the intention of studying architecture.", "After hearing the lectures of Justus von Liebig in his first semester, he decided to study chemistry.", "Following four years of study in Giessen and a brief compulsory military service, he took temporary assistantships in Paris (1851–52), in Chur, Switzerland (1852–53), and in London (1853–55), where he was decisively influenced by Alexander Williamson.", "His Giessen doctoral degree was awarded in the summer of 1852." ], [ "Theory of chemical structure", "In 1856, Kekulé became Privatdozent at the University of Heidelberg.", "In 1858, he was hired as full professor at the University of Ghent, then in 1867 he was called to Bonn, where he remained for the rest of his career.", "Basing his ideas on those of predecessors such as Williamson, Charles Gerhardt, Edward Frankland, William Odling, Auguste Laurent, Charles-Adolphe Wurtz and others, Kekulé was the principal formulator of the theory of chemical structure (1857–58).", "This theory proceeds from the idea of atomic valence, especially the tetravalence of carbon (which Kekulé announced late in 1857) and the ability of carbon atoms to link to each other (announced in a paper published in May 1858), to the determination of the bonding order of all of the atoms in a molecule.", "Archibald Scott Couper independently arrived at the idea of self-linking of carbon atoms (his paper appeared in June 1858), and provided the first molecular formulas where lines symbolize bonds connecting the atoms.", "For organic chemists, the theory of structure provided dramatic new clarity of understanding, and a reliable guide to both analytic and especially synthetic work.", "As a consequence, the field of organic chemistry developed explosively from this point.", "Among those who were most active in pursuing early structural investigations were, in addition to Kekulé and Couper, Frankland, Wurtz, Alexander Crum Brown, Emil Erlenmeyer, and Alexander Butlerov.Kekulé's idea of assigning certain atoms to certain positions within the molecule, and schematically connecting them using what he called their \"Verwandtschaftseinheiten\" (\"affinity units\", now called \"valences\" or \"bonds\"), was based largely on evidence from chemical reactions, rather than on instrumental methods that could peer directly into the molecule, such as X-ray crystallography.", "Such physical methods of structural determination had not yet been developed, so chemists of Kekulé's day had to rely almost entirely on so-called \"wet\" chemistry.", "Some chemists, notably Hermann Kolbe, heavily criticized the use of structural formulas that were offered, as he thought, without proof.", "However, most chemists followed Kekulé's lead in pursuing and developing what some have called \"classical\" structure theory, which was modified after the discovery of electrons (1897) and the development of quantum mechanics (in the 1920s).The idea that the number of valences of a given element was invariant was a key component of Kekulé's version of structural chemistry.", "This generalization suffered from many exceptions, and was subsequently replaced by the suggestion that valences were fixed at certain oxidation states.", "For example, periodic acid according to Kekuléan structure theory could be represented by the chain structure I-O-O-O-O-H. By contrast, the modern structure of (meta) periodic acid has all four oxygen atoms surrounding the iodine in a tetrahedral geometry." ], [ "Benzene", "Kekulé structure of benzene with alternating double bondsKekulé's most famous work was on the structure of benzene.", "In 1865 Kekulé published a paper in French (for he was then still in Belgium) suggesting that the structure contained a six-membered ring of carbon atoms with alternating single and double bonds.", "The following year he published a much longer paper in German on the same subject.The empirical formula for benzene had been long known, but its highly unsaturated structure was a challenge to determine.", "Archibald Scott Couper in 1858 and Joseph Loschmidt in 1861 suggested possible structures that contained multiple double bonds or multiple rings, but the study of aromatic compounds was in its earliest years, and too little evidence was then available to help chemists decide on any particular structure.More evidence was available by 1865, especially regarding the relationships of aromatic isomers.", "Kekulé argued for his proposed structure by considering the number of isomers observed for derivatives of benzene.", "For every monoderivative of benzene (C6H5X, where X = Cl, OH, CH3, NH2, etc.)", "only one isomer was ever found, implying that all six carbons are equivalent, so that substitution on any carbon gives only a single possible product.", "For diderivatives such as the toluidines, C6H4(NH2)(CH3), three isomers were observed, for which Kekulé proposed structures with the two substituted carbon atoms separated by one, two and three carbon-carbon bonds, later named ortho, meta, and para isomers respectively.The counting of possible isomers for diderivatives was, however, criticized by Albert Ladenburg, a former student of Kekulé, who argued that Kekulé's 1865 structure implied two distinct \"ortho\" structures, depending on whether the substituted carbons are separated by a single or a double bond.", "Since ortho derivatives of benzene were never actually found in more than one isomeric form, Kekulé modified his proposal in 1872 and suggested that the benzene molecule oscillates between two equivalent structures, in such a way that the single and double bonds continually interchange positions.", "This implies that all six carbon-carbon bonds are equivalent, as each is single half the time and double half the time.", "A firmer theoretical basis for a similar idea was later proposed in 1928 by Linus Pauling, who replaced Kekulé's oscillation by the concept of resonance between quantum-mechanical structures.=== Kekulé's dream ===Kekulé's benzene ring in modern form, and the alchemical ouroboros symbol of a snake eating its tailThe new understanding of benzene, and hence of all aromatic compounds, proved to be so important for both pure and applied chemistry after 1865 that in 1890 the German Chemical Society organized an elaborate appreciation in Kekulé's honor, celebrating the twenty-fifth anniversary of his first benzene paper.", "Here Kekulé spoke of the creation of the theory.", "He said that he had discovered the ring shape of the benzene molecule after having a reverie or day-dream of a snake seizing its own tail (this is an ancient symbol known as the ouroboros).Another depiction of benzene had appeared in 1886 in the ''Berichte der Durstigen Chemischen Gesellschaft'' (Journal of the Thirsty Chemical Society), a parody of the ''Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft'', only the parody had six monkeys seizing each other in a circle, rather than a single snake as in Kekulé's anecdote.", "Some historians have suggested that the parody was a lampoon of the snake anecdote, possibly already well-known through oral transmission even if it had not yet appeared in print.", "Others have speculated that Kekulé's story in 1890 was a re-parody of the monkey spoof, and was a mere invention rather than a recollection of an event in his life.Kekulé's 1890 speech, in which these anecdotes appeared, has been translated into English.", "If one takes the anecdote as reflecting an accurate memory of a real event, circumstances mentioned in the story suggest that it must have happened early in 1862.He told another autobiographical anecdote in the same 1890 speech, of an earlier vision of dancing atoms and molecules that led to his theory of structure, published in May 1858.This happened, he claimed, while he was riding on the upper deck of a horse-drawn omnibus in London.", "Once again, if one takes the anecdote as reflecting an accurate memory of a real event, circumstances related in the anecdote suggest that it must have occurred in the late summer of 1855." ], [ "Works", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "Honors", "1964 West German centenary stamp for the discovery of the molecular formula of benzene.In 1895, Kekulé was ennobled by Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, giving him the right to add \"von Stradonitz\" to his name, referring to a possession of his patrilineal ancestors in Stradonice, Bohemia.", "His name thus became Friedrich August Kekule von Stradonitz, without the French accent on the last \"e\" of his name, and this is the form of the name that some libraries use.", "This title was inherited by his son, genealogist Stephan Kekule von Stradonitz.", "Of the first five Nobel Prizes in Chemistry, Kekulé's former students won three: van 't Hoff in 1901, Fischer in 1902 and Baeyer in 1905.A larger-than-life monument of Kekulé, unveiled in 1903, is situated in front of the former Chemical Institute (completed 1868) at the University of Bonn.", "His statue is often humorously decorated by students, e.g.", "for Valentine's Day or Halloween." ], [ "See also", "*Non-Kekulé molecule*Skeletal formula*Kekulé Program*Auguste Laurent" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Benfey, O. Theodor.", "\"August Kekule and the Birth of the Structural Theory of Organic Chemistry in 1858.\"", "''Journal of Chemical Education''.", "Volume 35, No.", "1, January 1958.p.", "21–23.– Includes an English translation of Kekule's 1890 speech in which he spoke about his development of structure theory and benzene theory.", "* Rocke, A. J., ''Image and Reality: Kekule, Kopp, and the Scientific Imagination'' (University of Chicago Press, 2010)." ], [ "External links", "* Kekulés Traum (Kekulé's dream, in German)* Kekulé: A Scientist and a Dreamer*" ] ]
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[ [ "Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frederick III''' (German: ''Friedrich III,'' 21 September 1415 – 19 August 1493) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1452 until his death in 1493.He was the fourth king and first emperor of the House of Habsburg.", "He was the penultimate emperor to be crowned by the pope, and the last to be crowned in Rome.Prior to his imperial coronation, he was duke of the Inner Austrian lands of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola from 1424, and also acted as regent over the Duchy of Austria from 1439.He was elected and crowned King of Germany in 1440.His reign of 53 years is the longest in the history of the Holy Roman Empire or the German monarchy.", "Upon his death in 1493 he was succeeded by his son Maximilian.During his reign, Frederick concentrated on re-uniting the Habsburg \"hereditary lands\" of Austria and took a lesser interest in Imperial affairs.", "Nevertheless, by his dynastic entitlement to Hungary as well as by the Burgundian inheritance, he laid the foundations for the later Habsburg Empire.", "Despite being mocked as \"Arch-Sleepyhead of the Holy Roman Empire\" () during his lifetime, he is today increasingly seen as an effective ruler.Historian Thomas A. Brady Jr. credited Frederick with leaving a credible claim on the imperial title and a secure grip on the Austrian lands, now organized as a single state, for his son.", "This imperial revival (as well as the rise of the territorial state) began under the reign of Frederick." ], [ "Early life", "Born at the Tyrolean residence of Innsbruck in 1415, Frederick was the eldest son of the Inner Austrian duke Ernest the Iron, a member of the Leopoldian line of the Habsburg dynasty, and his second wife Cymburgis of Masovia.", "According to the 1379 Treaty of Neuberg, the Leopoldinian branch ruled over the duchies of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, or what was referred to as Inner Austria.", "Only three of Frederick's eight siblings survived childhood: his younger brother Albert (later to be Albert VI, archduke of Austria), and his sisters Margaret (later the electress of Saxony) and Catherine.", "In 1424, nine-year-old Frederick's father died, making Frederick the duke of Inner Austria, as Frederick V, with his uncle, Duke Frederick IV of Tyrol, acting as regent.From 1431, Frederick tried to obtain majority (to be declared \"of age\", and thus allowed to rule) but for several years was denied by his relatives.", "Finally, in 1435, Albert V, duke of Austria (later Albert II, the king of Germany), awarded him the rule over his Inner Austrian heritage.", "Almost from the beginning, Frederick's younger brother Albert asserted his rights as a co-ruler, as the beginning of a long rivalry.", "Already in these years, Frederick had begun to use the symbolic A.E.I.O.U.", "signature as a kind of motto with various meanings.", "In 1436 he made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, accompanied by numerous nobles knighted by the Order of the Holy Sepulchre, which earned him great reputation.Upon the death of his uncle Duke Frederick IV in 1439, Frederick took over the regency of Tyrol and Further Austria for the duke's heir Sigismund.", "Again he had to ward off the claims raised by his brother Albert VI; he prevailed by the support of the Tyrolean aristocracy.", "Likewise he acted as regent for his nephew Ladislaus the Posthumous, son of late King Albert II and his consort Elizabeth of Luxembourg, in the duchy of Austria (Further Austria).", "(Ladislaus would die before coming of age).", "Frederick was now the undisputed head of the Habsburg dynasty, though his regency in the lands of the Albertinian Line (Further Austria) was still viewed with suspicion.As a cousin of late King Albert II, Frederick became a candidate for the 1440 imperial election.", "On 2 February 1440, the prince-electors convened at Frankfurt and unanimously elected him King of the Romans as Frederick IV; his rule was still based on his hereditary lands of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, or Inner Austria.In 1442, Frederick allied himself with Rudolf Stüssi, burgomaster of Zürich, against the Old Swiss Confederacy in the Old Zürich War (Alter Zürichkrieg) but lost.", "In 1448, he entered into the Concordat of Vienna with the Holy See, which remained in force until 1806 and regulated the relationship between the Habsburgs and the Holy See.In 1452, at the age of 37, Frederick III travelled to Italy to receive his bride and to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor.", "His fiancée, the 17-year-old ''infanta'' Eleanor, daughter of King Edward of Portugal, landed at Livorno (Leghorn) after a 104-day trip.", "Her dowry would help Frederick alleviate his debts and cement his power.", "The couple met at Siena on 24 February and proceeded together to Rome.", "As per tradition, they spent a night outside the walls of Rome before entering the city on 9 March, where Frederick and Pope Nicholas V exchanged friendly greetings.", "Because the emperor had been unable to retrieve the Iron Crown of Lombardy from the cathedral of Monza where it was kept, nor be crowned King of Italy by the archbishop of Milan (on account of Frederick's dispute with Francesco Sforza, lord of Milan), he convinced the pope to crown him as such with the German crown, which had been brought for the purpose.", "This coronation took place on the morning of 16 March, in spite of the protests of the Milanese ambassadors, and in the afternoon Frederick and Eleanor were married by the pope.", "Finally, on 19 March, Frederick and Eleanor were anointed in St Peter's Basilica by the Vice-Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church, Cardinal Francesco Condulmer, and Frederick was then crowned with the Imperial Crown by the pope.", "Frederick was the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned in Rome.", "His great-grandson Charles V was the last emperor to be crowned, but this was done in Bologna." ], [ "Personality", "Signum manus of Frederick IIIFrederick's style of rulership was marked by hesitation and a sluggish pace of decision making.", "The Italian humanist Enea Silvio Piccolomini, later Pope Pius II, who at one time worked at Frederick's court, described the Emperor as a person who wanted to conquer the world while remaining seated.", "Although this was regarded as a character flaw in older academic research, his delaying tactics are now viewed as a means of coping with political challenges in far-flung territorial possessions.", "Frederick is credited with having the ability to sit out difficult political situations patiently.According to contemporary accounts, Frederick had difficulties developing emotional closeness to other persons, including his children and wife Eleanor.", "Unlike his brother Albert and his son Maximilian, Frederick maintained a reserved lifestyle.", "Although he was willing to appear in social events like festivals and tournaments, he disliked lavish feasts.", "Later he became horrified when his son, still in early teen years, displayed a tendency towards wine, feasts and women.", "As Frederick was rather distant to his family, Eleanor had a great influence on the raising and education of Frederick's children, and she therefore played an important role in the House of Habsburg's rise to prominence.", "Despite the fact that their marriage had been unhappy, when Eleanor died the Emperor was affected by her loss and remained widowed for the rest of his long life." ], [ "Emperor", "Aeneas Piccolomini introduces Eleonora of Portugal to Frederick III'' by Pinturicchio (1454–1513)A tapestry depicting the coronation of Frederick III, which misattributes the Pope in attendance as Pope Pius II.Frederick's political initiatives were hardly bold, but they were still successful.", "Frederick III was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1452, the first since the death of Emperor Sigismund.", "His ascension to the role of Emperor came with the stipulation that should the previous queen of Bohemia (wife of Albert V of the Albertine line) give birth to a male heir, Frederick would become his guardian.", "When the queen gave birth to Ladislaus the Posthumous, as according to the stipulations, Frederick took on his guardianship.", "This led to conflicts between Frederick and other members of the royal family and nobility.", "His first major opponent was his brother Albert VI, who challenged his rule.", "He did not manage to win a single conflict on the battlefield against him, and thus resorted to more subtle means.", "He held his second cousin once removed Ladislaus the Posthumous, the ruler of the Archduchy of Austria, Hungary and Bohemia, (born in 1440) as a prisoner and attempted to extend his guardianship over him in perpetuity to maintain his control over Lower Austria.", "Ladislaus was freed in 1452 by the Lower Austrian estates.", "He acted similarly towards his first cousin Sigismund of the Tyrolian line of the Habsburg family.", "One of his important advisors during this time was Friedrich II von Graben.Ultimately, Frederick prevailed in all those conflicts by outliving his opponents and sometimes inheriting their lands, as was the case with Ladislaus, from whom he gained Lower Austria in 1457, and with his brother Albert VI, whom he succeeded in Upper Austria.", "In 1462, his brother Albert raised an insurrection against him in Vienna and the emperor was besieged in his residence by rebellious subjects.", "In this war between the brothers, Frederick received support from the King of Bohemia, George of Poděbrady.", "These conflicts forced him into an anachronistic itinerant existence, as he had to move his court between various places through the years, residing in Graz, Linz and .", "owes him its castle and the \"New Monastery\".", "In 1469 Friedrich founded the Order of St. George, which still exists today, whereby the first investiture in the Lateran Basilica in Rome was carried out by him and Pope Paul II.Frederick III meeting with Charles the BoldMary of Burgundy, sole heir to the rich Burgundian kingdom, after the death of her father Charles the Bold, soon made her choice among the many suitors for her hand by selecting Archduke Maximilian of Austria, the future Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (son of Frederick III) who became her co-ruler.", "With the inheritance of Burgundy, the House of Habsburg began to rise to predominance in Europe.", "This gave rise to the saying \"Let others wage wars, but you, happy Austria, shall marry\", which became a motto of the dynasty.Frederick secured in 1486 the succession of the son in his own lifetime.", "On 16 February 1486 Maximilian was unanimously elected Roman-German king at the Frankfurt Reichstag by the six electors present.", "The Elector of Bohemia was not invited because the Bohemian spa law might have been claimed by the Hungarian King Corvinus.", "There are still discussions regarding whether Frederick actively provided the initiative for his son's election or not.", "As Frederick's only surviving male heir though, Maximilian was a natural choice for Frederick and the Estates to counter Hungary's ambitions.", "On the occasion of the election of Maximilian, a ten-year land peace was decided.", "In order to safeguard the peace of the land and against the expansive territorial policy of the House of Wittelsbach, numerous affected empire-related states of Swabia joined in 1488 on Frederick's initiative for the Swabian League.", "After the royal election Frederick accompanied his son to Aachen, where Maximilian was crowned on 9 April 1486.There seemed to be tensions between father and son due to differences in personalities and leadership styles.", "But Frederick saw Maximilian's values in negotiating with the Estates, thus even though he was wary of infringements on his imperial power, Maximilian quickly became an essential partner in imperial politics.In 1487, his daughter Kunigunde married Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria.", "Albert illegally took control of some imperial fiefs and then asked to marry Kunigunde (who lived in Innsbruck, far from her father), offering to give her the fiefs as a dower.", "Frederick agreed at first, but after Albert took over yet another fief, Regensburg, Frederick withdrew his consent.", "On 2 January 1487, however, before Frederick's change of heart could be communicated to his daughter, Kunigunde married Albert.", "A war was prevented only through the mediation of the Emperor's son, Maximilian.In some smaller matters, Frederick was quite successful: in 1469 he managed to establish bishoprics in Vienna and , a step that no previous Duke of Austria had been able to achieve.Frederick failed to gain control over Hungary and Bohemia in the Bohemian–Hungarian War (1468–78).", "Frederick proclaimed himself King of Hungary on 27 February 1459, but this did not intimidate Mathias Corvinus.", "Frederick decided to invade, but his army never got far, as he was no general.", "From Mantua, Pius II (who was also Frederick's former secretary) urged the Emperor to leave Mathias alone.", "Hungary, he proclaimed, \"is the shield of all Christendom under cover of which we have hitherto been safe.", "...", "If the road is thus opened to the barbarians, destruction will break in over all and the consequences of such a disaster will be imputed by God to its authors.\"", "Frederick was even defeated in the Austrian–Hungarian War (1477–88) by Matthias Corvinus in 1485, who managed to maintain residence in Vienna until his death five years later in the Siege of Vienna.", "Emperor Frederick failed to procure help from the Prince-electors and the Imperial States.", "In 1483 he had to leave his Hofburg residence in Vienna and fled to Wiener Neustadt, where he also was besieged by Matthias' troops for 18 months until the fortress was captured in 1487.Humiliated, Frederick fled to Graz, and later to Linz in Upper Austria.Frederick in old ageFrederick's personal motto was the mysterious string A.E.I.O.U., which he imprinted on all his belongings.", "He never explained its meaning, leading to many different interpretations being presented, although it has been claimed that shortly before his death he said it stands for '''' or '''' (\"All the world is subject to Austria\").", "It may well symbolise his own understanding of the historical importance and meaning of his rule and of the early gaining of the Imperial title.Frederick had been very careful regarding the reform movement in the empire.", "For most of his reign, he considered reform as a threat to his imperial prerogatives.", "He avoided direct confrontation, which might lead to humiliation if the princes refused to give way.", "After 1440, the reform of the Empire and Church was sustained and led by local and regional powers, particularly the territorial princes.", "In his last years, however, there was more pressure on him taking action from a higher level.", "Berthold von Henneberg, the Archbishop of Mainz, who spoke on behalf of reform-minded princes (who wanted to reform the Empire without strengthening the imperial hand), capitalized on Frederick's desire to secure the imperial election for Maximilian.", "Thus in his last years, he presided over the initial phase of Imperial Reform, which would mainly unfold under his son Maximilian.", "Maximilian himself was more open to reform, although naturally he also wanted to preserve and enhance imperial prerogatives.", "After Frederick retired to Linz in 1488, as a compromise, Maximilian acted as mediator between the princes and his father.", "When he attained sole rule after Frederick's death, he would continued this policy of brokerage, acting as the impartial judge between options suggested by the princes." ], [ "Patronage of the arts", "Frederick was an important and powerful patron of music, with a \"preference for importing Western talent\".", "This, combined with the efforts by non-coủrtly institutions like the Cathedral at Trent, would contribute to the flourishing of music under Maximilian I.The 110 books he collected form the core collection of the later ''Bibliotheca Regia'', that was the predecessor of the later Imperial Library and the current Austrian National Library (''Österreichische Nationalbibliothek'')." ], [ "Legacy", "German historians tend to be more critical of Frederick than Austrian ones.", "Austrian historian Adam Wandruszka opines that while he was not an impressive emperor, Frederick III was effective in defending and expanding his family's dynastic interests.", "Wandruszka calls him the \"true founder of the Habsburg imperial position\".", "German historians Paul-Joachim Heinig (author of ''Kaiser Friedrich III.", "(1440–1493).", "Hof, Regierung und Politik'', Böhlau, 1997) writes that it would be unfair to say that Maximilan stood on the shoulders of a giant, yet nevertheless Frederick provided the shoulders without which Maximilian could not have become a giant himself.Frederick was a great benefactor to the Jews – his enemies described him as \"more of a Jew than a Holy Roman Emperor\".", "He favoured such Jewish scholars like , who was the teacher of the Hebraist Johann Reuchlin.", "His empress Eleanor also favoured Jews.", "For unknown reasons, their son Maximilian developed a dislike for the Jews as a child though, to the horror of both parents.", "His own relationship with the Jews evolved over the years though.", "Schattner-Rieser opines that the foundation of Modern Judaism, arising in the eras of Frederick and Maximilian, was \"embedded in the principles of humanism\"." ], [ "Marriage and children", "Frederick III and Eleanor of PortugalFrederick had five children from his marriage with Eleanor of Portugal:* Christoph (1455–1456)* Maximilian (1459–1519), Holy Roman Emperor, married# 1477 Mary of Burgundy (1457–1482), daughter of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy# 1494 Bianca Maria Sforza (1472–1510), daughter of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan* Helene (1460–1462)* Kunigunde (1465–1520), married 1487 Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria* Johannes (1466–1467)For the last 10 years of Frederick's life, he and Maximilian ruled jointly." ], [ "Death", "Frederick III's tomb, ViennaIn his last years Friedrich remained in the region on the Danube, in Vienna and in Linz.", "In 1492 he was elected Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece.", "Since February 1493, Frederick's health deteriorated increasingly.", "In the Lent of 1493, Friedrich's personal physicians diagnosed Kaiser in the left leg as a symptom, usually referred to as age-burning, in the research literature, which according to current medical terminology is considered to be the result of arteriosclerosis.", "On 8 June 1493 he was amputated under the direction of the surgeon Hans Seyff in the Linz castle of the affected area of the leg.", "This leg amputation is considered one of the most famous and best-documented surgical procedures of the entire Middle Ages.Although Frederick initially survived the procedure well, he died on 19 August 1493 in Linz at the age of 77.The contemporaries cited as the cause of death the consequences of leg amputation, senility or rapid diarrhea caused by melon consumption.", "His bowels were probably buried separately on 24 August 1493 in the Linz parish church.", "The arrival of Turks in Carinthia and the Krain delayed the arrival of Maximilian and with it the funeral service.", "On 6 and 7 December 1493, the funeral took place in St. Stephen's Cathedral.His grave, built by Nikolaus Gerhaert von Leyden, in St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna, is one of the most important works of sculptural art of the Late Middle Ages.", "(His amputated leg was buried with him.)", "The heavily adorned tomb was not completed until 1513, two decades after Frederick's death, and has survived in its original condition." ], [ "Heraldry", "Heraldry of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor155px180px180pxCoat of arms as King of the Romans(1440–1493)Coat of arms as Holy Roman Emperor(1452–1493)Alternative coat of arms as Holy Roman Emperor(1452–1493)" ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "Male-line family tree" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* *Heinig, Paul-Joachim.", "\"The Court of Emperor Frederick III\".", "In ''Princes Patronage and the Nobility: The Court at the Beginning of the Modern Age, cc.", "1450–1650.''", "Edited by Ronald G. Asch and Adolf M. Birke.", "New York: Oxford University Press, 1991..*Langmaier, Konstantin M. Erzherzog Albrecht VI.", "von Österreich (1418–1463), Ein Fürst im Spannungsfeld von Dynastie, Regionen und Reich (Forschungen zur Kaiser- und Papstgeschichte des Mittelalters, Beihefte zu J. F. Böhmer, Regesta Imperii 38, Köln, Weimar, Wien 2015.", "*Langmaier, Konstantin M. Kaiser Friedrich III.", "(1415–1493): des Reiches Erzschlafmütze?", "Der \"schlafende Kaiser\" als Klischee.", "In: Zeitschrift des Historischen Vereins für Steiermark.", "111, 2020, 129–188 (currently the most scientific and modern study on Frederick III)." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * Database \"Sources on the Judiciary of Emperor Frederick III\" (''Quellen zur Gerichtsbarkeit Kaiser Friedrichs III.", "(1440–1493)''* Joachim Laczny, Friedrich III.", "(1440–1493) auf Reisen.", "Die Erstellung des Itinerars eines spätmittelalterlichen Herrschers unter Anwendung eines historisch-Geographischen Informationssystems (his-GIS).", "* WDR-Zeitzeichensendung 1415 – Der Geburtstag von Kaiser Friedrich III." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fuerteventura" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fuerteventura''' () is one of the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean, part of the North Africa region, and politically part of Spain.", "It is located away from the northwestern coast of Africa.", "The island was declared a biosphere reserve by UNESCO in 2009.Fuerteventura belongs to Province of Las Palmas, one of the two provinces that form the autonomous community of the Canary Islands.", "The island's capital is Puerto del Rosario, where the Insule Council is found, the government of the island.", "Fuerteventura had 124,152 inhabitants (), the fourth largest population of the Canary Islands and the third of the province.", "At , it is the second largest of the Canary Islands, after Tenerife.", "From a geological point of view, Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the archipelago." ], [ "Toponymy", "The island's name is a compound formed by the Spanish words ''fuerte'' (either \"strong\" or \"fort\") and ''ventura'' (\"fortune\").", "Traditionally, Fuerteventura's name has been regarded as a reference to the strong winds (''fuertes vientos'' in Spanish) around the island coastline, and the resulting danger to nautical adventurers.", "However, it might have referred instead (or also) to wealth, luck or destiny.In 1339 the Mallorcan navigator Angelino Dulcert, in the ''Planisferio de Angelino Dulcert'', referred to the island as \"Forte Ventura\".Another theory is that the island's name derives from \"Fortunatae Insulae\" (Fortunate Islands), the name by which the Romans knew the Canary Islands.The indigenous name of the island, before its conquest in the 15th century, was Erbania, divided into two regions (Jandía and Maxorata), from which the name majorero (originally majo or maxo) derives.", "However, it has been suggested that, at some point, Maxorata (which meant \"the children of the country\") was the aboriginal toponym of the entire island." ], [ "History", "Morro Jable=== Precolonial history ===The two kingdoms of precolonial Fuerteventura: Jandía and MaxorataThe first settlers of Fuerteventura are believed to have come from North Africa.", "The word ''Mahorero'' (''Majorero'') or ''Maho'' is still used today to describe the people of Fuerteventura and is derived from the ancient word 'mahos', a type of goatskin shoe worn by these original inhabitants.", "They lived in caves and semi-subterranean dwellings, some of which have been excavated, revealing remnants of early tools and pottery.", "In antiquity, the island was originally known as ''Planaria'', in reference to the flatness of most of its terrain.Phoenician settlers landed in Fuerteventura and Lanzarote.Several Spanish and Portuguese expeditions to the islands were organized around 1340, followed by Moors and European slave traders.", "At the end of the Iberian conquest, the island was divided into two Guanches kingdoms, one adhering to King Guize and the other to King Ayoze.", "The territories of these kingdoms were called Maxorata (in the North) and Jandía (in the South) respectively.", "They were separated by a wall, which traversed the La Pared isthmus.", "Some remains have been preserved.", "The ancient name for the island, Erbania, is derived from this wall's name.=== The conquest ===The island's conquest began in earnest in 1402, commanded by French knights and crusaders Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle.", "They arrived with only 63 sailors out of the original 283, as many had deserted along the way.", "After arriving and settling in Lanzarote, the invaders made some first excursions to the neighboring islands.", "In 1404, Bethencourt and Gadifer founded Betancuria, on the West coast, the first settlement on the island.", "After numerous difficulties, Gadifer took charge of the invasion, while Bethencourt returned to Spain to seek the recognition and support of the Castilian king.Parish of Santa María de Betancuria, BetancuriaIn 1405, de Béthencourt completed his conquest of the island, establishing its capital in Betancuria (Puerto Rosario took over the mantle as island capital in 1835).In 1424 Pope Martin V, through the Betancuria Brief, edicted the establishment of the Bishopric of Fuerteventura, which encompassed all the Canary Islands save for the island of Lanzarote.", "The origin of this bishopric is directly related to the events that occurred after the Great Schism (1378–1417), in that the bishop of San Marcial del Rubicón of Lanzarote (at the time, the only diocese in the Canary Islands) did not recognize the papacy of Martin V, and instead adhered to anti-Pope Benedict XIII.", "The ''Bishopric of Fuerteventura'' was based in the ''Parish of Santa María de Betancuria'', bestowing upon the latter the status of Grant Cathedral.", "After the reabsorbtion of the ''Diocese of San Marcial del Rubicón'' by the papacy of Pope Martin V, the Bishopric of Fuerteventura was abolished in 1431, only seven years after it was created.The first census recorded a population of some 1,200 inhabitants.", "The population increased gradually thereafter.", "In 1476 the territory became the ''Señorío Territorial de Fuerteventura'', subjected to the Catholic Monarchs.", "In later years, the island was invaded by the Spanish, French and the English.=== 2nd conquest of Fuerteventura ===Over time, the island endured numerous raids.", "A Berber-led expedition invaded in 1593, sweeping as far inland as the capital.", "Various castles were built along the coastline, to protect against these type of attacks.", "The population was moved inland as a second protective measure.", "Because of the raids, a first ''Captain General'' was dispatched to Fuerteventura, accompanied by a number of ''Sergeants Major'', to defend the island in the name of the Crown.", "At that time, Betancuria became the religious capital of the island.Two major attacks took place in 1740, within a month of each other.", "Two separate bands of English privateers attempted to loot the town of Tuineje.", "These attacks were however successfully averted by the local population and the island's militia.", "This successful repelling of the invaders is celebrated at a re-enactment that takes place in Gran Tarajal every year in October.The island's garrison was officially instated in 1708.Its colonel assumed the title of ''Governor at Arms'', a hereditary, lifelong appointment which has remained in the Sánchez-Dumpiérrez family.", "In time, this family increasingly garnered power over the other islands through alliances with the family of Arias de Saavedra and the Lady of Fuerteventura.", "During the same year the ''Assistant Parish of La Oliva and Pájara'' was created, to become operational in 1711.On 17 December 1790, the ''Assistant Parish of Tuineje'' was created, which became a new parish division on 23 June 1792 under the bishop Tavira, with lands including part of the Jandía peninsular, and with a population of 1,670 inhabitants.", "1780 saw the start of a barrilla plantation industry.===To the present===In 1852, a free trade zone was extended by Isabella II to the Canary Islands.", "Military island rule, which began in 1708, was finally dissolved in 1859, and ''Puerto de Cabras'' (now Puerto del Rosario) - the only municipal seat on the coast - became the new capital.Caleta de Fuste and its castleThe Canary Islands obtained self-governance in 1912.In 1927, Fuerteventura and Lanzarote became part of the province of Gran Canaria.", "The seat of the island's government (''cabildo insular'') is located in Puerto del Rosario.", "A total of 118,574 people lived on the island in 2018.By the 1940s the island had an airport (just west of Puerto del Rosario on the road to Tindaya, still visible today).", "Mass tourism began to arrive in the mid-1960s, facilitated by the construction of Fuerteventura Airport at El Matorral and the first tourist hotels.The island's proximity (a mere 100 km) to the West African coast and the fact that it is part of the Schengen territory make it a prime target destination for undocumented immigrants.", "However, many have perished while attempting the crossing." ], [ "Flag", "Flag of FuerteventuraThe flag of Fuerteventura is in proportions 1:2, divided vertically, green to the hoist and white to the fly end, with the coat of arms of the island in the centre.===Coat of arms===The coat of arms of Fuerteventura was prescribed by a Decree adopted on 15 October 1998 by the Government of the Canary Islands and published on 11 November 1998 in the official gazette of the Canary Islands, No.", "142, pp.", "13,432–13,433.It was adopted on 24 April 1998 by the Island Council and validated on 18 September 1998 by the Heraldry Commission of the Canary Islands.The heraldic description is \"per pale and per fess.", "First, gules, a castle or, masoned sable, its gate and windows azure.", "Second, argent, lion gules, crowned, armed and langued or.", "Third, silver, three fesses chequy gules and or, in four rows, each one charged with a fess or.", "Bordure gules, with eight saltires or.", "Ensigned with a royal crown, open.", "\"According to José Manuel Erbez (Banderas y escudos de Canarias, 2007), the coat of arms is based on the arms of the island's provincial militia.", "The upper quarters represent Castile (symbolized by a castle) and León (symbolized by a lion).", "The lower quarter alludes to the Saavedra family; various members of this family were lords of Fuerteventura." ], [ "Geography", "===Environment===''Euphorbia regis-jubae'', food plant of ''Hyles tithymali''The elongated island is long and wide.", "It has an area of .Located just off the coast of North Africa, it is the second biggest of the islands, after Tenerife, and has the longest white sand beaches in the archipelago.", "The island is a destination for sun, beach and watersports enthusiasts.", "It lies at the same latitude as Florida and Mexico and temperatures rarely fall below or rise above .", "It counts 152 separate beaches along its seaboard — of white sand and of black volcanic shingle.The highest point in Fuerteventura is Pico de la Zarza (807 m) in the southwestern part of the island.", "Geographical features include '''Istmo de la Pared''' which is wide and is the narrowest part of Fuerteventura.", "The island is divided into two parts, the northern portion which is '''Maxorata''' and the southwestern part called the Jandía peninsula.===Climate===Fuerteventura has a hot desert climate (Köppen: ''BWh'').", "The climate is mild, but mostly windy, throughout the year.", "The island is hence referred to as ''the island of eternal spring''.", "The sea regulates air temperature, diverting hot Sahara winds away from the island.", "The island's name in English translates as \"strong fortune\" or \"strong wind\", the Spanish word for wind being ''viento''.", "During the winter months, temperatures average a high of and a low of around , whereas during the summer a mean high of and a low of can be expected.", "Precipitation is about per year, most of which falls in autumn and winter.", "December is the month with highest rainfall.A sandstorm known as the Calima (similar to the Sirocco wind, which blows to the North of the Sahara, to Europe) may blow from the Sahara Desert to the Northwest, and can cause high temperatures, low visibility and drying air.", "Temperatures during this phenomenon rise temporarily by approximately 10 degrees Celsius.", "The wind brings in fine red dust, The fine white sand is not blown in from Sahara, It is made up of dead coral reef and local seabed upheaval.", "Visibility can drop to between or even lower, and together with very warm temperatures, it can even bring African locusts to the island.===Hydrology===In the winter months, up to 80% of the rainwater flows unused into the ocean, as there is no vegetation to capture the water (also due to overgrazing by free-ranging goats near the coast).The mountain forests, which were still present in the 19th century, were all chopped down.", "Instead, there are many desalination plants (running on electricity) which produce the required amount of freshwater on the island.", "The tourists on the island use about double the amount of water as the native inhabitants of Fuerteventura.", "Causes are the filling of swimming pools, watering hotel gardens and washing towels.===Geology===Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the Canary Islands dating back 20 million years to a volcanic eruption from the Canary hotspot.", "The majority of the island was created about 5 million years ago and since then has been eroded by wind and precipitation.", "On the seabed off the west coast of the island rests an enormous slab of bedrock long and wide, which appears to have slid off the island largely intact at some point in prehistory, similar to the predicted future collapse of Cumbre Vieja, a geological fault on another Canary Island, La Palma.", "The last volcanic activity in Fuerteventura occurred between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago.===Beaches===AjuyFuerteventura was chosen among 500 European destinations by the Quality Coast International Certification Program of the European Coastal and Marine Union as one of the most attractive tourist destinations for visitors interested in cultural heritage, environment and sustainability.", "The best beaches to visit are Playa de Cofete, Playas de Jandia, Playas de Corralejo, Playa de Ajuy, and Playas de El Cotillo.===Wildlife===Typical xerophytic vegetation in Fuerteventura, contrasting with the laurisilva forests on the islands of El Hierro, La Gomera and La Palma which are exposed to the Gulf StreamFood plant of ''Pontia daplidice'' on Fuerteventura.", "It is pollinated by ''Amegilla cavifrons''.The hunting wasp ''Delta dimiatipenne''The island is home to one of the two surviving populations of the threatened Canarian Egyptian vulture.", "It is also inhabited by many wild dogs and cats.", "On the barren, rocky land there are Barbary ground squirrels and geckos.", "Fuerteventura also hosts several migratory and nesting birds.", "The island has significant populations of the collared dove, common swifts and several finch species especially in the vicinity of holiday developments.Despite its arid climate, the island is also home to a surprisingly large insect fauna.", "Butterflies which commonly occur on the island include the clouded yellow (''Colias hyale'') and the bath white (''Pontia daplidice'') which feeds on xerophytic cruciferae.", "The island is also home to the monarch butterfly (''Danaus plexippus'') and its close African relative ''Danaus chrysippus''.", "Around holiday developments such as Caleta de Fuste, water is relatively abundant, and dragonfly species including the blue emperor (''Anax imperator'') and the scarlet darter (''Crocothemis erythraea'') can be found.", "The island's sand dunes and shoreline are home to a number of bee and wasp species including the large eumenid caterpillar hunting wasp, ''Delta dimidiatipenne'' and the blue banded bee (''Amegilla canifrons'').Hawkmoths also occur on the island.", "One of the more notable species is ''Hyles tithymali'' which feeds on endemic spurges such as ''Euphorbia regis-jubae''.", "''Acherontia atropos'', the deaths-head hawkmoth also occurs on the island presumably feeding on members of the Solanaceae, for example, ''Datura innoxia'' and ''Nicotiana glauca'' which are common weeds in the vicinity of human habitation." ], [ "Natural symbols", "The official natural symbols associated with Fuerteventura are ''Chlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae'' (hubara or houbara) and ''Euphorbia handiensis'' (Cardón de Jandía)." ], [ "Demographics", "The People's University Building, a branch of UNED (Puerto del Rosario)=== Population ===The island had a population of 124,152 at the start of 2023.Throughout its long history, Fuerteventura has suffered from a population decline due to the economic situation and the climate, which have made it into a desert island.", "However, the development of tourism during the 1980s has caused the population to grow year on year since then, doubling it in a little less than a decade.In 2005, with 86,642 registered inhabitants, the Fuerteventura population was formed by the following:*Born on the island: 30,364*Born on another Canary Island: 13,175*Born elsewhere in Spain: 20,938*Born in other countries: 22,165Comparing this data with the 2001 census shows that the number of permanent residents born on the island has increased by just 3,000.The number who have moved in from abroad has increased by 22,910, making this the biggest contributor to population growth in recent years.=== Education ===The island has 116 schools, with a total of 14,337 pupils.", "Of these, 45 are primary schools, ten are secondary schools, six are for Baccalaureate students and four are vocational colleges.Fuerteventura also has a centre linked with the National University of Distance Education, offering courses in many subjects including economics, business studies, law, history and tourism." ], [ "Administration", "Fuerteventura is governed by the Island Department of the Government of Spain, which holds the rank of a Government Subdepartment.", "The government building is located in the centre of the capital city.This institution is charged with representing the Government of Spain on the island, and managing all the functions that are not under control of the Canarian Government.", "This includes the following public services:*Island Security Forces (National Police and Guardia Civil)*Puerto del Rosario port and Fuerteventura Airport*Tax Agency*Customs*the Maritime and Coastguard department*Driving licences, Traffic and Highways*Immigration – the Immigration Detention Centre and residential permits*Social Security*Red Cross*Seprona (the Nature Protection Service)*PassportsSince 30 June 2007, the island's governor has been Eustaquio Juan Santana Gil.", "4=== Island Council of Fuerteventura (Cabildo)===The councils, formed as part of the Councils Act of 1912, administer the Canary Islands and have two principal functions.", "On one hand, they perform services for the Autonomous Community, and on the other, they are the local government centre for the island.", "In the 2003 elections, Mario Cabrera González was elected as president representing the Canarian Coalition, with 31.02% of the votes, followed by the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party with 27.53%, represented by the Vice President Domingo Fuentes Curbelo.=== Municipalities ===City Council of Puerto del RosarioFuerteventura is part of the Province of Las Palmas.", "The island is divided into six municipalities, as follows:NameIslandArea(km2)CensusPopulation(2001)CensusPopulation(2011)CensusPopulation(2021)EstimatedPopulation(2023)AntiguaFuerteventura250.565,51910,39112,78213,513BetancuriaFuerteventura103.64685770755811La OlivaFuerteventura356.1310,54822,82727,50329,174PájaraFuerteventura383.5212,38219,77320,89221,130Puerto del RosarioFuerteventura289.9521,29635,87841,85243,493TuinejeFuerteventura275.949,84313,30215,49416,031'''''Fuerteventura Island'''''''Totals''''1,659.74''''60,273''''102,941''''119,278''''124,152''In turn, these municipalities are organised into two associations: the ''Mancomunidad de Municipios del Centro-Norte de Fuerteventura'' formed from La Oliva and Puerto del Rosario, and the remaining municipalities make up the ''Mancomunidad de Municipios del Centro-Sur de Fuerteventura''.All municipalities are ruled by a town council, and are members of the FECAM (Federation of Canarian Municipalities).", "They are governed by the basic legislation of the local regime and their respective organic rules.", "About 100 individual settlements are distributed through these municipalities.", "The largest not being municipal seats are Corralejo (in La Oliva; pop.", "10,714 in 2023), Morro Jable (in Pájara; pop.", "8,245) Gran Tarajal (in Tuineje; pop.", "7,584), and Costa Calma (in Pájara; pop.", "5,704), all coastal localities of recent development.A nearby islet, Islote de Lobos, is close to Corralejo and part of the municipality of La Oliva." ], [ "Economy", "Fuerteventura coastlineBoth Fuerteventura and Lanzarote would have been the main exporters of wheat and cereals to the central islands of the archipelago during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries; Tenerife and Gran Canaria.", "However, this trade was of little benefit to the inhabitants of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura (because the landowners of the islands profited from this activity), leading to periods of famine, resulting in some of the population of the islands moving to Tenerife and Gran Canaria to try to improve their lives.", "Therefore, the island of Tenerife became the main focus of attraction for ''majoreros'' and ''lanzaroteños'', hence the feeling of union that has always existed amongst these islands.The economy of Fuerteventura is mainly based on tourism.", "Primary tourist areas are located around the existing towns of Corralejo in the north and Morro Jable in Jandia, plus the purely tourist development of Caleta de Fuste, south of Puerto del Rosario.", "Other main industries are fishing and agriculture (cereals and vegetables).", "The famous Majorero cheese is locally made from the milk of the indigenous majorera goat.In 2009, Fuerteventura recorded the highest EU regional unemployment rate at a NUTS3 level, at 29.2 percent.===Tourism===The first tourist hotel was built in 1965 followed by the construction of Fuerteventura Airport at El Matorral, heralding the dawn of a new era for the island.", "Fuerteventura, with its 3,000 sunshine hours a year, was placed firmly on the world stage as a major European holiday destination.While having fully developed tourist facilities, the island has not experienced the overdevelopment found on some other islands.", "Nonetheless, it remains a destination for predominantly but not exclusively European tourists.The summer Trade Winds and winter swells of the Atlantic make this a year-round surfers' paradise, with more exposed areas on the north and west shores such as Corralejo and El Cotillo proving most popular.", "Wind surfing takes places at locations around the island.", "Sailors, scuba divers and big-game fishermen are all drawn to these clear blue Atlantic waters where whales, dolphins, marlin and turtles are all common sights.", "With many hills present throughout the Island, hikers are also attracted to this Island.Sandy beaches are found in many locations.", "Western beaches, such as those around El Cotillo, can experience strong surf.", "The beaches adjoining the extensive sand dunes east of Corralejo are popular, as are the more protected extensive sandy shores of the Playa de Sotavento de Jandia on the southeastern coast between Costa Calma and the Morro Jable.", "Naked sun bathing and swimming are the norm almost on all beaches.Much of the interior, with its large plains, lavascapes and volcanic mountains, consists of protected areas, although there are organised tours and vehicular access across them." ], [ "Art and culture", "=== Traditional holidays ===Candidates compete to be Queen of the Rose Festival in 2000 Puerto del Rosario.Virgen de la Peña (Patron saint of Fuerteventura)Like the rest of the Canaries, Carnival is traditionally one of the biggest festivals celebrated on the island.", "It is celebrated in different ways in all the towns during February and March.", "These festivities have a different theme each year.", "They include activities such as parades and galas to choose the carnival king.=== Concerts and festivals ===King África in Puerto del Rosario in September 2000There are many concerts and festivals held in the auditoriums, such as the Festival of Canarian Music.", "They are also held in smaller venues across the island, featuring bands such as Estopa, Van Gogh's Ear, and King Afrhica.", "*Lebrancho Rock: in 2004, the Town Hall of Puerto del Rosario started this initiative for the growing number of local bands who had been performing in the area for years but had not had the chance to play at the same event.", "*Fuertemusica: like Lebrancho Rock, this festival aims to encourage the local or emerging groups.", "It started in the same year.", "This festival is mainly for groups that are already known in the music world.", "It takes place in El Cotillo.", "*In the municipality of Betancuria (more specifically in the village of Vega de Rio Palmas) held every year the festivities in honor of the Virgen de la Peña, patron saint of the island of Fuerteventura, the most representative is the pilgrimage in which are involved people from all corners of the island.", "The holiday is celebrated on the third Saturday of September.Festival Internacional de Cometas/International Kite Festival is held on the second week of November each year centering on the Corralejo Beaches.", "It attracts kitefliers and kite surfers from all over Europe.", "It is popular because the winds are warm and constant and the beaches become filled with hundreds of colourful kites of all shapes and sizes.=== Auditoriums ===Members of the National Dance Company in the Puerto del Rosario Auditorium on 25 July 2000Fuerteventura has three auditoriums.", "These are used for all types of performing art.", "They are also used for non-artistic purposes, such as conferences, charity galas and political meetings.", "*The Isle of Fuerteventura Auditorium*Gran Tarajal Auditorium*Corralejo Auditorium=== Central library ===The Central Library of the Island is located in Antigua's city centre, in the public university.", "In addition to providing the traditional library services, it has a 180-seat multipurpose room, air conditioning, a wifi zone, and a multimedia room used for seminars, presentations, film festivals etc.=== Museums and exhibition spaces ===The museum in BetancuriaThe island has several museums with different themes and plenty of exhibition spaces, both public and private.", "These include:*The Antigua Windmill Craft Centre*The Salt Museum*The Atalayita Archeological Interpretation Centre=== Sculpture park ===In addition to the museums, the capital Puerto del Rosario has an open-air sculpture park consisting of around 100 sculptures by different artists scattered across the city.", "Most of them were created for the International Symposium of Sculpture celebrated annually since 2001.During the festival, artists come from all over the world to erect their sculptures in the open air, in full view of passers by." ], [ "Main sights", "Sites of interest include Corralejo and El Jable to the north which are made up of fine sand dunes whilst the south is filled with long beaches and remote bays.", "The constant winds blowing onto the beaches provide a paradise for windsurfing.", "Surfing is common on the west and north coasts where there are large waves.", "Windsurfing is common around Corralejo and Playas de Sotavento and wave sailing (windsurfing on the waves) on the coast along the northern half of the island.", "El Cotillo is a small fishing village in the north-west of the Island famous for a very long beach to the south of the village and few very calm beaches to the north.", "The northern beaches frequented by snorkeling enthusiasts and sun worshippers alike are referred to as lakes by the locals.", "American Star'' (SS ''America'') seen in July 2004 from land sideAt Cofete on the western side of Jandía a remote and imposing house – Villa Winter – looks out to sea across wide beaches.", "It was reputedly built by a Mr Winter on land given by Generalisimo Franco.For a time, the beaches were home to a popular accidental attraction.", "On 18 January 1994 the United States Lines ocean liner SS ''American Star'' (former ''America'', USS ''West Point'', ''Australis'') was beached in Playa de Garcey during a severe storm.", "Within a year, she broke in two and later lost her stern.", "By 2007 the rest of the severely deteriorated ship had collapsed onto her port side, gradually keeling over further and almost completely submerged.", "By 2008–2012, most of the remains finally slipped below the surface." ], [ "Food", "Majorera cheeseThe cuisine is fairly basic due to the customs and climate conditions.", "They share this simplicity with the other Canary islands, and similarly to them, they use a large quantity of fish.", "They also use whatever they can grow in the near-barren land.", "This includes papas arrugadas, a dish of wrinkled potatoes usually served with mojo, which is a hot pepper sauce or with puchero canario, a meat stew.Seafood is prepared in many ways traditionally, such as pejines (salted fish), jareas, or sancocho (a type of stew) made from fish, generally the grouper, corvina or sama, boiled after salting, and served with mojo, potatoes, or gofio (a type of grain).", "People are also very keen on the mussels and limpets collected on the island's coasts.They also use meat such as beef and pork to make different dishes or simply to for braising, but their main meat is goat, both from the kids and from the older animals.", "They eat the goat roasted or stewed.", "Goats are not only useful for their meat – the Fuerteventurans also use the milk to make the cheese majorero, which has won many prizes.", "The majorero is mostly made of goats milk, and occasionally it is up to 15% ewes milk.", "It is cured in pimento oil or gofio meal.", "Majorero and palmero cheese are the only two Canarian cheeses with protected denomination of origin." ], [ "Transport and communications", "The main methods of arriving and departing the islands are by flying and by ferry.=== Airports ===The airport is the main access point to the island.", "It is situated in El Matorral, southwest of the capital city Puerto del Rosario.", "The airport has flight connections to over 80 destinations worldwide, and over 5.6 million passengers passed through it in 2016.In 1994, the new airport terminal was constructed.", "In December 2009, the new facilities of the arrivals terminal of Fuerteventura Airport were inaugurated, tripling the space available in the old facilities.", "Up to 4000 passengers per hour can be served concurrently thanks to the new facilities.Notably, Binter Canarias serves the airport as the regional airline connecting passengers across Canary Islands.=== Ports ===Maritime communications are made from four ports: Puerto del Rosario, Corralejo, Gran Tarajal and Morro Jable.", "Cargo operations are the main activity of the island's main port in Puerto del Rosario, although its facilities allow the docking of tourist cruises including a ferry from Gran Canaria.", "Passenger traffic is mainly channeled through Corralejo, Gran Tarajal and Morro Jable.", "The port of Corralejo connects the island with Lanzarote.", "The port of Gran Tarajal connects the island with Gran Canaria and Morro Jable connects the island with Gran Canaria and Tenerife.=== Roads ===There are two highways on the island: FV-1 and FV-2.The FV-1, together with the FV-2, is part of the major construction project of the north–south motorway on Fuerteventura.The FV-1 begins in the north, in the town of Corralejo and ends in the island's capital Puerto del Rosario.", "FV-1 is part dual carriageway and part single carriageway.", "In the past, the FV-1 also ran through the Corralejo Dune Nature Reserve.", "In order to direct through traffic out of the nature reserve, the dual carriageway bypass around the nature reserve was opened in 2017 as the first section of the motorway after three years of construction, plus five years of construction delay.", "The road through nature reserve was renamed FV-104.FV-2 connects Morro Jable and Puerto del Rosario.", "Between La Lajita and Morro Jable, FV-2 is a dual carriageway highway.", "Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are: Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar, Hertz, Sixt and TopCar." ], [ "Sport", "Many sports are commonly played in Fuerteventura, both in the open air and in sports centres across the island.=== Native sports ===These are the Canarian sports found on the island:==== Canarian wrestling ====The wrestling takes place in a ring of sand called the ''terrero''.", "Inside it, the two contestants try to knock each other over.", "Fuerteventura has 14 terreros distributed through all the towns except Betancuria.", "*Antigua: Terrero de Antigua.", "*La Oliva: Terrero Venancio Guerra and Terrero de Villaverde.", "*Pájara: Terrero Miguel Díaz La Lajita, Terrero de Morro Jable a Terrero de Pájara.", "*Puerto del Rosario: Terrero de Casillas del Angel, Terrero Manuel Nieves, Terrero de Puerto Cabras, Terrero de Tefía a Terrero de Tetir.", "*Tuineje: Terrero de Gran Tarajal, Terrero de Tamasite, and Terrero Pedro Sánchez in Tarajalejo.The island also has a school wrestling league organized by the council and a programme to promote this sport in clubs.", "Twelve wrestling schools participate in this, based in Antigua, Costa Calma, El Matorral, La Lajita, Lajares, Las Playitas, Morro Jable, Puerto del Rosario, Tefía, Tetir, Unión Sur and Villaverde.==== Juego del Palo ====Antigua) on 23 September 2000Juego del Palo is a Canarian martial art which literally translates as \"game of the stick\".", "It is played by two players both armed with sticks.", "They aim to defeat each other without making contact with their opponent's body.", "The origin of this game is unclear.", "All we know is that it is based on a method of combat used by the precolonial Canarian people.Fuerteventura has the following Palo clubs:*Club-Escuela Dunas de Corralejo.", "*Club-Escuela Huriamen de Villaverde.", "*Club-Escuela Puerto Cabras.", "*Club-Escuela Sorinque de Gran Tarajal.==== Canarian boules ====This is a similar game to the French Pétanque which is actually played very little on the island, although there are a few teams and courts.", "Basically the game consists of scoring points by throwing a ball to get it as near as possible to an object called a ''mingue'' or ''boliche''.", "It is played on a rectangular sand or earth pitch which is long and wide.=== Watersports ===The sea and climate conditions make the island the perfect place for a huge variety of watersports.==== Surfing, windsurfing and kitesurfing ====Windsurfing in CorralejoMany types of surfing are popular on the island, including traditional surfing, windsurfing (where the board is propelled by a sail) and most recently kitesurfing.", "The island has many schools and courses dedicated to teaching these sports.The sports where Fuerteventura has the most impact internationally are windsurfing and kitesurfing, mainly due to the International Windsurfing and Kiteboarding Championship.", "This has run since 1985 and is held at Playas de Sotavento in Pájara municipality.", "Many important wind and kitesurfing figures compete in this championship, such as the several-times world windsurfing champion Björn Dunkerbeck and Gisela Pulido, the very young kiteboarding champion from Tarifa.Many Canarian windsurfers are on the Canarian Waveriders circuit, which has been based in Corralejo since 2005.==== Diving ====Diving schools are just as frequent as surfing ones, all around the coast of Fuerteventura.", "Unlike the other islands of the archipelago, Fuerteventura has a shelf which at some points goes up to , making it an ideal place to practice this sport.Two of the most useful points for diving are the coast off Playa del Matorral in the South, and the zone between Lobos Island and Corralejo in the north.", "It is here in Corralejo that the International Sea and Submarine Photography Festival takes places, known as Fimarsub Corralejo – Lobos.", "During the festival there are beginners' lessons, professional dives, lessons in underwater photography, screenings and other events related to the sport.==== Swimming ====There are many swimming pools on the island but the most obvious place to swim is in the open sea.", "There is an annual swim from Lobos Island to Fuerteventura, held every year since 1999.The event attracts amateur swimmers from all over the Canaries and Spain, and also swimming professionals such as David Meca and Maarten van der Weijden, the paralympist Jesús Collado Alarcón who won gold medals for 100m backstroke and butterfly in Athens 2004, and Xavi Torres Ramis, the paralympic champion in Barcelona 1992, Sydney and Atlanta.==== Sailing ====Antigua)The island holds competitions involving different types of boat, such as the lateen and the Optimist.", "An interesting event is the Tour of Fuerteventura by Kayak, which is organised as a series of stages rather than a competition, and is an easy way to explore the island.==== Fishing ====The most notable competition here is the Gran Tarajal Fishing Open.=== Other sports ===Since 2004 the Marcha Ciclotourista has been held in La Oliva and the Criterium Ciclista has been held in Corralejo (also part of the La Oliva municipality) since 2005.Participants include , T-Mobile and a team from Orbea.", "These competitions have contributed to local interest in the sport and the first professional local team, the Fuerteventura–Canarias, was formed, initially run by Óscar Guerrero, director of Kaiku, although they have not competed for the past few seasons.There are various motocross circuits on the island, including ''Los Alares'' in Antigua and ''Isla de Fuerteventura'' in Puerto del Rosario municipality.", "They hold regular trials, some of which form part of the Canarian Regional Motocross Championship.", "Throughout the year there are gravel rally races.", "Two are part of the Canarian Dirt Rally Championship.", "These are the Antiguan Rally and the La Oliva Rally.The island's main football clubs are CD Union Puerto and CD Cotillo, who play in Group XII of the Spanish Tercera División RFEF.The resort Playitas on the south coast is since around 2008 equipped with a swimming pool and has become a destination for triathlon training camps for Europeans.", "An annual race called Challenge Fuerteventura is held there on the half ironman distance." ], [ "People", "Inauguration of the statue by Emiliano Hernández in honour of Manuel Velázquez Cabrera on 8 November 2001*Manuel Velázquez Cabrera: born in Tiscamanita in 1863, the politician and lawyer who created the island's council.", "*Juan Ismael: painter, cartoonist and poet born in La Oliva in 1907, considered one of the great Canarian surrealists.", "*Eustaquio Gopar: born in Tuineje in 1866.He was one of the Spanish soldiers involved in the Siege of Baler together with Major Rafael Alonso Mederos, who died of beri-beri during the siege.", "On his return Eustaquio became mayor over his native people.", "He held this post both during the republic and under Franco." ], [ "See also", "*List of volcanoes in Spain**" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*https://www.fuerteventura.com *https://www.fuerteventura.com/history * Fuerteventura Tourism Board***" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fairmount, Indiana" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fairmount''' is a town in Fairmount Township, Grant County in the east central part of the U.S. state of Indiana.", "The population was 2,954 at the 2010 census.", "It is 55 miles (88 km) northeast of Indianapolis.", "Largely a bedroom community for nearby Marion, Fairmount is best known as the boyhood home of actor James Dean, who is buried there." ], [ "History", "The Fairmount area was settled in the 1830s mostly by Quakers from North Carolina.", "The town was laid out in 1850 and named for Fairmount Park in Philadelphia; it was formally incorporated in 1870.After a large deposit of natural gas was found in 1887, Fairmount became part of the Indiana Gas Boom and a center of the glass industry for the rest of the 19th century.", "Shortly after the depletion of the gas in 1900 the automobile industry set up factories in the nearby large cities, and Fairmount became a bedroom community, restoring some of its lost prosperity.In the 1940s, James Dean lived with an aunt and uncle, Ortense and Marcus Winslow, on a farm north of Fairmount.", "He attended Fairmount High School, graduating in 1949.After his death in 1955, Dean was buried in Park Cemetery.", "In 1996, a small Memorial Park north of the town's business district was dedicated in his memory with a bronze bust by Hollywood artist Kenneth Kendall.During the prosperity of the 1960s, Fairmount enjoyed a time of building with a new town hall, water works, post office and elementary school.", "At the end of the decade the local school district merged with a neighboring one, forming the Madison-Grant united school district.", "A new high school was built for this district, and Fairmount High School became a middle school.", "When a new junior high school was opened in 1986, the Fairmount High School building was permanently closed.The Baldwin Addition Historic District, Fairmount Commercial Historic District, and J.W.", "Patterson House are listed on the National Register of Historic Places." ], [ "Geography", "According to the 2010 census, Fairmount has a total area of , all land.Fairmount from the air, looking southwest." ], [ "Demographics", "===2010 census===As of the census of 2010, there were 2,954 people, 1,241 households, and 837 families living in the town.", "The population density was .", "There were 1,350 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the town was 98.6% White, 0.1% African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.2% from other races, and 0.7% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.9% of the population.There were 1,241 households, of which 31.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.6% were married couples living together, 14.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 32.6% were non-families.", "28.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.85.The median age in the town was 40.3 years.", "23.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.2% were from 25 to 44; 28% were from 45 to 64; and 16.5% were 65 years of age or older.", "The gender makeup of the town was 48.5% male and 51.5% female.===2000 census===As of the census of 2000, there were 2,992 people, 1,226 households, and 859 families living in the town.", "The population density was .", "There were 1,325 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the town was 98.30% White, 0.17% Black or African American, 0.70% Native American, 0.20% Asian, 0.07% from other races, and 0.57% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.43% of the population.There were 1,226 households, out of which 31.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.5% were married couples living together, 11.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.9% were non-families.", "26.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 2.91.In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.2% under the age of 18, 8.2% from 18 to 24, 28.2% from 25 to 44, 24.3% from 45 to 64, and 14.1% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 38 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 90.5 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.0 males.The median income for a household in the town was $33,843, and the median income for a family was $44,033.Males had a median income of $31,136 versus $23,041 for females.", "The per capita income for the town was $18,029.About 7.4% of families and 9.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.8% of those under age 18 and 7.8% of those age 65 or over." ], [ "Education", "Madison-Grant United School Corporation operates public schools Fairmount is assigned to.Abandoned Fairmount High School building in 2003.The building was torn down in 2015.Schools serving Fairmount:*Park Elementary School (Fairmount)*Madison-Grant Junior High School (''unincorporated area'')*Madison-Grant High School (''unincorporated area'')The town has a lending library, the Fairmount Public Library." ], [ "Notable people", "*Jim Davis, cartoonist, creator of the comic strip ''Garfield'', was raised in Fairmount.", "Davis graduated from Fairmount High School in 1963.", "*James Dean, actor, was raised in Fairmount.", "Dean graduated from Fairmount High School in 1949, and is buried in Park Cemetery in Fairmount.", "*David L. Payne, politician, considered the \"Father of Oklahoma.\"", "Payne County, OK is named for him.", "*Olive Rush, artist, painter, was a Quaker descended from one of the town's founders.", "She was noted as a founder of the art colony in Santa Fe, New Mexico.", "*Robert Sheets, former director of the National Hurricane Center in Coral Gables, Florida.", "Sheets is a 1955 graduate of Fairmount High School and attended Ball State University in nearby Muncie.", "*Mary Jane Ward, author of several books including ''The Snake Pit'', a Book of the Month Club selection which became a motion picture starring Olivia de Havilland." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Free verse" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Free verse''' is an open form of poetry, which in its modern form arose through the French ''vers libre'' form.", "It does not use consistent meter patterns, rhyme, or any musical pattern.", "It thus tends to follow the rhythm of natural speech." ], [ "Definition", "Free verse does not \"proceed by a strict set of rules … is not a literary type, and does not conform to a formal structure.\"", "It is not considered to be completely free.", "In 1948, Charles Allen wrote, \"The only freedom cadenced verse obtains is a limited freedom from the tight demands of the metered line.\"", "Free verse contains some elements of form, including the poetic line, which may vary freely; rhythm; strophes or strophic rhythms; stanzaic patterns and rhythmic units or cadences.", "It is said that verse is free \"when it is not primarily obtained by the metered line.\"", "Donald Hall goes as far as to say that \"the ''form'' of free verse is as binding and as liberating as the ''form'' of a rondeau,\" and T. S. Eliot wrote, \"No verse is free for the man who wants to do a good job.", "\"Kenneth Allott, the poet and critic, said the adoption by some poets of ''vers libre'' arose from \"mere desire for novelty, the imitation of Whitman, the study of Jacobean dramatic blank verse, and the awareness of what French poets had already done to the alexandrine in France.\"", "The American critic John Livingston Lowes in 1916 observed \"Free verse may be written as very beautiful prose; prose may be written as very beautiful free verse.", "Which is which?", "\"Some poets have considered free verse restrictive in its own way.", "In 1922, Robert Bridges voiced his reservations in the essay \"Humdrum and Harum-Scarum\".", "Robert Frost, in a comment regarding Carl Sandburg, later remarked that writing free verse was like \"playing tennis without a net.\"", "Sandburg responded saying, in part, \"There have been poets who could and did play more than one game of tennis with unseen rackets, volleying airy and fantastic balls over an insubstantial net, on a frail moonlight fabric of a court.\"", "William Carlos Williams said, \"Being an art form, a verse cannot be free in the sense of having no limitations or guiding principles.\"", "Yvor Winters, the poet and critic, said, \"…the greatest fluidity of statement is possible where the greatest clarity of form prevails.", "… The free verse that is really verse—the best that is, of W.C. Williams, H. D., Marianne Moore, Wallace Stevens, and Ezra Pound—is, in its peculiar fashion, the antithesis of free.", "\"In Welsh poetry, however, the term has a completely different meaning.", "According to Jan Morris, \"When Welsh poets speak of Free Verse, they mean forms like the sonnet or the ode, which obey the same rules as English poesy.", "Strict Metres verse still honours the immensely complex rules laid down for correct poetic composition 600 years ago.\"" ], [ "Vers libre", "'''Vers libre''' is a free-verse poetic form of flexibility, complexity, and naturalness created in the late 19th century in France, in 1886.It was largely through the activities of ''La Vogue'', a weekly journal founded by Gustave Kahn, as well as the appearance of a band of poets unequaled at any one time in the history of French poetry.", "Their style of poetry was dubbed \"Counter-Romanticism\" and it was led by Verlaine, Rimbaud, Mallarmé, Laforgue and Corbière.", "It was concerned with synaethesis (the harmony or equilibrium of sensation) and later described as \"the moment when French poetry began to take consciousness of itself as poetry.\"", "Gustave Kahn was commonly supposed to have invented the term vers libre and according to F. S. Flint, he \"was undoubtedly the first theorist of the technique(s).\"", "Later in 1912, Robert de Souza published his conclusion on the genre, voicing that \"A vers libre was possible which would keep all the essential characteristics of ''vers Classique'', but would free it from the encumbrances which usage had made appear indispensable.\"", "Thus the practice of vers libre was not the abandoning of pattern, but the creation of an original and complicated metrical form for each poem.The formal stimuli for vers libre were ''vers libéré'' (French verse of the late 19th century that liberated itself from classical rules of versification whilst observing the principle of isosyllabism and regular patterned rhyme) and ''vers libre Classique'' (a minor French genre of the 17th and 18th century which conformed to classic concepts, but in which lines of different length were irregularly and unpredictably combined) and ''vers Populaire'' (versification derived from oral aspects of popular song).", "Remy de Gourmont's ''Livre des Masques'' gave definition to the whole vers libre movement; he notes that there should arise, at regular intervals, a full and complete line, which reassures the ear and guides the rhythm.===Form and structure===The unit of vers libre is not the foot, the number of the syllables, the quantity, or the line.", "The unit is the strophe, which may be the whole poem or only a part.", "Each strophe is a complete circle.", "Vers libre is \"verse-formal based upon cadence that allows the lines to flow as they will when read aloud by an intelligent reader.", "\"Unrhymed cadence in vers libre is built upon \"organic rhythm\" or the rhythm of the speaking voice with its necessity for breathing, rather than upon a strict metrical system.", "For vers libre addresses the ear, not the eye.", "Vers libre is liberated from traditional rules concerning meter, caesura, and line end stopping.", "Every syllable pronounced is of nearly equal value but is less strongly accented than in English; being less intense requires less discipline to mold the accents into the poem's rhythm.", "This new technique, as defined by Kahn, consists of the denial of a regular number of syllables as the basis for verification; the length of the line is long and short, oscillating with images used by the poet following the contours of his or her thoughts and is free rather than regular.Although free verse requires no meter, rhyme, or other traditional poetic techniques, a poet can still use them to create some sense of structure.", "A clear example of this can be found in Walt Whitman's poems, where he repeats certain phrases and uses commas to create both a rhythm and structure.Pattern and discipline are to be found in good free verse: the internal pattern of sounds, the choice of exact words, and the effect of associations give free verse its beauty.", "With the Imagists free verse became a discipline and acquired status as a legitimate poetic form.", "Herbert Read, however, noted that \"the Imagist Ezra Pound gave free verse its musical structure to an extent that paradoxically it was no longer free.", "\"Unrestrained by traditional boundaries, the poet possesses more license to express and has more control over the development of the poem.", "This can allow for a more spontaneous and individualized poetic art product.Technically, free verse has been described as spaced prose, a mosaic of verse and prose experience.===Legacy===Vers libre, until 1912, had hardly been heard of outside France until T. E. Hulme and F. S. Flint shared their knowledge in 1909 with the Poets Club in London.", "This later became the heart of the Imagist movement through Flint's advocacy of the genre.", "Thus, vers libre influenced Imagism in the discovery of new forms and rhythms.Imagism, in the wake of French Symbolism (i.e.", "vers libre of French Symbolist poets) was the wellspring out of which the main current of Modernism in English flowed.", "T. S. Eliot later identified this as \"the point de repere usually taken as the starting point of modern poetry,\" as hundreds of poets were led to adopt vers libre as their medium." ], [ "Antecedents", "As the French-language term ''vers libre'' suggests, this technique of using more irregular cadences is often said to have its origin in the practices of 19th-century French poets such as Gustave Kahn and Jules Laforgue, in his ''Derniers vers'' of 1890.Taupin, the US-based French poet and critic, concluded that free verse and ''vers libre'' are not synonymous, since \"the French language tends to give equal weight to each spoken syllable, whereas English syllables vary in quantity according to whether stressed or unstressed.", "\"The sort of cadencing that we now recognize in free verse can be traced back at least as far as the Biblical Hebrew psalmist poetry of the Bible.", "By referring to the Psalms, it is possible to argue that free verse in English first appeared in the 1380s in the John Wycliffe translation of the Psalms and was repeated in different form in most biblical translations ever since.Walt Whitman, who based his long lines in his poetry collection ''Leaves of Grass'' on the phrasing of the King James Bible, influenced later American free verse composers, notably Allen Ginsberg.", "One form of free verse was employed by Christopher Smart in his long poem ''Jubilate Agno'' (Latin: ''Rejoice in the Lamb''), written some time between 1759 and 1763 but not published until 1939.Many poets of the Victorian era experimented with free verse.", "Christina Rossetti, Coventry Patmore, and T. E. Brown all wrote examples of rhymed but unmetered verse, poems such as W. E. Henley's \"Discharged\" (from his ''In Hospital'' sequence).Free verse in English was persuasively advocated by critic T. E. Hulme in his ''A Lecture on Modern Poetry'' (1908).", "Later in the preface to ''Some Imagist Poets'' 1916, he comments, \"Only the name is new, you will find something much like ''vers libre'' in Dryden's ''Threnodia Augustalis''; a great deal of Milton's ''Samson Agonistes'', and the oldest in Chaucer's ''House of Fame''.", "\"In France, a few pieces in Arthur Rimbaud's prose poem collection ''Illuminations'' were arranged in manuscript in lines, rather than prose, and in the Netherlands, tachtiger (i.e., a member of the 1880s generation of innovative poets) Frederik van Eeden employed the form at least once in his poem \"Waterlelie\" (\"Water Lily\").Goethe in some early poems, such as \"Prometheus\" and also Hölderlin used free verse occasionally, due in part to a misinterpretation of the meter used in Pindar's poetry.", "Hölderlin also continued to write unmetered poems after discovering this error.The German poet Heinrich Heine made an important contribution to the development of free verse with 22 poems, written in two-poem cycles, called ''Die Nordsee'' (''The North Sea'') (written 1825–1826).", "These were first published in ''Buch der Lieder'' (''Book of Songs'') in 1827." ], [ "See also", "*Abbaye de Créteil*Blank verse*Cadence*Confessional poetry*Imagism*Modernist poetry*New Formalism*Poetry analysis*Prose poetry*Symbolism" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Charles O. Hartman, ''Free Verse: An Essay on Prosody,'' Northwestern University Press, 1980.", "*Philip Hobsbaum, ''Metre, Rhythm and Verse Form,'' Routledge, 1996.*H.", "T. Kirby-Smith, ''The Origins of Free Verse,'' University of Michigan, 1996..*Timothy Steele, ''Missing Measures: Modern Poetry and the Revolt Against Meter'', University of Arkansas Press, 1990.", "* G. Burns Cooper, ''Mysterious Music: Rhythm and Free Verse,'' Stanford University Press, 1998.===On vers libre===*Taupin, René ''The Influence of French Symbolism on Modern American Poetry'' (1986),(trans William Pratt) Ams Studies in Modern Literature, *Pondrom, Cryrena ''The Road from Paris, French Influence on English Poetry 1900-1920'' Cambridge University Press 1974 *Scott, Clive, ''Vers libre : the emergence of free verse in France'', 1886-1914 Clarendon Press, Oxford *Kahn, Gustave, ''Le Vers libre'', Paris, 1923 ASIN: B008XZTTY2*Pound, Ezra, ''The Approach to Paris'' The New Age Sep 1913" ], [ "External links", "* Free verse read aloud by William Carlos Williams* Marianne Moore reads aloud an example of her free verse* Wallace Stevens reads aloud one of his free verse poems* Reflections on ''Vers Libre'' – Essay by T. S. Eliot, 1916* ''Correspondances'' by Charles Baudelaire, an example of vers libre" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "F. W. de Klerk" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frederik Willem de Klerk''' ( , ; 18 March 1936 – 11 November 2021) was a South African politician who served as state president of South Africa from 1989 to 1994 and as deputy president from 1994 to 1996.As South Africa's last head of state from the era of white-minority rule, he and his government dismantled the apartheid system and introduced universal suffrage.", "Ideologically a social conservative and an economic liberal, he led the National Party (NP) from 1989 to 1997.Born in Johannesburg to an influential Afrikaner family, de Klerk studied at Potchefstroom University before pursuing a career in law.", "Joining the NP, to which he had family ties, he was elected to parliament and sat in the white-minority government of P. W. Botha, holding a succession of ministerial posts.", "As a minister, he supported and enforced apartheid, a system of racial segregation that privileged white South Africans.", "After Botha resigned in 1989, de Klerk replaced him, first as leader of the NP and then as State President.", "Although observers expected him to continue Botha's defence of apartheid, de Klerk decided to end the policy.", "He was aware that growing ethnic animosity and violence was leading South Africa into a racial civil war.", "Amid this violence, the state security forces committed widespread human rights abuses and encouraged violence between the Xhosa and Zulu people, although de Klerk later denied sanctioning such actions.", "He permitted anti-apartheid marches to take place, legalised a range of previously banned anti-apartheid political parties, and freed imprisoned anti-apartheid activists such as Nelson Mandela.", "He also dismantled South Africa's nuclear weapons program.De Klerk negotiated with Mandela to fully dismantle apartheid and establish a transition to universal suffrage.", "In 1993, he publicly apologised for apartheid's harmful effects.", "He oversaw the 1994 non-racial election in which Mandela led the African National Congress (ANC) to victory; de Klerk's NP took second place.", "De Klerk then became Deputy President in Mandela's ANC-led coalition, the Government of National Unity.", "In this position, he supported the government's continued liberal economic policies but opposed the Truth and Reconciliation Commission set up to investigate past human rights abuses because he wanted total amnesty for political crimes.", "His working relationship with Mandela was strained, although he later spoke fondly of him.", "In May 1996, after the NP objected to the new constitution, de Klerk withdrew it from the coalition government; the party disbanded the following year and reformed as the New National Party.", "In 1997, he retired from active politics and thereafter lectured internationally.De Klerk was a controversial figure among many sections of South African society.", "He received many awards, including the Nobel Peace Prize for dismantling apartheid and bringing universal suffrage to South Africa.", "Conversely, he received criticism from anti-apartheid activists for offering only a qualified apology for apartheid, and for ignoring the human rights abuses by state security forces.", "He was also condemned by pro-apartheid Afrikaners, who contended that by abandoning apartheid, he betrayed the interests of the country's Afrikaner minority." ], [ "Early life and education", "===Childhood: 1936–1954===F.", "W. de Klerk was born on 18 March 1936 in Mayfair, a suburb of Johannesburg.", "His parents were Johannes \"Jan\" de Klerk and Hendrina Cornelia Coetzer—\"her forefather was a Kutzer who stems from Austria.\"", "He was his parents' second son, having a brother, Willem de Klerk, who was eight years his senior.", "De Klerk's first language was Afrikaans and the earliest of his distant ancestors to arrive in what is now South Africa did so in the late 1680s.De Klerk had a secure and comfortable upbringing, and his family had played a leading role in Afrikaner society; they had longstanding affiliations with South Africa's National Party.", "His paternal great-grandfather, Jan van Rooy, had been a Senator, while his paternal grandfather, Willem, had been a clergyman who fought in the Second Boer War and stood twice, unsuccessfully, as a National Party candidate.", "His paternal aunt's husband was J. G. Strijdom, a former Prime Minister.", "His own father, Jan de Klerk, was also a senator, served as the secretary of the National Party in Transvaal, president of the senate for seven years, acting state president, and as a member of the country's cabinet for fifteen years under three prime ministers.", "In this environment, de Klerk was exposed to politics from childhood.", "He and family members would be encouraged to hold family debates; his more conservative opinions would be challenged by his brother Willem, who was sympathetic to the more liberal, \"enlightened\" faction of the National Party.", "Willem became a political analyst and later split from the National Party to found the liberal Democratic Party.The name \"de Klerk\" is derived from Le Clerc, Le Clercq and De Clercq, and is of French Huguenot origin (meaning \"clergyman\" or \"literate\" in old French).", "De Klerk noted that he was also of Dutch descent, with an Indian ancestor from the late-1690s or early 1700s.", "He was also said to have been descended from the Khoi interpreter known as Krotoa or Eva.When de Klerk was twelve years old, the apartheid system was officially institutionalised by the South African government; his father had been one of its originators.", "He therefore was, according to his brother, \"one of a generation that grew up with the concept of apartheid\".", "He was inculturated in the norms and values of Afrikaner society, including festivals like Kruger Day, loyalty to the Afrikaner nation, and stories of the \"age of injustice\" that the Afrikaner faced under the British.", "He was brought up in the Gereformeerde Kerk, the smallest and most socially conservative of South Africa's three Dutch Reformed Churches.The de Klerk family moved around South Africa during his childhood, and he changed schools seven times over seven years.", "He eventually became a boarder at the Hoërskool Monument (Monument High School) in Krugersdorp, where he graduated with a first-class pass in 1953.He was nevertheless disappointed not to get the four distinctions he was hoping for.===University and legal career===Between 1954 and 1958, de Klerk studied at Potchefstroom University, graduating with both a Bachelor of Arts and a Bachelor of Law.", "He later noted that during this legal training, he \"became accustomed to thinking in terms of legal principles\".", "While studying there, he became editor of the student newspaper, vice-chair of the student council, and a member of the Afrikaanse Studentebond's (a large South African youth movement) national executive council.", "At university, he was initiated into the Broederbond, a secret society for the Afrikaner social elite.", "As a student, he played both tennis and hockey and was known as \"something of a ladies' man\".", "At the university, he began a relationship with Marike Willemse, the daughter of a professor at the University of Pretoria.", "The couple married in 1959, when de Klerk was 23 and his wife was 22.After university, de Klerk pursued a legal career, becoming an articled clerk with the firm Pelser in Klerksdorp.", "Relocating to Pretoria, he became an articled clerk for another law firm, Mac-Robert.In 1962, he set up his own law partnership in Vereeniging, Transvaal, which he built into a successful business over ten years.During this period, he involved himself in a range of other activities.", "He was the national chair of the Junior Rapportryers for two years, and chair of the Law Society of Vaal Triangle.", "He was also on the council of the local technikon, on the council of his church, and on a local school board.===Early political career===In 1972, his alma mater offered him a chair in its law faculty, which he accepted.", "Within a matter of days he was also approached by members of the National Party, who requested that he stand for the party at Vereeniging.", "De Klerk's candidature was successful and in November he was elected to the House of Assembly.", "There, he established a reputation as a formidable debater.", "He took on a number of roles in the party and government.", "He became the information officer of the Transvaal National Party, responsible for its propaganda output, and helped to establish a new National Party youth movement.", "He joined various party parliamentary study groups, including those on the Bantustans, labour, justice, and home affairs.", "As a member of various parliamentary groups, de Klerk went on several foreign visits, to Israel, West Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States.", "It was in the latter in 1976 that he observed what he later described as the pervasive racism of US society, later noting that he \"saw more racial incidents in one month there than in South Africa in a year\".", "In South Africa, de Klerk also played a senior role in two select committees, one formulating a policy on opening hotels to non-Whites and the other formulating a new censorship law that was less strict than the one that had preceded it.In 1975, Prime Minister John Vorster predicted that de Klerk would one day become leader of South Africa.", "Vorster planned to promote de Klerk to the position of a deputy minister in January 1976, but instead the job went to Andries Treurnicht.", "In April 1978, de Klerk was promoted to the position of Minister of Social Welfare and Pensions.", "In this role, he restored full autonomy to sporting control bodies which had for a time been under the jurisdiction of the government.", "As minister of Post and Telecommunications, he finalised contracts that oversaw the electrification of that sector.", "As Minister of Mining, he formalised a policy on coal exports and the structuring of Eskom and the Atomic Energy Corporation.", "He then became Minister of the Interior, he oversaw the repeal of the Mixed Marriages Act.In 1981, de Klerk was awarded the Decoration for Meritorious Service for his work in the government.", "As education minister between 1984 and 1989, he upheld the apartheid system in South Africa's schools, and extended the department to cover all racial groups.For most of his career, de Klerk had a very conservative reputation, and was seen as someone who would obstruct change in South Africa.", "He had been a forceful proponent of apartheid's system of racial segregation and was perceived as an advocate of the white minority's interests.", "While serving under P. W. Botha's government, de Klerk was never part of Botha's inner circle." ], [ "State presidency", "P. W. Botha resigned as leader of the National Party after an apparent stroke, and de Klerk defeated Botha's preferred successor, finance minister Barend du Plessis, in the race to succeed him.", "On 2 February 1989, he was elected leader of the National Party.", "He defeated main rival Barend du Plessis to the position by a majority of eight votes, 69–61.Soon after, he called for the introduction of a new South African constitution, hinting that it would need to provide greater concession to non-white racial groups.", "After becoming party leader, de Klerk extended his foreign contacts.", "He travelled to London, where he met with British prime minister Margaret Thatcher.", "Although she opposed the anti-apartheid movement's calls for economic sanctions against South Africa, at the meeting she urged de Klerk to release the imprisoned anti-apartheid activist Nelson Mandela.", "He also expressed a desire to meet with representatives of the US government in Washington D.C., although American secretary of state James Baker informed him that the US government considered it inopportune to have de Klerk meet with President George H. W. Bush.===Becoming State President of South Africa===de Klerk and Nelson Mandela shake hands at the Annual Meeting of the World Economic Forum held in Davos, January 1992Botha resigned on 14 August 1989, and de Klerk was named acting State President of South Africa until 20 September, when he was elected to a full five-year term as State President.", "After he became acting State President, ANC leaders spoke out against him, believing that he would be no different from his predecessors; he was widely regarded as a staunch supporter of apartheid.", "The prominent anti-apartheid activist Desmond Tutu shared this assessment, stating: \"I don't think we've got to even begin to pretend that there is any reason for thinking that we are entering a new phase.", "It's just musical chairs\".", "Tutu and Allan Boesak had been planning a protest march in Cape Town, which the security chiefs wanted to prevent.", "De Klerk nevertheless turned down their proposal to ban it, agreeing to let the march proceed and stating that \"the door to a new South Africa is open, it is not necessary to batter it down\".", "The march took place and was attended by approximately 30,000 people.", "Further protest marches followed in Grahamstown, Johannesburg, Pretoria, and Durban.", "De Klerk later noted that his security forces could not have prevented the marchers from gathering: \"The choice, therefore, was between breaking up an illegal march with all of the attendant risks of violence and negative publicity, or of allowing the march to continue, subject to conditions that could help to avoid violence and ensure good public order.\"", "This decision marked a clear departure from the Botha era.As State President, he authorised the continuation of secret talks in Geneva between his National Intelligence Service and two exiled ANC leaders, Thabo Mbeki and Jacob Zuma.", "In October, he personally agreed to meet with Tutu, Boesak, and Frank Chikane in a private meeting in Pretoria.", "That month, he also released a number of elderly anti-apartheid activists then imprisoned, including Walter Sisulu.", "He also ordered the closure of the National Security Management System.", "In December he visited Mandela in prison, speaking with him for three hours about the idea of transitioning away from white-minority rule.", "The collapse of the Eastern Bloc and the dissolution of the Soviet Union meant that he no longer feared that Marxists would manipulate the ANC.", "As he later related, the collapse of \"the Marxist economic system in Eastern Europe... serves as a warning to those who insist on persisting with it in Africa.", "Those who seek to force this failure of a system on South Africa should engage in a total revision of their point of view.", "It should be clear to all that it is not the answer here either.", "\"On 2 February 1990, in an address to the country's parliament, he introduced plans for sweeping reforms of the political system.", "A number of banned political parties, including the ANC and Communist Party of South Africa, would be legalised, although he emphasised that this did not constitute an endorsement of their socialist economic policies nor of violent actions carried out by their members.", "All of those who were imprisoned solely for belonging to a banned organisation would be freed, including Nelson Mandela; the latter was released a week later.", "He also announced the lifting of the Separate Amenities Act of 1953, which governed the segregation of public facilities.", "The vision set forth in de Klerk's address was for South Africa to become a Western-style liberal democracy; with a market-oriented economy which valued private enterprise and restricted the government's role in economics.De Klerk later related that \"that speech was mainly aimed at breaking our stalemate in Africa and the West.", "Internationally we were teetering on the edge of the abyss.\"", "Throughout South Africa and across the world, there was astonishment at de Klerk's move.", "Foreign press coverage was largely positive and de Klerk received messages of support from other governments.", "Tutu said that \"It's incredible... Give him credit.", "Give him credit, I do.\"", "Some black radicals regarded it as a gimmick and that it would prove to be without substance.", "It was also received negatively by some on the white right-wing, including in the Conservative Party, who believed that de Klerk was betraying the white population.", "De Klerk believed that the sudden growth of the Conservatives and other white right-wing groups was a passing phase reflecting anxiety and insecurity.", "These white right-wing groups were aware that they would not get what they wanted through the forthcoming negotiations, and so increasingly tried to derail the negotiations using reactionary violence.", "The white-dominated liberal Democratic Party, meanwhile, found itself in limbo, as de Klerk embraced much of the platform it had espoused, leaving it without a clear purpose.Further reforms followed; membership of the National Party was opened up to non-whites.", "In June, parliament approved new legislation that repealed the Natives Land Act, 1913 and Native Trust and Land Act, 1936.The Population Registration Act, which established the racial classificatory guidelines for South Africa, was rescinded.In 1990, de Klerk gave orders to end South Africa's nuclear weapons programme; the process of nuclear disarmament was essentially completed in 1991.The existence of the nuclear programme was not officially acknowledged before 1993.===Negotiations toward universal suffrage===de Klerk and Nelson Mandela, near the close of negotiations, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to receive jointly the Liberty Medal, July 1993His presidency was dominated by the negotiation process, mainly between his NP government and the ANC, which led to the democratisation of South Africa.", "On 17 March 1992, de Klerk held a whites-only referendum on ending apartheid, with the result being an overwhelming \"yes\" vote to continue negotiations to end apartheid.Nelson Mandela was distrustful of the role played by de Klerk in the negotiations, particularly as he believed that de Klerk was knowledgeable about 'third force' attempts to foment violence in the country and destabilise the negotiations.", "De Klerk's possible role in the 'third force' came to the attention of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, but was ultimately never clarified.", "De Klerk was accused by writer Anthony Sampson of complicity in the violence among the ANC, the Inkatha Freedom Party and elements of the security forces.", "He also accused de Klerk of permitting his ministers to build their own criminal empires.On 17 July 1992, the Boipatong massacre by the Inkatha Freedom Party occurred, killing 45 people.", "The massacre caused a resurgence of international pressure against South Africa over claims of police collusion, leading to a weaker position at the negotiation tables for the National Party.The Goldstone Commission concluded there was no evidence of police collusion in the massacre.On 30 April 1993, de Klerk issued an apology for the actions of the apartheid government, stating that: \"It was not our intention to deprive people of their rights and to cause misery, but eventually apartheid led to just that.", "Insofar as to what occurred we deeply regret it...", "Yes we are sorry\".", "Tutu urged people to accept the apology, stating that \"saying sorry is not an easy thing to do... We should be magnanimous and accept it as a magnanimous act\", although Tutu was privately frustrated that de Klerk's apology had been qualified and had not gone so far as to call apartheid an intrinsically evil policy.De Klerk authorised the raid on Mthatha against suspected Azanian People's Liberation Army (APLA) fighters on 8 October 1993 that killed three teenagers and two twelve year olds.", "The Minister of Defence said the raid had been undertaken to pre-empt attacks by the APLA on civilians and that one of the victims had brandished a weapon.", "The Truth and Reconciliation Commission concluded the raid was a \"gross violation of human rights\"On 10 December 1993, de Klerk and Mandela were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Oslo for their work in ending apartheid.South Africa held its first universal elections in 1994 from 26 to 29 April.", "The ANC won the election with 62 per cent, while the National Party received 20 per cent.", "De Klerk became deputy president in the national unity government under Nelson Mandela." ], [ "Deputy presidency", "De Klerk had been unhappy that changes had been made to the inauguration ceremony, rendering it multi-religious rather than reflecting the newly elected leader's particular denomination.", "When he was being sworn in, and the chief justice said \"So help me God\", de Klerk did not repeat this, instead stating, in Afrikaans: \"So help me the triune God, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit\".Mandela reappointed de Klerk's finance minister, Derek Keys, and retained Chris Stals, a former member of the Broederbond, as the Governor of the South African Reserve Bank.", "De Klerk supported the coalition's economic policies, stating that it \"accepted a broad framework of responsible economic policies\".De Klerk's working relationship with Mandela was often strained, with the former finding it difficult adjusting to the fact that he was no longer State President.", "De Klerk also felt that Mandela deliberately humiliated him, while Mandela found de Klerk to be needlessly provocative in cabinet.", "One dispute occurred in September 1995, after Mandela gave a Johannesburg speech criticising the National Party.", "Angered, de Klerk avoided Mandela until the latter requested they meet.", "The two ran into each other, and they publicly argued in the streets.", "Mandela later expressed regret for their disagreement but did not apologise for his original comments.", "De Klerk was also having problems from within his own party, some of whose members claimed that he was neglecting the party while in the government.Many in the National Party—including many members of its executive committee—were unhappy with the other parties' agreed upon new constitution in May 1996.The party had wanted the constitution to guarantee that it would be represented in the government until 2004, although it did not do so.", "On 9 May, de Klerk withdrew the National Party from the coalition government.", "The decision shocked several of his six fellow Afrikaner cabinet colleagues; Pik Botha, for example, was left without a job as a result.", "Roelf Meyer felt betrayed by de Klerk's act, while Leon Wessels thought that de Klerk had not tried hard enough to make the coalition work.", "De Klerk declared that he would lead the National Party in vigorous opposition to Mandela's government to ensure \"a proper multi-party democracy, without which there may be a danger of South Africa lapsing into the African pattern of one-party states\".===Truth and Reconciliation Commission===The chair of the TRC, Desmond Tutu, was frustrated that de Klerk did not take responsibility for the actions of the state security services in the early 1990sIn de Klerk's view, his greatest defeat in the negotiations with Mandela had been his inability to secure a blanket amnesty for all those working for the government or state during the apartheid period.", "De Klerk was unhappy with the formation of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC).", "He had hoped that the TRC would be made up of an equal number of individuals from both the old and new governments, as there had been in the Chilean human rights commission.", "Instead, the TRC was designed to broadly reflect the wider diversity of South African society, and contained only two members who had explicitly supported apartheid, one a member of a right-wing group that had opposed de Klerk's National Party.", "De Klerk did not object to Tutu being selected as the TRC's chair for he regarded him as politically independent of Mandela's government, but he was upset that the white Progressive Party MP Alex Boraine had been selected as its deputy chair, later saying of Boraine: \"beneath an urbane and deceptively affable exterior beat the heart of a zealot and an inquisitor.", "\"De Klerk appeared before the TRC hearing to testify for Vlakplaas commanders who were accused of having committed human rights abuses during the apartheid era.", "He acknowledged that security forces had resorted to \"unconventional strategies\" in dealing with anti-apartheid revolutionaries, but that \"within my knowledge and experience, they never included the authorization of assassination, murder, torture, rape, assault or the like\".", "After further evidence of said abuses was produced by the commission, de Klerk stated that he found the revelations to be \"as shocking and as abhorrent as anybody else\" but insisted that he and other senior party members were not willing to accept responsibility for the \"criminal actions of a handful of operatives\", stating that their behaviour was \"not authorized and not intended\" by his government.", "Given the widespread and systemic nature of the abuses that had taken place, as well as statements by security officers that their actions had been sanctioned by higher ranking figures, Tutu questioned how de Klerk and other government figures could not have been aware of them.", "Tutu had hoped that de Klerk or another senior white political figure from the apartheid era would openly accept responsibility for the human rights abuses, thereby allowing South Africa to move on; this was something that de Klerk would not do.The TRC found de Klerk guilty of being an accessory to gross violations of human rights on the basis that as State President he had been told that P. W. Botha had authorised the bombing of Khotso House but had not revealed this information to the committee.", "De Klerk challenged the TRC on this point, and it backed down.", "When the final TRC report was released in 2002, it made a more limited accusation: that de Klerk had failed to give full disclosure about events that took place during his presidency and that in view of his knowledge about the Khotso House bombing, his statement that none of his colleagues had authorised gross human rights abuses was \"indefensible\".", "In his later autobiography, de Klerk acknowledged that the TRC did significant damage to his public image." ], [ "Later life", "In 1994, de Klerk was elected to the American Philosophical Society.In 1997, de Klerk was offered the Harper Fellowship at Yale Law School.", "He declined, citing protests at the university.", "De Klerk did, however, speak at Central Connecticut State University the day before his fellowship would have begun.de Klerk with U.S. secretary of state Hillary Clinton in 2012In 1999, de Klerk and his wife of 38 years, Marike de Klerk, were divorced following the discovery of his affair with Elita Georgiades, then the wife of Tony Georgiades, a Greek shipping tycoon who had allegedly given de Klerk and the NP financial support.", "Soon after his divorce, de Klerk and Georgiades were married.", "His divorce and remarriage scandalised conservative South African opinion, especially among the Calvinist Afrikaners.", "In 1999, his autobiography, ''The Last Trek – A New Beginning'', was published.", "In 2002, following the murder of his former wife, the manuscript of her own autobiography, ''A Place Where the Sun Shines Again'', was submitted to de Klerk, who urged the publishers to suppress a chapter dealing with his infidelity.In 2000, de Klerk established the pro-peace FW de Klerk Foundation of which he was the chairman.", "De Klerk was also chairman of the Global Leadership Foundation, headquartered in London, which he set up in 2004, an organisation which works to support democratic leadership, prevent and resolve conflict through mediation and promote good governance in the form of democratic institutions, open markets, human rights and the rule of law.", "It does so by making available, discreetly and in confidence, the experience of former leaders to today's national leaders.", "It is a not-for-profit organisation composed of former heads of government and senior governmental and international organisation officials who work closely with heads of government on governance-related issues of concern to them.On 3 December 2001, Marike de Klerk was found stabbed and strangled to death in her Cape Town flat.", "De Klerk, who was on a brief visit to Stockholm, Sweden, to celebrate the 100-year anniversary of the Nobel Prize foundation, immediately returned to mourn his dead ex-wife.", "The atrocity was reportedly condemned strongly by South African president Thabo Mbeki and Winnie Mandela, among others, who openly spoke in favour of Marike de Klerk.", "On 6 December 21-year-old security guard Luyanda Mboniswa was arrested for the murder.", "On 15 May 2003, he received two life sentences for murder, as well as three years for breaking into Marike de Klerk's apartment.In 2005, de Klerk quit the New National Party and sought a new political home after the NNP merged with the ruling ANC.", "That same year, while giving an interview to US journalist Richard Stengel, de Klerk was asked whether South Africa had turned out the way he envisioned it back in 1990.His response was:There are a number of imperfections in the new South Africa where I would have hoped that things would be better, but on balance I think we have basically achieved what we set out to achieve.", "And if I were to draw balance sheets on where South Africa stands now, I would say that the positive outweighs the negative by far.", "There is a tendency by commentators across the world to focus on the few negatives which are quite negative, like how are we handling AIDS, like our role vis-à-vis Zimbabwe.", "But the positives – the stability in South Africa, the adherence to well-balanced economic policies, fighting inflation, doing all the right things in order to lay the basis and the foundation for sustained economic growth – are in place.In 2008, he repeated in a speech that \"despite all the negatives facing South Africa, he was very positive about the country\".In 2006, he underwent surgery for a malignant tumor in his colon.", "His condition deteriorated sharply, and he underwent a tracheotomy after developing respiratory problems.", "He recovered and on 11 September 2006 gave a speech at Kent State University Stark Campus.In January 2007, de Klerk was a speaker promoting peace and democracy in the world at the \"Towards a Global Forum on New Democracies\" event in Taipei, Taiwan, along with other dignitaries including Poland's Lech Wałęsa and Taiwan's president Chen Shui-Bian.de Klerk with Israeli president Reuven Rivlin in 2015De Klerk was an Honorary Patron of the University Philosophical Society of Trinity College Dublin, and Honorary Chairman of the Prague Society for International Cooperation.", "He also received the gold medal for Outstanding Contribution to Public Discourse from the College Historical Society of Trinity College, Dublin, for his contribution to ending apartheid.De Klerk was also a member of the advisory board of the Global Panel Foundation based in Berlin, Copenhagen, New York, Prague, Sydney and Toronto—founded by the Dutch entrepreneur Bas Spuybroek in 1988, with the support of Dutch billionaire Frans Lurvink and former Dutch Foreign Minister Hans van den Broek.", "The Global Panel Foundation is known for its behind-the-scenes work in public policy and the annual presentation of the Hanno R. Ellenbogen Citizenship Award with the Prague Society for International Cooperation.De Klerk was a member of the advisory board of the WORLD.MINDS Foundation, based in Switzerland.", "WORLD.MINDS is known for establishing close personal ties between leaders in government, science and business.After the inauguration of Jacob Zuma as South Africa's president in May 2009, de Klerk said he was optimistic that Zuma and his government can \"confound the prophets of doom\".In a BBC interview broadcast in April 2012, he said he lived in an all-white neighbourhood.", "He had five servants, three coloured and two black: \"We are one great big family together; we have the best of relationships.\"", "About Nelson Mandela, he said, \"When Mandela goes it will be a moment when all South Africans put away their political differences, will take hands, and will together honour maybe the biggest known South African that has ever lived.", "\"De Klerk received a pacemaker in July 2013.Upon hearing of the death of Mandela, de Klerk said: \"He was a great unifier and a very, very special man in this regard beyond everything else he did.", "This emphasis on reconciliation was his biggest legacy.\"", "He attended the memorial service for him on 10 December 2013.In 2015, de Klerk wrote to ''The Times'' newspaper in the UK criticising a campaign to remove a statue of Cecil Rhodes from Oriel College, Oxford.", "He was subsequently criticised by some activists who described it as \"ironic\" that the last apartheid president should be defending a statue of a man labelled by critics as the \"architect of apartheid\".", "South Africa's far-left Economic Freedom Fighters called for him to be stripped of his Nobel Peace Prize.", "In 2020, de Klerk told an interviewer that the description of apartheid as a \"crime against humanity\" \"was and remains an agitprop project initiated by the Soviets and their ANC/SACP allies to stigmatize white South Africans by associating them with genuine crimes against humanity.\"", "This generated controversy in South Africa, and further calls for the removal of his Nobel Prize.", "De Klerk's Foundation retracted his statement several days later.===Illness and death===On 19 March 2021, it was announced that de Klerk had been diagnosed with mesothelioma.", "He died from complications of the disease in his sleep at his home in Cape Town on 11 November 2021, at the age of 85.He was the last surviving State President of South Africa.After his death, a video message from de Klerk was released from the FW de Klerk Foundation, apologising \"without qualification\" for the harm caused from apartheid and pleading that the government and all South Africans would embrace the constitution in a balanced manner while also promoting economic growth, guarding the independence and impartiality of the courts, as well as promoting non-racialism and non-discrimination in South Africa.On 16 November 2021, President Cyril Ramaphosa declared a four-day mourning period for de Klerk and ordered for all of the national South African flags to fly at half-mast from 17 to 21 November \"as a mark of respect.\"", "Though the de Klerk family determined that he would have a private cremation and funeral, the South African government agreed to hold a state memorial service for de Klerk \"in which government leaders, leaders of political parties and representatives of civil society will participate\" at a later date.", "The state memorial service was held in Cape Town on 12 December 2021, and saw Ramaphosa deliver the keynote speech." ], [ "Political positions", "Bust of de Klerk at the Voortrekker Monument, PretoriaDe Klerk was widely regarded as a politically conservative figure in South Africa.", "At the same time, he was flexible rather than dogmatic in his approach to political issues.", "He often hedged his bets and sought to accommodate divergent perspectives, favouring compromise over confrontation.Within the National Party, he continually strove for unity, coming to be regarded—according to his brother—as \"a party man, a veritable Mr National Party\".", "To stem defections from the right-wing end of the National Party, he made \"ultra-conservative noises\".", "This general approach led to the perception that he was \"trying to be all things to all men\".De Klerk stated that within the party, he \"never formed part of a political school of thought, and I deliberately kept out of the cliques and foments of the enlightened and conservative factions in the party.", "If the policy I propounded was ultra-conservative, then that was the policy; it was not necessarily I who was ultra-conservative.", "I saw my role in the party as that of an interpreter of the party's real median policy at any stage.", "\"De Klerk stated that \"The silver thread throughout my career was my advocacy of National Party policy in all its various formulations.", "I refrained from adjusting that policy or adapting it to my own liking or convictions.", "I analyzed it as it was formulated, to the letter.", "\"For much of his career, de Klerk believed in apartheid and its system of racial segregation.According to his brother, de Klerk underwent a \"political conversion\" that took him from supporting apartheid to facilitating its demolition.", "This change was not \"a dramatic event\" however, but \"was built... on pragmatism – it evolved as a process.", "\"He did not believe that South Africa would become a \"non-racial society\", but rather sought to build a \"non-racist society\" in which ethnic divisions remained; in his view \"I do not believe in the existence of anything like a non-racial society in the literal sense of the word\", citing the example of the United States and United Kingdom where there was no legal racial segregation but that distinct racial groups continued to exist.De Klerk accepted the principle of freedom of religion, although still believed that the state should promote Christianity.De Klerk wrote in opposition to gender-based violence, arguing that \"holding perpetrators accountable, irrespective of how long ago the crime was committed, is essential to stamping out impunity and preventing future atrocities\"." ], [ "Personality and personal life", "Glad and Blanton stated that de Klerk's \"political choices were undergirded by self-confidence and commitment to the common good.\"", "His brother Willem stated that de Klerk's demeanour was marked by \"soberness, humility and calm\", that he was an honest, intelligent, and open minded individual, and that he had a \"natural cordiality\" and a \"solid sense of courtesy and good manners\".", "He felt that de Klerk's \"charisma\" came not from an \"exceptionally strong individualism\" but from \"his rationality, logic and balance\".", "He was, according to de Klerk, \"a man of compromise rather than a political innovator or entrepreneur\".Willem stated that \"he keeps an ear to the ground and is sensitive to the slightest tremors\", and that it was this which made him \"a superb politician\".", "Willem also stated that his brother was \"a team-man who consults others, takes them into his confidence, honestly shares information with his colleagues, and has a knack of making people feel importance and at peace\".His former wife Marike described de Klerk as being \"extremely sensitive to beautiful things\", exhibiting something akin to an artistic temperament.Willem also noted that \"in the most profound sense\", de Klerk was driven by his concern for Afrikanerdom and \"the survival of his own people in their fatherland\".", "De Klerk was deeply upset that many Afrikaners did not realise that his reforms to dismantle apartheid were carried out with the intention of preserving a future for the Afrikaner people in South Africa.With Marike, de Klerk had three children: Susan, who became a teacher, Jan, who became a farmer in Western Transvaal, and Willem, who went into public relations.", "Willem stated that de Klerk had a close relationship with his children, and that he was \"a loving man who hugs and cuddles\".De Klerk was a heavy smoker but gave up smoking towards the end of 2005.He also enjoyed a glass of whisky or wine while relaxing.", "He enjoyed playing golf and hunting, as well as going for brisk walks.De Klerk's Nobel Prize medal was stolen from his home in November 2022." ], [ "Reception and legacy", "Glad and Blanton stated that de Klerk, along with Mandela, \"accomplished the rare feat of bringing about systemic revolution through peaceful means.\"", "His brother noted that de Klerk's role in South African history was \"to dismantle more than three centuries of white supremacy\", and that in doing so his was \"not a role of white surrender, but a role of white conversion to a new role\" in society.In September 1990, Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education awarded de Klerk an honorary doctorate.South Africa's Conservative Party came to regard him as its most hated adversary.De Klerk was Africa's last White President until Guy Scott become caretaker President of Zambia from 2014 to 2015." ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* \" South Africa is one of the most unequal societies in the world\", article by de Klerk in  ''Global Education Magazine'', in the special edition for the International Day for the Eradication of Poverty (17 October 2012)" ], [ "External links", "* Documentary on F. W. de Klerk* The FW de Klerk Foundation* Video of F. W. de Klerk's November 2005 visit to Richmond Hill High School on Google Video * Photos & Recordings of his visit to the College Historical Society in March 2008* Ubben Lecture at DePauw University (includes video, audio and photos)* Extensive Interview in the Huffington Post* The Global Panel Foundation* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Furlong" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''furlong''' is a measure of distance in imperial units and United States customary units equal to one-eighth of a mile, equivalent to any of 660 feet, 220 yards, 40 rods, 10 chains or approximately 201 metres.", "It is now mostly confined to use in horse racing, where in many countries it is the standard measurement of race lengths, and agriculture, where it is used to measure rural field lengths and distances.", "In the United States, some states use older definitions for surveying purposes, leading to variations in the length of the furlong of two parts per million, or about .", "This variation is too small to have practical consequences in most applications.", "Using the international definition of the yard as exactly 0.9144 metres, one furlong is 201.168 metres, and five furlongs are about 1 kilometre ( exactly)." ], [ "History", "The name ''furlong'' derives from the Old English words '''' (furrow) and '''' (long).", "Dating back at least to early Anglo-Saxon times, it originally referred to the length of the furrow in one acre of a ploughed open field (a medieval communal field which was divided into strips).", "The furlong (meaning furrow length) was the distance a team of oxen could plough without resting.", "This was standardised to be exactly 40 rods or 10 chains.", "The system of long furrows arose because turning a team of oxen pulling a heavy plough was difficult.", "This offset the drainage advantages of short furrows and meant furrows were made as long as possible.", "An acre is an area that is one furlong long and one chain (66 feet or 22 yards) wide.", "For this reason, the furlong was once also called an '''acre's length''', though in modern usage an area of one acre can be of any shape.", "The term furlong, or '''shot''', was also used to describe a grouping of adjacent strips within an open field.Among the early Anglo-Saxons, the rod was the fundamental unit of land measurement.", "A furlong was 40 rods; an acre 4 by 40 rods, or 4 rods by 1 furlong, and thus 160 square rods; there are 10 acres in a square furlong.", "At the time, the Saxons used the North German foot, which was about 10 percent longer than the foot of the international 1959 agreement.", "When England changed to a shorter foot in the late 13th century, rods and furlongs remained unchanged, since property boundaries were already defined in rods and furlongs.", "The only thing that changed was the number of feet and yards in a rod or a furlong, and the number of square feet and square yards in an acre.", "The definition of the rod went from 15 old feet to new feet, or from 5 old yards to new yards.", "The furlong went from 600 old feet to 660 new feet, or from 200 old yards to 220 new yards.", "The acre went from 36,000 old square feet to 43,560 new square feet, or from 4,000 old square yards to 4,840 new square yards.", "The furlong was historically viewed as being equivalent to the Roman stade (''stadium''), which in turn derived from the Greek system.", "For example, the King James Bible uses the term \"furlong\" in place of the Greek ''stadion'', although more recent translations often use miles or kilometres in the main text and give the original numbers in footnotes.In the Roman system, there were 625 feet to the ''stadium'', eight ''stadia'' to the mile, and three miles to the league.", "A league was considered to be the distance a man could walk in one hour, and the mile (from ''mille'', meaning \"thousand\") consisted of 1,000 ''passus'' (paces, five feet, or double-step).After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, medieval Europe continued with the Roman system, which the people proceeded to diversify, leading to serious complications in trade, taxation, etc.", "Around the year 1300, by royal decree England standardized a long list of measures.", "Among the important units of distance and length at the time were the foot, yard, rod (or pole), furlong, and the mile.", "The rod was defined as yards or feet, and the mile was eight furlongs, so the definition of the furlong became 40 rods and that of the mile became 5,280 feet (eight furlongs/mile times 40 rods/furlong times feet/rod).", "The invention of the measuring chain in the 1620s led to the introduction of an intermediate unit of length, the chain of 22 yards, being equal to four rods, and to one-tenth of a furlong.A description from 1675 states, \"Dimensurator or Measuring Instrument whereof the mosts usual has been the Chain, and the common length for English Measures four Poles, as answering indifferently to the Englishs Mile and Acre, 10 such Chains in length making a Furlong, and 10 single square Chains an Acre, so that a square Mile contains 640 square Acres.\"", "—John Ogilby, Britannia, 1675The official use of the furlong was abolished in the United Kingdom under the Weights and Measures Act 1985, an act that also abolished the official use of many other traditional units of measurement." ], [ "Use", "Present-day use of furlongs on a highway sign near YangonMileposts on the Yangon–Mandalay Expressway use miles followed by furlongsIn Myanmar, furlongs are currently used in conjunction with miles to indicate distances on highway signs.", "Mileposts on the Yangon–Mandalay Expressway use miles and furlongs.The five-furlong (1000 m) post on Epsom Downs RacecourseIn the rest of the world, the furlong has very limited use, with the notable exception of horse racing in most English-speaking countries, including Canada and the United States.", "The distances for horse racing in Australia were converted to metric in 1972, but in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, and the United States, races are still given in miles and furlongs.", "Also distances along English canals navigated by narrowboats are commonly expressed in miles and furlongs.The city of Chicago's street numbering system allots a measure of 800 address units to each mile, in keeping with the city's system of eight blocks per mile.", "This means that every block in a typical Chicago neighborhood (in either north–south or east–west direction but rarely both) is approximately one furlong in length.", "Salt Lake City's blocks are also each a square furlong in the downtown area.", "The blocks become less regular in shape farther from the center, but the numbering system (800 units to each mile) remains the same everywhere in Salt Lake County.", "Blocks in central Logan, Utah, and in large sections of Phoenix, Arizona, are similarly a square furlong in extent (eight to a mile, which explains the series of freeway exits: 19th Ave, 27th, 35th, 43rd, 51st, 59th ...).", "City blocks in the Hoddle Grid of Melbourne are also one furlong in length.Much of Ontario, Canada, was originally surveyed on a ten-furlong grid, with major roads being laid out along the grid lines.", "Now that distances are shown on road signs in kilometres, these major roads are almost exactly two kilometres apart.", "The exits on highways running through Toronto, for example, are generally at intervals of two kilometres.The Bangor City Forest in Bangor, Maine has its trail system marked in miles and furlongs.The furlong is also a base unit of the humorous FFF system of units." ], [ "Definition of length", "The exact length of the furlong varies slightly among English-speaking countries.", "In Canada and the United Kingdom, which define the furlong in terms of the international yard of exactly 0.9144 metres, a furlong is 201.168 m.Australia does not formally define the furlong, but it does define the chain and link in terms of the international yard.The United States previously defined the furlong, chain, rod, and link in terms of the U.S. survey foot of exactly metre, resulting in a furlong approximately 201.1684 m long.", "The difference of approximately two parts per million between the old U.S. value and the \"international\" value was insignificant for most practical measurements.In October 2019, U.S. National Geodetic Survey and National Institute of Standards and Technology announced their joint intent to retire the U.S. survey foot, with effect from the end of 2022.The furlong in U.S.", "Customary units is thereafter defined based on the International 1959 foot, giving the length of the furlong as exact 201.168 meters in the United States as well." ], [ "See also", "*FFF system*Stadion (unit)" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "File" ], [ "Introduction", "'''File''' or '''filing''' may refer to:" ], [ "Mechanical tools and processes", "* File (tool), a tool used to ''remove'' fine amounts of material from a workpiece.", "**Filing (metalworking), a material removal process in manufacturing** Nail file, a tool used to gently abrade away and shape the edges of fingernails and toenails" ], [ "Documents", "* An arranged collection of documents*Filing (legal), submitting a document to the clerk of a court" ], [ "Computing", "* Computer file, a resource for storing information** file URI scheme** (command), a Unix program for determining the type of data contained in a computer file*File system, a method of storing and organizing computer files and their data*Files by Google, an Android app*Files (Apple), an Apple app" ], [ "Other uses", "* File (formation), a single column of troops one in front of the other* File (chess), a column of the chessboard* Filé powder, a culinary ingredient used in Cajun and Creole cooking* Filé (band), a Cajun musical ensemble from Louisiana, U.S* Filè, a class of Irish poets* Electronic Language International Festival, an art and technology festival held yearly in São Paulo, Brazil* ''Files'', a series of Indian thriller films by Vivek Agnihotri** ''The Tashkent Files'', 2019 film about the 1966 death of Lal Bahadur Shastri in Tashkent** ''The Kashmir Files'', 2022 film about the 1990s exodus of Kashmiri Hindus** ''The Delhi Files'', an upcoming film about the 1984 anti-Sikh riots in Delhi* ''The Files: The Greatest Hits'' (album), a 2004 compilation album by Vico C.* Jake Files (born 1972), a member of the Arkansas State Senate" ], [ "See also", "* File folder, a folder for holding loose papers* Filing cabinet or file cabinet* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fundamental frequency" ], [ "Introduction", "Vibration and standing waves in a string, The fundamental and the first six overtonesThe '''fundamental frequency''', often referred to simply as the '''''fundamental''''', is defined as the lowest frequency of a periodic waveform.", "In music, the fundamental is the musical pitch of a note that is perceived as the lowest partial present.", "In terms of a superposition of sinusoids, the fundamental frequency is the lowest frequency sinusoidal in the sum of harmonically related frequencies, or the frequency of the difference between adjacent frequencies.", "In some contexts, the fundamental is usually abbreviated as '''0''', indicating the lowest frequency counting from zero.", "In other contexts, it is more common to abbreviate it as '''1''', the first harmonic.", "(The second harmonic is then 2 = 2⋅1, etc.", "In this context, the zeroth harmonic would be 0 Hz.", ")According to Benward's and Saker's ''Music: In Theory and Practice'':" ], [ "Explanation", "All sinusoidal and many non-sinusoidal waveforms repeat exactly over time – they are periodic.", "The period of a waveform is the smallest value for which the following is true:Where is the value of the waveform .", "This means that the waveform's values over any interval of length are is all that is required to describe the waveform completely (for example, by the associated Fourier series).", "Since any multiple of period also satisfies this definition, the fundamental period is defined as the smallest period over which the function may be described completely.", "The fundamental frequency is defined as its reciprocal:When the units of time are seconds, the frequency is in , also known as Hertz.===Fundamental frequency of a pipe===For a pipe of length with one end closed and the other end open the wavelength of the fundamental harmonic is , as indicated by the first two animations.", "Hence,Therefore, using the relationwhere is the speed of the wave, the fundamental frequency can be found in terms of the speed of the wave and the length of the pipe:If the ends of the same pipe are now both closed or both opened as in the last two animations, the wavelength of the fundamental harmonic becomes .", "By the same method as above, the fundamental frequency is found to be" ], [ "In music", "In music, the fundamental is the musical pitch of a note that is perceived as the lowest partial present.", "The fundamental may be created by vibration over the full length of a string or air column, or a higher harmonic chosen by the player.", "The fundamental is one of the harmonics.", "A harmonic is any member of the harmonic series, an ideal set of frequencies that are positive integer multiples of a common fundamental frequency.", "The reason a fundamental is also considered a harmonic is because it is 1 times itself.The fundamental is the frequency at which the entire wave vibrates.", "Overtones are other sinusoidal components present at frequencies above the fundamental.", "All of the frequency components that make up the total waveform, including the fundamental and the overtones, are called partials.", "Together they form the harmonic series.", "Overtones which are perfect integer multiples of the fundamental are called harmonics.", "When an overtone is near to being harmonic, but not exact, it is sometimes called a harmonic partial, although they are often referred to simply as harmonics.", "Sometimes overtones are created that are not anywhere near a harmonic, and are just called partials or inharmonic overtones.The fundamental frequency is considered the ''first harmonic'' and the ''first partial''.", "The numbering of the partials and harmonics is then usually the same; the second partial is the second harmonic, etc.", "But if there are inharmonic partials, the numbering no longer coincides.", "Overtones are numbered as they appear the fundamental.", "So strictly speaking, the ''first'' overtone is the ''second'' partial (and usually the ''second'' harmonic).", "As this can result in confusion, only harmonics are usually referred to by their numbers, and overtones and partials are described by their relationships to those harmonics." ], [ "Mechanical systems", "Consider a spring, fixed at one end and having a mass attached to the other; this would be a single degree of freedom (SDoF) oscillator.", "Once set into motion, it will oscillate at its natural frequency.", "For a single degree of freedom oscillator, a system in which the motion can be described by a single coordinate, the natural frequency depends on two system properties: mass and stiffness; (providing the system is undamped).", "The natural frequency, or fundamental frequency, 0, can be found using the following equation:where:* = stiffness of the spring* = mass* 0 = natural frequency in radians per second.To determine the natural frequency in Hz, the omega value is divided by 2.Or:where:* 0 = natural frequency (SI unit: hertz)* = stiffness of the spring (SI unit: newtons/metre or N/m)* = mass (SI unit: kg).While doing a modal analysis, the frequency of the 1st mode is the fundamental frequency.This is also expressed as:where:* 0 = natural frequency (SI unit: hertz)* = length of the string (SI unit: metre)* = mass per unit length of the string (SI unit: kg/m)* = tension on the string (SI unit: newton)" ], [ "See also", "*Greatest common divisor*Hertz*Missing fundamental*Natural frequency*Oscillation*Harmonic series (music)#Terminology*Pitch detection algorithm*Scale of harmonics" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fable" ], [ "Introduction", "Anthropomorphic cat guarding geese, Egypt, '''Fable''' is a literary genre defined as a succinct fictional story, in prose or verse, that features animals, legendary creatures, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature that are anthropomorphized, and that illustrates or leads to a particular moral lesson (a \"moral\"), which may at the end be added explicitly as a concise maxim or saying.A fable differs from a parable in that the latter ''excludes'' animals, plants, inanimate objects, and forces of nature as actors that assume speech or other powers of humankind.", "Conversely, an animal tale specifically includes talking animals as characters.Usage has not always been so clearly distinguished.", "In the King James Version of the New Testament, \"\" (\"''mythos''\") was rendered by the translators as \"fable\" in the First Epistle to Timothy, the Second Epistle to Timothy, the Epistle to Titus and the First Epistle of Peter.", "\"For we have not followed cunningly devised fables, when we made known unto you the power and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, but were eyewitnesses of his majesty.\"", "(2nd Peter 1:16)A person who writes fables is referred to as a '''fabulist'''." ], [ "History", "The fable is one of the most enduring forms of folk literature, spread abroad, modern researchers agree, less by literary anthologies than by oral transmission.", "Fables can be found in the literature of almost every country.===Aesopic or Aesop's fable===The varying corpus denoted ''Aesopica'' or ''Aesop's Fables'' includes most of the best-known western fables, which are attributed to the legendary Aesop, supposed to have been a slave in ancient Greece around 550 BCE.", "When Babrius set down fables from the ''Aesopica'' in verse for a Hellenistic Prince \"Alexander\", he expressly stated at the head of Book II that this type of \"myth\" that Aesop had introduced to the \"sons of the Hellenes\" had been an invention of \"Syrians\" from the time of \"Ninos\" (personifying Nineveh to Greeks) and Belos (\"ruler\").", "Epicharmus of Kos and Phormis are reported as having been among the first to invent comic fables.", "Many familiar fables of Aesop include \"The Crow and the Pitcher\", \"The Tortoise and the Hare\" and \"The Lion and the Mouse\".", "In ancient Greek and Roman education, the fable was the first of the ''progymnasmata''—training exercises in prose composition and public speaking—wherein students would be asked to learn fables, expand upon them, invent their own, and finally use them as persuasive examples in longer forensic or deliberative speeches.", "The need of instructors to teach, and students to learn, a wide range of fables as material for their declamations resulted in their being gathered together in collections, like those of Aesop.===Africa===African oral culture has a rich story-telling tradition.", "As they have for thousands of years, people of all ages in Africa continue to interact with nature, including plants, animals and earthly structures such as rivers, plains, and mountains.", "Children and, to some extent, adults are mesmerized by good story-tellers when they become animated in their quest to tell a good fable.The Anansi oral story originates from the tribes of Ghana.", "\"All Stories Are Anansi's\" was translated by Harold Courlander and Albert Kofi Prempeh and tells the story of a god-like creature Anansi who wishes to own all stories in the world.", "The character Anansi is often depicted as a spider and is known for its cunning nature to obtain what it wants, typically seen outwitting other animal characters.Joel Chandler Harris wrote African-American fables in the Southern context of slavery under the name of Uncle Remus.", "His stories of the animal characters Brer Rabbit, Brer Fox, and Brer Bear are modern examples of African-American story-telling, this though should not transcend critiques and controversies as to whether or not Uncle Remus was a racist or apologist for slavery.", "The Disney movie ''Song of the South'' introduced many of the stories to the public and others not familiar with the role that storytelling played in the life of cultures and groups without training in speaking, reading, writing, or the cultures to which they had been relocated to from world practices of capturing Africans and other indigenous populations to provide slave labor to colonized countries.===India===India has a rich tradition of fables, many derived from traditional stories and related to local natural elements.", "Indian fables often teach a particular moral.", "In some stories the gods have animal aspects, while in others the characters are archetypal talking animals similar to those found in other cultures.", "Hundreds of fables were composed in ancient India during the first millennium BCE, often as stories within frame stories.", "Indian fables have a mixed cast of humans and animals.", "The dialogues are often longer than in fables of Aesop and often comical as the animals try to outwit one another by trickery and deceit.", "In Indian fables, humanity is not presented as superior to the animals.", "Prime examples of the fable in India are the Panchatantra and the Jataka tales.", "These included Vishnu Sarma's ''Panchatantra'', the ''Hitopadesha'', ''Vikram and The Vampire'', and Syntipas' ''Seven Wise Masters'', which were collections of fables that were later influential throughout the Old World.", "Ben E. Perry (compiler of the \"Perry Index\" of Aesop's fables) has argued controversially that some of the Buddhist ''Jataka tales'' and some of the fables in the ''Panchatantra'' may have been influenced by similar Greek and Near Eastern ones.", "Earlier Indian epics such as Vyasa's ''Mahabharata'' and Valmiki's ''Ramayana'' also contained fables within the main story, often as side stories or back-story.", "The most famous folk stories from the Near East were the ''One Thousand and One Nights'', also known as the ''Arabian Nights''.The Panchatantra is an ancient Indian assortment of fables.", "The earliest recorded work, ascribed to Vishnu Sharma, dates to around 300 BCE.", "The tales are likely much older than the compilation, having been passed down orally prior to the book's compilation.", "The word \"Panchatantra\" is a blend of the words \"pancha\" (which means \"five\" in Sanskrit) and \"tantra\" (which means \"weave\").", "It implies weaving together multiple threads of narrative and moral lessons together to form a book.===Europe===Printed image of ''the fable of the blacksmith and the dog'' from the sixteenth centuryFables had a further long tradition through the Middle Ages and became part of European high literature.", "During the 17th century, the French fabulist Jean de La Fontaine (1621–1695) saw the soul of the fable in the moral—a rule of behavior.", "Starting with the Aesopian pattern, La Fontaine set out to satirize the court, the church, the rising bourgeoisie, indeed the entire human scene of his time.", "La Fontaine's model was subsequently emulated by England's John Gay (1685–1732); Poland's Ignacy Krasicki (1735–1801); Italy's Lorenzo Pignotti (1739–1812) and Giovanni Gherardo de Rossi (1754–1827); Serbia's Dositej Obradović (1745–1801) and Tomás de Iriarte y Oropesa (1750–1791); France's Jean-Pierre Claris de Florian (1755–1794); and Russia's Ivan Krylov (1769–1844).===Modern era===In modern times, while the fable has been trivialized in children's books, it has also been fully adapted to modern adult literature.", "Felix Salten's ''Bambi'' (1923) is a ''Bildungsroman''—a story of a protagonist's coming-of-age—cast in the form of a fable.", "James Thurber used the ancient fable style in his books ''Fables for Our Time'' (1940) and ''Further Fables for Our Time'' (1956), and in his stories \"The Princess and the Tin Box\" in ''The Beast in Me and Other Animals'' (1948) and \"The Last Clock: A Fable for the Time, Such As It Is, of Man\" in ''Lanterns and Lances'' (1961).", "Władysław Reymont's ''The Revolt'' (1922), a metaphor for the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, described a revolt by animals that take over their farm in order to introduce \"equality\".", "George Orwell's ''Animal Farm'' (1945) similarly satirized Stalinist Communism in particular, and totalitarianism in general, in the guise of animal fable.In the 21st century, the Neapolitan writer Sabatino Scia is the author of more than two hundred fables that he describes as \"western protest fables\".", "The characters are not only animals, but also things, beings, and elements from nature.", "Scia's aim is the same as in the traditional fable, playing the role of revealer of human society.", "In Latin America, the brothers Juan and Victor Ataucuri Garcia have contributed to the resurgence of the fable.", "But they do so with a novel idea: use the fable as a means of dissemination of traditional literature of that place.", "In the book \"Fábulas Peruanas\" , published in 2003, they have collected myths, legends, and beliefs of Andean and Amazonian Peru, to write as fables.", "The result has been an extraordinary work rich in regional nuances.", "Here we discover the relationship between man and his origin, with nature, with its history, its customs and beliefs then become norms and values." ], [ "Fabulists", "File:Velázquez - Esopo (Museo del Prado, 1639-41).jpg|Aesop, by VelázquezFile:Valmiki_Ramayana.jpg|ValmikiFile:Jean-de-la-fontaine.jpg|Jean de La FontaineFile:Sullhan saba.jpg|Sulkhan-Saba OrbelianiFile:John Gay - Project Gutenberg eText 13790.jpg|John GayFile:Christian Fürchtegott Gellert.jpg|Christian Fürchtegott GellertFile:Lessing in blue.jpg|Gotthold Ephraim LessingFile:Per Krafft - Portrait of Bishop Ignacy Krasicki - MNK II-a-671 - National Museum Kraków.jpg|Ignacy Krasicki File:DositejObradović.jpg|Dositej ObradovićFile:Samaniego.jpg|Félix María de SamaniegoFile:Tomas de Iriarte Joaquin Inza.jpg|Tomás de Iriarte y OropesaFile:Jean-Pierre Claris de Florian.jpg|Jean-Pierre Claris de FlorianFile:Ivan Krylov.jpg|Ivan KrylovFile:Dositej obradovic Novi Sad.png|Dositej ObradovićFile:Andersen-hc.jpg|Hans Christian AndersenFile:Abierce.jpg|Ambrose BierceFile:Joel Chandler Harris (\"Uncle Remus\").jpg|Joel Chandler HarrisFile:Wladyslaw Reymont.jpg|Władysław ReymontFile:Felix Salten 1910.jpg|Felix SaltenFile:Don Marquis.jpg|Don MarquisFile:James Thurber NYWTS.jpg|James ThurberFile:GeoreOrwell.jpg|George Orwell" ], [ "Classic", "*Aesop (mid-6th century BCE), author/s of ''Aesop's Fables''*Vishnu Sarma (), author of the anthropomorphic political treatise and fable collection, the ''Panchatantra''*Bidpai (), author of Sanskrit (Hindu) and Pali (Buddhist) animal fables in verse and prose, sometimes derived from Jataka tales*Syntipas (), Indian philosopher, reputed author of a collection of tales known in Europe as ''The Story of the Seven Wise Masters''*Gaius Julius Hyginus (Hyginus, Latin author, native of Spain or Alexandria, – 17 CE), author of the ''Fabulae''*Phaedrus (15 BCE – 50 CE), Roman fabulist, by birth a Macedonian*Nizami Ganjavi (Persian, 1141–1209)*Walter of England (12th century), Anglo-Norman poet, published ''Aesop's Fables'' in distichs *Marie de France (12th century)*Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad Balkhī (Persian, 1207–1273)*Vardan Aygektsi (died 1250), Armenian priest and fabulist*Berechiah ha-Nakdan (Berechiah the Punctuator, or Grammarian, 13th century), author of Jewish fables adapted from Aesop's Fables*Robert Henryson (Scottish, 15th century), author of ''The Morall Fabillis of Esope the Phrygian''*Leonardo da Vinci (Italian, 1452–1519)*Biernat of Lublin (Polish, 1465?", "– after 1529)*Jean de La Fontaine (French, 1621–1695)*Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani (Georgian, 1658–1725), author of ''The Book of Wisdom and Lies''*Bernard de Mandeville (English, 1670–1733), author of ''The Fable of the Bees''*John Gay (English, 1685–1732)*Christian Fürchtegott Gellert (German, 1715–1769)*Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (German, 1729–1781)*Ignacy Krasicki (Polish, 1735–1801), author of ''Fables and Parables'' (1779) and ''New Fables'' (published 1802)*Dositej Obradović (Serbian, 1739–1811)*Félix María de Samaniego (Spanish, 1745–1801), best known for \"The Ant and the Cicade\"*Tomás de Iriarte (Spanish, 1750–91)*Jean-Pierre Claris de Florian, (French, 1755–94), author of ''Fables'' (published 1802)*Ivan Dmitriev (Russia, 1760–1837)*Ivan Krylov (Russian, 1769–1844)*Hans Christian Andersen (Danish, 1805–1875)" ], [ "Modern", "*Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910)*Rafael Pombo (1833–1912), Colombian fabulist, poet, writer*Ambrose Bierce (1842–?1914)*Joel Chandler Harris (1848–1908)*Sholem Aleichem (1859–1916)*George Ade (1866–1944), ''Fables in Slang'', etc.", "*Władysław Reymont (1868–1925)*Felix Salten (1869–1945)*Don Marquis (1878–1937), author of the fables of archy and mehitabel*Franz Kafka (1883–1924)*Damon Runyon (1884–1946)*James Thurber (1894–1961), ''Fables for Our Time'' and ''Further Fables for Our Time''*George Orwell (1903–1950)*Dr. Seuss (1904–1991)*Isaac Bashevis Singer (1904–1991)*Nankichi Niimi (1913–1943), Japanese author and poet*Sergey Mikhalkov (1913–2009), Soviet author of children's books*Pierre Gamarra (1919–2009)*Richard Adams (1920–2016), author of ''Watership Down''*José Saramago (1922–2010), Portuguese writer, author of '' Ensaio sobre a cegueira''*Italo Calvino (1923–1985), ''Cosmicomics'' etc.", "*Arnold Lobel (1933–87), author of ''Fables'', winner 1981 Caldecott Medal*Ramsay Wood (born 1943), author of ''Kalila and Dimna: Fables of Friendship and Betrayal''*Bill Willingham (born 1956), author of ''Fables'' graphic novels*David Sedaris (born 1956), author of ''Squirrel Seeks Chipmunk''*Hayao Miyazaki (born 1941), Japanese filmmaker, director of ''Spirited Away''*Guillermo del Toro (born 1964), Mexican filmmaker, director of ''Pan's Labyrinth''*Pendleton Ward (born 1982), American animator, creator of ''Adventure Time''" ], [ "Notable fable collections", "*''Aesop's Fables'' by Aesop*''Jataka tales''*''Panchatantra'' by Vishnu Sarma*''Baital Pachisi'' (also known as ''Vikram and The Vampire'')*''Hitopadesha''*''Kalīla wa-Dimna''*''A Book of Wisdom and Lies'' by Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani*''Seven Wise Masters'' by Syntipas*''One Thousand and One Nights'' (also known as ''Arabian Nights'', )*''Fables'' (1668–1694) by Jean de La Fontaine*''Fables and Parables'' (1779) by Ignacy Krasicki*''Fairy Tales'' (1837) by Hans Christian Andersen*''Uncle Remus: His Songs and His Sayings'' (1881) by Joel Chandler Harris*''Fantastic Fables'' (1899) by Ambrose Bierce*''Fables for Our Time'' (1940) by James Thurber*''99 Fables'' (1960) by William March*''Collected Fables'' (2000) by Ambrose Bierce, edited by S. T. Joshi" ], [ "See also", "*Allegory*Animal tale*Anthropomorphism*Apologia*Apologue*Fabel*''Fables''*Fairy tale*Fantastique*Ghost story*Parable*Proverb*Wisdom" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "** King James Bible; ''New Testament (authorised)''.", "*DLR David Lee Rubin.", "\"Fable in Verse\", ''The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics''.", "*Read fables by Aesop and La Fontaine" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Foot" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''foot''' (: '''feet''') is an anatomical structure found in many vertebrates.", "It is the terminal portion of a limb which bears weight and allows locomotion.", "In many animals with feet, the foot is a separate organ at the terminal part of the leg made up of one or more segments or bones, generally including claws and/or nails." ], [ "Etymology", "The word \"foot\", in the sense of meaning the \"terminal part of the leg of a vertebrate animal\" comes from Old English ''fot'', from Proto-Germanic *''fot'' (source also of Old Frisian ''fot'', Old Saxon ''fot'', Old Norse ''fotr'', Danish ''fod'', Swedish ''fot'', Dutch ''voet'', Old High German ''fuoz'', German ''Fuß'', Gothic ''fotus'', all meaning \"foot\"), from PIE root *''ped-'' \"foot\".The plural form ''feet'' is an instance of i-mutation." ], [ "Structure", "The feet of a newborn infantA woman's foot, decorated with nail polish and henna, and wearing a ''metti'' (toe ring) on the second toe, for her weddingThe human foot is a strong and complex mechanical structure containing 26 bones, 33 joints (20 of which are actively articulated), and more than a hundred muscles, tendons, and ligaments.", "The joints of the foot are the ankle and subtalar joint and the interphalangeal joints of the foot.", "An anthropometric study of 1197 North American adult Caucasian males (mean age 35.5 years) found that a man's foot length was 26.3 cm with a standard deviation of 1.2 cm.The foot can be subdivided into the hindfoot, the midfoot, and the forefoot:The ''hindfoot'' is composed of the talus (or ankle bone) and the calcaneus (or heel bone).", "The two long bones of the lower leg, the tibia and fibula, are connected to the top of the talus to form the ankle.", "Connected to the talus at the subtalar joint, the calcaneus, the largest bone of the foot, is cushioned underneath by a layer of fat.The five irregular bones of the ''midfoot'', the cuboid, navicular, and three cuneiform bones, form the arches of the foot which serve as a shock absorber.", "The midfoot is connected to the hind- and fore-foot by muscles and the plantar fascia.The ''forefoot'' is composed of five toes and the corresponding five proximal long bones forming the metatarsus.", "Similar to the fingers of the hand, the bones of the toes are called phalanges and the big toe has two phalanges while the other four toes have three phalanges each.", "The joints between the phalanges are called interphalangeal and those between the metatarsus and phalanges are called metatarsophalangeal (MTP).Both the midfoot and forefoot constitute the ''dorsum'' (the area facing upward while standing) and the ''planum'' (the area facing downward while standing).The ''instep'' is the arched part of the top of the foot between the toes and the ankle.===Bones===Illustration of bones in lower leg and footFoot Bone Anatomy* tibia, fibula* tarsus (7): talus, calcaneus, cuneiformes (3), cuboid, and navicular* metatarsus (5): first, second, third, fourth, and fifth metatarsal bone* phalanges (14)There can be many sesamoid bones near the metatarsophalangeal joints, although they are only regularly present in the distal portion of the first metatarsal bone.===Arches===The human foot has two longitudinal arches and a transverse arch maintained by the interlocking shapes of the foot bones, strong ligaments, and pulling muscles during activity.", "The slight mobility of these arches when weight is applied to and removed from the foot makes walking and running more economical in terms of energy.", "As can be examined in a footprint, the medial longitudinal arch curves above the ground.", "This arch stretches from the heel bone over the \"keystone\" ankle bone to the three medial metatarsals.", "In contrast, the lateral longitudinal arch is very low.", "With the cuboid serving as its keystone, it redistributes part of the weight to the calcaneus and the distal end of the fifth metatarsal.", "The two longitudinal arches serve as pillars for the transverse arch which run obliquely across the tarsometatarsal joints.", "Excessive strain on the tendons and ligaments of the feet can result in fallen arches or flat feet.===Muscles===The muscles acting on the foot can be classified into extrinsic muscles, those originating on the anterior or posterior aspect of the lower leg, and intrinsic muscles, originating on the dorsal (top) or plantar (base) aspects of the foot.====Extrinsic====Anterior leg musclesAll muscles originating on the lower leg except the popliteus muscle are attached to the bones of the foot.", "The tibia and fibula and the interosseous membrane separate these muscles into anterior and posterior groups, in their turn subdivided into subgroups and layers.=====''Anterior group''=====''Extensor group'': the tibialis anterior originates on the proximal half of the tibia and the interosseous membrane and is inserted near the tarsometatarsal joint of the first digit.", "In the non-weight-bearing leg, the tibialis anterior dorsiflexes the foot and lift its medial edge (supination).", "In the weight-bearing leg, it brings the leg toward the back of the foot, like in rapid walking.", "The extensor digitorum longus arises on the lateral tibial condyle and along the fibula, and is inserted on the second to fifth digits and proximally on the fifth metatarsal.", "The extensor digitorum longus acts similar to the tibialis anterior except that it also dorsiflexes the digits.", "The extensor hallucis longus originates medially on the fibula and is inserted on the first digit.", "It dorsiflexes the big toe and also acts on the ankle in the unstressed leg.", "In the weight-bearing leg, it acts similarly to the tibialis anterior.", "''Peroneal group'': the peroneus longus arises on the proximal aspect of the fibula and peroneus brevis below it.", "Together, their tendons pass behind the lateral malleolus.", "Distally, the peroneus longus crosses the plantar side of the foot to reach its insertion on the first tarsometatarsal joint, while the peroneus brevis reaches the proximal part of the fifth metatarsal.", "These two muscles are the strongest pronators and aid in plantar flexion.", "The peroneus longus also acts like a bowstring that braces the transverse arch of the foot.=====''Posterior group''=====The ''superficial layer'' of posterior leg muscles is formed by the triceps surae and the plantaris.", "The triceps surae consists of the soleus and the two heads of the gastrocnemius.", "The heads of gastrocnemius arise on the femur, proximal to the condyles, and the soleus arises on the proximal dorsal parts of the tibia and fibula.", "The tendons of these muscles merge to be inserted onto the calcaneus as the Achilles tendon.", "The plantaris originates on the femur proximal to the lateral head of the gastrocnemius and its long tendon is embedded medially into the Achilles tendon.", "The triceps surae is the primary plantar flexor.", "Its strength becomes most obvious during ballet dancing.", "It is fully activated only with the knee extended, because the gastrocnemius is shortened during flexion of the knee.", "During walking it not only lifts the heel, but also flexes the knee, assisted by the plantaris.In the ''deep layer'' of posterior muscles, the tibialis posterior arises proximally on the back of the interosseous membrane and adjoining bones, and divides into two parts in the sole of the foot to attach to the tarsus.", "In the non-weight-bearing leg, it produces plantar flexion and supination, and, in the weight-bearing leg, it proximates the heel to the calf.", "The flexor hallucis longus arises on the back of the fibula on the lateral side, and its relatively thick muscle belly extends distally down to the flexor retinaculum where it passes over to the medial side to stretch across the sole to the distal phalanx of the first digit.", "The popliteus is also part of this group, but, with its oblique course across the back of the knee, does not act on the foot.====Intrinsic====On the top of the foot, the tendons of extensor digitorum brevis and extensor hallucis brevis lie deep in the system of long extrinsic extensor tendons.", "They both arise on the calcaneus and extend into the dorsal aponeurosis of digits one to four, just beyond the penultimate joints.", "They act to dorsiflex the digits.", "Similar to the intrinsic muscles of the hand, there are three groups of muscles in the ''sole of foot'', those of the first and last digits, and a central group:''Muscles of the big toe'': the abductor hallucis stretches medially along the border of the sole, from the calcaneus to the first digit.", "Below its tendon, the tendons of the long flexors pass through the tarsal canal.", "The abductor hallucis is an abductor and a weak flexor, and also helps maintain the arch of the foot.", "The flexor hallucis brevis arises on the medial cuneiform bone and related ligaments and tendons.", "An important plantar flexor, it is crucial to ballet dancing.", "Both these muscles are inserted with two heads proximally and distally to the first metatarsophalangeal joint.", "The adductor hallucis is part of this group, though it originally formed a separate system (see contrahens).", "It has two heads, the oblique head originating obliquely across the central part of the midfoot, and the transverse head originating near the metatarsophalangeal joints of digits five to three.", "Both heads are inserted into the lateral sesamoid bone of the first digit.", "The adductor hallucis acts as a tensor of the plantar arches and also adducts the big toe and might plantar flex the proximal phalanx.", "''Muscles of the little toe'': Stretching laterally from the calcaneus to the proximal phalanx of the fifth digit, the abductor digiti minimi form the lateral margin of the foot and are the largest of the muscles of the fifth digit.", "Arising from the base of the fifth metatarsal, the flexor digiti minimi is inserted together with abductor on the first phalanx.", "Often absent, the opponens digiti minimi originates near the cuboid bone and is inserted on the fifth metatarsal bone.", "These three muscles act to support the arch of the foot and to plantar flex the fifth digit.", "''Central muscle group'': The four lumbricals arise on the medial side of the tendons of flexor digitorum longus and are inserted on the medial margins of the proximal phalanges.", "The quadratus plantae originates with two slips from the lateral and medial margins of the calcaneus and inserts into the lateral margin of the flexor digitorum tendon.", "It is also known as the flexor accessorius.", "The flexor digitorum brevis arises inferiorly on the calcaneus and its three tendons are inserted into the middle phalanges of digits two to four (sometimes also the fifth digit).", "These tendons divide before their insertions and the tendons of flexor digitorum longus pass through these divisions.", "Flexor digitorum brevis flexes the middle phalanges.", "It is occasionally absent.", "Between the toes, the dorsal and plantar interossei stretch from the metatarsals to the proximal phalanges of digits two to five.", "The plantar interossei adduct and the dorsal interossei abduct these digits, and are also plantar flexors at the metatarsophalangeal joints." ], [ "Clinical significance", "Due to their position and function, feet are exposed to a variety of potential infections and injuries, including athlete's foot, bunions, ingrown toenails, Morton's neuroma, plantar fasciitis, plantar warts, and stress fractures.", "In addition, there are several genetic disorders that can affect the shape and function of the feet, including clubfoot or flat feet.This leaves humans more vulnerable to medical problems that are caused by poor leg and foot alignments.", "Also, the wearing of shoes, sneakers and boots can impede proper alignment and movement within the ankle and foot.", "For example, high-heeled shoes are known to throw off the natural weight balance (this can also affect the lower back).", "For the sake of posture, flat soles with no heels are advised.A doctor who specializes in the treatment of the feet practices podiatry and is called a podiatrist.", "A pedorthist specializes in the use and modification of footwear to treat problems related to the lower limbs.Fractures of the foot include:*Lisfranc fracture – in which one or all of the metatarsals are displaced from the tarsus*Jones fracture – a fracture of the fifth metatarsal*March fracture – a fracture of the distal third of one of the metatarsals occurring because of recurrent stress*Calcaneal fracture*Broken toe – a fracture of a phalanx*Cuneiform fracture – Due to the ligamentous support of the midfoot, isolated cuneiform fractures are rare." ], [ "Pronation", "In anatomy, pronation is a rotational movement of the forearm (at the radioulnar joint) or foot (at the subtalar and talocalcaneonavicular joints).", "Pronation of the foot refers to how the body distributes weight as it cycles through the gait.", "During the gait cycle the foot can pronate in many different ways based on rearfoot and forefoot function.", "Types of pronation include neutral pronation, underpronation (supination), and overpronation.", ";Neutral pronationAn individual who neutrally pronates initially strikes the ground on the lateral side of the heel.", "As the individual transfers weight from the heel to the metatarsus, the foot will roll in a medial direction, such that the weight is distributed evenly across the metatarsus.", "In this stage of the gait, the knee will generally, but not always, track directly over the hallux.This rolling inward motion as the foot progresses from heel to toe is the way that the body naturally absorbs shock.", "Neutral pronation is the most ideal, efficient type of gait when using a heel strike gait; in a forefoot strike, the body absorbs shock instead via flexion of the foot.", ";OverpronationAs with a neutral pronator, an individual who overpronates initially strikes the ground on the lateral side of the heel.", "As the individual transfers weight from the heel to the metatarsus, however, the foot will roll too far in a medial direction, such that the weight is distributed unevenly across the metatarsus, with excessive weight borne on the hallux.", "In this stage of the gait, the knee will generally, but not always, track inward.An overpronator does not absorb shock efficiently.", "Imagine someone jumping onto a diving board, but the board is so flimsy that when it is struck, it bends and allows the person to plunge straight down into the water instead of back into the air.", "Similarly, an overpronator's arches will collapse, or the ankles will roll inward (or a combination of the two) as they cycle through the gait.", "An individual whose bone structure involves external rotation at the hip, knee, or ankle will be more likely to overpronate than one whose bone structure has internal rotation or central alignment.", "An individual who overpronates tends to wear down their running shoes on the medial (inside) side of the shoe toward the toe area.When choosing a running or walking shoe, a person with overpronation can choose shoes that have good inside support—usually by strong material at the inside sole and arch of the shoe.", "It is usually visible.", "The inside support area is marked by strong greyish material to support the weight when a person lands on the outside foot and then roll onto the inside foot.", ";Underpronation (supination)Underpronation of footAn individual who underpronates also initially strikes the ground on the lateral side of the heel.", "As the individual transfers weight from the heel to the metatarsus, the foot will not roll far enough in a medial direction.", "The weight is distributed unevenly across the metatarsus, with excessive weight borne on the fifth metatarsal, toward the lateral side of the foot.", "In this stage of the gait, the knee will generally, but not always, track laterally of the hallux.Like an overpronator, an underpronator does not absorb shock efficiently – but for the opposite reason.", "The underpronated foot is like a diving board that, instead of failing to spring someone in the air because it is too flimsy, fails to do so because it is too rigid.", "There is virtually no give.", "An underpronator's arches or ankles do not experience much motion as they cycle through the gait.", "An individual whose bone structure involves internal rotation at the hip, knee, or ankle will be more likely to underpronate than one whose bone structure has external rotation or central alignment.", "Usually – but not always – those who are bow-legged tend to underpronate.", "An individual who underpronates tends to wear down their running shoes on the lateral (outside) side of the shoe toward the rear of the shoe in the heel area." ], [ "Society and culture", "Humans usually wear shoes or similar footwear for protection from hazards when walking outside.", "There are a number of contexts where it is considered inappropriate to wear shoes.", "Some people consider it rude to wear shoes into a house and a Māori Marae should only be entered with bare feet.Foot fetishism is the most common sexual fetish." ], [ "Other animals", "A paw is the soft foot of a mammal, generally a quadruped, that has claws or nails (e.g., a cat or dog's paw).", "A hard foot is called a hoof.", "Depending on style of locomotion, animals can be classified as plantigrade (sole walking), digitigrade (toe walking), or unguligrade (nail walking).The metatarsals are the bones that make up the main part of the foot in humans, and part of the leg in large animals or paw in smaller animals.", "The number of metatarsals are directly related to the mode of locomotion with many larger animals having their digits reduced to two (elk, cow, sheep) or one (horse).", "The metatarsal bones of feet and paws are tightly grouped compared to, most notably, the human hand where the thumb metacarpal diverges from the rest of the metacarpus." ], [ "Metaphorical and cultural usage", "Study of a pair of feet crossed, 1847, by Margaret Louisa Herschel, daughter of John Herschel, from the Royal Museums GreenwichThe word \"foot\" is used to refer to a \"...linear measure was in Old English (the exact length has varied over time), this being considered the length of a man's foot; a unit of measure used widely and anciently.", "In this sense the plural is often foot.", "The current inch and foot are implied from measurements in 12c.", "\"The word \"foot\" also has a musical meaning; a \"...metrical foot (late Old English, translating Latin pes, Greek pous in the same sense) is commonly taken to represent one rise and one fall of a foot: keeping time according to some, dancing according to others.", "\"The word \"foot\" was used in Middle English to mean \"a person\" (c. 1200).The expression \"...to put one's best foot foremost first recorded 1849 (Shakespeare has the better foot before, 1596)\".", "The expression to \"...put one's foot in (one's) mouth \"say something stupid\" was first used in 1942.The expression \"put (one's) foot in something\" meaning to \"make a mess of it\" was used in 1823.The word \"footloose\" was first used in the 1690s, meaning \"free to move the feet, unshackled\"; the more \"figurative sense of \"free to act as one pleases\" was first used in 1873.Like \"footloose\", \"flat-footed\" at first had its obvious literal meaning (in 1600, it meant \"with flat feet\") but by 1912 it meant \"unprepared\" (U.S. baseball slang)." ], [ "See also", "*Ball (foot)*Barefoot*Comparison of orthotics*Flat feet*Foot binding*Foot fetishism*Foot gymnastics*Gait analysis*Heel*Pedobarography (foot pressure analysis)*Pes cavus*Runner's toe, repetitive injury seen in runners*Sole (foot)*Squatting position" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fallout shelter" ], [ "Introduction", "A fallout shelter sign in the United States of America, designed in 1961 by United States Army Corps of Engineers director of administrative logistics support function Robert W. BlakeleyIdealized American fallout shelter, around 1957A '''fallout shelter''' is an enclosed space specially designated to protect occupants from radioactive debris or fallout resulting from a nuclear explosion.", "Many such shelters were constructed as civil defense measures during the Cold War.During a nuclear explosion, matter vaporized in the resulting fireball is exposed to neutrons from the explosion, absorbs them, and becomes radioactive.", "When this material condenses in the rain, it forms dust and light sandy materials that resemble ground pumice.", "The fallout emits alpha and beta particles, as well as gamma rays.Much of this highly radioactive material falls to Earth, subjecting anything within the line of sight to radiation, becoming a significant hazard.", "A fallout shelter is designed to allow its occupants to minimize exposure to harmful fallout until radioactivity has decayed to a safer level, over a few weeks or months." ], [ "Principle", "A fallout shelter is designed to protect its occupants from:* the mechanical and thermal effects of a nuclear explosion (or nuclear accident);* radioactive fallout, allowing them to survive for a period of time deemed sufficient to allow them to escape safely." ], [ "History", "=== North America ===Fallout shelter water storage can: a barrel issued by the U.S. Department of Defense, Office of Civil Defense.", "1963 During the Cold War, many countries built fallout shelters for high-ranking government officials and crucial military facilities, such as Project Greek Island and the Cheyenne Mountain nuclear bunker in the United States and Canada's Emergency Government Headquarters.", "Plans were made, however, to use existing buildings with sturdy below-ground-level basements as makeshift fallout shelters.", "These buildings were placarded with the orange-yellow and black trefoil sign designed by United States Army Corps of Engineers director of administrative logistics support function Robert W. Blakeley in 1961.The National Emergency Alarm Repeater (NEAR) program was developed in the United States in 1956 during the Cold War to supplement the existing siren warning systems and radio broadcasts in the event of a nuclear attack.", "The NEAR civilian alarm device was engineered and tested but the program was not viable and was terminated in 1967.In the U.S. in September 1961, under the direction of Steuart L. Pittman, the federal government started the Community Fallout Shelter Program.", "A letter from President Kennedy advising the use of fallout shelters appeared in the September 1961 issue of ''Life'' magazine.", "From 1961 to 1963, home fallout shelter sales grew, but eventually there was a public backlash against the fallout shelter as a consumer product.In November 1961, in ''Fortune'' magazine, an article by Gilbert Burck appeared that outlined the plans of Nelson Rockefeller, Edward Teller, Herman Kahn, and Chet Holifield for an enormous network of concrete-lined underground fallout shelters throughout the United States sufficient to shelter millions of people to serve as a refuge in case of nuclear war.The United States ended federal funding for the shelters in the 1970s.", "In 2017, New York City began removing the yellow signs since members of the public are unlikely to find edible food and usable medicine inside those rooms.====Atomitat====The Atomitat was an underground house in Plainview, Texas: it was designed by Jay Swayze and completed in 1962.The house was designed in response to the fear of nuclear war during the Cold War.", "The house was designed to be an \"atomic-habitat\" which met the United States Civil Defense specifications.", "It was the first bunker-house to meet their specifications as a nuclear shelter.", "Swayze also built an underground house for the 1964 New York World's Fair: it was called the Underground World Home.=== Europe ===Similar projects have been undertaken in Finland, which requires all buildings with area over 600 m2 to have an NBC (nuclear-biological-chemical) shelter, and Norway, which requires all buildings with an area over 1000 m2 to have a shelter.The former Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc countries often designed their underground mass-transit and subway tunnels to serve as bomb and fallout shelters in the event of an attack.", "Currently, the deepest subway line in the world is situated in St Petersburg in Russia, with an average depth of 60 meters, while the deepest subway station is Arsenalna in Kyiv, at 105.5 meters.Germany has protected shelters for 3% of its population, Austria for 30%, Finland for 70%, Sweden for 81%, and Switzerland for 114%.====United Kingdom====In the United Kingdom, a network of fallout shelters were built across the country, underground.", "==== Bosnia ====Bosnia's Ark underground facility.The Armijska Ratna Komanda D-0, also known as the Ark, was a Cold War-era nuclear bunker and military command centre located near the town of Konjic in Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "Built to protect Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito and up to 350 members of his inner circle in the event of an atomic exchange, the structure is made up of residential areas, conference rooms, offices, strategic planning rooms, and other areas.", "The bunker remained a state secret until after the breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s.The facility is now under the authority of the Bosnian Ministry of Defense and is managed by the country's military, guarded by a five-soldier detachment, but is designated by KONS as National Monuments of Bosnia and Herzegovina and used as exhibition space for project such as Cultural Event of Europe with strong UNESCO support, and tourist attraction.Željava underground military airportAnother underground facility is Željava Air Base''',''' situated on the border between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia under the mountain, near the city of Bihać.", "It was the largest underground airport and military air base in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY), and one of the largest in Europe.", "The role of the facility was to establish, integrate and coordinate a nationwide early warning radar network in SFRY akin to NORAD in the US.", "The complex contained tunnels in total length of 3.5 km (2.2 mi), and the bunker with four entrances protected by 100-ton pressurized doors, three of which were customized for use by fixed-wing aircraft.", "capable in housing two full fighter squadrons, one reconnaissance squadron, and associated maintenance facilities.", "It was designed and built to sustain a direct hit from a 20-kiloton nuclear bomb, equivalent to that dropped on Nagasaki.", "The underground facility was lined with semicircular concrete shields, arranged every 10 km (6.2 mi), to cushion the impact of incoming strike.", "The complex included an underground water source, power generators, crew quarters, and other strategic military facilities.", "It also housed a mess hall that could feed 1,000 people simultaneously, along with stores of food, fuel and arms sufficient to last 30 days.", "Fuel was supplied by a 20 km (12 mi) underground pipe network connected to a military warehouse on Pokoj Hill near Bihać.", "Nowadays, they are popular for urban exploration.==== Switzerland ====The Sonnenberg Tunnel, in Switzerland, was the world's largest civilian nuclear fallout shelter, designed to protect 20,000 civilians in the eventuality of war or disaster (civil defense function abandoned in 2006).Switzerland built an extensive network of fallout shelters, not only through extra hardening of government buildings such as schools, but also through a building regulation requiring nuclear shelters in residential buildings since the 1960s (the first legal basis in this sense dates from 4 October 1963).", "Later, the law ensured that all residential buildings built after 1978 contained a nuclear shelter able to withstand a blast from a 12-megaton explosion at a distance of 700 metres.", "The ''Federal Law on the Protection of the Population and Civil Protection'' still requires that every inhabitant should have a place in a shelter close to where they live.The Swiss authorities maintained large communal shelters (such as the Sonnenberg Tunnel until 2006) stocked with over four months of food and fuel.", "The reference ''Nuclear War Survival Skills'' declared that, as of 1986, \"Switzerland has the best civil defense system, one that already includes blast shelters for over 85% of all its citizens.\"", "As of 2006, there were about 300,000 shelters built in private residences, institutions and hospitals, as well as 5,100 public shelters for a total of 8.6 million places, a level of coverage equal to 114% of the population.In Switzerland, most residential shelters are no longer stocked with the food and water required for prolonged habitation and a large number have been converted by the owners to other uses (e.g., wine cellars, ski rooms, gyms).", "But the owner still has the obligation to ensure the maintenance of the shelter." ], [ "Details of shelter construction", "Door of a public fallout shelter in Switzerland (2014).Large fire door, sealing a fallout and air raid shelter inside the basement parking garage of a hotel in Germany.=== Shielding ===A basic fallout shelter consists of shields that reduce gamma ray exposure by a factor of 1000.The required shielding can be accomplished with 10 times the thickness of any quantity of material capable of cutting gamma ray exposure in half.", "Shields that reduce gamma ray intensity by 50% (1/2) include of lead, of concrete, of packed earth or of air.", "When multiple thicknesses are built, the shielding multiplies.", "Thus, a practical fallout shield is ten halving-thicknesses of packed earth, reducing gamma rays by approximately 1024 times (210).Usually, an expedient purpose-built fallout shelter is a trench; with a strong roof buried by 1 m (3 ft) of earth.", "The two ends of the trench have ramps or entrances at right angles to the trench, so that gamma rays cannot enter (they can travel only in straight lines).", "To make the overburden waterproof (in case of rain), a plastic sheet may be buried a few inches below the surface and held down with rocks or bricks.Blast doors are designed to absorb the shock wave of a nuclear blast, bending and then returning to their original shape.=== Climate control ===Dry earth is a reasonably good thermal insulator, but over several weeks of habitation, a shelter will become dangerously hot.", "The simplest form of effective fan to cool a shelter is a wide, heavy frame with flaps that swing in the shelter's doorway and can be swung from hinges on the ceiling.", "The flaps open in one direction and close in the other, pumping air.", "(This is a Kearny air pump, or KAP, named after the inventor, Cresson Kearny.", ")Unfiltered air is safe, since the most dangerous fallout has the consistency of sand or finely ground pumice.", "Such large particles are not easily ingested into the soft tissues of the body, so extensive filters are not required.", "Any exposure to fine dust is far less hazardous than exposure to the fallout outside the shelter.", "Dust fine enough to pass the entrance will probably pass through the shelter.", "Some shelters, however, incorporate NBC-filters for additional protection.=== Locations ===Effective public shelters can be the middle floors of some tall buildings or parking structures, or below ground level in most buildings with more than 10 floors.", "The thickness of the upper floors must form an effective shield, and the windows of the sheltered area must not view fallout-covered ground that is closer than 1.5 km (1 mi).", "One of Switzerland's solutions is to use road tunnels passing through the mountains, with some of these shelters being able to protect tens of thousands.Fallout shelters are not always underground.", "Above ground buildings with walls and roofs dense enough to afford a meaningful protection factor can be used as a fallout shelter.=== Contents ===A battery-powered radio may be helpful to get reports of fallout patterns and clearance.", "However, radio and other electronic equipment may be disabled by electromagnetic pulse.", "For example, even at the height of the Cold War, EMP protection had been completed for only 125 of the approximately 2,771 radio stations in the United States Emergency Broadcast System.", "Also, only 110 of 3,000 existing Emergency Operating Centers had been protected against EMP effects.", "The Emergency Broadcast System has since been supplanted in the United States by the Emergency Alert System.The reference ''Nuclear War Survival Skills'' includes the following supplies in a list of \"Minimum Pre-Crisis Preparations\": one or more shovels, a pick, a bow-saw with an extra blade, a hammer, and polyethylene film (also any necessary nails, wire, etc.", "); a homemade shelter-ventilating pump (a KAP); large containers for water; a plastic bottle of sodium hypochlorite bleach; one or two KFMs (Kearny fallout meters) and the knowledge to operate them; at least a 2-week supply of compact, nonperishable food; an efficient portable stove; wooden matches in a waterproof container; essential containers and utensils for storing, transporting, and cooking food; a hose-vented can, with heavy plastic bags for liners, for use as a toilet; tampons; insect screen and fly bait; any special medications needed by family members; pure potassium iodide, a bottle, and a medicine dropper; a first-aid kit and a tube of antibiotic ointment; long-burning candles (with small wicks) sufficient for at least 14 nights; an oil lamp; a flashlight and extra batteries; and a transistor radio with extra batteries and a metal box to protect it from electromagnetic pulse.Inhabitants should have water on hand, per person per day.", "Water stored in bulk containers requires less space than water stored in smaller bottles.==== Kearny fallout meter ====Commercially made Geiger counters are expensive and require frequent calibration.", "It is possible to construct an electrometer-type radiation meter called the Kearny fallout meter, which does not require batteries or professional calibration, from properly-scaled plans with just a coffee can or pail, gypsum board, monofilament fishing line, and aluminum foil.", "Plans are freely available in the public domain in the reference ''Nuclear War Survival Skills'' by Cresson Kearny." ], [ "Use", "Inhabitants should plan to remain sheltered for at least two weeks (with an hour out at the end of the first week – see Swiss Civil Defense guidelines), then work outside for gradually increasing amounts of time, to four hours a day at three weeks.", "The normal work is to sweep or wash fallout into shallow trenches to decontaminate the area.", "They should sleep in a shelter for several months.", "Evacuation at three weeks is recommended by official authorities.If available, inhabitants may take potassium iodide at the rate of 130 mg/day per adult (65 mg/day per child) as an additional measure to protect the thyroid gland from the uptake of dangerous radioactive iodine, a component of most fallout and reactor waste.Relative abilities of three different types of ionizing radiation to penetrate solid matter.The protection factor provided by '''10 cm of concrete shielding''' where the source is the idealised Chernobyl fallout.The protection factor provided by '''20 cm of concrete shielding''' where the source is the idealised Chernobyl fallout.The protection factor provided by '''30 cm of concrete shielding''' where the source is the idealised Chernobyl fallout.Calculated relative gamma dose rates from atomic bomb and Chernobyl fallout" ], [ "Different types of radiation emitted by fallout", "=== Alpha (α) ===In the vast majority of accidents, and in all atomic bomb blasts, the threat due to beta and gamma emitters is greater than that posed by the alpha emitters in the fallout.", "Alpha particles are identical to a helium-4 nucleus (two protons and two neutrons), and travel at speeds in excess of 5% of the speed of light.", "Alpha particles have little penetrating power; most cannot penetrate through human skin.", "Avoiding direct exposure with fallout particles will prevent injury from alpha radiation.=== Beta (β) ===Beta radiation consists of particles (high-speed electrons) given off by some fallout.", "Most beta particles cannot penetrate more than about of air or about of water, wood, or human body tissue; or a sheet of aluminum foil.", "Avoiding direct exposure with fallout particles will prevent most injuries from beta radiation.The primary dangers associated with beta radiation are internal exposure from ingested fallout particles and beta burns from fallout particles no more than a few days old.", "Beta burns can result from contact with highly radioactive particles on bare skin; ordinary clothing separating fresh fallout particles from the skin can provide significant shielding.=== Gamma (γ) ===Gamma radiation penetrates further through matter than alpha or beta radiation.", "Most of the design of a typical fallout shelter is intended to protect against gamma rays.", "Gamma rays are better absorbed by materials with high atomic numbers and high density, although neither effect is important compared to the total mass per area in the path of the gamma ray.", "Thus, lead is only modestly better as a gamma shield than an equal mass of another shielding material such as aluminum, concrete, water or soil.Some gamma radiation from fallout will penetrate into even the best shelters.", "However, the radiation dose received while inside a shelter can be significantly reduced with proper shielding.", "Ten halving thicknesses of a given material can reduce gamma exposure to less than of unshielded exposure." ], [ "Weapons versus nuclear accident fallout", "The bulk of the radioactivity in nuclear accident fallout is more long-lived than that in weapons fallout.", "A good table of the nuclides, such as that provided by the Korean Atomic Energy Research Institute, includes the fission yields of the different nuclides.", "From this data it is possible to calculate the isotopic mixture in the fallout (due to fission products in bomb fallout)." ], [ "Other matters and simple improvements", "While a person's home may not be a purpose-made shelter, it could be thought of as one if measures are taken to improve the degree of fallout protection.=== Measures to lower the beta dose ===The main threat of beta radiation exposure comes from ''hot particles'' in contact with or close to the skin of a person.", "Also, swallowed or inhaled hot particles could cause beta burns.", "As it is important to avoid bringing hot particles into the shelter, one option is to remove one's outer clothing, or follow other decontamination procedures, on entry.", "Fallout particles will cease to be radioactive enough to cause beta burns within a few days following a nuclear explosion.", "The danger of gamma radiation will persist for far longer than the threat of beta burns in areas with heavy fallout exposure.=== Measures to lower the gamma dose rate ===The gamma dose rate due to the contamination brought into the shelter on the clothing of a person is likely to be small (by wartime standards) compared to gamma radiation that penetrates through the walls of the shelter.", "The following measures can be taken to reduce the amount of gamma radiation entering the shelter:* Roofs and gutters can be cleaned to lower the dose rate in the house.", "* The top inch of soil in the area near the house can be either removed or dug up and mixed with the subsoil.", "This reduces the dose rate as the gamma rays have to pass through the topsoil before they can irradiate anything above.", "* Nearby roads can be rinsed and washed down to remove dust and debris; the fallout would collect in the sewers and gutters for easier disposal.", "In Kyiv after the Chernobyl accident a program of road washing was used to control the spread of radioactivity.", "* Windows can be bricked up, or the sill raised to reduce the hole in the shielding formed by the wall.", "* Gaps in the shielding can be blocked using containers of water.", "While water has a much lower density than that of lead, it is still able to shield some gamma rays.", "* Earth (or other dense material) can be heaped up against the exposed walls of the building; this forces the gamma rays to pass through a thicker layer of shielding before entering the house.", "* Nearby trees can be removed to reduce the dose due to fallout which is on the branches and leaves.", "It has been suggested by the US government that a fallout shelter should not be dug close to trees for this reason." ], [ "Fallout shelters in popular culture", "The international distinctive sign of civil defense personnel and infrastructures.Fallout shelters feature prominently in the Robert A. Heinlein novel ''Farnham's Freehold'' (Heinlein built a fairly extensive shelter near his home in Colorado Springs in 1963), ''Pulling Through'' by Dean Ing, ''A Canticle for Leibowitz'' by Walter M. Miller and ''Earth'' by David Brin.The 1961 ''Twilight Zone'' episode \"The Shelter\", from a Rod Serling script, deals with the consequences of actually using a shelter.", "Another episode of the series called \"One More Pallbearer\" featured a fallout shelter owned by a millionaire.", "The 1985 adaption of the series had the episode \"Shelter Skelter\" that featured a fallout shelter.In the ''Only Fools and Horses'' episode \"The Russians are Coming\", aired in 1981, Derek Trotter buys a lead fallout shelter, then decides to construct it in fear of an impending nuclear war caused by the Soviet Union.In 1999, the film ''Blast from the Past'' was released.", "It is a romantic comedy film about a nuclear physicist, his wife, and son that enter a well-equipped, spacious fallout shelter during the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis.", "They do not emerge until 35 years later, in 1997.The film shows their reaction to contemporary society.The ''Fallout'' series of computer games depicts the remains of human civilization after an immensely destructive global nuclear war; the United States of America had built underground fallout shelters known as vaults, that were advertised to protect the population against a nuclear attack, but almost all of them were in fact meant to lure subjects for long-term human experimentation.", "''Paranoia'', a role-playing game, takes place in a city-sized fallout shelter, which has become ruled by an insane computer.An episode of the sitcom ''Malcolm in the Middle'' features a subplot revolving around Reese and Dewey discovering a previously unknown fallout shelter in their backyard and trapping their father Hal in it, who soon becomes smitten with the shelter's 1960s decor.The ''Metro 2033'' book series by Russian author Dmitry Glukhovsky depicts survivors' life in the subway systems below Moscow and Saint-Petersburg after a nuclear exchange between the Russian Federation and the United States of America.Fallout shelters are often featured on the reality television show ''Doomsday Preppers''.The ''Silo'' series of novellas by Hugh Howey feature extensive fallout-style shelters that protect the inhabitants from an initially unknown disaster.The 2019 US film ''The Tomorrow Man'' centers around a reclusive man whose main preoccupation is tending to his in-home fallout shelter and the conspiracy theories that could put it to use." ], [ "See also", "* Abo Elementary School* Ark Two Shelter* Blast shelter* Bomb shelter* Bunker* Bruce D. Clayton, author of ''Fallout Survival'' and ''Life After Doomsday''* Collective protection* Command center* CONELRAD* Continuity of government* Project Greek Island* Vivos (underground shelter)'''Nation specific:'''* Central Government War Headquarters, The UKs Gov.", "War Headquarters at Corsham, Wiltshire.", "* Diefenbunker* HANDEL, UK's former national attack warning system'''General:'''* Fission product* Retreat (survivalism)* Sonnenberg Tunnel* Survivalism'''Publications:'''* ''Fallout Protection''* ''Survival Under Atomic Attack''* ''Nuclear War Survival Skills''" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "Further reading", "* Rose, Kenneth D., ''One Nation Underground: The Fallout Shelter in American Culture'', New York University Press (2004)," ], [ "External links", "* Nuclear War Survival Skills" ] ]
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[ [ "History of the Federated States of Micronesia" ], [ "Introduction", "A map of the Federated States of Micronesia.The Federated States of Micronesia are located on the Caroline Islands in the western Pacific Ocean.", "The history of the modern Federated States of Micronesia is one of settlement by Micronesians; colonization by Spain, Germany, and Japan; United Nations trusteeship under United States-administered Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands; and gradual independence beginning with the ratification of a sovereign constitution in 1979." ], [ "Pre-colonial history", "The Austronesian ancestors of the Micronesians settled there over 4,000 years ago.", "A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious culture centered on Pohnpei.", "People from the Caroline Islands had regular contact with the Chamorro people of the Marianas Islands, as well as rarer voyages into the eastern islands of the Philippines.=== Yap and the Yapese Empire ======= Yapese Empire ====From circa 1500 BC, before the beginning of foreign colonial administration by Western powers, the island of Yap created and maintained a unique set of socio-economic and political relationships with neighbouring islands to its east and southwest in what is known as the '''Yapese Empire'''.", "Although small-scale and informal, the Empire ''per se'' was formed when what is now known as Gagil Municipality through the chief village of Gatchaper, developed and maintained a maritime trade and political network with smaller atolls and island groups between Yap and Chuuk, covering over approximately 1,500 kilometres (932.01 miles) of the western Pacific.", "Village assembly hall, also known as ''pe'ebaey,'' at Yap Island in 1932.Through a relationship known as ''sawey'', the Empire demanded tribute known as ''Pitigil Tamol'' to be given to the paramount chief of Gagil in Gatchaper.", "These tributes would include bagiiy (lavalava), coconut rope, coconut oil, mats and shells.", "In return, Gagil would reciprocate with mutual support from the main island in case of natural emergencies as well as goods.", "These goods from Gagil would include Yapese canoes, turmeric, flint stone and other Yapese resources.", "The relationship also asked those with navigational experience and expertise for service along with Yapese navigators.", "This relationship may have helped the Yapese sail to Palau for quarrying the Rai stones, the stone currency disks carved from crystalline calcite still used today in cultural transactions.", "Traditional Yapese canoe, or ''muw'.", "''Although this unique relationship with Gagil and the outer islands may appear exploitative, researchers such as Lessa (1950, pp.", "43, 52; 1986, p. 35) and Lingenfelter (p. 147) maintain that the relationship was mostly mutual and, in most cases, was more beneficial to the Carolinians than to the Yapese.", "Lessa (1950, p. 70-71) had also suggested that the so-called empire was formed out of conquest and \"blackmail\" through sorcery and economics.Other places mentioned in Pacific anthropological-historical literature that were quite similar to the Yapese Empire was the Tongan Empire, also known as Tu'i Tonga, which is now present-day Kingdom of Tonga.==== Yapese traditional society: feudalism and the social caste system ====Yapese traditional society before foreign colonial administrations was divided into multiple villages and municipalities and is highly feudal in nature.", "Power was not allocated to one single authority that controlled Yap but was decentralised and allocated to at least ten municipalities.", "A defining feature of Yapese society was its unique and complex social caste system, which is still in use today.", "Each of the current one-hundred twenty-nine (129) villages of Yap are organised into single units based on the class system depicted below.", "HIGH CLASSES: TABUGUL (\"PURE\")CLASSES/CASTESBulche'/ 'UlunChiefsMethibaan/TethibaanNoblesDaworchigCommonersDetailed Map of the Municipalities of Yap IslandLOW CLASSES: TA'AY (\"IMPURE\")CLASSES/CASTESMilingaay ni 'ArowServantsMilingaaySerfsYagug/Milignaay ni KaanSerfsAlthough each village has its own class ranking within the municipality based on the number of military victories, each village also has its own internal set of social classes exclusive to that group.", "All low classes and low-class villages were under the authority of villages that were ranked higher since the latter had considerable power and voice (''lungun'').", "An example of a high-ranking village is the aforementioned Gatchaper, which is ranked ''Bulche''' or '''UIun.''", "Because villages and municipalities were continuously at war amongst one another, village and personal social ranks fluctuated based on military outcomes.However, in the 20th century, during the German occupation of Yap, the German administration pacified the island and enforced strict prohibition against violent conflicts.", "This policy resulted in a permanent freeze of all social caste rankings.", "Today, there are three villages with the high-ranking chief villages: Teb Village in Tamil Municipality, Ngolog Village in Rull Municipality and Gatchaper in Gagil Municipality.These chief villages and their municipalities are referred to in Yapese as \"''fare dalip e ngucho''l\", which means \"the three cooking stones\".", "This similarity was created to describe the relationship between these three villages and municipalities with the other remaining seven.", "The stones, or ''nguchol'', represent Tamil, Gagil and Rull while the pot represents the island of Yap.", "The saying goes that when one stone, or one municipality or village, fell, all of Yap and its value would fall as well.===Pohnpei and Saudeleur rule===On Pohnpei, pre-colonial history is divided into three eras: ''Mwehin Kawa'' or ''Mwehin Aramas'' (Period of Building, or Period of Peopling, before c. 1100); ''Mwehin Sau Deleur'' (Period of the Lord of Deleur, c. 1100 to c. 1628); and ''Mwehin Nahnmwarki'' (Period of the Nahnmwarki, c. 1628 to c. 1885).", "Pohnpeian legend recounts that the Saudeleur rulers, the first to bring government to Pohnpei, were of foreign origin.", "The Saudeleur centralized form of absolute rule is characterized in Pohnpeian legend as becoming increasingly oppressive over several generations.", "Arbitrary and onerous demands, as well as a reputation for offending Pohnpeian deities, sowed resentment among Pohnpeians.", "The Saudeleur Dynasty ended with the invasion of Isokelekel, another semi-mythical foreigner, who replaced the Saudeleur rule with the more decentralized ''nahnmwarki'' system in existence today.", "Isokelekel is regarded as the creator of the modern Pohnpeian ''nahnmwarki'' social system and the father of the Pohnpeian people.Nan Madol offshore of Temwen Island near Pohnpei, consists of a series of small artificial islands linked by a network of canals, and is often called the ''Venice of the Pacific''.", "It is located near the island of Pohnpei and was the ceremonial and political seat of the Saudeleur Dynasty that united Pohnpei's estimated 25,000 people until its centralized system collapsed amid the invasion of Isokelekel.", "Isokelekel and his descendants initially occupied the stone city, but later abandoned it." ], [ "European colonisation", "Manila Galleon in the Marianas and Carolinas, c. 1590 ''Boxer Codex''European explorers - first the Portuguese in search of the Spice Islands (Indonesia) and then the Spanish - reached the Carolines in the 16th century, with the Spanish establishing sovereignty.Spain sold the islands to Germany in 1899 under the terms of the German–Spanish Treaty of that year.", "Germany placed them under the jurisdiction of German New Guinea.", "German efforts to reorganize the traditional social hierarchy and recruit forced labor for construction resulted in a rebellion by inhabitants of Sokehs Municipality in 1910.Yap was a major German naval communications center before the First World War and an important international hub for cable telegraphy.", "It was occupied by Japanese troops in September, 1914, and passed to the Japanese Empire under the Versailles Treaty in 1919 as a mandated territory under League of Nations supervision.", "US commercial rights on the island were secured by a special US-Japanese treaty to that effect, concluded on February 11, 1922." ], [ "Empire of Japan", "Making Dried bonito at Chuuk in 1931.pngDuring World War I, many of the German possessions in the Pacific were conquered by Japan, who fought on the side of the Allies of World War I and was active in the Asian and Pacific theatre of World War I.The Empire of Japan administered the islands from 1920 under the South Seas Mandate granted by the League of Nations.", "During this period, the Japanese population grew to over 100,000 throughout Micronesia, while the indigenous population was about 40,000.Sugar cane, mining, fishing and tropical agriculture became the major industries.===World War II===In World War II, Japanese-held Yap was one of the islands bypassed in the U.S. \"leapfrogging\" strategy, although it was regularly bombed by U.S. ships and aircraft, and Yap-based Japanese bombers did some damage in return.", "The Japanese garrison comprised 4,423 Imperial Japanese Army men under the command of Colonel Daihachi Itoh and 1,494 Imperial Japanese Navy men.", "A significant portion of the Japanese fleet was based in Truk Lagoon.", "In February 1944, Operation Hailstone, one of the most important naval battles of the war, took place at Truk, in which many Japanese support vessels and aircraft were destroyed.World War II brought an abrupt end to the relative prosperity experienced during Japanese civil administration." ], [ "Trusteeship", " Flag of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands; was used in the FSM 1965 to 1978.The United Nations created the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI) in 1947.Pohnpei (then including Kusaie), Truk, Yap, Palau, the Marshall Islands and the Northern Mariana Islands, together constituted the TTPI.", "The United States accepted the role of Trustee of this, the only United Nations Trusteeship to be designated as a \"Security Trusteeship\", whose ultimate disposition was to be determined by the UN Security Council.", "As Trustee the US was to \"promote the economic advancement and self-sufficiency of the inhabitants.\"" ], [ "Independence", "Tosiwo Nakayama, first president of the Federated States of MicronesiaOn May 10, 1979, four of the Trust Territory districts ratified the Constitution of the Federated States of Micronesia.", "The neighboring trust districts of Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands chose not to participate.", "The Honorable Tosiwo Nakayama, the former President of the Congress of Micronesia, became the first President of the FSM and formed his Cabinet.", "The FSM signed a Compact of Free Association with the U.S., which entered into force on November 3, 1986, marking Micronesia's emergence from trusteeship to independence.", "Under the Compact, the U.S. has full authority and responsibility for the defense of the FSM.", "This security relationship can be changed or terminated by mutual agreement.", "The Compact provides U.S. grant funds and federal program assistance to the FSM.", "Amended financial assistance provisions came on-line in FY 2004.The basic relationship of free association continues indefinitely.Trusteeship of the islands ended under United Nations Security Council Resolution 683, passed on December 22, 1990.The Compact was renewed in 2004." ], [ "See also", "*History of Oceania*President of the Federated States of Micronesia*Vice President of the Federated States of Micronesia*Politics of the Federated States of Micronesia*Yap" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* U.S. State Department Background Note: Micronesia" ] ]
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[ [ "Politics of the Federated States of Micronesia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of the Federated States of Micronesia''' (FSM) takes place in a framework of a federal assembly-independent representative democratic republic.", "The President of the Federated States of Micronesia is both head of state and head of government.", "Executive power is exercised by the president and his cabinet, while legislative power is vested in both the president and the Congress.", "The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.The internal workings of the FSM are governed by the 1979 constitution, which guarantees fundamental human rights and establishes a separation of governmental powers.", "The Federation is in free association with the United States; the Compact of Free Association entered into force 3 November 1986." ], [ "Executive branch", "+Main office holdersOfficeNamePartySincePresidentWesley SiminaIndependent11 May 2023Vice PresidentAren PalikIndependent13 September 2022The president and the vice president are elected by Congress from among the four senators-at-large for four-year terms.", "The president is both the chief of state and head of government.", "Their congressional seats are then filled by special elections.", "The president and vice president are supported by an appointed cabinet.=== Cabinet ===The President and Vice President are supported in the administration by a Cabinet made up of 9 appointed officials.", "They are: the Secretaries of the Department of Environment, Climate Change & Emergency Management (DECEM), the Department of Justice (DOJ), the Department of Foreign Affairs (Foreign Affairs), the Department of Resource & Development (R&D), the Department of Health & Social Affairs (DHSA), the Department of Transportation, Communications, & Infrastructure (TC&I), and the Department of Education (DOE); the heads of the Office of the Public Defender, Office of National Archives, Culture, & Historic Preservations, and FSM Postal Services.", "Other Cabinet-level officials include the director of the National Oceanic Resource & Maritime Authority, Coconut Development Authority, FSM Banking Board, and National Fisheries Corporation.+Cabinet of MicronesiaDepartmentDept.", "Head's TitleDepartment HeadDepartment of EducationSecretaryThe Honorable Gardenia AisekDepartment of Finance and AdministrationSecretaryThe Honorable ''Rose Nakanaga''Department of Foreign AffairsSecretaryThe Honorable Lorin RobertDeputy Secretary: Ricky CanteroDepartment of Health and Social AffairsSecretaryThe Honorable Marcus SamoDepartment of JusticeSecretaryThe Honorable Joses R. GallenDepartment of Resource & DevelopmentSecretaryThe Honorable Elina AkinagaDepartment of Transportation, Communication, and InfrastructureSecretaryThe Honorable Carlson ApisDepartment of Environment, Climate Change & Emergency ManagementSecretaryThe Honorable Andrew YatilmanOffice of Public DefenderChief Public DefenderVacantFSM Postal ServicesPostmaster GeneralGinger Porter MidaNational Archives, Culture and Historic Preservation OfficeDirectorDr.", "Rufino Mauricio'''Cabinet-level officials'''Coconut Development AuthorityGeneral ManagerPeterson SamFSM Banking BoardNational Fisheries CorporationPresident & CEO''Patricia Jack-Jossien''National Oceanic Resource and Maritime Authority (NORMA)Executive DirectorEugene Pangelinan" ], [ "Legislative branch", "The Congress has fourteen non-partisan members, ten members elected for a two-year term in single-seat constituencies and four members elected for a four-year term, one from each state at large." ], [ "Judicial branch", "The judiciary is headed by the Supreme Court of the Federated States of Micronesia, which is divided into trial and appellate divisions.", "The president appoints judges with the advice and consent of the Congress.", "Andon Amaraich was Chief Justice of the Federated States of Micronesia until his death in January 2010.He was succeeded by Martin G. Yinug, who served until his death on August 31, 2014.He was succeeded by Dennis K. Yamase, who continues to serve as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court since his investiture on October 2, 2015." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "A head of state (the President) and a legislature are elected on a national level.", "At the 2011 election, only non-partisans have been elected.", "The president is elected for a four-year term by Congress.", "There are no political parties in Micronesia, though they are not banned.", "Political allegiances depend mainly on family and island-related factors." ], [ "Government Agencies", "The government of Micronesia includes national agencies to serve the Micronesian people.", "The FSM Social Security Administration, FSM Telecommunications Corporation, Office of the Public Auditor, and FSM PetroCorp are independent agencies.+Government AgenciesAgencyDept.", "Head's TitleDepartment HeadCollege of Micronesia-FSMPresidentDr.", "Joseph DaisyFSM Development BankPresident & CEOAnna MendiolaFSM Social Security AdministrationAdministratorAlexander NarruhnFSM Telecommunications CorporationGeneral ManagerJohn SohlNational Election CommissionDirectorKimeuo KimuoOffice of the Public AuditorPublic AuditorHaser Hainrick" ], [ "Administrative divisions", "The FSM is divided in four states: Chuuk (Truk), Kosrae, Pohnpei, and Yap.", "Each has its own constitution, elected legislature, governor, and lieutenant governor.", "The state governments maintain considerable power, particularly regarding the implementation of budgetary policies.+Current Governors and Lt. GovernorsStateGovernorLt.", "GovernorChuuk StateAlexander NarruhnMekeioshy WilliamKosrae StateTulensa PalikArthy G. NenaPohnpei StateReed OliverFrancisco IoanisYap StateCharles ChiengFrancis Itimai" ], [ "International organization participation", "Micronesia is a member of the following international organizations:* Alliance of Small Island States* Asian Development Bank* U.N. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific* Group of 77* International Civil Aviation Organization* International Bank for Reconstruction and Development* International Development Association* International Finance Corporation* International Monetary Fund* Intelsat* International Olympic Committee* International Telecommunication Union* Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons* Pacific Islands Forum* South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Co-operation Agreement* Pacific Community (SPC)* United Nations* U.N. Conference on Trade and Development* World Health Organization* World Meteorological Organization" ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in the Federated States of Micronesia" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "'''Government'''* Government of the Federated States of Micronesia* Adam Carr's Election Archive" ] ]
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[ [ "Geography of the Federated States of Micronesia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Geography of the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM)''', a country located in the western Pacific Ocean, and in the Micronesia cultural and ecological sub-region of Oceania.", "While its total land area is very small at , it has the 14th largest exclusive economic zone at ." ], [ "Geography", "The country consists of 607 islands extending across the Caroline Islands Archipelago.", "They are east of the Philippine Islands, and north of the island of New Guinea.", "The federal capital is Palikir, on Pohnpei island.The 607 islands are grouped into four states, and from west to east are: *Yap State*Chuuk State — ''before 1990 named Truk''.", "*Pohnpei State — ''before 1985 named Ponape''.", "*Kosrae StateSeparated from the main islands in southern Pohnpei State are the two islands of Nukuoro and Kapingamarangi.", "They are geographically part of the Micronesia region, but are linguistically and culturally part of the Polynesia region.", "The indigenous languages spoken on these two islands are in the Samoic family of Polynesian languages.===Location===The Federated States of Micronesia are an island group in the Caroline Islands Archipelago of the western Pacific Ocean, in the Micronesia sub-region of Oceania.Located about three-quarters of the way from Hawaii to Indonesia at Geographic coordinates: Map references are Oceania and Micronesia.===Dimensions==='''Area:'''*Land area — *Water area (freshwater) — *Total area — The country's total area is four times the size of Washington, D.C. in the U.S.'''Coastline:'''The combined coastlines of the country's 607 islands equal .", "'''Maritime claims:'''*Territorial sea (12 nmi) — *Exclusive economic zone (200 nmi) — ===Terrain===The country's 607 islands vary from high mountainous ones to low coral atolls.", "Geologically, there are volcanic rock outcroppings on the islands of Pohnpei, Kosrae, and Chuuk.====Elevation extremes====*Lowest point — shoreline mean sea level of the Pacific Ocean — *Highest point — Nanlaud on Pohnpei at as indicated on the definitive USGS 1:25,000 scale topographic survey.", "==== Extreme points ====The extreme points of the Federated States of Micronesia, the landforms that are farther north, south, east or west — than any other location in the country.", "* Northernmost point — Mogmog islet, Ulithi Atoll, Yap State.", "* Easternmost point — unnamed headland on Kosrae island, Kosrae State.", "* Southernmost point — Kapingamarangi atoll, Pohnpei State.", "* Westernmost point — Ngulu Atoll, Yap State." ], [ "Environment", "'''Environment—current issues:'''Overfishing, land and water pollution.", "'''Environment—international agreements:'''*Party to — Biodiversity, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection.", "*Signed, but not ratified — none of the selected agreements===Land use===*Arable land — 2.86%*Permanent crops — 24.29%*Other — 72.86%*Irrigated land — none'''Products:'''Tropical woods and lumber, marine products, deep-seabed minerals, surface mined phosphate.===Climate===The Federated States of Micronesia enjoys a tropical climate, with quite even, warm temperatures throughout the year.Precipitation is generally plentiful, with heavy year-round rainfall.", "Pohnpei reputedly is one of the wettest places on earth, with up to 330 inches (8.4 m) of rain per year.", "Nevertheless, drought conditions do occur periodically throughout FSM, especially when the El Niño condition moves into the Western Pacific, when groundwater supplies can dwindle to emergency proportions.====Natural hazards====Tropical typhoons are an annual threat, from June to December.", "The country is located on southern edge of the typhoon belt, with occasionally severe damage, particularly to the low-lying atolls.Tsunamis and rising sea levels are other natural threats." ], [ "See also", "*Micronesia — ''sub-region of Oceania''.", "*Melanesia — ''sub-region to the south''.", "*Polynesia — ''sub-region to the east''.", "*Geography of Oceania" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Demographics of the Federated States of Micronesia" ], [ "Introduction", "Demographic features of the population of the Federated States of Micronesia include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects.", "The indigenous population of the Federated States of Micronesia, which is predominantly Micronesian, consists of various ethnolinguistic groups.", "English has become the common language.", "Population growth remains high at more than 3%, but is ameliorated somewhat by net emigration.The island of Pingelap is genetically notable for the prevalence of the extreme form of color blindness known as maskun." ], [ "Structure of the population", "Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2021) (Based on the 2010 Population and Housing Census and 2013/2014 Household Income and Expenditure Survey.", "): Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 53 202 51 630 104 832 100 0–4 6 261 6 045 12 306 11.74 5–9 6 257 5 913 12 170 11.61 10–14 6 643 6 287 12 930 12.33 15–19 6 359 5 861 12 220 11.66 20–24 5 001 4 541 9 542 9.10 25–29 3 917 3 879 7 796 7.44 30–34 3 463 3 256 6 718 6.41 35–39 2 985 3 077 6 062 5.78 40–44 2 772 2 919 5 691 5.43 45–49 2 693 2 598 5 291 5.05 50–54 2 347 2 367 4 713 4.50 55–59 1 911 1 771 3 682 3.51 60–64 1 192 1 145 2 336 2.23 65+ 1 404 1 969 3 373 3.22Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 19 161 18 245 37 406 35.68 15–64 32 637 31 416 64 053 61.10 65+ 1 404 1 969 3 373 3.22" ], [ "CIA World Factbook demographic statistics", "Demographics of the Federated States of Micronesia, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.", "'''Population:'''102,436 (July 2020 est.", ")'''Age structure:'''''0-14 years:''NA''15-64 years:''NA''65 years and over:''NA'''Population growth rate:'''-0.6% (2020 est.", ")'''Birth rate:'''18.9 births/1,000 population (2020 est.", ")'''Death rate:'''4.3 deaths/1,000 population (2020 est.", ")'''Net migration rate:'''-20.9 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2020 est.", ")'''Infant mortality rate:'''17.8 deaths/1,000 live births (2020 est.", ")'''Life expectancy at birth:'''''total population:''73.9 years''male:''71.8 years''female:''76.1 years (2020 est.", ")'''Total fertility rate:'''2.29 children born/woman (2020 est.", ")'''Nationality:'''''noun:''Micronesian(s)''adjective:''Micronesian; Kosraean(s), Pohnpeian(s), Chuukese, Yapese'''Ethnic groups:'''Chuukese 49.3%, Pohnpeian 29.8%, Kosraean 6.3%, Yapese 5.7%, other 8.9%'''Religions:'''Roman Catholic 54.7%, Protestant 41.1%, other and none 4.2% (see Religion in the Federated States of Micronesia)'''Languages:'''English (official and common language), Chuukese, Pohnpeian, Yapese, Kosraean (recognized at state level in Chuuk, Pohnpei, Yap and Kosrae respectively) In addition other language such as Pingelapese, Ngatikese, Satawalese, Puluwatese, Mortlockese, Mokilese, Ulithian, Woleaian, Nukuoro, and Kapingamarangi are recognized.", "'''Literacy:'''''definition:''age 15 and over can read and write''total population:''89%''male:''91%''female:''88% (1980 est.)" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Economy of the Federated States of Micronesia" ], [ "Introduction", "The economic activity of the Federated States of Micronesia consists primarily of subsistence agriculture and fishing.", "The islands have few mineral deposits worth exploiting, except for high-grade phosphate.", "The potential for a tourist industry exists, but the remoteness of the location and a lack of adequate facilities hinder development.", "Financial assistance from the US is the primary source of revenue, with the US pledged to spend $1.3 billion in the islands in 1986–2001.Geographical isolation and a poorly developed infrastructure are major impediments to long-term growth.Under the terms of the Compact of Free Association, the United States provided FSM with around $2 billion in grants and services from 1986 to 2001.The Compact's financial terms are being renegotiated for an extension period.", "In 2001 the U.S. provided more than $84 million in Compact grants—an amount equivalent to over one-third of FSM's GDP—plus more than $20 million through other federal programs.", "Total official development assistance from all sources was more than $100 million in 2001, with nearly 90% of that total coming from the U.S.The FSM public sector plays a central role in the economy as the administrator of the Compact money.", "The national and state-level governments employ over one-half of the country's workers and provide services accounting for more than 40% of GDP.", "Faced with the potential decrease or cessation of some of the assistance programs upon the Compact's financial provisions' expiry in 2001, the Government of the FSM in 1996 began to implement a program of economic reforms designed to reduce the role of the public sector in the economy.", "In addition, the advent of music startups using .fm domain names has provided a new, albeit fairly small, stream of revenue to the government." ], [ "Industries", "The fishing industry is highly important.", "Foreign commercial fishing fleets pay over $20 million annually for the right to operate in FSM territorial waters.", "These licensing fees account for nearly 30% of domestic budgetary revenue.", "Additionally, exports of marine products, mainly reexports of fish to Japan, account for nearly 85% of export revenue.The tourist industry is present but has been hampered by a lack of infrastructure.", "Visitor attractions include scuba diving in each state, World War II battle sites, and the ancient ruined city of Nan Madol on Pohnpei.", "Some 15,000 tourists visit the islands each year.", "The Asian Development Bank has identified tourism as one of FSM's highest potential growth industries.Farming is mainly subsistence, and its importance is declining.", "The principal crops are coconuts, bananas, betel nuts, cassava, and sweet potatoes.", "Less than 10% of the formal labor force and less than 7% of export revenue come from the agriculture sector.", "Manufacturing activity is modest, consisting mainly of the export of betel nut in Yap and production of buttons from trochus shells." ], [ "Taxation and trade", "The large inflow of official assistance to FSM allows it to run a substantial trade deficit and to have a much lighter tax burden than other states in the region (11% of GDP in FSM compared to 18–25% elsewhere).", "The government also borrowed against future Compact disbursements in the early 1990s, yielding an external debt of $111 million in 1997 (over 50% of GDP).There are no patent laws in Micronesia." ], [ "Statistics", "'''GDP:'''purchasing power parity - $277 million (2002 est.", ")''note:''GDP is supplemented by grant aid, averaging perhaps $100 million annually'''GDP - real growth rate:'''1% (2002 est.", ")'''GDP - per capita:'''purchasing power parity - $3 900 (2002 est.", ")'''GDP - composition by sector:'''''agriculture:''47%''industry:''10%''services:''43% (2010 est.", ")'''Population below poverty line:'''22.3%'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''''lowest 10%:''NA%''highest 10%:''NA%'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''2% (2012 est.", ")'''Labor force:'''37,410 (2000)'''Labor force - by occupation:'''two-thirds are government employees'''Unemployment rate:'''15% (2010 estimate)'''Budget:'''''revenues:''$157.5 million ($74 million less grants''expenditures:''$134 million; including capital expenditures of $17.9 million (FY05 est.", ")'''Industries:'''tourism, construction, fish processing, craft items from shell, wood, and pearls'''Industrial production growth rate:'''NA%'''Electricity - production:'''261 million kWh (2010)'''Electricity - consumption:'''222 million kWh (2010)'''Electricity - exports:'''0 kWh (2010)'''Electricity - imports:'''0 kWh (2010)'''Agriculture - products:'''black pepper, tropical fruits and vegetables, coconuts, cassava (tapioca), sweet potatoes; pigs, chickens'''Exports:'''$123 million (f.o.b., 2000 est.", ")'''Exports - commodities:'''fish, garments, bananas, black pepper'''Exports - partners:'''Japan, United States, Guam, China (2010)'''Imports:'''$82.5 million f.o.b.", "(2010 est.", ")'''Imports - commodities:'''food, manufactured goods, machinery and equipment, beverages'''Imports - partners:'''US, Australia, Japan (2010)'''Debt - external:'''$44 million (2010 est.", ")'''Economic aid - recipient:'''$64 million (2010); note - under terms of the Compact of Free Association, the US will provide $1.3 billion in grant aid during the period 1986-2001'''Currency:'''1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents'''Exchange rates:'''US currency is used'''Fiscal year:'''1 October - 30 September" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* CIA World Factbook - Micronesia, Federated States of" ] ]
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[ [ "Telecommunications in the Federated States of Micronesia" ], [ "Introduction", "This article is about communications systems in the Federated States of Micronesia.", "In 2010, Pohnpei State was connected to the Internet using the HANTRU-1 undersea communications cable to provide high-speed bandwidth.", "Kosrae State, Chuuk State, and Yap State, were planned to be connected in a second phase." ], [ "Telephone", "'''Main lines in use:'''8,000 (1995)'''Mobile cellular:'''NA'''Telephone system:'''''domestic:''islands interconnected by shortwave radiotelephone (used mostly for government purposes)''international:''satellite earth stations - 4 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean)" ], [ "Radio", "'''Broadcast stations:'''AM 5, FM 1, shortwave 1 (2011)Stations below are included in the total:AM Radio stations:* AM 999 V6AF - (Pohnpei)* AM 1350 V6A - Baptist Radio - Moen (Chuuk) FM.. religious-Baptist* AM 1449 V6AH - Radio V6AH - Kolonia (Pohnpei) FM.. religious-Christian* AM 1494 V6AI - Radio Yap - Colonia, Yap (Yap)* AM 1503 V6AJ - Voice of Kosrae - Tofol (Kosrae) FM.. English, Kosraean* AM 1593 V6AK - (Moen)FM Radio stations:* FM 88.1 V6BC (Truk)* FM 88.1 V6AI-FM (Moen)* FM 88.5 V6MA-FM* FM 88.5 V6MA Bible Baptist Church Radio (Weno, Chuuk)* FM 88.9 V6JY (Yap)* FM 89.5 V6AK-FM Radio - Moen (Chuuk) FM English, Chuukese* FM 89.7 V6AA (Yap)* FM 101.1 V6AV (BBC World Service) (Yap)* FM 104.1 V6AF-FM - Kolonia (Pohnpei) FM.. religious-ChristianThere is also a shortwave relay of 88.5 FM, V6MP.", "'''Radios:'''NA" ], [ "Television", "'''Broadcast stations:'''* KPON 7 Kolonia (Pohnpei, 1 kW)* TTKK 7 Moen (Truk, 0.1 kW)* WAAB 7 (Government station) Colonia (Yap, 1 kW) - (1997)Several Honolulu local stations are available on cable (converted from ATSC to DVB-T): KHET (PBS), KHON-TV (Fox), KITV-TV (ABC), KHNL-TV (NBC) and KGMB-TV (CBS).", "'''Televisions:'''NA" ], [ "Internet", "'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''1'''Country code:''' .fm" ], [ "Notes" ] ]
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[ [ "Transportation in the Federated States of Micronesia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Railways:'''0 km'''Highways:'''''total:''''paved:''''unpaved:'' (1996 est.", ")'''Ports and harbors:'''Colonia (Yap), Kolonia (Pohnpei), Lele, Moen'''Merchant marine:'''total: three ships (1,000 GT or over) 3,560 GT/ by type: cargo one, passenger/cargo two (2007) '''Airports:'''Six (2007)'''Airports - with paved runways:'''''total:''Six''1,524 to 2,437 m:''Four (Chuuk International Airport, Kosrae International Airport, Pohnpei International Airport and Yap International Airport)''914 to 1,523 m:''Two (2007)" ], [ "See also", "*Federated States of Micronesia*List of airports in the Federated States of Micronesia" ] ]
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[ [ "Foreign relations of the Federated States of Micronesia" ], [ "Introduction", "The government of the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) conducts its own foreign relations.", "Since independence in 1986, the FSM has established diplomatic relations with 92 countries, including all of its Pacific neighbors." ], [ "Regional relations", "Regional cooperation through various multilateral organizations is a key element in FSM's foreign policy.", "FSM is a full member of the Pacific Islands Forum, the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission, the Pacific Regional Environment Programme and the Secretariat of the Pacific Community.", "The country also is one of the eight signatories of the Nauru Agreement Concerning Cooperation In The Management Of Fisheries Of Common Interest which collectively controls 25-30% of the world's tuna supply and approximately 60% of the western and central Pacific tuna supply." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries with which the Federated States of Micronesia maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px #CountryDate12345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728293031323334353637–383940414243444546–47––48495051525354555657585960616263646566676869–7071–72737475767778798081828384858687888990919293}" ], [ "Bilateral relations", "The FSM maintains permanent embassies in four nations: China, Fiji, Japan and the United States.", "The FSM also maintains a resident consulate in Hawaii, Portland, Oregon and Guam.", "The FSM maintains non-resident embassies for four nations: Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore (all in Japan) and Israel in Fiji.", "Four nations maintain permanent embassies in the FSM: Australia, China, Japan and the United States.", "Additionally, 15 nations maintain non-resident embassies with the FSM.", "France and the United Kingdom have non-resident embassies for the FSM in Fiji.", "Canada, Italy and South Africa have non-resident embassies for the FSM in Australia.", "Indonesia has a non-resident embassy for the FSM in Japan.", "Chile has its non-resident embassies for the FSM in the United States.", "Croatia has its non-resident embassy for the FSM in Indonesia.", "Czech Republic, Finland, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and Switzerland have non-resident embassies in the Philippines.", "New Zealand has its non-resident embassy for the FSM in Kiribati.", "CountryNotesSee Australia–Federated States of Micronesia relationsThe People's Republic of China has close relations with the FSM both in terms of trade and foreign aid.", "Chinese aid projects have included among others the Giant Clam Farm Project in Kosrae, the Pilot Farm Project in Madolenihmw, the construction of a gymnasium on Pohnpei (officially named the FSM-China Friendship Sports Center), donation of police vehicles for the Yap state police, a facility to house the FSM's Tuna Commission, an expansion of the Chuuk State Airport Terminal, a biogas project on Chuuk, the construction of the Pohnpei Administration Building, and the construction of Kosrae High School Project.China is the FSM's third largest trade partner (after the United States and Japan), a fact marked by the rapid increase in trade between the two nations.", "As the Chinese Ambassador to the FSM Zhang Weidong observed on the 20th anniversary of relations between the two countries, trade between China and the FSM had gone from \"almost zero to $9.5 million in 2007.", "\"Micronesia was one of ten Pacific countries to send a government member to the first Cuba-Pacific Islands ministerial meeting, held in Havana in September 2008.The aim of the meeting was to \"strengthen cooperation\" between Micronesia and Cuba, notably on addressing the impact of climate change.See India–Federated States of Micronesia relationsIndia and Micronesia have maintained diplomatic relations with each other since 1996.India has made 'Development assistance' to the country of about US$73,145 in 2009 for the purchase of machinery for the coconut industry.", "India has also made a grant of 3 ITEC scholarships in 2010–11.As per the Ministry of External Affairs of the Government of India, ''Micronesia has been supportive of issues of importance to India, particularly Indian candidatures to international organizations and supported India's candidature for the UNSC non-permanent seat in 2011-12.As per information available, there is one Indian family in Micronesia.", "''See Israel–Federated States of Micronesia relationsThe FSM is one of the most consistent supporters of Israel (along with the United States) in international affairs.", "Throughout the history of the United Nations General Assembly, it is claimed by some there has always been an \"automatic majority\" against Israel.The United States has consistently opposed what it perceives as \"unbalanced\" \"anti-Israel\" resolutions and, in recent years, one other nation has joined Israel's defense — Micronesia.The foreign policy goals of the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) are primarily linked to achieving economic development and protecting their vast marine environment.", "Israel was one of the first to welcome the FSM into the family of nations, even before the FSM became a member of the U.N.", "According to the FSM U.N. deputy ambassador, Micronesia has since sought close bilateral relations with Israel in areas such as agriculture, technical training and health care training.Israel has assisted the FSM in its early development.", "As one Micronesian diplomat said, \"We need Israeli expertise, so I don't see a change in our policy anytime soon.", "\"The Federated States of Micronesia officially recognized the independence of the Republic of Kosovo on 5 December 2008.Kosovo and Micronesia established diplomatic relations on 19 September 2013.See Marshall Islands–Federated States of Micronesia relationsThe Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands share very good relations, as they are both bound by Compacts of Free Association with the United States.", "* Mexico is accredited to Micronesia from its embassy in Manila, Philippines.", "* Micronesia does not have an accreditation to MexicoSee Federated States of Micronesia–Palau relationsThe Federated States of Micronesia and Palau share very good relations, as they are both bound by Compacts of Free Association with the United States.The Federated States of Micronesia and The Republic of Korea (South Korea) were established diplomatic relations in April 1991.The islands of the FSM were once part of the Spanish East Indies.", "* The FSM does not have an accreditation to Spain.", "* Spain is accredited to the FSM from its embassy in Manila, Philippines.", "* Turkish ambassador in Canberra to Australia is also accredited to Micronesia.", "* Trade volume between the two countries was negligible in 2018.See Micronesia-United States relationsThe Governments of the FSM and the U.S. signed the final version of the Compact of Free Association on October 1, 1982.The Compact went into effect on November 3, 1986, and the FSM became a sovereign nation in free association with the United States.Under the Compact, the U.S. has full authority and responsibility for the defense of the FSM.This security relationship can be changed or terminated by mutual agreement.The Compact provides U.S. grant funds and federal program assistance to the FSM.The basic relationship of free association continues indefinitely, but certain economic and defense provisions of the Compact expire in 2001, subject to renegotiation.Negotiations on extending the Compact began in November 1999.The United States is the FSM's largest trading partner.", "The relationship is heavily imbalanced.", "Of the FSM-US total balance of trade in goods in 2010 of US$38.3, the FSM imported $42.5 million in goods from the United States while exporting only US$4.2 million to the United States.", "(see Economy of the Federated States of Micronesia).", "* Micronesia has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and consulates-general in Honolulu and Tamuning (Guam).", "* United States has an embassy in Kolonia." ], [ "See also", "* Compact of Free Association* List of diplomatic missions in the Federated States of Micronesia* List of diplomatic missions of the Federated States of Micronesia* Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Fandom" ], [ "Introduction", "Cosplayer dressed as Katniss Everdeen during the Montreal Comiccon, July 2015A '''fandom''' is a subculture composed of fans characterized by a feeling of camaraderie with others who share a common interest.", "Fans typically are interested in even minor details of the objects of their fandom and spend a significant portion of their time and energy involved with their interest, often as a part of a social network with particular practices, differentiating fandom-affiliated people from those with only a casual interest.A fandom can grow around any area of human interest or activity.", "The subject of fan interest can be narrowly defined, focused on something like an individual celebrity, or encompassing entire hobbies, genres or fashions.", "While it is now used to apply to groups of people fascinated with any subject, the term has its roots in those with an enthusiastic appreciation for sports.", "Merriam-Webster's dictionary traces the usage of the term back as far as 1903.Many fandoms are overlapped.", "There are a number of large conventions that cater to fandom such as film, comics, anime, television shows, cosplay, and the opportunity to buy and sell related merchandise.", "Annual conventions such as Comic Con International, Wondercon, Dragon Con, and New York Comic Con are some of the more well-known and highly attended events that cater to overlapping fandoms." ], [ "Organized subculture", "Fans of the literary detective Sherlock Holmes are widely considered to have comprised the first modern fandom, holding public demonstrations of mourning after Holmes was \"killed off\" in 1893, and creating some of the first fan fiction as early as about 1897 to 1902.Outside the scope of media, railway enthusiasts are another early fandom with its roots in the late 19th century that began to gain in popularity and increasingly organize in the first decades of the early 20th century.A wide variety of modern organized Western fan subcultures originated with science fiction fandom, the community of fans of the science fiction and fantasy genres.", "Science fiction fandom dates back to the 1930s and maintains organized clubs and associations in many cities around the world.", "Fans have held the annual World Science Fiction Convention since 1939, along with many other events each year, and has created its own jargon, sometimes called \"fanspeak\".", "In addition, the Society for Creative Anachronism, a medievalist re-creation group, has its roots in science fiction fandom and was founded by members thereof.", "Many science fiction and fantasy authors such as Marion Zimmer Bradley, Poul Anderson, Randall Garrett, David D. Friedman, and Robert Asprin have been members of the organization.Banquet at the 14th World Science Fiction Convention in New York City in 1956Media fandom split from science fiction fandom in the early 1970s with a focus on relationships between characters within TV and movie media franchises, such as ''Star Trek'' and ''The Man from U.N.C.L.E.''.", "Fans of these franchises generated creative products like fan art and fan fiction at a time when typical science fiction fandom was focused on critical discussions.", "The MediaWest convention provided a video room and was instrumental in the emergence of fan vids, or analytic music videos based on a source, in the late 1970s.", "By the mid-1970s, it was possible to meet fans at science fiction conventions who did not read science fiction, but only viewed it on film or TV.Anime and manga fandom began in the 1970s in Japan.", "In America, the fandom also began as an offshoot of science fiction fandom, with fans bringing imported copies of Japanese manga to conventions.", "Before anime began to be licensed in the U.S., fans who wanted to get a hold of anime would leak copies of anime movies and subtitle them to exchange with friends in the community, thus marking the start of fansubs.While the science fiction and anime fandoms grew in media, the Grateful Dead subculture that emerged in the late 1960s to the early 1970s created a global fandom around hippie culture that would have lasting impacts on society and technology.The furry fandom refers to the fandom for fictional anthropomorphic animal characters with human personalities and characteristics.", "The concept of the ''furry'' originated at a science fiction convention in 1980, when a drawing of a character from Steve Gallacci's ''Albedo Anthropomorphics'' initiated a discussion of anthropomorphic characters in science fiction novels, which in turn initiated a discussion group that met at science fiction and comics conventions.Additional subjects with significant fandoms include comics, animated cartoons, video games, sports, music, films, television shows, pulp magazines, soap operas, celebrities, and game shows." ], [ "Fan activities", "Sherlock'' TV series on an English telephone boothMembers of a fandom associate with one another, often attending fan conventions and publishing and exchanging fanzines and newsletters.", "Amateur press associations are another form of fan publication and networking.", "Originally using print-based media, these subcultures have migrated much of their communications and interaction onto the Internet, which is also used for the purpose of archiving detailed information pertinent to their given fanbase.", "Often, fans congregate on forums and discussion boards to share their love for and criticism of a specific work.", "This congregation can lead to a high level of organization and community within the fandom, as well as infighting.", "Although there is some level of hierarchy among most of the discussion boards, and certain contributors may be valued more highly than others, newcomers are most often welcomed into the fold.", "Most importantly, these sorts of discussion boards can have an effect on the media itself, as was the case in the television show ''Glee''.", "Trends on discussion boards have been known to influence the writers and producers of shows.", "The media fandom for the TV series ''Firefly'' was able to generate enough corporate interest to create a movie after the series was canceled.Some fans write fan fiction (\"fanfic\"), stories based on the universe and characters of their chosen fandom.", "This fiction can take the form of video-making as well as writing.", "Fan fiction may or may not tie in with the story's canon; sometimes fans use the story's characters in different situations that do not relate to the plot line at all.Especially at events, fans may also partake in ''cosplay'', the creation and wearing of costumes designed in the likeness of characters from a source work, which can also be combined with role-playing, reenacting scenes, or inventing likely behavior inspired by their chosen sources.Others create fan vids, or analytical music videos focusing on the source fandom, and yet others create fan art.", "Such activities are sometimes known as \"fan labor\" or \"fanac\" (an abbreviation for \"fan activity\").", "The advent of the Internet has significantly facilitated fan association and activities.", "Activities that have been aided by the Internet include the creation of fan \"shrines\" dedicated to favorite characters, computer screen wallpapers, and avatars.", "The rise of the Internet has furthermore resulted in the creation of online fan networks who help facilitate the exchange of fanworks.Some fans create pictures known as ''edits'', which consist of pictures or photos with their chosen fandom characters in different scenarios.", "These edits are often shared on social media networks such as Instagram, Tumblr, or Pinterest.", "In edits, one may see content relating to several different fandoms.", "Fans in communities online often make gifs or gif sets about their fandoms.", "Gifs or gif sets can be used to create non-canon scenarios mixing actual content or adding in related content.", "Gif sets can also capture minute expressions or moments.", "Fans use gifs to show how they feel about characters or events in their fandom; these are called reaction gifs.The Temple of the Jedi Order, or Jediism, a self-proclaimed \"real living, breathing religion,\" views itself as separate from the Jedi as portrayed in the ''Star Wars'' franchise.", "Despite this, sociologists view the conflation of religion and fandom in Jediism as legitimate in some sense, classifying both as participatory phenomena.There are also active fan organizations that participate in philanthropy and create a positive social impact.", "For example, the Harry Potter Alliance is a civic organization with a strong online component which runs campaigns around human rights issues, often in partnership with other advocacy and nonprofit groups; its membership skews college age and above.", "Nerdfighters, another fandom formed around Vlogbrothers, a YouTube vlog channel, are mainly high school students united by a common goal of \"decreasing world suck\".", "K-pop fans have been involved in various online fan activism campaigns related to Donald Trump's presidential campaign and the Black Lives Matter movement." ], [ "In film", "Notable feature-length documentaries about fandom include ''Trekkies'' and ''A Brony Tale''.", "''Slash'' is a movie released in 2016 about a young boy who writes slash fan fiction.", "The SiriusXM-produced audio documentary ''Comic-Con Begins'' was launched as a six-part series starting June 22, 2021.It presents the history of both the San Diego Comic-Con and the modern fandom scene it helped to spawn, as told by nearly 50 surviving foundational SDCC members, fandom experts, and special guests such as: Kevin Smith, Neil Gaiman, Frank Miller, Felicia Day, Trina Robbins, Maggie Thompson, the Russo brothers, and Bruce Campbell.", "Cosplay pioneer, scream queen, and foundational SDCC member Brinke Stevens hosts the series.", "''Comic-Con Begins'' was expanded into the book ''See You at San Diego: An Oral History of Comic-Con, Fandom, and the Triumph of Geek Culture'' by creator Mathew Klickstein and published by Fantagraphics on September 6, 2022.The book includes forewords by cartoonists Stan Sakai and Jeff Smith, and an afterword by Wu-Tang Clan's RZA." ], [ "In books", "''Fangirl'' is a novel written by Rainbow Rowell about a college student who is a fan of a book series called Simon Snow, which is written by a fictional author named Gemma T. Leslie.", "On October 6, 2015 Rainbow Rowell published a follow-up novel to ''Fangirl''.", "''Carry On'' is a stand-alone novel set in the fictional world that Cath, the main character of ''Fangirl'' writes fan fiction in." ], [ "Relationship with the media industry", "An example of the furry fandom, a cartoon of an \"anthro vixen\"The film and television entertainment industry refers to the totality of fans devoted to a particular area of interest, organized or not, as the \"fanbase\".Media fans, have, on occasion, organized on behalf of canceled television series, with notable success in cases such as ''Star Trek'' in 1968, ''Cagney & Lacey'' in 1983, ''Xena: Warrior Princess'', in 1995, ''Roswell'' in 2000 and 2001 (was canceled with finality at the end of the 2002 season), ''Farscape'' in 2002, ''Firefly'' in 2002, and ''Jericho'' in 2007.", "(In the case of ''Firefly'' the result was the movie ''Serenity'', not another season.)", "It was likewise the fans who facilitated the push to create a ''Veronica Mars'' film through a Kickstarter campaign.", "Fans of the show ''Chuck'' launched a campaign to save the show from being canceled using a Twitter hashtag and buying products from sponsors of the show.", "Fans of ''Arrested Development'' fought for the character Steve Holt to be included in the fourth season.", "The Save Steve Holt!", "campaign included a Twitter and Facebook account, a hashtag, and a website.Such outcries, even when unsuccessful, suggest a growing self-awareness on the part of entertainment consumers, who appear increasingly likely to attempt to assert their power as a bloc.", "Fan activism in support of the 2007 Writers Guild of America strike through Fans4Writers appears to be an extension of this trend.In science fiction, a large number of practitioners and other professionals in the field, not only writers but editors and publishers as well, traditionally have themselves come from and participate in science fiction fandom, from Ray Bradbury and Harlan Ellison to Patrick Nielsen Hayden and Toni Weisskopf.", "Ed Brubaker was a fan of the ''Captain America'' comics as a kid and was so upset that Bucky Barnes was killed off that he worked on ways to bring him back.", "''The Winter Soldier'' arc began in 2004, and in the sixth issue in 2005 it was revealed that the Winter Soldier was Bucky Barnes.", "Many authors write fan fiction under pseudonyms.", "Lev Grossman has written stories in the ''Harry Potter'', ''Adventure Time'', and ''How to Train Your Dragon'' universes.", "S.E.", "Hinton has written about both ''Supernatural'' and her own books, ''The Outsiders''.", "Movie actors often cosplay as other characters to enjoy being a regular fan at cons; for example, Daniel Radcliffe cosplayed as Spider-Man at the 2014 San Diego Comic-Con.", "Before the release of ''The Amazing Spider-Man'', Andrew Garfield dressed up as Spider-Man and gave an emotional speech about what Spider-Man meant to him and thanking fans for their support.The relationship between fans and professionals has changed because of access to social media platforms like Twitter and Facebook.", "These give fans greater access to public figures such as creators, authors, and actors.", "Online platforms also give fans more ways to connect and participate in fandoms.Some fans have made their work in fandom into careers.", "The book ''Fifty Shades of Grey'' by E.L. James was originally a fan fiction of the ''Twilight'' series published on FanFiction.Net.", "The story was taken down for mature content that violated the site's terms of service.", "James rewrote the story to take out any references to ''Twilight'' and self-published on The Writer's Coffee Shop in May 2011.The book was published by Random House in 2012 and was very popular, selling over 100 million copies.", "However, many fans were not happy about James using fan fiction to make money and felt it was not in the spirit of the community.There is contention over fans not being paid for their time or work.", "Gaming companies use fans to alpha and beta test their games in exchange for early access or promotional merchandise.", "The TV show ''Glee'' used fans to create promotional materials, though they did not compensate them.The entertainment industry has promoted its work directly to members of the fandom community by sponsoring and presenting at events and conventions dedicated to fandom.", "Studios frequently create elaborate exhibits, organize panels that feature celebrities and writers of film and television (to promote both existing work and works yet to be released), and engage fans directly with providing Q&A sessions, screening sneak previews, and supplying branded giveaway merchandise.", "The interest, reception, and reaction of the fandom community to the works being promoted have a marked influence on how film studios and others proceed with the projects and products they exhibit and promote.Fandoms, for example at Comic Con, can sometimes lead to toxic behavior, including harassing other fans or media creators." ], [ "Fandom and technology", "The rise of the Internet created new and powerful outlets for fandom.", "This began with early engineers trading Grateful Dead set lists and discussing the setup of the band's concert speaker system, called the \"Wall of Sound,\" on ARPANET, a precursor to the Internet.", "This led to tape trading over FTP, and the Internet Archive began to add Grateful Dead shows in 1995.Online tape trading communities such as etree evolved into P2P networks trading shows through torrents.", "After the birth of the World Wide Web, many communities adopted the practices of Deadhead fandom online." ], [ "See also", "===Fandoms by medium======List of notable fandoms===" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* \"Who owns fandom?\"", "– Salon.com December 13, 2000* \"Rank and Phile\" – Arts Hub feature, August 12, 2005* HomeStuck - official website* Organization for Transformative Works – Non-profit organization promoting fandom and archiving fanworks.", "* \"Surviving Fandom\" – Mookychick June 24, 2013* Harry Potter Alliance - official website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fort Collins, Colorado" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fort Collins''' is a home rule municipality that is the county seat and the most populous municipality of Larimer County, Colorado, United States.", "The city population was 169,810 at the 2020 census, an increase of 17.94% since 2010.Fort Collins is the principal city of the Fort Collins, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area and is a major city of the Front Range Urban Corridor.", "The city is the fourth most populous city in Colorado.", "Situated on the Cache La Poudre River along the Colorado Front Range, Fort Collins is located north of the Colorado State Capitol in Denver.", "Fort Collins is a midsize college town, home to Colorado State University and Front Range Community College's Larimer campus." ], [ "History", "The Northern Arapaho were centered in the Cache la Poudre River Valley near present-day Fort Collins.", "Friday, who attended school in St. Louis, Missouri in his youth, was a leader of the band of Arapahos as well as an interpreter, negotiator, and peacemaker.", "He made friends of white settlers who moved into the area, but was pushed out of Colorado in the 1860s.Fort Collins was founded as a military outpost of the United States Army in 1864.It succeeded a previous encampment, known as Camp Collins, on the Cache la Poudre River, near what is known today as Laporte.", "Camp Collins was erected during the Indian wars of the mid-1860s to protect the Overland mail route that had been recently relocated through the region.", "Travelers crossing the county on the Overland Trail would camp there, but a flood destroyed the camp in June 1864.Afterward, the commander of the fort wrote to the commandant of Fort Laramie in southeast Wyoming, Colonel William O. Collins, suggesting that a site several miles farther down the river would make a good location for the fort.", "The post was manned originally by two companies of the 11th Ohio Volunteer Cavalry and never had walls.Nineteenth-century bird's-eye view of Fort CollinsFort Collins, facing west (1875)Poudre Valley Bank, at Linden and Walnut, in Fort Collins (1908)Settlers began arriving in the vicinity of the fort nearly immediately.", "The fort was decommissioned in 1867.The original fort site is now adjacent to the present historic \"Old Town\" portion of the city.", "The first school and church opened in 1866, and the town was platted in 1867.The civilian population of Fort Collins, led by local businessman Joseph Mason, led an effort to relocate the county seat to Fort Collins from LaPorte, and they were successful in 1868.The city's first population boom came in 1872, with the establishment of an agricultural colony.", "Hundreds of settlers arrived, developing lots just south of the original Old Town.", "Tension between new settlers and earlier inhabitants led to political divisions in the new town, which was incorporated in 1873.Although the Colorado Agricultural College was founded in 1870, the first classes were held in 1879.The 1880s saw the construction of a number of elegant homes and commercial buildings and the growth of a distinctive identity for Fort Collins.", "Stone quarrying, sugar-beet farming, and the slaughter of sheep were among the area's earliest industries.", "Beet tops, an industry supported by the college and its associated agricultural experiment station, proved to be an excellent and abundant food for local sheep, and by the early 1900s the area was being referred to as the \"Lamb feeding capital of the world\".", "In 1901 the Great Western sugar processing plant was built in the neighboring city of Loveland.The region in 1906Although the city was affected by the Great Depression and simultaneous drought, it nevertheless experienced slow and steady growth throughout the early part of the twentieth century.", "During the decade following World War II, the population doubled and an era of economic prosperity occurred.", "Old buildings were razed to make way for new, modern structures.", "Along with revitalization came many changes, including the closing of the Great Western sugar factory in 1955, and a new city charter, adopting a council-manager form of government in 1954.Similarly, Colorado State University's enrollment doubled during the 1960s, making it the city's primary economic force by the end of the century.Fort Collins gained a reputation as a very conservative city in the twentieth century, with a prohibition of alcoholic beverages, a contentious political issue in the town's early decades, being retained from the late 1890s until student activism helped bring it to an end in 1969.During that same period, civil rights activism and anti-war disturbances heightened tensions in the city, including the burning of several buildings on the CSU campus.During the late 20th century, Fort Collins expanded rapidly to the south, adding new development, including several regional malls.", "Management of city growth patterns became a political priority during the 1980s, as well as the revitalization of Fort Collins' Old Town with the creation of a Downtown Development Authority.", "In late July 1997, the city experienced a flash flood after and during a 31-hour period when of rain fell.", "The rainfall was the heaviest on record for an urban area of Colorado.", "Five people were killed and $5 million in damages were dealt to the city.", "The waters flooded Colorado State University's library and brought about $140 million in damages to the institution." ], [ "Geography", "Fort Collins is situated at the base of the Rocky Mountain foothills of the northern Front Range, approximately north of Denver, Colorado, and south of Cheyenne, Wyoming.", "Elevation is above sea level.", "Geographic landmarks include Horsetooth Reservoir and Horsetooth Mountain—so named because of a tooth-shaped granite rock that dominates the city's western skyline.", "Longs Peak can also clearly be seen on a clear day to the southwest of the city.The Cache La Poudre River and Spring Creek run through Fort Collins.At the 2020 United States Census, the town had a total area of including of water.===Climate===Fort Collins has a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification ''''BSk'''').", "Its climate is characterized by warm to hot summers and long and moderately cold winters (with frequent warm spells due to downslope winds, and somewhat less common intervals of severe cold).", "The average temperature in December, the coldest month, is .", "Annual snowfall averages , and can occur from early September through the end of May.", "Average precipitation overall is ." ], [ "Demographics", "Fort Collins is the fourth most populous city in Colorado and the 156th most populous city in the United States.", "The Census Bureau estimates that the city's population was 161,175 in 2015, the population of the Fort Collins-Loveland Metropolitan Statistical Area was 310,487 (151st most populous MSA), and the population of the Front Range Urban Corridor was 4,495,181.As of the census of 2000, there were 118,652 people, 45,882 households, and 25,785 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 47,755 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 82.4% White, 3.01% Black or African American, 0.60% Native American, 2.48% Asian, 0.12% Pacific Islander, 3.61% from other races, and 2.53% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino residents of any race were 10.79% of the population.There were 45,882 households, out of which 29.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.9% were married couples living together, 7.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.8% were non-families.", "26.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 3.01.In the city, the population was spread out, with 21.5% under the age of 18, 22.1% from 18 to 24, 31.5% from 25 to 44, 17.0% from 45 to 64, and 7.9% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 28 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 100.9 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.7 males.The median income for a household in the city was $64,459, and the median income for a family was $110,332.Males had a median income of $60,856 versus $48,385 for females.", "The per capita income for the city was $32,133.About 5.5% of families and 14.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.3% of those under age 18 and 5.8% of those age 65 or over." ], [ "Economy", "===Major industries and commercial activity===Fort Collins' economy has a mix of manufacturing and service-related businesses.", "Fort Collins manufacturing includes Woodward Governor, Anheuser-Busch, Walker Mowers, and Otterbox.", "Many high-tech companies have relocated to Fort Collins because of the resources of Colorado State University and its research facilities.", "Hewlett-Packard, Intel, AMD, Broadcom, Beckman Coulter, Microsoft, Rubicon Water and Pelco all have offices in Fort Collins.", "Other industries include clean energy, bioscience, and agri-tech businesses.According to the city's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers are: # Employer # of Employees 1Colorado State University7,800 2Poudre Valley Hospital (UCHealth)5,600 3Poudre R-1 School District 4,000 4Larimer County2,040 5City of Fort Collins2,030 6Woodward, Inc.1,300 7Broadcom Inc.1,260 8Colorado Department of Agriculture1,120 9King Soopers87010Otter Products, LLC820Regional economic development partners include the City of Fort Collins Economic Health Office, Northern Colorado Economic Development Corporation, Small Business Development Center, and Rocky Mountain Innovation Initiative (RMI2).===Retail===The city's major shopping mall is The Shops at Foothills.===Sustainability programs===FortZED was a zero energy district encompassing the Downtown area of Fort Collins and the main campus of Colorado State University.", "The district's public-private partnerships employed smart grid and renewable energy technologies to manage the local use and supply of energy.", "FortZED relied upon energy demand management techniques to encourage use of energy at the most efficient times.Federal, state, and local funding made the project a reality.", "The U.S. Department of Energy contributed $6.3 million and the Colorado Department of Local Affairs provided $778,000.Locally, private companies and foundations committed nearly $8 million.The program ended in 2017 after a majority of its projects had been completed.=== Brewing ===Fort Collins has over 20 breweries.", "Notable breweries in the city include Anheuser-Busch, New Belgium Brewing Company, Intersect Brewing and Odell Brewing Company.", "The local chamber of commerce estimates that in 2010, the industry generated $309.9 million in output, 2,488 jobs and $141.9 million of local payrolls in Larimer County." ], [ "Arts and culture", "The 2004 Colorado Brewers Festival in Fort CollinsFort Collins historic districtMuch of Fort Collins's culture is centered around the students of Colorado State University.", "The city provides school year residences for its large college-age population; there is a local music circuit which is influenced by the college town atmosphere and is home to a number of well known microbreweries.", "The Downtown Business Association hosts a number of small and large festivals each year in the historic Downtown district, including Bohemian Nights at NewWestFest in late summer (permanently discontinued in 2021) which featured local cuisine, music, and businesses.", "The Fort Collins Lincoln Center is home to the Fort Collins Symphony Orchestra and regularly attracts national touring companies of Broadway plays.Brewing and cycling figure in local culture.", "The Colorado Brewer's Festival is held in late June annually in Fort Collins.", "The festival features beers from as many as 45 brewers from the state of Colorado and averages around 30,000 attendees.", "New Belgium Brewing Company hosts the Tour de Fat which draws over 20,000 people riding bikes and dressing in costume.The Colorado Marathon is a yearly event running down the Poudre Canyon and finishing in downtown Fort Collins.", "The FORTitude 10K run, a partner running event of the Bolder Boulder, is held on Labor Day each year.", "The Horsetooth Half Marathon has been a fixture of the local running scene since 1973.The Fort Collins Museum, established in 1941, is a regional center focusing on the culture and history of Fort Collins and the surrounding area.", "The Fort Collins Museum houses over 30,000 artifacts and features temporary and permanent exhibits, on-going educational programs and events, and is home to four historic structures located in the outdoor Heritage Courtyard.The arts are represented by The Center for Fine Art Photography, University Center for the Arts, Fort Collins Museum of Art (FCMOA), and the Bas Bleu Theatre Company.", "The Arts Incubator of the Rockies (AIR), founded in Fort Collins in 2012, was acquired in 2016 by Berea College in Kentucky, where it became part of the College Crafts Program." ], [ "Parks and recreation", "The Gardens on Spring Creek is an botanical garden.", "The site includes several themed gardens ranging from a children's garden to a rock garden, to several themed demonstration gardens.There are also many parks in Fort Collins including community parks and neighborhood parks, totaling of developed park areas.", "Some of these parks have facilities such as public tennis courts, frisbee golf courses, golf courses, dog parks, baseball diamonds, basketball courts and picnic shelters.", "In total, there are 6 community parks.", "These include City Park, Edora Park, Fossil Creek Park, Lee Martinez Park, Rolland Moore Park, and Spring Canyon Park.", "There are also many smaller neighborhood parks.", "These parks often host events such as marathons, community activities and holiday celebrations.", "Additionally, Fort Collins is home to a whitewater park alongside the Poudre River.The city purchased the Soapstone Prairie Natural Area, a park and conservation area north of the city.", "Within the park is the Lindenmeier site, a stratified multi-component archaeological site most famous for its Folsom component." ], [ "Government", "+ '''City Council:''' '''Mayor''' Jeni Arndt '''District 1''' Susan Gutowsky '''District 2''' Julie Pignataro '''District 3''' Tricia Canonico '''District 4''' Shirley Peel '''District 5''' Kelly Ohlson '''District 6''' Emily Gorgol, ''Mayor Pro Tem''Fort Collins has a council-manager form of government.", "The mayor, who serves a two-year term and stands for election in municipal elections held in April of odd-numbered years, presides over a seven-member City Council.", "The current mayor of Fort Collins is Jeni Arndt, who was elected to a first term in April 2021.The six remaining council members are elected from districts for staggered four-year terms; even-numbered districts in April 2023, and odd-numbered districts are up for election in April 2025.Fort Collins is the largest city in Colorado's 2nd Congressional district, and is represented in Congress by Representative Joe Neguse (Democrat).", "On the state level, the city lies in the 14th district of the Colorado Senate, represented by Joann Ginal and is split between the 52nd and 53rd districts of the Colorado House of Representatives, represented by Cathy Kipp and Andrew Boesenecker, respectively.", "All three of Fort Collins' state legislators are Democrats.", "Fort Collins is additionally the county seat of Larimer County, and houses county offices and courts." ], [ "Education", "Fossil Ridge High SchoolK–12 public education is provided through Poudre School District (PSD).", "The district operates and manages the public schools in the city of Fort Collins, as well as in the surrounding towns of Wellington, Timnath, Windsor, Laporte and Livermore.", "The district is one of the fastest growing in Northern Colorado, adding 400-500 students — about the size of an elementary school — each year.", "To accommodate growth, the district plans to build three new schools in the next few years.Poudre School District includes four comprehensive high schools that serve neighborhoods around Fort Collins, including Fort Collins High School, Rocky Mountain High School, Poudre High School, Fossil Ridge High School.", "The district also operates four alternative high schools: Centennial High School, Polaris School for Expeditionary Learning, Poudre Community Academy and Poudre School District Global Academy, a dual in-person/online school.", "Additionally, four public charter schools are chartered through PSD, including Ridgeview Classical Schools, and Liberty Common High School, Mountain Sage Community School and Fort Collins Montessori School.The Poudre School District is also home to ten middle schools (Lesher Middle IB World School, Blevins Middle School, Boltz Middle School, Cache La Poudre Middle School, Kinard Core Knowledge Middle School, Lincoln IB World Middle School, Polaris Expeditionary Learning School, Preston Middle School, Webber Middle School, and Wellington Middle School) and 32 elementary schools.In addition to PSD schools, several state charter schools serve Fort Collins, including Academy of Arts and Knowledge, Colorado Early Colleges, and Global Village Academy.", "Private schools include Heritage Christian Academy, Rivendell School, and St. Joseph's Catholic School.=== Public libraries ===The Poudre River Public Library District operates three branch locations in the city of Fort Collins—Old Town, Harmony, and Council Tree.", "The Library District was established in 2006 by voter approval, and aims to serve the more than 207,000 people in northern Larimer County, Colorado.", "The District is governed by a Board of volunteer Trustees, jointly appointed by the city of Fort Collins and Larimer County.The Library participates in cooperative projects with the local Poudre School District and Colorado State University.==== Facilities ====The Old Town Library (formerly, the Main Library) is a 43,000 square foot facility that has served the Fort Collins Community since 1976.It is located in the Fort Collins Old Town Historic District at 201 Peterson Street.The Harmony Library is a 30,000 square foot joint-use facility located on the Front Range Community College campus, at 4616 South Shield Street in Fort Collins.", "Since its opening in 1998, the facility has served both the Community College (students, faculty, and staff) and the general public.The Council Tree Library is a nearly 18,000 square foot facility that opened in 2009 in the Front Range Village (a retail commons) and is located at 2733 Council Tree Avenue in Fort Collins.", "The facility has a unique neighborhood atmosphere with an emphasis on families with young children.The Webster House Administration Center opened in 2011 and houses the administration, collections, systems administration, maintenance, communications, and outreach staff.", "The center's opening freed up 3,000 square feet in the Old Town Library, space that is now used for library materials and services.==== History ====The library as an institution in Fort Collins dates back to the late 19th century, where reading rooms were established in churches or other rented locations.", "In 1882, for example, a reading room was established in the back of a Presbyterian Church on Whitton Block.", "The Fort Collins Public Library was officially established in 1900, the sixth public library in the state.", "The city received $12,500 from philanthropist Andrew Carnegie to build the library, with the condition that it would be maintained as a free public library.", "It was completed in 1904 at a total cost of approximately $15,000.When the Library opened, there were 2,770 books on hand.", "In 1937, the Library was awarded a grant from the Work Projects Administration for an annex to the building that would double its space, allowing for the construction of an auditorium/community room that opened in 1939.As the Fort Collins community grew, so too did the need for more library space.", "In 1973, the City Council adopted a seven-year master plan which included a new library building.", "Voters approved a one percent tax increase to fund the plan.", "The new library building, named the Fort Collins Public Library (now, the Old Town Library), opened in 1976 and remains to this day in Library Park at 201 Peterson Street in Fort Collins.In 2006, with ongoing city budget cuts impacting library services, residents voted to create and fund a library district with a 62% majority.", "This initiated a transition period in 2007 of separating the library from the city, for example, transferring finances, staff, and property to the Library District.", "The library was also given a temporary name, the Fort Collins Regional Library District.", "An intergovernmental agreement was finally signed in December 2007, that detailed each party's responsibilities during the transfer.", "In 2009, after asking for ideas from the public, the Poudre River Public Library District was approved as the library's permanent name.===Higher education===The Oval, part of the CSU campusColorado State University heads up the choices in higher education.", "Front Range Community College also maintains a campus in the city, and grants associate's degrees in arts, science, general studies, and applied science.", "The college offers 17 high school vocational programs and more than 90 continuing education classes.The Institute of Business & Medical Careers provides professional training in the business and medical professions.", "The institute's first campus was established in the city in 1987.Fort Collins has a range of research institutes.", "Facilities are maintained by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, the Center for Advanced Technology and the Colorado Water Resource Research Institute.", "Other facilities include the Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere, the Institute for Scientific Computing, the U.S. Forest Service Experimental Station, the National Center for Genetic Resources Preservation (NCGRP), and the U.S.D.A.", "Crops Research Laboratory." ], [ "Media" ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Transportation=======Air travel====From nearby Northern Colorado Regional Airport, Avelo Airlines served both Burbank (BUR) and Las Vegas (LAS) from October 2021 until June 24, 2022, and June 16, 2022, respectively.", "Elite Airways resumed commercial air service at the airport on August 27, 2015, providing non-stop flights to the Chicago Rockford International Airport in Illinois.", "The airline ended service to the airport in 2017.Denver International Airport, which is to the south, is served by twenty-three airlines.The city's former general aviation airport, known as Fort Collins Downtown Airport (3V5), opened in 1966 and closed in 2006.====Streets====Fort Collins' downtown streets form a grid with Interstate 25 running north and south on the east side of the city.", "Many of the streets are named after the town's founders.", "U.S. Highway 287 becomes College Avenue inside the city and is the busiest street; It runs north and south, effectively bisecting the city, and serving as the east–west meridian, while Mountain Avenue is the north–south.", "SH 14 runs concurrent with US 287 at the northern city limit to Jefferson Street, running southeast along Jefferson (later turning into Riverside Avenue), then turning east onto Mulberry Street where it goes east out of the city after an interchange with Interstate 25.====Transit and taxi====Fort Collins also once had a municipally owned trolley service with three branches from the intersection of Mountain and College avenues.", "The trolley was begun in 1907 by the Denver and Interurban Railroad, which had the intention of connecting the Front Range of Colorado.", "It was closed in 1951 after ceasing to be profitable.", "In 1983–84, a portion of the Mountain Avenue line and one of the original trolley cars, Car 21, were restored as a heritage trolley service, under the same name used by the original system, the Fort Collins Municipal Railway.", "This has been in operation since the end of 1984 on weekends and holidays in the spring and summer, as a tourist and cultural/educational attraction.", "A second car, number 25, was returned to service on July 4, 2020.A small fee applies to ride.The city bus system, known as Transfort, operates more than a dozen routes throughout Fort Collins Monday through Saturday, except major holidays.A Transfort busThe MAX Bus Rapid Transit is a bus rapid transit that provides service on the Mason Corridor Transitway parallel to College Avenue from Downtown Fort Collins to a transit center just south of Harmony Road.", "The trip takes approximately 15 minutes from end to end with various stops between.", "The service began in May 2014.The Mason Corridor and the Mason Express are intended to be the center of future transit-oriented development.A Transfort MAX bus crossing West Prospect RoadFort Collins is connected to Loveland, Berthoud, Longmont, and Boulder via the FLEX regional bus route.", "Greeley-Evans Transit operates a service called the Poudre Express connecting Fort Collins with Windsor and Greeley.Bustang provides additional intercity transportation for the city.", "Fort Collins is the northernmost stop on the North Line, which connects southward to Denver.", "Planning for restoration of regional passenger rail recommenced in earnest in 2017.Fort Collins would be an intermediate stop for the proposed north–south Front Range Passenger Rail corridor between Pueblo and Cheyenne, Wyoming, though it would be the northern terminus of most trips.Taxi service is provided by Northern Colorado Yellow Cab.", "Pedicabs are also available from HopON LLC and Dream team Pedicabs.====Railroads====Freight service is provided by Union Pacific and BNSF.", "Currently there is no intercity passenger service; the last remaining services connecting the Front Range cities ceased with the formation of Amtrak in 1971.Front Range Passenger Rail is a current proposal to link the cities from Pueblo in the south, north to Fort Collins and possibly to Cheyenne, Wyoming.The Fort Collins Municipal Railway was a streetcar system from 1919 to 1951, and from 1984 has been partially reinstated as a seasonal Heritage Streetcar service, under the same name.====Cycling====Bicycling is a popular and viable means of transportation in Fort Collins.", "There are more than of designated bikeways in Fort Collins, including on-street designated bike lanes, and the Spring Creek and Poudre River Trails, both paved.", "There is also a dirt trail, the Foothills Trail, parallel to Horsetooth Reservoir from Dixon Reservoir north to Campeau Open Space and Michaud Lane.The Fort Collins Bicycle Library lends bicycles to visitors, students, and residents looking to explore the city of Fort Collins.", "There are self-guided tours from the \"Bike the Sites\" collection, including a Brewery Tour, Environmental Learning Tour, and the Historic Tour.", "The Bike Library is centrally located in the heart of downtown Fort Collins in Old Town Square.", "The City of Fort Collins also encourages use of alternative transportation, like cycling and using public transit, through FC Moves.In 2009, the Fort Collins-Loveland metropolitan statistical area (MSA) ranked as the third highest in the United States for percentage of commuters who biked to work (5.6 percent).In 2013, the League of American Bicyclists designated Fort Collins a Platinum-level Bicycle Friendly Community – one of four in the United States.", "In 2018, the PeopleForBikes foundation named Fort Collins the no.", "1 city in the United States for cycling.==== Electric scooters ====In early 2019, the City of Fort Collins and Colorado State University (CSU) were preparing regulations for the eventual arrival of electric scooters, in order to avoid the problems other cities have had with these.", "After a City Council session on Feb. 19, the City Government approved scooter regulations, such as specific areas in which scooters must be parked and the observation of dismount zones.", "in October 2019, The City of Fort Collins and CSU announced a 12-month e-scooter share pilot program partnering with Bird company.===Commercial shipping===Parcel service for Fort Collins is provided by FedEx, Airport Express, DHL, Burlington Air Express, UPS, and Purolator.", "Fort Collins has two-day rail freight access to the West Coast or the East Coast and has eight motor freight carriers.", "Many local industrial sites have rail freight spur service.", "The city is served by Union Pacific and Burlington Northern Santa Fe railroads.===Facilities===* NIST time signal transmitters WWV and WWVB are near the city* Poudre Valley Hospital has helped make Fort Collins into a regional health care center* The National Center for Genetic Resources Preservation (NCGRP) (Human Genome Project)* The city is the headquarters of Roosevelt National Forest* Atmospheric Chemistry and Aerosol Laboratory* Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Division of Vector-Borne Diseases* USDA Seed Lab Storage* Headquarters for SCUBA Schools International (SSI)* National Wildlife Research Center* USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Western Regional Headquarters* Community Foundation of Northern Colorado===Police===One version of a Fort Collins Police Services patrol carThe Fort Collins Police Services is headed by Chief Jeffrey Swoboda.", "it had 214 sworn individuals and 115 civilian personnel." ], [ "Notable people", "* Wayne Allard, former U.S. senator from Colorado* Scott Anderson, racing driver* James B. Arthur, pioneer, entrepreneur, mayor, councilman, Colorado state senator* John Ashton, actor* Carol Berg, fantasy author* Biota, music ensemble* Frank Caeti, repertory cast member on sketch comedy series ''MADtv''* Allen Bert Christman, a cartoonist and American Volunteer Group pilot killed in Rangoon, Burma, during World War II* Jon Cooper, center for NFL's Minnesota Vikings* Joy Davidson, opera singer* Janay DeLoach, professional track and field athlete and Olympian* Rick Dennison, NFL linebacker* Jeff Donaldson, NFL defensive back* Becca Fitzpatrick, author* Lamar Gant, powerlifter* Harper Goff, artist, musician, and actor* Marco Gonzales, Major League Baseball pitcher for the Seattle Mariners* Temple Grandin, author, professor, subject of film ''Temple Grandin''* Chad Haga, professional cyclist* JD Hammer (born 1994), Major League Baseball pitcher* Jon Heder, title character in 2004's ''Napoleon Dynamite''* Ed Herman, mixed martial artist fighting for the UFC* Katie Herzig, folk musician* Immortal Dominion, heavy metal band known for soundtrack to ''Teeth''* Katherine Indermaur, poet* Korey Jones, CFL player* Darwood Kaye, actor who portrayed Waldo in the ''Our Gang'' short subjects series from 1937 to 1940.", "* Jake Lloyd, young Anakin Skywalker in 1999's ''Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace''* Sonny Lubick, former head football coach at Colorado State University* Ross Marquand, actor best known for portraying Aaron in ''The Walking Dead''* Gavin Mannion, professional cyclist * David Mattingly, science fiction illustrator* Hattie McDaniel, first African-American to win an Academy Award (Best Supporting Actress 1939)* Darnell McDonald, Major League Baseball player* Donzell McDonald, former Major League Baseball player* Mark D. Miller, photographer* Edward S. Montgomery, journalist* Pete Monty, NFL linebacker* John Mortvedt, soil scientist and professor emeritus at Colorado State University* Blake Neubert, artist* Carl B. Olsen, U.S. Coast Guard rear admiral* Holmes Rolston III, 2003 Templeton Prize winner* Steve Simske, engineer, inventor, scientist* Derek Vincent Smith, electronic music artist who performs under name \"Pretty Lights\"* Bill Stevenson, musician (Descendents), record producer, and owner of The Blasting Room Studios* Pat Stryker, billionaire heiress and philanthropist* Thomas Sutherland, Colorado State professor and former Beirut hostage* Ryan Sutter, bachelor chosen as a groom by Trista Rehn in 2003's ''The Bachelorette''* Shane Swartz, boxer* Derek Theler, actor in ABC family show ''Baby Daddy''* Haeley Vaughn, top 25 finalist of ''American Idol''* Byron Raymond White, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court* Jason Wingate, composer* Ben Woolf, actor" ], [ "In popular culture", "Fort Collins is known along with Marceline, Missouri as one of the towns that inspired the design of Main Street, U.S.A. inside the main entrance of many theme parks run by The Walt Disney Company around the world.Fort Collins was the setting of the infamous balloon boy hoax of October 15, 2009." ], [ "See also", "*Colorado**Bibliography of Colorado**Index of Colorado-related articles**Outline of Colorado*List of counties in Colorado*List of municipalities in Colorado*List of places in Colorado*List of statistical areas in Colorado**Front Range Urban Corridor**North Central Colorado Urban Area**Fort Collins, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area*Colorado State University*Fort Collins Museum of Discovery*The Gardens on Spring Creek*Horsetooth Reservoir*Roosevelt National Forest" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* City of Fort Collins website* CDOT map of the City of Fort Collins" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Francis Drake" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir Francis Drake''' ( 1540 – 28 January 1596) was an English explorer and privateer best known for his circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition between 1577 and 1580.This was the first English circumnavigation, and third circumnavigation overall.", "Having started as a simple seaman, in 1588 he was part of the fight against the Spanish Armada as a vice-admiral.At an early age, Drake was placed into the household of a relative, William Hawkins, a prominent sea captain in Plymouth.", "In 1572, he set sail on his first independent mission, privateering along the Spanish Main.", "Drake's circumnavigation began on 15 December 1577.He crossed the Pacific Ocean, until then an area of exclusive Spanish interest, and laid claim to New Albion, plundering coastal towns and ships for treasure and supplies as he went.", "He arrived back in England on 26 September 1580.Elizabeth I awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581 which he received aboard his galleon the ''Golden Hind''.Drake's circumnavigation inaugurated an era of conflict with the Spanish and in 1585, the Anglo-Spanish War began.", "Drake was in command of an expedition to the Americas that attacked Spanish shipping and ports.", "When Philip II sent the Spanish Armada to England in 1588 as a precursor to its invasion, Drake was second-in-command of the English fleet that fought against and repulsed the Spanish fleet.", "A year later he led the English Armada in a failed attempt to destroy the remaining Spanish fleet.Drake was the Member of Parliament (MP) for three constituencies: Camelford in 1581, Bossiney in 1584, and Plymouth in 1593.Drake's exploits made him a hero to the English, but his privateering led the Spanish to brand him a pirate, known to them as El Draque (\"The Dragon\" in old Spanish).", "He died of dysentery after his failed assault on Panama in January 1596." ], [ "Birth and early years", "Portrait miniature by Nicholas Hilliard, 1581, inscribed ''Aetatis suae 42, An(n)o D(omi)ni 1581'' (\"42 years of his age, 1581 AD\")Francis Drake was born at Crowndale Farm in Tavistock, Devon, England.", "His birth date is not formally recorded – such writers as E. F. Benson have claimed that he was born while the Six Articles of 1539 were in force, but British naval historian Julian Corbett, writing of William Camden's account, on which this information is based, writes that \"As a slip of memory, too, we must put down his difficult assertion that Edmund Drake was driven from Devonshire during a persecution under the Six Articles Act of 1539.\"", "His birth date is estimated from the wording of texts in contemporary sources such as: \"Drake was two and twenty when he obtained the command of the ''Judith''\" (1566).", "This would date his birth to 1544.A date of 1540 is suggested from two portraits: one a miniature, painted by Nicholas Hilliard in 1581, when he was allegedly 42, which would place his birth 1539, while the other, painted in 1594 when he was said to be 52, would give a birth year of c. 1541.He was the eldest of the twelve sons of Edmund Drake (1518–1585), a Protestant farmer, and his wife, Mary Mylwaye.", "The first son was said to have been named after his godfather, Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford.Due to religious persecution during the Prayer Book Rebellion in 1549, the Drake family fled from Devon to Kent.", "There Drake's father obtained an appointment to minister to the men in the King's Navy.", "He was ordained deacon and was made vicar of Upchurch Church on the Medway." ], [ "Early career at sea", "At an early age, Drake was placed into the household of a relative, sea-captain William Hawkins of Plymouth, and began his seagoing training as an apprentice on Hawkins' boats.", "By 18, he was a purser, according to the English chronicler Edmund Howes, and in the 1550s, Drake's father found the young man a position with the owner and master of a small barque, one of the small traders plying between the Medway River and the Dutch coast.", "Drake likely engaged in commerce along the coast of England, the Low Countries and France.", "The ship's master was so satisfied with the young Drake's conduct that, being unmarried and childless at his death, he bequeathed the barque to Drake.===Slave trade===Sir John Hawkins (left) with Sir Francis Drake (centre) and Sir Thomas CavendishIn 1562, the West African slave trade was a duopoly dominated by the Portuguese and the Spanish.", "Sir John Hawkins devised a plan to break into that trade, and enlisted the aid of colleagues and family to finance his first slave voyage.", "Drake was not part of that group of financiers, though his presence as one of hundreds of seamen on Hawkins's first two slaving voyages has been assumed.", "There is some anecdotal evidence to support Drake serving as a common seaman on the first two voyages, and good evidence of his presence for the last two of four slaving voyages made by Hawkins' ships between 1562 and 1569.", "''Jesus of Lübeck'', flagship of Sir John HawkinsIn 1562, Hawkins sailed to the coast of the Sierra Leone, seized Portuguese slave ships, and sold the Africans in the Spanish Indies.", "It was highly profitable, so for his second slave voyage in 1564, Hawkins gained Queen Elizabeth I's support.", "She lent him one of her ships, ''Jesus of Lübeck'', which served as his flagship.", "Hawkins attacked an African native town and sold many of its inhabitants in Spanish ports on the Caribbean mainland making another large profit for himself, the Queen and the consortium of investors from her court.", "Sources vary on the dates and the age of Drake at the time; Harry Kelsey says he was twenty years old, \"according to Howes\" (in reference to the English chronicler Edmund Howes writing in 1615).", "Drake was not a member of that consortium, but the crew would have received a small share of the profits.", "Based on this association, scholar Kris Lane lists Drake as one of the first English slave traders.The Spanish and Portuguese were aggrieved that the English had entered into the slave trade and were selling slaves to their colonies despite being forbidden from doing so.", "Queen Elizabeth I, under pressure to avoid an armed conflict, forbade Hawkins from going to sea for a third slave voyage.", "In response, he set up a slave voyage with a relative, John Lovell, in command in 1566.Drake accompanied Lovell on this voyage.", "The voyage was unsuccessful, as more than 90 enslaved Africans were released without payment.In 1567, Drake accompanied Hawkins on their next and last joint voyage.", "The crew attempted to capture slaves around Cape Verde, but failed.", "Hawkins allied himself with two local kings in Sierra Leone who asked for help against their enemies in exchange for half of any captives they took.", "Attacking from both sides, several hundred prisoners were taken, though Kelsey says the kings kept \"the larger share of slaves and dared Hawkins to do anything about it\".Events worsened for the fleet as it faced storms, Spanish hostility, armed conflict, and finally a hurricane that separated one ship from the rest, and it had to find its own way home.", "The remaining ships were forced into the port of San Juan de Ulúa near Vera Cruz so they could make repairs.", "Soon afterward the newly appointed viceroy of New Spain, Martín Enríquez de Almanza, arrived with a fleet of ships.", "While still negotiating to resupply and repair, Hawkins' ships were attacked by the Spanish ships in what became known as the Battle of San Juan de Ulúa.", "The battle ended in an English defeat with all but two of the English ships lost.", "The Spanish launched a fireship against Hawkins' flagship ''Jesus of Lübeck'', and the crew of ''Minion'' in panic and fear cut the lines securing them to ''Jesus''.", "Hawkins was among those who jumped from the flagship's bulwarks to ''Minion'''s decks.", "Drake, by this time the captain of ''Judith'', fled leaving Hawkins behind.", "Hawkins escaped on ''Minion'' and limped back to England with dozens of his men dying along the way, and arriving with a crew of just 15.Hundreds of English seamen were abandoned.After arriving back in England, Hawkins accused Drake of desertion and of stealing the treasure they had accumulated.", "Drake denied both accusations asserting he had distributed all profits among the crew and that he had believed Hawkins was lost when he left.", "The bitter end of the fourth voyage turned Drake's life in a different direction: thereafter he would not pursue trading and slaving but would, instead, dedicate himself to attacking Spanish possessions wherever he found them.", "Drake's hostility towards the Spanish is said to have started with the battle and its aftermath.The voyage of 1567–1569 was Drake's last association with slaving.", "In total, approximately 1,200 Africans were enslaved on these four voyages, and an estimated three times as many Africans were killed (based on the contemporaneous accounts of slavers).", "On the issue of slaving, scholar John Sugden writes that \"Drake was in his twenties and did not question what his elders accepted\", but must share some culpability for his participation.===Expedition of 1572–1573===In 1572, Drake embarked on his first major independent enterprise.", "He planned an attack on the Isthmus of Panama, known to the Spanish as part of Tierra Firme and to the English as part of the Spanish Main.", "This was the point at which the silver and gold treasure of Peru had to be brought ashore and transported overland to the Caribbean Sea, where galleons from Spain would take it aboard at the town of Nombre de Dios.", "Drake left Plymouth on 24 May 1572, with a crew of 73 men in two small vessels, ''Pascha'' (70 tons) and ''Swan'' (25 tons), to capture Nombre de Dios.Drake's first raid was late in July 1572.Drake captured Nombre de Dios, but he was badly wounded when the Spanish arrived from Panama, and his forces had to retreat without the gold, silver, pearls and jewels stored in the royal treasury.", "Rather than sacking Nombre de Dios again, Drake raided Spanish galleons along the coast and with his Cimarrón (enslaved Africans who had escaped from their Spanish slave-owners) allies looted the mule trains that transported gold, silver and trade goods from Panama City.", "One of these men was Diego, who later became a free man after years of service under Drake.Among Drake's adventures along the Spanish Main, his capture of the Spanish silver train at Nombre de Dios on 1 April 1573 made him rich and famous.", "Near Cabo de Cativas he encountered a French privateer, Guillaume Le Testu, who was in command of the 80-ton warship ''Havre'', and joined forces with him in a combined fleet.", "Drake had determined to intercept the mule train at the Campos River, two leagues from Nombre de Dios, and instructed the captains of his pinnaces to meet them at the Francisca River on 3 April to carry them off after the raid.", "The combined English and French raiding parties marched through the forest towards the trail, to within a mile of the city while the Cimarróns performed reconnaissance.", "The next morning, 1 April, they surprised the mule convoy and seized more than 200,000 pesos' worth of treasure.After their attack on the richly laden mule train, Drake and his party found that they had captured around 20 tons of silver and gold.", "They buried much of the treasure, as it was too much for their party to carry, and made off with a fortune in gold.", "(An account of this may have given rise to subsequent stories of pirates and buried treasure).", "Badly wounded, Le Testu was captured and beheaded.", "The small band of adventurers dragged as much gold and silver as they could carry back across some of jungle-covered mountains to where they had left the raiding boats.", "When they got to the coast, the boats were gone.", "Drake and his men, downhearted, exhausted and hungry, had nowhere to go and the Spanish were not far behind.At this point, Drake rallied his men, buried the treasure on the beach, and built a raft to sail in a heavy swell with four men twelve miles along the coast to where they had left two pinnaces.", "When Drake finally reached them, his men were alarmed at his bedraggled appearance.", "Fearing the worst, they asked him how the raid had gone.", "Drake could not resist a joke and teased them by looking downhearted.", "Then he laughed, pulled a quoit of Spanish gold from his clothes and said, \"Our voyage is made.\"", "By the second week of August 1573, he had returned to Plymouth.It was during this expedition that on 11 February Drake and his lieutenant John Oxenham climbed a high tree in the central mountains of the Isthmus of Panama and thus became the first Englishmen to see the Pacific Ocean, mirroring the achievement of the Spaniard Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513.The Cimarróns had cut steps into its trunk, on which Drake and the Cimarrón leader Pedro ascended to a platform at the top of the giant tree, where they were joined by Oxenham.", "The Englishmen vowed when they saw the Pacific Ocean that one day they would sail its waters – which Drake would do years later as part of his circumnavigation of the world.When Drake returned to Plymouth after the raids, the government signed a temporary truce with King Philip II of Spain and so was unable to acknowledge Drake's accomplishment officially.", "Drake was considered a hero in England and a pirate in Spain for his raids.===Rathlin Island massacre===Drake was present at the 1575 Rathlin Island massacre in Ireland.", "Sir John Norris (or ''Norreys'') and Drake, acting on the instructions of Sir Henry Sidney and the Earl of Essex, Robert Devereux, laid siege to Rathlin Castle.", "Despite its surrender, Norris' troops killed all the 200 defenders and several hundred more civilian men, women and children of Clan MacDonnell.", "Meanwhile, Drake was given the task of preventing any Gaelic Irish or Scottish reinforcements reaching the island.", "Therefore, the remaining leader of the Gaelic defence against English power, Sorley Boy MacDonnell, was forced to stay on the mainland.", "Essex wrote in his letter to Queen Elizabeth's secretary that following the attack Sorley Boy \"was likely to have run mad for sorrow, tearing and tormenting himself and saying that he there lost all that he ever had.\"" ], [ "Circumnavigation (1577–1580)", "Following the success of the Panama isthmus raid, Drake's so-called \"Famous Voyage\" – an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas – was organized and financed by a private syndicate that included Francis Walsingham, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, John Hawkins, Christopher Hatton, and Drake himself.", "Drake acted on the plan authored by Sir Richard Grenville, who in 1574 had received a royal patent for that purpose; just a year later this patent had been rescinded after Elizabeth I learned of Grenville's intentions against the Spanish.", "Elizabeth likely invested in Drake's voyage to South America in 1577, but never issued him a formal commission.", "This would be the first circumnavigation in 58 years.Diego was once again employed under Drake; his fluency in Spanish and English would make him a useful interpreter when Spaniards or Spanish-speaking Portuguese were captured.", "He was employed as Drake's servant and was paid wages like the rest of the crew.", "Drake and the fleet set out from Plymouth on 15 November 1577, but bad weather threatened him and his fleet.", "They were forced to take refuge in Falmouth, Cornwall, from where they returned to Plymouth for repair.After this major setback, Drake set sail again on 13 December aboard ''Pelican'' with four other ships and 164 men.", "He soon added a sixth ship, ''Mary'' (formerly ''Santa María''), a Portuguese merchant ship that had been captured off the coast of Africa near the Cape Verde Islands.", "He also kidnapped its captain, Nuno da Silva, a man with considerable experience navigating in South American waters.Drake's fleet suffered great attrition; he scuttled both ''Christopher'' and the flyboat ''Swan'' due to loss of men on the Atlantic crossing.", "He made landfall at the gloomy bay of Puerto San Julián, in what is now Argentina.", "Ferdinand Magellan had called there half a century earlier, where he put to death some mutineers.", "Drake's men saw weathered and bleached skeletons on the Spanish gibbets.", "Following Magellan's example, Drake tried and executed his own \"mutineer\" Thomas Doughty.", "The crew discovered that ''Mary'' had rotting timbers, so they put the vessel ashore, stripped it, and abandoned it.", "Drake decided to remain the winter in San Julián before attempting the Strait of Magellan.===Execution of Thomas Doughty===On his voyage to interfere with Spanish treasure fleets, Drake had several quarrels with his co-commander Thomas Doughty and on 3 June 1578, accused him of witchcraft and charged him with mutiny and treason in a shipboard trial.", "Drake claimed to have a (never presented) commission from the Queen to carry out such acts and denied Doughty a trial in England.", "The main pieces of evidence against Doughty were the testimony of the ship's carpenter, Edward Bright, who after the trial was promoted to master of the ship ''Marigold'', and Doughty's admission of telling Lord Burghley, a vocal opponent of agitating the Spanish, of the intent of the voyage.", "Drake consented to his request of Communion and dined with him, of which Francis Fletcher had this account:Drake had Thomas Doughty beheaded on 2 July 1578.In January 1580, when Drake became stranded upon a reef off the Celebes Sea, the ship's chaplain, Francis Fletcher, in a sermon suggested that the woes of the voyage were connected to the unjust demise of Doughty, Drake chained the clergyman to a hatch cover and pronounced him excommunicated.===Entering the Pacific (1578)===A replica of the ''Golden Hind'' at Bankside in LondonThe three remaining ships of his convoy departed for the Magellan Strait at the southern tip of South America.", "A few weeks later in September 1578 Drake made it to the Pacific, but violent storms destroyed one of the three ships, ''Marigold'' (captained by John Thomas) in the strait and caused another, ''Elizabeth'', captained by John Wynter, to return to England, leaving only ''Pelican''.", "After this passage, ''Pelican'' was pushed south and discovered an island that Drake called Elizabeth Island.", "Drake, like navigators before him, probably reached a latitude of 55°S (according to astronomical data quoted in Richard Hakluyt's ''The Principall Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation'' of 1589) along the Chilean coast.", "In the Magellan Strait Francis and his men engaged in skirmishes with local indigenous people, becoming the first Europeans to kill indigenous peoples in southern Patagonia.", "During their stay in the strait, crew members discovered that an infusion made of the bark of ''Drimys winteri'' could be used as remedy against scurvy.", "Captain Wynter ordered the collection of great amounts of bark – hence the scientific name.Historian Mateo Martinic, who examined records of Drake's travels, credits him with the discovery of the \"southern end of the Americas and the oceanic space south of it\".", "The first report of his discovery of an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego was written after the 1618 publication of the voyage of Willem Schouten and Jacob le Maire around Cape Horn in 1616.=== Raids on Spanish American west coast ===Drake pushed onwards in his lone flagship, now renamed ''Golden Hind'' in honour of Sir Christopher Hatton (after his coat of arms).", "''Golden Hind'' sailed north along the Pacific coast of South America, attacking Spanish ports and pillaging towns.", "Some Spanish ships were captured, and Drake used their more accurate charts to inform his navigation.", "Before reaching the coast of Peru, Drake visited Mocha Island off the coast of what is now Chile, where he and his manservant Diego were seriously injured by hostile Mapuche who shot them with arrows.", "Later he sacked the port of Valparaíso further north in Chile, where he also captured a ship full of Chilean wine.Near Lima, Drake captured a Spanish ship with 25,000 pesos of Peruvian gold, amounting in value to 37,000 ducats of Spanish money (about £7m by modern standards).", "Drake also discovered news of another ship, ''Nuestra Señora de la Concepción'', which was sailing west towards Manila.", "It would come to be called ''Cacafuego''.", "Drake gave chase and eventually captured the treasure ship, which proved his most profitable capture.Aboard ''Nuestra Señora de la Concepción'', Drake found of gold, a golden crucifix, jewels, 13 chests of silver reals and of silver.", "Drake was naturally pleased at his good luck in capturing the galleon, and he showed it by dining with the captured ship's officers and gentleman passengers.", "He offloaded his captives a short time later, and gave each one gifts appropriate to their rank, as well as a letter of safe conduct.Drake continued north, raiding more Spanish settlements and ships as he went.", "His last stop in this phase of the voyage was in the town of Guatulco, where he and his crew stayed from 13–16 April, looting provisions and other materials.", "From here, Drake began to consider how best to return to England.", "One possibility was to sail back south, along the Spanish coast, and return to the Atlantic Ocean via the Strait of Magellan (or possibly Cape Horn); this route was ruled out, however, to avoid the dangerous weather near the strait and presumed Spanish resistance all along the coast.", "This left two possible routes – continue north up the American coast, and return to the Atlantic by the rumored Strait of Anián; or, sail across the Pacific, making for the East Indies, and from there return to England by completing a circumnavigation of the world.===Coast of California: Nova Albion (1579)===Theodor de BryIn May, Drake's two ships passed the Baja California peninsula and continued north.", "Prior to Drake's voyage, the western coast of North America had only been partially explored in 1542 by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo who sailed for Spain.", "So, intending to avoid further conflict with Spain, Drake navigated north-west of Spanish presence and sought a discreet site at which the crew could prepare for the journey back to England.", "The northernmost extent of this leg of the expedition has been the subject of much scholarly debate, but most sources agree that Drake reached a latitude of at least 48° north before turning back and heading south.On 5 June 1579, the ship briefly made first landfall at what is now South Cove, Cape Arago, just south of Coos Bay, Oregon, and then sailed southward.", "On 17 June, Drake and his crew found a protected cove when they landed on the Pacific coast of what is now Northern California.", "While ashore, he claimed the area for Queen Elizabeth I as Nova Albion or New Albion.", "To document and assert his claim, Drake posted an engraved plate of brass to claim sovereignty for Elizabeth and every successive English monarch.", "After erecting a fort and tents ashore, the crew laboured for several weeks as they prepared for the circumnavigating voyage ahead by careening their ship, ''Golden Hind'', to effectively clean and repair the hull.", "Drake had friendly interactions with the Coast Miwok and explored the surrounding land by foot.", "When his ship was ready for the return voyage, Drake and the crew left New Albion on 23 July and paused the journey the next day when anchoring the ship at the Farallon Islands where they hunted sea lions or seals.===Across the Pacific and around Africa===Drake left the Pacific coast, heading south-west to catch the winds that would carry his ship across the Pacific, and a few months later reached the Moluccas, a group of islands in the western Pacific, in eastern modern-day Indonesia.", "Harry Kelsey maintains, against scholarly consensus, that because of the contrary prevailing winds and currents, it is much more probable that Drake careened his ship on the shore of Magdalena Bay in Lower California, and sailed to the Moluccas and Spice Islands from there.", "At this time Diego died from wounds he had sustained earlier in the voyage; ''Golden Hind'' later became caught on a reef and was almost lost.", "Afterwards, the sailors waited three days for convenient tides and had dumped cargo.", "Befriending Sultan Babullah of Ternate in the Moluccas, Drake and his men became involved in some intrigues with the Portuguese there.", "He made multiple stops on his way toward the tip of Africa, eventually rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and reached Sierra Leone by 22 July 1580.===Return to Plymouth (1580)===1829 portrait of Drake wearing the Drake JewelThe Drake Jewel as painted by Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger in a 1591 portrait of DrakeOn 26 September 1580, ''Golden Hind'' sailed into Plymouth with Drake and 59 remaining crew aboard, along with a rich cargo of spices and captured Spanish treasures.", "The queen's half-share of the cargo surpassed the rest of the crown's income for that entire year.", "Drake was hailed as the first Englishman to circumnavigate the Earth, and his was the second such voyage arriving with at least one ship intact, after Elcano's in 1520.Queen Elizabeth declared that all written accounts of Drake's voyages were to become the queen's secrets of the Realm, and Drake and the other participants of his voyages on the pain of death sworn to their secrecy; she intended to keep Drake's activities hidden from the eyes of rival Spain.Drake presented the queen with a jewel token commemorating the circumnavigation.", "Taken as a prize off the Pacific coast of Mexico, it was made of enamelled gold and bore an African diamond and a ship with an ebony hull.To show her gratitude the queen gave him the Drake Jewel, a valuable pendant surrounded by diamonds, rubies and pearls.", "It was an unusual gift to bestow upon a commoner, and one that Drake wore in a 1591 portrait by Marcus Gheeraerts.", "On one side of the pendant is a state portrait of Elizabeth by the miniaturist Nicholas Hilliard, on the other a sardonyx cameo of double portrait busts, a regal woman and an African male.", "The Drake Jewel is a rare documented survivor among sixteenth-century jewels; it is conserved at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.===Knighthood and arms===Queen Elizabeth awarded Drake a knighthood aboard ''Golden Hind'' in Deptford on 4 April 1581; the dubbing being performed by a French diplomat, Monsieur de Marchaumont, who was negotiating for Elizabeth to marry the King of France's brother, Francis, Duke of Anjou.", "By getting the French diplomat involved in the knighting, Elizabeth was gaining the implicit political support of the French for Drake's actions.", "During the Victorian era, in a spirit of nationalism, the story was promoted that Elizabeth I had done the knighting.achievement, with motto: ''Sic Parvis Magna''After receiving his knighthood Drake unilaterally adopted the coat of arms of the ancient Devon family of Drake of Ash, to whom he claimed a distant but unspecified kinship.", "The right to use the arms was disputed in court so Queen Elizabeth awarded Drake his own coat of arms.Drake's heraldic achievement and coat of arms contains the motto, ''Sic Parvis Magna'', which means: \"Great achievements from small beginnings\".", "A hand coming out of the clouds is labelled ''Auxilio Divino'', which means \"By divine aid\"." ], [ "Political career", "Drake first became a member of parliament for the last session of the 4th Parliament of Elizabeth I, on 16 January 1581, for the constituency of Camelford.", "He did not actively participate at this point, and on 17 February 1581 he was granted leave of absence \"for certain his necessary business in the service of Her Majesty\".Drake became the Mayor of Plymouth in September 1581.During his tenure, he installed a compass in the town's Hoe, and passed a law regulating the local pilchard trade.", "During his term as lord mayor, Drake contracted to construct a leat, or canal, to bring water from the River Meavy, and to build six new gristmills on it from which he derived a substantial profit.Drake became a member of parliament again in 1584 for Bossiney, on the forming of the 5th Parliament of Elizabeth I.", "He served the duration of the parliament and was active in issues regarding the navy, fishing, early American colonisation, and issues related chiefly to Devon.", "He spent the time covered by the next two parliamentary terms engaged in other duties and an expedition to Portugal.He became a member of parliament for Plymouth in 1593.He was active in issues of interest to Plymouth as a whole, but also to emphasise defence against the Spanish." ], [ "Great Expedition to America", "Map of Drake's Great Expedition in 1585 by Giovanni Battista BoazioWar broke out between England and Spain in 1585, after the signing of the Treaty of Nonsuch.", "Queen Elizabeth I, through her principal secretary Francis Walsingham, ordered Sir Francis Drake to lead an expedition to attack the Spanish colonies in a kind of pre-emptive strike.", "An expedition left Plymouth in September 1585 with Drake in command of twenty-one ships with 1,800 soldiers under Christopher Carleill.", "He first attacked Vigo in Spain and held the place for two weeks ransoming supplies.", "He then plundered Santiago in the Cape Verde islands after which the fleet then sailed across the Atlantic, sacked the port of Santo Domingo, and captured the city of Cartagena de Indias in present-day Colombia.", "At Cartagena, Drake released one hundred Turks who were enslaved.", "On 6 June 1586, during the return leg of the voyage, he attacked the wooden Spanish fort at San Agustín in Spanish Florida and burnt the town to the ground.After the raids he then went on to find Sir Walter Raleigh's settlement much further north at Roanoke which he replenished and also took back with him all of the original colonists before Sir Richard Grenville arrived with supplies and more colonists.", "He finally reached England on 22 July, when he sailed into Portsmouth, England to a hero's welcome." ], [ "Conflict with the Spanish Armada", "Painting depicting 'English Ships and the Spanish Armada'In part to prevent future such attacks by English and Dutch privateers against Spanish interests in the Americas, Philip II ordered a planned invasion of England.===Cádiz raid===Portrait of Drake around 1587, in ''Cassell's illustrated history of England''On 15 March 1587, Drake accepted a new commission with several purposes: to disrupt the shipping routes in order to slow supplies from Italy and Andalucia to Lisbon, to trouble enemy fleets that were in their home ports, and to capture Spanish ships laden with treasure.", "Drake was also to confront and attack the Spanish Armada had it already sailed for England.", "When arriving at Cádiz on 19 April, Drake found the harbour packed with ships and supplies as the Armada was readying and waiting for a fair wind to launch the fleet to attack.", "In the early hours of the next day, Drake pressed his attack into the inner harbour and inflicted heavy damage.", "Claims of the exact Spanish ship losses vary: Drake claimed he had sunk 39 ships, while the Spanish admitted the loss of only 24.The attack became known as the \"singeing of the King's beard\" and delayed the Spanish invasion by a year.Over the next month, Drake patrolled the Iberian coasts between Lisbon and Cape St. Vincent, intercepting and destroying ships on the Spanish supply lines.", "Drake estimated that he had captured around 1,600 to 1,700 tons of barrel staves, enough to make for containing provisions.", "The expedition resulted in a total profit for England of around £140,000, £18,235 of which went to Drake.===Defeat of the Spanish Armada===Drake was reportedly playing bowls when first informed about the approach of the Armada.Eighteenth-century painting of the Spanish Armada, showing fire shipsAdmiral Pedro de Valdés surrendering his sword to Francis Drake aboard ''Revenge'' during the attack of the Spanish Armada, 1588.Oil on canvas by John Seymour Lucas (1889)The Spanish Armada set sail for England in May 1588, and arrived on the English coast on 29 July, near Cornwall.", "An English fleet consisting of 55 ships set out from Plymouth to confront the Armada, under the command of Lord Howard of Effingham, with Sir Francis Drake serving as vice admiral, commanding from the galleon ''Revenge''.", "As the English fleet pursued the Armada up the English Channel in closing darkness, Drake broke off and captured the disabled Spanish galleon ''Nuestra Señora del Rosario'', along with Admiral Pedro de Valdés and most of his crew.", "The Spanish ship was known to be carrying substantial funds to pay the Spanish Armada.", "Drake's ship had been leading the English pursuit of the Armada by means of a lantern.", "By extinguishing this for the capture, Drake put the English fleet into disarray overnight.", "The Duke of Medina Sidonia, whom Philip had appointed to command the Armada despite his complete lack of military experience on land or at sea, made his way up the Channel towards the French shore in his flagship ''San Martín'' with the English in pursuit, thinking that if he anchored in the roadstead of Calais they would not dare molest the Spanish ships in French waters.A council of war was held aboard Howard's flagship ''Ark'', where Howard, Drake, Seymour, Hawkins, Martin Frobisher, and two or three others, decided to launch fire ships.", "That night the English launched eight fire ships into the midst of the Armada at its moorings, forcing its captains to cut their anchors and sail out of Calais into the open sea.", "The decisive action was fought the next day on the shoals off Gravelines, where Frobisher, Drake, and Hawkins pounded the Spanish ships with their guns.", "Drake's squadron gave Medina Sidonia's flagship ''San Martin'' a single broadside and moved on; Frobisher, directly behind him in the English line, stayed with the ''San Martin'' at close range and poured cannon shot into her oaken flanks, but failed to take her.", "Five Spanish ships were lost.Drake wrote as follows to Admiral Henry Seymour after coming upon part of the Spanish Armada, whilst aboard ''Revenge'' on 31 July 1588 (21 July 1588 OS):The 21st we had them in chase, and so coming up unto them, there hath passed some cannon shot between some of our fleet and some of them, and as far as we perceive they are determined to sell their lives with blows.The Armada, having failed in their aim, were unable to sail back via the English channel.", "The English ships, including ''Revenge'', pursued them to prevent any landing on English soil, although by this time most of Howard's ships were almost out of shot.", "Nevertheless, the battered Spanish fleet were forced to sail instead around the British isles and encountered heavy storms off the coast of Ireland.", "The fleet eventually limped back to Spanish ports having lost overall some 63 ships and vessels.The most famous (but probably apocryphal) anecdote about Drake relates that, prior to the battle, he was playing a game of bowls on Plymouth Hoe.", "On being warned of the approach of the Spanish fleet, Drake is said to have remarked that there was plenty of time to finish the game and still beat the Spaniards, perhaps because he was waiting for high tide.", "There is no known eyewitness account of this incident and the earliest retelling of it was printed 37 years later.", "Adverse winds and currents caused some delay in the launching of the English fleet as the Spanish drew nearer, perhaps prompting a popular myth of Drake's cavalier attitude to the Spanish threat.===English Armada===In 1589, the year after the failure of the Spanish Armada, the English sent their own armada to attack Spain.", "Drake and Norris were given three tasks.", "First, to destroy the battered Spanish Atlantic fleet, which was being repaired in ports of northern Spain.", "Second, to make a landing at Lisbon, Portugal and raise a revolt there against King Philip II (Philip I of Portugal) installing the pretender Dom António, Prior of Crato to the Portuguese throne.", "And, third, to take the Azores if possible so as to establish a permanent base.In the siege of Coruña, Drake and Norris destroyed a few ships in the harbour of A Coruña in Spain but were repelled.", "This defeat in all fronts delayed Drake for two weeks, and he was forced to forgo hunting the rest of the surviving ships and head on to Lisbon.Norris led his army on a difficult march over the rocky coast to Lisbon, while Drake sailed around the peninsula to join Essex with his heavy artillery.", "Norris's troops were sick and exhausted by the time they reached the western limits of the city, consequently he demanded that Dom António raise provisions and men to fight for his cause from amongst the local populace, or the army would retreat.", "Drake, against their agreed plans, had anchored his fleet in the mouth of the Tagus estuary, rather than running the risk of sailing past the well-defended stretches of the Tagus to bring the desperately needed heavy cannon and ordnance.", "The anticipated rebellion never materialised and the ground campaign was a total failure, so Norris, with his army and António, re-embarked to make an attempt at capturing the treasure fleet.", "The weather was not in their favour so they eventually sailed for home.However, Drake wanted to atone for such a bitter setback and, in order not to return empty-handed and with the morale of his troops sunk, he made a fleeting stop in the Galician ''rías'', or coastal inlets, pillaging the defenceless town of Vigo for two days and razing it to the ground.", "This abusive demonstration did not leave the corsair unharmed, as he lost hundreds more men on land, in addition to as many as two hundred wounded.", "The growing defences of the inhabitants, and the arrivals of militias from Portugal, put the ships in retreat again.", "Two of the vessels sailing back to Plymouth were captured in the Bay of Biscay by a squadron of zabras led by Captain Diego de Aramburu.The failure cost the lives of 11,000 English soldiers and sailors, according to Bucholz and Key; Robert Hutchinson says between 8,000 and 11,000 died; while Gorrochategui Santos calculates the number at over 20,000.Upon his return, Drake's behaviour in the expedition was increasingly called into question, culminating in his being charged by England's Privy Council of deliberate failings and a mishandling of his command.", "Despite never being publicly admonished on these charges, he nevertheless fell out of favour, and was not given command of another naval expedition until 1595." ], [ "Defeats and death", "Portobello.", "Bronze plaque by Joseph Boehm, 1883, base of Drake statue, TavistockDrake's seafaring career continued into his mid-fifties.", "In 1595, he failed to conquer the port of Las Palmas, and following a disastrous campaign against Spanish America, where he suffered a number of defeats, he unsuccessfully attacked San Juan de Puerto Rico, and lost the Battle of San Juan.", "The Spanish gunners from El Morro Castle shot a cannonball through his stateroom on the expedition's flagship, but he survived.He and his second-in-command, Thomas Baskerville, captured and burned Nombre de Dios, and started an overland crossing of the isthmus to attack the city of Panama, but were repulsed by the well-entrenched Spaniards who had barricaded the road; suffering heavy casualties, they gave up the attempt.", "A few weeks later, on 28 January 1596, Drake died (aged about 56) of dysentery, a common disease in the tropics at the time, while anchored off the coast of Portobelo where some Spanish treasure ships had sought shelter.", "Following his death, the English fleet withdrew defeated.Before dying, he asked to be dressed in his full armour.", "He was buried at sea in a sealed lead-lined coffin, near Portobelo, a few miles off the coastline.", "It is supposed that his final resting place is near the wrecks of two British ships, ''Elizabeth'' and ''Delight'', scuttled in Portobelo Bay.", "Efforts by researchers and treasure hunters to discover the location of his remains are ongoing, while divers continue to search the seabed for the coffin." ], [ "Family and heritage", "Buckland Abbey in DevonFrancis Drake married Mary Newman at St Budeaux church near Plymouth, on 4 July 1569.She died about 24 January 1583.In 1585, Drake married Elizabeth Sydenham, born around 1562, the only child of Sir George Sydenham, of Combe Sydenham, who was the High Sheriff of Somerset.In 1580, Drake purchased Buckland Abbey, a large manor house near Yelverton, Devon, via intermediaries from Sir Richard Grenville.", "He lived there for fifteen years, until his final voyage, and it remained in his family until 1946.Buckland Abbey is now in the care of the National Trust and a number of mementos of his life are displayed there.", "His coat of arms and full achievement is depicted in the form of a large, coloured plaster overmantel in the Lifetimes Gallery at Buckland Abbey.Drake was one of twelve children.", "His brother Thomas accompanied him on voyages, and named his son after him.", "That nephew eventually became Sir Francis Drake, 1st Baronet." ], [ "Legacy", "National Portrait Gallery, LondonBronze statue in Tavistock, in the parish of which he was born, by Joseph Boehm, 1883Historical sources on Drake's early life are scarce, and tend to be obscure.", "Two common scholarly traditions concerning his life and contributions have resulted.", "The older tradition can be found in Julian Corbett's biography, ''Drake and the Tudor Navy'' (1898) which identifies Drake as the single most important figure in the founding and triumph of the British navy.", "The alternative approach locates Drake squarely within privateering.", "The first has tended to laud only his successes, while Sugden writes that the second approach, which emphasises his flaws and failures, has sometimes been less than just.", "Drake left behind no words of his own, only his actions and their interpretation which, as Peter Whitfield says, \"is open to deep disagreement\".", "According to Whitfield, scholarship on Drake has moved \"from the hero worship of the Victorians to the cold iconoclasm\" of the twenty-first century.There are various places in the United Kingdom named after him, especially in Plymouth, Devon.", "Places there carrying his name include Drake's Island, Drake Circus Shopping Centre, and the Royal Navy base HMNB Devonport (also known as \"HMS Drake\").", "Plymouth Hoe is also home to a statue of Drake.", "The Sir Francis Drake Channel is located in the British Virgin Islands.Various mountains in British Columbia were named in the 1930s for Drake, or in connection with Elizabeth I or other figures of that era, including Mount Sir Francis Drake, Mount Queen Bess, and the Golden Hinde, the highest mountain on Vancouver Island.", "Fringe theorists suggest he may also have landed to the north of the usual site considered to be Nova Albion – among them Canadian Samuel Bawlf, who claims that its true location was on Vancouver Island at latitude 50 degrees north.Several landmarks in northern California were named after Drake, beginning in the late 19th century and continuing into the 20th century.", "American historian Richard White posits that the origins of these commemorations to nineteenth-century Anglo-Saxonism.", "Public scrutiny of these memorials intensified in 2020 after the protests drew critical attention to place names and monuments perceived to be connected to white supremacy, colonialism, or racial injustice.", "Several California landmarks that commemorated Drake were removed or renamed.", "Citing Drake's associations with the transatlantic slave trade, colonialism and piracy, Sir Francis Drake High School, in San Anselmo, California, changed its name to Archie Williams High School, after former teacher and Olympic athlete Archie Williams.", "A statue of Drake in Larkspur, California was also removed by the city authorities.", "Multiple jurisdictions in Marin County considered renaming Sir Francis Drake Boulevard, one of its major thoroughfares, but left the name intact when they failed to reach a consensus.", "In San Francisco, the Sir Francis Drake Hotel was renamed the Beacon Grand Hotel.Drake's will was the focus of an extensive confidence scam which Oscar Hartzell perpetrated in the 1920s and 1930s.Drake's Drum has become an icon of English folklore with its variation of the classic king asleep in mountain story motif.Drake was a major focus in the video game series ''Uncharted'', specifically its first and third instalments, ''Uncharted: Drake's Fortune'' and ''Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception'', respectively.", "The series follows Nathan Drake, a self-proclaimed descendant of Drake who retraces his ancestor's voyages.Drake was the subject of a TV series, ''Sir Francis Drake'' (1961–1962).", "Terence Morgan played Drake in the 26-episode adventure drama.In Valparaíso, Chile, folklore associates a cave known as Cueva del Pirata (lit.", "\"Cave of the Pirate\") with Francis Drake.", "A legend says that when Drake ransacked the port, he was disappointed with the scant plunder, and proceeded to enter the churches in fury to sack them and urinate on the chalices.", "Supposedly he still found the plunder to be not worth enough to take on board his galleon, and hid it in the cave." ], [ "See also", "* Francis William Drake – relative of Sir Francis Drake* Drake's Leat – a water supply for Plymouth, promoted by Drake" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * .", "Received a special citation from the Pulitzer Prize committee in 1960.", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links" ] ]
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