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[ [ "Flunitrazepam" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Flunitrazepam''', also known as '''Rohypnol''' among other names, is a benzodiazepine used to treat severe insomnia and assist with anesthesia.", "As with other hypnotics, flunitrazepam has been advised to be prescribed only for short-term use or by those with chronic insomnia on an occasional basis.It was patented in 1962 and came into medical use in 1974.Flunitrazepam, nicknamed \"roofies\" or \"floonies\", is widely known for its use as a date rape drug." ], [ "Use", "Rohypnol 1 mg tablets.In countries where this drug is used, it is used for treatment of severe cases of sleeping problems, and in some countries as a preanesthetic agent.", "These were also the uses for which it was originally studied.It has also been administered as a concurrent dose for patients that are taking ketamine.", "Rohypnol lowers the side effects of the anesthetic (ketamine), resulting in less confusion in awakening states, less negative influence on pulse rate, and fewer fluctuations in blood pressure." ], [ "Adverse effects", "Adverse effects of flunitrazepam include dependency, both physical and psychological; reduced sleep quality resulting in somnolence; and overdose, resulting in excessive sedation, impairment of balance and speech, respiratory depression or coma, and possibly death.", "Because of the latter, flunitrazepam is commonly used in suicide among the elderly.", "When used in late pregnancy, it might cause hypotonia of the fetus.===Dependence===Flunitrazepam, as with other benzodiazepines, can lead to drug dependence.", "Discontinuation may result in benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome, characterised by seizures, psychosis, insomnia, and anxiety.", "Rebound insomnia, worse than baseline insomnia, typically occurs after discontinuation of flunitrazepam even from short-term single nightly dose therapy.===Paradoxical effects===Flunitrazepam may cause a paradoxical reaction in some individuals, including anxiety, aggressiveness, agitation, confusion, disinhibition, loss of impulse control, talkativeness, violent behavior, and even convulsions.", "Paradoxical adverse effects may even lead to criminal behaviour.===Hypotonia===Benzodiazepines such as flunitrazepam are lipophilic and rapidly penetrate membranes and, therefore, rapidly cross over into the placenta with significant uptake of the drug.", "Use of benzodiazepines including flunitrazepam in late pregnancy, especially high doses, may result in hypotonia, also known as floppy baby syndrome.===Other===Flunitrazepam impairs cognitive functions.", "This may appear as lack of concentration, confusion and anterograde amnesia—the inability to create memories while under the influence.", "It can be described as a hangover-like effect which can persist to the next day.", "It also impairs psychomotor functions similar to other benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepine hypnotic drugs; falls and hip fractures were frequently reported.", "The combination with alcohol increases these impairments.", "Partial, but incomplete tolerance develops to these impairments.Other adverse effects include:* Slurred speech* Gastrointestinal disturbances, lasting 12 or more hours* Vomiting* Respiratory depression in higher doses===Special precautions===Benzodiazepines require special precaution if used in the elderly, during pregnancy, in children, in alcohol- or drug-dependent individuals, and in individuals with comorbid psychiatric disorders.Impairment of driving skills with a resultant increased risk of road traffic accidents is probably the most important adverse effect.", "This side-effect is not unique to flunitrazepam but also occurs with other hypnotic drugs.", "Flunitrazepam seems to have a particularly high risk of road traffic accidents compared to other hypnotic drugs.", "Extreme caution should be exercised by drivers after taking flunitrazepam." ], [ "Interactions", "The use of flunitrazepam in combination with alcoholic beverages synergizes the adverse effects, and can lead to toxicity and death." ], [ "Overdose", "Flunitrazepam is a drug that is frequently involved in drug intoxication, including overdose.", "Overdose of flunitrazepam may result in excessive sedation, or impairment of balance or speech.", "This may progress in severe overdoses to respiratory depression or coma and possibly death.", "The risk of overdose is increased if flunitrazepam is taken in combination with CNS depressants such as ethanol (alcohol) and opioids.", "Flunitrazepam overdose responds to the GABAA receptor antagonist flumazenil, which thus can be used as a treatment." ], [ "Detection", "As of 2016, blood tests can identify flunitrazepam at concentrations of as low as 4 nanograms per millilitre; the elimination half life of the drug is 4–12 hours.", "For urine samples, metabolites can be identified for 60 hours to 28 days, depending on the dose and analytical method used.", "Hair and saliva can also be analyzed; hair is useful when a long time has transpired since ingestion, and saliva for workplace drug tests.Flunitrazepam can be measured in blood or plasma to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized patients, provide evidence in an impaired driving arrest, or assist in a medicolegal death investigation.", "Blood or plasma flunitrazepam concentrations are usually in a range of 5–20 μg/L in persons receiving the drug therapeutically as a nighttime hypnotic, 10–50 μg/L in those arrested for impaired driving and 100–1000 μg/L in victims of acute fatal overdosage.", "Urine is often the preferred specimen for routine substance use monitoring purposes.", "The presence of 7-aminoflunitrazepam, a pharmacologically active metabolite and ''in vitro'' degradation product, is useful for confirmation of flunitrazepam ingestion.", "In postmortem specimens, the parent drug may have been entirely degraded over time to 7-aminoflunitrazepam.", "Other metabolites include desmethylflunitrazepam and 3-hydroxydesmethylflunitrazepam." ], [ "Pharmacology", "The main pharmacological effects of flunitrazepam are the enhancement of GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter, at various GABA receptors.", "All benzodiazepines work by enhancing the effect of GABA receptors, which, when active, allow chloride ions to enter the neuron.", "Negative ions such as chloride inhibit the ability of neurons to fire.", "It is this stimulation of GABA receptors which is responsible for the depressant effects of benzodiazepines.", "Flunitrazepam shows high affinity for the α-5 subunit of the GABA-A receptor, which causes some of its unique side effects, such as amnesia.While 80% of flunitrazepam that is taken orally is absorbed, bioavailability in suppository form is closer to 50%.Flunitrazepam has a long half-life of 18–26 hours, which means that flunitrazepam's effects after nighttime administration persist throughout the next day.", "This is due to the production of active metabolites.", "These metabolites further increase the duration of drug action compared to benzodiazepines that produce nonactive metabolites.Flunitrazepam is lipophilic and is metabolised by the liver via oxidative pathways.", "The enzyme CYP3A4 is the main enzyme in its phase 1 metabolism in human liver microsomes." ], [ "Chemistry", "Flunitrazepam is classed as a nitro-benzodiazepine.", "It is the fluorinated ''N''-methyl derivative of nitrazepam.", "Other nitro-benzodiazepines include nitrazepam (the parent compound), nimetazepam (methylamino derivative) and clonazepam (2ʹ-chlorinated derivative).Flunitrazepam has a melting point of around 170 degrees Celsius." ], [ "History", "Flunitrazepam was discovered at Roche as part of the benzodiazepine work led by Leo Sternbach; the patent application was filed in 1960 and it was first marketed in 1972.Due to use of the drug for date rape and recreation, in 1998 Roche modified the formulation to give lower doses, make it less soluble, and add a blue dye for easier detection in drinks.", "It was never marketed in the United States, and by 2016 had been withdrawn from the markets in Spain, France, Norway, Germany, and the United Kingdom." ], [ "Society and culture", "===Recreational and illegal uses===Hypnodorm 1 mg flunitrazepam tablets, AustraliaRohypnol====Recreational use====A 1989 article in the ''European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology'' reports that benzodiazepines accounted for 52% of prescription forgeries in Sweden, suggesting that benzodiazepines were a major prescription drug class of abuse.", "Nitrazepam accounted for 13% of forged prescriptions, and accounted for 44% of forgeries specifically for benzodiazepines while flunitrazepam, diazepam, and oxazepam accounted for the majority of the rest of benzodiazepine forgeries.", "Prescription forgeries for other benzodiazepines marketed in Sweden (alprazolam, clonazepam, lorazepam, clobazam, and bromazepam) were negligible.", "When calculated in relation to utilization, the narcotic analgesics codeine, pentazocine, and ketobemidone were at the top of the list for the highest number of overall prescription forgeries, suggesting a higher abuse potential of these drugs.", "In neighboring Finland, temazepam accounts for roughly 40–50% benzodiazepine prescription forgeries annually, while flunitrazepam accounts for approximately ~15% of benzodiazepine prescription forgeries.Flunitrazepam and other sedative hypnotic drugs are detected frequently in cases of people suspected of driving under the influence of drugs.", "Other benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepines (anxiolytic or hypnotic) such as zolpidem and zopiclone (as well as cyclopyrrolones, imidazopyridines, and pyrazolopyrimidines) are also found in high numbers of suspected drugged drivers.", "Many drivers have blood levels far exceeding the therapeutic dose range, suggesting a high degree of potential for addiction for benzodiazepines and similar drugs.====Suicide====In studies in Sweden, flunitrazepam was the second most common drug used in suicides, being found in about 16% of cases.", "In a retrospective Swedish study of 1,587 deaths, in 159 cases benzodiazepines were found.", "In suicides when benzodiazepines were implicated, the benzodiazepines flunitrazepam and nitrazepam occurred in significantly higher concentrations compared to natural deaths.", "Of the 159 deaths where any benzodiazepines were found, 4 deaths were caused by benzodiazepines alone (in the other 155 cases, benzodiazepines were combined with something else).", "One conclusion of the study was that flunitrazepam and nitrazepam might be more toxic than other benzodiazepines available in the Swedish market.====Drug-facilitated sexual assault====Flunitrazepam is known to induce anterograde amnesia in sufficient doses; individuals are unable to remember certain events that they experienced while under the influence of the drug, which complicates investigations.", "This effect could be particularly dangerous if flunitrazepam is used to aid in the commission of sexual assault; victims may be unable to clearly recall the assault, the assailant, or the events surrounding the assault.While use of flunitrazepam in sexual assault has been prominent in the media, as of 2015 it appears to be fairly rare, and use of alcohol and other benzodiazepine drugs in date rape appears to be a larger but underreported problem.In a 2001 study, the benzodiazepines midazolam and temazepam were the two most common benzodiazepines utilized for date rape.====Drug-facilitated robbery====In the United Kingdom, the use of flunitrazepam and other \"date rape\" drugs have also been connected to stealing from sedated victims.", "An activist quoted by a British newspaper estimated that up to 2,000 individuals are robbed each year after being spiked with powerful sedatives, making drug-assisted robbery a more commonly reported problem than drug-assisted rape.===Regional use===Flunitrazepam is a Schedule III drug under the international Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971.", "* In Australia, as of 2013 the drug was authorized for prescribing for severe cases of insomnia but was restricted as a Schedule 8 medicine.", "* In France, as of 2016 flunitrazepam was not marketed.", "* In Germany, as of 2016 flunitrazepam is an ''Anlage III Betäubungsmittel'' (controlled substance which is allowed to be marketed and prescribed by physicians under specific provisions) and is available on a special narcotic drug prescription as the Rohypnol 1 mg film-coated tablets and several generic preparations (November 2016).", "* In Ireland, flunitrazepam is a Schedule 3 controlled substance with strict restrictions.", "* In Japan, flunitrazepam is marketed by Japanese pharmaceutical company Chugai under the trade name Rohypnol and is indicated for the treatment of insomnia as well as used for preanesthetic medication.", "* In Mexico, Rohypnol is legally available.", "* In Norway, on January 1, 2003, flunitrazepam was moved up one level in the schedule of controlled drugs and, on August 1, 2004, the manufacturer Roche removed Rohypnol from the market there altogether.", "*In South Africa, Rohypnol is classified as a Schedule 6 drug.", "It is available by prescription only, and restricted to 1 mg doses.Icelandic Flunitrazepam* In Iceland, flunitrazepam is a controlled substance available from Mylan.", "It is prescribed for severe insomnia and is sometimes used before surgery to induce a calm, relaxed state of mind for the patient.", "* In Sweden, flunitrazepam is a List II drug (substances with medicinal uses) under the Narcotics Control Act (1968).", "It was previously available from Mylan, but has been removed from the market in January 2020.", "* In the United Kingdom, flunitrazepam is not licensed for medical use and is a controlled drug under Schedule 3 and Class C.* In the United States, the drug has not been approved by the Food and Drug Administration and is considered to be an illegal drug; as of 2016 it is Schedule IV.", "and provide for punishment for the importation and distribution of up to 20 years in prison and a fine; possession is punishable by three years and a fine.", "Travelers travelling into the United States are limited to a 30-day supply.", "The drug must be declared to US Customs upon arrival.", "If a valid prescription cannot be produced, the drug may be subject to Customs search and seizure, and the traveler may face criminal charges or deportation.===Names===Flunitrazepam is marketed under many brand names in the countries where it is legal.", "It also has many street names, including \"roofie\" and \"ruffie\".", "It is also known as Circles, Forget Me Pill, La Rocha, Lunch Money Drug, Mexican Valium, Pingus, R2, and Roach 2." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Molecule of the Month* Statement on \"Date Rape\" Drugs by Associate Director for Domestic and International Drug Control, Office of Health Affairs, FDA, before Congress.", "Mar.", "11, 1999." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fuel cell" ], [ "Introduction", "Demonstration model of a direct methanol fuel cell (black layered cube) in its enclosure.Scheme of a proton-conducting fuel cellA '''fuel cell''' is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (often hydrogen) and an oxidizing agent (often oxygen) into electricity through a pair of redox reactions.", "Fuel cells are different from most batteries in requiring a continuous source of fuel and oxygen (usually from air) to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the chemical energy usually comes from substances that are already present in the battery.", "Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied.", "The first fuel cells were invented by Sir William Grove in 1838.The first commercial use of fuel cells came almost a century later following the invention of the hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell by Francis Thomas Bacon in 1932.The alkaline fuel cell, also known as the Bacon fuel cell after its inventor, has been used in NASA space programs since the mid-1960s to generate power for satellites and space capsules.", "Since then, fuel cells have been used in many other applications.", "Fuel cells are used for primary and backup power for commercial, industrial and residential buildings and in remote or inaccessible areas.", "They are also used to power fuel cell vehicles, including forklifts, automobiles, buses, trains, boats, motorcycles, and submarines.There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte that allows ions, often positively charged hydrogen ions (protons), to move between the two sides of the fuel cell.", "At the anode, a catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation reactions that generate ions (often positively charged hydrogen ions) and electrons.", "The ions move from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte.", "At the same time, electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing direct current electricity.", "At the cathode, another catalyst causes ions, electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water and possibly other products.", "Fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use and by the difference in startup time ranging from 1 second for proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEM fuel cells, or PEMFC) to 10 minutes for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC).", "A related technology is flow batteries, in which the fuel can be regenerated by recharging.", "Individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells are \"stacked\", or placed in series, to create sufficient voltage to meet an application's requirements.", "In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce water vapor, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts of nitrogen dioxide and other emissions.", "PEMFC cells generally produce less nitrogen oxides than SOFC cells: they operate at lower temperatures, use hydrogen as fuel, and limit the diffusion of nitrogen into the anode via the proton exchange membrane which forms NOx.", "The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40 and 60%; however, if waste heat is captured in a cogeneration scheme, efficiencies of up to 85% can be obtained." ], [ "History", "centerWilliam Grove's 1839 fuel cellThe first references to hydrogen fuel cells appeared in 1838.In a letter dated October 1838 but published in the December 1838 edition of ''The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science'', Welsh physicist and barrister Sir William Grove wrote about the development of his first crude fuel cells.", "He used a combination of sheet iron, copper, and porcelain plates, and a solution of sulphate of copper and dilute acid.", "In a letter to the same publication written in December 1838 but published in June 1839, German physicist Christian Friedrich Schönbein discussed the first crude fuel cell that he had invented.", "His letter discussed the current generated from hydrogen and oxygen dissolved in water.", "Grove later sketched his design, in 1842, in the same journal.", "The fuel cell he made used similar materials to today's phosphoric acid fuel cell.In 1932, English engineer Francis Thomas Bacon successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel cell.", "NASA used the alkaline fuel cell (AFC), also known as the Bacon fuel cell after its inventor, from the mid-1960s.In 1955, W. Thomas Grubb, a chemist working for the General Electric Company (GE), further modified the original fuel cell design by using a sulphonated polystyrene ion-exchange membrane as the electrolyte.", "Three years later another GE chemist, Leonard Niedrach, devised a way of depositing platinum onto the membrane, which served as a catalyst for the necessary hydrogen oxidation and oxygen reduction reactions.", "This became known as the \"Grubb-Niedrach fuel cell\".", "GE went on to develop this technology with NASA and McDonnell Aircraft, leading to its use during Project Gemini.", "This was the first commercial use of a fuel cell.", "In 1959, a team led by Harry Ihrig built a 15 kW fuel cell tractor for Allis-Chalmers, which was demonstrated across the U.S. at state fairs.", "This system used potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and compressed hydrogen and oxygen as the reactants.", "Later in 1959, Bacon and his colleagues demonstrated a practical five-kilowatt unit capable of powering a welding machine.", "In the 1960s, Pratt & Whitney licensed Bacon's U.S. patents for use in the U.S. space program to supply electricity and drinking water (hydrogen and oxygen being readily available from the spacecraft tanks).", "In 1991, the first hydrogen fuel cell automobile was developed by Roger E. Billings.UTC Power was the first company to manufacture and commercialize a large, stationary fuel cell system for use as a cogeneration power plant in hospitals, universities and large office buildings.In recognition of the fuel cell industry and America's role in fuel cell development, the United States Senate recognized October 8, 2015 as National Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Day, passing S. RES 217.The date was chosen in recognition of the atomic weight of hydrogen (1.008)." ], [ "Types of fuel cells; design", "Fuel cells come in many varieties; however, they all work in the same general manner.", "They are made up of three adjacent segments: the anode, the electrolyte, and the cathode.", "Two chemical reactions occur at the interfaces of the three different segments.", "The net result of the two reactions is that fuel is consumed, water or carbon dioxide is created, and an electric current is created, which can be used to power electrical devices, normally referred to as the load.At the anode a catalyst ionizes the fuel, turning the fuel into a positively charged ion and a negatively charged electron.", "The electrolyte is a substance specifically designed so ions can pass through it, but the electrons cannot.", "The freed electrons travel through a wire creating an electric current.", "The ions travel through the electrolyte to the cathode.", "Once reaching the cathode, the ions are reunited with the electrons and the two react with a third chemical, usually oxygen, to create water or carbon dioxide.A block diagram of a fuel cellDesign features in a fuel cell include:* The electrolyte substance, which usually defines the ''type'' of fuel cell, and can be made from a number of substances like potassium hydroxide, salt carbonates, and phosphoric acid.", "* The fuel that is used.", "The most common fuel is hydrogen.", "* The anode catalyst, usually fine platinum powder, breaks down the fuel into electrons and ions.", "* The cathode catalyst, often nickel, converts ions into waste chemicals, with water being the most common type of waste.", "* Gas diffusion layers that are designed to resist oxidization.A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 to 0.7 V at full rated load.", "Voltage decreases as current increases, due to several factors:* Activation loss* Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components and interconnections)* Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads, causing rapid loss of voltage).To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series to yield higher voltage, and in parallel to allow a higher current to be supplied.", "Such a design is called a ''fuel cell stack''.", "The cell surface area can also be increased, to allow higher current from each cell.===Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells===PEMFC: Bipolar plate as electrode with in-milled gas channel structure, fabricated from conductive composites (enhanced with graphite, carbon black, carbon fiber, and/or carbon nanotubes for more conductivity); Porous carbon papers; reactive layer, usually on the polymer membrane applied; polymer membrane.", "Condensation of water produced by a PEMFC on the air channel wall.", "The gold wire around the cell ensures the collection of electric current.SEM micrograph of a PEMFC MEA cross-section with a non-precious metal catalyst cathode and Pt/C anode.", "False colors applied for clarity.In the archetypical hydrogen–oxide proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) design, a proton-conducting polymer membrane (typically nafion) contains the electrolyte solution that separates the anode and cathode sides.", "This was called a ''solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell'' (''SPEFC'') in the early 1970s, before the proton-exchange mechanism was well understood.", "(Notice that the synonyms ''polymer electrolyte membrane'' and ''proton-exchange mechanism'' result in the same acronym.", ")On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it later dissociates into protons and electrons.", "These protons often react with oxidants causing them to become what are commonly referred to as multi-facilitated proton membranes.", "The protons are conducted through the membrane to the cathode, but the electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit (supplying power) because the membrane is electrically insulating.", "On the cathode catalyst, oxygen molecules react with the electrons (which have traveled through the external circuit) and protons to form water.In addition to this pure hydrogen type, there are hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells, including diesel, methanol (''see:'' direct-methanol fuel cells and indirect methanol fuel cells) and chemical hydrides.", "The waste products with these types of fuel are carbon dioxide and water.", "When hydrogen is used, the CO is released when methane from natural gas is combined with steam, in a process called steam methane reforming, to produce the hydrogen.", "This can take place in a different location to the fuel cell, potentially allowing the hydrogen fuel cell to be used indoors—for example, in fork lifts.The different components of a PEMFC are# bipolar plates,# electrodes,# catalyst,# membrane, and# the necessary hardware such as current collectors and gaskets.The materials used for different parts of the fuel cells differ by type.", "The bipolar plates may be made of different types of materials, such as, metal, coated metal, graphite, flexible graphite, C–C composite, carbon–polymer composites etc.", "The membrane electrode assembly (MEA) is referred to as the heart of the PEMFC and is usually made of a proton-exchange membrane sandwiched between two catalyst-coated carbon papers.", "Platinum and/or similar type of noble metals are usually used as the catalyst for PEMFC, and these can be contaminated by carbon monoxide, necessitating a relatively pure hydrogen fuel.", "The electrolyte could be a polymer membrane.====Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell design issues====; Cost: In 2013, the Department of Energy estimated that 80-kW automotive fuel cell system costs of per kilowatt could be achieved, assuming volume production of 100,000 automotive units per year and per kilowatt could be achieved, assuming volume production of 500,000 units per year.", "Many companies are working on techniques to reduce cost in a variety of ways including reducing the amount of platinum needed in each individual cell.", "Ballard Power Systems has experimented with a catalyst enhanced with carbon silk, which allows a 30% reduction (1.0–0.7 mg/cm2) in platinum usage without reduction in performance.", "Monash University, Melbourne uses PEDOT as a cathode.", "A 2011-published study documented the first metal-free electrocatalyst using relatively inexpensive doped carbon nanotubes, which are less than 1% the cost of platinum and are of equal or superior performance.", "A recently published article demonstrated how the environmental burdens change when using carbon nanotubes as carbon substrate for platinum.", "; Water and air management (in PEMFCs): In this type of fuel cell, the membrane must be hydrated, requiring water to be evaporated at precisely the same rate that it is produced.", "If water is evaporated too quickly, the membrane dries, resistance across it increases, and eventually it will crack, creating a gas \"short circuit\" where hydrogen and oxygen combine directly, generating heat that will damage the fuel cell.", "If the water is evaporated too slowly, the electrodes will flood, preventing the reactants from reaching the catalyst and stopping the reaction.", "Methods to manage water in cells are being developed like electroosmotic pumps focusing on flow control.", "Just as in a combustion engine, a steady ratio between the reactant and oxygen is necessary to keep the fuel cell operating efficiently.", "; Temperature management: The same temperature must be maintained throughout the cell in order to prevent destruction of the cell through thermal loading.", "This is particularly challenging as the 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O reaction is highly exothermic, so a large quantity of heat is generated within the fuel cell.", "; Durability, service life, and special requirements for some type of cells: Stationary fuel cell applications typically require more than 40,000 hours of reliable operation at a temperature of −35 °C to 40 °C (−31 °F to 104 °F), while automotive fuel cells require a 5,000-hour lifespan (the equivalent of ) under extreme temperatures.", "Current service life is 2,500 hours (about ).", "Automotive engines must also be able to start reliably at −30 °C (−22 °F) and have a high power-to-volume ratio (typically 2.5 kW/L).", "; Limited carbon monoxide tolerance of some (non-PEDOT) cathodes.=== Phosphoric acid fuel cell ===Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs) were first designed and introduced in 1961 by G. V. Elmore and H. A. Tanner.", "In these cells, phosphoric acid is used as a non-conductive electrolyte to pass protons from the anode to the cathode and to force electrons to travel from anode to cathode through an external electrical circuit.", "These cells commonly work in temperatures of 150 to 200 °C.", "This high temperature will cause heat and energy loss if the heat is not removed and used properly.", "This heat can be used to produce steam for air conditioning systems or any other thermal energy consuming system.", "Using this heat in cogeneration can enhance the efficiency of phosphoric acid fuel cells from 40 to 50% to about 80%.", "Since the proton production rate on the anode is small, platinum is used as catalyst to increase this ionization rate.", "A key disadvantage of these cells is the use of an acidic electrolyte.", "This increases the corrosion or oxidation of components exposed to phosphoric acid.=== Solid acid fuel cell ===Solid acid fuel cells (SAFCs) are characterized by the use of a solid acid material as the electrolyte.", "At low temperatures, solid acids have an ordered molecular structure like most salts.", "At warmer temperatures (between 140 and 150°C for CsHSO4), some solid acids undergo a phase transition to become highly disordered \"superprotonic\" structures, which increases conductivity by several orders of magnitude.", "The first proof-of-concept SAFCs were developed in 2000 using cesium hydrogen sulfate (CsHSO4).", "Current SAFC systems use cesium dihydrogen phosphate (CsH2PO4) and have demonstrated lifetimes in the thousands of hours.===Alkaline fuel cell===The alkaline fuel cell (AFC) or hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell was designed and first demonstrated publicly by Francis Thomas Bacon in 1959.It was used as a primary source of electrical energy in the Apollo space program.", "The cell consists of two porous carbon electrodes impregnated with a suitable catalyst such as Pt, Ag, CoO, etc.", "The space between the two electrodes is filled with a concentrated solution of KOH or NaOH which serves as an electrolyte.", "H2 gas and O2 gas are bubbled into the electrolyte through the porous carbon electrodes.", "Thus the overall reaction involves the combination of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas to form water.", "The cell runs continuously until the reactant's supply is exhausted.", "This type of cell operates efficiently in the temperature range 343–413K and provides a potential of about 0.9V.", "Alkaline anion exchange membrane fuel cell (AAEMFC) is a type of AFC which employs a solid polymer electrolyte instead of aqueous potassium hydroxide (KOH) and it is superior to aqueous AFC.===High-temperature fuel cells=======Solid oxide fuel cell====Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) use a solid material, most commonly a ceramic material called yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), as the electrolyte.", "Because SOFCs are made entirely of solid materials, they are not limited to the flat plane configuration of other types of fuel cells and are often designed as rolled tubes.", "They require high operating temperatures (800–1000 °C) and can be run on a variety of fuels including natural gas.SOFCs are unique because negatively charged oxygen ions travel from the cathode (positive side of the fuel cell) to the anode (negative side of the fuel cell) instead of protons travelling vice versa (i.e., from the anode to the cathode), as is the case in all other types of fuel cells.", "Oxygen gas is fed through the cathode, where it absorbs electrons to create oxygen ions.", "The oxygen ions then travel through the electrolyte to react with hydrogen gas at the anode.", "The reaction at the anode produces electricity and water as by-products.", "Carbon dioxide may also be a by-product depending on the fuel, but the carbon emissions from a SOFC system are less than those from a fossil fuel combustion plant.", "The chemical reactions for the SOFC system can be expressed as follows::''Anode reaction'': 2H2 + 2O2− → 2H2O + 4e−:''Cathode reaction'': O2 + 4e− → 2O2−:''Overall cell reaction'': 2H2 + O2 → 2H2OSOFC systems can run on fuels other than pure hydrogen gas.", "However, since hydrogen is necessary for the reactions listed above, the fuel selected must contain hydrogen atoms.", "For the fuel cell to operate, the fuel must be converted into pure hydrogen gas.", "SOFCs are capable of internally reforming light hydrocarbons such as methane (natural gas), propane, and butane.", "These fuel cells are at an early stage of development.Challenges exist in SOFC systems due to their high operating temperatures.", "One such challenge is the potential for carbon dust to build up on the anode, which slows down the internal reforming process.", "Research to address this \"carbon coking\" issue at the University of Pennsylvania has shown that the use of copper-based cermet (heat-resistant materials made of ceramic and metal) can reduce coking and the loss of performance.", "Another disadvantage of SOFC systems is the long start-up, making SOFCs less useful for mobile applications.", "Despite these disadvantages, a high operating temperature provides an advantage by removing the need for a precious metal catalyst like platinum, thereby reducing cost.", "Additionally, waste heat from SOFC systems may be captured and reused, increasing the theoretical overall efficiency to as high as 80–85%.The high operating temperature is largely due to the physical properties of the YSZ electrolyte.", "As temperature decreases, so does the ionic conductivity of YSZ.", "Therefore, to obtain the optimum performance of the fuel cell, a high operating temperature is required.", "According to their website, Ceres Power, a UK SOFC fuel cell manufacturer, has developed a method of reducing the operating temperature of their SOFC system to 500–600 degrees Celsius.", "They replaced the commonly used YSZ electrolyte with a CGO (cerium gadolinium oxide) electrolyte.", "The lower operating temperature allows them to use stainless steel instead of ceramic as the cell substrate, which reduces cost and start-up time of the system.====Molten-carbonate fuel cell====Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) require a high operating temperature, , similar to SOFCs.", "MCFCs use lithium potassium carbonate salt as an electrolyte, and this salt liquefies at high temperatures, allowing for the movement of charge within the cell – in this case, negative carbonate ions.Like SOFCs, MCFCs are capable of converting fossil fuel to a hydrogen-rich gas in the anode, eliminating the need to produce hydrogen externally.", "The reforming process creates emissions.", "MCFC-compatible fuels include natural gas, biogas and gas produced from coal.", "The hydrogen in the gas reacts with carbonate ions from the electrolyte to produce water, carbon dioxide, electrons and small amounts of other chemicals.", "The electrons travel through an external circuit creating electricity and return to the cathode.", "There, oxygen from the air and carbon dioxide recycled from the anode react with the electrons to form carbonate ions that replenish the electrolyte, completing the circuit.", "The chemical reactions for an MCFC system can be expressed as follows::''Anode reaction'': CO32− + H2 → H2O + CO2 + 2e−:''Cathode reaction'': CO2 + ½O2 + 2e− → CO32−:''Overall cell reaction'': H2 + ½O2 → H2OAs with SOFCs, MCFC disadvantages include slow start-up times because of their high operating temperature.", "This makes MCFC systems not suitable for mobile applications, and this technology will most likely be used for stationary fuel cell purposes.", "The main challenge of MCFC technology is the cells' short life span.", "The high-temperature and carbonate electrolyte lead to corrosion of the anode and cathode.", "These factors accelerate the degradation of MCFC components, decreasing the durability and cell life.", "Researchers are addressing this problem by exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs that may increase cell life without decreasing performance.MCFCs hold several advantages over other fuel cell technologies, including their resistance to impurities.", "They are not prone to \"carbon coking\", which refers to carbon build-up on the anode that results in reduced performance by slowing down the internal fuel reforming process.", "Therefore, carbon-rich fuels like gases made from coal are compatible with the system.", "The United States Department of Energy claims that coal, itself, might even be a fuel option in the future, assuming the system can be made resistant to impurities such as sulfur and particulates that result from converting coal into hydrogen.", "MCFCs also have relatively high efficiencies.", "They can reach a fuel-to-electricity efficiency of 50%, considerably higher than the 37–42% efficiency of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant.", "Efficiencies can be as high as 65% when the fuel cell is paired with a turbine, and 85% if heat is captured and used in a combined heat and power (CHP) system.FuelCell Energy, a Connecticut-based fuel cell manufacturer, develops and sells MCFC fuel cells.", "The company says that their MCFC products range from 300 kW to 2.8 MW systems that achieve 47% electrical efficiency and can utilize CHP technology to obtain higher overall efficiencies.", "One product, the DFC-ERG, is combined with a gas turbine and, according to the company, it achieves an electrical efficiency of 65%.===Electric storage fuel cell===The electric storage fuel cell is a conventional battery chargeable by electric power input, using the conventional electro-chemical effect.", "However, the battery further includes hydrogen (and oxygen) inputs for alternatively charging the battery chemically.===Comparison of fuel cell types=== Fuel cell name Electrolyte Qualified power (W) Working temperature (°C) Efficiency Status Cost (USD/W) Cell System Electro-galvanic fuel cell Aqueous alkaline solution 3-7 Direct formic acid fuel cell (DFAFC) Polymer membrane (ionomer) 10-20 Alkaline fuel cell Aqueous alkaline solution 50-100 Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell Polymer membrane (ionomer) 50–100 Metal hydride fuel cell Aqueous alkaline solution 30-200 Zinc–air battery Aqueous alkaline solution Mass production 150-300 Direct carbon fuel cell Several different 18 Direct borohydride fuel cell Aqueous alkaline solution 400-450 Microbial fuel cell Polymer membrane or humic acid 10-50 Upflow microbial fuel cell (UMFC) 1-5 Regenerative fuel cell Polymer membrane (ionomer) 200-300 Direct methanol fuel cell Polymer membrane (ionomer) 125 Reformed methanol fuel cell Polymer membrane (ionomer) 8.50 Direct-ethanol fuel cell Polymer membrane (ionomer) 12 Redox fuel cell (RFC) Liquid electrolytes with redox shuttle and polymer membrane (ionomer) 12.50 Phosphoric acid fuel cell Molten phosphoric acid (H3PO4) 4.00–4.50 Solid acid fuel cell H+-conducting oxyanion salt (solid acid) 15 Molten carbonate fuel cell Molten alkaline carbonate 1000 Tubular solid oxide fuel cell (TSOFC) O2−-conducting ceramic oxide 3.50 Protonic ceramic fuel cell H+-conducting ceramic oxide 80 Planar solid oxide fuel cell O2−-conducting ceramic oxide 800 Enzymatic biofuel cells Any that will not denature the enzyme 10 Magnesium-air fuel cell Salt water 15Glossary of terms in table:; Anode: The electrode at which oxidation (a loss of electrons) takes place.", "For fuel cells and other galvanic cells, the anode is the negative terminal; for electrolytic cells (where electrolysis occurs), the anode is the positive terminal.", "; Aqueous solution; Catalyst: A chemical substance that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed; after the reaction, it can potentially be recovered from the reaction mixture and is chemically unchanged.", "The catalyst lowers the activation energy required, allowing the reaction to proceed more quickly or at a lower temperature.", "In a fuel cell, the catalyst facilitates the reaction of oxygen and hydrogen.", "It is usually made of platinum powder very thinly coated onto carbon paper or cloth.", "The catalyst is rough and porous so the maximum surface area of the platinum can be exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen.", "The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces the membrane in the fuel cell.", "; Cathode: The electrode at which reduction (a gain of electrons) occurs.", "For fuel cells and other galvanic cells, the cathode is the positive terminal; for electrolytic cells (where electrolysis occurs), the cathode is the negative terminal.", "; Electrolyte: A substance that conducts charged ions from one electrode to the other in a fuel cell, battery, or electrolyzer.", "; Fuel cell stack: Individual fuel cells connected in a series.", "Fuel cells are stacked to increase voltage.", "; Matrix: something within or from which something else originates, develops, or takes form.", "; Membrane: The separating layer in a fuel cell that acts as electrolyte (an ion-exchanger) as well as a barrier film separating the gases in the anode and cathode compartments of the fuel cell.", "; Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC): A type of fuel cell that contains a molten carbonate electrolyte.", "Carbonate ions (CO32−) are transported from the cathode to the anode.", "Operating temperatures are typically near 650 °C.", "; Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC): A type of fuel cell in which the electrolyte consists of concentrated phosphoric acid (H3PO4).", "Protons (H+) are transported from the anode to the cathode.", "The operating temperature range is generally 160–220 °C.", "; Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEM): A fuel cell incorporating a solid polymer membrane used as its electrolyte.", "Protons (H+) are transported from the anode to the cathode.", "The operating temperature range is generally 60–100 °C for Low Temperature Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (LT-PEMFC).", "PEM fuel cell with operating temperature of 120-200 °C is called High Temperature Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (HT-PEMFC).", "; Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC): A type of fuel cell in which the electrolyte is a solid, nonporous metal oxide, typically zirconium oxide (ZrO2) treated with Y2O3, and O2− is transported from the cathode to the anode.", "Any CO in the reformate gas is oxidized to CO2 at the anode.", "Temperatures of operation are typically 800–1,000 °C.", "; Solution" ], [ "Efficiency of leading fuel cell types", "===Theoretical maximum efficiency===The energy efficiency of a system or device that converts energy is measured by the ratio of the amount of useful energy put out by the system (\"output energy\") to the total amount of energy that is put in (\"input energy\") or by useful output energy as a percentage of the total input energy.", "In the case of fuel cells, useful output energy is measured in electrical energy produced by the system.", "Input energy is the energy stored in the fuel.", "According to the U.S. Department of Energy, fuel cells are generally between 40 and 60% energy efficient.", "This is higher than some other systems for energy generation.", "For example, the internal combustion engine of a car can be about 43% energy efficient.", "Steam power plants usually achieve efficiencies of 30-40% while combined cycle gas turbine and steam plants can achieve efficiencies as high as 60%.", "In combined heat and power (CHP) systems, the waste heat produced by the primary power cycle - whether fuel cell, nuclear fission or combustion - is captured and put to use, increasing the efficiency of the system to up to 85–90%.The theoretical maximum efficiency of any type of power generation system is never reached in practice, and it does not consider other steps in power generation, such as production, transportation and storage of fuel and conversion of the electricity into mechanical power.", "However, this calculation allows the comparison of different types of power generation.", "The theoretical maximum efficiency of a fuel cell approaches 100%, while the theoretical maximum efficiency of internal combustion engines is approximately 58%.===In practice===Values are given from 40% for acidic, 50% for molten carbonate, to 60% for alkaline, solid oxide and PEM fuel cells.Fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery, except as hydrogen, but in some applications, such as stand-alone power plants based on discontinuous sources such as solar or wind power, they are combined with electrolyzers and storage systems to form an energy storage system.", "As of 2019, 90% of hydrogen was used for oil refining, chemicals and fertilizer production (where hydrogen is required for the Haber–Bosch process), and 98% of hydrogen is produced by steam methane reforming, which emits carbon dioxide.", "The overall efficiency (electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity) of such plants (known as ''round-trip efficiency''), using pure hydrogen and pure oxygen can be \"from 35 up to 50 percent\", depending on gas density and other conditions.", "The electrolyzer/fuel cell system can store indefinite quantities of hydrogen, and is therefore suited for long-term storage.Solid-oxide fuel cells produce heat from the recombination of the oxygen and hydrogen.", "The ceramic can run as hot as 800 degrees Celsius.", "This heat can be captured and used to heat water in a micro combined heat and power (m-CHP) application.", "When the heat is captured, total efficiency can reach 80–90% at the unit, but does not consider production and distribution losses.", "CHP units are being developed today for the European home market.Professor Jeremy P. Meyers, in the Electrochemical Society journal ''Interface'' in 2008, wrote, \"While fuel cells are efficient relative to combustion engines, they are not as efficient as batteries, primarily due to the inefficiency of the oxygen reduction reaction (and ... the oxygen evolution reaction, should the hydrogen be formed by electrolysis of water)....", "They make the most sense for operation disconnected from the grid, or when fuel can be provided continuously.", "For applications that require frequent and relatively rapid start-ups ... where zero emissions are a requirement, as in enclosed spaces such as warehouses, and where hydrogen is considered an acceptable reactant, a PEM fuel cell is becoming an increasingly attractive choice if exchanging batteries is inconvenient\".", "In 2013 military organizations were evaluating fuel cells to determine if they could significantly reduce the battery weight carried by soldiers.==== In vehicles ====In a fuel cell vehicle the tank-to-wheel efficiency is greater than 45% at low loads and shows average values of about 36% when a driving cycle like the NEDC (New European Driving Cycle) is used as test procedure.", "The comparable NEDC value for a Diesel vehicle is 22%.", "In 2008 Honda released a demonstration fuel cell electric vehicle (the Honda FCX Clarity) with fuel stack claiming a 60% tank-to-wheel efficiency.It is also important to take losses due to fuel production, transportation, and storage into account.", "Fuel cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power-plant-to-wheel efficiency of 22% if the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas, and 17% if it is stored as liquid hydrogen." ], [ "Applications", "Type 212 submarine with fuel cell propulsion.", "This example in dry dock is operated by the German Navy.===Power===Stationary fuel cells are used for commercial, industrial and residential primary and backup power generation.", "Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks, communications centers, rural locations including research stations, and in certain military applications.", "A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact and lightweight, and have no major moving parts.", "Because fuel cells have no moving parts and do not involve combustion, in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99.9999% reliability.", "This equates to less than one minute of downtime in a six-year period.Since fuel cell electrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves, but rather rely on external storage units, they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural areas being one example.", "There are many different types of stationary fuel cells so efficiencies vary, but most are between 40% and 60% energy efficient.", "However, when the fuel cell's waste heat is used to heat a building in a cogeneration system this efficiency can increase to 85%.", "This is significantly more efficient than traditional coal power plants, which are only about one third energy efficient.", "Assuming production at scale, fuel cells could save 20–40% on energy costs when used in cogeneration systems.", "Fuel cells are also much cleaner than traditional power generation; a fuel cell power plant using natural gas as a hydrogen source would create less than one ounce of pollution (other than ) for every 1,000 kW·h produced, compared to 25 pounds of pollutants generated by conventional combustion systems.", "Fuel Cells also produce 97% less nitrogen oxide emissions than conventional coal-fired power plants.One such pilot program is operating on Stuart Island in Washington State.", "There the Stuart Island Energy Initiative has built a complete, closed-loop system: Solar panels power an electrolyzer, which makes hydrogen.", "The hydrogen is stored in a tank at , and runs a ReliOn fuel cell to provide full electric back-up to the off-the-grid residence.", "Another closed system loop was unveiled in late 2011 in Hempstead, NY.Fuel cells can be used with low-quality gas from landfills or waste-water treatment plants to generate power and lower methane emissions.", "A 2.8 MW fuel cell plant in California is said to be the largest of the type.", "Small-scale (sub-5kWhr) fuel cells are being developed for use in residential off-grid deployment.===Cogeneration===Combined heat and power (CHP) fuel cell systems, including micro combined heat and power (MicroCHP) systems are used to generate both electricity and heat for homes (see home fuel cell), office building and factories.", "The system generates constant electric power (selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed), and at the same time produces hot air and water from the waste heat.", "As the result CHP systems have the potential to save primary energy as they can make use of waste heat which is generally rejected by thermal energy conversion systems.", "A typical capacity range of home fuel cell is 1–3 kWel, 4–8 kWth.", "CHP systems linked to absorption chillers use their waste heat for refrigeration.The waste heat from fuel cells can be diverted during the summer directly into the ground providing further cooling while the waste heat during winter can be pumped directly into the building.", "The University of Minnesota owns the patent rights to this type of system.Co-generation systems can reach 85% efficiency (40–60% electric and the remainder as thermal).", "Phosphoric-acid fuel cells (PAFC) comprise the largest segment of existing CHP products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 90%.", "Molten carbonate (MCFC) and solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFC) are also used for combined heat and power generation and have electrical energy efficiencies around 60%.", "Disadvantages of co-generation systems include slow ramping up and down rates, high cost and short lifetime.", "Also their need to have a hot water storage tank to smooth out the thermal heat production was a serious disadvantage in the domestic market place where space in domestic properties is at a great premium.Delta-ee consultants stated in 2013 that with 64% of global sales the fuel cell micro-combined heat and power passed the conventional systems in sales in 2012.The Japanese ENE FARM project stated that 34.213 PEMFC and 2.224 SOFC were installed in the period 2012–2014, 30,000 units on LNG and 6,000 on LPG.===Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)===Configuration of components in a fuel cell carToyota MiraiElement One fuel cell vehicle====Automobiles====By year-end 2019, about 18,000 FCEVs had been leased or sold worldwide.", "Three fuel cell electric vehicles have been introduced for commercial lease and sale: the Honda Clarity, Toyota Mirai and the Hyundai ix35 FCEV.", "Additional demonstration models include the Honda FCX Clarity, and Mercedes-Benz F-Cell.", "As of June 2011 demonstration FCEVs had driven more than , with more than 27,000 refuelings.", "Fuel cell electric vehicles feature an average range of between refuelings.", "They can be refueled in less than 5 minutes.", "The U.S. Department of Energy's Fuel Cell Technology Program states that, as of 2011, fuel cells achieved 53–59% efficiency at one-quarter power and 42–53% vehicle efficiency at full power, and a durability of over with less than 10% degradation.", "In a 2017 Well-to-Wheels simulation analysis that \"did not address the economics and market constraints\", General Motors and its partners estimated that, for an equivalent journey, a fuel cell electric vehicle running on compressed gaseous hydrogen produced from natural gas could use about 40% less energy and emit 45% less greenhouse gasses than an internal combustion vehicle.In 2015, Toyota introduced its first fuel cell vehicle, the Mirai, at a price of $57,000.Hyundai introduced the limited production Hyundai ix35 FCEV under a lease agreement.", "In 2016, Honda started leasing the Honda Clarity Fuel Cell.", "In 2020, Toyota introduced the second generation of its Mirai brand, improving fuel efficiency and expanding range compared to the original Sedan 2014 model.=====Criticism=====Some commentators believe that hydrogen fuel cell cars will never become economically competitive with other technologies or that it will take decades for them to become profitable.", "Elon Musk, CEO of battery-electric vehicle maker Tesla Motors, stated in 2015 that fuel cells for use in cars will never be commercially viable because of the inefficiency of producing, transporting and storing hydrogen and the flammability of the gas, among other reasons.", "In 2012, Lux Research, Inc. issued a report that stated: \"The dream of a hydrogen economy ... is no nearer\".", "It concluded that \"Capital cost ... will limit adoption to a mere 5.9 GW\" by 2030, providing \"a nearly insurmountable barrier to adoption, except in niche applications\".", "The analysis concluded that, by 2030, PEM stationary market will reach $1 billion, while the vehicle market, including forklifts, will reach a total of $2 billion.", "Other analyses cite the lack of an extensive hydrogen infrastructure in the U.S. as an ongoing challenge to Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle commercialization.In 2014, Joseph Romm, the author of ''The Hype About Hydrogen'' (2005), said that FCVs still had not overcome the high fueling cost, lack of fuel-delivery infrastructure, and pollution caused by producing hydrogen.", "\"It would take several miracles to overcome all of those problems simultaneously in the coming decades.\"", "He concluded that renewable energy cannot economically be used to make hydrogen for an FCV fleet \"either now or in the future.\"", "Greentech Media's analyst reached similar conclusions in 2014.In 2015, ''CleanTechnica'' listed some of the disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.", "So did ''Car Throttle''.", "A 2019 video by ''Real Engineering'' noted that, notwithstanding the introduction of vehicles that run on hydrogen, using hydrogen as a fuel for cars does not help to reduce carbon emissions from transportation.", "The 95% of hydrogen still produced from fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, and producing hydrogen from water is an energy-consuming process.", "Storing hydrogen requires more energy either to cool it down to the liquid state or to put it into tanks under high pressure, and delivering the hydrogen to fueling stations requires more energy and may release more carbon.", "The hydrogen needed to move a FCV a kilometer costs approximately 8 times as much as the electricity needed to move a BEV the same distance.A 2020 assessment concluded that hydrogen vehicles are still only 38% efficient, while battery EVs are 80% efficient.", "In 2021 ''CleanTechnica'' concluded that (a) hydrogen cars remain far less efficient than electric cars; (b) grey hydrogen – hydrogen produced with polluting processes – makes up the vast majority of available hydrogen; (c) delivering hydrogen would require building a vast and expensive new delivery and refueling infrastructure; and (d) the remaining two \"advantages of fuel cell vehicles – longer range and fast fueling times – are rapidly being eroded by improving battery and charging technology.\"", "A 2022 study in ''Nature Electronics'' agreed.", "A 2023 study by the Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research (CICERO) estimated that leaked hydrogen has a global warming effect 11.6 times stronger than CO₂.====Buses====Toyota FCHV-BUS at the Expo 2005 , there were about 100 fuel cell buses in service around the world.", "Most of these were manufactured by UTC Power, Toyota, Ballard, Hydrogenics, and Proton Motor.", "UTC buses had driven more than by 2011.Fuel cell buses have from 39% to 141% higher fuel economy than diesel buses and natural gas buses., the NREL was evaluating several current and planned fuel cell bus projects in the U.S.====Trains====In 2018, the first fuel cell-powered trains, the Alstom Coradia iLint multiple units, began running on the Buxtehude–Bremervörde–Bremerhaven–Cuxhaven line in Germany.", "These trains offer the advantages of electric trains over Diesel locomotives and DMU's in eliminating smokestack emissions from the trains themselves without the use of electrification by overhead catenary infrastructure.", "Such trains have been ordered or are being tested in Sweden and the UK.====Trucks====In December 2020, Toyota and Hino Motors, together with Seven-Eleven (Japan), FamilyMart and Lawson announced that they have agreed to jointly consider introducing light-duty fuel cell electric trucks (light-duty FCETs).", "Lawson started testing for low temperature delivery at the end of July 2021 in Tokyo, using a Hino Dutro in which the Toyota Mirai fuel cell is implemented.", "FamilyMart started testing in Okazaki city.In August 2021, Toyota announced their plan to make fuel cell modules at its Kentucky auto-assembly plant for use in zero-emission big rigs and heavy-duty commercial vehicles.", "They plan to begin assembling the electrochemical devices in 2023.In October 2021, Daimler Truck's fuel cell based truck received approval from German authorities for use on public roads.====Forklifts====A fuel cell forklift (also called a fuel cell lift truck) is a fuel cell-powered industrial forklift truck used to lift and transport materials.", "In 2013 there were over 4,000 fuel cell forklifts used in material handling in the US, of which 500 received funding from DOE (2012).", "As of 2024, approximately 50,000 hydrogen forklifts are in operation worldwide (the bulk of which are in the U.S.), as compared with 1.2 million battery electric forklifts that were purchased in 2021.Most companies in Europe and the US do not use petroleum-powered forklifts, as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use electric forklifts.", "Fuel cell-powered forklifts can be refueled in 3 minutes and they can be used in refrigerated warehouses, where their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures.", "The FC units are often designed as drop-in replacements.====Motorcycles and bicycles====In 2005, a British manufacturer of hydrogen-powered fuel cells, Intelligent Energy (IE), produced the first working hydrogen-run motorcycle called the ENV (Emission Neutral Vehicle).", "The motorcycle holds enough fuel to run for four hours, and to travel in an urban area, at a top speed of .", "In 2004 Honda developed a fuel cell motorcycle that utilized the Honda FC Stack.Other examples of motorbikes and bicycles that use hydrogen fuel cells include the Taiwanese company APFCT's scooter using the fueling system from Italy's Acta SpA and the Suzuki Burgman scooter with an IE fuel cell that received EU Whole Vehicle Type Approval in 2011.Suzuki Motor Corp. and IE have announced a joint venture to accelerate the commercialization of zero-emission vehicles.====Airplanes====In 2003, the world's first propeller-driven airplane to be powered entirely by a fuel cell was flown.", "The fuel cell was a stack design that allowed the fuel cell to be integrated with the plane's aerodynamic surfaces.", "Fuel cell-powered unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) include a Horizon fuel cell UAV that set the record distance flown for a small UAV in 2007.Boeing researchers and industry partners throughout Europe conducted experimental flight tests in February 2008 of a manned airplane powered only by a fuel cell and lightweight batteries.", "The fuel cell demonstrator airplane, as it was called, used a proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which was coupled to a conventional propeller.In 2009, the Naval Research Laboratory's (NRL's) Ion Tiger utilized a hydrogen-powered fuel cell and flew for 23 hours and 17 minutes.", "Fuel cells are also being tested and considered to provide auxiliary power in aircraft, replacing fossil fuel generators that were previously used to start the engines and power on board electrical needs, while reducing carbon emissions.", "In 2016 a Raptor E1 drone made a successful test flight using a fuel cell that was lighter than the lithium-ion battery it replaced.", "The flight lasted 10 minutes at an altitude of , although the fuel cell reportedly had enough fuel to fly for two hours.", "The fuel was contained in approximately 100 solid pellets composed of a proprietary chemical within an unpressurized cartridge.", "The pellets are physically robust and operate at temperatures as warm as .", "The cell was from Arcola Energy.Lockheed Martin Skunk Works Stalker is an electric UAV powered by solid oxide fuel cell.====Boats====Hydra), in Leipzig, GermanyThe Hydra, a 22-person fuel cell boat operated from 1999 to 2001 on the Rhine river near Bonn, Germany, and was used as a ferry boat in Ghent, Belgium, during an electric boat conference in 2000.It was fully certified by the Germanischer Lloyd for passenger transport.", "The Zemship, a small passenger ship, was produced in 2003 to 2013.It used a 100 kW Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) with 7 lead gel batteries.", "With these systems, alongside 12 storage tanks, fuel cells provided an energy capacity of 560 V and 234 Kwh.", "Made in Hamburg, Germany, the FCS Alsterwasser, revealed in 2008, was one of the first passenger ships powered by fuel cells and could carry 100 passengers.", "The hybrid fuel cell technology that powered this ship was produced by Proton Motor Fuel Cell GmbH.", "In 2010, the MF Vågen was first produced, utilizing 12 Kw fuel cells and 2-to-3-kilogram metal hydride hydrogen storage.", "It also utilizes 25kwh lithium batteries and a 10 kw DC motor.The Hornblower Hybrid debuted in 2012.It utilizes a diesel generator, batteries, photovoltaics, wind power, and fuel cells for energy.", "Made in Bristol, a 12 passenger hybrid ferry, Hydrogenesis, has been in operation since 2012.The SF-BREEZE is a two-motor boat that utilizes 41 x 120 Kw fuel cells.", "With a type C storage tank, the pressurized vessel can maintain 1200kg of LH2.These ships are still in operation today.", "In Norway, the first ferry powered by fuel cells running on liquid hydrogen was scheduled for its first test drives in December 2022.The Type 212 submarines of the German and Italian navies use fuel cells to remain submerged for weeks without the need to surface.", "The U212A is a non-nuclear submarine developed by German naval shipyard Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft.", "The system consists of nine PEM fuel cells, providing between 30 kW and 50 kW each.", "The ship is silent, giving it an advantage in the detection of other submarines.===Portable power systems===Portable fuel cell systems are generally classified as weighing under 10 kg and providing power of less than 5 kW.", "The potential market size for smaller fuel cells is quite large with an up to 40% per annum potential growth rate and a market size of around $10 billion, leading a great deal of research to be devoted to the development of portable power cells.", "Within this market two groups have been identified.", "The first is the microfuel cell market, in the 1-50 W range for power smaller electronic devices.", "The second is the 1-5 kW range of generators for larger scale power generation (e.g.", "military outposts, remote oil fields).Microfuel cells are primarily aimed at penetrating the market for phones and laptops.", "This can be primarily attributed to the advantageous energy density provided by fuel cells over a lithium-ion battery, for the entire system.", "For a battery, this system includes the charger as well as the battery itself.", "For the fuel cell this system would include the cell, the necessary fuel and peripheral attachments.", "Taking the full system into consideration, fuel cells have been shown to provide 530Wh/kg compared to 44 Wh/kg for lithium ion batteries.", "However, while the weight of fuel cell systems offer a distinct advantage the current costs are not in their favor.", "while a battery system will generally cost around $1.20 per Wh, fuel cell systems cost around $5 per Wh, putting them at a significant disadvantage.As power demands for cell phones increase, fuel cells could become much more attractive options for larger power generation.", "The demand for longer on time on phones and computers is something often demanded by consumers so fuel cells could start to make strides into laptop and cell phone markets.", "The price will continue to go down as developments in fuel cells continues to accelerate.", "Current strategies for improving micro fuel cells is through the use of carbon nanotubes.", "It was shown by Girishkumar et al.", "that depositing nanotubes on electrode surfaces allows for substantially greater surface area increasing the oxygen reduction rate.Fuel cells for use in larger scale operations also show much promise.", "Portable power systems that use fuel cells can be used in the leisure sector (i.e.", "RVs, cabins, marine), the industrial sector (i.e.", "power for remote locations including gas/oil wellsites, communication towers, security, weather stations), and in the military sector.", "SFC Energy is a German manufacturer of direct methanol fuel cells for a variety of portable power systems.", "Ensol Systems Inc. is an integrator of portable power systems, using the SFC Energy DMFC.", "The key advantage of fuel cells in this market is the great power generation per weight.", "While fuel cells can be expensive, for remote locations that require dependable energy fuel cells hold great power.", "For a 72-h excursion the comparison in weight is substantial, with a fuel cell only weighing 15 pounds compared to 29 pounds of batteries needed for the same energy.===Other applications===* Providing power for base stations or cell sites* Distributed generation * Emergency power systems are a type of fuel cell system, which may include lighting, generators and other apparatus, to provide backup resources in a crisis or when regular systems fail.", "They find uses in a wide variety of settings from residential homes to hospitals, scientific laboratories, data centers, * Telecommunication equipment and modern naval ships.", "* An uninterrupted power supply (''UPS'') provides emergency power and, depending on the topology, provide line regulation as well to connected equipment by supplying power from a separate source when utility power is not available.", "Unlike a standby generator, it can provide instant protection from a momentary power interruption.", "* Base load power plants * Hybrid vehicles, pairing the fuel cell with either an ICE or a battery.", "* Notebook computers for applications where AC charging may not be readily available.", "* Portable charging docks for small electronics (e.g.", "a belt clip that charges a cell phone or PDA).", "* Smartphones, laptops and tablets.", "* Small heating appliances* Food preservation, achieved by exhausting the oxygen and automatically maintaining oxygen exhaustion in a shipping container, containing, for example, fresh fish.", "* Breathalyzers, where the amount of voltage generated by a fuel cell is used to determine the concentration of fuel (alcohol) in the sample.", "*Carbon monoxide detector, electrochemical sensor.===Fueling stations===Hydrogen fueling station.According to FuelCellsWorks, an industry group, at the end of 2019, 330 hydrogen refueling stations were open to the public worldwide.", "As of June 2020, there were 178 publicly available hydrogen stations in operation in Asia.", "114 of these were in Japan.", "There were at least 177 stations in Europe, and about half of these were in Germany.", "There were 44 publicly accessible stations in the US, 42 of which were located in California.A hydrogen fueling station costs between $1 million and $4 million to build.=== Social Implications ===As of 2023, technological barriers to fuel cell adoption remain.", "Fuel cells are primarily for material handling in warehouses, distribution centers, and manufacturing facilities.", "They are projected to be useful and sustainable in a wider range applications.", "But current applications do not often reach lower-income communities, though some attempts at inclusivity are being made, for example in accessibility." ], [ "Markets and economics", "In 2012, fuel cell industry revenues exceeded $1 billion market value worldwide, with Asian pacific countries shipping more than 3/4 of the fuel cell systems worldwide.", "However, as of January 2014, no public company in the industry had yet become profitable.", "There were 140,000 fuel cell stacks shipped globally in 2010, up from 11,000 shipments in 2007, and from 2011 to 2012 worldwide fuel cell shipments had an annual growth rate of 85%.", "Tanaka Kikinzoku expanded its manufacturing facilities in 2011.Approximately 50% of fuel cell shipments in 2010 were stationary fuel cells, up from about a third in 2009, and the four dominant producers in the Fuel Cell Industry were the United States, Germany, Japan and South Korea.", "The Department of Energy Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance found that, as of January 2011, stationary fuel cells generated power at approximately $724 to $775 per kilowatt installed.", "In 2011, Bloom Energy, a major fuel cell supplier, said that its fuel cells generated power at 9–11 cents per kilowatt-hour, including the price of fuel, maintenance, and hardware.Industry groups predict that there are sufficient platinum resources for future demand, and in 2007, research at Brookhaven National Laboratory suggested that platinum could be replaced by a gold-palladium coating, which may be less susceptible to poisoning and thereby improve fuel cell lifetime.", "Another method would use iron and sulphur instead of platinum.", "This would lower the cost of a fuel cell (as the platinum in a regular fuel cell costs around , and the same amount of iron costs only around ).", "The concept was being developed by a coalition of the John Innes Centre and the University of Milan-Bicocca.", "PEDOT cathodes are immune to carbon monoxide poisoning.In 2016, Samsung \"decided to drop fuel cell-related business projects, as the outlook of the market isn't good\"." ], [ "Research and development", "* 2005: Georgia Institute of Technology researchers used triazole to raise the operating temperature of PEM fuel cells from below 100 °C to over 125 °C, claiming this will require less carbon-monoxide purification of the hydrogen fuel.", "* 2008: Monash University, Melbourne used PEDOT as a cathode.", "* 2009: Researchers at the University of Dayton, in Ohio, showed that arrays of vertically grown carbon nanotubes could be used as the catalyst in fuel cells.", "The same year, a nickel bisdiphosphine-based catalyst for fuel cells was demonstrated.", "* 2013: British firm ACAL Energy developed a fuel cell that it said can run for 10,000 hours in simulated driving conditions.", "It asserted that the cost of fuel cell construction can be reduced to $40/kW (roughly $9,000 for 300 HP).", "* 2014: Researchers in Imperial College London developed a new method for regeneration of hydrogen sulfide contaminated PEFCs.", "They recovered 95–100% of the original performance of a hydrogen sulfide contaminated PEFC.", "They were successful in rejuvenating a SO2 contaminated PEFC too.", "This regeneration method is applicable to multiple cell stacks.", "* 2019: U.S. Army Research Laboratory researchers developed a two part in-situ hydrogen generation fuel cell, one part for hydrogen generation and the other for electric power generation through an internal hydrogen/air power plant.", "* 2022: Researchers from University of Delaware developed a hydrogen powered fuel cell that is projected to function at lower costs, operating at roughly $1.4/kW.", "This design removes carbon dioxide from the air feed of hydroxide exchange membrane fuel cells." ], [ "See also", "* Bio-nano generator* Cryptophane* Fuel Cell Development Information Center* Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative* Grid energy storage* Hydrogen reformer* Hydrogen storage* Hydrogen technologies* List of fuel cell manufacturers* Methanol reformer* PEM electrolysis" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Fuel Cell Origins: 1840–1890* EERE: Hydrogen, Fuel Cells and Infrastructure Technologies Program* Thermodynamics of electrolysis of water and hydrogen fuel cells* DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package: \"Fuel Cells\"" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Finlandization" ], [ "Introduction", "Urho Kekkonen and Leonid Brežnev in 1960 during Kekkonen's state visit to the Soviet Union.", "'''Finlandization''' (; ; ; ; ) is the process by which one powerful country makes a smaller neighboring country refrain from opposing the former's foreign policy rules, while allowing it to keep its nominal independence and its own political system.", "The term means \"to become like Finland\", referring to the influence of the Soviet Union on Finland's policies during the Cold War.The term is often considered pejorative.", "It originated in the West German political debate of the late 1960s and 1970s.", "As the term was used in West Germany and other NATO countries, it referred to the decision of a country not to challenge a more powerful neighbour in foreign politics, while maintaining national sovereignty.", "It is commonly used in reference to Finland's policies in relation to the Soviet Union during the Cold War, but it can refer more generally to similar international relations, such as Denmark's attitude toward Germany between 1871 and 1940, or the policies of the Swiss government towards Nazi Germany until the end of World War II." ], [ "Origin and international usage", "Finland's President Urho Kekkonen, translator Kustaa Loikkanen and General Secretary Nikita Khrushchov talking, at Kekkonen's 60th birthdayIn Germany, the term was used mainly by proponents of closer adaptation to US policies, chiefly Franz Josef Strauss, but was initially coined in scholarly debate, and made known by the German political scientists Richard Löwenthal, Walter Hallstein and Kurt Birrenbach, reflecting feared effects of withdrawal of US troops from Germany.", "It came to be used in the debate of the NATO countries in response to Willy Brandt's attempts to normalise relations with East Germany, and the following widespread scepticism in Germany against NATO's Dual-Track Decision.", "Later, after the fall of the Soviet Union, the term has been used in Finland for the post-1968 radicalisation in the latter half of the Urho Kekkonen era.In the 1990s, Finlandization was also discussed as a potential strategy that the Soviet Union under Gorbachev may have attempted to revise its relationship with the Warsaw Pact states from 1989 to 1991, as a way to transition from informal empire to a looser sphere of influence model, which was precluded by the fall of the USSR.United States foreign policy experts consistently feared that Western Europe would be Finlandized by the Soviet Union, leading to a situation in which these key allies would no longer support the United States against the Soviet Union.", "The theory of bandwagoning provided support for the idea that if the United States was not able to provide strong and credible support for the anti-communist positions of its allies, NATO and the U.S.–Japan alliance could collapse.As early as 2010 Shinzo Abe feared the Finlandization of Japan and South Korea to China, because of its growing clout and power.The term has also been used in discussing other countries, for example as a potential outcome of the Russo-Ukrainian War." ], [ "Finnish perception", "In April 1970, a Finnish stamp was issued in honour of the 100th anniversary of the birth of Vladimir Lenin and the Lenin Symposium held that year in Tampere.Finns have, and had, a wide variety of reactions to the term \"Finlandization\".", "Some have perceived the term as blunt criticism, stemming from an inability to understand the practicalities of how a small nation needs to deal with an adjacent superpower without losing its sovereignty.", "These practicalities existed primarily because of the lingering effect of Russian rule in the time before the Finns first gained sovereignty; and because of the precarious power balance eastwards, springing from a geographically extended yet sparsely populated state with a traditionally imperialist superpower right across the border.The reason Finland engaged in Finlandization was primarily Realpolitik: to survive.", "On the other hand, the threat of the Soviet Union was used also in Finland's domestic politics in a way that possibly deepened Finlandization (playing the so-called ).", "Finland made such a deal with Joseph Stalin's government in the late 1940s, and it was largely respected by both parties—and to the gain of both parties—until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991.While the Finnish political and intellectual elite mostly understood the term to refer more to the foreign policy problems of other countries, and meant mostly for domestic consumption in the speaker's own country, many ordinary Finns considered the term highly offensive.", "The Finnish political cartoonist Kari Suomalainen once explained Finlandization as \"the art of bowing to the East without mooning the West\".===Historical background===Finland's foreign politics before this deal had been varied: independence from Imperial Russia with support of Imperial Germany in 1917; participation in the Russian Civil War (without official declaration of war) alongside the Triple Entente 1918–1920; a non-ratified alliance with Poland in 1922; association with the neutralist and democratic Scandinavian countries in the 1930s ended by the Winter War (1939) which ended in the Soviet Union's pyrrhic victory; and finally in 1940, a rapprochement with Nazi Germany, the only power able and willing to help Finland against the expansionist Soviet Union, which led to Finland's re-entry into the Second World War in 1941.The Wehrmacht's defeat in the Battle of Stalingrad led Finland to basically revert to its 19th-century traditions, which had been perceived as highly successful until the Russification of Finland (1899–1905).", "Finland's leaders realised that opposing the Soviets head-on was no longer feasible.", "No international power was able to give the necessary support.", "Nazi Germany, Finland's chief supporter against the Soviet Union, was losing the war.", "Sweden was not big enough, and its leadership was wary of confronting the Soviet Union.", "The western powers were allied with the Soviet Union.", "Thus Finland had to face its bigger neighbour on its own, without any great power's protection.", "As in the 19th century, Finland chose not to challenge Soviet foreign policy, but exerted caution to keep its independence.===Paasikivi doctrine===Urho Kekkonen and Juho Kusti PaasikiviAhti Karjalainen was one of the influential figures in Finnish politics during the Cold War and especially for its good relations with the EastAfter the Paris Peace Treaty of 1947, Finland succeeded in retaining democracy and parliamentarism, despite the heavy political pressure on Finland's foreign and internal affairs by the Soviet Union.", "Finland's foreign relations were guided by the doctrine formulated by Juho Kusti Paasikivi, emphasising the necessity to maintain a good and trusting relationship with the Soviet Union.Finland signed an Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance with the Soviet Union in April 1948, under which Finland was obliged to resist armed attacks by \"Germany or its allies\" against Finland, or against the Soviet Union through Finland, and, if necessary, ask for Soviet military aid to do so.", "At the same time, the agreement recognised Finland's desire to remain outside great power conflicts, allowing the country to adopt a policy of neutrality during the Cold War.As a consequence, Finland did not participate in the Marshall Plan and took neutral positions on Soviet overseas initiatives.", "By keeping very cool relations to NATO and western military powers in general, Finland could fend off Soviet pressure for affiliation to the Warsaw Pact.===Self-censorship and excessive Soviet adaptation===From the political scene following the post-1968 radicalisation, the Soviet adaptation spread to the editors of mass media, sparking strong forms of self-control, self-censorship and pro-Soviet attitudes.", "Most of the elite of media and politics shifted their attitudes to match the values that the Soviets were thought to favor and approve.", "Only after the ascent of Mikhail Gorbachev to Soviet leadership in 1985 did mass media in Finland gradually begin to criticise the Soviet Union more.", "When the Soviet Union allowed non-communist governments to take power in Eastern Europe, Gorbachev suggested they could look to Finland as an example to follow.=== Censorship ===Finnish Board of Film ClassificationBetween 1944 and 1946, the Soviet part of the allied control commission demanded that Finnish public libraries should remove from circulation more than 1,700 books that were deemed anti-Soviet, and bookstores were given catalogs of banned books.", "The Finnish Board of Film Classification likewise banned movies that it considered to be anti-Soviet.", "Banned movies included ''One, Two, Three'' (1961), directed by Billy Wilder, ''The Manchurian Candidate'' (1962), directed by John Frankenheimer, ''One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich'' (1970), by Finnish director Caspar Wrede, and ''Born American'' (1986), by Finnish director Renny Harlin.The censorship never took the form of purging.", "Possession or use of anti-Soviet books was not banned, but the reprinting and distribution of such materials was prohibited.", "Especially in the realm of radio and television self-censorship, it was sometimes hard to tell whether the motivations were even political.", "For example, once a system of blacklisting recordings had been introduced, individual policy makers within the national broadcaster, Yleisradio, also utilized it to censor songs they deemed inappropriate for other reasons, such as some of those featuring sexual innuendo or references to alcohol.=== End of Finlandization === Foreign minister Pekka Haavisto signing Finland's application for NATO membership in 2022President of Finland Sauli Niinistö accepts and signs the articles of the NATO laws in 2023After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the end of the Cold War, the Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 was replaced by a new bilateral treaty between Finland and the Russian Federation on a more equal footing, ending the Paasikivi-Kekkonen doctrine.", "Finland joined the European Union in 1995, adopting its Common Foreign and Security Policy.", "Since joining the Partnership for Peace program of NATO in 1994, there has been increasing cooperation with NATO, including interoperability and participation in NATO missions.Despite these changes, Finland initially remained militarily non-aligned and attempted to retain good relations with Russia.", "However, the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine caused a dramatic increase of public and political support in Finland for full membership in NATO.", "The application for membership was formally submitted on 18 May, and after all 30 NATO members ratified the application, Finland became the 31st member of NATO on 4 April 2023.The notion of \"end of Finlandization\" has been applied both to the changing circumstances resulting from the end of the Cold War and to Finland's decision to join NATO." ], [ "See also", "* Appeasement* Austrian neutrality* Balkanization * Finland–NATO relations* Finland–Russia relations* Finnish Security Intelligence Service* * Note Crisis* Sadae* Satellite state* Soviet Empire* Swedish neutrality* Swiss neutrality* Neutral and Non-Aligned European States* Neutral member states in the European Union" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* \"Finland's Relations with the Soviet Union, 1940–1986\" by Peter Botticelli* Finlandization\" in action: Helsinki's experience with Moscow\" presented at the Web site of the CIA* \"Three Cheers for Balkanization!\"", "by Bruce Walker, re-evaluating the Finlandization concept* ''The Silenced Media: The Propaganda War Between Russia and the West in Northern Europe''—review by Jussi Hanhimäki of a book by Esko Salminen* \"The Silent Estate?\"", "—review by David McDuff of the same book by Esko Salminen* A tale of polar diplomacy and suppressed sorrow: The end of an era for Finland and the world" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fred Singer" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Siegfried Fred Singer''' (September 27, 1924 – April 6, 2020) was an Austrian-born American physicist and emeritus professor of environmental science at the University of Virginia, trained as an atmospheric physicist.", "He was known for rejecting the scientific consensus on several issues, including climate change, the connection between UV-B exposure and melanoma rates, stratospheric ozone loss being caused by chlorofluoro compounds, often used as refrigerants, and the health risks of passive smoking.He is the author or editor of several books, including ''Global Effects of Environmental Pollution'' (1970), ''The Ocean in Human Affairs'' (1989), ''Global Climate Change'' (1989), ''The Greenhouse Debate Continued'' (1992), and ''Hot Talk, Cold Science'' (1997).", "He also co-authored ''Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years'' (2007) with Dennis Avery, and ''Climate Change Reconsidered'' (2009) with Craig Idso.Singer had a varied career, serving in the armed forces, government, and academia.", "He designed mines for the U.S. Navy during World War II, before obtaining his Ph.D. in physics from Princeton University in 1948 and working as a scientific liaison officer in the U.S. Embassy in London.", "He became a leading figure in early space research, was involved in the development of earth observation satellites, and in 1962 established the National Weather Bureau's Satellite Service Center.", "He was the founding dean of the University of Miami School of Environmental and Planetary Sciences in 1964, and held several government positions, including deputy assistant administrator for the Environmental Protection Agency, and chief scientist for the Department of Transportation.", "He held a professorship with the University of Virginia from 1971 until 1994, and with George Mason University until 2000.In 1990 Singer founded the Science & Environmental Policy Project, and in 2006 was named by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation as one of a minority of scientists said to be creating a stand-off on a consensus on climate change.", "Singer argued, contrary to the scientific consensus on climate change, that there is no evidence that global warming is attributable to human-caused increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, and that humanity would benefit if temperatures do rise.", "He was an opponent of the Kyoto Protocol, and claimed that climate models are not based on reality or evidence.", "Singer was accused of rejecting peer-reviewed and independently confirmed scientific evidence in his claims concerning public health and environmental issues." ], [ "Early life and education", "Singer was born in Vienna, Austria, to a Jewish family.", "His father was a jeweler and his mother a homemaker.", "Following the Anschluss between Nazi Germany and Austria in 1938, the family fled Austria, and Singer departed on a children's transport train with other Jewish children.", "He ended up in England, where he lived in Northumberland, working for a time as a teenage optician.", "Several years later he emigrated to Ohio and became an American citizen in 1944.He received a Bachelor of Electrical Engineering (B.E.E.)", "from Ohio State University in 1943, and an A.M. in physics from Princeton in 1944.He taught physics at Princeton while he worked on his masters and his doctorate, obtaining his Ph.D. there in 1948.His doctoral thesis was titled, \"''The density spectrum and latitude dependence of extensive cosmic ray air showers''.\"", "His supervisor was John Archibald Wheeler, and his thesis committee included J. Robert Oppenheimer and Niels Bohr." ], [ "Career", "===1950: United States Navy===After his masters, Singer joined the armed forces, working for the United States Navy on mine warfare and countermeasures from 1944 until 1946.While with the Naval Ordnance Laboratory he developed an arithmetic element for an electronic digital calculator that he called an \"electronic brain\".", "He was discharged in 1946 and joined the Upper Atmosphere Rocket Program at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory in Silver Spring, Maryland, working there until 1950.He focused on ozone, cosmic rays, and the ionosphere, all measured using balloons and rockets launched from White Sands, New Mexico, or from ships out at sea.", "Rachel White Scheuering writes that for one mission to launch a rocket, he sailed with a naval operation to the Arctic, and also conducted rocket launching from ships at the equator.From 1950 to 1953, he was attached to the U.S. Embassy in London as a scientific liaison officer with the Office of Naval Research, where he studied research programs in Europe into cosmic radiation and nuclear physics.", "While there, he was one of eight delegates with a background in guided weapons projects to address the Fourth International Congress of Astronautics in Zurich in August 1953, at a time when, as ''The New York Times'' reported, most scientists saw space flight as thinly disguised science fiction.===1951: Design of early satellites===Singer's MOUSE satellite, which he designed in the early 1950s.Singer was one of the first scientists to urge the launching of Earth satellites for scientific observation during the 1950s.", "In 1951 or 1952 he proposed the MOUSE (\"Minimal Orbital Unmanned Satellite, Earth\"), a satellite that would contain Geiger counters for measuring cosmic rays, photo cells for scanning the Earth, telemetry electronics for sending data back to Earth, a magnetic data storage device, and rudimentary solar energy cells.", "Although MOUSE never flew, the ''Baltimore News-Post'' reported in 1957 that had Singer's arguments about the need for satellites been heeded, the U.S. could have beaten Russia by launching the first Earth satellite.", "He also proposed (along with R. C. Wentworth) that satellite measurement of ultraviolet backscatter could be used as a method to measure atmospheric ozone profiles.", "This technique was later used on early weather satellites.===1953: University of Maryland===Singer moved back to the United States in 1953, where he took up an associate professorship in physics at the University of Maryland, and at the same time served as the director of the Center for Atmospheric and Space Physics.", "Scheuering writes that his work involved conducting experiments on rockets and satellites, remote sensing, radiation belts, the magnetosphere, and meteorites.", "He developed a new method of launching rockets into space: firing them from a high-flying plane, both with and without a pilot.", "The Navy adopted the idea and Singer supervised the project.", "He received a White House Special Commendation from President Eisenhower in 1954 for his work.He became one of 12 board members of the American Astronautical Society, an organization formed in 1954 to represent the country's 300 leading scientists and engineers in the area of guided missiles—he was one of seven members of the board to resign in December 1956 after a series of disputes about the direction and control of the group.In November 1957 Singer and other scientists at the university successfully designed and fired three new \"Oriole\" rockets off the Virginia Capes.", "The rockets weighed less than and could be built for around $2000.Fired from a converted Navy LSM, they could reach an altitude of and had a complete telemetry system to send back information on cosmic, ultraviolet and X-rays.", "Singer said that the firings placed \"the exploration of outer space with high altitude rockets on the same basis, cost-wise and effort-wise, as low atmosphere measurements with weather balloons.", "From now on, we can fire thousands of these rockets all over the world with very little cost.", "\"In February 1958, when he was head of the cosmic ray group of the University of Maryland's physics department, he received a special commendation from President Eisenhower for \"outstanding achievements in the development of satellites for scientific purposes.\"", "In April 1958, he was appointed as a consultant to the House Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration, which was preparing to hold hearings on President Eisenhower's proposal for a new agency to handle space research, and a month later received the Ohio State University's Distinguished Alumnus Award.", "He became a full professor at Maryland in 1959, and was chosen that year by the United States Junior Chamber of Commerce as one of the country's ten outstanding young men.In a January 1960 presentation to the American Physical Society, Singer sketched out his vision of what the environment around the Earth might consist of, extending up to into space.", "He became known for his early predictions about the properties of the electrical particles trapped around the Earth, which were partly verified by later discoveries in satellite experiments.", "In December 1960, he suggested the existence of a shell of visible dust particles around the Earth some 600 to in space, beyond which there was a layer of smaller particles, a micrometre or less in diameter, extending 2,000 to .", "In March 1961 Singer and another University of Maryland physicist, E. J. Opik, were given a $97,000 grant by NASA to conduct a three-year study of interplanetary gas and dust.===1960: Artificial Phobos hypothesis===In a 1960 ''Astronautics'' newsletter, Singer commented on Iosif Shklovsky's hypothesis that the orbit of the Martian moon Phobos suggests that it is hollow, which implies it is of artificial origin.", "Singer wrote: \"My conclusion there is, and here I back Shklovsky, that if the satellite is indeed spiraling inward as deduced from astronomical observation, then there is little alternative to the hypothesis that it is hollow and therefore martian made.", "The big 'if' lies in the astronomical observations; they may well be in error.", "Since they are based on several independent sets of measurements taken decades apart by different observers with different instruments, systematic errors may have influenced them.\"", "Later measurements confirmed Singer's ''big \"if\"'' caveat: Shklovsky overestimated Phobos' rate of altitude loss due to bad early data.", "Photographs by probes beginning in 1972 show a natural stony surface with craters.", "Ufologists continue to present Singer as an unconditional supporter of Shklovsky's artificial Phobos hypothesis.", "''Time'' magazine wrote in 1969 that Singer had had a lifelong fascination with Phobos and Mars's second moon, Deimos.", "He told ''Time'' it might be possible to pull Deimos into the Earth's orbit so it could be examined.", "During an international space symposium in May 1966, attended by space scientists from the United States and Soviet Union, he first proposed that manned landings on the Martian moons would be a logical step after a manned landing on the Earth's moon.", "He pointed out that the very small sizes of Phobos and Deimos—approximately and in diameter and sub milli-g surface gravity—would make it easier for a spacecraft to land and take off again.===1962: National Weather Center and University of Miami===In 1962, on leave from the university, Singer was named as the first director of meteorological satellite services for the National Weather Satellite Center, now part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and directed a program for using satellites to forecast the weather.", "He stayed there until 1964.He told ''Time'' magazine in 1969 that he enjoyed moving around.", "\"Each move gave me a completely new perspective,\" he said.", "\"If I had sat still, I'd probably still be measuring cosmic rays, the subject of my thesis at Princeton.", "That's what happens to most scientists.\"", "When he stepped down as director he received a Department of Commerce Gold Medal award for Distinguished Federal Service.In 1964, he became the first dean of the School of Environmental and Planetary Sciences at the University of Miami in 1964, the first school of its kind in the country, dedicated to space-age research.", "In December 1965, ''The New York Times'' reported on a conference Singer hosted in Miami Beach during which five groups of scientists, working independently, presented research identifying what they believed was the remains of a primordial flash that occurred when the universe was born.===1967–1994===In 1967 he accepted the position of deputy assistant secretary with the U.S. Department of the Interior, where he was in charge of water quality and research.", "When the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency was created on 1970, he became its deputy assistant administrator of policy.Singer accepted a professorship in Environmental Sciences at the University of Virginia in 1971, a position he held until 1994, where he taught classes on environmental issues such as ozone depletion, acid rain, climate change, population growth, and public policy issues related to oil and energy.", "In 1987 he took up a two-year post as chief scientist at the U.S. Department of Transportation, and in 1989 joined the Institute of Space Science and Technology in Gainesville, Florida where he contributed to a paper on the results from the Interplanetary Dust Experiment using data from the Long Duration Exposure Facility satellite.", "When he retired from Virginia in 1994, he became Distinguished Research Professor at the Institute for Humane Studies at George Mason University until 2000.Naomi Oreskes and Erik Conway say that Singer was involved in the Reagan administration's efforts to prevent regulatory action to reduce acid rain." ], [ "Public debates", "===Writing===Throughout his academic career Singer wrote frequently in the mainstream press, including ''The New York Times'', ''The Washington Post'', and ''Wall Street Journal'', often striking up positions disputing mainstream thinking.", "His overall position was one of distrust of federal regulations and a strong belief in the efficacy of the free market.", "He believed in what Rachel White Scheuering calls \"free-market environmentalism\": that market principles and incentives should be sufficient to lead to the protection of the environment and conservation of resources.", "Regular themes in his articles have been energy, oil embargoes, OPEC, Iran, and rising prices.", "Throughout the 1970s, for example, he downplayed the idea of an energy crisis and said it was largely a media event.", "In several papers in the 1990s and 2000s he struck up other positions against the mainstream, questioning the link between UV-B and melanoma rates, and that between CFCs and stratospheric ozone loss.In October 1967, Singer wrote an article for ''The Washington Post'' from the perspective of 2007.His predictions included that planets had been explored but not colonized, and although rockets had become more powerful they had not replaced aircraft and ramjet vehicles.", "None of the fundamental laws of physics had been overturned.", "There was increased reliance on the electronic computer and data processor; the most exciting development was the increase in human intellect by direct electronic storage of information in the brain—the coupling of the brain to an external computer, thereby gaining direct access to an information library.He debated the astronomer Carl Sagan on ABC's ''Nightline'', regarding the possible environmental effects of the Kuwaiti oil fires.", "Sagan argued that if enough fire-fighting teams were not assembled in short order, and if many fires were left to burn over a period of months to possibly a year, the smoke might loft into the upper atmosphere and lead to massive agricultural failures over South Asia.", "Singer argued that it would rise to then be rained out after a few days.", "In fact, both Sagan and Singer were incorrect; smoke plumes from the fires rose to 10,000–12,000 feet and lingered for nearly a month, but despite absorbing 75–80% of the sun's radiation in the Persian Gulf area the plumes had little global effect.The public debates in which Singer received most criticism have been about second-hand smoke and global warming.", "He questioned the link between second-hand smoke and lung cancer, and was an outspoken opponent of the mainstream scientific view on climate change; he argued there is no evidence that increases in carbon dioxide produced by human beings is causing global warming and that the temperature of the earth has always varied.", "A CBC ''Fifth Estate'' documentary in 2006 linked these two debates, naming Singer as a scientist who has acted as a consultant to industry in both areas, either directly or through a public relations firm.", "Naomi Oreskes and Erik Conway named Singer in their book, ''Merchants of Doubt'', as one of three contrarian physicists—along with Fred Seitz and Bill Nierenberg—who regularly injected themselves into the public debate about contentious scientific issues, positioning themselves as skeptics, their views gaining traction because the media gives them equal time out of a sense of fairness.===Second-hand smoke===According to David Biello and John Pavlus in ''Scientific American'', Singer was best known for his denial of the health risks of passive smoking.", "He was involved in 1994 as writer and reviewer of a report on the issue by the Alexis de Tocqueville Institution, where he was a senior fellow.", "The report criticized the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for their 1993 study about the cancer risks of passive smoking, calling it \"junk science\".", "Singer told CBC's ''The Fifth Estate'' in 2006 that he stood by the position that the EPA had \"cooked the data\" to show that second-hand smoke causes lung cancer.", "CBC said that tobacco money had paid for Singer's research and for his promotion of it, and that it was organized by APCO.", "Singer told CBC it made no difference where the money came from.", "\"They don't carry a note on a dollar bill saying 'This comes from the tobacco industry,'\" he said.", "\"In any case I was not aware of it, and I didn't ask APCO where they get their money.", "That's not my business.", "\"===Global warming===In a 2003 letter to the ''Financial Times'', Singer wrote that \"there is no convincing evidence that the global climate is actually warming.\"", "In 2006, the CBC's ''Fifth Estate'' named Singer as one of a small group of scientists who have created what the documentary called a stand-off that is undermining the political response to global warming.", "The following year he appeared on the British Channel 4 documentary ''The Great Global Warming Swindle''.", "Singer argues there is no evidence that the increases in carbon dioxide produced by humans cause global warming, and that if temperatures do rise it will be good for humankind.", "He told CBC: \"It was warmer a thousand years ago than it is today.", "Vikings settled Greenland.", "Is that good or bad?", "I think it's good.", "They grew wine in England, in northern England.", "I think that's good.", "At least some people think so.\"", "\"We are certainly putting more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,\" he told ''The Daily Telegraph'' in 2009.", "\"However there is no evidence that this high CO2 is making a detectable difference.", "It should in principle, however the atmosphere is very complicated and one cannot simply argue that just because CO2 is a greenhouse gas it causes warming.\"", "He believes that radical environmentalists are exaggerating the dangers.", "\"The underlying effort here seems to be to use global warming as an excuse to cut down the use of energy,\" he said.", "\"It's very simple: if you cut back the use of energy, then you cut back economic growth.", "And believe it or not, there are people in the world who believe we have gone too far in economic growth.", "\"Singers's opinions conflict with the scientific consensus on climate change, where there is overwhelming consensus for anthropogenic global warming, and a decisive link between carbon dioxide concentration and global average temperatures, as well as consensus that such a change to the climate will have dangerous consequences.", "In 2005, ''Mother Jones'' magazine described Singer as a \"godfather of global warming denial.\"", "However, Singer characterized himself as a \"skeptic\" rather than a \"denier\" of global climate change.====SEPP and funding====In 1990 Singer set up the Science & Environmental Policy Project (SEPP) to argue against preventive measures against global warming.", "After the 1991 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, the Earth Summit, Singer started writing and speaking out to cast doubt on the science.", "He predicted disastrous economic damage from any restrictions on fossil fuel use, and argued that the natural world and its weather patterns are complex and ill-understood, and that little is known about the dynamics of heat exchange from the oceans to the atmosphere, or the role of clouds.", "As the scientific consensus grew, he continued to argue from a dismissive position.", "He has repeatedly criticized the climate models that predict global warming.", "In 1994 he compared model results to observed temperatures and found that the predicted temperatures for 1950–1980 deviated from the temperatures that had actually occurred, from which he concluded in his regular column in ''The Washington Times''—with the headline that day \"Climate Claims Wither under the Luminous Lights of Science\"—that climate models are faulty.", "In 2007 he collaborated on a study that found tropospheric temperature trends of \"Climate of the 20th Century\" models differed from satellite observations by twice the model mean uncertainty.Rachel White Scheuering writes that, when SEPP began, it was affiliated with the Washington Institute for Values in Public Policy, a think tank founded by Unification Church leader Sun Myung Moon.", "A 1990 article for the Cato Institute identifies Singer as the director of the science and environmental policy project at the Washington Institute for Values in Public Policy, on leave from the University of Virginia.", "Scheuering writes that Singer had cut ties with the institute, and was funded by foundations and oil companies.", "She writes that he was a paid consultant for many years for ARCO, ExxonMobil, Shell, Sun Oil Company, and Unocal, and that SEPP had received grants from ExxonMobil.", "Singer said his financial relationships did not influence his research.", "Scheuering argues that his conclusions concur with the economic interests of the companies that pay him, in that the companies want to see a reduction in environmental regulation.In August 2007 ''Newsweek'' reported that in April 1998 a dozen people from what it called \"the denial machine\" met at the American Petroleum Institute's Washington headquarters.", "The meeting included Singer's group, the George C. Marshall Institute, and ExxonMobil.", "Newsweek said that, according to an eight-page memo that was leaked, the meeting proposed a $5-million campaign to convince the public that the science of global warming was controversial and uncertain.", "The plan was leaked to the press and never implemented.", "The week after the story, ''Newsweek'' published a contrary view from Robert Samuelson, one of its columnists, who said the story of an industry-funded denial machine was contrived and fundamentally misleading.", "ABC News reported in March 2008 that Singer said he is not on the payroll of the energy industry, but he acknowledged that SEPP had received one unsolicited charitable donation of $10,000 from ExxonMobil, and that it was one percent of all donations received.", "Singer said that his connection to Exxon was more like being on their mailing list than holding a paid position.", "The relationships have discredited Singer's research among members of the scientific community, according to Scheuering.", "Congresswoman Lynn Rivers questioned Singer's credibility during a congressional hearing in 1995, saying he had not been able to publish anything in a peer-reviewed scientific journal for the previous 15 years, except for one technical comment.====Criticism of the IPCC====In 1995 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) issued a report reflecting the scientific consensus that the balance of evidence suggests there is a discernible human influence on global climate.", "Singer responded with a letter to ''Science'' saying the IPCC report had presented material selectively.", "He wrote: \"the Summary does not even mention the existence of 18 years of weather satellite data that show a slight global cooling trend, contradicting all theoretical models of climate warming.\"", "Scheuering writes that Singer acknowledges the surface thermometers from weather stations show warming, but he argues that the satellites provide better data because their measurements cover pole to pole.According to Edward Parson and Andrew Dessler, the satellite data did not show surface temperatures directly, but had to be adjusted using models.", "When adjustment was made for transient events the data showed a slight warming, and research suggested that the discrepancy between surface and satellite data was largely accounted for by problems such as instrument differences between satellites.Singer wrote the \"Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change in the U.S.\" in 1995, updating it in 1997 to rebut the Kyoto Protocol.", "The Kyoto Protocol was the result of an international convention held in Kyoto, Japan, during which several industrialized nations agreed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions.", "Singer's declaration read: \"Energy is essential for economic growth ... We understand the motivation to eliminate what are perceived to be the driving forces behind a potential climate change; but we believe the Kyoto Protocol—to curtail carbon dioxide emissions from only a part of the world community—is dangerously simplistic, quite ineffective, and economically destructive to jobs and standards-of-living.", "\"Scheuering writes that Singer circulated this in the United States and Europe and gathered 100 signatories, though she says some of the signatories' credentials were questioned.", "At least 20 were television weather reporters, some did not have science degrees, and 14 were listed as professors without specifying a field.", "According to Scheuering, some of them later said they believed they were signing a document in favour of action against climate change.Singer set up the '''Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change''' (NIPCC) in 2004 after the 2003 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Milan.", "NIPCC organized an international climate workshop in Vienna in April 2007, to provide what they called an independent examination of the evidence for climate change.", "Singer prepared an NIPCC report called \"Nature, Not Human Activity, Rules the Climate,\" published in March 2008 by the Heartland Institute, a conservative think tank.", "ABC News said the same month that unnamed climate scientists from NASA, Stanford, and Princeton who spoke to ABC about the report dismissed it as \"fabricated nonsense\".", "In a letter of complaint to ABC News, Singer said their piece used \"prejudicial language, distorted facts, libelous insinuations, and anonymous smears\".On September 18, 2013, the NIPCC's fourth report, entitled ''Climate Change Reconsidered II: Physical Science,'' was published.", "As with previous NIPCC reports, environmentalists criticized it upon its publication; for example, David Suzuki wrote that it was \"full of long-discredited claims, including that carbon dioxide emissions are good because they stimulate life\".", "After the report received favorable coverage from Fox News Channel's Doug McKelway, climate scientists Kevin Trenberth and Michael Oppenheimer criticized this coverage, with Trenberth calling it \"irresponsible journalism\" and Oppenheimer calling it \"flat out wrong\".====Climategate====In December 2009, after the Climatic Research Unit email controversy, Singer wrote an opinion piece for Reuters in which he claimed the scientists had misused peer review, pressured editors to prevent publication of alternative views, and smeared opponents.", "He also claimed the leaked e-mails showed that the \"surface temperature data that IPCC relies on is based on distorted raw data and algorithms that they will not share with the science community.\"", "He argued that the incident exposed a flawed process, and that the temperature trends were heading downwards even as greenhouse gases like CO2 were increasing in the atmosphere.", "He wrote: \"This negative correlation contradicts the results of the models that IPCC relies on and indicates that anthropogenic global warming (AGW) is quite small,\" concluding \"and now it turns out that global warming might have been 'man made' after all.\"", "A British House of Commons Science and Technology Select Committee later issued a report that exonerated the scientists, and eight committees investigated the allegations, finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct." ], [ "Death", "On April 6, 2020, Singer died in a nursing home in Rockville, Maryland." ], [ "Selected publications", "* ''Global Effects of Environmental Pollution'' (Reidel, 1970)* ''Manned Laboratories in Space'' (Reidel, 1970)* ''Is There an Optimum Level of Population?''", "(McGraw-Hill, 1971)* ''The Changing Global Environment'' (Reidel, 1975)* ''Arid Zone Development'' (Ballinger, 1977)* ''Economic Effects of Demographic Changes'' (Joint Economic Committee, U.S. Congress, 1977)* ''Cost-Benefit Analysis in Environmental Decisionmaking'' (Mitre Corp, 1979)* ''Energy'' (W.H.", "Freeman, 1979)* ''The Price of World Oil'' (Annual Review of Energy, Vol.", "8, 1983)* ''Free Market Energy'' (Universe Books, 1984)* ''Oil Policy in a Changing Market'' (Annual Review of Energy, Vol.", "12, 1987)* ''The Ocean in Human Affairs'' (Paragon House, 1989)* ''The Universe and Its Origin: From Ancient Myths to Present Reality and Future Fantasy'' (Paragon House, 1990)* ''Global Climate Change: Human and Natural Influences'' (Paragon House, 1989)* ''The Greenhouse Debate Continued'' (ICS Press, 1992)* ''The Scientific Case Against the Global Climate Treaty'' (SEPP, 1997)* ''Hot Talk, Cold Science: Global Warming's Unfinished Debate'' (The Independent Institute, 1997)* with Dennis Avery.", "''Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1500 Years'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2007)* with Craig Idso.", "''Climate Change Reconsidered: 2009 Report of the Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change (NIPCC)'' (2009)." ], [ "See also", "*Fringe science*Second-hand smoke" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "* Oreskes, Naomi and Erik Conway.", "2010.Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming.", "Bloomsbury." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Frederik Pohl" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frederik George Pohl Jr.''' (; November 26, 1919 – September 2, 2013) was an American science-fiction writer, editor, and fan, with a career spanning nearly 75 years—from his first published work, the 1937 poem \"Elegy to a Dead Satellite: Luna\", to the 2011 novel ''All the Lives He Led''.From about 1959 until 1969, Pohl edited ''Galaxy'' and its sister magazine ''If''; the latter won three successive annual Hugo Awards as the year's best professional magazine.", "His 1977 novel ''Gateway'' won four \"year's best novel\" awards: the Hugo voted by convention participants, the Locus voted by magazine subscribers, the Nebula voted by American science-fiction writers, and the juried academic John W. Campbell Memorial Award.", "He won the Campbell Memorial Award again for the 1984 collection of novellas ''The Years of the City'', one of two repeat winners during the first 40 years.", "For his 1979 novel ''Jem'', Pohl won a U.S. National Book Award in the one-year category Science Fiction, and it was a finalist for three other year's best novel awards.", "He won four Hugo and three Nebula Awards, including receiving both for the 1977 novel ''Gateway''.The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America named Pohl its 12th recipient of the Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master Award in 1993 and he was inducted by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame in 1998, its third class of two dead and two living writers.Pohl won the Hugo Award for Best Fan Writer in 2010, for his blog, \"The Way the Future Blogs\"." ], [ "Early life and family", "Pohl was the son of Frederik (originally Friedrich) George Pohl (a salesman of German descent) and Anna Jane Mason.", "Pohl Sr. held various jobs, and the Pohls lived in such far-flung locations as Texas, California, New Mexico, and the Panama Canal Zone.", "The family settled in Brooklyn when Pohl was around seven.He attended Brooklyn Technical High School, and dropped out at 17.In 2009, he was awarded an honorary diploma from Brooklyn Tech.While a teenager, he co-founded the New York–based Futurians fan group, and began lifelong friendships with Donald Wollheim, Isaac Asimov, and others who would become important writers and editors.", "Pohl later said that other \"friends came and went and were gone, but many of the ones I met through fandom were friends all their lives – Isaac, Damon Knight, Cyril Kornbluth, Dirk Wylie, and Dick Wilson.", "In fact, there are one or two – Jack Robins, Dave Kyle – whom I still count as friends, seventy-odd years later....\" He published a science-fiction fanzine called ''Mind of Man.", "''In 1936, Pohl joined the Young Communist League because of its positions for unions and against racial prejudice, Adolf Hitler, and Benito Mussolini.", "He became president of the local Flatbush III Branch of the YCL in Brooklyn.", "Pohl has said that after the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 1939, the party line changed and he could no longer support it, at which point he left.During World War II, Pohl served in the United States Army from April 1943 until November 1945, rising to sergeant as an elite Air Corps weatherman.", "After training in Illinois, Oklahoma, and Colorado, he was mainly stationed in Italy with the 456th Bombardment Group.Pohl was married five times.", "His first wife, Leslie Perri, was another Futurian; they were married in August 1940, and divorced in 1944.He then married Dorothy Les Tina in Paris in August 1945 while both were serving in the military in Europe; the marriage ended in 1947.During 1948, he married Judith Merril; they had a daughter, Ann.", "Pohl and Merril divorced in 1952.In 1953, he married Carol M. Ulf Stanton, with whom he had three children and collaborated on several books; they separated in 1977 and were divorced in 1983.From 1984 until his death, Pohl was married to science-fiction expert and academic Elizabeth Anne Hull.He fathered four children – Ann (m. Walter Weary), Frederik III (born and died in 1954, aged one month), Frederik IV (a Los Angeles-based actor, writer, and producer), and Kathy.", "Grandchildren include Canadian writer Emily Pohl-Weary and chef Tobias Pohl-Weary.From 1984 on, he lived in Palatine, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago.", "He was previously a longtime resident of Middletown, New Jersey." ], [ "Career", "Frederik Pohl (center) with fellow scifi authors Donald A. Wollheim and John Michel in 1938===Early writing===Pohl began writing in the late 1930s, using pseudonyms for most of his early works.", "His first publication was the poem \"Elegy to a Dead Satellite: Luna\" under the name of Elton Andrews, in the October 1937 issue of ''Amazing Stories'', edited by T. O'Conor Sloane.", "(Pohl asked readers 30 years later, \"we would take it as a personal favor if no one ever looked it up\".)", "His first story, the collaboration with C.M.", "Kornbluth \"Before the Universe\", appeared in 1940 under the pseudonym S.D.", "Gottesman.===Editor and agent===Pohl started a career as a literary agent in 1937, but it was a sideline for him until after World War II, when he began doing it full-time.", "Pohl stopped being Asimov's agent—the only one the latter ever had—when he became editor from 1939 to 1943 of two pulp magazines, ''Astonishing Stories'' and ''Super Science Stories''.", "In his autobiography, Pohl said that he stopped editing the two magazines at roughly the time of the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941.Stories by Pohl often appeared in these magazines, but never under his own name.", "Work written in collaboration with Cyril M. Kornbluth was credited to S. D. Gottesman or Scott Mariner; other collaborative work (with any combination of Kornbluth, Dirk Wylie, or Robert A. W. Lownes) was credited to Paul Dennis Lavond.", "For Pohl's solo work, stories were credited to James MacCreigh (or for one story only, Warren F.", "Howard.)", "Works by \"Gottesman\", \"Lavond\", and \"MacCreigh\" continued to appear in various science-fiction pulp magazines throughout the 1940s.He also worked as an advertising copywriter and then as a copywriter and book editor for ''Popular Science''.Pohl co-founded the Hydra Club, a loose collection of science-fiction professionals and fans who met during the late 1940s and 1950s.From the early 1960s until 1969, Pohl served as editor of ''Galaxy Science Fiction'' and ''Worlds of If'' magazines, taking over after the ailing H. L. Gold could no longer continue working \"around the end of 1960\".", "Under his leadership, ''If'' won the Hugo Award for Best Professional Magazine for 1966, 1967 and 1968.Pohl hired Judy-Lynn del Rey as his assistant editor at ''Galaxy'' and ''If''.", "He also served as editor of ''Worlds of Tomorrow'' from its first issue in 1963 until it was merged into ''If'' in 1967.In the mid-1970s, Pohl acquired and edited novels for Bantam Books, published as \"A Frederik Pohl Selection\"; these included Samuel R. Delany's ''Dhalgren'' and Joanna Russ's ''The Female Man''.", "He also edited a number of science-fiction anthologies.===Novelist===Though he retired his pen names \"Gottesman\", \"Lavond\", and \"MacCreigh\" by the early 1950s, Pohl still occasionally used pseudonyms, even after he began to publish work under his real name.", "These occasional pseudonyms, all of which date from the early 1950s to the early 1960s, included Charles Satterfield, Paul Flehr, Ernst Mason, Jordan Park (two collaborative novels with Kornbluth), and Edson McCann (one collaborative novel with Lester del Rey).In the 1970s, Pohl re-emerged as a novel writer in his own right, with books such as ''Man Plus'' and the ''Heechee Saga'' series.", "He won back-to-back Nebula Awards with ''Man Plus'' in 1976 and ''Gateway'', the first ''Heechee'' novel, in 1977.In 1978, ''Gateway'' swept the other two major novel honors, also winning the Hugo Award for Best Novel and John W. Campbell Memorial Award for the best science-fiction novel.", "Two of his stories have also earned him Hugo Awards: \"The Meeting\" (with Kornbluth) tied in 1973 and \"Fermi and Frost\" won in 1986.Another award-winning novel is ''Jem'' (1979), winner of the National Book Award.His works include not only science fiction, but also articles for ''Playboy'' and ''Family Circle'' magazines and nonfiction books.", "For a time, he was the official authority for ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' on the subject of Emperor Tiberius.", "(He wrote a book on the subject of Tiberius, as \"Ernst Mason\".", ")Some of his short stories take a satirical look at consumerism and advertising in the 1950s and 1960s: \"The Wizards of Pung's Corners\", where flashy, over-complex military hardware proved useless against farmers with shotguns, and \"The Tunnel under the World\", where an entire community of seeming-humans is held captive by advertising researchers.", "(\"The Wizards of Pung's Corners\" was freely translated into Chinese and then freely translated back into English as \"The Wizard-Masters of Peng-Shi Angle\" in the first edition of ''Pohlstars'' (1984)).In his 1969 novel, \"The Age of the Pussyfoot\", Pohl speculated about a society where everyone could access knowledge and the means to communicate with others through a small handheld device similar to a smartphone.", "Although he set the novel 500 years in the future, he noted in an afterword that it might be as few as fifty years away.", "A short story \"Day Million\" suggested that society in the year 2737 might be as alien to us as contemporary society would be to someone from ancient times.Pohl's Law is \"Nothing is so good that somebody, somewhere will not hate it\".He was a frequent guest on Long John Nebel's radio show from the 1950s to the early 1970s, and an international lecturer.Starting in 1995, when the Theodore Sturgeon Memorial Award became a juried award, Pohl served first with James Gunn and Judith Merril, and since then with several others until retiring in 2013.Pohl was associated with Gunn since the 1940s, becoming involved in 1975 with what later became Gunn's Center for the Study of Science Fiction at the University of Kansas.", "There, he presented many talks, recorded a discussion about \"The Ideas in Science Fiction\" in 1973 for the Literature of Science Fiction Lecture Series, and served the Intensive Institute on Science Fiction and Science Fiction Writing Workshop.Pohl received the second annual J. W. Eaton Lifetime Achievement Award in Science Fiction from the University of California, Riverside Libraries at the 2009 Eaton Science Fiction Conference, \"Extraordinary Voyages: Jules Verne and Beyond\".Pohl's work has been an influence on a wide variety of other science fiction writers, some of whom appear in the 2010 anthology, ''Gateways: Original New Stories Inspired by Frederik Pohl'', edited by Elizabeth Anne Hull.Pohl's last novel, ''All the Lives He Led'', was released on April 12, 2011.By the time of his death, he was working to finish a second volume of his autobiography ''The Way the Future Was'' (1979), along with an expanded version of the latter.In July 2020, an academic description reported on the nature and rise of the \"robot prosumer\", derived from modern-day technology and related participatory culture, that, in turn, was substantially predicted earlier by science fiction writers, most notably by Pohl.===Collaborative work===In addition to his solo writings, Pohl was also well known for his collaborations, beginning with his first published story.", "Before and following the war, Pohl did a series of collaborations with his friend Cyril Kornbluth, including a large number of short stories and several novels, among them ''The Space Merchants,'' a dystopian satire of a world ruled by the advertising agencies.In the mid-1950s, he began a long-running collaboration with Jack Williamson, eventually resulting in 10 collaborative novels over five decades.Other collaborations included a novel with Lester Del Rey, ''Preferred Risk'' (1955).", "This novel was solicited for a contest by Galaxy–Simon & Schuster when the judges did not think any of the contest submissions was good enough to win their contest.", "It was published under the joint pseudonym Edson McCann.", "He also collaborated with Thomas T. Thomas on a sequel to his award-winning novel ''Man Plus.''", "He wrote two short stories with Isaac Asimov in the 1940s, both published in 1950.He finished a novel begun by Arthur C. Clarke, ''The Last Theorem'', which was published on August 5, 2008." ], [ "Death", "Pohl went to the hospital in respiratory distress on the morning of September 2, 2013, and died that afternoon at the age of 93." ], [ "Works", "Frederik Pohl bibliography" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===Critical studies, reviews, and biography===* * * ''Frederik Pohl'' by Michael R. Page (2015).", "University of Illinois Press* ===Derivative works===* ''Gateways: Original New Stories Inspired by Frederik Pohl'' (2010), edited by Elizabeth Anne Hull.", "** Elizabeth Anne Hull, Introduction** David Brin, \"Shoresteading\"** Phyllis and Alex Eisenstein, \"Von Neumann's Bug\"** Isaac Asimov, Appreciation** Joe Haldeman, \"Sleeping Dogs\"** Larry Niven, \"Gates (Variations)\"** Gardner Dozois, Appreciation** James Gunn, \"Tales from the Spaceship Geoffrey\"** Gregory Benford and Elisabeth Malartre, \"Shadows of the Lost\"** Connie Willis, Appreciation** Vernor Vinge, \"A Preliminary Assessment of the Drake Equation, Being an Excerpt from the Memories of Star Captain Y.T.", "Lee\"** Greg Bear, \"Warm Sea\"** Robert J. Sawyer, Appreciation** Frank M. Robinson, \"The Errand Boy\"** Gene Wolfe, \"King Rat\"** Robert Silverberg, Appreciation** Harry Harrison, \"The Stainless Steel Rat and the Pernicious Porcuswine\"** Jody Lynn Nye, \"Virtually, A Cat\"** David Marusek, Appreciation** Brian W. Aldiss, \"The First-Born\"** Ben Bova, \"Scheherezade and the Storytellers\"** Joan Slonczewski, Appreciation** Sheri S. Tepper, \"The Flight of the Denartesestel Radichan\"** Neil Gaiman, \"The Backspace Merchants\"** Emily Pohl-Weary, Appreciation** Mike Resnick, \"On Safari\"** Cory Doctorow, \"Chicken Little\"** James Frenkel, Afterword" ], [ "External links", "* * The Way the Future Blogs – by Pohl, January 2009 to September 2013; by his widow Elizabeth Anne Hull* * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Forrest J Ackerman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Forrest James Ackerman''' (November 24, 1916 – December 4, 2008) was an American magazine editor; science fiction writer and literary agent; a founder of science fiction fandom; a leading expert on science fiction, horror, and fantasy films; a prominent advocate of the Esperanto language; and one of the world's most avid collectors of genre books and film memorabilia.", "He was based in Los Angeles, California.As a literary agent, he represented such science fiction authors as Ray Bradbury, Isaac Asimov, A.E.", "Van Vogt, Curt Siodmak, and L. Ron Hubbard.", "For more than 70 years, he was one of science fiction's staunchest spokesmen and promoters.", "He was the founding editor and principal writer of the American magazine ''Famous Monsters of Filmland'', published by Warren Publishing.", "He co-created the character Vampirella, based on the 1968 Jane Fonda film ''Barbarella''.Ackerman also acted in films from the 1950s into the 21st century.", "He appears in several documentaries related to this period in popular culture, like ''Famous Monster: Forrest J Ackerman'' (directed by Michael R. MacDonald and written by Ian Johnston), which premiered at the Egyptian Theatre in March 2009, during the Forrest J Ackerman tribute; ''The Ackermonster Chronicles!''", "(a 2012 documentary about Ackerman by writer and filmmaker Jason V. Brock); and ''Charles Beaumont: The Short Life of Twilight Zone's Magic Man'', about late author Charles Beaumont, a former client of The Ackerman Agency.Also called \"Forry\", \"Uncle Forry\", \"The Ackermonster\", \"Dr. Acula\", \"Forjak\", \"4e\" and \"4SJ\", Ackerman was central to the formation, organization and spread of science fiction fandom and a key figure in the wider cultural perception of science fiction as a literary, art, and film genre.", "Famous for his word play and neologisms, he coined the genre nickname \"sci-fi\".", "In 1953, he was voted \"#1 Fan Personality\" by the members of the World Science Fiction Society, a unique Hugo Award never granted to anyone else.He was also among the first and most outspoken advocates of Esperanto in the science fiction community." ], [ "Early years", "Ackerman was born '''Forrest James Ackerman''' (though he would refer to himself from the early 1930s on as \"Forrest J Ackerman\" with no period after the middle initial), on November 24, 1916, in Los Angeles, to Carroll Cridland (née Wyman; 1883–1977) and William Schilling Ackerman (1892–1951).His father, William, chief statistician and assistant to the vice-president in charge of transportation for the Associated Oil Company was from New York and his mother (the daughter of architect George Wyman) was from Ohio; she was nine years older than her husband.Ackerman attended the University of California, Berkeley during the 1934–1935 academic year; thereafter, he worked as a film projectionist and at odd jobs with fan friends.", "On August 15, 1942, he enlisted in the U.S. Army, where he rose to the rank of staff sergeant before being honorably discharged in 1945.He passed his entire time in service at Fort MacArthur in the San Pedro neighborhood of Los Angeles, ultimately serving as editor of the base newspaper." ], [ "Career and fandom", "Ackerman and Morojo at the 1st Worldcon (1939, NYC), in the \"futuristicostumes\" she created for themAckerman saw his first \"imagi-movie\" in 1922 (''One Glorious Day''), purchased his first science fiction magazine, ''Amazing Stories'', in 1926, created the Boys' Scientifiction Club in 1930 (\"girl-fans were as rare as unicorn's horns in those days\").", "He contributed to both of the first science fiction fanzines, ''The Time Traveler'', and the ''Science Fiction Magazine'', published and edited by Shuster and Siegel of Superman fame, in 1932, and by 1933 had 127 correspondents around the world.", "His name was used for the character of the reporter in the original Superman story \"The Reign of the Superman\" in issue 3 of ''Science Fiction'' magazine.", "He was an early member of the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society and remained active in it for many decades.Letting a fan try on the cape worn by Bela Lugosi in ''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' (1957, directed by Ed Wood) He attended the 1st World Science Fiction Convention in 1939, where he wore the first \"futuristicostume\" (designed and created by his girlfriend, Myrtle R Douglas, better known as Morojo), which sparked decades of fan costuming thereafter, the latest incarnation of which is cosplay.", "He attended every Worldcon but two thereafter during his lifetime.In 1994, the International Costumers' Guild (ICG) presented a special award to Ackerman at Conadian, the 52nd Worldcon, recognizing him as the \"Father of Convention Costuming\" for wearing his \"futuristicostume\" at the 1st Worldcon.Ackerman invited Ray Bradbury to attend the Los Angeles Chapter of the Science Fiction League, then meeting weekly at Clifton's Cafeteria in downtown Los Angeles.", "The club changed its name to the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society during the period it was meeting at the restaurant.", "Among the writers frequenting the club were Robert A. Heinlein, Emil Petaja, Fredric Brown, Henry Kuttner, Leigh Brackett, and Jack Williamson.", "Bradbury often attended meetings with his friend Ray Harryhausen; the two Rays had been introduced to each other by Ackerman.", "With $90 from Ackerman and Morojo, Bradbury launched a fanzine, ''Futuria Fantasia'', in 1939, which ran for four issues.Ackerman was an early member of the Los Angeles Chapter of the Science Fiction League and became so active in and important to the club that in essence he ran it, including (after the name change) the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society, a prominent regional fan organization, as well as the National Fantasy Fan Federation (N3F).", "Together with Morojo, he edited and produced ''Imagination!", "'', later renamed ''Voice of the Imagi-Nation'' (which in 1996 would be awarded the Retro Hugo for Best Fanzine of 1946, and in 2014 for 1939), which was nominally the club fanzine for the LASFS.In the decades that followed, Ackerman amassed an extremely large and complete collection of science fiction, fantasy, and horror film memorabilia, which, until 2002, he maintained in an 18-room home and museum known as the \"Son of Ackermansion\".", "(The original Ackermansion where he lived from the early 1950s until the mid-1970s was at 915 S. Sherbourne Drive in Los Angeles; the site is now an apartment building.)", "This second house, in the Los Feliz district of Los Angeles, contained some 300,000 books and pieces of film and science-fiction memorabilia.From 1951 to 2002, Ackerman entertained some 50,000 fans at open houses – including, on one such evening, a group of 186 fans and professionals that included astronaut Buzz Aldrin.", "Ackerman was a board member of the Seattle Science Fiction Museum and Hall of Fame (now Museum of Pop Culture), where many items of his collection are now displayed.He knew many of the writers of science fiction in the first half of the twentieth century.", "As a literary agent, he represented some 200 writers, and he served as agent of record for many long-lost authors, thereby allowing their work to be reprinted in anthologies.", "He was Ed Wood's \"illiterary\" agent.", "Ackerman was credited with nurturing and even inspiring the careers of several early contemporaries like Ray Bradbury, Ray Harryhausen, Charles Beaumont, Marion Zimmer Bradley, and L. Ron Hubbard.", "He kept all of the stories submitted to his magazine, even the ones he rejected; Stephen King has stated that Ackerman showed up to a King book signing with a copy of a story King had submitted for publication when he was 11.Ackerman had 50 stories published, including collaborations with A. E. van Vogt, Francis Flagg, Robert A. W. Lowndes, Marion Zimmer Bradley, Donald Wollheim and Catherine Moore, and the world's shortest – one letter of the alphabet.", "His stories have been translated into six languages.", "Ackerman named the comic-book character Vampirella and wrote the origin story for the comic.He also authored several lesbian stories under the name \"Laurajean Ermayne\" for ''Vice Versa'' and provided publishing assistance in the early days of the Daughters of Bilitis.", "He was dubbed an \"honorary lesbian\" at a DOB party.", "Ackerman's involvement with lesbian fiction led to him becoming the first heterosexual guest of honor at Gaylaxicon.", "It also caused him to be found in violation of the Comstock laws for sending \"obscene materials\" to another man through the mail while both of them were pretending to be lesbians.Through his magazine, ''Famous Monsters of Filmland'' (1958–1983), Ackerman introduced the history of the science fiction, fantasy, and horror film genres to a generation of young readers.", "He also contributed to film magazines from all around the world, including the Spanish-language ''La Cosa: Cine Fantástico'' magazine from Argentina, where he had a monthly column for more than four years.", "In the 1960s, Ackerman organized the publication of an English translation in the U.S. of the German science fiction series ''Perry Rhodan'', the longest-running science fiction series in history.", "These were published by Ace Books from 1969 through 1977.Ackerman's German-speaking wife Wendayne (\"Wendy\") did most of the translation.", "The American books were issued with varying frequency from one to as many as four per month.", "Ackerman also used the paperback series to promote science fiction short stories, including his own on occasion.", "These \"magabooks\" or \"bookazines\" also included a film review section, known as \"Scientifilm World\", and letters from readers.", "The American series came to an end when the management of Ace changed, and the new management decided that the series was too juvenile for their taste.", "The last Ace issue was #118, which corresponded to German issue #126 as some of the Ace editions contained two of the German issues, and three of the German issues had been skipped.", "Ackerman later published translations of German issues #127 through #145 on his own under the Master Publications imprint.", "(The original German series continues today and passed issue #2800 in 2015.)" ], [ "Appearances in film, television, and music", "A lifelong fan of science fiction \"B-movies\", Ackerman appeared in more than 210 films, including parts in many monster movies and science fiction films (''Dracula vs. Frankenstein'', ''The Howling'', ''The Aftermath'', ''Scalps'', ''Return of the Living Dead Part II'', ''Innocent Blood''), more traditional \"imagi-movies\" (''The Time Travelers'', ''Future War''), spoofs and comedies (''Amazon Women on the Moon'', ''The Wizard of Speed and Time'', ''Curse of the Queerwolf'', ''Transylvania Twist'', ''Hard to Die'', ''Nudist Colony of the Dead'', ''Attack of the 60 Foot Centerfold'') and at least one major music video (''Michael Jackson's Thriller'').", "His Bacon number is 2.In 1961, Ackerman narrated the record ''Music for Robots'' created by Frank Allison Coe.", "The cover featured Ackerman's face superimposed on the robot from the film ''Tobor the Great''.", "The record was reissued on CD in 2005.Ackerman appears as a character in ''The Vampire Affair'' by David McDaniel (a novel in the ''Man from U.N.C.L.E.''", "series), and Philip José Farmer's novel ''Image of the Beast'', first published as the short story \"Blown\" in ''Screw'' magazine by Al Goldstein.A character based on Ackerman and an analog to the Ackermansion appears in the collaborative novel ''Fallen Angels'' written jointly by Larry Niven, Jerry Pournelle, and Michael F.", "Flynn.", "\"Eccar the Man\" is mentioned in ''The Flying Sorcerers'', a novel jointly written by Niven and David Gerrold, which features a number of characters based on notables from the science fiction community.Forrest J Ackerman at the AckermansionHe appeared on the intro track of Ohio horror punk music group Manimals' 1999 album ''Horrorcore''.In 2001, Ackerman played the part of an old wax museum caretaker in the camp comedy film ''The Double-D Avenger'' directed by William Winckler and starring Russ Meyer luminaries Kitten Natividad, Haji, and Raven De La Croix.", "Ackerman played a crazy old man who was in love with Kitten Natividad's character, The Double-D Avenger, and his character also talked to the Frankenstein figure and other wax monsters in the museum's chamber of horrors.Ackerman appeared extensively on-screen discussing his life and the history of science fiction fandom in the 2006 documentary film ''Finding the Future''.In 2007, Roadhouse Films of Canada released a documentary, ''Famous Monster: Forrest J Ackerman''.", "The documentary, available on DVD only in the UK, airs regularly on the BRAVO channel.In the 2012 action film ''Premium Rush'', the character of the corrupt policeman Bobby Monday (played by Michael Shannon) repeatedly uses the alias \"Forrest J Ackerman\".In 2013, the science fiction author Jason V Brock released a feature-length documentary about Ackerman called ''The Ackermonster Chronicles!", "''." ], [ "Personal life", "Ackerman had one sibling, a younger brother, Alden Lorraine Ackerman, who was killed at the Battle of the Bulge.Ackerman was married to a German-born teacher and translator, Mathilda Wahrman (1912–1990), whom he met in the early 1950s while she was working in a book store he happened to visit.", "He eventually dubbed her \"Wendayne\" or, less formally, \"Wendy\", by which name she became most generally known within SF and film fandoms, after the character in ''Peter Pan'', his favorite fantasy.", "Although they went through a period of separation during the late 1950s and early 1960s, they remained officially married until her death: she suffered serious internal injuries when she was violently mugged while visiting Italy in 1990 and irreparable damage to her kidneys led to her death.", "By choice, they had no children of their own, but Wahrman did have a son by an earlier marriage, Michael Porges, who did not get along with Ackerman and would not live in Ackerman's home.Ackerman was fluent in the international language Esperanto, and claimed to have walked down Hollywood Boulevard arm-in-arm with Leo G. Carroll singing ''La Espero'', the hymn of Esperanto.Ackerman also received a diploma from Sequoia University, unaccredited higher education institution in Los Angeles, California, in April 1969, which named him a Fellow of the Sequoia Research Institute.Ackerman was an atheist at age 15, but did not emphasize that fact in his public life and welcomed people of all faiths, as well as no faith, into his home and personal circle equally.In 2018, Vincent Price biographer Lucy Chase Williams wrote that Ackerman sexually harassed her and other women over the course of decades despite \"written and verbal demands to cease\", alleging that he \"forced wet kisses\" on her, groped her, and mailed her pornography and personal fantasies in which he wanted to \"hurt and abuse\" her." ], [ "Death", "In 2003, Ackerman said, \"I aim at hitting 100 and becoming the George Burns of science fiction\".", "His health, however, had been failing.", "He had a major heart attack in 1966 and wore a pacemaker thereafter.", "He was susceptible to infection in his later life and, after one final trip to the hospital in October 2008, informed his best friend and caregiver Joe Moe that he did not want to go on but hoped to live long enough to vote for Barack Obama in the November 2008 presidential election.", "Ackerman checked himself out of the hospital and refused further treatment, accepting only a hospice service.", "Honoring his wishes, his friends assisted him in holding what he delighted in calling \"a living funeral\".", "In his final days, he saw everyone he wanted to say goodbye to.", "Fans were encouraged to send messages of farewell by mail.While there were several premature reports of his death in the month prior, Ackerman died a minute before midnight on December 4, 2008, at the age of 92.From his \"Acker-mini-mansion\" in Hollywood, he had entertained and inspired fans weekly with his collection of memorabilia and his stories.Upon his death, the administration of Ackerman's estate was entrusted to his friend, television producer Kevin Burns.", "Burns was tasked with the sale and distribution of Mr. Ackerman's extensive collection of Science Fiction and Horror memorabilia.", "Included in this were Bela Lugosi's ring from ''Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein'' and Lon Chaney's teeth and top hat from ''London After Midnight''.", "There were eighteen beneficiaries named in Ackerman's will, including three waitresses from his favorite restaurant and hangout, \"The House of Pies\".", "His personal papers—books, correspondence, fan mail, and more—went to the Special Collections Research Center at Syracuse University (he had made prior donations of material there, as well as to the University of Wyoming, Eastern New Mexico University, and the University of California).Ackerman is interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale) with his wife.", "His plaque simply reads, \"Sci-Fi Was My High\"." ], [ "Legacy", "A 2013 rebroadcast of the PBS program ''Visiting ... with Huell Howser,'' originally airing in 2000, which featured Ackerman and highlighted his memorabilia collection, was revised to indicate that Ackerman had since died and his collection had been auctioned.On Thursday morning, November 17, 2016, the corner of Franklin and Vermont Avenues, in the heart of the neighborhood \"Uncle Forry\" lived in for 30 years, was christened Forrest J Ackerman Square." ], [ "Awards", "* Hugo Awards** Number 1 Fan Personality, 1953** Retro Hugo for Best Fanzine, 1939 (awarded 2014), for ''Imagination!", "''** Retro Hugo for Best Fanzine, 1946 (awarded 2016) for ''Voice of the Imagi-Nation!", "''* Horror Hall of Fame Induction Award, 1989 (Forry dubbed the Award, \"The Grimmy\")* The Saturn Award for Special Service, 1994 at the 21st Saturn Awards* The Rondo Hatton Classic Horror Awards Inducted to the Monster Kid Hall Of Fame* Bram Stoker Award for Lifetime Achievement, 1996* Monster Bash Achievement Award, 2007 (Initial winner.", "The award is dubbed, \"The Forry\")* Mangled Skyscraper Award at G-FEST '99 for contributions to the giant monster genre* World Fantasy Award for Lifetime Achievement, 2002* Inkpot Award, 1974" ], [ "Writing", "===Non-fiction===* ''A Reference Guide to American Science Fiction Films''* ''The Frankenscience Monster'', 1969, paperback, Ace Books #25130* ''Forrest J Ackerman's Worlds of Science Fiction'', Santa Monica, CA: General Publishing Group 1997* ''Famous Forry Fotos: Over 70 Years of Ackermemories'', 117pp, trade paperback, 2001, Sense of Wonder Press, James A.", "Rock & Co., Publishers* ''Mr.", "Monster's Movie Gold: A Treasure-Trove Of Imagi-Movies''* ''Worlds of Tomorrow: The Amazing Universe of Science Fiction Art'' w/Brad Linaweaver.", ".", "178pp.", "2004 Collectors Press* ''Lon of 1000 Faces''* ''Famous Monster of Filmland #1: An encyclopedia of the first 50 issues''* ''Famous Monster of Filmland #2: An encyclopedia of issues 50–100''* ''Metropolis by Thea von Harbou – intro and \"stillustration\" by FJ Ackerman''===Anthologies===* ''Rainbow Fantasia: 35 Spectrumatic Tales of Wonder'', 559pp., 2001, hardbound and trade paperback, Sense of Wonder Press, James A.", "Rock & Co., Publishers* ''Science Fiction Worlds of Forrest J Ackerman''* ''Best Science Fiction for 1973''* ''The Gernsback Awards Vol.", "1, 1926''* ''Gosh!", "Wow!", "(Sense of Wonder) Science Fiction''* ''Reel Futures ''* ''I, Vampire: Interviews with the Undead''* ''Ackermanthology: Millennium Edition: 65 Astonishing Rediscovered Sci-Fi Shorts'', Sense of Wonder Press, James A.", "Rock & Co., Publishers* ''Womanthology'', (w/Pam Keesey) 352pp, hardbound and trade paperback, 2003, Sense of Wonder Press, James A.", "Rock & Co., Publishers* ''Martianthology'' (ed.by Anne Hardin), 266pp, hardbound and trade paperback, 2003, Sense of Wonder Press, James A.", "Rock & Co., Publishers* ''Film Futures ''* ''Expanded Science Fiction Worlds of Forrest J Ackerman and Friends, PLUS'', 205pp, hardbound and trade paperback, 2002, Sense of Wonder Press, James A.", "Rock & Co., Publishers* ''Dr.", "Acula's Thrilling Tales of the Uncanny'', xiv+267pp.", "Trade Paper, Sense of Wonder Press, James A.", "Rock & Co., Publishers.", "* ''Forrest J Ackerman presents Anthology Of The Living Dead'' 318pp, trade paperback, 2009, Black Bed Sheets Books, Publishers.===Short stories===* \"Nyusa, Nymph of Darkness\"* \"The Shortest Story Ever Told\"* \"A Martian Oddity\"* \"Earth's Lucky Day\"* \"The Record\"* \"Micro Man\"* \"Dhactwhu!-Remember?", "\"* \"Kiki\"* \"The Mute Question\"* \"Atoms and Stars\"* \"The Lady Takes a Powder\"* \"Sabina of the White Cylinder\"* \"What an Idea!", "\"* \"Death Rides the Spaceways\"* \"Dwellers in the Dust\"* \"Burn Witch, Burn\"* \"Yvala\"* \"The Girl Who Wasn't There\"* \"Count Down to Doom\"* \"Time to Change\"* \"And Then the Cover Was Bare\"* \"The Atomic Monument\"* \"Letter to an Angel\"* \"The Man Who Was Thirsty\"* \"The Radclyffe Effect\"* \"Cosmic Report Card: Earth\"* \"Great Gog's Grave\"* \"The Naughty Venuzian\"" ], [ "See also", "*" ], [ "References" ], [ "Additional biographies", "* * * * 4e's Foyer: biography* SFSite: Gary Westfahl's Biographical Encyclopedia* Article on Ackerman's persona and life" ], [ "External links", "* Audio interview with Forrest J Ackerman* Forrest J. Ackerman appears onstage at the 40th anniversary of \"The Time Machine\"* Forrest J Ackerman Papers, Special Collections Research Center, Syracuse University* Forrest J Ackerman Papers, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming* Interview and shoot with Forrest J Ackerman, ''Bizarre Magazine'' * Roadhouse Film's Famous Monster documentary page* Scientifilm Previews by Forrest J Ackerman* \"The Unfortunate Selling of Treasures,\" ''L.A.", "Times''* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fantasy film" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fantasy films''' are films that belong to the fantasy genre with fantastic themes, usually magic, supernatural events, mythology, folklore, or exotic fantasy worlds.", "The genre is considered a form of speculative fiction alongside science fiction films and horror films, although the genres do overlap.", "Fantasy films often have an element of magic, myth, wonder, escapism, and the extraordinary." ], [ "Subgenres", "Several sub-categories of fantasy films can be identified, although the delineations between these subgenres, much as in fantasy literature, are somewhat fluid.The most common fantasy subgenres depicted in movies are high fantasy and sword and sorcery.", "Both categories typically employ quasi-medieval settings, wizards, magical creatures and other elements commonly associated with fantasy stories.High fantasy films tend to feature a more richly developed fantasy world, and may also be more character-oriented or thematically complex.", "Often, they feature a hero of humble origins and a clear distinction between good and evil set against each other in an epic struggle.", "Many scholars cite J. R. R. Tolkien's ''The Lord of the Rings'' novel as the prototypical modern example of high fantasy in literature, and the recent Peter Jackson film adaptation of the books is a good example of the high fantasy subgenre on the silver screen.Sword and sorcery movies tend to be more plot-driven than high fantasy and focus heavily on action sequences, often pitting a physically powerful but unsophisticated warrior against an evil wizard or other supernaturally endowed enemy.", "Although sword and sorcery films sometimes describe an epic battle between good and evil similar to those found in many High fantasy movies, they may alternately present the hero as having more immediate motivations, such as the need to protect a vulnerable maiden or village, or even being driven by the desire for vengeance.The 1982 film adaptation of Robert E. Howard's ''Conan the Barbarian'', for example, is a personal (non-epic) story concerning the hero's quest for revenge and his efforts to thwart a single megalomaniac—while saving a beautiful princess in the process.", "Some critics refer to such films by the term Sword and Sandal rather than sword and sorcery, although others would maintain that the Sword and Sandal label should be reserved only for the subset of fantasy films set in ancient times on the planet Earth, and still others would broaden the term to encompass films that have no fantastic elements whatsoever.", "To some, the term Sword and Sandal has pejorative connotations, designating a film with a low-quality script, bad acting, and poor production values.Another important subgenre of fantasy films that has become more popular in recent years is contemporary fantasy.", "Such films feature magical effects or supernatural occurrences happening in the \"real\" world of today.Films with live action and animation such as Disney's ''Mary Poppins'', ''Pete's Dragon'', ''Enchanted'', and the Robert Zemeckis film ''Who Framed Roger Rabbit'' are also fantasy films although are more often referred to as Live action/animation hybrids (2 of those are also classified as musicals).Fantasy films set in the afterlife, called Bangsian fantasy, are less common, although films such as the 1991 Albert Brooks comedy ''Defending Your Life'' would likely qualify.", "Other uncommon subgenres include historical fantasy and romantic fantasy, although 2003's ''Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl'' successfully incorporated elements of both.As noted above, superhero movies and fairy tale films might each be considered subgenres of fantasy films, although most would classify them as altogether separate movie genres." ], [ "Fantasy movies and the film industry", "As a cinematic genre, fantasy has traditionally not been regarded as highly as the related genre of science fiction film.", "Undoubtedly, the fact that until recently fantasy films often suffered from the \"Sword and Sandal\" afflictions of inferior production values, over-the-top acting, and decidedly poor special effects was a significant factor in fantasy film's low regard.Since the early 2000s, however, the genre has gained new respectability in a way, driven principally by the successful adaptations of Tolkien's ''The Lord of the Rings'' and J. K. Rowling's ''Harry Potter'' series.", "Jackson's ''The Lord of the Rings'' trilogy is notable due to its ambitious scale, serious tone, and thematic complexity.", "These pictures achieved phenomenal commercial and critical success, and the third installment of the trilogy became the first fantasy film ever to win the Academy Award for Best Picture.", "The ''Harry Potter'' series has been a tremendous financial success, has achieved critical acclaim for its design, thematic sophistication and emotional depth, grittier realism and darkness, narrative complexity, and characterization, and boasts an enormous and loyal fanbase.Following the success of these ventures, Hollywood studios have greenlighted additional big-budget productions in the genre.", "These have included adaptations of the first, second, and third books in C. S. Lewis' ''The Chronicles of Narnia'' and the teen novel ''Eragon'', as well as adaptations of Susan Cooper's ''The Dark Is Rising'', Cornelia Funke's ''Inkheart'', Philip Pullman's ''The Golden Compass'', Holly Black's ''The Spiderwick Chronicles'', Nickelodeon's TV show ''Avatar: The Last Airbender'', and the ''Fantasia'' segment (along with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's original poem) ''The Sorcerer's Apprentice''Many fantasy movies starting in the 2000s, such as ''The Lord of the Rings'' films, the 1st and 3rd ''Narnia'' adaptations, and the 1st, 2nd, 4th and 7th ''Harry Potter'' adaptations have most often been released in November and December.", "This is in contrast to sci-fi films, which are often released during the northern hemisphere summer (June–August).", "All 3 of the ''Pirates of the Caribbean'' films, however, were released in July 2003, July 2006, and May 2007 respectively, and the latest releases in the ''Harry Potter'' series were released in July 2007 and July 2009.The huge commercial success of these pictures may indicate a change in Hollywood's approach to big-budget fantasy film releases.Screenwriter and scholar Eric R. Williams identifies fantasy films as one of eleven super-genres in his screenwriters taxonomy, claiming that all feature length narrative films can be classified by these super-genres.", "The other 10 super-genres are action, crime, horror, romance, sci-fi, slice of life, sports, thriller, war and western." ], [ "History", "Fantasy films have a history almost as old as the medium itself.", "However, fantasy films were relatively few and far between until the 1980s, when high-tech filmmaking techniques and increased audience interest caused the genre to flourish.What follows are some notable Fantasy films.", "For a more complete list see: List of fantasy films===1900–1920s===In the era of silent film, the earliest fantasy films were those made by French film pioneer Georges Méliès from 1903.The most famous of these was 1902's ''A Trip to the Moon''.", "In the Golden Age of Silent film (1918–1926) the most outstanding fantasy films were Douglas Fairbanks' ''The Thief of Bagdad'' (1924), Fritz Lang's ''Die Nibelungen'' (1924), and ''Destiny'' (1921).", "Other notables in the genre were F.W.", "Murnau's romantic ghost story ''Phantom'', ''Tarzan of the Apes'' starring Elmo Lincoln, and D. W. Griffith's ''The Sorrows of Satan''.===1930s===Following the advent of sound films, audiences of all ages were introduced from 1937's ''Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs'' to 1939's ''The Wizard of Oz''.", "Also notable of the era, the iconic 1933 film ''King Kong'' borrows heavily from the Lost World subgenre of fantasy fiction as does such films as the 1935 adaptation of H. Rider Haggard's novel ''She'' about an African expedition that discovers an immortal queen known as Ayesha \"She who must be obeyed\".", "Frank Capra's 1937 picture ''Lost Horizon'' transported audiences to the Himalayan fantasy kingdom of Shangri-La, where the residents magically never age.", "Other noteworthy fantasy films of the 30s include ''Tarzan the Ape Man'' in 1932 starring Johnny Weissmuller starting a successful series of talking pictures based on the fantasy-adventure novels by Edgar Rice Burroughs and the G. W. Pabst directed ''The Mistress of Atlantis'' from 1932.1932 saw the release of the Universal Studios monster movie ''The Mummy'' which combined horror with a romantic fantasy twist.", "more light-hearted and comedic affairs from the decade include films like 1934s romantic drama film ''Death Takes a Holiday'' where Fredric March plays Death who takes a human body to experience life for three days and 1937s ''Topper'' where a man is haunted by two fun-loving ghosts who try to make his life a little more exciting.===1940s===The 1940s then saw several full-color fantasy films produced by Alexander Korda, including ''The Thief of Bagdad'' (1940), a film on par with ''The Wizard of Oz'', and ''Jungle Book'' (1942).", "In 1946, Jean Cocteau's classic adaptation of ''Beauty and the Beast'' won praise for its surreal elements and for transcending the boundaries of the fairy tale genre.", "''Sinbad the Sailor'' (1947), starring Douglas Fairbanks Jr., has the feel of a fantasy film though it does not actually have any fantastic elements.Several other pictures featuring supernatural encounters and aspects of Bangsian fantasy were produced in the 1940s during World War II.", "These include ''Beyond Tomorrow'', ''The Devil and Daniel Webster'', and ''Here Comes Mr. Jordan'', all from 1941, ''Heaven Can Wait'' the musical ''Cabin in the Sky'' (1943), the comedy ''The Horn Blows at Midnight'' and romances such as ''The Ghost and Mrs. Muir'' (1947), ''One Touch of Venus'' and ''Portrait of Jennie'', both 1948.An astonishing anticipation of the full \"sword and sorcery\" genre was made in 1941 in Italy by Alessandro Blasetti.", "''La Corona di Ferro'' presents the struggles of two imaginary kingdoms around the legendary Iron Crown (historically the ancient crown of Italy), with war, cruelty, betrayal, heroism, sex, magic and mysticism, a whirl of events taken from every possible fairy tale and legend source Blasetti could find.", "This movie is unlike anything done before; indeed, considering that it was finished fifteen years before the publication of Lord Of The Rings, its invention of a vast, national epic mythology is an act of genius.", "And while the storytelling is rough - due to the need to insert everything - and the resources limited, Blasetti shows how to make a little go a long way through beautifully staged and designed battle and crowd scenes.Although it's not classified as a fantasy film, Gene Kelly's ''Anchors Aweigh'' had a fantasy sequence called \"The King who Couldn't Dance\" in which Gene did a song and dance number with Jerry Mouse from Tom and Jerry.Because these movies do not feature elements common to high fantasy or sword and sorcery pictures, some modern critics do not consider them to be examples of the fantasy genre.===1950s===In the 1950s there were a few major fantasy films, including ''Darby O'Gill and the Little People'' and ''The 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T.'', the latter penned by Dr. Seuss.", "Jean Cocteau's Orphic Trilogy, begun in 1930 and completed in 1959, is based on Greek mythology and could be classified either as fantasy or surrealist film, depending on how the boundaries between these genres are drawn.", "Russian fantasy director Aleksandr Ptushko created three mythological epics from Russian fairytales, ''Sadko'' (1953), ''Ilya Muromets'' (1956), and ''Sampo'' (1959).", "Japanese director Kenji Mizoguchi's 1953 film ''Ugetsu Monogatari'' draws on Japanese classical ghost stories of love and betrayal.Other notable pictures from the 1950s that feature fantastic elements and are sometimes classified as fantasy are ''Harvey'' (1950), featuring a púca of Celtic mythology; ''Scrooge'', the 1951 adaptation of Charles Dickens' ''A Christmas Carol''; and Ingmar Bergman's 1957 masterpiece, ''The Seventh Seal''.", "Disney's 1951 animated film ''Alice in Wonderland'' is also a fantasy classic.There were also a number of lower budget fantasies produced in the 1950s, typically based on Greek or Arabian legend.", "The most notable of these may be 1958's ''The 7th Voyage of Sinbad'', featuring special effects by Ray Harryhausen and music by Bernard Herrmann.===1960s===Harryhausen worked on a series of fantasy films in the 1960s, most importantly ''Jason and the Argonauts'' (1963).", "Many critics have identified this film as Harryhausen's masterwork for its stop-motion animated statues, skeletons, harpies, hydra, and other mythological creatures.", "Other Harryhausen fantasy and science fantasy collaborations from the decade include the 1961 adaptation of Jules Verne's ''Mysterious Island'', the critically panned ''One Million Years B.C.''", "starring Raquel Welch, and ''The Valley of Gwangi'' (1969).Capitalising on the success of the sword and sandal genre several Italian B-movies based on classical myth were made, including the ''Maciste'' series.", "Otherwise, the 1960s were almost entirely devoid of fantasy films.", "The fantasy picture ''7 Faces of Dr. Lao'', in which Tony Randall portrayed several characters from Greek mythology, was released in 1964.But the 1967 adaptation of the Broadway musical ''Camelot'' removed most of the fantasy elements from T. H. White's classic ''The Once and Future King'', on which the musical had been based.", "The 1960s also saw a new adaption of Haggard's ''She'' in 1965 starring Ursula Andress as the immortal \"She who must be obeyed\" and was followed by a sequel in 1968 ''The Vengeance of She'' based loosely on the novel ''Ayesha: The Return of She'' both produced by Hammer Film Productions.", "The musical fantasy film ''Mary Poppins'' was released in 1964, and 1968 saw the release of ''Chitty Chitty Bang Bang'' based on a story by Ian Fleming with a script from Roald Dahl.===1970s===Fantasy elements of Arthurian legend were again featured, albeit absurdly, in 1975's ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail''.", "Harryhausen also returned to the silver screen in the 1970s with two additional ''Sinbad'' fantasies, ''The Golden Voyage of Sinbad'' (1974) and ''Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger'' (1977).", "The animated movie ''Wizards'' (1977) had limited success at the box office but achieved status as a cult film.", "There was also ''The Noah'' (1975) which was never released theatrically but became a cult favorite when it was finally released on DVD in 2006.Some would consider 1977's ''Oh God!", "'', starring George Burns to be a fantasy film, and ''Heaven Can Wait'' (1978) was a successful Bangsian fantasy remake of 1941's ''Here Comes Mr. Jordan'' (not 1943's ''Heaven Can Wait'').A few low budget \"Lost World\" pictures were made in the 1970s, such as 1975's ''The Land That Time Forgot''.", "Otherwise, the fantasy genre was largely absent from mainstream movies in this decade, although 1971's ''Bedknobs and Broomsticks'' and ''Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory'' were two fantasy pictures in the public eye the former being predominantly from the same team who did ''Mary Poppins'' the latter again being from Roald Dahl in both script and novel.===1980s===1980s fantasy films were initially characterized by directors finding a new spin on established mythologies.", "Ray Harryhausen brought the monsters of Greek legends to life in ''Clash of the Titans'' while Arthurian lore returned to the screen in John Boorman's 1981 ''Excalibur''.", "Films such as Ridley Scott's 1985 ''Legend'' and Terry Gilliam's 1981–1986 trilogy of fantasy epics (''Time Bandits'', ''Brazil'', and ''The Adventures of Baron Munchausen'') explored a new artist-driven style featuring surrealist imagery and thought-provoking plots.", "The modern sword and sorcery boom began around the same time with 1982's ''Conan the Barbarian'' followed by ''Krull'' and ''Fire and Ice'' in 1983, as well as a boom in fairy tale-like fantasy films such as ''The Neverending Story'' (1984), ''Ladyhawke'' (1985), ''The Princess Bride'' (1987), and ''Willow'' (1988).The 1980s also started a trend in mixing modern settings and action film effects with exotic fantasy-like concepts.", "''Big Trouble in Little China'' (1986), directed by John Carpenter and starring Kurt Russell, combined humor, martial arts and classic Chinese folklore in a modern Chinatown setting.", "''Highlander'', a film about immortal Scottish swordsmen, was released the same year.Jim Henson produced two iconic fantasy films in the 80s, the solemn ''The Dark Crystal'' and the more whimsical and lofty ''Labyrinth''.", "Meanwhile, Robert Zemeckis helmed ''Who Framed Roger Rabbit'', featuring various famous cartoon characters from animation's \"Golden Age,\" including Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse, Donald Duck, Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Droopy, Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner, Sylvester the Cat, Tweety Pie, and Jiminy Cricket, among others.===1990s===The 90s saw the Disney Renaissance in which many successful adaptations of written fantasy works were released by Disney Animation.", ":''Aladdin'' (1992):''Army of Darkness'' (1992):''Beauty and the Beast'' (1991):''Bram Stoker's Dracula'' (1992):''Dragonheart'' (1996):''Edward Scissorhands'' (1990):''Fantasia 2000'' (1999):''The Green Mile'' (1999):''Groundhog Day'' (1993):''Ghost in the Machine'' (1995):''Hercules'' (1997):''Hocus Pocus'' (1993):''Hook'' (1991):''The Indian in the Cupboard'' (1995):''Jumanji'' (1995):''Kazaam'' (1996):''Matilda'' (1996):''Meet Joe Black'' (1998):''Mulan'' (1998):''Nightbreed'' (1990):''The Prince of Egypt'' (1998):''Princess Mononoke'' (''Mononoke Hime'') (1997):''Toy Story'' (1995):''Toy Story 2'' (1999):''The Wind in the Willows'' (''Mr Toad's Wild Ride'') (1996):''The Witches'' (1990)===2000s===The 2000s saw a boom in the genre.", "This was compounded by the success of Lord of The Rings and Harry Potter, which spurred a movement in film adaptations of fantasy literary works including The Chronicles of Narnia, Tales from Earthsea, Eragon, Inkheart, and The Golden Compass.", "The Star Wars prequel trilogy and Pirates of the Caribbean also saw success at the box office.", ": ''13 Going on 30'' (2004): ''17 Again'' (2009):''300'' (2006): ''Alvin & the Chipmunks'' (2007): ''Anji'' (2004): ''Atlantis: The Lost Empire'' (2001): ''Big Fish'' (2003): ''Bridge to Terabithia'' (2007): ''The Brothers Grimm'' (2005): ''The Chronicles of Narnia'' (2005-10): ''Coraline'' (2009): ''Corpse Bride'' (2005): ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' (2000): ''The Curious Case of Benjamin Button'' (2008): ''D-War'' (2007): ''Dorian Gray'' (2009): ''Dungeons & Dragons'' (2000-12): ''Elf'' (2003): ''The Emperor's New Groove'' (2000): ''Enchanted'' (2007): ''Eragon'' (2006): ''Fat Albert'' (2004): ''The Golden Compass'' (2007): ''Harry Potter'' (2001–11): ''The Hexer'' (2001): ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas'' (2000): ''Howl's Moving Castle'' (2004): ''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus'' (2009): ''Imagine That'' (2009): ''Inkheart'' (2008): ''The Invention of Lying'' (2009): ''King Kong'' (2005): ''Lady in the Water'' (2006): ''Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events'' (2004): ''Looney Tunes: Back in Action'' (2003): ''The Lord of the Rings'' (2001–03): ''The Lovely Bones'' (2008): ''The Master of Disguise'' (2002): ''Monsters Inc.'' (2001-13): ''Nanny McPhee'' (2005): ''Night Watch'' (2004): ''Pan's Labyrinth'' (2006): ''Peter Pan'' (2003): ''Pirates of the Caribbean'' (2003-17): ''Prezzemolo'' (2003): ''Race to Witch Mountain'' (2009): ''The Science of Sleep'' (2006): ''The Secret of Kells'' (2009): ''The Seeker: The Dark Is Rising'' (2007): ''Shrek'' (2001-10): ''Spider-Man (Raimi trilogy)'' (2002-07): ''The Spiderwick Chronicles'' (2008): ''Spike'' (2008): ''Spirited Away'' (2002): ''Stardust'' (2007): ''Star Wars Episodes I-III'' (1999-2005) : ''Tales from Earthsea'' ((2006): ''Treasure Planet'' (2002): ''Twilight'' (2008–12): ''Underworld'' (2003-16): ''Where the Wild Things Are'' (2009): ''Zathura: A Space Adventure'' (2005)=== 2010s ===The early 2010's saw a continuation of the book to screen adaptation fad of the 2000's.", "Also prevalent in the decade were remakes of older fantasy films especially from Walt Disney Pictures.", ": ''Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter'' (2012): ''Aladdin'' (2019): ''Alice in Wonderland'' (2010): ''Alice Through the Looking Glass'' (2016): ''Aquaman'' (2018): ''A Wrinkle in Time'' (2018): ''Baahubali: The Beginning'' (2014): ''Baahubali 2: The Conclusion'' (2017): ''Beauty and the Beast'' (2017): ''Black Panther'' (2018): ''Brave'' (2012): ''Christopher Robin'' (2018): ''Cinderella'' (2015): ''Clash of the Titans'' (2010) and its 2012 sequel, ''Wrath of the Titans'': ''Conan the Barbarian'' (2011): ''Crimson Peak'' (2015): ''Dark Shadows'' (2012): ''Doctor Strange'' (2016): ''Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald'' (2018): ''Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them'' (2016): ''Frozen'' (2013): ''Frozen II'' (2019): ''Godzilla: King of the Monsters'' (2019): ''Goosebumps'' (2015): ''Gulliver's Travels'' (2010): ''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1'' (2010): ''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2'' (2011): ''Hop'' (2011): ''How to Train Your Dragon'' (2010–19): ''Immortals'' (2011): ''Into the Woods'' (2014): ''Jack the Giant Slayer'' (2013): ''John Carter'' (2012): ''Life of Pi'' (2012): ''Maleficent'' (2014): ''Maleficent: Mistress of Evil'' (2019): ''Mary Poppins Returns'' (2018): ''Maximum Shame'' (2010): ''Midnight in Paris'' (2011): ''Mirror Mirror'' (2012): ''Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children'' (2016): ''Oz the Great and Powerful'' (2013): ''Paddington'' (2014): ''Pan'' (2015): ''Percy Jackson & the Olympians: Sea of Monsters'' (2013): ''Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief'' (2010): ''Pete's Dragon'' (2016): ''Peter Rabbit'' (2018): ''Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time'' (2010): ''Puss in Boots'' (2011): ''Sardaar Ji'' (2015) (Punjabi): ''Scott Pilgrim vs. the World'' (2010): ''Snow White and the Huntsman'' (2012): ''Song of the Sea'' (2014): ''Sucker Punch'' (2011): ''The Bastard Sword'' (2018): ''The BFG'' (2016): ''The Hobbit'' (2012–14): ''The Jungle Book'' (2016): ''The Kid Who Would Be King'' (2019): ''The Last Airbender'' (2010): ''The Lorax'' (2012): ''The Muppets'' (2011): ''The Nutcracker and the Four Realms'' (2018): ''Trolls'' (2016): ''The Shape of Water'' (2017): ''The Sorcerer's Apprentice'' (2010): ''Thor: Ragnarok'' (2017): ''Thor: The Dark World'' (2013): ''Thor'' (2011): ''Toy Story 3'' (2010): ''Toy Story 4'' (2019):''Wonder Woman'' (2017): ''Your Highness'' (2011)=== 2020s ===The 2020's as of 2023 have shown an increasing interest by studios to adapt games into film with ''Monster Hunter'', ''Sonic the Hedgehog'', The Super Mario Bros. Movie, and Dungeons & Dragons: Honor Among Thieves: ''Bloodshot'' (2020): ''Dolittle'' (2020): ''Dragonheart: Vengeance'' (2020): ''Dungeons & Dragons: Honor Among Thieves'' (2023): ''Encanto'' (2021): ''Fantastic Beasts: The Secrets of Dumbledore'' (2022): ''Fantasy Island'' (2020): ''Jiu Jitsu'' (2020): ''Monster Hunter'' (2020): ''Mulan'' (2020): ''Nahuel and the Magic Book'' (2020): ''The Old Guard'' (2020): ''Onward'' (2020): ''Sonic the Hedgehog'' (2020): ''Sonic the Hedgehog 2'' (2022): ''Spider-Man: No Way Home'' (2021): ''The Super Mario Bros. Movie'' (2023): ''Trolls World Tour'' (2020): ''The Witches'' (2020): ''Wonder Woman 1984'' (2020): ''Wolfwalkers'' (2020)" ], [ "See also", "* Fantasy television* List of fantasy films* List of highest-grossing fantasy films" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Finite set" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, particularly set theory, a '''finite set''' is a set that has a finite number of elements.", "Informally, a finite set is a set which one could in principle count and finish counting.", "For example,:is a finite set with five elements.", "The number of elements of a finite set is a natural number (possibly zero) and is called the ''cardinality (or the cardinal number)'' of the set.", "A set that is not a finite set is called an ''infinite set''.", "For example, the set of all positive integers is infinite::Finite sets are particularly important in combinatorics, the mathematical study of counting.", "Many arguments involving finite sets rely on the pigeonhole principle, which states that there cannot exist an injective function from a larger finite set to a smaller finite set." ], [ "Definition and terminology", "Formally, a set is called '''finite''' if there exists a bijection:for some natural number .", "The number is the set's cardinality, denoted as .", "The empty set or is considered finite, with cardinality zero.If a set is finite, its elements may be written — in many ways — in a sequence::In combinatorics, a finite set with elements is sometimes called an ''-set'' and a subset with elements is called a ''-subset''.", "For example, the set is a 3-set – a finite set with three elements – and is a 2-subset of it.", "(Those familiar with the definition of the natural numbers themselves as conventional in set theory, the so-called von Neumann construction, may prefer to use the existence of the bijection , which is equivalent.)" ], [ "Basic properties", "Any proper subset of a finite set ''S'' is finite and has fewer elements than ''S'' itself.", "As a consequence, there cannot exist a bijection between a finite set ''S'' and a proper subset of ''S''.", "Any set with this property is called Dedekind-finite.", "Using the standard ZFC axioms for set theory, every Dedekind-finite set is also finite, but this implication cannot be proved in ZF (Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms without the axiom of choice) alone.The axiom of countable choice, a weak version of the axiom of choice, is sufficient to prove this equivalence.Any injective function between two finite sets of the same cardinality is also a surjective function (a surjection).", "Similarly, any surjection between two finite sets of the same cardinality is also an injection.The union of two finite sets is finite, with:In fact, by the inclusion–exclusion principle::More generally, the union of any finite number of finite sets is finite.", "The Cartesian product of finite sets is also finite, with::Similarly, the Cartesian product of finitely many finite sets is finite.", "A finite set with ''n'' elements has 2 distinct subsets.", "That is, the power set ''P''(''S'') of a finite set ''S'' is finite, with cardinality 2.Any subset of a finite set is finite.", "The set of values of a function when applied to elements of a finite set is finite.All finite sets are countable, but not all countable sets are finite.", "(Some authors, however, use \"countable\" to mean \"countably infinite\", so do not consider finite sets to be countable.", ")The free semilattice over a finite set is the set of its non-empty subsets, with the join operation being given by set union." ], [ "Necessary and sufficient conditions for finiteness", "In Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory without the axiom of choice (ZF), the following conditions are all equivalent:# ''S'' is a finite set.", "That is, ''S'' can be placed into a one-to-one correspondence with the set of those natural numbers less than some specific natural number.# (Kazimierz Kuratowski) ''S'' has all properties which can be proved by mathematical induction beginning with the empty set and adding one new element at a time.", "(See for a different formulation of Kuratowski finiteness.", ")# (Paul Stäckel) ''S'' can be given a total ordering which is well-ordered both forwards and backwards.", "That is, every non-empty subset of ''S'' has both a least and a greatest element in the subset.# Every one-to-one function from ''P''(''P''(''S'')) into itself is onto.", "That is, the powerset of the powerset of ''S'' is Dedekind-finite (see below).# Every surjective function from ''P''(''P''(''S'')) onto itself is one-to-one.# (Alfred Tarski) Every non-empty family of subsets of ''S'' has a minimal element with respect to inclusion.", "(Equivalently, every non-empty family of subsets of ''S'' has a maximal element with respect to inclusion.", ")# ''S'' can be well-ordered and any two well-orderings on it are order isomorphic.", "In other words, the well-orderings on ''S'' have exactly one order type.If the axiom of choice is also assumed (the axiom of countable choice is sufficient), then the following conditions are all equivalent:# ''S'' is a finite set.# (Richard Dedekind) Every one-to-one function from ''S'' into itself is onto.# Every surjective function from ''S'' onto itself is one-to-one.# ''S'' is empty or every partial ordering of ''S'' contains a maximal element." ], [ "Foundational issues", "Georg Cantor initiated his theory of sets in order to provide a mathematical treatment of infinite sets.", "Thus the distinction between the finite and the infinite lies at the core of set theory.", "Certain foundationalists, the strict finitists, reject the existence of infinite sets and thus recommend a mathematics based solely on finite sets.", "Mainstream mathematicians consider strict finitism too confining, but acknowledge its relative consistency: the universe of hereditarily finite sets constitutes a model of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of infinity replaced by its negation.Even for the majority of mathematicians that embrace infinite sets, in certain important contexts, the formal distinction between the finite and the infinite can remain a delicate matter.", "The difficulty stems from Gödel's incompleteness theorems.", "One can interpret the theory of hereditarily finite sets within Peano arithmetic (and certainly also vice versa), so the incompleteness of the theory of Peano arithmetic implies that of the theory of hereditarily finite sets.", "In particular, there exists a plethora of so-called non-standard models of both theories.", "A seeming paradox is that there are non-standard models of the theory of hereditarily finite sets which contain infinite sets, but these infinite sets look finite from within the model.", "(This can happen when the model lacks the sets or functions necessary to witness the infinitude of these sets.)", "On account of the incompleteness theorems, no first-order predicate, nor even any recursive scheme of first-order predicates, can characterize the standard part of all such models.", "So, at least from the point of view of first-order logic, one can only hope to describe finiteness approximately.More generally, informal notions like set, and particularly finite set, may receive interpretations across a range of formal systems varying in their axiomatics and logical apparatus.", "The best known axiomatic set theories include Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory (ZF), Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory with the Axiom of Choice (ZFC), Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory (NBG), Non-well-founded set theory, Bertrand Russell's Type theory and all the theories of their various models.", "One may also choose among classical first-order logic, various higher-order logics and intuitionistic logic.A formalist might see the meaning of ''set'' varying from system to system.", "Some kinds of Platonists might view particular formal systems as approximating an underlying reality." ], [ "Set-theoretic definitions of finiteness", "In contexts where the notion of natural number sits logically prior to any notion of set, one can define a set ''S'' as finite if ''S'' admits a bijection to some set of natural numbers of the form .", "Mathematicians more typically choose to ground notions of number in set theory, for example they might model natural numbers by the order types of finite well-ordered sets.", "Such an approach requires a structural definition of finiteness that does not depend on natural numbers.Various properties that single out the finite sets among all sets in the theory ZFC turn out logically inequivalent in weaker systems such as ZF or intuitionistic set theories.", "Two definitions feature prominently in the literature, one due to Richard Dedekind, the other to Kazimierz Kuratowski.", "(Kuratowski's is the definition used above.", ")A set ''S'' is called Dedekind infinite if there exists an injective, non-surjective function .", "Such a function exhibits a bijection between ''S'' and a proper subset of ''S'', namely the image of ''f''.", "Given a Dedekind infinite set ''S'', a function ''f'', and an element ''x'' that is not in the image of ''f'', one can form an infinite sequence of distinct elements of ''S'', namely .", "Conversely, given a sequence in ''S'' consisting of distinct elements , one can define a function ''f'' such that on elements in the sequence and ''f'' behaves like the identity function otherwise.", "Thus Dedekind infinite sets contain subsets that correspond bijectively with the natural numbers.", "Dedekind finite naturally means that every injective self-map is also surjective.", "Kuratowski finiteness is defined as follows.", "Given any set ''S'', the binary operation of union endows the powerset ''P''(''S'') with the structure of a semilattice.", "Writing ''K''(''S'') for the sub-semilattice generated by the empty set and the singletons, call set ''S'' Kuratowski finite if ''S'' itself belongs to ''K''(''S'').", "Intuitively, ''K''(''S'') consists of the finite subsets of ''S''.", "Crucially, one does not need induction, recursion or a definition of natural numbers to define ''generated by'' since one may obtain ''K''(''S'') simply by taking the intersection of all sub-semilattices containing the empty set and the singletons.Readers unfamiliar with semilattices and other notions of abstract algebra may prefer an entirely elementary formulation.", "Kuratowski finite means ''S'' lies in the set ''K''(''S''), constructed as follows.", "Write ''M'' for the set of all subsets ''X'' of ''P''(''S'') such that:* ''X'' contains the empty set;* For every set ''T'' in ''P''(''S''), if ''X'' contains ''T'' then ''X'' also contains the union of ''T'' with any singleton.Then ''K''(''S'') may be defined as the intersection of ''M''.In ZF, Kuratowski finite implies Dedekind finite, but not vice versa.", "In the parlance of a popular pedagogical formulation, when the axiom of choice fails badly, one may have an infinite family of socks with no way to choose one sock from more than finitely many of the pairs.", "That would make the set of such socks Dedekind finite: there can be no infinite sequence of socks, because such a sequence would allow a choice of one sock for infinitely many pairs by choosing the first sock in the sequence.", "However, Kuratowski finiteness would fail for the same set of socks.=== Other concepts of finiteness ===In ZF set theory without the axiom of choice, the following concepts of finiteness for a set ''S'' are distinct.", "They are arranged in strictly decreasing order of strength, i.e.", "if a set ''S'' meets a criterion in the list then it meets all of the following criteria.", "In the absence of the axiom of choice the reverse implications are all unprovable, but if the axiom of choice is assumed then all of these concepts are equivalent.", "(Note that none of these definitions need the set of finite ordinal numbers to be defined first; they are all pure \"set-theoretic\" definitions in terms of the equality and membership relations, not involving ω.", ")* '''I-finite'''.", "Every non-empty set of subsets of ''S'' has a ⊆-maximal element.", "(This is equivalent to requiring the existence of a ⊆-minimal element.", "It is also equivalent to the standard numerical concept of finiteness.", ")* '''Ia-finite'''.", "For every partition of ''S'' into two sets, at least one of the two sets is I-finite.", "(A set with this property which is not I-finite is called an amorphous set.", ")* '''II-finite'''.", "Every non-empty ⊆-monotone set of subsets of ''S'' has a ⊆-maximal element.", "* '''III-finite'''.", "The power set ''P''(''S'') is Dedekind finite.", "* '''IV-finite'''.", "''S'' is Dedekind finite.", "* '''V-finite'''.", "∣''S''∣ = 0 or 2 ⋅ ∣''S''∣ > ∣''S''|.", "* '''VI-finite'''.", "∣''S''∣ = 0 or ∣''S''∣ = 1 or ∣''S''∣2 > ∣''S''∣.", "* '''VII-finite'''.", "''S'' is I-finite or not well-orderable.The forward implications (from strong to weak) are theorems within ZF.", "Counter-examples to the reverse implications (from weak to strong) in ZF with urelements are found using model theory.Most of these finiteness definitions and their names are attributed to by .", "However, definitions I, II, III, IV and V were presented in , together with proofs (or references to proofs) for the forward implications.", "At that time, model theory was not sufficiently advanced to find the counter-examples.Each of the properties I-finite thru IV-finite is a notion of smallness in the sense that any subset of a set with such a property will also have the property.", "This is not true for V-finite thru VII-finite because they may have countably infinite subsets." ], [ "See also", "*FinSet*Ordinal number*Peano arithmetic" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Farmer Giles of Ham" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Farmer Giles of Ham''''' is a comic medieval fable written by J. R. R. Tolkien in 1937 and published in 1949.The story describes the encounters between Farmer Giles and a wily dragon named Chrysophylax, and how Giles manages to use these to rise from humble beginnings to rival the king of the land.", "It is cheerfully anachronistic and light-hearted, set in Britain in an imaginary period of the Dark Ages.", "It features mythical creatures, medieval knights, and primitive firearms.Scholars have noted that despite the story's light-hearted nature, reflected in Tolkien's playful use of his professional discipline, philology, it embodies several serious concerns.", "The setting is quasi-realistic, being the area around Oxford where Tolkien lived and worked.", "The story parodies multiple aspects of traditional dragon-slaying tales, and has roots in modern and medieval literature, from Norse myth to Spenser's ''The Faerie Queene''.", "Its concern for the \"Little Kingdom\" embodies Tolkien's environmentalism, in particular his well-founded fears for the loss of the countryside of Oxfordshire and surrounding areas." ], [ "Plot summary", "Farmer Giles (''Ægidius Ahenobarbus Julius Agricola de Hammo'', \"Giles Redbeard Julius, Farmer of Ham\") is fat and red-bearded and enjoys a slow, comfortable life.", "A rather deaf and short-sighted giant blunders on to his land, and Giles manages to send him away with a blunderbuss shot in his general direction.", "The people of the village cheer: Farmer Giles has become a hero.", "His reputation spreads across the kingdom, and he is rewarded by the King with an unfashionable old sword.", "The giant, on returning home, relates to his friends that there are no more knights in the Middle Kingdom, just stinging flies—actually the scrap metal shot from the blunderbuss—and this entices a dragon from Wales, Chrysophylax Dives, to investigate the area.", "The terrified neighbours all expect the accidental hero Farmer Giles to deal with him.The knights sent by the King to pursue the dragon turn out to be full of excuses not to do their duty.", "The villagers look to Giles to do something.", "The local priest finds that the old sword is Caudimordax (\"Tailbiter\"), meant specifically for killing dragons.Giles sets out and meets Chrysophylax.", "The sword turns out to be able to fight almost on its own; Giles hits the dragon with the sword, damaging its wing so it cannot fly, and leads it through the town.", "It is made to promise to bring its treasure to the villagers, but it does not keep its word.", "The king sends Giles and the knights to deal with Chrysophylax.", "The knights have never seen any dragon apart from their Christmas dragon-tail cake made of marzipan.", "Chrysophylax kills them.", "Giles survives, and with his sword he masters the dragon and obtains part of the treasure.", "On his way home, he acquires the servants of the dead knights.", "Back at home, with servants and treasure, Giles becomes a powerful lord." ], [ "Publication history", "''Farmer Giles of Ham'' was originally illustrated by Pauline Baynes.", "The story has appeared with other works by Tolkien in omnibus editions, including ''The Tolkien Reader'' and ''Tales from the Perilous Realm''.Tolkien dedicated ''Farmer Giles of Ham'' to Cyril Hackett Wilkinson (1888–1960), a don (lecturer) he knew at Oxford University; Wilkinson had encouraged Tolkien to go ahead with writing the story for the Lovelace Society at Worcester College." ], [ "Analysis", "=== Quasi-realistic geographical setting ===Sketch map of real places in and around Oxfordshire in the English midlands, used for the \"Little Kingdom\" of ''Farmer Giles of Ham''.", "Tolkien, a philologist, sprinkled philological jokes into the tale, including intentionally false etymologies.", "The place-names are of places close to Oxford|Oxenford including Oakley, Otmoor and the Rollright Stones.", "At the end of the story, Giles is made Lord of Tame, and Count of Worminghall.", "The Tolkien scholar John Garth comments that the tale is \"an elaborate false explanation for the name of the Buckinghamshire village of Worminghall\".+ John Garth's analysis of Tolkien's etymological \"frolic\"in ''Farmer Giles of Ham'' Worminghall in the story Worminghall, Buckinghamshire \"The hall of the Wormings\",people descended from a manwho tamed a ''worm'' (a dragon) \"Field of a man named Wyrma\"=== Quasi-realistic historical setting ===It has been suggested that the Middle Kingdom is based on early Mercia, and that Giles's break-away realm (the Little Kingdom) is based on Frithuwald's Surrey.", "The tale's Foreword states that the tale is \"a translation\" from \"insular Latin\" of events taking place \"after the days of King Coel maybe, but before Arthur or the Seven Kingdoms of the English\".=== Blunderbuss philology ===A blunderbuss Another joke puts a question concerning the definition of blunderbuss to \"the four wise clerks of Oxenford\": \"A short gun with a large bore firing many balls or slugs, and capable of doing execution killing people within a limited range without exact aim.", "(Now superseded, in civilised countries, by other firearms.)\"", "Tolkien had worked on the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', and the \"four wise clerks\" are \"undoubtedly\" the four lexicographers Henry Bradley, William Craigie, James Murray, and Charles Talbut Onions.", "Tolkien then satirises the dictionary definition by applying it to Farmer Giles's weapon:However, Farmer Giles's blunderbuss had a wide mouth that opened like a horn, and it did not fire balls or slugs, but anything that he could spare to stuff in.", "And it did not do execution, because he seldom loaded it, and never let it off.", "The sight of it was usually enough for his purpose.", "And this country was not yet civilised, for the blunderbuss was not superseded: it was indeed the only kind of gun that there was, and rare at that.The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey comments: \"Giles's blunderbuss ... defies the definition and works just the same.", "\"=== Parody dragon-slaying tale ===Chrysophylax was brought back to the city, tamed, as in the story of Saint George and the Dragon.", "15th-century Georgian icon.", "Romuald Lakowski describes ''Farmer Giles of Ham'' as a \"delightful, and even in places brilliant, parody of the traditional dragon-slaying tale.\"", "The parody has many strands.", "The hero is a farmer, not a knight; the dragon is a coward, and is not killed, but tamed and forced to return his treasure.", "Lakowski derives Chrysophylax both from medieval dragons and from comic stories contemporary with Tolkien, like Edith Nesbit's ''The Dragon Tamers'' and Kenneth Grahame's ''The Reluctant Dragon''.", "The story embodies a charter myth, in which Giles's descendants have a dragon on their crest because of his deeds.", "Further, it serves as a local legend, with mock etymologies of actual place-names.", "Giles's cowardly talking dog Garm is named for the terrifying dog of the Norse underworld.", "Giles's magic named sword may derive partly from Norse myth, too; the god Freyr had a sword that could fight by itself.", "As for the fight with the dragon, the wounding of the monster's wing echoes an episode in Spenser's ''The Faerie Queene''.", "Other allusions may include the legend of Saint George and the Dragon, as that dragon was brought back to the city, tamed, and led with the girdle of a maiden round its neck; and the Völsunga saga, as the dragon's cave sounds much like Fáfnir's.=== Environmentalism ===Alex Lewis, in ''Mallorn'', writes that Tolkien lamented the loss of the countryside in and around Oxfordshire, which formed \"the Little Kingdom\" of the story.", "Tolkien loved nature, especially trees, and had what Lewis calls \"well-founded\" fears for the environment, \"verging on the prophetic\".", "Lewis analyses the factors that were causing this loss.", "They included the growth in Oxfordshire's population in the 20th century (doubling between 1920 and 1960); the area's industrialisation by Morris Motors, and the concomitant increase in motor traffic in the city of Oxford; the building of roads, including the M40 motorway cutting across the countryside; and the suburbanisation of Oxford as commuters started to use the railway to allow them to live in Oxford but work in London.", "The Second World War increased the number of airfields in the area from 5 to 96, causing the Oxfordshire countryside to be \"gutted\".", "Lewis states that Tolkien had hoped to write a sequel to ''Farmer Giles of Ham'', but found that his legendarium had \"bubbled up, infiltrated, and probably spoiled everything\", and that it was \"difficult in 1949 to recapture the spirit of the former days, when we used to beat the bounds of the Little Kingdom in an ancient car.\"", "Tolkien was horrified by the change that motor traffic wreaked on Oxford, and the air pollution; he had given up his happy but dangerous driving, as depicted in his children's story ''Mr.", "Bliss'', at the start of the war." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of freshwater aquarium fish species" ], [ "Introduction", "A vast number of freshwater species have successfully adapted to live in aquariums.", "This list gives some examples of the most common species found in home aquariums." ], [ "[[Siluriformes|Catfish]]", "'''Armored catfish including Aspidoras, Brochis, Callichthys, and Corydoras'''Common nameScientific nameImageSize RemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH range Brown-Point Shield Skin ''Aspidoras fuscoguttatus'' 175px 3.8 cm(1.5 in) 30 Gallons 5.5–6.8 Aspidoras Cory-Cat ''Aspidoras lakoi'' 28 Gallons Loach catfish ''Aspidoras rochai'' maximum length 20 Gallons 21 – 25 degrees Celsius6.0-7.5Sixray corydoras, false corydoras ''Aspidoras pauciradiatus'' 175px 20 Gallons 6.0-7.2Britski's catfish ''Brochis britskii'' 6.5-7.2Emerald catfish ''Brochis splendens'' 175px The Emerald Cory Catfish is a very hardy and resilient fish.", "Disease should not be a concern provided that you maintain the aquarium to standards.", "20 Gallons 72 - 82 F (22 - 27.7 C) 5.8-8.0Hognosed brochis ''Brochis multiradiatus'' 175px 70-75 °F (21-24 °C)6.0-7.2Adolfo's catfish/corydoras ''Corydoras adolfoi''175px 6.0-7.0Banded corydoras ''Scleromystax barbatus'' 175px 68 °F (20 °C) to 82 °F (28 °C)6.0–8.0Masked corydoras, bandit corydoras ''Corydoras metae'' 175px 6.0-7.0Barred-tail corydoras ''Corydoras cochui'' 175px 70-75 °F6.0 - 7.0Blackstripe corydoras ''Corydoras bondi'' Blacktop corydoras ''Corydoras acutus'' 175px Blue corydoras ''Corydoras nattereri'' 175px Bluespotted corydoras ''Corydoras melanistius'' Bronze corydoras, Emerald green cory ''Corydoras aeneus''175px Caracha ''Corydoras atropersonatus'' 175px Ehrhardt's corydoras ''Corydoras ehrhardti'' Evelyn's cory ''Corydoras evelynae'' ''Corydoras geoffroy'' ''Corydoras latus'' Loxozonus cory ''Corydoras loxozonus'' 175px Corydoras nain ''Corydoras nanus'' Long nosed arched cory ''Corydoras narcissus'' ''Corydoras ornatus'' ''Corydoras osteocarus'' ''Corydoras polystictus'' ''Scleromystax prionotos'' ''Corydoras semiaquilus'' 175px ''Corydoras septentrionalis'' ''Corydoras simulatus'' ''Corydoras undulatus'' Dwarf corydoras ''Corydoras hastatus'' 175px Elegant corydoras ''Corydoras elegans'' 175px False network catfish ''Corydoras sodalis'' False spotted catfish ''Corydoras leucomelas'' 175px Gold laser cory ''Corydoras melanotaenia''175px Guapore corydoras ''Corydoras guapore'' Mosaic corydoras, reticulated corydoras ''Corydoras haraldschultzi'' 175px Mosaic corydoras, reticulated corydoras ''Corydoras reticulatus'' Panda corydoras ''Corydoras panda'' 175px 6.0-8.0Pastaza corydoras ''Corydoras pastazensis'' Peppered corydoras, salt and pepper catfish ''Corydoras paleatus''175px Pink corydoras ''Corydoras axelrodi'' Pygmy corydoras ''Corydoras pygmaeus'' 175px A very peaceful species, that does not make an ideal community fish due to its small adult size.", "It is easily intimidated by larger tank mates and will not compete well with them for food.", "42.4 L (11 gal) 72 to 79 °F (22 to 26 °C)6.4 to 7.4Sailfin corydoras ''Scleromystax macropterus'' Salt and pepper catfish/corydoras ''Corydoras habrosus''175px Schwartz's catfish ''Corydoras schwartzi'' 175px Spotted corydoras, longnose corydoras ''Corydoras ambiacus'' Sterba's corydoras ''Corydoras sterbai'' 175px Sychr's catfish ''Corydoras sychri'' Tailspot corydoras ''Corydoras caudimaculatus'' Threestripe corydoras, leopard catfish, false julii cory''Corydoras trilineatus''175px Xingu corydoras ''Corydoras xinguensis'' Julii corydoras ''Corydoras julii'' 175px Flagtail catfish''Dianema'' ''urostriatum''175px6.0-8.0Cascarudo ''Callichthys callichthys'' 175px 64–83 °F (18–28 °C).5.8-8.3Spotted hoplo ''Megalechis thoracata'' 175px 64–83 °F (18–28 °C).6-8'''Armored suckermouth catfish (plecos, oto, and whiptail)'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeBristlenose pleco, bushynose pleco ''Ancistrus'' sp.", "175px 13 cm (5 in)The bristlenose genus has at least 59 identified species and many others yet to be named.", "Males and female both have long \"bristles\" on their nose, the males having distinctly longer ones.", "72-84 F (20-27 C)Gold nugget pleco ''Baryancistrus'' sp.", "175px 77-86 F (25-30 C)Whiptail catfish ''Rineloricaria'' sp.", "175px 12 cm (4.7 in) It is a peaceful fish that is best kept in good sized groups (6+) in a mature tank with plenty of shady hiding spots amongst plants, driftwood, slate caves, and PVC pipes.", "75-82 F (24-28 C)6.0-7.2Twig catfish ''Farlowella'' sp.", "175px Panaque ''Panaque'' sp.", "175px Pineapple pleco, orange cheek pleco ''Pseudorinelepis'' sp.", "175px Common pleco, suckermouth catfish, Amazon sailfin catfish ''Pterygoplichthys pardalis'' 175px Common pleco, suckermouth catfish ''Hypostomus punctatus'' 175px Common pleco, suckermouth catfish ''Hypostomus plecostomus'' 175px Adults can become very territorial and aggressive towards each other.", "It is difficult to keep 2 adult common plecos together.", "72-86 F (22-30 C)6.5-7.5Leopard sailfin pleco, clown sailfin pleco ''Pterygoplichthys gibbiceps'' 175px Zebra pleco, L-046 ''Hypancistrus zebra'' 175px 3-5 inOne of the most popular Hypancistrus species.Endangered.", "Sailfin catfish ''Pterygoplichthys multiradiatus'' 175px Golden dwarf sucker, golden oto ''Otocinclus macrospilus'' 175px 3.5 cm Zebra dwarf sucker, zebra oto ''Otocinclus cocama'' 175px Clown Pleco ( L104, L162, and LDA22)''Panaqolus maccus''175px8.8 cm (3.5 in)primary diet consists of wood, in aquaria this is provided in the source of drift wood.", "Will appreciate blanched vegetables, and/ or algae (wafer or live)20 gal23.0-28.0 °C or 73.4-82.4 °F6.8 - 7.6'''Long-whiskered catfish'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeBolt catfish ''Aguarunichthys torosus'' Gold Zebra catfish ''Brachyplatystoma juruense'' Zebra shovelnose ''Brachyplatystoma tigrinum'' Vulture Catfish, zamurito ''Calophysus macropterus '' 175px ''Leiarius marmoratus'' 175px ''Leiarius pictus'' Redtail catfish ''Phractocephalus hemioliopterus'' 175px Needs at least a tank when mature, even though this does not provide them with the space to show their natural behaviour.70–79 °F (21–26 °C)6.0–7.5Spotted pimelodus, pictus, pictus catfish ''Pimelodus pictus'' 175px Ornate Pimelodus ''Pimelodus ornatus'' 175px Similar to catfish but not in the same genus Sturgeon catfish ''Platystomatichthys sturio'' Barred sorubim ''Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum'' Tiger sorubim ''Pseudoplatystoma tigrinum'' 175px Firewood catfish, (planiceps) shovelnose catfish ''Sorubimichthys planiceps'' 175px Lima shovelnose catfish ''Sorubium lima''175px '''Squeakers and upside-down catfish'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeCuckoo squeaker ''Synodontis multipunctatus'' 175px Decorated squeaker ''Synodontis decorus'' Even-Spotted squeaker ''Synodontis petricola'' 175px Featherfin squeaker ''Synodontis eupterus'' 175px Lake Malawi syno ''Synodontis njassae'' 175px Polka dot syno ''Synodontis angelicus'' 175px Common syno, false upside-down catfish ''Synodontis nigrita'' Upside-down catfish ''Synodontis nigriventris'' 175px ''S.", "nigriventris'' prefers bottom feeding on ''Tubifex'' (or similar worms), but its main diet consists of algae.", "The blotched upside-down catfish is well suited to aquariums because of its small size (typically 9 or 10 cm or less) and peaceful demeanor.", "6.0 - 7.5'''Other catfish'''Common nameScientific name ImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeThree-striped African catfish ''Pareutropius buffei'' Giraffe catfish ''Auchenoglanis occidentalis'' 175px Electric catfish ''Malapterurus electricus'' 175px Black lancer catfish ''Bagrichthys macracanthus'' Harlequin lancer catfish ''Bagroides melapterus'' Crystal-eyed catfish ''Hemibagrus wyckii'' Asian redtail catfish ''Hemibagrus wyckioides'' Shadow catfish ''Hyalobagrus flavus'' 175px ''Mystus bimaculatus'' Dwarf bumblebee catfish ''Pseudomystus leiacanthus'' Asian bumblebee catfish ''Pseudomystus siamensis'' Dinema catfish ''Belodontichthys dinema'' 175px .", "Glass catfish ''Kryptopterus vitreolus'' 175px .", "Striped glass catfish ''Kryptopterus macrocephalus'' .", "Borneo glass catfish ''Ompok eugeneiatus'' .", "Striped wallago catfish ''Wallago leerii'' 175px .", "Chocolate frogmouth catfish ''Chaca bankanensis'' 175px Asian banjo catfish ''Acrochordonichthys rugosus'' Walking catfish ''Clarias batrachus'' 175px The albino form is common in the aquarium trade.", "This fish can survive out of the water and \"walk\" as long as kept wet, for a very long time.", "Stinging catfish ''Heteropneustes fossilis'' 175px Sun catfish ''Horabagrus brachysoma'' 175px Iridescent shark ''Pangasianodon hypophthalmus'' 175px Chao Phraya giant shark, giant pangasius ''Pangasius sanitwongsei'' 175px Colombian shark catfish ''Ariopsis seemanni'' 175px Blue whale catfish ''Cetopsis coecutiens'' Banjo catfish ''Bunocephalus coracoideus'' Striped raphael catfish ''Platydoras armatulus'' 175px Spotted raphael catfish ''Agamyxis pectinifrons'' 175px Bottlenose catfish ''Ageneiosus marmoratus'' Gulper catfish ''Asterophysus batrachus'' Midnight catfish ''Auchenipterichthys coracoideus'' Oil catfish ''Centromochlus perugiae'' Jaguar catfish ''Liosomadoras oncinus'' Pygmy driftwood catfish ''Trachelyichthys exilis'' ''Trachelyopterus fisheri''" ], [ "[[Characidae|Characins]] and other [[characiformes]]", "'''Tetras'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeBlack phantom tetra ''Hyphessobrycon megalopterus'' 175px The black phantom tetra enjoy being in groups of 6 or more and a slightly shaded tank.", "Males may claim small territories and occasionally minor battles may occur.", "The Phantom tetra goes well with other tetras of similar size.", "They also prefer floating plants.Black neon tetra ''Hyphessobrycon herbertaxelrodi'' 175px Black tetra, skirt tetra ''Gymnocorymbus ternetzi'' 175px A highly spirited fish that may occasionally chase its own species as well as harass slow moving fish with long fins.", "This fish is very hardy and can stand a variety of water qualities.", "Disease is not a big problem with the black tetra.", "The black tetra is also known as the black skirt tetra.", "The female black tetra is more robust and larger than the male.Black morpho tetra ''Poecilocharax weitzmani'' 175px Bleeding heart tetra ''Hyphessobrycon erythrostigma'' 175px The bleeding heart tetra is distinguished by the small red spot on both sides of the fish.", "This fish is very prone to diseases, and can grow larger than most tetra species.Bloodfin tetra ''Aphyocharax anisitsi'' 175px Blue tetra ''Knodus borki'' 175px Bucktooth tetra ''Exodon paradoxus'' 175px Buenos Aires tetra ''Hyphessobrycon anisitsi'' 175px Cardinal tetra ''Paracheirodon axelrodi'' 175px Similar to the Neon Tetra, but slightly larger and doesn't prefer to school as much.", "They need much larger tanks, although their temperament is similar.Cave tetra, blind tetra ''Astyanax mexicanus'' 175px The cave tetra is the blind cave form of the Mexican tetra.", "This tetra prefers low to moderate lighting.Diamond tetra ''Moenkhausia pittieri'' 175px Ember tetra ''Hyphessobrycon amandae'' 175px Ember tetras have been known to live ten years or more.", "May become stressed by the presence of larger fish.5 - 7 pHEmperor tetra ''Nematobrycon palmeri'' 175px Flame tetra ''Hyphessobrycon flammeus'' 175px Garnet tetra, pretty tetra ''Hemigrammus pulcher'' 175px Glass bloodfin tetra ''Prionobrama filigera'' 175px Glowlight tetra ''Hemigrammus erythrozonus'' 175px Golden pristella tetra ''Pristella maxillaris'' 175px Green neon tetra ''Paracheirodon simulans'' 175px Similar to Neon Tetras and Cardinal Tetras, they are the same to Neon Tetras beside having a green tiny near their top dorsal finHead and tail light tetra ''Hemigrammus ocellifer'' 175px January tetra ''Hemigrammus hyanuary'' 175px Lemon tetra ''Hyphessobrycon pulchripinnis'' 175px Neon tetra ''Paracheirodon innesi'' 175px Neon tetras must be kept in groups of at least a half-dozen, as they are a shoaling species.", "With peaceful dispositions, they are also able to be kept with other species of non-aggressive fish.38 L (10 gal)68 to 79 F (20 to 26 C)6.0–7.0Ornate tetra ''Hyphessobrycon bentosi'' 175px Penguin tetra, blackline penguinfish ''Thayeria boehlkei'' 175px Red Eye tetra ''Moenkhausia sanctaefilomenae'' 175px Red phantom tetra ''Hyphessobrycon sweglesi'' 175px Rosy tetra ''Hyphessobrycon rosaceus'' 175px Royal tetra ''Inpaichthys kerri'' 175px Possesses an adipose fin allowing it to be differentiated from the Emperor tetra Rummy-nose tetra ''Hemigrammus rhodostomus'' 175px This common name is used for three different species of schooling fish with similar patterns: ''Hemigrammus rhodostomus, Hemigrammus bleheri'', and ''Petitella georgiae.", "''Splash tetra ''Copella arnoldi'' 175px Serpae tetra ''Hyphessobrycon serpae'' 175px Silvertip tetra ''Hasemania nana'' 175px X-ray tetra ''Pristella maxillaris'' 175px Also just called the X-ray fish.Congo tetra ''Phenacogrammus interruptus'' 175px Peaceful but may scare shy species with its active swimming and large adult size.", "Recommended for most community tanks however.", "Do not keep congo tetras with fin-nipping species as the spectacular fins of the males will be destroyed.108 L (28.5 gal)73-82 °F (23-28 °C)6.0-7.5Jellybean tetra ''Ladigesia roloffi'' 175px Long-fin tetra ''Brycinus longipinnis'' 175px Niger tetra ''Arnoldichthys spilopterus'' 175px Yellow-tailed Congo tetra ''Alestopetersius caudalis'' 175px '''Hatchetfish'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeCommon hatchetfish ''Gasteropelecus sternicla'' 175px Requires a varied diet including fruit fliesMarbled hatchetfish ''Carnegiella strigata'' 175px Requires a varied diet including fruit fliesBlack-winged hatchetfish ''Carnegiella marthae'' 175px Pygmy hatchetfish ''Carnegiella myersi'' '''Pencil fishes'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeGolden pencilfish ''Nannostomus beckfordi'' 175px Hockeystick pencilfish ''Nannostomus eques'' 175px Barred pencilfish ''Nannostomus espei'' 175px Dwarf pencilfish ''Nannostomus marginatus'' 175px Coral-red pencilfish ''Nannostomus mortenthaleri'' 175px ''Nannostomus nigrotaeniatus'' 175px Three-lined pencilfish ''Nannostomus trifasciatus'' 175px One-lined Pencilfish ''Nannostomus unifasciatus '' 175px '''Serrasalminae (pacus, piranhas, and silver dollars)'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeSilver dollar ''Metynnis argenteus'' 175px The name \"silver dollar\" may also refer to ''Metynnis hypsauchen'', ''Metynnis maculatus'', or other related fishes.", "Schreitmuller's metynnis ''Metynnis hypsauchen'' 175px Red-bellied pacu ''Colossoma bidens'' 175px Red piranha ''Pygocentrus nattereri'' 175px Disk tetra ''Myleus schomburgkii'' 175px 23 °C to 27 °C5.0–7.0'''Other Characins'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeAfrican pike characin ''Hepsetus odoe'' 175px Goliath tigerfish ''Hydrocynus goliath'' 175px Hujeta gar ''Ctenolucius hujeta'' 175px Kissing prochilodus, flagtail Prochilodus ''Semaprochilodus insignis'' 175px Marbled headstander ''Abramites hypselonotus'' 175px Banded leporinus ''Leporinus fasciatus'' 175px Striped headstander ''Anostomus anostomus'' 175px Six-banded distichodus ''Distichodus sexfasciatus'' 175px Payara ''Hydrolycus scomberoides'' 175px Pink-tail chalceus ''Chalceus macrolepidotus'' 175px Red wolf fish ''Erythrinus erythrinus'' 175px Red tail barracuda ''Acestrorhynchus falcatus'' 175px Spotted headstander ''Chilodus punctatus'' 175px" ], [ "[[Cichlidae|Cichlids]]", "'''Lake Malawi cichlids'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeSunshine peacock cichlid ''Aulonocara baenschi'' 175px Pale usisya aulonocara ''Aulonocara steveni'' 175px Red fin hap ''Copadichromis borleyi'' 175px Eureka red peacock ''Aulonocara jacobfreibergi'' 175px Spilo ''Champsochromis spilorhynchus'' Blue dolphin cichlid, lumphead cichlid ''Cyrtocara moorii'' 175px Afra cichlid, dogtooth cichild ''Cynotilapia afra'' 175px Rusty cichlid, lavender cichild ''Iodotropheus sprengerae'' 175px Fuelleborn's cichlid, Blue mbuna ''Labeotropheus fuelleborni'' 175px Electric yellow cichlid ''Labidochromis caeruleus'' 175px Electric blue cichlid ''Sciaenochromis fryeri'' 175px Malawi eyebiter ''Dimidiochromis compressiceps'' 175px Hongi, Red-top kimpumpa ''Labidochromis'' sp.", "\"Hongi\" 175px Yellow Top Mbamba ''Labidochromis'' sp.", "\"Mbamba Bay\" Auratus cichlid, Malawi golden cichlid ''Melanochromis auratus'' 175px Chipokee cichlid ''Melanochromis chipokae'' Blue johanni cichlid, Maingano ''Melanochromis cyaneorhabdos'' 175px Pearl of Likoma ''Melanochromis joanjohnsonae'' 175px Aurora ''Melanochromis aurora'' Red zebra cichlid ''Metriaclima estherae'' 175px Cobalt blue cichlid, cobalt zebra cichlid ''Maylandia callainos'' 175px Kenyi cichlid ''Maylandia lombardoi'' 175px Fusco ''Nimbochromis fuscotaeniatus'' 175px Livingston's cichlid ''Nimbochromis livingstonii'' 175px Kaligono ''Nimbochromis polystigma'' 175px Venustus cichlid, giraffe cichild ''Nimbochromis venustus'' 175px Red empress cichlid ''Protomelas taeniolatus'' 175px Bumblebee cichlid, hornet cichlid ''Pseudotropheus crabro'' 175px Yellow-tail acei ''Pseudotropheus acei'' 175px Johanni cichlid ''Pseudotropheus johannii'' 175px Dwarf Mbuna ''Pseudotropheus demasoni'' 175px Saulosi ''Pseudotropheus saulosi'' 175px Malawi barracuda ''Rhampsochromis cf.", "macrophthalmus'' ''Tyrannochromis macrostoma'' '''Lake Tanganyika cichlids'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH range''Benthochromis tricoti'' 175px ''Boulengerochromis microlepis'' 175px Frontosa cichild ''Cyphotilapia frontosa'' 175px ''Cyathopharynx furcifer'' 175px ''Variabilichromis moorii'' 175px Frontosa cichild ''Cyphotilapia gibberosa'' 175px Julie cichlid ''Julidochromis dickfeldi'' 175px Masked Julie ''Julidochromis marlieri'' 175px fem / male Golden Julie ''Julidochromis ornatus'' 175px Julie cichlid ''Julidochromis regani'' 175px fem / male Julie cichlid ''Julidochromis transcriptus'' 175px Herring cichlid, sardine cichlid ''Cyprichromis leptosoma'' 175px ''Ectodus descampsii'' 175px ''Chalinochromis'' spp.", "175px ''Neolamprologus multifasciatus'' 175px ''Lamprologus ocellatus'' 175px ''Neolamprologus similis'' 175px A small shell-dwelling cichlid from Lake Tanganyika.", "Very similar to ''N.", "multifsciatus'' but ''similis'' has striping from the body continue to the head ''Lobochilotes labiatus'' Lyretail cichlid, fairy cichlid ''Neolamprologus brichardi'' 175px Lemon cichlid ''Neolamprologus leleupi'' 175px Featherfin ''Ophthalmotilapia ventralis'' ''Petrochromis trewavasae'' ''Simochromis pleurospilus'' ''Tropheus duboisi'' 175px ''Tropheus moorii'' 175px ''Tropheus polli'' 175px '''Lake Victoria cichlids''' Common name Scientific name Image Size RemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH range ''Astatotilapia aenocolor'' ''Astatotilapia elegans'' Zebra obliquidens ''Astatotilapia latifasciata'' ''Astatotilapia nubila'' ''Astatotilapia piceatus'' ''Astatotilapia schubotziellus'' ''Astatotilapia'' sp.", "\"Red Tail\" ''Astatotilapia'' sp.", "\"Spot Bar\" Allauad's haplo ''Astatoreochromis alluaudi'' 175px Hippo Point Salmon ''Ptyochromis'' sp.", "\"Hippo Point Salmon\" Flameback ''Pundamilia nyererei'' 175px ''Xystichromis phytophagus'' '''Miscellaneous African cichlids (non-Rift Lake)''' Common name Scientific name Image Size RemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeAfrican butterfly cichlid ''Anomalochromis thomasi'' 175px Jewel cichlid, two-spotted jewel cichlid ''Hemichromis bimaculatus'' 175px 4-5 inch Lionhead cichlid ''Steatocranus casuarius'' 175px Lifalili jewel cichlid, blood-red jewel cichlid ''Hemichromis lifalili'' 175px Kribensis, krib ''Pelvicachromis pulcher'' 175px Kribensis, krib''Pelvicachromis taeniatus''175pxGuenther's Mouthbrooder ''Chromidotilapia guentheri'' 175px '''Dwarf cichlids (apistogrammas, rams and others)'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeAgassiz's dwarf cichlid ''Apistogramma agassizii'' 175px Zebra acara ''Ivanacara adoketa'' 175px Yellow dwarf cichlid ''Apistogramma borellii'' 175px Cockatoo dwarf cichlid ''Apistogramma cacatuoides'' 175px Panda dwarf cichlid ''Apistogramma nijsseni'' 175px Three-Stripe Dwarf Cichlid ''Apistogramma trifasciata'' 175px ''Apistogramma eremnopyge'' Two-Stripe Dwarf Cichlid ''Apistogramma bitaeniata'' 175px Checkerboard Cichlid ''Dicrossus filamentosus'' 175px Blue ram, German ram, German Ramirezi ''Mikrogeophagus ramirezi'' 175px 5.0 cm (2.0 in)These small and colorful fish require precise water parameters, and if you don't meet those parameters, your fish could be severely impacted.", "78 - 85 F (25.5 - 29.4 C)6.0 – 7.5Bolivian ram ''Mikrogeophagus altispinosa'' 175px Dwarf flag cichlid ''Laetacara curviceps'' 175px '''Central American cichlids '''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeMidas cichlid ''Amphilophus citrinellus'' 175px 35 cm (14.in) commonly confused with red devil cichlids, but it is an entirely different species Poor man's tropheus ''Hypsophrys nematopus'' 175px Red devil cichlid ''Amphilophus labiatus'' 175px Firemouth cichlid ''Cichlasoma meeki'' 175px Jack Dempsey cichlid ''Rocio octofasciata'' 175px Jaguar cichlid, managuense cichlid ''Parachromis managuensis'' 175px Mayan cichlid ''Mayaheros urophthalmus'' 175px Convict cichlid ''Archocentrus nigrofasciatus'' 175px T-bar cichlid ''Amatitlania sajica'' Wolf cichlid ''Parachromis dovii'' 175px Texas cichlid, Rio Grande cichlid ''Herichthys cyanoguttatus'' 175px '''South American cichlids '''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeGreen terror ''Andinoacara rivulatus'' 175px Blue acara ''Andinoacara pulcher'' 175px Thread-finned acara ''Acarichthys heckelii'' 175px Eartheater cichlid ''Geophagus altifrons'' 175px Demon eartheater ''Satanoperca jurupari'' 175px Greenstreaked Eartheater, cupid cichlid ''Biotodoma cupido'' 175px Keyhole cichlid ''Cleithracara maronii'' 175px Flag cichlid ''Mesonauta festivus'' 175px Angelfish ''Pterophyllum scalare'' 175px In an enclosed tank habitat, the fish's territorial, aggressive nature is heightened, so don't house angelfish with shy species that are intimidated by pushy, boisterous fish.75–82 °F (25–28 °C)6.8 – 7Altum angelfish ''Pterophyllum altum'' 175px Spotted angelfish ''Pterophyllum leopoldi'' 175px Common discus, red discus ''Symphysodon discus'' 175px Blue discus, green discus ''Symphysodon aequifasciatus'' 175px Oscar ''Astronotus ocellatus'' 175px Many people that purchase these fish do not realize that the fish could grow to a foot long (30 cm) within a year.", "Due to their fast growth rate and large size as an adult, they are often kept in aquariums that are too small for them.72-80 °F (22-27 °C)6.0-7.5Chocolate cichlid ''Hypselecara temporalis'' 175px Severum ''Heros efasciatus'' 175px Uaru, waroo ''Uaru amphiacanthoides'' 175px Also known as the Triangle Cichlid.", "Zebra Pike Cichlid ''Crenicichla zebrina'' 175px Butterfly peacock bass ''Cichla ocellaris'' 175px Orinoco peacock bass ''Cichla orinocensis'' 175px Speckled peacock bass ''Cichla temensis'' 175px '''Other cichlids'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeCanara pearlspot ''Etroplus canarensis'' Green chromide ''Etroplus suratensis'' 175px Orange chromide ''Pseudetroplus maculatus'' 175px Pinstripe damba ''Paretroplus menarambo'' 175px Blood parrot cichlid (''Amphilophus citrinellus'' × ''Vieja melanurus'') 175px 20 cm( 8 in) Not considered a separate species of cichlid but a hybrid.Flowerhorn cichlid ''Cichlasoma sp.''", "175px Not considered a separate species of cichlid but a hybrid." ], [ "[[Cyprinidae|Cyprinids]]", "'''Barbs'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeArulius barb ''Dawkinsia arulius'' 175px 66 °F to 77 °F (19°-25 °C) 6 – 8Bigspot barb, Duncker's barb ''Barbodes dunckeri'' 72 - 85 °F (22 - 29 °C) 6 - 7Black ruby barb ''Pethia nigrofasciatus'' 175px Cherry barb ''Puntius titteya'' 175px Clipper barb ''Enteromius callipterus'' Clown barb ''Barbodes everetti'' 175px Denison's barb, red line torpedo barb ''Sahyadria denisonii'' 175px Gold barb ''Barbodes semifasciolatus'' 175px Golden barb ''Pethia gelius'' Greenstripe barb ''Puntius vittatus'' Indian Glass Barb ''Laubuka laubuca'' Melon barb ''Haludaria fasciata'' Odessa barb ''Pethia padamya'' 175px Onespot barb ''Puntius terio'' Panda barb ''Puntius fasciatus'' 175px 5 inchesPool barb ''Puntius sophore'' 175px Partipentazona barb ''Puntigrus partipentazona'' 175px Rosy barb ''Pethia conchonius'' 175px Shortfin barb ''Barbus brevipinnis'' Snakeskin barb ''Desmopuntius rhomboocellatus'' 175px 3.5 inchesSpottedsail barb, dwarf barb ''Pethia phutunio'' Swamp barb ''Puntius chola'' 175px Ticto barb ''Barbus ticto'' Tic-tac-toe barb ''Puntius stoliczkanus'' 175px Tiger barb, sumatra barb ''Puntigrus tetrazona'' 175px Keep in shoals of 8 or 10 to prevent aggressionSpanner barb, t-barb ''Barbodes lateristriga'' 175px Fiveband barb, pentazona barb ''Desmopuntius hexazona'' 175px Checker barb ''Oliotius oligolepis'' 175px Tinfoil barb ''Barbonymus schwanenfeldii'' 175px '''Other cyprinids'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeBala shark ''Balantiocheilus melanopterus'' 175px Grows large, needs lots of swimming room and is a schooling fish so a 125 gallon would be good for 3-4Black shark ''Labeo chrysophekadion'' 175px Siamese algae eater, fringe barb ''Crossocheilus oblongus'' 175px Many other fish in the order Cypriniformes are also sold under this name.", "Very likely to jump out of the aquarium especially after reaching adult size.", "Very useful for getting rid of algae when it is young but prefer fish food upon reaching adulthood.Flying fox (fish) ''Epalzeorhynchos kalopterus'' 175px Red-tailed black shark ''Epalzeorhynchos bicolor'' 175px6 in Rainbow shark ''Epalzeorhynchos frenatum'' 175px 6 in Cambodian log sucker, false Siamese algae eater ''Garra cambodgiensis'' 175px algae eater ''Gyrinocheilus aymonieri'' 175px This species may be sold under a variety of common names, including Siamese algae eater, Chinese algae eater, golden algae eater, or sucking loach.", "A gold colored form also exists. '''", "Rasboras'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeTank sizeTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeChili rasbora ''Boraras brigittae'' 175px Should be kept in acidic water which can be difficult to maintain for most beginners in the aquarium hobby.5-6Espei rasbora ''Trigonostigma espei'' | Harlequin rasbora ''Trigonostigma heteromorpha'' 175px Also known as Harlequin tetra or Harlequin barb.Glowlight rasbora ''Trigonostigma hengeli'' 175px Red-striped rasbora ''Trigonopoma pauciperforata'' 175px Range: SumatraDwarf rasbora ''Boraras maculatus'' 175px Eyespot rasbora ''Brevibora dorsiocellata'' 175px Brilliant rasbora ''Rasbora einthovenii'' 175px Clown rasbora ''Rasbora kalochroma'' 175px Scissortail rasbora ''Rasbora trilineata'' 175px Volcano rasbora ''Rasbora vulcanus'' 175px Blackline rasbora, red-tailed rasbora ''Rasbora borapetensis'' 175px '''Danios and other danionins'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH range ''Sundadanio axelrodi'' 175px Pearl danio ''Danio albolineatus'' 175px subspecies:blue-redstripe danio, Kedah danio Celestial Pearl danio ''Danio margaritatus'' 175px Bengal danio, Sind danio ''Devario devario'' Giant danio ''Devario aequipinnatus'' 175px Malabar danio ''Devario malabaricus'' 175px Queen danio ''Devario regina'' Spotted danio ''Danio nigrofasciatus'' 175px Turquoise danio ''Danio kerri'' 175px Zebra danio ''Danio rerio'' 175px there are many variations of this fish: leopard danio, the spotted colour morph, and GloFish, the genetically modified fluorescent fish.", "'''Cold-water cyprinids '''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeGoldfish ''Carassius auratus'' 175px 15+ cm (6+ in) variations: Black Moor, Bubble Eye, Butterfly Tail, Calico, Celestial Eye, Comet, Common, Fantail, Lionchu, Lionhead, Oranda, Panda Moor, Pearlscale, Pompom, Ranchu, Ryukin, Shubunkin, Telescope eye, Veiltail.Koi, common carp ''Cyprinus carpio'' 175px 30+ cm (12+ in) Bitterling ''Rhodeus amarus'' 175px White Cloud Mountain minnow ''Tanichthys albonubes'' 175px Red shiner ''Cyprinella lutrensis'' 175px Common dace ''Leuciscus leuciscus'' 175px 6.0 to 8.0Rosy red minnow, fathead minnow ''Pimephales promelas'' 175px 7.0 - 7.5Rainbow shiner ''Notropis chrosomus'' 175px European minnow ''Phoxinus phoxinus'' 175px Southern redbelly dace ''Phoxinus erythrogaster'' 175px Tench ''Tinca tinca'' 175px Golden orfe ''Leuciscus idus'' 175px Chinese high fin banded shark ''Myxocyprinus asiaticus'' 175px" ], [ "[[Loaches]] and related [[cypriniformes]]", "'''Loaches'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeSaddle-back Loach ''Homaloptera orthogoniata '' 175px The Saddleback Loach will thrive in an aquarium with a good amount of water flow and aeration, considerable amounts of hiding places formed by rocks or driftwood and smooth pebbles and stones to graze on.68 - 78 F (20 - 25.6 C)6 - 7.5Fork-tailed loach ''Vaillantella maassi'' Horseface loach ''Acantopsis dialuzona'' 175px Weather Loach''Misgurnus anguillicaudatus''Sensitive to changes in barometric pressure ''Pangio anguillaris'' Kuhli loach, coolie loach ''Pangio kuhlii'' 175px The natural habitat of the kuhli loach is the sandy beds of slow-moving rivers and clean mountain streams.", "They are a social fish and are typically found in small clusters (they are not schooling fish but enjoy the company of their species), but are cautious and nocturnal by nature and swim near the bottom where they feed around obstacles.", "Kuhli loaches are scavengers, so they will eat anything that reaches the bottom.5.5 – 6.5Java loach ''Pangio oblonga'' 175px 6.2 to 7.0Clown loach ''Chromobotia macracanthus'' 175px Green tiger loach ''Syncrossus hymenophysa'' Banded tiger loach ''Syncrossus helodes'' 175px Redfin tiger loach ''Syncrossus berdmorei'' 175px Dwarf botia ''Ambastaia sidthimunki'' 175px Formerly named ''Botia sidthimunki.", "''Yoyo loach ''Botia almorhae'' 175px Bengal loach ''Botia dario'' 175px Also known as the Queen loach.", "''Botia histrionica'' 175px Polka-Dot Loach ''Botia kubotai'' 175px Gangetic loach ''Botia rostrata'' Zebra loach ''Botia striata'' 175px Redtail loach ''Yasuhikotakia modesta'' 175px Skunk loach ''Yasuhikotakia morleti'' 175px Formerly named ''Botia morleti'' ''Yasuhikotakia splendida'' Borneo hillstream loach ''Gastromyzon'' sp.", "175px Eats mainly algae.", "High oxygen level and water quality are greatly appreciated in addition to a strong current (but not needed as many sources claim)6.5 – 8.0 pHTiger hillstream loach ''Sewellia lineolata'' 175px Eats mainly algae.", "High oxygen level and water quality are greatly appreciated in addition to a strong current (but not needed as many sources claim)Butterfly hillstream loach ''Beaufortia kweichowensis'' 175px Eats mainly algae.", "High oxygen level and water quality are greatly appreciated in addition to a strong current (but not needed as many sources claim)" ], [ "[[Live-bearing aquarium fish|Live-bearers]] and [[killifish]]", "'''Guppies and mollies'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeGuppy ''Poecilia reticulata'' 175px Many color and tail pattern varieties exist.", "They generally need a ratio of 1 male to 2 females or more.", "All guppies and mollies are hardy fish that tolerate lower oxygen levels and temperatures than most aquarium fish, give birth to live young, and readily breed in home tanks.", "can live in full sea water66 °F - 84 °F (19 °C - 29 °C)7 - 8Endler's livebearer ''Poecilia wingei'' 175px Black molly ''Poecilia sphenops'' 175px Can live in full sea waterSailfin molly ''Poecilia latipinna'' 175px Gold and silver varieties commonly found; also thrive in brackish water/ full sea waterDalmatian molly hybrid 175px The dalmatian molly is a hybrid color variation that can be generated by crossing some species of ''Poecilia'', like ''P.", "sphenops'' and ''P.", "latipinna''.", "The variety \"Dalmatian\" is spotted alike to a Dalmatian dog.", "Can live in full sea waterLyretail Molly hybrid 175px Lyretail Mollies are available in all of these species, can be cross bred with any species of Molly.", "Can live in full sea water'''Platies and swordtails''' Common name Scientific name Image Size RemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeSouthern platy ''Xiphophorus maculatus'' 175px Variable platy ''Xiphophorus variatus'' 175px Green swordtail ''Xiphophorus hellerii'' 175px '''Other Livebearers, like Gambusia'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeLargescale four-eyed fish ''Anableps anableps'' 175px Pike topminnow ''Belonesox belizanus'' 175px Cuban lima ''Limia vittata'' 175px Knife livebearer ''Alfaro cultratus'' 175px Least killifish ''Heterandria formosa'' 175px Tanganyika killifish ''Lamprichthys tanganicanus'' 175px Norman's lampeye ''Poropanchax normani'' 175px Celebes halfbeak ''Nomorhamphus liemi'' 175px Wrestling halfbeak ''Dermogenys pusilla'' 175px Wrestling Halfbeaks are best kept in groups, composed of either a single male with several females, or, in more spacious quarters with ample visual barriers, larger mixed groups containing at least six males.75-82 F (24-28 C) 7 - 8Forest halfbeak ''Hemirhamphodon pogonognathus'' 175px '''Killifish'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeBlue Lyretail ''Fundulopanchax gardneri'' 175px Clown Killifish, rocket killifish ''Epiplatys annulatus'' 175px However, for natural behaviour, a dozen individuals kept in an aquarium of at least 50 litres will be ideal.", "Compose your group with a ratio of one male to two or three females.For maintenance with other species, choose small, peaceful fish that like stagnant water (no Cory doras!", ").6 - 7 pH Bluefin Notho, Rachow's Notho, Rainbow Notho ''Nothobranchius rachovii'' 175px Striped panchax, Golden Wonder ''Aplocheilus lineatus'' 175px American Flagfish ''Jordanella floridae'' Native to SE United StatesArgentine Pearl ''Austrolebias nigripinnis'' 175px Golden Toppminnow ''Fundulus chrysotus'' Northern Studfish ''Fundulus catenatus'' Red-seam Killifish ''Aphyosemion calliurum'' Arabian Killifish ''Aphanius dispar''" ], [ "[[Anabantoidei|Labyrinth fish]]", "'''Gourami'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeCeylonese combtail ''Belontia signata'' 175px Siamese fighting fish (sometimes Betta, esp.", "US) ''Betta splendens'' 175px Betta is the name of the genus that includes more than 60 species other than the Siamese fighting fish.", "5 gal 6.5-7.5Frail gourami ''Ctenops nobilis'' Paradise fish ''Macropodus opercularis'' 175px Ornate paradisefish ''Malpulutta kretseri'' 175px Eyespot gourami ''Parasphaerichthys ocellatus'' 175px Brown Spike-tailed paradisefish ''Pseudosphromenus dayi'' 175px Honey gourami ''Trichogaster chuna'' 175px Dwarf gourami ''Trichogaster lalius'' 175px Suitable for small to mid-sized aquariums but cannot compete with more aggressive fish and males kept together may fight.", "Several color varieties available.", "Massive inbreeding has led to high rates of Dwarf gourami iridovirus (DGIV) in pet store fish.", "72 – 82 °F (22 – 27 °C) 6 - 7.5Moonlight gourami ''Trichopodus microlepis'' 175px Snakeskin gourami ''Trichopodus pectoralis'' 175px Pygmy gourami, Sparkling gourami ''Trichopsis pumila'' 175px Malay combtail ''Belontia hasselti'' 175px Slender betta ''Betta bellica'' ''Betta burdigala'' Scarlet betta ''Betta coccina'' 175px Crescent betta ''Betta imbellis'' 175px ''Betta miniopinna'' Toba betta ''Betta rubra'' ''Betta simorum'' 175px Giant Pikehead ''Luciocephalus pulcher'' 175px ''Parosphromenus phoenicurus'' 175px Chocolate gourami ''Sphaerichthys osphromenoides'' 175px Crossband chocolate gourami ''Sphaerichthys selatanensis'' Samurai gourami ''Sphaerichthys vaillanti'' Pearl gourami ''Trichopodus leerii'' 175px Three spot gourami ''Trichopodus trichopterus'' 175px Croaking gourami ''Trichopsis vittata'' 175px Giant gourami ''Osphronemus goramy'' 175px '''Other labyrinth fishes'''Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeKissing gourami ''Helostoma temminckii'' 175px Climbing perch ''Anabas testudineus'' 175px Leopard bush fish ''Ctenopoma acutirostre'' 175px African leaffish ''Polycentropsis abbreviata'' Blue badis ''Badis badis'' 175px Scarlet badis ''Dario dario'' 175px Bornean leaffish ''Nandus nebulosus'' Malayan leaffish ''Pristolepis fasciata'' 175px Forest snakehead ''Channa lucius'' 175px Illegal to possess live in the USA without a permitDwarf snakehead ''Channa gachua'' 175px Illegal to possess live in the USA without a permitEmperor snakehead ''Channa marulioides'' Illegal to possess live in the USA without a permitGiant snakehead ''Channa micropeltes'' 175px Illegal to possess live in the USA without a permitOcellated snakehead ''Channa pleurophthalma'' 175px Illegal to possess live in the USA without a permitAfrican snakehead ''Parachanna obscura'' 175px Illegal to possess live in the USA without a permit" ], [ "[[Melanotaeniidae|Rainbowfish]]", "Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeRed rainbowfish ''Glossolepis incisus'' 175px Almost all rainbowfish species are bred in captivity and wild populations may be protected.Lake Wanam rainbowfish ''Glossolepis wanamensis'' 175px Threadfin rainbowfish ''Iriatherina werneri'' 175px New Guinea rainbowfish ''Melanotaenia affinis'' Western rainbowfish ''Melanotaenia australis'' 175px Boeseman's rainbowfish ''Melanotaenia boesemani'' 175px Duboulayi's rainbowfish ''Melanotaenia duboulayi'' 175px a.k.a.", "Crimson-Spotted rainbowfish Australian rainbowfish ''Melanotaenia fluviatilis'' 175px Lake Tebera rainbowfish ''Melanotaenia herbertaxelrodi'' 175px Lake Kutubu rainbowfish ''Melanotaenia lacustris'' 175px Lake Kurumoi rainbowfish ''Melanotaenia parva'' 175px Neon rainbowfish ''Melanotaenia praecox'' 175px Eastern rainbowfish ''Melanotaenia splendida splendida'' 175px Banded rainbowfish ''Melanotaenia trifasciata'' 175px Celebes rainbow ''Marosatherina ladigesi'' 175px Forktail blue-eye ''Pseudomugil furcatus'' 175px These fish need a larger aquarium than their size suggests.", "Though they only grow to a length of about 2 inches, they are happiest in groups of 8 – 10 or more, and they appreciate lots of swimming space.75 - 79 °F (24 - 26 °C) 6.5 - 8.0Spotted blue-eye ''Pseudomugil gertrudae'' 175px Red neon blue-eye ''Pseudomugil luminatus'' Pacific blue-eye ''Pseudomugil signifer'' 175px Delicate blue-eye ''Pseudomugil tenellus'' Madagascar rainbowfish ''Bedotia madagascariensis'' 175px" ], [ "[[Gobies]] and [[Eleotridae|sleepers]]", "Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeEmpire gudgeon ''Hypseleotris compressa'' 175px Purple sleeper gudgeon''Mogurnda mogurnda'' 175px Peacock gudgeon, Peacock goby''Tateurndina ocellicauda'' 175px A little territorial with its own kind but is suitable for many communities of small, peaceful fish.", "Ideal tankmates are other species from Papua New Guinea, such as ''Popondetta'' sp.", "rainbowfishes; but tetras, rasboras, ''Corydoras'' cats and virtually any other small peaceful species are also suitable.6.5 7.5 pHBlack toraja goby ''Mugilogobius sarasinorum'' Bumblebee goby ''Brachygobius doriae'' 175px Knight goby ''Stigmatogobius sadanundio'' 175px Rainbow stiphodon ''Stiphodon ornatus'' 175px Cobalt blue goby ''Stiphodon semoni'' ''Sicyopus zosterophorus'' 175px Bearded worm goby ''Taenioides cirratus'' Marbled goby ''Oxyeleotris marmorata'' 175px Crazy fish ''Butis butis'' 175px ''Rhinogobius duospilus'' 175px Dragon goby, Violet goby ''Gobioides broussonnetii'' 175px Striped sleeper goby ''Dormitator maculatus'' 175px" ], [ "[[Centrarchidae|Sunfish]] and relatives", "Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangePygmy sunfish ''Elassomatidae'' 175px Blackbanded sunfish ''Enneacanthus chaetodon'' 175px Blue-spotted sunfish ''Enneacanthus gloriosus'' 175px Redbreast sunfish ''Lepomis auritus'' 175px Green sunfish ''Lepomis cyanellus'' 175px Orangespotted sunfish ''Lepomis humilis'' 175px Pumpkinseed ''Lepomis gibbosus'' 175px Warmouth ''Lepomis gulosus'' 175px Bluegill ''Lepomis macrochirus'' 175px Dollar sunfish ''Lepomis marginatus'' 175px Longear sunfish ''Lepomis megalotis'' 175px Redear sunfish ''Lepomis microlophus'' 175px Redspotted sunfish ''Lepomis miniatus'' 175px Northern sunfish ''Lepomis peltastes'' 175px Spotted sunfish ''Lepomis punctatus'' 175px" ], [ "Other fish", "Common nameScientific nameImageSizeRemarksTank sizeTemperature rangepH rangeGray bichir, Senegal bichir, or dinosaur bichir ''Polypterus senegalus'' 175px maximum length in captivity Peaceful but preys on anything smaller than its mouth 6.0-8.0 Ornate bichir ''Polypterus ornatipinnis'' 175px maximum lengthPeaceful but preys on anything smaller than its mouth 6.0–8.0 Retropinnis bichir ''Polypterus retropinnis'' Peaceful but preys on anything smaller than its mouth 6.5–7.5 Barred bichir ''Polypterus delhezi'' 175px Peaceful but preys on anything smaller than its mouth 6-8 Saddled bichir ''Polypterus endlicheri'' 175px Peaceful but preys on anything smaller than its mouth 6-8 Reedfish ''Erpetoichthys calabaricus'' 175px at maturity, maximum length 6.0–8.0Hingemouth ''Phractolaemus ansorgii'' Blunt-jawed elephantnose ''Campylomormyrus tamandua'' 175px Peters' elephant nose ''Gnathonemus petersii'' 175px African butterflyfish ''Pantodon buchholzi'' 175px Aba aba ''Gymnarchus niloticus'' 175px Reticulated knifefish ''Papyrocranus afer'' African brown knifefish ''Xenomystus nigri'' 175px Clown knifefish ''Chitala ornata'' 175px Asian arowana ''Scleropages formosus'' 175px Preys on anything smaller than its mouth.Silver arowana ''Osteoglossum bicirrhosum'' 175px Preys on anything smaller than its mouth.Freshwater pipefish ''Doryichthys martensii'' African freshwater pipefish ''Enneacampus ansorgii'' Fire eel ''Mastacembelus erythrotaenia'' 175px Tire track eel ''Mastacembelus armatus'' 175px Spotfinned spiny eel ''Macrognathus siamensis'' 175px They require clean water and are vulnerable to parasites, fungal diseases, and the copper-based drugs used to treat these conditions.73-82 °F (23-28 °C)6.0-8.0Half-banded spiny eel ''Macrognathus circumcinctus'' Lesser spiny eel ''Macrognathus aculeatus'' Freshwater sole ''Brachirus panoides'' 175px Freshwater needlefish ''Xenentodon cancila'' 175px Javanese ricefish ''Oryzias javanicus'' 175px Daisy's Ricefish ''Oryzias woworae'' 175px Indian glassy fish ''Parambassis ranga'' 175px Amazon leaffish ''Monocirrhus polyacanthus'' 175px ''Gymnochanda filamentosa'' Indonesian tigerfish ''Datnioides microlepis'' 175px Silver tigerfish ''Datnioides polota'' 175px Banded archerfish ''Toxotes jaculatrix'' 175px Spotted scat ''Scatophagus argus'' 175px Green spotted puffer ''Dichotomyctere nigroviridis'' 175px Pufferfish inflating out of water can cause death.Humpback Puffer ''Pao palembangensis'' See aboveRed-tail dwarf puffer ''Carinotetraodon irrubesco'' 175px See aboveGolden puffer ''Auriglobus modestus'' See aboveFigure 8 pufferfish ''Tetraodon biocellatus'' 175px Dwarf pufferfish ''Carinotetraodon travancoricus'' 175px aka Pea PufferFahaka puffer ''Tetraodon lineatus'' 175px 1-foot 5 inches Mbu puffer ''Tetraodon mbu'' 175px This fish also occurs in estuaries.", "largest freshwater pufferfish, they are very peaceful with most fish except, other Mbu pufferfish, other fish that will harass them.", "see aboveCongo pufferfish ''Tetraodon miurus'' 175px as it is a ambush pufferfish it is best to house it alone as it will attack tank mates.", "see aboveAmazon puffer ''Colomesus asellus'' 175px West African lungfish ''Protopterus annectens'' 175px Spotted lungfish ''Protopterus dolloi'' 175px South American lungfish ''Lepidosiren paradoxa'' 175px Ocellate river stingray ''Potamotrygon motoro'' 175px has venomous barbs that contain a protein based poison, if you happen to accidentally get stung you should submerge the wound in as hot as water as you can as this breaks down the proteinBlack devil stingray ''Potamotrygon leopoldi'' 175px see above Black ghost knifefish ''Apteronotus albifrons'' 175px 20 in Not to be confused with the featherback \"knifefish\" of the Bonytongue group (see above) 23-28C (73-82F)6.0-8.0Brown ghost knifefish ''Apteronotus leptorhynchus'' Electric eel ''Electrophorus electricus'' 175px Glass knifefish ''Eigenmannia virescens'' 175px Sterlet ''Acipenser ruthenus'' 175px Shovelnose Sturgeon ''Scaphirhynchus platorynchus'' 175px Spotted Gar ''Lepisosteus oculatus'' 175px Longnose Gar ''Lepisosteus osseus'' 175px Florida Gar ''Lepisosteus platyrhincus'' 175px Alligator Gar ''Atractosteus spatula'' 175px Cuban Gar ''Atractosteus tristoechus'' 175px Tropical Gar ''Atractosteus tropicus'' 175px Freshwater blenny ''Salaria fluviatilis'' 175px Pickerel ''Esox americanus'' 175px Brook stickleback ''Culaea inconstans'' 175px European Perch ''Perca fluviatilis'' 175px Banded darter ''Etheostoma zonale'' Gilt darter ''Percina evides'' 175px Orangethroat darter ''Etheostoma spectabile'' 175px Rainbow darter ''Etheostoma caeruleum'' 175px Splendid darter ''Etheostoma barrenense''" ], [ "See also", "*List of aquarium fish by scientific name*List of brackish aquarium fish species*List of fish common names*List of freshwater aquarium amphibian species*List of freshwater aquarium invertebrate species*List of freshwater aquarium plant species*List of marine aquarium fish species*List of marine aquarium invertebrate species*The Aquarium Wiki Encyclopaedia List of Freshwater aquarium fish*Non-fish organisms commonly kept in freshwater including:*Red Cherry Shrimp (''Neocaridina davidi'')*Dwarf Crayfish (''Cambarellus'' spp.", ")*Marbled Crayfish (''Procambarus virginalis'')" ], [ "Sources", "* Encyclopedia of Aquarium and Pond Fish (2005) (David Alderton)* 500 Aquarium Fish: A Visual Reference to the Most Popular Species" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of chess players" ], [ "Introduction", "This '''list of chess players''' includes people who are primarily known as chess players and have an article on the English Wikipedia." ], [ "A", "* Jacob Aagaard (Denmark, Scotland, born 1973)* Manuel Aaron (India, born 1935)* Nijat Abasov (Azerbaijan, born 1995)* István Abonyi (Hungary, 1886–1942)* Gerald Abrahams (England, 1907–1980)* Tatev Abrahamyan (Armenia, US, born 1988)* Hasan Abbasifar (Iran, born 1972)* Farid Abbasov (Azerbaijan, born 1979)* Jude Acers (US, born 1944)* Péter Ács (Hungary, born 1981)* Weaver Adams (US, 1901–1963)* Tanitoluwa Adewumi (Nigeria, US, born 2010)* Utut Adianto (Indonesia, born 1965)* András Adorján (Hungary, born 1950)* Vladimir Afromeev (Russia, born 1954)* Simen Agdestein (Norway, born 1967)* Evgeny Agrest (Belarus, Sweden, born 1966)* Georgy Agzamov (Uzbekistan, 1954–1986)* Carl Ahues (Germany, 1883–1968)* James Macrae Aitken (Scotland, 1908–1983)* Ralf Åkesson (Sweden, born 1961)* Anna Akhsharumova (Russia, US, born 1957)* Varuzhan Akobian (Armenia, US, born 1983)* Vladimir Akopian (Armenia, born 1971)* Mohammed Al-Modiahki (Qatar, born 1974)* Semyon Alapin (Lithuania, 1856–1923)* Vladimir Alatortsev (Russia, 1909–1987) * Adolf Albin (Romania, 1848–1920)* Lev Alburt (Russia, US, born 1945)* Alexander Alekhine (Russia, France 1892–1946)* Alexei Alekhine (Russia, 1888–1939)* Grace Alekhine (US, England, France 1876–1956)* Aleksej Aleksandrov (Belarus, born 1973)* Kirill Alekseenko (Russia, born 1997)* Evgeny Alekseev (Russia, born 1985)* Hugh Alexander (England, 1899–1974)* Aaron Alexandre (Germany, France, England 1765–1850)* Nana Alexandria (Georgia, born 1949)* Johann Baptist Allgaier (Germany, Austria, 1763–1823)* Zoltán Almási (Hungary, born 1976)* Izak Aloni (Poland, Israel, 1905–1985)* Yoel Aloni (Israel, 1937–2019)* Boris Alterman (Israel, born 1970)* Friedrich Amelung (Estonia, Latvia, 1842–1909)* Bassem Amin (Egypt, born 1988)* Farrukh Amonatov (Tajikistan, born 1978)* Bruce Amos (Canada, born 1946)* An Yangfeng (China, born 1963)* Viswanathan Anand (India, born 1969)* Erik Andersen (Denmark, 1904–1938)* Frank Anderson (Canada, 1928–1980)* Hope Arthurine Anderson (Jamaica, 1950–2016)* Adolf Anderssen (Germany, 1818–1879)* Ulf Andersson (Sweden, born 1951)* Dmitry Andreikin (Russia, born 1990)* Zaven Andriasian (Armenia, born 1989)* Dejan Antić (Serbia, born 1968)* Rogelio Antonio Jr. (Philippines, born 1962)* Vladimir Antoshin (Russia, 1929–1994)* Oskar Antze (Germany, 1878–1962)* Manuel Apicella (France, born 1970)* Izaak Appel (Poland, 1905–1941)* Fricis Apšenieks (Latvia, 1894–1941)* Lev Aptekar (Ukraine, New Zealand, born 1936)* José Joaquín Araiza (Mexico, 1900–1971)* Ketevan Arakhamia-Grant (Georgia, born 1968)* Mehrdad Ardeshi (Iran, born 1978)* Walter Arencibia (Cuba, born 1967)* Alexander Areshchenko (Ukraine, born 1986)* Keith Arkell (England, born 1961)* Romanas Arlauskas (Lithuania, Australia, 1917–2009)* Jón Árnason (Iceland, born 1960)* Dagur Arngrímsson (Iceland, born 1987)* Levon Aronian (Armenia, born 1982)* Lev Aronin (Russia, 1920–1983)* Vladislav Artemiev (Russia, born 1998)* Andreas Ascharin (Estonia, Latvia, 1843–1896)* Jacob Ascher (England, Canada, 1841–1912)* Konstantin Aseev (Russia, 1960–2004)* Maurice Ashley (Jamaica, US, born 1966)* Karen Asrian (Armenia, 1980–2008)* Bibisara Assaubayeva (Kazakhstan, Russia, born 2004)* Abu Bakr bin Yahya al-Suli (Abbasid Caliphate, c.880–946)* Lajos Asztalos (Austria-Hungary, Yugoslavia, Hungary, 1889–1956)* Ekaterina Atalik (Russia, Turkey, born 1982)* Suat Atalık (Turkey, born 1964)* Henry Atkins (England, 1872–1955)* Arnold Aurbach (Poland, France, c.1888–1952)* Yuri Averbakh (Russia, c.1922–2022)* Valeriy Aveskulov (Ukraine, born 1986)* Herbert Avram (US, 1913–2006)* Boris Avrukh (Israel, born 1978)" ], [ "B", "* Alexander Baburin (Russia, Ireland, born 1967)* Étienne Bacrot (France, born 1983)* Paul Baender (Germany, Bolivia, 1906–1985)* Giorgi Bagaturov (Georgia, born 1964)* Amir Bagheri (Iran, born 1978)* Camilla Baginskaite (Soviet Union, Lithuania, US, born 1967)* Vladimir Bagirov (USSR, Latvia, 1936–2000)* Mary Bain (US, 1904–1972)* David Graham Baird (US, 1854–1913)* Vladimir Baklan (Ukraine, born 1978)* Yuri Balashov (Russia, born 1949)* Rosendo Balinas Jr. (Philippines, 1941–1998)* Zoltán von Balla (Hungary, 1883–1945)* Csaba Balogh (Hungary, born 1987)* János Balogh (Romania, Hungary, 1892–1980)* Julio Balparda (Uruguay, c. 1900–1942)* Amikam Balshan (Israel, born 1948)* Hristos Banikas (Greece, born 1978)* Anatoly Bannik (Ukraine, 1921–2013)* David Baramidze (Georgia, Germany, born 1988)* Zsigmond Barász (Hungary, 1878–1935)* Abraham Baratz (Romania, France, 1895–1975)* Gerardo Barbero (Argentina, Hungary, 1961–2001)* Gedeon Barcza (Hungary, 1911–1986)* Olaf Barda (Norway, 1909–1971)* Curt von Bardeleben (Germany, 1861–1924)* Leonard Barden (England, born 1929)* Evgeny Bareev (Russia, born 1966)* Robert Henry Barnes (England, New Zealand 1849–1916)* Thomas Wilson Barnes (England, 1825–1874)* Alexei Barsov (Uzbekistan, born 1966)* Mateusz Bartel (Poland, born 1985)* John Bartholomew (US, born 1986)* Dibyendu Barua (India, born 1966)* Cerdas Barus (Indonesia, born 1961)* Michael Basman (England, born 1946)* Christian Bauer (France, born 1977)* Johann Hermann Bauer (Bohemia, Austria, 1861–1891)* Friedrich Baumbach (Germany, born 1935)* Albert Becker (Austria, Germany, Argentina 1896–1984)* Anjelina Belakovskaia (Ukraine, US, born 1969)* Liudmila Belavenets (Russia, 1940–2021)* Sergey Belavenets (Russia, 1910–1942)* Dina Belenkaya (Russia, Israel, born 1993)* Alexander Beliavsky (Ukraine, Slovenia, born 1953)* Slim Belkhodja (Tunisia, born 1962)* Jana Bellin (Czechoslovakia, England, born 1947)* Zdzisław Belsitzmann (Poland, c. 1890–1920)* Levi Benima (Netherlands, 1837–1922)* Clarice Benini (Italy, 1905–1976)* Joel Benjamin (US, born 1964)* Francisco Benkö (Germany, Argentina, 1910–2010)* Pal Benko (France, Hungary, US, 1928–2019)* Dávid Bérczes (Hungary, born 1990)* Emanuel Berg (Sweden, born 1981)* Béla Berger (Hungary, Australia, 1931–2005)* Johann Berger (Austria, 1845–1933)* Victor Buerger (Ukraine, England, 1904–1996)* Nils Bergkvist (Sweden, 1900–?", ")* Teodors Bergs (Latvia, 1902–1966)* Hans Berliner (Germany, US, 1929–2017)* Ivar Bern (Norway, born 1967)* Karl Berndtsson (Sweden, 1892–1943)* Jacob Bernstein (US, ?–1958)* Ossip Bernstein (Ukraine, France, 1882–1962)* Sidney Norman Bernstein (US, 1911–1992)* Mario Bertok (Croatia, 1929–2008)* Katarina Beskow (Sweden, 1867–1939)* Louis Betbeder Matibet (France, 1901–1986)* Kārlis Bētiņš (Latvia, 1867–1943)* Siegmund Beutum (Austria, 1890–1966)* Vinay Bhat (US, born 1984)* Carlos Bielicki (Argentina, born 1940)* Martin Bier (Germany, 1854–1934)* Horace Bigelow (US, 1898–1980)* István Bilek (Hungary, 1932–2010)* Paul Rudolf von Bilguer (Germany, 1815–1840)* Maurice Billecard (France, 1876–?", ")* Reefat Bin-Sattar (Bangladesh, born 1974)* Henry Bird (England, 1830–1908)* Nathan Birnboim (Israel, born 1950)* Klaus Bischoff (Germany, born 1961)* Arthur Bisguier (US, 1929–2017)* Peter Biyiasas (Greece, Canada, born 1950)* Dimitrije Bjelica (Serbia, born 1935)* Roy Turnbull Black (US, 1888–1962)* Joseph Henry Blackburne (England, 1841–1924)* Armand Blackmar (US, 1826–1888)* Joseph Henry Blake (England, 1859–1951)* Abram Blass (Poland, Israel, 1895–1971)* Ottó Bláthy (Hungary, 1860–1939)* Max Blau (Germany, Switzerland, 1918–1984)* Ludwig Bledow (Germany, 1795–1846)* Paweł Blehm (Poland, born 1980)* Dirk Bleijkmans (Netherlands, Indonesia, 1875–?", ")* Yaacov Bleiman (Lithuania, Israel, 1947–2004)* Calvin Blocker (US, born 1955)* Claude Bloodgood (US, 1937–2001)* Oscar Blum (Lithuania, France, born before 1910)* Benjamin Blumenfeld (Belarus, Russia, 1884–1947)* Max Blümich (Germany, 1886–1942)* Boris Blumin (Russia, Canada, US, 1907–1998)* Milko Bobotsov (Bulgaria, 1931–2000)* Dmitry Bocharov (Russia, born 1982)* Samuel Boden (England, 1826–1882)* Fedor Bogatyrchuk (Ukraine, Canada, 1892–1984)* Efim Bogoljubov (Ukraine, Germany, 1889–1952)* Paolo Boi (Italy, 1528–1598)* Jacobo Bolbochán (Argentina, 1906–1984)* Julio Bolbochán (Argentina, 1920–1996)* Isaac Boleslavsky (Ukraine, Russia, Belarus, 1919–1977)* Victor Bologan (Moldova, born 1971)* Igor Bondarevsky (Russia, 1913–1979)* Eero Böök (Finland, 1910–1990)* Valentina Borisenko (Russia, 1920–1993)* Olexandr Bortnyk (Ukraine, born 1996)* Alexandra Botez (US, Canada, born 1995)* Andrea Botez (US, Canada, born 2002)* Tea Bosboom-Lanchava (Netherlands, Georgia, born 1974)* George Botterill (England, Wales, born 1949)* Mikhail Botvinnik (Russia, 1911–1995)* Louis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais (France, 1795–1840)* César Boutteville (Vietnam, France, 1917–2015)* Olena Boytsun (Ukraine, born 1983)* Julius Brach (Czechoslovakia, 1881–1938)* Gyula Breyer (Hungary, 1893–1921)* Alfred Brinckmann (Germany, 1891–1967)* Mirko Bröder (Hungary, Serbia, 1911–1943)* Miklós Bródy (Hungary, Romania, 1877–1949)* Vladimir Bron (Ukraine, 1909–1985)* David Bronstein (Ukraine, 1924–2006)* Walter Browne (Australia, US, 1949–2015)* Agnieszka Brustman (Poland, born 1962)* Lázaro Bruzón (Cuba, born 1982)* Stellan Brynell (Sweden, born 1962)* Bu Xiangzhi (China, born 1985)* Henry Thomas Buckle (England, 1821–1862)* Gerardo Budowski (Germany, France, Venezuela, Costa Rica, 1925–2014)* Wincenty Budzyński (Poland, France, 1815–1866)* Nataliya Buksa (Ukraine, born 1996)* Constant Ferdinand Burille (France, US, 1866–1914)* Amos Burn (England, 1848–1925)* Algimantas Butnorius (Lithuania, 1946–2017)* Elisabeth Bykova (Russia, 1913–1989)* Donald Byrne (US, 1930–1976)* Robert Byrne (US, 1928–2013)" ], [ "C", "* Florencio Campomanes (Philippines, 1927–2010)* Daniel Cámpora (Argentina, born 1957)* Esteban Canal (Peru, Italy, 1896–1981)* Arianne Caoili (Australia, 1986–2020)* José Raúl Capablanca (Cuba, 1888–1942)* Rodolfo Tan Cardoso (Philippines, 1937–2013)* Ruth Cardoso (Brazil, 1934–2000)* Carl Carls (Germany, 1880–1958)* Magnus Carlsen (Norway, born 1990)* Pontus Carlsson (Sweden, born 1982)* Horatio Caro (England, Germany, 1862–1920)* Berna Carrasco (Chile, 1914–2013)* Pietro Carrera (Sicily, 1573–1647)* Fabiano Caruana (Dual citizenship: US and Italy, born 1992)* Vincenzo Castaldi (Italy, 1916–1970)* Mariano Castillo (Chile, 1905–1970)* Mišo Cebalo (Croatia, born 1945)* Giovanni Cenni (Italy, 1881–1957)* Alfonso Ceron (Spain, 1535–?", ")* Oscar Chajes (Ukraine, Austria, US, 1873–1928)* Ferenc Chalupetzky (Hungary, 1886–1951)* Edward Chamier (England, France, 1840–1892)* Chan Peng Kong (Singapore, born 1956)* Sandipan Chanda (India, born 1983)* Chang Tung Lo (China, born before 1960)* Murray Chandler (New Zealand, England, born 1960)* Pascal Charbonneau (Canada, born 1983)* Rudolf Charousek (Hungary, 1873–1900)* Chantal Chaudé de Silans (France, 1919–2001)* Valery Chekhov (Russia, born 1955)* Vitaly Chekhover (Russia, 1908–1965)* Chen De (China, born 1949)* Ivan Cheparinov (Bulgaria, born 1986)* Alexander Cherepkov (Russia, 1920–2009)* Irving Chernev (Russia, US, 1900–1981)* Tykhon Cherniaiev (Ukraine, born 2010)* Alexander Chernin (Ukraine, Hungary, born 1960)* Konstantin Chernyshov (Russia, born 1967)* André Chéron (France, 1895–1980)* Maia Chiburdanidze (Georgia, born 1961)* Mikhail Chigorin (Russia, 1850–1908)* Larry Christiansen (US, born 1956)* Vladimir Chuchelov (Russia, Belgium, born 1969)* Slavko Cicak (Montenegro, Sweden, born 1969)* Roberto Cifuentes (Chile, Netherlands, Spain, born 1957)* Victor Ciocâltea (Romania, 1932–1983)* Hermann Clemenz (Estonia, 1846–1908)* Albert Clerc (France, 1830–1918)* Viktorija Čmilytė (Lithuania, born 1983)* John Cochrane (England, 1798–1878)* Erich Cohn (Germany, 1884–1918)* Wilhelm Cohn (Germany, 1859–1913)* Edgard Colle (Belgium, 1897–1932)* John W. Collins (US, 1912–2001)* Eugene Ernest Colman (England, 1878–1964)* Camila Colombo (Uruguay, born 1990)* Adrián García Conde (Mexico, England, 1886–1943)* Stuart Conquest (England, born 1967)* Anya Corke (England, Hong Kong, born 1990)* Nicolaas Cortlever (Netherlands, 1915–1995)* Juan Corzo (Cuba, 1873–1941)* Carlo Cozio (Italy, c. 1715 – c. 1780)* Spencer Crakanthorp (Australia, 1885–1936)* Anna Cramling (Spain, Sweden, born 2002)* Pia Cramling (Sweden, born 1963)* Robert Crépeaux (France, 1900–1994)* Walter Cruz (Brazil, 1910–1967)* István Csom (Hungary, 1940–2021)* Miguel Cuéllar (Colombia, 1916–1985)* Josef Cukierman (Poland, France, 1900–1941)* John Curdo (US, 1931–2022)* Ognjen Cvitan (Croatia, born 1961)* Hieronim Czarnowski (Poland, France, Austria-Hungary, 1834–1902)* Moshe Czerniak (Poland, Israel, 1910–1984)" ], [ "D", "* Arthur Dake (US, 1910–2000)* Pedro Damiano (Portugal, 1480–1544)* Mato Damjanović (Croatia, 1927–2011)* Gösta Danielsson (Sweden, 1912–1978)* Silvio Danailov (Bulgaria, born 1961)* A. Polak Daniels (Netherlands, before 1855–after 1883)* Dawid Daniuszewski (Poland, 1885–1944)* Klaus Darga (Germany, born 1934)* Alberto David (Luxembourg, born 1970)* Jacques Davidson (Netherlands, 1890–1961)* Nigel Davies (England, born 1960)* Boris de Greiff (Colombia, 1930–2011)* Bogdan-Daniel Deac (Romania, born 2001)* Frederick Deacon (Belgium, 1829–1875)* Chakkravarthy Deepan (India, born 1987)* Nick de Firmian (US, born 1957)* Marigje Degrande (Belgium, born 1992)* Aleksander Delchev (Bulgaria, born 1971)* Eugene Delmar (US, 1841–1909)* Yelena Dembo (Russia, Israel, Hungary, Greece, born 1983)* Arnold Denker (US, 1914–2005)* Alexandre Deschapelles (France, 1780–1847)* Andrei Deviatkin (Russia, born 1980)* Paul Devos (Belgium, 1911–1981)* André Diamant (Brazil, born 1990)* Mark Diesen (US, 1957–2008)* Julius Dimer (Germany, 1871–1945)* Nathan Divinsky (Canada, 1925–2012)* Rune Djurhuus (Norway, born 1970)* Maxim Dlugy (Russia, US, born 1966)* Josef Dobiáš (Bohemia, Czechoslovakia, 1886–1981)* Yosef Dobkin (Russia, Israel, 1909–1977)* Yury Dokhoian (Russia, 1964–2021)* Sergey Dolmatov (Russia, born 1959)* Lenier Dominguez (Cuba, born 1983)* Józef Dominik (Poland, 1894–1920)* Zadok Domnitz (Israel, born 1933)* Elena Donaldson (Russia, Georgia, US, 1957–2012)* John W. Donaldson (US, born 1958)* Ivo Donev (Austria, born 1959)* Jan Hein Donner (Netherlands, 1927–1988)* Iossif Dorfman (Ukraine, France, born 1952)* Alexey Dreev (Russia, born 1969)* Leonids Dreibergs (Latvia, US, 1908–1969)* Kurt Dreyer (Germany, South Africa, 1909–1981)* Tihomil Drezga (Croatia, US, 1903–1981)* Yuri Drozdovskij (Ukraine, born 1984)* Leroy Dubeck (US, born 1939)* Serafino Dubois (Italy, 1817–1899)* Daniil Dubov (Russia, born 1996)* Andreas Dückstein (Hungary, Austria, born 1927)* Jan-Krzysztof Duda (Poland, born 1998)* Jean Dufresne (Germany, 1829–1893)* Andreas Duhm (Germany, Switzerland, 1883–1975)* Dietrich Duhm (Germany, Switzerland, 1880–1954)* Hans Duhm (Germany, Switzerland, 1878–1946)* Arthur Dunkelblum (Poland, Belgium, 1906–1979)* Oldřich Duras (Bohemia, Czechoslovakia, 1882–1957)* Fyodor Duz-Khotimirsky (Ukraine, 1879–1965)* Mark Dvoretsky (Russia, 1947–2016)* Joanna Dworakowska (Poland, born 1978)* Eduard Dyckhoff (Germany, 1880–1949)* Viacheslav Dydyshko (Belarus, born 1949)* Boruch Israel Dyner (Poland, Belgium, Israel, 1903–1979)* Semen Dvoirys (Russia, born 1958)* Nana Dzagnidze (Georgia, born 1987)* Roman Dzindzichashvili (Georgia, Israel, US, born 1944)* Marat Dzhumaev (Uzbekistan, born 1976)* Ding Liren (China, born 1992)* Emil Josef Diemer (Germany, 1908–1990)" ], [ "E", "* James Eade (US, born 1957)* Zahar Efimenko (Ukraine, born 1985)* Marsel Efroimski (Israel, born 1995)* Jaan Ehlvest (Estonia, born 1962)* Louis Eichborn (Germany, 1812–1882)* Rakhil Eidelson (Belarus, born 1958)* Vereslav Eingorn (Ukraine, born 1956)* Louis Eisenberg (Ukraine, US, 1876–after 1909)* Bengt Ekenberg (Sweden, 1912–1986)* Folke Ekström (Sweden, 1906–2000)* Erich Eliskases (Austria, Germany, Argentina, 1913–1997)* Pavel Eljanov (Ukraine, born 1983)* Moissei Eljaschoff (Lithuania, 1870–1919)* John Emms (England, born 1967)* Lūcijs Endzelīns (Estonia, Latvia, Australia, 1909–1981)* Jens Enevoldsen (Denmark, 1907–1980)* Ludwig Engels (Germany, Brazil, 1905–1967)* Berthold Englisch (Austria, 1851–1897)* David Enoch (Israel, 1901–1949)* Vladimir Epishin (Russia, born 1965)* Stefan Erdélyi (Hungary, Romania, 1905–1968)* Hanna Ereńska (Poland, born 1946)* Arjun Erigaisi (India, born 2003)* Evgenij Ermenkov (Bulgaria, Palestine, born 1949)* Wilhelm Ernst (Germany, 1905–1952)* John Angus Erskine (New Zealand, Australia, 1873–1960)* Andrey Esipenko (Russia, born 2002)* Yakov Estrin (Russia, 1923–1987)* Max Euwe (Netherlands, 1901–1981)* Larry M. Evans (US, 1932–2010)* William Davies Evans (Wales, 1790–1872)* Alexander Evensohn (Ukraine, 1892–1919)* Győző Exner (Hungary, 1864–1945)" ], [ "F", "* Samuel Factor (Poland, US, 1883–1949)* Louisa Matilda Fagan (Italy, England, 1850–1931)* Hugo Fähndrich (Hungary, Austria, 1851–1930)* Hans Fahrni (Bohemia, Switzerland, 1874–1939)* William Fairhurst (England, Scotland, New Zealand, 1903–1982)* Sammi Fajarowicz (Germany, 1908–1940)* Raphael Falk (Russia, 1856–1913)* Ernst Falkbeer (Austria-Hungary, 1819–1885)* Stefan Fazekas (Hungary, Czechoslovakia, England, 1898–1967)* Sergey Fedorchuk (Ukraine, born 1981)* Alexei Fedorov (Belarus, born 1972)* John Fedorowicz (US, born 1958)* Vladimir Fedoseev (Russia, born 1995)* Movsas Feigins (Latvia, Argentina, 1908–1950)* Rafał Feinmesser (Poland, born before 1906)* Florin Felecan (Romania, US, born 1980)* Virgilio Fenoglio (Argentina, 1902–1990)* Arthur Feuerstein (US, born 1935)* Alexandr Fier (Brazil, born 1988)* Martha Fierro (Ecuador, born 1977)* Miroslav Filip (Czech Republic, 1928–2009)* Anton Filippov (Uzbekistan, born 1986)* Reuben Fine (US, 1914–1993)* Ben Finegold (US, born 1969)* Julius Finn (Poland, US, 1871–1931)* Nick de Firmian (US, born 1957)* Alireza Firouzja (Iran, France, born 2003)* Robert James Fischer (US, Iceland, 1943–2008)* Alex Fishbein (US, born 1968)* Alexander Flamberg (Poland, 1880–1926)* Alfred Flatow (Germany, Australia, born 1937)* Glenn Flear (England, born 1959)* Ernst Flechsig (Germany, 1852–1890)* Bernhard Fleissig (Hungary, Austria, 1853–1931)* Max Fleissig (Hungary, Austria, 1845–after 1882)* János Flesch (Hungary, 1933–1983)* Salo Flohr (Ukraine, Czechoslovakia, Russia, 1908–1983)* Rodrigo Flores (Chile, 1913–2007)* Alberto Foguelman (Argentina, 1923–2013)* Jan Foltys (Czechoslovakia, 1908–1952)* George Salto Fontein (Netherlands, 1890–1963)* Leó Forgács (Hungary, 1881–1930)* Győző Forintos (Hungary, 1935–2018)* Albert Fox (US, 1881–1964)* Maurice Fox (Ukraine, Canada, 1898–1988)* Selim Franklin (England, US, 1814–1884)* Zenon Franco (Paraguay, born 1956)* Laurent Fressinet (France, born 1981)* Sergey von Freymann (Russia, Uzbekistan, 1882–1946)* Joel Fridlizius (Sweden, 1869–1963)* Daniel Fridman (Latvia, Germany, born 1976)* Frederic Friedel (Germany, born 1945)* Gunnar Friedemann (Estonia, 1909–1943)* David Friedgood (South Africa, England, born 1946)* Henryk Friedman (Poland, 1903–1942)* Alexander Fritz (Germany, 1857–1932)* Martin Severin From (Denmark, 1828–1895)* Achilles Frydman (Poland, 1905–1940)* Paulino Frydman (Poland, Argentina, 1905–1982)* Ľubomír Ftáčnik (Czechoslovakia, Slovakia, born 1957)* Andrija Fuderer (Vojvodina, Belgium, 1931–2011)* Semyon Furman (Russia, 1920–1978)* Ivana Maria Furtado (India, born 1999)* Géza Füster (Hungary, Canada, 1910–1990)* Roy Fyllingen (Norway, born 1975)" ], [ "G", "* Merab Gagunashvili (Georgia, born 1985)* Aleksandr Galkin (Russia, born 1979)* Joseph Gallagher (England, Switzerland, born 1964)* Alisa Galliamova (Russia, born 1972)* Surya Shekhar Ganguly (India, born 1983)* Nona Gaprindashvili (Georgia, born 1941)* Valeriane Gaprindashvili (Georgia, born 1982)* Carlos Garcia Palermo (Argentina, Italy, born 1953)* Raimundo García (Argentina, 1936–2020)* Timur Gareev (Uzbekistan, born 1988)* Eldar Gasanov (Ukraine, born 1982)* Vugar Gashimov (Azerbaijan, 1986–2014)* Anna Gasik (Poland, born 1988)* Einar Gausel (Norway, born 1963)* Viktor Gavrikov (Lithuania, Switzerland, 1957–2016)* Tamaz Gelashvili (Georgia, born 1978)* Boris Gelfand (Belarus, Israel, born 1968)* Efim Geller (Ukraine, 1925–1998)* Uzi Geller (Israel, born 1931)* Petar Genov (Bulgaria, born 1970)* Kiril Georgiev (Bulgaria, born 1965)* Krum Georgiev (Bulgaria, born 1958)* Ernő Gereben (Hungary, Switzerland 1907–1988)* Regina Gerlecka (Poland, 1913–1983)* Eugênio German (Brazil, 1930–2001)* Theodor Germann (Latvia, 1879–1935)* Alik Gershon (Israel, born 1980)* Edward Gerstenfeld (Poland, Ukraine 1915–1943)* Georgy Geshev (Bulgaria, 1903–1937)* Ehsan Ghaem Maghami (Iran, born 1982)* Tigran Gharamian (France, born 1984)* Ameet Ghasi (England, born 1987)* Florin Gheorghiu (Romania, born 1944)* Amédée Gibaud (France, 1885–1957)* Johannes Giersing (Denmark, 1872–1954)* Ellen Gilbert (US, 1837–1900)* Jessie Gilbert (England, 1987–2006)* Karl Gilg (Czechoslovakia, Germany, 1901–1981)* Aivars Gipslis (Latvia, 1937–2000)* Anish Giri (Netherlands, born 1994)* Matteo Gladig (Italy, 1880–1915)* Eduard Glass (Austria, 1902–after 1980)* Evgeny Gleizerov (Russia, born 1963)* Igor Glek (Russia, Germany, born 1961)* Svetozar Gligorić (Serbia, 1923–2012)* Fernand Gobet (Switzerland, born 1962)* Michele Godena (Italy, born 1967)* Carl Goering (Germany, 1841–1879)* Alphonse Goetz (France, 1865–1934)* Leonid Gofshtein (Israel, 1953–2015)* Jason Goh Koon-Jong (Singapore, born 1989)* Goh Weiming (Singapore, born 1983)* Samuel Gold (Hungary, Austria, US, 1835–1920)* Alexander Goldin (Russia, born 1965)* Rusudan Goletiani (Georgia, US, born 1980)* Celso Golmayo Torriente (Cuba, Spain, 1879–1924)* Celso Golmayo Zúpide (Spain, Cuba, 1820–1898)* Manuel Golmayo Torriente (Cuba, Spain, 1883–1973)* Vitali Golod (Ukraine, Israel born 1971)* Harry Golombek (England, 1911–1995)* Alexander Goloshchapov (Ukraine, born 1978)* Alexander Ferdinand von der Goltz (Germany, 1819–1858)* Valentina Golubenko (Estonia, Croatia, born 1990)* Mikhail Golubev (Ukraine, born 1970)* Aleksei Goncharov (Russia, 1879–1913)* Gong Qianyun (China, born 1985)* Jayson Gonzales (Philippines, born 1969)* José González García (Mexico, born 1973)* Juan Carlos González Zamora (Mexico, born 1968)* David S. Goodman (England, US, born 1958)* Stephen J. Gordon (England, born 1986)* Danny Gormally (England, born 1976)* Aleksandra Goryachkina (Russia, born 1998)* George H. D. Gossip (US, England, 1841–1907)* Solomon Gotthilf (Russia, 1903–1967)* Hermann von Gottschall (Germany, 1862–1933)* Boris Grachev (Russia, born 1986)* Alexander Graf (Uzbekistan, Germany, born 1962)* Sonja Graf (Germany, Argentina, US, 1908–1965)* Julio Granda Zuniga (Peru, born 1967)* Roberto Grau (Argentina, 1900–1944)* Gioachino Greco (Italy, 1600 – c. 1634)* Ewen McGowen Green (New Zealand, born 1950)* Alon Greenfeld (US, Israel, born 1964)* John Grefe (US, 1947–2013)* Bernhard Gregory (Estonia, Germany, 1879–1939)* Gisela Kahn Gresser (US, 1906–2000)* Helgi Grétarsson (Iceland, born 1977)* Richard Griffith (England, 1872–1955)* Nikolay Grigoriev (Russia, 1895–1935)* Avetik Grigoryan (Armenia, born 1989)* Vincent Grimm (Austria, Hungary, 1800–1872)* Alexander Grischuk (Russia, born 1983)* Efstratios Grivas (Greece, born 1966)* Henri Grob (Switzerland, 1904–1974)* Aristide Gromer (France, 1908–1966)* Adriaan de Groot (Netherlands, 1914–2006)* Ernst Grünfeld (Austria, 1893–1962)* Yehuda Gruenfeld (Poland, Israel, born 1956)* James Grundy (England, US, 1855–1919)* Izaak Grynfeld (Poland, Israel, born 1920)* Gu Xiaobing (China, born 1985)* Ion Gudju (Romania, 1897–1988)* Eduard Gufeld (Ukraine, US, 1936–2002)* Ilse Guggenberger (Colombia, born 1942)* Carlos Guimard (Argentina, 1913–1998)* Vidit Gujrathi (India, born 1994)* Boris Gulko (Russia, US, born 1947)* Gunnar Gundersen (France, Norway, Australia, 1882–1943)* Isidor Gunsberg (Hungary, England, 1854–1930)* Abhijeet Gupta (India, born 1989)* Dmitry Gurevich (Russia, US, born 1956)* Ilya Gurevich (Ukraine, US, born 1972)* Mikhail Gurevich (Ukraine, Belgium, Turkey, born 1959)* Bukhuti Gurgenidze (Georgia, 1933–2008)* Jan Gustafsson (Germany, born 1979)* Emanuel Guthi (Israel, born 1938)* Lev Gutman (Latvia, Israel, Germany, born 1945)* Fritz Gygli (Switzerland, 1896–1980)* Alfred William Gyles (New Zealand, 1888–1967)" ], [ "H", "* Anna Hahn (Latvia, US, born 1976)* Vitaly Halberstadt (Ukraine, France, 1903–1967)* Alexander Halprin (Russia, Austria, 1868–1921)* Tunç Hamarat (Turkey, Austria, born 1946)* Hichem Hamdouchi (Morocco, born 1972)* Rani Hamid (Bangladesh, born 1944)* Jon Ludvig Hammer (Norway, born 1990)* Carl Hamppe (Switzerland, Austria, 1814–1876)* Milton Hanauer (US, 1908–1988)* James Hanham (US, 1840–1923)* Hermann von Hanneken (Germany, 1810–1886)* Curt Hansen (Denmark, born 1964)* Wilhelm Hanstein (Germany, 1811–1850)* Khosro Harandi (Iran, 1950–2019)* Dronavalli Harika (India, born 1991)* Pendyala Harikrishna (India, born 1986)* Max Harmonist (Germany, 1864–1907)* Daniel Harrwitz (Germany, France, 1823–1884)* William Hartston (England, born 1947)* Wolfgang Hasenfuss (Latvia, 1900–1944)* Stewart Haslinger (England, born 1981)* Arnaud Hauchard (France, born 1971)* Cécile Haussernot (France, born 1998)* Kornél Havasi (Hungary, 1892–1945)* Jonathan Hawkins (England, born 1983)* Mark Hebden (England, born 1958)* Bartłomiej Heberla (Poland, born 1985)* Jean Hébert (Canada, born 1957)* Hans-Joachim Hecht (Germany, born 1939)* Jonny Hector (Sweden, born 1964)* Fenny Heemskerk (Netherlands, 1919–2007)* Wolfgang Heidenfeld (Germany, South Africa, Ireland, 1911–1981)* Jakub Heilpern (Poland, 1850–1910)* Herbert Heinicke (Brazil, Germany, 1905–1988)* Arved Heinrichsen (Lithuania, 1879–1900)* Dan Heisman (US, born 1950)* Grigory Helbach (Russia, 1863–1930)* Karl Helling (Germany, 1904–1937)* Johan Hellsten (Sweden, born 1975)* Hermann Helms (US, 1870–1963)* Ron Henley (US, born 1956)* Moriz Henneberger (Switzerland, 1878–1959)* Walter Henneberger (Switzerland, 1883–1969)* Deen Hergott (Canada, born 1962)* Sigmund Herland (Romania, 1865–1954)* Róża Herman (Poland, 1902–1995)* Gilberto Hernández Guerrero (Mexico, born 1970)*Robert Hess (US, born 1991)* Tiger Hillarp Persson (Sweden, born 1970)* Wilhelm Hilse (Germany, 1878–1940)* Moshe Hirschbein (Poland, 1894–1940)* Moses Hirschel (Germany, 1754 – c. 1823)* Philipp Hirschfeld (Germany, 1840–1896)*Azahari Siti Nur Fatimah Hj (Brunei, born 1992)* Jóhann Hjartarson (Iceland, born 1963)* Hoang Thanh Trang (Vietnam, Hungary, born 1980)* Albert Hodges (US, 1861–1944)* Julian Hodgson (England, born 1963)* Leopold Hoffer (Hungary, France, England, 1842–1913)* Karl Holländer (Germany, 1868–?", ")* Edith Holloway (England, 1868–1956)* Krystyna Hołuj-Radzikowska (Poland, 1931–2006)* Walther von Holzhausen (Austria, Germany, 1876–1935)* Baldur Hönlinger (Austria, Germany, 1905–1990)* Bill Hook (US, British Virgin Islands, 1925–2010)* Vlastimil Hort (Czechoslovakia, Germany, born 1944)* Israel Horowitz (US, 1907–1973)* Bernhard Horwitz (Germany, England, 1807–1885)* Henry Hosmer (US, 1837–1892)* Enamul Hossain (Bangladesh, born 1981)* Hou Yifan (China, born 1994)* Jovanka Houska (England, born 1980)* Clarence Howell (US, 1881–1936)* David Howell (England, born 1990)* James Howell (England, born 1967)* Zbyněk Hráček (Czech Republic, born 1970)* Karel Hromádka (Bohemia, Czechoslovakia, 1887–1956)* Vincenz Hruby (Bohemia, Austria, Italy, 1856–1917)* Hsu Li Yang (Singapore, born 1972)* Huang Qian (China, born 1986)* Robert Hübner (Germany, born 1948)* Werner Hug (Switzerland, born 1952)* Krunoslav Hulak (Croatia, 1951–2015)* Koneru Humpy (India, born 1987)* Harriet Hunt (England, born 1978)* Alexander Huzman (Ukraine, Israel, born 1962)" ], [ "I", "* Ildar Ibragimov (Russia, US, born 1967)* Bella Igla (Russia, Israel, born 1985)* Juan Iliesco (Romania, Argentina, 1898–1968)* Rolando Illa (US, Cuba, Argentina, 1880–1937)* Miguel Illescas Córdoba (Spain, born 1965)* Alexander Ilyin-Zhenevsky (Russia, 1894–1941)* Ernesto Inarkiev (Kyrgyzstan, Russia, born 1985)* Viorel Iordăchescu (Moldova, born 1977)* Nana Ioseliani (Georgia, born 1962)* Alexander Ipatov (Ukraine, Spain, Turkey, born 1993)* Andrei Istrățescu (Romania, born 1985)* Saidali Iuldachev (Uzbekistan, born 1968)* Vassily Ivanchuk (Ukraine, born 1969)* Ivan Ivanišević (Serbia, born 1977)* Alexander Ivanov (US, born 1956)* Igor Ivanov (Russia, Canada, US, 1947–2005)* Božidar Ivanović (Montenegro, born 1949)* Borislav Ivkov (Serbia, born 1933)* Stefan Izbinsky (Ukraine, 1884–1912)* Zviad Izoria (Georgia, born 1984)" ], [ "J", "* Jana Jacková (Czech Republic, born 1982)* Egil Jacobsen (Denmark, 1897–1923)* Ernst Jacobson (Sweden, ?–?", ")* Carl Jaenisch (Finland, Russia, 1813–1872)* Charles Jaffe (Russia, US, 1883–1941)* Jerzy Jagielski (Poland, Germany, 1897–1955)* Dmitry Jakovenko (Russia, born 1983)* Lora Jakovleva (Russia, born 1932)* Dragoljub Janošević (Serbia, 1923–1993)* Chaim Janowski (Poland, Germany, Japan, c.1868–1935)* Dawid Janowski (Poland, France, 1868–1927)* Vlastimil Jansa (Czech Republic, born 1942)* Nicolai Jasnogrodsky (Ukraine, England, US, 1859–1914)* Carlos Jáuregui (Chile, Canada, 1932–2013)* Florian Jenni (Switzerland, born 1980)* Eleazar Jiménez (Cuba, 1928–2000)* Baadur Jobava (Georgia, born 1983)* Leif Erlend Johannessen (Norway, born 1980)* Svein Johannessen (Norway, 1937–2007)* Darryl Johansen (Australia, born 1959)* Walter John (Poland, Germany, 1879–1940)* Hans Johner (Switzerland, 1889–1975)* Paul Johner (Switzerland, 1887–1938)* Gawain Jones (England, born 1987)* Iolo Jones (Wales, 1947–2021)* Paul Journoud (France, 1821–1882)* Ju Wenjun (China, born 1991)* Max Judd (Poland, US, 1851–1906)* Klaus Junge (Chile, Germany, 1924–1945)* Otto Junge (Chile, Germany, 1887–1978)* Miervaldis Jurševskis (Latvia, Canada, 1921–2014)" ], [ "K", "* Bernhard Kagan (Poland, Germany, 1866–1932)* Shimon Kagan (Israel, born 1942)* Victor Kahn (Russia, France, 1889–1971)* Gregory Kaidanov (Ukraine, Russia, US, born 1959)* Osmo Kaila (Finland, 1916–1991)* Charles Kalme (Latvia, Germany, US, 1939–2003)* Gata Kamsky (Russia, US, born 1974)* Ilya Kan (Russia, 1909–1978)* Marcus Kann (Austria, 1820–1886)* Albert Kapengut (Belarus, US, born 1944)* Julio Kaplan (Argentina, Puerto Rico, US, born 1950)* Darja Kapš (Slovenia, born 1981)* Mona May Karff (Moldova, Russia, Palestine, US, 1914–1998)* Sergey Karjakin (Ukraine, born 1990)* Anastasiya Karlovich (Ukraine, born 1982)* Anatoly Karpov (Russia, born 1951)* Isaac Kashdan (US, 1905–1985)* Rustam Kasimdzhanov (Uzbekistan, born 1979)* Garry Kasparov (Azerbaijan, Russia, born 1963)* Genrikh Kasparyan (Armenia, 1910–1995)* Miroslav Katětov (Czechoslovakia, 1918–1995)* Arthur Kaufmann (Romania, Austria, 1872–1940)* Lubomir Kavalek (Czechoslovakia, US, 1943–2021)* Raymond Keene (England, born 1948)* Hermann Keidanski (Poland, Germany, 1865–1938)* Dieter Keller (Switzerland, born 1936)* Edith Keller-Herrmann (Germany, 1921–2010)* Rudolf Keller (Germany, 1917–1993)* Brian Kelly (Ireland, born 1978)* Emil Kemény (Hungary, US, 1860–1925)* Edvīns Ķeņģis (Latvia, born 1959)* Hugh Alexander Kennedy (Ireland, England, 1809–1878)* Paul Keres (Estonia, 1916–1975)* Alexander Kevitz (US, 1902–1981)* Rohini Khadilkar (India, born 1963)* Alexander Khalifman (Russia, born 1966)* Mir Sultan Khan (India, Pakistan, 1905–1966)* Andrei Kharlov (Russia, 1968–2014)* Murtas Kazhgaleyev (Kazakhstan, born 1973)* Abram Khavin (Ukraine, 1914–1974)* Igor Khenkin (Russia, Germany, born 1968)* Denis Khismatullin (Russia, born 1984)* Ratmir Kholmov (Russia, Belarus, Lithuania, 1925–2006)* Natalia Khoudgarian (Russia, Canada, born 1975)* Nino Khurtsidze (Georgia, 1975–2018)* Feliks Kibbermann (Estonia, 1902–1993)* Georg Kieninger (Germany, 1902–1975)* Lionel Kieseritzky (Estonia, France, 1806–1853)* R.K. Kieseritzky (Estonia, Russia, c. 1870 – after 1922)* Daniel King (England, born 1963)* Olof Kinnmark (Sweden, 1897–1970)* Ove Kinnmark (Sweden, 1944–2015)* Georg Klaus (Germany, 1912–1974)* Jan Kleczyński Jr. (Poland, 1875–1939)* Jan Kleczyński Sr. (Poland, 1837–1895)* Ernst Klein (Austria, England, 1910–1990)* Paul Klein (Germany, Ecuador, 1915–1992)* Josef Kling (Germany, 1811–1876)* Jānis Klovāns (Latvia, 1935–2010)* Gyula Kluger (Hungary, 1914–1994)* Hans Kmoch (Austria, Netherlands, US, 1894–1973)* Rainer Knaak (Germany, born 1953)* Viktor Knorre (Russia, 1840–1919)* Mikhail Kobalia (Russia, born 1978)* Alexander Koblencs (Latvia, 1916–1993)* Berthold Koch (Germany, 1899–1988)* Alexander Kochyev (Russia, born 1956)* Artur Kogan (Ukraine, Israel, born 1974)* Boris Kogan (Russia, US, 1940–1993)* Anton Kohler (Germany, c. 1907–1961)* Stanisław Kohn (Poland, 1895–1940)* Friedrich Köhnlein (Germany, 1879–1916)* Dmitry Kokarev (Russia, born 1982)* Atanas Kolev (Bulgaria, born 1967)* Ignác Kolisch (Slovakia, Austria-Hungary, 1837–1899)* Jakub Kolski (Poland, 1899–1941)* Georges Koltanowski (Belgium, US, 1903–2000)* Henrijeta Konarkowska-Sokolov (Poland, Serbia, born 1938)* Humpy Koneru (India, born 1987)* Imre König (Hungary, Yugoslavia, England, US, 1899–1992)* Jerzy Konikowski (Poland, Germany, born 1947)* Alexander Konstantinopolsky (Ukraine, 1910–1990)* Danny Kopec (US, 1954–2016)* Viktor Korchnoi (Russia, Switzerland, 1931–2016)* Akshayraj Kore (India 1988)* Anton Korobov (Ukraine, born 1985)* Imre Korody (Hungary, 1905–1969)* Alexey Korotylev (Russia, born 1977)* Yona Kosashvili (Georgia, Israel, born 1970)* Gary Koshnitsky (Moldova, Australia, 1907–1999)* Nadezhda Kosintseva (Russia, born 1985)* Tatiana Kosintseva (Russia, born 1986)* Alexandra Kosteniuk (Russia, born 1984)* Boris Kostić (Austria-Hungary, Yugoslavia, 1887–1963)* Jan Kotrč (Czechoslovakia, 1862–1943)* Vasilios Kotronias (Greece, born 1964)* Pavel Kotsur (Kazakhstan, born 1974)* Alexander Kotov (Russia, 1913–1981)* Čeněk Kottnauer (Czechoslovakia, England, 1910–1996)* Bachar Kouatly (Syria, Liban, France, born 1958)* Vlatko Kovačević (Croatia, born 1942)* Alexander Kovchan (Ukraine, born 1983)* Boris Koyalovich (Russia, 1867–1941)* Valentina Kozlovskaya (Russia, born 1938)* Zdenko Kožul (Croatia, born 1966)* Jesse Kraai (US, born 1972)* Yair Kraidman (Israel, born 1932)* Adolf Kraemer (Germany, 1898–1972)* Adolf Kramer (Germany, 1871–1934)* Haije Kramer (Netherlands, 1917–2004)* Vladimir Kramnik (Russia, born 1975)* Michał Krasenkow (Russia, Poland, born 1963)* Orla Hermann Krause (Denmark, 1867–1935)* Martyn Kravtsiv (Ukraine, born 1990)* Boris Kreiman (Russia, US, born 1976)* Josef Krejcik (Austria, 1885–1957)* Leon Kremer (Poland, 1901–1941)* Martin Kreuzer (Germany, born 1962)* Ljuba Kristol (Russia, Israel, born 1944)* Stanislav Kriventsov (Russia, US, born 1973)* Nikolai Krogius (Russia, born 1930)* Paul Krüger (Germany, 1871–1939)* Irina Krush (Ukraine, US, born 1983)* Yuriy Kryvoruchko (Ukraine, born 1986)* Arvid Kubbel (Russia, 1889–1938)* Leonid Kubbel (Russia, 1891–1942)* Sergey Kudrin (Russia, US, born 1959)* Adam Kuligowski (Poland, born 1955)* Kaido Külaots (Estonia, born 1976)* Abhijit Kunte (India, born 1977)* Abraham Kupchik (Belarus, US, 1892–1970)* Viktor Kupreichik (Belarus, 1949–2017)* Bojan Kurajica (Bosnia and Herzegovina, born 1947)* Igor Kurnosov (Russia, 1985–2013)* Alla Kushnir (Russia, Israel, 1941–2013)* Gennady Kuzmin (Russia, 1946–2020)* Yuriy Kuzubov (Ukraine, born 1990)* Jan Kvicala (Czechoslovakia, 1868–1939)" ], [ "L", "* Kateryna Lahno (Ukraine, born 1989)* Bogdan Lalić (Yugoslavia/Croatia, England, born 1964)* Erwin l'Ami (Netherlands, born 1985)* Frank Lamprecht (Germany, born 1968)* Konstantin Landa (Russia, 1972–2022)* Salo Landau (Poland, Netherlands, 1903–1944)* Gary Lane (England, Australia, born 1964)* Lisa Lane (US, born 1938)* Max Lange (Germany, 1832–1899)* Salomon Langleben (Poland, 1862–1939)* Bent Larsen (Denmark, 1935–2010)* Ernst Larsson (Sweden, 1897–1963)* Baron Tassilo von Heydebrand und der Lasa (Prussia/Germany, 1818–1899)* Berthold Lasker (Germany, 1860–1928)* Edward Lasker (Poland, Germany, US, 1885–1981)* Emanuel Lasker (Germany, Russia, US, 1868–1941)* Milda Lauberte (Latvia, 1918–2009)* Leho Laurine (Estonia, Sweden, 1904–1998)* Jessica Lauser (American)* Joël Lautier (Canada, France, born 1973)* Darwin Laylo (Philippines, born 1980)* Frédéric Lazard (France, 1883–1948)* Gustave Lazard (France, 1876–1949)* Milunka Lazarević (Serbia, 1932–2018)* Viktor Láznička (Czech Republic, born 1988)* Lê Quang Liêm (Vietnam, born 1991)* Sergey Lebedev (Russia, 1868–1942)* Peter Lee (England, born 1943)* Peter Leepin (Switzerland, 1920–1995)* Legall de Kermeur (France, 1702–1792)* Anatoly Lein (Russia, US, 1931–2018)* Péter Lékó (Hungary, born 1979)* Giovanni Leonardo (Italy, 1542–1587)* Paul Saladin Leonhardt (Poland, Germany, 1877–1934)* Alex Lenderman (US, born 1989)* James A. Leonard (US, 1841–1862)* Konstantin Lerner (Ukraine, 1950–2011)* Jean-Pierre Le Roux (France, born 1982)* Alexandre Lesiège (Canada, born 1975)* Norman Lessing (US, 1911–2001)* René Letelier (Chile, 1915–2006)* Grigory Levenfish (Poland, Russia, 1889–1961)* Aleksandr Levin (Russia, 1871–1929)* Jacob Levin (US, 1904–1992)* Naum Levin (Ukraine, Australia, born 1933)* Irina Levitina (Russia, US, born 1954)* Stepan Levitsky (Russia, 1876–1924)* David Levy (Scotland, born 1945)* Jerzy Lewi (Poland, Sweden, 1949–1972)* Moritz Lewitt (Germany, 1863–1936)* Li Chao (China, born 1989)* Li Ruofan (Singapore, born 1978)* Li Shilong (China, born 1977)* Li Shongjian (China, born 1939)* Li Wenliang (China, born 1967)* Li Zunian (China, born 1958)* Liang Chong (China, born 1980)* Liang Jinrong (China, born 1960)* Vladimir Liberzon (Russia, Israel, 1937–1996)* Theodor Lichtenhein (Germany, US, 1829–1874)* Espen Lie (Norway, born 1984)* Kjetil Aleksander Lie (Norway, born 1980)* Andor Lilienthal (Hungary, Russia, 1911–2010)* Darcy Lima (Brazil, born 1962)* Lin Ta (China, born 1963)* Lin Weiguo (China, born 1970)* Paul Lipke (Germany, 1870–1955)* Isaac Lipnitsky (Ukraine, 1923–1959)* Samuel Lipschütz (Hungary, US, 1863–1905)* Georgy Lisitsin (Russia, 1909–1972)* Paul List (Ukraine, Germany, England, 1887–1954)* Marta Litinskaya-Shul (Ukraine, born 1949)* John Littlewood (England, 1931–2009)* Liu Shilan (China, born 1962)* Liu Wenzhe (China, 1940–2010)* Ljubomir Ljubojević (Serbia, born 1950)* Eric Lobron (US, Germany, born 1960)* Josef Lokvenc (Austria, 1899–1974)* Giambattista Lolli (Italy, 1698–1769)* Rudolf Loman (Netherlands, 1861–1932)* William Lombardy (US, 1937–2017)* Nelson M. Lopez (US, born 1988)* Ruy López de Segura (Spain, c. 1530 – c. 1580)* Edward Löwe (England, 1794–1880)* Otto Löwenborg (Sweden, 1888–1969)* Johann Löwenthal (Hungary, England, 1810–1876)* Leopold Löwy, Jr (Austria, 1871–after 1909)* Leopold Löwy, Sr (Austria, 1840–after 1904)* Moishe Lowtzky (Ukraine, Poland, 1881–1940)* Sam Loyd (US, 1841–1911)* Smbat Lputian (Armenia, born 1958)* Luis Ramirez Lucena (Spain, c. 1465 – c. 1530)* Markas Luckis (Lithuania, Argentina, 1905–1973)* Andrey Lukin (Russia, born 1948)* Stig Lundholm (Sweden, 1917–2009)* Erik Lundin (Sweden, 1904–1988)* Francisco Lupi (Portugal, before 1910–1954)* Constantin Lupulescu (Romania, born 1984)* Thomas Luther (Germany, born 1969)* Christopher Lutz (Germany, born 1971)" ], [ "M", "* Gottlieb Machate (Germany, 1904–1974)* Aleksandras Machtas (Lithuania, Israel, 1892–1973)* Bartłomiej Macieja (Poland, born 1977)* George Henry Mackenzie (Scotland, US, 1837–1891)* Nicholas MacLeod (Canada, 1870–1965)* Carlos Maderna (Argentina, 1910–1976)* Ildikó Mádl (Hungary, born 1969)* Elmar Magerramov (Azerbaijan, born 1958)* Joanna Majdan (Poland, born 1988)* Kazimierz Makarczyk (Poland, 1901–1972)* Vladimir Makogonov (Azerbaijan, 1904–1993)* Gyula Makovetz (Hungary, 1860–1903)* Vadim Malakhatko (Ukraine, Belgium, born 1977)* Vladimir Malakhov (Russia, born 1980)* Vidmantas Mališauskas (Lithuania, born 1963)* Vladimir Malaniuk (Russia, Ukraine, 1957–2017)* Boris Maliutin (Russia, 1883–1920)* Nidjat Mamedov (Azerbaijan, born 1985)* Shakhriyar Mamedyarov (Azerbaijan, born 1985)* Rauf Mamedov (Azerbaijan, born 1988)* Maria Manakova (Serbia, born 1974)* Karmen Mar (Slovenia, born 1987)* Napoleon Marache (France, US, 1818–1875)* Max Marchand (Netherlands, 1888–1957)* Georg Marco (Romania, Austria, 1863–1923)* Alisa Marić (Serbia, born 1970)* Mirjana Marić (Serbia, born 1970)* Mihail Marin (Romania, born 1965)* Beatriz Marinello (Chile, born 1964)* Sergio Mariotti (Italy, born 1946)* Ján Markoš (Slovakia, born 1985)* Tomasz Markowski (Poland, born 1975)* Robert Markuš (Serbia, born 1984)* Géza Maróczy (Hungary, 1870–1951)* Davide Marotti (Italy, 1881–1940)* Dražen Marović (Croatia, born 1938)* Frank Marshall (US, 1877–1944)* Dion Martinez (Cuba, US, 1837–1928)* Giovanni Martinolich (Italy, 1884–1910)* Rico Mascariñas (Philippines, born 1953)* Houshang Mashian (Iran, Israel, born 1938)* James Mason (Ireland, US, England, 1849–1905)* Dimitrios Mastrovasilis (Greece, born 1983)* Aleksandar Matanović (Serbia, born 1930)* Hermanis Matisons (Latvia, 1894–1932)* Milan Matulović (Serbia, 1935–2013)* Svetlana Matveeva (Russia, born 1969)* Carl Mayet (Germany, 1810–1868)* Isaak Mazel (Belarus, Russia, 1911–1943)* Neil McDonald (England, born 1967)* Alexander McDonnell (Ireland, 1798–1835)* Colin McNab (Scotland, born 1961)* Luke McShane (England, born 1984)* Henrique Mecking (Brazil, born 1952)* Antonio Medina (Spain, 1919–2003)* Edmar Mednis (Latvia, US, 1937–2002)* Susanto Megaranto (Indonesia, born 1987)* Philipp Meitner (Austria, 1838–1910)* Hrant Melkumyan (Armenia, born 1989)* Olga Menchik (Russia, Czechoslovakia, England, 1908–1944)* Vera Menchik (Russia, Czechoslovakia, England, 1906–1944)* Julius Mendheim (Germany, 1788–1836)* Jonathan Mestel (England, born 1957)* Johannes Metger (Germany, 1850–1926)* Voldemārs Mežgailis (Latvia, 1912–1998)* Paul Michel (Germany, Argentina, 1905–1977)* Walter Michel (Switzerland, 1888–after 1935)* Reginald Pryce Michell (England, 1873–1938)* Jacques Mieses (Germany, England, 1865–1954)* Samuel Mieses (Germany, 1841–1884)* Vladas Mikėnas (Estonia, Lithuania, 1910–1992)* Adrian Mikhalchishin (Ukraine, Slovenia, born 1954)* Victor Mikhalevski (Belarus, Israel, born 1972)* Igor Miladinović (Serbia, born 1974)* Tony Miles (England, 1955–2001)* Zdravko Milev (Bulgaria, 1929–1984)* Borislav Milić (Yugoslavia, 1925–1986)* Sophie Milliet (France, born 1983)* Stuart Milner-Barry (England, 1906–1995)* Vadim Milov (Russia, Israel, Switzerland, born 1972)* Artashes Minasian (Armenia, born 1987)* Johannes Minckwitz (Germany, 1843–1901)* Nikolay Minev (Bulgaria, US, 1931–2017)* Dragoljub Minić (Montenegro, 1936–2005)* Evgenij Miroshnichenko (Ukraine, born 1978)* Azer Mirzoev (Azerbaijan, born 1978)* Vesna Mišanović (Bosnia, born 1964)* Abhimanyu Mishra (US, born 2009)* Kamil Mitoń (Poland, born 1984)* Jack Mizzi (Malta, born 2006)* Lilit Mkrtchian (Armenia, born 1982)* Stasch Mlotkowski (US, 1881–1943)* Abram Model (Latvia, Russia, 1896–1976)* Charles Moehle (US, 1859–1898)* Ariah Mohiliver (Poland, Israel, 1904–1996)* Stefan Mohr (Germany, born 1967)* Alexander Moiseenko (Ukraine, born 1980)* Baldur Möller (Iceland, 1914–1999)* Jørgen Møller (Denmark, 1873–1944)* Augustus Mongredien (England, 1807–1888)* Léon Monosson (Belarus, France, 1892–1943)* Julius du Mont (France, England, 1881–1956)* Mario Monticelli (Italy, 1902–1995)* María Teresa Mora (Cuba, 1902–1980)* Elshan Moradi (Iran, born 1985)* Luciana Morales Mendoza (Peru, born 1987)* Kalikst Morawski (Poland, 1859 – c. 1939)* Bruno Moritz (Germany, Ecuador, 1898–?", ")* Iván Morovic (Chile, born 1963)* Alexander Moroz (Ukraine, 1961–2009)* Alexander Morozevich (Russia, born 1977)* Paul Morphy (US, 1837–1884)* John Morrison (Canada, 1889–1975)* Paul Motwani (Scotland, born 1962)* Alexander Motylev (Russia, born 1979)* Sergei Movsesian (Armenia, Slovakia, born 1978)* Paul Mross (Poland, Germany, 1910–1991)* Martin Mrva (Slovakia, born 1971)* André Muffang (France, 1897–1989)* Hans Müller (Austria, 1896–1971)* Karsten Müller (Germany, born 1970)* César Muñoz (Ecuador, 1929–2000)* Piotr Murdzia (Poland, born 1975)* Jacob Murey (Russia, Israel, born 1941)* Augusto de Muro (Argentina, ?", "–1959)* Niaz Murshed (Bangladesh, born 1966)* Phiona Mutesi (Uganda, birthdate unknown)* Anna Muzychuk (Ukraine, Slovenia, born 1990)* Mariya Muzychuk (Ukraine, born 1992)* Lhamsuren Myagmarsuren (Mongolia, born 1938)* Hugh Myers (US, 1930–2008)" ], [ "N", "* Ashot Nadanian (Armenia, born 1972)* Arkadij Naiditsch (Latvia, Germany, born 1985)* Oskar Naegeli (Switzerland, 1885–1959)* Géza Nagy (Hungary, 1892–1953)* Miguel Najdorf (Poland, Argentina, 1910–1997)* Hikaru Nakamura (Japan, US, born 1987)* William Napier (England, US, 1881–1952)* Mario Napolitano (Italy, 1910–1995)* Renato Naranja (Philippines, born 1940)* Srinath Narayanan (India, born 1994)* Daniel Naroditsky (US, born 1995)* David Navara (Czech Republic, born 1985)* Vera Nebolsina (Russia, born 1989)* Ozren Nedeljković (Serbia, 1903–1984)* Gastón Needleman (Argentina, born 1990)* Parimarjan Negi (India, born 1993)* Iivo Nei (Estonia, born 1931)* Oleg Neikirch (Georgia, Bulgaria, 1914–1985)* Kateřina Němcová (Czech Republic, born 1990)* Vladimir Nenarokov (Russia, 1880–1953)* Ian Nepomniachtchi (Russia, born 1990)* Vincenzo Nestler (Italy, 1912–1988)* Augustin Neumann (Austria, 1879–1906)* Gustav Neumann (Germany, 1838–1881)* Vladislav Nevednichy (Romania, born 1969)* Valeriy Neverov (Ukraine, born 1962)* Rashid Nezhmetdinov (Russia, 1912–1974)* Ni Hua (China, born 1983)* Arno Nickel (Germany, born 1952)* Bryon Nickoloff (Canada, 1956–2004)* Bjørn Nielsen (Denmark, 1907–1949)* Peter Heine Nielsen (Denmark, born 1973)* Torkil Nielsen (Faroe Islands, born 1964)* Hans Niemann (US, born 2003)* Walter Niephaus (Germany, 1923–1992)* Aleksandr Nikitin (Russia, 1935–2022)* Yuri Nikolaevsky (Ukraine, 1937–2004)* Ioannis Nikolaidis (Greece, born 1971)* Predrag Nikolić (Bosnia and Herzegovina, born 1960)* Allan Nilsson (Sweden, 1899–1949)* Aron Nimzowitsch (Latvia, Denmark, 1886–1935)* Ning Chunhong (China, born 1968)* Liviu-Dieter Nisipeanu (Romania, born 1976)* Josef Noa (Hungary, 1856–1903)* Jesús Nogueiras (Cuba, born 1959)* Federico Norcia (Italy, 1904–1985)* Holger Norman-Hansen (Denmark, 1899–1984)* David Norwood (England, born 1968)* Daniël Noteboom (Netherlands, 1910–1932)* Igor Novikov (Ukraine, US, born 1962)* Nikolay Novotelnov (Russia, 1911–2006)* Heinz Nowarra (Germany, 1897–c.", "1945)* John Nunn (England, born 1955)* Friedrich Nürnberg (Germany, 1909–1984)* Tomi Nybäck (Finland, born 1985)* Gustaf Nyholm (Sweden, 1880–1957)* Illia Nyzhnyk (Ukraine, born 1996)" ], [ "O", "* Kevin O'Connell (England, Ireland, born 1949)* Handszar Odeev (Turkmenistan, born 1972)* Leif Øgaard (Norway, born 1952)* John O'Hanlon (Ireland, 1876–1960)* Tõnu Õim (Estonia, born 1941)* Kaarle Ojanen (Finland, 1918–2009)* Albéric O'Kelly de Galway (Belgium, 1911–1980)* Friðrik Ólafsson (Iceland, born 1935)* Helgi Ólafsson (Iceland, born 1956)* Mikhailo Oleksienko (Ukraine, born 1986)* Lembit Oll (Estonia, 1966–1999)* Adolf Georg Olland (Netherlands, 1867–1933)* Anton Olson (Sweden, 1881–after 1928)* Alexander Onischuk (Ukraine, US born 1975)* Karel Opočenský (Czechoslovakia, 1892–1975)* Wilhelm Orbach (Germany, 1894–1944)* Menachem Oren (Poland, Israel, 1901–1962)* Gerard Oskam (Netherlands, 1880–1952)* Berge Østenstad (Norway, born 1964)* John Owen (England, 1827–1901)* Karlis Ozols (Latvia, Australia, 1912–2001)" ], [ "P", "* Luděk Pachman (Czechoslovakia, Germany, 1924–2003)* Nikola Padevsky (Bulgaria, born 1933)* Elisabeth Pähtz (Germany, born 1985)* Mladen Palac (Croatia, born 1971)* Sam Palatnik (Ukraine, US, born 1950)* Luis Palau (Argentina, 1897–1971)* Victor Palciauskas (Lithuania, US, born 1941)* Richard Palliser (England, born 1981)* Rudolf Palme (Austria, 1910–2005)* Ryan Palmer (Jamaica, born 1974)* Davor Palo (Denmark, born 1985)* Eero Paloheimo (Finland, born 1936)* Oscar Panno (Argentina, born 1935)* Vasily Panov (Russia, 1906–1973)* Mark Paragua (Philippines, born 1984)* Shadi Paridar (Iran, born 1986)* Mircea Pârligras (Romania, born 1980)* Bruno Parma (Slovenia, born 1941)* Frank Parr (England, 1918–2003)* Louis Paulsen (Germany, 1833–1891)* Wilfried Paulsen (Germany, 1828–1901)* Duško Pavasovič (Croatia, Slovenia, born 1975)* Max Pavey (US, 1918–1957)* Rahul Srivatshav Peddi (US, born 2002)* Jiří Pelikán (Czechoslovakia, Argentina, 1906–1985)* Yannick Pelletier (Switzerland, born 1976)* Roman Pelts (Ukraine, Canada, born 1937)* Peng Xiaomin (China, born 1973)* Peng Zhaoqin (China, born 1968)* Jonathan Penrose (England, 1933–2021)* Corina Peptan (Romania, born 1978)* Julius Perlis (Poland, Austria, 1880–1913)* Frederick Perrin (England, US, 1815–1889)* Raaphi Persitz (England, Israel, Switzerland, 1934–2009)* Nick Pert (England, born 1981)* John Peters (US, born 1951)* Jusefs Petkevich (Latvia, born 1940)* Arshak Petrosian (Armenia, born 1953)* Davit G. Petrosian (Armenia, born 1984)* Tigran Petrosian (Armenia, Georgia, USSR, 1929–1984)* Alexander Petrov (Russia, 1794–1867)* Vladimirs Petrovs (Latvia, 1907–1943)* Gerhard Pfeiffer (Germany, 1923–2000)* Helmut Pfleger (Germany, born 1943)* François-André Danican Philidor (France, 1726–1795)* Luis Piazzini (Argentina, 1905–1980)* Jeroen Piket (Netherlands, born 1969)* Harry Nelson Pillsbury (US, 1872–1906)* Hermann Pilnik (Germany, Argentina, 1914–1981)* Karol Piltz (Poland, 1903–1939)* Albert Pinkus (US, 1903–1984)* József Pintér (Hungary, born 1953)* Vasja Pirc (Slovenia, 1907–1980)* Rudolf Pitschak (Czechoslovakia, US, 1902–1988)* Karl Pitschel (Austria, 1829–1883)* Aaron Pixton (US, born 1986)* Ján Plachetka (Slovakia, born 1945)* Albin Planinc (Slovenia, 1944–2008)* James Plaskett (England, Spain, born 1960)* Kazimierz Plater (Poland, 1915–2004)* Igor Platonov (Ukraine, 1934–1995)* Joseph Platz (Germany, US, 1905–1981)* Isaías Pleci (Argentina, 1907–1979)* David Podhorzer (Austria, 1907–1998)* Natalia Pogonina (Russia, born 1985)* Henryk Pogorieły (Poland, 1908–1943)* Ernest Pogosyants (Ukraine, 1935–1990)* Iosif Pogrebyssky (Ukraine, 1906–1971)* Amos Pokorný (Czechoslovakia, 1890–1949)* Rudolph Pokorny (Bohemia, Mexico, US, 1880–after 1920)* Giulio Polerio (Italy, 1548–1612)* Judit Polgár (Hungary, born 1976)* Zsuzsa Polgar (Hungary, US, born 1969)* Zsofia Polgar (Hungary, Israel, born 1974)* Elisabeta Polihroniade (Romania, 1935–2016)* David Polland (US, born 1915)* William Pollock (United Kingdom, 1859–1896)* Lev Polugaevsky (Belarus, Russia, 1934–1995)* Arturo Pomar (Spain, 1931–2016)* Ruslan Ponomariov (Ukraine, 1983)* Domenico Ponziani (Italy, 1719–1796)* Stepan Popel (Poland, France, US, 1909–1987)* Ignatz von Popiel (Austria-Hungary, Poland, 1863–1941)* Petar Popović (Yugoslavia, Serbia, born 1959)* Artur Popławski (Poland, Switzerland, 1860–1918)* Yosef Porat (Germany, Israel, 1909–1996)* Moritz Porges (Bohemia/Austria-Hungary, 1857–1909)* Lajos Portisch (Hungary, born 1937)* Ehrhardt Post (Germany, 1881–1947)* Evgeny Postny (Israel, born 1981)* Peter Potemkine (Russia, France, 1886–1926)* Vladimir Potkin (Russia, born 1982)* Ludovit Potuček (Slovakia, 1912–1982)* Christian Poulsen (Denmark, 1912–1981)* Atousa Pourkashiyan (Iran, born 1988)* R Praggnanandhaa (India, born 2005)* Borki Predojević (Bosnia, born 1987)* Edith Charlotte Price (England, 1872–1952)* Lodewijk Prins (Netherlands, 1913–1999)* Svetlana Prudnikova (Russia, born 1967)* Dawid Przepiórka (Poland, 1880–1942)* Lev Psakhis (Russia, Israel, born 1958)* Lenka Ptáčníková (Czechoslovakia, Iceland, born 1976)* Stojan Puc (Slovenia, 1921–2004)* Viktors Pupols (Latvia, US, born 1934)* Cecil Purdy (New Zealand, Australia, 1906–1979)* John Purdy (Australia, 1935–2011)" ], [ "Q", "* Qi Jingxuan (China, born 1947)* Qin Kanying (China, born 1974)* Oscar Quiñones (Peru, born 1941)* Miguel Quinteros (Argentina, born 1947)" ], [ "R", "* Braslav Rabar (Croatia, 1919–1973)* Abram Rabinovich (Lithuania, Russia, 1878–1943)* Ilya Rabinovich (Russia, 1891–1942)* Teimour Radjabov (Azerbaijan, born 1987)* Ivan Radulov (Bulgaria, born 1939)* Markus Ragger (Austria, born 1988)* Viacheslav Ragozin (Russia, 1908–1962)* Ziaur Rahman (Bangladesh, born 1974)* Maurice Raizman (Moldova/Russia, France 1905–1974)* Iweta Rajlich (Poland, born 1981)* Ramachandran Ramesh (India, born 1976)* Alejandro Ramírez (Costa Rica, born 1988)* Richárd Rapport (Hungary, born 1996)* Nukhim Rashkovsky (Russia, born 1946)* Ilmar Raud (Estonia, Argentina, 1913–1941)* Vsevolod Rauzer (Ukraine, 1908–1941)* Yuri Razuvayev (Russia, 1945–2012)* Damian Reca (Argentina, 1894–1937)* Hans Ree (Netherlands, born 1944)* Brian Reilly (France, England, Ireland, 1901–1991)* Dimitri Reinderman (Netherlands, born 1972)* Fred Reinfeld (US, 1910–1964)* Heinrich Reinhardt (Germany, Argentina, 1903–1990)* Salome Reischer (Austria, Palestine, US, 1899–1980)* Teodor Regedziński (Poland, 1894–1954)* Arturo Reggio (Italy, 1863–1917)* Josef Rejfíř (Czechoslovakia, 1909–1962)* Ludwig Rellstab (Germany, 1904–1983)* Georges Renaud (France, 1893–1975)* Samuel Reshevsky (Poland, US, 1911–1992)* Pál Réthy (Hungary, 1905–1962)* Richard Réti (Austria-Hungary, Czechoslovakia, 1889–1929)* Ramón Rey Ardid (Spain, 1903–1988)* Alexander Riazantsev (Russia, born 1985)* Zoltán Ribli (Hungary, born 1951)* Pablo Ricardi (Argentina, born 1962)* Isaac Rice (US, 1850–1915)* Kurt Richter (Germany, 1900–1969)* Antonio Rico (Spain, 1908–1988)* Alessandra Riegler (Italy, born 1961)* Fritz Riemann (Germany, 1859–1932)* Friedl Rinder (Germany, 1905–2001)* Horst Rittner (Germany, 1930–2021)* Nikolai Riumin (Russia, 1908–1942)* Jules Arnous de Rivière (France, 1830–1905)* Karl Robatsch (Austria, 1928–2000)* Walter Robinow (Germany, 1867–1938)* Ray Robson (US, born 1994)* Ludwig Rödl (Germany, 1907–1970)* Maxim Rodshtein (Israel, born 1989)* Hans Roepstorff (Germany, 1910–1945)* Ian Rogers (Australia, born 1960)* Gustav Rogmann (Germany, 1909–1947)* Kenneth Rogoff (US, born 1953)* Dorian Rogozenko (Romania, born 1973)* Ivan Vladimir Rohaček (Slovakia, 1909–1977)* Michael Rohde (US, born 1959)* Michael Roiz (Russia, Israel born 1983)* Oleg Romanishin (Ukraine, born 1952)* Alexander Romanovsky (Lithuania, Russia, 1880–1943)* Peter Romanovsky (Russia, 1892–1964)* Max Romih (Croatia, Italy, 1893–1979)* Chris de Ronde (Netherlands, Argentina, 1912–1996)* Catharina Roodzant (Netherlands, 1896–1999)* Salme Rootare (Estonia, 1913–1987)* Vidrik Rootare (Estonia, c.1900–1985)* Jakob Rosanes (Ukraine/Austria-Hungary, Germany, 1842–1922)* Bernardo Roselli (Uruguay, born 1965)* Leon Rosen (Poland, US, 1869–1942)* Andreas Rosendahl (Denmark, 1864–1909)* Karl Wilhelm Rosenkrantz (Latvia, Russia, 1876–after 1928)* Jacob Rosenthal (US, 1881–1954)* Samuel Rosenthal (Poland, France 1837–1902)* Laura Ross (US, born 1988)* Stefano Rosselli del Turco (Italy, 1877–1947)* Héctor Rossetto (Argentina, 1922–2009)* Nicolas Rossolimo (Ukraine, France, US, 1910–1975)* Gersz Rotlewi (Poland, 1889–1920)* Eugéne Rousseau (France, c. 1810 – c. 1870)* Jonathan Rowson (Scotland, born 1977)* Solomon Rozental (Lithuania, Belarus, Russia, 1890–1955)* Eduardas Rozentalis (Lithuania, born 1963)* Vesna Rožič (Slovenia, 1987–2013)* Levy Rozman (US, born 1995)* Ruan Lufei (China, born 1987)* Serge Rubanraut (China, Australia, 1948–2008)* Karl Ruben (Denmark, 1903–1938)* Jorge Rubinetti (Argentina, 1945–2016)* Akiba Rubinstein (Poland, Germany, Belgium, 1882–1961)* Emanuel Rubinstein (Poland, 1897–?", ")* José Rubinstein (Argentina, 1940–1997)* Simon Rubinstein (Austria, South Africa, c. 1910–1942)* Solomon Rubinstein (Poland, US, 1868–1931)* Sergei Rublevsky (Russia, born 1974)* Olga Rubtsova (Russia, 1909–1994)* Iosif Rudakovsky (Ukraine, 1914–1947)* Lyudmila Rudenko (Ukraine, Russia, 1904–1986)* Mary Rudge (England, 1842–1919)* Nikoly Rudnev (Ukraine, Uzbekistan, 1895–1944)* Anna Rudolf (Hungary, born 1987)* Alexander Rueb (Netherlands, 1882–1959)* Mikhail Rytshagov (Estonia, born 1967)" ], [ "S", "* Peter Alexandrovich Saburov (Russia, 1835–1918)* Peter Petrovich Saburov (Russia, Switzerland, 1880–1932)* Antonio Sacconi (Italy, 1895–1968)* Matthew Sadler (England, born 1974)* Darmen Sadvakasov (Kazakhstan, born 1979)* Yousof Safvat (Iran, 1940–2003)* Pierre Charles Fournier de Saint-Amant (France, 1800–1872)* Jaroslav Šajtar (Czechoslovakia, 1921–2003)* Konstantin Sakaev (Russia, born 1974)* Yuri Sakharov (Ukraine, 1922–1981)* Valery Salov (Russia, born 1964)* Alessandro Salvio (Italy, c. 1570 – c. 1640)* Gersz Salwe (Poland, 1862–1920)* Friedrich (Fritz) Sämisch (Germany, 1896–1975)* Sergiu Samarian (Romania, Germany, 1923–1991)* Grigory Sanakoev (Russia, 1935–2021)* Luis Augusto Sánchez (Colombia, 1917–1981)* Albert Sandrin Jr. (US, 1923–2004)* Raúl Sanguineti (Argentina, 1933–2000)* Anthony Santasiere (US, 1904–1977)* Emmanuel Sapira (Romania, Belgium, 1900–1943)* Ortvin Sarapu (Estonia, New Zealand, 1924–1999)* Jonathan Sarfati (Australia, New Zealand, born 1964)* Gabriel Sargissian (Armenia, born 1983)* Ivan Šarić (Croatia, born 1990)* Nihal Sarin (India, born 2004)* Zoltan Sarosy (Hungary, Canada, 1906–2017)* Jacob Sarratt (England, 1772–1819)* Jeff Sarwer (Canada, born 1978)* Krishnan Sasikiran (India, born 1981)* Harold Saunders (England, 1875–1950)* Stanislav Savchenko (Ukraine, born 1967)* Vladimir Savon (Ukraine, 1940–2005)* Gyula Sax (Hungary, 1951–2014)* Emil Schallopp (Germany, 1843–1919)* Morris Schapiro (Lithuania, US, 1903–1996)* Willem Schelfhout (Netherlands, 1874–1951)* Theodor von Scheve (Germany, 1851–1922)* Emanuel Schiffers (Russia, 1850–1904)* Willi Schlage (Germany, 1888–1940)* Carl Schlechter (Austria, 1874–1918)* Roland Schmaltz (Germany, born 1974)* Carl Friedrich Schmid (Latvia, 1840–1897)* Lothar Schmid (Germany, 1928–2013)* Paul Felix Schmidt (Estonia, Germany, US, 1916–1984)* Włodzimierz Schmidt (Poland, born 1943)* Ludwig Schmitt (Germany, 1902–1980)* Wilhelm Schönmann (Germany, 1889–1970)* Georg Schories (Germany, 1874–1934)* Karl Schorn (Germany, 1803–1850)* Arnold Schottländer (Germany, 1854–1909)* František Schubert (Czechoslovakia, 1894–1940)* John William Schulten (US, 1821–1875)* Jan Schulz (Czechoslovakia, 1899–1953)* Aaron Schwartzman (Argentina, 1908–2013)* Gabriel Schwartzman (Romania, US, born 1976)* Leon Schwartzmann (Poland, France, 1887–1942)* Paulette Schwartzmann (Latvia, France, Argentina, 1894–1953?", ")* Adolf Schwarz (Hungary, Austria, 1836–1910)* Jacques Schwarz (Austria, 1856–1921)* Samuel Schweber (Argentina, 1936–2017)* Marie Sebag (France, born 1986)* Yasser Seirawan (Syria, US, born 1960)* Adolf Seitz (Germany, Argentina 1898–1970)* Alexey Selezniev (Russia, France, 1888–1967)* Lidia Semenova (Ukraine, born 1951)* Olav Sepp (Estonia, born 1969)* Edward Guthlac Sergeant (England, 1881–1961)* Philip Walsingham Sergeant (England, 1872–1952)* Aleksandr Sergeyev (Russia, 1897–1970)* Dražen Sermek (Slovenia, born 1969)* Gregory Serper (Uzbekistan, US, born 1969)* Samuel Sevian (US, born 2000)* Alexander Shabalov (Latvia, US, born 1967)* Greg Shahade (US, born 1978)* Jennifer Shahade (US, born 1980)* Leonid Shamkovich (Russia, Israel, US, 1923–2005)* Gauri Shankar (India, born 1992)* Samuel Shankland (US, born 1991)* Andrey Shariyazdanov (Russia, born 1976)* Elizabeth Shaughnessy (Ireland, US, born 1937)* Shen Yang (China, born 1989)* James Sherwin (US, England, born 1933)* Sergei Shipov (Russia, born 1966)* Kamran Shirazi (Iran, US, France, born 1952)* Alexei Shirov (Latvia, Spain, born 1972)* Nigel Short (England, born 1965)* Jackson Showalter (US, 1860–1935)* Yury Shulman (Belarus, US, born 1975)* Ilya Shumov (Russia, 1819–1881)* Polina Shuvalova (Russia, born 2001)* Félix Sicre (Cuba, 1817–1871)* Bruno Edgar Siegheim (Germany, South Africa, 1875–1952)* Guðmundur Sigurjónsson (Iceland, born 1947)* Jeremy Silman (US, 1954–2023)* Vladimir Simagin (Russia, 1919–1968)* Albert Simonson (US, 1914–1965)* Amon Simutowe (Zambia, born 1982)* Marcel Sisniega Campbell (Mexico, 1959–2013)* Stanislaus Sittenfeld (Poland, France, 1865–1902)* Sanan Sjugirov (Russia, born 1993)* Karel Skalička (Czechoslovakia, Argentina, 1896–1979)* Almira Skripchenko (Moldova, France, born 1976)* Bogdan Śliwa (Poland, 1922–2003)* Sam Sloan (United States, born 1944)* Roman Slobodjan (Germany, born 1975)* Jørn Sloth (Denmark, born 1944)* Jan Smeets (Netherlands, born 1985)* Jan Smejkal (Czechoslovakia, born 1946)* David Smerdon (Australia, born 1984)* Shlomo Smiltiner (Israel, 1915–2015)* Ilya Smirin (Belarus, Israel, born 1968)* Pavel Smirnov (Russia, born 1982)* Stephen Francis Smith (Canada, England, 1861–1928)* Vasily Osipovich Smyslov (Russia, 1881–1943)* Vasily Smyslov (Russia, 1921–2010)* Wesley So (Philippines, born 1993)* Bartosz Soćko (Poland, born 1978)* Monika Soćko (Poland, born 1978)* Andrei Sokolov (Russia, France, born 1963)* Ivan Sokolov (Bosnia, Netherlands, born 1968)* Alexey Sokolsky (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, 1908–1969)* Dragan Šolak (Serbia, 1980)* Alexander Solovtsov (Russia, 1847–1923)* Andrew Soltis (US, born 1947)* Ariel Sorín (Argentina, born 1967)* Genna Sosonko (Russia, Netherlands, born 1943)* Victor Soultanbeieff (Russia, Belgium, 1895–1972)* Vladimir Sournin (Russia, US, 1875–1942)* João de Souza Mendes (Brazil, 1892–1969)* Hugo Spangenberg (Argentina, born 1975)* Vasil Spasov (Bulgaria, born 1971)* Boris Spassky (Russia, France, born 1937)* Jon Speelman (England, born 1956)* Abraham Speijer (Netherlands, 1873–1956)* Rudolf Spielmann (Austria, Sweden, 1883–1942)* Kevin Spraggett (Canada, born 1954)* Ana Srebrnič (Slovenia, born 1984)* Gideon Ståhlberg (Sweden, 1908–1967)* Wilhelm von Stamm (Latvia, ?–1905)* Philipp Stamma (Syria, England, France, 1705–1755)* Nikolaus Stanec (Austria, born 1968)* Charles Stanley (England, US, 1819–1901)* Nava Starr (Latvia, Canada, born 1949)* Howard Staunton (England, 1810–1874)* Michael Stean (England, born 1953)* Antoaneta Stefanova (Bulgaria, born 1979)* Hannes Stefánsson (Iceland, born 1972)* Elias Stein (Alsace, Netherlands, 1748–1812)* Leonid Stein (Ukraine, 1934–1973)* Endre Steiner (Hungary, 1901–1944)* Lajos Steiner (Hungary, Australia 1903–1975)* Herman Steiner (Slovakia/Hungary, US, 1905–1955)* Wilhelm Steinitz (Bohemia, Austria, England, US, 1836–1900)* Daniël Stellwagen (Netherlands, born 1987)* Károly Sterk (Hungary, 1881–1946)* Adolf Stern (Germany, 1849–1907)* Agnes Stevenson (England, before 1901–1935)* Lara Stock (Croatia, born 1992)* Mark Stolberg (Russia, 1922–1943)* Gösta Stoltz (Sweden, 1904–1963)* Leon Stolzenberg (Poland, US, 1895–1974)* Zurab Sturua (Georgia, born 1964)* Mihai Șubă (Romania, born 1947)* Mladen Šubarić (Croatia, 1908–1991)* Hugo Süchting (Germany, 1874–1916)* Alexey Suetin (Russia, 1926–2001)* Berthold Suhle (Poland, Germany, 1837–1904)* Franciszek Sulik (Poland, Argentina, Australia, 1908–2000)* Šarūnas Šulskis (Lithuania, born 1972)* Aaron Summerscale (England, born 1969)* Anne Sunnucks (England, 1927–2014)* Jaime Sunye Neto (Brazil, born 1957)* Emil Sutovsky (Azerbaijan, Israel, born 1977)* Duncan Suttles (Canada, born 1945)* Evgeny Sveshnikov (Latvia, 1950–2021)* Dmitry Svetushkin (Moldova, 1980–2020)* Peter Svidler (Russia, born 1976)* Rudolf Swiderski (Germany, 1878–1909)* Eugenio Szabados (Hungary, Italy, 1898–1974)* László Szabó (Hungary, 1917–1998)* Gedali Szapiro (Poland, Israel, 1929–1972)* Salomon Szapiro (Poland, 1882–1944)* Rudolph Sze (China, US, c.1890–1938)* József Szén (Hungary, 1805–1857)* József Szily (Hungary, 1913–1976)* Jorge Szmetan (Argentina, 1950–2015)* Aleksander Sznapik (Poland, born 1951)* Abram Szpiro (Germany, Poland, 1912–1943)" ], [ "T", "* Mark Taimanov (Ukraine, Russia, 1926–2016)* Sándor Takács (Hungary, 1893–1932)* Mikhail Tal (Latvia, 1936–1992)* Tan Chengxuan (China, born 1963)* Hiong Liong Tan (Indonesia, Netherlands, 1938–2009)* Lian Ann Tan (Singapore, born 1947)* Tan Zhongyi (China, born 1991)* László Tapasztó (Hungary, Venezuela, US, born 1930)* James Tarjan (US, born 1952)* Siegbert Tarrasch (Germany, 1862–1934)* Savielly Tartakower (Austria/Poland, France, 1887–1956)* Jean Taubenhaus (Poland, France, 1850–1919)* Lev Taussig (Czechoslovakia, 1880–?", ")* Povilas Tautvaišas (Lithuania, US, 1916–1980)* Jan Willem te Kolsté (Netherlands, 1874–1936)* Richard Teichmann (Germany, 1868–1925)* Oscar Tenner (Germany, US, 1880–1948)* Rudolf Teschner (Germany, 1922–2006)* Vitaly Teterev (Belarus, born 1983)* Praveen Thipsay (India, born 1959)* Murugan Thiruchelvam (England, born 1988)* George Alan Thomas (Turkey, England, 1881–1972)* James Thompson (England, US, 1804–1870)* Theophilus Thompson (US, 1855 – after 1940?", ")* Tian Tian (China, born 1983)* Viktor Tietz (Czechoslovakia, 1859–1937)* Hans Tikkanen (Sweden, born 1985)* Jan Timman (Netherlands, born 1951)* Gert Jan Timmerman (Netherlands, born 1956)* Artyom Timofeev (Russia, born 1985)* Samuel Tinsley (England, 1847–1903)* Sergei Tiviakov (Russia, Netherlands, born 1973)* Jonathan Tisdall (US, Norway, born 1958)* Vladislav Tkachiev (Russia, Kazakhstan, France born 1973)* Miodrag Todorcevic (Serbia, France, born 1940)* Alexander Tolush (Russia, 1910–1969)* Evgeny Tomashevsky (Russia, born 1987)* Vasilije Tomović (Montenegro, 1906–?", ")* Tong Yuanming (China, born 1972)* Alice Tonini (Italy, ?", ")* Veselin Topalov (Bulgaria, born 1975)* Eugenio Torre (Philippines, born 1951)* Carlos Torre Repetto (México, 1902–1978)* Yury Toshev (Bulgaria, 1907–1974)* Izaak Towbin (Ukraine, Poland, 1899–1941)* Karel Traxler (Czechoslovakia, 1866–1936)* Lawrence Trent (England, born 1986)* František Treybal (Czechoslovakia, 1882–1942)* Karel Treybal (Czechoslovakia, 1885–1941)* George Treysman (US, 1881–1959)* Petar Trifunović (Croatia, Serbia, 1910–1980)* Georgi Tringov (Bulgaria, 1937–2000)* Paul Truong (Vietnam, US, born 1965)* Cindy Tsai (US, born 1985)* Anatol Tschepurnoff (Finland, 1871–1942)* Mark Tseitlin (Russia, Israel, born 1943)* Mikhail Tseitlin (Belarus, Russia, born 1947)* Vitaly Tseshkovsky (Russia, 1944–2011)* Alexander Tsvetkov (Bulgaria, 1914–1990)* Leon Tuhan-Baranowski (Poland, Germany, 1907–1954)* Vladimir Tukmakov (Ukraine, born 1946)* Johannes Türn (Estonia, 1899–1993)* Abe Turner (US, 1924–1962)* Maxim Turov (Russia, born 1979)* Isador Samuel Turover (Belgium, US, 1892–1978)* Theodore Tylor (England, 1900–1968)* Dimitri Tyomkin (Canada, born 1977)* Alexandru Tyroler (Romania, 1891–1990)" ], [ "U", "* Louis Uedemann (US, 1854–1912)* Shinsaku Uesugi (Japan, born 1991)* Wolfgang Uhlmann (Germany, 1935–2020)* Tüdeviin Üitümen (Mongolia, 1939–1993)* Maximilian Ujtelky (Hungary/Slovakia, 1915–1979)* Mikhail Ulibin (Russia, born 1971)* Mikhail Umansky (Russia, 1952–2010)* Wolfgang Unzicker (Germany, 1925–2006)* Anna Ushenina (Ukraine, born 1985)" ], [ "V", "* Maxime Vachier-Lagrave (France, born 1990)* Rafael Vaganian (Armenia, born 1951)* Samuil Vainshtein (Russia, 1894–1942)* Anatoly Vaisser (Kazakhstan, France, born 1949)* Povilas Vaitonis (Lithuania, Canada, 1911–1983)* Árpád Vajda (Hungary, 1896–1967)* Francisco Vallejo Pons (Spain, born 1982)* Michael Valvo (US, 1942–2004)* Johannes van den Bosch (Netherlands, 1906–1994)* Arnold van den Hoek (Netherlands, 1921–1945)* Paul van der Sterren (Netherlands, born 1956)* John van der Wiel (Netherlands, born 1959)* Dirk van Foreest (Netherlands, 1862–1956)* Jorden van Foreest (Netherlands, born 1999)* Lucas van Foreest (Netherlands, born 2001)* Norman van Lennep (Netherlands, 1872–1897)* Herman Claudius van Riemsdijk (Netherlands, Brazil, born 1948)* Theo van Scheltinga (Netherlands, 1914–1994)* Louis van Vliet (Netherlands, 1870–1932)* Loek van Wely (Netherlands, born 1972)* Cyril Vansittart (England, Italy, 1852–1887)* Zoltán Varga (Hungary, born 1970)* Egon Varnusz (Hungary, 1933–2008)* Evgeni Vasiukov (Russia, 1933–2018)* Petar Velikov (Bulgaria, born 1951)* Dragoljub Velimirović (Serbia, 1942–2014)* Gavriil Veresov (Russia, 1912–1979)* Beniamino Vergani (Italy, 1863–1927)* Giovanni Vescovi (Brazil, born 1978)* Boris Verlinsky (Ukraine, Russia, 1888–1950)* Milan Vidmar (Slovenia, 1885–1962)* Milan Vidmar Jr. (Slovenia, 1909–1980)* Subbaraman Vijayalakshmi (India, born 1979)* Benito Villegas (Argentina, 1877–1952)* Yakov Vilner (Ukraine, 1899 – c. 1930)* William Samuel Viner (Australia, 1881–1933)* Fernando Visier Segovia (Spain, born 1943)* Isakas Vistaneckis (Lithuania, Israel, 1910–2000)* Nikita Vitiugov (Russia, born 1987)* Alvis Vītoliņš (Latvia, 1946–1997)* Evgeny Vladimirov (Kazakhstan, born 1957)* Erwin Voellmy (Switzerland, 1886–1951)* Sergey Volkov (Russia, born 1974)* Andrei Volokitin (Ukraine, born 1986)* Larissa Volpert (Russia, 1926–2017)* Andrey Vovk (Ukraine, born 1991)* Yuri Vovk (Ukraine, born 1988)* Zvonko Vranesic (Croatia, Canada, born 1938)* Milan Vukcevich (Serbia, US, 1937–2003)* Milan Vukić (Serbia, Bosnia, born 1942)* Vladimir Vuković (Croatia, 1898–1975)* Konstantin Vygodchikov (Belarus, Russia, 1892–1941)* Alexey Vyzmanavin (Russia, 1960–2000)" ], [ "W", "* Robert Wade (New Zealand, England, 1921–2008)* Alexander Wagner (Poland, 1868–1942)* Heinrich Wagner (Germany, 1888–1959)* Victor Wahltuch (England, 1875–1953)* Josh Waitzkin (United States, born 1976)* Carl August Walbrodt (Netherlands, Germany, 1871–1902)* George Walker (England, 1803–1879)* Max Walter (Slovakia, 1896–1940)* Wang Hao (China, born 1989)* Wang Lei (China, born 1975)* Wang Pin (China, born 1974)* Puchen Wang (China, New Zealand, born 1990)* Wang Rui (China, born 1978)* Wang Yu (China, born 1982)* Wang Yue (China, born 1987)* Chris Ward (England, born 1968)* Preston Ware (US, 1821–1891)* Cathy Warwick (England, born 1968)* Miyoko Watai (Japan, born 1945)* John L. Watson (US, born 1951)* William Watson (England, born 1962)* William Wayte (England, 1829–1898)* Simon Webb (England, 1949–2005)* Tom Wedberg (Sweden, born 1953)* Henri Weenink (Netherlands, 1892–1931)* Otto Wegemund (Germany, 1870–1928)* Wei Yi (China, born 1999)* Wolfgang Weil (Austria, 1912–1945)* Max Weiss (Hungary, Austria, 1857–1927)* Peter Wells (England, born 1965)* Carl Wemmers (Germany, 1845–1882)* Wen Yang (China, born 1988)* Jan Werle (Netherlands, born 1984)* Guy West (Australia, born 1958)* Heikki Westerinen (Finland, born 1944)* Bernardo Wexler (Romania, Argentina, 1925–1992)* Kasimir de Weydlich (Poland, 1859–1913)* Norman Tweed Whitaker (US, 1890–1975)* Michael Wiedenkeller (Sweden, born 1963)* Arthur Wijnans (Indonesia, Netherlands, 1920–1945)* Elijah Williams (England, 1810–1854)* Simon Williams (England, born 1979)* Szymon Winawer (Poland, 1838–1920)* Karl Gottlieb von Windisch (Slovakia, Hungary, Austria, 1725–1793)* Peter Winston (US, born 1958)* William Winter (England, 1898–1955)* Victor Winz (Germany, Israel, Argentina, 1906-?", ")* John Wisker (England, 1846–1884)* Alexander Wittek (Croatia, Austria, 1852–1894)* Aleksandar Wohl (Australia, born 1963)* Antoni Wojciechowski (Poland, 1905–1938)* Radosław Wojtaszek (Poland, born 1987)* Aleksander Wojtkiewicz (Latvia, Poland, US, 1963–2006)* Heinrich Wolf (Austria, 1875–1943)* Siegfried Reginald Wolf (Austria, Israel, 1867–1951)* Paula Wolf-Kalmar (Austria, 1881–1931)* Balduin Wolff (Germany, 1819–1907)* Patrick Wolff (US, born 1968)* Wong Meng Kong (Singapore, born 1963)* Baruch Harold Wood (England, 1909–1989)* Wu Mingqian (China, born 1961)* Wu Shaobin (Singapore, 1969)* Wu Wenjin (China, born 1976)* Marmaduke Wyvill (England, 1814–1896)" ], [ "X", "* Xie Jun (China, born 1970)* Jeffery Xiong (US, born 2000)* Xu Jun (China, born 1962)* Xu Yuanyuan (China, born 1981)* Xu Yuhua (China, born 1976)" ], [ "Y", "* Yuri Yakovich (Russia, born 1962)* Daniel Yanofsky (Poland, Canada, 1925–2000)* Frederick Yates (England, 1884–1932)* Ye Jiangchuan (China, born 1960)* Ye Rongguang (China, born 1963)* Olavo Yépez (Ecuador, 1937–2021)* Trotzky Yepez (Ecuador, 1940–2010)* Alex Yermolinsky (US, born 1958)* Betül Cemre Yıldız (Turkey, born 1989)* Yin Hao (China, born 1979)* Carissa Yip (US, born 2003)* Jennifer Yu (US, born 2002)* Yu Shaoteng (China, born 1979)* Leonid Yudasin (Russia, Israel, born 1959)* Mikhail Yudovich (Russia, 1911–1987)* Peter Yurdansky (Russia, 1891–1937)* Artur Yusupov (Russia, Germany, born 1960)" ], [ "Z", "* Józef Żabiński (Poland, 1860–1928)* Aron Zabłudowski (Poland, 1909–1941)* Aldo Zadrima (Albania, born 1948)* Vladimir Zagorovsky (Russia, 1925–1994)* Sergey Zagrebelny (Uzbekistan, born 1965)* Alexander Zaitsev (Russia, 1935–1971)* Igor Zaitsev (Russia, born 1938)* Lazar Zalkind (Ukraine, 1886–1945)* Oswaldo Zambrana (Bolivia, born 1981)* Abram Zamikhovsky (Ukraine, 1908–1978)* Alonso Zapata (Colombia, born 1958)* Pablo Zarnicki (Argentina, born 1972)* Anna Zatonskih (Ukraine, US, born 1978)* Tatiana Zatulovskaya (Azerbaijan, Russia, Israel, 1935–2017)* Beata Zawadzka (Poland, born 1986)* Jolanta Zawadzka (Poland, born 1987)* Elmārs Zemgalis (Latvia, US, 1923–2014)* Zhang Jilin (China, born 1986)* Zhang Pengxiang (China, born 1980)* Zhang Weida (China, born 1949)* Zhang Xiaowen (China, born 1989)* Zhang Zhong (China, Singapore, born 1978)* Zhao Jun (China, born 1986)* Zhao Lan (China, born 1963)* Zhao Xue (China, born 1985)* Zhao Zong-Yuan (China, Australia, born 1986)* Viktor Zheliandinov (Ukraine, 1935–2021)* Zhou Jianchao (China, born 1988)* Zhou Weiqi (China, born 1986)* Zhu Chen (China, born 1976)* Natalia Zhukova (Ukraine, born 1979)* Yaacov Zilberman (Israel, born 1954)* Otto Zimmermann (Switzerland, 1892–1979)* Adolf Zinkl (Bohemia, Austria, 1871–1944)* Emil Zinner (Czechoslovakia, 1909–1942)* František Zíta (Czechoslovakia, 1909–1977)* Eugene Znosko-Borovsky (Russia, France, 1884–1954)* Leo Zobel (Slovakia, 1895–1962)* Alexander Zubarev (Ukraine, born 1979)* Nikolai Zubarev (Russia, 1894–1951)* Bernard Zuckerman (US, born 1943)* Igor Zugic (Canada, born 1981)* Johannes Zukertort (Poland, Germany, England, 1842–1888)* Vadim Zvjaginsev (Russia, born 1976)* Kira Zvorykina (Ukraine, Russia, Belarus 1919–2014)* Adolf Zytogorski (Poland, England, –1882)" ], [ "Famous people connected with chess", "The people in this list are famous in other areas of activity, but are known to have played chess, or have declared an interest in the game, or created works of art and literature in which the game is prominently featured." ], [ "Fictional characters", "The people in this list are characters in fictional media depicted playing chess.", "* Beth Harmon* Sheldon Cooper* Windom Earle* Pete Martell* Sherlock Holmes* Professor Moriarty* Arkady Balagan* HAL 9000 and Frank Poole (see Poole versus HAL 9000)" ], [ "Computers", "* Deep Blue, the IBM chess playing computer, was victorious in a 1997 match against then-world champion Garry Kasparov.", "** Deep Thought, an earlier version of Deep Blue, won many computer chess championships.", "* Deep Fritz achieved a draw in the 2002 match, \"Brains in Bahrain\", against Vladimir Kramnik.", "A variant, X3D Fritz, drew against Kasparov in 2004, and the version Deep Fritz 10 defeated the world champion Vladimir Kramnik in 2006.", "* Houdini (chess) Since the release of version 1.5 on 15 December 2010, it has taken the top spot in every rating list that includes it.", "* Hydra (chess) is a very strong machine which uses custom parallel hardware.", "* Junior is the winner of the 2006 World Computer Chess Championship, its third victory at this event.", "* Rybka is an engine.", "As of December 2006, Rybka has topped all chess engine rating lists and won the 2007 WCCC.", "* Shredder is another strong program, having won the WCCC twice." ], [ "See also", "* World Chess Championship* Women's World Chess Championship* World Junior Chess Championship* List of Armenian chess players* List of Indian chess players* List of Israeli chess players* List of Russian chess players* List of female chess players* List of chess grandmasters* List of amateur chess players* List of chess players by peak FIDE rating* WikiProject Chess Index of chess articles" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Foresight Institute" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Foresight Institute''' (Foresight) is a San Francisco-based research non-profit that promotes the development of nanotechnology and other emerging technologies, such as safe AGI, biotech and longevity.Foresight runs four cross-disciplinary program tracks to research, advance, and govern maturing technologies for the long-term benefit of life and the biosphere: Molecular machines nanotechnology for building better materials, biotechnology for health extension, and computer science and crypto commerce for intelligent global cooperation.Foresight also runs a program on \"existential hope\", pushing forward the concept coined by Toby Ord and Owen Cotton-Barrett in their 2015 paper \"Existential risk and Existential hope: Definitions\", in which they wroteForesight's stated strategy is to focus on creating a community that promotes beneficial uses of new technologies and reduce misuse and accidents potentially associated with them.Foresight runs a one-year Fellowship program aimed at giving researchers and innovators the support and mentorship to accelerate their projects while they continue to work in their existing career.Since 2021, Foresight has hosted a podcast about grand futures called \"The Foresight Institute Podcast\" and shares all their material as open source via YouTube with lectures from scientists and other relevant actors within their fields of interest.In addition, Foresight hosts Vision Weekend, an annual conferences focused on envisioning positive, long-term futures enabled by science and technology.", "The institute holds conferences on molecular nanotechnology and awards yearly prizes for developments in the field.One of Foresight's founders, Eric Drexler was criticized for his position on nanotechnology.", "Critics asserted that Drexler's view ignored quantum effects in nanotechnology design, lacking practical output and technical obsolescence." ], [ "History", "The Foresight Institute was founded in 1986 by Christine Peterson, K. Eric Drexler, and James C. Bennett to support the development of nanotechnology.", "Many of the institute's initial members came to it from the L5 Society, who were hoping to form a smaller group more focused on nanotechnology.", "In 1991, the Foresight Institute created two suborganizations with funding from tech entrepreneur Mitch Kapor; the Institute for Molecular Manufacturing and the Center for Constitutional Issues in Technology.", "In the 1990s, the Foresight Institute launched several initiatives to provide funding to developers of nanotechnology.", "In 1993, it created the Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology, named after physicist Richard Feynman.", "In May 2005, the Foresight Institute changed its name to \"Foresight Nanotech Institute\", though it reverted to its original name in June 2009.In 2020, following the COVID-19 pandemic, the institute moved its programs online." ], [ "Prizes", "The Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology is an award given by the Foresight Institute for significant advances in nanotechnology.", "Between 1993 and 1997, one prize was given biennially.", "Since 1997, two prizes have been given each year, divided into the categories of theory and experimentation.", "The prize is named in honor of physicist Richard Feynman, whose 1959 talk \"There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom\" is considered to have inspired and informed the start of the field of nanotechnology.", "Author Colin Milburn refers to the prize as an example of \"fetishizing\" its namesake Feynman, due to his \"prestige as a scientist and his fame among the broader public.", "\"The Foresight Institute also offers the Feynman Grand Prize, a $250,000 award to the first persons to create both a nanoscale robotic arm capable of precise positional control and a nanoscale 8-bit adder, with both conditions conforming to given specifications.", "The Feynman Grand Prize is intended to emulate historical prizes such as the Longitude prize, Orteig Prize, Kremer prize, Ansari X Prize, and two prizes that were offered by Richard Feynman personally as challenges during his 1959 \"There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom\" talk.", "In 2004, X-Prize Foundation founder Peter Diamandis was selected to chair the Feynman Grand Prize committee." ], [ "See also", "* Nanomedicine* Transhumanism" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Smith, Richard Hewlett.", "\"A Policy Framework for Developing a National Nanotechnology Program\", Master of Science thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1998, available at VTechWorks" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of freshwater aquarium invertebrate species" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a list of invertebrates, animals without a backbone, that are commonly kept in freshwater aquaria by hobby aquarists.", "Numerous shrimp species of various kinds, crayfish, a number of freshwater snail species, and at least one freshwater clam species are found in freshwater aquaria." ], [ "[[Crustaceans]]", "===Shrimp===''Atya gabonensis''* ''Arachnochium kulsiense'', Sand shrimp* ''Atya gabonensis'', African giant shrimp* ''Atyaephyra desmaresti'', Iberian/European dwarf shrimp* ''Atyoida pilipes'', Green lace shrimp* ''Atyopsis moluccensis'', Bamboo Shrimp* ''Caridina cf.", "babaulti var.", "green'', green shrimp* ''Caridina babaulti var.", "malaya'', Malayan dwarf shrimp* ''Caridina babaulti var.", "stripes'', striped shrimp* ''Caridina caerulea'', blue leg Poso shrimp* ''Caridina gracilirostris'', red-nose shrimp, Pinocchio shrimp* ''Caridina cf.", "gracilirostris'', white-nose Shrimp* ''Caridina multidentata'', Amano shrimp* ''Caridina cf.", "cantonensis var.", "bee'', bee shrimp* ''Caridina cf.", "cantonensis var.", "blue tiger'', blue tiger shrimp* ''Caridina cf.", "cantonensis var.", "crystal black'', crystal black shrimp* ''Caridina cf.", "cantonensis var.", "crystal red'', crystal red shrimp* ''Caridina cf.", "cantonensis var.", "tiger'', tiger shrimp* ''Caridina cf.", "serrata var.", "chinese zebra'', Chinese zebra shrimp* ''Caridina sp.", "'', Indian Dwarf Shrimp* ''Caridina sp.", "'', Indian Whitebanded Shrimp* ''Caridina woltereckae'', Sulawesi harlequin shrimp* ''Caridina spongicola'', Sulawesi harlequin shrimp* ''Caridina dennerli'', Sulawesi cardinal shrimp* ''Caridina cf.", "breviata'', bumblebee shrimp* ''Caridina sp.", "'', black midget shrimp* ''Caridina serratirostris'', Ninja Shrimp* ''Caridina thambipillai'', sunkist shrimp* ''Caridina typus'', Australian amano shrimp* ''Caridina pareparensis parvidentata'', Malawa shrimp* ''Caridina simoni simoni'', Sri Lankan Dwarf shrimp* ''Desmocaris elongata'', Guinea Swamp Shrimp* ''Euryrhynchus amazoniensis'', Amazon zebra shrimp* ''Macrobrachium assamensis'', Red claw shrimp* ''Macrobrachium dayanum'', Rusty longarm shrimp* ''Macrobrachium eriocheirum'', Fuzzy claw shrimp* ''Macrobrachium faustinum'', Caribbean longarm shrimp* ''Macrobrachium lanchesteri'', a.k.a.", "''Cryphiops lanchesteri'', Riceland prawn* ''Micratya poeyi'', Caribbean dwarf filter shrimp* ''Neocaridina davidi (wild type)'', Wild type cherry shrimp* ''Neocaridina davidi var.", "red'', Cherry shrimp* ''Neocaridina davidi var.", "yellow'', Yellow shrimp* ''Neocaridina davidi var.", "blue'', Taiwan Pale Blue Shrimp* ''Neocaridina palmata'', Marbled dwarf shrimp* ''Neocaridina cf.", "zhangjiajiensis var.", "blue pearl'', Blue pearl shrimp* ''Neocaridina cf.", "zhangjiajiensis var.", "white'', Snowball shrimp* ''Palaemonetes kadiakensis'', Mississippi grass shrimp* ''Palaemonetes ivonicus'', amazon glass shrimp* ''Palaemonetes paludosus'', American ghost (glass, grass) shrimp* ''Potamalpheops sp.", "'', purple zebra shrimp* ''Xiphocaris elongata'', Yellow nose shrimp===Crayfish===* ''Cambarellus diminutus'' least dwarf crayfish* ''Cambarellus montezumae'', Acocil* ''Cambarellus shufeldtii'', Cajun Dwarf Crayfish* ''Cambarellus patzcuarensis'', Mexican Dwarf Crayfish* ''Cherax boesemani'', supernova crayfish* ''Cherax destructor'', Common Yabby* ''Cherax peknyi'', zebra crayfish* ''Cherax quadricarinatus'', Australian Red Claw Crayfish* ''Cherax snowden'', emerald fire crayfish* ''Faxonius immunis'', paper shell crayfish* ''Faxonius limosus'', spiny cheek crayfish* ''Pacifastacus leniusculus'', Signal Crayfish* ''Procambarus alleni'', Blue crayfish* ''Procambarus braswelli'', Waccamaw crayfish* ''Procambarus clarkii'', Red Swamp Crayfish* ''Procambarus milleri'', Miami cave crayfish* ''Procambarus virginalis'', Marbled Crayfish===Crabs===* ''Limnopilos naiyanetri'', Thai Micro Crabs* ''Parathelphusa pantherina'', Panther Crabs* ''Ptychognathus barbatus'', freshwater pom pom crab=== Branchiopods ===* ''Lepidurus apus'', golden tadpole shrimp* ''Triops longicaudatus'', longtail tadpole shrimp* ''Triops australiensis'', Australian tadpole shrimp* ''Triops cancriformis'', European tadpole shrimp* ''Triops granarius'', Asian tadpole shrimp* ''Triops newberryi'', desert tadpole shrimp* ''Branchinella thailandensis'', Thai fairy shrimp* ''Branchinecta mackini'', alkali fairy shrimp* ''Branchinecta gigas'', giant fairy shrimp* ''Thamnocephalus platyurus'', beavertail fairy shrimp* ''Streptocephalus sealii'', redtail fairy shrimp* ''Streptocephalus sp.", "'', dry lake fairy shrimp* ''Brachinecta sp.", "'', winter fairy shrimp* ''Daphnia magna'', large water flea* ''Daphnia pulex'', common water flea* ''Moina'', Japanese water flea* ''Diplostraca'', clam shrimp=== Isopods ===* ''Asellus aquaticus'', water slater* ''Trachelipus rathkii'', Rathki's Isopod(lives in periodical floods)=== Amphipods ===* ''Gammarus pulex'', freshwater shrimp* ''Hyalella azteca'', Mexican freshwater shrimp=== Copepods ===* ''Cyclops sp.", "'', water flea===Hermit crab===* ''Clibanarius fonticola'', freshwater hermit crab" ], [ "[[Molluscs]]", "===Gastropods===* ''Asolene spixii'' (zebra apple snail)* ''Marisa cornuarietis'' (Colombian ramshorn apple snail)* Planorbidae species (ramshorn snails)* ''Pomacea diffusa'' (spike-topped apple snail)* ''Pomacea canaliculata'' (channeled apple snail)* Physidae species (bladder or tadpole snails)* Lymnaeidae (pond and melantho snails)* ''Lymnaea stagnalis'' (great pond snail)* ''Planorbarius corneus'' (Great Ramshorn)* ''Melanoides tuberculata'' (red-rimmed melania or Malaysian trumpet snail)* ''Tarebia granifera'' (quilted melania or spike-tail trumpet snail)* ''Cipangopaludina malleata'' (Japanese trapdoor snail)* ''Clithon corona'' (horned nerite snail)* ''Neritina natalensis'' (zebra nerite snail)* ''Vittina semiconica'' (red onion or tire tracked nerite snail)* ''Neritina reclivata'' (olive nerite snail)* ''Neripteron violaceum'' \"Red Lips\" (Red Lip Nerite Snail)* ''Septaria porcellana'' (freshwater limpet)* ''Neritina'' sp.", "(mosaic nerite snail)* ''Neritina'' sp.", "(tribal nerite snail)* ''Brotia pagodula'' (horned armour snail)* ''Pachymelania byronensis'' (west African freshwater snail)* ''Neritina pulligera'' (dusky nerite)* ''Paludomus sulcatus'' (bella snail)* ''Thiara cancellata'' (hairy tower lid snail)* ''Taia naticoides'' (piano snail)* ''Brotia herculea'' (giant tower cap snail)* ''Planorbella duryi'' (miniature red ramshorn snail)* ''Tylomelania'' species (Tylo or Sulawesi snails)** ''Tylomelania sp.", "Poso'' \"Yellow\"** ''Tylomelania sp.", "Poso'' \"Orange Flash\"* ''Tylomelania patriarchalis'' (black Sulawesi snails)* ''Cipangopaludina lecythoides'' (tiger tuba snail)* ''Faunus ater'' (black devil snail)* ''Anentome helena'' (assassin snail)===Bivalves===* ''Corbicula fluminea'' (Asian clam)" ], [ "[[Worm]]s", "===Annelids===* ''Barbronia weberi'', Asian freshwater leech* ''Helobdella europaea'', European flat leech* ''Lumbriculus variegatus'', California blackworm* ''Tubifex tubifex'', sludge worm" ], [ "See also", "*List of fish common names*List of freshwater aquarium plant species*List of freshwater aquarium amphibian species*List of freshwater aquarium fish species*List of brackish aquarium fish species*List of marine aquarium fish species*List of marine aquarium invertebrate species" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of freshwater aquarium plant species" ], [ "Introduction", "''Bolbitis heudelotii'', one of hundreds of aquatic plants found in the hobbyAquatic plants are used to give the freshwater aquarium a natural appearance, oxygenate the water, absorb ammonia, and provide habitat for fish, especially fry (babies) and for invertebrates.", "Some aquarium fish and invertebrates also eat live plants.", "Hobbyists use aquatic plants for aquascaping, of several aesthetic styles.Most of these plant species are found either partially or fully submerged in their natural habitat.", "Although there are a handful of obligate aquatic plants that must be grown entirely underwater, most can grow fully emersed if the soil is moist.", "Though some are just living at the water margins, still, they can live in the completely submerged habitat." ], [ "By scientific name", "The taxonomy of most plant genera is not final.", "Scientific names listed here may, therefore, contradict other sources.", "Many of these species are dangerous invasives and should be disposed of in a way that guarantees that they will not enter local waters.", "Common aquarium plant species:*''Aciotis acuminifolia''*''Acmella repens'' *''Acorus calamus'' (Common sweet flag) *''Acorus gramineus'' (Japanese sweet flag) *''Aldrovanda vesiculosa''*''Alisma canaliculatum'' *''Alisma gramineum''*''Alisma lanceolatum''*''Alisma nanum''*''Alisma orientale''*''Alisma plantago-aquatica''*''Alisma subcordatum''*''Alisma triviale''*''Alisma wahlenbergii''*''Alternanthera bettzickiana''*''Alternanthera philoxeroides''*''Alternanthera reineckii''*''Alternanthera sessilis''*''Ammania capitellata''*''Ammannia crassicaulis'' (Synonym Nesaea crassicaulis)*''Ammania gracilis'' (Delicate ammania, red ammania)*''Ammania latifolia''*''Ammannia pedicellata''*''Ammannia praetemissa''*''Ammania senegalensis''*''Anubias afzelii'' (Narrow-leafed anubias)*''Anubias barteri var.", "barteri'' (Broadleaved anubias)*''Anubias barteri var.", "angustifolia''*''Anubias barteri var.", "caladiifolia''*''Anubias barteri var.", "glabra''*''Anubias barteri var.", "nana'' (Dwarf anubias)*''Anubias gigantea''*''Anubias gilletti''*''Anubias gracilis''*''Anubias hastifolia''*''Anubias heterophylla''*''Anubias pynaertii''*''Aponogeton appendiculatus''*''Aponogeton bernierianus''*''Aponogeton boivinianus''*''Aponogeton capuronii''*''Aponogeton crispus'' (Crinkled or ruffled aponogeton)*''Aponogeton decartyi''*''Aponogeton desertorum''*''Aponogeton dioecus''*''Aponogeton distachyos''*''Aponogeton elongatus''*''Aponogeton fenestralis''*''Aponogeton henkelianus''*''Aponogeton junceus''*''Aponogeton longiplumulosus''*''Aponogeton loriae''*''Aponogeton madagascariensis'' (Madagascar laceleaf, lace plant)*''Aponogeton natans''*''Aponogeton rigidifolius''*''Aponogeton tenuispicatus''*''Aponogeton ulvaceus'' (Compact apongeton)*''Aponogeton undulatus''*''Armoracia aquatica''*''Arthraxon hispidus''*''Azolla caroliniana'' (water velvet, mosquito fern)*''Azolla filiculoïdes'' (Azolla, moss fern)*''Azolla pinnata''*''Bacopa amplexicaulis''*''Bacopa australis''*''Bacopa caroliniana'' (lemon bacopa, water hyssop, giant bacopa)*''Bacopa crenata''*''Bacopa innominata''*''Bacopa lanigera''*''Bacopa madagascarensis''*''Bacopa monnieri'' (water hyssop, dwarf bacopa, baby tears)*''Bacopa myriophylloides''*''Bacopa rotundifolia'' (Round bacopa)*''Bacopa salzmannii''*''Bacopa serpyllifolia''*''Baldellia ranunculoides''*''Barclaya longifolia'' (Orchid lily)*''Barclaya motleyi''*''Berula erecta''*''Blyxa aubertii''*''Blyxa echinosperma''*''Blyxa japonica'' (Japanese rush)*''Blyxa novoguineensis''*''Blyxa octandra''*''Bolbitis heteroclita'' (sometimes sold as ''B.", "asiatica'')*''Bolbitis heudelotii'' (African or Congo fern)*''Bucephalandra gigantea''*''Bucephalandra motleyana''*''Bucephalandra catherineae''*''Cabomba aquatica'' (Yellow cabomba, giant cabomba)*''Cabomba caroliniana'' (Green cabomba)*''Cabomba furcata''*''Cabomba palaeformis''*''Cabomba piauhyensis'' (Red cabomba)*''Caldesia parnassifolia''*''Calla palustris''*''Caltha palustris''*''Callitriche hamulata''*''Callitriche hermaphroditica''*''Callitriche palustris''*''Callitriche stagnalis''*''Callitriche terestris''*''Cardamine lyrata'' (Chinese ivy, Japanese cress)*''Cardamine rotundifolia''*''Ceratophyllum demersum'' (hornwort)*''Ceratophyllum submersum'' (tropical hornwort)*''Ceratopteris cornuta''*''Ceratopteris pteridoides''*''Ceratopteris thalictroides'' (water sprite)*''Cladophora aegagropila''*''Clinopodium brownei''*''Crassula aquatica''*''Crassula helmsii''*''Crinum calamistratum''*''Crinum natans'' (African onion plant)*''Crinum purpurascens''*''Crinum thaianum'' (water onion)*''Cryptocoryne affinis''*''Cryptocoryne alba''*''Cryptocoryne albida''*''Cryptocoryne aponogetifolia''*''Cryptocoryne auriculata''*''Cryptocoryne axelrodii''*''Cryptocoryne balansae''*''Cryptocoryne beckettii'' (Beckett's Cryptocoryne)*''Cryptocoryne blassii''*''Cryptocoryne bogneri''*''Cryptocoryne bullosa''*''Cryptocoryne ciliata''*''Cryptocoryne cognata''*''Cryptocoryne cordata'' (Giant cryptocoryne)*''Cryptocoryne crispatula''*''Cryptocoryne cruddasiana''*''Cryptocoryne dewitii''*''Cryptocoryne diderici''*''Cryptocoryne elliptica''*''Cryptocoryne ferruginea''*''Cryptocoryne fusca''*''Cryptocoryne gasserii''*''Cryptocoryne grabowskii''*''Cryptocoryne gracilis''*''Cryptocoryne griffithii''*''Cryptocoryne hudoroi''*''Cryptocoryne keei''*''Cryptocoryne legroi''*''Cryptocoryne lingua''*''Cryptocoryne longicauda''*''Cryptocoryne lucens''*''Cryptocoryne lutea''*''Cryptocoryne minima''*''Cryptocoryne moehlmannii'' (Moehlmann's cryptocoryne)*''Cryptocoryne nevillii''*''Cryptocoryne nurii''*''Cryptocoryne pallidinervia''*''Cryptocoryne parva'' (Tiny cryptocoryne)*''Cryptocoryne petchii''*''Cryptocoryne pontederiifolia''*''Cryptocoryne purpurea''*''Cryptocoryne retrospiralis''*''Cryptocoryne schulzei''*''Cryptocoryne scrurillis''*''Cryptocoryne siamensis''*''Cryptocoryne spiralis''*''Cryptocoryne striolata''*''Cryptocoryne thwaitesii''*''Cryptocoryne tonkinensis''*''Cryptocoryne undulata'' (Undulate cryptocoryne)*''Cryptocoryne usteriana''*''Cryptocoryne venemae''*''Cryptocoryne versteegii''*''Cryptocoryne walkeri''*''Cryptocoryne wendtii 'Tropica'''*''Cryptocoryne x willisii''*''Cryptocoryne zewaldiae''*''Cryptocoryne zonata''*''Cryptocoryne zukalii''*''Cuphea anagalloidea''*''Cyperus alternifolius''*''Cyperus helferi''*''Cyperus papyrus''*''Damasonium alisma''*''Didiplis diandra'' (Water hedge)*''Diodia kuntzei''*''Diodia virginiana''*''Echinodorus africanus''*''Echinodorus amazonicus'' (Amazon sword)*''Echinodorus andrieuxii''*''Echinodorus angustifolius''*''Echinodorus argentinensis''*''Echinodorus aschersonianus''*''Echinodorus barthii''*''Echinodorus berteroi''*''Echinodorus bleheri'' (Broadleaved amazon)*''Echinodorus brevipedicellatus''*''Echinodorus cordifolius'' (Radicans sword, spade leaf sword)*''Echinodorus fluitans''*''Echinodorus grandiflorus'' (Large-flowered amazon)*''Echinodorus horemanii'' (Black-red amazon)*''Echinodorus horizontalis''*''Echinodorus humilis''*''Echinodorus latifolius''*''Echinodorus longiscapus''*''Echinodorus macrophyllus'' (Large-leaved amazon sword)*''Echinodorus martii''*''Echinodorus major'' (Ruffled amazon sword)*''Echinodorus opacus'' (Opaque amazon sword)*''Echinodorus osiris'' (Red amazon sword)*''Echinodorus 'Ozelot'''*''Echinodorus palaefolius''*''Echinodorus paniculatus''*''Echinodorus parviflorus'' (Black amazon sword)*''Echinodorus pelliscidus''*''Echinodorus quadricostatus'' (Dwarf sword)*''Echinodorus radicans''*''Echinodorus rigidifolius''*''Echinodorus 'Rubin'''*''Echinodorus rubra''*''Echinodorus schlueteri''*''Echinodorus subalatus''*''Echinodorus tunicatus''*''Echinodorus uruguayensis'' (Uruguay amazon sword)*''Egeria densa'' (Elodea, pondweed)*''Egeria najas''*''Egleria fluctuans''*''Eichhornia azurea''*''Eichhornia crassipes'' (Water hyacinth)*''Eichhornia diversifolia''*''Elatine gussonei''*''Elatine hydropiper''*''Elatine macropoda''*''Elatine triandra''*''Eleocharis acicularis'' (Hairgrass)*''Eleocharis dulcis''*''Eleocharis minima''*''Eleocharis obtusa''*''Eleocharis parvula''*''Eleocharis vivipara''*''Elodea canadensis'' (Canadian pondweed)*''Elodea granatensis''*''Elodea nuttallii''*''Elodea occidentalis''*''Equisetum'' spp.", "*''Eriocaulon amanoanum''*''Eriocaulon cinereum''*''Eriocaulon depressum''*''Eriocaulon parkeri''*''Eusteralis stellata'' (Star rotala)*''Fittonia argyroneura''*''Fontinalis antipyretica'' (Willow moss)*''Glossadelphus zollingeri''*''Glossostigma diandrum''*''Glossostigma elatinoides''*''Gratiola amphiantha''*''Gratiola brevefolia''*''Gratiola viscidula''*''Gymnocoronis spilanthoides'' (Spadeleaf plant)*''Helanthium bolivianum'' (Bolivian sword) (Synonym - Echinodorus bolivianus)*''Helanthium tenellum'' (Pygmy chain sword) (Synonym - Echinodorus tenellus)*''Helanthium zombiense '' *''Hemianthus callitrichoides'' (Dwarf helzine) *''Hemianthus micranthemoides'' (Pearlweed)*''Heteranthera dubia''*''Heteranthera reniformis''*''Heteranthera zosterifolia'' (Stargrass)*''Hippuris vulgaris''*''Hottonia inflata''*''Hottonia palustris'' (Water violet)*''Hydrilla verticillata''*''Hydrocharis morsus-ranae''*''Hydrocleys martii''*''Hydrocleys nymphoides''*''Hydrocotyle leucocephala'' (Brazilian pennywort)*''Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides''*''Hydrocotyle tripartita''*''Hydrocotyle verticillata'' (Whorled umbrella plant)*''Hydrocotyle vulgaris''*''Hydrothrix gardneri''*''Hydrotriche hottoniiflora''*''Hygrophila angustifolia''*''Hygrophila corymbosa 'crispa'''*''Hygrophila corymbosa 'glabra''' (Broadlead giant stricta)*''Hygrophila corymbosa 'gracilis'''*''Hygrophila corymbosa 'siamensis'''*''Hygrophila corymbosa 'strigosa'''*''Hygrophila difformis'' (Water wisteria)*''Hygrophila guianensis''*''Hygrophila lacustris''*''Hygrophila lancea''*''Hygrophila natalis''*''Hygrophila polysperma'' (Dwarf hygrophilia)*''Hygrophila salicifolia''*''Hygrophila stricta'' (Thai stricta, green stricta)*''Hygroryza aristata''*''Hyptis lorentziana''*''Iris'' spp.", "*''Isoetes lacustris'' (quillwort)*''Isoetes malinverniana''*''Isoetes taiwanensis''*''Isoetes velata''*''Isolepis setracea''*''Jasarum steyermarkii''*''Juncus repens''*''Lagarosiphon cordofanus''*''Lagarosiphon madagascariensis''*''Lagarosiphon major'' (Elodea crispa)*''Lagenandra dewitii''*''Lagenandra insignis''*''Lagenandra koenigii''*''Lagenandra lancifolia''*''Lagenandra meeboldii''*''Lagenandra nairii''*''Lagenandra ovata''*''Lagenandra thwaitesii''*''Lemna gibba''*''Lemna minor'' (Duckweed)*''Lemna paucicostata''*''Lemna perpusilla''*''Lemna trisulca''*''Lilaeopsis brasiliensis''*''Lilaeopsis carolinensis''*''Lilaeopsis macloviana''*''Lilaeopsis mauritiana''*''Lilaeopsis novae-zelandiae'' (New Zealand grassplant)*''Lilaeopsis ruthiana''*''Limnobium laevigatum'' (Amazon frogbit)*''Limnobium spongia''*''Limnocharis flava''*''Limnophila aquatica'' (Giant ambulia)*''Limnophila aromatica''*''Limnophila glabra''*''Limnophila heterophylla''*''Limnophila indica'' (Indian ambulia)*''Limnophila sessiliflora'' (Dwarf ambulia)*''Limnophyton fluitans''*''Lindernia crustacea'' F.", "Muell.", "*''Lindernia dubia''*''Lindernia grandiflora''*''Lindernia parviflora''*''Lindernia rotundifolia''*''Littorella uniflora''*''Lobelia cardinalis'' (Cardinal flower, scarlet lobelia)*''Lobelia dortmanna''*''Lomariopsis'' sp.", "(Süsswassertang)*''Ludwigia alternifolia''*''Ludwigia arcuata''*''Ludwigia glandulosa'' (Glandular ludwigia, red star ludwigia)*''Ludwigia helminthorrhiza''*''Ludwigia inclinata''*''Ludwigia inclinata var.", "verticellata 'Cuba'''*''Ludwigia mullertii''*''Ludwigia natans''*''Ludwigia sedioides''*''Ludwigia palustris''*''Ludwigia pulvinaris''*''Ludwigia repens'' (Creeping ludwigia, narrow-leaf ludwigia)*''Luronium natans''*''Lycopodiella inundata (Lycopodium inundatum)''*''Lysimachia nummularia'' (creeping Jenny, moneywort)*''Marsilea crenata''*''Marsilea drummondii''*''Marsilea hirsuta''*''Marsilea pubescens''*''Marsilea quadrifolia'' (water-clover)*''Mayaca fluviatilis''*''Mayaca madida'' (Synonym Mayaca sellowiana)*''Mayaca vandellii''*''Mentha aquatica''*''Micranthemum umbrosum'' (Helzine)*''Microcarpaea minima''*''Microsorum pteropus'' (Java fern)*''Monochoria vaginalis''*''Monosolenium tenerum'' (commercial name; plants sold under this name are actually a fern ''Lomariopsis sp.", "'')*''Murdannia keisak''*''Myriophyllum alterniflorum''*''Myriophyllum aquaticum'' (Brazilian milfoil, milfoil)*''Myriophyllum elatinoides''*''Myriophyllum heterophyllum''*''Myriophyllum hippuroides'' (Green milfoil, water milfoil)*''Myriophyllum mattogrossense''*''Myriophyllum proserpinacoides''*''Myriophyllum scabratum'' (Foxtail)*''Myriophyllum spicatum''*''Myriophyllum tuberculatum'' (Red myriophyllum)*''Myriophyllum ussuriense''*''Myriophyllum verticillatum''*''Myriophylumm oguraense''*''Najas graminea''*''Najas guadelupensis''*''Najas indica''*''Najas marina''*''Najas minor''*''Najas pectinata''*''Nechamandra alternifolia''*''Nelumbo nucifera''*''Neptunia oleracea''*''Nitella capillaris''*''Nitella flexilis''*''Nitella gracilis''*''Nomaphila siamensis''*''Nuphar advenum''*''Nuphar japonica'' (Spatterdock)*''Nuphar lutea'' (Yellow water-lily)*''Nuphar pumilum''*''Nuphar sagittifolium''*''Nymphaea alba''*''Nymphaea lotus'' (Tiger lotus)*''Nymphaea lotus var.", "rubra''*''Nymphaea micrantha''*''Nymphaea pubescens''*''Nymphaea pygmea''*''Nymphaea stellata'' (Red and blue water lily)*''Nymphaea zenkeri 'Red''' (Red tiger lotus)*''Nymphoides aquatica'' (Banana plant)*''Nymphoides humboldtiana''*''Nymphoides indica''*''Nymphoides peltata''*''Oenanthe javanica''*''Oenanthe aquatica''*''Oldenlandia salzmannii'' (Synonym Hedyotis salzmannii)*''Orontium aquaticum''*''Ottelia alismoides''*''Ottelia mesenterum''*''Ottelia ulvifolia''*''Penthorum sedoides''*''Persicaria hydropiperoides''*''Persicaria praetermissa''*''Pilularia americana''*''Pilularia globulifera''*''Pistia stratiotes'' (Water lettuce)*''Phyllanthus fluitans''*''Physostegia purpurea''*''Pogostemon helferi''*''Pogostemon stellatus''*''Pontederia cordata''*''Potamogeton coloratus''*''Potamogeton crispus''*''Potamogeton densus''*''Potamogeton filiformis''*''Potamogeton gayi''*''Potamogeton gramineus''*''Potamogeton lucens''*''Potamogeton malaianus''*''Potamogeton natans''*''Potamogeton perfoliatus''*''Proserpinaca palustris''*''Ranunculus aquatilis''*''Ranunculus limosella''*''Regnellidium diphyllum''*''Riccia fluitans'' (Crystalwort)*''Ricciocarpos natans''*''Rorippa aquatica''*''Rotala indica''*''Rotala macrandra'' (Giant red rotala)*''Rotala mexicana''*''Rotala ramosior''*''Rotala rotundifolia'' (Dwarf rotala)*''Rotala pusilla''*''Rotala wallichii'' (Whorly rotala)*''Ruppia maritima''*''Sagittaria chapmani''*''Sagittaria eatonii''*''Sagittaria filiformis''*''Sagittaria graminea''*''Sagittaria guyanensis''*''Sagittaria isoëtiformis''*''Sagittaria latifolia''*''Sagittaria microfila''*''Sagittaria montevidensis''*''Sagittaria natans''*''Sagittaria papillosa''*''Sagittaria platyphylla'' (giant sagittaria)*''Sagittaria pusilla'' (dwarf sagittaria)*''Sagittaria sagittifolia''*''Sagittaria subulata'' (needle sagittaria, floating arrowhead)*''Salvinia auriculata''*''Salvinia cucullata''*''Salvinia minima''*''Salvinia natans'' (water spangles)*''Salvinia oblongifolia''*''Salvinia rotundifolia''*''Samolus valerandi'' (Water cabbage)*''Saururus cernuus'' (Lizard's tail)*''Schismatoglottis prietoi''*''Selaginella'' sp.", "*''Sium floridanum'' *''Sium latifolium''*''Shinnersia rivularis'' (Mexican oak leaf)*''Spiranthes romanzoffiana''*''Spirodela polyrhiza''*''Staurogyne repens''*''Staurogyne stolonifera''*''Stratiotes aloides''*''Stuckenia vaginata''*''Subularia aquatica''*''Syngonanthus caulescens''*''Synnema triflorum'' (out of date synonym)*''Taxiphyllum barbieri'' (Java moss)*''Tonina fluviatilis''*''Trapa natans'' (Water chestnut)*''Triglochin maritima''*''Triglochin palustris''*''Triglochin striata''*''Trithuria austinensis''*''Trithuria austinensis''*''Trithuria australis''*''Trithuria inconspicua''*''Typha angustifolia''*''Typha latifolia''*''Utricularia bifida''*''Utricularia gibba''*''Utricularia graminifolia''*''Utricularia minor''*''Utricularia vulgaris''*''Vallisneria americana'' (Dwarf vallisneria)*''Vallisneria asiatica''*''Vallisneria asiatica var.", "biwaensis'' (Corkscrew vallisneria)*''Vallisneria gigantea'' (Giant vallisneria)*''Vallisneria neotropicalis''*''Vallisneria rubra''*''Vallisneria spiralis'' (Straight vallisneria)*''Vallisneria tortifolia'' (Twisted vallisneria, dwarf vallisneria)*''Vallisneria tortissima'' *''Vesicularia montagnei'' (Christmas moss, Xmas moss)*''Veronica americana''*''Wolffia arrhiza''*''Wolffia microscopica''*''Wolffiella floridana''*''Zannichellia palustris''" ], [ "False aquatics or pseudo-aquarium plants", "Several species of terrestrial plants are frequently sold as \"aquarium plants\".", "While such plants are beautiful and can survive and even flourish for months under water, they will eventually die and must be removed so their decay does not contaminate the aquarium water.", "These plants have no necessary biology to live underwater.", "*''Aglaonema modestum'' (Chinese evergreen)*''Aglaonema simplex''*''Chlorophytum bichetii'' (Pongol sword)*''Dracaena sanderiana'' (Striped dragonplant)*''Hemigraphis colorata'' (Crimson ivy)*''Ophiopogon japonicus'' (Fountain plant)*''Pilea cadierei'' (Aluminum plant)*''Sciadopitys verticillata)'' (Umbrella pine, koyamaki)*''Spathiphyllum tasson'' (Brazil sword)*''Syngonium podophyllum'' (Stardust ivy)*''Trichomanes javanicum''" ], [ "Images", "===Photos===File:Acorus calamus1.jpg|''Acorus calamus''File:Anubias barteri var glabra.jpg|''Anubias barteri'' var.", "''glabra''File:Aponogeton distachyos.jpg|''Aponogeton distachyos''File:Starr_010818-0007_Bacopa_monnieri.jpg|''Bacopa monnieri''File:Damasonium californicum.jpg|''Damasonium californicum''File:Echinodorus cordifolius.jpg|''Echinodorus cordifolius''File:Elodea canadensis.jpg|''Elodea canadensis''File:Eriocaulon decangulare.jpg|''Eriocaulon decangulare''File:Wasserpest.jpg|''Elodea densa''File:Ludwigia alternifolia (USDA).jpg|File:Lysimachia nummularia0.jpg|File:LuroniumNatans.jpg|File:Myriophyllum aquaticum - side (aka).jpg|File:Nuphar lutea 170803.jpg|File:Egyptiantigerlotus.jpg|''Nymphaea lotus''File:NymphoidesPeltata-flower1.jpg|''Nymphoides peltata''File:Ranunculus aquatilis plant.jpg|''Ranunculus aquatilis''File:Sagittaria sagittifolia (2005 08 08).jpg|''Sagittaria sagittifolia''File:Sagittaria latifolia.jpg|''Sagittaria latifolia''File:Samolus valerandi ssp parviflorus.jpgFile:Selaginella-sp.jpgFile:Water-caltrops.jpg|''Trapa natans''File:Typha latifolia 02 bgiu.jpgFile:Uk pond bladderwort.jpg|''Utricularia vulgaris'' (common bladderwort)File:Vallisneria americana UMFS 3.JPG|''Vallisneria americana''===Illustration===File:Eleocharis dulcis Blanco1.15.jpg|''Eleocharis dulcis''File:Illustration Hippuris vulgaris0.jpg|''Hippuris vulgaris''File:Illustration Hottonia palustris0.jpg|''Hottonia palustris''File:Illustration Isoetes lacustris0.jpg|''Isoetes lacustris''" ], [ "References", "**" ], [ "See also", "* List of freshwater aquarium fish species" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fonni" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fonni''' () is a town and ''comune'' in Sardinia, in the province of Nuoro (Italy).It is the highest town in Sardinia, and situated among fine scenery with some chestnut woods.", "Fonni is a winter sports centre with a ski lift to Monte Spada and Bruncu Spina." ], [ "Etymology", "The term \"Fonni/-e\" probably derives from the Latin ''fons'', meaning \"fountain\" or \"god of the sources\".", "In fact the village contains numerous spring water fountains.San Giovanni Battista." ], [ "Culture", "The local costumes are extremely picturesque, and are well seen on the day of St John the Baptist, the patron saint.", "The men's costume is similar to that worn in the district generally; the linen trousers are long and black gaiters are worn.", "The women wear a white chemise; over that a very small corselet, and over that a red jacket with blue and black velvet facings.", "The skirt is brown above and red below, with a blue band between the two colours; it is accordion-pleated.", "Two identical skirts are often worn, one above the other.", "The unmarried girls wear white kerchiefs, the married women black." ], [ "Neighborhoods", "Neighborhoods in Fonni are called \"Rioni\" of these the oldest is called ''su piggiu'' or the peak, probably derived by the fact this is the highest and first layer of the village.", "Others include ''puppuai'' and ''cresiedda'' to the south, and ''logotza'' to the east.A traditional granite stone house in Fonni" ], [ "Churches", "*Sanctuary of the Vergine dei Martiri, Fonni" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fasces" ], [ "Introduction", "A ''fasces'' image, with the axe in the middle of the bundle of rods'''Fasces''' ( , ; a , from the Latin word , meaning \"bundle\"; ) is a bound bundle of wooden rods, sometimes including an axe (occasionally two axes) with its blade emerging.", "The fasces is an Italian symbol that had its origin in the Etruscan civilization and was passed on to ancient Rome, where it symbolized a Roman king's power to punish his subjects, and later, a magistrate's power and jurisdiction.", "The axe, originally associated with the labrys (; ), the double-bitted axe originally from Crete, is one of the oldest symbols of Greek civilization.The image has survived in the modern world as a representation of magisterial or collective power, law, and governance.", "The fasces frequently occurs as a charge in heraldry: it is present on the reverse of the U.S. Mercury dime coin and behind the podium in the United States House of Representatives; and it was the origin of the name of the National Fascist Party in Italy (from which the term ''fascism'' is derived).During the first half of the twentieth century, both the fasces and the swastika (each symbol having its own unique ancient religious and mythological associations) became heavily identified with the fascist political movements of Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler.", "During this period the swastika became deeply stigmatized, but the fasces did not undergo a similar process outside Italy.The fasces remained in use in many societies after World War II due to its already having been adopted and incorporated into the iconography of numerous governments outside Italy, prior to Mussolini.", "Such iconographical use persists in governmental and various other contexts.", "In contrast, the swastika remains in common usage only in Asia, where it originated as an ancient Hindu symbol, and in Navajo iconography, where its religious significance is entirely unrelated to, and predates, early 20th-century European fascism." ], [ "Symbolism", "A print depicting Roman armour and accessories including two versions of the fasces (seen in the lower right)The fasces, as a bundle of rods with an axe, was a grouping of all the equipment needed to inflict corporal or capital punishment.", "In ancient Rome, the bundle was a material symbol of a Roman magistrate's full civil and military power, known as imperium.", "They were carried in a procession with a magistrate by lictors, who carried the fasces and at times used the birch rods as punishment to enforce obedience with magisterial commands.", "In common language and literature, the fasces were regularly associated: praetors were referred to in Greek as the ''hexapelekus'' () and the consuls were referred to as \"the twelve fasces\" as literary metonymy.", "Beyond serving as insignia of office, it also symbolised the republic and its prestige.After the classical period, with the fall of the Roman state, thinkers were removed from the \"psychological terror generated by the original Roman fasces\" in the antique period.", "By the Renaissance, there emerged a conflation of the fasces with a Greek fable first recorded by Babrius in the second century AD depicting how individual sticks can be easily broken but how a bundle could not be.", "This story is common across Eurasian culture and by the thirteenth century AD was recorded in the ''Secret History of the Mongols''.", "While there is no historical connection between the original fasces and this fable, by the sixteenth century AD, fasces were \"inextricably linked\" with interpretations of the fable as one expressing unity and harmony." ], [ "In the ancient world", "Aquila (Legionary eagle), toga figure, and fasces on reverse side of coinageEarliest depiction of a fasces, discovered as a grave good in Vetulonia in 1897=== Origin ===The English word ''fasces'' comes from Latin, with singular .", "The word is usually used in its plural to refer to magisterial insignia, but is sometimes used to refer to bushels or bundles in an agricultural context.", "This word itself comes from the Indo-European root , referring to a bundle.The earliest archaeological remains of a fasces are those discovered in a necropolis near the Etruscan hamlet now called Vetulonia by the archaeologist Isidoro Falchi in 1897.The discovery is now dated to the relatively narrow range of 630–625 BC, which coincides with the traditional dating of Rome's legendary fifth king Lucius Tarquinius Priscus.", "An Etruscan origin, furthermore, is supported by ancient literary evidence: the poet Silius Italicus, who flourished in the late 1st century AD, posited that Rome adopted many of its emblems of office – viz the fasces, the curule chair, and the toga praetexta – specifically from Vetulonia.", "A story of Etruscan origin is further supported by Dionysius of Halicarnassus in his antiquarian work, ''Roman Antiquities''.=== Rome ======= Regal period ====Ancient Roman literary sources are unanimous in describing the ancient kings of Rome as being accompanied by twelve lictors carrying fasces.", "Dionysius, in ''Roman Antiquities'', gave a complex story explaining this number: for him, the practice originated in Etruria and each bundle symbolised one of the twelve Etruscan city-states; the twelve states together represented a joint military campaign and were given to the Etruscan king of Rome, Tarquinius Priscus, on his accession to the throne.", "While Livy concurred with Dionysius' story, he also relates a different story ascribing fasces to the first Roman king – Romulus – who selected twelve to correspond to the twelve birds which appeared in augury at the foundation of the city.Later stories gave different aetiologies: some described fasces as coming from Latium, others from Italy in general.", "Macrobius, writing in the 5th century AD, have the Romans taking fasces from the Etruscans as spoils of war rather than adopted by cultural diffusion.", "In general, it seems that by the sixth century BC, fasces had become a common symbol in central Italy and Etruria – if not also into southern Italy, as Livy implies – for royal prestige and coercive power.", "The ancient Roman literary record largely depicts the fasces of their time as carried largely symbolically by lictors who were present primarily to defend their charges from violence.", "However, the same stories depict fasces far more negatively in the context of tyrannies or regal displays.", "Plutarch, in his ''Life of Publicola'', describes an incident in which Lucius Junius Brutus, the first consul, has lictors scourge with rods and decapitate with axes – components of the fasces – his own sons who were conspiring to restore the Tarquins to the throne.", "After Brutus' alleged death in battle, Publicola then passes reforms subordinating magisterial use of fasces for coercion to the people: consuls would lower the fasces before the people during speeches and there would be appeal to the people against a magistrate ordering capital or corporal punishment.==== Republican period ====Denarius minted by Marcus Junius Brutus depicting a personification of Libertas on left and Lucius Junius Brutus with lictors carrying bladed fasces on right Rome, cloister of San Paolo, outside wall: marble panel depicting six fascesDuring the republic, the Romans used the number of fasces accompanying a magistrate to mark out rank and distinction.", "The two consuls each had 12 lictors, as did the traditional dictators.", "The late republican dictators – of which Sulla was the first – were accompanied by 24 lictors and fasces.", "However, the consuls alternated initiative by month.", "The consul without initiative would retain a negative on the other consul's actions but would be preceded only by an and be followed by lictors bearing reduced fasces.Praetors normally held six fasces and were so described on campaign in Greek sources.", "There were, however, some exceptions.", "After 197 BC, praetors sent to Spain were dispatched with proconsular status and therefore received twelve fasces.", "Around the same time, in the ''lex Plaetoria'', the number of fasces accompanying a praetor in court was reduced to merely two, possibly because a praetor in court \"with six fasces might seem imperious\".By the late second century BC, magistrates who had won victories abroad that were proclaimed ''imperator'' – a victory title – were decorated with laurel.", "This acclamation was a necessary prerequisite for celebrating a triumph, a prestigious award for which commanders might wait years.", "Within the pomerium, Rome's sacred city boundary, the magistrates normally removed the axes from their fasces to symbolise the appealable nature of their civic powers.", "However, an exception was made during a triumph, when the triumphing general's military auspices were extended into the city so that he could make sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline hill.", "The laurels decorating the triumphator's axed fasces were removed and decided in a ceremony, placing them in the lap of the cult statue of the Capitoline Jupiter.During the republic, only persons possessing were granted full complements of fasces; the number granted to promagistrates for their analogous rank was not diminished.", "Lieutenants exercising delegated were, in the late republic, regularly granted two fasces.", "Yet others were sometimes assigned lictors as bodyguards or otherwise to assist in official duties, they probably did not carry fasces.", "Italian municipal officials during the republic were usually accompanied by local lictors, but these lictors did not carry fasces until imperial times.Popular resistance to magistrates during the late republic sometimes took the form of mobs smashing magisterial fasces.", "In 133 BC, Tiberius Gracchus incited a mob to take and break a praetor's fasces; two praetors, a certain Brutus and Servilius, were dispatched in 88 BC to order Lucius Cornelius Sulla, then consul, to desist from his march on Rome and had their insignia of office defaced and destroyed; Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus's lictors were set upon in 59 BC when he – along with some plebeian tribunes – attempted to veto Julius Caesar's land reform bill during their joint consulship, leading to his lictors' fasces being lost entirely.", "This last breaking of fasces was \"a ritualistic act of symbolic violence (the People thus disposing of tokens of the imperium that was in their gift) that substituted for direct physical violence against the person of the consul\".==== Imperial period ====Sestertius of Caracalla, 202–204.The reverse depicts the emperors Caracalla and Septimius on a platform (central characters); on the right is a lictor holding the new curved fascis.During the Roman Empire, the number of people who were entitled to fasces and lictors expanded.", "Fasces were first granted to Vestal Virgins by the Senate in 42 BC when the six vestals were allowed one lictor each.", "They were joined by fasces granted to the three major ''flamines''.", "Single lictors also preceded members of the ''sodales Augustales'', who were priests of the imperial cult.", "At the death of the first emperor, Augustus, in AD 14, his widow Livia was voted a lictor by the Senate, though sources disagree as to whether she ever exercised the privilege.The division of the Roman provinces into imperial and senatorial provinces, with Augustus holding proconsular imperium over the imperial provinces and administering them through legates, also further expanded the number of fasces.", "Augustus appointed legates with ''imperium pro praetore'' as governors, each of which was granted five lictors.", "When Italy was divided into fourteen regions in 7 BC, the curator of each region was granted two lictors while in office and on station.", "After the creation of the ''aerarium militare'' in AD 6, the three ex-praetors administering it were each granted two lictors as well.", "Municipal magistrates' lictors also gained fasces during the imperial period.By the reign of the Severans at the start of the third century, fasces had been redesigned.", "Depicted on a sestertius struck , fasces no longer took the form of a bundle of sticks, but rather took the form of a long curved stick or two of such sticks bound together.", "The number of fasces granted to imperial governors titled proconsul stayed at twelve into the late fourth century AD; governors of the rank ''consularis'' received five fasces, but most governors – with the rank – had no fasces at all.", "This later form persisted through to the Eastern Roman Empire: the Byzantine antiquarian, John the Lydian, writing in the sixth century AD described fasces as \"long rods evenly bound together\" with red straps and axes held aloft.", "Into the mediaeval period, Byzantine emperors remained guarded by men – by the 14th century, Varangians – carrying staves and axes." ], [ "Post-classical reception", "Raphael's ''Conversion of the Proconsul'' (1515), depicting fasces to the left of the magistrateWhile the Latin word did not fall out of use in the mediaeval period, its technical meaning was forgotten.", "By the end of the first millennium, it was glossed as \"somehow connoting 'supreme power' or 'official honours.", "For example, , Jean de Rovroy, when translating Frontinus' ''Stratagems'', was deceived by a false cognate and thought referred to ribbons Roman magistrates would wear on their heads; such misconceptions were apparently common, and dated back to the 11th century.", "Visual representations of the bundle itself were rare – the 11th century AD Junius manuscript excepted – until the Renaissance.=== Renaissance ===Renaissance humanists, especially those who read more Latin, however, quickly became well-informed on fasces and their legal technicalities, including the customary removal of axes within the city, lowering before the people, and alternation by the consuls.", "By the first decade of the 16th century, references to fasces in a more Roman context started to appear.", "At the same time, recognisable depictions started to reappear in Italy, such as Raphael's painting ''Conversion of the Proconsul'' ().By the mid-1500s, the fasces also began to symbolise other things which would have been \"unimportant or even unknown to the Romans\".", "Pope Clement VIII's reassertion of Papal juridicial authority after the sack of Rome in 1527 started iconographic developments that would associate fasces with personifications of Justice.Coat of arms of Cardinal Mazarin, the first to include fasces on arms in modern times Syncretism of fasces with the Aesop fable of a bundle of sticks being harder to break than each stick alone associated fasces also with domestic concord and in art with personifications of Concord.", "This symbology also merged with that of justice in that unbinding the rods and axes promoted reflection over just action.", "In this context, Cardinal Mazarin placed fasces on his coat of arms, \"the first individual in the modern era to do so\".From here, depictions of fasces exploded.", "Antje Middeldorf-Kosegarten, in ''Reallexikon zur Deutschen Kunstgeschichte'',By the mid-seventeenth century, fasces had become \"well established throughout Europe as a catch-all symbol for stable and competent governance\".", "It also expanded to symbolise competent corporate governance.", "Yet, due to a massive expansion in meaning, the symbol seemed to have died by the 1760s, muddled as little more than a reference to the past.=== Revolution ===A bronze cast of Jean-Antoine Houdon's statue of George Washington.", "Washington's left arm rests on a cloak over fasces with thirteen rods.", "As an emblem, fasces made their way to the colonies in British North America.", "There, during the American Revolution, the fasces' symbology as referencing strength through unity was adopted as a symbol of the united colonial effort against British rule.Fasces similarly came to adopt a privileged symbology during the French Revolution.", "First referring to the 83 departments of 1789, as a symbol of unity, it came to be associated with ''fraternité'' and a united French people.", "Topped with a Phrygian cap, fasces were seen as a reference to the \"imagined spirit of the early Roman republic and its assertion of ideals of liberty and justice against tyranny\".", "In France, however, use of fasces as a symbol waned starting with the establishment of the Consulate in 1799 through to the proclamation of the Second Republic in 1848.Similar usage proliferated in the aftermath of the French Revolution.", "Haiti, in its revolution against France, coined with many depictions of fasces, as did Mexico during its first republic, Ecuador, Chile, and the Roman Republic of 1798." ], [ "Modern usage", "Numerous governments and other authorities have used the image of the ''fasces'' as a symbol of power since the end of the Roman Empire.", "It also has been used to hearken back to the Roman Republic, particularly by those who see themselves as modern-day successors to that republic or its ideals.The Ecuadorian coat of arms incorporated the fasces in 1830, although it had already been in use in the coat of arms of Gran Colombia.=== Italy ===The Italian word ''fascio'' (: ''fasci''), etymologically related to ''fasces'', was used by various political organizations in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the figurative meaning of \"league\" or \"union\".Italian Fascism, which derives its name from the ''fasces'', arguably used this symbolism the most in the twentieth century.", "The British Union of Fascists also used it in the 1930s.", "The ''fasces'', as a widespread and long-established symbol in the West, however, has avoided the stigma associated with much of fascist symbolism (except in Italy, where exhibiting the fasces can lead to an indictment) and many authorities continue to display them, including the federal government of the United States.Image:War flag of the Italian Social Republic.svg|War Flag of the Italian Social RepublicImage:Fascist_Eagle.svg|Eagle perched on fasces, as adorned on caps and helmets of Fascist ItalyFile:Italy-Royal-Airforce flank roundel.svg|Fuselage roundel used on aircraft of the Italian air force during the Fascist periodFile:Italy-Royal-Airforce.svg|Roundel used on the wings of aircraft of the Italian air force during the Fascist period=== France ===A review of the images included in ''Les Grands Palais de France : Fontainebleau'' reveals that French architects used the Roman fasces (''faisceaux romains'') as a decorative device as early as the reign of Louis XIII (1610–1643) and continued to employ it through the periods of Napoleon I's Empire (1804–1815).The fasces typically appeared in a context reminiscent of the Roman Republic and of the Roman Empire.", "The French Revolution used many references to the ancient Roman Republic in its imagery.", "During the First Republic, topped by the Phrygian cap, the fasces is a tribute to the Roman Republic and means that power belongs to the people.", "It also symbolizes the \"unity and indivisibility of the Republic\", as stated in the French Constitution.", "In 1848 and after 1870, it appears on the seal of the French Republic, held by the figure of Liberty.", "There is the fasces in the arms of the French Republic with the \"RF\" for ''République française'' (see image below), surrounded by leaves of olive tree (as a symbol of peace) and oak (as a symbol of justice).", "While it is used widely by French officials, this symbol never was officially adopted by the government.President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing placed one on his presidential flag.", "In 2015, a logo representing a stylized Fasces was used for internet communication by the Presidency of the French Republic.", "Since 1870, it has also appeared on the badges of deputies and senators known as barometers, which they place conspicuously on their vehicles.The fasces appears on the helmet and the buckle insignia of the French Army's Autonomous Corps of Military Justice, as well as on that service's distinct cap badges for the prosecuting and defending lawyers in a court-martial.File:Arms of the French Republic.svg|The unofficial but common Coat of arms of France depicts a fasces, representing justiceImage:French fasces.jpg|Images from ''Les Grands Palais de France : Fontainebleau ''Image:French fasces 00.jpg|Image:Nanine Vallain - Liberté.jpg|Nanine Vallain, ''Liberté'', 1794Image:Consulate Seal of Napoleon Bonaparte.png|French Consulate Seal of Napoleon Bonaparte, 1799Image:Great Seal of France.svg|Great Seal of France, 1848=== United States ===Seal of the United States Senate with two fasces at bottom Since the original founding of the United States in the 18th century, several offices and institutions in the United States have heavily incorporated representations of the ''fasces'' into much of their iconography.==== Federal fasces iconography ====The reverse of the Mercury dime, with a fascesEmancipation Memorial* On the podium of the Emancipation Memorial in Washington D.C., beneath Abraham Lincoln's right hand* The reverse of the Mercury Dime, the design used from 1916 until the adoption of the current FDR dime in 1945, features a fasces.", "* On the obverse of the 1896 $1 Educational Series note there is a fasces leaning against the wall behind the youth.", "* In the Oval Office, above the door leading to the exterior walkway, and above the corresponding door on the opposite wall, which leads to the president's private office; the fasces depicted have no axes, possibly because in the Roman Republic, the blade was always removed from the bundle whenever the ''fasces'' were carried inside the city, in order to symbolize the rights of citizens against arbitrary state power (see above)* Two fasces appear on either side of the flag of the United States behind the podium in the United States House of Representatives, with bronze examples replacing the previous gilded iron installments during the remodeling project of 1950.", "* The Mace of the United States House of Representatives resembles fasces and consists of thirteen ebony rods bound together in the same fashion as the fasces, topped by a silver eagle on a globe* The official seal of the United States Senate has as one component a pair of crossed fasces.", "* Fasces ring the base of the Statue of Freedom atop the United States Capitol building.", "* A frieze on the facade of the United States Supreme Court building depicts the figure of a Roman centurion holding a fasces, to represent \"order\".", "* The National Guard uses the fasces on the seal of the National Guard Bureau, and it appears in the insignia of Regular Army officers assigned to National Guard liaison and in the insignia and unit symbols of National Guard units themselves; for instance, the regimental crest of the 71st Infantry Regiment (New York) of the New York National Guard consisted of a gold fasces set on a blue background.", "* At the Lincoln Memorial, Lincoln's seat of state bears the fasces—without axes—on the fronts of its arms; fasces also appear on the pylons flanking the main staircase leading into the memorial.", "* The official seal of the United States Tax Court bears the fasces at its center.", "* Four fasces flank the two bronze plaques on either side of the bust of Lincoln memorializing his Gettysburg Address at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.", "* The seal of the United States Courts Administrative Office includes a fasces behind crossed quill and scroll.", "* In the Washington Monument is a statue of George Washington leaning on a fasces.", "* A fasces is a common element in US Army Military Police heraldry, most visibly on the shoulder sleeve insignia of the 18th Military Police Brigade and the 42nd Military Police Brigade.", "* A fasces appears on the shoulder sleeve insignia of the US Army Reserve Legal Command.", "* Seated beside George Washington, a figure holds a fasces as part of ''The Apotheosis of Washington'', a fresco mural suspended above the rotunda of the United States Capitol Building.==== State, local and other fasces iconography ====Ornate woodwork on railing in Minnesota Supreme Court Chamber* The main entrance hallways in the Wisconsin State Capitol have lamps that are decorated with stone fasces motifs; in the woodwork before the podium of the speaker of the assembly, several double-bladed fasces are carved, and in the woodwork before the podium of the senate president are several single-bladed fasces.", "* The grand seal of Harvard University inside Memorial Church is flanked by two inward-pointing fasces; the seal is located directly below the 112 m (368 ft) steeple and the Great Seal of the United States inside the Memorial Room; the walls of the room list the names of Harvard students, faculty, and alumni who gave their lives in service of the United States during World War I along with an empty tomb depicting Alma Mater holding a slain Harvard student.", "* The fasces appears on the state seal of Colorado, US, beneath the \"All-seeing eye\" (or Eye of Providence) and above the mountains and mines.", "* The hallmark of the Kerr & Co silver company was a fasces.", "* On the seal of the New York City borough of Brooklyn, a figure carries a fasces; the seal appears on the borough flag; fasces also can be seen in the stone columns at Grand Army Plaza and on a flagpole in Washington Square Park.", "* The symbol is used as part of the Knights of Columbus emblem (designed in 1883, replaced by a bayonet from 1926 to 1947).", "* Commercially, a small fasces appeared at the top of one of the insignia of the Hupmobile automobile.", "* A fasces appears on the statue of George Washington by Jean-Antoine Houdon that is now in the Virginia State Capitol; fasces are used as posts of the 1818 cast-iron fence surrounding the capitol building.", "* Columns in the form of fasces line the entrance to Buffalo City Hall.", "* In Newark Penn Station, the exit to Raymond Plaza West is bordered on both sides by 10-foot vertical fasces (each with a double axe-head).", "* VAW-116 have a fasces on their unit insignia.", "* San Francisco's Coit Tower has two fasces-like insignia (without the axe) carved above its entrance, flanking a phoenix.", "* Two monuments erected in Chicago at the time of the Century of Progress Exposition are adorned with fasces; the monument to Christopher Columbus (1933) in Grant Park has them on the ends of its exedra; the ''Balbo Monument'' in Burnham Park, (1934) a gift from Benito Mussolini, has the vandalized remains of fasces on all four corners of its plinth.==== Examples of US fasces iconography ====File:State of the Union entrance 2011.jpg|Fasces bestride Speaker's rostrum in the House chamber of the United States CapitolFile:Kennedy children visit the Oval Office, October 1962.jpg|Above the door leading out of the Oval OfficeFile:1989CongressBicentennialDollarBreverse.tif|1989 US Congress Bicentennial commemorative coin reverse, depicting mace of the United States House of RepresentativesFile:Mace of the United States House of Representatives (stylised).svg|The mace of the United States House of Representatives, designed to resemble a fascesFile:Seal of the United States Tax Court.svg|The seal of the United States Tax CourtFile:Lincoln Memorial Inside.jpg|The Lincoln Memorial with the fronts of the chair arms shaped to resemble fascesFile:LincolnGett.JPG|Flanking the image of Lincoln at the Gettysburg Address memorialFile:US-Courts-AdministrativeOffice-Seal.svg|The seal of the Administrative Office of the United States CourtsFile:Fasces on City Hall Chicago.jpg|Above the door to Chicago's City HallFile:Flag of Brooklyn, New York.svg|The flag of the New York City borough of BrooklynFile:Looking up at Coit Tower.jpg|At the entrance to San Francisco's Coit TowerFile:18th Military Police Brigade SSI.svg|Shoulder sleeve insignia of the 18th Military Police BrigadeFile:42nd Military Police Brigade SSI (2004-2015).png|Shoulder sleeve insignia of the 42nd Military Police BrigadeFile:George Washington Statue at Federal Hall.JPG|Statue of George Washington at the site of his inauguration as first president of the United States, now occupied by Federal Hall National Memorial, includes a fasces to the subject's rear rightFile:AlexanderHamiltonUSCapStat.jpg|Horatio Stone's 1848 statue of Alexander Hamilton displays a fasces below Hamilton's handFile:United States Army Reserve Legal Command CSIB.png|Shoulder sleeve insignia of US Army Reserve Legal CommandFile:Flickr - USCapitol - Apotheosis of Washington, Science.jpg|Portion of ''The Apotheosis of Washington'', a fresco mural suspended above the rotunda of the United States Capitol BuildingFile:USAMPC-COA.png|Regimental Coat of Arms of the United States Military Police Corps=== Modern authorities and movements ===* The collar of the Latvian Order of the Three Stars is decorated with fasces that is supported by lion and griffin*Benito Mussolini's tomb is flanked by marble fascesThe following cases involve the adoption of the fasces as a symbol or icon, although no physical re-introduction has occurred.", "* Aiguillettes worn by aides-de-camp in many Commonwealth armed forces bear the fasces on the metal points; the origin of this is unknown, as the fasces is an uncommon symbol in British and Commonwealth heraldry and insignia* The Miners Flag (also known as the \"Diggers' Banner\"), the standard of nineteenth-century gold-miners in the colony of Victoria, in Australia, included the fasces as a symbol of unity and strength of common purpose; this flag symbolized the movement prior to the rebellion at the Eureka Stockade (1854)* The British Union of Fascists originally used the fasces on their flag until adopting the Flash and Circle* The coat of arms of Ecuador, which also is featured on its national flag, has included a fasces since 1822* The coat of arms of Cameroon features two fasces that form a diagonal cross* The coat of arms of Cuba features a fasces* The third flag of Gran Colombia, a former nation in South America, depicted a large fasces entwined with several arrows* The coat of arms of Norte de Santander, a department of Colombia, and of its capital Cúcuta, both feature a fasces* The coat of arms of the Romanian Police features two crossed fasces* The Grand Coat of Arms of Vilnius, Lithuania features a fasces* The crests of many collegiate fraternities and sororities feature the fasces, including those of Chi Phi, Alpha Phi Delta, Sigma Alpha Mu, and Psi Upsilon* The academic seal of American University Washington College of Law prominently features a fasces* The symbol of the National Party (Uruguay) (Partido Nacional) includes a fasces* On the entrance of the Royal Castle of Laeken in Belgium* The emblem of the Spanish gendarmerie Guardia Civil includes a fasces* Both the Norwegian and Swedish police have double fasces in their coats of arms* The emblems of the Russian Federal Penitentiary Service and Federal Bailiffs Service include fasces in the double-headed eagle's left foot*Insignia of the Philippine Constabulary was include fasces* The coat of arms of the Batavian Republic features a fascesImage:Coat of arms of canton of St. Gallen.svg|The coat of arms of the Swiss canton of St. Gallen has displayed the fasces since 1803.Image:Flag of the National Fascist Party (PNF).svg|Flag of the National Fascist Party of Italy (1926–1943).", "Fascism used the fasces as its political symbol.Image:Greater coat of arms of the Kingdom of Italy (1929-1944).svg|Greater coat of arms of Italy of 1929–1943, during the Fascist era, bearing the fascesImage:Flag of the British Union of Fascists (original).svg|The original flag of the British Union of FascistsFile:Flag of the British Union of Fascists (alternate).svg|An alternate flag of the British Union of FascistsImage:Emblem of the Spanish Civil Guard.svg|Emblem of the Guardia Civil, a law enforcement agency from SpainImage:Grand Coat of arms of Vilnius.svg|The Grand Coat of Arms of Vilnius, Lithuania, bearing the fascesImage:Emblem of the Federal Penitentiary Service.svg|The emblem of the Russian Federal Penitentiary Service, bearing the fascesImage:Emblem of the Federal Bailiffs Service.svg|The emblem of the Russian Federal Bailiffs Service, bearing the fascesFile:Insignia of the Philippine Constabulary.svg|Insignia of the Philippine Constabulary, bearing the fascesFile:Element uit de vlag van de marine van de Bataafse Republiek.svg|Dutch Maiden, the national symbol of the Batavian Republic, bearing the fascesFile:Polisen vapen bra.svg|Coat of arms of the Swedish Police AuthorityFile:Coat of arms of the Norwegian Police Service.svg|alt=Coat of arms of the Norwegian Police Service.|Coat of arms of the Norwegian Police ServiceImage:Elewacja Sejmu Śląskiego - Fasces.JPG|Fragment of the façade of the building of the Silesian Parliament in KatowiceImage:Fasci.jpg|Fasces on railings at Alexander Garden in Moscow" ], [ "See also", "* Fascine (bundle of wood or other material used in earthworks)* Fascio (usage 1890s to World War I)* Fascism* Papal ferula* Obol – a unit of Ancient Greek currency, originally represented through a bundle of rods before being replaced with a coin of the same name* Francisca* Labrys* Law and order (politics)* Staff of office* Swastika* Yoke and arrows* 1107 Lictoria* The Bundle of Sticks – an Aesop's Fable whose moral is that there is strength in unity" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Fast combat support ship" ], [ "Introduction", "The fast combat support ship USNS ''Rainier'' (T-AOE-7), underway in the Western Pacific, circa 2004The '''fast combat support ship''' (US Navy hull classification symbol: '''AOE''') is a type of replenishment auxiliary ship.", "Different from traditional logistic ships, the fast combat support ship is designed with high speed to keep up with the carrier battle group/carrier strike group, while the multi-product station is capable of supplying all types of necessities for the fleet." ], [ "History", "===US Navy===The fast combat support ship is designed to perform the functions of three old logistic ship types in one hull - fleet oiler (AO), ammunition ship (AE), and refrigerated stores ship (AF).", "Aside from supplying ships, fast combat support ships need the speed, weapons, sensors, and communications equipment, to serve as an integrated component of the carrier strike battle group.", "The concept of fast combat support ship was envisioned by United States Navy admiral Arleigh Burke, who laid out the concept as the solution to logistics problems he encountered in World War II.The first class of the fast combat support ship was the , built with multi-product supply stations, the largest fuel capacity, and the largest ammunition capacity in the US Navy at the time.", "The four ships of the ''Sacramento''-class were 53,000 tons at full load, 796 feet overall length, and carried two Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight helicopters.", "The ''Sacramento''-class was retired in 2005.After replacing the ''Sacramento''-class, the became the largest combat logistics ship in the United States.", "They can carry more than 177,000 barrels of oil, 2,150 tons of ammunition, 500 tons of dry stores, and 250 tons of refrigerated stores.", "They receive petroleum products, ammunition, and stores from various shuttle ships and redistributes these items when needed to ships in the carrier strike group.", "This greatly reduces the number of service ships needed to travel with carrier strike groups.", "The ships of the class displaced 48,800 tons full load and carried two Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight or two Sikorsky MH-60S Knighthawk helicopters.Air defense includes the RIM-7 Sea Sparrow radar and infrared surface-to-air missile in eight-cell launchers to provide point defense with 15km to 25km range.", "There are also two 20mm Phalanx CIWS (close-in weapon systems) and two Mk38 25mm cannons.", "All ''Supply''-class combat support ships were commissioned until 2001, and then were transferred to Military Sealift Command.A program to replace the ''Supply''-class ships, the\" T-AOE(X) station-ship replacement project\", was cancelled in 2005 by US Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld.As of early 2023, USNS ''Rainier'' and USNS ''Bridge'' have been taken out of service and struck.", "Along with the remaining two ''Supply''-class ships, US Navy fleets are currently supplied by s as well as and s.===PLA Navy===In the 21st century, China also developed the Type 901 fast combat support ship, which serves a similar mission in their navy." ], [ "List of Fast Combat Support Ships", "=== United States ===* ** ** ** ** * ** ** ** ** === China ===PLA Navy ''Hulunhu'' (965) in the Pacific Ocean* Type 901 fast combat support ship (NATO reporting name: Fuyu-class)** PLAN Hulunhu (901)** PLAN Chaganhu (905)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* AOE class at Naval Technology* AOE class at US Navy Military Sealift Command* AOE class at US Naval Vessel Register* US Navy Military Sealift Command front page * Extensive description and photos of AOE-1 Sacramento at Military Analysis Network (unofficial)" ], [ "See also", "* List of Military Sealift Command ships" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "FASA" ], [ "Introduction", "'''FASA Corporation''' was an American publisher of role-playing games, wargames and board games between 1980 and 2001, after which they closed publishing operations for several years, becoming an IP holding company under the name FASA Inc.", "In 2012, a wholly owned subsidiary called FASA Games Inc. went into operation, using the name and logo under license from the parent company.", "FASA Games Inc. works alongside Ral Partha Europe, also a subsidiary of FASA Corporation, to bring out new editions of existing properties such as Earthdawn and Demonworld, and to develop new properties within the FASA cosmology.FASA first appeared as a ''Traveller'' licensee, producing supplements for that Game Designers' Workshop role-playing game, especially the work of the Keith Brothers.", "The company went on to establish itself as a major gaming company with the publication of the ''Star Trek'' RPG, then several successful original games.", "Noteworthy lines included ''BattleTech'' and ''Shadowrun''.", "Their ''Star Trek'' role-playing supplements and tactical ship game enjoyed popularity outside the wargaming community since, at the time, official descriptions of the ''Star Trek'' universe were not common, and the gaming supplements offered details fans craved.The highly successful ''BattleTech'' line led to a series of video games, some of the first virtual reality gaming suites, called Virtual World (created by a subdivision of the company known at the time of development as ESP, an acronym for \"Extremely Secret Project\") and a Saturday-morning animated TV series.Originally, the name FASA was an acronym for \"Freedonian Aeronautics and Space Administration\", a joking allusion to the Marx Brothers film ''Duck Soup''.", "This tongue-in-cheek attitude was carried over in humorous self-references in its games.", "For example, in ''Shadowrun'', a tactical nuclear device was detonated near FASA's offices at 1026 W. Van Buren St in Chicago, Illinois." ], [ "History", "FASA Corporation logo in 1983FASA Corporation was founded by Jordan Weisman and L. Ross Babcock III in 1980 with a starting capital of $350 ($1,200 adjusted for inflation).", "The two were fellow gamers at the United States Merchant Marine Academy.", "Mort Weisman, Jordan's father, joined the company in 1985 to lead the company's operational management, having sold his book publishing business, Swallow Press.Under the new commercial direction and with Mort's capital injection, the company diversified into books and miniature figures.", "After consulting their UK distributor, Chart Hobby Distributors, FASA licensed the manufacture of its ''BattleTech'' figurines to Miniature Figurines (also known as Minifigs).", "FASA would later acquire the U.S. figures manufacturer Ral Partha, which was the US manufacturer of Minifigs.", "While Mort ran the paper and metal based sides of the business, the company's founders focused on the development of computer-based games.", "They were particularly interested in virtual reality (particularly the BattleTech Centers / Virtual World) but also developed desktop computer games.When Microsoft acquired the FASA Interactive subsidiary, Babcock went with that company.", "After the sale of Virtual World, Jordan turned his attention to the founding of a new games venture called WizKids." ], [ "Current status and intellectual property", "FASA unexpectedly ceased active operations on April 30, 2001, but still exists as a corporation holding intellectual property rights, which it licenses to other publishers.", "Contrary to popular belief, the company did not go bankrupt.", "Allegedly, the owners decided to quit while the company was still financially sound in a market they perceived as going downhill.", "Mort Weisman had been talking of retirement for some years, and his confidence in the future of the paper-based games business was low.", "He considered the intellectual property of FASA to be of high value, but did not wish to continue working as he had been for the last decade or more.", "Unwilling to wrestle with the complexities of dividing up the going concern, the owners issued a press release on January 25, 2001, announcing the immediate closure of the business.The ''BattleTech'' and ''Shadowrun'' properties were sold to WizKids, who in turn licensed their publication to FanPro LLC and then to Catalyst Game Labs.", "The ''Earthdawn'' license was sold to WizKids, and then back to FASA.", "Living Room Games published ''Earthdawn'' (Second Edition), RedBrick published ''Earthdawn'' (Classic and Third Editions), but the license has now returned to FASA Corporation, and FASA Games, Inc. is the current license holder for new material.", "''Crimson Skies'' was originally developed by Zipper Interactive under the FASA Interactive brand in late 2000 and used under license by FASA; FASA Interactive had been purchased by Microsoft, so rights to ''Crimson Skies'' stayed with Microsoft.", "Rights to the miniatures game ''VOR: The Maelstrom'' reverted to the designer Mike \"Skuzzy\" Nielsen, but it has not been republished in any form due partly to legal difficulties.", "Microsoft officially closed the FASA team in the company's gaming division on September 12, 2007.On December 6, 2007, FASA founder Jordan Weisman announced that his new venture, Smith & Tinker, had licensed the electronic gaming rights to ''MechWarrior'', ''Shadowrun'', and ''Crimson Skies'' from Microsoft.On April 28, 2008 Mike \"Skuzzy\" Nielsen announced plans to create ''Vor 2.0''.At Gen Con 2012, FASA Games, Inc. was revealed, which includes FASA Corporation co-founder Ross Babcock on the Board of Directors.", "While FASA Corporation still owns and manages the FASA IP and brands, FASA Games, Inc would release new games and content.", "As of 2020, FASA Games has released contents for 2 games; a 4th edition for Earthdawn and the new game 1879 which aims to replace and/or create an alternate future '6th Age' in 'replacement' to Shadowrun." ], [ "Notable games", "===Role-playing games===*''Star Trek: The Role Playing Game'' (1982)*''Star Trek: Starship Tactical Combat Simulator''*''Doctor Who'' (1985)*''MechWarrior'' (1986)*''Shadowrun'' (1989)*''Legionnaire'' (1990)*''Earthdawn'' (1993)===Board games===*''BattleTech'' (released in 1984 as ''BattleDroids'', titled ''BattleTech'' as of 1985)**''Battledroids'' (1984)**''Classic BattleTech'' (1985)*''Renegade Legion'' (1989)*''Crimson Skies'' (1998)===Miniature games===*''VOR: The Maelstrom'' (1999)*''Demonworld'' (second edition: 2011, miniatures by Ral Partha Europe.", "The first edition was released in 1999 by Hobby Products)===Video games===* See ''FASA Studio''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**, (FGI)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II''' is an American tandem two-seat, twin-engine, all-weather, long-range supersonic jet interceptor and fighter-bomber originally developed by McDonnell Aircraft for the United States Navy.", "Proving highly adaptable, it entered service with the Navy in 1961 before it was adopted by the United States Marine Corps and the United States Air Force, and by the mid-1960s it had become a major part of their air arms.", "Phantom production ran from 1958 to 1981 with a total of 5,195 aircraft built, making it the most produced American supersonic military aircraft in history, and cementing its position as a signature combat aircraft of the Cold War.The Phantom is a large fighter with a top speed of over Mach 2.2.It can carry more than 18,000 pounds (8,400 kg) of weapons on nine external hardpoints, including air-to-air missiles, air-to-ground missiles, and various bombs.", "The F-4, like other interceptors of its time, was initially designed without an internal cannon.", "Later models incorporated an M61 Vulcan rotary cannon.", "Beginning in 1959, it set 15 world records for in-flight performance, including an absolute speed record and an absolute altitude record.The F-4 was used extensively during the Vietnam War.", "It served as the principal air superiority fighter for the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps and became important in the ground-attack and aerial reconnaissance roles late in the war.", "During the Vietnam War, all five American servicemen who became acesone U.S. Air Force pilot, two weapon systems officers (WSOs), one U.S. Navy pilot and one radar intercept officer (RIO)did so in F-4s.", "The F-4 continued to form a major part of U.S. military air power throughout the 1970s and 1980s, being gradually replaced by more modern aircraft such as the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon in the U.S. Air Force, the F-14 Tomcat in the U.S. Navy, and the F/A-18 Hornet in the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps.The F-4 Phantom II remained in use by the U.S. in the reconnaissance and Wild Weasel (Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses) roles in the 1991 Gulf War, finally leaving service in 1996.It was also the only aircraft used by both U.S. flight demonstration teams: the United States Air Force Thunderbirds (F-4E) and the United States Navy Blue Angels (F-4J).", "The F-4 was also operated by the armed forces of 11 other nations.", "Israeli Phantoms saw extensive combat in several Arab–Israeli conflicts, while Iran used its large fleet of Phantoms, acquired before the fall of the Shah, in the Iran–Iraq War.", "As of 2021, 63 years after its first flight, the F-4 remains in active service with the air forces of Iran, South Korea, Greece, and Turkey.", "The aircraft has most recently been in service against the Islamic State group in the Middle East." ], [ "Development", "=== Origins ===In 1952, McDonnell's Chief of Aerodynamics, Dave Lewis, was appointed by CEO Jim McDonnell to be the company's preliminary design manager.", "With no new aircraft competitions on the horizon, internal studies concluded the Navy had the greatest need for a new and different aircraft type: an attack fighter.The McDonnell F3H-G/H mockup, 1954In 1953, McDonnell Aircraft began work on revising its F3H Demon naval fighter, seeking expanded capabilities and better performance.", "The company developed several projects, including a variant powered by a Wright J67 engine, and variants powered by two Wright J65 engines, or two General Electric J79 engines.", "The J79-powered version promised a top speed of Mach 1.97.On 19 September 1953, McDonnell approached the United States Navy with a proposal for the \"Super Demon\".", "Uniquely, the aircraft was to be modular, as it could be fitted with one- or two-seat noses for different missions, with different nose cones to accommodate radar, photo cameras, four 20 mm (.79 in) cannon, or 56 FFAR unguided rockets in addition to the nine hardpoints under the wings and the fuselage.", "The Navy was sufficiently interested to order a full-scale mock-up of the F3H-G/H, but felt that the upcoming Grumman XF9F-9 and Vought XF8U-1 already satisfied the need for a supersonic fighter.The McDonnell design was therefore reworked into an all-weather fighter-bomber with 11 external hardpoints for weapons and on 18 October 1954, the company received a letter of intent for two YAH-1 prototypes.", "Then on 26 May 1955, four Navy officers arrived at the McDonnell offices and, within an hour, presented the company with an entirely new set of requirements.", "Because the Navy already had the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk for ground attack and F-8 Crusader for dogfighting, the project now had to fulfill the need for an all-weather fleet defense interceptor.", "A second crewman was added to operate the powerful radar; designers believed that air combat in the next war would overload solo pilots with information.===XF4H-1 prototype===David Lewis, Robert Little, and Herman BarkeyThe XF4H-1 was designed to carry four semi-recessed AAM-N-6 Sparrow III radar-guided missiles, and to be powered by two J79-GE-8 engines.", "As in the McDonnell F-101 Voodoo, the engines sat low in the fuselage to maximize internal fuel capacity and ingested air through fixed geometry intakes.", "The thin-section wing had a leading edge sweep of 45° and was equipped with blown flaps for better low-speed handling.Wind tunnel testing had revealed lateral instability, requiring the addition of 5° dihedral to the wings.", "To avoid redesigning the titanium central section of the aircraft, McDonnell engineers angled up only the outer portions of the wings by 12°, which averaged to the required 5° over the entire wingspan.", "The wings also received the distinctive \"dogtooth\" for improved control at high angles of attack.", "The all-moving tailplane was given 23° of anhedral to improve control at high angles of attack, while still keeping the tailplane clear of the engine exhaust.", "In addition, air intakes were equipped with one fixed ramp and one variable geometry ramp with angle scheduled to give maximum pressure recovery between Mach 1.4 and Mach 2.2.Airflow matching between the inlet and engine was achieved by bypassing the engine as secondary air into the exhaust nozzle.", "All-weather intercept capability was achieved with the AN/APQ-50 radar.", "To meet requirements for carrier operations, the landing gear was designed to withstand landings with a maximum sink rate of , while the nose strut could extend by to increase angle of attack on the catapult portion of a takeoff.An F4H-1F aboard , April 1960On 25 July 1955, the Navy ordered two XF4H-1 test aircraft and five YF4H-1 pre-production examples.", "The Phantom made its maiden flight on 27 May 1958 with Robert C. Little at the controls.", "A hydraulic problem precluded the retraction of the landing gear, but subsequent flights went more smoothly.", "Early testing resulted in redesign of the air intakes, including the distinctive addition of 12,500 holes to \"bleed off\" the slow-moving boundary layer air from the surface of each intake ramp.", "Series production aircraft also featured splitter plates to divert the boundary layer away from the engine intakes.", "The aircraft was soon in competition with the XF8U-3 Crusader III.", "Due to cockpit workload, the Navy wanted a two-seat aircraft and on 17 December 1958 the F4H was declared the winner.", "Delays with the J79-GE-8 engines meant that the first production aircraft were fitted with J79-GE-2 and −2A engines, each having 16,100 lbf (71.8 kN) of afterburning thrust.", "In 1959, the Phantom began carrier suitability trials with the first complete launch-recovery cycle performed on 15 February 1960 from .There were proposals to name the F4H \"Satan\" and \"Mithras\".", "In the end, the aircraft was given the less controversial name \"Phantom II\", the first \"Phantom\" being another McDonnell jet fighter, the FH-1 Phantom.", "The Phantom II was briefly given the designation F-110A and named \"Spectre\" by the USAF, but these were not officially used and the Tri-Service aircraft designation system, F-4, was adopted in September 1962.===Production===In 1961, VF-74 became the first operational U.S. Navy ''Phantom'' squadronEarly in production, the radar was upgraded to the Westinghouse AN/APQ-72, an AN/APQ-50 with a larger radar antenna, necessitating the bulbous nose, and the canopy was reworked to improve visibility and make the rear cockpit less claustrophobic.", "During its career the Phantom underwent many changes in the form of numerous variants developed.The USN operated the F4H-1 (re-designated F-4A in 1962) with J79-GE-2 and -2A engines of 16,100 lbf (71.62 kN) thrust and later builds receiving -8 engines.", "A total of 45 F-4As were built; none saw combat, and most ended up as test or training aircraft.", "The USN and USMC received the first definitive Phantom, the F-4B which was equipped with the Westinghouse APQ-72 radar (pulse only), a Texas Instruments AAA-4 Infrared search and track pod under the nose, an AN/AJB-3 bombing system and powered by J79-GE-8,-8A and -8B engines of 10,900 lbf (48.5 kN) dry and 16,950 lbf (75.4 kN) afterburner (reheat) with the first flight on 25 March 1961.649 F-4Bs were built with deliveries beginning in 1961 and VF-121 Pacemakers receiving the first examples at NAS Miramar.The USAF received Phantoms as the result of Defense Secretary Robert McNamara's push to create a unified fighter for all branches of the US military.", "After an F-4B won the \"Operation Highspeed\" fly-off against the Convair F-106 Delta Dart, the USAF borrowed two Naval F-4Bs, temporarily designating them F-110A in January 1962, and developed requirements for their own version.", "Unlike the US Navy's focus on air-to-air interception in the Fleet Air Defense (FAD) mission, the USAF emphasized both an air-to-air and an air-to-ground fighter-bomber role.", "With McNamara's unification of designations on 18 September 1962, the Phantom became the F-4 with the naval version designated F-4B and USAF F-4C.", "The first Air Force Phantom flew on 27 May 1963, exceeding Mach 2 on its maiden flight.The F-4J improved both air-to-air and ground-attack capability; deliveries begun in 1966 and ended in 1972 with 522 built.", "It was equipped with J79-GE-10 engines with 17,844 lbf (79.374 kN) thrust, the Westinghouse AN/AWG-10 Fire Control System (making the F-4J the first fighter in the world with operational look-down/shoot-down capability), a new integrated missile control system and the AN/AJB-7 bombing system for expanded ground attack capability.The F-4N (updated F-4Bs) with smokeless engines and F-4J aerodynamic improvements started in 1972 under a U.S. Navy-initiated refurbishment program called \"Project Bee Line\" with 228 converted by 1978.The F-4S model resulted from the refurbishment of 265 F-4Js with J79-GE-17 smokeless engines of 17,900 lbf (79.379 kN), AWG-10B radar with digitized circuitry for improved performance and reliability, Honeywell AN/AVG-8 Visual Target Acquisition Set or VTAS (world's first operational Helmet Sighting System), classified avionics improvements, airframe reinforcement and leading edge slats for enhanced maneuvering.", "The USMC also operated the RF-4B with reconnaissance cameras with 46 built; the RF-4B flew alone and unarmed, with a requirement to fly straight and level at 5,000 feet while taking photographs.", "They relied on the shortcomings of the anti-aircraft defenses to survive as they were unable to make evasive maneuvers.Phantom II production ended in the United States in 1979 after 5,195 had been built (5,057 by McDonnell Douglas and 138 in Japan by Mitsubishi).", "Of these, 2,874 went to the USAF, 1,264 to the Navy and Marine Corps, and the rest to foreign customers.", "The last U.S.-built F-4 went to South Korea, while the last F-4 built was an F-4EJ built by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries in Japan and delivered on 20 May 1981.As of 2008, 631 Phantoms were in service worldwide, while the Phantoms were in use as a target drone (specifically QF-4Cs) operated by the U.S. military until 21 December 2016, when the Air Force officially ended use of the type.===World records===Transcontinental \"Operation LANA\" in 1961To show off their new fighter, the Navy led a series of record-breaking flights early in Phantom development: All in all, the Phantom set 16 world records.", "Five of the speed records remained unbeaten until the F-15 Eagle appeared in 1975.", "* '''Operation Top Flight''': On 6 December 1959, the second XF4H-1 performed a zoom climb to a world record 98,557 ft (30,040 m).", "Commander Lawrence E. Flint Jr., USN accelerated his aircraft to at 47,000 ft (14,330 m) and climbed to 90,000 ft (27,430 m) at a 45° angle.", "He then shut down the engines and glided to the peak altitude.", "As the aircraft fell through 70,000 ft (21,300 m), Flint restarted the engines and resumed normal flight.", "* On 5 September 1960, an F4H-1 averaged 1,216.78 mph (1,958.16 km/h) over a 500 km (311 mi) closed-circuit course.", "* On 25 September 1960, an F4H-1F averaged 1,390.24 mph (2,237.37 km/h) over a 100 km (62.1 mi) closed-circuit course.", "FAIRecord File Number 8898.", "* '''Operation LANA''': To celebrate the 50th anniversary of Naval aviation (L is the Roman numeral for 50 and ANA stood for Anniversary of Naval Aviation) on 24 May 1961, Phantoms flew across the continental United States in under three hours and included several tanker refuelings.", "The fastest of the aircraft averaged 869.74 mph (1,400.28 km/h) and completed the trip in 2 hours 47 minutes, earning the pilot (and future NASA Astronaut), Lieutenant Richard Gordon, USN and RIO, Lieutenant Bobbie Young, USN, the 1961 Bendix trophy.", "* '''Operation Sageburner''': On 28 August 1961, a F4H-1F Phantom II averaged 1,452.777 kilometers per hour (902.714 miles per hour) over a 3 mi (4.82 km) course flying below at all times.", "Commander J.L.", "Felsman, USN was killed during the first attempt at this record on 18 May 1961 when his aircraft disintegrated in the air after pitch damper failure.", "* '''Operation Skyburner''': On 22 November 1961, a modified Phantom with water injection, piloted by Lt. Col. Robert B. Robinson, set an absolute world record average speed over a 20-mile (32.2 km) long 2-way straight course of 1,606.342 mph (2,585.086 km/h).", "* On 5 December 1961, another Phantom set a sustained altitude record of .", "* '''Project High Jump''': A series of time-to-altitude records was set in early 1962: 34.523 seconds to , 48.787 seconds to , 61.629 seconds to , 77.156 seconds to , 114.548 seconds to , 178.5 s to , 230.44 s to , and 371.43 s to .", "All High Jump records were set by F4H-1 production number 108 (Bureau Number 148423).", "Two of the records were set by future distinguished NASA astronaut LCdr John Young." ], [ "Design", "===Overview===Cockpit of F-4 Phantom IIThe F-4 Phantom is a tandem-seat fighter-bomber designed as a carrier-based interceptor to fill the U.S. Navy's fleet defense fighter role.", "Innovations in the F-4 included an advanced pulse-Doppler radar and extensive use of titanium in its airframe.Despite imposing dimensions and a maximum takeoff weight of over 60,000 lb (27,000 kg), the F-4 has a top speed of Mach 2.23 and an initial climb rate of over 41,000 ft/min (210 m/s).", "The F-4's nine external hardpoints have a capability of up to 18,650 pounds (8,480 kg) of weapons, including air-to-air and air-to-surface missiles, and unguided, guided, and thermonuclear weapons.", "Like other interceptors of its day, the F-4 was designed without an internal cannon.The baseline performance of a Mach 2-class fighter with long-range and a bomber-sized payload would be the template for the next generation of large and light/middle-weight fighters optimized for daylight air combat.===Flight characteristics===\"Speed is life\" was F-4 pilots' slogan, as the Phantom's greatest advantage in air combat was acceleration and thrust, which permitted a skilled pilot to engage and disengage from the fight at will.", "MiGs usually could outturn the F-4 because of the high drag on the Phantom's airframe; as a massive fighter aircraft designed to fire radar-guided missiles from beyond visual range, the F-4 lacked the agility of its Soviet opponents and was subject to adverse yaw during hard maneuvering.", "Although the F-4 was subject to irrecoverable spins during aileron rolls, pilots reported the aircraft to be very responsive and easy to fly on the edge of its performance envelope.", "In 1972, the F-4E model was upgraded with leading edge slats on the wing, greatly improving high angle of attack maneuverability at the expense of top speed.F-4 Phantom II flight demonstration videoThe J79 had a reduced time lag between the pilot advancing the throttle, from idle to maximum thrust, and the engine producing maximum thrust compared to earlier engines.", "While landing on John Chesire's tailhook missed the arresting gear as he (mistakenly) reduced thrust to idle.", "He then slammed the throttle to full afterburner, the engine's response time being enough to return to full thrust quickly, and he was able get the Phantom airborne again successfully (bolter).", "The J79 produced noticeable amounts of black smoke (at mid-throttle/cruise settings), a severe disadvantage in that it made it easier for the enemy to spot the aircraft.", "Two decades after the aircraft entered service this was solved on the F-4S, which was fitted with the −10A engine variant with a smokeless combustor.The lack of an internal gun \"was the biggest mistake on the F-4\", Chesire said; \"Bullets are cheap and tend to go where you aim them.", "I needed a gun, and I really wished I had one.\"", "Marine Corps General John R. Dailey recalled that \"everyone in RF-4s wished they had a gun on the aircraft.\"", "For a brief period, doctrine held that turning combat would be impossible at supersonic speeds and little effort was made to teach pilots air combat maneuvering.", "In reality, engagements quickly became subsonic, as pilots would slow down in an effort to get behind their adversaries.", "Furthermore, the relatively new heat-seeking and radar-guided missiles at the time were frequently reported as unreliable and pilots had to fire multiple missiles just to hit one enemy fighter.", "To compound the problem, rules of engagement in Vietnam precluded long-range missile attacks in most instances, as visual identification was normally required.", "Many pilots found themselves on the tail of an enemy aircraft, but too close to fire short-range Falcons or Sidewinders.", "Although by 1965 USAF F-4Cs began carrying SUU-16 external gunpods containing a 20 mm (.79 in) M61A1 Vulcan Gatling cannon, USAF cockpits were not equipped with lead-computing gunsights until the introduction of the SUU-23, virtually assuring a miss in a maneuvering fight.", "Some Marine Corps aircraft carried two pods for strafing.", "In addition to the loss of performance due to drag, combat showed the externally mounted cannon to be inaccurate unless frequently boresighted, yet far more cost-effective than missiles.", "The lack of a cannon was finally addressed by adding an internally mounted 20 mm (.79 in) M61A1 Vulcan on the F-4E.===Costs===F-4CRF-4CF-4DF-4EUnit R&D cost – 61,200 (1965) by 1973 (current) by 1973 – 22,700 (1965) by 1973 (current) by 1973Airframe 1,388,725 (1965) (current) 1,679,000 (1965) (current) 1,018,682 (1965) (current) 1,662,000 (1965) (current)Engines 317,647 (1965) (current) 276,000 (1965) (current) 260,563 (1965) (current) 393,000 (1965) (current)Electronics 52,287 (1965) (current) 293,000 (1965) (current) 262,101 (1965) (current) 299,000 (1965) (current)Armament 139,706 (1965) (current) 73,000 (1965) (current) 133,430 (1965) (current) 111,000 (1965) (current)Ordnance – – 6,817 (1965) (current) 8,000 (1965) (current)Flyaway cost 1.9 million (1965) million (current) 2.3 million (1965) million (current) 1.7 million (1965) million (current) 2.4 million (1965) million (current)Modification costs 116,289 (1965) by 1973 (current) by 1973 55,217 (1965) by 1973 (2008) by 1973 233,458 (1965) by 1973 (current) by 1973 7,995 (1965) by 1973 (current) by 1973Cost per flying hour 924 (1965) (2008) 867 (1965) (current) 896 (1965) (current) 867 (1965) (current)Maintenance cost per flying hour 545 (1965) (current)Note: Original amounts were in 1965 U.S. dollars.", "The figures in these tables have been adjusted for inflation to the current year." ], [ "Operational history", "===United States Air Force===+ USAF F-4 Summary for Vietnam War action Aircraft Weapons/Tactics MiG-17 MiG-19 MiG-21 Total F-4C AIM-7 Sparrow 4 0 10 14 AIM-9 Sidewinder 12 0 10 22 20 mm gunpod 3 0 1 4 Maneuvering tactics 2 0 0 2 F-4D AIM-4 Falcon 4 0 1 5 AIM-7 Sparrow 4 2 20 26 AIM-9 Sidewinder 0 2 3 5 20 mm gunpod 4.5 0 2 6.5 Maneuvering tactics 0 0 2 2 F-4E AIM-7 Sparrow 0 2 8 10 AIM-9 Sidewinder 0 0 4 4 AIM-9 and 20 mm gunpod 0 0 1 1 20 mm gunpod 0 1 4 5 Maneuvering tactics 0 1 0 1 Total 33.5 8 66 107.5In USAF service, the F-4 was initially designated the F-110A prior to the introduction of the 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system.", "The USAF quickly embraced the design and became the largest Phantom user.", "The first USAF Phantoms in Vietnam were F-4Cs from the 43rd Tactical Fighter Squadron arrived in December 1964.Unlike the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps, which flew the Phantom with a Naval Aviator (pilot) in the front seat and a naval flight officer as a radar intercept officer (RIO) in the back seat, the USAF initially flew its Phantoms with a rated Air Force Pilot in front and back seats.", "Pilots usually did not like flying in the back seat; while the GIB, or \"guy in back\", could fly and ostensibly land the aircraft, he had fewer flight instruments and a very restricted forward view.", "The Air Force later assigned a rated Air Force Navigator qualified as a weapon/targeting systems officer (later designated as weapon systems officer or WSO) in the rear seat instead of another pilot.On 10 July 1965, F-4Cs of the 45th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 15th TFW, on temporary assignment in Ubon, Thailand, scored the USAF's first victories against North Vietnamese MiG-17s using AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles.", "On 26 April 1966, an F-4C from the 480th Tactical Fighter Squadron scored the first aerial victory by a U.S. aircrew over a North Vietnamese MiG-21 \"Fishbed\".", "On 24 July 1965, another Phantom from the 45th Tactical Fighter Squadron became the first American aircraft to be downed by an enemy SAM, and on 5 October 1966 an 8th Tactical Fighter Wing F-4C became the first U.S. jet lost to an air-to-air missile, fired by a MiG-21.Early aircraft suffered from leaks in wing fuel tanks that required re-sealing after each flight and 85 aircraft were found to have cracks in outer wing ribs and stringers.", "There were also problems with aileron control cylinders, electrical connectors, and engine compartment fires.", "Reconnaissance RF-4Cs made their debut in Vietnam on 30 October 1965, flying the hazardous post-strike reconnaissance missions.", "The USAF Thunderbirds used the F-4E from the 1969 season until 1974.435th TFS F-4Ds over VietnamAlthough the F-4C was essentially identical to the Navy/Marine Corps F-4B in-flight performance and carried the AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles, USAF-tailored F-4Ds initially arrived in June 1967 equipped with AIM-4 Falcons.", "However, the Falcon, like its predecessors, was designed to shoot down heavy bombers flying straight and level.", "Its reliability proved no better than others and its complex firing sequence and limited seeker-head cooling time made it virtually useless in combat against agile fighters.", "The F-4Ds reverted to using Sidewinders under the \"Rivet Haste\" program in early 1968, and by 1972 the AIM-7E-2 \"Dogfight Sparrow\" had become the preferred missile for USAF pilots.", "Like other Vietnam War Phantoms, the F-4Ds were urgently fitted with radar warning receivers to detect the Soviet-built S-75 Dvina SAMs.From the initial deployment of the F-4C to Southeast Asia, USAF Phantoms performed both air superiority and ground attack roles, supporting not only ground troops in South Vietnam, but also conducting bombing sorties in Laos and North Vietnam.", "As the F-105 force underwent severe attrition between 1965 and 1968, the bombing role of the F-4 proportionately increased until after November 1970 (when the last F-105D was withdrawn from combat) it became the primary USAF tactical ordnance delivery system.", "In October 1972 the first squadron of EF-4C Wild Weasel aircraft deployed to Thailand on temporary duty.", "The \"E\" prefix was later dropped and the aircraft was simply known as the F-4C Wild Weasel.Tan Son Nhut, during the Tet OffensiveSixteen squadrons of Phantoms were permanently deployed between 1965 and 1973, and 17 others deployed on temporary combat assignments.", "Peak numbers of combat F-4s occurred in 1972, when 353 were based in Thailand.", "A total of 445 Air Force Phantom fighter-bombers were lost, 370 in combat and 193 of those over North Vietnam (33 to MiGs, 30 to SAMs, and 307 to AAA).The RF-4C was operated by four squadrons, and of the 83 losses, 72 were in combat including 38 over North Vietnam (seven to SAMs and 65 to AAA).", "By war's end, the U.S. Air Force had lost a total of 528 F-4 and RF-4C Phantoms.", "When combined with U.S. Navy and Marine Corps losses of 233 Phantoms, 761 F-4/RF-4 Phantoms were lost in the Vietnam War.On 28 August 1972, Captain Steve Ritchie became the first USAF ace of the war.", "On 9 September 1972, WSO Capt Charles B. DeBellevue became the highest-scoring American ace of the war with six victories.", "and WSO Capt Jeffrey Feinstein became the last USAF ace of the war on 13 October 1972.Upon return to the United States, DeBellevue and Feinstein were assigned to undergraduate pilot training (Feinstein was given a vision waiver) and requalified as USAF pilots in the F-4.USAF F-4C/D/E crews claimed 107.5 MiG kills in Southeast Asia (50 by Sparrow, 31 by Sidewinder, five by Falcon, 15.5 by gun, and six by other means).On 31 January 1972, the 170th Tactical Fighter Squadron/183d Tactical Fighter Group of the Illinois Air National Guard became the first Air National Guard unit to transition to Phantoms from Republic F-84F Thunderstreaks.", "Phantoms would eventually equip numerous tactical fighter and tactical reconnaissance units in the USAF active, National Guard, and reserve.", "On 2 June 1972, a Phantom flying at supersonic speed shot down a MiG-19 over Thud Ridge in Vietnam with its cannon.", "At a recorded speed of Mach 1.2, Major Phil Handley's shoot down was the first and only recorded gun kill while flying at supersonic speeds.F-4Gs over Bahrain during Operation Desert ShieldOn 15 August 1990, 24 F-4G Wild Weasel Vs and six RF-4Cs were deployed to Shaikh Isa AB, Bahrain, for Operation Desert Storm.", "The F-4G was the only aircraft in the USAF inventory equipped for the Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) role, and was needed to protect coalition aircraft from Iraq's extensive air defense system.", "The RF-4C was the only aircraft equipped with the ultra-long-range KS-127 LOROP (long-range oblique photography) camera, and was used for a variety of reconnaissance missions.", "In spite of flying almost daily missions, only one RF-4C was lost in a fatal accident before the start of hostilities.", "One F-4G was lost when enemy fire damaged the fuel tanks and the aircraft ran out of fuel near a friendly airbase.", "The last USAF Phantoms, F-4G Wild Weasel Vs from 561st Fighter Squadron, were retired on 26 March 1996.The last operational flight of the F-4G Wild Weasel was from the 190th Fighter Squadron, Idaho Air National Guard, in April 1996.The last operational USAF/ANG F-4 to land was flown by Maj Mike Webb and Maj Gary Leeder of the Idaho ANG.", "Like the Navy, the Air Force has operated QF-4 target drones, serving with the 82d Aerial Targets Squadron at Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida, and Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico.", "It was expected that the F-4 would remain in the target role with the 82d ATRS until at least 2015, when they would be replaced by early versions of the F-16 Fighting Falcon converted to a QF-16 configuration.", "Several QF-4s also retain capability as manned aircraft and are maintained in historical color schemes, being displayed as part of Air Combat Command's Heritage Flight at air shows, base open houses, and other events while serving as non-expendable target aircraft during the week.", "On 19 November 2013, BAE Systems delivered the last QF-4 aerial target to the Air Force.", "The example had been in storage for over 20 years before being converted.", "Over 16 years, BAE had converted 314 F-4 and RF-4 Phantom IIs into QF-4s and QRF-4s, with each aircraft taking six months to adapt.", "As of December 2013, QF-4 and QRF-4 aircraft had flown over 16,000 manned and 600 unmanned training sorties, with 250 unmanned aircraft being shot down in firing exercises.", "The remaining QF-4s and QRF-4s held their training role until the first of 126 QF-16s were delivered by Boeing.", "The final flight of an Air Force QF-4 from Tyndall AFB took place on 27 May 2015 to Holloman AFB.", "After Tyndall AFB ceased operations, the 53d Weapons Evaluation Group at Holloman became the fleet of 22 QF-4s' last remaining operator.", "The base continued using them to fly manned test and unmanned live fire test support and Foreign Military Sales testing, with the final unmanned flight taking place in August 2016.The type was officially retired from US military service with a four–ship flight at Holloman during an event on 21 December 2016.The remaining QF-4s were to be demilitarized after 1 January 2017.===United States Navy===A U.S. Navy F-4B from VF-111 dropping bombs over Vietnam, 25 November 1971On 30 December 1960, the VF-121 \"Pacemakers\" at NAS Miramar became the first Phantom operator with its F4H-1Fs (F-4As).", "The VF-74 \"Be-devilers\" at NAS Oceana became the first deployable Phantom squadron when it received its F4H-1s (F-4Bs) on 8 July 1961.The squadron completed carrier qualifications in October 1961 and Phantom's first full carrier deployment between August 1962 and March 1963 aboard .", "The second deployable U.S. Atlantic Fleet squadron to receive F-4Bs was the VF-102 \"Diamondbacks\", who promptly took their new aircraft on the shakedown cruise of .", "The first deployable U.S. Pacific Fleet squadron to receive the F-4B was the VF-114 \"Aardvarks\", which participated in the September 1962 cruise aboard .By the time of the Tonkin Gulf incident, 13 of 31 deployable navy squadrons were armed with the type.", "F-4Bs from made the first Phantom combat sortie of the Vietnam War on 5 August 1964, flying bomber escort in Operation Pierce Arrow.", "Navy fighter pilots were unused to flying with a non-pilot RIO, but learned from air combat in Vietnam the benefits of the GiB \"guy in back\" or \"voice in the luggage compartment\" helping with the workload.", "The first Phantom air-to-air victory of the war took place on 9 April 1965 when an F-4B from VF-96 \"Fighting Falcons\" piloted by Lieutenant (junior grade) Terence M. Murphy and his RIO, Ensign Ronald Fegan, shot down a Chinese MiG-17 \"Fresco\".", "The Phantom was then shot down, probably by an AIM-7 Sparrow from one of its wingmen.", "There continues to be controversy over whether the Phantom was shot down by MiG guns or, as enemy reports later indicated, an AIM-7 Sparrow III from one of Murphy's and Fegan's wingmen.", "On 17 June 1965, an F-4B from VF-21 \"Freelancers\" piloted by Commander Louis Page and Lieutenant John C. Smith shot down the first North Vietnamese MiG of the war.On 10 May 1972, Lieutenant Randy \"Duke\" Cunningham and Lieutenant (junior grade) William P. Driscoll flying an F-4J, call sign \"Showtime 100\", shot down three MiG-17s to become the first American flying aces of the war.", "Their fifth victory was believed at the time to be over a mysterious North Vietnamese ace, Colonel Nguyen Toon, now considered mythical.", "On the return flight, the Phantom was damaged by an enemy surface-to-air missile.", "To avoid being captured, Cunningham and Driscoll flew their burning aircraft using only the rudder and afterburner (the damage to the aircraft rendered conventional control nearly impossible), until they could eject over water.The Blue Angels flew the F-4J, 1969–1974During the war, U.S. Navy F-4 Phantom squadrons participated in 84 combat tours with F-4Bs, F-4Js, and F-4Ns.", "The Navy claimed 40 air-to-air victories at a cost of 73 Phantoms lost in combat (seven to enemy aircraft, 13 to SAMs, and 53 to AAA).", "An additional 54 Phantoms were lost in mishaps.In 1984, all Navy F-4Ns were retired from Fleet service in deployable USN squadrons and by 1987 the last F-4Ss were retired from deployable USN squadrons.", "On 25 March 1986, an F-4S belonging to the VF-151 \"Vigilantes,\" became the last active duty U.S. Navy Phantom to launch from an aircraft carrier, in this case, .", "On 18 October 1986, an F-4S from the VF-202 \"Superheats\", a Naval Reserve fighter squadron, made the last-ever Phantom carrier landing while operating aboard .", "In 1987, the last of the Naval Reserve-operated F-4S aircraft were replaced by F-14As.", "The last Phantoms in service with the Navy were QF-4N and QF-4S target drones operated by the Naval Air Warfare Center at NAS Point Mugu, California.", "These airframes were subsequently retired in 2004.===United States Marine Corps===A U.S. Marine F-4B with VMFA-314, flies over South Vietnam in September 1968The Marine Corps received its first F-4Bs in June 1962, with the \"Black Knights\" of VMFA-314 at Marine Corps Air Station El Toro, California becoming the first operational squadron.", "Marine Phantoms from VMFA-531 \"Grey Ghosts\" were assigned to Da Nang airbase on South Vietnam's northeast coast on 10 May 1965 and were initially assigned to provide air defense for the USMC.", "They soon began close air support missions (CAS) and VMFA-314 'Black Knights', VMFA-232 'Red Devils, VMFA-323 'Death Rattlers', and VMFA-542 'Bengals' soon arrived at the primitive airfield.", "Marine F-4 pilots claimed three enemy MiGs (two while on exchange duty with the USAF) at the cost of 75 aircraft lost in combat, mostly to ground fire, and four in accidents.The VMCJ-1 Golden Hawks (later VMAQ-1 and VMAQ-4 which had the old RM tailcode) flew the first photo recon mission with an RF-4B variant on 3 November 1966 from Da Nang AB, South Vietnam and remained there until 1970 with no RF-4B losses and only one aircraft damaged by anti-aircraft artillery (AAA) fire.", "VMCJ-2 and VMCJ-3 (now VMAQ-3) provided aircraft for VMCJ-1 in Da Nang and VMFP-3 was formed in 1975 at MCAS El Toro, CA consolidating all USMC RF-4Bs in one unit that became known as \"The Eyes of the Corps.\"", "VMFP-3 disestablished in August 1990 after the Advanced Tactical Airborne Reconnaissance System was introduced for the F/A-18D Hornet.The F-4 continued to equip fighter-attack squadrons in both active and reserve Marine Corps units throughout the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s and into the early 1990s.", "In the early 1980s, these squadrons began to transition to the F/A-18 Hornet, starting with the same squadron that introduced the F-4 to the Marine Corps, VMFA-314 at MCAS El Toro, California.", "On 18 January 1992, the last Marine Corps Phantom, an F-4S in the Marine Corps Reserve, was retired by the \"Cowboys\" of VMFA-112 at NAS Dallas, Texas, after which the squadron was re-equipped with F/A-18 Hornets.===Aerial combat in the Vietnam War===The USAF and the US Navy had high expectations of the F-4 Phantom, assuming that the massive firepower, the best available on-board radar, the highest speed and acceleration properties, coupled with new tactics, would provide Phantoms with an advantage over the MiGs.", "However, in confrontations with the lighter MiG-21, F-4s did not always succeed and began to suffer losses.", "Over the course of the air war in Vietnam, between 3 April 1965 and 8 January 1973, each side would ultimately claim favorable kill ratios.During the war, U.S. Navy F-4 Phantoms claimed 40 air-to-air victories at a loss of seven Phantoms to enemy aircraft.", "USMC F-4 pilots claimed three enemy MiGs at the cost of one aircraft in air-combat.", "USAF F-4 Phantom crews scored MiG kills (including MiG-17s, eight MiG-19s and 66 MiG-21s) at a cost of 33 Phantoms in air-combat.", "F-4 pilots were credited with a total of MiG kills at a cost of 42 Phantoms in air-combat.According to the VPAF, 103 F-4 Phantoms were shot down by MiG-21s at a cost of 54 MiG-21s downed by F-4s.", "During the war, the VPAF lost 131 MiGs in air combat (63 MiG-17s, eight MiG-19s and 60 MiG-21s) of which one half were by F-4s.From 1966 to November 1968, in 46 air battles conducted over North Vietnam between F-4s and MiG-21s, VPAF claimed 27 F-4s were shot down by MiG-21s at a cost of 20 MiG-21s In 1970, one F-4 Phantom was shot down by a MiG-21.The struggle culminated on 10 May 1972, with VPAF aircraft completing 64 sorties, resulting in 15 air battles.", "The VPAF claimed seven F-4s were shot down, while U.S. confirmed five F-4s were lost.", "The Phantoms, in turn, managed to destroy two MiG-21s, three MiG-17s, and one MiG-19.On 11 May, two MiG-21s, which played the role of \"bait\", brought the four F-4s to two MiG-21s circling at low altitude.", "The MiGs quickly engaged and shot down two F-4s.", "On 18 May, Vietnamese aircraft made 26 sorties in eight air engagements, which cost 4 F-4 Phantoms; Vietnamese fighters on that day did not suffer losses.On 5 August 1967, the USS ''Forrestal'' was stationed off the Indochina coast to carry out strikes against North Vietnam.", "An electrical fault caused a Zuni rocket to be fired from an F-4.The rocket struck the fuel tank of an A-4 Skyhawk attack aircraft, starting a fire which quickly spread to other airplanes, setting off several bombs.", "The fire and explosions killed 134 men and seriously wounded 161 more in what became known as the 1967 USS Forrestal fire.===Non-U.S. users===The Phantom has served with the air forces of many countries, including Australia, Egypt, Germany, United Kingdom, Greece, Iran, Israel, Japan, Spain, South Korea and Turkey.====Australia====The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) leased 24 USAF F-4Es from 1970 to 1973 while waiting for their order for the General Dynamics F-111C to be delivered.", "They were so well-liked that the RAAF considered retaining the aircraft after the F-111Cs were delivered.", "They were operated from RAAF Amberley by No.", "1 Squadron and No.", "6 Squadron.====Egypt====In 1979, the Egyptian Air Force purchased 35 former USAF F-4Es along with a number of Sparrow, Sidewinder, and Maverick missiles from the U.S. for $594 million as part of the \"Peace Pharaoh\" program.", "An additional seven surplus USAF aircraft were purchased in 1988.Three attrition replacements had been received by the end of the 1990s.Egyptian F-4Es were retired in 2020, with their former base at Cairo West Air Base being reconfigured for the operation of F-16C/D Fighting Falcons.====Germany====F-4Fs of the German Air Force, 21 January 1998The West German air force (''Luftwaffe'') initially ordered the reconnaissance RF-4E in 1969, receiving a total of 88 aircraft from January 1971.In 1973, under the \"Peace Rhine\" program, the ''Luftwaffe'' purchased 175 units of the F-4F.", "The “F” variant was a more agile version of the “E”, due to its lower weight and slatted wings.", "However this was achieved at the expense of reduced fuel capacity, and the elimination of AIM-7 Sparrow capability.", "These purchases made Germany the largest export customer for the Phantom.In 1975, West Germany also received 10 F-4Es for training in the U.S.", "In the late 1990s, these were withdrawn from service after being replaced by F-4Fs.", "In 1982, the initially unarmed RF-4Es were given a secondary ground attack capability; these aircraft were retired in 1994.The F-4F was upgraded in the mid-1980s.", "West Germany also initiated the Improved Combat Efficiency (ICE) program in 1983.The 110 ICE-upgraded F-4Fs entered service in 1992, and were expected to remain in service until 2012.All the remaining Luftwaffe Phantoms were based at Wittmund with ''Jagdgeschwader'' 71 (fighter wing 71) in Northern Germany and WTD61 at Manching.", "A total of 24 German F-4F Phantom IIs were operated by the 49th Tactical Fighter Wing of the USAF at Holloman AFB to train ''Luftwaffe'' crews until December 2004.Phantoms were deployed to NATO states under the Baltic Air Policing starting in 2005, 2008, 2009, 2011 and 2012.The German Air Force retired its last F-4Fs on 29 June 2013.German F-4Fs flew 279,000 hours from entering service on 31 August 1973 until retirement.====Greece====In 1971, the Hellenic Air Force ordered brand new F-4E Phantoms, with deliveries starting in 1974.In the early 1990s, the Hellenic AF acquired surplus RF-4Es and F-4Es from the ''Luftwaffe'' and U.S. ANG.", "Following the success of the German ICE program, on 11 August 1997, a contract was signed between DASA of Germany and Hellenic Aerospace Industry for the upgrade of 39 aircraft to the very similar \"Peace Icarus 2000\" standard.", "On 5 May 2017, the Hellenic Air Force officially retired the RF-4E Phantom II during a public ceremony.====Iran====Iranian F-4E Phantom refueling through a boom during Iran-Iraq war, 1982In the 1960s and 1970s when the U.S. and Iran were on friendly terms, the U.S. delivered 225 F-4D, F-4E, and RF-4E Phantoms to Iran, making it the second largest export customer.", "The Imperial Iranian Air Force saw at least one engagement, resulting in a loss, after an RF-4C was rammed by a Soviet MiG-21 during Project Dark Gene, an ELINT operation during the Cold War.The Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force Phantoms saw heavy action in the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s and were kept operational by overhaul and servicing from Iran's aerospace industry.", "Notable operations of Iranian F-4s during the war included Operation Scorch Sword, an attack by two F-4s against the Iraqi Osirak nuclear reactor site near Baghdad on 30 September 1980, and the attack on H3, a 4 April 1981 strike by eight Iranian F-4s against the H-3 complex of air bases in the far west of Iraq, which resulted in many Iraqi aircraft being destroyed or damaged for no Iranian losses.On 5 June 1984, two Saudi Arabian fighter pilots shot down two Iranian F-4 fighters.", "The Royal Saudi Air Force pilots were flying American-built F-15s and fired air-to-air missiles to bring down the Iranian planes.", "The Saudi fighter pilots had Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker planes and Boeing E-3 Sentry AWACS surveillance planes assist in the encounter.", "The aerial fight occurred in Saudi airspace over the Persian Gulf near the Saudi island Al Arabiyah, about 60 miles northeast of Jubail.Iranian F-4s were in use as of late 2014; the aircraft reportedly conducted air strikes on ISIS targets in the eastern Iraqi province of Diyala.====Israel====Israeli Air Force F-4Es taking off during the Yom Kippur War in October 1973The Israeli Air Force acquired between 212 and 222 newly built and ex-USAF aircraft, and modified several as one-off special reconnaissance variants.", "The first F-4Es, nicknamed \"''Kurnass''\" (Sledgehammer), and RF-4Es, nicknamed \"''Orev''\" (Raven), were delivered in 1969 under the \"Peace Echo I\" program.", "Additional Phantoms arrived during the 1970s under \"Peace Echo II\" through \"Peace Echo V\" and \"Nickel Grass\" programs.", "Israeli Phantoms saw extensive combat during Arab–Israeli conflicts, first seeing action during the War of Attrition.", "In the 1980s, Israel began the \"Kurnass 2000\" modernization program which significantly updated avionics.", "The last Israeli F-4s were retired in 2004.====Japan====From 1968, the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) purchased a total of 140 F-4EJ Phantoms without aerial refueling, AGM-12 Bullpup missile system, nuclear control system or ground attack capabilities.", "Mitsubishi built 138 under license in Japan and 14 unarmed reconnaissance RF-4Es were imported.", "One of the aircraft (''17-8440'') was the last of the 5,195 F-4 Phantoms to be produced.", "It was manufactured by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries on 21 May 1981.", "\"The Final Phantom\" served with 306th Tactical Fighter Squadron and later transferred to the 301st Tactical Fighter Squadron.JASDF F-4EJ Kais (''57-8354'' and ''87-8407'') of 8 Hikōtai in gray air superiority paint scheme, 2002Of these, 96 F-4EJs were modified to the F-4EJ standard.", "15 F-4EJ and F-4EJ Kai were converted to reconnaissance aircraft designated RF-4EJ.", "Japan had a fleet of 90 F-4s in service in 2007.After studying several replacement fighters the F-35A Lightning II was chosen in 2011.The 302nd Tactical Fighter Squadron became the first JASDF F-35 Squadron at Misawa Air Base when it converted from the F-4EJ Kai on 29 March 2019.The JASDF's sole aerial reconnaissance unit, the 501st Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron, retired their RF-4Es and RF-4EJs on 9 March 2020, and the unit itself dissolved on 26 March.The 301st Tactical Fighter Squadron then became the sole user of the F-4EJ in the Air Defense Command, with their retirement originally scheduled in 2021 along with the unit's transition to the F-35A.", "However, on 20 November 2020, the 301st Tactical Fighter Squadron announced the earlier retirement of their remaining F-4EJs, concluding the Phantom's long-running career in the JASDF Air Defense Command.", "Although retirement was announced, the 301st TFS continued operations up until 10 December 2020, with the squadron's Phantoms being decommissioned on 14 December.", "Two F-4EJs and a F-4EJ Kai continued to be operated by the Air Development and Test Wing in Gifu Prefecture until their retirement on 17 March 2021, marking an end of Phantom operations in Japan.====South Korea====The Republic of Korea Air Force acquired its first batch of used USAF F-4D Phantoms in 1968 under the \"Peace Spectator\" program.", "The F-4Ds continued to be delivered until 1988.The \"Peace Pheasant II\" program also provided new-built and former USAF F-4Es.", "It operated 92 F-4D units, 27 RF-4C units, and 103 F-4E units.", "The ROKAF plans to retire all 19 remaining F-4E units in 2024.====Spain====The Spanish Air Force acquired its first batch of ex-USAF F-4C Phantoms in 1971 under the \"Peace Alfa\" program.", "Designated C.12, the aircraft were retired in 1989.At the same time, the air arm received a number of ex-USAF RF-4Cs, designated CR.12.In 1995–1996, these aircraft received extensive avionics upgrades.", "Spain retired its RF-4s in 2002.====Turkey====Popeye missiles takes off from Third Air Force Base Konya, Turkey, during Exercise Anatolian Eagle.The Turkish Air Force (TAF) received 40 F-4Es in 1974, with a further 32 F-4Es and 8 RF-4Es in 1977–78 under the \"Peace Diamond III\" program, followed by 40 ex-USAF aircraft in \"Peace Diamond IV\" in 1987, and a further 40 ex-U.S. Air National Guard Aircraft in 1991.A further 32 RF-4Es were transferred to Turkey after being retired by the Luftwaffe between 1992 and 1994.In 1995, Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI) implemented an upgrade similar to Kurnass 2000 on 54 Turkish F-4Es which were dubbed the F-4E 2020 Terminator.", "Turkish F-4s, and more modern F-16s have been used to strike Kurdish PKK bases in ongoing military operations in Northern Iraq.", "On 22 June 2012, a Turkish RF-4E was shot down by Syrian air defenses while flying a reconnaissance flight near the Turkish-Syrian border.", "Turkey has stated the reconnaissance aircraft was in international airspace when it was shot down, while Syrian authorities stated it was inside Syrian airspace.", "Turkish F-4s remained in use as of 2020, and it plans to fly them at least until 2030.On 24 February 2015, two RF-4Es crashed in the Malatya region in the southeast of Turkey, under yet unknown circumstances, killing both crew of two each.", "On 5 March 2015, an F-4E-2020 crashed in central Anatolia killing both crew.", "After the recent accidents, the TAF withdrew RF-4Es from active service.", "Turkey was reported to have used F-4 jets to attack PKK separatists and the ISIS capital on 19 September 2015.The Turkish Air Force has reportedly used the F-4E 2020s against the more recent Third Phase of the PKK conflict on heavy bombardment missions into Iraq on 15 November 2015, 12 January 2016, and 12 March 2016.====United Kingdom====An F-4J of the U.S. Navy (foreground), alongside an F-4K of the Fleet Air Arm (background) wait to be catapulted from , March 1975; one of the major differences can be seen by the higher degree of the British aircraft's extendable nose wheel.", "Both variants were eventually used by the Royal Air ForceThe United Kingdom bought versions based on the U.S. Navy's F-4J for use with the Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm.", "The UK was the only country outside the United States to operate the Phantom at sea, with them operating from .", "The main differences were the use of the British Rolls-Royce Spey engines and of British-made avionics.", "The RN and RAF versions were given the designation F-4K and F-4M respectively, and entered service with the British military aircraft designations Phantom FG.1 (fighter/ground attack) and Phantom FGR.2 (fighter/ground attack/reconnaissance).Initially, the FGR.2 was used in the ground attack and reconnaissance role, primarily with RAF Germany, while 43 Squadron was formed in the air defense role using the FG.1s that had been intended for the Fleet Air Arm for use aboard .", "The superiority of the Phantom over the English Electric Lightning in terms of both range and weapons system capability, combined with the successful introduction of the SEPECAT Jaguar, meant that, during the mid-1970s, most of the ground attack Phantoms in Germany were redeployed to the UK to replace air defense Lightning squadrons.", "A second RAF squadron, 111 Squadron, was formed on the FG.1 in 1979 after the disbandment of 892 NAS.In 1982, during the Falklands War, three Phantom FGR2s of No.", "29 Squadron were on active Quick Reaction Alert duty on Ascension Island to protect the base from air attack.", "After the Falklands War, 15 upgraded ex-USN F-4Js, known as the F-4J(UK) entered RAF service to compensate for one interceptor squadron redeployed to the Falklands.Around 15 RAF squadrons received various marks of Phantom, many of them based in Germany.", "The first to be equipped was No.", "228 Operational Conversion Unit at RAF Coningsby in August 1968.One noteworthy operator was No.", "43 Squadron where Phantom FG1s remained the squadron equipment for 20 years, arriving in September 1969 and departing in July 1989.During this period the squadron was based at Leuchars.The interceptor Phantoms were replaced by the Panavia Tornado F3 from the late 1980s onwards.", "Originally to be used until 2003, it was set back to 1992 due to restructuring of the British Armed Forces and the last combat British Phantoms were retired in October 1992 when No.", "74(F) Squadron was disbanded.", "Phantom FG.1 ''XT597'' was the last British Phantom to be retired on 28 January 1994, it was used as a test jet by the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment for its whole service life.===Civilian use===Sandia National Laboratories expended an F-4 mounted on a \"rocket sled\" in a crash test to record the results of an aircraft impacting a reinforced concrete structure, such as a nuclear power plant.The Collings Foundation F-4D Phantom II, with Vietnam-era \"Ritchie/DeBellevue\" markings, taxis at Selfridge ANGB, May 2005One aircraft, an F-4D (civilian registration NX749CF), is operated by the Massachusetts-based non-profit organization Collings Foundation as a \"living history\" exhibit.", "Funds to maintain and operate the aircraft, which is based in Houston, Texas, are raised through donations/sponsorships from public and commercial parties.After finding the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter inadequate, NASA used the F-4 to photograph and film Titan II missiles after launch from Cape Canaveral during the 1960s.", "Retired U.S. Air Force colonel Jack Petry described how he put his F-4 into a Mach 1.2 dive synchronized to the launch countdown, then \"walked the (rocket's) contrail\".", "Petry's Phantom stayed with the Titan for 90 seconds, reaching 68,000 feet, then broke away as the missile continued into space.NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center acquired an F-4A on 3 December 1965.It made 55 flights in support of short programs, chase on X-15 missions and lifting body flights.", "The F-4 also supported a biomedical monitoring program involving 1,000 flights by NASA Flight Research Center aerospace research pilots and students of the USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School flying high-performance aircraft.", "The pilots were instrumented to record accurate and reliable data of electrocardiogram, respiration rate, and normal acceleration.", "In 1967, the Phantom supported a brief military-inspired program to determine whether an airplane's sonic boom could be directed and whether it could be used as a weapon of sorts, or at least an annoyance.", "NASA also flew an F-4C in a spanwise blowing study from 1983 to 1985, after which it was returned." ], [ "Variants", "McGuire AFB in May 2007 with an A-10 in the background;F-4A, B, J, N and S:Variants for the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Marine Corps.", "F-4B was upgraded to F-4N, and F-4J was upgraded to F-4S.", ";F-110 (original USAF designation for F-4C), F-4C, D and E:Variants for the U.S. Air Force.", "F-4E introduced an internal M61 Vulcan cannon.", "The F-4D and E were the most numerously produced, widely exported, and also extensively used under the Semi Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) U.S. air defense system.", ";F-4G Wild Weasel V:A dedicated SEAD variant for the U.S. Air Force with updated radar and avionics, converted from F-4E.", "The designation F-4G was applied earlier to an entirely different U.S. Navy Phantom.", "; F-4K and M:Variants for the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force, respectively, re-engined with Rolls-Royce Spey turbofan engines.", ";F-4EJ and RF-4EJ:Simplified F-4E exported to and license-built in Japan.", "Some modified for reconnaissance role, carrying photographic and/or electronic reconnaissance pods and designated RF-4EJ.", ";F-4F:Simplified F-4E exported to Germany.", ";QRF-4C, QF-4B, E, G, N and S:Retired aircraft converted into remote-controlled target drones used for weapons and defensive systems research by USAF and USN / USMC.", ";RF-4B, C, and E:Tactical reconnaissance variants." ], [ "Operators", "Hellenic Air Force RF-4E Phantom II in a special color scheme, lands at RIAT 2008, UKSpanish Air Force RF-4C Phantom II, 15 June 1993Egyptian Air Force F-4E Phantom IIs of the 222nd Tactical Fighter Brigade in formation with a U.S. Air Force 347th Tactical Fighter Wing F-4E Phantom II during exercise Proud PhantomA Royal Australian Air Force F-4E Phantom II at RAAF Base Pearce in 1971Map with current operators of the F-4 Phantom II in blue and former operators in red.===Current===; * Hellenic Air Force – 18 F-4E AUPs in service**Andravida Air Base, Elis***338th Fighter-Bomber Squadron; * Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force – 62 F-4D, F-4E, and RF-4Es in service** Bandar Abbas Air Base, Hormozgan Province*** 91st Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-4E)** Bushehr Air Base, Bushehr Province*** 61st Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-4E)** Chabahar Konarak Air Base, Sistan and Baluchestan Province*** 101st Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-4D)** Hamadan Air Base, Hamadan Province*** 31st Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron (RF-4E)*** 31st Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-4E); * Republic of Korea Air Force – 19 F-4E units in service** Suwon Air Base, Gyeonggi Province*** 153rd Fighter Squadron; * Turkish Air Force – 54 F-4E 2020 Terminators in service** Eskişehir Air Base, Eskişehir Province***111 Filo===Former operators===; * Royal Australian Air Force (F-4E 1970 to 1973); * Egyptian Air Force (F-4E 1977 to 2020); * German Air Force (RF-4E 1971 to 1994; F-4F 1973 to 2013; F-4E 1978 to 1992); * Hellenic Air Force (RF-4E 1978 to 2017); * Imperial Iranian Air Force (F-4D 1968 to 1979; F-4E 1971 to 1979; RF-4E 1971 to 1979); * Israeli Air Force (F-4E 1969 to 2004; RF-4C 1970 to 1971; RF-4E 1971 to 2004); * Japan Air Self-Defense Force (F-4EJ 1971 to 2021; RF-4E 1974 to 2020; RF-4EJ 1992 to 2020); * Republic of Korea Air Force (F-4D 1969 to 2010; RF-4C 1989 to 2014); * Spanish Air Force (F-4C 1971 to 1990; RF-4C 1978 to 2002); * Turkish Air Force (RF-4E 1980 to 2015); * Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (F-4K 1970 to 1994)* Fleet Air Arm (F-4K 1968 to 1978)* Royal Air Force (F-4M 1968 to 1992; F-4K 1969 to 1990; F-4J(UK) 1984 to 1991); * NASA (F-4A 1965 to 1967; F-4C 1983 to 1985)* United States Air Force (F-4B 1963 to 1964; F-4C 1964 to 1989; RF-4C 1964 to 1995; F-4D 1965 to 1992; F-4E 1967 to 1991; F-4G 1978 to 1996; QF-4 1996 to 2016)* United States Marine Corps (F-4B 1962 to 1979; RF-4B 1965 to 1990; F-4J 1967 to 1984; F-4N 1973 to 1985; F-4S 1978 to 1992)* United States Navy (F-4A 1960 to 1968; F-4B 1961 to 1974; F-4J 1966 to 1982; F-4N 1973 to 1984; F-4S 1979 to 1987; QF-4 1983 to 2004)" ], [ "Culture", "===Nicknames===An F-4F on display described as the \"World's largest distributor of MiG parts\", because of the high number of this type of enemy aircraft shot downThe Phantom gathered a number of nicknames during its career.", "Some of these names included \"Snoopy\", \"Rhino\", \"Double Ugly\", \"Old Smokey\", the \"Flying Anvil\", \"Flying Footlocker\", \"Flying Brick\", \"Lead Sled\", the \"Big Iron Sled\", and the \"St. Louis Slugger\" (owing to it being produced in St. Louis).", "In recognition of its record of downing large numbers of Soviet-built MiGs, it was called the \"World's Leading Distributor of MiG Parts\".", "As a reflection of excellent performance in spite of its bulk, the F-4 was dubbed \"the triumph of thrust over aerodynamics.\"", "German ''Luftwaffe'' crews called their F-4s the ''Eisenschwein'' (\"Iron Pig\"), ''Fliegender Ziegelstein'' (\"Flying Brick\") and ''Luftverteidigungsdiesel'' (\"Air Defense Diesel\").", "In the RAF it was most commonly referred to as “The Toom” (not tomb).===Reputation===Imitating the spelling of the aircraft's name, McDonnell issued a series of patches.", "Pilots became \"Phantom Phlyers\", backseaters became \"Phantom Pherrets\", fans of the F-4 \"Phantom Phanatics\", and call it the \"Phabulous Phantom\".", "Ground crewmen who worked on the aircraft are known as \"Phantom Phixers\".Several active websites are devoted to sharing information on the F-4, and the aircraft is grudgingly admired as brutally effective by those who have flown it.", "Colonel (Ret.)", "Chuck DeBellevue reminisced, \"The F-4 Phantom was the last plane that looked like it was made to kill somebody.", "It was a beast.", "It could go through a flock of birds and kick out barbeque from the back.\"", "It had \"A reputation of being a clumsy bruiser reliant on brute engine power and obsolete weapons technology.", "\"===The Spook===The SpookThe aircraft's emblem is a whimsical cartoon ghost called \"The Spook\", which was created by McDonnell Douglas technical artist, Anthony \"Tony\" Wong, for shoulder patches.", "The name \"Spook\" was coined by the crews of either the 12th Tactical Fighter Wing or the 4453rd Combat Crew Training Wing at MacDill AFB.", "The figure is ubiquitous, appearing on many items associated with the F-4.The Spook has followed the Phantom around the world adopting local fashions; for example, the British adaptation of the U.S. \"Phantom Man\" is a Spook that sometimes wears a bowler hat and smokes a pipe." ], [ "Aircraft on display", "As a result of its extensive number of operators and large number of aircraft produced, there are many F-4 Phantom II of numerous variants on display worldwide." ], [ "Notable accidents", "* On 6 June 1971, Hughes Airwest Flight 706, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-31 collided in mid-air with a United States Marine Corps F-4B Phantom above the San Gabriel Mountains, while en route from Los Angeles International Airport to Salt Lake City.", "All 49 on board the DC-9 were killed, while the pilot of the F-4B was unable to eject and died when the aircraft crashed shortly afterwards.", "The F-4B's Radar Intercept Officer successfully ejected from the plane and parachuted to safety, being the sole survivor of the incident.", "* On 9 August 1974, a Royal Air Force Phantom FGR2 was involved in a fatal collision with a civilian PA-25-235 Pawnee crop-sprayer over Norfolk, England.", "* On 17 August 1978, during a training exercise of the Mediterranean Sea, a US Navy F-4 shot down another US Navy F-4 with an AIM-9H.", "The pilots of the downed aircraft ejected and were recovered.", "* On 21 March 1987, Captain Dean Paul Martin, a pilot in the 163d Tactical Fighter Group of the California Air National Guard and son of entertainer Dean Martin, crashed his F-4C into San Gorgonio Mountain, California, shortly after departure from March Air Force Base.", "Both Martin and his weapon systems officer (WSO) Captain Ramon Ortiz were killed.", "* On 22 September 1987, a US Air Force (USAF) RF-4C Phantom II was shot down by a US Navy F-14 Tomcat during training NATO Exercise Display Determination 87 over the Mediterranean.", "The RF-4C was conducting a simulated attack on when the F-14 pilot became confused and launched a live AIM-9 Sidewinder.", "The RF-4C crew ejected and were recovered.", "* On 30 January 2023, a Greek Air Force F-4E Phantom II crashed into the Ionian Sea.", "The aircraft was conducting a training exercise when it crashed 46 km south of the Andravida Air Base.", "The pilot, Captain Efstathios Tsitlakidis, and co-pilot, First Lieutenant Marios Michael Touroutsikas were killed in the crash." ], [ "Specifications (F-4E)", "3-side view of the F-4E/FStructural view of partially disassembled German F-4 Phantoms (2009)Sidewinder and Sparrow missiles (1972)Daegu Air Base (1979)" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* Angelucci, Enzo.", "''The American Fighter''.", "Sparkford, Somerset, UK: Haynes Publishing Group, 1987..* Beit-Hallahmi, Benjamin.", "''The Israeli Connection: Whom Israel Arms and Why''.", "London: I.G.", "Tauris, 1987..* Bishop, Farzad and Tom Cooper.", "''Iranian F-4 Phantom II Units in Combat (Osprey Combat Aircraft #37)''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2003..* Bowers, Peter M. and Enzo Angellucci.", "''The American Fighter''.", "New York: Orion Books, 1987..* Burden, Rodney, Michael I. Draper, Douglas A.", "Rough, Colin R. Smith and David L. Wilton.", "''Falklands: The Air War''.", "London: Arms and Armour Press, 1986..* Burgess, Richard E. ''The Naval Aviation Guide'', 4th ed.", "Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1985..* Calvert, Denis.", "''Le Tigri della RAF (RAF's Tigers)''(in Italian).", "''Aerei magazine N.5'', Parma, Italy: Delta editrice, 1991.", "* Carrara, Dino.", "''Phantom Targets: The USAFs Last F-4 Squadron''.", "''Air International,'' Volume 71, no.", "5, November 2006.Stamford, Lincolnshire, UK: Key Publishing, pp. 42–48..", "* Cooper, Tom and Farzad Bishop.", "''Target Saddam's Reactor: Israeli and Iranian Operations Against Iraqi Planes to Develop Nuclear Weapons''.", "''Air Enthusiast'', No.", "110, March/April 2004.pp. 2–12..", "* Davies, Peter E. ''USAF F-4 Phantom II MiG Killers 1965-68 (Osprey Combat Aircraft #45)''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2004..* Davies, Peter E. ''USAF F-4 Phantom II MiG Killers 1972-73 (Osprey Combat Aircraft #55)''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2005..* Deurenberg, Rudd.", "''Shedding Light on Iranian Phantoms''.", "''Air Enthusiast'', No.", "111, May/June 2004, p. 72.", "* Donald, David.", "''RAF Phantoms''.", "''Wings of Fame''.", "London: Aerospace.", "Volume 15, 1999.pp. 4–21..", "* Donald, David and Jon Lake, eds.", "''Desert Storm: The First Phase''. ''", "World Air Power Journal''.", "London: Aerospace, Volume 5, Spring 1991..* Donald, David and Jon Lake, eds.", "''Desert Storm: Gulf Victory''.", "''World Air Power Journal''.", "London: Aerospace, Volume 6, Summer 1991..* Donald, David and Jon Lake, eds.", "''Encyclopedia of World Military Aircraft''.", "London: AIRtime Publishing, 1996..* Donald, David and Jon Lake, eds.", "''McDonnell F-4 Phantom: Spirit in the Skies''.", "London: AIRtime Publishing, 2002..* Dorr, Robert F. ''Navy Phantoms in Vietnam''.", "''Wings of Fame'', Volume 1, 1995.London: Aerospace Publishing.", ".", "* Dorr, Robert F. \"McDonnell F3H Demon\".", "''Aeroplane''.", "Volume 36, No.", "3, March 2008, pp.", "58–61.London: IBC.", "* Dorr, Robert F. and Chris Bishop, eds.", "''Vietnam Air War Debrief''.", "London: Aerospace Publishing, 1996..* Dorr, Robert F. and Jon Lake.", "''Fighters of the United States Air Force''.", "London: Temple Press, 1990..* Dorr, Robert F. ''Phantoms Forever''.", "London: Osprey Publishing Limited, 1987..* Eden, Paul ed.", "''The Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft''.", "London: Amber Books Ltd, 2004..* Elward, Brad and Peter Davies.", "''US Navy F-4 Phantom II MiG Killers 1965-70 (Osprey Combat Aircraft #26)''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2001..* Elward, Brad and Peter Davies.", "''US Navy F-4 Phantom II MiG Killers 1972-73 (Osprey Combat Aircraft #30)''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2002..* Freeman, CJ and Gunston, Bill Consulting ed.", "''The Encyclopedia of World Airpower''.", "Crown Publishers, 1979..* Fricker, John.", "\"Boeing /McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II Current Operators\".", "''World Air Power Journal''.", "London: Aerospace, Volume 40, Spring 2000..* Green, William and Gordon Swanborough.", "''The Great Book of Fighters''.", "St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing, 2001..* Gimmi, Russell M. ''Airman: The Life of Richard F. B. Gimmi''.", "Bloomington, Indiana: iUniverse, 2009..** Grossnick, Roy and William J. Armstrong.", "''United States Naval Aviation, 1910–1995''.", "Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Historical Center, 1997..* Gunston, Bill ed.", "''The Illustrated History of Fighters''.", "New York, New York: Exeter Books Div.", "of Simon Schuster, 1981..* Gunston, Bill Consulting ed.", "''The Encyclopedia of World Airpower''.", "Crown Publishers, 1979..* Higham, Robin and Carol Williams.", "''Flying Combat Aircraft of USAAF-USAF (Vol.2)''.", "Manhattan, Kansas: Sunflower University Press, 1978..* Hobson, Chris.", "''Vietnam Air Losses, USAF, USN, USMC, Fixed-Wing Aircraft Losses in Southeast Asia 1961–1973''.", "North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2001..*Howarth, Alan.", "''Spanish Phantoms and Their Legacy''.", "Air Enthusiast 115, January–February 2005, p. 74 * Jefford, C.G.", "''RAF Squadrons: A Comprehensive Record of the Movement and Equipment of All RAF Squadrons and Their Antecedents Since 1912:''.", "Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife Publishing, 2nd edition, 2001.", "* Jones, Lloyd S. ''U.S.", "Fighters: 1925–1980s''.", "Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, Inc., 1975..* Knaack, Marcelle Size.", "''Encyclopedia of U.S. Air Force Aircraft and Missile Systems: Volume 1 Post-World War II Fighters 1945–1973''.", "Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1978..* Lake Jon.", "''McDonnell F-4 Phantom: Spirit in the Skies''.", "London: Aerospace Publishing, 1992..* List, Friedrich.", "\"German Air Arms Review\".", "''Air International,'' Volume 70, No.", "5, May 2006, pp.", "50–57.Stamford, Lincolnshire, UK: Key Publishing..* Melampy, Jake.", "\"Phantoms West\".", "''Air International'', Volume 80, No.", "1, January 2011, pp.", "36–38.Stamford, Lincolnshire, UK: Key Publishing..* Nordeen, Lon.", "''Fighters Over Israel: The Story of the Israeli Air Force from the War of Independence to the Bekaa Valley''.", "London: Guild Publishing, 1991..* Richardson, Doug and Mike Spick.", "''F-4 Phantom II (Modern Fighting Aircraft, Volume 4) ''.", "New York: Arco Publishing, 1984..* Swanborough, Gordon and Peter Bowers.", "''United States Military Aircraft Since 1909''.", "Washington, District of Columbia: Smithsonian, 1989..* Swanborough, Gordon and Peter Bowers.", "''United States Navy Aircraft since 1911''.", "London: Putnam, 1976..* Taylor, Michael J.H.", "''Jane's American Fighting Aircraft of the 20th century''.", "New York: Mallard Press, 1991..* Thetford, Owen.", "''British Naval Aircraft since 1912''.", "London: Putnam, Fourth Edition, 1994, pp. 254–255..", "* Thornborough, Anthony M. and Peter E. Davies.", "''The Phantom Story''.", "London: Arms and Armour Press, 1994..* Wagner, Ray.", "''American Combat Planes, Third Enlarged Edition''.", "New York: Doubleday, 1982..* Wilson, Stewart.", "''Phantom, Hornet and Skyhawk in Australian Service''.", "Weston Creek, ACT, Australia: Aerospace Publications, 1993.." ], [ "External links", "* F-4 Phantom II history page on Boeing.com* F-4 Phantom II Society site* PhantomF4K.org – Fleet Air Arm – Royal Navy site* F-4.nl site* Countering Israeli Reaction to F-4 Sales to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait * 8th Tactical Fighter Wing site* F-4 Phantom II articles and publications, theaviationindex.com* The Phantom page with images on fas.org* * \"The Phantom Turns 50\" article at Fence Check site* F-4 Phantom page on Aerospaceweb.org* RAF Phantom Losses* The Phantom Zone* * Phantom 50th Anniversary Slideshow" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "McDonnell FH Phantom" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''McDonnell FH Phantom''' is a twinjet fighter aircraft designed and first flown during World War II for the United States Navy.", "The Phantom was the first purely jet-powered aircraft to land on an American aircraft carrier and the first jet deployed by the United States Marine Corps.", "Although only 62 FH-1s were built it helped prove the viability of carrier-based jet fighters.", "As McDonnell's first successful fighter, it led to the development of the follow-on F2H Banshee, which was one of the two most important naval jet fighters of the Korean War; combined, the two established McDonnell as an important supplier of navy aircraft.McDonnell chose to bring the name back with the Mach 2–class McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, the most versatile and widely used western combat aircraft of the Vietnam War era.The FH Phantom was originally designated the '''FD Phantom''', but this was changed as the aircraft entered production." ], [ "Design and development", "In early 1943, aviation officials at the United States Navy were impressed with McDonnell's audacious XP-67 Bat project.", "McDonnell was invited by the navy to cooperate in the development of a shipboard jet fighter, using an engine from the turbojets under development by Westinghouse Electric Corporation.", "Three prototypes were ordered on 30 August 1943 and the designation XFD-1 was assigned.", "Under the 1922 United States Navy aircraft designation system, the letter \"D\" before the dash designated the aircraft's manufacturer.", "The Douglas Aircraft Company had previously been assigned this letter, but the USN elected to reassign it to McDonnell because Douglas had not provided any fighters for navy service in years.McDonnell engineers evaluated a number of engine combinations, varying from eight diameter engines down to two engines of diameter.", "The final design used the two engines after it was found to be the lightest and simplest configuration.", "The engines were buried in the wing root to keep intake and exhaust ducts short, offering greater aerodynamic efficiency than underwing nacelles, and the engines were angled slightly outwards to protect the fuselage from the hot exhaust blast.", "Placement of the engines in the middle of the airframe allowed the cockpit with its bubble-style canopy to be placed ahead of the wing, granting the pilot excellent visibility in all directions.", "This engine location also freed up space under the nose, allowing designers to use tricycle gear, thereby elevating the engine exhaust path and reducing the risk that the hot blast would damage the aircraft carrier deck.", "The construction methods and aerodynamic design of the Phantom were fairly conventional for the time; the aircraft had unswept wings, a conventional empennage, and an aluminum monocoque structure with flush riveted aluminum skin.", "Folding wings were used to reduce the width of the aircraft in storage configuration.", "Provisions for four .50-caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns were made in the nose, while racks for eight High Velocity Aircraft Rockets could be fitted under the wings, although these were seldom used in service.", "Adapting a jet to carrier use was a much greater challenge than producing a land-based fighter because of slower landing and takeoff speeds required on a small carrier deck.", "The Phantom used split flaps on both the folding and fixed wing sections to enhance low-speed landing performance, but no other high-lift devices were used.", "Provisions were also made for Rocket Assisted Take Off (RATO) bottles to improve takeoff performance.VF-17A ''Phantom Fighters'' taxies to the catapult during carrier qualifications on the light aircraft carrier , in May 1948When the first XFD-1, serial number ''48235'', was completed in January 1945, only one Westinghouse 19XB-2B engine was available for installation.", "Ground runs and taxi tests were conducted with the single engine, and such was the confidence in the aircraft that the first flight on 26 January 1945 was made with only the one turbojet engine.", "During flight tests, the Phantom became the first U.S. Navy aircraft to exceed 500 mph (434 kn, 805 km/h).", "With successful completion of tests, a production contract was awarded on 7 March 1945 for 100 FD-1 aircraft.", "With the end of the war, the Phantom production contract was reduced to 30 aircraft, but was soon increased back to 60.The first prototype was lost in a fatal crash on 1 November 1945, but the second and final Phantom prototype (serial number ''48236'') was completed early the next year and became the first purely jet-powered aircraft to operate from an American aircraft carrier, completing four successful takeoffs and landings on 21 July 1946, from near Norfolk, Virginia.", "At the time, she was the largest carrier serving with the U.S. Navy, allowing the aircraft to take off without assistance from a catapult.", "The second prototype crashed on 26 August 1946.Production Phantoms incorporated a number of design improvements.", "These included provisions for a flush-fitting centerline drop tank, an improved gunsight, and the addition of speed brakes.", "Production models used Westinghouse J30-WE-20 engines with of thrust per engine.", "The top of the vertical tail had a more square shape than the rounder tail used on the prototypes, and a smaller rudder was used to resolve problems with control surface clearance discovered during test flights.", "The horizontal tail surfaces were shortened slightly, while the fuselage was stretched by .", "The amount of framing in the windshield was reduced to enhance pilot visibility.Halfway through the production run, the navy reassigned the designation letter \"D\" back to Douglas, with the Phantom being redesignated FH-1.Including the two prototypes, a total of 62 Phantoms were finally produced, with the last FH-1 rolling off the assembly line in May 1948.Realizing that the production of more powerful jet engines was imminent, McDonnell engineers proposed a more powerful variant of the Phantom while the original aircraft was still under development – a proposal that would lead to the design of the Phantom's replacement, the F2H Banshee.", "Although the new aircraft was originally envisioned as a modified Phantom, the need for heavier armament, greater internal fuel capacity, and other improvements eventually led to a substantially heavier and bulkier aircraft that shared few parts with its agile predecessor.", "Despite this, the two aircraft were similar enough that McDonnell was able to complete its first '''F2H-1''' in August 1948, a mere three months after the last '''FH-1''' had rolled off the assembly line." ], [ "Operational history", "Three FH-1 Phantoms of VMF-122 in 1949Three aircraft of the Minneapolis U.S.", "Naval Air Reserve (front to back): an FH-1 Phantom, an F4U-1 Corsair, and an SNJ Texan in 1951.The first Phantoms were delivered to USN fighter squadron VF-17A (later redesignated VF-171) in August 1947; the squadron received a full complement of 24 aircraft on 29 May 1948.Beginning in November 1947, Phantoms were delivered to United States Marine Corps squadron VMF-122, making it the first USMC combat squadron to deploy jets.", "VF-17A became the USN's first fully operational jet carrier squadron when it deployed aboard on 5 May 1948.The Phantom was one of the first jets used by the U.S. military for exhibition flying.", "Three Phantoms used by the Naval Air Test Center were used by a unique demonstration team called the Gray Angels, whose members consisted entirely of naval aviators holding the rank of rear admiral (Daniel V. Gallery, Apollo Soucek and Edgar A.", "Cruise.)", "The team's name was an obvious play on the name of the recently formed U.S. Navy Blue Angels, who were still flying propeller-powered Grumman F8F Bearcats at the time.", "The \"Grays\" flew in various air shows during the summer of 1947, but the team was abruptly disbanded after their poorly timed arrival at a September air show in Cleveland, Ohio, nearly caused a head-on low-altitude collision with a large formation of other aircraft; their Phantoms were turned over to test squadron VX-3.The VMF-122 Phantoms were later used for air show demonstrations until they were taken out of service in 1949, with the team being known alternately as the Marine Phantoms or the Flying Leathernecks.The Phantom's service as a frontline fighter would be short-lived.", "Its limited range and light armament – notably, its inability to carry bombs – made it best suited for duty as a point-defence interceptor aircraft.", "However, its speed and rate of climb were only slightly better than existing propeller-powered fighters and fell short of other contemporary jets, such as the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star, prompting concerns that the Phantom would be outmatched by future enemy jets it might soon face.", "Moreover, recent experience in World War II had demonstrated the value of naval fighters that could double as fighter-bombers, a capability the Phantom lacked.", "Finally, the aircraft exhibited some design deficiencies – its navigational avionics were poor, it could not accommodate newly developed ejection seats, and the location of the machine guns in the upper nose caused pilots to be dazzled by muzzle flash.The F2H Banshee and Grumman F9F Panther, both of which began flight tests around the time of the Phantom's entry into service, better satisfied the navy's desire for a versatile, long-range, high-performance jet.", "Consequently, the FH-1 saw little weapons training, and was primarily used for carrier qualifications to transition pilots from propeller-powered fighters to jets in preparation for flying the Panther or Banshee.", "In June 1949, VF-171 (VF-17A) re-equipped with the Banshee, and their Phantoms were turned over to VF-172; this squadron, along with the NATC, VX-3, and VMF-122, turned over their Phantoms to the United States Naval Reserve by late 1949 after receiving F2H-1 Banshees.", "The FH-1 would see training duty with the USNR until being replaced by the F9F Panther in July 1954; none ever saw combat, having been retired from frontline service prior to the outbreak of the Korean War.===Civilian use===In 1964, Progressive Aero, Incorporated of Fort Lauderdale, Florida purchased three surplus Phantoms, intending to use them to teach civilians how to fly jets.", "A pair were stripped of military equipment and restored to flying condition, but the venture was unsuccessful, and the aircraft were soon retired once again." ], [ "Variants", ";XFD-1: Prototype aircraft powered by Westinghouse 19XB-2B engines (J-30).", "Two built.", ";FH-1 (FD-1): Production version with Westinghouse J30-WE-20 engines (originally designated FD-1).", "60 built." ], [ "Operators", ";* United States Navy** VX-3** VF-171 (VF-17A)** VF-172** Naval Air Reserve* United States Marine Corps** VMF-122** VMF-311" ], [ "Aircraft on display", "FH-1 Phantom on display in Washington, D.C.;FH-1*BuNo 111759 - National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., United States.", "This aircraft served with Marine Fighter Squadron 122 (VMF-122).", "It was retired in April 1954, with a total of 418 flight hours.", "The aircraft was transferred to the Smithsonian by the U.S. Navy in 1959.", "*BuNo 111768 - Pima Air & Space Museum, Tucson, Arizona, on loan from the National Museum of the Marine Corps, Triangle, Virginia.", "It has had a busy post-retirement life.", "Formerly a Progressive Aero aircraft c/n 456 (civil registration N4283A) it was placed on display at the Marine Corps Museum.", "The aircraft was later transferred to the St. Louis Aviation Museum, and then the National Warplane Museum in Geneseo, New York.", "In 2006 the aircraft was moved to the Wings of Eagles Discovery Center in Horseheads, New York., and moved to Tucson in 2016.", "*BuNo 111793 - National Naval Aviation Museum at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida.", "This aircraft was accepted by the navy on 28 February 1948.After flying for a brief time with Marine Fighter Squadron (VMF) 122, the first Marine jet squadron, at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point, North Carolina, it was stricken from the naval inventory in 1949.The museum acquired the aircraft from National Jets, Inc., of Fort Lauderdale, Florida, in 1983." ], [ "Specifications (FH-1 Phantom)", "3-view line drawing of the McDonnell FD-1 Phantom" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* Angelucci, Enzo and Peter M. Bowers.", "''The American Fighter''.", "Sparkford, Somerset, UK: Haynes Publishing Group, 1987..** Francillon, René J.", "''McDonnell Douglas Aircraft since 1920''.", "London: Putnam & Company, Ltd, 1979..*Ginter, Steve.", "''McDonnell FH-1 Phantom''.", "(Naval Fighters Number 115) Simi Valley, California: Steve Ginter Books, 2022.", "* Green, William.", "''War Planes of the Second World War, Volume Four: Fighters''.", "London: MacDonald & Co. (Publishers) Ltd., 1961 (sixth impression 1969).", ".", "* Green, William and Gordon Swanborough.", "''WW2 Aircraft Fact Files: US Navy and Marine Corps Fighters''.", "London: Macdonald and Jane's, 1976..* Grossnick, Roy A.", "\"Part 6: Postwar Years: 1946–1949\".", "''United States Naval Aviation 1910–1995''.", "Washington, D.C.: Naval Historical Center, 1997..* Hamilton, Hayden.", "\"The McDonnell FH-1 Phantom: the Forgotten Phantom\".", "''AAHS Journal'', Vol.", "55, No.", "2, Summer 2010.", "* Mesko, Jim.", "''FH Phantom/F2H Banshee in Action''.", "Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc., 2002..* Mills, Carl.", "''Banshees in the Royal Canadian Navy''.", "Willowdale, Ontario, Canada: Banshee Publication, 1991..* \"Mr Mac's First Phantom: The Story of the McDonnell FH-1\".", "''Air International'' Vol.", "33, No.", "5, November 1987, pp.", "231–235, 258–260.Bromley, UK: Fine Scroll.", ".", "* Wagner, Ray.", "''American Combat Planes''.", "New York: Doubleday, 3rd edition, 1982.." ], [ "External links", "* \"Phantom Development\" a 1947 ''Flight'' article by John W. R. Taylor" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fricative" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''fricative''' is a consonant produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together.", "These may be the lower lip against the upper teeth, in the case of ; the back of the tongue against the soft palate in the case of German (the final consonant of ''Bach''); or the side of the tongue against the molars, in the case of Welsh (appearing twice in the name ''Llanelli'').", "This turbulent airflow is called '''frication'''.", "A particular subset of fricatives are the sibilants.", "When forming a sibilant, one still is forcing air through a narrow channel, but in addition, the tongue is curled lengthwise to direct the air over the edge of the teeth.", "English , , , and are examples of sibilants.The usage of two other terms is less standardized: \"'''Spirant'''\" is an older term for fricatives used by some American and European phoneticians and phonologists.", "\"'''Strident'''\" could mean just \"sibilant\", but some authors include also labiodental and uvular fricatives in the class." ], [ "Types", "The airflow is not completely stopped in the production of fricative consonants.", "In other words, the airflow experiences friction.===Sibilants===* voiceless coronal sibilant, as in English ''s''ip* voiced coronal sibilant, as in English ''z''ip** voiceless dental sibilant** voiced dental sibilant** voiceless apical sibilant** voiced apical sibilant** voiceless predorsal sibilant (laminal, with tongue tip at lower teeth)** voiced predorsal sibilant (laminal)** voiceless postalveolar sibilant (laminal)** voiced postalveolar sibilant (laminal)* voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant (domed, partially palatalized), as in English ''sh''ip* voiced palato-alveolar sibilant (domed, partially palatalized), as the ''si'' in English vi''si''on* voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant (laminal, palatalized)* voiced alveolo-palatal sibilant (laminal, palatalized)* voiceless retroflex sibilant (apical or subapical)* voiced retroflex sibilant (apical or subapical)All sibilants are coronal, but may be dental, alveolar, postalveolar, or palatal (retroflex) within that range.", "However, at the postalveolar place of articulation, the tongue may take several shapes: domed, laminal, or apical, and each of these is given a separate symbol and a separate name.", "Prototypical retroflexes are subapical and palatal, but they are usually written with the same symbol as the apical postalveolars.", "The alveolars and dentals may also be either apical or laminal, but this difference is indicated with diacritics rather than with separate symbols.===Central non-sibilant fricatives===* voiceless bilabial fricative* voiced bilabial fricative* voiceless labiodental fricative, as in English ''f''ine* voiced labiodental fricative, as in English ''v''ine* voiceless linguolabial fricative* voiced linguolabial fricative* voiceless dental non-sibilant fricative, as in English ''th''ing* voiced dental non-sibilant fricative, as in English ''th''at* voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative* voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative* Voiceless alveolar fricative trill* Voiced alveolar fricative trill* voiceless palatal fricative* voiced palatal fricative* voiceless velar fricative* voiced velar fricative* voiceless palatal-velar fricative (articulation disputed)The IPA also has letters for epiglottal fricatives,* voiceless epiglottal fricative* voiced epiglottal fricativewith allophonic trilling, but these might be better analyzed as pharyngeal trills.", "* voiceless velopharyngeal fricative (often occurs with a cleft palate)* voiced velopharyngeal fricative===Lateral fricatives===* voiceless dental lateral fricative* voiced dental lateral fricative* voiceless alveolar lateral fricative* voiced alveolar lateral fricative* voiceless postalveolar lateral fricative (Mehri)* voiced postalveolar lateral fricative* or extIPA voiceless retroflex lateral fricative* or extIPA Voiced retroflex lateral fricative (in Ao)* or or extIPA voiceless palatal lateral fricative * or extIPA voiced palatal lateral fricative (allophonic in Jebero)* or extIPA voiceless velar lateral fricative * or extIPA voiced velar lateral fricativeThe lateral fricative occurs as the ''ll'' of Welsh, as in ''Lloyd'', ''Llewelyn'', and ''Machynlleth'' (, a town), as the unvoiced 'hl' and voiced 'dl' or 'dhl' in the several languages of Southern Africa (such as Xhosa and Zulu), and in Mongolian.", "* or and voiceless lateral-median fricative (a laterally lisped or ) (Modern South Arabian)* or and voiced lateral-median fricative (a laterally lisped or ) (Modern South Arabian)===IPA letters used for both fricatives and approximants===* voiceless uvular fricative* voiced uvular fricative* voiceless pharyngeal fricative* voiced pharyngeal fricativeNo language distinguishes fricatives from approximants at these places, so the same symbol is used for both.", "For the pharyngeal, approximants are more numerous than fricatives.", "A fricative realization may be specified by adding the uptack to the letters, .", "Likewise, the downtack may be added to specify an approximant realization, .", "(The bilabial approximant and dental approximant do not have dedicated symbols either and are transcribed in a similar fashion: .", "However, the base letters are understood to specifically refer to the fricatives.", ")===Pseudo-fricatives===* voiceless glottal transition, as in English ''hat''* breathy-voiced glottal transitionIn many languages, such as English, the glottal \"fricatives\" are unaccompanied phonation states of the glottis, without any accompanying manner, fricative or otherwise.", "They may be mistaken for real glottal constrictions in a number of languages, such as Finnish.In addition, is usually called a \"voiceless labial-velar fricative\", but it is actually an approximant.", "True doubly articulated fricatives may not occur in any language; but see voiceless palatal-velar fricative for a putative (and rather controversial) example.===Aspirated fricatives===Fricatives are very commonly voiced, though cross-linguistically voiced fricatives are not nearly as common as tenuis (\"plain\") fricatives.", "Other phonations are common in languages that have those phonations in their stop consonants.", "However, phonemically aspirated fricatives are rare.", "contrasts with a tense, unaspirated in Korean; aspirated fricatives are also found in a few Sino-Tibetan languages, in some Oto-Manguean languages, in the Siouan language Ofo ( and ), and in the (central?)", "Chumash languages ( and ).", "The record may be Cone Tibetan, which has four contrastive aspirated fricatives: , , and .===Nasalized fricatives===Phonemically nasalized fricatives are rare.", "Umbundu has and Kwangali and Souletin Basque have .", "In Coatzospan Mixtec, appear allophonically before a nasal vowel, and in Igbo nasality is a feature of the syllable; when occur in nasal syllables they are themselves nasalized.----+Types of fricative bilabiallabio-dentallinguo-labialinter-dentaldentaldenti-alveolaralveolarpost-alveolarpalatal/retroflexvelaruvularpharyn-gealglottalcentral non-sibilant (laminal) (apical) lateral fricative laminal sibilant () apical sibilant ʃʰ ʒʱ fricative trill fricative flap nasalized fricative" ], [ "Occurrence", "Until its extinction, Ubykh may have been the language with the most fricatives (29 not including ), some of which did not have dedicated symbols or diacritics in the IPA.", "This number actually outstrips the number of all consonants in English (which has 24 consonants).", "By contrast, approximately 8.7% of the world's languages have no phonemic fricatives at all.", "This is a typical feature of Australian Aboriginal languages, where the few fricatives that exist result from changes to plosives or approximants, but also occurs in some indigenous languages of New Guinea and South America that have especially small numbers of consonants.", "However, whereas is ''entirely'' unknown in indigenous Australian languages, most of the other languages without true fricatives do have in their consonant inventory.Voicing contrasts in fricatives are largely confined to Europe, Africa, and Western Asia.", "Languages of South and East Asia, such as Mandarin Chinese, Korean, and the Austronesian languages, typically do not have such voiced fricatives as and , which are familiar to many European speakers.", "In some Dravidian languages they occur as allophones.", "These voiced fricatives are also relatively rare in indigenous languages of the Americas.", "Overall, voicing contrasts in fricatives are much rarer than in plosives, being found only in about a third of the world's languages as compared to 60 percent for plosive voicing contrasts.About 15 percent of the world's languages, however, have ''unpaired voiced fricatives'', i.e.", "a voiced fricative without a voiceless counterpart.", "Two-thirds of these, or 10 percent of all languages, have unpaired voiced fricatives but no voicing contrast between any fricative pair.This phenomenon occurs because voiced fricatives have developed from lenition of plosives or fortition of approximants.", "This phenomenon of unpaired voiced fricatives is scattered throughout the world, but is confined to nonsibilant fricatives with the exception of a couple of languages that have but lack .", "(Relatedly, several languages have the voiced affricate but lack , and vice versa.)", "The fricatives that occur most often without a voiceless counterpart are – in order of ratio of unpaired occurrences to total occurrences – , , , and ." ], [ "Acoustics", "Fricatives appear in waveforms as somewhat random noise caused by the turbulent airflow, upon which a periodic pattern is overlaid if voiced.", "Fricatives produced in the front of the mouth tend to have energy concentration at higher frequencies than ones produced in the back.", "The centre of gravity (''CoG''), i.e.", "the average frequency in a spectrum weighted by the amplitude (also known as ''spectral mean''), may be used to determine the place of articulation of a fricative relative to that of another." ], [ "See also", "* Apical consonant* Hush consonant* Laminal consonant* List of phonetics topics" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Fricatives in English" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Frost" ], [ "Introduction", "A patch of grass showing three zones.", "'''Frost''' is a thin layer of ice on a solid surface, which forms from water vapor that deposits onto a freezing surface.", "Frost forms when the air contains more water vapor than it can normally hold at a specific temperature.", "The process is similar to the formation of dew, except it occurs below the freezing point of water typically without crossing through a liquid state.", "Air always contains a certain amount of water vapor, depending on temperature.", "Warmer air can hold more than colder air.", "When the atmosphere contains more water than it can hold at a specific temperature, its relative humidity rises above 100% becoming supersaturated, and the excess water vapor is forced to deposit onto any nearby surface, forming seed crystals.", "The temperature at which frost will form is called the dew point, and depends on the humidity of the air.", "When the temperature of the air drops below its dew point, excess water vapor is forced out of solution, resulting in a phase change directly from water vapor (a gas) to ice (a solid).", "As more water molecules are added to the seeds, crystal growth occurs, forming ice crystals.", "Crystals may vary in size and shape, from an even layer of numerous microscopic-seeds to fewer but much larger crystals, ranging from long dendritic crystals (tree-like) growing across a surface, acicular crystals (needle-like) growing outward from the surface, snowflake-shaped crystals, or even large, knifelike blades of ice covering an object, which depends on many factors such as temperature, air pressure, air motion and turbulence, surface roughness and wettability, and the level of supersaturation.", "For example, water vapor adsorbs to glass very well, so automobile windows will often frost before the paint, and large hoar-frost crystals can grow very rapidly when the air is very cold, calm, and heavily saturated, such as during an ice fog.Frost may occur when warm, moist air comes into contact with a cold surface, cooling it below its dew point, such as warm breath on a freezing window.", "In the atmosphere, it more often occurs when both the air and the surface are below freezing, when the air experiences a drop in temperature bringing it below its dew point, for example, when the temperature falls after the Sun sets.", "In temperate climates, it most commonly appears on surfaces near the ground as fragile white crystals; in cold climates, it occurs in a greater variety of forms.", "The propagation of crystal formation occurs by the process of nucleation, in specific, water nucleation, which is the same phenomenon responsible for the formation of clouds, fog, snow, rain and other meteorological phenomena.The ice crystals of frost form as the result of fractal process development.", "The depth of frost crystals varies depending on the amount of time they have been accumulating, and the concentration of the water vapor (humidity).", "Frost crystals may be invisible (black), clear (translucent), or, if a mass of frost crystals scatters light in all directions, the coating of frost appears white.Types of frost include crystalline frost (hoar frost or radiation frost) from deposition of water vapor from air of low humidity, white frost in humid conditions, window frost on glass surfaces, advection frost from cold wind over cold surfaces, black frost without visible ice at low temperatures and very low humidity, and rime under supercooled wet conditions.Plants that have evolved in warmer climates suffer damage when the temperature falls low enough to freeze the water in the cells that make up the plant tissue.", "The tissue damage resulting from this process is known as \"frost damage\".", "Farmers in those regions where frost damage has been known to affect their crops often invest in substantial means to protect their crops from such damage." ], [ "Formation", "highest town in Venezuela, Apartaderos: Because of its location in an alpine tundra ecosystem called ''páramo'', a daily freeze-and-thaw cycle, sometimes described as \"summer every day and winter every night\", exists.If a solid surface is chilled below the dew point of the surrounding humid air, and the surface itself is colder than freezing, ice will form on it.", "If the water deposits as a liquid that then freezes, it forms a coating that may look glassy, opaque, or crystalline, depending on its type.", "Depending on context, that process may also be called atmospheric icing.", "The ice it produces differs in some ways from crystalline frost, which consists of spicules of ice that typically project from the solid surface on which they grow.The main difference between the ice coatings and frost spicules arises because the crystalline spicules grow directly from desublimation of water vapour from air, and desublimation is not a factor in icing of freezing surfaces.", "For desublimation to proceed, the surface must be below the frost point of the air, meaning that it is sufficiently cold for ice to form without passing through the liquid phase.", "The air must be humid, but not sufficiently humid to permit the condensation of liquid water, or icing will result instead of desublimation.", "The size of the crystals depends largely on the temperature, the amount of water vapor available, and how long they have been growing undisturbed.As a rule, except in conditions where supercooled droplets are present in the air, frost will form only if the deposition surface is colder than the surrounding air.", "For instance, frost may be observed around cracks in cold wooden sidewalks when humid air escapes from the warmer ground beneath.", "Other objects on which frost commonly forms are those with low specific heat or high thermal emissivity, such as blackened metals, hence the accumulation of frost on the heads of rusty nails.The apparently erratic occurrence of frost in adjacent localities is due partly to differences of elevation, the lower areas becoming colder on calm nights.", "Where static air settles above an area of ground in the absence of wind, the absorptivity and specific heat of the ground strongly influence the temperature that the trapped air attains." ], [ "Types", "===Hoar frost===A spider web covered in air hoar frostHoar frost on the snowimaged with optical (left) and scanning electron (right) microscopy'''Hoar frost''', also '''hoarfrost''', '''radiation frost''', or '''pruina''', refers to white ice crystals deposited on the ground or loosely attached to exposed objects, such as wires or leaves.", "They form on cold, clear nights when conditions are such that heat radiates into outer space faster than it can be replaced from nearby warm objects or brought in by the wind.", "Under suitable circumstances, objects cool to below the frost point of the surrounding air, well below the freezing point of water.", "Such freezing may be promoted by effects such as '''flood frost''' or '''frost pocket'''.", "These occur when ground-level radiation cools air until it flows downhill and accumulates in pockets of very cold air in valleys and hollows.", "Hoar frost may freeze in such low-lying cold air even when the air temperature a few feet above ground is well above freezing.The word \"hoar\" comes from an Old English adjective that means \"showing signs of old age\".", "In this context, it refers to the frost that makes trees and bushes look like white hair.", "Hoar frost may have different names depending on where it forms:*'''Air hoar''' is a deposit of hoar frost on objects above the surface, such as tree branches, plant stems, and wires.", "*'''Surface hoar''' refers to fern-like ice crystals directly deposited on snow, ice, or already frozen surfaces.", "*'''Crevasse hoar''' consists of crystals that form in glacial crevasses where water vapour can accumulate under calm weather conditions.", "*'''Depth hoar''' refers to faceted crystals that have slowly grown large within cavities beneath the surface of banks of dry snow.", "Depth hoar crystals grow continuously at the expense of neighbouring smaller crystals, so typically are visibly stepped and have faceted hollows.When surface hoar covers sloping snowbanks, the layer of frost crystals may create an avalanche risk; when heavy layers of new snow cover the frosty surface, furry crystals standing out from the old snow hold off the falling flakes, forming a layer of voids that prevents the new snow layers from bonding strongly to the old snow beneath.", "Ideal conditions for hoarfrost to form on snow are cold, clear nights, with very light, cold air currents conveying humidity at the right rate for growth of frost crystals.", "Wind that is too strong or warm destroys the furry crystals, and thereby may permit a stronger bond between the old and new snow layers.", "However, if the winds are strong enough and cold enough to lay the crystals flat and dry, carpeting the snow with cold, loose crystals without removing or destroying them or letting them warm up and become sticky, then the frost interface between the snow layers may still present an avalanche danger, because the texture of the frost crystals differs from the snow texture, and the dry crystals will not stick to fresh snow.", "Such conditions still prevent a strong bond between the snow layers.In very low temperatures where fluffy surface hoar crystals form without subsequently being covered with snow, strong winds may break them off, forming a dust of ice particles and blowing them over the surface.", "The ice dust then may form ''yukimarimo'', as has been observed in parts of Antarctica, in a process similar to the formation of dust bunnies and similar structures.A flower with advection frost on the edges of its petalsHoar frost and white frost also occur in man-made environments such as in freezers or industrial cold-storage facilities.", "If such cold spaces or the pipes serving them are not well insulated and are exposed to ambient humidity, the moisture will freeze instantly depending on the freezer temperature.", "The frost may coat pipes thickly, partly insulating them, but such inefficient insulation still is a source of heat loss.===Advection frost==='''Advection frost''' (also called '''wind frost''') refers to tiny ice spikes that form when very cold wind is blowing over tree branches, poles, and other surfaces.", "It looks like rimming on the edges of flowers and leaves, and usually forms against the direction of the wind.", "It can occur at any hour, day or night.===Window frost==='''Window frost''' (also called '''fern frost''' or '''ice flowers''') forms when a glass pane is exposed to very cold air on the outside and warmer, moderately moist air on the inside.", "If the pane is a bad insulator (for example, if it is a single-pane window), water vapour condenses on the glass, forming frost patterns.", "With very low temperatures outside, frost can appear on the bottom of the window even with double-pane energy-efficient windows because the air convection between two panes of glass ensures that the bottom part of the glazing unit is colder than the top part.", "On unheated motor vehicles, the frost usually forms on the outside surface of the glass first.", "The glass surface influences the shape of crystals, so imperfections, scratches, or dust can modify the way ice nucleates.", "The patterns in window frost form a fractal with a fractal dimension greater than one, but less than two.", "This is a consequence of the nucleation process being constrained to unfold in two dimensions, unlike a snowflake, which is shaped by a similar process, but forms in three dimensions and has a fractal dimension greater than two.If the indoor air is very humid, rather than moderately so, water first condenses in small droplets, and then freezes into clear ice.Similar patterns of freezing may occur on other smooth vertical surfaces, but they seldom are as obvious or spectacular as on clear glass.File:Frost patterns 1.jpgFile:Frost patterns 2.jpgFile:Frost patterns 3.jpgFile:Frost patterns 4.jpgFile:Frost patterns 5.jpgFile:Frost patterns 25.jpgFile:WindowFrostNewmarketOntario1986.jpgFile:Frost on a plastic container in a -30 C freezer.jpgFile:PXL 20210220 150158529.PORTRAIT.jpg===White frost==='''White frost''' is a solid deposition of ice that forms directly from water vapour contained in air.White frost forms when relative humidity is above 90% and the temperature below −8 °C (18 °F), and it grows against the wind direction, since air arriving from windward has a higher humidity than leeward air, but the wind must not be strong, else it damages the delicate icy structures as they begin to form.", "White frost resembles a heavy coating of hoar frost with big, interlocking crystals, usually needle-shaped.===Rime==='''Rime''' is a type of ice deposition that occurs quickly, often under heavily humid and windy conditions.", "Technically speaking, it is not a type of frost, since usually supercooled water drops are involved, in contrast to the formation of hoar frost, in which water vapour desublimates slowly and directly.", "Ships travelling through Arctic seas may accumulate large quantities of rime on the rigging.", "Unlike hoar frost, which has a feathery appearance, rime generally has an icy, solid appearance.===Black frost===Dead plant leaves during Winter Storm Uri in a backyard in Northern Mexico, with below freezing temperatures.", "'''Black frost''' or (\"killing frost\") is not strictly speaking frost at all, because it is the condition seen in crops when the humidity is too low for frost to form, but the temperature falls so low that plant tissues freeze and die, becoming blackened, hence the term \"black frost\".", "Black frost often is called \"killing frost\" because white frost tends to be less cold, partly because the latent heat of freezing of the water reduces the temperature drop." ], [ "Effect on plants", "===Damage===Frost on the grass of a public park in NovemberMap of average first killing frost in Ohio from \"Geography of Ohio,\" 1923Many plants can be damaged or killed by freezing temperatures or frost.", "This varies with the type of plant, the tissue exposed, and how low temperatures get; a \"light frost\" of damages fewer types of plants than a \"hard frost\" below .Plants likely to be damaged even by a light frost include vines—such as beans, grapes, squashes, melons—along with nightshades such as tomatoes, eggplants, and peppers.", "Plants that may tolerate (or even benefit from) frosts include:*root vegetables (e.g.", "beets, carrots, parsnips, onions)*leafy greens (e.g.", "lettuces, spinach, chard, cucumber)*cruciferous vegetables (e.g.", "cabbages, cauliflower, bok choy, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, radishes, kale, collard, mustard, turnips, rutabagas)Even those plants that tolerate frost may be damaged once temperatures drop even lower (below ).", "Hardy perennials, such as ''Hosta'', become dormant after the first frosts and regrow when spring arrives.", "The entire visible plant may turn completely brown until the spring warmth, or may drop all of its leaves and flowers, leaving the stem and stalk only.", "Evergreen plants, such as pine trees, withstand frost although all or most growth stops.", "Frost crack is a bark defect caused by a combination of low temperatures and heat from the winter sun.Vegetation is not necessarily damaged when leaf temperatures drop below the freezing point of their cell contents.", "In the absence of a site nucleating the formation of ice crystals, the leaves remain in a supercooled liquid state, safely reaching temperatures of .", "However, once frost forms, the leaf cells may be damaged by sharp ice crystals.", "Hardening is the process by which a plant becomes tolerant to low temperatures.", "See also Cryobiology.Certain bacteria, notably ''Pseudomonas syringae'', are particularly effective at triggering frost formation, raising the nucleation temperature to about .", "Bacteria lacking ice nucleation-active proteins (ice-minus bacteria) result in greatly reduced frost damage.===Protection methods===Roses with protection against frost – Volksgarten, ViennaCuritiba (Southern Brazil) is the coldest of Brazil's state capitals; the greenhouse of the Botanical Garden of Curitiba protects sensitive plants.Typical measures to prevent frost or reduce its severity include one or more of:*Deploying powerful blowers to simulate wind, thereby preventing the formation of accumulations of cold air.", "There are variations on this theme.", "One variety is the wind machine, an engine-driven propeller mounted on a vertical pole that blows air almost horizontally.", "Wind machines were introduced as a method for frost protection in California during the 1920s, but they were not widely accepted until the 1940s and 1950s.", "Now, they are commonly used in many parts of the world.", "Another is the selective inverted sink, a device which prevents frost by drawing cold air from the ground and blowing it up through a chimney.", "It was originally developed to prevent frost damage to citrus fruits in Uruguay.", "In New Zealand, helicopters are used in similar fashion, especially in the vineyard regions such as Marlborough.", "By dragging down warmer air from the inversion layers, and preventing the ponding of colder air on the ground, the low-flying helicopters prevent damage to the fruit buds.", "As the operations are conducted at night, and have in the past involved up to 130 aircraft per night in one region, safety rules are strict.", "Although not a dedicated method, wind turbines have a similar (although smaller) effect of vertically mixing air layers of different temperature.", "*For high-value crops, farmers may wrap trees and use physical crop coverings.", "*For high-value crops grown over small areas, heating to slow the drop in temperature may be practical.", "*Production of smoke to reduce cooling by radiation*Spraying crops with a layer of water releases latent heat, preventing harmful freezing of the tissues of the plants that it coats.Such measures need to be applied with discretion, because they may do more harm than good; for example, spraying crops with water can cause damage if the plants become overburdened with ice.", "An effective, '''low cost''' method for small crop farms and plant nurseries, exploits the latent heat of freezing.", "A pulsed irrigation timer delivers water through existing overhead sprinklers at a low volumes to combat frosts down to .", "If the water freezes, it gives off its latent heat, preventing the temperature of the foliage from falling much below zero." ], [ "Frost-free areas", "Frost-free areas are found mainly in the lowland tropics, where they cover almost all land except at altitudes above about near the equator and around in the semiarid areas in tropical regions.", "Some areas on the oceanic margins of the subtropics are also frost-free, as are highly oceanic areas near windward coasts.", "The most poleward frost-free areas are the lower altitudes of the Azores, Île Amsterdam, Île Saint-Paul, and Tristan da Cunha.In the contiguous United States, southern Florida around Miami Beach and the Florida Keys are the only reliably frost-free areas, as well as the Channel Islands off the coast of California.", "The hardiness zones in these regions are 11a and 11b." ], [ "Permafrost", "Permafrost is a layer of frozen earth underground which never heats above freezing even during summer months, remaining frozen year round.", "Although not frost in the atmospheric sense, it consists of dirt, soil, sand, rocks, clay, or organic matter (peat) bound firmly together by ice crystals, making the material very hard and difficult to penetrate.", "Permafrost exists in the colder climates of the Arctic and Antarctic, such as Russia, Canada, Alaska, Norway, Greenland, or Antarctica, where the warmer conditions of summer are insufficient to penetrate the insulation of the Earth to reach deep enough to thaw the permafrost layer.", "The permafrost may begin from the surface of the ground or many meters beneath it, and may extend from just a meter to over a thousand meters in thickness.", "Permafrost contains a significant portion of the Earth's water and carbon, and prevents surface water from penetrating very deep into the ground, making it responsible in part for the typical taiga and spruce bog environments common in northern latitudes." ], [ "Personifications", "Frost is personified in Russian culture as Ded Moroz.", "Indigenous peoples of Russia such as the Mordvins have their own traditions of frost deities.English folklore tradition holds that Jack Frost, an elfish creature, is responsible for feathery patterns of frost found on windows on cold mornings." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Frost on a nettle, Netherlands.jpg|Frost on a nettleFile:Fern Frost.JPG|Fern frost on a windowFile:Dülmen, Hausdülmen, Distel -- 2021 -- 5079.jpg|Frost on a thistle in Hausdülmen, North Rhine-Westphalia, GermanyFile:Window-Frost.jpg|Window frostFile:Frost on leaves.jpg|Frost on plant leaves in the HimalayasFile:Hoar Frost.JPG|Surface hoar in AlaskaFile:Hoar frost on a snow field.jpg|Hoar frost in Julian AlpsFile:Frost on Birch Tree in Stockholm 20180110.jpg|Frost on birch tree in StockholmFile:Frost in Ranu Pani on 4 August 2018 by Susanto Tan 6.jpg|Frost on grass in Ranu Pani, East Java, IndonesiaFile:Frost on birch tree.jpg|Frost on birch stem in NorwayFile:Sydneyfrost.jpg|Light frost on grass in Western Sydney, New South Wales, AustraliaFile:Leaf with frost.jpg|An oak leaf with frost in Sweden" ], [ "See also", "*Black ice*Frost (temperature)*Frost heaving*Frost line*Frostbite*Ground frost*Icing (nautical)*Needle ice" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Guide to Frost* How much do you know about frost?", "– ''BBC''* American Meteorological Society, ''Glossary of Meteorology'' – Hoarfrost* The Weather Doctor – Weather Whys – Frost*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Franz Schmidt (composer)" ], [ "Introduction", "Franz Schmidt'''Franz Schmidt''', also '''Ferenc Schmidt''' (22 December 1874 – 11 February 1939) was an Austro-Hungarian composer, cellist and pianist." ], [ "Life", "Schmidt was born in Pozsony/Pressburg, in the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary (today Bratislava, Slovakia) to a half-Hungarian father – with the same name, born in the same city – and to a Hungarian mother, Mária Ravasz.", "He was a Roman Catholic.His earliest teacher was his mother, Mária Ravasz, an accomplished pianist, who gave him a systematic instruction in the keyboard works of J. S. Bach.", "He received a foundation in theory from , the organist at the Franciscan church in Pressburg.", "He studied piano briefly with Theodor Leschetizky, with whom he clashed.", "He moved to Vienna with his family in 1888, and studied at the Vienna Conservatory (composition with Robert Fuchs, cello with Ferdinand Hellmesberger, and, for a few lessons, counterpoint with Anton Bruckner, who was already seriously ill at that time), graduating \"with excellence\" in 1896.He obtained a post as cellist with the Vienna Court Opera Orchestra, where he played until 1914, often under Gustav Mahler.", "Mahler habitually had Schmidt play all the cello solos, even though Friedrich Buxbaum was the principal cellist.", "Schmidt was also in demand as a chamber musician.", "Schmidt and Arnold Schoenberg maintained cordial relations despite their vast differences in eventual outlook and style (Schmidt certainly shows a perceptible influence from Schoenberg's early, tonal works such as ''Verklärte Nacht'', Op.", "4, in whose Viennese première he participated as cellist, the ''Chamber Symphony No.", "1'', Op.", "9 and the gigantic cantata ''Gurre-Lieder''.", "Unable to procure a teaching position for Schoenberg at the Academy, Schmidt rehearsed his students in a performance of ''Pierrot Lunaire'', Op.", "21 which Schoenberg warmly praised).", "Also a brilliant pianist, in 1914 Schmidt took up a professorship in piano at the Vienna Conservatory, which had been recently renamed Imperial Academy of Music and the Performing Arts.", "(Apparently, when asked who the greatest living pianist was, Leopold Godowsky replied, \"The other one is Franz Schmidt.\")", "In 1925 he became Director of the Academy, and from 1927 to 1931 its Rector.As teacher of piano, cello and counterpoint and composition at the Academy, Schmidt trained numerous instrumentalists, conductors, and composers who later achieved fame.", "Among his best-known students were the pianist Friedrich Wührer and Alfred Rosé (son of Arnold Rosé, the founder of the Rosé Quartet, Konzertmeister of the Vienna Philharmonic and brother-in-law of Gustav Mahler).", "Among the composers were Walter Bricht (his favourite student), Theodor Berger, Marcel Rubin, Alfred Uhl and Ľudovít Rajter.", "He received many tokens of the high esteem in which he was held, notably the Order of Franz Joseph, and an Honorary Doctorate from the University of Vienna.Schmidt's private life was in stark contrast to the success of his distinguished professional career.", "His first wife, Karoline Perssin (c. 1880–1943), was confined in the Vienna mental hospital Am Steinhof in 1919, and three years after his death was murdered under the Nazi euthanasia program.", "Their daughter Emma Schmidt Holzschuh (1902–1932, married 1929) died unexpectedly after the birth of her first child.", "Schmidt experienced a spiritual and physical breakdown after this, and achieved an artistic revival and resolution in his Fourth Symphony of 1933 (which he inscribed as \"Requiem for my Daughter\") and, especially, in his oratorio ''The Book with Seven Seals''.", "His second marriage in 1923, to a successful young piano student Margarethe Jirasek (1891–1964), for the first time brought some desperately needed stability into the private life of the artist, who was plagued by many serious health problems.Schmidt's worsening health forced his retirement from the Academy in early 1937.In the last year of his life Austria was brought into the German Reich by the Anschluss, and Schmidt was feted by the Nazi authorities as the greatest living composer of the so-called Ostmark.", "He was given a commission to write a cantata entitled ''The German Resurrection'', which, after 1945, was taken by many as a reason to brand him as having been tainted by Nazi sympathy.", "However, Schmidt left this composition unfinished, and in the summer and autumn of 1938, a few months before his death, set it aside to devote himself to two other commissioned works for the one-armed pianist Paul Wittgenstein: the Quintet in A major for piano left-hand, clarinet, and string trio; and the Toccata in D minor for solo piano.Schmidt died on 11 February 1939." ], [ "Musical works", "As a composer, Schmidt was slow to develop, but his reputation, at least in Austria, saw a steady growth from the late 1890s until his death in 1939.In his music, Schmidt continued to develop the Viennese classic-romantic traditions he inherited from Schubert, Brahms, and Bruckner.", "He also takes forward the \"gypsy\" style of Liszt and Brahms.", "His works are monumental in form and firmly tonal in language, though quite often innovative in their designs and clearly open to some of the new developments in musical syntax initiated by Mahler and Schoenberg.", "Although Schmidt did not write a lot of chamber music, what he did write, in the opinion of such critics as Wilhelm Altmann, was important and of high quality.", "Although Schmidt's organ works may resemble others of the era in terms of length, complexity, and difficulty, they are forward-looking in being conceived for the smaller, clearer, classical-style instruments of the ''Orgelbewegung'', which he advocated.", "Schmidt worked mainly in large forms, including four symphonies (1899, 1913, 1928 and 1933) and two operas: ''Notre Dame'' (1904–6) and ''Fredigundis'' (1916–21).", "A CD recording of ''Notre Dame'' has been available for many years, starring Dame Gwyneth Jones and James King.===''Fredigundis''===No really adequate recording has been made of Schmidt's second and last opera ''Fredigundis'', of which there has been but one \"unauthorized\" release in the early 1980s on the Voce label of an Austrian Radio broadcast of a 1979 Vienna performance under the direction of Ernst Märzendorfer.", "Aside from numerous \"royal fanfares\" (Fredigundis held the French throne in the sixth century) the score contains some fine examples of Schmidt's transitional style between his earlier and later manner.", "In many respects, Schmidt seldom ventured so far from traditional tonality again, and his third and final period (in the last decade-and-a-half of his life) was generally one of (at least partial) retrenchment, consolidation and the integration of the style of his opulently scored and melodious early compositions (the First Symphony, \"Notre Dame\") with elements of the overt experimentation seen in \"Fredigundis\", combined with an economy of utterance born of artistic maturity.", "''New Grove'' encyclopaedia states that ''Fredigundis'' was a critical and popular failure, which may be partly attributable to the fact that Fredigundis (Fredegund, the widow of Chilperic I), is presented as a murderous and sadistic feminine monster.", "Add to this some structural problems with the libretto, and the opera's failure to make headway – despite an admirable and impressive score – becomes comprehensible.===''The Book with Seven Seals''===Aside from the mature symphonies (Nos.", "2–4), Schmidt's crowning achievement was the oratorio ''The Book with Seven Seals'' (1935–37), a setting of passages from the Book of Revelation.", "His choice of subject was prophetic: with hindsight the work appears to foretell, in the most powerful terms, the disasters that were shortly to be visited upon Europe in the Second World War.", "Here his invention rises to a sustained pitch of genius.", "A narrative upon the text of the oratorio was provided by the composer.Schmidt's oratorio stands in the Austro-German tradition stretching back to the time of J. S. Bach and Handel.", "He was one of relatively few composers to write an oratorio fully on the subject of the Book of Revelation (earlier works include Georg Philipp Telemann: ''Der Tag des Gerichts'', Schneider: ''Das Weltgericht'', Louis Spohr: ''Die letzten Dinge'', Joachim Raff: ''Weltende'', and Ralph Vaughan Williams: ''Sancta Civitas'').", "Far from glorifying its subject, it is a mystical contemplation, a horrified warning, and a prayer for salvation.", "The premiere was held in Vienna on 15 June 1938, with the Vienna Symphony Orchestra under Oswald Kabasta: the soloists were Rudolf Gerlach (John), Erika Rokyta, Enid Szánthó, Anton Dermota, Josef von Manowarda and Franz Schütz at the organ.===Symphonies===Schmidt is generally regarded as a conservative composer, but the rhythmic subtlety and harmonic complexity of much of his music belie this.", "His music combines a reverence for the Austro-German lineage of composers with innovations in harmony and orchestration (showing an awareness of the output of composers such as Debussy and Ravel, whose piano music he greatly admired, along with a knowledge of more recent composers in his own German-speaking realm, such as Schoenberg, Berg, Hindemith, etc.).", "*'''Symphony No.", "1 in E major'''.", "Written in 1896 at age 22.The scherzo (which shows a mature absorption of Bruckner and Richard Strauss) is especially noteworthy, while Schmidt demonstrates his contrapuntal skills in the Finale.", "*'''Symphony No.", "2 in E-flat major'''.", "Written in 1913 in a style reminiscent of Strauss and Reger, with homage to the grandiosity of Bruckner.", "This is Schmidt's longest symphony and it employs a huge orchestra.", "The central movement (of three) is an ingenious set of variations, which are grouped to suggest the characters of slow movement and scherzo.", "The complex scoring renders it a considerable challenge for most orchestras.", "*'''Symphony No.", "3 in A major'''.", "A sunny, melodic work in the Schubert vein (although its lyricism and superb orchestration do much to conceal the fact that it is one of the composer's most harmonically advanced works).", "Winner of the Austrian section of the 1928 International Columbia Graphophone Competition (the overall winner was Swedish composer Kurt Atterberg with his 6th Symphony), it enjoyed some popularity at the time (1928).", "*'''Symphony No.", "4 in C major'''.Written in 1933, this is the best-known work of his entire oeuvre.", "The composer called it \"A requiem for my daughter\".", "It begins with a long 23-bar melody on an unaccompanied solo trumpet (which returns at the symphony's close, \"transfigured\" by all that has intervened).", "The Adagio is an immense ABA ternary structure.", "The first A is an expansive threnody on solo cello (Schmidt's own instrument) whose seamless lyricism predates Strauss's ''Metamorphosen'' by more than a decade (its theme is later adjusted to form the scherzo of the symphony); the B section is an equally expansive funeral march (unmistakably referencing the ''Marcia Funebre'' from Beethoven's ''Eroica'' in its texture) whose dramatic climax is marked by an orchestral crescendo culminating in a gong and cymbal crash (again, a clear allusion to similar climaxes in the later symphonies of Bruckner, and followed by what Harold Truscott has described as a \"reverse climax\", leading back to a repeat of the A section)." ], [ "Schmidt and Nazism", "Schmidt's premiere of ''The Book with Seven Seals'' was made much of by the Nazis (who had annexed Austria shortly before in the Anschluss), and Schmidt was seen to give the Nazi salute (according to a report by Georg Tintner, who revered Schmidt and whose intent to record his symphonies was never realised).", "His conductor Oswald Kabasta was apparently an enthusiastic Nazi who, being prohibited from conducting in 1946 during de-nazification, committed suicide.", "These facts long placed Schmidt's posthumous reputation under a cloud.", "His lifelong friend and colleague Oskar Adler, who fled the Nazis in 1938, wrote afterwards that Schmidt was never a Nazi and never antisemitic but was extremely naive about politics.", "Hans Keller gave a similar endorsement.", "Regarding Schmidt's political naivety, Michael Steinberg, in his book ''The Symphony'', tells of Schmidt's recommending ''Variations on a Hebrew Theme'' by his student Israel Brandmann to a musical group associated with the proto-Nazi German National Party.", "Most of Schmidt's principal musical friends were Jews, and they benefited from his generosity.Schmidt's last listed work, the cantata ''Deutsche Auferstehung'' (''German Resurrection''), was composed to a Nazi text.", "As one of the most famous living Austrian composers, Schmidt was well known to Hitler and received this commission after the Anschluss.", "He left it unfinished, to be completed later by Robert Wagner.", "Already seriously ill, Schmidt worked instead on other compositions such as the Quintet in A major for piano (left hand), clarinet and string trio, intended for Paul Wittgenstein and incorporating a variation set based on a theme by Wittgenstein's old teacher, Josef Labor.", "His failure to complete the cantata is likely to be a further indication that he was not committed to the Nazi cause.In a 1996 issue of ''The Musical Quarterly'', Peter Laki argued that Schmidt was falsely associated with Nazism, although Leon Botstein disagreed." ], [ "Listing of works", "===Operas===*''Notre Dame'', romantic Opera in two acts, text after Victor Hugo by Franz Schmidt and Leopold Wilk; comp.", "1902–4, premiered Vienna 1914*''Fredigundis'', Opera in three acts, text after Felix Dahn by and ; comp.", "1916–21, premiered Berlin 1922===Oratorio===* ''The Book with Seven Seals'' (''Das Buch mit sieben Siegeln'') for Soli, Chorus, Organ and Orchestra, Text after the Revelation of St John; comp.", "1935–37; premiered Vienna, 1938===Cantata===*''Deutsche Auferstehung'' a Festival Song for Soli, Chorus, Organ and Orchestra, Text by Oskar Dietrich; comp.", "1938–39, unfinished, prepared for performance by Dr. Robert Wagner; premiered Vienna, 1940===Symphonies===*Symphony No.", "1 in E major; comp.", "1896–99, premiered Vienna 1902*Symphony No.", "2 in E-flat major; comp.", "1911–13, premiered Vienna 1913*Symphony No.", "3 in A major; comp.", "1927–28, premiered Vienna 1928*Symphony No.", "4 in C major; comp.", "1932–33, premiered Vienna 1934===Piano concertos===*Concertante Variations on a Theme of Beethoven for Piano (left hand alone) with orchestral accompaniment; comp.", "1923, premiered Vienna 1924; Two-handed arrangement by Friedrich Wührer (1952)*Piano Concerto in E-flat major (for left hand alone); comp.", "1934, premiered: Vienna 1935; Two-handed version by Friedrich Wührer (1952)===Other orchestral works===*Carnival music and Intermezzo from the Opera ''Notre Dame''; comp.", "1902–03; premiered Vienna 1903*Variations on a Hussar Song for orchestra; comp.", "1930–31; premiered Vienna 1931*Chaconne in D minor; transcribed from the Chaconne in C-sharp minor for organ from 1925; completed 1931; Manuscript===Chamber music===*Four Little Fantasy pieces after Hungarian National Melodies, for cello with piano accompaniment; comp.", "1892; premiered Vienna 1926 (three pieces)*String Quartet in A major; comp.", "1925; premiered Vienna 1925*String Quartet in G major; comp.", "1929; premiered Vienna 1930*Quintet for piano left hand, two violins, viola and cello in G major; comp.", "1926; premiered Stuttgart 1931; two-handed arrangement by Friedrich Wührer (1954)*Quintet for clarinet, piano left hand, violin, viola and cello in B-flat major; comp.", "1932; premiered Vienna 1933*Quintet for clarinet, piano left hand, violin, viola and cello in A major; comp.", "1938; premiered Vienna 1939; two-handed arrangement by Friedrich Wührer (1952)===Music for trumpets===*Variations and Fugue on an original Theme in D major (King's Fanfare from ''Fredigundis''); 3.Arrangement for Trumpets alone; comp.", "1925, premiered 1925===Music for organ and trumpet===*Variations and Fugue on an original Theme in D major (King's Fanfare from ''Fredigundis''); 4.Arrangement for 14 Trumpets, Kettledrum and Organ; comp.", "1925, premiered Vienna 1925*Choral overture \"God preserve us\" for Organ with ''ad libitum'' processional Trumpet-chorus; comp.", "1933, premiered Vienna 1933*Solemn Fugue (Fuga solemnis) for Organ with Entrance of 6 Trumpets, 6 Horns, 3 Trombones, Bass Tuba and Kettledrums; comp.", "1937, premiered Wien 1939===Piano music===*Romance in A major*Christmas pastorale in A major (= Organ work, arrangement)*Intermezzo in F-sharp minor (2nd movement of the A major Quintet)*Toccata in D minor (for left hand alone); comp.", "1938, premiered: Vienna 1940 (two-handed arrangement); two-handed arrangement by Friedrich Wührer (1952)===Organ works===*Variations on a theme by Christoph Willibald Gluck (lost)*Variations and Fugue on an original theme in D major (King's Fanfare from ''Fredigundis''), 1.Arrangement; comp.", "1916*Phantasie and Fugue in D major; comp.", "1923–24, premiered Vienna 1924*Variations and Fugue on an original theme in D major (King's Fanfare from ''Fredigundis''), 2.Arrangement; comp.", "1924, premiered Vienna 1924*Toccata in C major; comp.", "1924, premiered Vienna 1925*Prelude and Fugue in E-flat major; comp.", "1924, premiered Vienna 1925*Chaconne in C-sharp minor; comp.", "1925, premiered Vienna 1925*Four small Chorale preludes; comp.", "1926, premiered Vienna 1926::\"O Ewigkeit du Donnerwort\" (O Eternity thou Thundrous Word), F major::\"Was mein Gott will\" (What My God Wills), D major::\"O, wie selig seid ihr doch, ihr Frommen\" (O How Happy Are Ye Now, You Blessed), D minor::\"Nun danket alle Gott\" (Now Thank We All Our God), A major*Fugue in F major; comp.", "1927, premiered Vienna 1932*Prelude and Fugue in C major; comp.", "1927, premiered Vienna 1928*Four little Preludes and Fugues; comp.", "1928, premiered Berlin 1929::Prelude and Fugue in E-flat major::Prelude and Fugue in C minor::Prelude and Fugue in G major::Prelude and Fugue in D major*Chorale Prelude, \"Der Heiland ist erstanden\"; comp.", "1934, premiered Vienna 1934*Prelude and Fugue in A major, Christmas pastoral; comp.", "1934, premiered Vienna 1934*Toccata and Fugue A-flat major; comp.", "1935, premiered Vienna 1936" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*Thomas Bernard Corfield – ''Franz Schmidt (1874–1939) – A Discussion of His Style With Particular Reference to the Four Symphonies and 'Das Buch mit sieben Siegeln'' (Garland Publishing, New York, 1989)*Harold Truscott – ''The Music of Franz Schmidt – 1: The Orchestral Music'' (Toccata Press, London, 1984)*Wilhelm Altmann – ''Handbuch für Streichquartettspieler'' (Handbook for String quartet performers) (Hinrichshofen Verlag, Wilhelmshafen, 1972)*Otto Brusatti, ''Studien zu Franz Schmidt'' (Studies of Franz Schmidt) (Universal Edition, Vienna 1977)*Andreas Liess, ''Franz Schmidt'' (Böhlau, Graz 1951)*C. Nemeth, ''Franz Schmidt'' (Leipzig 1957)*Walter Obermaier (Ed.", "), ''Franz Schmidt und seine Zeit (Franz Schmidt and his time): Symposium 1985'' (Doblinger, Vienna-Munich 1988).", "*Carmen Ottner, ''Quellen zu Franz Schmidt'' (Sources for Franz Schmidt), Parts 1 and 2.", "(Doblinger, Vienna-Munich 1985–1987)*Carmen Ottner (edit.", "): ''Franz Schmidt und die österreichische Orgelmusik seiner Zeit (Franz Schmidt, and Austrian Organ-Music of his time): Symposion 1991 '' (Doblinger, Vienna 1992), *Norbert Tschulik: ''Franz Schmidt'' (Österreichischer Bundesverlag, Wien 1972)*Peter Watchorn: ''Isolde Ahlgrimm, Vienna and the early music revival'' (Ashgate, Burlington Vermont; Aldershot UK; 2007)," ], [ "External links", "* Franz Schmidt String Quartet No.1 sound-bites and information about the work*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fucking" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fucking''' may refer to:* ''Fucking'', an English profanity derived from ''fuck''* Fucking, a synonym for sexual intercourse* Fucking Grove, Bristol, a medieval field* Fugging, Upper Austria, a village known as ''Fucking'' until 2021* Fugging, Lower Austria, a village known as ''Fucking'' until 1836" ], [ "See also", "* Fakkin, abbreviation of Japanese restaurant First Kitchen* Fuck (disambiguation)* Fuckersberg, a village in Austria* Fugging (disambiguation)* Fukin (disambiguation)* Fuqing* Fuxing (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Finnish Civil War" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Finnish Civil War''' was a civil war in Finland in 1918 fought for the leadership and control of the country between White Finland and the Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic (Red Finland) during the country's transition from a grand duchy of the Russian Empire to an independent state.", "The clashes took place in the context of the national, political, and social turmoil caused by World War I (Eastern Front) in Europe.", "The war was fought between the Red Guards, led by a section of the Social Democratic Party, and the White Guards, conducted by the senate and those who opposed socialism with assistance late in the war by the German Imperial Army at the request of the Finnish civil government.", "The paramilitary Red Guards, which were composed of industrial and agrarian workers, controlled the cities and industrial centres of southern Finland.", "The paramilitary White Guards, which consisted of land owners and those in the middle and upper classes, controlled rural central and northern Finland, and were led by General C. G. E. Mannerheim.In the years before the conflict, Finland had experienced rapid population growth, industrialisation, urbanisation and the rise of a comprehensive labour movement.", "The country's political and governmental systems were in an unstable phase of democratisation and modernisation.", "The socio-economic condition and education of the population had gradually improved, and national awareness and culture had progressed.", "World War I led to the collapse of the Russian Empire, causing a power vacuum in Finland, and the subsequent struggle for dominance led to militarisation and an escalating crisis between the left-leaning labour movement and the conservatives.", "The Reds carried out an unsuccessful general offensive in February 1918, supplied with weapons by Soviet Russia.", "A counteroffensive by the Whites began in March, reinforced by the German Empire's military detachments in April.", "The decisive engagements were the Battles of Tampere and Viipuri, won by the Whites, and the Battles of Helsinki and Lahti, won by German troops, leading to overall victory for the Whites and the German forces.", "Political violence became a part of this warfare.", "Around 12,500 Red prisoners died of malnutrition and disease in camps.", "About 39,000 people, of whom 36,000 were Finns, died in the conflict.In the immediate aftermath, the Finns passed from Russian governance to the German sphere of influence with a plan to establish a German-led Finnish monarchy.", "The scheme ended with Germany's defeat in World War I, and Finland instead emerged as an independent, democratic republic.", "The civil war divided the nation for decades.", "Finnish society was reunited through social compromises based on a long-term culture of moderate politics and religion and a post-war economic recovery." ], [ "Names", "The war has been assigned several designations according to different political and ideological viewpoints.", "'''War of Independence''' () was used during the war by both sides to express the fight for liberation from capitalism for the Reds and freedom from Soviet Russian influence by the Whites; '''Civil War''' is the term increasingly employed by the reconstituted social democrats after their defeat in the war.", "The general terms for the conflict, '''Civil War''' () and '''Citizen War''' (), are synonymous and appeared mostly after the war.", "More ideologic names were also used including '''Class War''' () and '''Revolution''' () by the Reds and their supporters while '''Red Rebellion''' () was used by the Whites and their supporters.", "Another designation, '''Brethren War''' (), is applied in some poetic settings.", "According to a 2008 interview of 1,005 people done by the newspaper ''Aamulehti'', the most popular names were as follows: Civil War: 29%, Citizen War: 25%, Class War: 13%, War of Independence: 11%, Red Rebellion: 5%, Revolution: 1%, other name: 2% and no answer: 14%." ], [ "Background", "A map of Russia's Grand Duchy of Finland from 1825.The map texts are in Russian and Swedish.=== Finland in the Russian Empire: 1809–1917 ===From 1809 to 1898, a period called ''Pax Russica'', the peripheral authority of the Finns gradually increased, and Russo-Finnish relations were exceptionally peaceful in comparison with other parts of the Russian Empire.", "Russia's defeat in the Crimean War in the 1850s led to attempts to speed up the modernisation of the country.", "This caused more than 50 years of economic, industrial, cultural and educational progress in the Grand Duchy of Finland, including an improvement in the status of the Finnish language.", "All this encouraged Finnish nationalism and cultural unity through the birth of the Fennoman movement, which bound the Finns to the domestic administration and led to the idea that the Grand Duchy was an increasingly autonomous state of the Russian Empire.In 1899, the Russian Empire initiated a policy of integration through the Russification of Finland.", "The strengthened, pan-slavist central power tried to unite the \"Russian Multinational Dynastic Union\" as the military and strategic situation of Russia became more perilous due to the rise of Germany and Japan.", "Finns called the increased military and administrative control, \"the First Period of Oppression\", and for the first time Finnish politicians drew up plans for disengagement from Russia or sovereignty for Finland.", "In the struggle against integration, activists drawn from sections of the working class and the Swedish-speaking intelligentsia carried out terrorist acts.", "During World War I and the rise of Germanism, the pro-Swedish Svecomans began their covert collaboration with Imperial Germany and, from 1915 to 1917, a Jäger (; ) battalion consisting of 1,900 Finnish volunteers was trained in Germany.===Domestic politics===The major reasons for rising political tensions among Finns were the autocratic rule of the Russian tsar and the undemocratic class system of the estates of the realm.", "The latter system originated in the regime of the Swedish Empire that preceded Russian governance and divided the Finnish people economically, socially and politically.", "Finland's population grew rapidly in the nineteenth century (from 860,000 in 1810 to 3,130,000 in 1917), and a class of agrarian and industrial workers, as well as crofters, emerged over the period.", "The Industrial Revolution was rapid in Finland, though it started later than in the rest of Western Europe.", "Industrialisation was financed by the state and some of the social problems associated with the industrial process were diminished by the administration's actions.", "Among urban workers, socio-economic problems steepened during periods of industrial depression.", "The position of rural workers worsened after the end of the nineteenth century, as farming became more efficient and market-oriented, and the development of industry was insufficiently vigorous to fully utilise the rapid population growth of the countryside.The difference between Scandinavian-Finnish and Russian-Slavic culture affected the nature of Finnish national integration.", "The upper social strata took the lead and gained domestic authority from the Russian tsar in 1809.The estates planned to build an increasingly autonomous Finnish state, led by the elite and the intelligentsia.", "The Fennoman movement aimed to include the common people in a non-political role; the labour movement, youth associations and the temperance movement were initially led \"from above\".Between 1870 and 1916 industrialisation gradually improved social conditions and the self-confidence of workers, but while the standard of living of the common people rose in absolute terms, the rift between rich and poor deepened markedly.", "The commoners' rising awareness of socio-economic and political questions interacted with the ideas of socialism, social liberalism and nationalism.", "The workers' initiatives and the corresponding responses of the dominant authorities intensified social conflict in Finland.The Finnish labour movement, which emerged at the end of the nineteenth century from temperance, religious movements and Fennomania, had a Finnish nationalist, working-class character.", "From 1899 to 1906, the movement became conclusively independent, shedding the paternalistic thinking of the Fennoman estates, and it was represented by the Finnish Social Democratic Party, established in 1899.Workers' activism was directed both toward opposing Russification and in developing a domestic policy that tackled social problems and responded to the demand for democracy.", "This was a reaction to the domestic dispute, ongoing since the 1880s, between the Finnish nobility-bourgeoisie and the labour movement concerning voting rights for the common people.", "Despite their obligations as obedient, peaceful and non-political inhabitants of the Grand Duchy (who had, only a few decades earlier, accepted the class system as the natural order of their life), the commoners began to demand their civil rights and citizenship in Finnish society.", "The power struggle between the Finnish estates and the Russian administration gave a concrete role model and free space for the labour movement.", "On the other side, due to an at-least century-long tradition and experience of administrative authority, the Finnish elite saw itself as the inherent natural leader of the nation.", "The political struggle for democracy was solved outside Finland, in international politics: the Russian Empire's failed 1904–1905 war against Japan led to the 1905 Revolution in Russia and to a general strike in Finland.", "In an attempt to quell the general unrest, the system of estates was abolished in the Parliamentary Reform of 1906.The general strike increased support for the social democrats substantially.", "The party encompassed a higher proportion of the population than any other socialist movement in the world.The Reform of 1906 was a giant leap towards the political and social liberalisation of the common Finnish people because the Russian House of Romanov had been the most autocratic and conservative ruler in Europe.", "The Finns adopted a unicameral parliamentary system, the Parliament of Finland (; ) with universal suffrage.", "The number of voters increased from 126,000 to 1,273,000, including female citizens.", "The reform led to the social democrats obtaining about fifty per cent of the popular vote, but the Tsar regained his authority after the crisis of 1905.Subsequently, during the more severe programme of Russification, called \"the Second Period of Oppression\" by the Finns, the Tsar neutralised the power of the Finnish Parliament between 1908 and 1917.He dissolved the assembly, ordered parliamentary elections almost annually, and determined the composition of the Finnish Senate, which did not correlate with the Parliament.The capacity of the Finnish Parliament to solve socio-economic problems was stymied by confrontations between the largely uneducated commoners and the former estates.", "Another conflict festered as employers denied collective bargaining and the right of the labour unions to represent workers.", "The parliamentary process disappointed the labour movement, but as dominance in the Parliament and legislation was the workers' most likely way to obtain a more balanced society, they identified themselves with the state.", "Overall domestic politics led to a contest for leadership of the Finnish state during the ten years before the collapse of the Russian Empire.===International politics===The main factor behind the Finnish Civil War was a political crisis arising out of World War I.", "Under the pressures of the Great War, the Russian Empire collapsed, leading to the February and October Revolutions in 1917.This breakdown caused a power vacuum and a subsequent struggle for power in Eastern Europe.", "The Grand Duchy of Finland became embroiled in the turmoil.", "Geopolitically less important than the continental Moscow–Warsaw gateway, Finland, isolated by the Baltic Sea, was relatively peaceful until early 1918.The war between the German Empire and Russia had only indirect effects on the Finns.", "Since the end of the 19th century, the Grand Duchy had become a vital source of raw materials, industrial products, food and labour for the growing Imperial Russian capital Petrograd (modern Saint Petersburg), and World War I emphasised that role.", "Strategically, the Finnish territory was the less important northern section of the Estonian–Finnish gateway and a buffer zone to and from Petrograd through the Narva area, the Gulf of Finland and the Karelian Isthmus.The German Empire saw Eastern Europe - particularly Russia - as a major source of vital products and raw materials, both during World War I and for the future.", "Her resources overstretched by the two-front war, Germany attempted to divide Russia by providing financial support to revolutionary groups, such as the Bolsheviks and the Socialist Revolutionary Party, and to radical, separatist factions, such as the Finnish national activist movement leaning toward Germanism.", "Between 30 and 40 million marks were spent on this endeavour.", "Controlling the Finnish area would allow the Imperial German Army to penetrate Petrograd and the Kola Peninsula, an area rich in raw materials for the mining industry.", "Finland possessed large ore reserves and a well-developed forest industry.===February Revolution=======Build-up====A demonstration at alt=Hundreds of demonstrators at the Helsinki Senate Square with the Helsinki Cathedral high in the background.", "The demonstrations were a prelude to the later local and general strikes.The February Revolution removed Tsar Nicholas II.", "The collapse of the Russian Empire was caused by military defeats, war-weariness against the duration and hardships of the Great War, and the collision between the most conservative regime in Europe and a Russian people desiring modernisation.", "The Tsar's power was transferred to the State Duma (Russian Parliament) and the left-leaning Provisional Government, but this new authority was challenged by the Petrograd Soviet (city council), leading to dual power in the country.In Finland, mass meetings and local strikes of early 1917 escalated to a general strike in support of the Finnish state's power struggle and for increased availability of foodstuffs.", "The Second Period of Russification was stopped and the autonomous status of 1809–1899 was returned to the Finns by the 15th March 1917 manifesto of the Russian Provisional Government.", "For the first time in history, ''de facto'' political power existed in the Parliament of Finland.", "The political left, consisting mainly of social democrats, covered a wide spectrum from moderate to revolutionary socialists.", "The political right was even more diverse, ranging from social liberals and moderate conservatives to rightist conservative elements.", "The four main parties were:* The conservative Finnish Party;* the Young Finnish Party, which included both liberals and conservatives, with the liberals divided between social liberals and economic liberals;* the social reformist, centrist Agrarian League, which drew its support mainly from peasants with small or mid-sized farms; and* the conservative Swedish People's Party, which sought to retain the rights of the former nobility and the Swedish-speaking minority of Finland.During 1917, a power struggle and social disintegration interacted.", "The collapse of Russia induced a chain reaction of disintegration, starting from the government, military and economy, and spreading to all fields of society, such as local administration, workplaces and to individual citizens.", "The social democrats wanted to retain the civil rights already achieved and to increase the socialists' power over society.", "The conservatives feared the loss of their long-held socio-economic dominance.", "Both factions collaborated with their equivalents in Russia, deepening the split in the nation.The Social Democratic Party gained an absolute majority in the parliamentary elections of 1916.A new Senate was formed in March 1917 by Oskari Tokoi, but it did not reflect the socialists' large parliamentary majority: it comprised six social democrats and six non-socialists.", "In theory, the Senate consisted of a broad national coalition, but in practice (with the main political groups unwilling to compromise and top politicians remaining outside of it), it proved unable to solve any major Finnish problem.", "After the February Revolution, political authority descended to the street level: mass meetings, strike organisations and worker-soldier councils on the left and to active organisations of employers on the right, all serving to undermine the authority of the state.The February Revolution halted the Finnish economic boom caused by the Russian war-economy.", "The collapse in business led to unemployment and high inflation, but the employed workers gained an opportunity to resolve workplace problems.", "The commoners' call for the eight-hour working day, better working conditions and higher wages led to demonstrations and large-scale strikes in industry and agriculture.While the Finns had specialised in milk and butter production, the bulk of the food supply for the country depended on cereals produced in southern Russia.", "The cessation of cereal imports from disintegrating Russia led to food shortages in Finland.", "The Senate responded by introducing rationing and price controls.", "The farmers resisted the state control and thus a black market, accompanied by sharply rising food prices, formed.", "As a consequence, export to the free market of the Petrograd area increased.", "Food supply, prices and, in the end, the fear of starvation became emotional political issues between farmers and urban workers, especially those who were unemployed.", "Common people, their fears exploited by politicians and an incendiary, polarised political media, took to the streets.", "Despite the food shortages, no actual large-scale starvation hit southern Finland before the civil war and the food market remained a secondary stimulator in the power struggle of the Finnish state.====Contest for leadership====Russian soldiers in Helsinki.", "Prior to 1917, they sustained Finland's stability, after the leftThe passing of the Tokoi Senate bill called the \"Law of Supreme Power\" (, more commonly known as ''valtalaki''; ) in July 1917, triggered one of the key crises in the power struggle between the social democrats and the conservatives.", "The fall of the Russian Empire opened the question of who would hold sovereign political authority in the former Grand Duchy.", "After decades of political disappointment, the February Revolution offered the Finnish social democrats an opportunity to govern; they held the absolute majority in Parliament.", "The conservatives were alarmed by the continuous increase of the socialists' influence since 1899, which reached a climax in 1917.The \"Law of Supreme Power\" incorporated a plan by the socialists to substantially increase the authority of Parliament, as a reaction to the non-parliamentary and conservative leadership of the Finnish Senate between 1906 and 1916.The bill furthered Finnish autonomy in domestic affairs: the Russian Provisional Government was only allowed the right to control Finnish foreign and military policies.", "The Act was adopted with the support of the Social Democratic Party, the Agrarian League, part of the Young Finnish Party and some activists eager for Finnish sovereignty.", "The conservatives opposed the bill and some of the most right-wing representatives resigned from Parliament.In Petrograd, the social democrats' plan had the backing of the Bolsheviks.", "They had been plotting a revolt against the Provisional Government since April 1917, and pro-Soviet demonstrations during the July Days brought matters to a head.", "The Helsinki Soviet and the Regional Committee of the Finnish Soviets, led by the Bolshevik Ivar Smilga, both pledged to defend the Finnish Parliament, were it threatened with attack.", "However, the Provisional Government still had sufficient support in the Russian army to survive and as the street movement waned, Vladimir Lenin fled to Karelia.", "In the aftermath of these events, the \"Law of Supreme Power\" was overruled and the social democrats eventually backed down; more Russian troops were sent to Finland and, with the co-operation and insistence of the Finnish conservatives, Parliament was dissolved and new elections announced.In the October 1917 elections, the social democrats lost their absolute majority, which radicalised the labour movement and decreased support for moderate politics.", "The crisis of July 1917 did not bring about the Red Revolution of January 1918 on its own, but together with political developments based on the commoners' interpretation of the ideas of Fennomania and socialism, the events favoured a Finnish revolution.", "In order to win power, the socialists had to overcome Parliament.The February Revolution resulted in a loss of institutional authority in Finland and the dissolution of the police force, creating fear and uncertainty.", "In response, both the right and left assembled their own security groups, which were initially local and largely unarmed.", "By late 1917, following the dissolution of Parliament, in the absence of a strong government and national armed forces, the security groups began assuming a broader and more paramilitary character.", "The Civil Guards (; ; ) and the later White Guards (; ) were organised by local men of influence: conservative academics, industrialists, major landowners, and activists.", "The Workers' Order Guards (; ) and the Red Guards (; ) were recruited through the local social democratic party sections and from the labour unions.===October Revolution===The Bolsheviks' and Vladimir Lenin's October Revolution of 7 November 1917 transferred political power in Petrograd to the radical, left-wing socialists.", "The German government's decision to arrange safe-conduct for Lenin and his comrades from exile in Switzerland to Petrograd in April 1917, was a success.", "An armistice between Germany and the Bolshevik regime came into force on 6 December and peace negotiations began on 22 December 1917 at Brest-Litovsk.November 1917 became another watershed in the 1917–1918 rivalry for the leadership of Finland.", "After the dissolution of the Finnish Parliament, polarisation between the social democrats and the conservatives increased markedly and the period witnessed the appearance of political violence.", "An agricultural worker was shot during a local strike on 9 August 1917 at Ypäjä and a Civil Guard member was killed in a local political crisis at Malmi on 24 September.", "The October Revolution disrupted the informal truce between the Finnish non-socialists and the Russian Provisional Government.", "After political wrangling over how to react to the revolt, the majority of the politicians accepted a compromise proposal by Santeri Alkio, the leader of the Agrarian League.", "Parliament seized the sovereign power in Finland on 15 November 1917 based on the socialists' \"Law of Supreme Power\" and ratified their proposals of an eight-hour working day and universal suffrage in local elections, from July 1917.White Guard in Leinola, a suburb of Tampere|alt=Around 30 soldiers of the paramilitary White Guard pose for the camera together with four Maxim heavy machine guns.|leftThe purely non-socialist, conservative-led government of Pehr Evind Svinhufvud was appointed on 27 November.", "This nomination was both a long-term aim of the conservatives and a response to the challenges of the labour movement during November 1917.Svinhufvud's main aspirations were to separate Finland from Russia, to strengthen the Civil Guards, and to return a part of Parliament's new authority to the Senate.", "There were 149 Civil Guards on 31 August 1917 in Finland, counting local units and subsidiary White Guards in towns and rural communes; 251 on 30 September; 315 on 31 October; 380 on 30 November and 408 on 26 January 1918.The first attempt at serious military training among the Guards was the establishment of a 200-strong cavalry school at the Saksanniemi estate in the vicinity of the town of Porvoo, in September 1917.The vanguard of the Finnish Jägers and German weaponry arrived in Finland during October–November 1917 on the '''' freighter and the German U-boat ''''; around 50 Jägers had returned by the end of 1917.After political defeats in July and October 1917, the social democrats put forward an uncompromising program called \"We Demand\" (; ) on 1 November, in order to push for political concessions.", "They insisted upon a return to the political status before the dissolution of Parliament in July 1917, disbandment of the Civil Guards and elections to establish a Finnish Constituent Assembly.", "The program failed and the socialists initiated a general strike during 14–19 November to increase political pressure on the conservatives, who had opposed the \"Law of Supreme Power\" and the parliamentary proclamation of sovereign power on 15 November.Revolution became the goal of the radicalised socialists after the loss of political control, and events in November 1917 offered momentum for a socialist uprising.", "In this phase, Lenin and Joseph Stalin, under threat in Petrograd, urged the social democrats to take power in Finland.", "The majority of Finnish socialists were moderate and preferred parliamentary methods, prompting the Bolsheviks to label them \"reluctant revolutionaries\".", "The reluctance diminished as the general strike appeared to offer a major channel of influence for the workers in southern Finland.", "The strike leadership voted by a narrow majority to start a revolution on 16 November, but the uprising had to be called off the same day due to the lack of active revolutionaries to execute it.Red Guard's Tampere company pictured in 1918|alt=Around 40 troops of the paramilitary Red Guard pose to the camera next to a farmer's house on a field.", "One of them, their apparent commander, is on a horse.At the end of November 1917, the moderate socialists among the social democrats won a second vote over the radicals in a debate over revolutionary versus parliamentary means, but when they tried to pass a resolution to completely abandon the idea of a socialist revolution, the party representatives and several influential leaders voted it down.", "The Finnish labour movement wanted to sustain a military force of its own and to keep the revolutionary road open, too.", "The wavering Finnish socialists disappointed V. I. Lenin and in turn, he began to encourage the Finnish Bolsheviks in Petrograd.Among the labour movement, a more marked consequence of the events of 1917 was the rise of the Workers' Order Guards.", "There were 20–60 separate guards between 31 August and 30 September 1917, but on 20 October, after defeat in parliamentary elections, the Finnish labour movement proclaimed the need to establish more worker units.", "The announcement led to a rush of recruits: on 31 October the number of guards was 100–150; 342 on 30 November 1917 and 375 on 26 January 1918.Since May 1917, the paramilitary organisations of the left had grown in two phases, the majority of them as Workers' Order Guards.", "The minority were Red Guards, these were partly underground groups formed in industrialised towns and industrial centres, such as Helsinki, Kotka and Tampere, based on the original Red Guards that had been formed during 1905–1906 in Finland.The presence of the two opposing armed forces created a state of dual power and divided sovereignty on Finnish society.", "The decisive rift between the guards broke out during the general strike: the Reds executed several political opponents in southern Finland and the first armed clashes between the Whites and Reds took place.", "In total, 34 casualties were reported.", "Eventually, the political rivalries of 1917 led to an arms race and an escalation towards civil war.===Independence of Finland===The disintegration of Russia offered Finns a historic opportunity to gain national independence.", "After the October Revolution, the conservatives were eager for secession from Russia in order to control the left and minimise the influence of the Bolsheviks.", "The socialists were skeptical about sovereignty under conservative rule, but they feared a loss of support among nationalistic workers, particularly after having promised increased national liberty through the \"Law of Supreme Power\".", "Eventually, both political factions supported an independent Finland, despite strong disagreement over the composition of the nation's leadership.Nationalism had become a \"civic religion\" in Finland by the end of nineteenth century, but the goal during the general strike of 1905 had been a return to the autonomy of 1809–1898, not full independence.", "In contrast to their status under the unitary Swedish regime, the domestic power of Finns had increased under the less uniform Russian rule.", "Economically, the Grand Duchy of Finland benefited from having an independent domestic state budget, a central bank with national currency, the markka (deployed 1860), and customs organisation and the industrial progress of 1860–1916.The economy was dependent on the huge Russian market and separation would disrupt the profitable Finnish financial zone.", "The economic collapse of Russia and the power struggle of the Finnish state in 1917 were among the key factors that brought sovereignty to the fore in Finland.Svinhufvud's Senate introduced Finland's Declaration of Independence on 4 December 1917 and Parliament adopted it on 6 December.", "The social democrats voted against the Senate's proposal, while presenting an alternative declaration of sovereignty.", "The establishment of an independent state was not a guaranteed conclusion for the small Finnish nation.", "Recognition by Russia and other great powers was essential; Svinhufvud accepted that he had to negotiate with Lenin for the acknowledgement.", "The socialists, having been reluctant to enter talks with the Russian leadership in July 1917, sent two delegations to Petrograd to request that Lenin approve Finnish sovereignty.In December 1917, Lenin was under intense pressure from the Germans to conclude peace negotiations at Brest-Litovsk, and the Bolsheviks' rule was in crisis, with an inexperienced administration and the demoralised army facing powerful political and military opponents.", "Lenin calculated that the Bolsheviks could fight for central parts of Russia but had to give up some peripheral territories, including Finland in the geopolitically less important north-western corner.", "As a result, Svinhufvud's delegation won Lenin's concession of sovereignty on 31 December 1917.By the beginning of the Civil War, Austria-Hungary, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland had recognised Finnish independence.", "The United Kingdom and United States did not approve it; they waited and monitored the relations between Finland and Germany (the main enemy of the Allies), hoping to override Lenin's regime and to get Russia back into the war against the German Empire.", "In turn, the Germans hastened Finland's separation from Russia so as to move the country to within their sphere of influence." ], [ "Warfare", "C. G. E. Mannerheim in 1918, with a white armband showing the coat of arms of Finland|alt=A studio-style picture of General Mannerheim, commander-in-chief of the White Army.", "He is looking away with his left shoulder turned towards the camera.", "On his left arm, a white armband shows the coat of arms of Finland.|left===Escalation===The final escalation towards war began in early January 1918, as each military or political action of the Reds or the Whites resulted in a corresponding counteraction by the other.", "Both sides justified their activities as defensive measures, particularly to their own supporters.", "On the left, the vanguard of the movement was the urban Red Guards from Helsinki, Kotka and Turku; they led the rural Reds and convinced the socialist leaders who wavered between peace and war to support the revolution.", "On the right, the vanguard was the Jägers, who had transferred to Finland, and the volunteer Civil Guards of southwestern Finland, southern Ostrobothnia and Viipuri province in the southeastern corner of Finland.", "The first local battles were fought during 9–21 January 1918 in southern and southeastern Finland, mainly to win the arms race and to control Viipuri.Kullervo Manner, chairman of the Finnish People's Delegation, and last commander-in-chief and also only prime minister of the Finnish Reds, pictured |alt=A picture of Kullervo Manner, chairman of the Finnish People's Delegation and last commander-in-chief of the Reds, looking straight at the camera with a suit and a hat on.On 12 January 1918, Parliament authorised the Svinhufvud Senate to establish internal order and discipline on behalf of the state.", "On 15 January, Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, a former Finnish general of the Imperial Russian Army, was appointed the commander-in-chief of the Civil Guards.", "The Senate appointed the Guards, henceforth called the White Guards, as the White Army of Finland.", "Mannerheim placed his Headquarters of the White Army in the Vaasa–Seinäjoki area.", "The White Order to engage was issued on 25 January.", "The Whites gained weaponry by disarming Russian garrisons during 21–28 January, in particular in southern Ostrobothnia.The Red Guards, led by Ali Aaltonen, refused to recognise the Whites' hegemony and established a military authority of their own.", "Aaltonen installed his headquarters in Helsinki and nicknamed it Smolna echoing the Smolny Institute, the Bolsheviks' headquarters in Petrograd.", "The Red Order of Revolution was issued on 26 January, and a red lantern, a symbolic indicator of the uprising, was lit in the tower of the Helsinki Workers' House.", "A large-scale mobilisation of the Reds began late in the evening of 27 January, with the Helsinki Red Guard and some of the Guards located along the Viipuri-Tampere railway having been activated between 23 and 26 January, in order to safeguard vital positions and escort a heavy railroad shipment of Bolshevik weapons from Petrograd to Finland.", "White troops tried to capture the shipment: 20–30 Finns, Red and White, died in the Battle of Kämärä at the Karelian Isthmus on 27 January 1918.The Finnish rivalry for power had culminated.===Opposing parties=======Red Finland and White Finland====alt=A map illustrating the frontlines and initial offensives of both sides at the beginning of the war.", "The Whites control most of Central and Northern Finland, excluding minor Red enclaves; the Whites assault these enclaves.", "The Reds control Southern Finland and commence attacks along the main frontline.At the beginning of the war, a discontinuous front line ran through southern Finland from west to east, dividing the country into White Finland and Red Finland.", "The Red Guards controlled the area to the south, including nearly all the major towns and industrial centres, along with the largest estates and farms with the highest numbers of crofters and tenant farmers.", "The White Army controlled the area to the north, which was predominantly agrarian and contained small or medium-sized farms and tenant farmers.", "The number of crofters was lower and they held a better social status than those in the south.", "Enclaves of the opposing forces existed on both sides of the front line: within the White area lay the industrial towns of Varkaus, Kuopio, Oulu, Raahe, Kemi and Tornio; within the Red area lay Porvoo, Kirkkonummi and Uusikaupunki.", "The elimination of these strongholds was a priority for both armies in February 1918.Red Finland was led by the Finnish People's Delegation (; ), established on 28 January 1918 in Helsinki, which was supervised by the Central Workers' Council.", "The delegation sought democratic socialism based on the Finnish Social Democratic Party's ethos; their visions differed from Lenin's dictatorship of the proletariat.", "Otto Ville Kuusinen formulated a proposal for a new constitution, influenced by those of Switzerland and the United States.", "With it, political power was to be concentrated to Parliament, with a lesser role for a government.", "The proposal included a multi-party system; freedom of assembly, speech and press; and the use of referendums in political decision-making.", "In order to ensure the authority of the labour movement, the common people would have a right to permanent revolution.", "The socialists planned to transfer a substantial part of property rights to the state and local administrations.In foreign policy, Red Finland leaned on Bolshevist Russia.", "A Red-initiated Finno–Russian treaty and peace agreement was signed on 1 March 1918, where Red Finland was called the Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic (; ).", "The negotiations for the treaty implied that – as in World War I in general – nationalism was more important for both sides than the principles of international socialism.", "The Red Finns did not simply accept an alliance with the Bolsheviks and major disputes appeared, for example, over the demarcation of the border between Red Finland and Soviet Russia.", "The significance of the Russo–Finnish Treaty evaporated quickly due to the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between the Bolsheviks and the German Empire on 3 March 1918.Lenin's policy on the right of nations to self-determination aimed at preventing the disintegration of Russia during the period of military weakness.", "He assumed that in war-torn, splintering Europe, the proletariat of free nations would carry out socialist revolutions and unite with Soviet Russia later.", "The majority of the Finnish labour movement supported Finland's independence.", "The Finnish Bolsheviks, influential, though few in number, favoured annexation of Finland by Russia.The government of White Finland, Pehr Evind Svinhufvud's first senate, was called the Vaasa Senate after its relocation to the safer west-coast city of Vaasa, which acted as the capital of the Whites from 29 January to 3 May 1918.In domestic policy, the White Senate's main goal was to return the political right to power in Finland.", "The conservatives planned a monarchist political system, with a lesser role for Parliament.", "A section of the conservatives had always supported monarchy and opposed democracy; others had approved of parliamentarianism since the revolutionary reform of 1906, but after the crisis of 1917–1918, concluded that empowering the common people would not work.", "Social liberals and reformist non-socialists opposed any restriction of parliamentarianism.", "They initially resisted German military help, but the prolonged warfare changed their stance.In foreign policy, the Vaasa Senate relied on the German Empire for military and political aid.", "Their objective was to defeat the Finnish Reds; end the influence of Bolshevist Russia in Finland and expand Finnish territory to East Karelia, a geopolitically significant home to people speaking Finnic languages.", "The weakness of Russia inspired an idea of Greater Finland among the expansionist factions of both the right and left: the Reds had claims concerning the same areas.", "General Mannerheim agreed on the need to take over East Karelia and to request German weapons, but opposed actual German intervention in Finland.", "Mannerheim recognised the Red Guards' lack of combat skill and trusted in the abilities of the German-trained Finnish Jägers.", "As a former Russian army officer, Mannerheim was well aware of the demoralisation of the Russian army.", "He co-operated with White-aligned Russian officers in Finland and Russia.The main offensives until 6 April 1918.The Whites take Tampere and defeat the Finnish-Russian Reds at the Battle of Rautu, the Karelian Isthmus.|alt=A map illustrating the main offensives until April 1918.The Whites conquer the Red stronghold of Tampere in a decisive battle and defeat the Finnish-Russian Reds at the Battle of Rautu on the Karelian Isthmus.====Aviation====During the war, the Red Guard utilized aircraft, however, little information regarding their activities and the organisation of detachments was preserved.", "Its various operations included bombings, reconnaissance, spreading of propaganda literature, and connection flights.", "Since the Reds had no Finnish pilots, they solely relied on foreign pilots, most of whom were Russian.", "The Reds had four main operational flight detachments located in Helsinki, Tampere, Kouvola and Viipuri.", "They divided their detachments into three fronts.", "The northern front, which was overseen by the detachment in Tampere, consisted of the red troops between the Gulf of Bothnia and Lake Päijänne.", "The central front was between the Lake Päijänne and Lake Saimaa that was operated by the Kouvola detachment.", "The base in Viipuri acted as the base for the eastern front, which was located between Lake Saimaa and the national border.", "Due to poor central command, inadequate fuel quality, low training experience, and poor maintenance, the aerial activity of the Reds was scattered and ineffective.The insignia of the Finnish Air Force, 1918–1945 The White Guard's also had aircraft during the course of the war, which would later evolve into the Finnish Air Force.", "In February 1918, the Whites would have received an aircraft donation of a reconnaissance and training plane from Sweden, the NAB Type 9 Albatros, however its transport to Vaasa was stopped when the ferry's engine failed at Jakobstad.", "Therefore, the first plane to officially arrive to the Whites was the license manufactured Morane-Saulnier MS Parasol/Thulin D donated on 6 March 1918 by Swedish Count Eric von Rosen.", "The aircraft carried Rosen's personal symbol of luck, a right-facing, blue swastika.", "The symbol was further adopted as the official insignia of the Finnish Air Force till the end of World War II.", "During the war, the Whites obtained seven additional aircraft which included four Friedrichshafens, two DFWs, and one Rumpler, all of which were bought from Germany.", "Like the Reds, the Whites also had no domestic pilots and relied on Swedish, Danish, and Russian pilots.", "The White Guard had two flight detachments during the war; one based at Kolho in northern Pirkanmaa and the other at Antrea in the Viipuri Province.", "They carried out rather small operations of reconnaissance, leaflet drops, and bombings.====Soldiers and weapons====The number of Finnish troops on each side varied from 70,000 to 90,000 and both had around 100,000 rifles, 300–400 machine guns and a few hundred cannons.", "While the Red Guards consisted mostly of volunteers, with wages paid at the beginning of the war, the White Army consisted predominantly of conscripts with 11,000–15,000 volunteers.", "The main motives for volunteering were socio-economic factors, such as salary and food, as well as idealism and peer pressure.", "The Red Guards included 2,600 women, mostly recruited from the industrial centres and cities of southern Finland.", "Urban and agricultural workers constituted the majority of the Red Guards, whereas land-owning farmers and well-educated people formed the backbone of the White Army.", "Both armies used child soldiers, mainly between 14 and 17 years of age.", "The use of juvenile soldiers was not rare in World War I; children of the time were under the absolute authority of adults and were not shielded against exploitation.Rifles and machine guns from Imperial Russia were the main armaments of the Reds and the Whites.", "The most commonly used rifle was the Russian 7.62mm (.30 cal) Mosin–Nagant Model 1891.In total, around ten different rifle models were in service, causing problems for ammunition supply.", "The Maxim gun was the most-used machine gun, along with the less-used M1895 Colt–Browning, Lewis and Madsen guns.", "The machine guns caused a substantial part of the casualties in combat.", "Russian field guns were mostly used with direct fire.The Civil War was fought primarily along railways; vital means for transporting troops and supplies, as well for using armoured trains, equipped with light cannons and heavy machine guns.", "The strategically most important railway junction was Haapamäki, approximately northeast of Tampere, connecting eastern and western Finland and as well as southern and northern Finland.", "Other critical junctions included Kouvola, Riihimäki, Tampere, Toijala and Viipuri.", "The Whites captured Haapamäki at the end of January 1918, leading to the Battle of Vilppula.alt=A map illustrates the final battles of the war.", "The Reds do not mount any more offensives, while the Imperial German Army lands from the Gulf of Finland behind the Reds and captures the capital of Helsinki.", "The Whites attack all along the front southwards.====Red Guards and Soviet troops====The Finnish Red Guards seized the early initiative in the war by taking control of Helsinki on 28 January 1918 and by undertaking a general offensive lasting from February till early March 1918.The Reds were relatively well-armed, but a chronic shortage of skilled leaders, both at the command level and in the field, left them unable to capitalise on this momentum, and most of the offensives came to nothing.", "The military chain of command functioned relatively well at company and platoon level, but leadership and authority remained weak as most of the field commanders were chosen by the vote of the troops.", "The common troops were more or less armed civilians, whose military training, discipline and combat morale were both inadequate and low.Ali Aaltonen was replaced on 28 January 1918 by Eero Haapalainen as commander-in-chief.", "He, in turn, was displaced by the Bolshevik triumvirate of Eino Rahja, Adolf Taimi and Evert Eloranta on 20 March.", "The last commander-in-chief of the Red Guard was Kullervo Manner, from 10 April until the last period of the war when the Reds no longer had a named leader.", "Some talented local commanders, such as Hugo Salmela in the Battle of Tampere, provided successful leadership, but could not change the course of the war.", "The Reds achieved some local victories as they retreated from southern Finland toward Russia, such as against German troops in the Battle of Syrjäntaka on 28–29 April in Tuulos.Around 50,000 of the former tsar's army troops were stationed in Finland in January 1918.The soldiers were demoralised and war-weary, and the former serfs were thirsty for farmland set free by the revolutions.", "The majority of the troops returned to Russia by the end of March 1918.In total, 7,000 to 10,000 Red Russian soldiers supported the Finnish Reds, but only around 3,000, in separate, smaller units of 100–1,000 soldiers, could be persuaded to fight in the front line.The revolutions in Russia divided the Soviet army officers politically and their attitude towards the Finnish Civil War varied.", "Mikhail Svechnikov led Finnish Red troops in western Finland in February and Konstantin Yeremejev Soviet forces on the Karelian Isthmus, while other officers were mistrustful of their revolutionary peers and instead co-operated with General Mannerheim, in disarming Soviet garrisons in Finland.", "On 30 January 1918, Mannerheim proclaimed to Russian soldiers in Finland that the White Army did not fight against Russia, but that the objective of the White campaign was to beat the Finnish Reds and the Soviet troops supporting them.The number of Soviet soldiers active in the civil war declined markedly once Germany attacked Russia on 18 February 1918.The German-Soviet Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of 3 March restricted the Bolsheviks' support for the Finnish Reds to weapons and supplies.", "The Soviets remained active on the south-eastern front, mainly in the Battle of Rautu on the Karelian Isthmus between February and April 1918, where they defended the approaches to Petrograd.====White Guards and Sweden's role====Jägers in Vaasa, Finland, on 26 February 1918.The battalion is being inspected by White Commander-in-Chief C. G. E. Mannerheim.|alt=A parade of Finnish Jägers at the Vaasa town square.", "Spectators are gathered around the soldiers in the background.", "General Mannerheim is inspecting the formation in the foreground.While the conflict has been called by some, \"The War of Amateurs\", the White Army had two major advantages over the Red Guards: the professional military leadership of Gustaf Mannerheim and his staff, which included 84 Swedish volunteer officers and former Finnish officers of the tsar's army; and 1,450 soldiers of the 1,900-strong, Jäger battalion.", "The majority of the unit arrived in Vaasa on 25 February 1918.On the battlefield, the Jägers, battle-hardened on the Eastern Front, provided strong leadership that made disciplined combat of the common White troopers possible.", "The soldiers were similar to those of the Reds, having brief and inadequate training.", "At the beginning of the war, the White Guards' top leadership had little authority over volunteer White units, which obeyed only their local leaders.", "At the end of February, the Jägers started a rapid training of six conscript regiments.The Jäger battalion was politically divided, too.", "Four-hundred-and-fifty –mostly socialist– Jägers remained stationed in Germany, as it was feared they were likely to side with the Reds.", "White Guard leaders faced a similar problem when drafting young men to the army in February 1918: 30,000 obvious supporters of the Finnish labour movement never showed up.", "It was also uncertain whether common troops drafted from the small-sized and poor farms of central and northern Finland had strong enough motivation to fight the Finnish Reds.", "The Whites' propaganda promoted the idea that they were fighting a defensive war against Bolshevist Russians, and belittled the role of the Red Finns among their enemies.", "Social divisions appeared both between southern and northern Finland and within rural Finland.", "The economy and society of the north had modernised more slowly than that of the south.", "There was a more pronounced conflict between Christianity and socialism in the north, and the ownership of farmland conferred major social status, motivating the farmers to fight against the Reds.Sweden declared neutrality both during World War I and the Finnish Civil War.", "General opinion, in particular among the Swedish elite, was divided between supporters of the Allies and the Central powers, Germanism being somewhat more popular.", "Three war-time priorities determined the pragmatic policy of the Swedish liberal-social democratic government: sound economics, with export of iron-ore and foodstuff to Germany; sustaining the tranquility of Swedish society; and geopolitics.", "The government accepted the participation of Swedish volunteer officers and soldiers in the Finnish White Army in order to block expansion of revolutionary unrest to Scandinavia.A 1,000-strong paramilitary Swedish Brigade, led by Hjalmar Frisell, took part in the Battle of Tampere and in the fighting south of the town.", "In February 1918, the Swedish Navy escorted the German naval squadron transporting Finnish Jägers and German weapons and allowed it to pass through Swedish territorial waters.", "The Swedish socialists tried to open peace negotiations between the Whites and the Reds.", "The weakness of Finland offered Sweden a chance to take over the geopolitically vital Finnish Åland Islands, east of Stockholm, but the German army's Finland operation stalled this plan.====German intervention====MG 08 machine gun in Helsinki after the surrender of the Red Guard headquarters in Smolna.", "Photograph by Gunnar Lönnqvist |alt=Seven soldiers of the German Army are stationed at a street corner in Helsinki after the surrender of the Red Guard headquarters Smolna.", "One of them is on his knee while two are relaxing against a railing or on a chair.", "MG 08, a heavy machine gun, rests in front of them.", "|leftIn March 1918, the German Empire intervened in the Finnish Civil War on the side of the White Army.", "Finnish activists leaning on Germanism had been seeking German aid in freeing Finland from Soviet hegemony since late 1917, but because of the pressure they were facing at the Western Front, the Germans did not want to jeopardise their armistice and peace negotiations with the Soviet Union.", "The German stance changed after 10 February when Leon Trotsky, despite the weakness of the Bolsheviks' position, broke off negotiations, hoping revolutions would break out in the German Empire and change everything.", "On 13 February, the German leadership decided to retaliate and send military detachments to Finland too.", "As a pretext for aggression, the Germans invited \"requests for help\" from the western neighbouring countries of Russia.", "Representatives of White Finland in Berlin duly requested help on 14 February.The Imperial German Army attacked Russia on 18 February.", "The offensive led to a rapid collapse of the Soviet forces and to the signing of the first Treaty of Brest-Litovsk by the Bolsheviks on 3 March 1918.Finland, the Baltic countries, Poland and Ukraine were transferred to the German sphere of influence.", "The Finnish Civil War opened a low-cost access route to Fennoscandia, where the geopolitical status was altered as a Royal Navy squadron occupied the Soviet harbour of Murmansk by the Arctic Ocean on 9 March 1918.The leader of the German war effort, General Erich Ludendorff, wanted to keep Petrograd under threat of attack via the Viipuri-Narva area and to install a German-led monarchy in Finland.On 5 March 1918, a German naval squadron landed on the Åland Islands (in mid-February 1918, the islands had been occupied by a Swedish military expedition, which departed from there in May).", "On 3 April 1918, the 10,000-strong Baltic Sea Division (), led by General Rüdiger von der Goltz, launched the main attack at Hanko, west of Helsinki.", "It was followed on 7 April by Colonel Otto von Brandenstein's 3,000-strong Detachment Brandenstein () taking the town of Loviisa east of Helsinki.", "The larger German formations advanced eastwards from Hanko and took Helsinki on 12–13 April, while Detachment Brandenstein overran the town of Lahti on 19 April.", "The main German detachment proceeded northwards from Helsinki and took Hyvinkää and Riihimäki on 21–22 April, followed by Hämeenlinna on 26 April.", "The final blow to the cause of the Finnish Reds was dealt when the Bolsheviks broke off the peace negotiations at Brest-Litovsk, leading to the German eastern offensive in February 1918.===Decisive engagements=======Battle of Tampere====Kalevankangas cemetery after the Battle of Tampere|alt=Unburied and unclothed bodies of the Reds lie in the foreground at the Kalevankangas cemetery after the Battle of Tampere.", "On the right, around five crosses can be seen, while black silhouettes of people are visible against the sky in the background.In February 1918, General Mannerheim deliberated on where to focus the general offensive of the Whites.", "There were two strategically vital enemy strongholds: Tampere, Finland's major industrial town in the south-west, and Viipuri, Karelia's main city.", "Although seizing Viipuri offered many advantages, his army's lack of combat skills and the potential for a major counterattack by the Reds in the area or in the south-west made it too risky.Mannerheim decided to strike first at Tampere, despite the fact that the town, mostly known for its working class, housed nearly 15,000 heavily armed Red Guards.", "He launched the main assault on 16 March 1918, at Längelmäki north-east of the town, through the right flank of the Reds' defence.", "At the same time, the Whites attacked through the north-western frontline Vilppula–Kuru–Kyröskoski–Suodenniemi.", "Although the Whites were unaccustomed to offensive warfare, some Red Guard units collapsed and retreated in panic under the weight of the offensive, while other Red detachments defended their posts to the last and were able to slow the advance of the White troops.", "Eventually, the Whites lay siege to Tampere.", "They cut off the Reds' southward connection at Lempäälä on 24 March and westward ones at Siuro, Nokia, and Ylöjärvi on 25 March.A propaganda leaflet signed by General Mannerheim circulated by the Whites urging the Red defenders to surrender.", "The Battle for Tampere was fought between 16,000 White and 14,000 Red soldiers.", "It was Finland's first large-scale urban battle and one of the four most decisive military engagements of the war.", "The fight for the area of Tampere began on 28 March, on the eve of Easter 1918, later called \"Bloody Maundy Thursday\", in the Kalevankangas Cemetery.", "The White Army did not achieve a decisive victory in the fierce combat, suffering more than 50 per cent losses in some of their units.", "The Whites had to re-organise their troops and battle plans, managing to raid the town centre in the early hours of 3 April.After a heavy, concentrated artillery barrage, the White Guards advanced from house to house and street to street, as the Red Guards retreated.", "In the late evening of 3 April, the Whites reached the eastern banks of the Tammerkoski rapids.", "The Reds' attempts to break the siege of Tampere from the outside along the Helsinki-Tampere railway failed.", "The Red Guards lost the western parts of the town between 4 and 5 April.", "The Tampere City Hall was among the last strongholds of the Reds.", "The battle ended 6 April 1918 with the surrender of Red forces in the Pyynikki and Pispala sections of Tampere.The Reds, now on the defensive, showed increased motivation to fight during the battle.", "General Mannerheim was compelled to deploy some of the best-trained Jäger detachments, initially meant to be conserved for later use in the Viipuri area.", "The Battle of Tampere was the bloodiest action of the Civil War.", "The White Army lost 700–900 men, including 50 Jägers, the highest number of deaths the Jäger battalion suffered in a single battle of the 1918 war.", "The Red Guards lost 1,000–1,500 soldiers, with a further 11,000–12,000 captured.", "Seventy-one civilians died, mainly due to artillery fire.", "The eastern parts of the city, consisting mostly of wooden buildings, were completely destroyed.====Battle of Helsinki====The White Army parade on Senate Square after the conquest of Helsinki on May 16, 1918After peace talks between Germans and the Finnish Reds were broken off on 11 April 1918, the battle for the capital of Finland began.", "At 05:00 on 12 April, around 2,000–3,000 German Baltic Sea Division soldiers, led by Colonel Hans von Tschirsky und von Bögendorff, attacked the city from the north-west, supported via the Helsinki-Turku railway.", "The Germans broke through the area between Munkkiniemi and Pasila, and advanced on the central-western parts of the town.", "The German naval squadron led by Vice Admiral Hugo Meurer blocked the city harbour, bombarded the southern town area, and landed ''Seebataillon'' marines at Katajanokka.Around 7,000 Finnish Reds defended Helsinki, but their best troops fought on other fronts of the war.", "The main strongholds of the Red defence were the Workers' Hall, the Helsinki railway station, the Red Headquarters at Smolna, the Senate Palace–Helsinki University area and the former Russian garrisons.", "By the late evening of 12 April, most of the southern parts and all of the western area of the city had been occupied by the Germans.", "Local Helsinki White Guards, having hidden in the city during the war, joined the battle as the Germans advanced through the town.On 13 April, German troops took over the Market Square, the Smolna, the Presidential Palace and the Senate-Ritarihuone area.", "Toward the end, a German brigade with 2,000–3,000 soldiers, led by Colonel Kondrad Wolf joined the battle.", "The unit rushed from north to the eastern parts of Helsinki, pushing into the working-class neighbourhoods of Hermanni, Kallio and Sörnäinen.", "German artillery bombarded and destroyed the Workers' Hall and put out the red lantern of the Finnish revolution.", "The eastern parts of the town surrendered around 14:00 on 13 April, when a white flag was raised in the tower of the Kallio Church.", "Sporadic fighting lasted until the evening.", "In total, 60 Germans, 300–400 Reds and 23 White Guard troopers were killed in the battle.", "Around 7,000 Reds were captured.", "The German army celebrated the victory with a military parade in the centre of Helsinki on 14 April 1918.====Battle of Hyvinkää==== (front), commander of the Red Guards of Hyvinkää, and Emil Ylén (left)After losing Helsinki, the Red Defense Command moved to Riihimäki, where it was headed by painter and congressman Efraim Kronqvist.", "The Germans troops, led by Major General Konrad Wolf, on the other hand, attacked Helsinki north on April 15 and conquered Klaukkala four days later, continuing from there to Hämeenlinna.", "In that connection, the Battle of Hyvinkää took place in the town of Hyvinkää, in connection with which killed 21 Germans and about 50 Red Guards.", "After the battle, at least 150 of the Reds were executed by the Whites.====Battle of Lahti====On 19 April 1918, Detachment Brandenstein took over the town of Lahti.", "The German troops advanced from the east-southeast via Nastola, through the Mustankallio graveyard in Salpausselkä and the Russian garrisons at Hennala.", "The battle was minor but strategically important as it cut the connection between the western and eastern Red Guards.", "Local engagements broke out in the town and the surrounding area between 22 April and 1 May 1918 as several thousand western Red Guards and Red civilian refugees tried to push through on their way to Russia.", "The German troops were able to hold major parts of the town and halt the Red advance.", "In total, 600 Reds and 80 German soldiers perished, and 30,000 Reds were captured in and around Lahti.====Battle of Viipuri====After the defeat in Tampere, the Red Guards began a slow retreat eastwards.", "As the German army seized Helsinki, the White Army shifted the military focus to Viipuri area, where 18,500 Whites advanced against 15,000 defending Reds.", "General Mannerheim's war plan had been revised as a result of the Battle for Tampere, a civilian, industrial town.", "He aimed to avoid new, complex city combat in Viipuri, an old military fortress.", "The Jäger detachments tried to tie down and destroy the Red force outside the town.", "The Whites were able to cut the Reds' connection to Petrograd and weaken the troops on the Karelian Isthmus on 20–26 April, but the decisive blow remained to be dealt in Viipuri.", "The final attack began on late 27 April with a heavy Jäger artillery barrage.", "The Reds' defence collapsed gradually, and eventually the Whites conquered —the Reds' symbolic last stand of the 1918 uprising—in the early hours of 29 April 1918.In total, 400 Whites died, and 500–600 Reds perished and 12,000–15,000 were captured.===Red and White terror===Two Reds being executed by Whites in Varkaus in 1918 Both Whites and Reds carried out political violence through executions, respectively termed White Terror (; ) and Red Terror (; ).", "Large-scale terror operations were born and bred in Europe during World War I, the first total war.", "The February and October Revolutions initiated similar violence in Finland: at first by Russian army troops executing their officers, and then later between the Finnish Whites and Reds.The terror consisted of a calculated aspect of general warfare and, on the other hand, the local, personal murders and corresponding acts of revenge.", "In the former, the commanding staff planned and organised the actions and gave orders to the lower ranks.", "At least a third of the Red terror and most of the White terror was centrally led.", "In February 1918, a ''Desk of Securing Occupied Areas'' was implemented by the highest-ranking White staff, and the White troops were given ''Instructions for Wartime Judicature'', later called the Shoot on the Spot Declaration.", "This order authorised field commanders to execute essentially anyone they saw fit.", "No order by the less-organised, highest Red Guard leadership authorising Red Terror has been found.The main goals of the terror were to destroy the command structure of the enemy; to clear and secure the areas governed and occupied by armies; and to create shock and fear among the civil population and the enemy soldiers.", "Additionally, the common troops' paramilitary nature and their lack of combat skills drove them to use political violence as a military weapon.", "Most of the executions were carried out by cavalry units called Flying Patrols, consisting of 10 to 80 soldiers aged 15 to 20 and led by an experienced, adult leader with absolute authority.", "The patrols, specialised in search and destroy operations and death squad tactics, were similar to German Sturmbattalions and Russian Assault units organized during World War I.", "The terror achieved some of its objectives but also gave additional motivation to fight against an enemy perceived to be inhuman and cruel.", "Both Red and White propaganda made effective use of their opponents' actions, increasing the spiral of revenge.alt=Around eight bodies are lying around a hallway after the Viipuri county jail massacre, an example of Red Terror.", "Thirty White prisoners were killed by the Reds.The Red Guards executed influential Whites, including politicians, major landowners, industrialists, police officers, civil servants and teachers as well as White Guards.", "Ten priests of the Evangelical Lutheran Church and 90 moderate socialists were killed.", "The number of executions varied over the war months, peaking in February as the Reds secured power, but March saw low counts because the Reds could not seize new areas outside of the original frontlines.", "The numbers rose again in April as the Reds aimed to leave Finland.", "The two major centres for Red Terror were Toijala and Kouvola, where 300–350 Whites were executed between February and April 1918.The White Guards executed Red Guard and party leaders, Red troops, socialist members of the Finnish Parliament and local Red administrators, and workers.", "The numbers varied over the months as the Whites conquered southern Finland.", "Comprehensive White Terror started with their general offensive in March 1918 and increased constantly.", "It peaked at the end of the war and declined and ceased after the enemy troops had been transferred to prison camps.", "During the high point of the executions, between the end of April and the beginning of May, 200 Reds were shot per day.", "White Terror was decisive against Russian soldiers who assisted the Finnish Reds, and several Russian non-socialist civilians were killed in the Viipuri massacre, the aftermath of the Battle of Viipuri.In total, 1,650 Whites died as a result of Red Terror, while around 10,000 Reds perished by White Terror, which turned into political cleansing.", "White victims have been recorded exactly, while the number of Red troops executed immediately after battles remains unclear.", "Together with the harsh prison-camp treatment of the Reds during 1918, the executions inflicted the deepest mental scars on the Finns, regardless of their political allegiance.", "Some of those who carried out the killings were traumatised, a phenomenon that was later documented.===End===On 8 April 1918, after the defeat in Tampere and the German army intervention, the People's Delegation retreated from Helsinki to Viipuri.", "The loss of Helsinki pushed them to Petrograd on 25 April.", "The escape of the leadership embittered many Reds, and thousands of them tried to flee to Russia, but most of the refugees were encircled by White and German troops.", "In the Lahti area they surrendered on 1–2 May.", "The long Red caravans included women and children, who experienced a desperate, chaotic escape with severe losses due to White attacks.", "The scene was described as a \"road of tears\" for the Reds, but for the Whites, the sight of long, enemy caravans heading east was a victorious moment.", "The Red Guards' last strongholds between the Kouvola and Kotka area fell by 5 May, after the Battle of Ahvenkoski.", "The war of 1918 ended on 15 May 1918, when the Whites took over Fort Ino, a Russian coastal artillery base on the Karelian Isthmus, from the Russian troops.", "White Finland and General Mannerheim celebrated the victory with a large military parade in Helsinki on 16 May 1918.The Red Guards had been defeated.", "The Finnish labour movement had lost the Civil War, several military leaders committed suicide and a majority of the Reds were sent to prison camps.", "The Vaasa Senate returned to Helsinki on 4 May 1918, but the capital was under the control of the German army.", "White Finland had become a protectorate of the German Empire and General Rüdiger von der Goltz was called \"the true Regent of Finland\".", "No armistice or peace negotiations were carried out between the Whites and Reds and an official peace treaty to end the Finnish Civil War was never signed." ], [ "Aftermath and impact", "===Casualties===Casualties of Finnish Civil War were according to a Finnish Government project (2004): Died in battle: White Guard 3,414, Red Guard 5,199; Missing: whites 46, reds 1,767; Executed: whites 1,424, reds 7,370; Died in prison camps: whites 4, reds 11,652 – total deaths 36,640.===Prison camps===A prison camp for Red prisoners in leftThe White Army and German troops captured around 80,000 Red prisoners, including 5,000 women, 1,500 children and 8,000 Russians.", "The largest prison camps were Suomenlinna (an island facing Helsinki), Hämeenlinna, Lahti, Riihimäki, Tammisaari, Tampere and Viipuri.", "The Senate decided to keep the prisoners detained until each individual's role in the Civil War had been investigated.", "Legislation making provision for a Treason Court (; ) was enacted on 29 May 1918.The judicature of the 145 inferior courts led by the Supreme Treason Court (; ) did not meet the standards of impartiality, due to the condemnatory atmosphere of White Finland.", "In total 76,000 cases were examined and 68,000 Reds were convicted, primarily for treason; 39,000 were released on parole while the mean-length of punishment for the rest was two to four years in jail.", "555 people were sentenced to death, of whom 113 were executed.", "The trials revealed that some innocent adults had been imprisoned.Combined with the severe food shortages caused by the Civil War, mass imprisonment led to high mortality rates in the prison camps, and the catastrophe was compounded by the angry, punitive and uncaring mentality of the victors.", "Many prisoners felt that they had been abandoned by their own leaders, who had fled to Russia.", "The physical and mental condition of the prisoners declined in May 1918.Many prisoners had been sent to the camps in Tampere and Helsinki in the first half of April and food supplies were disrupted during the Reds' eastward retreat.", "Consequently, in June 2,900 prisoners starved to death, or died as a result of diseases caused by malnutrition or the Spanish flu: 5,000 in July; 2,200 in August; and 1,000 in September.", "The mortality rate was highest in the Tammisaari camp at 34 per cent, while the rate varied between 5 per cent and 20 per cent in the others.", "In total, around 12,500 Finns perished (3,000–4,000 due to the Spanish flu) while detained.", "The dead were buried in mass graves near the camps, of which more than 2,500 Red Guards have been buried in the large mass grave located in the Kalevankangas Cemetery.", "Moreover, 700 severely weakened prisoners died soon after release from the camps.Most prisoners were paroled or pardoned by the end of 1918, after a shift in the political situation.", "There were 6,100 Red prisoners left at the end of the year and 4,000 at the end of 1919.In January 1920, 3,000 prisoners were pardoned and civil rights were returned to 40,000 former Reds.", "In 1927, the Social Democratic Party government led by Väinö Tanner pardoned the last 50 prisoners.", "The Finnish government paid reparations to 11,600 prisoners in 1973.The traumatic hardships of the prison camps increased support for communism in Finland.===War-torn nation===Aleksanterinkatu after the Battle of Tampere.The Civil War was a catastrophe for Finland: around 36,000 people – 1.2 per cent of the population – perished.", "The war left approximately 15,000 children orphaned.", "Most of the casualties occurred outside the battlefields: in the prison camps and the terror campaigns.", "Many Reds fled to Russia at the end of the war and during the period that followed.", "The fear, bitterness and trauma caused by the war deepened the divisions within Finnish society and many moderate Finns identified themselves as \"citizens of two nations.\"", "During the war and after that, the warring sides have been derogatively referred to as \"butchers\" (for Whites; ) and \"red russkies\" (for Reds; or ''punaryssä'') or just \"commies\".", "Among the Reds in particular, the loss of the war caused such bitterness that some of those who fled behind the eastern border tried to carry out the assassination of General Mannerheim during a White Guard's victory parade of Tampere in 1920, with poor results.The conflict caused disintegration within both socialist and non-socialist factions.", "The rightward shift of power caused a dispute between conservatives and liberals on the best system of government for Finland to adopt: the former demanded monarchy and restricted parliamentarianism; the latter demanded a democratic republic.", "Both sides justified their views on political and legal grounds.", "The monarchists leaned on the Swedish regime's 1772 monarchist constitution (accepted by Russia in 1809), belittled the Declaration of Independence of 1917, and proposed a modernised, monarchist constitution for Finland.", "The republicans argued that the 1772 law lost validity in the February Revolution, that the authority of the Russian tsar was assumed by the Finnish Parliament on 15 November 1917, and that the Republic of Finland had been adopted on 6 December that year.", "The republicans were able to halt the passage of the monarchists' proposal in Parliament.", "The royalists responded by applying the 1772 law to select a new monarch for the country without reference to Parliament.The Finnish labour movement was divided into three parts: moderate social democrats in Finland; radical socialists in Finland; and communists in Soviet Russia.", "The Social Democratic Party had its first official party meeting after the Civil War on 25 December 1918, at which the party proclaimed a commitment to parliamentary means and disavowed Bolshevism and communism.", "The leaders of Red Finland, who had fled to Russia, established the Communist Party of Finland (SKP) () in Moscow on 29 August 1918.After the power struggle of 1917 and the bloody civil war, the former Fennomans and the social democrats who had supported \"ultra-democratic\" means in Red Finland declared a commitment to revolutionary Bolshevism–communism and to the dictatorship of the proletariat, under the control of Lenin.", "Between the party's creation in 1918 and its official banning in 1930, the Social Democracy Party opposed the activity of the SKP while the Communists influenced socialist and agrarian parliamentary groups.", "In January 1922, the Socialist Workers' Party of Finland (SSTP), a group of communists and other far-left socialists, had members of its executive committee arrested and later several hundred other members, including members of Parliament arrested in August 1923.In 1925, those arrested were convicted of plotting and assisting treason against the state.", "In December 1929, Parliament passed bills that further deprived the party of political rights and by November 1930, the party was officially illegal, a policy that would remain until the 1944 Moscow Armistice.Rump Parliament of Finland, Helsinki 1918.German army officers stand in the left corner.", "Social Democrat Matti Paasivuori is on the right, representing Finnish socialists alone.|alt= Parliament is convening for the first time after the war.", "White and German soldiers dominate the picture while only one person from the opposition social democrats is present.", "Thus, it was sarcastically called a Rump Parliament.In May 1918, a conservative-monarchist Senate was formed by J. K. Paasikivi, and the Senate asked the German troops to remain in Finland.", "3 March 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and 7 March German-Finnish agreements bound White Finland to the German Empire's sphere of influence.", "General Mannerheim resigned his post on 25 May after disagreements with the Senate about German hegemony over Finland, and about his planned attack on Petrograd to repulse the Bolsheviks and capture Russian Karelia.", "The Germans opposed these plans due to their peace treaties with Lenin.", "The Civil War weakened the Finnish Parliament; it became a Rump Parliament that included only three socialist representatives.On 9 October 1918, under pressure from Germany, the Senate and Parliament elected a German prince, Friedrich Karl, the brother-in-law of German Emperor William II, to become the King of Finland.", "The German leadership was able to utilise the breakdown of Russia for the geopolitical benefit of the German Empire in Fennoscandia also.", "The Civil War and the aftermath diminished independence of Finland, compared to the status it had held at the turn of the year 1917–1918.The economic condition of Finland deteriorated drastically from 1918; recovery to pre-conflict levels was achieved only in 1925.The most acute crisis was in food supply, already deficient in 1917, though large-scale starvation had been avoided that year.", "The Civil War caused marked starvation in southern Finland.", "Late in 1918, Finnish politician Rudolf Holsti appealed for relief to Herbert Hoover, the American chairman of the Committee for Relief in Belgium.", "Hoover arranged for the delivery of food shipments and persuaded the Allies to relax their blockade of the Baltic Sea, which had obstructed food supplies to Finland, and to allow food into the country.===Compromise===Finland's Statue of Liberty in Vaasa on 9 July 1938, 20 years after the Civil War.On 15 March 1917, the fate of Finns had been decided outside Finland, in Petrograd.", "On 11 November 1918, the future of the nation was determined in Berlin, as a result of Germany's surrender to end World War I.", "The German Empire collapsed in the German Revolution of 1918–19, caused by lack of food, war-weariness and defeat in the battles of the Western Front.", "General Rüdiger von der Goltz and his division left Helsinki on 16 December 1918, and Prince Friedrich Karl, who had not yet been crowned, abandoned his role four days later.", "Finland's status shifted from a monarchist protectorate of the German Empire to an independent republic.", "The new system of government was confirmed by the Constitution Act (; ) on 17 July 1919.The first local elections based on universal suffrage in Finland were held during 17–28 December 1918, and the first free parliamentary election took place after the Civil War on 3 March 1919.The United States and the United Kingdom recognised Finnish sovereignty on 6–7 May 1919.The Western powers demanded the establishment of democratic republics in post-war Europe, to lure the masses away from widespread revolutionary movements.", "The Finno–Russian Treaty of Tartu was signed on 14 October 1920, with the aim of stabilizing political relations between Finland and Russia and settling the border question.In April 1918, the leading Finnish social liberal and the eventual first President of Finland, Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg wrote: \"It is urgent to get the life and development in this country back on the path that we had already reached in 1906 and which the turmoil of war turned us away from.\"", "Moderate social democrat Väinö Voionmaa agonised in 1919: \"Those who still trust in the future of this nation must have an exceptionally strong faith.", "This young independent country has lost almost everything due to the war.\"", "Voionmaa was a vital companion for the leader of the reformed Social Democratic Party, Väinö Tanner.Santeri Alkio supported moderate politics.", "His party colleague, Kyösti Kallio urged in his Nivala address of 5 May 1918: \"We must rebuild a Finnish nation, which is not divided into the Reds and Whites.", "We have to establish a democratic Finnish republic, where all the Finns can feel that we are true citizens and members of this society.\"", "In the end, many of the moderate Finnish conservatives followed the thinking of National Coalition Party member Lauri Ingman, who wrote in early 1918: \"A political turn more to the right will not help us now, instead it would strengthen the support of socialism in this country.", "\"Together with other broad-minded Finns, the new partnership constructed a Finnish compromise which eventually delivered a stable and broad parliamentary democracy.", "The compromise was based both on the defeat of the Reds in the Civil War and the fact that most of the Whites' political goals had not been achieved.", "After foreign forces left Finland, the militant factions of the Reds and the Whites lost their backing, while the pre-1918 cultural and national integrity and the legacy of Fennomania stood out among the Finns.The weakness of both Germany and Russia after World War I empowered Finland and made a peaceful, domestic Finnish social and political settlement possible.", "A reconciliation process led to a slow and painful, but steady, national unification.", "In the end, the power vacuum and interregnum of 1917–1919 gave way to the Finnish compromise.", "From 1919 to the present, the democracy and sovereignty of the Finns withstood challenges from right-wing and left-wing political radicalism, the full-scale Soviet invasion of 1939, the crisis of World War II and pressure from the Soviet Union during the Cold War." ], [ "In popular culture", "North Haaga, Helsinki|alt=A modest tombstone, with flowers in front of it and an iron fence surrounding it is the gravesite for Red soldiers and civilians in Helsinki.Rauma.", "The monument was erected in 19461918 Finnish Civil War Red Guard mass monument at the Porvoo===Literature===Despite the fact that the Civil War was one of the most sensitive and controversial topics more than a hundred years later in Finland, still between 1918 and the 1950s, mainstream literature and poetry presented the 1918 war from the White victors' point of view, with works such as the \"Psalm of the Cannons\" () by in 1918.In poetry, Bertel Gripenberg, who had volunteered for the White Army, celebrated its cause in \"The Great Age\" () in 1928 and V. A. Koskenniemi in \"Young Anthony\" () in 1918.The war tales of the Reds were kept silent.The first neutrally critical books were written soon after the war, notably, \"Devout Misery\" () written by the Nobel Prize laureate Frans Emil Sillanpää in 1919; \"Dead Apple Trees\" () by Joel Lehtonen in 1918; and \"Homecoming\" () by Runar Schildt in 1919.These were followed by Jarl Hemmer in 1931 with the book \"A Man and His Conscience\" () and Oiva Paloheimo in 1942 with \"Restless Childhood\" ().", "Lauri Viita's book \"Scrambled Ground\" () from 1950 presented the life and experiences of a worker family in the Tampere of 1918, including a point of view from outsiders to the Civil War.Between 1959 and 1962, Väinö Linna described in his trilogy \"Under the North Star\" () the Civil War and World War II from the viewpoint of the common people.", "Part II of Linna's work opened a larger view of these events and included tales of the Reds in the 1918 war.", "At the same time, a new outlook on the war was opened by Paavo Haavikko's book \"Private Matters\" (), Veijo Meri's \"The Events of 1918\" () and Paavo Rintala's \"My Grandmother and Mannerheim\" (), all published in 1960.In poetry, Viljo Kajava, who had experienced the Battle of Tampere at the age of nine, presented a pacifist view of the Civil War in his \"Poems of Tampere\" () in 1966.The same battle is described in the novel \"Corpse Bearer\" () by Antti Tuuri from 2007.The multilayered \"Malmi 1917\" (2013) by describes contradictory emotions and attitudes in a village drifting towards civil war.Väinö Linna's trilogy turned the general tide, and after it, several books were written mainly from the Red viewpoint: The Tampere-trilogy by in 1977; \"Juho 18\" by in 1998; \"The Command\" () by Leena Lander in 2003; and \"Sandra\" by in 2017.Kjell Westö's epic novel \"Where We Once Went\" (), published in 2006, deals with the period of 1915–1930 from both the Red and the White sides.", "Westö's book \"Mirage 38\" () from 2013, describes post-war traumas of the 1918 war and Finnish mentality in the 1930s.", "Many of the stories have been utilised in motion pictures and in theatre.===Cinema and television===The Civil War and the literature about it has inspired many Finnish filmmakers to take it the subject for the film and television adaptations.", "As early as 1957, ''1918'', a film directed by Toivo Särkkä and based on Jarl Hemmer's play and novel ''A Man and His Conscience'', was screened at the 7th Berlin International Film Festival.", "The most recent films about the civil war include the 2007 film ''The Border'', directed by Lauri Törhönen, and the 2008 film ''Tears of April'', directed by Aku Louhimies and based on Leena Lander's novel ''The Command''.", "However, perhaps the most famous film about the Finnish Civil War is the 1968 film ''Here, Beneath the North Star'', directed by Edvin Laine and based on the first two books of Väinö Linna's ''Under the North Star'' trilogy.In 2012, the dramatized documentary '''' (or ''The Battle of Näsilinna 1918''; ) was made, which tells the story of the Battle of Tampere during the Civil War.", "Other noteworthy documentary-styled films about the Finnish Civil War include '''' from 1973, ''Trust'' from 1976, and ''Flame Top'' from 1980.===Games===In 2020, GMT Games released a strategy-based board game entitled ''All Bridges Burning: Red Revolt and White Guard in Finland, 1917-18'' in the tenth volume of their COIN series, which emulated the conflict of the civil war." ], [ "See also", "* Åland War* Estonian War of Independence* Finnish War* History of Finland* Kagal (Finnish resistance movement)* List of Finnish wars* Lotta Svärd* Mensheviks* Ukrainian War of Independence* Winter War" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations===" ], [ "Bibliography", "===English===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Finnish===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Tepora, Tuomas: Finnish Civil War 1918, in: 1914-1918-online.", "''International Encyclopedia of the First World War''.", "* Jalonen, Jussi: Tampere, Battle of, in: 1914-1918-online.", "''International Encyclopedia of the First World War''.", "* 1918 (pictures of the Civil War on Flickr uploaded by the Vapriikki Museum Centre under CC-BY 2.0)* Finna.fi (search service for information from Finnish archives, libraries and museums)* Finnish Civil War 1918 (part of the 1914–1918 online International Encyclopedia of the First World War)* The Representation of Violence in the Finnish (press-) Photography of the Civil War (requires an Adobe Flash player)* Finnish War Victims 1914–22* Finland Divided: The Finnish Civil War 1918" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Flynn effect" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Flynn effect''' is the substantial and long-sustained increase in both fluid and crystallized intelligence test scores that were measured in many parts of the world over the 20th century, named after researcher James Flynn (1934–2020).", "When intelligence quotient (IQ) tests are initially standardized using a sample of test-takers, by convention the average of the test results is set to 100 and their standard deviation is set to 15 or 16 IQ points.", "When IQ tests are revised, they are again standardized using a new sample of test-takers, usually born more recently than the first; the average result is set to 100.When the new test subjects take the older tests, in almost every case their average scores are significantly above 100.Test score increases have been continuous and approximately linear from the earliest years of testing to the present.", "For example, a study published in the year 2009 found that British children's average scores on the Raven's Progressive Matrices test rose by 14 IQ points from 1942 to 2008.Similar gains have been observed in many other countries in which IQ testing has long been widely used, including other Western European countries, as well as Japan and South Korea.There are numerous proposed explanations of the Flynn effect, such as the rise in efficiency of education, along with skepticism concerning its implications.", "Similar improvements have been reported for semantic and episodic memory.", "Some research suggests that there may be an ongoing reversed Flynn effect (i.e., a decline in IQ scores) in Norway, Denmark, Australia, Britain, the Netherlands, Sweden, Finland, and German-speaking countries.", "This is said to have started in the 1990s and to be occurring despite the average performance of 15-year-olds in those same countries ranking above the international average on the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment in reading, mathematics, and science in 2000, 2003, 2006, 2009, 2012, 2015, and 2018.In certain cases, this apparent reversal may be due to cultural changes which render parts of intelligence tests obsolete.", "Meta-analyses indicate that, overall, the Flynn effect continues, either at the same rate, or at a slower rate in developed countries." ], [ "Origin of term", "The Flynn effect is named for James R. Flynn, who did much to document it and promote awareness of its implications.", "The term itself was coined by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray in their 1994 book ''The Bell Curve''.", "Flynn stated that, if asked, he would have named the effect after Read D. Tuddenham who \"was the first to present convincing evidence of massive gains on mental tests using a nationwide sample\" in a 1948 article.", "Although the general term for the phenomenon—referring to no researcher in particular—continues to be \"secular rise in IQ scores\", many textbooks on psychology and IQ testing have now followed the lead of Herrnstein and Murray in calling the phenomenon the Flynn effect." ], [ "Rise in IQ", "IQ tests are updated periodically.", "For example, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), originally developed in 1949, was updated in 1974, 1991, 2003, and again in 2014.The revised versions are standardized based on the performance of test-takers in standardization samples.", "A standard score of IQ 100 is defined as the mean performance of the standardization sample.", "Thus one way to see changes in norms over time is to conduct a study in which the same test-takers take both an old and new version of the same test.", "Doing so confirms IQ gains over time.", "Some IQ tests, for example, tests used for military draftees in NATO countries in Europe, report raw scores, and those also confirm a trend of rising scores over time.", "The average rate of increase seems to be about three IQ points per decade in the United States, as scaled by the Wechsler tests.", "The increasing test performance over time appears on every major test, in every age range, at every ability level, and in every modern industrialized country, although not necessarily at the same rate as in the United States.", "The increase was continuous and roughly linear from the earliest days of testing to the mid-1990s.", "Though the effect is most associated with IQ increases, a similar effect has been found with increases in attention and of semantic and episodic memory.Ulric Neisser estimated that using the IQ values of 1997, the average IQ of the United States in 1932, according to the first Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales standardization sample, was 80.Neisser states that \"Hardly any of them would have scored 'very superior', but nearly one-quarter would have appeared to be 'deficient.'\"", "He also wrote that \"Test scores are certainly going up all over the world, but whether intelligence itself has risen remains controversial.", "\"Trahan et al.", "(2014) found that the effect was about 2.93 points per decade, based on both Stanford–Binet and Wechsler tests; they also found no evidence the effect was diminishing.", "In contrast, Pietschnig and Voracek (2015) reported, in their meta-analysis of studies involving nearly 4 million participants, that the Flynn effect had decreased in recent decades.", "They also reported that the magnitude of the effect was different for different types of intelligence (\"0.41, 0.30, 0.28, and 0.21 IQ points annually for fluid, spatial, full-scale, and crystallized IQ test performance, respectively\"), and that the effect was stronger for adults than for children.Raven (2000) found that, as Flynn suggested, data interpreted as showing a decrease in many abilities with increasing age must be re-interpreted as showing that there has been a dramatic increase of these abilities with the date of birth.", "On many tests this occurs at all levels of ability.Some studies have found the gains of the Flynn effect to be particularly concentrated at the lower end of the distribution.", "Teasdale and Owen (1989), for example, found the effect primarily reduced the number of low-end scores, resulting in an increased number of moderately high scores, with no increase in very high scores.", "In another study, two large samples of Spanish children were assessed with a 30-year gap.", "Comparison of the IQ distributions indicated that the mean IQ scores on the test had increased by 9.7 points (the Flynn effect), the gains were concentrated in the lower half of the distribution and negligible in the top half, and the gains gradually decreased as the IQ of the individuals increased.", "Some studies have found a reverse Flynn effect with declining scores for those with high IQ.In 1987, Flynn took the position that the very large increase indicates that IQ tests do not measure intelligence but only a minor sort of \"abstract problem-solving ability\" with little practical significance.", "He argued that if IQ gains did reflect intelligence increases, there would have been consequent changes of our society that have not been observed (a presumed non-occurrence of a \"cultural renaissance\").", "By 2012 Flynn no longer endorsed this view of intelligence, having elaborated and refined his view of what rising IQ scores meant.===Precursors to Flynn's publications===Earlier investigators had discovered rises in raw IQ test scores in some study populations, but had not published general investigations of that issue in particular.", "Historian Daniel C. Calhoun cited earlier psychology literature on IQ score trends in his book ''The Intelligence of a People'' (1973).", "R. L. Thorndike drew attention to rises in Stanford-Binet scores in a 1975 review of the history of intelligence testing.", "In 1982, Richard Lynn recorded an increase in average IQ among the population of Japan.===Intelligence===There is debate about whether the rise in IQ scores also corresponds to a rise in general intelligence, or only a rise in special skills related to taking IQ tests.", "Because children attend school longer now and have become much more familiar with the testing of school-related material, one might expect the greatest gains to occur on such school content-related tests as vocabulary, arithmetic or general information.", "Just the opposite is the case: abilities such as these have experienced relatively small gains and even occasional decreases over the years.", "Meta-analytic findings indicate that Flynn effects occur for tests assessing both fluid and crystallized abilities.", "For example, Dutch conscripts gained 21 points during only 30 years, or 7 points per decade, between 1952 and 1982.This rise in IQ test scores is not wholly explained by an increase in general intelligence.", "Studies have shown that while test scores have improved over time, the improvement is not fully correlated with latent factors related to intelligence.", "Other researchers argue that the IQ gains described by the Flynn effect are due in part to increasing intelligence, and in part to increases in test-specific skills.", "One study suggested that the IQ gains reflected changes in modes of thinking that better reflected cognitive skills assessed by IQ tests rather than raw intelligence itself." ], [ "Proposed explanations", "===Schooling and test familiarity===The duration of average schooling has increased steadily.", "However, a criticism of this explanation is that if (in the United States) older and younger subjects, with similar educational levels, are compared then the IQ gains appear almost undiminished in each group compared to when they are considered individually.Many studies find that children who do not attend school score drastically lower on the tests than their regularly attending peers.", "During the 1960s, when some Virginia counties closed their public schools to avoid racial integration, compensatory private schooling was available only for White children.", "On average, the scores of African-American children who received no formal education during that period decreased at a rate of about six IQ points per year.Another explanation is an increased familiarity of the general population with tests and testing.", "For example, children who take the very same IQ test a second time usually gain five or six points.", "However, this seems to set an upper limit on the effects of test sophistication.", "One problem with this explanation and others related to schooling is that in the US, the groups with greater test familiarity show smaller IQ increases.Early intervention programs have shown mixed results.", "Some preschool (ages 3–4) intervention programs like \"Head Start\" do not produce lasting changes of IQ, although they may confer other benefits.", "The \"Abecedarian Early Intervention Project\", an all-day program that provided various forms of environmental enrichment to children from infancy onward, showed IQ gains that did not diminish over time.", "The IQ gains in the experimental group compared to the control group was 4.4 points.", "These gains persisted until at least age 21.Citing a high correlation between rising literacy rates and gains in IQ, David Marks has argued that the Flynn effect is caused by changes in literacy rates.===Generally more stimulating environment===Still another theory is that the general environment today is much more complex and stimulating.", "One of the most striking 20th-century changes in the human intellectual environment has come from the increase of exposure to many types of visual media.", "From pictures on the wall to movies to television to video games to computers, each successive generation has been exposed to richer optical displays than the one before and may have become more adept at visual analysis.", "This would explain why visual tests like the Raven's have shown the greatest increases.", "An increase only of particular forms of intelligence would explain why the Flynn effect has not caused a \"cultural renaissance too great to be overlooked.", "\"In 2001, William Dickens and James Flynn presented a model for resolving several contradictory findings regarding IQ.", "They argue that the measure \"heritability\" includes both a direct effect of the genotype on IQ and also indirect effects such that the genotype changes the environment, thereby affecting IQ.", "That is, those with a greater IQ tend to seek stimulating environments that further increase IQ.", "These reciprocal effects result in gene environment correlation.", "The direct effect could initially have been very small, but feedback can create large differences in IQ.", "In their model, an environmental stimulus can have a very great effect on IQ, even for adults, but this effect also decays over time unless the stimulus continues (the model could be adapted to include possible factors, like nutrition during early childhood, that may cause permanent effects).", "The Flynn effect can be explained by a generally more stimulating environment for all people.", "The authors suggest that any program designed to increase IQ may produce long-term IQ gains if that program teaches children how to replicate the types of cognitively demanding experiences that produce IQ gains outside the program.", "To maximize lifetime IQ, the programs should also motivate them to continue searching for cognitively demanding experiences after they have left the program.Flynn in his 2007 book ''What Is Intelligence?''", "further expanded on this theory.", "Environmental changes resulting from modernization—such as more intellectually demanding work, greater use of technology, and smaller families—have meant that a much larger proportion of people are more accustomed to manipulating abstract concepts such as hypotheses and categories than a century ago.", "Substantial portions of IQ tests deal with these abilities.", "Flynn gives, as an example, the question 'What do a dog and a rabbit have in common?'", "A modern respondent might say they are both mammals (an abstract, or ''a priori'' answer, which depends only on the meanings of the words ''dog'' and ''rabbit''), whereas someone a century ago might have said that humans catch rabbits with dogs (a concrete, or ''a posteriori'' answer, which depended on what happened to be the case at that time).===Nutrition===Improved nutrition is another possible explanation.", "Today's average adult from an industrialized nation is taller than a comparable adult of a century ago.", "That increase of stature, likely the result of general improvements in nutrition and health, has been at a rate of more than a centimeter per decade.", "Available data suggest that these gains have been accompanied by analogous increases in head size, and by an increase in the average size of the brain.", "This argument had been thought to suffer the difficulty that groups who tend to be of smaller overall body size (e.g.", "women, or people of Asian ancestry) do not have lower average IQs.A 2005 study presented data supporting the nutrition hypothesis, which predicts that gains will occur predominantly at the low end of the IQ distribution, where nutritional deprivation is probably most severe.", "An alternative interpretation of skewed IQ gains could be that improved education has been particularly important for this group.A century ago, nutritional deficiencies may have limited body and organ functionality, including skull volume.", "The first two years of life are a critical time for nutrition.", "The consequences of malnutrition can be irreversible and may include poor cognitive development, educability, and future economic productivity.", "On the other hand, Flynn has pointed to 20-point gains on Dutch military (Raven's type) IQ tests between 1952, 1962, 1972, and 1982.In 1962 he observes that Dutch 18-year-olds had a major nutritional handicap.", "They were either in the womb or were recently born, during the great Dutch famine of 1944—when German troops monopolized food and 18,000 people died of starvation.", "Yet, concludes Flynn, \"they do not show up even as a blip in the pattern of Dutch IQ gains.", "It is as if the famine had never occurred.\"", "It appears that the effects of diet are gradual, taking effect over decades (affecting mother as well as the child) rather than a few months.In support of the nutritional hypothesis, it is known that, in the United States, the average height before 1900 was about 10 cm (~4 inches) shorter than it is today.", "Possibly related to the Flynn effect is a similar change of skull size and shape during the last 150 years.", "A Norwegian study found that height gains were strongly correlated with intelligence gains until the cessation of height gains in military conscript cohorts towards the end of the 1980s.", "Both height and skull size increases probably result from a combination of phenotypic plasticity and genetic selection over this period.", "With only five or six human generations in 150 years, time for natural selection has been very limited, suggesting that increased skeletal size resulting from changes in population phenotypes is more likely than recent genetic evolution.It is well known that micronutrient deficiencies change the development of intelligence.", "For instance, one study has found that iodine deficiency causes a fall, on average, of 12 IQ points in China.Scientists James Feyrer, Dimitra Politi, and David N. Weil have found in the U.S. that the proliferation of iodized salt increased IQ by 15 points in some areas.", "Journalist Max Nisen has stated that with this type of salt becoming popular, that \"the aggregate effect has been extremely positive.", "\"Daley et al.", "(2003) found a significant Flynn effect among children in rural Kenya, and concluded that nutrition was one of the hypothesized explanations that best explained their results (the others were parental literacy and family structure).===Infectious diseases===Eppig, Fincher, and Thornhill (2009) argue that \"From an energetics standpoint, a developing human will have difficulty building a brain and fighting off infectious diseases at the same time, as both are very metabolically costly tasks\" and that \"the Flynn effect may be caused in part by the decrease in the intensity of infectious diseases as nations develop.\"", "They suggest that improvements in gross domestic product (GDP), education, literacy, and nutrition may have an effect on IQ mainly through reducing the intensity of infectious diseases.Eppig, Fincher, and Thornhill (2011) in a similar study instead looking at different US states found that states with a higher prevalence of infectious diseases had lower average IQ.", "The effect remained after controlling for the effects of wealth and educational variation.Atheendar Venkataramani (2010) studied the effect of malaria on IQ in a sample of Mexicans.", "Malaria eradication during the birth year was associated with increases in IQ.", "It also increased the probability of employment in a skilled occupation.", "The author suggests that this may be one explanation for the Flynn effect and that this may be an important explanation for the link between national malaria burden and economic development.", "A literature review of 44 papers states that cognitive abilities and school performance were shown to be impaired in sub-groups of patients (with either cerebral malaria or uncomplicated malaria) when compared with healthy controls.", "Studies comparing cognitive functions before and after treatment for acute malarial illness continued to show significantly impaired school performance and cognitive abilities even after recovery.", "Malaria prophylaxis was shown to improve cognitive function and school performance in clinical trials when compared to placebo groups.===Heterosis===Heterosis, or hybrid vigor associated with historical reductions of the levels of inbreeding, has been proposed by Michael Mingroni as an alternative explanation of the Flynn effect.", "However, James Flynn has pointed out that even if everyone mated with a sibling in 1900, subsequent increases in heterosis would not be a sufficient explanation of the observed IQ gains.===Reduction of lead in gasoline===One study found the drop in blood lead levels in the United States from the 1970s to 2007 correlated with a 4-5 point increase in IQ." ], [ "Possible end of progression", "Mean standing height and mean GA (both in z scores units+5) by year of testing, from Sundet et al.", "2004 (figure 3)Jon Martin Sundet and colleagues (2004) examined scores on intelligence tests given to Norwegian conscripts between the 1950s and 2002.They found that the increase of scores of general intelligence stopped after the mid-1990s and declined in numerical reasoning sub-tests.Teasdale and Owen (2005) examined the results of IQ tests given to Danish male conscripts.", "Between 1959 and 1979 the gains were 3 points per decade.", "Between 1979 and 1989 the increase approached 2 IQ points.", "Between 1989 and 1998 the gain was about 1.3 points.", "Between 1998 and 2004 IQ declined by about the same amount as it gained between 1989 and 1998.They speculate that \"a contributing factor in this recent fall could be a simultaneous decline in proportions of students entering 3-year advanced-level school programs for 16–18-year-olds.\"", "The same authors in a more comprehensive 2008 study, again on Danish male conscripts, found that there was a 1.5-point increase between 1988 and 1998, but a 1.5-point decrease between 1998 and 2003/2004.In Australia, the IQ of 6–12 year olds as measured by the Colored Progressive Matrices has shown no increase from 1975 to 2003.In the United Kingdom, a study by Flynn (2009) found that tests carried out in 1980 and again in 2008 show that the IQ score of an average 14-year-old dropped by more than two points over the period.", "For the upper half of the results, the performance was even worse.", "Average IQ scores declined by six points.", "However, children aged between five and 10 saw their IQs increase by up to half a point a year over the three decades.", "Flynn argues that the abnormal drop in British teenage IQ could be due to youth culture having \"stagnated\" or even dumbed down.", "Researcher Richard House, commenting on the study, also mentions the computer culture diminishing reading books as well as a tendency towards teaching to the test.Bratsberg & Rogeberg (2018) present evidence that the Flynn effect in Norway has reversed between the years 1962-1991, and that both the original rise in mean IQ scores and their subsequent decline within this period can be observed within families consisting of native-born parents and their children, indicating that environmental factors were the likely cause for these changes.", "Because IQ data was only available for male Norwegians, who were subject to military conscription, years of schooling were used as an approximation for female IQ to support this conclusion.One possible explanation of a worldwide decline in intelligence, suggested by the World Health Organization and the Forum of International Respiratory Societies' Environmental Committee, is an increase in air pollution, which now affects over 90% of the world's population." ], [ "IQ group differences", "If the Flynn effect has ended in developed nations but continues in less developed ones, this would tend to diminish national differences in IQ scores.Also, if the Flynn effect has ended for the majority in developed nations, it may still continue for minorities, especially for groups like immigrants where many may have received poor nutrition during early childhood or have had other disadvantages.", "A study in the Netherlands found that children of non-Western immigrants had improvements for g, educational achievements, and work proficiency compared to their parents, although there were still remaining differences compared to ethnic Dutch.In the United States, the IQ gap between black and white people was gradually closing over the last decades of the 20th century, as black test-takers increased their average scores relative to white test-takers.", "For instance, Vincent reported in 1991 that the black–white IQ gap was decreasing among children, but that it was remaining constant among adults.", "Similarly, a 2006 study by Dickens and Flynn estimated that the difference between mean scores of black people and white people closed by about 5 or 6 IQ points between 1972 and 2002, a reduction of about one-third.", "In the same period, the educational achievement disparity also diminished.", "Reviews by Flynn and Dickens, Mackintosh, and Nisbett et al.", "all concluded that the gradual closing of the gap was a real phenomenon.Flynn has commented that he never claimed that the Flynn effect has the same causes as observed differences in average IQ test performance between blacks and whites, but that it shows that environmental factors can create IQ differences of a magnitude similar to that gap.", "Flynn also argued that his findings undermine the so-called Spearman's hypothesis, which hypothesized that differences in g factor are the major driver of the blacks-whites IQ gap." ], [ "See also", "* Academic inflation* Environment and intelligence* Euthenics* Gene–environment correlation* Intelligence* The Mismeasure of Man" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * *** *" ], [ "External links", "* * Beyond the Flynn Effect a 2006 lecture by James R. Flynn at the University of Cambridge* The Flynn Effect by Indiana University.", "* Marguerite Holloway, ''Flynn's effect'', Scientific American, January 1999; online edition* \"Heritability Estimates Versus Large Environmental Effects: The IQ Paradox Resolved\" – a 2001 article by Dickens and Flynn* \"Dome Improvement\" (''Wired'' article)* Malcolm Gladwell from the New Yorker on race, I.Q., and the Flynn effect* Increasing intelligence: the Flynn effect" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Field ion microscope" ], [ "Introduction", "Field ion microscope image of the end of a sharp platinum needle.", "Each bright spot is a platinum atom.The '''Field ion microscope''' (FIM) was invented by Müller in 1951.It is a type of microscope that can be used to image the arrangement of atoms at the surface of a sharp metal tip.On October 11, 1955, Erwin Müller and his Ph.D. student, Kanwar Bahadur (Pennsylvania State University) observed individual tungsten atoms on the surface of a sharply pointed tungsten tip by cooling it to 21 K and employing helium as the imaging gas.", "Müller & Bahadur were the first persons to observe individual atoms directly." ], [ "Introduction", "In FIM, a sharp (<50 nm tip radius) metal tip is produced and placed in an ultra high vacuum chamber, which is backfilled with an imaging gas such as helium or neon.", "The tip is cooled to cryogenic temperatures (20–100 K).", "A positive voltage of 5 to 10 kilovolts is applied to the tip.", "Gas atoms adsorbed on the tip are ionized by the strong electric field in the vicinity of the tip (thus, \"field ionization\"), becoming positively charged and being repelled from the tip.", "The curvature of the surface near the tip causes a natural magnification — ions are repelled in a direction roughly perpendicular to the surface (a \"point projection\" effect).", "A detector is placed so as to collect these repelled ions; the image formed from all the collected ions can be of sufficient resolution to image individual atoms on the tip surface.Unlike conventional microscopes, where the spatial resolution is limited by the wavelength of the particles which are used for imaging, the FIM is a projection type microscope with atomic resolution and an approximate magnification of a few million times." ], [ "Design, limitations and applications", "FIM like Field Emission Microscopy (FEM) consists of a sharp sample tip and a fluorescent screen (now replaced by a multichannel plate) as the key elements.", "However, there are some essential differences as follows:#The tip potential is positive.#The chamber is filled with an imaging gas (typically, He or Ne at 10−5 to 10−3 Torr).#The tip is cooled to low temperatures (~20-80K).Like FEM, the field strength at the tip apex is typically a few V/Å.", "The experimental set-up and image formation in FIM is illustrated in the accompanying figures.FIM experimental set-up.FIM image formation process.In FIM the presence of a strong field is critical.", "The imaging gas atoms (He, Ne) near the tip are polarized by the field and since the field is non-uniform the polarized atoms are attracted towards the tip surface.", "The imaging atoms then lose their kinetic energy performing a series of hops and accommodate to the tip temperature.", "Eventually, the imaging atoms are ionized by tunneling electrons into the surface and the resulting positive ions are accelerated along the field lines to the screen to form a highly magnified image of the sample tip.In FIM, the ionization takes place close to the tip, where the field is strongest.", "The electron that tunnels from the atom is picked up by the tip.", "There is a critical distance, xc, at which the tunneling probability is a maximum.", "This distance is typically about 0.4 nm.", "The very high spatial resolution and high contrast for features on the atomic scale arises from the fact that the electric field is enhanced in the vicinity of the surface atoms because of the higher local curvature.", "The resolution of FIM is limited by the thermal velocity of the imaging ion.", "Resolution of the order of 1Å (atomic resolution) can be achieved by effective cooling of the tip.Application of FIM, like FEM, is limited by the materials which can be fabricated in the shape of a sharp tip, can be used in an ultra high vacuum (UHV) environment, and can tolerate the high electrostatic fields.", "For these reasons, refractory metals with high melting temperature (e.g.", "W, Mo, Pt, Ir) are conventional objects for FIM experiments.", "Metal tips for FEM and FIM are prepared by electropolishing (electrochemical polishing) of thin wires.", "However, these tips usually contain many asperities.", "The final preparation procedure involves the in situ removal of these asperities by field evaporation just by raising the tip voltage.", "Field evaporation is a field induced process which involves the removal of atoms from the surface itself at very high field strengths and typically occurs in the range 2-5 V/Å.", "The effect of the field in this case is to reduce the effective binding energy of the atom to the surface and to give, in effect, a greatly increased evaporation rate relative to that expected at that temperature at zero fields.", "This process is self-regulating since the atoms that are at positions of high local curvature, such as adatoms or ledge atoms, are removed preferentially.", "The tips used in FIM is sharper (tip radius is 100~300 Å) compared to those used in FEM experiments (tip radius ~1000 Å).FIM has been used to study dynamical behavior of surfaces and the behavior of adatoms on surfaces.", "The problems studied include adsorption-desorption phenomena, surface diffusion of adatoms and clusters, adatom-adatom interactions, step motion, equilibrium crystal shape, etc.", "However, there is the possibility of the results being affected by the limited surface area (i.e.", "edge effects) and by the presence of large electric field.In a recent study from Günther Rupprechter laboratory examined a rhodium nanocrystal surface using field emission microscopy consisting of different nanometer-sized nanofacets as a model of a compartmentalized reaction nanosystem.", "Different reaction modes were observed, including a transition to spatio-temporal chaos.", "The transitions between different modes were caused by variations of the hydrogen pressure modifying the strength of diffusive coupling between individual nanofacets." ], [ "See also", "*Atom probe*Electron microscope*Field emission microscopy*List of surface analysis methods" ], [ "References", "* K.Oura, V.G.Lifshits, A.ASaranin, A.V.Zotov and M.Katayama, Surface Science – An Introduction, (Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003).", "* John B. Hudson, Surface Science – An Introduction, BUTTERWORTH-Heinemann 1992." ], [ "External links", "* Northwestern University Center for Atom-Probe Tomography* * Microscope Parts need to know." ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "First Battle of El Alamein" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''First Battle of El Alamein''' (1–27 July 1942) was a battle of the Western Desert campaign of the Second World War, fought in Egypt between Axis (German and Italian) forces of the Panzer Army Africa—which included the under Field Marshal Erwin Rommel—and Allied (British Imperial and Commonwealth) forces of the Eighth Army under General Claude Auchinleck.The British prevented a second advance by the Axis forces into Egypt.", "Axis positions near El Alamein, only from Alexandria, were dangerously close to the ports and cities of Egypt, the base facilities of the Commonwealth forces and the Suez Canal.", "However, the Axis forces were too far from their base at Tripoli in Libya to remain at El Alamein indefinitely, which led both sides to accumulate supplies for more offensives, against the constraints of time and distance.The battle and the Second Battle of El Alamein three months later remain important to some of the countries that took part.", "In New Zealand, this is due to the country's significant contribution to the defence of El Alamein, especially the heavy role the Māori Battalion played.", "Members of this battalion have been labelled war heroes since, such as commander Frederick Baker, James Henare and Eruera Te Whiti o Rongomai Love, the last of whom was killed in action." ], [ "Background", "===Retreat from Gazala===Afrika Korps tank hunters with an Sd.Kfz.", "232 armoured car in front.After their defeat at the Battle of Gazala in Eastern Libya in June 1942, the British Eighth Army, commanded by Lieutenant-General Neil Ritchie, had retreated east from the Gazala line into north-western Egypt as far as Mersa Matruh, roughly inside the border.", "Ritchie had decided not to hold the defences on the Egyptian border, because the defensive plan there was for infantry to hold defended localities and a strong armoured force behind them to meet any attempts to penetrate or outflank the fixed defences.", "Since General Ritchie had virtually no armoured units left fit to fight, the infantry positions would be defeated in detail.", "The Mersa defence plan also included an armoured reserve but in its absence Ritchie believed he could organise his infantry to cover the minefields between the defended localities to prevent Axis engineers from having undisturbed access.To defend the Matruh line, Ritchie placed 10th Indian Infantry Division (in Matruh itself) and 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division (some down the coast at Gerawla) under X Corps HQ, newly arrived from Syria.", "Inland from X Corps would be XIII Corps with 5th Indian Infantry Division (with only one infantry brigade, 29th Indian, and two artillery regiments) around Sidi Hamza about inland, and the newly arrived 2nd New Zealand Division (short one brigade, the 6th, which had been left out of combat in case the division was captured and it would be needed to serve as the nucleus of a new division) at Minqar Qaim (on the escarpment inland) and 1st Armoured Division in the open desert to the south.", "The 1st Armoured Division had taken over 4th and 22nd Armoured Brigades from 7th Armoured Division which by this time had only three tank regiments (battalions) between them.Area of Western Desert Campaign 1941–1942 (Click to enlarge).On 25 June, General Claude Auchinleck—Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) Middle East Command—relieved Ritchie and assumed direct command of the Eighth Army himself.", "He decided not to seek a decisive confrontation at the Mersa Matruh position.", "He concluded that his inferiority in armour after the Gazala defeat, meant he would be unable to prevent Rommel either breaking through his centre or enveloping his open left flank to the south in the same way he had at Gazala.", "He decided instead to employ delaying tactics while withdrawing a further or more east to a more defensible position near El Alamein on the Mediterranean coast.", "Only to the south of El Alamein, the steep slopes of the Qattara Depression ruled out the possibility of Axis armour moving around the southern flank of his defences and limited the width of the front he had to defend.===Battle of Mersa Matruh===While preparing the Alamein positions, Auchinleck fought strong delaying actions, first at Mersa Matruh on 26–27 June and then Fuka on 28 June.", "The late change of orders resulted in some confusion in the forward formations (X Corps and XIII Corps) between the desire to inflict damage on the enemy and the intention not to get trapped in the Matruh position but retreat in good order.", "The result was poor co-ordination between the two forward Corps and units within them.", "Late on 26 June, the German 90th Light and 21st ''Panzer'' Divisions managed to find their way through the minefields in the centre of the front.", "Early on 27 June, resuming its advance, the 90th Light was checked by British 50th Division's artillery.", "Meanwhile, the 15th and 21st ''Panzer'' Divisions advanced east above and below the escarpment.", "The 15th ''Panzer'' were blocked by 4th Armoured and 7th Motor Brigades, but the 21st ''Panzer'' were ordered on to attack Minqar Qaim.", "Rommel ordered 90th Light to resume its advance, requiring it to cut the coast road behind 50th Division by the evening.", "As the 21st ''Panzer'' moved on Minqar Qaim, the 2nd New Zealand Division found itself surrounded but broke out on the night of 27/28 June without serious losses and withdrew east.Rommel in North Africa (June 1942).Auchinleck had planned a second delaying position at Fuka, some east of Matruh, and at 21:20 he issued the orders for a withdrawal to Fuka.", "Confusion in communication led the division withdrawing immediately to the El Alamein position.", "X Corps, having made an unsuccessful attempt to secure a position on the escarpment, were out of touch with Eighth Army from 19:30 until 04:30 the next morning.", "Only then did they discover that the withdrawal order had been given.", "The withdrawal of XIII Corps had left the southern flank of X Corps on the coast at Matruh exposed and their line of retreat compromised by the cutting of the coastal road east of Matruh.", "They were ordered to break out southwards into the desert and then make their way east.", "Auchinleck ordered XIII Corps to provide support but they were in no position to do so.", "At 21:00 on 28 June, X Corps—organised into brigade groups—headed south.", "In the darkness, there was considerable confusion as they came across enemy units laagered for the night.", "In the process, 5th Indian Division in particular sustained heavy casualties, including the destruction of the 29th Indian Infantry Brigade at Fuka.", "Axis forces captured more than 6,000 prisoners, in addition to 40 tanks and an enormous quantity of supplies." ], [ "Prelude", "===Defences at El Alamein===The Western Desert Battle Area, July 1942.Alamein itself was an inconsequential railway station on the coast.", "Some to the south lay the Ruweisat Ridge, a low stony prominence that gave excellent observation for many miles over the surrounding desert; to the south was the Qattara Depression.", "The line the British chose to defend stretched between the sea and the Depression, which meant that Rommel could outflank it only by taking a significant detour to the south and crossing the Sahara Desert.", "The British Army in Egypt recognised this before the war and had the Eighth Army begin construction of several \"boxes\" (localities with dug-outs and surrounded by minefields and barbed wire) the most developed being around the railway station at Alamein.", "Most of the \"line\" was open, empty desert.", "Lieutenant-General William Norrie (General officer commanding GOC XXX Corps) organised the position and started to construct three defended \"boxes\".", "The first and strongest, at El Alamein on the coast, had been partly wired and mined by 1st South African Division.", "The Bab el Qattara box—some from the coast and south-west of the Ruweisat Ridge—had been dug but had not been wired or mined, while at the Naq Abu Dweis box (on the edge of the Qattara Depression), from the coast, very little work had been done.The British position in Egypt was desperate, the rout from Mersa Matruh had created a panic in the British headquarters at Cairo, something later called \"the Flap\".", "On what came to be referred to as \"Ash Wednesday\", at British headquarters, rear echelon units and the British Embassy, papers were hurriedly burned in anticipation of the fall of the city.", "Auchinleck—although believing he could stop Rommel at Alamein—felt he could not ignore the possibility that he might once more be outmanoeuvred or outfought.", "To maintain his army, plans must be made for the possibility of a further retreat whilst maintaining morale and retaining the support and co-operation of the Egyptians.", "Defensive positions were constructed west of Alexandria and on the approaches to Cairo while considerable areas in the Nile delta were flooded.", "The Axis, too, believed that the capture of Egypt was imminent; Italian leader Benito Mussolini—sensing a historic moment—flew to Libya to prepare for his triumphal entry into Cairo.25 pdr guns of the 2/8th Field Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery at El Alamein, 12 July 1942.The scattering of X Corps at Mersa Matruh disrupted Auchinleck's plan for occupying the Alamein defences.", "On 29 June, he ordered XXX Corps—the 1st South African, 5th and 10th Indian divisions—to take the coastal sector on the right of the front and XIII Corps—the 2nd New Zealand Division and 4th Indian divisions—to be on the left.", "The remains of the 1st Armoured Division and the 7th Armoured Division were to be held as a mobile army reserve.", "His intention was for the fixed defensive positions to channel and disorganise the enemy's advance while mobile units would attack their flanks and rear.On 30 June, Rommel's ''Panzerarmee Afrika'' approached the Alamein position.", "The Axis forces were exhausted and understrength.", "Rommel had driven them forward ruthlessly, being confident that, provided he struck quickly before Eighth Army had time to settle, his momentum would take him through the Alamein position and he could then advance to the Nile with little further opposition.", "Supplies remained a problem because the Axis staff had originally expected a pause of six weeks after the capture of Tobruk.", "German air units were also exhausted and providing little help against the RAF's all-out attack on the Axis supply lines which, with the arrival of United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) heavy bombers, could reach as far as Benghazi.", "Although captured supplies proved useful, water and ammunition were constantly in short supply, while a shortage of transport impeded the distribution of the supplies that the Axis forces did have.===Axis plan of attack===Rommel's plan was for the 90th Light Division and the 15th and 21st ''Panzer'' divisions of the ''Afrika Korps'' to penetrate the Eighth Army lines between the Alamein box and Deir el Abyad (which he believed was defended).", "The 90th Light Division was then to veer north to cut the coastal road and trap the defenders of the Alamein box (which Rommel thought was occupied by the remains of the 50th Infantry Division) and the ''Afrika Korps'' would veer right to attack the rear of XIII Corps." ], [ "Battle", "An Italian division was to attack the Alamein box from the west and another was to follow the 90th Light Division.", "The Italian XX Corps was to follow the ''Afrika Korps'' and deal with the Qattara box while the 133rd Armoured Division \"Littorio\" and German reconnaissance units would protect the right flank.", "Rommel had planned to attack on 30 June but supply and transport difficulties had resulted in a day's delay, vital to the defending forces reorganising on the Alamein line.", "On 30 June, the 90th Light Division was still short of its start line, 21st ''Panzer'' Division was immobilised through lack of fuel and the promised air support had yet to move into its advanced airfields.===Panzer Army Africa attacks===A Panzer II of the ''Afrika Korps''.At 03:00 on 1 July, 90th Light Infantry Division advanced east but strayed too far north and ran into the 1st South African Division's defences and became pinned down.", "The 15th and 21st ''Panzer'' Divisions of the ''Afrika Korps'' were delayed by a sandstorm and then a heavy air attack.", "It was broad daylight by the time they circled round the back of Deir el Abyad where they found the feature to the east of it occupied by 18th Indian Infantry Brigade which, after a hasty journey from Iraq, had occupied the exposed position just west of Ruweisat Ridge and east of Deir el Abyad at Deir el Shein late on 28 June to create one of Norrie's additional defensive boxes.At about 10:00 on 1 July, 21st ''Panzer'' Division attacked Deir el Shein.", "18th Indian Infantry Brigade—supported by 23 25-pounder gun-howitzers, 16 of the new 6-pounder anti-tank guns and nine Matilda tanks—held out the whole day in desperate fighting but by evening the Germans succeeded in over-running them.", "The time they bought allowed Auchinleck to organise the defence of the western end of Ruweisat Ridge.", "The 1st Armoured Division had been sent to intervene at Deir el Shein.", "They ran into 15th ''Panzer'' Division just south of Deir el Shein and drove it west.", "By the end of the day's fighting, the ''Afrika Korps'' had 37 tanks left out of its initial complement of 55.During the early afternoon, 90th Light had extricated itself from the El Alamein box defences and resumed its move eastward.", "It came under artillery fire from the three South African brigade groups and was forced to dig in.On 2 July, Rommel ordered the resumption of the offensive.", "Once again, 90th Light failed to make progress so Rommel called the ''Afrika Korps'' to abandon its planned sweep southward and instead join the effort to break through to the coast road by attacking east toward Ruweisat Ridge.", "The British defence of Ruweisat Ridge relied on an improvised formation called \"Robcol\", comprising a regiment each of field artillery and light anti-aircraft artillery and a company of infantry.", "Robcol—in line with normal British Army practice for ''ad hoc'' formations—was named after its commander, Brigadier Robert Waller, the Commander Royal Artillery of the 10th Indian Infantry Division.", "Robcol was able to buy time, and by late afternoon the two British armoured brigades joined the battle with 4th Armoured Brigade engaging 15th ''Panzer'' and 22nd Armoured Brigade 21st ''Panzer'' respectively.", "They drove back repeated attacks by the Axis armour, who then withdrew before dusk.", "The British reinforced Ruweisat on the night of 2 July.", "The now enlarged Robcol became \"Walgroup\".", "Meanwhile, the Royal Air Force (RAF) made heavy air attacks on the Axis units.The next day, 3 July, Rommel ordered the ''Afrika Korps'' to resume its attack on the Ruweisat ridge with the Italian XX Motorised Corps on its southern flank.", "Italian X Corps, meanwhile were to hold El Mreir.", "By this stage the ''Afrika Korps'' had only 26 operational tanks.", "There was a sharp armoured exchange south of Ruweisat ridge during the morning and the main Axis advance was held.", "On 3 July, the RAF flew 780 sorties.To relieve the pressure on the right and centre of the Eighth Army line, XIII Corps on the left advanced from the Qattara box (known to the New Zealanders as the Kaponga box).", "The plan was that the New Zealand 2nd Division—with the remains of Indian 5th Division and 7th Motor Brigade under its command—would swing north to threaten the Axis flank and rear.", "This force encountered the 132nd Armoured Division \"Ariete\"'s artillery, which was driving on the southern flank of the division as it attacked Ruweisat.", "The Italian commander ordered his battalions to fight their way out independently but the ''Ariete'' lost 531 men (about 350 were prisoners), 36 pieces of artillery, six (or eight?)", "tanks, and 55 trucks.", "By the end of the day, the ''Ariete'' Division had only five tanks.", "The day ended once again with the ''Afrika Korps'' and ''Ariete'' coming off second best to the superior numbers of the British 22nd Armoured and 4th Armoured Brigades, frustrating Rommel's attempts to resume his advance.", "The RAF once again played its part, flying 900 sorties during the day.To the south, on 5 July the New Zealand group resumed its advance northwards towards El Mreir intending to cut the rear of the ''Ariete'' Division.", "Heavy fire from the Italian 27th Infantry Division \"Brescia\" at El Mreir, however, north of the Qattara box, checked their progress and led XIII Corps to call off its attack.===Rommel digs in===Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, with his aides during the desert campaign, 1942.At this point, Rommel decided his exhausted forces could make no further headway without resting and regrouping.", "He reported to the German High Command that his three German divisions numbered just 1,200–1,500 men each and resupply was proving highly problematic because of enemy interference from the air.", "He expected to have to remain on the defensive for at least two weeks.Rommel was by this time suffering from the extended length of his supply lines.", "The Allied Desert Air Force (DAF) was concentrating fiercely on his fragile and elongated supply routes while British mobile columns moving west and striking from the south were causing havoc in the Axis rear echelons.", "Rommel could afford these losses even less since shipments from Italy had been substantially reduced (in June, he received of supplies compared with in May and 400 vehicles (compared with 2,000 in May).", "Meanwhile, the Eighth Army was reorganising and rebuilding, benefiting from its short lines of communication.", "By 4 July, the Australian 9th Division had entered the line in the north, and on 9 July the Indian 5th Infantry Brigade also returned, taking over the Ruweisat position.", "At the same time, the fresh Indian 161st Infantry Brigade reinforced the depleted Indian 5th Infantry Division.===Tel el Eisa===On 8 July, Auchinleck ordered the new XXX Corps commander—Lieutenant-General William Ramsden—to capture the low ridges at Tel el Eisa and Tel el Makh Khad and then to push mobile battle groups south toward Deir el Shein and raiding parties west toward the airfields at El Daba.", "Meanwhile, XIII Corps would prevent the Axis from moving troops north to reinforce the coastal sector.", "Ramsden tasked the Australian 9th Division with 44th Royal Tank Regiment under command with the Tel el Eisa objective and the South African 1st Division with eight supporting tanks, Tel el Makh Khad.", "The raiding parties were to be provided by 1st Armoured Division.Marshal 234x234pxFollowing a bombardment which started at 03:30 on 10 July, the Australian 26th Brigade launched an attack against the ridge north of Tel el Eisa station along the coast (Trig 33).", "The bombardment was the heaviest barrage yet experienced in North Africa, which created panic in the inexperienced soldiers of the Italian 60th Infantry Division \"Sabratha\" who had only just occupied sketchy defences in the sector.", "The Australian attack took more than 1,500 prisoners, routed an Italian Division and overran the German Signals Intercept Company 621.Meanwhile, the South Africans had by late morning taken Tel el Makh Khad and were in covering positions.Elements of the German 164th Light Division and Italian 101st Motorised Division \"Trieste\" arrived to plug the gap torn in the Axis defences.", "That afternoon and evening, tanks from the German 15th ''Panzer'' and Italian ''Trieste'' Divisions launched counter-attacks against the Australian positions, the counter-attacks failing in the face of overwhelming Allied artillery and the Australian anti-tank guns.At first light on 11 July, the Australian 2/24th Battalion supported by tanks from 44th Royal Tank Regiment attacked the western end of Tel el Eisa hill (Point 24).", "By early afternoon, the feature was captured and was then held against a series of Axis counter-attacks throughout the day.", "A small column of armour, motorised infantry, and guns then set off to raid Deir el Abyad and caused a battalion of Italian infantry to surrender.", "Its progress was checked at the Miteirya ridge and it was forced to withdraw that evening to the El Alamein box.", "During the day, more than 1,000 Italian prisoners were taken.On 12 July, the 21st ''Panzer'' Division launched a counter-attack against Trig 33 and Point 24, which was beaten off after a 2½-hour fight, with more than 600 German dead and wounded left strewn in front of the Australian positions.", "The next day, 21.", "''Panzerdivision'' launched an attack against Point 33 and South African positions in the El Alamein box.", "In the El Alamein Box, the Royal Durban Light Infantry (RDLI) faced the full force of the German attacks.", "The RDLI did not have adequate anti-tank guns and the German artillery cut the South African telephone cables, disrupting their field artillery support.", "The attack was halted by intense artillery fire from the defenders.", "Although the South Africans repulsed the German attack, by 16:10, German tanks and dive bombers advanced up to 300 metres from the South African positions.", "The 9th Australian field artillery, 7th British Medium Regiment had to assist in repulsing the German attack.", "At last light, the 79th British Anti-Tank Regiment was deployed to assist the South African forces but the German attack was petering out.", "The South African losses on 13 July totalled nine dead and 42 wounded.", "Although the South African casualties were relatively light, their skill in withstanding the German attacks negated their casualties.", "Had the El Alamein Box been captured by Rommel's forces, the consequences for the Eighth Army would have been devastating; the El Alamein line would have been ruptured, Australian forces would have been cut off from the Eighth Army and forced a general retreat to the Nile Delta.", "Rommel was still determined to drive the British forces from the northern salient.", "Although the Australian defenders had been forced back from Point 24, heavy casualties had been inflicted on 21st ''Panzer'' Division.", "Another attack was mounted on 15 July but made no ground against tenacious resistance.", "On 16 July, the Australians—supported by British tanks—launched an attack to try to take Point 24 but were forced back by German counter-attacks, suffering nearly fifty per cent casualties.After seven days of fierce fighting, the battle in the north for Tel el Eisa salient petered out.", "Australian 9th Division estimated at least 2,000 Axis troops had been killed and more than 3,700 prisoners of war taken in the battle.", "Possibly the most important feature of the battle, however, was that the Australians had captured Signals Intercept Company 621, which had provided Rommel with priceless intelligence from British radio communications.===First Battle of Ruweisat Ridge===A soldier inspects an Italian M13/40 tank that was knocked out near El Alamein, 11 July 1942A German 88mm anti-tank gun captured and destroyed by New Zealand troops near El Alamein, 17 July 1942.As the Axis forces dug in, Auchinleck—having drawn a number of German units to the coastal sector during the Tel el Eisa fighting—developed a plan—codenamed Operation Bacon—to attack the Italian ''17th Infantry Division \"Pavia\"'' and ''Brescia'' Divisions in the centre of the front at the Ruweisat ridge.", "Signals intelligence was giving Auchinleck clear details of the Axis order of battle and force dispositions.", "His policy was to \"...hit the Italians wherever possible in view of their low morale and because the Germans cannot hold extended fronts without them.", "\"The intention was for the 4th New Zealand Brigade and 5th New Zealand Brigade (on 4th Brigade's right) to attack north-west to seize the western part of the ridge and on their right the Indian 5th Infantry Brigade to capture the eastern part of the ridge in a night attack.", "Then 2nd Armoured Brigade would pass through the centre of the infantry objectives to exploit toward Deir el Shein and the Miteirya Ridge.", "On the left, the 22nd Armoured Brigade would be ready to move forward to protect the infantry as they consolidated on the ridge.The attack commenced at 23:00 on 14 July.", "The two New Zealand brigades shortly before dawn on 15 July took their objectives, but minefields and pockets of resistance left behind the forward troops' advance created disarray among the attackers, impeding the move forward of reserves, artillery, and support arms.", "As a result, the New Zealand brigades occupied exposed positions on the ridge without support weapons except for a few anti-tank guns.", "More significantly, the two British armoured brigades failed to move forwards to protect the infantry.", "At first light, a detachment from 15th ''Panzer'' division's 8th ''Panzer'' Regiment launched a counter-attack against New Zealand 4th Brigade's 22nd Battalion.", "A sharp exchange knocked out their anti-tank guns and the infantry found themselves exposed in the open with no alternative but to surrender.", "About 350 New Zealanders were taken prisoner, including double-VC winner Charles Upham.While the 2nd New Zealand Division attacked the western slopes of Ruweisat Ridge, the Indian 5th Brigade made small gains on Ruweisat ridge to the east.", "By 07:00, word was finally got to 2nd Armoured Brigade which started to move north west.", "Two regiments became embroiled in a minefield but the third was able to join Indian 5th Infantry 5th Brigade as it renewed its attack.", "With the help of the armour and artillery, the Indians were able to take their objectives by early afternoon.", "Meanwhile, the 22nd Armoured Brigade had been engaged at Alam Nayil by 90th Light Division and the ''Ariete'' Armoured Division, advancing from the south.", "While—with help from mobile infantry and artillery columns from 7th Armoured Division—they pushed back the Axis probe with ease, they were prevented from advancing north to protect the New Zealand flank.Seeing the ''Brescia'' and ''Pavia'' under pressure, Rommel rushed German troops to Ruweisat.", "By 15:00, the 3rd Reconnaissance Regiment and part of 21st ''Panzer'' Division from the north and 33rd Reconnaissance Regiment and the Baade Group comprising elements from 15th ''Panzer'' Division from the south were in place under Lieutenant-General (''General der Panzertruppe'') Walther Nehring.", "At 17:00, Nehring launched his counter-attack.", "4th New Zealand Brigade were still short of support weapons and also, by this time, ammunition.", "Once again, the anti-tank defences were overwhelmed and about 380 New Zealanders were taken prisoner including Captain Charles Upham who gained a second Victoria Cross for his actions including destroying a German tank and several guns and vehicles with grenades despite being shot through the elbow by a machine gun bullet.", "At about 18:00, the brigade HQ was overrun.", "At about 18:15, 2nd Armoured Brigade engaged the German armour and halted the Axis eastward advance.", "At dusk, Nehring broke off the action.thumbEarly on 16 July, Nehring renewed his attack.", "The 5th Indian Infantry Brigade pushed them back but it was clear from intercepted radio traffic that a further attempt would be made.", "Strenuous preparations to dig in anti-tank guns were made, artillery fire plans organised and a regiment from the 22nd Armoured Brigade was sent to reinforce the 2nd Armoured Brigade.", "When the attack resumed late in the afternoon, it was repulsed.", "After the battle, the Indians counted 24 knocked out tanks, as well as armoured cars and numerous anti-tank guns left on the battlefield.In three days' fighting, the Allies took more than 2,000 Axis prisoners, mostly from the Italian ''Brescia'' and ''Pavia'' Divisions; the New Zealand division suffered 1,405 casualties.", "The fighting at Tel el Eisa and Ruweisat had caused the destruction of three Italian divisions, forced Rommel to redeploy his armour from the south, made it necessary to lay minefields in front of the remaining Italian divisions and stiffen them with detachments of German troops.===Miteirya Ridge (Ruin Ridge)===To relieve pressure on Ruweisat ridge, Auchinleck ordered the Australian 9th Division to make another attack from the north.", "In the early hours of 17 July, the Australian 24th Brigade—supported by 44th Royal Tank Regiment (RTR) and strong fighter cover from the air—assaulted Miteirya ridge (known as \"Ruin ridge\" to the Australians).", "The initial night attack went well, with 736 prisoners taken, mostly from the Italian ''Trento'' and ''Trieste'' motorised divisions.", "Once again, however, a critical situation for the Axis forces was retrieved by vigorous counter-attacks from hastily assembled German and Italian forces, which forced the Australians to withdraw back to their start line with 300 casualties.", "Although the Australian Official History of the 24th Brigade's 2/32nd Battalion describes the counter-attack force as \"German\", the Australian historian Mark Johnston reports that German records indicate that it was the ''Trento'' Division that overran the Australian battalion.===Second Battle of Ruweisat Ridge (El Mreir)===A 25-pdr field gun of 11th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery, in action, July 1942.The Eighth Army now enjoyed a massive superiority in material over the Axis forces: 1st Armoured Division had 173 tanks and more in reserve or in transit, including 61 Grants while Rommel possessed only 38 German tanks and 51 Italian tanks although his armoured units had some 100 tanks awaiting repair.Auchinleck's plan was for Indian Infantry 161st Brigade to attack along Ruweisat ridge to take Deir el Shein, while the New Zealand 6th Brigade attacked from south of the ridge to the El Mreir depression.", "At daylight, two British armoured brigades—2nd Armoured Brigade and the fresh 23rd Armoured Brigade—would sweep through the gap created by the infantry.", "The plan was complicated and ambitious.The infantry night attack began at 16:30 on 21 July.", "The New Zealand attack took their objectives in the El Mreir depression but, once again, many vehicles failed to arrive and they were short of support arms in an exposed position.", "At daybreak on 22 July, the British armoured brigades again failed to advance.", "At daybreak on 22 July, Nehring's 5th and 8th ''Panzer'' Regiments responded with a rapid counter-attack which quickly overran the New Zealand infantry in the open, inflicting more than 900 casualties on the New Zealanders.", "2nd Armoured Brigade sent forward two regiments to help but they were halted by mines and anti-tank fire.The attack by Indian 161st Brigade had mixed fortunes.", "On the left, the initial attempt to clear the western end of Ruweisat failed but at 08:00 a renewed attack by the reserve battalion succeeded.", "On the right, the attacking battalion broke into the Deir el Shein position but was driven back in hand-to-hand fighting.Compounding the disaster at El Mreir, at 08:00 the commander of 23rd Armoured Brigade ordered his brigade forward, intent on following his orders to the letter.", "Major-General Gatehouse—commanding 1st Armoured Division—had been unconvinced that a path had been adequately cleared in the minefields and had suggested the advance be cancelled.", "However, XIII Corps commander—Lieutenant-General William Gott—rejected this and ordered the attack but on a centre line south of the original plan which he incorrectly believed was mine-free.", "These orders failed to get through and the attack went ahead as originally planned.", "The brigade found itself mired in mine fields and under heavy fire.", "They were then counter-attacked by 21st Panzer at 11:00 and forced to withdraw.", "The 23rd Armoured Brigade was destroyed, with the loss of 40 tanks destroyed and 47 badly damaged.At 17:00, Gott ordered 5th Indian Infantry Division to execute a night attack to capture the western half of Ruweisat ridge and Deir el Shein.", "3/14th Punjab Regiment from 9th Indian Infantry Brigade attacked at 02:00 on 23 July but failed as they lost their direction.", "A further attempt in daylight succeeded in breaking into the position but intense fire from three sides resulted in control being lost as the commanding officer was killed, and four of his senior officers were wounded or went missing.===Attack on Tel el Eisa resumed===Destroyed Panzer IIIs near Tel el EisaTo the north, Australian 9th Division continued its attacks.", "At 06:00 on 22 July, Australian 26th Brigade attacked Tel el Eisa and Australian 24th Brigade attacked Tel el Makh Khad toward Miteirya (Ruin Ridge).", "It was during this fighting that Arthur Stanley Gurney performed the actions for which he was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross.", "The fighting for Tel el Eisa was costly, but by the afternoon the Australians controlled the feature.", "That evening, Australian 24th Brigade attacked Tel el Makh Khad with the tanks of 50th RTR in support.", "The tank unit had not been trained in close infantry support and failed to co-ordinate with the Australian infantry.", "The result was that the infantry and armour advanced independently and having reached the objective 50th RTR lost 23 tanks because they lacked infantry support.Once more, the Eighth Army had failed to destroy Rommel's forces, despite its overwhelming superiority in men and equipment.", "On the other hand, for Rommel the situation continued to be grave as, despite successful defensive operations, his infantry had suffered heavy losses and he reported that \"the situation is critical in the extreme\".====Operation Manhood====On 26/27 July, Auchinleck launched Operation Manhood in the northern sector in a final attempt to break the Axis forces.", "XXX Corps was reinforced with 1st Armoured Division (less 22nd Armoured Brigade), 4th Light Armoured Brigade, and 69th Infantry Brigade.", "The plan was to break the enemy line south of Miteirya ridge and exploit north-west.", "The South Africans were to make and mark a gap in the minefields to the south-east of Miteirya by midnight of 26/27 July.", "By 01:00 on 27 July, 24th Australian Infantry Brigade was to have captured the eastern end of the Miteirya ridge and would exploit toward the north-west.", "The 69th Infantry Brigade would pass through the minefield gap created by the South Africans to Deir el Dhib and clear and mark gaps in further minefields.", "The 2nd Armoured Brigade would then pass through to El Wishka and would be followed by 4th Light Armoured Brigade which would attack the Axis lines of communication.A Valentine in North Africa, carrying British infantryThis was the third attempt to break through in the northern sector, and the Axis defenders were expecting the attack.", "Like the previous attacks, it was hurriedly and therefore poorly planned.", "The Australian 24th Brigade managed to take their objectives on Miteirya Ridge by 02:00 of 27 July.", "To the south, the British 69th Brigade set off at 01:30 and managed to take their objectives by about 08:00.However, the supporting anti-tank units became lost in the darkness or delayed by minefields, leaving the attackers isolated and exposed when daylight came.", "There followed a period during which reports from the battlefront regarding the minefield gaps were confused and conflicting.", "As a consequence, the advance of 2nd Armoured Brigade was delayed.", "Rommel launched an immediate counter-attack and the German armoured battlegroups overran the two forward battalions of 69th Brigade.", "Meanwhile, 50th RTR supporting the Australians was having difficulty locating the minefield gaps made by Australian 2/24th Battalion.", "They failed to find a route through and in the process were caught by heavy fire and lost 13 tanks.", "The unsupported 2/28th Australian battalion on the ridge was overrun.", "The 69th Brigade suffered 600 casualties and the Australians 400 for no gain.The Eighth Army was exhausted, and on 31 July Auchinleck ordered an end to offensive operations and the strengthening of the defences to meet a major counter-offensive.Commemorative stone put up by the 7th Bersaglieri Regiment on the road from Alexandria to El Alamein at the high-water mark for the Italian advance.", "The inscription reads: ''Mancò la fortuna, non-il valore'' (A lack of fortune, not of valour).Rommel was later to blame the failure to break through to the Nile on how the sources of supply to his army had dried up and how:Rommel complained bitterly about the failure of important Italian convoys to get desperately needed tanks and supplies through to him, always blaming the Italian Supreme Command, never suspecting British code breaking.According to Dr James Sadkovich and others, Rommel often displayed a distinct tendency to blame and scapegoat his Italian allies to cover up his own mistakes and deficiencies as a commander in the field.", "For example, while Rommel was a very good tactical commander, the Italian and German High Commands were concerned that he lacked operational awareness and a sense of strategic objectives.", "Dr Sadkovich points out that he would often out-run his logistics and squander valuable (mostly Italian) military hardware and resources, in battle after battle, without clear strategic goals or an appreciation of the limited logistics with which his Italian allies were desperately trying to provide him." ], [ "Aftermath", "German and Italian prisoners captured during the advance on the Ruweisat Ridge, July 1942The battle was a stalemate, but it had halted the Axis advance on Alexandria (and then Cairo and ultimately the Suez Canal).", "The Eighth Army had suffered over 13,000 casualties in July, including 4,000 in the 2nd New Zealand Division, 3,000 in the 5th Indian Infantry Division and 2,552 battle casualties in the 9th Australian Division but had taken 7,000 prisoners and inflicted heavy damage on Axis men and machines.", "In his appreciation of 27 July, Auchinleck wrote that the Eighth Army would not be ready to attack again until mid-September at the earliest.", "He believed that because Rommel understood that with the passage of time the Allied situation would only improve, he was compelled to attack as soon as possible and before the end of August when he would have superiority in armour.", "Auchinleck therefore made plans for a defensive battle.In early August, Winston Churchill and General Sir Alan Brooke—the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS)—visited Cairo on their way to meet Joseph Stalin in Moscow.", "They decided to replace Auchinleck, appointing the XIII Corps commander, William Gott, to the Eighth Army command and General Sir Harold Alexander as C-in-C Middle East Command.", "Persia and Iraq were to be split from Middle East Command as a separate Persia and Iraq Command and Auchinleck was offered the post of C-in-C (which he refused).", "Gott was killed on the way to take up his command when his aircraft was shot down.", "Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery was appointed in his place and took command on 13 August." ], [ "See also", "*List of German military equipment of World War II*List of Italian military equipment in World War II*List of British military equipment of World War II*List of Australian military equipment of World War II*North African campaign timeline*List of World War II Battles*List of World War II North Africa Airfields*Battle of Alam el Halfa*Second Battle of El Alamein*Alamein Memorial" ], [ "Notes", "===Citations===" ], [ "References", "**********************" ], [ "External links", "* First Battle of El Alamein, from Italian \"Comando Supremo\"* Royal Engineers Museum Royal Engineers and Second World War (Deception and mine clearance at EL Alamein)* Alam Halfa and Alamein New Zealand Electronic Text Centre** Rommel’s 621st Radio Intercept Company" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "First Italo-Ethiopian War" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''First Italo-Ethiopian War''', also referred to as the '''First Italo-Abyssinian War''', or simply in Italy as the '''Abyssinian War''' (), was a war fought between Italy and Ethiopia from 1895 to 1896.It originated from the disputed Treaty of Wuchale, which the Italians claimed turned Ethiopia into an Italian protectorate.", "Full-scale war broke out in 1895, with Italian troops from Italian Eritrea achieving initial successes against Tigrayan warlords at Coatit, Senafe and Debra Ailà, until they were reinforced by a large Ethiopian army led by Emperor Menelik II.", "The Italian defeat came about after the Battle of Adwa, where the Ethiopian army dealt the heavily outnumbered Italian soldiers and Eritrean askaris a decisive blow and forced their retreat back into Eritrea.", "The war concluded with the Treaty of Addis Ababa.", "Because this was one of the first decisive victories by African forces over a European colonial power, this war became a preeminent symbol of pan-Africanism and secured Ethiopia's sovereignty until the Second Italo-Ethiopian War of 1935–36." ], [ "Background", "The Khedive of Egypt Isma'il Pasha, better known as \"Isma'il the Magnificent\" had conquered Eritrea as part of his efforts to give Egypt an African empire.", "Isma'il had tried to follow up that conquest with Ethiopia, but the Egyptian attempts to conquer that realm ended in humiliating defeat in the Egyptian–Ethiopian War.", "After Egypt's bankruptcy in 1876 followed by the ''Ansar'' revolt under the leadership of the Mahdi in 1881, the Egyptian position in Eritrea was hopeless with the Egyptian forces cut off and unpaid for years.", "By 1884 the Egyptians began to pull out of both Sudan and Eritrea.On 3 June 1884, the Hewett Treaty was signed between Britain, Egypt and Ethiopia that allowed the Ethiopians to occupy parts of the dissolved Habesh Eyalet which allowed Ethiopian goods to pass in and out of Massawa duty-free.", "From the viewpoint of Britain, it was highly undesirable that the French replace the Egyptians in Massawa as that would allow the French to have more naval bases on the Red Sea that could interfere with British shipping using the Suez Canal, and as the British did not want the financial burden of ruling Massawa, they looked for another power who would be interested in replacing the Egyptians.", "The Hewett treaty seemed to suggest that Massawa would fall into the Ethiopian sphere of influence as the Egyptians pulled out.", "After initially encouraging the Emperor Yohannes IV to move into Massawa to replace the Egyptians, London decided to have the Italians move into Massawa.", "In his history of Ethiopia, British historian Augustus Wylde wrote: \"England made use of King John Emperor Yohannes as long as he was of any service and then threw him over to the tender mercies of Italy...It is one of our worst bits of business out of the many we have been guilty of in Africa...one of the vilest bites of treachery\".On 5 February 1885, Italian troops landed at Massawa to replace the Egyptians.", "The Italian government for its part was more than happy to embark upon an imperialist policy to distract its people from the failings in post ''Risorgimento'' Italy.", "In 1861, the unification of Italy was supposed to mark the beginning of a glorious new era in Italian life, and many Italians were gravely disappointed to find that not much had changed in the new Kingdom of Italy with the vast majority of Italians still living in abject poverty.", "To compensate, a chauvinist mood was rampant among the upper classes in Italy with the newspaper ''Il Diritto'' writing in an editorial: \"Italy must be ready.", "The year 1885 will decide her fate as a great power.", "It is necessary to feel the responsibility of the new era; to become again strong men afraid of nothing, with the sacred love of the fatherland, of all Italy, in our hearts\".", "The struggle against the ''Ansar'' from Sudan complicated Yohannes's relations with the Italians, whom he sometimes asked to provide him with guns to fight the ''Ansar'' and other times he resisted the Italians and proposed a truce with the ''Ansar''.On 18 January 1887, at a village named Saati, an advancing Italian army detachment defeated the Ethiopians in a skirmish, but it ended with the numerically superior Ethiopians surrounding the Italians in Saati after they retreated in face of the enemy's numbers.", "Some 500 Italian soldiers under Colonel de Christoforis together with 50 Eritrean auxiliaries were sent to support the besieged garrison at Saati.", "At Dogali on his way to Saati, de Christoforis was ambushed by an Ethiopian force under ''Ras'' Alula, whose men armed with spears skillfully encircled the Italians who retreated to one hill and then to another higher hill.", "After the Italians ran out of ammunition, ''Ras'' Alula ordered his men to charge and the Ethiopians swiftly overwhelmed the Italians in an action that featured bayonets against spears.", "The Battle of Dogali ended with the Italians losing 23 officers and 407 other ranks killed.", "As a result of the defeat at Dogali, the Italians abandoned Saati and retreated back to the Red Sea coast.", "Italian newspapers called the battle a \"massacre\" and excoriated the ''Regio Esercito '' for not assigning de Chistoforis enough ammunition.", "Having, at first, encouraged Emperor Yohannes to move into Eritrea, and then having encouraged the Italians to also do so, London realised a war was brewing and decided to try to mediate, largely out of the fear that the Italians might actually lose.The defeat at Dogali made the Italians cautious for a moment, but on 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes died after being wounded in battle against the ''Ansar'' and on his deathbed admitted that ''Ras'' Mengesha, the supposed son of his brother, was actually his own son and asked that he succeed him.", "The revelation that the emperor had slept with his brother's wife scandalised intensely Orthodox Ethiopia, and instead the ''Negus'' Menelik was proclaimed emperor on 26 March 1889.", "''Ras'' Mengesha, one of the most powerful Ethiopian noblemen, was unhappy about being by-passed in the succession and for a time allied himself with the Italians against the Emperor Menelik.", "Under the feudal Ethiopian system, there was no standing army, and instead, the nobility raised up armies on behalf of the Emperor.", "In December 1889, the Italians advanced inland again and took the cities of Asmara and Keren.=== Outbreak of the war ===On 25 March 1889, the Shewa ruler Menelik II declared himself Emperor of Ethiopia (or \"Abyssinia\", as it was commonly called in Europe at the time).", "Barely a month later, on 2 May he signed the Treaty of Wuchale with the Italians, which apparently gave them control over Eritrea, the Red Sea coast to the northeast of Ethiopia, in return for recognition of Menelik's rule, a sum of money and the provision of 30,000 rifles and 28 artillery cannons.However, the bilingual treaty did not say the same thing in Italian and Amharic; the Italian version did not give the Ethiopians the \"significant autonomy\" written into the Amharic translation.", "The Italian text stated that Ethiopia must conduct its foreign affairs through Italy (making it an Italian protectorate), but the Amharic version merely stated that Ethiopia ''could'' contact foreign powers and conduct foreign affairs using the embassy of Italy.", "Italian diplomats, however, claimed that the original Amharic text included the clause and Menelik knowingly signed a modified copy of the Treaty.", "In October 1889, the Italians informed all of the other European governments because of the Treaty of Wuchale that Ethiopia was now an Italian protectorate and therefore the other European nations could not conduct diplomatic relations with Ethiopia.", "With the exceptions of the Ottoman Empire, which still maintained its claim to Eritrea, and Russia, which disliked the idea of an Orthodox nation being subjugated to a Roman Catholic nation, all of the European powers accepted the Italian claim to a protectorate.", "The Italian claim that Menelik was aware of Article XVII turning his nation into an Italian protectorate seems unlikely given that the Emperor Menelik sent letters to Queen Victoria in late 1889 and was informed in the replies in early 1890 that Britain could not have diplomatic relations with Ethiopia on the account of Article XVII of the Treaty of Wuchale, a revelation that came as a great shock to the Emperor.", "The tone of Victoria's letter was polite.", "The Queen informed Menelik that the restrictions on the import of arms were no longer in force and to prove this mentioned that Ras Makonnen received permission \"to pass two thousand rifles through Zeila, return to Harar\" i.e.", "from Italy.", "But on the question of further diplomatic contacts, she left no doubt in Menelik's mind: \"We shall communicate to the Government of our Friend His Majesty the King of Italy copies of Your Majesty's letter and of our reply.\"", "Francesco Crispi, the Italian Prime Minister was an ultra-imperialist who believed the newly unified Italian state required \"the grandeur of a second Roman empire\".", "Crispi believed that the Horn of Africa was the best place for the Italians to start building the new colonial empire.", "Because of the Ethiopian refusal to abide by the Italian version of the treaty and despite economic handicaps at home, the Italian government decided on a military solution to force Ethiopia to abide by the Italian version of the treaty.", "In doing so, they believed that they could exploit divisions within Ethiopia and rely on tactical and technological superiority to offset any inferiority in numbers.", "The efforts of Emperor Menelik, viewed as pro-French by London, to unify Ethiopia and thus bring the source of the Blue Nile under his control was perceived in Whitehall as a threat to their influence in Egypt.", "As Menelik became increasingly successful in expanding Ethiopia, the British government courted the Italians to counter Ethiopian expansion.The only European ally of Ethiopia was Russia.", "The Ethiopian emperor sent his first diplomatic mission to St. Petersburg in 1895.In June 1895, the newspapers in St. Petersburg wrote, \"Along with the expedition, Menelik II sent his diplomatic mission to Russia, including his princes and his bishop\".", "Many citizens of the capital came to meet the train that brought Prince Damto, General Genemier, Prince Belyakio, Bishop of Harer Gabraux Xavier and other members of the delegation to St. Petersburg.", "On the eve of war, an agreement providing military help for Ethiopia was concluded.", "Russia had been trying to gain a foothold in Ethiopia, and in 1894, after denouncing the Treaty of Wuchale in July, it received an Ethiopian mission in St. Petersburg and sent arms and ammunition to Ethiopia.", "The Russian travel writer Alexander Bulatovich who went to Ethiopia to serve as a Red Cross volunteer with the Emperor Menelik made a point of emphasizing in his books that the Ethiopians converted to Christianity before any of the Europeans ever did, described the Ethiopians as a deeply religious people like the Russians, and argued the Ethiopians did not have the \"low cultural level\" of the other African peoples, making them equal to the Europeans.In 1893, judging that his power over Ethiopia was secure, Menelik repudiated the treaty; in response the Italians ramped up the pressure on his domain in a variety of ways, including the annexation of small territories bordering their original claim under the Treaty of Wuchale, and finally culminating with a military campaign and across the Mareb River into Tigray (on the border with Eritrea) in December 1894.The Italians expected disaffected potentates like Negus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, Ras Mengesha Yohannes, and the Sultan of Aussa to join them; instead, all of the Ethiopians flocked to the Emperor Menelik's side in a display of both nationalism and anti-Italian feeling, while other peoples of dubious loyalty (e.g.", "the Sultan of Aussa) were watched by Imperial garrisons.", "In June 1894, ''Ras'' Mengesha and his generals had appeared in Addis Ababa carrying large stones which they dropped before the Emperor Menelik (a gesture that is a symbol of submission in Ethiopian culture).", "There was an overwhelming national unity in Ethiopia as various feuding noblemen rallied behind the emperor who insisted that Ethiopia, unlike the other African nations, would retain its freedom and not be subjugated by Italy.Menelik had spent much of his reign building up a vast arsenal of modern weapons and ammunition acquired though treaty negotiations and purchases from the Russians, French, British, and even the Italians.", "In 1884, Count , the Italian envoy to Menelik II, was able to import 50,000 Remington rifles and 10 million cartridges in exchange for 600 camels bearing gold, ivory and civet.", "After Italian sources dried up Menelik strove to increase his other imports, in the few years preceding the war the arms trade expanded considerably.", "In November 1893, Menelik's Swiss friend and advisor, Alfred Ilg, went to Paris where he traded gold and ivory for 80,000 Fusil Gras mle 1874, 33 pieces of artillery and 5,000 artillery shells.", "Menelik had also purchased 15,000 quick-firing rifles left over from the Franco-Hova Wars from the French arms trader Léon Chefneux.", "By the end of 1894, 30,000 Berdan rifles and loads of ammunition were imported from Russia, and at least 250,000 cartridges were imported from French Djibouti." ], [ "Course of the war", "Emperor Menelik II250x250pxIn December 1894, Bahta Hagos led a rebellion against the Italians in Akkele Guzay, claiming support of Ras Mengesha Yohannes.", "Units of General Oreste Baratieri's army under Major Pietro Toselli crushed the rebellion and killed Bahta at the Battle of Halai.", "Baratieri suspected that Mengesha would invade Eritrea, and met him at the Battle of Coatit in January 1895.The victorious Italians chased the retreating Mengesha, defeating him again at the battle of Senafe.", "Baratieri would promptly march into Adigrat on March 8 and occupying Adwa at April 2.He issued a proclamation, annexing Tigray province into Italian Eritrea, he then moved into Mekelle and fortified old church above the town's spur.", "At this point, Emperor Menelik turned to France, offering a treaty of alliance; the French response was to abandon the Emperor in order to secure Italian approval of the Treaty of Bardo which would secure French control of Tunisia.", "Virtually alone, on 17 September 1895, Emperor Menelik issued a proclamation calling up the men of Abyssinia to join his army at Were Ilu.", "Leaders of every region in Ethiopia were responding to Menelik's call to arms and would assemble an army of over 100,000 men before marching north to face the Italian invaders.The next clash came at Amba Alagi on 7 December 1895, when Ras Makonnen brought up his largely Shewan army to the slopes of Amba Alagi in southern Tigray.", "They were confronted by Major Pietro Toselli with 2,000 Eritreans and local Tigrayan askaris that had joined the Italians for various reasons.", "Makonnen was joined by Ras Mengesha Yohannes and Welle Betul, together they overran the Italian positions on the natural fortress and killed Major Toselli and most of his men.", "General Giuseppe Arimondi, who had just arrived to reinforce Toselli, was barely able to escape and retreated with 400 survivors to the unfinished Italian fort at Mekele.", "Arimondi left there a small garrison of approximately 1,150 askaris and 200 Italians, commanded by Major Giuseppe Galliano, and took the bulk of his troops to Adigrat, where General Oreste Baratieri was concentrating the Italian army.The first Ethiopian troops reached Mekele in the following days.", "Ras Makonnen surrounded the fort at Mekelle on 18 December.", "By the first days of January, Emperor Menelik II, accompanied by his Queen Taytu Betul, had led their massive imperial army into Tigray and joined Ras Makonnen at Mekele on 6 January 1896.While Italian journalists filled sensational reports of their brave country holding out against \"war-crazed black barbarians\", Menelik had established contact with the Italian commander and gave him the opportunity to leave peacefully to Adigrat.", "The commander was defiant until the Ethiopians cut off the water supply to the fort and on January 21, with permission from the Italian high command, agreed to surrender.", "Menelik allowed them to leave Mekelle with their weapons, and even provided the defeated Italians mules and pack animals to rejoin Baratieri.", "While some historians read this generous act as a sign that Emperor Menelik still hoped for a peaceful resolution to the war, Harold Marcus points out that this escort allowed him a tactical advantage: \"Menelik craftily managed to establish himself in Hawzien, at Gendepata, near Adwa, where the mountain passes were not guarded by Italian fortifications.", "\"Menelik decided against attacking the Italian headquarters at Adigrat and instead marched west towards the plateau of Adwa.", "Baratieri feared that the Emperor intended to invade Eritrea and hence abandoned his positions at Adigrat and moved towards the area.", "On February 28, 1896, Baratieri then called an assembly of all his generals and informed them that their provisions would run out, and asked if the army should retreat back to Asmara or attack Menelik's army.", "All of his generals were opposed to retreat.", "Baratieri decided to rely on surprise by making up for his deficiency in manpower and issued a battle order on the next day.=== Battle of Adwa ===Painting depicting the Battle of AdwaThe decisive battle of the war was the Battle of Adwa on March 1, 1896, which took place in the mountainous country north of the actual town of Adwa (or Adowa).", "The Italian army comprised four brigades totaling approximately 17,700 men, with fifty-six artillery pieces; the Ethiopian army comprised several brigades numbering between 73,000 and 120,000 men (80–100,000 with firearms: according to Richard Pankhurst, the Ethiopians were armed with approximately 100,000 rifles of which about half were quick-firing), with almost fifty artillery pieces.", "General Oreste Baratieri underestimated the size of the Ethiopian force, predicating that Menelik could only field 30,000 men; also, the Ethiopians were better armed, being equipped with thousands of modern rifles and Hotchkiss artillery guns together with ammunition and shells which were superior to the Italian rifles and artillery.", "Menelik had ensured that his infantry and artillerymen were properly trained in their use, giving the Ethiopians a crucial advantage as the Hotchkiss artillery could fire more rapidly than the Italian artillery.On the night of 29 February and the early morning of 1 March, three Italian brigades advanced separately towards Adwa over narrow mountain tracks, while a fourth remained camped.", "However, the three leading Italian brigades had become separated during their overnight march and by dawn were spread across several miles of very difficult terrain.", "Unbeknownst to General Baratieri, Emperor Menelik knew his troops had exhausted the ability of the local peasants to support them and had planned to break camp the next day.", "The Emperor had risen early when spies from Ras Alula, brought him news that the Italians were advancing.", "The Emperor summoned the separate armies of his nobles and with the Empress Taytu Betul beside him, ordered his forces forward.The Italian forces were hit by wave after wave of attacks, until Menelik released his reserve of 25,000 men, which overran an Italian brigade.", "Another brigade was cut off, and destroyed by a cavalry charge.", "The last two brigades were destroyed piecemeal in a devastating rout.", "By noon, the Italian survivors were in full retreat.Italian prisoners of war waiting for repatriationGeorge Berkeley records that the Italian casualties were 6,133 men killed: 261 officers, 2,918 white NCOs and privates, 954 permanently missing, and about 2,000 ascari.", "Another 1,428 were wounded – 470 Italians (including 31 officers) and 958 ascari.", "With 1,865 Italians and 1,000–2,000 ascaris taken prisoner.", "Richard Caulk estimates that the number of Italians killed were 300 officers, 4,600 Italian rank and 1,000 askari for a total of 5,900 dead.", "As well as and 1,000 of those who escaped wounded and at least 2,000 captured.", "Citing contemporary figures, Caulk records Ethiopian losses to be 3,886 killed and 6,000 wounded.", "Whereas Berkeley estimates Ethiopian losses to be 7,000 killed and 10,000 wounded.", "In their flight to Eritrea, the Italians left behind all of their artillery and 11,000 rifles, as well as most of their transport.", "As Paul B. Henze notes, \"Baratieri's army had been completely annihilated while Menelik's was intact as a fighting force and gained thousands of rifles and a great deal of equipment from the fleeing Italians.\"", "800 captured Eritrean Ascari, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated, some were even castrated.", "The Italian prisoners were generally treated better.", "Although, about 70 Italian prisoners were massacred in retaliation for the death of Bashah Aboye, the officer responsible for the massacre was supposedly imprisoned by Menelik." ], [ "Outcome and consequences", "The Italian telegraph lines brought news of the disaster to Italy and the world almost immediately.", "Italy was shaken by political crisis and popular demonstrations.", "Riots broke out in several Italian cities, and within two weeks, Crispi was forced to resign amidst Italian disenchantment with \"foreign adventures\".", "Soon after the battle, Menelik II later sent a message to Antonio Baldissera informing him that he would conclude peace if Italy publicly renounced their protectorate claim over Ethiopia.", "Baldissera agreed to accept only if Ethiopia agreed to not accept protection from any other European powers.", "At this Italian arrogance, Menelik broke off talks and withdrew his original offer.", "Upon returning to his capital at Addis Ababa, Menelik secured the Treaty of Addis Ababa in October, which delineated the borders of Eritrea and forced Italy to recognize \"absolutely and without any reserve\" the independence of Ethiopia.The Russian support for Ethiopia led to a Russian Red Cross mission, though conceived as a medical support for the Ethiopian troops it arrived too late for the actual fighting, which came to end with the Ethiopian victory, at Adwa, on 1 March 1896, the mission arrived in Addis Ababa some three months after Menelik's Adwa victory.", "Owing to Russia's diplomatic support of her fellow Orthodox nation, Russia's prestige greatly increased in Ethiopia.", "The adventuresome Seljan brothers, Mirko and Stjepan, who were actually Catholic Croats, were warmly welcomed when they arrived in Ethiopia in 1899 when they misinformed their hosts by saying they were Russians.Following this victory, the European powers moved rapidly to adjust relations with the Ethiopian Empire.", "Delegations from the United Kingdom and France—whose colonial possessions lay next to Ethiopia—soon arrived in the Ethiopian capital to negotiate their own treaties with this newly proven power.", "Quickly taking advantage of the Italian defeat, French influence increased markedly and France became one of the most influential European powers in Menelik's court.", "In December 1896, a French diplomatic mission in Addis Ababa arrived and on 20 March 1897 signed a treaty that was described as \"''véritable traité d'alliance''.", "In turn, the increase in French influence in Ethiopia led to fears in London that the French would gain control of the Blue Nile and would be able to \"lever\" the British out of Egypt.", "On the eve of the Battle of Adwa, two Sudanese envoys from the ''Mahdiyya'' state arrived at Menelik's camp in Adwa to discuss concentrated action against the Italians, in July 1896 an Ethiopian envoy was present at Abdallahi ibn Muhammad's court in Omdurman.", "The British, fearing that Menelik would support the Mahdist revolt, sent a diplomatic mission to Ethiopia and on 14 May 1897 signed the Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1897 where Menelik assured the British that he would not support the Mahdists and declared the Mahdists as the enemy of his country.", "In December 1897, Ras Makonnen led an expedition against the Mahdists to seize the gold producing region of Benishangul-Gumuz.In 1935, Italy launched a second invasion, ended in 1937 with an Italian victory and the annexation of Ethiopia to Italian East Africa.", "Ethiopia was occupied by Italy until the Italians were driven out in 1941 by the British Empire, with assistance from Ethiopian ''arbegnoch'' guerillas." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Adoua 1.jpg|Battle of AdwaFile:Battle of Adwa Tapestry Closeup.png|An Ethiopian painting commemorating the Battle of AdwaFile:Two Italian soldiers survivors Battle of Adua.jpg|Two Italian soldiers captured and held captive after the Battle of Adwa" ], [ "See also", "* Ethiopia–Italy relations* Italo-Ethiopian War of 1887–1889* Second Italo-Ethiopian War* Italian Empire* Military history of Ethiopia* Military history of Italy" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", ";Bibliography***** ********" ] ]
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[ [ "Frederick Soddy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frederick Soddy''' FRS (2 September 1877 – 22 September 1956) was an English radiochemist who explained, with Ernest Rutherford, that radioactivity is due to the transmutation of elements, now known to involve nuclear reactions.", "He also proved the existence of isotopes of certain radioactive elements.", "In 1921 he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry \"for his contributions to our knowledge of the chemistry of radioactive substances, and his investigations into the origin and nature of isotopes\".", "Soddy was a polymath who mastered chemistry, nuclear physics, statistical mechanics, finance and economics." ], [ "Biography", "Soddy was born at 6 Bolton Road, Eastbourne, England, the son of Benjamin Soddy, corn merchant, and his wife Hannah Green.", "He went to school at Eastbourne College, before going on to study at University College of Wales at Aberystwyth and at Merton College, Oxford, where he graduated in 1898 with first class honours in chemistry.", "He was a researcher at Oxford from 1898 to 1900." ], [ "Scientific career", "In 1900 he became a demonstrator in chemistry at McGill University in Montreal, Quebec, where he worked with Ernest Rutherford on radioactivity.He and Rutherford realized that the anomalous behaviour of radioactive elements was because they decayed into other elements.This decay also produced alpha, beta, and gamma radiation.", "When radioactivity was first discovered, no one was sure what the cause was.", "It needed careful work by Soddy and Rutherford to prove that atomic transmutation was in fact occurring.In 1903, with Sir William Ramsay at University College London, Soddy showed that the decay of radium produced helium gas.", "In the experiment a sample of radium was enclosed in a thin-walled glass envelope sited within an evacuated glass bulb.", "After leaving the experiment running for a long period of time, a spectral analysis of the contents of the former evacuated space revealed the presence of helium.", "Later in 1907, Rutherford and Thomas Royds showed that the helium was first formed as positively charged nuclei of helium (He2+) which were identical to alpha particles, which could pass through the thin glass wall but were contained within the surrounding glass envelope.From 1904 to 1914, Soddy was a lecturer at the University of Glasgow.", "Ruth Pirret worked as his research assistant during this time.", "In May 1910 Soddy was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.", "In 1914 he was appointed to a chair at the University of Aberdeen, where he worked on research related to World War I.In 1913, Soddy showed that an atom moves lower in atomic number by two places on alpha emission, higher by one place on beta emission.", "This was discovered at about the same time by Kazimierz Fajans, and is known as the radioactive displacement law of Fajans and Soddy, a fundamental step toward understanding the relationships among families of radioactive elements.", "In 1913 Soddy also described the phenomenon in which a radioactive element may have more than one atomic mass though the chemical properties are identical.", "He named this concept isotope meaning \"same place\".", "The word was initially suggested to him by Margaret Todd.", "Later, J. J. Thomson showed that non-radioactive elements can also have multiple isotopes.The work that Soddy and his research assistant Ada Hitchins did at Glasgow and Aberdeen showed that uranium decays to radium.Soddy published ''The Interpretation of Radium'' (1909) and ''Atomic Transmutation'' (1953).In 1918, working with the Scottish scientist John Arnold Cranston, he announced the discovery of an isotope of the element later named protactinium.", "This slightly post-dated its discovery by the Germans Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn; however, it is said their discovery was actually made in 1915 but its announcement was delayed due to Cranston's notes being locked away whilst on active service in the First World War.In 1919 he moved to the University of Oxford as the first Dr. Lee's Professor of Chemistry, where, in the period up till 1936, he reorganized the laboratories and the syllabus in chemistry.", "He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his research in radioactive decay and particularly for his formulation of the theory of isotopes.His work and essays popularising the new understanding of radioactivity was the main inspiration for H. G. Wells's ''The World Set Free'' (1914), which features atomic bombs dropped from biplanes in a war set many years in the future.", "Wells's novel is also known as ''The Last War'' and imagines a peaceful world emerging from the chaos.", "In ''Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt'' Soddy praises Wells's ''The World Set Free''.", "He also says that radioactive processes probably power the stars." ], [ "Economics", "In four books written from 1921 to 1934, Soddy carried on a \"campaign for a radical restructuring of global monetary relationships\", offering a perspective on economics rooted in physics – the laws of thermodynamics, in particular – and was \"roundly dismissed as a crank\".", "While most of his proposals – \"to abandon the gold standard, let international exchange rates float, use federal surpluses and deficits as macroeconomic policy tools that could counter cyclical trends, and establish bureaus of economic statistics (including a consumer price index) in order to facilitate this effort\" – are now conventional practice, his critique of fractional-reserve banking still \"remains outside the bounds of conventional wisdom\" although a recent paper by the IMF reinvigorated his proposals.", "Soddy wrote that financial debts grew exponentially at compound interest but the real economy was based on exhaustible stocks of fossil fuels.", "Energy obtained from the fossil fuels could not be used again.", "This criticism of economic growth is echoed by his intellectual heirs in the now emergent field of ecological economics.", "''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', an influential reference text in economics, recognized Soddy as a \"reformer\" for his works on monetary reforms." ], [ "Political views", "In ''Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt,'' Soddy cited the ''Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion'', which had been widely disseminated by Henry Ford in the United States, as evidence that the belief in a \"financial conspiracy to enslave the world\" was widespread at the time.", "He further wrote that \"conscious conspiracy or not a corrupt monetary system strikes at the very life of the nation\".", "Later in life he published a pamphlet ''Abolish Private Money, or Drown in Debt'' (1939).The influence of his writing can be gauged, for example, in this quote from Ezra Pound:Though some activists have insubstantially accused Soddy of anti-Semitism, most of his biographers dispute this narrative and argue that among Soddy's friends and students were some Jews who held positive views of him.", "Among these friends include Kazimierz Fajans, a Polish-Jewish physicist who worked with both Ernest Rutherford and Soddy." ], [ "Descartes' theorem", "He rediscovered the Descartes' theorem in 1936 and published it as a poem, \"The Kiss Precise\", quoted at Problem of Apollonius.", "The kissing circles in this problem are sometimes known as '''Soddy circles'''." ], [ "Honours and awards", "He received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1921 and the same year he was elected member of the International Atomic Weights Committee.", "A small crater on the far side of the Moon as well as the radioactive uranium mineral soddyite are named after him.", "The author H. G. Wells dedicated his novel ''The World Set Free'' to Soddy's ''Interpretation of Radium'' (1909)." ], [ "Personal life", "In 1908, Soddy married Winifred Moller Beilby (1885-1936), the daughter of industrial chemist Sir George Beilby and Lady Emma Bielby, a philanthropist to women's causes.", "The couple worked together and co-published a paper in 1910 on the absorption of gamma rays from radium.", "He died in Brighton, England in 1956, twenty days after his 79th birthday." ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''Radioactivity'' (1904)* '' The Interpretation of Radium'' (1909)* ''Matter and Energy'' (1911), '' second edition'' (2015)* ''The Chemistry of the Radio-elements'' (1915)* ''Science and life: Aberdeen addresses'' (1920)* '' Cartesian Economics: The Bearing of Physical Science upon State Stewardship'' (1921)* ''Science and Life Wealth, Virtual Wealth, and Debt Money versus Man etc'' (1921)* '' Nobel Lecture – The origins of the conception of isotopes'' (1922)* ''Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt.", "The solution of the economic paradox'' (George Allen & Unwin, 1926)* ''The wrecking of a scientific age'' (1927)* ''The Interpretation of the Atom'' (1932)* ''Money versus Man'' (1933)* '' The Role of Money'' (London: George Routledge & Sons Ltd, 1934) at Internet Archive.org, '' second edition'' (2015)* ''Money as nothing for something ; The gold \"standard\" snare'' (1935)* ''Abolish Private Money, or Drown in Debt'' (1939)* ''Present outlook, a warning : debasement of the currency, deflation and unemployment'' (1944)* ''The Story of Atomic Energy'' (1949)* ''Atomic Transmutation'' (1953)" ], [ "See also", "* Ada Hitchins, who helped Soddy to discover the element protactinium* Alfred J. Lotka* Problem of Apollonius* Oliver Sacks' autobiography ''Uncle Tungsten'', in which Soddy, his work and his profound discoveries in atomic physics are extensively discussed and explained in Sacks' insightful and easily understandable language." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* The Central Role of Energy in Soddy's Holistic and Critical Approach to Nuclear Science, Economics, and Social Responsibility* Annotated bibliography for Frederick Soddy from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues* M. King Hubbert on the Nature of Growth.", "1974* A biography of Frederick Soddy by Arian Forrest Nevin* The Frederick Soddy Trust* including the Nobel Lecture, 12 December 1922 ''The Origins of the Conception of Isotopes''* * * Frederick Soddy Papers, 1920-1956 (inclusive).", "H MS c388.Harvard Medical Library, Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine, Boston, Mass." ] ]
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[ [ "Fur seal" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fur seals''' are any of nine species of pinnipeds belonging to the subfamily '''Arctocephalinae''' in the family Otariidae.", "They are much more closely related to sea lions than true seals, and share with them external ears (pinnae), relatively long and muscular foreflippers, and the ability to walk on all fours.", "They are marked by their dense underfur, which made them a long-time object of commercial hunting.", "Eight species belong to the genus ''Arctocephalus'' and are found primarily in the Southern Hemisphere, while a ninth species also sometimes called fur seal, the Northern fur seal (''Callorhinus ursinus''), belongs to a different genus and inhabits the North Pacific.", "The fur seals in ''Arctocephalus'' are more closely related to sea lions than they are to the Northern fur seal, but all three groups are more closely related to each other than they are to true seals." ], [ "Taxonomy", "Fur seal rangesFur seals and sea lions make up the family Otariidae.", "Along with the Phocidae and Odobenidae, ottariids are pinnipeds descending from a common ancestor most closely related to modern bears (as hinted by the subfamily Arctocephalinae, meaning \"bear-headed\").", "The name pinniped refers to mammals with front and rear flippers.", "Otariids arose about 15-17 million years ago in the Miocene, and were originally land mammals that rapidly diversified and adapted to a marine environment, giving rise to the semiaquatic marine mammals that thrive today.", "Fur seals and sea lions are closely related and commonly known together as the \"eared seals\".", "Until recently, fur seals were all grouped under a single subfamily of Pinnipedia, called the Arctocephalinae, to contrast them with Otariinae – the sea lions – based on the most prominent common feature, namely the coat of dense underfur intermixed with guard hairs.", "Recent genetic evidence, however, suggests ''Callorhinus'' is more closely related to some sea lion species, and the fur seal/sea lion subfamily distinction has been eliminated from many taxonomies.", "Nonetheless, all fur seals have certain features in common: the fur, generally smaller sizes, farther and longer foraging trips, smaller and more abundant prey items, and greater sexual dimorphism.", "For these reasons, the distinction remains useful.", "Fur seals comprise two genera: ''Callorhinus'', and ''Arctocephalus''.", "''Callorhinus'' is represented by just one species in the Northern Hemisphere, the northern fur seal (''Callorhinus ursinus''), and ''Arctocephalus'' is represented by eight species in the Southern Hemisphere.", "The southern fur seals comprising the genus ''Arctocephalus'' include Antarctic fur seals, Galapagos fur seals, Juan Fernandez fur seals, New Zealand fur seals, brown fur seals, South American fur seals, and subantarctic fur seals.", "Image Name Distribution150px ''Arctocephalus'' * Antarctic fur seal, ''A.", "gazella''* Brown fur seal, ''A.", "pusillus''**South African fur seal, ''A.", "pusillus pusillus''**Australian fur seal, ''A.", "pusillus doriferus''* Galápagos fur seal, ''A.", "galapagoensis''* Guadalupe fur seal, ''A.", "townsendi''* Juan Fernández fur seal, ''A.", "philippii''* New Zealand fur seal or southern fur seal, ''A.", "forsteri''* South American fur seal, ''A.", "australis''* Subantarctic fur seal, ''A.", "tropicalis'' 150px ''Callorhinus'' * Northern fur seal, ''C.", "ursinus''" ], [ "Physical appearance", "Northern fur seal pups on St. Paul Island, AlaskaAlong with the previously mentioned thick underfur, fur seals are distinguished from sea lions by their smaller body structure, greater sexual dimorphism, smaller prey, and longer foraging trips during the feeding cycle.", "The physical appearance of fur seals varies with individual species, but the main characteristics remain constant.", "Fur seals are characterized by their external pinnae, dense underfur, vibrissae, and long, muscular limbs.", "They share with other otariids the ability to rotate their rear limbs forward, supporting their bodies and allowing them to ambulate on land.", "In water, their front limbs, typically measuring about a fourth of their body length, act as oars and can propel them forward for optimal mobility.", "The surfaces of these long, paddle-like fore limbs are leathery with small claws.", "Otariids have a dog-like head, sharp, well-developed canines, sharp eyesight, and keen hearing.", "They are extremely sexually dimorphic mammals, with the males often two to five times the size of the females, with proportionally larger heads, necks, and chests.", "Size ranges from about 1.5 m, 64 kg in the male Galapagos fur seal (also the smallest pinniped) to 2.5 m, 180 kg in the adult male New Zealand fur seal.", "Most fur seal pups are born with a black-brown coat that molts at 2–3 months, revealing a brown coat that typically gets darker with age.", "Some males and females within the same species have significant differences in appearance, further contributing to the sexual dimorphism.", "Females and juveniles often have a lighter colored coat overall or only on the chest, as seen in South American fur seals.", "In a northern fur seal population, the females are typically silvery-gray on the dorsal side and reddish-brown on their ventral side with a light gray patch on their chest.", "This makes them easily distinguished from the males with their brownish-gray to reddish-brown or black coats." ], [ "Habitat", "Of the fur seal family, eight species are considered southern fur seals, and only one is found in the Northern Hemisphere.", "The southern group includes Antarctic, Galapagos, Guadalupe, Juan Fernandez, New Zealand, brown, South American, and subantarctic fur seals.", "They typically spend about 70% of their lives in subpolar, temperate, and equatorial waters.", "Colonies of fur seals can be seen throughout the Pacific and Southern Oceans from south Australia, Africa, and New Zealand, to the coast of Peru and north to California.", "They are typically nonmigrating mammals, with the exception of the northern fur seal, which has been known to travel distances up to 10,000 km.", "Fur seals are often found near isolated islands or peninsulas, and can be seen hauling out onto the mainland during winter.", "Although they are not migratory, they have been observed wandering hundreds of miles from their breeding grounds in times of scarce resources.", "For example, the subantarctic fur seal typically resides near temperate islands in the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans north of the Antarctic Polar Front, but juvenile males have been seen wandering as far north as Brazil and South Africa." ], [ "Behavior and ecology", "A fur seal at Living Coasts, sunbathing on a rockA fur seal rookery with thousands of sealsSubantarctic fur seal pups swimming in the oceanTypically, fur seals gather during the summer in large rookeries at specific beaches or rocky outcrops to give birth and breed.", "All species are polygynous, meaning dominant males reproduce with more than one female.", "For most species, total gestation lasts about 11.5 months, including a several-month period of delayed implantation of the embryo.", "Northern fur seal males aggressively select and defend the specific females in their harems.", "Females typically reach sexual maturity around 3–4 years.", "The males reach sexual maturity around the same time, but do not become territorial or mate until 6–10 years.", "The breeding season typically begins in November and lasts 2–3 months.", "The northern fur seals begin their breeding season as early as June due to their region, climate, and resources.", "In all cases, the males arrive a few weeks early to fight for their territory and groups of females with which to mate.", "They congregate at rocky, isolated breeding grounds and defend their territory through fighting and vocalization.", "Males typically do not leave their territory for the entirety of the breeding season, fasting and competing until all energy sources are depleted.", "The Juan Fernandez fur seals deviate from this typical behavior, using aquatic breeding territories not seen in other fur seals.", "They use rocky sites for breeding, but males fight for territory on land and on the shoreline and in the water.", "Upon arriving to the breeding grounds, females give birth to their pups from the previous season.", "About a week later, the females mate again and shortly after begin their feeding cycle, which typically consists of foraging and feeding at sea for about 5 days, then returning to the breeding grounds to nurse the pups for about 2 days.", "Mothers and pups locate each other using call recognition during nursing period.", "The Juan Fernandez fur seal has a particularly long feeding cycle, with about 12 days of foraging and feeding and 5 days of nursing.", "Most fur seals continue this cycle for about 9 months until they wean their pup.", "The exception to this is the Antarctic fur seal, which has a feeding cycle that lasts only 4 months.", "During foraging trips, most female fur seals travel around 200 km from the breeding site, and can dive around 200 m depending on food availability.The remainder of the year, fur seals lead a largely pelagic existence in the open sea, pursuing their prey wherever it is abundant.", "They feed on moderately sized fish, squid, and krill.", "Several species of the southern fur seal also have sea birds, especially penguins, as part of their diets.", "Fur seals, in turn, are preyed upon by sharks, orcas, and occasionally by larger sea lions.", "These opportunistic mammals tend to feed and dive in shallow waters at night, when their prey are swimming near the surface.", "South American fur seals exhibit a different diet; adults feed almost exclusively on anchovies, while juveniles feed on demersal fish, most likely due to availability.When fur seals were hunted in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, they hauled out on remote islands where no predators were present.", "The hunters reported being able to club the unwary animals to death one after another, making the hunt profitable, though the price per seal skin was low." ], [ "Population and survival", "Northern fur seal at the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife RefugeBracelet made from silver and seal furThe average lifespan of fur seals varies with different species from 13 to 25 years, with females typically living longer.", "Most populations continue to expand as they recover from previous commercial hunting and environmental threats.", "Many species were heavily exploited by commercial sealers, especially during the 19th century, when their fur was highly valued.", "Beginning in the 1790s, the ports of Stonington and New Haven, Connecticut, were leaders of the American fur seal trade, which primarily entailed clubbing fur seals to death on uninhabited South Pacific islands, skinning them, and selling the hides in China.", "Many populations, notably the Guadalupe fur seal, northern fur seal, and Cape fur seal, suffered dramatic declines and are still recovering.", "Currently, most species are protected, and hunting is mostly limited to subsistence harvest.", "Globally, most populations can be considered healthy, mostly because they often prefer remote habitats that are relatively inaccessible to humans.", "Nonetheless, environmental degradation, competition with fisheries, and climate change potentially pose threats to some populations." ], [ "See also", "* Bering Sea Arbitration" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Gentry, R. L (1998) Behavior and Ecology of the Northern Fur Seal.", "Princeton: Princeton University Press." ] ]
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[ [ "Frisian" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frisian''' most often refers to:*Frisia, a cross-border coastal region in Germany and the Netherlands**Frisians, the medieval and modern ethnic group inhabiting Frisia***Frisii, the ancient inhabitants of Frisia prior to 600 AD**Frisian languages, a group of West Germanic languages, including:***Old Frisian, spoken in Frisia from the 8th to 16th Century***Middle Frisian, spoken in Frisia from the 16th to 19th Century***North Frisian language, spoken in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany***Saterland Frisian language, spoken in Lower Saxony, Germany***West Frisian language, spoken in Friesland, Netherlands**Frisian cuisine, the traditional recipes and cooking methods of Frisia'''Frisian''' or '''Friesian''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Animal breeds", "*Friesian (chicken), a Dutch breed of chicken*East Friesian sheep, a breed of sheep notable for its high production of milk*Friesian horse, a horse breed from Friesland*Friesian Sporthorse, a type of Frisian cross, bred specifically for sport horse disciplines*Holstein Friesian cattle, a widespread black-and-white breed of dairy cattle" ], [ "Other uses", "*Friesan Fire, a horse that ran in the 2009 Kentucky Derby*Frisian horse or ''cheval de frise'', a type of military barrier*Frisian School, a school of philosophy based on the works of Jakob Friedrich Fries*Frisian Solar Challenge, a solar-powered boat race" ], [ "See also", "*East Frisian (disambiguation)*West Frisian (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "Fauna (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fauna''' is a collective term for animal life.", "'''Fauna''' may also refer to:*Fauna (deity), an ancient Roman goddess*Fauna, Bloemfontein, a suburb of the South African city of Bloemfontein*''Fauna'' (Oh Land album), a 2008 album by Oh Land*''Fauna'' (Haken album), a 2023 album by Haken*''Fauna'' (film), a 2020 Mexican/Canadian drama film*Fauna, a fictional character from Disney's ''Sleeping Beauty'', see Flora, Fauna, and Merryweather*Fauna, a 2009 Spiel des Jahres-nominated board game*Fauna, a female character in ''Sweet Thursday'', a novel by John Steinbeck*Florian-Ayala Fauna, American artist, musician, and music producer*Ceres Fauna, VTuber for Hololive English" ], [ "See also", "*Avifauna (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "Federico Fellini" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Federico Fellini''' (; 20 January 1920 – 31 October 1993) was an Italian filmmaker.", "He is known for his distinctive style, which blends fantasy and baroque images with earthiness.", "He is recognized as one of the greatest and most influential filmmakers of all time.", "His films have ranked highly in critical polls such as that of ''Cahiers du Cinéma'' and ''Sight & Sound'', which lists his 1963 film '''' as the 10th-greatest film.Fellini's best-known films include ''I vitelloni'' (1953), ''La Strada'' (1954), ''Nights of Cabiria'' (1957), ''La Dolce Vita'' (1960), ''8½'' (1963), ''Juliet of the Spirits'' (1965), ''Fellini Satyricon'' (1969), ''Roma'' (1972), ''Amarcord'' (1973), and ''Fellini's Casanova'' (1976).Fellini was nominated for 17 Academy Awards over the course of his career, winning a total of four in the category of Best Foreign Language Film (the most for any director in the history of the award).", "He received an honorary award for Lifetime Achievement at the 65th Academy Awards in Los Angeles.", "Fellini also won the Palme d'Or for ''La Dolce Vita'' in 1960, two times the Moscow International Film Festival in 1963 and 1987, and the Career Golden Lion at the 42nd Venice International Film Festival in 1985.In ''Sight & Sound''s 2002 list of the greatest directors of all time, Fellini was ranked 2nd in the directors' poll and 7th in the critics' poll." ], [ "Early life and education", "=== Rimini (1920–1938) ===Fellini was born on 20 January 1920, to middle-class parents in Rimini, then a small town on the Adriatic Sea.", "On 25 January, at the San Nicolò church he was baptized Federico Domenico Marcello Fellini.", "His father, Urbano Fellini (1894–1956), born to a family of Romagnol peasants and small landholders from Gambettola, moved to Rome in 1915 as a baker apprenticed to the Pantanella pasta factory.", "His mother, Ida Barbiani (1896–1984), came from a bourgeois Catholic family of Roman merchants.", "Despite her family's vehement disapproval, she had eloped with Urbano in 1917 to live at his parents' home in Gambettola.", "A civil marriage followed in 1918 with the religious ceremony held at Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome a year later.The couple settled in Rimini where Urbano became a traveling salesman and wholesale vendor.", "Fellini had two siblings, Riccardo (1921–1991), a documentary director for RAI Television, and Maria Maddalena (m. Fabbri; 1929–2002).In 1924, Fellini started primary school in an institute run by the nuns of San Vincenzo in Rimini, attending the Carlo Tonni public school two years later.", "An attentive student, he spent his leisure time drawing, staging puppet shows and reading ''Il corriere dei piccoli'', the popular children's magazine that reproduced traditional American cartoons by Winsor McCay, George McManus and Frederick Burr Opper.", "(Opper's ''Happy Hooligan'' would provide the visual inspiration for Gelsomina in Fellini's 1954 film ''La Strada''; McCay's ''Little Nemo'' would directly influence his 1980 film ''City of Women''.)", "In 1926, he discovered the world of Grand Guignol, the circus with Pierino the Clown and the movies.", "Guido Brignone's ''Maciste all'Inferno'' (1926), the first film he saw, would mark him in ways linked to Dante and the cinema throughout his entire career.Enrolled at the Ginnasio Giulio Cesare in 1929, he made friends with Luigi ''Titta'' Benzi, later a prominent Rimini lawyer (and the model for young Titta in ''Amarcord'' (1973)).", "In Mussolini's Italy, Fellini and Riccardo became members of the ''Avanguardista'', the compulsory Fascist youth group for males.", "He visited Rome with his parents for the first time in 1933, the year of the maiden voyage of the transatlantic ocean liner ''SS Rex'' (which is shown in ''Amarcord'').", "The sea creature found on the beach at the end of ''La Dolce Vita'' (1960) has its basis in a giant fish marooned on a Rimini beach during a storm in 1934.Although Fellini adapted key events from his childhood and adolescence in films such as ''I Vitelloni'' (1953), '''' (1963), and ''Amarcord'' (1973), he insisted that such autobiographical memories were inventions: In 1937, Fellini opened Febo, a portrait shop in Rimini, with the painter Demos Bonini.", "His first humorous article appeared in the \"Postcards to Our Readers\" section of Milan's ''Domenica del Corriere''.", "Deciding on a career as a caricaturist and gag writer, Fellini travelled to Florence in 1938, where he published his first cartoon in the weekly ''420''.", "According to a biographer, Fellini found school \"exasperating\" and, in one year, had 67 absences.", "Failing his military culture exam, he graduated from high school in 1939.===Rome (1939)===In September 1939, he enrolled in law school at the Sapienza University of Rome to please his parents.", "Biographer Hollis Alpert reports that \"there is no record of his ever having attended a class\".", "Installed in a family ''pensione'', he met another lifelong friend, the painter Rinaldo Geleng.", "Desperately poor, they unsuccessfully joined forces to draw sketches of restaurant and café patrons.", "Fellini eventually found work as a cub reporter on the dailies ''Il Piccolo'' and ''Il Popolo di Roma'', but quit after a short stint, bored by the local court news assignments.Four months after publishing his first article in ''Marc'Aurelio'', the highly influential biweekly humour magazine, he joined the editorial board, achieving success with a regular column titled ''But Are You Listening?''.", "Described as \"the determining moment in Fellini's life\", the magazine gave him steady employment between 1939 and 1942, when he interacted with writers, gagmen, and scriptwriters.", "These encounters eventually led to opportunities in show business and cinema.", "Among his collaborators on the magazine's editorial board were the future director Ettore Scola, Marxist theorist and scriptwriter Cesare Zavattini, and Bernardino Zapponi, a future Fellini screenwriter.", "Conducting interviews for ''CineMagazzino'' also proved congenial: when asked to interview Aldo Fabrizi, Italy's most popular variety performer, he established such immediate personal rapport with the man that they collaborated professionally.", "Specializing in humorous monologues, Fabrizi commissioned material from his young protégé." ], [ "Career and later life", "=== Early screenplays (1940–1943) ===Federico Fellini during the 1950sRetained on business in Rimini, Urbano sent wife and family to Rome in 1940 to share an apartment with his son.", "Fellini and Ruggero Maccari, also on the staff of ''Marc'Aurelio'', began writing radio sketches and gags for films.Not yet twenty and with Fabrizi's help, Fellini obtained his first screen credit as a comedy writer on Mario Mattoli's ''Il pirata sono io'' (''The Pirate's Dream'').", "Progressing rapidly to numerous collaborations on films at Cinecittà, his circle of professional acquaintances widened to include novelist Vitaliano Brancati and scriptwriter Piero Tellini.", "In the wake of Mussolini's declaration of war against France and Britain on 10 June 1940, Fellini discovered Kafka's ''The Metamorphosis'', Gogol, John Steinbeck and William Faulkner along with French films by Marcel Carné, René Clair, and Julien Duvivier.", "In 1941 he published ''Il mio amico Pasqualino'', a 74-page booklet in ten chapters describing the absurd adventures of Pasqualino, an alter ego.Writing for radio while attempting to avoid the draft, Fellini met his future wife Giulietta Masina in a studio office at the Italian public radio broadcaster EIAR in the autumn of 1942.Well-paid as the voice of Pallina in Fellini's radio serial, ''Cico and Pallina'', Masina was also well known for her musical-comedy broadcasts which cheered an audience depressed by the war.", "In November 1942, Fellini was sent to Libya, occupied by Fascist Italy, to work on the screenplay of ''I cavalieri del deserto'' (''Knights of the Desert'', 1942), directed by Osvaldo Valenti and Gino Talamo.", "Fellini welcomed the assignment as it allowed him \"to secure another extension on his draft order\".", "Responsible for emergency re-writing, he also directed the film's first scenes.", "When Tripoli fell under siege by British forces, he and his colleagues made a narrow escape by boarding a German military plane flying to Sicily.", "His African adventure, later published in ''Marc'Aurelio'' as \"The First Flight\", marked \"the emergence of a new Fellini, no longer just a screenwriter, working and sketching at his desk, but a filmmaker out in the field\".The apolitical Fellini was finally freed of the draft when an Allied air raid over Bologna destroyed his medical records.", "Fellini and Giulietta hid in her aunt's apartment until Mussolini's fall on 25 July 1943.After dating for nine months, the couple were married on 30 October 1943.Several months later, Masina fell down the stairs and suffered a miscarriage.", "She gave birth to a son, Pierfederico, on 22 March 1945, but the child died of encephalitis 11 days later on 2 April 1945.Masina and Fellini had no other children.The tragedy had enduring emotional and artistic repercussions.===Neorealist apprenticeship (1944–1949)===After the Allied liberation of Rome on 4 June 1944, Fellini and Enrico De Seta opened the Funny Face Shop where they survived the postwar recession drawing caricatures of American soldiers.", "He became involved with Italian Neorealism when Roberto Rossellini, at work on ''Stories of Yesteryear'' (later ''Rome, Open City''), met Fellini in his shop, and proposed he contribute gags and dialogue for the script.", "Aware of Fellini's reputation as Aldo Fabrizi's \"creative muse\", Rossellini also requested that he try to convince the actor to play the role of Father Giuseppe Morosini, the parish priest executed by the SS on 4 April 1944.In 1947, Fellini and Sergio Amidei received an Oscar nomination for the screenplay of ''Rome, Open City''.Working as both screenwriter and assistant director on Rossellini's ''Paisà'' (''Paisan'') in 1946, Fellini was entrusted to film the Sicilian scenes in Maiori.", "In February 1948, he was introduced to Marcello Mastroianni, then a young theatre actor appearing in a play with Giulietta Masina.", "Establishing a close working relationship with Alberto Lattuada, Fellini co-wrote the director's ''Senza pietà'' (''Without Pity'') and ''Il mulino del Po'' (''The Mill on the Po'').", "Fellini also worked with Rossellini on the anthology film ''L'Amore'' (1948), co-writing the screenplay and in one segment titled, \"The Miracle\", acting opposite Anna Magnani.", "To play the role of a vagabond rogue mistaken by Magnani for a saint, Fellini had to bleach his black hair blond.===Early films (1950–1953)===Fellini, Masina, Carla del Poggio and Alberto Lattuada, 1952In 1950 Fellini co-produced and co-directed with Alberto Lattuada ''Variety Lights'' (''Luci del varietà''), his first feature film.", "A backstage comedy set among the world of small-time travelling performers, it featured Giulietta Masina and Lattuada's wife, Carla Del Poggio.", "Its release to poor reviews and limited distribution proved disastrous for all concerned.", "The production company went bankrupt, leaving both Fellini and Lattuada with debts to pay for over a decade.", "In February 1950, ''Paisà'' received an Oscar nomination for the screenplay by Rossellini, Sergio Amidei, and Fellini.After travelling to Paris for a script conference with Rossellini on ''Europa '51'', Fellini began production on ''The White Sheik'' in September 1951, his first solo-directed feature.", "Starring Alberto Sordi in the title role, the film is a revised version of a treatment first written by Michelangelo Antonioni in 1949 and based on the ''fotoromanzi'', the photographed cartoon strip romances popular in Italy at the time.", "Producer Carlo Ponti commissioned Fellini and Tullio Pinelli to write the script but Antonioni rejected the story they developed.", "With Ennio Flaiano, they re-worked the material into a light-hearted satire about newlywed couple Ivan and Wanda Cavalli (Leopoldo Trieste, Brunella Bovo) in Rome to visit the Pope.", "Ivan's prissy mask of respectability is soon demolished by his wife's obsession with the White Sheik.", "Highlighting the music of Nino Rota, the film was selected at Cannes (among the films in competition was Orson Welles's ''Othello'') and then retracted.", "Screened at the 13th Venice International Film Festival, it was razzed by critics in \"the atmosphere of a soccer match\".", "One reviewer declared that Fellini had \"not the slightest aptitude for cinema direction\".In 1953, ''I Vitelloni'' found favour with the critics and public.", "Winning the Silver Lion Award in Venice, it secured Fellini his first international distributor.===Beyond neorealism (1954–1960)===Cinecittà – Teatro 5, Fellini's favorite studio.Fellini directed ''La Strada'' based on a script completed in 1952 with Pinelli and Flaiano.", "During the last three weeks of shooting, Fellini experienced the first signs of severe clinical depression.", "Aided by his wife, he undertook a brief period of therapy with Freudian psychoanalyst Emilio Servadio.Fellini cast American actor Broderick Crawford to interpret the role of an aging swindler in ''Il Bidone''.", "Based partly on stories told to him by a petty thief during production of ''La Strada'', Fellini developed the script into a con man's slow descent.", "To incarnate the role's \"intense, tragic face\", Fellini's first choice had been Humphrey Bogart, but after learning of the actor's lung cancer, chose Crawford after seeing his face on the theatrical poster of ''All the King's Men'' (1949).", "The film shoot was wrought with difficulties stemming from Crawford's alcoholism.", "Savaged by critics at the 16th Venice International Film Festival, the film did miserably at the box office and did not receive international distribution until 1964.During the autumn, Fellini researched and developed a treatment based on a film adaptation of Mario Tobino's novel, ''The Free Women of Magliano''.", "Set in a mental institution for women, the project was abandoned when financial backers considered the subject had no potential.Fellini during the filming of ''Nights of Cabiria'', 1956While preparing ''Nights of Cabiria'' in spring 1956, Fellini learned of his father's death by cardiac arrest at the age of sixty-two.", "Produced by Dino De Laurentiis and starring Giulietta Masina, the film took its inspiration from news reports of a woman's severed head retrieved in a lake and stories by Wanda, a shantytown prostitute Fellini met on the set of ''Il Bidone''.", "Pier Paolo Pasolini was hired to translate Flaiano and Pinelli's dialogue into Roman dialect and to supervise researches in the vice-afflicted suburbs of Rome.", "The movie won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film at the 30th Academy Awards and brought Masina the Best Actress Award at Cannes for her performance.With Pinelli, he developed ''Journey with Anita'' for Sophia Loren and Gregory Peck.", "An \"invention born out of intimate truth\", the script was based on Fellini's return to Rimini with a mistress to attend his father's funeral.", "Due to Loren's unavailability, the project was shelved and resurrected twenty-five years later as ''Lovers and Liars'' (1981), a comedy directed by Mario Monicelli with Goldie Hawn and Giancarlo Giannini.", "For Eduardo De Filippo, he co-wrote the script of ''Fortunella''.The Hollywood on the Tiber phenomenon of 1958 in which American studios profited from the cheap studio labour available in Rome provided the backdrop for photojournalists to steal shots of celebrities on the via Veneto.", "The scandal provoked by Turkish dancer Haish Nana's improvised striptease at a nightclub captured Fellini's imagination: he decided to end his latest script-in-progress, ''Moraldo in the City'', with an all-night \"orgy\" at a seaside villa.", "Pierluigi Praturlon's photos of Anita Ekberg after an evening spent with the actress in a Rome night club provided further inspiration for Fellini and his screenwriters.Changing the title of the screenplay to ''La Dolce Vita'', Fellini soon clashed with his producer on casting: The director insisted on the relatively unknown Mastroianni while De Laurentiis wanted Paul Newman as a hedge on his investment.", "Reaching an impasse, De Laurentiis sold the rights to publishing mogul Angelo Rizzoli.", "Shooting began on 16 March 1959 with Anita Ekberg climbing the stairs to the cupola of Saint Peter's in a mammoth décor constructed at Cinecittà.", "The statue of Christ flown by helicopter over Rome to St. Peter's Square was inspired by an actual media event on 1 May 1956, which Fellini had witnessed.", "''La Dolce Vita'' broke all box office records.", "Despite scalpers selling tickets at 1000 lire, crowds queued in line for hours to see an \"immoral movie\" before the censors banned it.", "At an exclusive Milan screening on 5 February 1960, one outraged patron spat on Fellini while others hurled insults.", "Denounced in parliament by right-wing conservatives, undersecretary Domenico Magrì of the Christian Democrats demanded tolerance for the film's controversial themes.", "The Vatican's official press organ, ''L'Osservatore Romano'', lobbied for censorship while the Board of Roman Parish Priests and the Genealogical Board of Italian Nobility attacked the film.", "In one documented instance involving favourable reviews written by the Jesuits of San Fedele, defending ''La Dolce Vita'' had severe consequences.", "In competition at Cannes alongside Antonioni's ''L'Avventura'', the film won the Palme d'Or awarded by presiding juror Georges Simenon.", "The Belgian writer was promptly \"hissed at\" by the disapproving festival crowd.===Art films and dreams (1961–1969)===Federico FelliniA major discovery for Fellini after his Italian neorealism period (1950–1959) was the work of Carl Jung.", "After meeting Jungian psychoanalyst Dr. Ernst Bernhard in early 1960, he read Jung's autobiography, ''Memories, Dreams, Reflections'' (1963) and experimented with LSD.", "Bernhard also recommended that Fellini consult the ''I Ching'' and keep a record of his dreams.", "What Fellini formerly accepted as \"his extrasensory perceptions\" were now interpreted as psychic manifestations of the unconscious.", "Bernhard's focus on Jungian depth psychology proved to be the single greatest influence on Fellini's mature style and marked the turning point in his work from neorealism to filmmaking that was \"primarily oneiric\".", "As a consequence, Jung's seminal ideas on the ''anima'' and the ''animus'', the role of archetypes and the collective unconscious directly influenced such films as '''' (1963), ''Juliet of the Spirits'' (1965), ''Fellini Satyricon'' (1969), ''Casanova'' (1976), and ''City of Women'' (1980).", "Other key influences on his work include Luis Buñuel, Charlie Chaplin, Sergei Eisenstein, Buster Keaton, Laurel and Hardy, the Marx Brothers, and Roberto Rossellini.Exploiting ''La Dolce Vita''s success, financier Angelo Rizzoli set up Federiz in 1960, an independent film company, for Fellini and production manager Clemente Fracassi to discover and produce new talent.", "Despite the best intentions, their overcautious editorial and business skills forced the company to close down soon after cancelling Pasolini's project, ''Accattone'' (1961).Condemned as a \"public sinner\", for ''La Dolce Vita'', Fellini responded with ''The Temptations of Doctor Antonio'', a segment in the omnibus ''Boccaccio '70''.", "His second colour film, it was the sole project green-lighted at Federiz.", "Infused with the surrealistic satire that characterized the young Fellini's work at ''Marc'Aurelio'', the film ridiculed a crusader against vice, interpreted by Peppino De Filippo, who goes insane trying to censor a billboard of Anita Ekberg espousing the virtues of milk.In an October 1960 letter to his colleague Brunello Rondi, Fellini first outlined his film ideas about a man suffering creative block: \"Well then – a guy (a writer?", "any kind of professional man?", "a theatrical producer?)", "has to interrupt the usual rhythm of his life for two weeks because of a not-too-serious disease.", "It's a warning bell: something is blocking up his system.\"", "Unclear about the script, its title, and his protagonist's profession, he scouted locations throughout Italy \"looking for the film\", in the hope of resolving his confusion.", "Flaiano suggested ''La bella confusione'' (literally ''The Beautiful Confusion'') as the movie's title.", "Under pressure from his producers, Fellini finally settled on '''', a self-referential title referring principally (but not exclusively) to the number of films he had directed up to that time.Giving the order to start production in spring 1962, Fellini signed deals with his producer Rizzoli, fixed dates, had sets constructed, cast Mastroianni, Anouk Aimée, and Sandra Milo in lead roles, and did screen tests at the Scalera Studios in Rome.", "He hired cinematographer Gianni Di Venanzo, among key personnel.", "But apart from naming his hero Guido Anselmi, he still couldn't decide what his character did for a living.", "The crisis came to a head in April when, sitting in his Cinecittà office, he began a letter to Rizzoli confessing he had \"lost his film\" and had to abandon the project.", "Interrupted by the chief machinist requesting he celebrate the launch of '''', Fellini put aside the letter and went on the set.", "Raising a toast to the crew, he \"felt overwhelmed by shame… I was in a no exit situation.", "I was a director who wanted to make a film he no longer remembers.", "And lo and behold, at that very moment everything fell into place.", "I got straight to the heart of the film.", "I would narrate everything that had been happening to me.", "I would make a film telling the story of a director who no longer knows what film he wanted to make\".", "The self-mirroring structure makes the entire film inseparable from its reflecting construction.Shooting began on 9 May 1962.Perplexed by the seemingly chaotic, incessant improvisation on the set, Deena Boyer, the director's American press officer at the time, asked for a rationale.", "Fellini told her that he hoped to convey the three levels \"on which our minds live: the past, the present, and the conditional — the realm of fantasy\".", "After shooting wrapped on 14 October, Nino Rota composed various circus marches and fanfares that would later become signature tunes of the maestro's cinema.", "Nominated for four Oscars, '''' won awards for best foreign language film and best costume design in black-and-white.", "In California for the ceremony, Fellini toured Disneyland with Walt Disney the day after.Increasingly attracted to parapsychology, Fellini met the Turin antiquarian Gustavo Rol in 1963.Rol, a former banker, introduced him to the world of Spiritism and séances.", "In 1964, Fellini took LSD under the supervision of Emilio Servadio, his psychoanalyst during the 1954 production of ''La Strada''.", "For years reserved about what actually occurred that Sunday afternoon, he admitted in 1992 that... objects and their functions no longer had any significance.", "All I perceived was perception itself, the hell of forms and figures devoid of human emotion and detached from the reality of my unreal environment.", "I was an instrument in a virtual world that constantly renewed its own meaningless image in a living world that was itself perceived outside of nature.", "And since the appearance of things was no longer definitive but limitless, this paradisiacal awareness freed me from the reality external to my self.", "The fire and the rose, as it were, became one.Fellini's hallucinatory insights were given full flower in his first colour feature ''Juliet of the Spirits'' (1965), depicting Giulietta Masina as Juliet, a housewife who rightly suspects her husband's infidelity and succumbs to the voices of spirits summoned during a séance at her home.", "Her sexually voracious next door neighbor Suzy (Sandra Milo) introduces Juliet to a world of uninhibited sensuality, but Juliet is haunted by childhood memories of her Catholic guilt and a teenaged friend who committed suicide.", "Complex and filled with psychological symbolism, the film is set to a jaunty score by Nino Rota.===Nostalgia, sexuality, and politics (1970–1980)===Fellini & Bruno Zanin on the set of ''Amarcord'' in 1973To help promote ''Satyricon'' in the United States, Fellini flew to Los Angeles in January 1970 for interviews with Dick Cavett and David Frost.", "He also met with film director Paul Mazursky who wanted to cast him in a starring role alongside Donald Sutherland in his new film, ''Alex in Wonderland''.", "In February, Fellini scouted locations in Paris for ''The Clowns'', a docufiction both for cinema and television, based on his childhood memories of the circus and a \"coherent theory of clowning.\"", "As he saw it, the clown \"was always the caricature of a well-established, ordered, peaceful society.", "But today all is temporary, disordered, grotesque.", "Who can still laugh at clowns?...", "All the world plays a clown now.", "\"In March 1971, Fellini began production on ''Roma'', a seemingly random collection of episodes informed by the director's memories and impressions of Rome.", "The \"diverse sequences,\" writes Fellini scholar Peter Bondanella, \"are held together only by the fact that they all ultimately originate from the director's fertile imagination.\"", "The film's opening scene anticipates ''Amarcord'' while its most surreal sequence involves an ecclesiastical fashion show in which nuns and priests roller skate past shipwrecks of cobwebbed skeletons.Over a period of six months between January and June 1973, Fellini shot the Oscar-winning ''Amarcord''.", "Loosely based on the director's 1968 autobiographical essay ''My Rimini'', the film depicts the adolescent Titta and his friends working out their sexual frustrations against the religious and Fascist backdrop of a provincial town in Italy during the 1930s.", "Produced by Franco Cristaldi, the seriocomic movie became Fellini's second biggest commercial success after ''La Dolce Vita''.", "Circular in form, ''Amarcord'' avoids plot and linear narrative in a way similar to ''The Clowns'' and ''Roma''.", "The director's overriding concern with developing a poetic form of cinema was first outlined in a 1965 interview he gave to ''The New Yorker'' journalist Lillian Ross: \"I am trying to free my work from certain constrictions – a story with a beginning, a development, an ending.", "It should be more like a poem with metre and cadence.", "\"===Late films and projects (1981–1990)===Italian President Sandro Pertini receiving a David di Donatello Award from Fellini in 1985Organized by his publisher Diogenes Verlag in 1982, the first major exhibition of 63 drawings by Fellini was held in Paris, Brussels, and the Pierre Matisse Gallery in New York.", "A gifted caricaturist, he found much of the inspiration for his sketches from his own dreams while the films-in-progress both originated from and stimulated drawings for characters, decor, costumes and set designs.", "Under the title, ''I disegni di Fellini'' (Fellini's Designs), he published 350 drawings executed in pencil, watercolours, and felt pens.On 6 September 1985 Fellini was awarded the Golden Lion for lifetime achievement at the 42nd Venice Film Festival.", "That same year, he became the first non-American to receive the Film Society of Lincoln Center's annual award for cinematic achievement.Fellini rewards Marcello Mastroianni with the Golden Lion Honorary Award at the 47th Venice International Film Festival.Long fascinated by Carlos Castaneda's ''The Teachings of Don Juan: A Yaqui Way of Knowledge'', Fellini accompanied the Peruvian author on a journey to the Yucatán to assess the feasibility of a film.", "After first meeting Castaneda in Rome in October 1984, Fellini drafted a treatment with Pinelli titled ''Viaggio a Tulun''.", "Producer Alberto Grimaldi, prepared to buy film rights to all of Castaneda's work, then paid for pre-production research taking Fellini and his entourage from Rome to Los Angeles and the jungles of Mexico in October 1985.When Castaneda inexplicably disappeared and the project fell through, Fellini's mystico-shamanic adventures were scripted with Pinelli and serialized in ''Corriere della Sera'' in May 1986.A barely veiled satirical interpretation of Castaneda's work, ''Viaggio a Tulun'' was published in 1989 as a graphic novel with artwork by Milo Manara and as ''Trip to Tulum'' in America in 1990.For ''Intervista'', produced by Ibrahim Moussa and RAI Television, Fellini intercut memories of the first time he visited Cinecittà in 1939 with present-day footage of himself at work on a screen adaptation of Franz Kafka's ''Amerika''.", "A meditation on the nature of memory and film production, it won the special 40th Anniversary Prize at Cannes and the 15th Moscow International Film Festival Golden Prize.", "In Brussels later that year, a panel of thirty professionals from eighteen European countries named Fellini the world's best director and '''' the best European film of all time.In early 1989 Fellini began production on ''The Voice of the Moon'', based on Ermanno Cavazzoni's novel, ''Il poema dei lunatici'' (''The Lunatics' Poem'').", "A small town was built at Empire Studios on the via Pontina outside Rome.", "Starring Roberto Benigni as Ivo Salvini, a madcap poetic figure newly released from a mental institution, the character is a combination of ''La Strada''s Gelsomina, Pinocchio, and Italian poet Giacomo Leopardi.", "Fellini improvised as he filmed, using as a guide a rough treatment written with Pinelli.", "Despite its modest critical and commercial success in Italy, and its warm reception by French critics, it failed to interest North American distributors.Fellini won the ''Praemium Imperiale'', an international prize in the visual arts given by the Japan Art Association in 1990.===Final years (1991–1993)===In July 1991 and April 1992, Fellini worked in close collaboration with Canadian filmmaker Damian Pettigrew to establish \"the longest and most detailed conversations ever recorded on film\".", "Described as the \"Maestro's spiritual testament\" by his biographer Tullio Kezich, excerpts culled from the conversations later served as the basis of their feature documentary, ''Fellini: I'm a Born Liar'' (2002) and the book, ''I'm a Born Liar: A Fellini Lexicon''.", "In April 1993 Fellini received his fifth Oscar, for lifetime achievement, \"in recognition of his cinematic accomplishments that have thrilled and entertained audiences worldwide\".", "On 16 June, he entered the Cantonal Hospital in Zürich for an angioplasty on his femoral artery but suffered a stroke at Rimini's Grand Hotel two months later.", "Partially paralyzed, he was first transferred to Ferrara for rehabilitation and then to the Policlinico Umberto I in Rome to be near his wife, also hospitalized.", "He suffered a second stroke and fell into an irreversible coma." ], [ "Death", "Fellini died in Rome on 31 October 1993 at the age of 73 after a heart attack he suffered a few weeks earlier, a day after his 50th wedding anniversary.", "The memorial service, in Studio 5 at Cinecittà, was attended by an estimated 70,000 people.", "At Giulietta Masina's request, trumpeter Mauro Maur played Nino Rota's \"Improvviso dell'Angelo\" during the ceremony.Five months later, on 23 March 1994, Masina died of lung cancer.", "Fellini is buried with Masina and their son, Pierfederico, in a bronze sepulchre sculpted by Arnaldo Pomodoro in the Monumental Cemetery of Rimini.", "Rimini's Federico Fellini Airport is named in his honour." ], [ "Religious views", "Fellini was raised in a Roman Catholic family and considered himself a Catholic, but avoided formal activity in the Catholic Church.", "Fellini's films include Catholic themes; some celebrate Catholic teachings, while others criticize or ridicule church dogma.In 1965 Fellini said:" ], [ "Political views", "While Fellini was for the most part indifferent to politics, he had a general dislike of authoritarian institutions, and is interpreted by Bondanella as believing in \"the dignity and even the nobility of the individual human being\".", "In a 1966 interview, he said, \"I make it a point to see if certain ideologies or political attitudes threaten the private freedom of the individual.", "But for the rest, I am not prepared nor do I plan to become interested in politics.", "\"Despite various famous Italian actors favouring the Communists, Fellini was opposed to communism.", "He preferred to move within the world of the moderate left, and voted for the Italian Republican Party of his friend Ugo La Malfa as well as the reformist socialists of Pietro Nenni, another friend of his, and voted only once for the Christian Democracy party (''Democrazia Cristiana'', DC) in 1976 to keep the Communists out of power.", "Bondanella writes that DC \"was far too aligned with an extremely conservative and even reactionary pre-Vatican II church to suit Fellini's tastes.", "\"Apart from satirizing Silvio Berlusconi and mainstream television in ''Ginger and Fred'', Fellini rarely expressed political views in public and never directed an overtly political film.", "He directed two electoral television spots during the 1990s: one for DC and another for the Italian Republican Party (PRI).", "His slogan \"Non si interrompe un'emozione\" (''Don't interrupt an emotion'') was directed against the excessive use of TV advertisements.", "The Democratic Party of the Left also used the slogan in the referendums of 1995." ], [ "Influence and legacy", "Dedicatory plaque to Fellini on Via Veneto, Rome:\"To Federico Fellini, who made Via Veneto the stage for the ''La Dolce Vita'' – SPQR – 20 January 1995\"Personal and highly idiosyncratic visions of society, Fellini's films are a unique combination of memory, dreams, fantasy and desire.", "The adjectives \"Fellinian\" and \"Felliniesque\" are \"synonymous with any kind of extravagant, fanciful, even baroque image in the cinema and in art in general\".", "''La Dolce Vita'' contributed the term ''paparazzi'' to the English language, derived from Paparazzo, the photographer friend of journalist Marcello Rubini (Marcello Mastroianni).Contemporary filmmakers such as Martin Scorsese, Woody Allen, Peter Greenaway, Pedro Almodóvar, Tim Burton, Terry Gilliam, Emir Kusturica, David Lynch, Alejandro González Iñárritu, Roy Andersson, Alejandro Jodorowsky, Darren Aronofsky, Yorgos Lanthimos, George Lucas, Giuseppe Tornatore, Paolo Sorrentino, Ari Aster and Luca Guadagnino have cited Fellini's influence on their work.Polish director Wojciech Has, whose two best-received films, ''The Saragossa Manuscript'' (1965) and ''The Hour-Glass Sanatorium'' (1973), are examples of modernist fantasies, has been compared to Fellini for the sheer \"luxuriance of his images\".Roman Polanski considered Fellini to be among the three film-makers he favored most, along with Akira Kurosawa and Orson Welles ''I Vitelloni'' inspired European directors Juan Antonio Bardem, Marco Ferreri, and Lina Wertmüller and influenced Martin Scorsese's ''Mean Streets'' (1973), George Lucas's ''American Graffiti'' (1974), Joel Schumacher's ''St.", "Elmo's Fire'' (1985), and Barry Levinson's ''Diner'' (1982), among many others.", "When the American magazine ''Cinema'' asked Stanley Kubrick in 1963 to name his ten favorite films, he ranked ''I Vitelloni'' number one.International film directors who have named ''La Strada'' as one of their favorite films include Stanley Kwan, Anton Corbijn, Gillies MacKinnon, Andreas Dresen, Jiří Menzel, Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Mike Newell, Rajko Grlić, Spike Lee, Laila Pakalniņa, Ann Hui, Akira Kurosawa, Kazuhiro Soda, Julian Jarrold, Krzysztof Zanussi, and Andrey Konchalovsky.", "David Cronenberg credits ''La Strada'' for opening his eyes to the possibilities of cinema when, as a child, he saw adults leave a showing of the film openly weeping.", "''Nights of Cabiria'' was adapted as the Broadway musical ''Sweet Charity'' and the movie ''Sweet Charity'' (1969) by Bob Fosse starring Shirley MacLaine.", "''City of Women'' was adapted for the Berlin stage by Frank Castorf in 1992.''''", "inspired, among others, ''Mickey One'' (Arthur Penn, 1965), ''Alex in Wonderland'' (Paul Mazursky, 1970), ''Beware of a Holy Whore'' (Rainer Werner Fassbinder, 1971), ''Day for Night'' (François Truffaut, 1973), ''All That Jazz'' (Bob Fosse, 1979), ''Stardust Memories'' (Woody Allen, 1980), ''Sogni d'oro'' (Nanni Moretti, 1981), ''Parad Planet'' (Vadim Abdrashitov, 1984), ''La Película del rey'' (Carlos Sorin, 1986), ''Living in Oblivion'' (Tom DiCillo, 1995), '' Women'' (Peter Greenaway, 1999), ''Falling Down'' (Joel Schumacher, 1993), and the Broadway musical ''Nine'' (Maury Yeston and Arthur Kopit, 1982).", "''Yo-Yo Boing!''", "(1998), a Spanish novel by Puerto Rican writer Giannina Braschi, features a dream sequence with Fellini inspired by ''''.", "''Alice'' by Woody Allen is a loose reworking of Fellini's 1965 film ''Juliet of the Spirits''.Fellini's work is referenced on the albums ''Fellini Days'' (2001) by Fish, ''Another Side of Bob Dylan'' (1964) by ''Bob Dylan'' with ''Motorpsycho Nitemare'', ''Funplex'' (2008) by the B-52's with the song ''Juliet of the Spirits'', and in the opening traffic jam of the music video ''Everybody Hurts'' by R.E.M.", "American singer Lana Del Rey has cited Fellini as an influence.", "His work influenced the American TV shows ''Northern Exposure'' and ''Third Rock from the Sun''.", "Wes Anderson's short film ''Castello Cavalcanti'' (2013) is in many places a direct homage to Fellini.", "In 1996, ''Entertainment Weekly'' ranked Fellini tenth on its \"50 Greatest Directors\" list.", "In 2002 MovieMaker magazine ranked Fellini No.", "9 on their list of ''The 25 Most Influential Directors of All Time''.", "In 2007, ''Total Film'' magazine ranked Fellini at No.", "67 on its \"100 Greatest Film Directors Ever\" list.Various film-related material and personal papers of Fellini are in the Wesleyan University Cinema Archives, to which scholars and media experts have full access.", "In October 2009, the Jeu de Paume in Paris opened an exhibit devoted to Fellini that included ephemera, television interviews, behind-the-scenes photographs, ''The Book of Dreams'' (based on 30 years of the director's illustrated dreams and notes), along with excerpts from ''La dolce vita'' and ''''.In 2014 the weekly entertainment-trade magazine ''Variety'' announced that French director Sylvain Chomet was moving forward with ''The Thousand Miles'', a project based on various Fellini works, including his unpublished drawings and writings." ], [ "Filmography", " Year Title Director Writer Notes 1942 ''Knights of the Desert'' 1942 ''Before the Postman'' 1943 ''The Peddler and the Lady'' 1943 ''L'ultima carrozzella'' 1945 ''Tutta la città canta'' 1945 ''Rome, Open City'' 1946 ''Paisà'' 1947 ''Il delitto di Giovanni Episcopo'' 1948 ''Senza pietà'' 1948 ''Il miracolo'' 1949 ''Il mulino del Po'' 1950 ''Francesco, giullare di Dio'' 1950 ''Il Cammino della speranza'' 1950 ''Variety Lights'' Co-credited with Alberto Lattuada 1951 ''La città si difende'' 1951 ''Persiane chiuse'' 1952 ''The White Sheik'' 1952 ''Il brigante di Tacca del Lupo'' 1953 ''I vitelloni'' 1953 ''Love in the City'' Segment: \"Un'agenzia matrimoniale\" 1954 ''La strada'' 1955 ''Il bidone'' 1957 ''Nights of Cabiria'' 1958 ''Fortunella'' 1960 ''La Dolce Vita'' 1962 ''Boccaccio '70'' Segment: \"Le tentazioni del Dottor Antonio\" 1963 '''' 1965 ''Juliet of the Spirits'' 1968 ''Spirits of the Dead'' Segment: \"Toby Dammit\" 1969 ''Fellini: A Director's Notebook'' | TV Documentary 1969 ''Fellini Satyricon'' 1970 ''I Clowns'' 1972 ''Roma'' 1973 ''Amarcord'' 1976 ''Fellini's Casanova'' 1978 ''Orchestra Rehearsal'' 1980 ''City of Women'' | 1983 ''And the Ship Sails On'' 1986 ''Ginger and Fred'' 1987 ''Intervista'' 1990 ''The Voice of the Moon'' '''Television commercials'''* TV commercial for Campari Soda (1984)* TV commercial for Barilla pasta (1984)* Three TV commercials for Banca di Roma (1992)" ], [ "Awards and nominations" ], [ "Documentaries on Fellini", "* ''Ciao Federico'' (1969).", "Dir.", "Gideon Bachmann (60').", "* ''Federico Fellini – '' (2000).", "Dir.", "Paquito Del Bosco (RAI TV, 68').", "* ''Fellini: I'm a Born Liar'' (2002).", "Dir.", "Damian Pettigrew.", "Feature documentary (Arte, Eurimages, Scottish Screen, 102').", "* ''How Strange to Be Named Federico'' (2013).", "Dir.", "Ettore Scola.", "* ''Fellini degli spiriti'' (2020).", "Dir.", "." ], [ "See also", "*Art film*Sergio Zavoli – Riminese sports and documentary journalist, a close friend of Fellini" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Fellini Official site (in English)* Fellini Foundation Official Rimini web site (in Italian)* Fondation Fellini pour le cinéma Swiss web site (in French)* * * Federico Fellini biography on Lambiek Comiclopedia* Site commemorating Fellini's 100th birthday" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fleetwood Mac" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fleetwood Mac''' are a British-American rock band formed in London in 1967 by guitarist and singer Peter Green.", "Green recruited drummer Mick Fleetwood, multi-instrumentalist and singer Jeremy Spencer and bassist Bob Brunning, with John McVie replacing Brunning a few weeks after their first public appearance.", "Guitarist and singer Danny Kirwan joined the band in 1968.Christine Perfect, who contributed as a session musician starting with the band's second album, married McVie and joined Fleetwood Mac as an official member in July 1970 on vocals and keyboards, two months after Green left the band; she became known as Christine McVie.Primarily a British blues band in their early years, Fleetwood Mac achieved a UK number one single in 1968 with the instrumental \"Albatross\", and had other UK top ten hits with \"Man of the World\", \"Oh Well\" (both 1969), and \"The Green Manalishi (With the Two Prong Crown)\" (1970).", "After Green's departure, Spencer and Kirwan also left in 1971 and 1972 respectively, with Spencer replaced by Bob Welch and Kirwan replaced by Bob Weston and Dave Walker.", "By the end of 1974, Weston and Walker had been dismissed and Welch had left, leaving the band without a guitarist or male vocalist.", "While Fleetwood was scouting studios in Los Angeles, he heard the American folk-rock duo Buckingham Nicks, consisting of guitarist and singer Lindsey Buckingham and singer Stevie Nicks.", "In December 1974, he asked Buckingham to join Fleetwood Mac, with Buckingham agreeing on the condition that Nicks could also join.The addition of Buckingham and Nicks gave the band a more pop rock sound and their 1975 album ''Fleetwood Mac'' topped the ''Billboard'' 200 chart in the United States.", "The band's succeeding album ''Rumours'' (1977) produced four U.S. Top 10 singles and remained at number one on the ''Billboard'' 200 for 31 weeks.", "It also reached the top spot in countries around the world and won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year in 1978.", "''Rumours'' has sold more than 40 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling albums in history.", "Although each member of the band went through a breakup (John and Christine McVie, Buckingham and Nicks, and Fleetwood and his wife Jenny Boyd) while recording the album, they continued to write and record together.The line-up remained stable through three more studio albums, but by the late 1980s began to disintegrate.", "After Buckingham left in 1987, he was replaced by Billy Burnette and Rick Vito, although Vito left in 1991 along with Nicks.", "A 1993 one-off performance for the first inauguration of President Bill Clinton reunited the classic 1974–1987 line-up for the first time in six years.", "A full reunion occurred four years later, and Fleetwood Mac released their fourth U.S. No.", "1 album, ''The Dance'' (1997), a live album marking the 20th anniversary of ''Rumours'' and the 30th anniversary of the band's formation.", "Christine McVie left in 1998 and they continued as a four-piece, releasing their most recent studio album, ''Say You Will'', in 2003.Christine McVie rejoined in 2014.In 2018, Buckingham was fired and replaced by Mike Campbell, formerly of Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, and Neil Finn of Split Enz and Crowded House.", "Christine McVie died in 2022, putting the band's future in question.Fleetwood Mac have sold more than 120 million records worldwide, making them one of the world's best-selling bands.", "In 1979, the group were honoured with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.", "In 1998, the band were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and received the Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music.", "In 2018, the band received the MusiCares Person of the Year award from The Recording Academy in recognition of their artistic achievement in the music industry and dedication to philanthropy." ], [ "History", "===1967–1970: Formation and early years===Peter Green, 18 March 1970Fleetwood Mac were formed in July 1967 in London, England, by Peter Green after he left the British blues band John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers.", "Green had previously replaced guitarist Eric Clapton in the Bluesbreakers and had received critical acclaim for his work on their album ''A Hard Road''.", "Green had been in two bands with Mick Fleetwood, Peter B's Looners and the subsequent Shotgun Express (which featured a young Rod Stewart as vocalist), and suggested Fleetwood as a replacement for drummer Aynsley Dunbar when Dunbar left the Bluesbreakers to join the Jeff Beck Group.", "John Mayall agreed and Fleetwood joined the Bluesbreakers.Mick Fleetwood, 18 March 1970The Bluesbreakers then consisted of Green, Fleetwood, John McVie and Mayall.", "Mayall gave Green free recording time as a gift, which Fleetwood, McVie and Green used to record five songs.", "The fifth song was an instrumental that Green named after the rhythm section, \"Fleetwood Mac\" (\"Mac\" being short for McVie).Jeremy Spencer, 18 March 1970Soon after this, Green suggested to Fleetwood that they form a new band.", "The pair wanted McVie on bass guitar and named the band \"Fleetwood Mac\" to entice him, but McVie opted to keep his steady income with Mayall rather than take a risk with a new band.", "In the meantime, Green and Fleetwood teamed up with slide guitarist Jeremy Spencer and bassist Bob Brunning.", "Brunning was in the band on the understanding that he would leave if McVie agreed to join.", "The band made its debut on Sunday 13 August 1967 at the Windsor Jazz and Blues Festival (later known as the Reading Festival), billed as \"Peter Green's Fleetwood Mac featuring Jeremy Spencer\".", "Brunning played only a few gigs with Fleetwood Mac.", "Within a few weeks of their first show, John McVie agreed to join the band as permanent bassist.John McVie, 18 March 1970Fleetwood Mac's self-titled debut album was released by the Blue Horizon label in February 1968.The song \"Long Grey Mare\" was recorded earlier with Brunning on bass, while the rest of the album was recorded with McVie.", "The album was successful in the UK and reached no.", "4, although no tracks were released as singles.", "Later in the year the singles \"Black Magic Woman\" (later a big hit when covered by Santana) and \"Need Your Love So Bad\" were released, both going top-forty in the UK.The band's second studio album, ''Mr.", "Wonderful'', was released in August 1968.The album was recorded live in the studio with miked amplifiers and a PA system, rather than being plugged into the board.", "The sessions featured a horn section as well as friend of the band, Christine Perfect of Chicken Shack, on keyboards Later that year, Chicken Shack would score a British hit with a cover of the Etta James classic \"I'd Rather Go Blind\", with Perfect on lead vocal.", "Perfect would also be twice voted female artist of the year in England.Danny Kirwan, 18 March 1970Shortly after the release of ''Mr.", "Wonderful'', Fleetwood Mac became a five-piece, with the addition of 18-year-old guitarist Danny Kirwan.", "He was in the South London blues trio Boilerhouse, consisting of Kirwan (guitar), Trevor Stevens (bass) and Dave Terrey (drums).", "Green and Fleetwood had watched Boilerhouse rehearse in a basement boiler-room, and Green had been so impressed that he invited the band to play support slots for Fleetwood Mac.", "Green wanted Boilerhouse to become a professional band, but Stevens and Terrey were not prepared to turn professional, so Green tried to find another rhythm section for Kirwan by placing an ad in ''Melody Maker''.", "There were over 300 applicants, but when Green and Fleetwood ran auditions at the Nag's Head in Battersea (home of the Mike Vernon Blue Horizon Club) the hard-to-please Green could not find anyone good enough.", "Fleetwood invited Kirwan to join Fleetwood Mac as a third guitarist.Green was frustrated that Jeremy Spencer did not contribute to his songs.", "Kirwan, a talented self-taught guitarist, had a signature vibrato and a unique style that added a new dimension to the band's sound.", "In November 1968, with Kirwan in the band, they released their first number-one single in Europe, \"Albatross\", an instrumental with lead guitar by both Green and Kirwan.", "Green said later that the success of \"Albatross\" was thanks to Kirwan.", "\"If it wasn't for Danny, I would never have had a number one hit record.\"", "In January 1969 they released their first compilation album ''English Rose'', which contained half of ''Mr.", "Wonderful'' plus new songs from Kirwan.", "Their next and more successful compilation album ''The Pious Bird of Good Omen'' was released in August and contained various singles, B-sides and tracks the band had recorded as back-up for Eddie Boyd.On tour in the US in January 1969, the band recorded ''Fleetwood Mac in Chicago'' (released in December as a double album) at the soon-to-close Chess Records Studio with some of the blues legends of Chicago, including Willie Dixon, Buddy Guy and Otis Spann.", "These were Fleetwood Mac's last all-blues recordings, with the band moving more towards rock.", "Along with the change of style, the band was also going through label changes.", "Until that point, they had been on the Blue Horizon label, but with Kirwan in the band the musical possibilities had become too diverse for a blues-only label.", "The band signed with Immediate Records and released the single \"Man of the World\", which became another British and European hit.", "For the B-side, Spencer fronted Fleetwood Mac as \"Earl Vince and the Valiants\" and recorded \"Somebody's Gonna Get Their Head Kicked In Tonite\", typifying the more raucous rock 'n' roll side of the band.", "Immediate Records was in bad shape however, so the band shopped around for a new deal.", "The Beatles wanted the band on Apple Records (Mick Fleetwood and George Harrison were brothers-in-law), but the band's manager Clifford Davis decided to go with Warner Bros. Records (through Reprise Records, a Frank Sinatra-founded label), the label they have stayed with ever since.Under the wing of Reprise, Fleetwood Mac released their third studio album, ''Then Play On'', in September 1969.Although the initial pressing of the American release of this album was the same as the British version, it was altered to contain the song \"Oh Well\", which featured consistently in live performances from the time of its release through 1997 and again starting in 2009.", "''Then Play On'', which saw the band broaden their style away from straight blues, was written by Kirwan and Green, plus a track each by Fleetwood and McVie.", "Jeremy Spencer, meanwhile, had recorded a solo album of 1950s-style rock and roll songs, backed by the rest of the band except Green.By 1969, Green was using LSD.", "During a European tour towards the end of that year, he experienced a bad acid trip at a hippie commune in Munich.", "Clifford Davis, the band's manager, singled out this incident as the crucial point in Green's mental decline.", "He said: \"The truth about Peter Green and how he ended up how he did is very simple.", "We were touring Europe in late 1969.When we were in Germany, Peter told me he had been invited to a party.", "I knew there were going to be a lot of drugs around and I suggested that he didn't go.", "But he went anyway and I understand from him that he took what turned out to be very bad, impure LSD.", "He was never the same again.\"", "German author and filmmaker Rainer Langhans stated in his autobiography that he and his then-girlfriend, model Uschi Obermaier, met Green in Munich and invited him to their Highfisch-Kommune, where the drinks were spiked with acid.", "Langhans and Obermaier were planning to organise an open-air \"Bavarian Woodstock\", for which they wanted Jimi Hendrix and The Rolling Stones to be the main acts.", "Already in contact with Hendrix (with whom Obermaier had a brief affair earlier that year), they hoped Green would help them to get in contact with The Rolling Stones.Green's last studio recording with Fleetwood Mac was \"The Green Manalishi (With the Two Prong Crown)\" and its B-side, \"World in Harmony\".", "The tracks were recorded at Warner-Reprise's studios in Hollywood on the band's third US tour in April 1970, a few weeks before Green left the band.", "Released as a single the following month, it made No.", "10 in the UK.", "Prior to its studio recording, the band had played the song live at the Boston Tea Party in February 1970.Some recordings of the three Boston Tea Party gigs (5/6/7 February 1970) were eventually released in the 1980s as the ''Live in Boston'' album.", "A more complete remastered three-volume compilation of these shows was released by Snapper Music in the late 1990s.", "\"Green Manalishi\" was released as Green's mental stability deteriorated.", "He wanted the band to give all their money to charity, but the other members of the band disagreed.", "In 1978, Judas Priest recorded a cover of \"Green Manalishi\" for their ''Hell Bent for Leather'' album, with a live version appearing on their ''Unleashed in the East'' album the following year.In April 1970, Green decided to quit the band after the completion of their European tour.", "His last show with Fleetwood Mac was on 20 May 1970.During that show, the band went past their allotted time and the power was shut off, although Mick Fleetwood kept drumming.===1970–1974: Transitional era===The remaining four members, Fleetwood, McVie, Spencer and Kirwan, set about work on their next album.", "In September 1970, Fleetwood Mac released their fourth studio album, ''Kiln House'', to generally positive reviews.", "Kirwan's songs on the album moved the band in a melodic rock direction, while Spencer's contributions focused on re-creating the country-tinged \"Sun Sound\" of the late 1950s.", "Christine Perfect, now Christine McVie following her marriage to John McVie, had retired from the music business after one unsuccessful solo album, though she contributed (uncredited) to ''Kiln House'', singing backup vocals and playing keyboards.", "She also drew the album cover.", "After ''Kiln House'', Fleetwood Mac were progressing and developing a new sound, and she was invited to join the band to help fill in the rhythm section.", "The first time she had played live with the band had been a guest appearance at Bristol University, England, in May 1969, just as she was leaving Chicken Shack, while her first gig as an official member of the band was on 1 August 1970 in New Orleans, Louisiana.", "In early 1971, the band released a non-album single, Danny Kirwan's \"Dragonfly\" b/w \"The Purple Dancer\" in the UK and certain European countries, but despite good notices in the press, it was not a success.", "In 1971, CBS Records, which now owned Fleetwood Mac's original record company Blue Horizon (except in the US and Canada), released the band's third compilation album, ''The Original Fleetwood Mac'', containing previously unreleased material from 1967 and 1968.Fleetwood Mac in 1973 with Christine McVie, Mick Fleetwood, Bob Weston, John McVie and Bob Welch.While on a US tour in February 1971, Jeremy Spencer said he was going out to \"get a magazine\" but never returned.", "After several days of frantic searching the band discovered that Spencer had joined a religious group, the Children of God.", "The band were liable for the remaining shows on the tour and asked Peter Green to step in as a replacement.", "Green brought along his friend Nigel Watson, who played the congas (twenty-five years later Green and Watson collaborated again to form the Peter Green Splinter Group), and insisted on playing only new material and none he had written.", "Green and Watson played the last week of the tour, with a show in San Bernardino on 20 February 1971 being recorded.", "Green did not want to re-join the band permanently and a search for a guitarist to replace Spencer began after the tour was completed.In the summer of 1971, the band held auditions for a replacement guitarist at their large country home, \"Benifold\", which they had jointly bought with their manager Davis for £23,000 () prior to the ''Kiln House'' tour.", "A friend of the band, Judy Wong, recommended her high school friend Bob Welch, who was living in Paris, France, at the time.", "The band held a few meetings with Welch and decided to hire him, without actually playing with him, after they heard a tape of his songs.In September 1971, the band released their fifth studio album, ''Future Games''.", "As a result of Welch's arrival and Spencer's departure, the album was different from anything they had done previously.", "While it became the band's first studio album to miss the charts in the UK, it helped to expand the band's appeal in the United States.", "In Europe CBS released Fleetwood Mac's first Greatest Hits album in late 1971.In 1972, six months after the release of ''Future Games'', the band released their sixth studio album, ''Bare Trees''.", "Mostly composed by Kirwan, ''Bare Trees'' featured the Welch-penned single \"Sentimental Lady\", which would be a much bigger hit for Welch five years later when he re-recorded it for his solo album ''French Kiss'', backed by Mick Fleetwood and Christine McVie.", "''Bare Trees'' also featured \"Spare Me a Little of Your Love\", a Christine McVie song that became a staple of the band's live act throughout the early to mid-1970s.While the band was doing well in the studio, their tours started to be problematic.", "By 1972 Danny Kirwan had developed an alcohol dependency and was becoming alienated from Welch and the McVies.", "In August 1972 before a concert on a US tour, Kirwan smashed his Gibson Les Paul Custom guitar and refused to go on stage.", "The band played the show as a quartet, after which Kirwan criticised their performance, and he was subsequently fired from the band.", "Fleetwood said later that the pressure had become too much for Kirwan, and he had suffered a breakdown.Following Kirwan's departure, the band recruited guitarist Bob Weston and vocalist Dave Walker, the latter formerly of Savoy Brown and Idle Race.", "Bob Weston was well known as a slide guitarist and had known the band from his touring period with Long John Baldry.", "Fleetwood Mac also hired Savoy Brown's road manager, John Courage.", "Fleetwood, the McVies, Welch, Weston and Walker recorded the band's seventh studio album, ''Penguin'', which was released in January 1973.After the subsequent tour the band fired Walker because they felt his vocal and performance style did not fit well with the rest of the band.The remaining five members carried on and recorded the band's eighth studio album, ''Mystery to Me'', six months later.", "This album contained Welch's song \"Hypnotized\", which received airplay on the radio.", "While \"Mystery to Me\" eventually received a Gold certification from the RIAA, personal problems within the band emerged.", "The McVies' marriage was under a lot of stress, which was aggravated by their constant working with each other and by John McVie's considerable alcohol abuse.During 1973, Weston had an affair with Fleetwood's wife Jenny Boyd, sister of George Harrison's first wife Pattie Boyd.", "Fleetwood found out two weeks into a US tour, his devastation leading to Weston being fired and the remaining 26 dates of the tour being cancelled.", "The last date played was Lincoln, Nebraska, on 20 October 1973.In a late-night meeting after that show, the band told their sound engineer that the tour was over and Fleetwood Mac was splitting up.===1974: Name dispute and \"fake Fleetwood Mac\"===In late 1973, after the collapse of the US tour, the band's manager, Clifford Davis, was left with major touring commitments to fulfill and no band.", "Fleetwood Mac had \"temporarily disbanded\" in Nebraska and its members had gone their separate ways.", "Davis was concerned that failing to complete the tour would destroy his reputation with bookers and promoters.", "He sent the band a letter in which he said he \"hadn't slaved for years to be brought down by the whims of irresponsible musicians\".", "Davis claimed that he owned the name 'Fleetwood Mac' and the right to choose the band members, and he recruited members of the band Legs, which had recently issued one single under Davis's management, to tour the US in early 1974 under the name \"The New Fleetwood Mac\" and perform the rescheduled dates.", "This band — who former vocalist Dave Walker said were \"very good\" — consisted of Elmer Gantry (Dave Terry, formerly of Velvet Opera: vocals, guitar), Kirby Gregory (formerly of Curved Air: guitar), Paul Martinez (formerly of the Downliners Sect: bass), John Wilkinson (also known as Dave Wilkinson: keyboards) and Australian drummer Craig Collinge (formerly of Manfred Mann Chapter Three, The Librettos, Procession and Third World War).", "The members of this group were told that Mick Fleetwood would join them on the tour to validate the use of the name.", "Fleetwood said later that he had not agreed to be part of the tour.The \"New Fleetwood Mac\" tour began on 16 January 1974 at the Syria Mosque in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and was initially successful.", "One of the band members said the first concert \"went down a storm\".", "The promoter was dubious at first but said later that the crowd had loved the band and they were \"actually really good\".", "More successful gigs followed, but then word got around that this was not the real Fleetwood Mac and audiences became hostile.", "The band was turned away from several gigs and the next half-dozen were pulled by promoters.", "The band struggled on and played further dates in the face of increasing hostility and heckling, more dates were pulled, the keyboard player quit, and after a concert in Edmonton where bottles were thrown at the stage, the tour collapsed.", "The band dissolved and the remainder of the tour was cancelled.The lawsuit that followed regarding who owned the rights to the name \"Fleetwood Mac\" put the real Fleetwood Mac on hiatus for almost a year.", "Although the band was named after Mick Fleetwood and John McVie, they had apparently signed contracts in which they had forfeited the rights to the name.", "Their record company, Warner Bros. Records, when appealed to, said they did not know who owned it.", "The dispute was eventually settled out of court, four years later, in what was described as \"a reasonable settlement not unfair to either party\".", "In later years Fleetwood said that, in the end, he was grateful to Davis because the lawsuit was the reason the band moved to California.Nobody from the alternative line-up was ever made a part of the real Fleetwood Mac, although some of them later played in Danny Kirwan's studio band.", "Gantry and Gregory went on to become members of Stretch, whose 1975 UK hit single \"Why Did You Do It?\"", "was written about the touring debacle.", "Gantry later collaborated with the Alan Parsons Project.", "Martinez went on to play with the Deep Purple offshoot Paice Ashton Lord, as well as Robert Plant's backing band.===1974: Return of the authentic Fleetwood Mac===While the fake Fleetwood Mac were on tour, Welch stayed in Los Angeles and connected with entertainment attorneys.", "He realised that Fleetwood Mac was being neglected by Warner Bros and that they would need to change their base of operation from England to America, to which the rest of the band agreed.", "The presence of a false Fleetwood Mac had also confused matters.", "Rock promoter Bill Graham wrote a letter to Warner Bros to convince them that the real Fleetwood Mac was Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, Christine McVie, and Bob Welch.", "This did not end the legal battle, but the band was able to record as Fleetwood Mac again.", "Instead of hiring another manager, Fleetwood Mac, having re-formed, became the only major rock band managed by the artists themselves.In September 1974, Fleetwood Mac signed a new recording contract with Warner Bros, but remained on the Reprise label.", "In the same month the band released their ninth studio album, ''Heroes Are Hard to Find''.", "This was the first time Fleetwood Mac had only one guitarist.", "While on tour, they briefly added a second keyboardist, Doug Graves, who had been an engineer on ''Heroes Are Hard to Find''.", "In 1980, Christine McVie said Graves had been there to back her up, but after the first two or three concerts it was decided that she was better off without him.", "\"The band wanted me to expand my role and have a little more freedom, but he didn't play the same way I did.\"", "Keyboard player Robert (\"Bobby\") Hunt, who had been in the band Head West with Bob Welch in 1970, replaced Graves for the remaining dates on the tour but was not invited to join the band full time.", "By the time the tour ended (on 5 December 1974 at Cal State University), the ''Heroes'' album had reached a higher position on the American charts than any of the band's previous records.===1975–1987: Addition of Buckingham and Nicks, and global success===In Bob Welch's words, following the ''Heroes are Hard to Find'' tour \"the buzz that the ''Mystery to Me'' band had started to create...was gone.", "I was totally exhausted by writing, singing, touring, negotiating, moving, and frankly so were Mick, John and Chris.", "We were ''all'' discouraged that \"Heroes\" hadn't done better.", "''Something'' needs to change, but what?", "...There was also a kind of fatigue, anger and bitterness that all the work we had done hadn't really paid off and we were just all sort of shaking our heads saying \"what do we do now\"... Everybody knew that we had to find some new creative juice.\"", "Welch himself had grown tired of the constant struggles to keep Fleetwood Mac functioning and was openly considering leaving the band.Whilst Fleetwood was checking out Sound City Studios in Los Angeles during the autumn of 1974, the house engineer, Keith Olsen, played him a track he had recorded, \"Frozen Love\", from the album ''Buckingham Nicks'' (1973).", "Fleetwood liked it and was introduced to the guitarist from the band, Lindsey Buckingham, who was at Sound City that day recording demos.", "Fleetwood asked him to join Fleetwood Mac, and Buckingham agreed, on the condition that his music partner and girlfriend, Stevie Nicks, be included.", "Welch considered remaining as part of this extended lineup but opted to depart for a solo career.", "Buckingham and Nicks joined the band on New Year's Eve 1974.In 1975, the new line-up released their first album together, the self-titled ''Fleetwood Mac'', the band's tenth studio album overall.", "The album was a breakthrough for the band and became a huge hit, reaching No.", "1 in the US and selling over 7 million copies.", "Among the hit singles from this album were Christine McVie's \"Over My Head\" and \"Say You Love Me\" and Stevie Nicks' \"Rhiannon\", as well as the much-played album track \"Landslide\", a live rendition of which became a hit twenty years later on ''The Dance'' album.In 1976, the band was suffering from severe stress.", "With success came the end of John and Christine McVie's marriage, as well as Buckingham and Nicks's long-term romantic relationship.", "Fleetwood, meanwhile, was in the midst of divorce proceedings from his wife, Jenny, and had also begun an affair with Nicks.", "The pressure on Fleetwood Mac to release a successful follow-up album, combined with their new-found wealth, led to creative and personal tensions which were allegedly fuelled by high consumption of drugs and alcohol.Rumours'' with Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, Christine McVie, Lindsey Buckingham and Stevie NicksThe band's eleventh studio album, ''Rumours'' (the band's first release on the main Warner label after Reprise was retired and all of its acts were reassigned to the parent label), was released in February 1977.In this album, the band members laid bare the emotional turmoil they were experiencing at the time.", "''Rumours'' was critically acclaimed and won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year in 1977.The album generated four Top Ten singles: Buckingham's \"Go Your Own Way\", Nicks' US No.", "1 \"Dreams\", and Christine McVie's \"Don't Stop\" and \"You Make Loving Fun\".", "Buckingham's \"Second Hand News\", Nicks' \"Gold Dust Woman\", and \"The Chain\" (the only song written by all five band members) also received significant radio airplay.", "By 2003 ''Rumours'' had sold over 19 million copies in the US alone (certified as a diamond album by the RIAA) and a total of 40 million copies worldwide, bringing it to eighth on the list of best-selling albums.", "Fleetwood Mac supported the album with a lucrative tour.On 10 October 1979, Fleetwood Mac were honoured with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for their contributions to the music industry at 6608 Hollywood Boulevard.Buckingham convinced Fleetwood to let his work on their next album be more experimental and to be allowed to work on tracks at home before bringing them to the rest of the band in the studio.", "The result of this, the band's twelfth studio album ''Tusk'', was a 20-track double album released in 1979.It produced three hit singles: Buckingham's \"Tusk\" (US No.", "8), which featured the USC Trojan Marching Band, Christine McVie's \"Think About Me\" (US No.", "20), and Nicks' six-and-a-half minute opus \"Sara\" (US No.", "7).", "\"Sara\" was cut to four-and-a-half minutes for both the single and the first CD release of the album in the 1980s, but the full version has since been restored on the 1988 ''Greatest Hits'', the 1992 ''25 Years – The Chain'' box set, 2002's ''The Very Best of Fleetwood Mac'' and the 2004 remaster of ''Tusk''.", "Original guitarist Peter Green also took part in the sessions of ''Tusk'' although his playing, on the Christine McVie track \"Brown Eyes\", is not credited on the album.", "In an interview in 2019 Fleetwood described ''Tusk'' as his \"personal favourite\" and said, \"Kudos to Lindsey ... for us not doing a replica of ''Rumours''.", "\"''Tusk'' sold four million copies worldwide.", "Fleetwood blamed the album's relative lack of commercial success on the RKO radio chain having played the album in its entirety prior to release, thereby allowing mass home taping.The band embarked on an 11-month tour to support and promote ''Tusk''.", "They travelled around the world, including the US, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom.", "In Germany, they shared the bill with reggae superstar Bob Marley.", "On this world tour, the band recorded music for their first live album, which was released at the end of 1980.The band's thirteenth studio album, ''Mirage'', was released in 1982.Following 1981 solo albums by Nicks (''Bella Donna''), Fleetwood (''The Visitor''), and Buckingham (''Law and Order''), there was a return to a more conventional approach.", "Buckingham had been chided by critics, fellow band members, and music business managers for the lesser commercial success of ''Tusk''.", "Recorded at Château d'Hérouville in France and produced by Richard Dashut, ''Mirage'' was an attempt to recapture the huge success of ''Rumours''.", "Its hits included Christine McVie's \"Hold Me\" and \"Love in Store\" (co-written by Robbie Patton and Jim Recor, respectively), Nicks' \"Gypsy\", and Buckingham's \"Oh Diane\", which made the Top 10 in the UK.", "A minor hit was also scored by Buckingham's \"Can't Go Back\".In contrast to the Tusk Tour the band embarked on only a short tour of 18 American cities, the Los Angeles show being recorded and released on video.", "They also headlined the first US Festival, on 5 September 1982, for which the band was paid $500,000 ($ today).", "''Mirage'' was certified double platinum in the US.Following ''Mirage'' the band went on hiatus, which allowed members to pursue solo careers.", "Nicks released two more solo albums (1983's ''The Wild Heart'' and 1985's ''Rock a Little'').", "Buckingham issued ''Go Insane'' in 1984, the same year that Christine McVie made an eponymous album (yielding the Top 10 hit \"Got a Hold on Me\" and the Top 40 hit \"Love Will Show Us How\").", "All three met with success, Nicks being the most popular.", "During this period Fleetwood had filed for bankruptcy, Nicks was admitted to the Betty Ford Clinic for addiction problems and John McVie had suffered an addiction-related seizure, all of which were attributed to the lifestyle of excess afforded to them by their worldwide success.", "It was rumoured that Fleetwood Mac had disbanded, but Buckingham commented that he was unhappy at allowing ''Mirage'' to remain the band's last effort.The Fleetwood/J.McVie/C.McVie/Buckingham/Nicks line-up of Fleetwood Mac recorded one more album, their fourteenth studio album, ''Tango in the Night'', in 1987.The recording started off as a Buckingham solo album before becoming a full group project.", "The album went on to become their best-selling release since ''Rumours'', especially in the UK where it hit No.", "1 three times in the following year.", "The album sold three million copies in the US and contained four hits: Christine McVie's \"Little Lies\" and \"Everywhere\" (\"Little Lies\" being co-written with her new husband, Eddy Quintela), Sandy Stewart and Nicks' \"Seven Wonders\", and Buckingham's \"Big Love\".", "\"Family Man\" (Buckingham and Richard Dashut) and \"Isn't It Midnight\" (Christine McVie) were also released as singles.===1987–1995: Departure of Buckingham and Nicks===With a ten-week tour scheduled, Buckingham held back at the last minute, saying he felt his creativity was being stifled.", "A group meeting at Christine McVie's house on 7 August 1987 resulted in turmoil.", "Tensions were coming to a head.", "Fleetwood said in his autobiography that there was a physical altercation between Buckingham and Nicks.", "Buckingham left the band the following day.", "After Buckingham's departure, Fleetwood Mac added two new guitarists to the band, Billy Burnette and Rick Vito, again without auditions.Burnette was the son of Dorsey Burnette and nephew of Johnny Burnette, both of The Rock and Roll Trio.", "He had already worked with Fleetwood in Zoo, with Christine McVie as part of her solo band, had done some session work with Nicks, and backed Buckingham on ''Saturday Night Live''.", "Fleetwood and Christine McVie had played on his ''Try Me'' album in 1985.Vito, a Peter Green admirer, had played with many artists from Bonnie Raitt to John Mayall, to Roger McGuinn in Thunderbyrd and worked with John McVie on two Mayall albums.The 1987–88 \"Shake the Cage\" tour was the first outing for this line-up.", "It was successful enough to warrant the release of a concert video, also titled ''Tango in the Night'', which was filmed at San Francisco's Cow Palace arena in December 1987.Capitalising on the success of the ''Tango in the Night'' album, the band released a ''Greatest Hits'' album in 1988.It featured singles from the 1975–1988 era and included two new compositions, \"No Questions Asked\" written by Nicks and Kelly Johnston, and \"As Long as You Follow\", written by Christine McVie and Quintela.", "'As Long as You Follow' was released as a single in 1988 but only made No.", "43 in the US and No.", "66 in the UK, although it reached No.1 on the US Adult Contemporary charts.", "The ''Greatest Hits'' album, which peaked at No.", "3 in the UK and No.", "14 in the US (though it has since sold over 8 million copies there) was dedicated by the band to Buckingham, with whom they were now reconciled.In 1990, Fleetwood Mac released their fifteenth studio album, ''Behind the Mask''.", "With this album, the band veered away from the stylised sound that Buckingham had evolved during his tenure (which was also evident in his solo work) and developed a more adult contemporary style with producer Greg Ladanyi.", "The album yielded only one Top 40 hit, Christine McVie's \"Save Me\".", "''Behind the Mask'' only achieved Gold album status in the US, peaking at No.", "18 on the ''Billboard'' album chart, though it entered the UK Albums Chart at No.", "1.It received mixed reviews and was seen by some music critics as a low point for the band in the absence of Buckingham (who had actually made a guest appearance playing on the title track).", "But ''Rolling Stone'' magazine said that Vito and Burnette were \"the best thing to ever happen to Fleetwood Mac\".", "The subsequent \"Behind the Mask\" tour saw the band play sold-out shows at London's Wembley Stadium.", "In the final show in Los Angeles, Buckingham joined the band onstage.", "The two women of the band, McVie and Nicks, had decided that the tour would be their last (McVie's father had died during the tour), although both stated that they would still record with the band.", "In 1991, however, Nicks and Rick Vito left Fleetwood Mac altogether.In 1992, Fleetwood arranged a 4-CD box set, spanning highlights from the band's 25-year history, entitled ''25 Years – The Chain'' (a cut-down 2-CD box set, ''Selections from 25 Years – The Chain'', was also released).", "A notable inclusion in the box set was \"Silver Springs\", a Nicks composition that was recorded during the ''Rumours'' sessions but was omitted from the album and used as the B-side of \"Go Your Own Way\".", "Nicks had requested use of this track for her 1991 best-of compilation ''TimeSpace'', but Fleetwood had refused as he had planned to include it in this collection as a rarity.", "The disagreement between Nicks and Fleetwood garnered press coverage and was believed to have been the main reason for Nicks leaving the band in 1991.The box set also included a new Nicks/Vito composition, \"Paper Doll\", which was released in the US as a single and produced by Buckingham and Richard Dashut.", "There were also two new Christine McVie compositions, \"Heart of Stone\" and \"Love Shines\".", "\"Love Shines\" was released as a single in the UK and elsewhere.", "Buckingham also contributed a new song, \"Make Me a Mask\".", "Fleetwood also released a deluxe hardcover companion book to coincide with the release of the box set, titled ''My 25 Years in Fleetwood Mac''.", "The volume featured notes written by Fleetwood detailing the band's 25-year history and many rare photographs.The classic 1974–1987 line-up reunited in 1993 at the request of US President Bill Clinton for his first Inaugural Ball.", "Clinton had made Fleetwood Mac's \"Don't Stop\" his campaign theme song.", "His request for it to be performed at the Inauguration Ball was met with enthusiasm by the band, although this line-up had no intention of reuniting permanently.Inspired by the new interest in the band, Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, Christine McVie, and Billy Burnette recorded another album as Fleetwood Mac, with Bekka Bramlett, who had worked a year earlier with Fleetwood's Zoo, joining the band.", "Solo singer-songwriter/guitarist and original Traffic member Dave Mason, who had worked with Bekka's parents Delaney & Bonnie twenty-five years earlier, was also added.Although she remained an official band member and would be part of the next studio album, Christine McVie chose to take a break from touring around this time.", "The other five members (Fleetwood, J. McVie, Burnette, Bramlett and Mason) toured in 1994, opening for Crosby, Stills, & Nash, and in 1995 as part of a package with REO Speedwagon and Pat Benatar.", "This tour saw the band perform classic Fleetwood Mac songs spanning the band's whole history to that point.", "In 1995, at a concert in Tokyo, the band was greeted by former member Jeremy Spencer, who performed a few songs with them.On 10 October 1995, Fleetwood Mac released their sixteenth studio album, ''Time'', which was not a success.", "Although it hit the UK Top 50 for one week, the album had zero impact in the US.", "It failed to graze the ''Billboard'' Top 200 albums chart, a reversal for a band that had been a mainstay on that chart for most of the previous two decades.", "Shortly after the album's release, Christine McVie informed the band that the album would be her last.", "Bramlett and Burnette subsequently formed a country music duo, Bekka & Billy.=== 1995–2007: Reformation, reunion, and Christine McVie's departure ===Just weeks after disbanding Fleetwood Mac, Mick Fleetwood started working with Lindsey Buckingham again.", "John McVie was added to the sessions, and later Christine McVie.", "Stevie Nicks also enlisted Buckingham to produce a song for a soundtrack.", "In May 1996, Fleetwood, John McVie, Christine McVie, and Nicks performed together at a private party in Louisville, Kentucky, prior to the Kentucky Derby, with Steve Winwood filling in for Buckingham.", "A week later, the ''Twister'' film soundtrack was released, which featured the Nicks-Buckingham duet \"Twisted\", with Fleetwood on drums.", "This eventually led to a full reunion of the ''Rumours'' line-up, which officially reformed in March 1997.The regrouped Fleetwood Mac performed a live concert on a soundstage at Warner Bros. Burbank, California, on 22 May 1997.The concert was recorded and filmed, and from this performance came the 1997 live album and video ''The Dance'', which brought the band back to the top of the US album charts for the first time in 10 years.", "''The Dance'' returned Fleetwood Mac to a superstar status they had not enjoyed since ''Tango in the Night''.", "The album was certified 5 million units by the RIAA.", "An arena tour followed the MTV premiere of ''The Dance'' video and kept the reunited Fleetwood Mac on the road throughout much of 1997, the 20th anniversary of ''Rumours''.", "With additional musicians Neale Heywood on guitar, Brett Tuggle on keyboards, Lenny Castro on percussion and Sharon Celani (who had toured with the band in the late 1980s) and Mindy Stein on backing vocals, this would be the final appearance of the classic line-up including Christine McVie for 16 years.", "Neale Heywood and Sharon Celani remain touring members to this day.Stevie Nicks and Lindsey Buckingham on the ''Say You Will'' Tour, 2003In 1998 Fleetwood Mac were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.", "Members inducted included the 1968–1970 band, Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, Peter Green, Jeremy Spencer, and Danny Kirwan, and ''Rumours''-era members Christine McVie, Stevie Nicks, and Lindsey Buckingham.", "Bob Welch was not included, despite his key role in keeping the band alive during the early 1970s.", "The ''Rumours''-era version of the band performed both at the induction ceremony and at the Grammy Awards programme that year.", "Peter Green attended the induction ceremony but did not perform with his former bandmates, opting instead to perform his composition \"Black Magic Woman\" with Santana, who were inducted the same night.", "Neither Jeremy Spencer nor Danny Kirwan attended.", "Fleetwood Mac also received the \"Outstanding Contribution to Music\" award at the Brit Awards (British Phonographic Industry Awards) the same year.", "Shortly after this, Christine McVie officially left the band.2002 saw the release of ''The Very Best of Fleetwood Mac'', issued as a 21-track single CD in the UK and a 40-track double CD in the US.", "Christine McVie's departure left Buckingham and Nicks as the two singer-songwriters on the band's seventeenth studio album, ''Say You Will'', released in 2003 (although Christine contributed some backing vocals and keyboards as a guest).", "The album debuted at No.3 on the ''Billboard'' 200 chart (No.", "6 in the UK) and yielded chart hits with \"Peacekeeper\" and the title track, and a successful world arena tour which lasted through 2004.The tour grossed $27,711,129 and was ranked No.", "21 in the top 25 grossing tours of 2004.Around 2004–05 there were rumours of a reunion of the early line-up of Fleetwood Mac involving Peter Green and Jeremy Spencer.", "While these two apparently remained unconvinced, in April 2006 bassist John McVie, during a question-and-answer session on the ''Penguin'' Fleetwood Mac fan website, said of the reunion idea:In interviews given in November 2006 to support his solo album ''Under the Skin'', Buckingham stated that plans for the band to reunite once more for a 2008 tour were still in the cards.", "Recording plans had been put on hold for the foreseeable future.", "In an interview Nicks gave to the UK newspaper ''The Daily Telegraph'' in September 2007, she stated that she was unwilling to carry on with the band unless Christine McVie returned.===2008–2013: Unleashed tour and ''Extended Play''===In March 2008, it was mooted that Sheryl Crow might work with Fleetwood Mac in 2009.Crow and Stevie Nicks had collaborated in the past and Crow had stated that Nicks had been a great teacher and inspiration to her.", "Later, Buckingham said that the potential collaboration with Crow had \"lost its momentum\" and the idea was abandoned.Fleetwood Mac in Saint Paul, Minnesota in 2009In March 2009, Fleetwood Mac started their \"Unleashed\" tour, again without Christine McVie.", "It was a greatest hits show, although album tracks such as \"Storms\" and \"I Know I'm Not Wrong\" were also played.", "During their show on 20 June 2009 in New Orleans, Louisiana, Stevie Nicks premiered part of a new song that she had written about Hurricane Katrina.", "The song was later released as \"New Orleans\" on Nicks's 2011 album ''In Your Dreams'' with Mick Fleetwood on drums.", "In October 2009 and November, the band toured Europe, followed by Australia and New Zealand in December.", "In October, 2002's ''The Very Best of Fleetwood Mac'' was re-released in the UK, this time using the US 2-CD track listing, entering at number six on the UK Albums Chart.", "On 1 November 2009 a one-hour documentary, ''Fleetwood Mac: Don't Stop'', was broadcast in the UK on BBC One, featuring recent interviews with all four current band members.", "During the documentary, Nicks gave a candid summary of the current state of her relationship with Buckingham, saying, \"Maybe when we're 75 and Fleetwood Mac is a distant memory, we might be friends.", "\"On 6 November 2009, Fleetwood Mac played the last show of the European leg of their ''Unleashed'' tour at London's Wembley Arena.", "Christine McVie was in the audience.", "Nicks paid tribute to her from the stage to a standing ovation from the audience, saying that she thought about her former bandmate \"every day\", and dedicated that night's performance of \"Landslide\" to her.", "On 19 December 2009, Fleetwood Mac played the second-to-last show of their ''Unleashed'' tour to a sell-out crowd in New Zealand, at what was intended to be a one-off event at the TSB Bowl of Brooklands in New Plymouth.", "Tickets, after pre-sales, sold out within twelve minutes of public release.", "Another date, Sunday 20 December, was added and also sold out.", "The tour grossed $84,900,000 and was ranked No.", "13 in the highest grossing worldwide tours of 2009.On 19 October 2010, Fleetwood Mac played a private show at the Phoenician Hotel in Scottsdale, Arizona for TPG (Texas Pacific Group).On 3 May 2011, the Fox Network broadcast an episode of ''Glee'' entitled \"Rumours\" that featured six songs from the band's 1977 album.", "The show sparked renewed interest in the band and its most commercially successful album, and ''Rumours'' re-entered the ''Billboard'' 200 chart at No.11 in the same week that Nicks's solo album ''In Your Dreams'' debuted at No.6.", "(She was quoted by ''Billboard'' saying that her new album was \"my own little ''Rumours''.\")", "The two recordings sold about 30,000 and 52,000 units respectively.", "Music downloads accounted for 91 per cent of the ''Rumours'' sales.", "The spike in sales for ''Rumours'' represented an increase of 1,951%.", "It was the highest chart entry by a previously issued album since ''The Rolling Stones''' reissue of ''Exile On Main St.'' re-entered the chart at No.", "2 on 5 June 2010.In an interview in July 2012 Nicks confirmed that the band would reunite for a tour in 2013.Original Fleetwood Mac bassist Bob Brunning died on 18 October 2011 at the age of 68.Former guitarist and singer Bob Weston was found dead on 3 January 2012 at the age of 64.Former singer and guitarist Bob Welch was found dead from a self-inflicted gunshot wound on 7 June 2012 at the age of 66.Don Aaron, a spokesman at the scene, stated, \"He died from an apparent self-inflicted gunshot wound to the chest.\"", "A suicide note was found.", "Welch had been struggling with health issues and was dealing with depression.", "His wife discovered his body.The band's 2013 tour, which took place in 34 cities, started on 4 April in Columbus, Ohio.", "The band performed two new songs (\"Sad Angel\" and \"Without You\"), which Buckingham described as some of the most \"Fleetwood Mac-ey\"-sounding songs since ''Mirage''.", "\"Without You\" was rerecorded from the Buckingham-Nicks era.", "The band released their first new studio material in ten years, ''Extended Play'', on 30 April 2013.The EP debuted and peaked at No.", "48 in the US and produced one single, \"Sad Angel\".On 25 and 27 September 2013, the second and third nights of the band's London O2 shows, Christine McVie joined them on stage for \"Don't Stop\".", "\"Buckingham's words to us were, 'She can't just come and go,'\" Nicks recalled.", "\"That's important to him, but it's not so important to me... Much as Lindsey adores her – and he does; she's the only one in Fleetwood Mac he was ever really willing to listen to – he doesn't want the first-night reviews to be all about Christine's one song, rather than the set we rehearsed for two months.", "But it will be wonderful to have her back up there – and, from there, who knows?", "\"On 27 October 2013, the band cancelled their New Zealand and Australian performances after John McVie had been diagnosed with cancer so that he could undergo treatment.", "They said: \"We are sorry not to be able to play these Australian and New Zealand dates.", "We hope our Australian and New Zealand fans as well as Fleetwood Mac fans everywhere will join us in wishing John and his family all the best.\"", "Also in October 2013, Stevie Nicks appeared in ''American Horror Story: Coven'' with Fleetwood Mac's song \"Seven Wonders\" playing in the background.", "In November 2013, Christine McVie expressed interest in a return to Fleetwood Mac, and also affirmed that John McVie's prognosis was \"really good\".===2014–present: Return of Christine McVie, departure of Buckingham, and death of Christine McVie===Fleetwood Mac performing Sacramento, California in 2014On 11 January 2014, Mick Fleetwood confirmed that Christine McVie would be rejoining Fleetwood Mac.", "On with the Show, a 33-city North American tour, opened in Minneapolis, Minnesota, on 30 September 2014.A series of May–June 2015 arena dates in the United Kingdom went on sale on 14 November, selling out in minutes.", "High demand caused additional dates to be added to the tour, including an Australian leg.In January 2015, Buckingham suggested that the new album and tour might be Fleetwood Mac's last, and that the band would cease operations in 2015 or soon afterwards.", "He said work would continue on the new album, and solo work would \"take a back seat for a year or two\".", "Fleetwood said the new album might take a few years to complete and that they were waiting for contributions from Nicks, who had been ambivalent about committing to a new record.In August 2016, Fleetwood said that while the band had \"a huge amount of recorded music\", virtually none of it featured Nicks.", "Buckingham and Christine McVie, however, had contributed many songs to the new project.", "He told ''Ultimate Classic Rock'': \"McVie wrote up a storm.", "She and Lindsey could probably have a mighty strong duet album if they want...", "I hope it will come to more than that.\"", "Nicks explained her reluctance to record another album with Fleetwood Mac.", "\"Do you want to take a chance on spending a year recording an album with a bunch of arguing people?", "And then not wanting to go on tour because you just spent a year arguing?", "\"On 9 June 2017, Buckingham and Christine McVie released a new album, titled ''Lindsey Buckingham/Christine McVie'', which included contributions from Mick Fleetwood and John McVie.", "The album was preceded by the single \"In My World\".", "A 38-date tour to support the album began on 21 June and concluded 16 November.", "Fleetwood Mac also planned to embark on another tour in 2018.The band headlined the second night of the Classic West concert on 16 July 2017 at Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles, and the second night of the Classic East concert at New York City's Citi Field on 30 July 2017.In January 2018, Fleetwood Mac received the MusiCares Person of the Year award and reunited to perform several songs at the Grammy-hosted gala honouring them.", "In April 2018, the song \"Dreams\" re-entered the Hot Rock Songs chart at No.", "16 after a viral meme had featured it.", "This chart re-entry came 40 years after the song had topped the Hot 100.The song's streaming totals also translated into 7,000 \"equivalent album units\", a jump of 12 per cent, which helped ''Rumours'' to go from No.", "21 to No.", "13 on the Top Rock Albums chart.Neil Finn (left) and Mike Campbell (right) performing with Fleetwood Mac in 2018.Both joined the band following Lindsey Buckingham's departure that same year.In April 2018 Buckingham departed from the group a second time, having reportedly been dismissed.", "The reason was said to have been a disagreement about the nature of the tour, and in particular the question of whether newer or less well-known material would be included, as Buckingham wanted.", "Fleetwood stated on ''CBS This Morning'' on 25 April 2018 that Buckingham would not sign off on a tour that the group had been planning for a year and a half and they had reached a \"huge impasse\".", "When asked if Buckingham had been fired, he said, \"We don't use that word because I think it's ugly.\"", "He said Buckingham's work in Fleetwood Mac was, and always would be, hugely respected.In October 2018, Buckingham filed a lawsuit against Fleetwood Mac for breach of fiduciary duty, breach of oral contract, and intentional interference with prospective economic advantage, among other claims.", "He said later that a settlement had been reached and he was happy with it.", "Buckingham also provided his version of what had led to his departure from the band.", "He said that after their performance at the MusiCares event, the band's manager, Irving Azoff, had told him that, among other things, Nicks was not happy about his reaction to the intro music for their acceptance speech being \"Rhiannon\"; and about the way he had allegedly \"smirked\" during her thank-you speech.", "Buckingham conceded the first point.", "\"It wasn't about it being 'Rhiannon'.", "It just undermined the impact of our entrance.\"", "Azoff subsequently told him that Nicks had given the rest of the band an ultimatum: either Buckingham went or she would.Fleetwood Mac in October 2018Former Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers guitarist Mike Campbell and Neil Finn of Crowded House were named to replace Buckingham.", "On ''CBS This Morning'', Fleetwood said that Fleetwood Mac had been reborn and that \"This is the new lineup of Fleetwood Mac.\"", "Aside from touring, the band planned to record new music with Campbell and Finn in the future.", "The band's \"An Evening with Fleetwood Mac\" tour started in October 2018.The band launched the tour at the iHeartRadio Music Festival on 21 September 2018 at the T-Mobile Arena in Las Vegas.On 8 June 2018, former Fleetwood Mac guitarist Danny Kirwan died at the age of 68 in a hostel for homeless alcoholics in London, after contracting pneumonia earlier in the year.", "''Mojo'' quoted Christine McVie as saying: \"Nobody else could play like him.", "He was a one-off.", "Danny was a perfectionist; a fantastic musician and a fantastic writer.\"", "One of Kirwan's songs, \"Tell Me All the Things You Do\" from ''Kiln House'', was included in the set of the \"An Evening with Fleetwood Mac\" tour.On 28 May 2020, Neil Finn, featuring Nicks and McVie with Campbell on guitar, released the song \"Find Your Way Back Home\" for the Auckland homeless shelter Auckland City Mission.Founding member Peter Green died on 25 July 2020 at the age of 73.In October 2020, ''Rumours'' again entered the ''Billboard'' top 10.The album received 30.6 million streams on streaming platforms the week of 15 October, which was in part due to a viral video featuring the song \"Dreams\".On 30 November 2022, Christine McVie died at the age of 79.In February 2023, when asked about further activity from the band, Fleetwood replied, \"I think right now, I truly think the line in the sand has been drawn with the loss of Chris.", "I'd say we're done, but then we've all said that before.", "It's sort of unthinkable right now.\"", "He said the other surviving members were keeping themselves busy with musical pursuits outside the band and that he intended to do the same.", "In an October 2023 interview, Nicks stated that she saw no reason to continue the band after McVie's death." ], [ "Tours", "* Early gigs (1967)* First Tour (1968)* Mr.", "Wonderful Tour (1968–1969)* Then Play On Tour (1969–1970)* Kiln House Tour (1970–1971)* Future Games Tour (1971)* British Are Coming Tour (1972)* Bare Trees Tour (1972)* Penguin Tour (1973)* Mystery to Me Tour (1973)* Heroes Are Hard to Find Tour (1974)* Fleetwood Mac Tour/Summer Tour '76 (1975–1976)* Rumours Tour (1977–1978)* Tusk Tour (1979–1980)* Mirage Tour (1982)* Shake the Cage Tour (1987–1988)* Behind the Mask Tour (1990)* Another Link in the Chain Tour (1994–1995)* The Dance Tour (1997)* Say You Will Tour (2003–2004)* Unleashed Tour (2009)* Fleetwood Mac Live Tour (2013)* On with the Show Tour (2014–2015)* An Evening with Fleetwood Mac Tour (2018–2019)" ], [ "Band members", "* Mick Fleetwood – drums, percussion (1967–1995, 1997–present)* John McVie – bass (1967–1995, 1997–present)*Stevie Nicks – vocals (1975–1991, 1997–present)* Mike Campbell – lead guitar, vocals (2018–present)* Neil Finn – vocals, rhythm guitar (2018–present)===Timeline===" ], [ "Discography", "'''Studio albums'''* ''Fleetwood Mac'' (1968, also known as ''Peter Green's Fleetwood Mac'')* ''Mr.", "Wonderful'' (1968)* ''Then Play On'' (1969)* ''Kiln House'' (1970)* ''Future Games'' (1971)* ''Bare Trees'' (1972)* ''Penguin'' (1973)* ''Mystery to Me'' (1973)* ''Heroes Are Hard to Find'' (1974)* ''Fleetwood Mac'' (1975, also known as ''The White Album'')* ''Rumours'' (1977)* ''Tusk'' (1979)* ''Mirage'' (1982)* ''Tango in the Night'' (1987)* ''Behind the Mask'' (1990)* ''Time'' (1995)* ''Say You Will'' (2003)" ], [ "Awards and nominations", "===Grammy Awards=== Year Category Recording Result1978 Album of the Year ''Rumours'' Best Pop Performance By a Duo or Group Best Arrangement of Voices \"Go Your Own Way\" 1998 Best Pop Vocal Album ''The Dance'' Best Pop Performance By a Duo or Group \"Silver Springs\" Best Rock Performance By a Duo or Group \"The Chain\" 2003 Grammy Hall of Fame Award Fleetwood Mac" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Sources", "* Berkery, Patrick.", "\"The Return of the Mac Daddy: Mick Fleetwood\".", "Via ProQuest.", "''Modern Drummer'', Sep 2015.Web.", "Jul 2016.", "* Bob Brunning, ''Blues: The British Connection'', Helter Skelter Publishing, London 2002, – First edition 1986 – Second edition 1995 ''Blues in Britain''* Bob Brunning, ''The Fleetwood Mac Story: Rumours and Lies'', Omnibus Press London, 1990 and 1998, * Bob Brunning, ''Fleetwood Mac: The First 30 Years'', Omnibus Press, London, 1998, * Caillat, Ken and Steve Steifel: Making Rumours: The Inside Story of the Classic Fleetwood Mac Album.", "New Jersey: Wiley, 2012.Print* Carol Ann Harris, ''Storms: My Life with Lindsey Buckingham and Fleetwood Mac'', Chicago Review Press, 2007, * Christopher Hjort, ''Strange brew: Eric Clapton and the British blues boom, 1965–1970'', foreword by John Mayall, Jawbone 2007, * Dick Heckstall-Smith, ''The safest place in the world: A personal history of British Rhythm and blues'', 1989 Quartet Books Limited, – Second Edition : ''Blowing The Blues – Fifty Years Playing The British Blues'', 2004, Clear Books, * Evans, Mike, ''Fleetwood Mac'': ''The Definitive History'', Sterling New York, 2011, * Fancourt, L., (1989) ''British blues on record (1957–1970)'', Retrack Books.", "* Fleetwood, Mick, Stephen Davis and Frank Harding.", "My Twenty-Five Years in Fleetwood Mac.", "New York, NY: Hyperion, 1992.Print.", "* Fleetwood, Mick, and Bozza, Anthony.", "''Play On''.", "New York, NY: Little, Brown, 2014.", "* Fortner, Stephen.", "\"Filling Some Mightily High Heels with Fleetwood Mac\".", "ProQuest.", "Keyboard, Jan 2016.Web.", "Jul 2016* Martin Celmins, ''Peter Green'' – ''Founder of Fleetwood Mac'', Sanctuary London, 1995, foreword by B.B.", "King, * Mick Fleetwood with Stephen Davis, ''Fleetwood – My Life and Adventures in Fleetwood Mac'', William Morrow and Company, 1990, * Shapiro, Harry, ''Alexis Korner: The Biography'', Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, London 1997, Discography by Mark Troster, * Unterberger, Richie, ''Fleetwood Mac: The Complete Illustrated History''.", "Voyageur Press, 2017.", "* Mike Vernon, ''The Blue Horizon story 1965–1970 vol.", "1'', notes of the booklet of the Box Set (60 pages)* Paul Myers, ''Long John Baldry and the Birth of the British Blues'', Vancouver 2007, GreyStone Books," ], [ "Further reading", "* Silver, Murray ''When Elvis Meets the Dalai Lama'', (Bonaventure Books, Savannah, 2005) in which the author recounts his days as a concert promoter in Atlanta, Ga., and having brought Fleetwood Mac to town for the first time in December 1969.", "* Stephen Thomas Erlewine, Allmusic* ''The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll'' (Simon & Schuster, 2001)" ], [ "External links", "* * Fleetwood Mac on the Internet Archive* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frederick I of Ansbach and Bayreuth''' (also known as '''Frederick V'''; or ; 8 May 1460 – 4 April 1536) was born at Ansbach as the eldest son of Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg by his second wife Anna, daughter of Frederick II, Elector of Saxony.", "His elder half-brother was the Elector John Cicero of Brandenburg.", "Friedrich succeeded his father as Margrave of Ansbach in 1486 and his younger brother Siegmund as Margrave of Bayreuth in 1495." ], [ "Life", "After depleting the finances of the margraviate with his lavish lifestyle, Frederick I was deposed by his two elder sons, Casimir and George, in 1515.He was then locked up at Plassenburg Castle by his eldest son Casimir in a tower room from which he could not escape for 12 years.", "Thereupon, his son Casimir took up the rule of the Margraviate of Bayreuth (Kulmbach) and his son George took up the rule of the Margraviate of Ansbach.", "However, the overthrow of Frederick did outrage his other younger sons and led to far-reaching political countermeasures.", "When Elector Joachim I of Brandenburg visited Kulmbach during his journey to Augsburg, and wanted to plead for Frederick's release, he was nevertheless denied entry to Plassenburg Castle.", "The dispute was finally cleared when an agreement was reached in 1522, in which the demands of the younger sons of Frederick were met." ], [ "Family and children", "On 14 February 1479, at Frankfurt (Oder), Frederick I was married to Princess Sophia of Poland (6 April 1464 – 5 October 1512), daughter of King Casimir IV of Poland by his wife Elisabeth of Austria, and sister of King Sigismund I of Poland.", "They had seventeen children:# Casimir, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (27 September 1481, Ansbach – 21 September 1527, Buda).# Elisabeth, died young.# Margarete of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach (10 January 1483, Ansbach – 10 July 1532).# George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (4 March 1484, Ansbach – 27 December 1543, Ansbach).# Sophie of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach (10 March 1485, Ansbach – 24 May 1537, Liegnitz), married on 14 November 1518 to Duke Frederick II of Legnica.# Anna of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach (5 May 1487, Ansbach – 7 February 1539), married on 1 December 1518 to Duke Wenceslaus II of Cieszyn.# Barbara, died young.# Albert, 1st Duke of Prussia (17 May 1490, Ansbach – 20 March 1568, Castle Tapiau), Grand Master of the Teutonic Order from 1511 to 1525, and first Duke of Prussia from 1525.# Frederick of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach (13 June 1491, Ansbach – ca.", "1497).# Johann, Viceroy of Valencia (9 January 1493, Plassenburg – 5 July 1525, Valencia)# Elisabeth of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach (25 March 1494, Ansbach – 31 May 1518, Pforzheim), married in Pforzheim on 29 September 1510 to Margrave Ernest of Baden-Durlach.# Barbara of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach (24 September 1495, Ansbach – 23 September 1552), married in Plassenburg on 26 July 1528 to Landgrave George III of Leuchtenberg.# Frederick of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach (17 January 1497, Ansbach – 20 August 1536, Genoa), a canon in Würzburg and Salzburg.# Wilhelm, Archbishop of Riga (30 June 1498, Ansbach – 4 February 1563, Riga)# John Albert, Archbishop of Magdeburg (20 September 1499, Ansbach – 17 May 1550, Halle) # Frederick Albert, died young.# Gumprecht of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach (16 July 1503, Ansbach – 25 June 1528, Naples), a canon in Bamberg." ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "F-Zero: Maximum Velocity" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''F-Zero: Maximum Velocity''''' is a futuristic racing game developed by NDcube and published by Nintendo as a launch game for the Game Boy Advance.", "It was released in Japan, North America and Europe in 2001.It was the first ''F-Zero'' game released on a handheld game console.", "''Maximum Velocity'' takes place 25 years after ''F-Zero'', in another F-Zero Grand Prix.", "The past generations of F-Zero had \"piloted their way to fame\", so it is the second ''F-Zero'' game without Captain Falcon, Samurai Goroh, Pico, or Dr. Stewart after ''BS F-Zero Grand Prix 2''.", "Players control fast hovering crafts and use their speed-boosting abilities to navigate through the courses as quickly as possible." ], [ "Gameplay", "Every race consists of five laps around a race track.", "Players lose the race if their machine explodes due to taking too much damage, or if they land outside of the track, get ejected from the race due to falling to 20th place, complete a lap with a rank outside of the rank limit of that lap, or forfeit.", "In the single player Grand Prix mode, all of these conditions require the player to possess and use an extra machine to try again.For each lap completed the player is rewarded with a speed boost, to be used once any time; one of the \"SSS\" marks will be shaded green to indicate that it can be used.", "A boost will dramatically increase a player's speed, but will decrease their ability to turn.", "A boost used before a jump will make the player jump farther, which could allow the player to use a shortcut with the right vehicle.", "Boost time and speed varies according to the machine, and is usually tuned for proper balance.", "For example, one machine boasts a boost time of twelve seconds, yet has the slowest boost speed of the entire game.", "Players can also take advantage of the varying deceleration of each vehicle.", "Some vehicles, such as the Jet Vermilion, take longer than others to decelerate from top boost speed to normal speed, once the boost has been used up.", "Players can also take advantage of this effect on boost pads.The Grand Prix is the main single player component of ''Maximum Velocity''.", "It consists of four series named after chess pieces: \"Pawn\", \"Knight\", \"Bishop\" and \"Queen\".", "The latter of these can be unlocked by winning the others on \"Expert\" mode.", "They have five races in four difficulty settings, \"Master\" mode is unlocked by winning expert mode in each series, the player unlocks a new machine after completing it.", "The player needs to be in the top three at the end of the last lap in order to continue to the next race.", "If the player is unable to continue, the player will lose a machine and can try the race again.", "If the player runs out of machines, then the game ends, and the player has to start the series from the beginning.Championship is another single player component.", "It is basically the same as a \"Time Attack\" mode, except the player can only race on one, special course: the Synobazz Championship Circuit.", "This special course is not selectable in any other modes.===Multiplayer===''Maximum Velocity'' can be played in two multiplayer modes using the Game Boy Advance link cable, with one cartridge, or one cartridge per player.", "Two to four players can play in both modes.", "In single cart, only one player needs to have a cartridge.", "All players drive a generic craft, and the game can only be played on one level, Silence.", "Silence, along with Fire Field, are the only areas to return from previous games.", "Aptly, Silence in ''Maximum Velocity'' has no background music, unlike in most other ''F-Zero'' games.", "In multi cart, each player needs to have a cartridge to play.", "This has many advantages over single cart: All players can use any machine in this game that has been unlocked by another player.", "Players can select any course in this game.", "After the race is finished, all of the players' ranking data are mixed and shared (\"Mixed ranking\" stored in each cart)." ], [ "Development", "''F-Zero: Maximum Velocity'' was one of the first games developed by NDcube.", "Like the original ''F-Zero'' for SNES, ''Maximum Velocity'' implements a pseudo-3D visual technique based on the scaling and rotation effects of bitmap graphics.", "In this game, this technique consists of a double layer, one of which gives the illusion of depth." ], [ "Release", "iQue released it to the Chinese market in August 2007.", "''Maximum Velocity'' is one of ten Game Boy Advance games released on December 16, 2011, to Nintendo 3DS Ambassadors, a program to give free downloadable games to early adopters who bought a Nintendo 3DS before its price drop.", "It was also released on the Wii U Virtual Console on April 3, 2014, in Japan and April 17 in North America and Europe.A February 2023 teaser trailer showing future releases for the Nintendo Switch Online subscription service mentioned the game." ], [ "Reception", "The game received \"generally favorable reviews\" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.", "''NextGen'', however, called it \"A classic SNES racer that ports well, although the look is definitely dated.\"", "In Japan, ''Famitsu'' gave it a score of 31 out of 40.Uncle Dust of ''GamePro'' said that the game was \"every bit as good, if not better, than the amazing SNES version—it's a must-buy in the launch lineup.", "\"The game went on to sell 334,145 units in Japan and 273,229 units in the U.S. as of 2005.The game has total sales of over 1 million units worldwide." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website*" ] ]
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[ [ "Frederick William I of Prussia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frederick William I''' (; 14 August 1688 – 31 May 1740), known as the '''Soldier King''' (), was King in Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg from 1713 till his death in 1740, as well as Prince of Neuchâtel.", "Born in Berlin, he was raised by the Huguenot governess Marthe de Roucoulle.", "His political awakening occurred during the Great Northern War's plague outbreak in Prussia, leading to his challenge against corruption and inefficiency in government.", "He initiated reforms, especially in the military, growing the Prussian Army significantly.", "A believer in absolute monarchy, he focused on state development and financial reorganization, imposing taxes and stringent regulations on public servants.", "He made efforts to reduce crime and centralized his authority during his 27 years reign, cementing Prussia as a regional power.Despite his effective rule, he had a harsh nature, exacerbated by his health issues.", "He engaged in colonial affairs, but prioritized military expansion over colonial investments.", "His notable decisions included selling Prussian overseas colonies and the foundation of the Canton system, as well as the conquest of the port of Stettin.His death in 1740 marked the end of a reign characterized by military and administrative reform.", "He was succeeded by his son, Frederick the Great." ], [ "Early years", "Frederick William was born in Berlin to King Frederick I of Prussia and Princess Sophia Charlotte of Hanover.", "During his first years, he was raised by the Huguenot governess Marthe de Roucoulle.", "When the Great Northern War plague outbreak devastated Prussia, the inefficiency and corruption of the king's favorite ministers and senior officials were highlighted.", "Frederick William with a party that formed at the court brought down the leading minister Johann Kasimir Kolbe von Wartenberg and his cronies, following an official investigation that exposed Wartenberg's huge-scale misappropriation and embezzlement.", "His close associate August David zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Hohenstein was imprisoned at Spandau Citadel, fined 70,000 thalers and banished subsequently.", "The incident exerted great influence on Frederick William, making him resent crime, corruption, wastage and inefficiency and realize the necessity of institutional reform.", "It also became the first time he actively participated in politics.", "From then on, Frederick I began to let his son take more power." ], [ "Reign", "''Portrait of Crown Prince Frederick William as David with a Sling'' by Anthoni SchoonjansHis father had successfully acquired the title of king for the margraves of Brandenburg for which he had paid the high price of 2 million ducats to Emperor Leopold I, 600,000 ducats to the German clergy and 20,000 thalers to the Jesuit order.", "In addition, Frederick was obligated to provide Leopold with 8,000 soldiers for the War of the Spanish Succession.", "To demonstrate his new status, he had the Berlin Palace, Charlottenburg Palace, and Königsberg Castle doubled in size and furnished at considerable expense.", "However, in doing so, he had largely ruined the state's finances.On ascending the throne in 1713, Frederick William therefore dismissed his father's corrupt \"Cabinet of Three Counts\".", "He worked persistently to reorganize the finances that had been shattered by his father, furthermore to enhance the economic development of his far-flung countries and to build up one of the largest and best equipped and trained armies in Europe.", "He would expand the Prussian Army from 38,000 men in 1713 to 80,000 in 1740, with an average of 1 out of every 25 Prussian men serving in the military.", "He expanded military obligations for the peasant class while replacing mandatory military service among the middle class with an annual tax, and he established schools and hospitals.", "The king encouraged farming, reclaimed marshes, stored grain in good times and sold it in bad times.", "Frederick would also work to expand state income.", "He increased excise taxes, both on domestic and foreign goods, as well as subjecting the Prussian nobility to a land tax.", "He dictated the manual of Regulations for State Officials, containing 35 chapters and 297 paragraphs in which every public servant in Prussia could find his duties precisely set out: a minister or councillor failing to attend a committee meeting, for example, would lose six months' pay; if he absented himself a second time, he would be discharged from the royal service.", "In short, Frederick William I concerned himself with every aspect of his relatively small country, ruling an absolute monarchy with great energy and skill.The king also took an interest in Prussian colonial affairs.", "In 1717, he revoked the charter of the Brandenburg Africa Company (BAC), which had been granted said charter by his father to establish a colony in West Africa known as the Brandenburg Gold Coast (and used it to transport between 17,000 and 30,000 enslaved Africans to the Americas).", "The king was unwilling to spend money on maintaining either the colony or the Prussian Navy, preferring to utilise state revenues on enlarging the Royal Prussian Army.", "In 1721, Frederick William sold the Brandenburg Gold Coast to the Dutch West India Company in exchange for 7,200 ducats and 12 enslaved African boys wearing gold chains.In 1732, the king invited the Salzburg Protestants to settle in East Prussia, which had been depopulated by plague in 1709.Under the terms of the Peace of Augsburg, the prince-archbishop of Salzburg could require his subjects to practice the Catholic faith, but Protestants had the right to emigrate to a Protestant state.", "Prussian commissioners accompanied 20,000 Protestants to their new homes on the other side of Germany.", "Frederick William I personally welcomed the first group of migrants and sang Protestant hymns with them.In 1733 he began building the Dutch Quarter in Potsdam, where he invited talented Dutch craftsmen to settle.Frederick William intervened briefly in the Great Northern War, allied with Peter the Great of Russia, in order to gain a small portion of Swedish Pomerania; this gave Prussia new ports on the Baltic Sea coast.", "More significantly, aided by his close friend Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, the \"Soldier-King\" made considerable reforms to the Prussian army's training, tactics and conscription program—introducing the canton system, and greatly increasing the Prussian infantry's rate of fire through the introduction of the iron ramrod.", "Frederick William's reforms left his son Frederick with the most formidable army in Europe, which Frederick used to increase Prussia's power.Although a highly effective ruler, Frederick William had a perpetually short temper which sometimes drove him to physically attack servants (or even his own children) with a cane at the slightest perceived provocation.", "His violent, harsh nature was further exacerbated by his inherited porphyritic disease, which gave him gout, obesity and frequent crippling stomach pains.", "He also had a notable contempt for France, and would sometimes fly into a rage at the mere mention of that country, although this did not stop him from encouraging the immigration of French Huguenot refugees to Prussia." ], [ "Burial and reburials", "Frederick William died in 1740 at age 51 and was interred at the Garrison Church in Potsdam.", "During World War II, in order to protect it from advancing allied forces, Hitler ordered the king's coffin, as well as those of Frederick the Great and Paul von Hindenburg, into hiding, first to Berlin and later to a salt mine outside of Bernterode.", "The coffins were later discovered by occupying American forces, who re-interred the bodies in St. Elizabeth's Church, Marburg in 1946.In 1953 the coffin was moved to Hohenzollern Castle, where it remained until 1991, when it was finally laid to rest on the steps of the altar in the Kaiser Friedrich Mausoleum in the Church of Peace on the palace grounds of Sanssouci.", "The original black marble sarcophagus collapsed at Burg Hohenzollern—the current one is a copper copy." ], [ "Relationship with Frederick II", "The sons of Frederick William I and Sophia Dorothea; left to right Frederick, Ferdinand, Augustus William and Henry.", "Painting by Francesco Carlo Rusca, 1737His eldest surviving son was Frederick II (Fritz), born in 1712.Frederick William wanted him to become a fine soldier.", "As a small child, Fritz was awakened each morning by the firing of a cannon.", "At the age of 6, he was given his own regiment of children to drill as cadets, and a year later, he was given a miniature arsenal.Augustus II of Poland (left) and Frederick William I of Prussia (right), during Frederick William's 1728 visit to Dresden.", "Painting by Louis de Silvestre, about 1730The love and affection Frederick William had for his heir initially was soon soured due to their increasingly different personalities.", "Frederick William ordered Fritz to undergo a minimal education, live a simple Protestant lifestyle, and focus on the Army and statesmanship as he had.", "However, the intellectual Fritz was more interested in music, books and French culture, which were forbidden by his father as decadent and unmanly.", "As Fritz's defiance for his father's rules increased, Frederick William would frequently beat or humiliate Fritz (he preferred his younger sibling Augustus William).", "Fritz was beaten for being thrown off a bolting horse and wearing gloves in cold weather.", "At age 16, Frederick seems to have embarked upon a youthful affair with Peter Karl Christoph von Keith, a 17-year-old page of his father.", "Rumors of the liaison spread in the court, and the \"intimacy\" between the two boys provoked the comments of his sister, Wilhelmine, who wrote, \"Though I had noticed that he was on more familiar terms with this page than was proper in his position, I did not know how intimate the friendship was.\"", "Rumors finally reached King Frederick William, who cultivated an ideal of ultramasculinity in his court, and derided his son's supposedly effeminate tendencies.", "As a result, Keith was dismissed from his service to the king and sent away to a regiment by the Dutch border, while Frederick was sent to the king's hunting lodge at Königs Wusterhausen in order to \"repent of his sin\".", "After the prince attempted to flee to England with his tutor, Hans Hermann von Katte, the enraged king had Katte beheaded before the eyes of the prince, who himself was court-martialled.", "The king may have thought that Frederick's relationship with Katte was also romantic, a suspicion which may have played a role in Katte receiving a death sentence.", "In any case, the court declared itself not competent in the case of the crown prince.", "Whether it was the king's intention to have his son executed as well (as Voltaire claims) is not clear.", "However, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI intervened, claiming that a prince could only be tried by the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire itself.", "Frederick was imprisoned in the Fortress of Küstrin from 2 September to 19 November 1731 and exiled from court until February 1732, during which time he was rigorously schooled in matters of state.", "After achieving a measure of reconciliation, Frederick William had his son married to Princess Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern, whom Frederick despised, but then grudgingly allowed him to indulge in his musical and literary interests again.", "He also gifted him a stud farm in East Prussia, and Rheinsberg Palace.", "By the time of Frederick William's death in 1740, he and Frederick were on at least reasonable terms with each other.Although the relationship between Frederick William and Frederick was clearly hostile, Frederick himself later wrote that his father \"penetrated and understood great objectives, and knew the best interests of his country better than any minister or general.\"" ], [ "Marriage and family", "Frederick William married his first cousin Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, George II's younger sister (daughter of his uncle, King George I of Great Britain and Sophia Dorothea of Celle) on 28 November 1706.Frederick William was faithful and loving to his wife but they did not have a happy relationship: Sophia Dorothea feared his unpredictable temper and resented him, both for allowing her no influence or independence at court, and for refusing to marry her children to their English cousins.", "She also abhorred his cruelty towards their son and heir Frederick (with whom she was close), although rather than trying to mend the relationship between father and son she frequently spurred Frederick on in his defiance.", "They had fourteen children, including:+ Issue Name Portrait Lifespan Notes '''Frederick Louis'''Prince of Prussia 100px 23 November 1707-13 May 1708 Died in infancy '''Friedrike ''Wilhelmine'''''Margravine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth 100px 3 July 1709-14 October 1758 Married Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth and had issue '''Frederick William'''Prince of Prussia 100px 16 August 1710-21 July 1711 Died in infancy '''Frederick II the Great'''King of Prussia 100px 24 January 1712-17 August 1786 King in Prussia (1740–1772); King of Prussia (1772–1786); married Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern but had no issue '''Charlotte Albertine'''Princess of Prussia 100px 5 May 1713-10 June 1714 Died in infancy '''Frederica Louise'''Margravine of Brandenburg-Ansbach 100px 28 September 1714-4 February 1784 Married Charles William Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and had issue '''Philippine Charlotte'''Duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel 100px 13 March 1716-17 February 1801 Married Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and had issue '''Louis Charles William'''Prince of Prussia 100px 2 May 1717-31 August 1719 Died in early childhood '''Sophia Dorothea'''Margravine of Brandenburg-SchwedtPrincess in Prussia 100px 25 January 1719-13 November 1765 Married Frederick William, Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt, Prince in Prussia and had issue '''Louisa Ulrika'''Queen of Sweden 100px 24 July 1720-2 July 1782 Married Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden and had issue '''Augustus William'''Prince of Prussia 100px 9 August 1722-12 June 1758 Married Duchess Luise of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and had issue (including Frederick William II) '''Anna Amalia''' 100px 9 November 1723-30 March 1787 Became Abbess of Quedlinburg 16 July 1755 '''Frederick ''Henry'' Louis'''Prince of Prussia 100px 18 January 1726-3 August 1802 Married Princess Wilhelmina of Hesse-Kassel but had no issue '''Augustus ''Ferdinand'''''Prince of Prussia 100px 23 May 1730-2 May 1813 Married Margravine Elisabeth Louise of Brandenburg-Schwedt and had issueHe was the godfather of the Prussian envoy Friedrich Wilhelm von Thulemeyer and of his grand-nephew, Prince Edward Augustus of Great Britain." ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "Memorial site and exhibition", "Königs Wusterhausen CastleKönigs Wusterhausen Castle, the king's hunting lodge and garden, were his favourite place to stay and to indulge in hunting when he wanted to relax from his state duties, which he performed at the Berlin Palace and the City Palace, Potsdam.", "His children also had to spend their holidays here regularly.", "Frederick the Great had a strong dislike for the place, but the two youngest sons, in old age, after Frederick's death, returned together a few times out of sentimental memories to where they spent so much time growing up.Today the castle, southeast of the Berlin city limits not far from Berlin Airport, is a museum of the Prussian Palaces and Gardens Foundation Berlin-Brandenburg.", "Numerous valuable objects of baroque paintings and handicrafts are on display, mostly with connections to Frederick William and his family, many pieces of the original interior, as well as a large collection of portraits, mainly of officers, which the \"soldier king\" painted himself." ], [ "See also", "* Prussian virtues" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "King Frederick William I of Prussia (self-portrait)* Dorwart, Reinhold A.", "''The administrative reforms of Frederick William I of Prussia'' (Harvard University Press, 2013).", "* Fann, Willerd R. \"Peacetime Attrition in the Army of Frederick William I, 1713–1740.\"", "''Central European History'' 11.4 (1978): 323–334.online* Gothelf, Rodney.", "\"Frederick William I and the beginnings of Prussian absolutism, 1713–1740.\"", "in ''The Rise of Prussia 1700–1830'' (Routledge, 2014) pp.", "47–67.", "*" ], [ "External links", "** King Frederick William I of Prussia and his \"obsession\"" ] ]
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[ [ "Felsic" ], [ "Introduction", "In geology, '''felsic''' is a modifier describing igneous rocks that are relatively rich in elements that form feldspar and quartz.", "It is contrasted with mafic rocks, which are relatively richer in magnesium and iron.", "Felsic refers to silicate minerals, magma, and rocks which are enriched in the lighter elements such as silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, and potassium.", "Felsic magma or lava is higher in viscosity than mafic magma/lava, and have low temperatures to keep the felsic minerals molten.Felsic rocks are usually light in color and have specific gravities less than 3.The most common felsic rock is granite.", "Common felsic minerals include quartz, muscovite, orthoclase, and the sodium-rich plagioclase feldspars (albite-rich)." ], [ "Terminology", "In modern usage, the term ''acid rock'', although sometimes used as a synonym, normally now refers specifically to a high-silica-content (greater than 63% SiO2 by weight) volcanic rock, such as rhyolite.", "Older, broader usage is now considered archaic.", "That usage, with the contrasting term \"basic rock\" (MgO, FeO, mafic), was based on an ancient concept, dating from the 19th century, that \"silicic acid\" (H4SiO4 or Si(OH)4) was the chief form of silicon occurring in siliceous rocks.", "Although this intuition makes sense from an acid-base perspective in aquatic chemistry considering water-rock interactions and silica dissolution, siliceous rocks are not formed by this protonated monomeric species, but by a tridimensional network of SiO44– tetrahedra connected to each other.", "Once released in water and hydrolyzed, these silica entities can indeed form silicic acid in aqueous solution.", "The term \"felsic\" combines the words \"'''fel'''dspar\" and \"'''si'''lica\".", "The similarity of the resulting term ''felsic'' to the German ''felsig'', \"rocky\" (from ''Fels'', \"rock\"), is purely accidental.", "''Feldspar'' is from the German ''Feldspat'', a compound of the German ''Feld'', meaning field, plus ''spath'', meaning mineral." ], [ "Classification of felsic rocks", "A felsic volcanic lithic fragment, as seen in a petrographic microscope.", "Scale box is in millimeters.In order for a rock to be classified as felsic, it generally needs to contain more than 75% felsic minerals (namely quartz, orthoclase and plagioclase).", "Rocks with greater than 90% felsic minerals can also be called '''''leucocratic''''', from the Greek words for white and dominance.Felsite is a petrologic field term used to refer to very fine-grained or aphanitic, light-colored volcanic rocks which might be later reclassified after a more detailed microscopic or chemical analysis.In some cases, felsic volcanic rocks may contain phenocrysts of mafic minerals, usually hornblende, pyroxene or a feldspar mineral, and may need to be named after their phenocryst mineral, such as 'hornblende-bearing felsite'.The chemical name of a felsic rock is given according to the TAS classification of Le Maitre (1975).", "However, this only applies to volcanic rocks.", "If the rock is analyzed and found to be felsic but is metamorphic and has no definite volcanic protolith, it may be sufficient to simply call it a 'felsic schist'.", "There are examples known of highly sheared granites which can be mistaken for rhyolites.For phaneritic felsic rocks, the QAPF diagram should be used, and a name given according to the granite nomenclature.", "Often the species of mafic minerals is included in the name, for instance, hornblende-bearing granite, pyroxene tonalite or augite megacrystic monzonite, because the term \"granite\" already assumes content with feldspar and quartz.The rock texture thus determines the basic name of a felsic rock.Close-up of granite from Yosemite National Park.A specimen of rhyolite.", "'''Rock texture''''''Name of felsic rock''' PegmatiticGranite pegmatite Coarse-grained (phaneritic)Granite Coarse-grained and porphyriticPorphyritic granite Fine-grained (aphanitic)Rhyolite Fine-grained and porphyriticPorphyritic rhyolite PyroclasticRhyolitic tuff or breccia VesicularPumice AmygdaloidalNone Vitreous (Glassy)Obsidian or porcellanite" ], [ "See also", "*QAPF diagram*List of minerals*List of rock types*Bowen's reaction series*Archean felsic volcanic rocks" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Le Maitre, L. E., ed.", "2002.", "''Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms'' 2nd edition, Cambridge" ] ]
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[ [ "Frisians" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Frisians''' are an ethnic group indigenous to the coastal regions of the Netherlands, northwestern Germany and southern Denmark.", "They inhabit an area known as Frisia and are concentrated in the Dutch provinces of Friesland and Groningen and, in Germany, East Frisia and North Frisia (which was a part of Denmark until 1864).", "The name is probably derived from '' frisselje'' (to braid, thus referring to braided hair).", "The Frisian languages are spoken by more than 500,000 people; West Frisian is officially recognised in the Netherlands (in Friesland), and North Frisian and Saterland Frisian are recognised as regional languages in Germany." ], [ "History", "The ancient Frisii enter recorded history in the Roman account of Drusus's 12 BC war against the Rhine Germans and the Chauci.", "They occasionally appear in the accounts of Roman wars against the Germanic tribes of the region, up to and including the Revolt of the Batavi around 70 AD.", "Frisian mercenaries were hired to assist the Roman invasion of Britain in the capacity of cavalry.", "They are not mentioned again until 296, when they were deported into Roman territory as ''laeti'' (i.e., Roman-era serfs; see Binchester Roman Fort and Cuneus Frisionum).", "The discovery of a type of earthenware unique to fourth century Frisia, called ''terp Tritzum'', shows that an unknown number of them were resettled in Flanders and Kent, probably as ''laeti'' under Roman coercion.Germanic tribes in the 5th centuryHistorical settlement areas of the Frisians, and areas where a Frisian language is spokenFrom the third through the fifth centuries, Frisia suffered marine transgressions that made most of the land uninhabitable, aggravated by a change to a cooler and wetter climate.", "Whatever population may have remained dropped dramatically, and the coastal lands remained largely unpopulated for the next two centuries.", "When conditions improved, Frisia received an influx of new settlers, mostly Angles and Saxons.", "These people would eventually be referred to as 'Frisians' (, ), though they were not necessarily descended from the ancient Frisii.", "It is these 'new Frisians' who are largely the ancestors of the medieval and modern Frisians.By the end of the sixth century, Frisian territory had expanded westward to the North Sea coast and, in the seventh century, southward down to Dorestad.", "This farthest extent of Frisian territory is sometimes referred to as ''Frisia Magna''.", "Early Frisia was ruled by a High King, with the earliest reference to a 'Frisian King' being dated 678.In the early eighth century, the Frisians mostly worshipped Germanic gods such as Thor and Odin outside the vicinity of Utrecht.", "Slightly later, the Frisian nobles came into increasing conflict with the Franks to their south, resulting in a series of wars in which the Frankish Empire eventually subjugated Frisia in 734.These wars benefited attempts by Anglo-Irish missionaries (which had begun with Saint Boniface) to convert the Frisian populace to Christianity, in which Saint Willibrord largely succeeded.Some time after the death of Charlemagne, the Frisian territories were in theory under the control of the Count of Holland, but in practice the Hollandic counts, starting with Count Arnulf in 993, were unable to assert themselves as the sovereign lords of Frisia.", "The resulting stalemate resulted in a period of time called the 'Frisian freedom', a period in which feudalism and serfdom (as well as central or judicial administration) did not exist, and in which the Frisian lands only owed their allegiance to the Holy Roman Emperor.During the 13th century, however, the counts of Holland became increasingly powerful and, starting in 1272, sought to reassert themselves as rightful lords of the Frisian lands in a series of wars, which (with a series of lengthy interruptions) ended in 1422 with the Hollandic conquest of Western Frisia and with the establishment of a more powerful noble class in Central and Eastern Frisia.In 1524, Frisia became part of the Seventeen Provinces and in 1568 joined the Dutch revolt against Philip II, king of Spain, heir of the Burgundian territories; Central Frisia has remained a part of the Netherlands ever since.", "The eastern periphery of Frisia would become part of various German states (later Germany) and Denmark.", "An old tradition existed in the region of exploitation of peatlands." ], [ "Migration to England and Scotland", "Though it is impossible to know exact numbers and migration patterns, research has indicated that many Frisians were part of the wave of ethnic groups to colonise areas of present-day England alongside the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, starting from around the fifth century when Frisians arrived along the coastline of Kent.Frisians principally settled in modern-day Kent, East Anglia, the East Midlands, North East England, and Yorkshire.", "Across these areas, evidence of their settlement includes place names of Frisian origin, such as Frizinghall in Bradford and Frieston in Lincolnshire.Similarities in dialect between Great Yarmouth and Friesland have been noted, originating from trade between these areas during the Middle Ages.", "Frisians are also known to have founded the Freston area of Ipswich.In Scotland, historians have noted that colonies of Angles and Frisians settled as far north as the River Forth.", "This corresponds to those areas of Scotland which historically constituted part of Northumbria." ], [ "Frisians in Denmark", "The earliest traces of Frisians in modern-day Denmark date back to the 11th century when Frisians settled around Tøndermarsken west of Tønder.", "The evidence for this are the ''Warften'' (værfter) in the area that are built after the same method as the ones alongside the Wadden Sea towards the Netherlands.", "They have also been found in Ribe.In 1637, chronicler wrote that the Frisian newcomers learned the Danish language but did not become Danish, holding on to Frisian language, custom, manners, working methods and so on.In modern times, Frisian culture in Denmark is described as assimilated and most do not consider themselves Frisian.", "In regards to the Frisian language, very few may speak it as first language but it was traditionally spoken in few polder hamlets near the border with Germany.", "One estimate puts the Frisian population in Denmark somewhere between 2,000 and 5,000." ], [ "Language", "Present-day distribution of the Frisian languages in Europe:As both the Anglo-Saxons of England and the early Frisians were formed from similar tribal confederacies, their respective languages were very similar, together forming the Anglo-Frisian family.", "Old Frisian is the most closely related language to Old English and the modern Frisian dialects are in turn the closest related languages to contemporary English that do not themselves derive from Old English (although the modern Frisian and English are not mutually intelligible).The Frisian language group is divided into three mutually unintelligible languages:*West Frisian, spoken in the Dutch province of Friesland*Saterland Frisian, spoken in the German municipality of Saterland just south of East Frisia*North Frisian, spoken in the German region of North Frisia (within the of Nordfriesland) on the west coast of Jutland.Of these three languages both Saterland Frisian (2,000 speakers) and North Frisian (10,000 speakers) are endangered.", "West Frisian is spoken by around 350,000 native speakers in Friesland, and as many as 470,000 when including speakers in neighbouring Groningen province.", "West Frisian is not listed as threatened, although research published by Radboud University in 2016 has challenged that assumption." ], [ "Identity", "Today there exists a tripartite division, of North, East and West Frisians, caused by Frisia's continual loss of territory in the Middle Ages.", "The West Frisians, in general, do not see themselves as part of a larger group of Frisians, and, according to a 1970 poll, identify themselves more with the Dutch than with the East or North Frisians." ], [ "See also", "*Anglo-Frisian languages*Frisian Americans*Frisian church in Rome*Frisian Islands*Frisian languages**East Frisian (Saterland Frisian)**North Frisian**West Frisian*Friso-Saxon dialects**East Frisian Low Saxon**Gronings**Stellingwarfs*Ingvaeonic languages*List of Frisians*List of Germanic tribes" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===**" ], [ "Further reading", "* Greg Woolf, \"Cruptorix and his kind.", "Talking ethnicity on the middle ground\", Ton Derks, Nico Roymans (ed.", "), ''Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition'' (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2009) (Amsterdam Archaeological Studies, 13), 207–218.", "* Jos Bazelmans, \"The early-medieval use of ethnic names from classical antiquity.", "The case of the Frisians\", in Ton Derks, Nico Roymans (ed.", "), ''Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition'' (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2009) (Amsterdam Archaeological Studies, 13), 321–329." ], [ "External links", "** Fryske Akademy, the Frisian Academy * Lex Frisionum in Latin, Dutch and English* History of the Frisian folk" ] ]
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[ [ "Futurism (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Futurism''' is an artistic and social movement that originated in Italy in the early 20th century.", "'''Futurists''' are people specializing or interested in the study of the future.", "'''Futurism''' or '''futurist''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Cultural movements", "* Futurism (Christianity), an interpretation of the Bible in Christian eschatology* Futurism (literature), a modernist avant-garde movement in literature* Futurist architecture, an architectural movement begun in Italy in 1904*Africanfuturism, an African subculture and literature genre* Afrofuturism, an African-American and African diaspora subculture* Cubo-Futurism, the main school of painting and sculpture practiced by the Russian Futurists* Ego-Futurism, a Russian literary movement of the 1910s* Indigenous Futurism, a movement consisting of art, literature, comics, games* Neo-futurism, a contemporary art and architecture movement* Retrofuturism, a modern art movement* Russian Futurism, a movement of Russian poets and artists" ], [ "Music", "* Futurism (music), a movement in music===Albums===* Musica Futurista, an album of Futurist music* ''Futurist'' (Alec Empire album), 2005* ''Futurist'' (Keeno album), 2016* ''The Futurist'' (Robert Downey Jr. album), 2004* ''The Futurist'' (Shellac album), 1997* ''Futurism'', an album by Danny Tenaglia=== Songs ===* \"Futurism\", a bonus track from the Muse album ''Origin of Symmetry''* \"Futurism\", from the Deerhunter album ''Why Hasn't Everything Already Disappeared?''" ], [ "Other uses", "* Futurism.com, a science and tech website formerly owned by Singularity University* Futurist (comics), a Marvel Comics character* Retro Futurism, a Korean play* Futurist Theatre, a theatre and cinema in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England* Futurist Political Party, an Italian political party" ], [ "See also", "* Futures studies, also known as futurology, the study of possible futures * The Futurist (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Filippo Tommaso Marinetti" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Filippo Tommaso Emilio Marinetti''' (; 22 December 1876 – 2 December 1944) was an Italian poet, editor, art theorist, and founder of the Futurist movement.", "He was associated with the utopian and Symbolist artistic and literary community Abbaye de Créteil between 1907 and 1908.Marinetti is best known as the author of the first ''Futurist Manifesto'', which was written and published in 1909, and as a co-author of the Fascist Manifesto, in 1919." ], [ "Childhood and adolescence", "Emilio Angelo Carlo Marinetti (some documents give his name as \"Filippo Achille Emilio Marinetti\") spent the first years of his life in Alexandria, Egypt, where his father (Enrico Marinetti) and his mother (Amalia Grolli) lived together ''more uxorio'' (as if married).", "Enrico was a lawyer from Piedmont, and his mother was the daughter of a literary professor from Milan.", "They had come to Egypt in 1865, at the invitation of Khedive Isma'il Pasha, to act as legal advisers for foreign companies that were taking part in his modernization program.His love for literature developed during the school years.", "His mother was an avid reader of poetry, and introduced the young Marinetti to the Italian and European classics.", "At age seventeen he started his first school magazine, ''Papyrus''; the Jesuits threatened to expel him for publicizing Émile Zola's scandalous novels in the school.He first studied in Egypt then in Paris, obtaining a ''baccalauréat'' degree in 1894 at the Sorbonne, and in Italy, graduating in law at the University of Pavia in 1899.He decided not to be a lawyer but to develop a literary career.", "He experimented with every type of literature (poetry, narrative, theatre, ''words in liberty''), signing everything \"Filippo Tommaso Marinetti\"." ], [ "Futurism", "wall in LeidenMarinetti and Constantin Brâncuși were visitors of the Abbaye de Créteil c. 1908 along with young writers like Roger Allard (one of the first to defend Cubism), Pierre Jean Jouve, and Paul Castiaux, who wanted to publish their works through the Abbaye.", "The Abbaye de Créteil was a ''phalanstère'' community founded in the autumn of 1906 by the painter Albert Gleizes, and the poets René Arcos, Henri-Martin Barzun, Alexandre Mercereau and Charles Vildrac.", "The movement drew its inspiration from the ''Abbaye de Thélème,'' a fictional creation by Rabelais in his novel ''Gargantua''.", "It was closed down by its members early in 1908.Marinetti is known best as the author of the ''Futurist Manifesto'', which he wrote in 1909.It was published in French on the front page of the most prestigious French daily newspaper, ''Le Figaro'', on 20 February 1909.In ''The Founding and Manifesto of Futurism'', Marinetti declared that \"Art, in fact, can be nothing but violence, cruelty, and injustice.\"", "Georges Sorel, who influenced the entire political spectrum from anarchism to Fascism, also argued for the importance of violence.", "Futurism had both anarchist and Fascist elements; Marinetti later became an active supporter of Benito Mussolini.Marinetti, who admired speed, had a minor car accident outside Milan in 1908 when he veered into a ditch to avoid two cyclists.", "He referred to the accident in the Futurist Manifesto: the Marinetti who was helped out of the ditch was a new man, determined to end the pretense and decadence of the prevailing Liberty style.", "He discussed a new and strongly revolutionary programme with his friends, in which they should end every artistic relationship with the past, \"destroy the museums, the libraries, every type of academy\".", "Together, he wrote, \"We will glorify war—the world's only hygiene—militarism, patriotism, the destructive gesture of freedom-bringers, beautiful ideas worth dying for, and scorn for woman\".The Futurist Manifesto was read and debated all across Europe, but Marinetti's first 'Futurist' works were not as successful.", "In April, the opening night of his drama ''Le Roi bombance'' (The Feasting King), written in 1905, was interrupted by loud, derisive whistling by the audience and by Marinetti himself, who thus introduced another element of Futurism, \"the desire to be heckled.\"", "Marinetti did, however, fight a duel with a critic he considered too harsh.His drama ''La donna è mobile'' (Poupées électriques), first presented in Turin, was not successful either.", "Nowadays, the play is remembered through a later version, named ''Elettricità sessuale'' (Sexual Electricity), and mainly for the appearance onstage of humanoid automatons, ten years before the Czech writer Karel Čapek invented the term ''robot''.Filippo Tommaso MarinettiIn 1910 his first novel, ''Mafarka il futurista'', was cleared of all charges by an obscenity trial.", "That year, Marinetti discovered some allies in three young painters (Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Luigi Russolo), who adopted the Futurist philosophy.", "Together with them (and with poets such as Aldo Palazzeschi), Marinetti began a series of Futurist Evenings, theatrical spectacles in which Futurists declaimed their manifestos in front of a crowd that in part attended the performances to throw vegetables at them.The most successful \"happening\" of that period was the publicization of the \"Manifesto Against Past-Loving Venice\" in Venice.", "In the flier, Marinetti demands \"fill(ing) the small, stinking canals with the rubble from the old, collapsing and leprous palaces\" to \"prepare for the birth of an industrial and militarized Venice, capable of dominating the great Adriatic, a great Italian lake.", "\"In 1911, the Italo-Turkish War began and Marinetti departed for Libya as war correspondent for a French newspaper.", "His articles were eventually collected and published in ''The Battle of Tripoli''.", "He then covered the First Balkan War of 1912–13, witnessing the surprise success of Bulgarian troops against the Ottoman Empire in the Siege of Adrianople.", "In this period he also made a number of visits to London, which he considered 'the Futurist city par excellence', and where a number of exhibitions, lectures and demonstrations of Futurist music were staged.Marinetti sought to establish an English Futurism and initially had an ally in Harold Monro, editor of ''Poetry and Drama'', a London literary journal.", "Monro devoted the September 1913 issue to Futurism, praising Marinetti in a long editorial.", "However, although a number of artists, including Wyndham Lewis, were interested in the new movement, only one British convert was made, the young artist C.R.W.", "Nevinson.", "Marinetti’s campaign both threatened and influenced Ezra Pound, who founded his own literary movement, Imagism, and wrote manifestos to publicize it while attacking Futurism.One result of Pound’s strong reaction to Marinetti was his advocacy of James Joyce and T.S.", "Eliot.Joyce was exposed to Futurism while living in Trieste.", "The movement’s techniques are reflected in ''Ulysses'' and in ''Finnegans Wake'', one section of which alludes to “crucial elements of Futurism.\"", "Futurism was an important influence upon Lewis's Vorticist philosophy.", "Vorticism, named by Pound, was founded with the publication of Blast, to which Pound was a major contributor.", "An advertisement  promised ''Blast'' would cover \"Cubism, Futurism, Imagisme and all Vital Forms of Modern Art.” ''Blast'' was published only twice, in 1914 and 1915.Writing to Monro, Marinetti said he was saddened by the reviews of Vorticism in the English press unfavorably comparing it with Futurism and would rather have worked in collaboration with the Vorticists.", "He and Pound later became friends, and in Canto LXXII, written in Italian, Pound meets he spirit of the recently deceased Marinetti.About the same time Marinetti worked on a very anti-Roman Catholic and anti-Austrian verse-novel, ''Le monoplan du Pape'' (''The Pope's Aeroplane'', 1912) and edited an anthology of futurist poets.", "But his attempts to renew the style of poetry did not satisfy him.", "So much so that, in his foreword to the anthology, he declared a new revolution: it was time to be done with traditional syntax and to use \"words in freedom\" (''parole in libertà'').", "His sound-poem ''Zang Tumb Tumb'', an account of the Battle of Adrianople, exemplifies words in freedom.", "Recordings can be heard of Marinetti reading some of his sound poems: ''Battaglia, Peso + Odore'' (1912); ''Dune, parole in libertà'' (1914); ''La Battaglia di Adrianopoli'' (1926) (recorded 1935)." ], [ "Wartime", "Marinetti agitated for Italian involvement in World War I, and once Italy was engaged, promptly volunteered for service.", "In the fall of 1915 he and several other Futurists who were members of the Lombard Volunteer Cyclists were stationed at Lake Garda, in Trentino province, high in the mountains along the Italo-Austrian border.", "They endured several weeks of fighting in harsh conditions before the cyclists units, deemed inappropriate for mountain warfare, were disbanded.Marinetti spent most of 1916 supporting Italy's war effort with speeches, journalism, and theatrical work, then returned to military service as a regular army officer in 1917.In May of that year he was seriously wounded while serving with an artillery battalion on the Isonzo front; he returned to service after a long recovery, and participated in the decisive Italian victory at Vittorio Veneto in October 1918." ], [ "Marriage", "After an extended courtship, in 1923 Marinetti married Benedetta Cappa (1897–1977), a writer and painter and a pupil of Giacomo Balla.", "Born in Rome, she had joined the Futurists in 1917.They'd met in 1918, moved in together in Rome, and chose to marry only to avoid legal complications on a lecture tour of Brazil.", "They had three daughters: Vittoria, Ala, and Luce.Cappa and Marinetti collaborated on a genre of mixed-media assemblages in the mid-1920s they called ''tattilismo'' (\"Tactilism\"), and she was a strong proponent and practitioner of the aeropittura movement after its inception in 1929.She also produced three experimental novels.", "Cappa's major public work is likely a series of five murals at the Palermo Post Office (1926–1935) for the Fascist public-works architect Angiolo Mazzoni." ], [ "Marinetti and Fascism", "In early 1918 he founded the ''Partito Politico Futurista'' or Futurist Political Party, which only a year later merged with Benito Mussolini's ''Fasci Italiani di Combattimento''.", "Marinetti was one of the first affiliates of the Italian Fascist Party.", "In 1919 he co-wrote with Alceste De Ambris the Fascist Manifesto, the original manifesto of Italian Fascism.", "He opposed Fascism's later exaltation of existing institutions, terming them \"reactionary,\" and, after walking out of the 1920 Fascist party congress in disgust, withdrew from politics for three years.", "However, he remained a notable force in developing the party philosophy throughout the regime's existence.", "For example, at the end of the ''Congress of Fascist Culture'' that was held in Bologna on 30 March 1925, Giovanni Gentile addressed Sergio Panunzio on the need to define Fascism more purposefully by way of Marinetti's opinion, stating, \"Great spiritual movements make recourse to precision when their primitive inspirations—what F. T. Marinetti identified this morning as artistic, that is to say, the creative and truly innovative ideas, from which the movement derived its first and most potent impulse—have lost their force.", "We today find ourselves at the very beginning of a new life and we experience with joy this obscure need that fills our hearts—this need that is our inspiration, the genius that governs us and carries us with it.", "\"As part of his campaign to overturn tradition, Marinetti also attacked traditional Italian food.", "His ''Manifesto of Futurist Cooking'' was published in the Turin ''Gazzetta del Popolo'' on 28 December 1930.Arguing that \"People think, dress, and act in accordance with what they drink and eat\", Marinetti proposed wide-ranging changes to diet.", "He condemned pasta, blaming it for lassitude, pessimism, and lack of virility, — and promoted the eating of Italian-grown rice.", "In this, as in other ways, his proposed Futurist cooking was nationalistic, rejecting foreign foods and food names.", "It was also militaristic, seeking to stimulate men to be fighters.Marinetti also sought to increase creativity.", "His attraction to whatever was new made scientific discoveries appealing to him, but his views on diet were not scientifically based.", "He was fascinated with the idea of processed food, predicting that someday pills would replace food as a source of energy, and calling for the creation of \"plastic complexes\" to replace natural foods.", "Food, in turn, would become a matter of artistic expression.", "Many of the meals Marinetti described and ate resemble performance art, such as the \"Tactile Dinner\", recreated in 2014 for an exhibit at the Guggenheim Museum.", "Participants wore pajamas decorated with sponge, sandpaper, and aluminum, and ate salads without using cutlery.During the Fascist regime Marinetti sought to make Futurism the official state art of Italy but failed to do so.", "Mussolini was personally uninterested in art and chose to give patronage to numerous styles to keep artists loyal to the regime.", "Opening the exhibition of art by the Novecento Italiano group in 1923, he said: \"I declare that it is far from my idea to encourage anything like a state art.", "Art belongs to the domain of the individual.", "The state has only one duty: not to undermine art, to provide humane conditions for artists, to encourage them from the artistic and national point of view.\"", "Mussolini's mistress, Margherita Sarfatti, successfully promoted the rival Novecento Group, and even persuaded Marinetti to be part of its board.In Fascist Italy, modern art was tolerated and even approved by the Fascist hierarchy.", "Towards the end of the 1930s, some Fascist ideologues (for example, the ex-Futurist Ardengo Soffici) wished to import the concept of \"degenerate art\" from Germany to Italy and condemned modernism, although their demands were ignored by the regime.", "In 1938, hearing that Adolf Hitler wanted to include Futurism in a traveling exhibition of degenerate art, Marinetti persuaded Mussolini to refuse to let it enter Italy.On 17 November 1938, Italy passed The Racial Laws, discriminating against Italian Jews, much like the discrimination pronounced in the Nuremberg Laws.", "The antisemitic trend in Italy resulted in attacks against modern art, judged too foreign, too radical and anti-nationalist.", "In the 11 January 1939 issue of the Futurist journal, ''Artecrazia'', Marinetti expressed his condemnation of such attacks on modern art, noting Futurism is both Italian and nationalist, not foreign, and stating that there were no Jews in Futurism.", "Furthermore, he claimed Jews were not active in the development of modern art.", "Regardless, the Italian state shut down ''Artecrazia''.Marinetti made numerous attempts to ingratiate himself with the regime, becoming less radical and avant garde with each attempt.", "He relocated from Milan to Rome.", "He became an academician despite his condemnation of academies, saying, \"It is important that Futurism be represented in the Academy.", "\"He was an atheist, but by the mid 1930s he had come to accept the influence of the Catholic Church on Italian society.", "In ''Gazzetta del Popolo'', 21 June 1931, Marinetti proclaimed that \"Only Futurist artists...are able to express clearly...the simultaneous dogmas of the Catholic faith, such as the Holy Trinity, the Immaculate Conception and Christ's Calvary.\"", "In his last works, written just before his death in 1944 ''L'aeropoema di Gesù'' (\"The Aeropoem of Jesus\") and '' Quarto d'ora di poesia per the X Mas'' (\"A Fifteen Minutes' Poem of the tenth MAS\"), Marinetti sought to reconcile his newfound love for God and his passion for the action that accompanied him throughout his life.There were other contradictions in his character: despite his nationalism, he was international, educated in Egypt and France, writing his first poems in French, publishing the Futurist Manifesto in a French newspaper and traveling to promote his ideas.Marinetti volunteered for active service in the Second Italo-Abyssinian War and the Second World War, serving on the Eastern Front for a few weeks in the Summer and Autumn of 1942 at the age of 65.He died of cardiac arrest in Bellagio on 2 December 1944 while working on a collection of poems praising the wartime achievements of the Decima Flottiglia MAS.Grave of Filippo Tommaso Marinetti and his wife Benedetta Cappa at Monumental Cemetery of Milan (Italy)" ], [ "Writings", "* Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso, ''Il Fascino dell'Egitto (The Charm of Egypt),'' A. Mondadori – Editore, 1933, https://archive.org/details/marinetti_fascino_1933A/page/n3/mode/2up, Italian version available online*Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso: ''Mafarka the Futurist.", "An African novel'', Middlesex University Press, 1998, , French version available online* Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso: ''Selected Poems and Related Prose'', Yale University Press, 2002, * Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso: ''Critical Writings'', ed.", "by Günter Berghaus, New York : Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2006, 549p., , pocket edition 2008: * Carlo Schirru, Per un’analisi interlinguistica d’epoca: Grazia Deledda e contemporanei, Rivista Italiana di Linguistica e di Dialettologia, Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa-Roma, Anno XI, 2009, pp.", "9–32* Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, ''Le Futurisme'', textes annotés et préfacés par Giovanni Lista, L’Age d’Homme, Lausanne, 1980* Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, ''Les Mots en liberté futuristes'', préfacés par Giovanni Lista, L’Age d’Homme, Lausanne, 1987* Giovanni Lista, ''F.", "T. Marinetti'', Éditions Seghers, Paris, 1976* ''Marinetti et le futurisme'', poèmes, études, documents, iconographie, réunis et préfacés par Giovanni Lista, bibliographie établie par Giovanni Lista, L’Age d’Homme, Lausanne, 1977* Giovanni Lista, ''F.", "T. Marinetti, l’anarchiste du futurisme'', Éditions Séguier, Paris, 1995* Giovanni Lista, ''Le Futurisme : création et avant-garde'', Éditions L’Amateur, Paris, 2001* Giovanni Lista, ''Le Futurisme, une avant-garde radicale'', coll.", "\"Découvertes Gallimard\" (n° 533), Éditions Gallimard, Paris, 2008.", "* Giovanni Lista, ''Journal des Futurismes'', Éditions Hazan, coll.", "\"Bibliothèque\", Paris, 2008 ()* Antonino Reitano, ''L'onore, la patria e la fede nell'ultimo Marinetti'', Angelo Parisi Editore, 2006* Barbara Meazzi, ''Il fantasma del romanzo.", "Le futurisme italien et l'écriture romanesque (1909–1929)'', Chambéry, Presses universitaires Savoie Mont Blanc, 2021, 430 pp.," ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Robbins, Daniel, ''Sources of Cubism and Futurism'', Art Journal, Vol.", "41, No.", "4, (Winter 1981): pp.", "324–327, College Art Association* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* ItalianFuturism.org: news, exhibitions, and scholarship pertaining to the Futurist Movement* * * * Works of F.T.", "Marinetti digitized on Internet Archive by Archivio del '900 of Mart, in Rovereto* Image of Le Figaro with ''Le Futurisme'' (1909)* Score to the sound poem ''Dune, parole in libertà'' (1914)* Marinetti's \"La Battaglia di Adrianopoli\" (1926) recorded by Marinetti in 1935 published at LTM* Filippo Tommaso Marinetti Papers.", "General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.", "* Filippo Tommaso Marinetti's Libroni on Futurism Images derived from slides taken of seven scrapbooks compiled by Marinetti between 1905 and 1944 from the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Franz Mesmer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Franz Anton Mesmer''' ( ; ; 23 May 1734 – 5 March 1815) was a German physician with an interest in astronomy.", "He theorized the existence of a process of natural energy transference occurring between all animate and inanimate objects; this he called \"animal magnetism\", later referred to as ''mesmerism''.", "Mesmer's theory attracted a wide following between about 1780 and 1850, and continued to have some influence until the end of the 19th century.", "In 1843, the Scottish doctor James Braid proposed the term \"hypnotism\" for a technique derived from animal magnetism; today the word \"mesmerism\" generally functions as a synonym of \"hypnosis\".", "Mesmer also supported the arts, specifically music; he was on friendly terms with Haydn and Mozart." ], [ "Early life", "Mesmer was born in the village of Iznang (now part of the municipality of Moos), on the shore of Lake Constance in Swabia.", "He was a son of master forester Anton Mesmer (1701–after 1747) and his wife, Maria Ursula (née Michel; 1701–1770).", "After studying at the Jesuit universities of Dillingen and Ingolstadt, he took up the study of medicine at the University of Vienna in 1759.In 1766 he published a doctoral dissertation with the Latin title ''De planetarum influxu in corpus humanum'' (''On the Influence of the Planets on the Human Body''), in which he discussed the influence of the moon and the planets on the human body and disease.Building largely on Isaac Newton's theory of the tides, Mesmer expounded on certain tides in the human body that might be accounted for by the movements of the sun and moon.", "Evidence assembled by Frank A. Pattie suggests that Mesmer plagiarized most of his dissertation from other works, including ''De imperio solis ac lunae in corpora humana et morbius inde oriundis'' (1704) by Richard Mead, an eminent English physician and Newton's friend.", "However, in Mesmer's day doctoral theses were not expected to be original.In January 1768, Mesmer married Anna Maria von Posch, a wealthy widow, and established himself as a doctor in Vienna.", "In the summers he lived on a splendid estate and became a patron of the arts.", "In 1768, when court intrigue prevented the performance of ''La finta semplice'' (K. 51), for which the twelve-year-old Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart had composed 500 pages of music, Mesmer is said to have arranged a performance in his garden of Mozart's ''Bastien und Bastienne'' (K. 50), a one-act opera, although Mozart's biographer Nissen found no proof that this performance actually took place.", "Mozart later immortalized his former patron by including a comedic reference to Mesmer in his opera ''Così fan tutte''.", "''De planetarum influxu in corpus humanum''" ], [ "Animal magnetism", "In 1774, Mesmer produced an \"artificial tide\" in a patient, Francisca Österlin, who suffered from hysteria, by having her swallow a preparation containing iron and then attaching magnets to various parts of her body.", "She reported feeling streams of a mysterious fluid running through her body and was relieved of her symptoms for several hours.", "Mesmer did not believe that the magnets had achieved the cure on their own.", "He felt that he had contributed animal magnetism, which had accumulated in his work, to her.", "He soon stopped using magnets as a part of his treatment.In the same year Mesmer collaborated with Maximilian Hell.In 1775, Mesmer was invited to give his opinion before the Munich Academy of Sciences on the exorcisms carried out by Johann Joseph Gassner (Gaßner), a priest and healer who grew up in Vorarlberg, Austria.", "Mesmer said that while Gassner was sincere in his beliefs, his cures resulted because he possessed a high degree of animal magnetism.", "This confrontation between Mesmer's secular ideas and Gassner's religious beliefs marked the end of Gassner's career and, according to Henri Ellenberger, the emergence of dynamic psychiatry.The scandal that followed Mesmer's only partial success in curing the blindness of an 18-year-old musician, Maria Theresia Paradis, led him to leave Vienna in 1777.In February 1778 Mesmer moved to Paris, rented an apartment in a part of the city preferred by the wealthy and powerful, and established a medical practice.", "There he would reunite with Mozart, who often visited him.", "Paris soon divided into those who thought he was a charlatan who had been forced to flee from Vienna and those who thought he had made a great discovery.In his first years in Paris, Mesmer tried and failed to get either the Royal Academy of Sciences or the Royal Society of Medicine to provide official approval for his doctrines.", "He found only one physician of high professional and social standing, Charles d'Eslon, to become a disciple.", "In 1779, with d'Eslon's encouragement, Mesmer wrote an 88-page book, ''Mémoire sur la découverte du magnétisme animal'', to which he appended his famous 27 Propositions.", "These propositions outlined his theory at that time.", "Some contemporary scholars equate Mesmer's animal magnetism with the qi (chi) of Traditional Chinese Medicine and mesmerism with medical Qigong practices.According to d'Eslon, Mesmer understood health as the free flow of the process of life through thousands of channels in our bodies.", "Illness was caused by obstacles to this flow.", "Overcoming these obstacles and restoring flow produced crises, which restored health.", "When Nature failed to do this spontaneously, contact with a conductor of animal magnetism was a necessary and sufficient remedy.", "Mesmer aimed to aid or provoke the efforts of Nature.", "To cure an insane person, for example, involved causing a fit of madness.", "The advantage of magnetism involved accelerating such crises without danger.===Procedure===Mesmer treated patients both individually and in groups.", "With individuals he would sit in front of his patient with his knees touching the patient's knees, pressing the patient's thumbs in his hands, looking fixedly into the patient's eyes.", "Mesmer made \"passes\", moving his hands from the patient's shoulders down along their arms.", "He then pressed his fingers on the patient's hypochondrium (the area below the diaphragm), sometimes holding his hands there for hours.", "Many patients felt peculiar sensations or had convulsions that were regarded as crises and were supposed to bring about the cure.", "Mesmer would often conclude his treatments by playing some music on a glass harmonica.By 1780, Mesmer had more patients than he could treat individually, and he established a collective treatment known as the \"baquet.\"", "An English doctor who observed Mesmer described the treatment as follows:A caricature of Mesmer \"baquet\" filmed by 262x262pxIn the middle of the room is placed a vessel of about a foot and a half high which is called here a \"baquet\".", "It is so large that twenty people can easily sit round it; near the edge of the lid which covers it, there are holes pierced corresponding to the number of persons who are to surround it; into these holes are introduced iron rods, bent at right angles outwards, and of different heights, so as to answer to the part of the body to which they are to be applied.", "Besides these rods, there is a rope which communicates between the baquet and one of the patients, and from him is carried to another, and so on the whole round.", "The most sensible effects are produced on the approach of Mesmer, who is said to convey the fluid by certain motions of his hands or eyes, without touching the person.", "I have talked with several who have witnessed these effects, who have convulsions occasioned and removed by a movement of the hand...===Investigation===Mesmer's grave in the cemetery in Meersburg, Germany.In 1784, without Mesmer having requested it, King Louis XVI appointed four members of the Faculty of Medicine as commissioners to investigate animal magnetism and Mesmerism.", "At the request of these commissioners, the king appointed Baron de Breteuil, minister of the Department of Paris, to establish investigative commissions.", "One was composed of individuals from the Royal Academy of Sciences, and the other of individuals from the Academy of Sciences and the Faculty of Medicine.", "The investigative teams included the chemist Antoine Lavoisier, the doctor Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, the astronomer Jean Sylvain Bailly, and the American ambassador Benjamin Franklin.The commission conducted a series of experiments aimed not just at determining whether Mesmer's treatment worked, but whether he had discovered a new physical fluid.", "The commission concluded that there was no evidence for such a fluid.", "Whatever benefit the treatment produced was attributed to \"imagination\".", "One of the commissioners, the botanist Antoine Laurent de Jussieu took exception to the official reports, authoring a dissenting opinion.The commission did not examine Mesmer specifically, but instead observed the practice of d'Eslon.", "They used blind trials, blindfolding the subjects, in their investigation, and found that Mesmerism seemed to work only when the subject was aware of it.", "Their findings are considered the first observation of the placebo effect.", "Even d'Eslon himself was convinced by the commission, stating that, \"the imagination thus directed to the relief of suffering humanity would be a most valuable means in the hands of the medical profession.", "\"Mesmer was driven into exile soon after the investigations on animal magnetism.", "However, his influential student, Amand-Marie-Jacques de Chastenet, Marquis of Puységur (1751–1825), continued to have many followers until his death.", "Mesmer continued to practice in Frauenfeld, Switzerland, for a number of years.", "He died in 1815 in Meersburg, Germany." ], [ "Works", "*''De planetarum influxu in corpus humanum'' (''Über den Einfluss der Gestirne auf den menschlichen Körper'') The Influence of the Planets on the Human Body (1766) .", "*''Mémoire sur la découverte du magnetisme animal'', Didot, Genf und Paris (1779) .", "View at Gallica, from the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF).", "*''Sendschreiben an einen auswärtigen Arzt über die Magnetkur'' Circulatory letter to an external?", "physician about the magnetic cure (1775) .", "*''Mémoire sur la découverte du magnétisme animal'' (1779)*''Précis historique des faits relatifs au magnétisme animal'' (1781) *''Théorie du monde et des êtres organisés suivant les principes de M….", "'', Paris, (1784) .", "View at Gallica, BnF.", "*''Aphorismes de M. Mesmer'' (1785)*''Mémoire de F. A. Mesmer,...sur ses découvertes'' (1798–1799) .", "View at Gallica, BnF.", "*''Mesmerismus oder System der Wechselwirkungen.", "Theorie und Anwendung des thierischen Magnetismus als die allgemeine Heilkunde zur Erhaltung des Menschen'' Mesmerism or the system of inter-relations.", "Theory and applications of animal magnetism as general medicine for the preservation of man.", "Edited by .", "Nikolai, Berlin (1814) .", "View at Munich Digitization Center, from the Bavarian State Library." ], [ "Dramatic portrayals", "In Mozart's 1790 opera buffa ''Così fan tutte,'' Mesmer is dramatized as Despina, who poisons two characters using magnets.In Gregory Ratoff's 1949 film ''Black Magic'', Mesmer was portrayed by Charles Goldner.", "In Roger Spottiswoode's ''Mesmer'' (1994), he was portrayed by Alan Rickman." ], [ "See also", "* Animal magnetism* Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*Bailly, J-S., \"Secret Report on Mesmerism or Animal Magnetism\", ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', Vol.", "50, No.", "4, (October 2002), pp.", "364–68.doi=10.1080/00207140208410110*Franklin, B., Majault, M. J., Le Roy, J.", "B., Sallin, C. L., Bailly, J-S., d'Arcet, J., de Bory, G., Guillotin, J-I., and Lavoisier, A., \"Report of the Commissioners charged by the King with the Examination of Animal Magnetism\", ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', Vol.", "50, No.", "4, (October 2002), pp.", "332–63.doi=10.1080/00207140208410109*** Buranelli, V., ''The Wizard from Vienna: Franz Anton Mesmer'', Coward, McCann & Geoghegan., (New York), 1975.", "*Crabtree, Adam (1988).", "''Animal Magnetism, Early Hypnotism, and Psychical Research, 1766–1925 – An Annotated Bibliography''.", "White Plains, NY: Kraus International.", "** Donaldson, I.M.L., \"Mesmer's 1780 Proposal for a Controlled Trial to Test his Method of Treatment Using 'Animal Magnetism'\", ''Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine'', Vol.98, No.12, (December 2005), pp. 572–575.", "******* Goldsmith, M., ''Franz Anton Mesmer: A History of Mesmerism'', Doubleday, Doran & Co., (New York), 1934.", "*** Harte, R., ''Hypnotism and the Doctors, Volume I: Animal Magnetism: Mesmer/De Puysegur'', L.N.", "Fowler & Co., (London), 1902.", "********* Pattie, F.A., \"Mesmer's Medical Dissertation and Its Debt to Mead's ''De Imperio Solis ac Lunae''\", ''Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences'', Vol.11, (July 1956), pp. 275–287.", "*** http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118581309.html******** Winter, A., ''Mesmerized: Powers of Mind in Victorian Britain'', The University of Chicago Press, (Chicago), 1998.", "* Wyckoff, J.", "1975, ''Franz Anton Mesmer: Between God and Devil'', Prentice-Hall, (Englewood Cliffs), 1975." ], [ "External links", "***\"Condorcet and mesmerism: a record in the history of scepticism\", Condorcet manuscript (1784), online and analyzed on '' Bibnum'' click 'à télécharger' for English version." ] ]
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[ [ "Foix–Alajouanine syndrome" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Foix–Alajouanine syndrome''', also called '''subacute ascending necrotizing myelitis''', is a disease caused by an arteriovenous malformation of the spinal cord.", "In particular, most cases involve dural arteriovenous malformations that present in the lower thoracic or lumbar spinal cord.", "The condition is named after Charles Foix and Théophile Alajouanine who first described the condition in 1926." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "The patients can present with symptoms indicating spinal cord involvement such as (paralysis of arms and legs, numbness and loss of sensation and sphincter dysfunction), and pathological examination reveals disseminated nerve cell death in the spinal cord." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Clinically, the patient may present with neurological symptoms such as numbness, weakness, loss of reflexes, or even sudden or progressive paralysis.", "The affected portion of the body will correlate to where the lesion lies within the spinal cord.", "The disease typically has an insidious onset, but symptoms may manifest suddenly.", "A thorough physical exam may lead a physician toward targeted imaging, with MRI being the most appropriate imaging modality for initial diagnosis.", "A spinal MRA will serve as a superior imaging technique to visualize the extent of the arteriovenous malformation within the cord and may be especially useful if surgical treatment is attempted." ], [ "Treatment", "Surgical treatment may be attempted with endovascular embolization or ligation of the arteriovenous malformation within the spinal cord.Corticosteroids may be used acutely to help slow the progression of symptoms or they may be used chronically in a poor surgical candidate.", "In either case, physical therapy will be an important part of the recovery process in helping the patient regain strength and coordination." ], [ "See also", "* Vascular myelopathy" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Ferromagnetism" ], [ "Introduction", "A magnet made of alnico, a ferromagnetic iron alloy, with its keeperParamagnetism, ferromagnetism, and spin waves'''Ferromagnetism''' is a property of certain materials (such as iron) that results in a significant, observable magnetic permeability, and in many cases, a significant magnetic coercivity, allowing the material to form a permanent magnet.", "Ferromagnetic materials are noticeably attracted to a magnet, a consequence of their substantial magnetic permeability.", "Magnetic permeability describes the induced magnetization of a material due to the presence of an external magnetic field.", "This temporary magnetization, for example, inside a steel plate, accounts for its attraction to another magnet.", "Whether or not that steel plate acquires permanent magnetization depends not only on the strength of the applied field but also on the coercivity of the ferromagnetic material.In physics, multiple types of material magnetism have been distinguished.", "Ferromagnetism (along with the similar effect ferrimagnetism) is the strongest type and is responsible for the common phenomenon of everyday magnetism.", "An example of a permanent magnet formed from a ferromagnetic material is a refrigerator magnet.Substances respond weakly to three other types of magnetism—paramagnetism, diamagnetism, and antiferromagnetism—but the forces are usually so weak that they can be detected only by lab instruments.", "Permanent magnets (materials that can be magnetized by an external magnetic field and remain magnetized after the external field is removed) are either ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic, as are the materials that are attracted to them.", "Relatively few materials are ferromagnetic.", "They are typically pure forms, alloys, or compounds of iron, cobalt, nickel, and certain rare-earth metals.", "Ferromagnetism is vital in industrial applications and modern technologies, forming the basis for electrical and electromechanical devices such as electromagnets, electric motors, generators, transformers, magnetic storage (including tape recorders and hard disks), and nondestructive testing of ferrous materials.Ferromagnetic materials can be divided into magnetically soft materials (like annealed iron), which do not tend to stay magnetized, and magnetically hard materials, which do.", "Permanent magnets are made from hard ferromagnetic materials (such as alnico) and ferrimagnetic materials (such as ferrite) that are subjected to special processing in a strong magnetic field during manufacturing to align their internal microcrystalline structure, making them difficult to demagnetize.", "To demagnetize a saturated magnet, a magnetic field must be applied.", "The threshold at which demagnetization occurs depends on the coercivity of the material.", "Magnetically hard materials have high coercivity, whereas magnetically soft materials have low coercivity.", "The overall strength of a magnet is measured by its magnetic moment or, alternatively, its total magnetic flux.", "The local strength of magnetism in a material is measured by its magnetization." ], [ "Terms", "Historically, the term ''ferromagnetism'' was used for any material that could exhibit spontaneous magnetization: a net magnetic moment in the absence of an external magnetic field; that is, any material that could become a magnet.", "This definition is still in common use.In a landmark paper in 1948, Louis Néel showed that two levels of magnetic alignment result in this behavior.", "One is ferromagnetism in the strict sense, where all the magnetic moments are aligned.", "The other is ''ferrimagnetism'', where some magnetic moments point in the opposite direction but have a smaller contribution, so spontaneous magnetization is present.In the special case where the opposing moments balance completely, the alignment is known as ''antiferromagnetism''; antiferromagnets do not have a spontaneous magnetization.==Materials==+ Curie temperatures for some crystalline ferromagnetic materials Material Curie (K) Co 1388 Fe 1043 Fe2O3 948 NiOFe2O3 858 CuOFe2O3 728 MgOFe2O3 713 Mn Bi 630 Ni 627 Nd2Fe14 B 593 MnSb 587 MnOFe2O3 573 Y3Fe5O12 560 CrO2 386 MnAs 318 Gd 292 Tb 219 Dy 88 EuO 69 Ferromagnetism is an unusual property that occurs in only a few substances.", "The common ones are the transition metals iron, nickel, and cobalt, as well as their alloys and alloys of rare-earth metals.", "It is a property not just of the chemical make-up of a material, but of its crystalline structure and microstructure.", "Ferromagnetism results from these materials having many unpaired electrons in their d-block (in the case of iron and its relatives) or f-block (in the case of the rare-earth metals), a result of Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity.", "There are ferromagnetic metal alloys whose constituents are not themselves ferromagnetic, called Heusler alloys, named after Fritz Heusler.", "Conversely, there are non-magnetic alloys, such as types of stainless steel, composed almost exclusively of ferromagnetic metals.Amorphous (non-crystalline) ferromagnetic metallic alloys can be made by very rapid quenching (cooling) of an alloy.", "These have the advantage that their properties are nearly isotropic (not aligned along a crystal axis); this results in low coercivity, low hysteresis loss, high permeability, and high electrical resistivity.", "One such typical material is a transition metal-metalloid alloy, made from about 80% transition metal (usually Fe, Co, or Ni) and a metalloid component (B, C, Si, P, or Al) that lowers the melting point.A relatively new class of exceptionally strong ferromagnetic materials are the rare-earth magnets.", "They contain lanthanide elements that are known for their ability to carry large magnetic moments in well-localized f-orbitals.The table lists a selection of ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic compounds, along with their Curie temperature (''T''C), above which they cease to exhibit spontaneous magnetization.=== Unusual materials ===Most ferromagnetic materials are metals, since the conducting electrons are often responsible for mediating the ferromagnetic interactions.", "It is therefore a challenge to develop ferromagnetic insulators, especially multiferroic materials, which are both ferromagnetic and ferroelectric.A number of actinide compounds are ferromagnets at room temperature or exhibit ferromagnetism upon cooling.", "PuP is a paramagnet with cubic symmetry at room temperature, but which undergoes a structural transition into a tetragonal state with ferromagnetic order when cooled below its .", "In its ferromagnetic state, PuP's easy axis is in the ⟨100⟩ direction.In NpFe2 the easy axis is ⟨111⟩.", "Above , NpFe2 is also paramagnetic and cubic.", "Cooling below the Curie temperature produces a rhombohedral distortion wherein the rhombohedral angle changes from 60° (cubic phase) to 60.53°.", "An alternate description of this distortion is to consider the length ''c'' along the unique trigonal axis (after the distortion has begun) and ''a'' as the distance in the plane perpendicular to ''c''.", "In the cubic phase this reduces to .", "Below the Curie temperature: which is the largest strain in any actinide compound.", "NpNi2 undergoes a similar lattice distortion below , with a strain of (43 ± 5) × 10−4.NpCo2 is a ferrimagnet below 15 K.In 2009, a team of MIT physicists demonstrated that a lithium gas cooled to less than one kelvin can exhibit ferromagnetism.", "The team cooled fermionic lithium-6 to less than (150 billionths of one kelvin) using infrared laser cooling.", "This demonstration is the first time that ferromagnetism has been demonstrated in a gas.In rare circumstances, ferromagnetism can be observed in compounds consisting of only s-block and p-block elements, such as rubidium sesquioxide.In 2018, a team of University of Minnesota physicists demonstrated that body-centered tetragonal ruthenium exhibits ferromagnetism at room temperature.===Electrically induced ferromagnetism===Recent research has shown evidence that ferromagnetism can be induced in some materials by an electric current or voltage.", "Antiferromagnetic LaMnO3 and SrCoO have been switched to be ferromagnetic by a current.", "In July 2020, scientists reported inducing ferromagnetism in the abundant diamagnetic material iron pyrite (\"fool's gold\") by an applied voltage.", "In these experiments, the ferromagnetism was limited to a thin surface layer." ], [ "Explanation", "The Bohr–Van Leeuwen theorem, discovered in the 1910s, showed that classical physics theories are unable to account for any form of material magnetism, including ferromagnetism; the explanation rather depends on the quantum mechanical description of atoms.", "Each of an atom's electrons has a magnetic moment according to its spin state, as described by quantum mechanics.", "The Pauli exclusion principle, also a consequence of quantum mechanics, restricts the occupancy of electrons' spin states in atomic orbitals, generally causing the magnetic moments from an atom's electrons to largely or completely cancel.", "An atom will have a ''net'' magnetic moment when that cancellation is incomplete.===Origin of atomic magnetism===One of the fundamental properties of an electron (besides that it carries charge) is that it has a magnetic dipole moment, i.e., it behaves like a tiny magnet, producing a magnetic field.", "This dipole moment comes from a more fundamental property of the electron: its quantum mechanical spin.", "Due to its quantum nature, the spin of the electron can be in one of only two states, with the magnetic field either pointing \"up\" or \"down\" (for any choice of up and down).", "Electron spin in atoms is the main source of ferromagnetism, although there is also a contribution from the orbital angular momentum of the electron about the nucleus.", "When these magnetic dipoles in a piece of matter are aligned (point in the same direction), their individually tiny magnetic fields add together to create a much larger macroscopic field.However, materials made of atoms with filled electron shells have a total dipole moment of zero: because the electrons all exist in pairs with opposite spin, every electron's magnetic moment is cancelled by the opposite moment of the second electron in the pair.", "Only atoms with partially filled shells (i.e., unpaired spins) can have a net magnetic moment, so ferromagnetism occurs only in materials with partially filled shells.", "Because of Hund's rules, the first few electrons in a shell tend to have the same spin, thereby increasing the total dipole moment.These unpaired dipoles (often called simply \"spins\", even though they also generally include orbital angular momentum) tend to align in parallel to an external magnetic field leading to a macroscopic effect called paramagnetism.", "In ferromagnetism, however, the magnetic interaction between neighboring atoms' magnetic dipoles is strong enough that they align with ''each other'' regardless of any applied field, resulting in the spontaneous magnetization of so-called domains.", "This results in the large observed magnetic permeability of ferromagnetics, and the ability of magnetically hard materials to form permanent magnets.===Exchange interaction===When two nearby atoms have unpaired electrons, whether the electron spins are parallel or antiparallel affects whether the electrons can share the same orbit as a result of the quantum mechanical effect called the exchange interaction.", "This in turn affects the electron location and the Coulomb (electrostatic) interaction and thus the energy difference between these states.The exchange interaction is related to the Pauli exclusion principle, which says that two electrons with the same spin cannot also be in the same spatial state (orbital).", "This is a consequence of the spin–statistics theorem and that electrons are fermions.", "Therefore, under certain conditions, when the orbitals of the unpaired outer valence electrons from adjacent atoms overlap, the distributions of their electric charge in space are farther apart when the electrons have parallel spins than when they have opposite spins.", "This reduces the electrostatic energy of the electrons when their spins are parallel compared to their energy when the spins are antiparallel, so the parallel-spin state is more stable.", "This difference in energy is called the exchange energy.", "In simple terms, the outer electrons of adjacent atoms, which repel each other, can move further apart by aligning their spins in parallel, so the spins of these electrons tend to line up.This energy difference can be orders of magnitude larger than the energy differences associated with the magnetic dipole–dipole interaction due to dipole orientation, which tends to align the dipoles antiparallel.", "In certain doped semiconductor oxides, RKKY interactions have been shown to bring about periodic longer-range magnetic interactions, a phenomenon of significance in the study of spintronic materials.The materials in which the exchange interaction is much stronger than the competing dipole–dipole interaction are frequently called ''magnetic materials''.", "For instance, in iron (Fe) the exchange force is about 1,000 times stronger than the dipole interaction.", "Therefore, below the Curie temperature, virtually all of the dipoles in a ferromagnetic material will be aligned.", "In addition to ferromagnetism, the exchange interaction is also responsible for the other types of spontaneous ordering of atomic magnetic moments occurring in magnetic solids: antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism.", "There are different exchange interaction mechanisms which create the magnetism in different ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic, and antiferromagnetic substances—these mechanisms include direct exchange, RKKY exchange, double exchange, and superexchange.===Magnetic anisotropy===Although the exchange interaction keeps spins aligned, it does not align them in a particular direction.", "Without magnetic anisotropy, the spins in a magnet randomly change direction in response to thermal fluctuations, and the magnet is superparamagnetic.", "There are several kinds of magnetic anisotropy, the most common of which is magnetocrystalline anisotropy.", "This is a dependence of the energy on the direction of magnetization relative to the crystallographic lattice.", "Another common source of anisotropy, inverse magnetostriction, is induced by internal strains.", "Single-domain magnets also can have a ''shape anisotropy'' due to the magnetostatic effects of the particle shape.", "As the temperature of a magnet increases, the anisotropy tends to decrease, and there is often a blocking temperature at which a transition to superparamagnetism occurs.===Magnetic domains===Electromagnetic dynamic magnetic domain motion of grain-oriented electrical silicon steelKerr micrograph of a metal surface showing magnetic domains, with red and green stripes denoting opposite magnetization directionsThe spontaneous alignment of magnetic dipoles in ferromagnetic materials would seem to suggest that every piece of ferromagnetic material should have a strong magnetic field, since all the spins are aligned; yet iron and other ferromagnets are often found in an \"unmagnetized\" state.", "This is because a bulk piece of ferromagnetic material is divided into tiny regions called ''magnetic domains'' (also known as ''Weiss domains'').", "Within each domain, the spins are aligned, but if the bulk material is in its lowest energy configuration (i.e.", "\"unmagnetized\"), the spins of separate domains point in different directions and their magnetic fields cancel out, so the bulk material has no net large-scale magnetic field.Ferromagnetic materials spontaneously divide into magnetic domains because the exchange interaction is a short-range force, so over long distances of many atoms, the tendency of the magnetic dipoles to reduce their energy by orienting in opposite directions wins out.", "If all the dipoles in a piece of ferromagnetic material are aligned parallel, it creates a large magnetic field extending into the space around it.", "This contains a lot of magnetostatic energy.", "The material can reduce this energy by splitting into many domains pointing in different directions, so the magnetic field is confined to small local fields in the material, reducing the volume of the field.", "The domains are separated by thin domain walls a number of molecules thick, in which the direction of magnetization of the dipoles rotates smoothly from one domain's direction to the other.===Magnetized materials===Moving domain walls in a grain of silicon steel caused by an increasing external magnetic field in the \"downward\" direction, observed in a Kerr microscope.", "White areas are domains with magnetization directed up, dark areas are domains with magnetization directed down.Thus, a piece of iron in its lowest energy state (\"unmagnetized\") generally has little or no net magnetic field.", "However, the magnetic domains in a material are not fixed in place; they are simply regions where the spins of the electrons have aligned spontaneously due to their magnetic fields, and thus can be altered by an external magnetic field.", "If a strong-enough external magnetic field is applied to the material, the domain walls will move via a process in which the spins of the electrons in atoms near the wall in one domain turn under the influence of the external field to face in the same direction as the electrons in the other domain, thus reorienting the domains so more of the dipoles are aligned with the external field.", "The domains will remain aligned when the external field is removed, and sum to create a magnetic field of their own extending into the space around the material, thus creating a \"permanent\" magnet.", "The domains do not go back to their original minimum energy configuration when the field is removed because the domain walls tend to become 'pinned' or 'snagged' on defects in the crystal lattice, preserving their parallel orientation.", "This is shown by the Barkhausen effect: as the magnetizing field is changed, the material's magnetization changes in thousands of tiny discontinuous jumps as domain walls suddenly \"snap\" past defects.This magnetization as a function of an external field is described by a hysteresis curve.", "Although this state of aligned domains found in a piece of magnetized ferromagnetic material is not a minimal-energy configuration, it is metastable, and can persist for long periods, as shown by samples of magnetite from the sea floor which have maintained their magnetization for millions of years.Heating and then cooling (annealing) a magnetized material, subjecting it to vibration by hammering it, or applying a rapidly oscillating magnetic field from a degaussing coil tends to release the domain walls from their pinned state, and the domain boundaries tend to move back to a lower energy configuration with less external magnetic field, thus demagnetizing the material.Commercial magnets are made of \"hard\" ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic materials with very large magnetic anisotropy such as alnico and ferrites, which have a very strong tendency for the magnetization to be pointed along one axis of the crystal, the \"easy axis\".", "During manufacture the materials are subjected to various metallurgical processes in a powerful magnetic field, which aligns the crystal grains so their \"easy\" axes of magnetization all point in the same direction.", "Thus, the magnetization, and the resulting magnetic field, is \"built in\" to the crystal structure of the material, making it very difficult to demagnetize.===Curie temperature===As the temperature of a material increases, thermal motion, or entropy, competes with the ferromagnetic tendency for dipoles to align.", "When the temperature rises beyond a certain point, called the Curie temperature, there is a second-order phase transition and the system can no longer maintain a spontaneous magnetization, so its ability to be magnetized or attracted to a magnet disappears, although it still responds paramagnetically to an external field.", "Below that temperature, there is a spontaneous symmetry breaking and magnetic moments become aligned with their neighbors.", "The Curie temperature itself is a critical point, where the magnetic susceptibility is theoretically infinite and, although there is no net magnetization, domain-like spin correlations fluctuate at all length scales.The study of ferromagnetic phase transitions, especially via the simplified Ising spin model, had an important impact on the development of statistical physics.", "There, it was first clearly shown that mean field theory approaches failed to predict the correct behavior at the critical point (which was found to fall under a ''universality class'' that includes many other systems, such as liquid-gas transitions), and had to be replaced by renormalization group theory." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Electromagnetism – ch.", "11, from an online textbook* Detailed nonmathematical description of ferromagnetic materials with illustrations* Magnetism: Models and Mechanisms in E. Pavarini, E. Koch, and U. Schollwöck: Emergent Phenomena in Correlated Matter, Jülich 2013," ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Francesco Cossiga" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Francesco Maurizio Cossiga''' (; , ; 1928 – 2010) was an Italian politician.", "A member of Christian Democracy, he was prime minister of Italy from 1979 to 1980 and the president of Italy from 1985 to 1992.Cossiga is widely considered one of the most prominent and influential politicians of the First Italian Republic.Cossiga served as minister on several occasions, most notably as Italian Minister of the Interior.", "In that position he re-structured the Italian police, civil protection and secret services.", "Due to his repressive approach to public protests, he was described as a strongman and labeled \"Iron Minister\".", "He was in office at the time of the kidnapping and murder of Aldo Moro by the Red Brigades, and resigned as the interior minister when Aldo Moro was found dead in May 1978.Cossiga was the prime minister during the 1980 Bologna station massacre.", "Before his political career, he was also a professor of constitutional law at the University of Sassari." ], [ "Early life", "Francesco Cossiga was born in Sassari on 26 July 1928, from a republican and anti-fascist middle-bourgeois family.", "His parents were Giuseppe Cossiga and Maria \"Mariuccia\" Zanfarino.", "He was the second-degree cousin of brothers Enrico and Giovanni Berlinguer (whose parents were Mario Berlinguer and Maria \"Mariuccia\" Loriga) because their respective maternal grandfathers, Antonio Zanfarino and Giovanni Loriga, were half-brothers on their mother's side.", "Although his last name is commonly pronounced (with the stress falling on the second syllable), the original pronunciation is (with the stress falling on the first syllable), italianized as .", "His surname in Sardinian and Sassarese means \"Corsica\", likely pointing to the family's origin.At the age of sixteen, he graduated, three years in advance, at the classical lyceum Domenico Alberto Azuni.", "The following year he joined in the Christian Democracy, and three years later, at only 19 years old, he graduated in law and started a university career as professor of constitutional law at the faculty of jurisprudence of the University of Sassari.During his period at the university he became a member of the Catholic Federation of University Students (FUCI), becoming the association's leader for Sassari." ], [ "Beginnings of his political career", "After the 1958 general election Cossiga was elected in the Chamber of Deputies for the first time, representing the constituency of Cagliari–Sassari.In February 1966 he became the youngest Undersecretary of the Ministry of Defence, in the government of Aldo Moro.", "In this role he had to face the aftermath of Piano Solo, an envisaged plot for an Italian ''coup d'état'' requested by then President Antonio Segni, two years before.From November 1974 to February 1976 Cossiga was Minister of Public Administration in Moro's fourth government." ], [ "Minister of the Interior", "On 12 February 1976, Cossiga was appointed Minister of the Interior, by Prime Minister Moro.", "During his term he re-structured the Italian police, civil protection and secret services.", "Cossiga has been often described as a strongman and labeled \"iron minister\", for repressing public protests.", "Moreover, during his tenure his surname was often stylized as \"Ko11pxiga\", using the ''SS'' symbol.===1977 protests and riots===Armored vehicle in the university area of Bologna.In 1977 the city of Bologna was the scene of violent street clashes.", "In particular, on 11 March a militant of the far-left organization ''Lotta Continua'', Francesco Lorusso, was killed by a gunshot to the back (probably fired by a policeman), when police dispersed protesters against a mass meeting of Communion and Liberation, which was being held that morning at the University.", "This event served as a detonator for a long series of clashes with security forces for two days, which affected the entire city of Bologna.", "Cossiga sent armored vehicles into the university area and other hot spots of the city to quell what he perceived as guerrilla warfare.", "Clashes with the police caused numerous casualties among people who got caught up in the riots, including uninvolved locals.", "No old leftist party, except the Youth Socialist Federation, led by local secretary Emilio Lonardo, participated at the funeral of the student Lorusso, showing the dramatic split between the movement and the historical left parties.Turin was also the scene of bloody clashes and attacks.", "On 1 October 1977, after a procession had started with an attack on the headquarters of the Italian Social Movement (MSI), a group of militants of ''Lotta Continua'' reached a downtown bar, ''L'angelo azzurro'' (The Blue Angel), frequented by young right-wing activists.", "They threw two Molotov cocktails, and Roberto Crescenzio, a totally apolitical student, died of burns.", "The perpetrators of the murder were never identified.", "''Lotta Continua'' leader Silvio Viale called it a \"tragic accident\".Another innocent victim of the riots of that year was Giorgiana Masi, who was killed in Rome by a gunshot during an event organized by the Radical Party to celebrate the third anniversary of the victory in the referendum on divorce.", "As the perpetrators of the murder remained unknown, the movement attributed the responsibility of the crime to police officers in plain clothes, which were immortalized at that time dressed in clothing of the style of young people of the movement.===Kidnapping of Aldo Moro===Cossiga with Aldo Moro.Cossiga was in office at the time of the kidnapping and murder of the Christian Democratic leader Aldo Moro by the Marxist-Leninist extreme-left terrorist group Red Brigades.", "On the morning of 16 March 1978, the day on which the new cabinet led by Giulio Andreotti was supposed to have undergone a confidence vote in the Italian Parliament, the car of Moro, former prime minister and then president of DC, was assaulted by a group of Red Brigades terrorists in Via Fani in Rome.", "Firing automatic weapons, the terrorists killed Moro's bodyguards, (two Carabinieri in Moro's car and three policemen in the following car) and kidnapped him.Cossiga formed immediately two \"crisis committees\".", "The first one was a technical-operational-political committee, chaired by Cossiga himself and, in his absence, by undersecretary Nicola Lettieri.", "Other members included the supreme commanders of the Italian Police Forces, of the Carabinieri, the Guardia di Finanza, the recently named directors of SISMI and SISDE (respectively, Italy's military and civil intelligence services), the national secretary of CESIS (a secret information agency), the director of UCIGOS and the police prefect of Rome.", "The second one was an information committee, including members of CESIS, SISDE, SISMI and SIOS, another military intelligence office.Francesco Cossiga with Giulio Andreotti in 1978.A third unofficial committee was created which never met officially, called the ''comitato di esperti'' (\"committee of experts\").", "Its existence was not disclosed until 1981, by Cossiga himself, in his interrogation by the Italian Parliament's Commission about the Moro affair.", "He omitted to reveal the decisions and the activities of the committee however.", "This committee included: Steve Pieczenik, a psychologist of the anti-terrorism section of the US State Department, and notable Italian criminologists.", "Pieczenik later declared that there were numerous leaks about the discussions made at the committee, and accused Cossiga.However, on 9 May 1978 Moro's body was found in the trunk of a Renault 4 in Via Caetani after 55 days of imprisonment, during which Moro was submitted to a political trial by the so-called \"people's court\" set up by the Brigate Rosse and the Italian government was asked for an exchange of prisoners.", "Despite the common interpretation, the car location in Via Caetani was not halfway between the locations of the national offices of DC and of the Italian Communist Party (PCI) in Rome.", "After two days, Cossiga resigned as Minister of the Interior.", "According to Italian journalist Enrico Deaglio, Cossiga, to justify his lack of action, \"accused the leaders of CGIL and of the Communist Party of knowing where Moro was detained\".", "Cossiga was also accused by Moro himself, in his letters who wrote during his detention, saying that \"his blood will fall over him\"." ], [ "Prime Minister of Italy", "Francesco Cossiga in 1979.One year after Moro's death and the subsequent Cossiga's resignation as Interior Minister, he was appointed Prime Minister of Italy.", "He led a government's coalition composed by Christian Democrats, Socialists, Democratic Socialists, Republicans and Liberals.===Bologna massacre===Cossiga was head of the government during the Bologna massacre, a terrorist bombing of the Bologna Central Station on the morning of 2 August 1980, which killed 85 people and wounded more than 200.The attack was attributed to the neo-fascist terrorist organization ''Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari'' (Armed Revolutionary Nucleus), which always denied any involvement; other theories have been proposed, especially in correlation with the strategy of tension.Francesco Cossiga first assumed the explosion to have been caused by an accident (the explosion of an old boiler located in the basement of the station).", "Nevertheless, soon the evidence gathered on site of the explosion made it clear that the attack constituted an act of terrorism.", "''L'Unità'', the newspaper of the Communist Party on 3 August already attributed responsibility for the attack to neo-fascists.", "Later, in a special session to the Senate, Cossiga supported the theory that neofascists were behind the attack, \"unlike leftist terrorism, which strikes at the heart of the state through its representatives, black terrorism prefers the massacre because it promotes panic and impulsive reactions.", "\"attack.Later, according to media reports in 2004, taken up again in 2007, Cossiga, in a letter addressed to Enzo Fragala, leader of the National Alliance section in the Mitrokhin Committee, suggested Palestinian involvement of George Habash's Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine and the Separat group of Ilich Ramirez Sanchez, known as \"Carlos the Jackal\".", "In addition, in 2008 Cossiga gave an interview to ''BBC'' in which it reaffirmed his belief that the massacre would not be attributable to black terrorism, but to an \"incident\" of Palestinian resistance groups operating in Italy.", "He declared also being convinced of the innocence of Francesca Mambro and Giuseppe Valerio Fioravanti, the two neo-fascist terrorists accused of the massacre.", "The PFLP has always denied responsibility.===Resignation===In October 1980, Cossiga resigned as Prime Minister after the rejection of the annual budget bill by the Italian Parliament.Following the 1983 general election, Cossiga became a member of the Italian Senate; on 12 July, he was elected President of the Senate." ], [ "President of Italy", "U.S. President Ronald Reagan, in 1987.In the 1985 presidential election, Cossiga was elected as President of Italy with 752 votes out of 977.His candidacy was endorsed by the Christian Democracy, but supported also by communists, socialists, social democrats, liberals and republicans.", "This was the first time an Italian presidential candidate had won the election on the first ballot, where a two-thirds majority is necessary.", "He took office on 29 June 1985 on an interim basis after the resignation of Outgoing President Sandro Pertini, but was not sworn in until a few days later, on 3 July.The Cossiga presidency was essentially divided into two phases related to the attitudes of the head of state.", "In the first five years, Cossiga played its role in a traditional way, caring for the role of the republican institutions under the Constitution, which makes the President of the Republic a kind of arbitrator in relations between the powers of the state.===\"Pickaxe-wielder\" president===It was in his last two years as president that Cossiga began to express some unusual opinions regarding the Italian political system.", "He opined that the Italian parties, especially the Christian Democrats and the Communists had to take into account the deep changes brought about by the fall of the Berlin Wall and the end of the Cold War.", "According to him, DC and PCI would therefore have been seriously affected by this change, but Cossiga believed that political parties and the same institutions refused to recognize it.President Cossiga in his office at Quirinal Palace.Thus, a period of conflict and political controversy began, often provocative and deliberately excessive, and with very strong media exposure.", "These statements, soon dubbed \"''esternazioni''\", or \"mattock blows\" (''picconate''), were considered by many to be inappropriate for a President, and often beyond his constitutional powers; also, his mental health was doubted and Cossiga had to declare \"I am the fake madman who speaks the truth.\"", "Cossiga suffered from bipolar disorder and depression in the last years of his life.Among the statements of the President there were also allegations of excessive politicization of the judiciary system, and the stigmatization of the fact that young magistrates, who just came into service, were immediately destined for the Sicilian prosecutor to carry out mafia proceedings.For his changed attitude, Cossiga received various criticisms by almost every party, with the exception of the Italian Social Movement, which stood beside him in defense of the \"picconate\".", "He will, amongst other things, be considered one of the first \"cleansers\" of MSI, who recognized it as a constitutional and democratic force.===Revelation of Gladio and resignation===Francesco Cossiga with Russian President Boris Yeltsin, in 1992.Tension developed between Cossiga and Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti.", "This tension emerged when Andreotti revealed the existence of Gladio, a stay-behind organization with the official aim of countering a possible Soviet invasion through sabotage and guerrilla warfare behind enemy lines.", "Cossiga acknowledged his involvement in the establishment of the organization.", "The Democratic Party of the Left (successor to the Communist Party) started the procedure of impeachment (Presidents of Italy can be impeached only for high treason against the state or for an attempt to overthrow the Constitution).", "Although he threatened to prevent the impeachment procedure by dissolving Parliament, the impeachment request was ultimately dismissed.Cossiga resigned two months before the end of his term, on 25 April 1992.In his last speech as president he stated \"To young people I want to say to love the fatherland, to honor the nation, to serve the Republic, to believe in freedom and to believe in our country\"." ], [ "After the presidency", "According to the Italian Constitution, after his resignation from the office of President, Cossiga became Lifetime Senator, joining his predecessors in the upper house of Parliament, with whom he also shared the title of President Emeritus of the Italian Republic.On 12 January 1997, Cossiga survived unscathed a railway accident (:it:Incidente ferroviario di Piacenza), while traveling on a high-speed train from Milan to Rome that derailed near Piacenza.In February 1998, Cossiga created the Democratic Union for the Republic (UDR), a Christian democratic political party, declaring it to be politically central.", "The UDR was a crucial component of the majority that supported the Massimo D'Alema cabinet in October 1998, after the fall of the Romano Prodi's government which lost a vote of confidence.", "Cossiga declared that his support for D'Alema was intended to end the conventional exclusion of the former communist leaders from the premiership in Italy.In 1999 UDR was dissolved and Cossiga returned to his activities as a Senator, with competences in the Military Affairs' Commission.In May 2006, Cossiga gave his support to the formation of Prodi's second government.", "In the same month, he brought in a bill that would allow the region of South Tyrol to hold a referendum, where the local electorate could decide whether to remain within the Republic of Italy, take independence, or become part of Austria again.On 27 November 2006, he resigned from his position as a lifetime senator.", "His resignation was, however, rejected on 31 January 2007 by a vote of the Senate.In May 2008, Cossiga voted in favor of the government of Silvio Berlusconi." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Funeral of Cossiga in Sassari, August 2010.Cossiga died on 17 August 2010 from respiratory problems at the Agostino Gemelli Polyclinic.", "After his death, four letters written by Cossiga were sent to the four highest authorities of the state in office at the time of his death, President of the Republic Giorgio Napolitano, President of the Senate Renato Schifani, President of the Chamber of Deputies Gianfranco Fini and Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi.The funeral took place in his hometown, Sassari, at the Church of San Giuseppe.", "Cossiga is buried in the public cemetery of Sassari, in the family tomb, not far from one of his predecessors as President of Italy, Antonio Segni.In 2020, Cossiga was depicted in the film ''Rose Island'', which told the story of the Republic of Rose Island, played by Luca Della Bianca." ], [ "Controversies", "In 2000 he criticized world champion Michael Schumacher for his conduct when the Italian National Anthem was played on the podium at the Japanese Grand Prix.In 2007, Cossiga sarcastically referred to the 2001 September 11 attacks as a false flag: \"all democratic circles in America and of Europe, especially those of the Italian centre-left, now know that the disastrous attack was planned and realized by the American CIA and Mossad with the help of the Zionist world, to place the blame on Arab countries and to persuade the Western powers to intervene in Iraq and Afghanistan\".", "The previous year Cossiga had stated that he rejects theoretical conspiracies and that it \"seems unlikely that September 11 was the result of an American plot.", "\"In the statement, Cossiga was indeed mocking Italian media claiming that a video tape circulated by Osama bin Laden's al Qaeda and containing threats against Silvio Berlusconi was \"produced in the studios of Mediaset in Milan\" and forwarded to the \"Islamist Al-Jazeera television network.\"", "According to the media, the purpose of that video tape (which was actually an audio tape) was to raise \"a wave of solidarity to Berlusconi\" who was, at the time, facing political difficulties.In 2008, Francesco Cossiga said that Mario Draghi was \"a craven moneyman\".Cossiga blamed the loss of Itavia Flight 870, a passenger jet that crashed in 1980 with the loss of all 81 people on board, on a missile fired from a French Navy aircraft.", "On 23 January 2013 Italy's top criminal court ruled that there was \"abundantly\" clear evidence that the flight was brought down by a missile fired from a French Navy aircraft." ], [ "Electoral history", "ElectionHouseConstituencyPartyVotesResult 1958 Chamber of Deputies Cagliari–Sassari–Nuoro DC 57,787 '''Elected''' 1963 Chamber of Deputies Cagliari–Sassari–Nuoro DC 58,809 '''Elected''' 1968 Chamber of Deputies Cagliari–Sassari–Nuoro DC 102,814 '''Elected''' 1972 Chamber of Deputies Cagliari–Sassari–Nuoro DC 94,855 '''Elected''' 1976 Chamber of Deputies Cagliari–Sassari–Nuoro DC 174,209 '''Elected''' 1979 Chamber of Deputies Cagliari–Sassari–Nuoro DC 136,383 '''Elected''' 1983 Senate of the Republic Sardinia – Tempio-Ozieri DC 40,024 '''Elected'''" ], [ "Honours and awards", "As President of the Republic, Cossiga was Head (and also Knight Grand Cross with Grand Cordon) of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (from 3 July 1985 to 28 April 1992), Military Order of Italy, Order of the Star of Italian Solidarity, Order of Merit for Labour and Order of Vittorio Veneto and Grand Cross of Merit of the Italian Red Cross.", "He has also been given honours and awards by other countries." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", ";Notes;Sources* (on links between Cossiga, Licio Gelli and Propaganda Due masonic lodge; Massera, part of Videla's junta in Argentina, is also named)* Obituary – Fox news" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II''' is an American family of single-seat, single-engine, all-weather stealth multirole combat aircraft that is intended to perform both air superiority and strike missions.", "It is also able to provide electronic warfare and intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance capabilities.", "Lockheed Martin is the prime F-35 contractor, with principal partners Northrop Grumman and BAE Systems.", "The aircraft has three main variants: the conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL) F-35A, the short take-off and vertical-landing (STOVL) F-35B, and the carrier-based (CV/CATOBAR) F-35C.The aircraft descends from the Lockheed Martin X-35, which in 2001 beat the Boeing X-32 to win the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program.", "Its development is principally funded by the United States, with additional funding from program partner countries from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and close U.S. allies, including the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Italy, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, and formerly Turkey.", "Several other countries have also ordered, or are considering ordering, the aircraft.", "The program has drawn criticism for its unprecedented size, complexity, ballooning costs, and delayed deliveries.", "The acquisition strategy of concurrent production of the aircraft while it was still in development and testing led to expensive design changes and retrofits.The F-35 first flew in 2006 and entered service with the U.S. Marine Corps F-35B in July 2015, followed by the U.S. Air Force F-35A in August 2016 and the U.S. Navy F-35C in February 2019.The aircraft was first used in combat in 2018 by the Israeli Air Force.", "The U.S. plans to buy 2,456 F-35s through 2044, which will represent the bulk of the crewed tactical aviation of the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps for several decades; the aircraft is planned to be a cornerstone of NATO and U.S.-allied air power and to operate until 2070." ], [ "Development", "===Program origins===The F-35 was the product of the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program, which was the merger of various combat aircraft programs from the 1980s and 1990s.", "One progenitor program was the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Advanced Short Take-Off/Vertical Landing (ASTOVL) which ran from 1983 to 1994; ASTOVL aimed to develop a Harrier jump jet replacement for the U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) and the U.K. Royal Navy.", "Under one of ASTOVL's classified programs, the Supersonic STOVL Fighter (SSF), Lockheed Skunk Works conducted research for a stealthy supersonic STOVL fighter intended for both U.S. Air Force (USAF) and USMC; a key technology explored was the shaft-driven lift fan (SDLF) system.", "Lockheed's concept was a single-engine canard delta aircraft weighing about empty.", "ASTOVL was rechristened as the Common Affordable Lightweight Fighter (CALF) in 1993 and involved Lockheed, McDonnell Douglas, and Boeing.In 1993, the Joint Advanced Strike Technology (JAST) program emerged following the cancellation of the USAF's Multi-Role Fighter (MRF) and U.S. Navy's (USN) Advanced Fighter-Attack (A/F-X) programs.", "MRF, a program for a relatively affordable F-16 replacement, was scaled back and delayed due to post–Cold War defense posture easing F-16 fleet usage and thus extending its service life as well as increasing budget pressure from the F-22 Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program.", "The A/F-X, initially known as the Advanced-Attack (A-X), began in 1991 as the USN's follow-on to the Advanced Tactical Aircraft (ATA) program for an A-6 replacement; the ATA's resulting A-12 Avenger II had been canceled due to technical problems and cost overruns in 1991.In the same year, the termination of the Naval Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF), a naval development of USAF's ATF program to replace the F-14, resulted in additional fighter capability being added to A-X, which was then renamed A/F-X.", "Amid increased budget pressure, the Department of Defense's (DoD) Bottom-Up Review (BUR) in September 1993 announced MRF's and A/F-X's cancellations, with applicable experience brought to the emerging JAST program.", "JAST was not meant to develop a new aircraft, but rather to develop requirements, mature technologies, and demonstrate concepts for advanced strike warfare.As JAST progressed, the need for concept demonstrator aircraft by 1996 emerged, which would coincide with the full-scale flight demonstrator phase of ASTOVL/CALF.", "Because the ASTOVL/CALF concept appeared to align with the JAST charter, the two programs were eventually merged in 1994 under the JAST name, with the program now serving the USAF, USMC, and USN.", "JAST was subsequently renamed to Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) in 1995, with STOVL submissions by McDonnell Douglas, Northrop Grumman, Lockheed Martin, and Boeing.", "The JSF was expected to eventually replace large numbers of multi-role and strike fighters in the inventories of the US and its allies, including the Harrier, F-16, F/A-18, A-10, and F-117.International participation is a key aspect of the JSF program, starting with United Kingdom participation in the ASTOVL program.", "Many international partners requiring modernization of their air forces were interested in the JSF.", "The United Kingdom joined JAST/JSF as a founding member in 1995 and thus became the only Tier 1 partner of the JSF program; Italy, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Canada, Australia, and Turkey joined the program during the Concept Demonstration Phase (CDP), with Italy and the Netherlands being Tier 2 partners and the rest Tier 3.Consequently, the aircraft was developed in cooperation with international partners and available for export.===JSF competition===Boeing and Lockheed Martin were selected in early 1997 for CDP, with their concept demonstrator aircraft designated X-32 and X-35 respectively; the McDonnell Douglas team was eliminated and Northrop Grumman and British Aerospace joined the Lockheed Martin team.", "Each firm would produce two prototype air vehicles to demonstrate conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL), carrier takeoff and landing (CV), and STOVL.", "Lockheed Martin's design would make use of the work on the SDLF system conducted under the ASTOVL/CALF program.", "The key aspect of the X-35 that enabled STOVL operation, the SDLF system consists of the lift fan in the forward center fuselage that could be activated by engaging a clutch that connects the driveshaft to the turbines and thus augmenting the thrust from the engine's swivel nozzle.", "Research from prior aircraft incorporating similar systems, such as the Convair Model 200, Rockwell XFV-12, and Yakovlev Yak-141, were also taken into consideration.", "By contrast, Boeing's X-32 employed direct lift system that the augmented turbofan would be reconfigured to when engaging in STOVL operation.X-35B flying over Edwards Air Force BaseLockheed Martin's commonality strategy was to replace the STOVL variant's SDLF with a fuel tank and the aft swivel nozzle with a two-dimensional thrust vectoring nozzle for the CTOL variant.", "STOVL operation is made possible through a patented shaft-driven LiftFan propulsion system.", "This would enable identical aerodynamic configuration for the STOVL and CTOL variants, while the CV variant would have an enlarged wing to reduce landing speed for carrier recovery.", "Due to aerodynamic characteristics and carrier recovery requirements from the JAST merger, the design configuration settled on a conventional tail compared to the canard delta design from the ASTOVL/CALF; notably, the conventional tail configuration offers much lower risk for carrier recovery compared to the ASTOVL/CALF canard configuration, which was designed without carrier compatibility in mind.", "This enabled greater commonality between all three variants, as the commonality goal was important at this design stage.", "Lockheed Martin's prototypes would consist of the X-35A for demonstrating CTOL before converting it to the X-35B for STOVL demonstration and the larger-winged X-35C for CV compatibility demonstration.The X-35A first flew on 24 October 2000 and conducted flight tests for subsonic and supersonic flying qualities, handling, range, and maneuver performance.", "After 28 flights, the aircraft was then converted into the X-35B for STOVL testing, with key changes including the addition of the SDLF, the three-bearing swivel module (3BSM), and roll-control ducts.", "The X-35B would successfully demonstrate the SDLF system by performing stable hover, vertical landing, and short takeoff in less than .", "The X-35C first flew on 16 December 2000 and conducted field landing carrier practice tests.On 26 October 2001, Lockheed Martin was declared the winner and was awarded the System Development and Demonstration (SDD) contract; Pratt & Whitney was separately awarded a development contract for the F135 engine for the JSF.", "The F-35 designation, which was out of sequence with standard DoD numbering, was allegedly determined on the spot by program manager Major General Mike Hough; this came as a surprise even to Lockheed Martin, which had expected the F-24 designation for the JSF.===Design and production===An F-35 wind tunnel testing model in transonic wind tunnel at the Arnold Engineering Development Center|alt=Engineer handling a metallic scale model of jet fighter in wind-tunnelAs the JSF program moved into the System Development and Demonstration phase, the X-35 demonstrator design was modified to create the F-35 combat aircraft.", "The forward fuselage was lengthened by to make room for mission avionics, while the horizontal stabilizers were moved aft to retain balance and control.", "The diverterless supersonic inlet changed from a four-sided to a three-sided cowl shape and was moved aft.", "The fuselage section was fuller, the top surface raised by along the centerline to accommodate weapons bays.", "Following the designation of the X-35 prototypes, the three variants were designated F-35A (CTOL), F-35B (STOVL), and F-35C (CV), all with a design service life of 8,000 hours.", "Prime contractor Lockheed Martin performs overall systems integration and final assembly and checkout (FACO) at Fort Worth, Texas, while Northrop Grumman and BAE Systems supply components for mission systems and airframe.Adding the systems of a fighter aircraft added weight.", "The F-35B gained the most, largely due to a 2003 decision to enlarge the weapons bays for commonality between variants; the total weight growth was reportedly up to , over 8%, causing all STOVL key performance parameter (KPP) thresholds to be missed.", "In December 2003, the STOVL Weight Attack Team (SWAT) was formed to reduce the weight increase; changes included thinned airframe members, smaller weapons bays and vertical stabilizers, less thrust fed to the roll-post outlets, and redesigning the wing-mate joint, electrical elements, and the airframe immediately aft of the cockpit.", "The inlet was also revised to accommodate more powerful, greater mass flow engines.", "Many changes from the SWAT effort were applied to all three variants for commonality.", "By September 2004, these efforts had reduced the F-35B's weight by over , while the F-35A and F-35C were reduced in weight by and respectively.", "The weight reduction work cost $6.2 billion and caused an 18-month delay.The first F-35A prototype, AA-1, being towed to its inauguration ceremony on 7 July 2006The first F-35A, designated AA-1, was rolled out at Fort Worth on 19 February 2006 and first flew on 15 December 2006.In 2006, the F-35 was given the name \"Lightning II\" after the Lockheed P-38 Lightning of World War II.", "Some USAF pilots have nicknamed the aircraft \"Panther\" instead.The aircraft's software was developed as six releases, or Blocks, for SDD.", "The first two Blocks, 1A and 1B, readied the F-35 for initial pilot training and multi-level security.", "Block 2A improved the training capabilities, while 2B was the first combat-ready release planned for the USMC's Initial Operating Capability (IOC).", "Block 3i retains the capabilities of 2B while having new hardware and was planned for the USAF's IOC.", "The final release for SDD, Block 3F, would have full flight envelope and all baseline combat capabilities.", "Alongside software releases, each block also incorporates avionics hardware updates and air vehicle improvements from flight and structural testing.", "In what is known as \"concurrency\", some low rate initial production (LRIP) aircraft lots would be delivered in early Block configurations and eventually upgraded to Block 3F once development is complete.", "After 17,000 flight test hours, the final flight for the SDD phase was completed in April 2018.Like the F-22, the F-35 has been targeted by cyberattacks and technology theft efforts, as well as potential vulnerabilities in the integrity of the supply chain.Testing found several major problems: early F-35B airframes had premature cracking, the F-35C arrestor hook design was unreliable, fuel tanks were too vulnerable to lightning strikes, the helmet display had problems, and more.", "Software was repeatedly delayed due to its unprecedented scope and complexity.", "In 2009, the DoD Joint Estimate Team (JET) estimated that the program was 30 months behind the public schedule.", "In 2011, the program was \"re-baselined\"; that is, its cost and schedule goals were changed, pushing the IOC from the planned 2010 to July 2015.The decision to simultaneously test, fix defects, and begin production was criticized as inefficient; in 2014, Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition Frank Kendall called it \"acquisition malpractice\".", "The three variants shared just 25% of their parts, far below the anticipated commonality of 70%.", "The program received considerable criticism for cost overruns and for the total projected lifetime cost, as well as quality management shortcomings by contractors.The JSF program was expected to cost about $200 billion for acquisition in base-year 2002 dollars when SDD was awarded in 2001.As early as 2005, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) had identified major program risks in cost and schedule.", "The costly delays strained the relationship between the Pentagon and contractors.", "By 2017, delays and cost overruns had pushed the F-35 program's expected acquisition costs to $406.5 billion, with total lifetime cost (i.e., to 2070) to $1.5 trillion in then-year dollars which also includes operations and maintenance.", "The F-35A's unit cost for LRIP Lot 13 was $79.2 million.", "Delays in development and operational test and evaluation pushed full-rate production to 2023.===Upgrades and further development===USAF F-35A at RAF Fairford for RIAT 2018The first combat-capable Block 2B configuration, which had basic air-to-air and strike capabilities, was declared ready by the USMC in July 2015.The Block 3F configuration began operational test and evaluation (OT&E) in December 2018, the completion of which will conclude SDD.", "The F-35 program is also conducting sustainment and upgrade development, with early LRIP aircraft gradually upgraded to the baseline Block 3F standard by 2021.The F-35 is expected to be continually upgraded over its lifetime.", "The first upgrade program, called Continuous Capability Development and Delivery (C2D2) began in 2019 and is currently planned to run to 2024.The near-term development priority of C2D2 is Block 4, which would integrate additional weapons, including those unique to international customers, refresh the avionics, improve ESM capabilities, and add Remotely Operated Video Enhanced Receiver (ROVER) support.", "C2D2 also places greater emphasis on agile software development to enable quicker releases.", "In 2018, the Air Force Life Cycle Management Center (AFLCMC) awarded contracts to General Electric and Pratt & Whitney to develop more powerful and efficient adaptive cycle engines for potential application in the F-35, leveraging the research done under the Adaptive Engine Transition Program (AETP); in 2022, the F-35 Adaptive Engine Replacement (FAER) program was launched to integrate adaptive cycle engines into the aircraft by 2028.Defense contractors have offered upgrades to the F-35 outside of official program contracts.", "In 2013, Northrop Grumman disclosed its development of a directional infrared countermeasures suite, named Threat Nullification Defensive Resource (ThNDR).", "The countermeasure system would share the same space as the Distributed Aperture System (DAS) sensors and acts as a laser missile jammer to protect against infrared-homing missiles.Israel wants more access to the core avionics to include their own equipment.In September 2022, the F-35 delivery was temporarily suspended after determining a Chinese sourced alloy was used in Honeywell pumps.===Procurement and international participation===The United States is the primary customer and financial backer, with planned procurement of 1,763 F-35As for the USAF, 353 F-35Bs and 67 F-35Cs for the USMC, and 273 F-35Cs for the USN.", "Additionally, the United Kingdom, Italy, the Netherlands, Turkey, Australia, Norway, Denmark and Canada have agreed to contribute US$4.375 billion towards development costs, with the United Kingdom contributing about 10% of the planned development costs as the sole Tier 1 partner.", "The initial plan was that the U.S. and eight major partner countries would acquire over 3,100 F-35s through 2035.The three tiers of international participation generally reflect financial stake in the program, the amount of technology transfer and subcontracts open for bid by national companies, and the order in which countries can obtain production aircraft.", "Alongside program partner countries, Israel and Singapore have joined as Security Cooperative Participants (SCP).", "Sales to SCP and non-partner states, including Belgium, Japan, and South Korea, are made through the Pentagon's Foreign Military Sales program.", "Turkey was removed from the F-35 program in July 2019 over security concerns following its purchase of a Russian S-400 surface-to-air missile system." ], [ "Design", "===Overview ===The F-35 is a family of single-engine, supersonic, stealth multirole fighters.", "The second fifth generation fighter to enter US service and the first operational supersonic STOVL stealth fighter, the F-35 emphasizes low observables, advanced avionics and sensor fusion that enable a high level of situational awareness and long range lethality; the USAF considers the aircraft its primary strike fighter for conducting suppression of enemy air defense (SEAD) missions, owing to the advanced sensors and mission systems.33rd FW, F-35B of VMFAT-501 and F-35C of VFA-101 near Eglin AFB, 2014A vortex forming around the body of the aircraftThe F-35 has a wing-tail configuration with two vertical stabilizers canted for stealth.", "Flight control surfaces include leading-edge flaps, flaperons, rudders, and all-moving horizontal tails (stabilators); leading edge root extensions or chines also run forwards to the inlets.", "The relatively short 35-foot wingspan of the F-35A and F-35B is set by the requirement to fit inside USN amphibious assault ship parking areas and elevators; the F-35C's larger wing is more fuel efficient.", "The fixed diverterless supersonic inlets (DSI) use a bumped compression surface and forward-swept cowl to shed the boundary layer of the forebody away from the inlets, which form a Y-duct for the engine.", "Structurally, the F-35 drew upon lessons from the F-22; composites comprise 35% of airframe weight, with the majority being bismaleimide and composite epoxy materials as well as some carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy in later production lots.", "The F-35 is considerably heavier than the lightweight fighters it replaces, with the lightest variant having an empty weight of ; much of the weight can be attributed to the internal weapons bays and the extensive avionics carried.While lacking the top speed of the larger twin-engine F-22, the F-35 is competitive with fourth generation fighters such as the F-16 and F/A-18, especially when they carry weapons because the F-35's internal weapons bay eliminates drag from external stores.", "All variants have a top speed of Mach 1.6, attainable with full internal payload.", "The F135 engine gives good subsonic acceleration and energy, with supersonic dash in afterburner.", "The large stabilitors, leading edge extensions and flaps, and canted rudders provide excellent high alpha (angle-of-attack) characteristics, with a trimmed alpha of 50°.", "Relaxed stability and triplex-redundant fly-by-wire controls provide excellent handling qualities and departure resistance.", "Having over double the F-16's internal fuel, the F-35 has a considerably greater combat radius, while stealth also enables a more efficient mission flight profile.===Sensors and avionics ===the AN/AAQ-40 Electro-Optical Target System (EOTS) under the nose of an F-35The F-35's mission systems are among the most complex aspects of the aircraft.", "The avionics and sensor fusion are designed to enhance the pilot's situational awareness and command and control capabilities and facilitate network-centric warfare.", "Key sensors include the Northrop Grumman AN/APG-81 active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, BAE Systems AN/ASQ-239 Barracuda electronic warfare system, Northrop Grumman/Raytheon AN/AAQ-37 Electro-optical Distributed Aperture System (DAS), Lockheed Martin AN/AAQ-40 Electro-Optical Targeting System (EOTS) and Northrop Grumman AN/ASQ-242 Communications, Navigation, and Identification (CNI) suite.", "The F-35 was designed with sensor intercommunication to provide a cohesive image of the local battlespace and availability for any possible use and combination with one another; for example, the APG-81 radar also acts as a part of the electronic warfare system.Much of the F-35's software was developed in C and C++ programming languages, while Ada83 code from the F-22 was also used; the Block 3F software has 8.6 million lines of code.", "The Green Hills Software Integrity DO-178B real-time operating system (RTOS) runs on integrated core processors (ICPs); data networking includes the IEEE 1394b and Fibre Channel buses.", "To enable fleet software upgrades for the software-defined radio systems and greater upgrade flexibility and affordability, the avionics use commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components when practical.", "The mission systems software, particularly for sensor fusion, was one of the program's most difficult parts and responsible for substantial program delays.AN/APG-81 AESA radar antennaThe APG-81 radar uses electronic scanning for rapid beam agility and incorporates passive and active air-to-air modes, strike modes, and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) capability, with multiple target track-while-scan at ranges in excess of .", "The antenna is tilted backwards for stealth.", "Complementing the radar is the AAQ-37 DAS, which consists of six infrared sensors that provide all-aspect missile launch warning and target tracking; the DAS acts as a situational awareness infrared search-and-track (SAIRST) and gives the pilot spherical infrared and night-vision imagery on the helmet visor.", "The ASQ-239 Barracuda electronic warfare system has ten radio frequency antennas embedded into the edges of the wing and tail for all-aspect radar warning receiver (RWR).", "It also provides sensor fusion of radio frequency and infrared tracking functions, geolocation threat targeting, and multispectral image countermeasures for self-defense against missiles.", "The electronic warfare system is capable of detecting and jamming hostile radars.", "The AAQ-40 EOTS is mounted internally behind a faceted low-observable window under the nose and performs laser targeting, forward-looking infrared (FLIR), and long range IRST functions.", "The ASQ-242 CNI suite uses a half dozen different physical links, including the directional Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL), for covert CNI functions.", "Through sensor fusion, information from radio frequency receivers and infrared sensors are combined to form a single tactical picture for the pilot.", "The all-aspect target direction and identification can be shared via MADL to other platforms without compromising low observability, while Link 16 is present for communication with legacy systems.The F-35 was designed from the outset to incorporate improved processors, sensors, and software enhancements over its lifespan.", "Technology Refresh 3, which includes a new core processor and a new cockpit display, is planned for Lot 15 aircraft.", "Lockheed Martin has offered the Advanced EOTS for the Block 4 configuration; the improved sensor fits into the same area as the baseline EOTS with minimal changes.", "In June 2018, Lockheed Martin picked Raytheon for improved DAS.", "The USAF has studied the potential for the F-35 to orchestrate attacks by unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs) via its sensors and communications equipment.A new radar called the AN/APG-85 is planned for Block 4 F-35s.", "According to the JPO the new radar will be compatible with all three major F-35 variants.", "However, it is unclear if older aircraft will be retrofitted with the new radar.===Stealth and signatures ===The sawtooth design on the landing gear door and access panelsStealth is a key aspect of the F-35's design, and radar cross-section (RCS) is minimized through careful shaping of the airframe and the use of radar-absorbent materials (RAM); visible measures to reduce RCS include alignment of edges, serration of skin panels, and the masking of the engine face and turbine.", "Additionally, the F-35's diverterless supersonic inlet (DSI) uses a compression bump and forward-swept cowl rather than a splitter gap or bleed system to divert the boundary layer away from the inlet duct, eliminating the diverter cavity and further reducing radar signature.", "The RCS of the F-35 has been characterized as lower than a metal golf ball at certain frequencies and angles; in some conditions, the F-35 compares favorably to the F-22 in stealth.", "For maintainability, the F-35's stealth design took lessons learned from prior stealth aircraft such as the F-22; the F-35's radar-absorbent fibermat skin is more durable and requires less maintenance than older topcoats.", "The aircraft also has reduced infrared and visual signatures as well as strict controls of radio frequency emitters to prevent their detection.", "The F-35's stealth design is primarily focused on high-frequency X-band wavelengths; low-frequency radars can spot stealthy aircraft due to Rayleigh scattering, but such radars are also conspicuous, susceptible to clutter, and lack precision.", "To disguise its RCS, the aircraft can mount four Luneburg lens reflectors.Noise from the F-35 caused concerns in residential areas near potential bases for the aircraft, and residents near two such bases—Luke Air Force Base, Arizona, and Eglin Air Force Base (AFB), Florida—requested environmental impact studies in 2008 and 2009 respectively.", "Although the noise levels, in decibels, were comparable to those of prior fighters such as the F-16, the F-35's sound power is stronger—particularly at lower frequencies.", "Subsequent surveys and studies have indicated that the noise of the F-35 was not perceptibly different from the F-16 and F/A-18E/F, though the greater low-frequency noise was noticeable for some observers.===Cockpit ===F-35 cockpit simulatorThe glass cockpit was designed to give the pilot good situational awareness.", "The main display is a 20-by-8-inch (50 by 20 cm) panoramic touchscreen, which shows flight instruments, stores management, CNI information, and integrated caution and warnings; the pilot can customize the arrangement of the information.", "Below the main display is a smaller stand-by display.", "The cockpit has a speech-recognition system developed by Adacel.", "The F-35 does not have a head-up display; instead, flight and combat information is displayed on the visor of the pilot's helmet in a helmet-mounted display system (HMDS).", "The one-piece tinted canopy is hinged at the front and has an internal frame for structural strength.", "The Martin-Baker US16E ejection seat is launched by a twin-catapult system housed on side rails.", "There is a right-hand side stick and throttle hands-on throttle-and-stick system.", "For life support, an onboard oxygen-generation system (OBOGS) is fitted and powered by the Integrated Power Package (IPP), with an auxiliary oxygen bottle and backup oxygen system for emergencies.The F-35's helmet-mounted display systemThe Vision Systems International helmet display is a key piece of the F-35's human-machine interface.", "Instead of the head-up display mounted atop the dashboard of earlier fighters, the HMDS puts flight and combat information on the helmet visor, allowing the pilot to see it no matter which way they are facing.", "Infrared and night vision imagery from the Distributed Aperture System can be displayed directly on the HMDS and enables the pilot to \"see through\" the aircraft.", "The HMDS allows an F-35 pilot to fire missiles at targets even when the nose of the aircraft is pointing elsewhere by cuing missile seekers at high angles off-boresight.", "Each helmet costs $400,000.The HMDS weighs more than traditional helmets, and there is concern that it can endanger lightweight pilots during ejection.Due to the HMDS's vibration, jitter, night-vision and sensor display problems during development, Lockheed Martin and Elbit issued a draft specification in 2011 for an alternative HMDS based on the AN/AVS-9 night vision goggles as backup, with BAE Systems chosen later that year.", "A cockpit redesign would be needed to adopt an alternative HMDS.", "Following progress on the baseline helmet, development on the alternative HMDS was halted in October 2013.In 2016, the Gen 3 helmet with improved night vision camera, new liquid crystal displays, automated alignment and software enhancements was introduced with LRIP lot 7.===Armament ===To preserve its stealth shaping, the F-35 has two internal weapons bays each with two weapons stations.", "The two outboard weapon stations each can carry ordnance up to , or for the F-35B, while the two inboard stations carry air-to-air missiles.", "Air-to-surface weapons for the outboard station include the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM), Paveway series of bombs, Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW), and cluster munitions (Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser).", "The station can also carry multiple smaller munitions such as the GBU-39 Small Diameter Bombs (SDB), GBU-53/B SDB II, and SPEAR 3; up to four SDBs can be carried per station for the F-35A and F-35C, and three for the F-35B.", "The inboard station can carry the AIM-120 AMRAAM and eventually the AIM-260 JATM.", "Two compartments behind the weapons bays contain flares, chaff, and towed decoys.F-35A with all weapon bay doors openF-35A weapon bays with 2 B61 nuclear bombs and 2 AIM-120 AMRAAMThe aircraft can use six external weapons stations for missions that do not require stealth.", "The wingtip pylons each can carry an AIM-9X or AIM-132 ASRAAM and are canted outwards to reduce their radar cross-section.", "Additionally, each wing has a inboard station and a middle station, or for F-35B.", "The external wing stations can carry large air-to-surface weapons that would not fit inside the weapons bays such as the AGM-158 Joint Air to Surface Standoff Missile (JASSM) cruise missile.", "An air-to-air missile load of eight AIM-120s and two AIM-9s is possible using internal and external weapons stations; a configuration of six bombs, two AIM-120s and two AIM-9s can also be arranged.", "The F-35A is armed with a 25 mm GAU-22/A rotary cannon mounted internally near the left wing root with 182 rounds carried; the gun is more effective against ground targets than the 20 mm cannon carried by other USAF fighters.", "The F-35B and F-35C have no internal gun and instead can use a Terma A/S multi-mission pod (MMP) carrying the GAU-22/A and 220 rounds; the pod is mounted on the centerline of the aircraft and shaped to reduce its radar cross-section.", "In lieu of the gun, the pod can also be used for different equipment and purposes, such as electronic warfare, aerial reconnaissance, or rear-facing tactical radar.Lockheed Martin is developing a weapon rack called Sidekick that would enable the internal outboard station to carry two AIM-120s, thus increasing the internal air-to-air payload to six missiles, currently offered for Block 4.Block 4 will also have a rearranged hydraulic line and bracket to allow the F-35B to carry four SDBs per internal outboard station; integration of the MBDA Meteor is also planned.", "The USAF and USN are planning to integrate the AGM-88G AARGM-ER internally in the F-35A and F-35C.", "Norway and Australia are funding an adaptation of the Naval Strike Missile (NSM) for the F-35; designated Joint Strike Missile (JSM), two missiles can be carried internally with an additional four externally.", "Nuclear weapons delivery via internal carriage of the B61 nuclear bomb is planned for Block 4B in 2024.Both hypersonic missiles and direct energy weapons such as solid-state laser are currently being considered as future upgrades.", "Lockheed Martin is studying integrating a fiber laser that uses spectral beam combining multiple individual laser modules into a single high-power beam, which can be scaled to various levels.The USAF plans for the F-35A to take up the close air support (CAS) mission in contested environments; amid criticism that it is not as well suited as a dedicated attack platform, USAF chief of staff Mark Welsh placed a focus on weapons for CAS sorties, including guided rockets, fragmentation rockets that shatter into individual projectiles before impact, and more compact ammunition for higher capacity gun pods.", "Fragmentary rocket warheads create greater effects than cannon shells as each rocket creates a \"thousand-round burst\", delivering more projectiles than a strafing run.===Engine ===The single-engine aircraft is powered by the Pratt & Whitney F135 low-bypass augmented turbofan with rated thrust of at military power and with afterburner.", "Derived from the Pratt & Whitney F119 used by the F-22, the F135 has a larger fan and higher bypass ratio to increase subsonic thrust and fuel efficiency, and unlike the F119, is not optimized for supercruise.", "The engine contributes to the F-35's stealth by having a low-observable augmenter, or afterburner, that incorporates fuel injectors into thick curved vanes; these vanes are covered by ceramic radar-absorbent materials and mask the turbine.", "The stealthy augmenter had problems with pressure pulsations, or \"screech\", at low altitude and high speed early in its development.", "The low-observable axisymmetric nozzle consists of 15 partially overlapping flaps that create a sawtooth pattern at the trailing edge, which reduces radar signature and creates shed vortices that reduce the infrared signature of the exhaust plume.", "Due to the engine's large dimensions, the U.S. Navy had to modify its underway replenishment system to facilitate at-sea logistics support.", "The F-35's Integrated Power Package (IPP) performs power and thermal management and integrates environment control, auxiliary power unit, engine starting, and other functions into a single system.Illustration of the STOVL swivel nozzle, lift fan, and roll-control postsThe F135-PW-600 variant for the F-35B incorporates the Shaft-Driven Lift Fan (SDLF) to allow STOVL operations.", "Designed by Lockheed Martin and developed by Rolls-Royce, the SDLF, also known as the Rolls-Royce LiftSystem, consists of the lift fan, drive shaft, two roll posts, and a \"three-bearing swivel module\" (3BSM).", "The nozzle features three bearings resembling a short cylinder with nonparallel bases.", "As the toothed edges are rotated by motors, the nozzle swivels from being linear with the engine to being perpendicular.", "The thrust vectoring 3BSM nozzle allows the main engine exhaust to be deflected downward at the tail of the aircraft and is moved by a \"fueldraulic\" actuator that uses pressurized fuel as the working fluid.", "Unlike the Harrier's Pegasus engine that entirely uses direct engine thrust for lift, the F-35B's system augments the swivel nozzle's thrust with the lift fan; the fan is powered by the low-pressure turbine through a drive shaft when engaged with a clutch and placed near the front of the aircraft to provide a torque countering that of the 3BSM nozzle.", "Roll control during slow flight is achieved by diverting unheated engine bypass air through wing-mounted thrust nozzles called roll posts.An alternative engine, the General Electric/Rolls-Royce F136, was being developed in the 2000s; originally, F-35 engines from Lot 6 onward were competitively tendered.", "Using technology from the General Electric YF120, the F136 was claimed to have a greater temperature margin than the F135 due to the higher mass flow design making full use of the inlet.", "The F136 was canceled in December 2011 due to lack of funding.The F-35 is expected to receive propulsion upgrades over its lifecycle to adapt to emerging threats and enable additional capabilities.", "In 2016, the Adaptive Engine Transition Program (AETP) was launched to develop and test adaptive cycle engines, with one major potential application being the re-engining of the F-35; in 2018, both GE and P&W were awarded contracts to develop thrust class demonstrators, with the designations XA100 and XA101 respectively.", "In addition to potential re-engining, P&W also plans to improve the baseline F135; in 2017, P&W announced the F135 Growth Option 1.0 and 2.0; Growth Option 1.0 was a drop-in power module upgrade that offered 6–10% thrust improvement and 5–6% fuel burn reduction, while Growth Option 2.0 would be the adaptive cycle XA101.In 2020, P&W shifted its F135 upgrade plan from the Growth Options to a series of Engine Enhancement Packages along with some additional capabilities, while the XA101 became a separate clean-sheet design.", "The capability packages are planned to be incorporated in two-year increments starting in the mid-2020s.In December 2020, GE's XA100 (A100) completed its first successful run.", "GE's detailed design was completed in February 2019, and initial testing at GE's high-altitude test facility in Evendale, Ohio was concluded in May 2021.GE expects that the A100 can enter service with the F-35A and C in 2027 at the earliest.===Maintenance and logistics ===The F-35 is designed to require less maintenance than prior stealth aircraft.", "Some 95% of all field-replaceable parts are \"one deep\"—that is, nothing else needs to be removed to reach the desired part; for instance, the ejection seat can be replaced without removing the canopy.", "The F-35 has a fibermat radar-absorbent material (RAM) baked into the skin, which is more durable, easier to work with, and faster to cure than older RAM coatings; similar coatings are being considered for application on older stealth aircraft such as the F-22.Skin corrosion on the F-22 led the F-35 using a less galvanic corrosion-inducing skin gap filler, fewer gaps in the airframe skin needing filler, and better drainage.", "The flight control system uses electro-hydrostatic actuators rather than traditional hydraulic systems; these controls can be powered by lithium-ion batteries in case of emergency.", "Commonality between variants led to the USMC's first aircraft maintenance Field Training Detachment, which applied USAF lessons to their F-35 operations.The F-35 was initially supported by a computerized maintenance management system named Autonomic Logistics Information System (ALIS).", "In concept, any F-35 can be serviced at any maintenance facility and all parts can be globally tracked and shared as needed.", "Due to numerous problems, such as unreliable diagnoses, excessive connectivity requirements, and security vulnerabilities, ALIS is being replaced by the cloud-based Operational Data Integrated Network (ODIN).", "From September 2020, ODIN base kits (OBKs) were running ALIS software, as well as ODIN software, first at Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS) Yuma, Arizona, then at Naval Air Station Lemoore, California, in support of Strike Fighter Squadron (VFA) 125 on 16 July 2021, and then Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, in support of the 422nd Test and Evaluation Squadron (TES) on 6 August 2021.In 2022, over a dozen more OBK sites will replace the ALIS's Standard Operating Unit unclassified (SOU-U) servers.", "OBK performance is double that of ALIS." ], [ "Operational history", "===Testing ===The first F-35A, AA-1, conducted its engine run in September 2006 and first flew on 15 December 2006.Unlike all subsequent aircraft, AA-1 did not have the weight optimization from SWAT; consequently, it mainly tested subsystems common to subsequent aircraft, such as the propulsion, electrical system, and cockpit displays.", "This aircraft was retired from flight testing in December 2009 and was used for live-fire testing at NAS China Lake.The first delivered USAF F-35 on its delivery flight to Eglin AFB, July 2011The first F-35B, BF-1, flew on 11 June 2008, while the first weight-optimized F-35A and F-35C, AF-1 and CF-1, flew on 14 November 2009 and 6 June 2010 respectively.", "The F-35B's first hover was on 17 March 2010, followed by its first vertical landing the next day.", "The F-35 Integrated Test Force (ITF) consisted of 18 aircraft at Edwards Air Force Base and Naval Air Station Patuxent River.", "Nine aircraft at Edwards, five F-35As, three F-35Bs, and one F-35C, performed flight sciences testing such as F-35A envelope expansion, flight loads, stores separation, as well as mission systems testing.", "The other nine aircraft at Patuxent River, five F-35Bs and four F-35Cs, were responsible for F-35B and C envelope expansion and STOVL and CV suitability testing.", "Additional carrier suitability testing was conducted at Naval Air Warfare Center Aircraft Division at Lakehurst, New Jersey.", "Two non-flying aircraft of each variant were used to test static loads and fatigue.", "For testing avionics and mission systems, a modified Boeing 737-300 with a duplication of the cockpit, the Lockheed Martin CATBird has been used.", "Field testing of the F-35's sensors were conducted during Exercise Northern Edge 2009 and 2011, serving as significant risk-reduction steps.Flight tests revealed several serious deficiencies that required costly redesigns, caused delays, and resulted in several fleet-wide groundings.", "In 2011, the F-35C failed to catch the arresting wire in all eight landing tests; a redesigned tail hook was delivered two years later.", "By June 2009, many of the initial flight test targets had been accomplished but the program was behind schedule.", "Software and mission systems were among the biggest sources of delays for the program, with sensor fusion proving especially challenging.", "In fatigue testing, the F-35B suffered several premature cracks, requiring a redesign of the structure.", "A third non-flying F-35B is currently planned to test the redesigned structure.", "The F-35B and C also had problems with the horizontal tails suffering heat damage from prolonged afterburner use.", "Early flight control laws had problems with \"wing drop\" and also made the airplane sluggish, with high angles-of-attack tests in 2015 against an F-16 showing a lack of energy.ski-jump of HMS ''Queen Elizabeth'', 2018At-sea testing of the F-35B was first conducted aboard .", "In October 2011, two F-35Bs conducted three weeks of initial sea trials, called Development Test I.", "The second F-35B sea trials, Development Test II, began in August 2013, with tests including nighttime operations; two aircraft completed 19 nighttime vertical landings using DAS imagery.", "The first operational testing involving six F-35Bs was done on the ''Wasp'' in May 2015.The final Development Test III on involving operations in high sea states was completed in late 2016.A Royal Navy F-35 conducted the first \"rolling\" landing on board in October 2018.USN F-35C makes the aircraft's first arrested landing aboard the carrier off the coast of San DiegoAfter the redesigned tail hook arrived, the F-35C's carrier-based Development Test I began in November 2014 aboard and focused on basic day carrier operations and establishing launch and recovery handling procedures.", "Development Test II, which focused on night operations, weapons loading, and full power launches, took place in October 2015.The final Development Test III was completed in August 2016, and included tests of asymmetric loads and certifying systems for landing qualifications and interoperability.", "Operational test of the F-35C began in 2018.The F-35's reliability and availability have fallen short of requirements, especially in the early years of testing.", "The ALIS maintenance and logistics system was plagued by excessive connectivity requirements and faulty diagnoses.", "In late 2017, the GAO reported the time needed to repair an F-35 part averaged 172 days, which was \"twice the program's objective,\" and that shortage of spare parts was degrading readiness.", "In 2019, while individual F-35 units have achieved mission-capable rates of over the target of 80% for short periods during deployed operations, fleet-wide rates remained below target.", "The fleet availability goal of 65% was also not met, although the trend shows improvement.", "Gun accuracy of the F-35A remains unacceptable.", "As of 2020, the number of the program's most serious issues have been decreased by half.Operational test and evaluation (OT&E) with Block 3F, the final configuration for SDD, began in December 2018.===United States=======Training====A pair of F-35Cs and F/A-18E/Fs fly over NAS Fallon, home of TOPGUN, in September 2015.The F-35A and F-35B were cleared for basic flight training in early 2012, although there were concerns over safety and performance due to lack of system maturity at the time.", "During the Low Rate Initial Production (LRIP) phase, the three U.S. military services jointly developed tactics and procedures using flight simulators, testing effectiveness, discovering problems and refining design.", "On 10 September 2012, the USAF began an operational utility evaluation (OUE) of the F-35A, including logistical support, maintenance, personnel training, and pilot execution.The USMC F-35B Fleet Replacement Squadron (FRS) was initially based at Eglin AFB in 2012 alongside USAF F-35A training units, before moving to MCAS Beaufort in 2014 while another FRS was stood up at MCAS Miramar in 2020.The USAF F-35A basic course is held at Eglin AFB and Luke AFB; in January 2013, training began at Eglin with capacity for 100 pilots and 2,100 maintainers at once.", "Additionally, the 6th Weapons Squadron of the USAF Weapons School was activated at Nellis AFB in June 2017 for F-35A weapons instructor curriculum while the 65th Aggressor Squadron was reactivated with the F-35A in June 2022 to expand training against adversary stealth aircraft tactics.", "The USN stood up its F-35C FRS in 2012 with VFA-101 at Eglin AFB, but operations would later be transferred and consolidated under VFA-125 at NAS Lemoore in 2019.The F-35C was introduced to the Strike Fighter Tactics Instructor course, or TOPGUN, in 2020 and the additional capabilities of the aircraft greatly revamped the course syllabus.====U.S.", "Marine Corps====On 16 November 2012, the USMC received the first F-35B of VMFA-121 at MCAS Yuma.", "The USMC declared Initial Operational Capability (IOC) for the F-35B in the Block 2B configuration on 31 July 2015 after operational trials, with some limitations in night operations, mission systems, and weapons carriage.", "USMC F-35Bs participated in their first Red Flag exercise in July 2016 with 67 sorties conducted.", "The first F-35B deployment occurred in 2017 at MCAS Iwakuni, Japan; combat employment began in July 2018 from the amphibious assault ship , with the first combat strike on 27 September 2018 against a Taliban target in Afghanistan.JS ''Izumo''.", "In addition to deploying F-35Bs on amphibious assault ships, the USMC plans to disperse the aircraft among austere forward-deployed bases with shelter and concealment to enhance survivability while remaining close to a battlespace.", "Known as distributed STOVL operations (DSO), F-35Bs would operate from temporary bases in allied territory within hostile missile engagement zones and displace inside the enemy's 24- to 48-hour targeting cycle; this strategy allows F-35Bs to rapidly respond to operational needs, with mobile forward arming and refueling points (M-FARPs) accommodating KC-130 and MV-22 Osprey aircraft to rearm and refuel the jets, as well as littoral areas for sea links of mobile distribution sites.", "For higher echelons of maintenance, F-35Bs would return from M-FARPs to rear-area friendly bases or ships.", "Helicopter-portable metal planking is needed to protect unprepared roads from the F-35B's exhaust; the USMC are studying lighter heat-resistant options.", "These operations have become part of the larger USMC Expeditionary Advanced Base Operations (EABO) concept.The first USMC F-35C squadron, VMFA-314, achieved Full Operational Capability in July 2021 and was first deployed on board the USS ''Abraham Lincoln'' as a part of Carrier Air Wing 9 in January 2022.====U.S.", "Air Force====USAF F-35A in the Block 3i configuration achieved IOC with the USAF's 34th Fighter Squadron at Hill Air Force Base, Utah on 2 August 2016.F-35As conducted their first Red Flag exercise in 2017; system maturity had improved and the aircraft scored a kill ratio of 15:1 against an F-16 aggressor squadron in a high-threat environment.", "The first USAF F-35A deployment occurred on 15 April 2019 to Al Dhafra Air Base, UAE.", "On 27 April 2019, USAF F-35As were first used in combat in an airstrike on an Islamic State tunnel network in northern Iraq.For European basing, RAF Lakenheath in the UK was chosen as the first installation to station two F-35A squadrons, with 48 aircraft adding to the 48th Fighter Wing's existing F-15C and F-15E squadrons.", "The first aircraft of the 495th Fighter Squadron arrived in 15 December 2021.The F-35's operating cost is higher than some older USAF tactical aircraft.", "In fiscal year 2018, the F-35A's cost per flight hour (CPFH) was $44,000, a number that was reduced to $35,000 in 2019.For comparison, in 2015 the CPFH of the A-10 was $17,716; the F-15C, $41,921; and the F-16C, $22,514.Lockheed Martin hopes to reduce it to $25,000 by 2025 through performance-based logistics and other measures.====U.S.", "Navy====The USN achieved operational status with the F-35C in Block 3F on 28 February 2019.On 2 August 2021, the F-35C of VFA-147, as well as the CMV-22 Osprey, embarked on their maiden deployments as part of Carrier Air Wing 2 on board the .===United Kingdom===No.", "617 Squadron landing on HMS ''Queen Elizabeth'', 2019|alt=The United Kingdom's Royal Air Force and Royal Navy both operate the F-35B, known simply as the Lightning in British service; it has replaced the Harrier GR9, which was retired in 2010, and Tornado GR4, which was retired in 2019.The F-35 is to be Britain's primary strike aircraft for the next three decades.", "One of the Royal Navy's requirements for the F-35B was a Shipborne Rolling and Vertical Landing (SRVL) mode to increase maximum landing weight by using wing lift during landing.", "When operating on the aircraft carriers HMS ''Queen Elizabeth'' and , British F-35Bs use ski-jumps.", "The Italian Navy use the same process.", "British F-35Bs are not intended to use the Brimstone 2 missile.", "In July 2013, Chief of the Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal Sir Stephen Dalton announced that No.", "617 (''The Dambusters'') Squadron would be the RAF's first operational F-35 squadron.", "The second operational squadron will be the Fleet Air Arm's 809 Naval Air Squadron which will stand up in April 2023 or later.No.", "17 (Reserve) Test and Evaluation Squadron (TES) stood-up on 12 April 2013 as the Operational Evaluation Unit for the Lightning, becoming the first British squadron to operate the type.", "By June 2013, the RAF had received three F-35s of the 48 on order, initially based at Eglin Air Force Base.", "In June 2015, the F-35B undertook its first launch from a ski-jump at NAS Patuxent River.", "On 5 July 2017, it was announced the second UK-based RAF squadron would be No.", "207 Squadron, which reformed on 1 August 2019 as the Lightning Operational Conversion Unit.", "No.", "617 Squadron reformed on 18 April 2018 during a ceremony in Washington, D.C., becoming the first RAF front-line squadron to operate the type; receiving its first four F-35Bs on 6 June, flying from MCAS Beaufort to RAF Marham.", "On 10 January 2019, No.", "617 Squadron and its F-35s were declared combat ready.In April 2019, No.", "617 Squadron deployed to RAF Akrotiri, Cyprus, the type's first overseas deployment.", "On 25 June 2019, the first combat use of an RAF F-35B was reportedly undertaken as armed reconnaissance flights searching for Islamic State targets in Iraq and Syria.", "In October 2019, ''the Dambusters'' and No.", "17 TES F-35s were embarked on HMS ''Queen Elizabeth'' for the first time.", "No.", "617 Squadron departed RAF Marham on 22 January 2020 for their first Exercise Red Flag with the Lightning.", "As of November 2022, 26 F-35Bs were based in the United Kingdom (with 617 and 207 Squadrons) and a further three were permanently based in the United States (with 17 Squadron) for testing and evaluation purposes.=== Australia ===An RAAF F-35A at the 2019 Australian International Airshow in Avalon, VictoriaAustralia's first F-35, designated A35-001, was manufactured in 2014, with flight training provided through international Pilot Training Centre (PTC) at Luke Air Force Base in Arizona.", "The first two F-35s were unveiled to the Australian public on 3 March 2017 at the Avalon Airshow.", "By 2021, the Royal Australian Air Force had accepted 26 F-35As, with nine in the US and 17 operating at No 3 Squadron and No 2 Operational Conversion Unit at RAAF Base Williamtown.", "With 41 trained RAAF pilots and 225 trained technicians for maintenance, the fleet was declared ready to deploy on operations.", "It is expected that Australia will receive all 72 F-35s by 2023.=== Israel ===253 Squadron F-16I Sufa) on its debut flight in Israel, December 2016The Israeli Air Force (IAF) declared the F-35 operationally capable on 6 December 2017.According to Kuwaiti newspaper ''Al Jarida'', in July 2018, a test mission of at least three IAF F-35s flew to Iran's capital Tehran and back to Tel Aviv.", "While publicly unconfirmed, regional leaders acted on the report; Iran's supreme leader Ali Khamenei reportedly fired the air force chief and commander of Iran's Revolutionary Guard Corps over the mission.On 22 May 2018, IAF chief Amikam Norkin said that the service had employed their F-35Is in two attacks on two battle fronts, marking the first combat operation of an F-35 by any country.", "Norkin said it had been flown \"all over the Middle East\", and showed photos of an F-35I flying over Beirut in daylight.", "In July 2019, Israel expanded its strikes against Iranian missile shipments; IAF F-35Is allegedly struck Iranian targets in Iraq twice.In November 2020, the IAF announced the delivery of a unique F-35I testbed aircraft among a delivery of four aircraft received in August, to be used to test and integrate Israeli-produced weapons and electronic systems on F-35s received later.", "This is the only example of a testbed F-35 delivered to a non-US air force.On 11 May 2021, eight IAF F-35Is took part in an attack on 150 targets in Hamas' rocket array, including 50–70 launch pits in the northern Gaza Strip, as part of Operation Guardian of the Walls.On 6 March 2022, the IDF stated that on 15 March 2021, F-35Is shot down two Iranian drones carrying weapons to the Gaza Strip.", "This was the first operational shoot down and interception carried out by the F-35.They were also used in the Israel–Hamas war.On 2 November 2023, the IDF posted on social media that they used an F-35I to shoot down a Houthi cruise missile over the Red Sea that was fired from Yemen during the Israel-Hamas War.===Italy===Italy's F-35As were declared to have reached initial operational capability (IOC) on 30 November 2018.At the time Italy had taken delivery of 10 F-35As and one F-35B, with 2 F-35As and the one F-35B being stationed in the U.S. for training, the remaining 8 F-35As were stationed in Amendola.===Japan===Japan's F-35As were declared to have reached initial operational capability (IOC) on 29 March 2019.At the time Japan had taken delivery of 10 F-35As stationed in Misawa Air Base.", "Japan plans to eventually acquire a total of 147 F-35s, which will include 42 F-35Bs.", "It plans to use the latter variant to equip Japan's s.===Norway===First Norwegian F-35 Lightning II at Luke Air Force BaseOn 6 November 2019 Norway declared initial operational capability (IOC) for its fleet of 15 F-35As out of a planned 52 F-35As.", "On 6 January 2022 Norway's F-35As replaced its F-16s for the NATO quick reaction alert mission in the high north.On 22 September 2023, two F-35As from the Royal Norwegian Air Force landed on a motorway near Tervo, Finland, showing, for the first time, that F-35As can operate from paved roads.", "Unlike the F-35B they cannot land vertically.", "The fighters were also refueled with their engines running.", "Commander of the Royal Norwegian Air Force, Major General Rolf Folland, said: \"Fighter jets are vulnerable on the ground, so by being able to use small airfields – and now motorways – (this) increases our survivability in war,\"===Netherlands===On 27 December 2021 the Netherlands declared initial operational capability (IOC) for its fleet of 24 F-35As that it has received to date from its order for 46 F-35As.", "In 2022, the Netherlands announced they will order an additional six F-35s, totaling 52 aircraft ordered." ], [ "Variants", "The F-35 was designed with three initial variants – the F-35A, a CTOL land-based version; the F-35B, a STOVL version capable of use either on land or on aircraft carriers; and the F-35C, a CATOBAR carrier-based version.", "Since then, there has been work on the design of nationally specific versions for Israel and Canada.===F-35A===The F-35A is the conventional take-off and landing (CTOL) variant intended for the USAF and other air forces.", "It is the smallest, lightest version and capable of 9 g, the highest of all variants.Although the F-35A currently conducts aerial refueling via boom and receptacle method, the aircraft can be modified for probe-and-drogue refueling if needed by the customer.", "A drag chute pod can be installed on the F-35A, with the Royal Norwegian Air Force being the first operator to adopt it.===F-35B===F-35B cutaway with lift fanThe F-35B is the short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) variant of the aircraft.", "Similar in size to the A variant, the B sacrifices about a third of the A variant's fuel volume to accommodate the SDLF.", "This variant is limited to 7 g. Unlike other variants, the F-35B has no landing hook.", "The \"STOVL/HOOK\" control instead engages conversion between normal and vertical flight.", "The F-35B is capable of Mach 1.6 (1,976 km/h) and can perform vertical and/or short take-off and landing (V/STOL).===F-35C===The F-35C is a carrier-based variant designed for catapult-assisted take-off, barrier arrested recovery operations from aircraft carriers.", "Compared to the F-35A, the F-35C features larger wings with foldable wingtip sections, larger control surfaces for improved low-speed control, stronger landing gear for the stresses of carrier arrested landings, a twin-wheel nose gear, and a stronger tailhook for use with carrier arrestor cables.", "The larger wing area allows for decreased landing speed while increasing both range and payload.", "The F-35C is limited to 7.5 g.===F-35I \"Adir\"===The F-35I ''Adir'' (, meaning \"Awesome\", or \"Mighty One\") is an F-35A with unique Israeli modifications.", "The US initially refused to allow such changes before permitting Israel to integrate its own electronic warfare systems, including sensors and countermeasures.", "The main computer has a plug-and-play function for add-on systems; proposals include an external jamming pod, and new Israeli air-to-air missiles and guided bombs in the internal weapon bays.", "A senior IAF official said that the F-35's stealth may be partly overcome within 10 years despite a 30 to 40-year service life, thus Israel's insistence on using their own electronic warfare systems.", "Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI) has considered a two-seat F-35 concept; an IAI executive noted: \"There is a known demand for two seats not only from Israel but from other air forces\".", "IAI plans to produce conformal fuel tanks.Israel has ordered a total of 75 F-35Is, with 36 already delivered as of November 2022.===Proposed variants=======CF-35====The Canadian CF-35 was a proposed variant that would differ from the F-35A through the addition of a drogue parachute and the potential inclusion of an F-35B/C-style refueling probe.", "In 2012, it was revealed that the CF-35 would employ the same boom refueling system as the F-35A.", "One alternative proposal would have been the adoption of the F-35C for its probe refueling and lower landing speed; however, the Parliamentary Budget Officer's report cited the F-35C's limited performance and payload as being too high a price to pay.", "Following the 2015 Federal Election the Liberal Party, whose campaign had included a pledge to cancel the F-35 procurement, formed a new government and commenced an open competition to replace the existing CF-18 Hornet.", "The CF-35 variant was deemed too expensive to develop, and was never considered.", "The Canadian government decided to not pursue any other modifications in the Future Fighter Capability Project, and instead focused on the potential procurement of the existing F-35A variant.On 28 March 2022, the Canadian Government began negotiations with Lockheed Martin for 88 F-35As to replace the aging fleet of CF-18 fighters starting in 2025.The aircraft are reported to cost up to CA$19bn total with a life-cycle cost estimated at CA$77bn over the course of the F-35 program.", "On 9 January 2023, Canada formally confirmed the purchase of 88 aircraft with an initial delivery of 16 aircraft to the Royal Canadian Air Force in 2026 and the final batch in 2032.The additional characteristics confirmed for the CF-35 included the drag chute pod for landings at short/icy arctic runways, as well as the 'sidekick' system, which allows the CF-35 to carry up to 6 x AIM-120D missiles internally (instead of the typical internal capacity of 4 x AIM-120 missiles on other variants).====New export variant====In December 2021, it was reported that Lockheed Martin was developing a new variant for an unspecified foreign customer.", "The Department of Defense released US$49 million in funding for this work.====\"F-35D\" (notional concept)====The \"F-35D\" was used as a notional 2035 aircraft to illustrate a hypothetical scenario as part of a 2015 USAF study called the Future Operating Concept.==Operators ==\tOne of the RAAF's first two F-35As in December 2014A Japan Air Self-Defense Force F-35A in flightFirst four RAF F-35Bs on a delivery flight to RAF Marham, June 2018USN F-35C performs a touch-and-go landing aboard Republic of Korea Air Force F-35A;* Royal Australian Air Force – 50 F-35A delivered , of 72 ordered.", ";* Belgian Air Component – 1 delivered, 34 F-35A planned .", ";*Royal Canadian Air Force - 88 F-35As ordered in January 2023.;* Royal Danish Air Force – 10 F-35As delivered (including 6 stationed at Luke AFB for training) of the 27 planned for the RDAF.", ";* Finnish Air Force – F-35A Block 4 selected via the HX Fighter Program to replace the current F/A-18 Hornets.", "64 F-35As on order as of 2022.;* German Air Force – 35 F-35A ordered .", ";* Israeli Air Force – 39 delivered (F-35I \"Adir\").", "Includes one F-35 testbed aircraft for indigenous Israeli weapons, electronics and structural upgrades, designated (AS-15).", "A total of 75 ordered.", ";* Italian Air Force – 17 F-35As and 3 F-35B delivered of 60 F-35As and 15 F-35Bs ordered for the Italian Air Force.", "* Italian Navy – 3 delivered , out of 15 F-35Bs ordered for the Italian Navy.", ";* Japan Air Self-Defense Force – 27 F-35As operational as of March 2022 with a total order of 147, including 105 F-35As and 42 F-35Bs.", ";* Royal Netherlands Air Force – 39 F-35As delivered and operational, of which 8 trainer aircraft based at Luke Air Force Base in the USA.", "52 F-35As ordered in total.", ";* Royal Norwegian Air Force – 31 F-35As delivered and operational, of which 21 are in Norway and 10 are based in the US for training as of 11 August 2021 of 52 F-35As planned in total.", "They differ from other F-35A through the addition of a drogue parachute.", ";* Polish Air Force – 32 F-35A Block 4 jets with \"Technology Refresh 3\" software update and drogue parachutes were ordered on 31 January 2020.The deliveries are expected to begin in 2024 and conclude in 2030.There are plans for two more squadrons consisting of 16 jets each, for a total of 32 additional F-35s.", ";* Republic of Korea Air Force – 40 F-35As ordered and delivered as of January 2022, with 25 more ordered in September 2023.", "* Republic of Korea Navy – about 20 F-35Bs planned.", "It has not yet been approved by South Korean parliament.", ";* Republic of Singapore Air Force – 12 F-35Bs to be ordered as of February 2023.;* Swiss Air Force – 36 F-35A ordered to replace the current F-5E/F Tiger II and F/A-18C/D Hornet.", "Deliveries will begin in 2027 and conclude in 2030.;* Royal Air Force and Royal Navy (owned by the RAF but jointly operated) – 32 F-35Bs received with 28 in the UK after the loss of one aircraft in November 2021; the other three are in the US where they are used for testing and training.", "42 (24 FOC fighters and 18 training aircraft) originally intended to be fast-tracked by 2023; A total of 48 ordered as of 2021; a total of 138 were originally planned, the expectation in 2021 was to eventually reach around 60 or 80.In 2022, it was announced that the UK would acquire 74 F-35Bs, with a decision on whether or not to go beyond that number, including the possibility of reviving the original plan of 138 aircraft, to be made in the mid-2020s.", "In February 2024 the United Kingdom appeared to signal a reaffirmation of its commitment to procure 138 F-35B aircraft, as per the original plan.", ";* United States Air Force – 234 delivered with 1,372 F-35As planned* United States Marine Corps – 112 F-35B/C delivered with 353 F-35Bs and 67 F-35Cs planned* United States Navy – 30 delivered with 273 F-35Cs planned=== Potential operators ===; * Hellenic Air Force – Greece plans to buy 20 F-35 fighters with an option to buy 28 more, as part of its multi-billion euro defense modernization program.", "In January 2024, a proposed foreign military sale for 40 F-35s was sent to U.S. Congress for approval.", ";*Czech Air Force – The U.S. State Department approved a possible sale to the Czech Republic of F-35 aircraft, munitions and related equipment worth up to $5.62 billion, according to a 29 June 2023 announcement.", "On 29 January 2024, the Czech government signed a memorandum of understanding with the United States for the purchase 24 of F-35A fighters.===Order and approval cancellations===;* Republic of China Air Force – Taiwan has requested to buy the F-35 from the US.", "However this has been rejected by the US in fear of a critical response from China.", "In March 2009 Taiwan again was looking to buy U.S. fifth-generation fighter jets featuring stealth and vertical takeoff capabilities.", "However, in September 2011, during a visit to the US, the Deputy Minister of National Defense of Taiwan confirmed that while the country was busy upgrading its current F-16s it was still also looking to procure a next-generation aircraft such as the F-35.This received the usual critical response from China.", "Taiwan renewed its push for an F-35 purchase during Donald Trump's presidency in early 2017, again causing criticism from China.", "In March 2018, Taiwan once again reiterated its interest in the F-35 in light of an anticipated round of arms procurement from the United States.", "The F-35B STOVL variant is reportedly the political favorite as it would allow the Republic of China Air Force to continue operations after its limited number of runways were to be bombed in an escalation with the People's Republic of China.", "In April 2018 however it became clear that the U.S. government was reluctant about selling the F-35 to Taiwan over worries of Chinese spies within the Taiwanese Armed Forces, possibly compromising classified data concerning the aircraft and granting Chinese military officials access.", "In November 2018, it was reported that Taiwanese military leadership had abandoned the procurement of the F-35 in favor of a larger number of F-16V Viper aircraft.", "The decision was reportedly motivated by concerns about industry independence, as well as cost and previously raised espionage concerns.", ";* Royal Thai Air Force – 8 or 12 planned to replace F-16A/B Block 15 ADF in service.", "On 12 January 2022, Thailand's cabinet approved a budget for the first four F-35A, estimated at 13.8 billion baht in FY2023.On 22 May 2023, the United States Department of Defense implied it will turn down Thailand's bid to buy F-35 fighters, and instead offer F-16 Block 70/72 Viper and F-15EX Eagle II fighters, a Royal Thai Air Force source said.", ";* Turkish Air Force – 30 were ordered, of up to 100 total planned.", "Future purchases have been banned by the U.S. with contracts canceled by early 2020, following Turkey's decision to buy the S-400 missile system from Russia.", "Six of Turkey's 30 ordered F-35As were completed as of 2019 (they are still kept in a hangar in the United States as of 2023 and so far haven't been transferred to the USAF, despite a modification in the 2020 Fiscal Year defense budget by the U.S. Congress which gives authority to do so if necessary), and two more were at the assembly line in 2020.The first four F-35As were delivered to Luke Air Force Base in 2018 and 2019 for the training of Turkish pilots.", "On July 20, 2020, the U.S. government had formally approved the seizure of eight F-35As originally bound for Turkey and their transfer to the USAF, together with a contract to modify them to USAF specifications.", "The U.S. has not refunded the $1.4 billion payment made by Turkey for purchasing the F-35A fighters as of January 2023.On 1 February 2024, the United States expressed a willingness to readmit Turkey into the F-35 program if the S-400 issue is resolved.", ";* United Arab Emirates Air Force – Up to 50 F-35As planned.", "But on 27 January 2021, the Biden administration temporarily suspended the F-35 sales to the UAE.", "After pausing the bill to review the sale, the Biden administration confirmed to move forward with the deal on 13 April 2021.In December 2021 UAE withdrew from purchasing F-35s as they did not agree to the additional terms of the transaction from the US." ], [ "Accidents and notable incidents", "On 23 June 2014, an F-35A's engine caught fire at Eglin AFB.", "The pilot escaped unharmed, while the aircraft sustained an estimated US$50 million in damage.", "The accident caused all flights to be halted on 3 July.", "The fleet returned to flight on 15 July with flight envelope restrictions.", "In June 2015, the USAF Air Education and Training Command (AETC) issued its official report, which blamed the failure on the third stage rotor of the engine's fan module, pieces of which cut through the fan case and upper fuselage.", "Pratt & Whitney applied an extended \"rub-in\" to increase the gap between the second stator and the third rotor integral arm seal, as well as design alterations to pre-trench the stator by early 2016.On 28 September 2018, the first crash occurred involving a USMC F-35B near Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort, South Carolina; the pilot ejected safely.", "The crash was attributed to a faulty fuel tube; all F-35s were grounded on 11 October pending a fleet-wide inspection of the tubes.", "The next day, most USAF and USN F-35s returned to flight status following the inspection.On 9 April 2019, a JASDF F-35A attached to Misawa Air Base disappeared from radar about east of the Aomori Prefecture during a training mission over the Pacific Ocean.", "The pilot, Major Akinori Hosomi, had radioed his intention to abort the drill before disappearing.", "The US and Japanese navies searched for the missing aircraft and pilot, finding debris on the water that confirmed its crash; Hosomi's remains were recovered in June.", "In response, Japan grounded its 12 F-35As.", "There was speculation that China or Russia might attempt to salvage it; the Japanese Defense Ministry announced there had been no \"reported activities\" from either country.", "The F-35 reportedly did not send a distress signal nor did the pilot attempt any recovery maneuvers as it descended at a rapid rate.", "The accident report attributed the cause to the pilot's spatial disorientation.On 19 May 2020, a USAF F-35A from the 58th Fighter Squadron crashed while landing at Eglin AFB.", "The pilot ejected and was in stable condition.", "The accident was attributed to a combination of pilot error induced by fatigue, a design issue with the oxygen system and the aircraft's more complex nature being distracting, as well as a malfunctioning head-mounted display and an unresponsive flight control system.On 29 September 2020, a USMC F-35B crashed in Imperial County, California, after colliding with a Marine Corps KC-130 during air-to-air refuelling.", "The F-35B pilot was injured in the ejection, and the KC-130 crash-landed in a field without deploying its landing gear.On 12 March 2021, during a close air support weapons training night-time flight near Marine Corps Air Station Yuma, Arizona, a round fired from the belly-mounted gunpod on a F-35B, a 25mm GAU/A gatling gun, detonated shortly after leaving the barrel of the gun.", "This specific round fired was a PGU-32/B SAPHEI-T (semi armor piercing high explosive incendiary-tracer), which is designed to detonate after the round has penetrated the target's armor, beginning a fuze delayed explosion and then spread the incendiary material.", "These rounds are also equipped with graze detection, meaning even with a slight grazing blow to a target they will explode and spread the incendiary substance.", "The mishap was classified as a Class C, meaning the damage incurred a cost of between $60,000-$600,000 to repair, and/or a nonfatal injury forcing lost time from work for the remainder of the working day that the injury occurred.", "The aircraft itself was grounded for maintenance for over three months, but the pilot was uninjured.", "The shrapnel from the round penetrated several parts of the aircraft, requiring their replacement.On 17 November 2021, a Royal Air Force 617 Squadron F-35B crashed during routine operations in the Mediterranean.", "The pilot was safely recovered to HMS ''Queen Elizabeth''.", "The wreckage, including all security sensitive equipment, was largely recovered with the assistance of U.S. and Italian forces.", "The crash was officially determined to have been caused by an engine blanking plug left in the intake.On 4 January 2022, a South Korean Air Force F-35A made a belly landing after all systems failed except the flight controls and the engine.", "The pilot heard a series of bangs during low altitude flight, and various systems stopped working.", "The control tower suggested that the pilot eject, but he managed to land the plane without deploying the landing gear, walking away uninjured.On 24 January 2022, a USN F-35C with VFA-147 suffered a ramp strike while landing on the and was lost overboard in the South China Sea, injuring seven crew members.", "The pilot ejected safely and was recovered from the water.", "On 2 March 2022, the aircraft was recovered from a depth of approximately with the aid of a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) and DSCV ''Picasso'', a deep-diving ship.On 19 October 2022, an F-35A crashed at the North end of the runway at Hill Air Force Base in Utah.", "The pilot safely ejected and was unharmed.", "The cause of the crash was due to errors in the air data system from the wake turbulence of a preceding aircraft, which resulted in several rapid transitions between the primary and backup flight conditions data sources; these rapid transitions then caused the accumulation of reset values, resulting in the flight control laws operating on inaccurate flight conditions data and the departure from controlled flight.On 15 December 2022, an F-35B crashed during a failed vertical landing at Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth in Texas.", "The pilot ejected on the ground and was not seriously injured.", "The aircraft was undergoing production test flying by a government pilot and had not yet been delivered by the manufacturer to the US military.On 17 September 2023, a pilot ejected from his F-35B over North Charleston, South Carolina following a \"mishap\" during a training flight out of MCAS Beaufort.", "While the pilot was unharmed, the fighter was not located for about 30 hours.", "An announcement that the fighter's wreckage was found was made in the evening of 18 September 2023." ], [ "Specifications (F-35A)", "F-35A three-view drawing===Differences between variants===F-35ACTOLF-35BSTOVLF-35CCVLengthWingspanHeightWing AreaEmpty weightInternal fuelWeapons payloadMax takeoff weight class class classRange>>>Combat radius oninternal fuelThrust/weight full fuel: 50% fuel:0.871.070.901.040.750.91g limit+9.0+7.0+7.5" ], [ "Appearances in media" ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* * * Lake, Jon.", "\"The West's Great Hope\".", "''AirForces Monthly'', December 2010.", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Official JSF web site * Official F-35 Team web site* F35 Lightning II Northrop Grumman* F-35 page on U.S.", "Naval Air Systems Command site * F-35 – Royal Air Force" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Food additive" ], [ "Introduction", "The different forms of emulsifier lecithin – powder, two different concentration liquids, granular and powder lecithin'''Food additives''' are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance taste, appearance, or other sensory qualities.", "Some additives have been used for centuries as part of an effort to preserve food, for example vinegar (pickling), salt (salting), smoke (smoking), sugar (crystallization), etc.", "This allows for longer-lasting foods such as bacon, sweets or wines.", "With the advent of ultra-processed foods in the second half of the twentieth century, many additives have been introduced, of both natural and artificial origin.", "Food additives also include substances that may be introduced to food indirectly (called \"indirect additives\") in the manufacturing process, through packaging, or during storage or transport." ], [ "Numbering", "To regulate these additives and inform consumers, each additive is assigned a unique number called an \"E number\", which is used in Europe for all approved additives.", "This numbering scheme has now been adopted and extended by the ''Codex Alimentarius'' Commission to internationally identify all additives, regardless of whether they are approved for use.E numbers are all prefixed by \"E\", but countries outside Europe use only the number, whether the additive is approved in Europe or not.For example, acetic acid is written as E260 on products sold in Europe, but is simply known as additive 260 in some countries.", "Additive 103, alkannin, is not approved for use in Europe so does not have an E number, although it is approved for use in Australia and New Zealand.", "Since 1987, Australia has had an approved system of labelling for additives in packaged foods.", "Each food additive has to be named or numbered.", "The numbers are the same as in Europe, but without the prefix \"E\".The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) lists these items as \"generally recognized as safe\" (GRAS); they are listed under both their Chemical Abstracts Service number and FDA regulation under the United States Code of Federal Regulations.", "* See list of food additives for a complete list of all the names.===Categories===Food additives can be divided into several groups, although there is some overlap because some additives exert more than one effect.", "For example, salt is both a preservative as well as a flavor.", ";Acidulants :Acidulants confer sour or acid taste.", "Common acidulants include vinegar, citric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid, fumaric acid, and lactic acid.", ";Acidity regulators : Acidity regulators are used for controlling the pH of foods for stability or to affect activity of enzymes.", ";Anticaking agents : Anticaking agents keep powders such as milk powder from caking or sticking.", ";Antifoaming and foaming agents : Antifoaming agents reduce or prevent foaming in foods.", "Foaming agents do the reverse.", ";Antioxidants : Antioxidants such as vitamin C are preservatives by inhibiting the degradation of food by oxygen.", ";Bulking agents : Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a food without affecting its taste.", ";Food coloring : Colorings are added to food to replace colors lost during preparation or to make food look more attractive.", ";Fortifying agents: Vitamins, minerals, and dietary supplements to increase the nutritional value;Color retention agents : In contrast to colorings, color retention agents are used to preserve a food's existing color.", ";Emulsifiers : Emulsifiers allow water and oils to remain mixed together in an emulsion, as in mayonnaise, ice cream, and homogenized milk.", ";Flavorings* : Flavorings are additives that give food a particular taste or smell, and may be derived from natural ingredients or created artificially.", ":In EU, flavorings do not have an E-code and they are not considered as food additives.", ";Flavor enhancers : Flavor enhancers enhance a food's existing flavors.", "A popular example is monosodium glutamate.", "Some flavor enhancers have their own flavors that are independent of the food.", ";Flour treatment agents : Flour treatment agents are added to flour to improve its color or its use in baking.", ";Glazing agents: Glazing agents provide a shiny appearance or protective coating to foods.", ";Humectants : Humectants prevent foods from drying out.", ";Tracer gas: Tracer gas allows for package integrity testing to prevent foods from being exposed to atmosphere, thus guaranteeing shelf life.", ";Preservatives : Preservatives prevent or inhibit spoilage of food due to fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms.", ";Stabilizers : Stabilizers, thickeners and gelling agents, like agar or pectin (used in jam for example) give foods a firmer texture.", "While they are not true emulsifiers, they help to stabilize emulsions.", ";Sweeteners : Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring.", "Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep the food energy (calories) low, or because they have beneficial effects regarding diabetes mellitus, tooth decay, or diarrhea.", ";Thickeners : Thickening agents are substances which, when added to the mixture, increase its viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties.", ";Packaging : Bisphenols, phthalates, and perfluoroalkyl chemicals (PFCs) are indirect additives used in manufacturing or packaging.", "In July 2018 the American Academy of Pediatrics called for more careful study of those three substances, along with nitrates and food coloring, as they might harm children during development." ], [ "Safety and regulation", "With the increasing use of processed foods since the 19th century, food additives are more widely used.", "Many countries regulate their use.", "For example, boric acid was widely used as a food preservative from the 1870s to the 1920s, but was banned after World War I due to its toxicity, as demonstrated in animal and human studies.", "During World War II, the urgent need for cheap, available food preservatives led to it being used again, but it was finally banned in the 1950s.", "Such cases led to a general mistrust of food additives, and an application of the precautionary principle led to the conclusion that only additives that are known to be safe should be used in foods.", "In the United States, this led to the adoption of the Delaney clause, an amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938, stating that no carcinogenic substances may be used as food additives.", "However, after the banning of cyclamates in the United States and Britain in 1969, saccharin, the only remaining legal artificial sweetener at the time, was found to cause cancer in rats.", "Widespread public outcry in the United States, partly communicated to Congress by postage-paid postcards supplied in the packaging of sweetened soft drinks, led to the retention of saccharin, despite its violation of the Delaney clause.", "However, in 2000, saccharin was found to be carcinogenic in rats due only to their unique urine chemistry.In 2007, Food Standards Australia New Zealand published an official shoppers' guidance with which the concerns of food additives and their labeling are mediated.", "In the EU it can take 10 years or more to obtain approval for a new food additive.", "This includes five years of safety testing, followed by two years for evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and another three years before the additive receives an EU-wide approval for use in every country in the European Union.", "Apart from testing and analyzing food products during the whole production process to ensure safety and compliance with regulatory standards, Trading Standards officers (in the UK) protect the public from any illegal use or potentially dangerous mis-use of food additives by performing random testing of food products.There has been significant controversy associated with the risks and benefits of food additives.", "Natural additives may be similarly harmful or be the cause of allergic reactions in certain individuals.", "For example, safrole was used to flavor root beer until it was shown to be carcinogenic.", "Due to the application of the Delaney clause, it may not be added to foods, even though it occurs naturally in sassafras and sweet basil.===Hyperactivity===Periodically, concerns have been expressed about a linkage between additives and hyperactivity, however \"no clear evidence of ADHD wasprovided\".===Toxicity===In 2012, the EFSA proposed the tier approach to evaluate the potential toxicity of food additives.", "It is based on four dimensions: toxicokinetics (absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion); genotoxicity; subchronic (at least 90 data) and chronic toxicity and carcinogenity; reproductive and developmental toxicity.", "Recent work has demonstrated that certain food additives such as carboxymethylcellulose may cause encroachment of microbes from the gastrointestinal tract into the protective mucus layer that lines the intestines.", "Additional preclinical work suggests that emulsifiers may disrupt the gut microbiome, cause or exacerbate inflammation, and increase intestinal permeability.", "Other food additives in processed foods, such as xanthan gum, have also been shown to influence the ecology of human gut microbiomes and may play a role in the divergence of gut microbiomes in industrialized societies as compared to pre-industrialized societies.", "Although still controversial, some scientists hypothesize that these changes to human gut microbiomes may be a contributing factor to the rise in chronic inflammatory diseases in industrialized populations.===Micronutrients===A subset of food additives, micronutrients added in food fortification processes preserve nutrient value by providing vitamins and minerals to foods such as flour, cereal, margarine and milk which normally would not retain such high levels.", "Added ingredients, such as air, bacteria, fungi, and yeast, also contribute manufacturing and flavor qualities, and reduce spoilage." ], [ "Food Additive Approval in the United States", "The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines a food additive as \"any substance the intended use of which results or may reasonably be expected to result directly or indirectly in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food\".", "In order for a novel food additive to be approved in the U.S., a food additive approval petition (FAP) must be submitted to the FDA.", "The identity of the ingredient, the proposed use in the food system, the technical effect of the ingredient, a method of analysis for the ingredient in foods, information on the manufacturing process, and full safety reports must be defined in a FAP.", "For FDA approval of a FAP, the FDA evaluates the chemical composition of the ingredient, the quantities that would be typically consumed, acute and chronic health impacts, and other safety factors.", "The FDA reviews the petition prior to market approval of the additive." ], [ "Standardization of its derived products", "ISO has published a series of standards regarding the topic and these standards are covered by ICS 67.220." ], [ "See also", "* Color retention agent* Delaney clause* Dietary supplement* E number* Food Chemicals Codex* Food fortification* Food industry* Food processing* Food supplements* Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives* List of food additives* List of food additives, Codex Alimentarius* List of food labeling regulations* List of phytochemicals in food* Organic fertilizer* Pink slime* Processing aid* Smoking* Sugar substitute" ], [ "References" ], [ "Additional sources", "* U.S. Food and Drug Administration.", "(1991).", "''Everything Added to Food in the United States.''", "Boca Raton, Florida: C.K.", "Smoley (c/o CRC Press, Inc.).", "* The Food Labelling Regulations (1984)* Advanced Modular Science, Nelson, Food and Health, by John Adds, Erica Larkcom and Ruth Miller" ], [ "External links", "* WHO fact sheet on food additives* Food Trade's Juicy Secrets, ''Daily Express'', 2007* Everything Added to Food in the United States (EAFUS) i.e.", "Castor oil, etc.", "* EU legislation on food additives* CSPI's guide to food additives, ( PDF)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fridtjof Nansen" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fridtjof Wedel-Jarlsberg Nansen''' (; 10 October 1861 – 13 May 1930) was a Norwegian polymath and Nobel Peace Prize laureate.", "He gained prominence at various points in his life as an explorer, scientist, diplomat, humanitarian and co-founded the Fatherland League.He led the team that made the first crossing of the Greenland interior in 1888, traversing the island on cross-country skis.", "He won international fame after reaching a record northern latitude of 86°14′ during his ''Fram'' expedition of 1893–1896.Although he retired from exploration after his return to Norway, his techniques of polar travel and his innovations in equipment and clothing influenced a generation of subsequent Arctic and Antarctic expeditions.Nansen studied zoology at the Royal Frederick University in Christiania and later worked as a curator at the University Museum of Bergen where his research on the central nervous system of lower marine creatures earned him a doctorate and helped establish neuron doctrine.", "Later, neuroscientist Santiago Ramón y Cajal won the 1906 Nobel Prize in Medicine for his research on the same subject.", "After 1896 his main scientific interest switched to oceanography; in the course of his research he made many scientific cruises, mainly in the North Atlantic, and contributed to the development of modern oceanographic equipment.As one of his country's leading citizens, in 1905 Nansen spoke out for the ending of Norway's union with Sweden, and was instrumental in persuading Prince Carl of Denmark to accept the throne of the newly independent Norway.", "Between 1906 and 1908 he served as the Norwegian representative in London, where he helped negotiate the Integrity Treaty that guaranteed Norway's independent status.In the final decade of his life, Nansen devoted himself primarily to the League of Nations, following his appointment in 1921 as the League's High Commissioner for Refugees.", "In 1922 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work on behalf of the displaced victims of World War I and related conflicts.", "Among the initiatives he introduced was the \"Nansen passport\" for stateless persons, a certificate that used to be recognized by more than 50 countries.", "He worked on behalf of refugees alongside Vidkun Quisling until his sudden death in 1930, after which the League established the Nansen International Office for Refugees to ensure that his work continued.", "This office received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1938.His name is commemorated in numerous geographical features, particularly in the polar regions." ], [ "Family background and childhood", "Nansen in 1865 (age 4)The Nansen family originated from Denmark.", "Hans Nansen (1598–1667), a trader, was an early explorer of the White Sea region of the Arctic Ocean.", "In later life he settled in Copenhagen, becoming the city's ''borgmester'' in 1654.Later generations of the family lived in Copenhagen until the mid-18th century, when Ancher Antoni Nansen moved to Norway (then in a union with Denmark).", "His son, Hans Leierdahl Nansen (1764–1821), was a magistrate first in the Trondheim district, later in Jæren.", "After Norway's separation from Denmark in 1814, he entered national political life as the representative for Stavanger in the first Storting, and became a strong advocate of union with Sweden.", "After suffering a paralytic stroke in 1821 Hans Leierdahl Nansen died, leaving a four-year-old son, Baldur Fridtjof Nansen, the explorer's father.Baldur was a lawyer without ambitions for public life, who became Reporter to the Supreme Court of Norway.", "He married twice, the second time to Adelaide Johanne Thekla Isidore Bølling Wedel-Jarlsberg from Bærum, a niece of Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg who had helped frame the Norwegian constitution of 1814 and was later the Swedish king's Norwegian Viceroy.", "Baldur and Adelaide settled at Store Frøen, an estate at Aker, a few kilometres north of Norway's capital city, Christiania (since renamed Oslo).", "The couple had three children; the first died in infancy, the second, born 10 October 1861, was Fridtjof Wedel-Jarlsberg Nansen.Store Frøen's rural surroundings shaped the nature of Nansen's childhood.", "In the short summers the main activities were swimming and fishing, while in the autumn the chief pastime was hunting for game in the forests.", "The long winter months were devoted mainly to skiing, which Nansen began to practice at the age of two, on improvised skis.", "At the age of 10 he defied his parents and attempted the ski jump at the nearby Huseby installation.", "This exploit had near-disastrous consequences, as on landing the skis dug deep into the snow, pitching the boy forward: \"I, head first, described a fine arc in the air ...", "When I came down again I bored into the snow up to my waist.", "The boys thought I had broken my neck, but as soon as they saw there was life in me ... a shout of mocking laughter went up.\"", "Nansen's enthusiasm for skiing was undiminished, though as he records, his efforts were overshadowed by those of the skiers from the mountainous region of Telemark, where a new style of skiing was being developed.", "\"I saw this was the only way\", wrote Nansen later.At school, Nansen worked adequately without showing any particular aptitude.", "Studies took second place to sports, or to expeditions into the forests where he would live \"like Robinson Crusoe\" for weeks at a time.", "Through such experiences Nansen developed a marked degree of self-reliance.", "He became an accomplished skier and a highly proficient skater.", "Life was disrupted when, in the summer of 1877, Adelaide Nansen died suddenly.", "Distressed, Baldur Nansen sold the Store Frøen property and moved with his two sons to Christiania.", "Nansen's sporting prowess continued to develop; at 18 he broke the world one-mile (1.6 km) skating record, and in the following year won the national cross-country skiing championship, a feat he would repeat on 11 subsequent occasions." ], [ "Student and adventurer", "Christiania (1880, age 19)In 1880 Nansen passed his university entrance examination, the ''examen artium''.", "He decided to study zoology, claiming later that he chose the subject because he thought it offered the chance of a life in the open air.", "He began his studies at the Royal Frederick University in Christiania early in 1881.Early in 1882 Nansen took \"...the first fatal step that led me astray from the quiet life of science.\"", "Professor Robert Collett of the university's zoology department proposed that Nansen take a sea voyage, to study Arctic zoology at first hand.", "Nansen was enthusiastic, and made arrangements through a recent acquaintance, Captain Axel Krefting, commander of the sealer ''Viking''.", "The voyage began on 11 March 1882 and extended over the following five months.", "In the weeks before sealing started, Nansen was able to concentrate on scientific studies.", "From water samples he showed that, contrary to previous assumption, sea ice forms on the surface of the water rather than below.", "His readings also demonstrated that the Gulf Stream flows beneath a cold layer of surface water.", "Through the spring and early summer ''Viking'' roamed between Greenland and Spitsbergen in search of seal herds.", "Nansen became an expert marksman, and on one day proudly recorded that his team had shot 200 seals.", "In July, ''Viking'' became trapped in the ice close to an unexplored section of the Greenland coast; Nansen longed to go ashore, but this was impossible.", "However, he began to develop the idea that the Greenland icecap might be explored, or even crossed.", "On 17 July the ship broke free from the ice, and early in August was back in Norwegian waters.Nansen did not resume formal studies at the university.", "Instead, on Collett's recommendation, he accepted a post as curator in the zoological department of the Bergen Museum.", "He was to spend the next six years of his life there—apart from a six-month sabbatical tour of Europe—working and studying with leading figures such as Gerhard Armauer Hansen, the discoverer of the leprosy bacillus, and Daniel Cornelius Danielssen, the museum's director who had turned it from a backwater collection into a centre of scientific research and education.", "Nansen's chosen area of study was the then relatively unexplored field of neuroanatomy, specifically the central nervous system of lower marine creatures.", "Before leaving for his sabbatical in February 1886 he published a paper summarising his research to date, in which he stated that \"anastomoses or unions between the different ganglion cells\" could not be demonstrated with certainty.", "This unorthodox view was confirmed by the simultaneous research of the embryologist Wilhelm His and the psychiatrist August Forel.", "Nansen is considered the first Norwegian defender of the neuron theory, originally proposed by Santiago Ramón y Cajal.", "His subsequent paper, ''The Structure and Combination of Histological Elements of the Central Nervous System'', published in 1887, became his doctoral thesis." ], [ "Crossing of Greenland", "=== Planning ===Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, whose 1883 expedition had penetrated into the Greenland icecapThe idea of an expedition across the Greenland icecap grew in Nansen's mind throughout his Bergen years.", "In 1887, after the submission of his doctoral thesis, he finally began organising this project.", "Before then, the two most significant penetrations of the Greenland interior had been those of Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld in 1883, and Robert Peary in 1886.Both had set out from Disko Bay on the western coast, and had travelled about eastward before turning back.", "By contrast, Nansen proposed to travel from east to west, ending rather than beginning his trek at Disko Bay.", "A party setting out from the inhabited west coast would, he reasoned, have to make a return trip, as no ship could be certain of reaching the dangerous east coast and picking them up.", "By starting from the east—assuming that a landing could be made there—Nansen's would be a one-way journey towards a populated area.", "The party would have no line of retreat to a safe base; the only way to go would be forward, a situation that fitted Nansen's philosophy completely.Nansen rejected the complex organisation and heavy manpower of other Arctic ventures, and instead planned his expedition for a small party of six.", "Supplies would be manhauled on specially designed lightweight sledges.", "Much of the equipment, including sleeping bags, clothing and cooking stoves, also needed to be designed from scratch.", "These plans received a generally poor reception in the press; one critic had no doubt that \"if the scheme be attempted in its present form ... the chances are ten to one that he will ... uselessly throw his own and perhaps others' lives away\".", "The Norwegian parliament refused to provide financial support, believing that such a potentially risky undertaking should not be encouraged.", "The project was eventually launched with a donation from a Danish businessman, Augustin Gamél; the rest came mainly from small contributions from Nansen's countrymen, through a fundraising effort organised by students at the university.Despite the adverse publicity, Nansen received numerous applications from would-be adventurers.", "He wanted expert skiers, and attempted to recruit from the skiers of Telemark, but his approaches were rebuffed.", "Nordenskiöld had advised Nansen that Sami people, from Finnmark in the far north of Norway, were expert snow travellers, so Nansen recruited a pair, Samuel Balto and Ole Nielsen Ravna.", "The remaining places went to Otto Sverdrup, a former sea-captain who had more recently worked as a forester; Oluf Christian Dietrichson, an army officer, and Kristian Kristiansen, an acquaintance of Sverdrup's.", "All had experience of outdoor life in extreme conditions, and were experienced skiers.", "Just before the party's departure, Nansen attended a formal examination at the university, which had agreed to receive his doctoral thesis.", "In accordance with custom he was required to defend his work before appointed examiners acting as \"devil's advocates\".", "He left before knowing the outcome of this process.=== Expedition ===Greenland expedition, July–October 1888The sealer ''Jason'' picked up Nansen's party on 3 June 1888 from the Icelandic port of Ísafjörður.", "They sighted the Greenland coast a week later, but thick pack ice hindered progress.", "With the coast still away, Nansen decided to launch the small boats.", "They were within sight of Sermilik Fjord on 17 July; Nansen believed it would offer a route up the icecap.The expedition left ''Jason'' \"in good spirits and with the highest hopes of a fortunate result.\"", "Days of extreme frustration followed as they drifted south.", "Weather and sea conditions prevented them from reaching the shore.", "They spent most time camping on the ice itself—it was too dangerous to launch the boats.By 29 July, they found themselves south of the point where they left the ship.", "That day they finally reached land but were too far south to begin the crossing.", "Nansen ordered the team back into the boats after a brief rest and to begin rowing north.", "The party battled northward along the coast through the ice floes for the next 12 days.", "They encountered a large Eskimo encampment on the first day, near Cape Steen Bille.", "Occasional contacts with the nomadic native population continued as the journey progressed.Boats and supplies were stored on Greenland's east coastThe party reached Umivik Bay on 11 August, after covering .", "Nansen decided they needed to begin the crossing.", "Although they were still far south of his intended starting place; the season was becoming too advanced.", "After they landed at Umivik, they spent the next four days preparing for their journey.", "They set out on the evening of 15 August, heading north-west towards Christianhaab on the western shore of Disko Bay— away.Over the next few days, the party struggled to ascend.", "The inland ice had a treacherous surface with many hidden crevasses and the weather was bad.", "Progress stopped for three days because of violent storms and continuous rain one time.", "The last ship was due to leave Christianhaab by mid-September.", "They would not be able to reach it in time, Nansen concluded on 26 August.", "He ordered a change of course due west, towards Godthaab; a shorter journey by at least .", "The rest of the party, according to Nansen, \"hailed the change of plan with acclamation.", "\"They continued climbing until 11 September and reached a height of above sea level.", "Temperatures on the icecap summit of the icecap dropped to at night.", "From then on the downward slope made travelling easier.", "Yet, the terrain was rugged and the weather remained hostile.", "Progress was slow: fresh snowfalls made dragging the sledges like pulling them through sand.On 26 September, they battled their way down the edge of a fjord westward towards Godthaab.", "Sverdrup constructed a makeshift boat out of parts of the sledges, willows, and their tent.", "Three days later, Nansen and Sverdrup began the last stage of the journey; rowing down the fjord.On 3 October, they reached Godthaab, where the Danish town representative greeted them.", "He first informed Nansen that he secured his doctorate, a matter that \"could not have been more remote from Nansen's thoughts at that moment.\"", "The team accomplished their crossing in 49 days.", "Throughout the journey, they maintained meteorological and geographical and other records relating to the previously unexplored interior.The rest of the team arrived in Godthaab on 12 October.", "Nansen soon learned no ship was likely to call at Godthaab until the following spring.", "Still, they were able to send letters back to Norway via a boat leaving Ivigtut at the end of October.", "He and his party spent the next seven months in Greenland.", "On 15 April 1889, the Danish ship ''Hvidbjørnen'' finally entered the harbour.", "Nansen recorded: \"It was not without sorrow that we left this place and these people, among whom we had enjoyed ourselves so well.\"" ], [ "Interlude and marriage", "Fridtjof Nansen and Eva Nansen in autumn 1889''Hvidbjørnen'' reached Copenhagen on 21 May 1889.News of the crossing had preceded its arrival, and Nansen and his companions were feted as heroes.", "This welcome, however, was dwarfed by the reception in Christiania a week later, when crowds of between thirty and forty thousand—a third of the city's population—thronged the streets as the party made its way to the first of a series of receptions.", "The interest and enthusiasm generated by the expedition's achievement led directly to the formation that year of the Norwegian Geographical Society.Nansen accepted the position of curator of the Royal Frederick University's zoology collection, a post which carried a salary but involved no duties; the university was satisfied by the association with the explorer's name.", "Nansen's main task in the following weeks was writing his account of the expedition, but he found time late in June to visit London, where he met the Prince of Wales (the future Edward VII), and addressed a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society (RGS).The RGS president, Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant Duff, said that Nansen has claimed \"the foremost place amongst northern travellers\", and later awarded him the Society's prestigious Patron's Medal.", "This was one of many honours Nansen received from institutions all over Europe.", "He was invited by a group of Australians to lead an expedition to Antarctica, but declined, believing that Norway's interests would be better served by a North Pole conquest.On 11 August 1889 Nansen announced his engagement to Eva Sars, the daughter of Michael Sars, a zoology professor who had died when Eva was 11 years old.", "The couple had met some years previously, at the skiing resort of Frognerseteren, where Nansen recalled seeing \"two feet sticking out of the snow\".", "Eva was three years older than Nansen, and despite the evidence of this first meeting, was an accomplished skier.", "She was also a celebrated classical singer who had been coached in Berlin by Désirée Artôt, one-time paramour of Tchaikovsky.", "The engagement surprised many; since Nansen had previously expressed himself forcefully against the institution of marriage, Otto Sverdrup assumed he had read the message wrongly.", "The wedding took place on 6 September 1889, less than a month after the engagement." ], [ "''Fram'' expedition", "=== Planning ===Nansen in 1889Nansen first began to consider the possibility of reaching the North Pole after reading meteorologist Henrik Mohn's theory on transpolar drift in 1884.Artefacts found on the coast of Greenland were identified to have come from the ''Jeannette'' expedition.", "In June 1881, was crushed and sunk off the Siberian coast—the opposite side of the Arctic Ocean.", "Mohn surmised the location of the artefacts indicated the existence of an ocean current from east to west, all the way across the polar sea and possibly over the pole itself.The idea remained fixated in Nansen's mind for the next couple of years.", "He developed a detailed plan for a polar venture after his triumphant return from Greenland.", "He made his idea public in February 1890, at a meeting of the newly formed Norwegian Geographical Society.", "Previous expeditions, he argued, approached the North Pole from the west and failed because they were working against the prevailing east–west current; the secret was to work with the current.A workable plan would require a sturdy and manoeuvrable small ship, capable of carrying fuel and provisions for twelve men for five years.", "This ship would enter the ice pack close to the approximate location of ''Jeannette's'' sinking, drifting west with the current towards the pole and beyond it—eventually reaching the sea between Greenland and Spitsbergen.Experienced polar explorers were dismissive: Adolphus Greely called the idea \"an illogical scheme of self-destruction\".", "Equally dismissive were Sir Allen Young, a veteran of the searches for Franklin's lost expedition, and Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, who had sailed to the Antarctic on the Ross expedition.", "Nansen still managed to secure a grant from the Norwegian parliament after an impassioned speech.", "Additional funding was secured through a national appeal for private donations.=== Preparations ===Nansen chose naval engineer Colin Archer to design and build a ship.", "Archer designed an extraordinarily sturdy vessel with an intricate system of crossbeams and braces of the toughest oak timbers.", "Its rounded hull was designed to push the ship upwards when beset by pack ice.", "Speed and manoeuvrability were to be secondary to its ability as a safe and warm shelter during their predicted confinement.The length-to-beam ratio— and —gave it a stubby appearance, justified by Archer: \"A ship that is built with exclusive regard to its suitability for Nansen's object must differ essentially from any known vessel.\"", "It was christened ''Fram'' and launched on 6 October 1892.Nansen selected a party of twelve from thousands of applicants.", "Otto Sverdrup, who took part in Nansen's earlier Greenland expedition was appointed as the expedition's second-in-command.", "Competition was so fierce that army lieutenant and dog-driving expert Hjalmar Johansen signed on as ship's stoker, the only position still available.=== Into the ice ===Expedition routes, July 1893 – August 1896: ''Fram'' left Christiania on 24 June 1893, cheered on by thousands of well-wishers.", "After a slow journey around the coast, the final port of call was Vardø, in the far north-east of Norway.", "''Fram'' left Vardø on 21 July, following the North-East Passage route pioneered by Nordenskiöld in 1878–1879, along the northern coast of Siberia.", "Progress was impeded by fog and ice conditions in the mainly uncharted seas.The crew also experienced the dead water phenomenon, where a ship's forward progress is impeded by friction caused by a layer of fresh water lying on top of heavier salt water.", "Nevertheless, Cape Chelyuskin, the most northerly point of the Eurasian continental mass, was passed on 10 September.Heavy pack ice was sighted ten days later at around latitude 78°N, as ''Fram'' approached the area in which was crushed.", "Nansen followed the line of the pack northwards to a position recorded as , before ordering engines stopped and the rudder raised.", "From this point ''Fram's'' drift began.", "The first weeks in the ice were frustrating, as the drift moved unpredictably; sometimes north, sometimes south.By 19 November, ''Fram's'' latitude was south of that at which she had entered the ice.", "Only after the turn of the year, in January 1894, did the northerly direction become generally settled; the 80°N mark was finally passed on 22 March.", "Nansen calculated that, at this rate, it might take the ship five years to reach the pole.", "As the ship's northerly progress continued at a rate rarely above a kilometre and a half per day, Nansen began privately to consider a new plan—a dog sledge journey towards the pole.", "With this in mind, he began to practice dog-driving, making many experimental journeys over the ice.In November, Nansen announced his plan: when the ship passed latitude 83°N, he and Hjalmar Johansen would leave the ship with the dogs and make for the pole while ''Fram'', under Sverdrup, continued its drift until it emerged from the ice in the North Atlantic.", "After reaching the pole, Nansen and Johansen would make for the nearest known land, the recently discovered and sketchily mapped Franz Josef Land.", "They would then cross to Spitzbergen where they would find a ship to take them home.The crew spent the rest of the winter of 1894 preparing clothing and equipment for the forthcoming sledge journey.", "Kayaks were built, to be carried on the sledges until needed for the crossing of open water.", "Preparations were interrupted early in January when violent tremors shook the ship.", "The crew disembarked, fearing the vessel would be crushed, but ''Fram'' proved herself equal to the danger.", "On 8 January 1895, the ship's position was 83°34′N, above Greely's previous record of 83°24′N.=== Dash for the pole ===Johansen's polar trek, 14 March 1895With the ship's latitude at 84°4′N and after two false starts, Nansen and Johansen began their journey on 14 March 1895.Nansen allowed 50 days to cover the to the pole, an average daily journey of .", "After a week of travel, a sextant observation indicated they averaged per day, which put them ahead of schedule.", "However, uneven surfaces made skiing more difficult, and their speeds slowed.", "They also realised they were marching against a southerly drift, and that distances travelled did not necessarily equate to distance progressed.On 3 April, Nansen began to doubt whether the pole was attainable.", "Unless their speed improved, their food would not last them to the pole and back to Franz Josef Land.", "He confided in his diary: \"I have become more and more convinced we ought to turn before time.\"", "Four days later, after making camp, he observed the way ahead was \"... a veritable chaos of iceblocks stretching as far as the horizon.\"", "Nansen recorded their latitude as 86°13′6″N—almost three degrees beyond the previous record—and decided to turn around and head back south.=== Retreat ===At first Nansen and Johansen made good progress south, but suffered a serious setback on 13 April, when in his eagerness to break camp, they had forgotten to wind their chronometers, which made it impossible to calculate their longitude and accurately navigate to Franz Josef Land.", "They restarted the watches based on Nansen's guess they were at 86°E.", "From then on they were uncertain of their true position.", "The tracks of an Arctic fox were observed towards the end of April.", "It was the first trace of a living creature other than their dogs since they left ''Fram''.", "They soon saw bear tracks and by the end of May saw evidence of nearby seals, gulls and whales.Nansen and Johansen's winter hut of 1895 on Franz Josef LandOn 31 May, Nansen calculated they were only from Cape Fligely, Franz Josef Land's northernmost point.", "Travel conditions worsened as increasingly warmer weather caused the ice to break up.", "On 22 June, the pair decided to rest on a stable ice floe while they repaired their equipment and gathered strength for the next stage of their journey.", "They remained on the floe for a month.The day after leaving this camp, Nansen recorded: \"At last the marvel has come to pass—land, land, and after we had almost given up our belief in it!\"", "Whether this still-distant land was Franz Josef Land or a new discovery they did not know—they had only a rough sketch map to guide them.", "The edge of the pack ice was reached on 6 August and they shot the last of their dogs—the weakest of which they killed regularly to feed the others since 24 April.", "The two kayaks were lashed together, a sail was raised, and they made for the land.It soon became clear this land was part of an archipelago.", "As they moved southwards, Nansen tentatively identified a headland as Cape Felder on the western edge of Franz Josef Land.", "Towards the end of August, as the weather grew colder and travel became increasingly difficult, Nansen decided to camp for the winter.", "In a sheltered cove, with stones and moss for building materials, the pair erected a hut which was to be their home for the next eight months.", "With ready supplies of bear, walrus and seal to keep their larder stocked, their principal enemy was not hunger but inactivity.", "After muted Christmas and New Year celebrations, in slowly improving weather, they began to prepare to leave their refuge, but it was 19 May 1896 before they were able to resume their journey.=== Rescue and return ===On 17 June, during a stop for repairs after the kayaks had been attacked by a walrus, Nansen thought he heard a dog barking as well as human voices.", "He went to investigate, and a few minutes later saw the figure of a man approaching.", "It was the British explorer Frederick Jackson, who was leading an expedition to Franz Josef Land and was camped at Cape Flora on nearby Northbrook Island.", "The two were equally astonished by their encounter; after some awkward hesitation Jackson asked: \"You are Nansen, aren't you?", "\", and received the reply \"Yes, I am Nansen.", "\"Johansen was picked up and the pair were taken to Cape Flora where, during the following weeks, they recuperated from their ordeal.", "Nansen later wrote that he could \"still scarcely grasp\" their sudden change of fortune; had it not been for the walrus attack that caused the delay, the two parties might have been unaware of each other's existence.Cape Flora, 17 June 1896On 7 August, Nansen and Johansen boarded Jackson's supply ship ''Windward'', and sailed for Vardø where they arrived on the 13th.", "They were greeted by Hans Mohn, the originator of the polar drift theory, who was in the town by chance.", "The world was quickly informed by telegram of Nansen's safe return, but as yet there was no news of ''Fram''.Taking the weekly mail steamer south, Nansen and Johansen reached Hammerfest on 18 August, where they learned that ''Fram'' had been sighted.", "She had emerged from the ice north and west of Spitsbergen, as Nansen had predicted, and was now on her way to Tromsø.", "She had not passed over the pole, nor exceeded Nansen's northern mark.", "Without delay Nansen and Johansen sailed for Tromsø, where they were reunited with their comrades.The homeward voyage to Christiania was a series of triumphant receptions at every port.", "On 9 September, ''Fram'' was escorted into Christiania's harbour and welcomed by the largest crowds the city had ever seen.", "The crew were received by King Oscar, and Nansen, reunited with family, remained at the palace for several days as special guests.", "Tributes arrived from all over the world; typical was that from the British mountaineer Edward Whymper, who wrote that Nansen had made \"almost as great an advance as has been accomplished by all other voyages in the nineteenth century put together\"." ], [ "National figure", "=== Scientist and polar oracle ===Nansen's first task on his return was to write his account of the voyage.", "This he did remarkably quickly, producing 300,000 words of Norwegian text by November 1896; the English translation, titled ''Farthest North'', was ready in January 1897.The book was an instant success, and secured Nansen's long-term financial future.", "Nansen included without comment the one significant adverse criticism of his conduct, that of Greely, who had written in ''Harper's Weekly'' on Nansen's decision to leave ''Fram'' and strike for the pole: \"It passes comprehension how Nansen could have thus deviated from the most sacred duty devolving on the commander of a naval expedition.", "\"During the 20 years following his return from the Arctic, Nansen devoted most of his energies to scientific work.", "In 1897 he accepted a professorship in zoology at the Royal Frederick University, which gave him a base from which he could tackle the major task of editing the reports of the scientific results of the ''Fram'' expedition.", "This was a much more arduous task than writing the expedition narrative.", "The results were eventually published in six volumes, and according to a later polar scientist, Robert Rudmose-Brown, \"were to Arctic oceanography what the ''Challenger'' expedition results had been to the oceanography of other oceans.", "\"In 1900, Nansen became director of the Christiania-based International Laboratory for North Sea Research, and helped found the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea.", "Through his connection with the latter body, in the summer of 1900 Nansen embarked on his first visit to Arctic waters since the ''Fram'' expedition, a cruise to Iceland and Jan Mayen Land on the oceanographic research vessel ''Michael Sars'', named after Eva's father.", "Shortly after his return he learned that his Farthest North record had been passed, by members of the Duke of the Abruzzi's Italian expedition.", "They had reached 86°34′N on 24 April 1900, in an attempt to reach the North Pole from Franz Josef Land.", "Nansen received the news philosophically: \"What is the value of having goals for their own sake?", "They all vanish ... it is merely a question of time.", "\"Fridtjof Nansen Institute at PolhøgdaNansen was now considered an oracle by all would-be explorers of the north and south polar regions.", "Abruzzi had consulted him, as had the Belgian Adrien de Gerlache, each of whom took expeditions to the Antarctic.", "Although Nansen refused to meet his own countryman and fellow-explorer Carsten Borchgrevink (whom he considered a fraud), he gave advice to Robert Falcon Scott on polar equipment and transport, prior to the 1901–04 ''Discovery'' expedition.", "At one point Nansen seriously considered leading a South Pole expedition himself, and asked Colin Archer to design two ships.", "However, these plans remained on the drawing board.By 1901 Nansen's family had expanded considerably.", "A daughter, Liv, had been born just before ''Fram'' set out; a son, Kåre was born in 1897 followed by a daughter, Irmelin, in 1900 and a second son Odd in 1901.The family home, which Nansen had built in 1891 from the profits of his Greenland expedition book, was now too small.", "Nansen acquired a plot of land in the Lysaker district and built, substantially to his own design, a large and imposing house which combined some of the characteristics of an English manor house with features from the Italian renaissance.The house was ready for occupation by April 1902; Nansen called it ''Polhøgda'' (in English \"polar heights\"), and it remained his home for the rest of his life.", "A fifth and final child, son Asmund, was born at Polhøgda in 1903.=== Politician and diplomat ===King Oscar II, last king of the union of Sweden and Norway.", "He remained Sweden's king after Norway's independence in 1905.The union between Norway and Sweden, imposed by the Great Powers in 1814, had been under considerable strain through the 1890s, the chief issue in question being Norway's rights to its own consular service.", "Nansen, although not by inclination a politician, had spoken out on the issue on several occasions in defence of Norway's interests.", "As of 1898 Nansen was among the contributors of ''Ringeren'', an anti-Union magazine established by Sigurd Ibsen.", "It seemed, early in the 20th century that agreement between the two countries might be possible, but hopes were dashed when negotiations broke down in February 1905.The Norwegian government fell, and was replaced by one led by Christian Michelsen, whose programme was one of separation from Sweden.In February and March Nansen published a series of newspaper articles which placed him firmly in the separatist camp.", "The new prime minister wanted Nansen in the cabinet, but Nansen had no political ambitions.", "However, at Michelsen's request he went to Berlin and then to London where, in a letter to ''The Times'', he presented Norway's legal case for a separate consular service to the English-speaking world.", "On 17 May 1905, Norway's Constitution Day, Nansen addressed a large crowd in Christiania, saying: \"Now have all ways of retreat been closed.", "Now remains only one path, the way forward, perhaps through difficulties and hardships, but forward for our country, to a free Norway\".", "He also wrote a book, ''Norway and the Union with Sweden'', to promote Norway's case abroad.On 23 May the Storting passed the Consulate Act establishing a separate consular service.", "King Oscar refused his assent; on 27 May the Norwegian cabinet resigned, but the king would not recognise this step.", "On 7 June the Storting unilaterally announced that the union with Sweden was dissolved.", "In a tense situation the Swedish government agreed to Norway's request that the dissolution should be put to a referendum of the Norwegian people.", "This was held on 13 August 1905 and resulted in an overwhelming vote for independence, at which point King Oscar relinquished the crown of Norway while retaining the Swedish throne.", "A second referendum, held in November, determined that the new independent state should be a monarchy rather than a republic.", "In anticipation of this, Michelsen's government had been considering the suitability of various princes as candidates for the Norwegian throne.", "Faced with King Oscar's refusal to allow anyone from his own House of Bernadotte to accept the crown, the favoured choice was Prince Charles of Denmark.", "In July 1905 Michelsen sent Nansen to Copenhagen on a secret mission to persuade Charles to accept the Norwegian throne.", "Nansen was successful; shortly after the second referendum Charles was proclaimed king, taking the name Haakon VII.", "He and his wife, the British princess Maud, were crowned in the Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim on 22 June 1906.In April 1906 Nansen was appointed Norway's first Minister in London.", "His main task was to work with representatives of the major European powers on an Integrity Treaty which would guarantee Norway's position.", "Nansen was popular in England, and got on well with King Edward, though he found court functions and diplomatic duties disagreeable; \"frivolous and boring\" was his description.", "However, he was able to pursue his geographical and scientific interests through contacts with the Royal Geographical Society and other learned bodies.", "The Treaty was signed on 2 November 1907, and Nansen considered his task complete.", "Resisting the pleas of, among others, King Edward that he should remain in London, on 15 November Nansen resigned his post.", "A few weeks later, still in England as the king's guest at Sandringham, Nansen received word that Eva was seriously ill with pneumonia.", "On 8 December he set out for home, but before he reached Polhøgda he learned, from a telegram, that Eva had died.=== Oceanographer and traveller ===The Nansen bottle was used to sample seawater temperature at specific depthsAfter a period of mourning, Nansen returned to London.", "He had been persuaded by his government to rescind his resignation until after King Edward's state visit to Norway in April 1908.His formal retirement from the diplomatic service was dated 1 May 1908, the same day on which his university professorship was changed from zoology to oceanography.", "This new designation reflected the general character of Nansen's more recent scientific interests.In 1905, he had supplied the Swedish physicist Walfrid Ekman with the data which established the principle in oceanography known as the Ekman spiral.", "Based on Nansen's observations of ocean currents recorded during the ''Fram'' expedition, Ekman concluded that the effect of wind on the sea's surface produced currents which \"formed something like a spiral staircase, down towards the depths\".In 1909 Nansen combined with Bjørn Helland-Hansen to publish an academic paper, ''The Norwegian Sea: its Physical Oceanography'', based on the ''Michael Sars'' voyage of 1900.Nansen had by now retired from polar exploration, the decisive step being his release of ''Fram'' to fellow Norwegian Roald Amundsen, who was planning a North Pole expedition.", "When Amundsen made his controversial change of plan and set out for the South Pole, Nansen stood by him.thumbBetween 1910 and 1914, Nansen participated in several oceanographic voyages.", "In 1910, aboard the Norwegian naval vessel ''Fridtjof'', he carried out researches in the northern Atlantic, and in 1912 he took his own yacht, ''Veslemøy'', to Bear Island and Spitsbergen.", "The main objective of the ''Veslemøy'' cruise was the investigation of salinity in the North Polar Basin.", "One of Nansen's lasting contributions to oceanography was his work designing instruments and equipment; the \"Nansen bottle\" for taking deep water samples remained in use into the 21st century, in a version updated by Shale Niskin.At the request of the Royal Geographical Society, Nansen began work on a study of Arctic discoveries, which developed into a two-volume history of the exploration of the northern regions up to the beginning of the 16th century.", "This was published in 1911 as ''Nord i Tåkeheimen'' (\"In Northern Mists\").", "That year he renewed an acquaintance with Kathleen Scott, wife of Robert Falcon Scott, whose ''Terra Nova'' Expedition had sailed for Antarctica in 1910.Biographer Roland Huntford has claimed that Nansen and Kathleen Scott had a brief affair.", "Louisa Young, in her biography of Lady Scott, rejects the claim.", "Many women were attracted to Nansen, and he had a reputation as a womaniser.", "His personal life was troubled around this time; in January 1913 he received news of the suicide of Hjalmar Johansen, who had returned in disgrace from Amundsen's successful South Pole expedition.", "In March 1913, Nansen's youngest son Asmund died after a long illness.In the summer of 1913, Nansen travelled to the Kara Sea, by the invitation of Jonas Lied, as part of a delegation investigating a possible trade route between Western Europe and the Siberian interior.", "The party then took a steamer up the Yenisei River to Krasnoyarsk, and travelled on the Trans-Siberian Railway to Vladivostok before turning for home.", "Nansen published a report from the trip in ''Through Siberia''.", "The life and culture of the Russian peoples aroused in Nansen an interest and sympathy he would carry through to his later life.", "Immediately before the First World War, Nansen joined Helland-Hansen in an oceanographical cruise in eastern Atlantic waters.=== Statesman and humanitarian ======= League of Nations ====On the outbreak of war in 1914, Norway declared its neutrality, alongside Sweden and Denmark.", "Nansen was appointed as the president of the Norwegian Union of Defence, but had few official duties, and continued with his professional work as far as circumstances permitted.", "As the war progressed, the loss of Norway's overseas trade led to acute shortages of food in the country, which became critical in April 1917, when the United States entered the war and placed extra restrictions on international trade.", "Nansen was dispatched to Washington by the Norwegian government; after months of discussion, he secured food and other supplies in return for the introduction of a rationing system.", "When his government hesitated over the deal, he signed the agreement on his own initiative.Within a few months of the war's end in November 1918, a draft agreement had been accepted by the Paris Peace Conference to create a League of Nations, as a means of resolving disputes between nations by peaceful means.", "The foundation of the League at this time was providential as far as Nansen was concerned, giving him a new outlet for his restless energy.", "He became president of the Norwegian League of Nations Society, and although the Scandinavian nations with their traditions of neutrality initially held themselves aloof, his advocacy helped to ensure that Norway became a full member of the League in 1920, and he became one of its three delegates to the League's General Assembly.In April 1920, at the League's request, Nansen began organising the repatriation of around half a million prisoners of war, stranded in various parts of the world.", "Of these, 300,000 were in Russia which, gripped by revolution and civil war, had little interest in their fate.", "Nansen was able to report to the Assembly in November 1920 that around 200,000 men had been returned to their homes.", "\"Never in my life\", he said, \"have I been brought into touch with so formidable an amount of suffering.", "\"Nansen continued this work for a further two years until, in his final report to the Assembly in 1922, he was able to state that 427,886 prisoners had been repatriated to around 30 different countries.", "In paying tribute to his work, the responsible committee recorded that the story of his efforts \"would contain tales of heroic endeavour worthy of those in the accounts of the crossing of Greenland and the great Arctic voyage.", "\"=== Nansen Mission ===The '''Nansen Mission''' is the colloquial term used by inhabitants of former Soviet Socialist Republics to describe the series of humanitarian initiatives undertaken by the International Committee of the Red Cross and headed by Fridtjof Nansen.", "This international effort included the involvement of the Swiss, Swedish, Dutch, Danish, Norwegian and German branches of the Red Cross, the Swiss and Italian Children's Aids, the Seventh-day Adventist Society, as well as many other organisations.", "The mobilisation effort began in August 1921 and the first programmes in Russia began soon after, with the signing of an agreement of assistance between Nansen and Georgy Chicherin, which provided aid to mitigate starvation in Russia and Ukraine.==== Russian famine ====Nansen's photos on postcards were meant to raise awareness about the famineEven before this work was complete, Nansen was involved in a further humanitarian effort.", "On 1 September 1921, prompted by the British delegate Philip Noel-Baker, he accepted the post of the League's High Commissioner for Refugees.", "His main brief was the resettlement of around two million Russian refugees displaced by the upheavals of the Russian Revolution.At the same time he tried to tackle the urgent problem of famine in Russia; following a widespread failure of crops around 30 million people were threatened with starvation and death.", "Despite Nansen's pleas on behalf of the starving, Russia's revolutionary government was feared and distrusted internationally, and the League was reluctant to come to its peoples' aid.", "Nansen had to rely largely on fundraising from private organisations, and his efforts met with limited success.", "Later he was to express himself bitterly on the matter:The Nansen passport allowed stateless persons to legally cross bordersA major problem impeding Nansen's work on behalf of refugees was that most of them lacked documentary proof of identity or nationality.", "Without legal status in their country of refuge, their lack of papers meant they were unable to go anywhere else.", "To overcome this, Nansen devised a document that became known as the \"Nansen passport\", a form of identity for stateless persons that was in time recognised by more than 50 governments, and which allowed refugees to cross borders legally.", "Although the passport was created initially for refugees from Russia, it was extended to cover other groups.While attending the Conference of Lausanne in November 1922, Nansen learned that he had been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for 1922.The citation referred to \"his work for the repatriation of the prisoners of war, his work for the Russian refugees, his work to bring succour to the millions of Russians afflicted by famine, and finally his present work for the refugees in Asia Minor and Thrace\".", "Nansen donated the prize money to international relief efforts.==== Greco-Turkish resettlement ====After the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, Nansen travelled to Constantinople to negotiate the resettlement of hundreds of thousands of refugees, mainly ethnic Greeks who had fled from Turkey after the defeat of the Greek Army.", "The impoverished Greek state was unable to take them in, and so Nansen devised a scheme for a population exchange whereby half a million Turks in Greece were returned to Turkey, with full financial compensation, while further loans facilitated the absorption of the refugee Greeks into their homeland.", "Despite some controversy over the principle of a population exchange, the plan was implemented successfully over a period of several years.==== Armenian genocide ====Nansen in front of an Armenian orphanage, 25 June 1925From 1925 onwards, Nansen devoted much time trying to help Armenian refugees, victims of Armenian genocide at the hands of the Ottoman Empire during the First World War and further ill-treatment thereafter.", "His goal was the establishment of a national home for these refugees, within the borders of Soviet Armenia.", "His main assistant in this endeavour was Vidkun Quisling, the future Nazi collaborator and head of a Norwegian puppet government during the Second World War.After visiting the region, Nansen presented the Assembly with a modest plan for the irrigation of on which 15,000 refugees could be settled.", "The plan ultimately failed, because even with Nansen's unremitting advocacy the money to finance the scheme was not forthcoming.", "Despite this failure, his reputation among the Armenian people remains high.Nansen wrote ''Armenia and the Near East'' (1923) wherein he describes the plight of the Armenians in the wake of losing its independence to the Soviet Union.", "The book was translated into many languages.", "After his visit to Armenia, Nansen wrote two additional books: ''Across Armenia'' (1927) and ''Through the Caucasus to the Volga'' (1930).Within the League's Assembly, Nansen spoke out on many issues besides those related to refugees.", "He believed that the Assembly gave the smaller countries such as Norway a \"unique opportunity for speaking in the councils of the world.\"", "He believed that the extent of the League's success in reducing armaments would be the greatest test of its credibility.", "He was a signatory to the Slavery Convention of 25 September 1926, which sought to outlaw the use of forced labour.", "He supported a settlement of the post-war reparations issue and championed Germany's membership of the League, which was granted in September 1926 after intensive preparatory work by Nansen." ], [ "Later life", "Nansen, photographed toward the end of his life (1930)On 17 January 1919 Nansen married Sigrun Munthe, a long-time friend with whom he had had a love affair in 1905, while Eva was still alive.", "The marriage was resented by the Nansen children, and proved unhappy; an acquaintance writing of them in the 1920s said Nansen appeared unbearably miserable and Sigrun steeped in hate.Nansen's League of Nations commitments through the 1920s meant that he was mostly absent from Norway, and was able to devote little time to scientific work.", "Nevertheless, he continued to publish occasional papers.", "He entertained the hope that he might travel to the North Pole by airship, but could not raise sufficient funding.", "In any event he was forestalled in this ambition by Amundsen, who flew over the pole in Umberto Nobile's airship ''Norge'' in May 1926.Two years later Nansen broadcast a memorial oration to Amundsen, who had disappeared in the Arctic while organising a rescue party for Nobile whose airship had crashed during a second polar voyage.", "Nansen said of Amundsen: \"He found an unknown grave under the clear sky of the icy world, with the whirring of the wings of eternity through space.\"", "In 1926 Nansen was elected Rector of the University of St Andrews in Scotland, the first foreigner to hold this largely honorary position.", "He used the occasion of his inaugural address to review his life and philosophy, and to deliver a call to the youth of the next generation.", "He ended:We all have a Land of Beyond to seek in our life—what more can we ask?", "Our part is to find the trail that leads to it.", "A long trail, a hard trail, maybe; but the call comes to us, and we have to go.", "Rooted deep in the nature of every one of us is the spirit of adventure, the call of the wild—vibrating under all our actions, making life deeper and higher and nobler.Nansen largely avoided involvement in domestic Norwegian politics, but in 1924 he was persuaded by the long-retired former Prime Minister Christian Michelsen to take part in a new anti-communist political grouping, the Fatherland League.", "There were fears in Norway that should the Marxist-oriented Labour Party gain power it would introduce a revolutionary programme.", "At the inaugural rally of the League in Oslo (as Christiania had now been renamed), Nansen declared: \"To talk of the right of revolution in a society with full civil liberty, universal suffrage, equal treatment for everyone ... is idiotic nonsense.", "\"Following continued turmoil between the centre-right parties, there was even an independent petition in 1926 gaining some momentum that proposed for Nansen to head a centre-right national unity government on a balanced budget program, an idea he did not reject.", "He was the headline speaker at the single largest Fatherland League rally with 15,000 attendees in Tønsberg in 1928.In 1929 he went on his final tour for the League on the ship ''Stella Polaris'', holding speeches from Bergen to Hammerfest.In between his various duties and responsibilities, Nansen had continued to take skiing holidays when he could.", "In February 1930, aged 68, he took a short break in the mountains with two old friends, who noted that Nansen was slower than usual and appeared to tire easily.", "On his return to Oslo he was laid up for several months, with influenza and later phlebitis, and was visited on his sickbed by King Haakon VII.Nansen was a close friend of a clergyman named Wilhelm.", "Nansen was an atheist." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Mount Fridtjof Nansen in Antarctica, named and photographed by Roald AmundsenNansen died of a heart attack on 13 May 1930.He was given a non-religious state funeral before cremation, after which his ashes were laid under a tree at Polhøgda.", "Nansen's daughter Liv recorded that there were no speeches, just music: Schubert's ''Death and the Maiden'', which Eva used to sing.In his lifetime and thereafter, Nansen received honours and recognition from many countries.", "Among the many tributes paid to him subsequently was that of Lord Robert Cecil, a fellow League of Nations delegate, who spoke of the range of Nansen's work, done with no regard for his own interests or health: \"Every good cause had his support.", "He was a fearless peacemaker, a friend of justice, an advocate always for the weak and suffering.", "\"Nansen was a pioneer and innovator in many fields.", "As a young man he embraced the revolution in skiing methods that transformed it from a means of winter travel to a universal sport, and quickly became one of Norway's leading skiers.", "He was later able to apply this expertise to the problems of polar travel, in both his Greenland and his ''Fram'' expeditions.He invented the \"Nansen sledge\" with broad, ski-like runners, the \"Nansen cooker\" to improve the heat efficiency of the standard spirit stoves then in use, and the layer principle in polar clothing, whereby the traditionally heavy, awkward garments were replaced by layers of lightweight material.", "In science, Nansen is recognised both as one of the founders of modern neurology, and as a significant contributor to early oceanographical science, in particular for his work in establishing the Central Oceanographic Laboratory in Christiania.Through his work on behalf of the League of Nations, Nansen helped to establish the principle of international responsibility for refugees.", "Immediately after his death the League set up the Nansen International Office for Refugees, a semi-autonomous body under the League's authority, to continue his work.", "The Nansen Office faced great difficulties, in part arising from the large numbers of refugees from the European dictatorships during the 1930s.", "Nevertheless, it secured the agreement of 14 countries (including a reluctant Great Britain) to the Refugee Convention of 1933.It also helped to repatriate 10,000 Armenians to Yerevan in Soviet Armenia, and to find homes for a further 40,000 in Syria and Lebanon.", "In 1938, the year in which it was superseded by a wider-ranging body, the Nansen Office was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.", "In 1954, the League's successor body, the United Nations, established the Nansen Medal, later named the Nansen Refugee Award, given annually by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees to an individual, group or organisation \"for outstanding work on behalf of the forcibly displaced\".Numerous geographical features bear his name: the Nansen Basin and the Nansen-Gakkel Ridge in the Arctic Ocean; Mount Nansen in the Yukon region of Canada; Mount Nansen, Mount Fridtjof Nansen and Nansen Island, all in Antarctica; as well as Nansen Island in the Kara Sea, Nansen Land in Greenland and Nansen Island in Franz Josef Land; 853 Nansenia, an asteroid; Nansen crater at the Moon's north pole and Nansen crater on Mars.", "His Polhøgda mansion is now home to the Fridtjof Nansen Institute, an independent foundation which engages in research on environmental, energy and resource management politics.A 1968 Norwegian/Soviet biographical film ''Just a Life: the Story of Fridtjof Nansen'' was released with Knut Wigert as Nansen.The Royal Norwegian Navy launched the first of a series of five s in 2004, with as its lead ship.", "Cruise ship was launched in 2020." ], [ "Orders and decorations" ], [ "Works", "* ''Paa ski over Grønland.", "En skildring af Den norske Grønlands-ekspedition 1888–89''.", "Aschehoug, Kristiania 1890.Tr.", "as ''The First Crossing of Greenland'', 1890.", "(Reviewed in ''The Scientific Results of Dr. Nansen’s Expedition'' by James Geikie The Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1891).", "* ''Eskimoliv''.", "Aschehoug, Kristiania 1891.Tr.", "as ''Eskimo Life'', (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1893).", "* ''Fram over Polhavet.", "Den norske polarfærd 1893–1896.''", "Aschehoug, Kristiania 1897.Tr.", "as ''Farthest North'', 1897.", "* ''The Norwegian North Polar Expedition, 1893–1896; Scientific Results'' (6 volumes, 1901).", "* ''Norge og foreningen med Sverige''.", "Jacob Dybwads Forlag, Kristiania 1905.Tr.", "as ''Norway and the Union With Sweden'', 1905.", "* ''Northern Waters: Captain Roald Amundsen's Oceanographic Observations in the Arctic Seas in 1901.''", "Jacob Dybwads Forlag, Kristiania, 1906.", "* ''Nord i tåkeheimen.", "Utforskningen av jordens nordlige strøk i tidlige tider''.", "Jacob Dybwads Forlag, Kristiania 1911.Tr.", "as ''In Northern Mists: Arctic Exploration in Early Times'', 1911.", "* ''Gjennem Sibirien''.", "Jacob Dybwads forlag, Kristiania, 1914.Tr.", "as ''Through Siberia the Land of the Future'', 1914.", "* ''Frilufts-liv''.", "Jacob Dybwads Forlag, Kristiania, 1916.", "* ''En ferd til Spitsbergen''.", "Jacob Dybwads Forlag, Kristiania, 1920.", "* ''Rusland og freden''.", "Jacob Dybwads Forlag, Kristiania, 1923.", "* ''Blant sel og bjørn.", "Min første Ishavs-ferd''.", "Jacob Dybwads Forlag, Kristiania, 1924.", "* ''Gjennem Armenia''.", "Jacob Dybwads Forlag, Oslo, 1927.", "* ''Gjennem Kaukasus til Volga''.", "Jacob Dybwads Forlag, Oslo, 1929.Tr.", "as ''Through The Caucasus To The Volga'', 1931.;English translations* * ''Armenia and the Near East.''", "Publisher: J.C. & A.L.", "Fawcett, Inc., New York, 1928.", "( excerpts)." ], [ "See also", "* Arctic exploration* List of polar explorers* Nansen Ski Club* Nansen Ski Jump" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Inline citations======Sources referenced===* * * * Brøgger, Waldemar Christofer and Rolfsen, Nordahl (translated by William Archer (1896)).", "''Fridtiof Nansen 1861–1893''.", "New York.", "Longmans Green & Co.* * * (First published in 1997 by Gerald Duckworth)* * * * * (in Norwegian)* * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Jones, Max (1 March 2021). \"", "Exploration, Celebrity, and the Making of a Transnational Hero: Fridtjof Nansen and the Fram Expedition\".", "''The Journal of Modern History''.", "'''93''' (1): 68–108." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * Portrait of Fridtjof Nansen published on ICRC Library and Archives blog CROSS-files * * Fridtjof Nansen Collection at Dartmouth College Library* including the Nobel Lecture.", "19 December 1922 ''The Suffering People of Europe''*" ] ]
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[ [ "Frederick Augustus II of Saxony" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frederick Augustus II''' (; 18 May 1797 in Dresden – 9 August 1854 in Brennbüchel, Karrösten, Tyrol) was King of Saxony and a member of the House of Wettin.He was the eldest son of Maximilian, Prince of Saxony – younger son of the Elector Frederick Christian of Saxony – by his first wife, Caroline of Bourbon, Princess of Parma." ], [ "Life", "===Early years===From his birth, it was clear that one day Frederick Augustus would become the ruler of Saxony.", "His father was the only son of the Elector Frederick Christian of Saxony who left surviving male issue.", "When King Frederick Augustus I died (1827) and Anton succeeded him as King, Frederick Augustus became second in line to the throne, preceded only by his father Maximilian.", "However, he took no part in the administration of the country.He was an officer in the War of the Sixth Coalition.", "However, he had little interest in military affairs.===Co-Regent to the Kingdom===The July Revolution of 1830 in France marked the beginning of disturbances in Saxony that autumn.", "The people claimed a change in the constitution and demanded a young regent of the kingdom to share the government with the King Anton.", "On 1 September the Prince Maximilian renounced his rights of succession in favor of his son Frederick Augustus, who was proclaimed Prince Co-Regent (de: ''Prinz-Mitregenten'') of Saxony.", "On 2 February 1832 Frederick Augustus brought Free Autonomy to the cities.", "Also, by an edict of 17 March of that year, the farmers were freed from the corvée and hereditary submission.", "His popularity and liberal reforms quickly ended the discontent.===King of Saxony===On 6 June 1836, King Anton died and Frederick Augustus succeeded him.", "As an intelligent man, he was quickly popular with the people as he had been since the time of his regency.", "The new king solved political questions only from a pure sense of duty.", "Mostly he preferred to leave these things on the hands of his ministers.A standardized jurisdiction for Saxony created the Criminal Code of 1836.During the Revolutionary disturbances of 1848 (March Revolution), he appointed liberal ministers in the government, lifted censorship, and remitted a liberal electoral law.", "Later his attitude changed.", "On 28 April Frederick August II dissolved the Parliament, and in 1849 he was forced to flee to the Königstein Fortress.", "The May Uprising was crushed by Saxon and Prussian troops and Frederick was able to return after only a few days.From that time onward his reign was tranquil and prosperous.", "Later Count Beust, leader of the Austrian and feudal party in Saxony, became his principal minister and guided his policy on most occasions.===Journey through England and Scotland===In 1844 Frederick Augustus, accompanied by his personal physician Carl Gustav Carus, made an informal (''incognito'') visit to England and Scotland.", "Among places they visited were Lyme Regis where he purchased from the local fossil collector and dealer, Mary Anning, an ichthyosaur skeleton for his own extensive natural history collection.", "It was not a state visit, but the King was the guest of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert at Windsor Castle, visited many of the sights in London and in the university cities of Oxford and Cambridge, and toured widely in England, Wales and Scotland.In addition to his interest in fossils, Frederick Augustus devoted his leisure hours chiefly to the study of botany.", "He made botanical excursions into different countries, and his ''Flora Marienbadensis, oder Pflanzen und Gebirgsarten, gesammelt und beschrieben'' was published in Prague in 1837." ], [ "Accidental death", "During a journey in Tyrol, he had an accident in Brennbüchel in which he fell in front of a horse that stepped on his head.", "On 8 August 1854, he died in the Gasthof Neuner.", "He was buried on 16 August in the Katholische Hofkirche of Dresden.", "In his memory, the Dowager Queen Maria arranged to establish the Königskapelle (King's Chapel) at the accident place, which was consecrated one year later, some of the last members of the Saxon royal family, including Maria Emanuel, Margrave of Meissen, are buried beside the chapel." ], [ "Marriages", "In Vienna on 26 September 1819 (by proxy) and again in Dresden on 7 October 1819 (in person), Frederick Augustus married firstly with the Archduchess Maria Caroline of Austria (Maria Karoline Ferdinande Theresia Josephine Demetria), daughter of Emperor Francis I of Austria.", "They had no children.In Dresden on 24 April 1833 Frederick Augustus married secondly with the Princess Maria Anna of Bavaria (Maria Anna Leopoldine Elisabeth Wilhelmine), daughter of the King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria.", "Like his first marriage, this was childless.The musician Theodor Uhlig (1822–1853) was an illegitimate son of Frederick Augustus.Without legitimate issue, after his death Frederick Augustus was succeeded by his younger brother, Johann." ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "Notes" ] ]
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[ [ "Free market" ], [ "Introduction", "In economics, a '''free market''' is an economic system in which the prices of goods and services are determined by supply and demand expressed by sellers and buyers.", "Such markets, as modeled, operate without the intervention of government or any other external authority.", "Proponents of the free market as a normative ideal contrast it with a regulated market, in which a government intervenes in supply and demand by means of various methods such as taxes or regulations.", "In an idealized free market economy, prices for goods and services are set solely by the bids and offers of the participants.Scholars contrast the concept of a free market with the concept of a coordinated market in fields of study such as political economy, new institutional economics, economic sociology, and political science.", "All of these fields emphasize the importance in currently existing market systems of rule-making institutions external to the simple forces of supply and demand which create space for those forces to operate to control productive output and distribution.", "Although free markets are commonly associated with capitalism in contemporary usage and popular culture, free markets have also been components in some forms of market socialism.Historically, free market has also been used synonymously with other economic policies.", "For instance proponents of ''laissez-faire'' capitalism may refer to it as free market capitalism because they claim it achieves the most economic freedom.", "In practice, governments usually intervene to reduce externalities such as greenhouse gas emissions; although they may use markets to do so, such as carbon emission trading." ], [ "Economic systems", "=== Capitalism ===Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit.", "Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, a price system, private property and the recognition of property rights, voluntary exchange, and wage labor.", "In a capitalist market economy, decision-making and investments are determined by every owner of wealth, property or production ability in capital and financial markets whereas prices and the distribution of goods and services are mainly determined by competition in goods and services markets.Economists, historians, political economists and sociologists have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice.", "These include ''laissez-faire'' or free-market capitalism, state capitalism and welfare capitalism.", "Different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership, obstacles to free competition and state-sanctioned social policies.", "The degree of competition in markets and the role of intervention and regulation as well as the scope of state ownership vary across different models of capitalism.", "The extent to which different markets are free and the rules defining private property are matters of politics and policy.", "Most of the existing capitalist economies are mixed economies that combine elements of free markets with state intervention and in some cases economic planning.Market economies have existed under many forms of government and in many different times, places and cultures.", "Modern capitalist societies—marked by a universalization of money-based social relations, a consistently large and system-wide class of workers who must work for wages (the proletariat) and a capitalist class which owns the means of production—developed in Western Europe in a process that led to the Industrial Revolution.", "Capitalist systems with varying degrees of direct government intervention have since become dominant in the Western world and continue to spread.", "Capitalism has been shown to be strongly correlated with economic growth.=== Georgism ===For classical economists such as Adam Smith, the term free market refers to a market free from all forms of economic privilege, monopolies and artificial scarcities.", "They say this implies that economic rents, which they describe as profits generated from a lack of perfect competition, must be reduced or eliminated as much as possible through free competition.Economic theory suggests the returns to land and other natural resources are economic rents that cannot be reduced in such a way because of their perfect inelastic supply.", "Some economic thinkers emphasize the need to share those rents as an essential requirement for a well functioning market.", "It is suggested this would both eliminate the need for regular taxes that have a negative effect on trade (see deadweight loss) as well as release land and resources that are speculated upon or monopolised, two features that improve the competition and free market mechanisms.", "Winston Churchill supported this view by the following statement: \"Land is the mother of all monopoly\".", "The American economist and social philosopher Henry George, the most famous proponent of this thesis, wanted to accomplish this through a high land value tax that replaces all other taxes.", "Followers of his ideas are often called Georgists or geoists and geolibertarians.Léon Walras, one of the founders of the neoclassical economics who helped formulate the general equilibrium theory, had a very similar view.", "He argued that free competition could only be realized under conditions of state ownership of natural resources and land.", "Additionally, income taxes could be eliminated because the state would receive income to finance public services through owning such resources and enterprises.=== ''Laissez-faire'' ===The ''laissez-faire'' principle expresses a preference for an absence of non-market pressures on prices and wages such as those from discriminatory government taxes, subsidies, tariffs, regulations, or government-granted monopolies.", "In ''The Pure Theory of Capital'', Friedrich Hayek argued that the goal is the preservation of the unique information contained in the price itself.According to Karl Popper, the idea of the free market is paradoxical, as it requires interventions towards the goal of preventing interventions.Although ''laissez-faire'' has been commonly associated with capitalism, there is a similar economic theory associated with socialism called left-wing or socialist ''laissez-faire'', also known as free-market anarchism, free-market anti-capitalism and free-market socialism to distinguish it from ''laissez-faire'' capitalism.", "Critics of ''laissez-faire'' as commonly understood argue that a truly ''laissez-faire'' system would be anti-capitalist and socialist.", "American individualist anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker saw themselves as economic free-market socialists and political individualists while arguing that their \"anarchistic socialism\" or \"individual anarchism\" was \"consistent Manchesterism\".=== Socialism ===Various forms of socialism based on free markets have existed since the 19th century.", "Early notable socialist proponents of free markets include Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Benjamin Tucker and the Ricardian socialists.", "These economists believed that genuinely free markets and voluntary exchange could not exist within the exploitative conditions of capitalism.", "These proposals ranged from various forms of worker cooperatives operating in a free-market economy such as the mutualist system proposed by Proudhon, to state-owned enterprises operating in unregulated and open markets.", "These models of socialism are not to be confused with other forms of market socialism (e.g.", "the Lange model) where publicly owned enterprises are coordinated by various degrees of economic planning, or where capital good prices are determined through marginal cost pricing.Advocates of free-market socialism such as Jaroslav Vanek argue that genuinely free markets are not possible under conditions of private ownership of productive property.", "Instead, he contends that the class differences and inequalities in income and power that result from private ownership enable the interests of the dominant class to skew the market to their favor, either in the form of monopoly and market power, or by utilizing their wealth and resources to legislate government policies that benefit their specific business interests.", "Additionally, Vanek states that workers in a socialist economy based on cooperative and self-managed enterprises have stronger incentives to maximize productivity because they would receive a share of the profits (based on the overall performance of their enterprise) in addition to receiving their fixed wage or salary.", "The stronger incentives to maximize productivity that he conceives as possible in a socialist economy based on cooperative and self-managed enterprises might be accomplished in a free-market economy if employee-owned companies were the norm as envisioned by various thinkers including Louis O. Kelso and James S. Albus.Socialists also assert that free-market capitalism leads to an excessively skewed distributions of income and economic instabilities which in turn leads to social instability.", "Corrective measures in the form of social welfare, re-distributive taxation and regulatory measures and their associated administrative costs which are required create agency costs for society.", "These costs would not be required in a self-managed socialist economy.Criticism of market socialism comes from two major directions.", "Economists Friedrich Hayek and George Stigler argued that socialism as a theory is not conducive to democratic systems and even the most benevolent state would face serious implementation problems.More modern criticism of socialism and market socialism implies that even in a democratic system, socialism cannot reach the desired efficient outcome.", "This argument holds that democratic majority rule becomes detrimental to enterprises and industries, and that the formation of interest groups distorts the optimal market outcome." ], [ "Concepts", "=== Economic equilibrium ===A diagram showing the \"effects of price freedom\"The general equilibrium theory has demonstrated that, under certain theoretical conditions of perfect competition, the law of supply and demand influences prices toward an equilibrium that balances the demands for the products against the supplies.", "At these equilibrium prices, the market distributes the products to the purchasers according to each purchaser's preference or utility for each product and within the relative limits of each buyer's purchasing power.", "This result is described as market efficiency, or more specifically a Pareto optimum.=== Low barriers to entry ===A free market does not directly require the existence of competition; however, it does require a framework that freely allows new market entrants.", "Hence, competition in a free market is a consequence of the conditions of a free market, including that market participants not be obstructed from following their profit motive.=== Perfect competition and market failure ===An absence of any of the conditions of perfect competition is considered a market failure.", "Regulatory intervention may provide a substitute force to counter a market failure, which leads some economists to believe that some forms of market regulation may be better than an unregulated market at providing a free market.=== Spontaneous order ===Friedrich Hayek popularized the view that market economies promote spontaneous order which results in a better \"allocation of societal resources than any design could achieve\".", "According to this view, market economies are characterized by the formation of complex transactional networks that produce and distribute goods and services throughout the economy.", "These networks are not designed, but they nevertheless emerge as a result of decentralized individual economic decisions.", "The idea of spontaneous order is an elaboration on the invisible hand proposed by Adam Smith in ''The Wealth of Nations''.", "About the individual, Smith wrote:By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention.", "Nor is it always the worse for society that it was no part of it.", "By pursuing his own interest, he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it.", "I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public good.Smith pointed out that one does not get one's dinner by appealing to the brother-love of the butcher, the farmer or the baker.", "Rather, one appeals to their self-interest and pays them for their labor, arguing:It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own self-interest.", "We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages.Supporters of this view claim that spontaneous order is superior to any order that does not allow individuals to make their own choices of what to produce, what to buy, what to sell and at what prices due to the number and complexity of the factors involved.", "They further believe that any attempt to implement central planning will result in more disorder, or a less efficient production and distribution of goods and services.Critics such as political economist Karl Polanyi question whether a spontaneously ordered market can exist, completely free of distortions of political policy, claiming that even the ostensibly freest markets require a state to exercise coercive power in some areas, namely to enforce contracts, govern the formation of labor unions, spell out the rights and obligations of corporations, shape who has standing to bring legal actions and define what constitutes an unacceptable conflict of interest.=== Supply and demand ===Demand for an item (such as a good or service) refers to the economic market pressure from people trying to buy it.", "Buyers have a maximum price they are willing to pay for an item, and sellers have a minimum price at which they are willing to offer their product.", "The point at which the supply and demand curves meet is the equilibrium price of the good and quantity demanded.", "Sellers willing to offer their goods at a lower price than the equilibrium price receive the difference as producer surplus.", "Buyers willing to pay for goods at a higher price than the equilibrium price receive the difference as consumer surplus.The model is commonly applied to wages in the market for labor.", "The typical roles of supplier and consumer are reversed.", "The suppliers are individuals, who try to sell (supply) their labor for the highest price.", "The consumers are businesses, which try to buy (demand) the type of labor they need at the lowest price.", "As more people offer their labor in that market, the equilibrium wage decreases and the equilibrium level of employment increases as the supply curve shifts to the right.", "The opposite happens if fewer people offer their wages in the market as the supply curve shifts to the left.In a free market, individuals and firms taking part in these transactions have the liberty to enter, leave and participate in the market as they so choose.", "Prices and quantities are allowed to adjust according to economic conditions in order to reach equilibrium and allocate resources.", "However, in many countries around the world governments seek to intervene in the free market in order to achieve certain social or political agendas.", "Governments may attempt to create social equality or equality of outcome by intervening in the market through actions such as imposing a minimum wage (price floor) or erecting price controls (price ceiling).", "Other lesser-known goals are also pursued, such as in the United States, where the federal government subsidizes owners of fertile land to not grow crops in order to prevent the supply curve from further shifting to the right and decreasing the equilibrium price.", "This is done under the justification of maintaining farmers' profits; due to the relative inelasticity of demand for crops, increased supply would lower the price but not significantly increase quantity demanded, thus placing pressure on farmers to exit the market.", "Those interventions are often done in the name of maintaining basic assumptions of free markets such as the idea that the costs of production must be included in the price of goods.", "Pollution and depletion costs are sometimes not included in the cost of production (a manufacturer that withdraws water at one location then discharges it polluted downstream, avoiding the cost of treating the water), therefore governments may opt to impose regulations in an attempt to try to internalize all of the cost of production and ultimately include them in the price of the goods.Advocates of the free market contend that government intervention hampers economic growth by disrupting the efficient allocation of resources according to supply and demand while critics of the free market contend that government intervention is sometimes necessary to protect a country's economy from better-developed and more influential economies, while providing the stability necessary for wise long-term investment.", "Milton Friedman argued against central planning, price controls and state-owned corporations, particularly as practiced in the Soviet Union and China while Ha-Joon Chang cites the examples of post-war Japan and the growth of South Korea's steel industry as positive examples of government intervention." ], [ "Reception", "=== Criticism ===Critics of a ''laissez-faire'' free market have argued that in real world situations it has proven to be susceptible to the development of price fixing monopolies.", "Such reasoning has led to government intervention, e.g.", "the United States antitrust law.", "Critics of the free market also argue that it results in significant market dominance, inequality of bargaining power, or information asymmetry, in order to allow markets to function more freely.Critics of a free market often argue that some market failures require government intervention.", "Economists Ronald Coase, Milton Friedman, Ludwig von Mises, and Friedrich Hayek have responded by arguing that markets can internalize or adjust to supposed market failures.Two prominent Canadian authors argue that government at times has to intervene to ensure competition in large and important industries.", "Naomi Klein illustrates this roughly in her work ''The Shock Doctrine'' and John Ralston Saul more humorously illustrates this through various examples in ''The Collapse of Globalism and the Reinvention of the World''.", "While its supporters argue that only a free market can create healthy competition and therefore more business and reasonable prices, opponents say that a free market in its purest form may result in the opposite.", "According to Klein and Ralston, the merging of companies into giant corporations or the privatization of government-run industry and national assets often result in monopolies or oligopolies requiring government intervention to force competition and reasonable prices.", "Another form of market failure is speculation, where transactions are made to profit from short term fluctuation, rather from the intrinsic value of the companies or products.", "This criticism has been challenged by historians such as Lawrence Reed, who argued that monopolies have historically failed to form even in the absence of antitrust law.", "This is because monopolies are inherently difficult to maintain as a company that tries to maintain its monopoly by buying out new competitors, for instance, is incentivizing newcomers to enter the market in hope of a buy-out.", "Furthermore, according to writer Walter Lippman and economist Milton Friedman, historical analysis of the formation of monopolies reveals that, contrary to popular belief, these were the result not of unfettered market forces, but of legal privileges granted by government.American philosopher and author Cornel West has derisively termed what he perceives as dogmatic arguments for ''laissez-faire'' economic policies as free-market fundamentalism.", "West has contended that such mentality \"trivializes the concern for public interest\" and \"makes money-driven, poll-obsessed elected officials deferential to corporate goals of profit – often at the cost of the common good\".", "American political philosopher Michael J. Sandel contends that in the last thirty years the United States has moved beyond just having a market economy and has become a market society where literally everything is for sale, including aspects of social and civic life such as education, access to justice and political influence.", "The economic historian Karl Polanyi was highly critical of the idea of the market-based society in his book ''The Great Transformation'', stating that any attempt at its creation would undermine human society and the common good: \"Ultimately...the control of the economic system by the market is of overwhelming consequence to the whole organization of society; it means no less than the running of society as an adjunct to the market.", "Instead of economy being embedded in social relations, social relations are embedded in the economic system.", "\"David McNally of the University of Houston argues in the Marxist tradition that the logic of the market inherently produces inequitable outcomes and leads to unequal exchanges, arguing that Adam Smith's moral intent and moral philosophy espousing equal exchange was undermined by the practice of the free market he championed.", "According to McNally, the development of the market economy involved coercion, exploitation and violence that Smith's moral philosophy could not countenance.", "McNally also criticizes market socialists for believing in the possibility of fair markets based on equal exchanges to be achieved by purging parasitical elements from the market economy such as private ownership of the means of production, arguing that market socialism is an oxymoron when socialism is defined as an end to wage labour." ], [ "See also", "* Binary economics* Crony capitalism* Economic liberalism* Freedom of choice* Free price system* Grey market* Left-wing market anarchism* Market economy* Neoliberalism* Participatory economics* Quasi-market* Self-managed economy* Transparency (market)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "* Adler, Jonathan H. “Excerpts from ‘About Free-Market Environmentalism.’” In Environment and Society: A Reader, edited by Christopher Schlottmann, Dale Jamieson, Colin Jerolmack, Anne Rademacher, and Maria Damon, 259–264.New York University Press, 2017..* Althammer, Jörg.", "“Economic Efficiency and Solidarity: The Idea of a Social Market Economy.” Free Markets with Sustainability and Solidarity, edited by Martin Schlag and Juan A. Mercaso, Catholic University of America Press, 2016, pp.", "199–216, .", "* Baradaran, Mehrsa.", "“The Free Market Confronts Black Poverty.” The Color of Money: Black Banks and the Racial Wealth Gap, Harvard University Press, 2017, pp.", "215–246, .", "* * * * Block, Fred and Somers, Margaret R. (2014). ''", "The Power of Market Fundamentalism: Karl Polanyi's Critique .''", "Harvard University Press.", ".", ".", "* Boettke, Peter J.", "\"What Went Wrong with Economics?", "\", ''Critical Review'' Vol.", "11, No.", "1, pp.", "35, 58 .", "* * * Chua, Beng Huat.", "“Disrupting Free Market: State Capitalism and Social Distribution.” ''Liberalism Disavowed: Communitarianism and State Capitalism in Singapore'', Cornell University Press, 2017, pp.", "98–122, .", "* Cox, Harvey (2016). ''", "The Market as God .''", "Harvard University Press.", ".", "* Cremers, Jan and Ronald Dekker.", "“Labour Arbitrage on European Labour Markets: Free Movement and the Role of Intermediaries.” ''Towards a Decent Labour Market for Low Waged Migrant Workers'', edited by Conny Rijken and Tesseltje de Lange, Amsterdam University Press, 2018, pp.", "109–128, .", "* * * * * * * * * Hayek, Friedrich A.", "(1948).", "''Individualism and Economic Order''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press.", "vii, 271, 1.", "* * Higgs, Kerryn.", "“The Rise of Free Market Fundamentalism.” Collision Course: Endless Growth on a Finite Planet, The MIT Press, 2014, pp.", "79–104, .", "* Holland, Eugene W. “Free-Market Communism.” Nomad Citizenship: Free-Market Communism and the Slow-Motion General Strike, NED-New edition, University of Minnesota Press, 2011, pp.", "99–140, .", "* Hoopes, James.", "“Corporations as Enemies of the Free Market.” Corporate Dreams: Big Business in American Democracy from the Great Depression to the Great Recession, Rutgers University Press, 2011, pp.", "27–32, .", "* * Jónsson, Örn D., and Rögnvaldur J. Sæmundsson.", "“Free Market Ideology, Crony Capitalism, and Social Resilience.” Gambling Debt: Iceland's Rise and Fall in the Global Economy, edited by E. Paul Durrenberger and Gisli Palsson, University Press of Colorado, 2015, pp.", "23–32, .", "* * Kuttner, Robert, \"The Man from Red Vienna\" (review of Gareth Dale, ''Karl Polanyi: A Life on the Left'', Columbia University Press, 381 pp.", "), ''The New York Review of Books'', vol.", "LXIV, no.", "20 (21 December 2017), pp. 55–57.", "\"In sum, Polanyi got some details wrong, but he got the big picture right.", "Democracy cannot survive an excessively free market; and containing the market is the task of politics.", "To ignore that is to court fascism.\"", "(Robert Kuttner, p. 57).", "* * * Mittermaier, Karl and Isabella Mittermaier.", "“Free-Market Dogmatism and Pragmatism.” In ''The Hand Behind the Invisible Hand: Dogmatic and Pragmatic Views on Free Markets and the State of Economic Theory'', 1st ed., 23–26.Bristol University Press, 2020..* Newland, Carlos.", "“Is Support for Capitalism Declining around the World?", "A Free-Market Mentality Index, 1990–2012.” The ''Independent Review'', vol.", "22, no.", "4, Independent Institute, 2018, pp.", "569–583, .", "* Noriega, Roger F., and Andrés Martínez-Fernández.", "\"The Free-Market Moment: Making Grassroots Capitalism Succeed Where Populism Has Failed\".", "American Enterprise Institute, 2016, .", "* Orłowska, Agnieszka.", "“Toward Mutual Understanding, Respect, and Trust: On Past and Present Dog Training in Poland.” ''Free Market Dogs: The Human-Canine Bond in Post-Communist Poland'', edited by Michał Piotr Pręgowski and Justyna Włodarczyk, Purdue University Press, 2016, pp.", "35–60, .", "* Ott, Julia C. “The ‘Free and Open Market’ Responds.” ''When Wall Street Met Main Street'', Harvard University Press, 2011, pp.", "36–54, .", "* Palda, Filip (2011) ''Pareto's Republic and the New Science of Peace'' 2011 Home chapters online.", "Published by Cooper-Wolfling.", ".", "* Philippon, Thomas.", "“The Rise in Market Power.” ''The Great Reversal: How America Gave Up on Free Markets'', Harvard University Press, 2019, pp.", "45–61, .", "* * Roberts, Alasdair.", "“The Market Comes Back.” ''The End of Protest: How Free-Market Capitalism Learned to Control Dissent'', Cornell University Press, 2013, pp.", "41–57, .", "* Robin, Ron.", "“Castrophobia and the Free Market: The Wohlstetters’ Moral Economy.” ''The Cold World They Made: The Strategic Legacy of Roberta and Albert Wohlstetter'', Harvard University Press, 2016, pp.", "118–138, .", "* Sandel, Michael J.", "(2013).", "''What Money Can't Buy: The Moral Limits of Markets.''", "Farrar, Straus and Giroux.", ".", "* Sim, Stuart.", "“Neoliberalism, Financial Crisis, and Profit.” ''Addicted to Profit: Reclaiming Our Lives from the Free Market'', Edinburgh University Press, 2012, pp.", "70–95, .", "* Singer, Joseph W. “Why Consumer Protection Promotes the Free Market.” ''No Freedom without Regulation: The Hidden Lesson of the Subprime Crisis'', Yale University Press, 2015, pp.", "58–94, .", "* Sloman, Peter.", "“Welfare in a Neoliberal Age: The Politics of Redistributive Market Liberalism.” In ''The Neoliberal Age?", ": Britain since the 1970s'', edited by Aled Davies, Ben Jackson, and Florence Sutcliffe-Braithwaite, 75–93.UCL Press, 2021..* * Stiglitz, Joseph.", "(1994).", "''Whither Socialism?''", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.", "* Symons, Michael.", "“Free The Market!", "(It's Been Captured by Capitalism).” ''Meals Matter: A Radical Economics Through Gastronomy'', Columbia University Press, 2020, pp.", "225–246, .", "* * * * pp.", "226–266, .", "* * Verhaeghe, Paul (2014).", "''What About Me?", "The Struggle for Identity in a Market-Based Society.''", "Scribe Publications.", ".", "* * Zeitlin, Steve, and Bob Holman.", "“Free Market Flavor: Poetry of the Palate.” ''The Poetry of Everyday Life: Storytelling and the Art of Awareness'', 1st ed., Cornell University Press, 2016, pp.", "127–131, ." ], [ "External links", "** \"Free market\" at ''Encyclopædia Britannica''* \"Free Enterprise: The Economics of Cooperation\" looks at how communication, coordination and cooperation interact to make free markets work" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ford GT40" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Ford GT40''' is a high-performance endurance racing car designed and built by the Ford Motor Company.", "It grew out of the \"Ford GT\" (for Grand Touring) project, an effort to compete in European long-distance sports car races, against Ferrari, who had won the prestigious 24 Hours of Le Mans race from 1960 to 1965.Ford succeeded with the GT40, winning the 1966 through 1969 races.The effort began in the early 1960s when ''Ford Advanced Vehicles'' began to build the GT40 Mk I car, based upon the Lola Mk6, at their base in Slough, UK.", "After disappointing race results, the engineering team was moved in 1964 to Dearborn, Michigan, USA to design and build cars by ''Kar Kraft''.", "All chassis versions were powered by a series of American-built Ford V8 engines modified for racing.In 1966, Ford with the GT40 Mk II car broke Ferrari's winning streak at Le Mans, thus becoming the first American manufacturer to have won a major European race since Jimmy Murphy's triumph with Duesenberg at the 1921 French Grand Prix.", "In 1967, the Mk IV car became the only car designed and built entirely (both chassis and engine) in the United States to achieve the overall win at Le Mans.The Mk I, the oldest of the cars, won in 1968 and 1969, the second chassis to win Le Mans more than once.", "(This Ford/Shelby chassis, #P-1075, was believed to have been the first until the Ferrari 275P chassis 0816 was revealed to have won the 1964 race after winning the 1963 race in 250P configuration and with a 0814 chassis plate).", "Its American Ford V8 engine, originally of 4.7-liter displacement capacity (289 cubic inches), was enlarged to 4.9 litres (302 cubic inches), with custom alloy Gurney–Weslake cylinder heads.The \"40\" represented its height of 40 inches (1.02 m), measured at the windscreen, the minimum allowed.", "The first 12 \"prototype\" vehicles carried serial numbers GT-101 to GT-112.Once \"production\" began, the Mk I, Mk II, Mk III, and Mk IV were numbered GT40P/1000 through GT40P/1145, and thus officially \"GT40s\".", "The Mk IVs were numbered J1-J12.The contemporary Ford GT is a modern homage to the GT40." ], [ "History", "Henry Ford II had wanted a Ford at Le Mans since the early 1960s.", "In early 1963, Ford reportedly received word through a European intermediary that Enzo Ferrari was interested in selling to Ford Motor Company.", "Ford reportedly spent several million dollars in an audit of Ferrari factory assets and in legal negotiations, only to have Ferrari unilaterally cut off talks at a late stage due to disputes about the ability to direct open-wheel racing.", "Ferrari, who wanted to remain the sole operator of his company's motorsports division, was angered when he was told that he would not be allowed to race at the Indianapolis 500 if the deal went through, since Ford fielded Indy cars using its own engine and didn't want competition from Ferrari.", "Enzo cut the deal off out of spite and Henry Ford II, enraged, directed his racing division to find a company that could build a Ferrari-beater on the world endurance-racing circuit.To this end, Ford began negotiation with Lotus, Lola, and Cooper.", "Cooper had no experience in GT or prototype and its performances in Formula One were declining.Lola Mk6 The Lola proposal was chosen since Lola had used a Ford V8 engine in its mid-engined Lola Mk6 (also known as Lola GT).", "It was one of the most advanced racing cars of the time and made a noted performance in Le Mans 1963, even though the car did not finish, due to low gearing and slow revving out on the Mulsanne Straight.", "However, Eric Broadley, Lola Cars' owner and chief designer, agreed on a short-term personal contribution to the project without involving Lola Cars.The agreement with Broadley included a one-year collaboration between Ford and Broadley, and the sale of the two Lola Mk 6 chassis builds to Ford.", "To form the development team, Ford also hired the ex-Aston Martin team manager John Wyer.", "Ford Motor Co. engineer Roy Lunn was sent to England; he had designed the mid-engined Mustang I concept car powered by a 1.7-liter V4.Despite the small engine of the Mustang I, Lunn was the only Dearborn engineer to have some experience with a mid-engined car.Overseen by Harley Copp, the team of Broadley, Lunn, and Wyer began working on the new car at the Lola Factory in Bromley.", "At the end of 1963, the team moved to Slough, near Heathrow Airport.", "Ford then established Ford Advanced Vehicles (FAV) Ltd, a new subsidiary under the direction of Wyer, to manage the project.The first chassis built by Abbey Panels of Coventry was delivered on 16 March 1964, with fibreglass mouldings produced by Fibre Glass Engineering Ltd of Farnham.", "The first \"Ford GT\" the GT/101 was unveiled in England on 1 April and soon after exhibited in New York.", "Purchase price of the completed car for competition use was £5,200.It was powered by the 4.7 L 289 cu in Fairlane engine with a Colotti transaxle.", "An aluminium block DOHC version, known as the Ford Indy Engine, was used in later years at Indy.", "It won in 1965 in the Lotus 38.=== Racing history ===Prototype chassis GT 104, which finished third at the Daytona 2000 in 1965The Ford GT40 was first raced in May 1964 at the Nürburgring 1000 km where it retired with suspension failure after holding second place early in the event.", "Three weeks later at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, all three entries retired, although the Ginther/Gregory car led the field from the second lap until its first pitstop.", "After a season-long series of dismal results under John Wyer in 1964, the program was handed over to Carroll Shelby after the 1964 Nassau race.", "The cars were sent directly to Shelby, still bearing the dirt and damage from the Nassau race.", "Carroll Shelby was noted for complaining that the cars were poorly maintained when he received them, but later information revealed the cars were packed up as soon as the race was over, and FAV never had a chance to clean and organize the cars to be transported to Shelby.Shelby's first victory came on their maiden race with the Ford program, with Ken Miles and Lloyd Ruby taking a Shelby American-entered Ford GT40 to victory in the Daytona 2000km in February 1965.One month later, Ken Miles and Bruce McLaren came in second overall (to the winning Chaparral in the sports class) and first in prototype class at the Sebring 12-hour race.", "The rest of the season, however, was a disappointment.Ford GT40 Mk I road version (chassis P/1030)The experience gained in 1964 and 1965 allowed the 7-liter Mk II to dominate the following year.", "In February, the GT40 again won at Daytona.", "This was the first year Daytona was run in the 24 Hour format and Mk II's finished 1st, 2nd, and 3rd.", "In March, at the 1966 12 Hours of Sebring, GT40s again took all three top finishes, with the X-1 Roadster first, a Mk II taking second, and a Mk I in third.", "Then in June, at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, the GT40 achieved yet another 1–2–3 result.The Le Mans finish, however, was clouded in controversy: The No1 car of Ken Miles and Denny Hulme held a four lap lead over the No2 car of Bruce McLaren and Chris Amon.", "This disintegrated when the No1 car was forced to make a pit-stop for replacement brake rotors, following an incorrect set being fitted a lap prior in a scheduled rotor change.", "It was found to be a result of the correct brake rotors being taken by the No2 crew.This meant that in the final few hours, the Ford GT40 of New Zealanders Bruce McLaren and Chris Amon closely trailed the leading Ford GT40 driven by Englishman Ken Miles and New Zealander Denny Hulme.", "With a multimillion-dollar program finally on the very brink of success, Ford team officials faced a difficult choice.", "They could allow the drivers to settle the outcome by racing each other—and risk one or both cars breaking down or crashing; they could dictate a finishing order to the drivers—guaranteeing that one set of drivers would be extremely unhappy; or they could arrange a tie, with the McLaren/Amon and Miles/Hulme cars crossing the line side by side.The team chose the latter and informed Shelby.", "He told McLaren and Miles of the decision just before the two got into their cars for the final stint.", "Then, not long before the finish, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO), organizers of the Le Mans event, informed Ford that the geographical difference in starting positions would be taken into account at a close finish.", "This meant that the McLaren/Amon vehicle, which had started perhaps behind the Hulme-Miles car, would have covered slightly more ground over the 24 hours and would, in the event of a tie for first place, be the winner.", "Secondly, Ford officials admitted later, the company's contentious relationship with Miles, its top contract driver, placed executives in a difficult position.", "They could reward an outstanding driver who had been at times extremely difficult to work with, or they could decide in favor of drivers (McLaren/Amon) who had committed less to the Ford program but who had been easier to deal with.", "Ford stuck with the orchestrated photo finish.", "What happened on the last lap remains the subject of speculation.", "Either Miles, deeply bitter over this decision after his dedication to the program, issued his own protest by suddenly slowing just yards from the finish and letting McLaren across the line first, or McLaren accelerated just before the finish line robbing Miles of his victory.", "Either way, McLaren was declared the victor.Two months later Ken Miles died at the wheel of the Ford \"J-car\", in a testing accident at Riverside Raceway.", "The J-car was a GT40 prototype that included several unique features, most notably an aluminium-honeycomb chassis-construction and a \"bread-van\" body-design that experimented with \"Kammback\" aerodynamic theories.", "Miles' fatal accident was attributed at least partly to the unproven aerodynamics of the J-car design, and to the experimental chassis' strength.", "The team embarked on a complete redesign of the car, which became known as the Mk IV.", "The Mk IV newer design, with a Mk II engine but a different chassis and a different body, won the following year at Le Mans (when four Mark IVs, three Mark IIs, and three Mark Is raced).", "The high speeds achieved in that race caused a rule change, which already came into effect in 1968: the prototypes were limited to the capacity of 3.0 litres, the same as in Formula One.", "This took out the V12-powered Ferrari 330P, the Chaparral, Jaguar XJ13 and the Mk IV.Rodríguez and Bianchi winners of the 1968 24 Hours of Le Mans.If at least 50 cars had been built, sportscars like the GT40 and the Lola T70 were allowed, with a maximum of 5.0 l. John Wyer's revised 4.7-liter (bored to 4.9 litre, and O-rings cut and installed between the block and head to prevent head gasket failure, a common problem found with the 4.7 engine) Mk I won the 24 hours of Le Mans race in 1968 against the fragile smaller prototypes.", "This result, added to four other round wins for the GT40, gave Ford victory in the 1968 International Championship for Makes.", "The GT40's intended 3.0 l replacement, the Ford P68, and Mirage cars proved a dismal failure.", "While facing more experienced prototypes and the new yet still unreliable 4.5 l flat-12-powered Porsche 917s, Wyer's 1969 24 Hours of Le Mans winners Jacky Ickx/Jackie Oliver managed to beat the remaining 3.0-liter Porsche 908 by just a few seconds with the already outdated GT40 Mk I, in the very car that had won in 1968 – the legendary GT40P/1075.Apart from brake-wear in the Porsche and the decision not to change brake-pads so close to the end of the race, the winning combination was relaxed driving by both GT40 drivers and heroic efforts at the right time by (at that time Le Mans' rookie) Ickx, who would go on to win Le Mans five more times in later years.=== Le Mans 24 Hours victories ===Le Mans 24 Hours victoriesYear Car Team Drivers Engine Tyre Distancein km Speed mph km/h 1966 GT40P/1046 (Mk II) Shelby-American Inc. Bruce McLaren Chris Amon Ford 7.0L V8 4843.09 125.39 201.80 1967 J5 (Mk IV) Shelby-American Inc. Dan Gurney A. J. Foyt Ford 7.0L V8 5232.9 135.48 218.03 1968 GT40P/1075 (Mk I) John Wyer Automotive Engineering Ltd. Pedro Rodriguez Lucien Bianchi Ford 4.9 L V8 4452.88 115.29 185.54 1969 GT40P/1075 (Mk I) John Wyer Automotive Engineering Ltd. Jacky Ickx Jackie Oliver Ford 4.9 L V8 4997.88 129.40 208.25=== International titles ===In addition to four consecutive overall Le Mans victories, Ford also won the following four FIA international titles (at what was then unofficially known as the World Sportscar Championship) with the GT40 car:* 1966 International Manufacturers Championship – Sports prototype category (over 2000cc)* 1966 International Championship for Sports Cars – Grand Touring (GT) category (division III - over 2000cc)* 1967 International Championship for Sports Cars – Grand Touring (GT) category (division III - over 2000cc)* 1968 International Championship for Makes – Sports prototype category" ], [ "Versions", "=== Mk I ===A Ford GT40 Mk I competing in the 1969 Nurburgring 1000km raceGulf racer1968 Ford GT40 Mk IThe Mk I was the original Ford GT40.Early prototypes were powered by 255 cu in (4.2 L) alloy V8 engines and production models were powered by engines as used in the Ford Mustang.", "Five prototype models were built with roadster bodywork, including the Ford X-1.Two lightweight cars (of a planned five), AMGT40/1 and AMGT40/2, were built by Alan Mann Racing in 1966, with light alloy bodies and other weight-saving modifications.The Mk I met with little success in its initial tune for the 1964 and 1965 Le Mans races.", "The first success came after their demise at the Nassau Speed Weekend Nov 1964 when the racing was handed over to Carrol Shelby.", "Shelby's team modified the Ford GT40 and the first win at Daytona February 1965 was achieved.", "Much was later modified and run by John Wyer in 1968 and 1969, winning Le Mans in both those years and Sebring in 1969.The Mk II and IV were both obsolete after the FIA had changed the rules to ban unlimited capacity engines, ruling out the 427 cu in (7 L) Ford V8.However, the Mk I, with its smaller engine, was legally able to race as a homologated sports car because of its production numbers.In 1968 competition came from the Porsche 908, which was the first prototype built for the 3-liter Group 6.The result was a resounding success for the Mk I at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, with Pedro Rodríguez and Lucien Bianchi having a clear lead over the Porsches driving the ‘almighty’ #9 car with the 'Gulf Oil' colors.", "The season began slowly for JW, losing at Sebring and Daytona before taking their first win at the BOAC International 500 at Brands Hatch.", "Later victories included the Grand Prix de Spa, 21st Annual Watkins Glen Sports Car Road Race and the 1000 km di Monza.", "The engine installed on this car was a naturally aspirated Windsor V8 with a compression ratio of 10.6:1; fuel fed by four 2-barrel 48 IDA Weber carburettors, rated at at 6,000 rpm and a maximum torque of at 4,750 rpm.31 Mk I cars were built at the Slough factory in \"road\" trim, which differed little from the race versions.", "Wire wheels, carpet, ruched fabric map pockets in the doors and a cigarette lighter made up most of the changes.", "Some cars deleted the ventilated seats, and at least one (chassis 1049) was built with the opening, metal-framed, windows from the Mk III.", "; X-1 RoadsterThe X-1 was a roadster built to contest the Fall 1965 North American Pro Series, a forerunner of Can-Am, entered by the Bruce McLaren team and driven by Chris Amon.", "The car had an aluminium chassis built at Abbey Panels and was originally powered by a 289 cu in (4.7L) engine.", "The real purpose of this car was to test several improvements originating from Kar Kraft, Shelby, and McLaren.", "Several gearboxes were used: a Hewland LG500 and at least one automatic gearbox.", "It was later upgraded to Mk II specifications with a 427 cu in (7 L) engine and a standard four ratio Kar Kraft (subsidiary of Ford) gearbox, however, the car kept specific features such as its open roof and lightweight aluminium chassis.", "The car went on to win the 12 Hours of Sebring in 1966.The X-1 was a one-off and, having been built in the United Kingdom and being liable for United States tariffs, was later ordered to be destroyed by United States customs officials.=== Mk II ===Ford GT40 Mk II rearThe Mk II was rebuilt separately by both Holman Moody and Shelby American to handle the 7.0-liter FE (427 ci) engine from the Ford Galaxie, used in NASCAR at the time and modified for road course use.", "The car's chassis was similar to the British-built Mk I chassis, but it and other parts of the car had to be redesigned and modified by Holman Moody to accommodate the larger and heavier 427 engine.", "A new Kar Kraft-built four-speed gearbox replaced the ZF five-speed used in the Mk I.", "This car is sometimes called the ''Ford Mk II''.In 1966, the three teams racing the Mk II (Chris Amon and Bruce McLaren, Denny Hulme and Ken Miles, and Dick Hutcherson and Ronnie Bucknum) dominated Le Mans, taking European audiences by surprise and beating Ferrari to finish 1-2-3 in the standings.", "The Ford GT40 went on to win the race for the next three years.For 1967, the Mk IIs were upgraded to \"B\" spec; they had re-designed bodywork and twin Holley carburettors for an additional .", "A batch of improperly heat-treated input shafts in the transaxles side-lined virtually every Ford in the race at Daytona, however, and Ferrari won 1-2-3.The Mk IIBs were also used for Sebring and Le Mans that year and won the Reims 12 Hours in France.", "For the Daytona 24 Hours, two Mk II models (chassis 1016 and 1047) had their engines re-badged as Mercury engines; Ford seeing a good opportunity to advertise that division of the company.In 2018, a Mk II that was 3rd overall at the 1966 Le Mans 24 Hours was sold by RM Sotheby's for $9,795,000 (£7,624,344) - the highest price achieved for a GT40 at auction.=== Mk III ===Ford GT40 Mk IIIThe Mk III was a road-car only, of which seven were built.", "The car had four headlamps, the rear part of the body was expanded to make room for luggage, the 4.7-liter engine was detuned to , the shock absorbers were softened, the shift lever was moved to the centre, an ashtray was added, and the car was available with the steering wheel on the left side of the car.", "As the Mk III looked significantly different from the racing models many customers interested in buying a GT40 for road use chose to buy a Mk I that was available from Wyer Ltd. Of the seven MK III that were produced four were left-hand drive.=== J-car ===1967 Ford GT40 Mk IV, which was developed from the J-car.", "This particular car, J-4, won the 1967 12 Hours of Sebring.In an effort to develop a car with better aerodynamics (potentially resulting in superior control and speed compared to competitors), the decision was made to re-conceptualize and redesign everything about the vehicle other than its powerful 7-liter engine.", "This would result in the abandonment of the original Mk I/Mk II chassis.In order to bring the car into alignment with Ford's \"in house\" ideology at the time, more restrictive partnerships were implemented with English firms, which resulted in the sale of Ford Advanced Vehicles (acquired by John Wyer), ultimately leading to a new vehicle which would be slated for design by Ford's studios and produced by Ford's subsidiary Kar-Kraft under Ed Hull.", "Furthermore, there was also a partnership with the Brunswick Aircraft Corporation for expertise on the novel use of aluminium honeycomb panels bonded together to form a lightweight, rigid \"tub\".The car was designated as the J-car, as it was constructed to meet the new Appendix J regulationswhich were introduced by the FIA in 1966.The first J-car was completed in March 1966 and set the fastest time at the Le Mans trials that year.", "The tub weighed only , and the entire car weighed only , less than the Mk II.", "It was decided to run the Mk IIs due to their proven reliability, however, and little or no development was done on the J-car for the rest of the season.", "Following Le Mans, the development program for the J-car was resumed, and a second car was built.", "During a test session at Riverside International Raceway in August 1966 with Ken Miles driving, the car suddenly went out of control at the end of Riverside's high-speed, back straight.", "The aluminium honeycomb chassis did not live up to its design goal, shattering upon impact.", "The car burst into flames, killing Miles.", "It was determined that the unique, flat-topped \"bread van\" aerodynamics of the car, lacking any sort of spoiler, were implicated in generating excess lift.", "Therefore, a conventional but significantly more aerodynamic body was designed for the subsequent development of the J-car which was officially known as the Mk IV.", "A total of nine cars were constructed with J-car chassis numbers although six were designated as Mk IVs and one as the G7A.=== Mk IV ===Ford GT40 Mk IVThe Mk IV was built around a reinforced J chassis powered by the same 7.0 L engine as the Mk II.", "Excluding the engine, gearbox, some suspension parts and the brakes from the Mk II, the Mk IV was totally different from other GT40s, using a specific, all-new chassis and bodywork.", "It was undoubtedly the most radical and American variant of all the GT40s over the years.", "As a direct result of the Miles accident, the team installed a NASCAR-style steel-tube roll cage in the Mk IV, which made it much safer, but the roll cage was so heavy that it negated most of the weight saving of the then-highly advanced, radically innovative honeycomb-panel construction.", "The Mk IV had a long, streamlined shape, which gave it exceptional top speed, crucial to do well at Le Mans in those days (a circuit made up predominantly of straight roads connecting tight corners)—the race it was ultimately built for.", "A 2-speed automatic gearbox was tried, but during the extensive testing of the J-car in 1966 and 1967, it was decided that the 4-speed from the Mk II would be retained.", "The car proved to be fastest in a straight line that year, thanks to its streamlined aerodynamics, achieving 212 mph on the 3.6-mile Mulsanne Straight.", "Dan Gurney, who was 6 feet 4 inches tall, requested a bubble-shaped piece of spherical bodywork extension over the top of the driver's seat so that he could fit into the car.", "Gurney also complained about the weight of the Mk IV, since the car was heavier than the Ferrari 330 P4, which, combined with the higher speed, put more stress on the Ford brakes.", "During practice at Le Mans in 1967, in an effort to preserve the brakes, Gurney developed a strategy (also adopted by co-driver A.J.", "Foyt who had just won the 1967 Indianapolis 500) of backing completely off the throttle several hundred yards before the approach to the Mulsanne hairpin and virtually coasting into the braking area.", "This technique saved the brakes, but the resulting increase in the car's recorded lap times during practice led to speculation within the Ford team that Gurney and Foyt, in an effort to compromise on chassis settings, had hopelessly \"dialed out\" their car - despite Gurney having been the fastest GT40 pilot in the 1966 practice and race.", "Also, Gurney was developing his own Eagle V12 F1 car with which he would win the 1967 Belgian Grand Prix the very next weekend.", "Ford's R&D department in Detroit had built a test rig that simulated whatever circuit the rig's computer was programmed to simulate; the Mk IV was put on this test rig and was subjected to weeks and weeks of testing on a simulated Le Mans lap.", "The rig was programmed to know every detail of the programmed circuit- every bump, every contour, every gear change, every corner and every length of straight on the Le Mans circuit, so that the engineers running these tests would know exactly how to build and prepare every component of the car for Le Mans.", "These kinds of test rigs are commonly used today by Formula One and factory Le Mans prototype teams; however this kind of incredibly advanced technology for the time, which was developed throughout 1966 and early 1967 was unheard of.The Mk IV ran in only two races, the 1967 12 Hours of Sebring and the 1967 24 Hours of Le Mans, and won both events.", "Only one Mk IV was completed for Sebring; the pressure from Ford had been amped up considerably after Ford's humiliation at Daytona two months earlier.", "Mario Andretti and Bruce McLaren won Sebring, Dan Gurney and A. J. Foyt won Le Mans (Gurney and Foyt's car was the Mk IV that was apparently least likely to win), where the Ford-representing Shelby-American and Holman & Moody teams showed up to Le Mans with 2 Mk IVs each.", "The installation of the roll cage was ultimately credited by many with saving the life of Andretti, who crashed violently at the Esses during the 1967 Le Mans 24 Hours, but escaped with minor injuries.", "Gurney later described the Mk IV as \"''half-way between a road-legal passenger car and a race car; it was reliable and comfortable, but heavy''\".Unlike the earlier Mk I - III cars, the chassis of which were built in Britain, the Mk IV car was built entirely in the United States by Kar Kraft, Ford's performance division in Detroit.", "Thus, Le Mans 1967 still remains both the only all-American victory in Le Mans history — American drivers (Dan Gurney and A. J. Foyt), team (Shelby-American Inc.), chassis constructor (Ford), engine manufacturer (Ford), and tyres (Goodyear) — as well as the only victory of a car designed and built entirely (both chassis and engine) in the United States.", "A total of six Mk IVs were constructed.", "One of the Mk IVs was rebuilt to Group 7 (motorsport) rules as the Ford G7 in 1968, and used in the Can-Am series for 1969 and 1970, but with no success.", "This car is sometimes called the ''Ford Mk IV''.===Mk V and John Wyer's modified Mk I's===For years Peter Thorp had searched for a GT40 in good condition.", "Most of the cars had problems including the dreaded rust issue.", "His company, Safir Engineering, was building and fielding Formula 3 race cars, in addition, had a Token Formula One car purchased from the Ron Dennis Company, Rondell Racing.", "Formula One events in which Safir Engineering competed included Brands Hatch and Silverstone.", "Safir was also redesigning Range Rovers modifying the unit to six-wheel drive and exporting them.", "Safir technical capabilities were such that they could rebuild GT40s.", "It was with this in mind that Thorp approached John Willment for his thoughts.", "It was soon decided that there would be a limited, further run of the significant GT40.JW Engineering would oversee the build, and Safir was to do the work.", "The continued JW Engineering/Safir Engineering production would utilize sequential serial numbers starting at the last used GT40 serial number and move forward.", "Maintaining the GT40 Mark nomenclature, this continued production would be named GT40 Mk V.JW Engineering wished to complete the GT40 chassis numbers GT40P-1087, 1088 and 1089.This was supposed to take place prior to the beginning of Safir production, however, the completion of these three chassis’ was very much delayed.Ford's Len Bailey was hired to inspect the proposed build and engineer any changes he thought prudent to ensure the car was safe, as well as minimize problems experienced in the past.", "Baily changed the front suspension to Alan Mann specifications, which minimized nose-dive under braking.", "Zinc coated steel replaced the previous uncoated rust-prone sheet metal.", "The vulnerable drive donuts were replaced with CV joints and the leak-prone rubber gas tanks were replaced with aluminium tanks.", "The GT40 chassis was upgraded without making any major changes.Tennant Panels supplied the roof structure and the balance of the chassis was completed by Safir.", "Bill Pink, noted for his electrical experience and the wiring installation of previous GT40s, was brought in.", "Also, Jim Rose was hired for his experience with working at both Alan Mann and Shelby.", "After the manufacture of chassis 1120, John Etheridge was hired to manage the GT40 build.", "The chassis was supplied from Adams McCall Engineering and parts supplied from Tennant panels.For the most part, the Mk V resembled very closely the Mk I car, although there were a few changes, and, as with the '60s production, very few cars were identical.The first car, GT40P-1090, had an open-top in place of roofed doors.", "Most motors were Ford small block, Webers or 4 Barrel Carburettor.", "Safir produced five Big Block GT40s, serial numbers GT40P-1128 to GT40P-1132.These aluminium big block cars all had easily removable door roof sections.", "Most GT40s were high-performance street cars however some of the Mk V production can be described as full race.", "Two road cars GT40P-1133 (roadster) and GT40P-1142 (roofed doors) were built as lightweights which included an aluminium honeycomb chassis and carbon fiber bodywork.=== Continuation models, replicas and modernizations === GT40/R Competition at Road America A \"Roaring Forties\" replica of a 1965 Ford GT40 in Shelby livery on display at the 2005 United States Grand PrixSeveral kit cars and replicas inspired by the Ford GT40 have been built.", "They are generally intended for assembly in a home workshop or garage.", "There are two alternatives to the kit car approach, either continuation models (exact and licensed replicas true to the original GT40) or modernizations (replicas with upgraded components, ergonomics & trim for improved usability, drivability, and performance).", "* GT40/R Competition, United States: Authentic GT40 built by Superformance and co-designed with Pathfinder Motorsports.", "This is the only GT40 continuation licensed by Safir GT40 Spares LLC, the holders of the GT40 trademark.", "A GT40/R (GT40P/2094) campaigned by Pathfinder Motorsports with an engine built by Holman Moody won both the 2009 US Vintage Grand Prix and the 2009 Governor's Cup at Watkins Glen.", "* Southern GT: Built-in Swanmore, Southampton, UK.", "Specializing in GT40 Mk1 and Mk2, as well as Lola T70.Kit form or fully built to your specifications.", "* CAV GT: Originally designed for customers to build as a kit, the CAV GT has evolved into a modernized replica that is now factory-built in Cape Town, South Africa.", "* Holman Moody: GT40 Mark II won third at Le Mans in 1966, and can still manufacture a Holman GT from 1966 blueprints.", "* GT40 Spyder, United States: Built by E.R.A.", "Replica Automobiles in New Britain, CT, the Spyder is a MK2 Canadian American (CAN-AM) racing replica.", "The ERA GT is \"No Longer Available\" according to their website (October 3, 2021).", "* Ford GT40 By Everrati: The reborn Ferrari-beating supercar uses a 700-volt architecture, which allows for super-fast charging.", "Everrati estimates it delivers 800 horsepower (588 kilowatts) and 590 pound-feet (800 Newton-meters) of torque, making it almost twice more powerful than the most powerful version of the original GT40." ], [ "Ford GT", "At the 1995 North American International Auto Show, the Ford GT90 concept was shown and at the 2002 show, a new GT40 Concept was unveiled by Ford.2005 Ford GTWhile similar in appearance to the original cars, it was bigger, wider, and 3 inches (76 mm) taller than the original 40 inches (1020 mm).", "Three production prototype cars were shown in 2003 as part of Ford's centenary, and delivery of the production Ford GT began in the fall of 2004.The Ford GT was assembled in the Ford Wixom plant and painted by Saleen, Incorporated at their Saleen Special Vehicles plant in Troy, Michigan.A British company, Safir Engineering, who continued to produce a limited number of GT40s (the '''Mk V''') in the 1980s under an agreement with Walter Hayes of Ford and John Wilmont of J.W.", "Automotive Engineering, owned the GT40 trademark at that time, and when they completed production, they sold the excess parts, tooling, design, and trademark to a small American company called '''Safir GT40 Spares, Limited''' based in Ohio.", "Safir GT40 Spares licensed the use of the GT40 trademark to Ford for the initial 2002 show car, but when Ford decided to make the production vehicle, negotiations between the two failed, and as a result, the new Ford GT does not wear the badge GT40.Bob Wood, one of three partners who own Safir GT40 Spares, said: \"When we talked with Ford, they asked what we wanted.", "We said that Ford owns Beanstalk in New York, the company that licenses the Blue Oval for Ford on such things as T-shirts.", "Since Beanstalk gets 7.5 percent of the retail cost of the item for licensing the name, we suggested 7.5 percent on each GT40 sold.\"", "In this instance, Ford wished to purchase, not just license the GT40 trademark.", "At the then-estimated $125,000 per copy, 7.5% of 4,500 vehicles would have totalled approximately $42,187,500.It was widely and erroneously reported following an ''Automotive News Weekly'' story that Safir \"demanded\" the $40 million for the sale of the trademark.", "Discussions between Safir and Ford ensued.", "However, in fact, the Ford Motor Company never made an offer in writing to purchase the famed GT40 trademark.", "Later models or prototypes have also been called the Ford GT but have had different numbering on them such as the Ford GT90 or the Ford GT70.The GT40 name and trademark is currently licensed to Superformance in the USA.A second-generation Ford GT was unveiled at the 2015 North American International Auto Show.", "It features a 3.5L twin-turbocharged V6 engine, carbonfibre monocoque and body panels, pushrod suspension and active aerodynamics.", "It entered the 2016 season of the FIA World Endurance Championship and the United SportsCar Championship, and started being sold in a street-legal version at Ford dealerships in 2017." ], [ "Television & movies", "A right-hand drive, silver GT40 is used by the villain in ''The Avengers'', Season 5, Episode 1, \"From Venus with Love\".", "Mrs. Peel gets in and raises the laser installed in the roof.", "The car is used to simulate a UFO from Venus being used to kill astronomers.", "IMDB Avengers 5:1" ], [ "See also", "* Ford Supervan, a van-bodied variant* Bundle of Snakes, characteristic exhaust system* Colotti Trasmissioni, transmission of the initial, and early models* AC Cobra, a car of similar Anglo-American parentage* ''Ford v Ferrari'', 2019 film about the GT40's development" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* \"17 Ford GT40s Stampede into Pebble Beach!", "We Dive into Their Histories\" (with historic and modern photo gallery), by Don Sherman, ''Car and Driver'', August 2016.", "* \"An American Challenge\" , Ford press release, 1966.", "* ''Auto Passion'' n°49 July 1991 (in French)* ''La Revue de l'Automobile Historique'' n°7 March/April 2001 (in French)* ''Ford: The Dust and the Glory/A motor racing history'' by Leo Levine/1968* ''Ford vs. Ferrari: the Battle for Le Mans'' by Anthony Pritchard, 1984 Zuma Marketing* ''Ford GT-40: An Individual History and Race Record'' by Ronnie Spain 1986* ''Go Like Hell: Ford, Ferrari, and Their Battle for Speed and Glory at Le Mans'' by A. J. Baime* ''12 Hours of Sebring 1965'' by Harry Hurst and Dave Friedman* ''Ford GT40 Manual: An Insight into Owning, Racing and Maintaining Ford's Legendary Sports Racing Car''(Haynes Owners' Workshop Manuals) by Gordon Bruce" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Glycine" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Glycine''' (symbol '''Gly''' or '''G'''; ) is an amino acid that has a single hydrogen atom as its side chain.", "It is the simplest stable amino acid (carbamic acid is unstable).", "In the gas phase, it is a molecule with the chemical formula NH2‐CH2‐COOH.", "In solution or in the solid, glycine exists as the zwitterion.", "Glycine is one of the proteinogenic amino acids.", "It is encoded by all the codons starting with GG (GGU, GGC, GGA, GGG).", "Glycine is integral to the formation of alpha-helices in secondary protein structure due to the \"flexibility\" caused by such a small R group.", "Glycine is also an inhibitory neurotransmitter – interference with its release within the spinal cord (such as during a ''Clostridium tetani'' infection) can cause spastic paralysis due to uninhibited muscle contraction.It is the only achiral proteinogenic amino acid.", "It can fit into hydrophilic or hydrophobic environments, due to its minimal side chain of only one hydrogen atom." ], [ "History and etymology", "Glycine was discovered in 1820 by French chemist Henri Braconnot when he hydrolyzed gelatin by boiling it with sulfuric acid.", "He originally called it \"sugar of gelatin\", but French chemist Jean-Baptiste Boussingault showed in 1838 that it contained nitrogen.", "In 1847 American scientist Eben Norton Horsford, then a student of the German chemist Justus von Liebig, proposed the name \"glycocoll\"; however, the Swedish chemist Berzelius suggested the simpler current name a year later.", "The name comes from the Greek word γλυκύς \"sweet tasting\" (which is also related to the prefixes ''glyco-'' and ''gluco-'', as in ''glycoprotein'' and ''glucose'').", "In 1858, the French chemist Auguste Cahours determined that glycine was an amine of acetic acid." ], [ "Production", "Although glycine can be isolated from hydrolyzed protein, this route is not used for industrial production, as it can be manufactured more conveniently by chemical synthesis.", "The two main processes are amination of chloroacetic acid with ammonia, giving glycine and ammonium chloride, and the Strecker amino acid synthesis, which is the main synthetic method in the United States and Japan.", "About 15 thousand tonnes are produced annually in this way.Glycine is also cogenerated as an impurity in the synthesis of EDTA, arising from reactions of the ammonia coproduct." ], [ "Chemical reactions", "Its acid–base properties are most important.", "In aqueous solution, glycine is amphoteric: below pH = 2.4, it converts to the ammonium cation called glycinium.", "Above about 9.6, it converts to glycinate.", ":600pxGlycine functions as a bidentate ligand for many metal ions, forming amino acid complexes.", "A typical complex is Cu(glycinate)2, i.e.", "Cu(H2NCH2CO2)2, which exists both in cis and trans isomers.With acid chlorides, glycine converts to the amidocarboxylic acid, such as hippuric acid and acetylglycine.", "With nitrous acid, one obtains glycolic acid (van Slyke determination).", "With methyl iodide, the amine becomes quaternized to give trimethylglycine, a natural product:: + 3 CH3I → + 3 HIGlycine condenses with itself to give peptides, beginning with the formation of glycylglycine::2 → + H2OPyrolysis of glycine or glycylglycine gives 2,5-diketopiperazine, the cyclic diamide.It forms esters with alcohols.", "They are often isolated as their hydrochloride, e.g., glycine methyl ester hydrochloride.", "Otherwise the free ester tends to convert to diketopiperazine.As a bifunctional molecule, glycine reacts with many reagents.", "These can be classified into N-centered and carboxylate-center reactions." ], [ "Metabolism", "===Biosynthesis===Glycine is not essential to the human diet, as it is biosynthesized in the body from the amino acid serine, which is in turn derived from 3-phosphoglycerate, but one publication made by supplements sellers seems to show that the metabolic capacity for glycine biosynthesis does not satisfy the need for collagen synthesis.", "In most organisms, the enzyme serine hydroxymethyltransferase catalyses this transformation via the cofactor pyridoxal phosphate:: serine + tetrahydrofolate → glycine + ''N5'',''N10''-methylene tetrahydrofolate + H2OIn ''E.", "coli'', glycine is sensitive to antibiotics that target folate.In the liver of vertebrates, glycine synthesis is catalyzed by glycine synthase (also called glycine cleavage enzyme).", "This conversion is readily reversible:: CO2 + NH + ''N5'',''N10''-methylene tetrahydrofolate + NADH + H+ ⇌ Glycine + tetrahydrofolate + NAD+In addition to being synthesized from serine, glycine can also be derived from threonine, choline or hydroxyproline via inter-organ metabolism of the liver and kidneys.===Degradation===Glycine is degraded via three pathways.", "The predominant pathway in animals and plants is the reverse of the glycine synthase pathway mentioned above.", "In this context, the enzyme system involved is usually called the glycine cleavage system:: Glycine + tetrahydrofolate + NAD+ ⇌ CO2 + NH + ''N5'',''N10''-methylene tetrahydrofolate + NADH + H+In the second pathway, glycine is degraded in two steps.", "The first step is the reverse of glycine biosynthesis from serine with serine hydroxymethyl transferase.", "Serine is then converted to pyruvate by serine dehydratase.In the third pathway of its degradation, glycine is converted to glyoxylate by D-amino acid oxidase.", "Glyoxylate is then oxidized by hepatic lactate dehydrogenase to oxalate in an NAD+-dependent reaction.The half-life of glycine and its elimination from the body varies significantly based on dose.", "In one study, the half-life varied between 0.5 and 4.0 hours." ], [ "Physiological function", "The principal function of glycine is it acts as a precursor to proteins.", "Most proteins incorporate only small quantities of glycine, a notable exception being collagen, which contains about 35% glycine due to its periodically repeated role in the formation of collagen's helix structure in conjunction with hydroxyproline.", "In the genetic code, glycine is coded by all codons starting with GG, namely GGU, GGC, GGA and GGG.===As a biosynthetic intermediate===In higher eukaryotes, δ-aminolevulinic acid, the key precursor to porphyrins, is biosynthesized from glycine and succinyl-CoA by the enzyme ALA synthase.", "Glycine provides the central C2N subunit of all purines.===As a neurotransmitter===Glycine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, especially in the spinal cord, brainstem, and retina.", "When glycine receptors are activated, chloride enters the neuron via ionotropic receptors, causing an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP).", "Strychnine is a strong antagonist at ionotropic glycine receptors, whereas bicuculline is a weak one.", "Glycine is a required co-agonist along with glutamate for NMDA receptors.", "In contrast to the inhibitory role of glycine in the spinal cord, this behaviour is facilitated at the (NMDA) glutamatergic receptors which are excitatory.", "The of glycine is 7930 mg/kg in rats (oral), and it usually causes death by hyperexcitability.=== As a toxin conjugation agent ===Glycine conjugation pathway has not been fully investigated.", "Glycine is thought to be a hepatic detoxifier of a number endogenous and xenobiotic organic acids.", "Bile acids are normally conjugated to glycine in order to increase their solubility in water.The human body rapidly clears sodium benzoate by combining it with glycine to form hippuric acid which is then excreted.", "The metabolic pathway for this begins with the conversion of benzoate by butyrate-CoA ligase into an intermediate product, benzoyl-CoA, which is then metabolized by glycine ''N''-acyltransferase into hippuric acid." ], [ "Uses", "In the US, glycine is typically sold in two grades: United States Pharmacopeia (\"USP\"), and technical grade.", "USP grade sales account for approximately 80 to 85 percent of the U.S. market for glycine.", "If purity greater than the USP standard is needed, for example for intravenous injections, a more expensive pharmaceutical grade glycine can be used.", "Technical grade glycine, which may or may not meet USP grade standards, is sold at a lower price for use in industrial applications, e.g., as an agent in metal complexing and finishing.===Animal and human foods===Structure of ''cis''-Cu(glycinate)2(H2O)Glycine is not widely used in foods for its nutritional value, except in infusions.", "Instead, glycine's role in food chemistry is as a flavorant.", "It is mildly sweet, and it counters the aftertaste of saccharine.", "It also has preservative properties, perhaps owing to its complexation to metal ions.", "Metal glycinate complexes, e.g.", "copper(II) glycinate are used as supplements for animal feeds.The U.S. \"Food and Drug Administration no longer regards glycine and its salts as generally recognized as safe for use in human food\".===Chemical feedstock===Glycine is an intermediate in the synthesis of a variety of chemical products.", "It is used in the manufacture of the herbicides glyphosate, iprodione, glyphosine, imiprothrin, and eglinazine.", "It is used as an intermediate of antibiotics such as thiamphenicol.=== Laboratory research ===Glycine is a significant component of some solutions used in the SDS-PAGE method of protein analysis.", "It serves as a buffering agent, maintaining pH and preventing sample damage during electrophoresis.", "Glycine is also used to remove protein-labeling antibodies from Western blot membranes to enable the probing of numerous proteins of interest from SDS-PAGE gel.", "This allows more data to be drawn from the same specimen, increasing the reliability of the data, reducing the amount of sample processing, and number of samples required.", "This process is known as stripping." ], [ "Presence in space", "The presence of glycine outside the Earth was confirmed in 2009, based on the analysis of samples that had been taken in 2004 by the NASA spacecraft ''Stardust'' from comet Wild 2 and subsequently returned to Earth.", "Glycine had previously been identified in the Murchison meteorite in 1970.The discovery of glycine in outer space bolstered the hypothesis of so called soft-panspermia, which claims that the \"building blocks\" of life are widespread throughout the universe.", "In 2016, detection of glycine within Comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko by the ''Rosetta'' spacecraft was announced.The detection of glycine outside the Solar System in the interstellar medium has been debated." ], [ "Evolution", "Glycine is proposed to be defined by early genetic codes.", "For example, low complexity regions (in proteins), that may resemble the proto-peptides of the early genetic code are highly enriched in glycine." ], [ "Presence in foods", "+ Food sources of glycine Food Percentagecontentby weight(g/100g) Snacks, pork skins 11.04 Sesame seeds flour (low fat) 3.43 Beverages, protein powder (soy-based) 2.37 Seeds, safflower seed meal, partially defatted 2.22 Meat, bison, beef and others (various parts) 1.5–2.0 Gelatin desserts 1.96 Seeds, pumpkin and squash seed kernels 1.82 Turkey, all classes, back, meat and skin 1.79 Chicken, broilers or fryers, meat and skin 1.74 Pork, ground, 96% lean / 4% fat, cooked, crumbles 1.71 Bacon and beef sticks 1.64 Peanuts 1.63 Crustaceans, spiny lobster 1.59 Spices, mustard seed, ground 1.59 Salami 1.55 Nuts, butternuts, dried 1.51 Fish, salmon, pink, canned, drained solids 1.42 Almonds 1.42 Fish, mackerel 0.93 Cereals ready-to-eat, granola, homemade 0.81 Leeks, (bulb and lower-leaf portion), freeze-dried 0.7 Cheese, parmesan (and others), grated 0.56 Soybeans, green, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 0.51 Bread, protein (includes gluten) 0.47 Egg, whole, cooked, fried 0.47 Beans, white, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt 0.38 Lentils, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt 0.37" ], [ "See also", "* Trimethylglycine* Amino acid neurotransmitter" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "**" ], [ "External links", "* Glycine MS Spectrum* Glycine* Glycine cleavage system* Glycine Therapy - A New Direction for Schizophrenia Treatment?", "* * * ChemSub Online (Glycine).", "* NASA scientists have discovered glycine, a fundamental building block of life, in samples of comet Wild 2 returned by NASA's Stardust spacecraft." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "GeekSpeak" ], [ "Introduction", "'''GeekSpeak''' is a podcast with two to four hosts who focus on technology and technology news of the week.", "Though originally a radio tech call-in program, which first aired in 1998 on KUSP, GeekSpeak has been a weekly podcast since 2004.The program's slogan is ''\"Bridging the gap between geeks and the rest of humanity\".''" ], [ "History", "GeekSpeak was created and originally broadcast on KUSP by Chris Neklason of Cruzio, Steve Schaefer of Guenther Computer, and board operator Ray Price from KUSP.", "Shortly thereafter Mark Hanford of Cruzio joined the program.Currently, the host/producer is Lyle Troxell, who took over in September 2000.In April 2016, citing financial difficulties, KUSP stopped broadcasting GeekSpeak with its final broadcast on May 5, 2016.GeekSpeak episodes have been distributed as an archive on the internet since 2001.The podcast went live prior to March 5, 2005 with its first episode December 3, 2004." ], [ "See also", "*Computer jargon*Technobabble" ], [ "External links", "* GeekSpeak Website* iTunes Podcast" ], [ "Reference List" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Guitar" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''guitar''' is a stringed musical instrument, that is usually fretted (with some exceptions) and typically has six or twelve strings.", "It is usually held flat against the player's body and played by strumming or plucking the strings with the dominant hand, while simultaneously pressing selected strings against frets with the fingers of the opposite hand.", "A guitar pick may also be used to strike the strings.", "The sound of the guitar is projected either acoustically, by means of a resonant hollow chamber on the guitar, or amplified by an electronic pickup and an amplifier.The guitar is classified as a chordophone – meaning the sound is produced by a vibrating string stretched between two fixed points.", "Historically, a guitar was constructed from wood with its strings made of catgut.", "Steel guitar strings were introduced near the end of the nineteenth century in the United States; but only following World War II, did nylon and steel strings become mainstream.", "The guitar's ancestors include the gittern, the vihuela, the four-course Renaissance guitar, and the five-course baroque guitar, all of which contributed to the development of the modern six-string instrument.There are three main types of modern guitar: the classical guitar (Spanish guitar); the steel-string acoustic guitar or electric guitar; and the Hawaiian guitar (played across the player's lap).", "Traditional acoustic guitars include the flat top guitar (typically with a large sound hole) or an archtop guitar, which is sometimes called a \"jazz guitar\".", "The tone of an acoustic guitar is produced by the strings' vibration, amplified by the hollow body of the guitar, which acts as a resonating chamber.", "The classical Spanish guitar is often played as a solo instrument using a comprehensive fingerstyle technique where each string is plucked individually by the player's fingers, as opposed to being strummed.", "The term \"finger-picking\" can also refer to a specific tradition of folk, blues, bluegrass, and country guitar playing in the United States.Electric guitars, first patented in 1937, use a pickup and amplifier that made the instrument loud enough to be heard, but also enabled manufacturing guitars with a solid block of wood needing no resonant chamber.", "A wide array of electronic effects units became possible including reverb and distortion (or \"overdrive\").", "Solid-body guitars began to dominate the guitar market during the 1960s and 1970s; they are less prone to unwanted acoustic feedback.", "As with acoustic guitars, there are a number of types of electric guitars, including hollowbody guitars, archtop guitars (used in jazz guitar, blues and rockabilly) and solid-body guitars, which are widely used in rock music.The loud, amplified sound and sonic power of the electric guitar played through a guitar amp has played a key role in the development of blues and rock music, both as an accompaniment instrument (playing riffs and chords) and performing guitar solos, and in many rock subgenres, notably heavy metal music and punk rock.", "The electric guitar has had a major influence on popular culture.", "The guitar is used in a wide variety of musical genres worldwide.", "It is recognized as a primary instrument in genres such as blues, bluegrass, country, flamenco, folk, jazz, jota, ska, mariachi, metal, punk, funk, reggae, rock, grunge, soul, acoustic music, disco, new wave, new age, adult contemporary music, and pop, occasionally used as a sample in hip-hop, dubstep, or trap music." ], [ "History", "The modern word ''guitar'' and its antecedents have been applied to a wide variety of chordophones since classical times, sometimes causing confusion.", "The English word ''guitar'', the German '''', and the French '''' were all adopted from the Spanish '''', which comes from the Andalusian Arabic ('''') and the Latin '''', which in turn came from the Ancient Greek .", "This Greek word may also come from the Persian word Sihtar.", "''Kithara'' appears in the Bible four times (1 Cor.", "14:7, Rev.", "5:8, 14:2 and 15:2), and is usually translated into English as ''harp''.The origins of the modern guitar are not known.", "Before the development of the electric guitar and the use of synthetic materials, a guitar was defined as being an instrument having \"a long, fretted neck, flat wooden soundboard, ribs, and a flat back, most often with incurved sides.\"", "The term is used to refer to a number of chordophones that were developed and used across Europe, beginning in the 12th century and, later, in the Americas.", "A 3,300-year-old stone carving of a Hittite bard playing a stringed instrument is the oldest iconographic representation of a chordophone and clay plaques from Babylonia show people playing a lute-like instrument which is similar to the guitar.Several scholars cite varying influences as antecedents to the modern guitar.", "Although the development of the earliest \"guitar\" is lost to the history of medieval Spain, two instruments are commonly claimed as influential predecessors: the four-string oud and its precursor the European lute; the former was brought to Iberia by the Moors in the 8th century.", "It has often been assumed that the guitar is a development of the lute, or of the ancient Greek kithara.", "However, many scholars consider the lute an offshoot or separate line of development which did not influence the evolution of the guitar in any significant way.At least two instruments called \"guitars\" were in use in Spain by 1200: the '''' (Latin guitar) and the so-called '''' (Moorish guitar).", "The guitarra morisca had a rounded back, wide fingerboard, and several sound holes.", "The guitarra Latina had a single sound hole and a narrower neck.", "By the 14th century the qualifiers \"moresca\" or \"morisca\" and \"latina\" had been dropped, and these two chordophones were simply referred to as guitars.The Spanish vihuela, called in Italian the , a guitar-like instrument of the 15th and 16th centuries, is widely considered to have been the single most important influence in the development of the baroque guitar.", "It had six courses (usually), lute-like tuning in fourths and a guitar-like body, although early representations reveal an instrument with a sharply cut waist.", "It was also larger than the contemporary four-course guitars.", "By the 16th century, the vihuela's construction had more in common with the modern guitar, with its curved one-piece ribs, than with the viols, and more like a larger version of the contemporary four-course guitars.", "The vihuela enjoyed only a relatively short period of popularity in Spain and Italy during an era dominated elsewhere in Europe by the lute; the last surviving published music for the instrument appeared in 1576.Meanwhile, the five-course baroque guitar, which was documented in Spain from the middle of the 16th century, enjoyed popularity, especially in Spain, Italy and France from the late 16th century to the mid-18th century.", "In Portugal, the word ''viola'' referred to the guitar, as ''guitarra'' meant the \"Portuguese guitar\", a variety of cittern.There were many different plucked instruments that were being invented and used in Europe, during the Middle Ages.", "By the 16th century, most of the forms of guitar had fallen off, to never be seen again.", "However, midway through the 16th century, the five-course guitar was established.", "It was not a straightforward process.", "There were two types of five-course guitars, differing in the location of the major third and in the interval pattern.", "The fifth course can be inferred because the instrument was known to play more than the sixteen notes possible with four.", "The guitar's strings were tuned in unison, so, in other words, it was tuned by placing a finger on the second fret of the thinnest string and tuning the guitar bottom to top.", "The strings were a whole octave apart from one another, which is the reason for the different method of tuning.", "Because it was so different, there was major controversy as to who created the five course guitar.", "A literary source, Lope de Vega's Dorotea, gives the credit to the poet and musician Vicente Espinel.", "This claim was also repeated by Nicolas Doizi de Velasco in 1640, however this claim has been refuted by others who state that Espinel's birth year (1550) make it impossible for him to be responsible for the tradition.", "He believed that the tuning was the reason the instrument became known as the Spanish guitar in Italy.", "Even later, in the same century, Gaspar Sanz wrote that other nations such as Italy or France added to the Spanish guitar.", "All of these nations even imitated the five-course guitar by \"recreating\" their own.19th century guitar made by luthier Manuel de Soto held by Spanish guitarist Rafael SerralletFinally, , the form and structure of the modern guitar were developed by different Spanish makers such as Manuel de Soto y Solares and, perhaps the most important of all guitar makers, Antonio Torres Jurado, who increased the size of the guitar body, altered its proportions, and invented the breakthrough fan-braced pattern.", "Bracing, the internal pattern of wood reinforcements used to secure the guitar's top and back and prevent the instrument from collapsing under tension, is an important factor in how the guitar sounds.", "Torres' design greatly improved the volume, tone, and projection of the instrument, and it has remained essentially unchanged since." ], [ "Types", "Guitar collection in Museu de la Música de BarcelonaThe Guitar Player'' (), by Johannes VermeerGuitars are often divided into two broad categories: acoustic and electric guitars.", "Within each category, there are further sub-categories that are nearly endless in quantity and are always evolving.", "For example, an electric guitar can be purchased in a six-string model (the most common model) or in seven- or twelve-string formats.", "An instruments overall design, internal construction & components, wood type/species, hardware & eletronic appointments all add to the abundant nature of sub-categories and its unique tonal & functional property.===Acoustic===Acoustic guitars form several notable subcategories within the acoustic guitar group: classical and flamenco guitars; steel-string guitars, which include the flat-topped, or \"folk\", guitar; twelve-string guitars; and the arched-top guitar.", "The acoustic guitar group also includes unamplified guitars designed to play in different registers, such as the acoustic bass guitar, which has a similar tuning to that of the electric bass guitar.====Renaissance and Baroque====Renaissance and Baroque guitars are the ancestors of the modern classical and flamenco guitar.", "They are substantially smaller, more delicate in construction, and generate less volume.", "The strings are paired in courses as in a modern 12-string guitar, but they only have four or five courses of strings rather than six single strings normally used now.", "They were more often used as rhythm instruments in ensembles than as solo instruments, and can often be seen in that role in early music performances.", "(Gaspar Sanz's ''Instrucción de Música sobre la Guitarra Española'' of 1674 contains his whole output for the solo guitar.)", "Renaissance and Baroque guitars are easily distinguished, because the Renaissance guitar is very plain and the Baroque guitar is very ornate, with ivory or wood inlays all over the neck and body, and a paper-cutout inverted \"wedding cake\" inside the hole.====Classical====Classical guitars, also known as \"Spanish\" guitars, are typically strung with nylon strings, plucked with the fingers, played in a seated position and are used to play a diversity of musical styles including classical music.", "The classical guitar's wide, flat neck allows the musician to play scales, arpeggios, and certain chord forms more easily and with less adjacent string interference than on other styles of guitar.", "Flamenco guitars are very similar in construction, but they are associated with a more percussive tone.", "In Portugal, the same instrument is often used with steel strings particularly in its role within fado music.", "The guitar is called viola, or violão in Brazil, where it is often used with an extra seventh string by choro musicians to provide extra bass support.In Mexico, the popular mariachi band includes a range of guitars, from the small ''requinto'' to the ''guitarrón'', a guitar larger than a cello, which is tuned in the bass register.", "In Colombia, the traditional quartet includes a range of instruments too, from the small ''bandola'' (sometimes known as the Deleuze-Guattari, for use when traveling or in confined rooms or spaces), to the slightly larger tiple, to the full-sized classical guitar.", "The requinto also appears in other Latin-American countries as a complementary member of the guitar family, with its smaller size and scale, permitting more projection for the playing of single-lined melodies.", "Modern dimensions of the classical instrument were established by the Spaniard Antonio de Torres Jurado (1817–1892).====Flat-top====A guitarist playing a blues tune on a semi-acoustic guitarFlat-top guitars with steel strings are similar to the classical guitar, however, the flat-top body size is usually significantly larger than a classical guitar, and has a narrower, reinforced neck and stronger structural design.", "The robust X-bracing typical of flat-top guitars was developed in the 1840s by German-American luthiers, of whom Christian Friedrich \"C. F.\" Martin is the best known.", "Originally used on gut-strung instruments, the strength of the system allowed the later guitars to withstand the additional tension of steel strings.", "Steel strings produce a brighter tone and a louder sound.", "The acoustic guitar is used in many kinds of music including folk, country, bluegrass, pop, jazz, and blues.", "Many variations are possible from the roughly classical-sized OO and Parlour to the large Dreadnought (the most commonly available type) and Jumbo.", "Ovation makes a modern variation, with a rounded back/side assembly molded from artificial materials.====Archtop====Archtop guitars are steel-string instruments in which the top (and often the back) of the instrument are carved, from a solid billet, into a curved, rather than a flat, shape.", "This violin-like construction is usually credited to the American Orville Gibson.", "Lloyd Loar of the Gibson Mandolin-Guitar Mfg.", "Co introduced the violin-inspired F-shaped hole design now usually associated with archtop guitars, after designing a style of mandolin of the same type.", "The typical archtop guitar has a large, deep, hollow body whose form is much like that of a mandolin or a violin-family instrument.", "Nowadays, most archtops are equipped with magnetic pickups, and they are therefore both acoustic and electric.", "F-hole archtop guitars were immediately adopted, upon their release, by both jazz and country musicians, and have remained particularly popular in jazz music, usually with flatwound strings.====Resonator, resophonic or Dobros====baritone tricone resonator guitarAll three principal types of resonator guitars were invented by the Slovak-American John Dopyera (1893–1988) for the National and Dobro ('''Do'''pyera '''Bro'''thers) companies.", "Similar to the flat top guitar in appearance, but with a body that may be made of brass, nickel-silver, or steel as well as wood, the sound of the resonator guitar is produced by one or more aluminum resonator cones mounted in the middle of the top.", "The physical principle of the guitar is therefore similar to the loudspeaker.The original purpose of the resonator was to produce a very loud sound; this purpose has been largely superseded by electrical amplification, but the resonator guitar is still played because of its distinctive tone.", "Resonator guitars may have either one or three resonator cones.", "The method of transmitting sound resonance to the cone is either a \"biscuit\" bridge, made of a small piece of hardwood at the vertex of the cone (Nationals), or a \"spider\" bridge, made of metal and mounted around the rim of the (inverted) cone (Dobros).", "Three-cone resonators always use a specialized metal bridge.", "The type of resonator guitar with a neck with a square cross-section—called \"square neck\" or \"Hawaiian\"—is usually played face up, on the lap of the seated player, and often with a metal or glass slide.", "The round neck resonator guitars are normally played in the same fashion as other guitars, although slides are also often used, especially in blues.====Steel guitar====A steel guitar is any guitar played while moving a polished steel bar or similar hard object against plucked strings.", "The bar itself is called a \"steel\" and is the source of the name \"steel guitar\".", "The instrument differs from a conventional guitar in that it does not use frets; conceptually, it is somewhat akin to playing a guitar with one finger (the bar).", "Known for its portamento capabilities, gliding smoothly over every pitch between notes, the instrument can produce a sinuous crying sound and deep vibrato emulating the human singing voice.", "Typically, the strings are plucked (not strummed) by the fingers of the dominant hand, while the steel tone bar is pressed lightly against the strings and moved by the opposite hand.", "The instrument is played while sitting, placed horizontally across the player's knees or otherwise supported.", "The horizontal playing style is called \"Hawaiian style\".====Twelve-string ====The twelve-string guitar usually has steel strings, and it is widely used in folk music, blues, and rock and roll.", "Rather than having only six strings, the 12-string guitar has six courses made up of two strings each, like a mandolin or lute.", "The highest two courses are tuned in unison, while the others are tuned in octaves.", "The 12-string guitar is also made in electric forms.", "The chime-like sound of the 12-string electric guitar was the basis of jangle pop.====Acoustic bass====Acoustic bass guitarThe acoustic bass guitar is a bass instrument with a hollow wooden body similar to, though usually somewhat larger than, that of a six-string acoustic guitar.", "Like the traditional electric bass guitar and the double bass, the acoustic bass guitar commonly has four strings, which are normally tuned E-A-D-G, an octave below the lowest four strings of the six-string guitar, which is the same tuning pitch as an electric bass guitar.", "It can, more rarely, be found with five or six strings, which provides a wider range of notes to be played with less movement up and down the neck.===Electric===Eric Clapton playing his signature custom-made \"Blackie\" Fender StratocasterElectric guitars can have solid, semi-hollow, or hollow bodies; solid bodies produce little sound without amplification.", "In contrast to a standard acoustic guitar, electric guitars instead rely on electromagnetic pickups, and sometimes piezoelectric pickups, that convert the vibration of the steel strings into signals, which are fed to an amplifier through a patch cable or radio transmitter.", "The sound is frequently modified by other electronic devices (effects units) or the natural distortion of valves (vacuum tubes) or the pre-amp in the amplifier.", "There are two main types of magnetic pickups, single- and double-coil (or humbucker), each of which can be passive or active.", "The electric guitar is used extensively in jazz, blues, R & B, and rock and roll.", "The first successful magnetic pickup for a guitar was invented by George Beauchamp, and incorporated into the 1931 Ro-Pat-In (later Rickenbacker) \"Frying Pan\" lap steel; other manufacturers, notably Gibson, soon began to install pickups in archtop models.", "After World War II the completely solid-body electric was popularized by Gibson in collaboration with Les Paul, and independently by Leo Fender of Fender Music.", "The lower fretboard action (the height of the strings from the fingerboard), lighter (thinner) strings, and its electrical amplification lend the electric guitar to techniques less frequently used on acoustic guitars.", "These include tapping, extensive use of legato through pull-offs and hammer-ons (also known as slurs), pinch harmonics, volume swells, and use of a tremolo arm or effects pedals.Some electric guitar models feature piezoelectric pickups, which function as transducers to provide a sound closer to that of an acoustic guitar with the flip of a switch or knob, rather than switching guitars.", "Those that combine piezoelectric pickups and magnetic pickups are sometimes known as hybrid guitars.Hybrids of acoustic and electric guitars are also common.", "There are also more exotic varieties, such as guitars with two, three, or rarely four necks, all manner of alternate string arrangements, fretless fingerboards (used almost exclusively on bass guitars, meant to emulate the sound of a stand-up bass), 5.1 surround guitar, and such.====Seven-string and eight-string ====Solid-body seven-string guitars were popularized in the 1980s and 1990s.", "Other artists go a step further, by using an eight-string guitar with two extra low strings.", "Although the most common seven-string has a low B string, Roger McGuinn (of The Byrds and Rickenbacker) uses an octave G string paired with the regular G string as on a 12-string guitar, allowing him to incorporate chiming 12-string elements in standard six-string playing.", "In 1982 Uli Jon Roth developed the \"Sky Guitar\", with a vastly extended number of frets, which was the first guitar to venture into the upper registers of the violin.", "Roth's seven-string and \"Mighty Wing\" guitar features a wider octave range.====Electric bass ====Hofner 500/1 bass guitar that has been recognized by many music fans for decades as the bass used by Sir Paul McCartney for almost 60 yearsThe bass guitar (also called an \"electric bass\", or simply a \"bass\") is similar in appearance and construction to an electric guitar, but with a longer neck and scale length, and four to six strings.", "The four-string bass, by far the most common, is usually tuned the same as the double bass, which corresponds to pitches one octave lower than the four lowest pitched strings of a guitar (E, A, D, and G).", "The bass guitar is a transposing instrument, as it is notated in bass clef an octave higher than it sounds (as is the double bass) to avoid excessive ledger lines being required below the staff.", "Like the electric guitar, the bass guitar has pickups and it is plugged into an amplifier and speaker for live performances." ], [ "Construction", "===Handedness===Modern guitars can be constructed to suit both left- and right-handed players.", "Typically the dominant hand is used to pluck or strum the strings.", "This is similar to the violin family of instruments where the dominant hand controls the bow.", "Left-handed players usually play a mirror image instrument manufactured especially for left-handed players.", "There are other options, some unorthodox, including learn to play a right-handed guitar as if the player is right-handed or playing an unmodified right-handed guitar reversed.", "Guitarist Jimi Hendrix played a right-handed guitar strung in reverse (the treble strings and bass strings reversed).", "The problem with doing this is that it reverses the guitar's saddle angle.", "The saddle is the strip of material on top of the bridge where the strings rest.", "It is normally slanted slightly, making the bass strings longer than the treble strings.", "In part, the reason for this is the difference in the thickness of the strings.", "Physical properties of the thicker bass strings require them to be slightly longer than the treble strings to correct intonation.", "Reversing the strings, therefore, reverses the orientation of the saddle, adversely affecting intonation.===Components=======Head====''headless'' Steinberger bass guitar.The headstock is located at the end of the guitar neck farthest from the body.", "It is fitted with machine heads that adjust the tension of the strings, which in turn affects the pitch.", "The traditional tuner layout is \"3+3\", in which each side of the headstock has three tuners (such as on Gibson Les Pauls).", "In this layout, the headstocks are commonly symmetrical.", "Many guitars feature other layouts, including six-in-line tuners (featured on Fender Stratocasters) or even \"4+2\" (e.g.", "Ernie Ball Music Man).", "Some guitars (such as Steinbergers) do not have headstocks at all, in which case the tuning machines are located elsewhere, either on the body or the bridge.The nut is a small strip of bone, plastic, brass, corian, graphite, stainless steel, or other medium-hard material, at the joint where the headstock meets the fretboard.", "Its grooves guide the strings onto the fretboard, giving consistent lateral string placement.", "It is one of the endpoints of the strings' vibrating length.", "It must be accurately cut, or it can contribute to tuning problems due to string slippage or string buzz.", "To reduce string friction in the nut, which can adversely affect tuning stability, some guitarists fit a roller nut.", "Some instruments use a zero fret just in front of the nut.", "In this case the nut is used only for lateral alignment of the strings, the string height and length being dictated by the zero fret.====Neck====A guitar's frets, fretboard, tuners, headstock, and truss rod, all attached to a long wooden extension, collectively constitute its neck.", "The wood used to make the fretboard usually differs from the wood in the rest of the neck.", "The bending stress on the neck is considerable, particularly when heavier gauge strings are used (see Tuning), and the ability of the neck to resist bending (see Truss rod) is important to the guitar's ability to hold a constant pitch during tuning or when strings are fretted.", "The rigidity of the neck with respect to the body of the guitar is one determinant of a good instrument versus a poor-quality one.The cross-section of the neck can also vary, from a gentle \"C\" curve to a more pronounced \"V\" curve.", "There are many different types of neck profiles available, giving the guitarist many options.", "Some aspects to consider in a guitar neck may be the overall width of the fretboard, scale (distance between the frets), the neck wood, the type of neck construction (for example, the neck may be glued in or bolted on), and the shape (profile) of the back of the neck.", "Other types of material used to make guitar necks are graphite (Steinberger guitars), aluminum (Kramer Guitars, Travis Bean and Veleno guitars), or carbon fiber (Modulus Guitars and ThreeGuitars).", "Double neck electric guitars have two necks, allowing the musician to quickly switch between guitar sounds.The neck joint or heel is the point at which the neck is either bolted or glued to the body of the guitar.", "Almost all acoustic steel-string guitars, with the primary exception of Taylors, have glued (otherwise known as set) necks, while electric guitars are constructed using both types.", "Most classical guitars have a neck and headblock carved from one piece of wood, known as a \"Spanish heel\".", "Commonly used set neck joints include mortise and tenon joints (such as those used by C. F. Martin & Co.), dovetail joints (also used by C. F. Martin on the D-28 and similar models) and Spanish heel neck joints, which are named after the shoe they resemble and commonly found in classical guitars.", "All three types offer stability.Bolt-on necks, though they are historically associated with cheaper instruments, do offer greater flexibility in the guitar's set-up, and allow easier access for neck joint maintenance and repairs.", "Another type of neck, only available for solid-body electric guitars, is the neck-through-body construction.", "These are designed so that everything from the machine heads down to the bridge is located on the same piece of wood.", "The sides (also known as wings) of the guitar are then glued to this central piece.", "Some luthiers prefer this method of construction as they claim it allows better sustain of each note.", "Some instruments may not have a neck joint at all, having the neck and sides built as one piece and the body built around it.The fingerboard, also called the fretboard, is a piece of wood embedded with metal frets that comprises the top of the neck.", "It is flat on classical guitars and slightly curved crosswise on acoustic and electric guitars.", "The curvature of the fretboard is measured by the fretboard radius, which is the radius of a hypothetical circle of which the fretboard's surface constitutes a segment.", "The smaller the fretboard radius, the more noticeably curved the fretboard is.", "Most modern guitars feature a 12\" neck radius, while older guitars from the 1960s and 1970s usually feature a 6-8\" neck radius.", "Pinching a string against a fret on the fretboard effectively shortens the vibrating length of the string, producing a higher pitch.Fretboards are most commonly made of rosewood, ebony, maple, and sometimes manufactured using composite materials such as HPL or resin.", "See the section \"Neck\" below for the importance of the length of the fretboard in connection to other dimensions of the guitar.", "The fingerboard plays an essential role in the treble tone for acoustic guitars.", "The quality of vibration of the fingerboard is the principal characteristic for generating the best treble tone.", "For that reason, ebony wood is better, but because of high use, ebony has become rare and extremely expensive.", "Most guitar manufacturers have adopted rosewood instead of ebony.Sinéad O'Connor playing a Fender guitar with a capo =====Frets=====Almost all guitars have frets, which are metal strips (usually nickel alloy or stainless steel) embedded along the fretboard and located at exact points that divide the scale length in accordance with a specific mathematical formula.", "The exceptions include fretless bass guitars and very rare fretless guitars.", "Pressing a string against a fret determines the strings' vibrating length and therefore its resultant pitch.", "The pitch of each consecutive fret is defined at a half-step interval on the chromatic scale.", "Standard classical guitars have 19 frets and electric guitars between 21 and 24 frets, although guitars have been made with as many as 27 frets.", "Frets are laid out to accomplish an equal tempered division of the octave.", "Each set of twelve frets represents an octave.", "The twelfth fret divides the scale length exactly into two halves, and the 24th fret position divides one of those halves in half again.The ratio of the spacing of two consecutive frets is (twelfth root of two).", "In practice, luthiers determine fret positions using the constant 17.817—an approximation to 1/(1-1/).", "If the nth fret is a distance x from the bridge, then the distance from the (n+1)th fret to the bridge is x-(x/17.817).", "Frets are available in several different gauges and can be fitted according to player preference.", "Among these are \"jumbo\" frets, which have a much thicker gauge, allowing for use of a slight vibrato technique from pushing the string down harder and softer.", "\"Scalloped\" fretboards, where the wood of the fretboard itself is \"scooped out\" between the frets, allow a dramatic vibrato effect.", "Fine frets, much flatter, allow a very low string-action, but require that other conditions, such as curvature of the neck, be well-maintained to prevent buzz.=====Truss rod=====The truss rod is a thin, strong metal rod that runs along the inside of the neck.", "It is used to correct changes to the neck's curvature caused by aging of the neck timbers, changes in humidity, or to compensate for changes in the tension of strings.", "The tension of the rod and neck assembly is adjusted by a hex nut or an allen-key bolt on the rod, usually located either at the headstock, sometimes under a cover, or just inside the body of the guitar underneath the fretboard and accessible through the sound hole.", "Some truss rods can only be accessed by removing the neck.", "The truss rod counteracts the immense amount of tension the strings place on the neck, bringing the neck back to a straighter position.", "Turning the truss rod clockwise tightens it, counteracting the tension of the strings and straightening the neck or creating a backward bow.", "Turning the truss rod counter-clockwise loosens it, allowing string tension to act on the neck and creating a forward bow.Adjusting the truss rod affects the intonation of a guitar as well as the height of the strings from the fingerboard, called the action.", "Some truss rod systems, called ''double action'' truss systems, tighten both ways, pushing the neck both forward and backward (standard truss rods can only release to a point beyond which the neck is no longer compressed and pulled backward).", "The artist and luthier Irving Sloane pointed out, in his book ''Steel-String Guitar Construction'', that truss rods are intended primarily to remedy concave bowing of the neck, but cannot correct a neck with \"back bow\" or one that has become twisted.", "Classical guitars do not require truss rods, as their nylon strings exert a lower tensile force with lesser potential to cause structural problems.", "However, their necks are often reinforced with a strip of harder wood, such as an ebony strip that runs down the back of a cedar neck.", "There is no tension adjustment on this form of reinforcement.=====Inlays=====Inlays are visual elements set into the exterior surface of a guitar, both for decoration and artistic purposes and, in the case of the markings on the 3rd, 5th, 7th and 12th fret (and in higher octaves), to provide guidance to the performer about the location of frets on the instrument.", "The typical locations for inlay are on the fretboard, headstock, and on acoustic guitars around the soundhole, known as the rosette.", "Inlays range from simple plastic dots on the fretboard to intricate works of art covering the entire exterior surface of a guitar (front and back).", "Some guitar players have used LEDs in the fretboard to produce unique lighting effects onstage.", "Fretboard inlays are most commonly shaped like dots, diamond shapes, parallelograms, or large blocks in between the frets.Dots are usually inlaid into the upper edge of the fretboard in the same positions, small enough to be visible only to the player.", "These usually appear on the odd-numbered frets, but also on the 12th fret (the one-octave mark) instead of the 11th and 13th frets.", "Some older or high-end instruments have inlays made of mother of pearl, abalone, ivory, colored wood or other exotic materials and designs.", "Simpler inlays are often made of plastic or painted.", "High-end classical guitars seldom have fretboard inlays as a well-trained player is expected to know his or her way around the instrument.", "In addition to fretboard inlay, the headstock and soundhole surround are also frequently inlaid.", "The manufacturer's logo or a small design is often inlaid into the headstock.", "Rosette designs vary from simple concentric circles to delicate fretwork mimicking the historic rosette of lutes.", "Bindings that edge the finger and soundboards are sometimes inlaid.", "Some instruments have a filler strip running down the length and behind the neck, used for strength or to fill the cavity through which the truss rod was installed in the neck.====Body====In the guitar, the sound box is the hollowed wooden structure that constitutes the body of the instrument.In acoustic guitars, string vibration is transmitted through the bridge and saddle to the body via sound board.", "The sound board is typically made of tonewoods such as spruce or cedar.", "Timbers for tonewoods are chosen for both strength and ability to transfer mechanical energy from the strings to the air within the guitar body.", "Sound is further shaped by the characteristics of the guitar body's resonant cavity.", "In expensive instruments, the entire body is made of wood.", "In inexpensive instruments, the back may be made of plastic.In an acoustic instrument, the body of the guitar is a major determinant of the overall sound quality.", "The guitar top, or soundboard, is a finely crafted and engineered element made of tonewoods such as spruce and red cedar.", "This thin piece of wood, often only 2 or 3 mm thick, is strengthened by differing types of internal bracing.", "Many luthiers consider the top the dominant factor in determining the sound quality.", "The majority of the instrument's sound is heard through the vibration of the guitar top as the energy of the vibrating strings is transferred to it.", "The body of an acoustic guitar has a sound hole through which sound projects.", "The sound hole is usually a round hole in the top of the guitar under the strings.", "The air inside the body vibrates as the guitar top and body is vibrated by the strings, and the response of the air cavity at different frequencies is characterized, like the rest of the guitar body, by a number of resonance modes at which it responds more strongly.The top, back and ribs of an acoustic guitar body are very thin (1–2 mm), so a flexible piece of wood called lining is glued into the corners where the rib meets the top and back.", "This interior reinforcement provides 5 to 20 mm of solid gluing area for these corner joints.", "Solid linings are often used in classical guitars, while kerfed lining is most often found in steel-string acoustics.", "Kerfed lining is also called kerfing because it is scored, or \"kerfed\"(incompletely sawn through), to allow it to bend with the shape of the rib).", "During final construction, a small section of the outside corners is carved or routed out and filled with binding material on the outside corners and decorative strips of material next to the binding, which is called purfling.", "This binding serves to seal off the end grain of the top and back.", "Purfling can also appear on the back of an acoustic guitar, marking the edge joints of the two or three sections of the back.", "Binding and purfling materials are generally made of either wood or plastic.Body size, shape and style have changed over time.", "19th-century guitars, now known as salon guitars, were smaller than modern instruments.", "Differing patterns of internal bracing have been used over time by luthiers.", "Torres, Hauser, Ramirez, Fleta, and C. F. Martin were among the most influential designers of their time.", "Bracing not only strengthens the top against potential collapse due to the stress exerted by the tensioned strings but also affects the resonance characteristics of the top.", "The back and sides are made out of a variety of timbers such as mahogany, Indian rosewood and highly regarded Brazilian rosewood (''Dalbergia nigra'').", "Each one is primarily chosen for their aesthetic effect and can be decorated with inlays and purfling.Instruments with larger areas for the guitar top were introduced by Martin in an attempt to create greater volume levels.", "The popularity of the larger \"dreadnought\" body size amongst acoustic performers is related to the greater sound volume produced.Most electric guitar bodies are made of wood and include a plastic pickguard.", "Boards wide enough to use as a solid body are very expensive due to the worldwide depletion of hardwood stock since the 1970s, so the wood is rarely one solid piece.", "Most bodies are made from two pieces of wood with some of them including a seam running down the center line of the body.", "The most common woods used for electric guitar body construction include maple, basswood, ash, poplar, alder, and mahogany.", "Many bodies consist of good-sounding, but inexpensive woods, like ash, with a \"top\", or thin layer of another, more attractive wood (such as maple with a natural \"flame\" pattern) glued to the top of the basic wood.", "Guitars constructed like this are often called \"flame tops\".", "The body is usually carved or routed to accept the other elements, such as the bridge, pickup, neck, and other electronic components.", "Most electrics have a polyurethane or nitrocellulose lacquer finish.", "Other alternative materials to wood are used in guitar body construction.", "Some of these include carbon composites, plastic material, such as polycarbonate, and aluminum alloys.=====Bridge=====The main purpose of the bridge on an acoustic guitar is to transfer the vibration from the strings to the soundboard, which vibrates the air inside of the guitar, thereby amplifying the sound produced by the strings.", "On all electric, acoustic and original guitars, the bridge holds the strings in place on the body.", "There are many varied bridge designs.", "There may be some mechanism for raising or lowering the bridge saddles to adjust the distance between the strings and the fretboard (action), or fine-tuning the intonation of the instrument.", "Some are spring-loaded and feature a \"whammy bar\", a removable arm that lets the player modulate the pitch by changing the tension on the strings.", "The whammy bar is sometimes also called a \"tremolo bar\".", "(The effect of rapidly changing pitch is properly called \"vibrato\".", "See Tremolo for further discussion of this term.)", "Some bridges also allow for alternate tunings at the touch of a button.On almost all modern electric guitars, the bridge has saddles that are adjustable for each string so that intonation stays correct up and down the neck.", "If the open string is in tune, but sharp or flat when frets are pressed, the bridge saddle position can be adjusted with a screwdriver or hex key to remedy the problem.", "In general, flat notes are corrected by moving the saddle forward and sharp notes by moving it backward.", "On an instrument correctly adjusted for intonation, the actual length of each string from the nut to the bridge saddle is slightly, but measurably longer than the scale length of the instrument.", "This additional length is called compensation, which flattens all notes a bit to compensate for the sharping of all fretted notes caused by stretching the string during fretting.=====Saddle=====The saddle of a guitar is the part of the bridge that physically supports the strings.", "It may be one piece (typically on acoustic guitars) or separate pieces, one for each string (electric guitars and basses).", "The saddle's basic purpose is to provide the endpoint for the string's vibration at the correct location for proper intonation, and on acoustic guitars to transfer the vibrations through the bridge into the top wood of the guitar.", "Saddles are typically made of plastic or bone for acoustic guitars, though synthetics and some exotic animal tooth variations (e.g.", "fossilized tooth, ivory, etc. )", "have become popular with some players.", "Electric guitar saddles are typically metal, though some synthetic saddles are available.=====Pickguard=====The pickguard, also known as the scratch plate, is usually a piece of laminated plastic or other material that protects the finish of the top of the guitar from damage due to the use of a plectrum (\"pick\") or fingernails.", "Electric guitars sometimes mount pickups and electronics on the pickguard.", "It is a common feature on steel-string acoustic guitars.", "Some performance styles that use the guitar as a percussion instrument (tapping the top or sides between notes, etc.", "), such as flamenco, require that a scratchplate or pickguard be fitted to nylon-string instruments.====Strings====The standard guitar has six strings, but four-, seven-, eight-, nine-, ten-, eleven-, twelve-, thirteen- and eighteen-string guitars are also available.", "Classical and flamenco guitars historically used gut strings, but these have been superseded by polymer materials, such as nylon and fluorocarbon.", "Modern guitar strings are constructed from metal, polymers, or animal or plant product materials.", "\"Steel\" strings may be made from alloys incorporating steel, nickel or phosphor bronze.", "Bass strings for both instruments are wound rather than monofilament.====Pickups and electronics====Squier Stratocaster has features common to many electric guitars: multiple pickups, a vibrato bar/vibrato unit, and volume and tone knobs.Pickups are transducers attached to a guitar that detect (or \"pick up\") string vibrations and convert the mechanical energy of the string into electrical energy.", "The resultant electrical signal can then be electronically amplified.", "The most common type of pickup is electromagnetic in design.", "These contain magnets that are within a coil, or coils, of copper wire.", "Such pickups are usually placed directly underneath the guitar strings.", "Electromagnetic pickups work on the same principles and in a similar manner to an electric generator.", "The vibration of the strings creates a small electric current in the coils surrounding the magnets.", "This signal current is carried to a guitar amplifier that drives a loudspeaker.Traditional electromagnetic pickups are either single-coil or double-coil.", "Single-coil pickups are susceptible to noise induced by stray electromagnetic fields, usually mains-frequency (60 or 50 hertz) hum.", "The introduction of the double-coil humbucker in the mid-1950s solved this problem through the use of two coils, one of which is wired in opposite polarity to cancel or \"buck\" stray fields.The types and models of pickups used can greatly affect the tone of the guitar.", "Typically, humbuckers, which are two magnet-coil assemblies attached to each other, are traditionally associated with a heavier sound.", "Single-coil pickups, one magnet wrapped in copper wire, are used by guitarists seeking a brighter, twangier sound with greater dynamic range.Modern pickups are tailored to the sound desired.", "A commonly applied approximation used in the selection of a pickup is that less wire (lower electrical impedance) gives a brighter sound, more wire gives a \"fat\" tone.", "Other options include specialized switching that produces coil-splitting, in/out of phase and other effects.", "Guitar circuits are either active, needing a battery to power their circuit, or, as in most cases, equipped with a passive circuit.Fender Stratocaster-type guitars generally have three single-coil pickups, while most Gibson Les Paul types have humbucker pickups.Piezoelectric, or piezo, pickups represent another class of pickup.", "These employ piezoelectricity to generate the musical signal and are popular in hybrid electro-acoustic guitars.", "A crystal is located under each string, usually in the saddle.", "When the string vibrates, the shape of the crystal is distorted, and the stresses associated with this change produce tiny voltages across the crystal that can be amplified and manipulated.", "Piezo pickups usually require a powered pre-amplifier to lift their output to match that of electromagnetic pickups.", "Power is typically delivered by an on-board battery.Most pickup-equipped guitars feature onboard controls, such as volume or tone, or pickup selection.", "At their simplest, these consist of passive components, such as potentiometers and capacitors, but may also include specialized integrated circuits or other active components requiring batteries for power, for preamplification and signal processing, or even for electronic tuning.", "In many cases, the electronics have some sort of shielding to prevent pickup of external interference and noise.Guitars may be shipped or retrofitted with a hexaphonic pickup, which produces a separate output for each string, usually from a discrete piezoelectric or magnetic pickup.", "This arrangement lets on-board or external electronics process the strings individually for modeling or Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) conversion.", "Roland makes \"GK\" hexaphonic pickups for guitar and bass, and a line of guitar modeling and synthesis products.", "Line 6's hexaphonic-equipped Variax guitars use on-board electronics to model the sound after various vintage instruments, and vary pitch on individual strings.MIDI converters use a hexaphonic guitar signal to determine pitch, duration, attack, and decay characteristics.", "The MIDI sends the note information to an internal or external sound bank device.", "The resulting sound closely mimics numerous instruments.", "The MIDI setup can also let the guitar be used as a game controller (i.e., Rock Band Squier) or as an instructional tool, as with the Fretlight Guitar." ], [ "Tuning", "===Standard===In standard tuning, the C-major chord has three shapes because of the irregular major-third between the G- and B-strings.By the 16th century, the guitar tuning of ADGBE had already been adopted in Western culture; a lower E was later added on the bottom as a sixth string.The result, known as \"standard tuning\", has the strings tuned from a low E to a high E, traversing a two-octave range: EADGBE.This tuning is a series of ascending fourths (and a single major third) from low to high.The reason for ascending fourths is to accommodate four fingers on four frets up a scale before moving to the next string.This is musically convenient and physically comfortable, and it eased the transition between fingering chords and playing scales.If the tuning contained all perfect fourths, the range would be two octaves plus one semitone; the high string would be an F, a dissonant half-step from the low E and much out of place.The pitches are as follows: String Scientific pitch Helmholtz pitch Interval from middle C Frequency(Hz) 1st E4 e' major third above 329.63 2nd B3 b minor second below 246.94 3rd G3 g perfect fourth below 196.00 4th D3 d minor seventh below 146.83 5th A2 A minor tenth below 110.00 6th E2 E minor thirteenth below 82.41The table below shows a pitch's name found over the six strings of a guitar in standard tuning, from the nut (zero), to the twelfth fret.", "0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 E F F G A A B B C C D E E B C C D E E F F G A A B B G A A B B C C D E E F F G D E E F F G A A B B C C D A B B C C D E E F F G A A E F F G A A B B C C D E EIn the ''standard'' guitar-tuning, one major-third interval is interjected amid four perfect-fourth intervals.", "In each ''regular'' tuning, all string successions have the same interval.For four strings, the 5th fret on one string is the same open-note as the next string; for example, a 5th-fret note on the sixth string is the same note as the open fifth string.", "However, between the second and third strings, an irregularity occurs: The ''4th''-fret note on the third string is equivalent to the open second string.===Alternative===Chords can be shifted diagonally in major-thirds tuning and other regular tunings.", "In standard tuning, chords change their shape because of the irregular major-third G-B.Standard tuning has evolved to provide a good compromise between simple fingering for many chords and the ability to play common scales with reasonable left-hand movement.", "There are also a variety of commonly used alternative tunings, for example, the classes of ''open'', ''regular'', and ''dropped'' tunings.Ry Cooder plays slide-guitar with open tunings.", "''Open tuning'' refers to a guitar tuned so that strumming the open strings produces a chord, typically a major chord.", "The base chord consists of at least 3 notes and may include all the strings or a subset.", "The tuning is named for the open chord, Open D, open G, and open A are popular tunings.", "All similar chords in the chromatic scale can then be played by barring a single fret.", "Open tunings are common in blues music and folk music, and they are used in the playing of slide and bottleneck guitars.", "Many musicians use open tunings when playing slide guitar.For the standard tuning, there is exactly one interval of a major third between the second and third strings, and all the other intervals are fourths.", "The irregularity has a price – chords cannot be shifted around the fretboard in the standard tuning E-A-D-G-B-E, which requires four chord-shapes for the major chords.", "There are separate chord-forms for chords having their root note on the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth strings.In contrast, ''regular'' tunings have equal intervals between the strings, and so they have symmetrical scales all along the fretboard.", "This makes it simpler to translate chords.", "For the regular tunings, chords may be moved diagonally around the fretboard.", "The diagonal movement of chords is especially simple for the regular tunings that are repetitive, in which case chords can be moved vertically: Chords can be moved three strings up (or down) in major-thirds tuning and chords can be moved two strings up (or down) in augmented-fourths tuning.", "Regular tunings thus appeal to new guitarists and also to jazz-guitarists, whose improvisation is simplified by regular intervals.On the other hand, some chords are more difficult to play in a regular tuning than in standard tuning.", "It can be difficult to play conventional chords, especially in augmented-fourths tuning and all-fifths tuning, in which the large spacings require hand stretching.", "Some chords, which are conventional in folk music, are difficult to play even in all-fourths and major-thirds tunings, which do not require more hand-stretching than standard tuning.", "* In major-thirds tuning, the interval between open strings is always a major third.", "Consequently, four frets suffice to play the chromatic scale.", "Chord inversion is especially simple in major-thirds tuning.", "Chords are inverted simply by raising one or two notes by three strings.", "The raised notes are played with the same finger as the original notes.", "In contrast, in standard tuning, the shape of inversions depends on the involvement of the irregular major-third.", "* All-fourths tuning replaces the major third between the third and second strings with a fourth, extending the conventional tuning of a bass guitar.", "With all-fourths tuning, playing the triads is more difficult, but improvisation is simplified because chord-patterns remain constant when moved around the fretboard.", "Jazz guitarist Stanley Jordan uses the all-fourths tuning EADGCF.", "Invariant chord-shapes are an advantage of other regular tunings, such as major-thirds and all-fifths tunings.", "* Extending the tunings of violins and cellos, all-fifths tuning offers an expanded range CGDAEB, which however has been impossible to implement on a conventional guitar.", "All-fifths tuning is used for the lowest five strings of the new standard tuning of Robert Fripp and his former students in Guitar Craft courses; new standard tuning has a high G on its last string CGDAE-G.Another class of alternative tunings is called drop tunings, because the tuning ''drops down'' the lowest string.", "Dropping down the lowest string a whole tone results in the \"drop-D\" (or \"dropped D\") tuning.", "Its open-string notes DADGBE (from low to high) allow for a deep bass D note, which can be used in keys such as D major, d minor and G major.", "It simplifies the playing of simple fifths (powerchords).", "Many contemporary rock bands re-tune all strings down, making, for example, Drop-C or Drop-B tunings.===Scordatura===Many scordatura (alternate tunings) modify the standard tuning of the lute, especially when playing Renaissance music repertoire originally written for that instrument.", "Some scordatura drop the pitch of one or more strings, giving access to new lower notes.", "Some scordatura makes it easier to play in unusual keys." ], [ "Accessories", "Though a guitar may be played on its own, there are a variety of common accessories used for holding and playing the guitar.===Capotasto===A capo (short for ''capotasto'') is used to change the pitch of open strings.", "Capos are clipped onto the fretboard with the aid of spring tension or, in some models, elastic tension.", "To raise the guitar's pitch by one semitone, the player would clip the capo onto the fretboard just below the first fret.", "Its use allows players to play in different keys without having to change the chord formations they use.", "For example, if a folk guitar player wanted to play a song in the key of B Major, they could put a capo on the second fret of the instrument, and then play the song as if it were in the key of A Major, but with the capo the instrument would make the sounds of B Major.", "This is because, with the capo barring the entire second fret, open chords would all sound two semitones (in other words, one tone) higher in pitch.", "For example, if a guitarist played an open A Major chord (a very common open chord), it would sound like a B Major chord.", "All of the other open chords would be similarly modified in pitch.", "Because of the ease with which they allow guitar players to change keys, they are sometimes referred to with pejorative names, such as \"cheaters\" or the \"hillbilly crutch\".", "Despite this negative viewpoint, another benefit of the capo is that it enables guitarists to obtain the ringing, resonant sound of the common keys (C, G, A, etc.)", "in \"harder\" and less-commonly used keys.", "Classical performers are known to use them to enable modern instruments to match the pitch of historical instruments such as the Renaissance music lute.===Slides===Example of a bottleneck slide, with fingerpicks and a resonator guitar made of metalA slide or a steel is a hard smooth object (a steel bar, round metal or glass bar or cylinder, neck of a bottle) commonly used in country music or blues music, to create a glissando effect made popular in Hawaiian music at the beginning of the 20th century.", "The slide is pressed against the strings by the non-dominant hand, instead of using player's fingers on frets; the strings are then plucked by the dominant hand.", "The characteristic use of the slide is to move up to the intended pitch by, as the name implies, sliding up the neck to the desired note.", "Historically, necks of bottles were often used in blues and country music as improvised slides, giving the name \"bottleneck guitar\" to a style of blues music.", "Modern slides are constructed of glass, plastic, ceramic, chrome, brass or steel bars or cylinders, depending on the weight and tone desired.", "An instrument that is played exclusively in this manner (using a metal bar) is called a steel guitar or pedal steel.", "In such case, the hard object is called a \"steel\" instead of a slide, and is the reason for the name \"steel guitar\".", "A resonator guitar is a steel guitar built with a metal cone under the strings to make the instrument louder.===Plectrum===A variety of guitar picksA \"guitar pick\" or \"plectrum\" is a small piece of hard material generally held between the thumb and first finger of the picking hand and is used to \"pick\" the strings.", "Though most classical players pick with a combination of fingernails and fleshy fingertips, the pick is most often used for electric and steel-string acoustic guitars.", "Though today they are mainly plastic, variations do exist, such as bone, wood, steel or tortoise shell.", "Tortoise shell was the most commonly used material in the early days of pick-making, but as tortoises and turtles became endangered, the practice of using their shells for picks or anything else was banned.", "Tortoise-shell picks made before the ban are often coveted for a supposedly superior tone and ease of use, and their scarcity has made them valuable.Picks come in many shapes and sizes.", "Picks vary from the small jazz pick to the large bass pick.", "The thickness of the pick often determines its use.", "A thinner pick (between 0.2 and 0.5 mm) is usually used for strumming or rhythm playing, whereas thicker picks (between 0.7 and 1.5+ mm) are usually used for single-note lines or lead playing.", "The distinctive guitar sound of Billy Gibbons is attributed to using a quarter or peso as a pick.", "Similarly, Brian May is known to use a sixpence coin as a pick, while noted 1970s and early 1980s session musician David Persons is known for using old credit cards, cut to the correct size, as plectrums.Thumb picks and finger picks that attach to the fingertips are sometimes employed in finger-picking styles on steel strings.", "These allow the fingers and thumb to operate independently, whereas a flat pick requires the thumb and one or two fingers to manipulate.===Straps===A guitar strap is a strip of material with an attachment mechanism on each end, made to hold a guitar via the shoulders at an adjustable length.", "Guitars have varying accommodations for attaching a strap.", "The most common are strap buttons, also called strap pins, which are flanged steel posts anchored to the guitar with screws.", "Two strap buttons come pre-attached to virtually all electric guitars, and many steel-string acoustic guitars.", "Strap buttons are sometimes replaced with \"strap locks\", which connect the guitar to the strap more securely.The lower strap button is usually located at the bottom (bridge end) of the body.", "The upper strap button is usually located near or at the top (neck end) of the body: on the upper body curve, at the tip of the upper \"horn\" (on a double cutaway), or at the neck joint (heel).", "Some electrics, especially those with odd-shaped bodies, have one or both strap buttons on the back of the body.", "Some Steinberger electric guitars, owing to their minimalist and lightweight design, have both strap buttons at the bottom of the body.", "Rarely, on some acoustics, the upper strap button is located on the headstock.", "Some acoustic and classical guitars only have a single strap button at the bottom of the body—the other end must be tied onto the headstock, above the nut and below the machine heads.===Amplifiers, effects and speakers===A range of guitar amplifiers and guitars for sale at a music storeElectric guitars and bass guitars have to be used with a guitar amplifier and loudspeaker or a bass amplifier and speaker, respectively, in order to make enough sound to be heard by the performer and audience.", "Electric guitars and bass guitars almost always use magnetic pickups, which generate an electric signal when the musician plucks, strums or otherwise plays the instrument.", "The amplifier and speaker strengthen this signal using a power amplifier and a loudspeaker.", "Acoustic guitars that are equipped with a piezoelectric pickup or microphone can also be plugged into an instrument amplifier, acoustic guitar amp or PA system to make them louder.", "With electric guitar and bass, the amplifier and speaker are not just used to make the instrument louder; by adjusting the equalizer controls, the preamplifier, and any onboard effects units (reverb, distortion/overdrive, etc.)", "the player can also modify the tone (also called the timbre or \"colour\") and sound of the instrument.", "Acoustic guitar players can also use the amp to change the sound of their instrument, but in general, acoustic guitar amps are used to make the natural acoustic sound of the instrument louder without significantly changing its sound." ], [ "See also", "* List of guitar manufacturers* Outline of guitars* Paracho de Verduzco" ], [ "Notes and references", "===Notes======Citations======Sources=======Books, journals====* * * * * * * * * * ====Online====* *" ], [ "External links", "* Instruments In Depth: The Guitar An online feature from Bloomingdale School of Music (October 2007)* International Guitar Research Archive* The Guitar, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art featuring many historic guitars from the Museum's collection* Online Guitar Acoustic guitar realistic simulator" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gnutella" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gnutella''' is a peer-to-peer network protocol.", "Founded in 2000, it was the first decentralized peer-to-peer network of its kind, leading to other, later networks adopting the model.", "In June 2005, Gnutella's population was 1.81 million computers increasing to over three million nodes by January 2006.In late 2007, it was the most popular file-sharing network on the Internet with an estimated market share of more than 40%." ], [ "History", "The first client (also called Gnutella) from which the network got its name was developed by Justin Frankel and Tom Pepper of Nullsoft in early 2000, soon after the company's acquisition by AOL.", "On March 14, the program was made available for download on Nullsoft's servers.", "The event was prematurely announced on Slashdot, and thousands downloaded the program that day.", "The source code was to be released later, under the GNU General Public License (GPL); however, the original developers never got the chance to accomplish this purpose.The next day, AOL stopped the availability of the program over legal concerns and restrained Nullsoft from doing any further work on the project.", "This did not stop Gnutella; after a few days, the protocol had been reverse engineered, and compatible free and open source clones began to appear.", "This parallel development of different clients by different groups remains the ''modus operandi'' of Gnutella development today.Among the first independent Gnutella pioneers were Gene Kan and Spencer Kimball, who launched the first portal aimed to assemble the open-source community to work on Gnutella and also developed \"GNUbile\", one of the first open-source (GNU-GPL) programs to implement the Gnutella protocol.The Gnutella network is a fully distributed alternative to such semi-centralized systems as FastTrack (KaZaA) and the original Napster.", "The initial popularity of the network was spurred on by Napster's threatened legal demise in early 2001.This growing surge in popularity revealed the limits of the initial protocol's scalability.", "In early 2001, variations on the protocol (first implemented in proprietary and closed source clients) allowed an improvement in scalability.", "Instead of treating every user as client and server, some users were now treated as ''ultrapeers'', routing search requests and responses for users connected to them.This allowed the network to grow in popularity.", "In late 2001, the Gnutella client LimeWire Basic became free and open source.", "In February 2002, Morpheus, a commercial file sharing group, abandoned its FastTrack-based peer-to-peer software and released a new client based on the free and open source Gnutella client Gnucleus.The word ''Gnutella'' today refers not to any one project or piece of software, but to the open protocol used by the various clients.The name is a portmanteau of ''GNU'' and ''Nutella'', the brand name of an Italian hazelnut flavored spread: supposedly, Frankel and Pepper ate a lot of Nutella working on the original project, and intended to license their finished program under the GNU General Public License.", "Gnutella is not associated with the GNU project or GNU's own peer-to-peer network, GNUnet.On October 26, 2010, the popular Gnutella client LimeWire was ordered shut down by Judge Kimba Wood of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York when she signed a Consent Decree to which recording industry plaintiffs and LimeWire had agreed.", "This event was the likely cause of a notable drop in the size of the network, because, while negotiating the injunction, LimeWire staff had inserted remote-disabling code into the software.", "As the injunction came into force, users who had installed affected versions (newer than 5.5.10) were cut off from the P2P network.", "Since LimeWire was free software, nothing had prevented the creation of forks that omitted the disabling code, as long as LimeWire trademarks were not used.", "The shutdown did not affect, for example, FrostWire, a fork of LimeWire created in 2004 that carries neither the remote-disabling code nor adware.On November 9, 2010, LimeWire was resurrected by a secret team of developers and named LimeWire Pirate Edition.", "It was based on LimeWire 5.6 BETA.", "This version had its server dependencies removed and all the PRO features enabled for free." ], [ "Design", "The gnutella search and retrieval protocolTo envision how Gnutella originally worked, imagine a large circle of users ''(called nodes),'' each of whom has Gnutella client software.", "On initial startup, the client software must bootstrap and find at least one other node.", "Various methods have been used for this, including a pre-existing address list of possibly working nodes shipped with the software, using updated web caches of known nodes (called ''Gnutella Web Caches''), UDP host caches and, rarely, even IRC.", "Once connected, the client requests a list of working addresses.", "The client tries to connect to the nodes it was shipped with, as well as nodes it receives from other clients until it reaches a certain quota.", "It connects to only that many nodes, locally caching the addresses which it has not yet tried and discarding the addresses which it tried and found to be invalid.When the user wants to do a search, the client sends the request to each actively connected node.", "In version 0.4 of the protocol, the number of actively connected nodes for a client was quite small (around 5).", "In that version of the protocol, each node forwards the request to all its actively connected nodes, who, in turn, forward the request.", "This continues until the packet has reached a predetermined number of ''hops'' from the sender (maximum 7).Since version 0.6 (2002), Gnutella is a composite network made of leaf nodes and ultra nodes (also called ultrapeers).", "The leaf nodes are connected to a small number of ultrapeers (typically 3) while each ultrapeer is connected to more than 32 other ultrapeers.", "With this higher outdegree, the maximum number of ''hops'' a query can travel was lowered to 4.Leaves and ultrapeers use the Query Routing Protocol to exchange a Query Routing Table (QRT), a table of 64 Ki-slots and up to 2 Mi-slots consisting of hashed keywords.", "A leaf node sends its QRT to each of the ultrapeers to which it is connected, and ultrapeers merge the QRT of all their leaves (downsized to 128 Ki-slots) plus their own QRT (if they share files) and exchange that with their own neighbors.", "Query routing is then done by hashing the words of the query and seeing whether all of them match in the QRT.", "Ultrapeers do that check before forwarding a query to a leaf node, and also before forwarding the query to a peer ultra node provided this is the last hop the query can travel.If a search request turns up a result, the node that has the result contacts the searcher.", "In the classic Gnutella protocol, response messages were sent back along the route taken by the query, as the query itself did not contain identifying information for the node.", "This scheme was later revised, to deliver search results over UDP, directly to the node that initiated the search, usually an ultrapeer of the node.", "Thus, in the current protocol, the queries carry the IP address and port number of either node.", "This lowers the amount of traffic routed through the Gnutella network, making it significantly more scalable.If the user decides to download the file, they negotiate the file transfer.", "If the node which has the requested file is not firewalled, the querying node can connect to it directly.", "However, if the node is firewalled, stopping the source node from receiving incoming connections, the client wanting to download a file sends it a so-called ''push request'' to the server for the remote client to initiate the connection instead (to ''push'' the file).", "At first, these push requests were routed along the original chain it used to send the query.", "This was rather unreliable because routes would often break and routed packets are always subject to flow control.", "''push proxies'' were introduced to address this problem.", "These are usually the ultrapeers of a leaf node and they are announced in search results.", "The client connects to one of these ''push proxies'' using an HTTP request and the proxy sends a ''push request'' to a leaf on behalf of the client.", "Normally, it is also possible to send a push request over UDP to the push proxy, which is more efficient than using TCP.", "Push proxies have two advantages: First, ultrapeer-leaf connections are more stable than routes.", "This makes push requests much more reliable.", "Second, it reduces the amount of traffic routed through the Gnutella network.Finally, when a user disconnects, the client software saves a list of known nodes.This contains the nodes to which the client was connected and the nodes learned from pong packets.The client uses that as its seed list, when it next starts, thus becoming independent of bootstrap services.In practice, this method of searching on the Gnutella network was often unreliable.", "Each node is a regular computer user; as such, they are constantly connecting and disconnecting, so the network is never completely stable.", "Also, the bandwidth cost of searching on Gnutella grew exponentially to the number of connected users, often saturating connections and rendering slower nodes useless.", "Therefore, search requests would often be dropped, and most queries reached only a very small part of the network.", "This observation identified the Gnutella network as an unscalable distributed system, and inspired the development of distributed hash tables, which are much more scalable but support only exact-match, rather than keyword, search.To address the problems of bottlenecks, Gnutella developers implemented a tiered system of ''ultrapeers'' and ''leaves''.", "Instead of all nodes being considered equal, nodes entering the network were kept at the 'edge' of the network, as a leaf.", "Leaves don't provide routing.", "Nodes which are capable of routing messages are promoted to ultrapeers.", "Ultrapeers accept leaf connections and route searches and network maintenance messages.", "This allows searches to propagate further through the network and allows for numerous alterations in topology.", "This greatly improved efficiency and scalability.Additionally, gnutella adopted a number of other techniques to reduce traffic overhead and make searches more efficient.", "Most notable are Query Routing Protocol (QRP) and Dynamic Querying (DQ).", "With QRP, a search reaches only those clients which are likely to have the files, so searches for rare files become far more efficient.", "With DQ, the search stops as soon as the program has acquired enough search results.", "This vastly reduces the amount of traffic caused by popular searches.One of the benefits of having Gnutella so decentralized is to make it very difficult to shut the network down and to make it a network in which the users are the only ones who can decide which content will be available.", "Unlike Napster, where the entire network relied on the central server, Gnutella cannot be shut down by shutting down any one node.", "A decentralized network prevents bad actors from taking control of the contents of the network and/or manipulating data by controlling the central server." ], [ "Protocol features and extensions", "Gnutella once operated on a purely query flooding-based protocol.", "The outdated Gnutella version 0.4 network protocol employs five different packet types, namely:* ping: discover hosts on network* pong: reply to ping* query: search for a file* query hit: reply to query* push: download request for firewalled servantsThese packets facilitate searches.", "File transfers are instead handled by HTTP.The development of the Gnutella protocol is currently led by the Gnutella Developers Forum (The GDF).", "Many protocol extensions have been and are being developed by the software vendors and by the free Gnutella developers of the GDF.", "These extensions include intelligent query routing, SHA-1 checksums, query hit transmission via UDP, querying via UDP, dynamic queries via TCP, file transfers via UDP, XML metadata, source exchange (also termed ''the download mesh'') and parallel downloading in slices (swarming).There are efforts to finalize these protocol extensions in the Gnutella 0.6 specification, at the Gnutella protocol development website.", "The Gnutella 0.4 standard is outdated but it remains the latest protocol specification because all extensions, so far, exist as proposals.", "In fact, it is hard or impossible to connect today with 0.4 handshakes.", "According to developers in the GDF, version 0.6 is what new developers should pursue using the work-in-progress specifications.The Gnutella protocol remains under development.", "Despite attempts to make a clean break with the complexity inherited from the old Gnutella 0.4 and to design a clean new message architecture, it remains one of the most successful file-sharing protocols to date." ], [ "Software", "The following tables compare general and technical information for a number of applications supporting the Gnutella network.", "The tables do '''not''' attempt to give a complete list of Gnutella clients.", "The tables are limited to clients that can participate in the current Gnutella network.=== General specifications === Name Platform License Project active?", "(otherwise discontinued) Latest release Heritage Acquisition macOS LimeWire BearFlix Windows 5.2.6.0 BearShare BearShare Windows ''Original work'' Cabos Java LimeWire CitrixWire Windows 2014 Addax CocoGnut RISC OS 1.21 (2005-06-21)''Original work'' FilesWire (P2P) Java Beta 1.1 (2007) ''Original work'' giFT (Gnutella plug-in) Cross-platform 0.0.11 (2006-08-06) ''Original work'' Gnucleus-GnucDNA Windows ''Original work'' gtk-gnutella Cross-platform ''Original work'' KCeasy Windows giFT Kiwi Alpha Windows GnucDNA LimeWire Java ''Original work'' Morpheus Windows GnucDNA Phex Java ''Original work'' Poisoned macOS giFT Shareaza Windows ''Original work'' Symella Symbian ''Original work'' WireShare (aka ''LimeWire Pirate Edition'') Java 6.0.2 (2022-10-04) LimeWire Zultrax Windows 4.33 (April 2009) ''Original work''=== Gnutella features === Client Hash search Chat Buddy list Handles large files (> 4 GB) Unicode-compatible query routing UPnP port mapping NAT traversal NAT port mapping RUD TCP push proxy UDP push proxy Ultrapeer GWebCache UDP host cache TLS Other BearShare - giFT (core & plug-ins) - GnucDNA - gtk-gnutella (Dropped) IPv6, DHT, GUESS, G2 LimeWire DHT WireShare DHT Phex I2P Shareaza G2, BT, eD2k, IRC==== Notes ====* Morpheus differs significantly and may have completely independent code from the GnucDNA engine.", "Morpheus can function as a ''modern'' ultrapeer whereas other GnucDNA clients cannot.", "* Gnucleus and Kiwi Alpha use the GnucDNA engine.", "* BearFlix, a functionally limited version of the BearShare 5.2 series, can search only for images or videos and shared videos are limited to a relatively short length.", "* giFTcurs, Apollon, FilePipe, giFToxic, giFTui, giFTwin32, KCeasy, Poisoned, and Xfactor are GUI front-ends for the giFT engine.", "* etomi uses outdated Shareaza networking code.", "* MP3 Rocket, 360Share, LemonWire, MP3Torpedo, and DexterWire are variants of LimeWire.", "* FrostWire (up to version 4.21.8) is nearly identical to LimeWire 4.18 but versions greater than 5.00 no longer use gnutella.", "* Acquisition and Cabos are custom front-ends overlaying the LimeWire engine.", "* LimeWire Pirate Edition (5.6.2) is a resurrected version of the unreleased LimeWire 5.6.1 alpha, thus has similar features minus automatic updates (with nags) and centralized remote controls to disable core functions like searches and downloads were removed." ], [ "Gnutella2", "The Gnutella2 protocol (often referred to as G2), despite its name, is not a successor protocol of Gnutella nor related to the original Gnutella project, but rather is a completely different protocol that forked from the original project and piggybacked on the Gnutella name.", "A sore point with many Gnutella developers is that the ''Gnutella2'' name conveys an upgrade or superiority, which led to a flame war.", "Other criticism included the use of the Gnutella network to bootstrap G2 peers and poor documentation of the G2 protocol.", "Additionally, the more frequent search retries of the Shareaza client, one of the initial G2 clients, could unnecessarily burden the Gnutella network.Both protocols have undergone significant changes since the fork in 2002.G2 has advantages and disadvantages compared to Gnutella.", "An advantage often cited is that Gnutella2's hybrid search is more efficient than the original Gnutella's query flooding.", "However, Gnutella replaced query flooding with more efficient search methods, starting with Query Routing in 2002.This was proposed in 2001 by Limewire developers.", "An advantage of Gnutella is its large user base, which numbers in the millions,.", "The G2 network is approximately an order of magnitude smaller.", "It is difficult to compare the protocols in their current form.", "The choice of client, on either network, probably affects the end user just as much." ], [ "See also", "* Bitzi* Gnutella crawler* GNUnet" ], [ "References", "* Dye, Mark.", "McDonald, Rick.", "Rufi, Antoon W., 'Network Fundamentals', Cisco Networking Academy, Cisco Press, Ch 3.p91* Dye, Mark.", "McDonald, Rick.", "Rufi, Antoon W., 'Network Fundamentals', Cisco Networking Academy, Cisco Press, Ch 3.p90" ], [ "External links", "* Gnutella Forums Official user support boards* Gnutella Protocol Development Wiki (on Internet Archive, 2009)* Gnutella Protocol Development Portal (on Internet Archive)* Gnutella official website (on Internet Archive)* GnuFU, ''Gnutella For Users: A description of the inner workings of the gnutella network in User-Friendly Style''* ''Regarding Gnutella'' by GNU* Glasnost test Gnutella traffic shaping (Max Planck Institute for Software Systems)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "George Lucas" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Walton Lucas Jr.''' (born May 14, 1944) is an American filmmaker and philanthropist.", "Lucas is best known for creating the ''Star Wars'' and ''Indiana Jones'' franchises and founding Lucasfilm, LucasArts, Industrial Light & Magic, and THX.", "He served as chairman of Lucasfilm before selling it to The Walt Disney Company in 2012.Lucas is one of history's most financially successful filmmakers and has been nominated for four Academy Awards.", "Lucas personally directed or conceived 10 of the 100 highest-grossing movies at the North American box office, adjusted for ticket-price inflation.", "Lucas is considered to be one of the most significant figures of the 20th-century New Hollywood movement, and a pioneer of the modern blockbuster.", "Despite this, he has remained an independent filmmaker away from Hollywood for most of his career.After graduating from the University of Southern California in 1967, Lucas moved to San Francisco and co-founded American Zoetrope with filmmaker Francis Ford Coppola.", "Lucas wrote and directed ''THX 1138'' (1971), based on his student short ''Electronic Labyrinth: THX 1138 4EB'', which was a critical success but a financial failure.", "His next work as a writer-director was ''American Graffiti'' (1973), inspired by his youth in early 1960s Modesto, California, and produced through the newly founded Lucasfilm.", "The film was critically and commercially successful and received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Director and Best Picture.", "Lucas's next film, the epic space opera ''Star Wars'' (1977), had a troubled production but was a surprise hit, becoming the highest-grossing film at the time, winning six Academy Awards and sparking a cultural phenomenon.", "Lucas produced and co-wrote the sequels ''Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back'' (1980) and ''Episode VI – Return of the Jedi'' (1983).", "With director Steven Spielberg, he created, produced, and co-wrote the ''Indiana Jones'' films ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'' (1981), ''The Temple of Doom'' (1984), ''The Last Crusade'' (1989), and ''The Kingdom of the Crystal Skull'' (2008), and served as an executive producer in name only on ''The Dial of Destiny'' (2023).", "Lucas is also known for his collaboration with composer John Williams, who was recommended to him by Spielberg, and with whom he has worked for all the films in both of these franchises.", "He also produced and wrote a variety of films and television series through Lucasfilm between the 1970s and the 2010s.In 1997, Lucas re-released the original ''Star Wars'' trilogy as part of a Special Edition featuring several modifications; home media versions with further changes were released in 2004 and 2011.He returned to directing with a ''Star Wars'' prequel trilogy comprising ''Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace'' (1999), ''Episode II – Attack of the Clones'' (2002), and ''Episode III – Revenge of the Sith'' (2005).", "He last collaborated on the CGI-animated television series ''Star Wars: The Clone Wars'' (2008–2014, 2020), the war film ''Red Tails'' (2012), and the CGI film ''Strange Magic'' (2015).In addition to his career as a filmmaker, Lucas has founded and supported multiple philanthropic organizations and campaigns dedicated to education and the arts, including the George Lucas Educational Foundation, which has been noted as a key supporter in the creation of the federal E-Rate program to provide broadband funding to schools and libraries, and the Lucas Museum of Narrative Art, a forthcoming art museum in Los Angeles developed with Lucas' wife, Mellody Hobson." ], [ "Early life", "Lucas was born and raised in Modesto, California, the son of Dorothy Ellinore Lucas (née Bomberger) and George Walton Lucas Sr., and is of German, Swiss-German, English, Scottish, and distant Dutch and French descent.", "His family attended Disneyland during its opening week in July 1955, and Lucas would remain enthusiastic about the park.", "He was interested in comics and science fiction, including television programs such as the ''Flash Gordon'' serials.", "Long before Lucas began making films, he yearned to be a racecar driver, and he spent most of his high school years racing on the underground circuit at fairgrounds and hanging out at garages.", "On June 12, 1962, a few days before his high school graduation, Lucas was driving his souped-up Autobianchi Bianchina when another driver broadsided him, flipping his car several times before it crashed into a tree; Lucas's seatbelt had snapped, ejecting him and thereby saving his life.", "However, his lungs were bruised from severe hemorrhaging and he required emergency medical treatment.", "This incident caused him to lose interest in racing as a career, but also inspired him to pursue his other interests.Lucas's father owned a stationery store, and had wanted George to work for him when he turned 18.Lucas had been planning to go to art school, but his father said he wouldn't pay for it, ironically.", "Lucas declared upon leaving home that he would be a millionaire by the age of 30.He attended Modesto Junior College, where he studied anthropology, sociology, and literature, amongst other subjects.", "He also began shooting with an 8 mm camera, including filming car races.", "At this time, Lucas became interested in Canyon Cinema: screenings of underground, avant-garde 16 mm filmmakers like Jordan Belson, Stan Brakhage, and Bruce Conner.", "Lucas and childhood friend John Plummer also saw classic European films of the time, including Jean-Luc Godard's ''Breathless'', François Truffaut's ''Jules et Jim'', and Federico Fellini's ''8½''.", "\"That's when George really started exploring,\" Plummer said.", "Through his interest in autocross racing, Lucas met renowned cinematographer Haskell Wexler, another race enthusiast.", "Wexler, later to work with Lucas on several occasions, was impressed by Lucas's talent.", "\"George had a very good eye, and he thought visually,\" he recalled.At Plummer's recommendation, Lucas then transferred to the University of Southern California (USC) School of Cinematic Arts.", "USC was one of the earliest universities to have a school devoted to motion picture film.", "During the years at USC, Lucas shared a dorm room with Randal Kleiser.", "Along with classmates such as Walter Murch, Hal Barwood, John Milius and Matthew Robbins (screenwriter), they became a clique of film students known as The Dirty Dozen.", "He also became good friends with fellow acclaimed student filmmaker and future ''Indiana Jones'' collaborator, Steven Spielberg and Martin Scorsese.", "Lucas was deeply influenced by the Filmic Expression course taught at the school by filmmaker Lester Novros which concentrated on the non-narrative elements of Film Form like color, light, movement, space, and time.", "Another inspiration was the Serbian montagist (and dean of the USC Film Department) Slavko Vorkapić, a film theoretician who made stunning montage sequences for Hollywood studio features at MGM, RKO, and Paramount.", "Vorkapich taught the autonomous nature of the cinematic art form, emphasizing the kinetic energy inherent in motion pictures.After graduating with a bachelor of fine arts in film in 1967, he tried joining the United States Air Force as an officer, but he was immediately turned down because of his numerous speeding tickets.", "He was later drafted by the United States Army for military service in Vietnam, but he was exempted from service after medical tests showed he had diabetes, the disease that killed his paternal grandfather." ], [ "Film career", "===1965–1969: Early career===Lucas saw many inspiring films in class, particularly the visual films coming out of the National Film Board of Canada like Arthur Lipsett's ''21-87'', cameraman Jean-Claude Labrecque's cinéma vérité ''60 Cycles'', the work of Norman McLaren, and the documentaries of Claude Jutra.", "Lucas fell madly in love with pure cinema and quickly became prolific at making 16 mm nonstory noncharacter visual tone poems and cinéma vérité with such titles as ''Look at Life'', ''Herbie'', ''1:42.08'', ''The Emperor'', ''Anyone Lived in a Pretty (how) Town'', ''Filmmaker'', and ''6-18-67''.", "He was passionate and interested in camerawork and editing, defining himself as a filmmaker as opposed to being a director, and he loved making abstract visual films that created emotions purely through non-narrative structures.In 1967, Lucas re-enrolled as a USC graduate student in film production.", "He began working under movie and logo designer Saul Bass and film editor Verna Fields for the United States Information Agency, where he met his future wife Marcia Griffin.", "Working as a teaching instructor for a class of U.S. Navy students who were being taught documentary cinematography, Lucas directed the short film ''Electronic Labyrinth: THX 1138 4EB'', which won first prize at the 1967–68 National Student film festival.", "Lucas was awarded a student scholarship by Warner Bros. to observe and work on the making of a film of his choosing.", "The film he chose after finding the animation department closed down was ''Finian's Rainbow'' (1968) which was being directed by Francis Ford Coppola, who was revered among film school students of the time as a cinema graduate who had \"made it\" in Hollywood.", "In 1969, Lucas was one of the camera operators on the classic Rolling Stones concert film ''Gimme Shelter''.===1969–1977: ''THX 1138'', ''American Graffiti'', and ''Star Wars''===In 1969, Lucas moved back to the San Francisco Bay Area and co-founded the studio American Zoetrope with Coppola, hoping to create a liberating environment for filmmakers to direct outside the perceived oppressive control of the Hollywood studio system.", "Coppola thought Lucas's ''Electronic Labyrinth'' could be adapted into his first full-length feature film, which was produced by American Zoetrope as ''THX 1138'', but was not a success.", "Lucas then created his own company, Lucasfilm, Ltd., and directed the successful ''American Graffiti'' (1973).Lucas then set his sights on adapting Flash Gordon, an adventure serial from his childhood that he fondly remembered.", "When he was unable to obtain the rights, he set out to write an original space adventure that would eventually become ''Star Wars''.", "Despite his success with his previous film, all but one studio turned ''Star Wars'' down.", "It was only because Alan Ladd Jr. at 20th Century Fox liked ''American Graffiti'' that he forced through a production and distribution deal for the film, which ended up restoring Fox to financial stability after a number of flops.", "''Star Wars'' was significantly influenced by samurai films of Akira Kurosawa, Spaghetti Westerns, as well as classic sword and sorcery fantasy stories.", "''Star Wars'' quickly became the highest-grossing film of all-time, displaced five years later by Spielberg's ''E.T.", "the Extra-Terrestrial''.", "After the success of ''American Graffiti'' and prior to the beginning of filming on ''Star Wars'', Lucas was encouraged to renegotiate for a higher fee for writing and directing ''Star Wars'' than the US$150,000 agreed.", "He declined to do so, instead negotiating for advantage in some of the as-yet-unspecified parts of his contract with Fox, in particular, ownership of licensing and merchandising rights (for novelizations, clothing, toys, etc.)", "and contractual arrangements for sequels.", "Lucasfilm has earned hundreds of millions of dollars from licensed games, toys, and collectibles created for the franchise.The original ''Star Wars'' film went through a tumultuous production, and during editing, Lucas suffered chest pains initially feared to be a heart attack, but actually a fit of hypertension and exhaustion.", "The effort that Lucas exerted during post-production for the film, and its subsequent sequels, caused strains on his relationship with his wife Marcia Lucas, and was a contributing factor to their divorce at the end of the trilogy.", "The success of the first ''Star Wars'' film also resulted in more attention focused on Lucas, both positive and negative, attracting wealth and fame but also many people who wanted Lucas's financial backing or just to threaten him.===1977–1993: Hiatus from directing, ''Indiana Jones''===Director Jim Henson (left) and Lucas working on ''Labyrinth'' in 1986Following the release of the first ''Star Wars'' film, Lucas worked extensively as a writer and producer, including on the many ''Star Wars'' spinoffs made for film, television, and other media.", "Lucas acted as executive producer for the next two ''Star Wars'' films, commissioning Irvin Kershner to direct ''The Empire Strikes Back'' and Richard Marquand to direct ''Return of the Jedi'', while receiving a story credit on the former and sharing a screenwriting credit with Lawrence Kasdan on the latter.", "Lucas also gave away his screenwriting credit out of great respect for Leigh Brackett for ''The Empire Strikes Back'' after her death from cancer.", "He also acted as story writer and executive producer on all four of the ''Indiana Jones'' films, which his colleague and good friend Steven Spielberg directed.Craig Barron, who worked at ILM as part of the matte painting department, told ''Star Wars Insider'' that Lucas liked to spend time with the department's painters and often spoke of what movies he wanted to make.", "According to Barron, Lucas had wanted to make a film about Alexander the Great, but this film was ultimately never produced.", "Projects where Lucas was credited as executive producer and sometimes story writer in this period include Kurosawa's ''Kagemusha'' (1980), John Korty's ''Twice Upon A Time'' (1983), ''Ewoks: Caravan of Courage'' (1984), ''Ewoks: Battle for Endor'' (1985), ''Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters'' (1985), Jim Henson's ''Labyrinth'' (1986), Ron Howard's ''Willow'' (1988), Don Bluth's ''The Land Before Time'' (1988), and the ''Indiana Jones'' television prequel spinoff ''The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles'' (1992–93).", "There were unsuccessful projects, however, including ''More American Graffiti'' (1979), Willard Huyck's ''Howard the Duck'' (1986), which was the biggest flop of Lucas's career, Coppola's ''Tucker: The Man and His Dream'' (1988) and ''Radioland Murders'' (1994) directed by Mel Smith.The animation studio Pixar was founded in 1979 as the Graphics Group, one third of the Computer Division of Lucasfilm.", "Pixar's early computer graphics research resulted in a digital film The Adventures of André & Wally B. and groundbreaking effects in films such as ''Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan'' and ''Young Sherlock Holmes'', and the group was purchased in 1986 by Steve Jobs shortly after he left Apple Computer.", "Jobs paid Lucas $5 million and put $5 million as capital into the company.", "The sale reflected Lucas's desire to stop the cash flow losses from his seven-year research projects associated with new entertainment technology tools, as well as his company's new focus on creating entertainment rather than tools.", "As of June 1983, Lucas was worth $60 million, but he met cash-flow difficulties following his divorce that year, concurrent with the sudden dropoff in revenues from ''Star Wars'' licenses following the theatrical run of ''Return of the Jedi''.", "At this point, Lucas had no desire to return to ''Star Wars'', and had unofficially canceled the sequel trilogy.Lucas, formerly a member of Writers Guild of America West, left and maintained financial core status in 1981.Also in 1983, Lucas and Tomlinson Holman founded the audio company THX Ltd.", "The company was formerly owned by Lucasfilm and contains equipment for stereo, digital, and theatrical sound for films, and music.", "Skywalker Sound and Industrial Light & Magic, are the sound and visual effects subdivisions of Lucasfilm, while Lucasfilm Games, later renamed LucasArts, produces products for the gaming industry.===1993–2012: Return to directing, ''Star Wars'' and ''Indiana Jones''===Lucas receiving the National Medal of Technology and Innovation from President George W. Bush, February 2006Having lost much of his fortune in a divorce settlement in 1987, Lucas was hesitant on making additional ''Star Wars'' features.", "However, the prequels, which were still only a series of ideas partially pulled from his original drafts of \"The Star Wars\", continued to tantalize him with technical possibilities that would make it worthwhile to revisit his older material.", "When ''Star Wars'' became popular once again, in the wake of Dark Horse's comic book line and Timothy Zahn's trilogy of spin-off novels, Lucas realized that there was still a large audience.", "His children were older, and with the explosion of CGI technology he began to consider directing once again.By 1993, it was announced, in ''Variety'' among other sources, that Lucas would be making the prequels.", "He began penning more to the story, indicating that the series would be a tragic one, examining Anakin Skywalker's fall to the dark side.", "Lucas also began to change the status of the prequels relative to the originals; at first, they were supposed to be a \"filling-in\" of history tangential to the originals, but now he saw that they could form the beginning of one long story that started with Anakin's childhood and ended with his death.", "This was the final step towards turning the film series into a \"Saga\".", "In 1994, Lucas began work on the screenplay of the first prequel, tentatively titled ''Episode I: The Beginning''.In 1997, to celebrate the 20th anniversary of ''Star Wars,'' Lucas restored the original trilogy, also making numerous modifications using newly available digital technology to bring them closer to his original vision.", "The films were in theaters as the \"Special Edition\".", "The trilogy received further modifications and restorations for DVD releases in 2004, Blu-ray releases in 2011, and 4K releases released in 2019.Additionally, Lucas released a director's cut of ''THX 1138'' in 2004, with the film and containing a number of CGI additions.George Lucas, Berlin 2005 (Portrait by Oliver Mark)The first ''Star Wars'' prequel was finished and released in 1999 as ''Episode I – The Phantom Menace'', which would be the first film Lucas had directed in over two decades.", "Following the release of the first prequel, Lucas announced that he would also be directing the next two, and began working on ''Episode II''.", "The first draft of ''Episode II'' was completed just weeks before principal photography, and Lucas hired Jonathan Hales, a writer from ''The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles'', to polish it.", "It was completed and released in 2002 as ''Attack of the Clones''.", "The final prequel, ''Episode III – Revenge of the Sith'', began production in 2002 and was released in 2005.Numerous older fans and critics considered the prequels inferior to the original trilogy, though they were box office successes and popular with younger fans.", "In 2004, Lucas reflected that his transition from independent to corporate filmmaker mirrored the story of ''Star Wars'' character Darth Vader in some ways, but concluded he was glad to be able to make his films the way he wants them.Lucas in 2007Lucas collaborated with Jeff Nathanson as a writer of the 2008 film ''Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull'', directed by Steven Spielberg.", "Like the ''Star Wars'' prequels, the reception was mixed with fans and critics alike.", "From 2008 to 2014, Lucas also served as the creator and executive producer for a second ''Star Wars'' animated series on Cartoon Network, ''Star Wars: The Clone Wars'' which premiered with a feature film of the same name before airing its first episode.", "The supervising director for this animated series was Dave Filoni, who was chosen by Lucas and closely collaborated with him on its development.", "This series bridged the events between ''Attack of the Clones'' and ''Revenge of the Sith'', and featured the last ''Star Wars'' stories in which Lucas was involved in a major way.In 2012, Lucas funded and served as executive producer for ''Red Tails'', a war film based on the exploits of the Tuskegee Airmen during World War II.", "He also took over direction of reshoots while director Anthony Hemingway worked on other projects.===2012–present: Semi-retirement===In January 2012, Lucas announced his retirement from producing large blockbuster films and instead re-focusing his career on smaller, independently budgeted features.In June 2012, it was announced that producer Kathleen Kennedy, a long-term collaborator with Steven Spielberg and a producer of the ''Indiana Jones'' films, had been appointed as co-chair of Lucasfilm Ltd.", "It was reported that Kennedy would work alongside Lucas, who would remain chief executive and serve as co-chairman for at least one year, after which she would succeed him as the company's sole leader.", "With the sale of Lucasfilm to Disney, Lucas is currently Disney's second-largest single shareholder, after the estate of Steve Jobs.Lucas worked as a creative consultant on the ''Star Wars'' sequel trilogy's first film, ''The Force Awakens''.", "Lucas's involvement included attending early story meetings; according to Lucas, \"I mostly say, 'You can't do this.", "You can do that.'", "You know, 'The cars don't have wheels.", "They fly with antigravity.'", "There's a million little pieces ...", "I know all that stuff.\"", "Lucas's son Jett told ''The Guardian ''that his father was \"very torn\" about having sold the rights to the franchise, despite having hand-picked Abrams to direct, and that his father was \"there to guide\" but that \"he wants to let it go and become its new generation.\"", "Among the materials turned over to the production team were rough story treatments Lucas developed when he considered creating episodes ''VII''–''IX'' himself years earlier; in January 2015, Lucas stated that Disney had discarded his story ideas.Lucas with Secretary of State John Kerry in Washington, D.C., on December 5, 2015''The Force Awakens'', directed by J. J. Abrams, was released on December 18, 2015.Kathleen Kennedy produced the film and its sequels.", "The new sequel trilogy was jointly produced by Lucasfilm and The Walt Disney Company, which had acquired Lucasfilm in 2012.During an interview with talk show host and journalist Charlie Rose that aired on December 24, 2015, Lucas likened his decision to sell Lucasfilm to Disney to a divorce and outlined the creative differences between him and the producers of ''The Force Awakens''.", "Lucas went on to say that he needed to support the company and its employees who were going to suffer financially.", "Lucas described the previous six ''Star Wars'' films as his \"children\" and defended his vision for them, while criticizing ''The Force Awakens'' for having a \"retro feel\", saying, \"I worked very hard to make them completely different, with different planets, with different spaceships – you know, to make it new.\"", "Lucas also drew some criticism and subsequently apologized for his remark likening Disney to \"white slavers\".In 2015, Lucas wrote the CGI film ''Strange Magic'', his first musical.", "The film was produced at Skywalker Ranch.", "Gary Rydstrom directed the movie.", "At the same time the sequel trilogy was announced, a fifth installment of the ''Indiana Jones'' series also entered pre-development phase with Harrison Ford and Steven Spielberg set to return.", "Lucas originally did not specify whether the selling of Lucasfilm would affect his involvement with the film.", "In October 2016, Lucas announced his decision to not be involved in the story of the film but would remain an executive producer.", "In 2016, ''Rogue One: A Star Wars Story'', the first film of a ''Star Wars'' anthology series was released.", "It told the story of the rebels who stole the plans for the Death Star featured in the original ''Star Wars'' film, and it was reported that Lucas liked it more than ''The Force Awakens''.", "''The Last Jedi'', the second film in the sequel trilogy, was released in 2017; Lucas described the film as \"beautifully made\".Lucas has had cursory involvement with ''Solo: A Star Wars Story'' (2018), the ''Star Wars'' streaming series ''The Mandalorian'', and the premiere of the eighth season of ''Game of Thrones''.", "Lucas met with J. J. Abrams before the latter began writing the script to the sequel trilogy's final film, ''The Rise of Skywalker'', which was released in 2019." ], [ "Other ventures", "===Lucasfilm===rightLucas founded a film production company Lucasfilm in 1971, and incorporated as Lucasfilm Ltd. on September 12, 1977.In the mid-1970s, the company's offices were located on the Universal Studios Lot.", "Lucas founded the '''Star Wars Corporation, Inc.''' as a subsidiary to control various legal and financial aspects of ''Star Wars'' (1977), including copyright, and sequel and merchandising rights.", "It also produced the 1978 ''Star Wars Holiday Special'' for 20th Century Fox Television.", "That year, Lucas hired Los Angeles-based real-estate specialist Charles Weber to manage the company, telling him that he could keep the job as long as he made money.", "Lucas wanted the focus of the company to be making independent films, but the company gradually became enlarged from five employees to almost 100, increasing in middle management and running up costs.", "In 1980, after Weber asked Lucas for fifty million dollars to invest in other companies and suggested that they sell Skywalker Ranch to do so, Lucas fired Weber and had to let half of the Los Angeles staff go.", "By the same year, the corporate subsidiary had been discontinued and its business was absorbed into the various divisions of Lucasfilm.===ILM===Lucas founded Industrial Light & Magic in 1975, he wanted his 1977 film ''Star Wars'' to include visual effects that had never been seen on film before.", "After discovering that the in-house effects department at 20th Century Fox was no longer operational, Lucas approached Douglas Trumbull, best known for the effects on ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' (1968) and ''Silent Running'' (1972).", "Trumbull declined as he was already committed to working on Steven Spielberg's film ''Close Encounters of the Third Kind'' (1977), but suggested his assistant John Dykstra to Lucas.", "Dykstra brought together a small team of college students, artists, and engineers and set them up in a warehouse in Van Nuys, California.", "After seeing the map for the location was zoned as light industrial, Lucas named the group Industrial Light and Magic, which became the Special Visual Effects department on ''Star Wars''.", "Alongside Dykstra, other leading members of the original ILM team were Ken Ralston, Richard Edlund, Dennis Muren, Robert Blalack, Joe Johnston, Phil Tippett, Steve Gawley, Lorne Peterson, and Paul Huston.===Lucas Museum of Narrative Art===By June 2013, Lucas was considering establishing a museum, the Lucas Cultural Arts Museum, to be built on Crissy Field near the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, which would display his collection of illustrations and pop art, with an estimated value of more than $1 billion.", "Lucas offered to pay the estimated $300 million cost of constructing the museum, and would endow it with $400 million when it opened, eventually adding an additional $400 million to its endowment.", "After being unable to reach an agreement with The Presidio Trust, Lucas turned to Chicago.", "A potential lakefront site on Museum Campus in Chicago was proposed in May 2014.By June 2014, Chicago had been selected, pending approval of the Chicago Plan Commission, which was granted.", "The museum project was renamed the Lucas Museum of Narrative Art.", "On June 24, 2016, Lucas announced that he was abandoning his plans to locate the museum in Chicago, due to a lawsuit by a local preservation group, Friends of the Parks, and would instead build the museum in California.", "On January 17, 2017, Lucas announced that an 11-acre campus with green space and the museum's five-story 300,000 square foot building will be constructed over what was a parking lot in Exposition Park, Los Angeles, California.", "It is due to be completed in 2025." ], [ "Collaboration", "=== John Williams ===Lucas was also heavily involved and invested in the scoring process for the original ''Star Wars'' soundtrack, which was composed by John Williams, on the recommendation of his friend and colleague Steven Spielberg.", "Whilst initially wanting to use tracks and film music in a similar manner to ''2001: A Space Odyssey'', which served as the inspiration for the film, Williams advised against this and instead proposed a system of recurring themes (or leitmotifs) to enhance the story in the style of classical composers Gustav Holst, William Walton, and Igor Stravinsky; works that Lucas had used as \"temp tracks\" for Williams to gain inspiration from.", "The film, and subsequent sequels and prequels, make use of the Main Title Theme, the Force Theme (less commonly referred to as Obi Wan Kenobi's Theme), the Rebel Alliance Theme, and Princess Leia's Theme (all introduced in this film) repeatedly.", "Subsequent films also added to the catalog of themes for different characters, factions, and locations.The score was released to critical acclaim and won Williams his third Academy Award for Best Original Score.", "The score was listed by the American Film Institute in 2005 as the greatest film score of all time.", "The professional relationship formed by Lucas and Williams extended through to Williams working on all of Lucas's blockbuster franchise movies: the remaining two films of the Star Wars original trilogy; all three films of prequel trilogy developed over fifteen years later; and the five films of the Indiana Jones franchise, in which Williams reunited with his long-time collaborator Spielberg.", "In his collaborations with Lucas, Williams received six of his fifty-two Academy Award nominations (''Star Wars, The Empire Strikes Back, Return of the Jedi, Raiders of the Lost Ark, Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom,'' and ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'').", "After Lucas sold Lucasfilm to Disney, Williams stayed on board with the franchise, and continued to score the remaining three films of the \"Skywalker Saga\" (''The Force Awakens, The Last Jedi'', and ''The Rise of Skywalker,'' for which he received a further three Oscar nominations), after which he announced his \"retirement\" from the series.Lucas was in attendance for a ceremony honoring Williams as the 44th recipient of the AFI Life Achievement Award, the first composer to receive the honor, and gave a speech in praise of their relationship and his work.", "In interviews, and most famously at the 40th Anniversary Star Wars Celebration convention, Lucas has repeatedly reaffirmed the importance of Williams to the Star Wars saga, affectionately referring to him as the \"secret sauce\" of his movies." ], [ "Philanthropy", "Lucas is the wealthiest film celebrity in the world.", "His personal net worth is estimated to be between $7.5–9.4 billion.", "Lucas has pledged to give half of his fortune to charity as part of an effort called The Giving Pledge led by Bill Gates and Warren Buffett to persuade America's richest individuals to donate their financial wealth to charities.===George Lucas Educational Foundation===In 1991, The George Lucas Educational Foundation was founded as a nonprofit operating foundation to celebrate and encourage innovation in schools.", "The foundation's content is available under the brand Edutopia, in an award-winning web site, social media and via documentary films.", "Lucas, through his foundation, was one of the leading proponents of the E-rate program in the universal service fund, which was enacted as part of the Telecommunications Act of 1996.On June 24, 2008, Lucas testified before the United States House of Representatives subcommittee on Telecommunications and the Internet as the head of his Foundation to advocate for a free wireless broadband educational network.===Proceeds from the sale of Lucasfilm to Disney===In 2012, Lucas sold Lucasfilm to The Walt Disney Company for a reported sum of $4.05 billion.", "It was widely reported at the time that Lucas intended to give the majority of the proceeds from the sale to charity.", "A spokesperson for Lucasfilm said, \"George Lucas has expressed his intention, in the event the deal closes, to donate the majority of the proceeds to his philanthropic endeavors.\"", "Lucas also spoke on the matter: \"For 41 years, the majority of my time and money has been put into the company.", "As I start a new chapter in my life, it is gratifying that I have the opportunity to devote more time and resources to philanthropy.", "\"===Other initiatives===In 2005, Lucas gave $1 million to help build the Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., to commemorate American civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr.On September 19, 2006, the University of Southern California announced that Lucas had donated $175–180 million to his alma mater to expand the film school.", "It is the largest single donation to USC and the largest gift to a film school anywhere.", "Previous donations led to the already-existing George Lucas Instructional Building and Marcia Lucas Post-Production building.In 2013, Lucas and his wife Mellody Hobson donated $25 million to the Chicago-based not-for-profit After School Matters, of which Hobson is the chair.On April 15, 2016, it was reported that Lucas had donated between $501,000 and $1 million through the Lucas Family Foundation (now the Hobson/Lucas Family Foundation) to the Obama Foundation, which is charged with overseeing the construction of the Barack Obama Presidential Center on Chicago's South Side.in 2021, Lucas and his wife Mellody Hobson through the Hobson/Lucas Family Foundation made a donation to NYU to establish the Martin Scorsese Institute of Global Cinematic Arts." ], [ "Personal life", "Lucas at the ''Time'' 100 2006 galaIn 1969, Lucas married film editor Marcia Lou Griffin, who went on to win an Academy Award for her editing work on the original ''Star Wars'' film.", "They adopted a daughter, Amanda Lucas, in 1981, and divorced in 1983.Lucas subsequently adopted two more children as a single parent: daughter Katie Lucas, born in 1988, and son Jett Lucas, born in 1993.His three eldest children all appeared in the three ''Star Wars'' prequels, as did Lucas himself.", "Following his divorce, Lucas was in a relationship with singer Linda Ronstadt in the 1980s.Lucas began dating Mellody Hobson, president of Ariel Investments and chair of DreamWorks Animation, in 2006, after meeting in 2005.Lucas and Hobson announced their engagement in January 2013, and married on June 22, 2013, at Lucas's Skywalker Ranch in Marin County, California.", "They have one daughter together, born via surrogate in August 2013.Lucas was born and raised in a Methodist family.", "The religious and mythical themes in ''Star Wars'' were inspired by Lucas's interest in the writings of mythologist Joseph Campbell, and he would eventually come to identify strongly with the Eastern religious philosophies he studied and incorporated into his films, which were a major inspiration for \"the Force\".", "Lucas has come to state that his religion is \"Buddhist Methodist\".", "He resides in Marin County.Lucas is a major collector of the American illustrator and painter Norman Rockwell.", "A collection of 57 Rockwell paintings and drawings owned by Lucas and fellow Rockwell collector and film director Steven Spielberg were displayed at the Smithsonian American Art Museum from July 2, 2010, to January 2, 2011, in an exhibition titled ''Telling Stories''.Lucas has said that he is a fan of Seth MacFarlane's hit TV show ''Family Guy''.", "MacFarlane has said that Lucasfilm was extremely helpful when the ''Family Guy'' crew wanted to parody their works.Lucas supported Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton in the run-up for the 2016 U.S. presidential election." ], [ "Filmography", "+Directed features Year Title Distribution 1971 ''THX 1138'' Warner Bros. 1973 ''American Graffiti'' Universal Pictures 1977 ''Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope'' 20th Century Fox 1999 ''Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace'' 2002 ''Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones'' 2005 ''Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith''" ], [ "Awards and honors", " In 1977, Lucas was awarded the Inkpot Award.The American Film Institute awarded Lucas its Life Achievement Award on June 9, 2005.This was shortly after the release of ''Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith'', about which he joked stating that, since he views the entire ''Star Wars'' series as one film, he could actually receive the award now that he had finally \"gone back and finished the movie.", "\"Lucas was nominated for four Academy Awards: Best Directing and Writing for ''American Graffiti'' and ''Star Wars''.", "He received the academy's Irving G. Thalberg Award in 1991.He appeared at the 79th Academy Awards ceremony in 2007 with Steven Spielberg and Francis Ford Coppola to present the Best Director award to their friend Martin Scorsese.", "During the speech, Spielberg and Coppola talked about the joy of winning an Oscar, making fun of Lucas, who has not won a competitive Oscar.The Science Fiction Hall of Fame inducted Lucas in 2006, its second \"Film, Television, and Media\" contributor, after Spielberg.", "The Discovery Channel named him one of the 100 \"Greatest Americans\" in September 2008.Lucas served as Grand Marshal for the Tournament of Roses Parade and made the ceremonial coin toss at the Rose Bowl, New Year's Day 2007.In 2009, he was one of 13 California Hall of Fame inductees in The California Museum's yearlong exhibit.In July 2013, Lucas was awarded the National Medal of Arts by President Barack Obama for his contributions to American cinema.", "In October 2014, Lucas received Honorary Membership of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers.In August 2015, Lucas was inducted as a Disney Legend, and on December 6, 2015, he was an honoree at the Kennedy Center Honors.", "In 2021, coinciding with Lucasfilm's 50th anniversary, an action figure of Lucas in stormtrooper disguise was released as part of Hasbro's ''Star Wars'': The Black Series." ], [ "Bibliography", "* 1980: Alan Arnold: ''A Journal of the Making of \"The Empire Strikes Back.\"''", ".", "(contributor)* 1983: Dale Pollock: ''Skywalking: The Life and Films of George Lucas.''", ".", "(contributor)* 1995: George Lucas, Chris Claremont: ''Shadow Moon.''", ".", "(story)* 1996: Chris Claremont: ''Shadow Dawn.''", ".", "(story)* 1997: Laurent Bouzereau: ''Star Wars.", "The Annotated Screenplays.''", "(contributor) .", "* 2000: Terry Brooks: Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (novelization, contributor), Del Rey Books, * 2000: Chris Claremont: ''Shadow Star.''", ".", "(story)* 2003: R. A. Salvatore: Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones (novelization, contributor), Del Rey, * 2004: Matthew Stover: ''Shatterpoint.''", "(novel, prolog), Del Rey, .", "* 2005: James Luceno: ''Labyrinth of Evil'' (novel, contributor), Del Rey, * 2005: Matthew Stover: ''Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith.", "'', Del Rey, .", "(novelization, contributor & line editor) * 2007: J. W. Rinzler: ''The Making of \"Star Wars\".", "The Definitive Story Behind the Original Film.''", ".", "(contributor)* 2012: James Luceno: ''Star Wars: Darth Plagueis''.", "novel (contributor), Del Rey, .", "* 2020: Paul Duncan: ''The Star Wars Archives.", "1999–2005'' (contributor), Taschen," ], [ "See also", "*''The Making of Star Wars''" ], [ "References", "'''Footnotes''''''Citations'''===Sources===* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * George Lucas biography at Lucasfilm.com* George Lucas at World of Business Ideas* George Lucas at Encyclopaedia Britannica* '' George Lucas'', on ''Open Library'', Internet Archive* '' George Lucas'', on ''Goodreads''* '' George Lucas'', on ''MusicBrainz'', MetaBrainz Foundation* '' George Lucas'', on ''MyAnimeList''* ''George Lucas'', on ''Rotten Tomatoes'', Flixster Inc." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gothenburg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gothenburg''' (; abbreviated '''Gbg'''; ) is the capital of Västra Götaland County in Sweden.", "It is the second-largest city in Sweden, after the capital Stockholm, and the fifth-largest in the Nordic countries.", "It is situated by the Kattegat on the west coast of Sweden, with a population of approximately 600,000 in the city proper and about 1.1 million inhabitants in the metropolitan area.", "The city's population increased by 9,292 during 2022.King Gustavus Adolphus founded Gothenburg by royal charter in 1621 as a heavily fortified, primarily Dutch, trading colony.", "In addition to the generous privileges given to his Dutch allies during the ongoing Thirty Years' War, e.g.", "tax relaxation, he also attracted significant numbers of his German and Scottish allies to populate his only town on the western coast; this trading status was furthered by the founding of the Swedish East India Company.", "At a key strategic location at the mouth of the , where Scandinavia's largest drainage basin enters the sea, the Port of Gothenburg is now the largest port in the Nordic countries.", "The presence of the University of Gothenburg and Chalmers University of Technology has led Gothenburg to become home to many students.", "Volvo was founded in Gothenburg in 1927, with both the original Volvo Group and the separate Volvo Car Corporation still headquartered on the island of Hisingen in the city.", "Other key companies in the area are AstraZeneca, Ericsson, and SKF.Gothenburg is served by Göteborg Landvetter Airport southeast of the city centre.", "The smaller Göteborg City Airport, from the city centre, was closed to regular airline traffic in 2015.The city hosts the Gothia Cup, the world's largest youth football tournament, and the Göteborg Basketball Festival, Europe's largest youth basketball tournament, alongside some of the largest annual events in Scandinavia.", "The Gothenburg Film Festival, held in January since 1979, is the leading Scandinavian film festival and attracts over 155,000 visitors each year.", "In summer, a wide variety of music festivals are held in the city, including the popular Way Out West Festival." ], [ "Name", "The city was named Göteborg in the city's charter in 1621 and simultaneously given the German and English name Gothenburg.", "The Swedish name was given after the ''Göta älv'', called Göta River in English, and other cities ending in ''-borg''.Both the Swedish and German/English names were in use before 1621 and had already been used for the previous city founded in 1604 that burned down in 1611.Gothenburg is one of few Swedish cities to still have an official and widely used exonym.The city council of 1641 consisted of four Swedish, three Dutch, three German, and two Scottish members.", "In Dutch, Scots, English, and German, all languages with a long history in this trade and maritime-oriented city, the name Gothenburg is or was (in the case of German) used for the city.", "Variations of the official German/English name Gothenburg in the city's 1621 charter existed or exist in many languages.", "The French form of the city name is ''Gothembourg'', but in French texts, the Swedish name ''Göteborg'' is more frequent.", "In addition, the traditional forms (\"Gothenburg\" in English, or ''Gotemburgo'' in Spanish and Portuguese) are sometimes replaced with the use of the Swedish ''Göteborg'', for example by The Göteborg Opera and the Göteborg Ballet.", "However, ''Göteborgs universitet'', previously designated as the Göteborg University in English, changed its name to the University of Gothenburg in 2008.The Gothenburg municipality has also reverted to the use of the English name in international contexts.In 2009, the city council launched a new logotype for Gothenburg.", "Since the name \"Göteborg\" contains the Swedish letter \"ö\", they planned to make the name more \"international\" and \"up to date\" by turning the \"ö\" sideways.", ", the name is spelled \"Go:teborg\" on a large number of signs in the city." ], [ "History", "In the early modern period, the configuration of Sweden's borders made Gothenburg strategically critical as the only Swedish gateway to Skagerrak, the North Sea and Atlantic, situated on the west coast in a very narrow strip of Swedish territory between Danish Halland in the south and Norwegian Bohuslän in the north.", "After several failed attempts, Gothenburg was successfully founded in 1621 by King Gustavus Adolphus (Gustaf II Adolf).View from Älvsborg BridgeThe site of the first church built in Gothenburg, subsequently destroyed by Danish invaders, is marked by a stone near the north end of the Älvsborg Bridge in the Färjenäs Park.", "The church was built in 1603 and destroyed in 1611.The city was heavily influenced by the Dutch, Germans, and Scots, and Dutch planners and engineers were contracted to construct the city as they had the skills needed to drain and build in the marshy areas chosen for the city.", "The town was designed like Dutch cities such as Amsterdam, Batavia (Jakarta) and New Amsterdam (Manhattan).", "The planning of the streets and canals of Gothenburg closely resembled that of Jakarta, which was built by the Dutch around the same time.", "The Dutchmen initially won political power, and it was not until 1652, when the last Dutch politician in the city's council died, that Swedes acquired political power over Gothenburg.", "During the Dutch period, the town followed Dutch town laws and Dutch was proposed as the official language in the town.", "Robust city walls were built during the 17th century.", "In 1807, a decision was made to tear down most of the city's wall.", "The work started in 1810 and was carried out by 150 soldiers from the Bohus regiment.Along with the Dutch, the town also was heavily influenced by Scots who settled down in Gothenburg.", "Many became people of high-profile.", "William Chalmers, the son of a Scottish immigrant, donated his fortunes to set up what later became the Chalmers University of Technology.", "In 1841, the Scotsman Alexander Keiller founded the Götaverken shipbuilding company that was in business until 1989.His son James Keiller donated Keiller Park to the city in 1906.The Gothenburg coat of arms was based on the lion of the coat of arms of Sweden, symbolically holding a shield with the national emblem, the Three Crowns, to defend the city against its enemies.In the Treaty of Roskilde (1658), Denmark–Norway ceded the Danish province of Halland, in the south, and the Norwegian province of Bohus County or ''Bohuslän'' in the north, which left Gothenburg less exposed.", "Gothenburg grew into a significant port and trade centre on the west coast, because it was the only city on the west coast that, along with Marstrand, was granted the rights to trade with merchants from other countries.In the 18th century, fishing was the most important industry.", "However, in 1731, the Swedish East India Company was founded, and the city flourished due to its foreign trade with highly profitable commercial expeditions to China.The harbour developed into Sweden's main harbour for trade towards the west, and when Swedish emigration to the United States increased, Gothenburg became Sweden's main point of departure for these travellers.", "The impact of Gothenburg as a main port of embarkation for Swedish emigrants is reflected by Gothenburg, Nebraska, a small Swedish settlement in the United States.With the 19th century, Gothenburg evolved into a modern industrial city that continued on into the 20th century.", "The population increased tenfold in the century, from 13,000 (1800) to 130,000 (1900).", "In the 20th century, major companies that developed included SKF (1907) and Volvo (1927)." ], [ "Geography", "leftGothenburg is located on the west coast, in southwestern Sweden, about halfway between the capital cities of Copenhagen (Denmark) and Oslo (Norway).", "The location at the mouth of the Göta älv, which feeds into the Kattegat, an arm of the North Sea, has helped the city grow in significance as a trading city.", "The archipelago of Gothenburg consists of rough, barren rocks and cliffs, which also is typical for the coast of Bohuslän.", "Due to the Gulf Stream, the city has a mild climate and moderately heavy precipitation.", "It is the second-largest city in Sweden after its capital Stockholm.The Gothenburg Metropolitan Area (''Stor-Göteborg'') has 982,360 inhabitants and extends to the municipalities of Ale, Alingsås, Göteborg, Härryda, Kungälv, Lerum, Lilla Edet, Mölndal, Partille, Stenungsund, Tjörn, Öckerö within Västra Götaland County, and Kungsbacka within Halland County.Angered, a suburb outside Gothenburg, consists of Hjällbo, Eriksbo, Rannebergen, Hammarkullen, Gårdsten, and Lövgärdet.", "It is a Million Programme part of Gothenburg, like Rosengård in Malmö and Botkyrka in Stockholm.", "Angered had about 50,000 inhabitants in 2015.?", "It lies north of Gothenburg and is isolated from the rest of the city.", "Bergsjön is another Million Programme suburb north of Gothenburg, it has 14,000 inhabitants.", "Biskopsgården is the biggest multicultural suburb on the island of Hisingen, which is a part of Gothenburg but separated from the city by the river.=== Climate ===Gothenburg has an oceanic climate (''Cfb'' according to the Köppen climate classification).", "Despite its northerly latitude, temperatures are quite mild throughout the year and warmer than places at a similar latitude such as Stockholm; this is mainly because of the moderating influence of the Gulf Stream.", "During the summer, daylight extends 18 hours and 5 minutes, but lasts 6 hours and 32 minutes in late December.", "The climate has become significantly milder in later decades, particularly in summer and winter; July temperatures used to be below Stockholm's 1961–1990 averages, but have since been warmer than that benchmark.Summers are warm and pleasant with average high temperatures of and lows of , but temperatures of occur on many days during the summer.", "Winters are cold and windy with temperatures of around , though it rarely drops below .", "Precipitation is regular but generally moderate throughout the year.", "Snow mainly occurs from December to March, but is not unusual in November and April and can sometimes occur even in October and May.Climate data for GothenburgMonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYearAverage sea temperature °C (°F)4.03.02.76.811.215.518.018.516.512.49.26.110.3Mean daily daylight hours7.010.012.014.017.018.017.015.013.010.09.07.012.4Average Ultraviolet index0124566542103Source: Weather Atlas" ], [ "Parks and nature", "The Gothenburg Botanical GardenGothenburg has several parks and nature reserves ranging in size from tens of square meters to hundreds of hectares.", "It also has many green areas that are not designated as parks or reserves.Selection of parks:*''Kungsparken'', , built between 1839 and 1861, surrounds the canal that circles the city centre.", "*Garden Society of Gothenburg, a park and horticultural garden, is located next to Kungsportsavenyen.", "Founded in 1842 by the Swedish king Carl XIV Johan and on initiative of the amateur botanist Henric Elof von Normann, the park has a noted rose garden with some 4,000 roses of 1,900 cultivars.", "*Slottsskogen, , was created in 1874 by August Kobb.", "It has a free \"open\" zoo that includes harbor seals, penguins, horses, pigs, deer, moose, goats, and many birds.", "The Natural History Museum (''Naturhistoriska Museet'') and the city's oldest observatory are located in the park.", "The annual Way Out West festival is held in the park.", "*''Änggårdsbergens naturreservat'', , was bought in 1840 by pharmacist Arvid Gren, and donated in 1963 to the city by Sven and Carl Gren Broberg, who stated the area must remain a nature and bird reserve.", "It lies partly in Mölndal.", "*''Delsjöområdets naturreservat'', about , has been in use since the 17th century as a farming area; significant forest management was carried out in the late 19th century.", "Skatås gym and motionscentrum is situated here.", "*Rya Skogs Naturreservat, , became a protected area in 1928.It contains remnants of a defensive wall built in the mid- to late-17th century.", "*''Keillers park'' was donated by James Keiller in 1906.He was the son of Scottish Alexander Keiller, who founded the Götaverken shipbuilding company.", "*''S A Hedlunds park'': Sven Adolf Hedlund, newspaper publisher and politician, bought the Bjurslätt farm in 1857, and in 1928 it was given to the city.", "*''Hisingsparken'' is Gothenburg's largest park.", "*''Flunsåsparken'', built in 1950, has many free activities during the summer such as concerts and theatre.", "*Gothenburg Botanical Garden, , opened in 1923.It won an award in 2003, and in 2006 was third in \"The most beautiful garden in Europe\" competition.", "It has around 16,000 species of plants and trees.", "The greenhouses contain around 4,500 species including 1,600 orchids.", "It is considered to be one of the most important botanical gardens in Europe with three stars in the French ''Guide Rouge''." ], [ "Architecture", "The German Church in central Gothenburg.Very few buildings are left from the 17th century when the city was founded, since all but the military and royal houses were built of wood.", "Some structures which do survive from this early phase in the city's history are Kronhuset and the Torstenson Palace, and the fortresses Skansen Kronan and Skansen Lejonet.The first major architecturally interesting period is the 18th century when the East India Company made Gothenburg an important trade city.", "Imposing stone houses in Neo-Classical style were erected around the canals.", "One example from this period is the East India House, which today houses the Göteborg City Museum.In the 19th century, the wealthy bourgeoisie began to move outside the city walls which had protected the city.", "The style now was an eclectic, academic, somewhat overdecorated style which the middle-class favoured.", "The working class lived in the overcrowded city district Haga in wooden houses.In the 19th century, the first comprehensive town plan after the founding of city was created, which led to the construction of the main street, Kungsportsavenyen.", "Perhaps the most significant type of houses of the city, Landshövdingehusen, were built in the end of the 19th century – three-storey houses with the first floor in stone and the other two in wood.The early 20th century, characterized by the National Romantic style, was rich in architectural achievements.", "Masthugg Church is a noted example of the style of this period.", "In the early 1920s, on the city's 300th anniversary, the Götaplatsen square with its Neoclassical look was built.After this, the predominant style in Gothenburg and rest of Sweden was Functionalism which especially dominated the suburbs such as Västra Frölunda and Bergsjön.", "The Swedish functionalist architect Uno Åhrén served as city planner from 1932 through 1943.In the 1950s, the big stadium Ullevi was built when Sweden hosted the 1958 FIFA World Cup.The modern architecture of the city has been formed by such architects as Gert Wingårdh, who started as a Post-modernist in the 1980s.Gustaf Adolf Square is a town square located in central Gothenburg.", "Noted buildings on the square include Gothenburg City Hall (formerly the stock exchange, opened in 1849) and the Nordic Classicism law court.", "The main canal of Gothenburg also flanks the square.=== Characteristic buildings ===SkanskaskrapanThe Gothenburg Central Station is in the centre of the city, next to Nordstan and Drottningtorget.", "The building has been renovated and expanded numerous times since the grand opening in October 1858.In 2003, a major reconstruction was finished which brought the 19th-century building into the 21st century expanding the capacity for trains, travellers, and shopping.", "Not far from the central station is the Skanskaskrapan, or more commonly known as \"The Lipstick\".", "It is high with 22 floors and coloured in red-white stripes.", "The skyscraper was designed by Ralph Erskine and built by Skanska in the late 1980s as the headquarters for the company.By the shore of the Göta Älv at Lilla Bommen is The Göteborg Opera.", "It was completed in 1994.The architect Jan Izikowitz was inspired by the landscape and described his vision as \"Something that makes your mind float over the squiggling landscape like the wings of a seagull.", "\"Feskekörka fishmarketFeskekörka, or ''Fiskhallen'', is an indoor fishmarket by the Rosenlundskanalen in central Gothenburg.", "Feskekörkan was opened on 1November 1874 and its name from the building's resemblance to a Gothic church.", "The Gothenburg city hall is in the Beaux-Arts architectural style.", "The Gothenburg Synagogue at Stora Nygatan, near Drottningtorget, was built in 1855 according to the designs of the German architect August Krüger.The Gunnebo House is a country house located to the south of Gothenburg, in Mölndal.", "It was built in a neoclassical architecture towards the end of the 18th century.", "Created in the early 1900s was the Vasa Church.", "It is located in Vasastan and is built of granite in a neo-Romanesque style.Another noted construction is Brudaremossen TV Tower, one of the few partially guyed towers in the world." ], [ "Culture", "The Poseidon Statue at Götaplatsen, a well-known cultural symbol and landmarkThe sea, trade, and industrial history of the city are evident in the cultural life of Gothenburg.", "It is also a popular destination for tourists on the Swedish west coast.=== Museums ===Many of the cultural institutions, as well as hospitals and the university, were created by donations from rich merchants and industrialists, for example the Röhsska Museum.", "On 29December 2004, the Museum of World Culture opened near Korsvägen.", "Museums include the Göteborgs Konsthall, Gothenburg Museum of Art, and several museums of sea and navigation history, natural history, the sciences, and East India.", "Aeroseum, close to the Göteborg City Airport, is an aircraft museum in a former military underground air force base.", "The Volvo museum has exhibits of the history of Volvo and the development from 1927 until today.", "Products shown include cars, trucks, marine engines, and buses.Universeum is a public science centre that opened in 2001, the largest of its kind in Scandinavia.", "It is divided into six sections, each containing experimental workshops and a collection of reptiles, fish, and insects.", "Universeum occasionally host debates between Swedish secondary-school students and Nobel Prize laureates or other scholars.=== Leisure and entertainment ===Liseberg amusement parkThe most noted attraction is the amusement park Liseberg, located in the central part of the city.", "It is the largest amusement park in Scandinavia by number of rides, and was chosen as one of the top ten amusement parks in the world (2005) by ''Forbes''.", "It is the most popular attraction in Sweden by number of visitors per year (more than 3 million).There are a number of independent theatre ensembles in the city, besides institutions such as Gothenburg City Theatre, Backa Theatre (youth theatre), and Folkteatern.The main boulevard is called Kungsportsavenyn (commonly known as ''Avenyn'', \"The Avenue\").", "It is about long and starts at Götaplatsen – which is the location of the Gothenburg Museum of Art, the city's theatre, and the city library, as well as the concert hall – and stretches all the way to Kungsportsplatsen in the old city centre of Gothenburg, crossing a canal and a small park.", "The ''Avenyn'' was created in the 1860s and 1870s as a result of an international architecture contest, and is the product of a period of extensive town planning and remodelling.", "''Avenyn'' has Gothenburg's highest concentration of pubs and clubs.", "Gothenburg's largest shopping centre (8th largest in Sweden), Nordstan, is located in central Gothenburg.The Haga districtGothenburg's Haga district is known for its picturesque wooden houses and its cafés serving the well-known ''Haga bulle'' – a large cinnamon roll similar to the ''kanelbulle''.Five Gothenburg restaurants have a star in the 2008 ''Michelin Guide'': 28 +, Basement, Fond, Kock & Vin, Fiskekrogen, and Sjömagasinet.The city has a number of star chefs – over the past decade, seven of the Swedish Chef of the Year awards have been won by people from Gothenburg.The Gustavus Adolphus pastry, eaten every 6November in Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus Day, is especially connected to, and appreciated in, Gothenburg because the city was founded by King Gustavus Adolphus.One of Gothenburg's most popular natural tourist attractions is the southern Gothenburg archipelago, which is a set of several islands that can be reached by ferry boats mainly operating from Saltholmen.", "Within the archipelago are the Älvsborg fortress, Vinga and Styrsö islands.=== Festivals and fairs ===''Discussion'' by Nanna Ullman (1957) in front of the Swedish Exhibition and Congress CentreThe annual Gothenburg Film Festival, is the largest film festival in Scandinavia.", "The Gothenburg Book Fair, held each year in September.", "It is the largest literary festival in Scandinavia, and the second largest book fair in Europe.", "A radical bookfair is held at the same time at the Syndikalistiskt Forum.The International Science Festival in Gothenburg is an annual festival since April 1997, in central Gothenburg with thought-provoking science activities for the public.", "The festival is visited by about people each year.", "This makes it the largest popular-science event in Sweden and one of the leading popular-science events in Europe.Citing the financial crisis, the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions moved the 2010 World Library and Information Congress, previously to be held in Brisbane, Australia, to Gothenburg.", "The event took place on 10–15August 2010.=== Music ===Entrance to the Way Out West FestivalGothenburg has a diverse music community—the Gothenburg Symphony Orchestra is the best-known in classical music.", "Gothenburg also was the birthplace of the Swedish composer Kurt Atterberg.", "The first internationally successfully Swedish group, instrumental rock group The Spotnicks came from Gothenburg.Bands such as The Soundtrack of Our Lives and Ace of Base are well-known pop representatives of the city.", "During the 1970s, Gothenburg had strong roots in the Swedish progressive movement (progg) with such groups as Nationalteatern, Nynningen, and Motvind.", "The record company Nacksving and the editorial office for the magazine Musikens Makt which also were part of the progg movement were located in Gothenburg during this time as well.There is also an active indie scene in Gothenburg.", "For example, the musician Jens Lekman was born in the suburb of Angered and named his 2007 release ''Night Falls Over Kortedala'' after another suburb, Kortedala.", "Other internationally acclaimed indie artists include the electro pop duos Studio, The Knife, Air France, The Tough Alliance, indie rock band Love is All, songwriter José González, and pop singer El Perro del Mar, as well as genre-bending quartet Little Dragon fronted by vocalist Yukimi Nagano.", "Another son of the city is one of Sweden's most popular singers, Håkan Hellström, who often includes many places from the city in his songs.", "The glam rock group Supergroupies derives from Gothenburg.Gothenburg's own commercially successful At the Gates, In Flames, and Dark Tranquillity are credited with pioneering melodic death metal.", "Other well-known bands of the Gothenburg scene are thrash metal band The Haunted, progressive power metal band Evergrey, and power metal bands HammerFall and Dream Evil.Many music festivals take place in the city every year.", "The Metaltown Festival was a two-day festival featuring heavy metal music bands, held in Gothenburg.", "It used to be arranged annually since 2004, taking place at the Frihamnen venue.", "In June 2012, the festival included bands such as In Flames, Marilyn Manson, Slayer, Lamb of God, and Mastodon.", "Another popular festival, Way Out West, focuses more on rock, electronic, and hip-hop genres.=== Sports ===Fireworks at the opening ceremony of Gothia CupAs in all of Sweden, a variety of sports are followed, including football, ice hockey, basketball, handball, floorball, baseball, and figure skating.", "A varied amateur and professional sports clubs scene exists.Gothenburg is the birthplace of football in Sweden as the first football match in Sweden was played there in 1892.The city's three major football clubs, IFK Göteborg, Örgryte IS, and GAIS share a total of 34 Swedish championships between them.", "IFK has also won the UEFA Cup twice.", "Other notable clubs include BK Häcken (football), Göteborg HC (women's ice hockey), Pixbo Wallenstam IBK (floorball), multiple national handball champion Redbergslids IK, and five-time national ice hockey champion Frölunda HC, Gothenburg had a professional basketball team, Gothia Basket, until 2010 when it ceased.", "The bandy department of GAIS, GAIS Bandy, played the first season in the highest division Elitserien last season.", "The group stage match between the main rivals Sweden and Russia in the 2013 Bandy World Championship was played at Arena Heden in central Gothenburg.The city's most notable sports venues are Scandinavium, and Ullevi (multisport) and the newly built Gamla Ullevi (football).The 2003 World Allround Speed Skating Championships were held in Rudhallen, Sweden's only indoor speed-skating arena.", "It is a part of Ruddalens IP, which also has a bandy field and several football fields.The only Swedish heavyweight champion of the world in boxing, Ingemar Johansson, who took the title from Floyd Paterson in 1959, was from Gothenburg.Boats at Saltholmen in the Gothenburg archipelagoGothenburg has hosted a number of international sporting events including the 1958 FIFA World Cup, the 1983 European Cup Winners' Cup Final, an NFL preseason game on 14August 1988 between the Chicago Bears and the Minnesota Vikings, the 1992 European Football Championship, the 1993 and the 2002 World Men's Handball Championship, the 1995 World Championships in Athletics, the 1997 World Championships in Swimming (short track), the 2002 Ice Hockey World Championships, the 2004 UEFA Cup final, the 2006 European Championships in Athletics, and the 2008 World Figure Skating Championships.", "Annual events held in the city are the Gothia Cup and the Göteborgsvarvet.", "The annual Gothia Cup, is the world's largest football tournament with regards to the number of participants: in 2011, a total of 35,200 players from 1,567 teams and 72 nations participated.Gothenburg hosted the XIII FINA World Masters Championships in 2010.Diving, swimming, synchronized swimming and open-water competitions were held on 28July to 7August.", "The water polo events were played on the neighboring city of Borås.Gothenburg is also home to the Gothenburg Sharks, a professional baseball team in the Elitserien division of baseball in Sweden.With around 25,000 sailboats and yachts scattered about the city, sailing is a popular sports activity in the region, particularly because of the nearby Gothenburg archipelago.", "In June 2015, the Volvo Ocean Race, professional sailing's leading crewed offshore race, concluded in Gothenburg, as well as an event in the 2015–2016 America's Cup World Series in August 2015.The Gothenburg Amateur Diving Club (Göteborgs amatördykarklubb) has been operating since October 1938." ], [ "Economy", "SKF Wingquist self-aligning bearingDue to Gothenburg's advantageous location in the centre of Scandinavia, trade and shipping have always played a major role in the city's economic history, and they continue to do so.", "Gothenburg port has come to be the largest harbour in Scandinavia.Apart from trade, the second pillar of Gothenburg has traditionally been manufacturing and industry, which significantly contributes to the city's wealth.", "Major companies operating plants in the area include SKF, Volvo (both cars and trucks), and Ericsson.", "Volvo Cars is the largest employer in Gothenburg, not including jobs in supply companies.", "The blue-collar industries which have dominated the city for long are still important factors in the city's economy, but they are being gradually replaced by high-tech industries.Banking and finance are also important, as well as the event and tourist industry.Gothenburg is the terminus of the Valdemar-Göteborg gas pipeline, which brings natural gas from the North Sea fields to Sweden, through Denmark.Historically, Gothenburg was home base from the 18th century of the Swedish East India Company.", "From its founding until the late 1970s, the city was a world leader in shipbuilding, with such shipyards as Eriksbergs Mekaniska Verkstad, Götaverken, Arendalsvarvet, and Lindholmens varv.", "In 1875, the Lindholmsdockan drydock opened in Gothenburg.", "Gothenburg is classified as a global city by GaWC, with a ranking of Gamma.", "The city has been ranked as the 12th-most inventive city in the world by ''Forbes''." ], [ "Government", "Gothenburg became a city municipality with an elected city council when the first Swedish local government acts were implemented in 1863.The municipality has an assembly consisting of 81 members, elected every fourth year.", "Political decisions depend on citizens considering them legitimate.", "Political legitimacy can be based on various factors: legality, due process, and equality before the law, as well as the efficiency and effectiveness of public policy.", "One method used to achieve greater legitimacy for controversial policy reforms such as congestion charges is to allow citizens to decide or advise on the issue in public referendums.In December 2010 a petition for a local referendum on the congestion tax, signed by 28,000 citizens, was submitted to the City Council.", "This right to submit so-called \"people's initiatives\" was inscribed in the Local Government Act, which obliged local governments to hold a local referendum if petitioned by 5% of the citizens unless the issue was deemed to be outside their area of jurisdiction or if a majority in the City Council voted against holding such a referendum.", "A second petition for a referendum, signed by 57,000 citizens, was submitted to the local government in February 2013.This petition followed a campaign organised by a local newspaper – Göteborgs Tidningen – whose editor-in-chief argued that the paper's involvement was justified by the large public response to a series of articles on the congestion tax, as well as out of concern for the local democracy." ], [ "Demographics", "Gothenburg Municipality population pyramid in 2022'''Largest groups of foreign residents''' Foreign born Population (2021) 12,999 12,902 9,756 8,839 7,639 7,151 5,901 5,539 5,382 4,315 3,685 3,117 2,975 2,691 2,474In 2019, approximately 28% (159,342 residents) of the population of Gothenburg were foreign born and approximately 46% (265,019 residents) had at least one parent born abroad.", "In addition, approximately 12% (69,263 residents) were foreign citizens.In 2016, 45% of Gothenburg's immigrant population is from other parts of Europe, and 10% of the total population is from another Nordic country." ], [ "Education", "Gothenburg has two universities, both of which started as colleges founded by private donations in the 19th century.", "The University of Gothenburg has about 38,000 students and is one of the largest universities in Scandinavia, and one of the most versatile in Sweden.", "Chalmers University of Technology is a well-known university located in Johanneberg south of the inner city, lately also established at Lindholmen in Norra Älvstranden, Hisingen.In 2015, there were ten adult education centres in Gothenburg: ''Agnesbergs folkhögskola'', ''Arbetarrörelsens folkhögskola i Göteborg'', ''Finska folkhögskolan'', ''Folkhögskolan i Angered'', ''Göteborgs folkhögskola'', ''Kvinnofolkhögskolan'', ''Mo Gård folkhögskola'', ''S:ta Birgittas folkhögskola'', ''Västra Götalands folkhögskolor'' and ''Wendelsbergs folkhögskola''.In 2015, there were 49 high schools in Gothenburg.", "Some of the more notable schools are Hvitfeldtska gymnasiet, Göteborgs Högre Samskola, Sigrid Rudebecks gymnasium and Polhemsgymnasiet.", "Some high-schools are also connected to large Swedish corporations, such as SKF Technical high-school owned by SKF and Gothenburg's technical high-school jointly owned by Volvo, Volvo Cars and Gothenburg municipality.There are two folkhögskola that teach fine arts: Domen and Goteborg Folkhögskola." ], [ "Transport", "E6/E20 in Gothenburg, coming from Malmö.", "In the interchange (Olskroksmotet) the motorway E20 continue in east direction to Stockholm and E6 continue in north direction to Oslo.=== Public transport ===Gothenburg's tramsWith over of double track, the Gothenburg tram network covers most of the city and is the largest tram/light rail network in Scandinavia.", "Gothenburg also has a bus network.", "Boat and ferry services connect the Gothenburg archipelago to the mainland.", "The lack of a subway is due to the soft ground on which Gothenburg is situated.", "Tunneling is very expensive in such conditions.The Gothenburg commuter rail with three lines services some nearby cities and towns.Public transport on the river is operated on the Älvsnabben ferry line, operated by Styrsöbolaget on a commission from Västtrafik.=== Rail and intercity bus ===Platforms at Åkareplatsen bus station.Other major transportation hubs are ''Centralstationen'' (Gothenburg Central Station) and the Nils Ericson Terminal with trains and buses to various destinations in Sweden, as well as connections to Oslo and Copenhagen (via Malmö).=== Air ===Gothenburg is served by Göteborg Landvetter Airport , located about 20 km (12 mi) east of the city centre.", "It is named after nearby locality Landvetter.", "Flygbussarna offer frequent bus connections to and from Gothenburg with travel time 20–30 minutes.", "Swebus, Flixbus and Nettbuss also serve the airport with several daily departures to Gothenburg, Borås and other destinations along European route E4.Västtrafik, the local public transport provider in the area, offers additional connections to Landvetter.The airport is operated by Swedish national airport operator Swedavia, and with 6.8 million passengers served in 2017, it is Sweden's second-largest airport after Stockholm Arlanda.", "It serves as a base for several domestic and international airlines, e.g.", "Scandinavian Airlines, Norwegian Air Shuttle and Ryanair.", "Göteborg Landvetter, however, does not serve as a hub for any airline.", "In total, there are about 50 destinations with scheduled direct flights to and from Gothenburg, most of them European.", "An additional 40 destinations are served via charter.The second airport in the area, Göteborg City Airport , is closed.", "On 13January 2015, Swedish airport operator Swedavia announced that Göteborg City Airport will not reopen for commercial services following an extensive rebuild of the airport started in November 2014, citing that the cost of making the airport viable for commercial operations again was too high, at 250 million kronor ($31 million).", "Commercial operations will be gradually wound down.", "The airport was located northwest of the city centre.", "It was formerly known as ''Säve Flygplats.''", "It is located within the borders of Gothenburg Municipality.", "In addition to commercial airlines, the airport was also operated by a number of rescue services, including the Swedish Coast Guard, and was used for other general aviation.", "Most civil air traffic to Göteborg City Airport was via low-cost airlines such as Ryanair and Wizz Air.", "Those companies have now been relocated to Landvetter Airport.=== Sea ===HSS ''Stena Carisma'' and to the right MS ''Stena Scandinavica'' (1983).The Swedish company Stena Line operates between Gothenburg/Frederikshavn in Denmark and Gothenburg/Kiel in Germany.The \"England ferry\" (''Englandsfärjan'') to Newcastle via Kristiansand (run by the Danish company DFDS Seaways) ceased at the end of October 2006, after being a Gothenburg institution since the 19th century.", "DFDS Seaways' sister company, DFDS Tor Line, continues to run scheduled cargo ships between Gothenburg and several English ports, and these used to have limited capacity for passengers and their private vehicles.", "Also freight ships to North America and East Asia leave from the port.=== Freight ===Gothenburg is an intermodal logistics hub and Gothenburg harbour has access to Sweden and Norway via rail and trucks.", "Gothenburg harbour is the largest port in Scandinavia with a cargo turnover of 36.9 million tonnes per year in 2004." ], [ "Notable people", "Kal and Ada at LisebergTwo of the noted people from Gothenburg are fictional, but have become synonymous with \"people from Gothenburg\".", "They are a working class couple called Kal and Ada, featured in \"Gothenburg jokes\" (''göteborgsvitsar''), songs, plays and names of events.", "Each year two persons who have significantly contributed to culture in the city are given the honorary titles of \"Kal and Ada\".", "A bronze statue of the couple made by Svenrobert Lundquist, was placed outside the entrance to Liseberg in 1995.Other notable people from Gothenburg include:* Fredrik Henrik af Chapman (1721–1808), shipbuilder, scientist and officer in the Swedish navy.", "* William Chalmers (1748–1811), a Swedish merchant and freemason.", "* Carl Fredrik af Wingård (1781-1851), a Lutheran archbishop of the Church of Sweden* Bengt Erland Fogelberg (1786–1854) was a Swedish sculptor.", "* Sophie Bolander (1807–1869), an author, participated in debate on gender issues.", "* Johan Erhard Areschoug (1811–1887), botanist* Evert Taube (1890–1976), author, artist, composer and singer.", "* James Dickson (1899–1980), politician, agronomist and chamberlain.", "* Victor Hasselblad (1906–1978), inventor, photographer and industrialist* Gudrun Slettengren-Fernholm (1909–1980), ceramicist and sculptor.", "* Kent Andersson (1933–2005), actor, theatre director and playwright.", "* Jan Eliasson (born 1940), diplomat; Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations 2012-2016* Björn Ulvaeus (born 1945), singer-songwriter with ABBA* Doris Svensson (1947–2023), billed as ''Doris'', a pop singer.", "* Margareta Arvidsson (born 1947), actress, model and beauty queen; Miss Universe & Miss Sweden 1966* Håkan Hellström (born 1974), singer-songwriter, widely popular throughout Sweden * Ivar Arpi (born 1982), a columnist and debater.", "* Alicia Vikander (born 1988), Academy Award Winning actress * Joel Berghult (born 1988), musical Youtuber known as ''RoomieOfficial''* Felix Kjellberg (born 1989), YouTuber known as ''PewDiePie''; for many years the most subscribed-to individual on the platform, with over 100 million subscribers.", "* In Flames (formed 1990), heavy metal band === Sport ===* Gunnar Gren (1920–1991), footballer with 466 club caps and 57 for Sweden* Helen Alfredsson (born 1965), golfer* Henrik Stenson (born 1976), British Open Winner and professional golfer* Daniel Alfredsson (born 1972), Profession ice hockey player, Hockey Hall of Fame Member" ], [ "International rankings", "Gothenburg has performed well in international rankings, some of which are mentioned below:The Global Destination Sustainability Index has named Gothenburg the world's most sustainable destination every year since 2016.In 2019 Gothenburg was selected by the EU as one of the top 2020 European Capitals of Smart Tourism.In 2020 Business Region Göteborg received the 'European Entrepreneurial Region Award 2020' (EER Award 2020) from the EU." ], [ "International relations", "The Gothenburg Award is the city's international prize that recognises and supports work to achieve sustainable development – in the Gothenburg region and from a global perspective.", "The award, which is one million Swedish crowns, is administered and funded by a coalition of the City of Gothenburg and 12 companies.", "Past winners of the award have included Kofi Annan, Al Gore, and Michael Biddle.=== Twin towns and sister cities ===Gothenburg is twinned with:* Oslo, Norway* Aarhus, Denmark, 1946* Amasya, Turkey 2023* Chicago, United States* Turku, Finland, 1946* Tallinn, Estonia* St. Petersburg, Russia, 1962* Bergen, Norway, 1946* Kraków, Poland, 1990* Rostock, Germany, 1965* Badalona, Spain 1990* Port Elizabeth, South AfricaWith Lyon (France) there is no formal partnership, but \"a joint willingness to cooperate\".Gothenburg had signed an agreement with Shanghai in 1986 which was upgraded in 2003 to include exchanges in culture, economics, trade and sport.", "The agreement was allowed to lapse in 2020." ], [ "See also", "*Gothenburg archipelago*Gothenburg Protocol (on acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone)*Gothenburg quadricentennial jubilee*Gråå BK*Largest cities of the European Union by population within city limits*List of metropolitan areas in Europe*Metropolitan Gothenburg*Göteborgs Rapé" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Goteborg.se – Official site for city of Gothenburg * Goteborg.se/english – Official web page for short English description of the content in city of Gothenburg site* International.Goteborg.se – Official international site for city of Gothenburg** Goteborg.com – Gothenburg tourism portal* VisitSweden – VisitSweden's profile of Gothenburg* Virtual Tour Panoramas of Goteborg" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gotland County" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gotland County''' () is a county or of Sweden.", "Gotland is located in the Baltic Sea to the east of Öland, and is the largest of Sweden's islands.", "Counties are usually sub-divided into municipalities, but Gotland County consists of only one county council, which also serves as a municipality, Region Gotland.", "Gotland County is the only county in Sweden that is not governed by a municipal council.", "The municipality handles the tasks that are otherwise handled by the county council: mainly health care and public transport.", "Like other counties, Gotland has a County Administrative Board, which oversees implementation of the Swedish state government.", "Both the County Administrative Board and the municipality have their seat in the largest city, Visby, with over 22,000 inhabitants.", "Princess Leonore, the daughter of Princess Madeleine, is Duchess of Gotland." ], [ "Province", "The provinces of Sweden are no longer officially administrative units but are used in reporting population size, politics, etc.", "In that case, the province, the county and the municipality all have identical borders and cover an area of 3151 km²" ], [ "Administration", "Gotland is the only Swedish county that is not administered by a county council.", "Instead, the municipality is tasked with the responsibilities of a county, including public health care and public transport.The main aims of the County Administrative Board are to fulfil the goals set in national politics by the Riksdag and the Government, to coordinate the interests and promote the development of the county, to establish regional goals and safeguard the due process of law in the handling of each case.", "The County Administrative Board is a Government agency headed by a Governor.Mats Löfving is the regional police chief for both Stockholm and Gotland Counties." ], [ "Politics", "During a trial period the County Council provisions for Gotland has been evolved to provisions for a Regional Council, meaning that it has assumed certain tasks from the County Administrative Board.", "Similar provisions are applicable to the counties of Västra Götaland and Skåne during the trial period." ], [ "Governors" ], [ "Localities in order of size", "The five most populous localities of Gotland County in 2010: # Locality Population 1 Visby 22,593 2 Hemse 1,715 3 Slite 1,483 4 Klintehamn 1,363 5 Vibble 1,286=== Foreign background ===SCB have collected statistics on backgrounds of residents since 2002.These tables consist of all who have two foreign-born parents or are born abroad themselves.", "The chart lists election years and the last year on record alone.Location200220062010201420182019Gotland 4.8 5.2 5.8 6.4 8.8 9.2Source: SCB" ], [ "Heraldry", "Gotland County inherited its coat of arms from the province of Gotland.", "When it is shown with a royal crown it represents the County Administrative Board." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Gotland County Administrative Board* Region Gotland" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Global Positioning System" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Global Positioning System''' ('''GPS'''), originally '''Navstar GPS''', is a satellite-based radio navigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Space Force.", "It is one of the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that provide geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.", "It does not require the user to transmit any data, and operates independently of any telephonic or Internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the GPS positioning information.", "It provides critical positioning capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world.", "Although the United States government created, controls and maintains the GPS system, it is freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver." ], [ "Overview", "The GPS project was started by the U.S. Department of Defense in 1973.The first prototype spacecraft was launched in 1978 and the full constellation of 24 satellites became operational in 1993.Originally limited to use by the United States military, civilian use was allowed from the 1980s following an executive order from President Ronald Reagan after the Korean Air Lines Flight 007 disaster.", "Advances in technology and new demands on the existing system have now led to efforts to modernize the GPS and implement the next generation of GPS Block IIIA satellites and Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX) which was authorized by the U.S. Congress in 2000.From the early 1990s, GPS positional accuracy was degraded by the United States government using a technology called Selective Availability, which could selectively degrade or deny access to the system at any time, as happened to the Indian military in 1999 during the Kargil War.", "As a result, several non-US entities—including Russia, China, India, Japan, and the European Union—have developed or are developing their own global or regional satellite navigation systems.", "Selective Availability was discontinued on May 1, 2000, in accordance with a bill signed into law by President Bill Clinton.When Selective Availabilty was discontinued, GPS was accurate to about .", "GPS receivers that use the L5 band have much higher accuracy of , while those for high-end applications such as engineering and land surveying are accurate to within and can even provide sub-millimeter accuracy with long-term measurements.", "Consumer devices such as smartphones can be accurate to or better when used with assistive services like Wi-Fi positioning., 18 GPS satellites broadcast L5 signals, which are considered pre-operational prior to being broadcast by a full complement of 24 satellites in 2027." ], [ "History", "Air Force film introducing the Navstar Global Positioning System, circa 1977GPS constellation system animationThe GPS project was launched in the United States in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous navigation systems, combining ideas from several predecessors, including classified engineering design studies from the 1960s.", "The U.S. Department of Defense developed the system, which originally used 24 satellites, for use by the United States military, and became fully operational in 1995.Civilian use was allowed from the 1980s.", "Roger L. Easton of the Naval Research Laboratory, Ivan A.", "Getting of The Aerospace Corporation, and Bradford Parkinson of the Applied Physics Laboratory are credited with inventing it.", "The work of Gladys West on the creation of the mathematical geodetic Earth model is credited as instrumental in the development of computational techniques for detecting satellite positions with the precision needed for GPS.The design of GPS is based partly on similar ground-based radio-navigation systems, such as LORAN and the Decca Navigator, developed in the early 1940s.In 1955, Friedwardt Winterberg proposed a test of general relativity—detecting time slowing in a strong gravitational field using accurate atomic clocks placed in orbit inside artificial satellites.", "Special and general relativity predicted that the clocks on GPS satellites, as observed by those on Earth, run 38 microseconds faster per day than those on the Earth.", "The design of GPS corrects for this difference; because without doing so, GPS calculated positions would accumulate errors of up to .=== Predecessors === When the Soviet Union launched its first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) in 1957, two American physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, at Johns Hopkins University's Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) decided to monitor its radio transmissions.", "Within hours they realized that, because of the Doppler effect, they could pinpoint where the satellite was along its orbit.", "The Director of the APL gave them access to their UNIVAC to do the heavy calculations required.Early the next year, Frank McClure, the deputy director of the APL, asked Guier and Weiffenbach to investigate the inverse problem: pinpointing the user's location, given the satellite's.", "(At the time, the Navy was developing the submarine-launched Polaris missile, which required them to know the submarine's location.)", "This led them and APL to develop the TRANSIT system.", "In 1959, ARPA (renamed DARPA in 1972) also played a role in TRANSIT.TRANSIT was first successfully tested in 1960.It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour.In 1967, the U.S. Navy developed the Timation satellite, which proved the feasibility of placing accurate clocks in space, a technology required for GPS.In the 1970s, the ground-based OMEGA navigation system, based on phase comparison of signal transmission from pairs of stations, became the first worldwide radio navigation system.", "Limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution with greater accuracy.Although there were wide needs for accurate navigation in military and civilian sectors, almost none of those was seen as justification for the billions of dollars it would cost in research, development, deployment, and operation of a constellation of navigation satellites.", "During the Cold War arms race, the nuclear threat to the existence of the United States was the one need that did justify this cost in the view of the United States Congress.", "This deterrent effect is why GPS was funded.", "It is also the reason for the ultra-secrecy at that time.", "The nuclear triad consisted of the United States Navy's submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) along with United States Air Force (USAF) strategic bombers and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs).", "Considered vital to the nuclear deterrence posture, accurate determination of the SLBM launch position was a force multiplier.Precise navigation would enable United States ballistic missile submarines to get an accurate fix of their positions before they launched their SLBMs.", "The USAF, with two thirds of the nuclear triad, also had requirements for a more accurate and reliable navigation system.", "The U.S. Navy and U.S. Air Force were developing their own technologies in parallel to solve what was essentially the same problem.To increase the survivability of ICBMs, there was a proposal to use mobile launch platforms (comparable to the Soviet SS-24 and SS-25) and so the need to fix the launch position had similarity to the SLBM situation.In 1960, the Air Force proposed a radio-navigation system called MOSAIC (MObile System for Accurate ICBM Control) that was essentially a 3-D LORAN.", "A follow-on study, Project 57, was performed in 1963 and it was \"in this study that the GPS concept was born\".", "That same year, the concept was pursued as Project 621B, which had \"many of the attributes that you now see in GPS\" and promised increased accuracy for Air Force bombers as well as ICBMs.Updates from the Navy TRANSIT system were too slow for the high speeds of Air Force operation.", "The Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) continued making advances with their Timation (Time Navigation) satellites, first launched in 1967, second launched in 1969, with the third in 1974 carrying the first atomic clock into orbit and the fourth launched in 1977.Another important predecessor to GPS came from a different branch of the United States military.", "In 1964, the United States Army orbited its first Sequential Collation of Range (SECOR) satellite used for geodetic surveying.", "The SECOR system included three ground-based transmitters at known locations that would send signals to the satellite transponder in orbit.", "A fourth ground-based station, at an undetermined position, could then use those signals to fix its location precisely.", "The last SECOR satellite was launched in 1969.=== Development ===With these parallel developments in the 1960s, it was realized that a superior system could be developed by synthesizing the best technologies from 621B, Transit, Timation, and SECOR in a multi-service program.", "Satellite orbital position errors, induced by variations in the gravity field and radar refraction among others, had to be resolved.", "A team led by Harold L Jury of Pan Am Aerospace Division in Florida from 1970 to 1973, used real-time data assimilation and recursive estimation to do so, reducing systematic and residual errors to a manageable level to permit accurate navigation.During Labor Day weekend in 1973, a meeting of about twelve military officers at the Pentagon discussed the creation of a ''Defense Navigation Satellite System (DNSS)''.", "It was at this meeting that the real synthesis that became GPS was created.", "Later that year, the DNSS program was named ''Navstar.''", "Navstar is often erroneously considered an acronym for \"NAVigation System Using Timing and Ranging\" but was never considered as such by the GPS Joint Program Office (TRW may have once advocated for a different navigational system that used that acronym).", "With the individual satellites being associated with the name Navstar (as with the predecessors Transit and Timation), a more fully encompassing name was used to identify the constellation of Navstar satellites, ''Navstar-GPS''.", "Ten \"Block I\" prototype satellites were launched between 1978 and 1985 (an additional unit was destroyed in a launch failure).The effect of the ionosphere on radio transmission was investigated in a geophysics laboratory of Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratory, renamed to Air Force Geophysical Research Lab (AFGRL) in 1974.AFGRL developed the Klobuchar model for computing ionospheric corrections to GPS location.", "Of note is work done by Australian space scientist Elizabeth Essex-Cohen at AFGRL in 1974.She was concerned with the curving of the paths of radio waves (atmospheric refraction) traversing the ionosphere from NavSTAR satellites.After Korean Air Lines Flight 007, a Boeing 747 carrying 269 people, was shot down by a Soviet interceptor aircraft after straying in prohibited airspace because of navigational errors, in the vicinity of Sakhalin and Moneron Islands, President Ronald Reagan issued a directive making GPS freely available for civilian use, once it was sufficiently developed, as a common good.", "The first Block II satellite was launched on February 14, 1989, and the 24th satellite was launched in 1994.The GPS program cost at this point, not including the cost of the user equipment but including the costs of the satellite launches, has been estimated at US$5 billion (equivalent to $ billion in ).Initially, the highest-quality signal was reserved for military use, and the signal available for civilian use was intentionally degraded, in a policy known as Selective Availability.", "This changed on May 1, 2000, with President Bill Clinton signing a policy directive to turn off Selective Availability to provide the same accuracy to civilians that was afforded to the military.", "The directive was proposed by the U.S. Secretary of Defense, William Perry, in view of the widespread growth of differential GPS services by private industry to improve civilian accuracy.", "Moreover, the U.S. military was developing technologies to deny GPS service to potential adversaries on a regional basis.", "Selective Availability was removed from the GPS architecture beginning with GPS-III.Since its deployment, the U.S. has implemented several improvements to the GPS service, including new signals for civil use and increased accuracy and integrity for all users, all the while maintaining compatibility with existing GPS equipment.", "Modernization of the satellite system has been an ongoing initiative by the U.S. Department of Defense through a series of satellite acquisitions to meet the growing needs of the military, civilians, and the commercial market.As of early 2015, high-quality Standard Positioning Service (SPS) GPS receivers provided horizontal accuracy of better than , although many factors such as receiver and antenna quality and atmospheric issues can affect this accuracy.GPS is owned and operated by the United States government as a national resource.", "The Department of Defense is the steward of GPS.", "The ''Interagency GPS Executive Board (IGEB)'' oversaw GPS policy matters from 1996 to 2004.After that, the National Space-Based Positioning, Navigation and Timing Executive Committee was established by presidential directive in 2004 to advise and coordinate federal departments and agencies on matters concerning the GPS and related systems.", "The executive committee is chaired jointly by the Deputy Secretaries of Defense and Transportation.", "Its membership includes equivalent-level officials from the Departments of State, Commerce, and Homeland Security, the Joint Chiefs of Staff and NASA.", "Components of the executive office of the president participate as observers to the executive committee, and the FCC chairman participates as a liaison.The U.S. Department of Defense is required by law to \"maintain a Standard Positioning Service (as defined in the federal radio navigation plan and the standard positioning service signal specification) that will be available on a continuous, worldwide basis\" and \"develop measures to prevent hostile use of GPS and its augmentations without unduly disrupting or degrading civilian uses\".=== Timeline and modernization ===+ Summary of satellites Block Launch period Satellite launches Currently in orbit and healthy Success Failure Inpreparation Planned I 1978–1985 10 1 0 0 0 II 1989–1990 9 0 0 0 0 IIA 1990–1997 19 0 0 0 0 IIR 1997–2004 12 1 0 0 7 IIR-M 2005–2009 8 0 0 0 7 IIF 2010–2016 12 0 0 0 12 IIIA 2018– 6 0 4 0 6 IIIF — 0 0 0 22 0 Total 76 2 4 22 32 (Last update: September 3, 2023)USA-203 from Block IIR-M is unhealthy For a more complete list, see ''List of GPS satellites''* In 1972, the USAF Central Inertial Guidance Test Facility (Holloman AFB) conducted developmental flight tests of four prototype GPS receivers in a Y configuration over White Sands Missile Range, using ground-based pseudo-satellites.", "* In 1978, the first experimental Block-I GPS satellite was launched.", "* In 1983, after Soviet interceptor aircraft shot down the civilian airliner KAL 007 that strayed into prohibited airspace because of navigational errors, killing all 269 people on board, U.S. President Ronald Reagan announced that GPS would be made available for civilian uses once it was completed, although it had been publicly known as early as 1979, that the CA code (Coarse/Acquisition code) would be available to civilian users.", "* By 1985, ten more experimental Block-I satellites had been launched to validate the concept.", "* Beginning in 1988, command and control of these satellites was moved from Onizuka AFS, California to the 2nd Satellite Control Squadron (2SCS) located at Falcon Air Force Station in Colorado Springs, Colorado.", "* On February 14, 1989, the first modern Block-II satellite was launched.", "* The Gulf War from 1990 to 1991 was the first conflict in which the military widely used GPS.", "* In 1991, a project to create a miniature GPS receiver successfully ended, replacing the previous military receivers with a handheld receiver.", "* In 1991, TomTom, a Dutch sat-nav manufacturer was founded.", "* In 1992, the 2nd Space Wing, which originally managed the system, was inactivated and replaced by the 50th Space Wing.Emblem of the 50th Space Wing* By December 1993, GPS achieved initial operational capability (IOC), with a full constellation (24 satellites) available and providing the Standard Positioning Service (SPS).", "* Full Operational Capability (FOC) was declared by Air Force Space Command (AFSPC) in April 1995, signifying full availability of the military's secure Precise Positioning Service (PPS).", "* In 1996, recognizing the importance of GPS to civilian users as well as military users, U.S. President Bill Clinton issued a policy directive declaring GPS a dual-use system and establishing an Interagency GPS Executive Board to manage it as a national asset.", "* In 1998, United States Vice President Al Gore announced plans to upgrade GPS with two new civilian signals for enhanced user accuracy and reliability, particularly with respect to aviation safety, and in 2000 the United States Congress authorized the effort, referring to it as ''GPS III''.", "* On May 2, 2000 \"Selective Availability\" was discontinued as a result of the 1996 executive order, allowing civilian users to receive a non-degraded signal globally.", "* In 2004, the United States government signed an agreement with the European Community establishing cooperation related to GPS and Europe's Galileo system.", "* In 2004, United States President George W. Bush updated the national policy and replaced the executive board with the National Executive Committee for Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing.", "* November 2004, Qualcomm announced successful tests of assisted GPS for mobile phones.", "* In 2005, the first modernized GPS satellite was launched and began transmitting a second civilian signal (L2C) for enhanced user performance.", "* On September 14, 2007, the aging mainframe-based Ground Segment Control System was transferred to the new Architecture Evolution Plan.", "* On May 19, 2009, the United States Government Accountability Office issued a report warning that some GPS satellites could fail as soon as 2010.", "* On May 21, 2009, the Air Force Space Command allayed fears of GPS failure, saying: \"There's only a small risk we will not continue to exceed our performance standard.", "\"* On January 11, 2010, an update of ground control systems caused a software incompatibility with 8,000 to 10,000 military receivers manufactured by a division of Trimble Navigation Limited of Sunnyvale, Calif.* On February 25, 2010, the U.S. Air Force awarded the contract to Raytheon Company to develop the GPS Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX) to improve accuracy and availability of GPS navigation signals, and serve as a critical part of GPS modernization.=== Awards ===AFSPC Vice Commander Lt. Gen. DT Thompson presents Gladys West with an award as she is inducted into the Air Force Space and Missile Pioneers Hall of Fame.On February 10, 1993, the National Aeronautic Association selected the GPS Team as winners of the 1992 Robert J. Collier Trophy, the US's most prestigious aviation award.", "This team combines researchers from the Naval Research Laboratory, the USAF, the Aerospace Corporation, Rockwell International Corporation, and IBM Federal Systems Company.", "The citation honors them \"for the most significant development for safe and efficient navigation and surveillance of air and spacecraft since the introduction of radio navigation 50 years ago\".Two GPS developers received the National Academy of Engineering Charles Stark Draper Prize for 2003:* Ivan Getting, emeritus president of The Aerospace Corporation and an engineer at MIT, established the basis for GPS, improving on the World War II land-based radio system called LORAN (''Lo''ng-range ''R''adio ''A''id to ''N''avigation).", "* Bradford Parkinson, professor of aeronautics and astronautics at Stanford University, conceived the present satellite-based system in the early 1960s and developed it in conjunction with the U.S. Air Force.", "Parkinson served twenty-one years in the Air Force, from 1957 to 1978, and retired with the rank of colonel.GPS developer Roger L. Easton received the National Medal of Technology on February 13, 2006.Francis X. Kane (Col. USAF, ret.)", "was inducted into the U.S. Air Force Space and Missile Pioneers Hall of Fame at Lackland A.F.B., San Antonio, Texas, March 2, 2010, for his role in space technology development and the engineering design concept of GPS conducted as part of Project 621B.In 1998, GPS technology was inducted into the Space Foundation Space Technology Hall of Fame.On October 4, 2011, the International Astronautical Federation (IAF) awarded the Global Positioning System (GPS) its 60th Anniversary Award, nominated by IAF member, the American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA).", "The IAF Honors and Awards Committee recognized the uniqueness of the GPS program and the exemplary role it has played in building international collaboration for the benefit of humanity.On December 6, 2018, Gladys West was inducted into the Air Force Space and Missile Pioneers Hall of Fame in recognition of her work on an extremely accurate geodetic Earth model, which was ultimately used to determine the orbit of the GPS constellation.On February 12, 2019, four founding members of the project were awarded the Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering with the chair of the awarding board stating: \"Engineering is the foundation of civilisation; there is no other foundation; it makes things happen.", "And that's exactly what today's Laureates have done they've made things happen.", "They've re-written, in a major way, the infrastructure of our world.\"" ], [ "Principles", "The GPS satellites carry very stable atomic clocks that are synchronized with one another and with the reference atomic clocks at the ground control stations; any drift of the clocks aboard the satellites from the reference time maintained on the ground stations is corrected regularly.", "Since the speed of radio waves (speed of light) is constant and independent of the satellite speed, the time delay between when the satellite transmits a signal and the ground station receives it is proportional to the distance from the satellite to the ground station.", "With the distance information collected from multiple ground stations, the location coordinates of any satellite at any time can be calculated with great precision.Each GPS satellite carries an accurate record of its own position and time, and broadcasts that data continuously.", "Based on data received from multiple GPS satellites, an end user's GPS receiver can calculate its own four-dimensional position in spacetime; However, at a minimum, four satellites must be in view of the receiver for it to compute four unknown quantities (three position coordinates and the deviation of its own clock from satellite time).=== More detailed description ===Each GPS satellite continually broadcasts a signal (carrier wave with modulation) that includes:* A pseudorandom code (sequence of ones and zeros) that is known to the receiver.", "By time-aligning a receiver-generated version and the receiver-measured version of the code, the time of arrival (TOA) of a defined point in the code sequence, called an epoch, can be found in the receiver clock time scale* A message that includes the time of transmission (TOT) of the code epoch (in GPS time scale) and the satellite position at that timeConceptually, the receiver measures the TOAs (according to its own clock) of four satellite signals.", "From the TOAs and the TOTs, the receiver forms four time of flight (TOF) values, which are (given the speed of light) approximately equivalent to receiver-satellite ranges plus time difference between the receiver and GPS satellites multiplied by speed of light, which are called pseudo-ranges.", "The receiver then computes its three-dimensional position and clock deviation from the four TOFs.In practice the receiver position (in three dimensional Cartesian coordinates with origin at the Earth's center) and the offset of the receiver clock relative to the GPS time are computed simultaneously, using the navigation equations to process the TOFs.The receiver's Earth-centered solution location is usually converted to latitude, longitude and height relative to an ellipsoidal Earth model.", "The height may then be further converted to height relative to the geoid, which is essentially mean sea level.", "These coordinates may be displayed, such as on a moving map display, or recorded or used by some other system, such as a vehicle guidance system.=== User-satellite geometry ===Although usually not formed explicitly in the receiver processing, the conceptual time differences of arrival (TDOAs) define the measurement geometry.", "Each TDOA corresponds to a hyperboloid of revolution (see Multilateration).", "The line connecting the two satellites involved (and its extensions) forms the axis of the hyperboloid.", "The receiver is located at the point where three hyperboloids intersect.It is sometimes incorrectly said that the user location is at the intersection of three spheres.", "While simpler to visualize, this is the case only if the receiver has a clock synchronized with the satellite clocks (i.e., the receiver measures true ranges to the satellites rather than range differences).", "There are marked performance benefits to the user carrying a clock synchronized with the satellites.", "Foremost is that only three satellites are needed to compute a position solution.", "If it were an essential part of the GPS concept that all users needed to carry a synchronized clock, a smaller number of satellites could be deployed, but the cost and complexity of the user equipment would increase.=== Receiver in continuous operation ===The description above is representative of a receiver start-up situation.", "Most receivers have a track algorithm, sometimes called a ''tracker'', that combines sets of satellite measurements collected at different times—in effect, taking advantage of the fact that successive receiver positions are usually close to each other.", "After a set of measurements are processed, the tracker predicts the receiver location corresponding to the next set of satellite measurements.", "When the new measurements are collected, the receiver uses a weighting scheme to combine the new measurements with the tracker prediction.", "In general, a tracker can (a) improve receiver position and time accuracy, (b) reject bad measurements, and (c) estimate receiver speed and direction.The disadvantage of a tracker is that changes in speed or direction can be computed only with a delay, and that derived direction becomes inaccurate when the distance traveled between two position measurements drops below or near the random error of position measurement.", "GPS units can use measurements of the Doppler shift of the signals received to compute velocity accurately.", "More advanced navigation systems use additional sensors like a compass or an inertial navigation system to complement GPS.=== Non-navigation applications ===GPS requires four or more satellites to be visible for accurate navigation.", "The solution of the navigation equations gives the position of the receiver along with the difference between the time kept by the receiver's on-board clock and the true time-of-day, thereby eliminating the need for a more precise and possibly impractical receiver based clock.", "Applications for GPS such as time transfer, traffic signal timing, and synchronization of cell phone base stations, make use of this cheap and highly accurate timing.", "Some GPS applications use this time for display, or, other than for the basic position calculations, do not use it at all.Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer apply in special cases.", "If one variable is already known, a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites.", "For example, a ship on the open ocean usually has a known elevation close to 0m, and the elevation of an aircraft may be known.", "Some GPS receivers may use additional clues or assumptions such as reusing the last known altitude, dead reckoning, inertial navigation, or including information from the vehicle computer, to give a (possibly degraded) position when fewer than four satellites are visible." ], [ "Structure", "The current GPS consists of three major segments.", "These are the space segment, a control segment, and a user segment.", "The U.S. Space Force develops, maintains, and operates the space and control segments.", "GPS satellites broadcast signals from space, and each GPS receiver uses these signals to calculate its three-dimensional location (latitude, longitude, and altitude) and the current time.=== Space segment ===Unlaunched GPS block II-A satellite on display at the San Diego Air & Space MuseumA visual example of a 24-satellite GPS constellation in motion with the Earth rotating.", "Notice how the number of ''satellites in view'' from a given point on the Earth's surface changes with time.", "The point in this example is in Golden, Colorado, USA ().The space segment (SS) is composed of 24 to 32 satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV), in medium Earth orbit, and also includes the payload adapters to the boosters required to launch them into orbit.", "The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs, eight each in three approximately circular orbits, but this was modified to six orbital planes with four satellites each.", "The six orbit planes have approximately 55° inclination (tilt relative to the Earth's equator) and are separated by 60° right ascension of the ascending node (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's intersection).", "The orbital period is one-half of a sidereal day, ''i.e.", "'', 11 hours and 58 minutes, so that the satellites pass over the same locations or almost the same locations every day.", "The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within line of sight from everywhere on the Earth's surface (see animation at right).", "The result of this objective is that the four satellites are not evenly spaced (90°) apart within each orbit.", "In general terms, the angular difference between satellites in each orbit is 30°, 105°, 120°, and 105° apart, which sum to 360°.Orbiting at an altitude of approximately ; orbital radius of approximately , each SV makes two complete orbits each sidereal day, repeating the same ground track each day.", "This was very helpful during development because even with only four satellites, correct alignment means all four are visible from one spot for a few hours each day.", "For military operations, the ground track repeat can be used to ensure good coverage in combat zones., there are 31 satellites in the GPS constellation, 27 of which are in use at a given time with the rest allocated as stand-bys.", "A 32nd was launched in 2018, but as of July 2019 is still in evaluation.", "More decommissioned satellites are in orbit and available as spares.", "The additional satellites improve the precision of GPS receiver calculations by providing redundant measurements.", "With the increased number of satellites, the constellation was changed to a nonuniform arrangement.", "Such an arrangement was shown to improve accuracy but also improves reliability and availability of the system, relative to a uniform system, when multiple satellites fail.", "With the expanded constellation, nine satellites are usually visible at any time from any point on the Earth with a clear horizon, ensuring considerable redundancy over the minimum four satellites needed for a position.=== Control segment ===Ground monitor station used from 1984 to 2007, on display at the Air Force Space and Missile MuseumThe control segment (CS) is composed of:# a master control station (MCS),# an alternative master control station,# four dedicated ground antennas, and# six dedicated monitor stations.The MCS can also access Satellite Control Network (SCN) ground antennas (for additional command and control capability) and NGA (National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency) monitor stations.", "The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by dedicated U.S. Space Force monitoring stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein Atoll, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Colorado Springs, Colorado and Cape Canaveral, along with shared NGA monitor stations operated in England, Argentina, Ecuador, Bahrain, Australia and Washington DC.", "The tracking information is sent to the MCS at Schriever Space Force Base ESE of Colorado Springs, which is operated by the 2nd Space Operations Squadron (2 SOPS) of the U.S. Space Force.", "Then 2 SOPS contacts each GPS satellite regularly with a navigational update using dedicated or shared (AFSCN) ground antennas (GPS dedicated ground antennas are located at Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and Cape Canaveral).", "These updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the satellites to within a few nanoseconds of each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each satellite's internal orbital model.", "The updates are created by a Kalman filter that uses inputs from the ground monitoring stations, space weather information, and various other inputs.When a satellite's orbit is being adjusted, the satellite is marked ''unhealthy'', so receivers do not use it.", "After the maneuver, engineers track the new orbit from the ground, upload the new ephemeris, and mark the satellite healthy again.The operation control segment (OCS) currently serves as the control segment of record.", "It provides the operational capability that supports GPS users and keeps the GPS operational and performing within specification.OCS successfully replaced the legacy 1970s-era mainframe computer at Schriever Air Force Base in September 2007.After installation, the system helped enable upgrades and provide a foundation for a new security architecture that supported U.S. armed forces.OCS will continue to be the ground control system of record until the new segment, Next Generation GPS Operation Control System (OCX), is fully developed and functional.", "The US Department of Defense has claimed that the new capabilities provided by OCX will be the cornerstone for revolutionizing GPS's mission capabilities, enabling U.S. Space Force to greatly enhance GPS operational services to U.S. combat forces, civil partners and myriad domestic and international users.", "The GPS OCX program also will reduce cost, schedule and technical risk.", "It is designed to provide 50% sustainment cost savings through efficient software architecture and Performance-Based Logistics.", "In addition, GPS OCX is expected to cost millions less than the cost to upgrade OCS while providing four times the capability.The GPS OCX program represents a critical part of GPS modernization and provides significant information assurance improvements over the current GPS OCS program.", "* OCX will have the ability to control and manage GPS legacy satellites as well as the next generation of GPS III satellites, while enabling the full array of military signals.", "* Built on a flexible architecture that can rapidly adapt to the changing needs of today's and future GPS users allowing immediate access to GPS data and constellation status through secure, accurate and reliable information.", "* Provides the warfighter with more secure, actionable and predictive information to enhance situational awareness.", "* Enables new modernized signals (L1C, L2C, and L5) and has M-code capability, which the legacy system is unable to do.", "* Provides significant information assurance improvements over the current program including detecting and preventing cyber attacks, while isolating, containing and operating during such attacks.", "* Supports higher volume near real-time command and control capabilities and abilities.On September 14, 2011, the U.S. Air Force announced the completion of GPS OCX Preliminary Design Review and confirmed that the OCX program is ready for the next phase of development.", "The GPS OCX program missed major milestones and pushed its launch into 2021, 5 years past the original deadline.", "According to the Government Accounting Office in 2019, the 2021 deadline looked shaky.", "The project remained delayed in 2023, and was (as of June 2023) 73% over its original estimated budget.", "In late 2023, Frank Calvelli, the assistant secretary of the Air Force for space acquisitions and integration, stated that the project was estimated to go live some time during the summer of 2024.=== User segment ===GPS receivers come in a variety of formats, from devices integrated into cars, phones, and watches, to dedicated devices such as these.The first portable GPS survey unit, a Leica WM 101, displayed at the Irish National Science Museum at MaynoothThe user segment (US) is composed of hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied military users of the secure GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of civil, commercial and scientific users of the Standard Positioning Service.", "In general, GPS receivers are composed of an antenna, tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly stable clock (often a crystal oscillator).", "They may also include a display for providing location and speed information to the user.", "GPS receivers may include an input for differential corrections, using the RTCM SC-104 format.", "This is typically in the form of an RS-232 port at 4,800 bit/s speed.", "Data is actually sent at a much lower rate, which limits the accuracy of the signal sent using RTCM.", "Receivers with internal DGPS receivers can outperform those using external RTCM data.", ", even low-cost units commonly include Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) receivers.A typical GPS receiver with integrated antennaMany GPS receivers can relay position data to a PC or other device using the NMEA 0183 protocol.", "Although this protocol is officially defined by the National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA), references to this protocol have been compiled from public records, allowing open source tools like gpsd to read the protocol without violating intellectual property laws.", "Other proprietary protocols exist as well, such as the SiRF and MTK protocols.", "Receivers can interface with other devices using methods including a serial connection, USB, or Bluetooth." ], [ "Applications", "While originally a military project, GPS is considered a dual-use technology, meaning it has significant civilian applications as well.GPS has become a widely deployed and useful tool for commerce, scientific uses, tracking, and surveillance.", "GPS's accurate time facilitates everyday activities such as banking, mobile phone operations, and even the control of power grids by allowing well synchronized hand-off switching.=== Civilian ===antenna is mounted on the roof of a hut containing a scientific experiment needing precise timing.Many civilian applications use one or more of GPS's three basic components: absolute location, relative movement, and time transfer.", "* Amateur radio: clock synchronization required for several digital modes such as FT8, FT4 and JS8; also used with APRS for position reporting; is often critical during emergency and disaster communications support.", "* Atmosphere: studying the troposphere delays (recovery of the water vapor content) and ionosphere delays (recovery of the number of free electrons).", "Recovery of Earth surface displacements due to the atmospheric pressure loading.", "* Astronomy: both positional and clock synchronization data is used in astrometry and celestial mechanics and precise orbit determination.", "GPS is also used in both amateur astronomy with small telescopes as well as by professional observatories for finding extrasolar planets.", "* Automated vehicle: applying location and routes for cars and trucks to function without a human driver.", "* Cartography: both civilian and military cartographers use GPS extensively.", "* Cellular telephony: clock synchronization enables time transfer, which is critical for synchronizing its spreading codes with other base stations to facilitate inter-cell handoff and support hybrid GPS/cellular position detection for mobile emergency calls and other applications.", "The first handsets with integrated GPS launched in the late 1990s.", "The U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) mandated the feature in either the handset or in the towers (for use in triangulation) in 2002 so emergency services could locate 911 callers.", "Third-party software developers later gained access to GPS APIs from Nextel upon launch, followed by Sprint in 2006, and Verizon soon thereafter.", "* Clock synchronization: the accuracy of GPS time signals (±10 ns) is second only to the atomic clocks they are based on, and is used in applications such as GPS disciplined oscillators.", "* Disaster relief/emergency services: many emergency services depend upon GPS for location and timing capabilities.", "* GPS-equipped radiosondes and dropsondes: measure and calculate the atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction up to from the Earth's surface.", "* Radio occultation for weather and atmospheric science applications.", "* Fleet tracking: used to identify, locate and maintain contact reports with one or more fleet vehicles in real-time.", "* Geodesy: determination of Earth orientation parameters including the daily and sub-daily polar motion, and length-of-day variabilities, Earth's center-of-mass - geocenter motion, and low-degree gravity field parameters.", "* Geofencing: vehicle tracking systems, person tracking systems, and pet tracking systems use GPS to locate devices that are attached to or carried by a person, vehicle, or pet.", "The application can provide continuous tracking and send notifications if the target leaves a designated (or \"fenced-in\") area.", "* Geotagging: applies location coordinates to digital objects such as photographs (in Exif data) and other documents for purposes such as creating map overlays with devices like Nikon GP-1* GPS aircraft tracking* GPS for mining: the use of RTK GPS has significantly improved several mining operations such as drilling, shoveling, vehicle tracking, and surveying.", "RTK GPS provides centimeter-level positioning accuracy.", "* GPS data mining: It is possible to aggregate GPS data from multiple users to understand movement patterns, common trajectories and interesting locations.", "* GPS tours: location determines what content to display; for instance, information about an approaching point of interest.", "* Mental health: tracking mental health functioning and sociability.", "* Navigation: navigators value digitally precise velocity and orientation measurements, as well as precise positions in real-time with a support of orbit and clock corrections.", "* Orbit determination of low-orbiting satellites with GPS receiver installed on board, such as GOCE, GRACE, Jason-1, Jason-2, TerraSAR-X, TanDEM-X, CHAMP, Sentinel-3, and some cubesats, e.g., CubETH.", "* Phasor measurements: GPS enables highly accurate timestamping of power system measurements, making it possible to compute phasors.", "* Recreation: for example, Geocaching, Geodashing, GPS drawing, waymarking, and other kinds of location based mobile games such as Pokémon Go.", "* Reference frames: realization and densification of the terrestrial reference frames in the framework of Global Geodetic Observing System.", "Co-location in space between Satellite laser ranging and microwave observations for deriving global geodetic parameters.", "* Robotics: self-navigating, autonomous robots using GPS sensors, which calculate latitude, longitude, time, speed, and heading.", "* Sport: used in football and rugby for the control and analysis of the training load.", "* Surveying: surveyors use absolute locations to make maps and determine property boundaries.", "* Tectonics: GPS enables direct fault motion measurement of earthquakes.", "Between earthquakes GPS can be used to measure crustal motion and deformation to estimate seismic strain buildup for creating seismic hazard maps.", "* Telematics: GPS technology integrated with computers and mobile communications technology in automotive navigation systems.==== Restrictions on civilian use ====The U.S. government controls the export of some civilian receivers.", "All GPS receivers capable of functioning above above sea level and , or designed or modified for use with unmanned missiles and aircraft, are classified as munitions (weapons)—which means they require State Department export licenses.", "This rule applies even to otherwise purely civilian units that only receive the L1 frequency and the C/A (Coarse/Acquisition) code.Disabling operation above these limits exempts the receiver from classification as a munition.", "Vendor interpretations differ.", "The rule refers to operation at both the target altitude and speed, but some receivers stop operating even when stationary.", "This has caused problems with some amateur radio balloon launches that regularly reach .These limits only apply to units or components exported from the United States.", "A growing trade in various components exists, including GPS units from other countries.", "These are expressly sold as ITAR-free.=== Military ===AN/PRC-119F SINCGARS radio, which requires accurate clock time supplied by an external GPS system to enable frequency hopping operation with other radiosAttaching a GPS guidance kit to a dumb bomb, March 2003M982 Excalibur GPS-guided artillery shellAs of 2009, military GPS applications include:* Navigation: Soldiers use GPS to find objectives, even in the dark or in unfamiliar territory, and to coordinate troop and supply movement.", "In the United States armed forces, commanders use the ''Commander's Digital Assistant'' and lower ranks use the ''Soldier Digital Assistant''.", "* Frequency-Hopping Radio Clock Coordination: Military radio systems using frequency hopping modes, such as SINCGARS and HAVEQUICK, require all radios within a network to have the same time input to their internal clocks (+/-4 seconds in the case of SINCGARS) to be on the correct frequency at a given time.", "Military GPS receivers, such as the Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver (PLGR) and Defense Advanced GPS Receiver (DAGR), are used by radio operators within a radio network to properly input an accurate time to said radios internal clock.", "More modern military radios have internal GPS receivers that syncronize the internal clock automatically.", "* Target tracking: Various military weapons systems use GPS to track potential ground and air targets before flagging them as hostile.", "These weapon systems pass target coordinates to precision-guided munitions to allow them to engage targets accurately.", "Military aircraft, particularly in air-to-ground roles, use GPS to find targets.", "* Missile and projectile guidance: GPS allows accurate targeting of various military weapons including ICBMs, cruise missiles, precision-guided munitions and artillery shells.", "Embedded GPS receivers able to withstand accelerations of 12,000 ''g'' or about have been developed for use in howitzer shells.", "* Search and rescue.", "* Reconnaissance: Patrol movement can be managed more closely.", "* GPS satellites carry a set of nuclear detonation detectors consisting of an optical sensor called a bhangmeter, an X-ray sensor, a dosimeter, and an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) sensor (W-sensor), that form a major portion of the United States Nuclear Detonation Detection System.", "General William Shelton has stated that future satellites may drop this feature to save money.GPS type navigation was first used in war in the 1991 Persian Gulf War, before GPS was fully developed in 1995, to assist Coalition Forces to navigate and perform maneuvers in the war.", "The war also demonstrated the vulnerability of GPS to being jammed, when Iraqi forces installed jamming devices on likely targets that emitted radio noise, disrupting reception of the weak GPS signal.GPS's vulnerability to jamming is a threat that continues to grow as jamming equipment and experience grows.", "GPS signals have been reported to have been jammed many times over the years for military purposes.", "Russia seems to have several objectives for this approach, such as intimidating neighbors while undermining confidence in their reliance on American systems, promoting their GLONASS alternative, disrupting Western military exercises, and protecting assets from drones.", "China uses jamming to discourage US surveillance aircraft near the contested Spratly Islands.", "North Korea has mounted several major jamming operations near its border with South Korea and offshore, disrupting flights, shipping and fishing operations.", "Iranian Armed Forces disrupted the civilian airliner plane Flight PS752's GPS when it shot down the aircraft.=== Timekeeping ======= Leap seconds ====While most clocks derive their time from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the atomic clocks on the satellites are set to ''GPS time''.", "The difference is that GPS time is not corrected to match the rotation of the Earth, so it does not contain new leap seconds or other corrections that are periodically added to UTC.", "GPS time was set to match UTC in 1980, but has since diverged.", "The lack of corrections means that GPS time remains at a constant offset with International Atomic Time (TAI) (TAI - GPS = 19 seconds).", "Periodic corrections are performed to the on-board clocks to keep them synchronized with ground clocks.The GPS navigation message includes the difference between GPS time and UTC.", "GPS time is 18 seconds ahead of UTC because of the leap second added to UTC on December 31, 2016.Receivers subtract this offset from GPS time to calculate UTC and specific time zone values.", "New GPS units may not show the correct UTC time until after receiving the UTC offset message.", "The GPS-UTC offset field can accommodate 255 leap seconds (eight bits).==== Accuracy ====GPS time is theoretically accurate to about 14 nanoseconds, due to the clock drift relative to International Atomic Time that the atomic clocks in GPS transmitters experience.", "Most receivers lose some accuracy in their interpretation of the signals and are only accurate to about 100 nanoseconds.==== Relativistic corrections ====The GPS implements two major corrections to its time signals for relativistic effects: one for relative velocity of satellite and receiver, using the special theory of relativity, and one for the difference in gravitational potential between satellite and receiver, using general relativity.", "The acceleration of the satellite could also be computed independently as a correction, depending on purpose, but normally the effect is already dealt with in the first two corrections.==== Format ====As opposed to the year, month, and day format of the Gregorian calendar, the GPS date is expressed as a week number and a seconds-into-week number.", "The week number is transmitted as a ten-bit field in the C/A and P(Y) navigation messages, and so it becomes zero again every 1,024 weeks (19.6 years).", "GPS week zero started at 00:00:00 UTC (00:00:19 TAI) on January 6, 1980, and the week number became zero again for the first time at 23:59:47 UTC on August 21, 1999 (00:00:19 TAI on August 22, 1999).", "It happened the second time at 23:59:42 UTC on April 6, 2019.To determine the current Gregorian date, a GPS receiver must be provided with the approximate date (to within 3,584 days) to correctly translate the GPS date signal.", "To address this concern in the future the modernized GPS civil navigation (CNAV) message will use a 13-bit field that only repeats every 8,192 weeks (157 years), thus lasting until 2137 (157 years after GPS week zero)." ], [ "Communication", "The navigational signals transmitted by GPS satellites encode a variety of information including satellite positions, the state of the internal clocks, and the health of the network.", "These signals are transmitted on two separate carrier frequencies that are common to all satellites in the network.", "Two different encodings are used: a public encoding that enables lower resolution navigation, and an encrypted encoding used by the U.S. military.=== Message format ===:+ Subframes Description 1 Satellite clock,GPS time relationship 2–3 Ephemeris(precise satellite orbit) 4–5 Almanac component(satellite network synopsis,error correction)Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a ''navigation message'' on L1 (C/A and P/Y) and L2 (P/Y) frequencies at a rate of 50 bits per second (see bitrate).", "Each complete message takes 750 seconds ( minutes) to complete.", "The message structure has a basic format of a 1500-bit-long frame made up of five subframes, each subframe being 300 bits (6 seconds) long.", "Subframes 4 and 5 are subcommutated 25 times each, so that a complete data message requires the transmission of 25 full frames.", "Each subframe consists of ten words, each 30 bits long.", "Thus, with 300 bits in a subframe times 5 subframes in a frame times 25 frames in a message, each message is 37,500 bits long.", "At a transmission rate of 50-bit/s, this gives 750 seconds to transmit an entire almanac message (GPS).", "Each 30-second frame begins precisely on the minute or half-minute as indicated by the atomic clock on each satellite.The first subframe of each frame encodes the week number and the time within the week, as well as the data about the health of the satellite.", "The second and the third subframes contain the ''ephemeris'' – the precise orbit for the satellite.", "The fourth and fifth subframes contain the ''almanac'', which contains coarse orbit and status information for up to 32 satellites in the constellation as well as data related to error correction.", "Thus, to obtain an accurate satellite location from this transmitted message, the receiver must demodulate the message from each satellite it includes in its solution for 18 to 30 seconds.", "To collect all transmitted almanacs, the receiver must demodulate the message for 732 to 750 seconds or minutes.All satellites broadcast at the same frequencies, encoding signals using unique code-division multiple access (CDMA) so receivers can distinguish individual satellites from each other.", "The system uses two distinct CDMA encoding types: the coarse/acquisition (C/A) code, which is accessible by the general public, and the precise (P(Y)) code, which is encrypted so that only the U.S. military and other NATO nations who have been given access to the encryption code can access it.The ephemeris is updated every 2 hours and is sufficiently stable for 4 hours, with provisions for updates every 6 hours or longer in non-nominal conditions.", "The almanac is updated typically every 24 hours.", "Additionally, data for a few weeks following is uploaded in case of transmission updates that delay data upload.=== Satellite frequencies ===:+ Band Frequency Description '''L1''' 1575.42 MHz Coarse-acquisition (C/A) and encrypted precision (P(Y)) codes, plus the L1 civilian (L1C) and military (M) codes on Block III and newer satellites.", "'''L2''' 1227.60 MHz P(Y) code, plus the L2C and military codes on the Block IIR-M and newer satellites.", "'''L3''' 1381.05 MHz Used for nuclear detonation (NUDET) detection.", "'''L4''' 1379.913 MHz Being studied for additional ionospheric correction.", "'''L5''' 1176.45 MHz Used as a civilian safety-of-life (SoL) signal on Block IIF and newer satellites.All satellites broadcast at the same two frequencies, 1.57542 GHz (L1 signal) and 1.2276 GHz (L2 signal).", "The satellite network uses a CDMA spread-spectrum technique where the low-bitrate message data is encoded with a high-rate pseudo-random (PRN) sequence that is different for each satellite.", "The receiver must be aware of the PRN codes for each satellite to reconstruct the actual message data.", "The C/A code, for civilian use, transmits data at 1.023 million chips per second, whereas the P code, for U.S. military use, transmits at 10.23 million chips per second.", "The actual internal reference of the satellites is 10.22999999543 MHz to compensate for relativistic effects that make observers on the Earth perceive a different time reference with respect to the transmitters in orbit.", "The L1 carrier is modulated by both the C/A and P codes, while the L2 carrier is only modulated by the P code.", "The P code can be encrypted as a so-called P(Y) code that is only available to military equipment with a proper decryption key.", "Both the C/A and P(Y) codes impart the precise time-of-day to the user.The L3 signal at a frequency of 1.38105 GHz is used to transmit data from the satellites to ground stations.", "This data is used by the United States Nuclear Detonation (NUDET) Detection System (USNDS) to detect, locate, and report nuclear detonations (NUDETs) in the Earth's atmosphere and near space.", "One usage is the enforcement of nuclear test ban treaties.The L4 band at 1.379913 GHz is being studied for additional ionospheric correction.The L5 frequency band at 1.17645 GHz was added in the process of GPS modernization.", "This frequency falls into an internationally protected range for aeronautical navigation, promising little or no interference under all circumstances.", "The first Block IIF satellite that provides this signal was launched in May 2010.On February 5, 2016, the 12th and final Block IIF satellite was launched.", "The L5 consists of two carrier components that are in phase quadrature with each other.", "Each carrier component is bi-phase shift key (BPSK) modulated by a separate bit train.", "\"L5, the third civil GPS signal, will eventually support safety-of-life applications for aviation and provide improved availability and accuracy.", "\"In 2011, a conditional waiver was granted to LightSquared to operate a terrestrial broadband service near the L1 band.", "Although LightSquared had applied for a license to operate in the 1525 to 1559 band as early as 2003 and it was put out for public comment, the FCC asked LightSquared to form a study group with the GPS community to test GPS receivers and identify issues that might arise due to the larger signal power from the LightSquared terrestrial network.", "The GPS community had not objected to the LightSquared (formerly MSV and SkyTerra) applications until November 2010, when LightSquared applied for a modification to its Ancillary Terrestrial Component (ATC) authorization.", "This filing (SAT-MOD-20101118-00239) amounted to a request to run several orders of magnitude more power in the same frequency band for terrestrial base stations, essentially repurposing what was supposed to be a \"quiet neighborhood\" for signals from space as the equivalent of a cellular network.", "Testing in the first half of 2011 has demonstrated that the impact of the lower 10 MHz of spectrum is minimal to GPS devices (less than 1% of the total GPS devices are affected).", "The upper 10 MHz intended for use by LightSquared may have some impact on GPS devices.", "There is some concern that this may seriously degrade the GPS signal for many consumer uses.", "''Aviation Week'' magazine reports that the latest testing (June 2011) confirms \"significant jamming\" of GPS by LightSquared's system.=== Demodulation and decoding ===Demodulating and Decoding GPS Satellite Signals using the Coarse/Acquisition Gold codeBecause all of the satellite signals are modulated onto the same L1 carrier frequency, the signals must be separated after demodulation.", "This is done by assigning each satellite a unique binary sequence known as a Gold code.", "The signals are decoded after demodulation using addition of the Gold codes corresponding to the satellites monitored by the receiver.If the almanac information has previously been acquired, the receiver picks the satellites to listen for by their PRNs, unique numbers in the range 1 through 32.If the almanac information is not in memory, the receiver enters a search mode until a lock is obtained on one of the satellites.", "To obtain a lock, it is necessary that there be an unobstructed line of sight from the receiver to the satellite.", "The receiver can then acquire the almanac and determine the satellites it should listen for.", "As it detects each satellite's signal, it identifies it by its distinct C/A code pattern.", "There can be a delay of up to 30 seconds before the first estimate of position because of the need to read the ephemeris data.Processing of the navigation message enables the determination of the time of transmission and the satellite position at this time.", "For more information see Demodulation and Decoding, Advanced." ], [ "Navigation equations", "=== Problem statement ===The receiver uses messages received from satellites to determine the satellite positions and time sent.", "The ''x, y,'' and ''z'' components of satellite position and the time sent (''s'') are designated as ''xi, yi, zi, si'' where the subscript ''i'' denotes the satellite and has the value 1, 2, ..., ''n'', where ''n'' ≥ 4.When the time of message reception indicated by the on-board receiver clock is , the true reception time is , where ''b'' is the receiver's clock bias from the much more accurate GPS clocks employed by the satellites.", "The receiver clock bias is the same for all received satellite signals (assuming the satellite clocks are all perfectly synchronized).", "The message's transit time is , where ''si'' is the satellite time.", "Assuming the message traveled at the speed of light, ''c'', the distance traveled is .For n satellites, the equations to satisfy are::where ''di'' is the geometric distance or range between receiver and satellite ''i'' (the values without subscripts are the ''x, y,'' and ''z'' components of receiver position)::Defining ''pseudoranges'' as , we see they are biased versions of the true range:: .Since the equations have four unknowns ''x, y, z, b''—the three components of GPS receiver position and the clock bias—signals from at least four satellites are necessary to attempt solving these equations.", "They can be solved by algebraic or numerical methods.", "Existence and uniqueness of GPS solutions are discussed by Abell and Chaffee.", "When ''n'' is greater than four, this system is overdetermined and a fitting method must be used.The amount of error in the results varies with the received satellites' locations in the sky, since certain configurations (when the received satellites are close together in the sky) cause larger errors.", "Receivers usually calculate a running estimate of the error in the calculated position.", "This is done by multiplying the basic resolution of the receiver by quantities called the geometric dilution of position (GDOP) factors, calculated from the relative sky directions of the satellites used.", "The receiver location is expressed in a specific coordinate system, such as latitude and longitude using the WGS 84 geodetic datum or a country-specific system.=== Geometric interpretation ===The GPS equations can be solved by numerical and analytical methods.", "Geometrical interpretations can enhance the understanding of these solution methods.==== Spheres ====2-D Cartesian true-range multilateration (trilateration) scenarioThe measured ranges, called pseudoranges, contain clock errors.", "In a simplified idealization in which the ranges are synchronized, these true ranges represent the radii of spheres, each centered on one of the transmitting satellites.", "The solution for the position of the receiver is then at the intersection of the surfaces of these spheres; see trilateration (more generally, true-range multilateration).", "Signals from at minimum three satellites are required, and their three spheres would typically intersect at two points.", "One of the points is the location of the receiver, and the other moves rapidly in successive measurements and would not usually be on Earth's surface.In practice, there are many sources of inaccuracy besides clock bias, including random errors as well as the potential for precision loss from subtracting numbers close to each other if the centers of the spheres are relatively close together.", "This means that the position calculated from three satellites alone is unlikely to be accurate enough.", "Data from more satellites can help because of the tendency for random errors to cancel out and also by giving a larger spread between the sphere centers.", "But at the same time, more spheres will not generally intersect at one point.", "Therefore, a near intersection gets computed, typically via least squares.", "The more signals available, the better the approximation is likely to be.==== Hyperboloids ====Three satellites (labeled as \"stations\" A, B, C) have known locations.", "The true times it takes for a radio signal to travel from each satellite to the receiver are unknown, but the true time differences are known.", "Then, each time difference locates the receiver on a branch of a hyperbola focused on the satellites.", "The receiver is then located at one of the two intersections.If the pseudorange between the receiver and satellite ''i'' and the pseudorange between the receiver and satellite ''j'' are subtracted, , the common receiver clock bias (''b'') cancels out, resulting in a difference of distances .", "The locus of points having a constant difference in distance to two points (here, two satellites) is a hyperbola on a plane and a hyperboloid of revolution (more specifically, a two-sheeted hyperboloid) in 3D space (see Multilateration).", "Thus, from four pseudorange measurements, the receiver can be placed at the intersection of the surfaces of three hyperboloids each with foci at a pair of satellites.", "With additional satellites, the multiple intersections are not necessarily unique, and a best-fitting solution is sought instead.==== Inscribed sphere ====A smaller circle () inscribed and tangent to other circles (), that need not necessarily be mutually tangentThe receiver position can be interpreted as the center of an inscribed sphere (insphere) of radius ''bc'', given by the receiver clock bias ''b'' (scaled by the speed of light ''c'').", "The insphere location is such that it touches other spheres.", "The circumscribing spheres are centered at the GPS satellites, whose radii equal the measured pseudoranges ''p''i.", "This configuration is distinct from the one described above, in which the spheres' radii were the unbiased or geometric ranges ''d''i.==== Hypercones ====The clock in the receiver is usually not of the same quality as the ones in the satellites and will not be accurately synchronized to them.", "This produces pseudoranges with large differences compared to the true distances to the satellites.", "Therefore, in practice, the time difference between the receiver clock and the satellite time is defined as an unknown clock bias ''b''.", "The equations are then solved simultaneously for the receiver position and the clock bias.", "The solution space ''x, y, z, b'' can be seen as a four-dimensional spacetime, and signals from at minimum four satellites are needed.", "In that case each of the equations describes a hypercone (or spherical cone), with the cusp located at the satellite, and the base a sphere around the satellite.", "The receiver is at the intersection of four or more of such hypercones.=== Solution methods ======= Least squares ====When more than four satellites are available, the calculation can use the four best, or more than four simultaneously (up to all visible satellites), depending on the number of receiver channels, processing capability, and geometric dilution of precision (GDOP).Using more than four involves an over-determined system of equations with no unique solution; such a system can be solved by a least-squares or weighted least squares method.", ":==== Iterative ====Both the equations for four satellites, or the least squares equations for more than four, are non-linear and need special solution methods.", "A common approach is by iteration on a linearized form of the equations, such as the Gauss–Newton algorithm.The GPS was initially developed assuming use of a numerical least-squares solution method—i.e., before closed-form solutions were found.==== Closed-form ====One closed-form solution to the above set of equations was developed by S. Bancroft.", "Its properties are well known; in particular, proponents claim it is superior in low-GDOP situations, compared to iterative least squares methods.Bancroft's method is algebraic, as opposed to numerical, and can be used for four or more satellites.", "When four satellites are used, the key steps are inversion of a 4x4 matrix and solution of a single-variable quadratic equation.", "Bancroft's method provides one or two solutions for the unknown quantities.", "When there are two (usually the case), only one is a near-Earth sensible solution.When a receiver uses more than four satellites for a solution, Bancroft uses the generalized inverse (i.e., the pseudoinverse) to find a solution.", "A case has been made that iterative methods, such as the Gauss–Newton algorithm approach for solving over-determined non-linear least squares problems, generally provide more accurate solutions.Leick et al.", "(2015) states that \"Bancroft's (1985) solution is a very early, if not the first, closed-form solution.", "\"Other closed-form solutions were published afterwards, although their adoption in practice is unclear.=== Error sources and analysis ===GPS error analysis examines error sources in GPS results and the expected size of those errors.", "GPS makes corrections for receiver clock errors and other effects, but some residual errors remain uncorrected.", "Error sources include signal arrival time measurements, numerical calculations, atmospheric effects (ionospheric/tropospheric delays), ephemeris and clock data, multipath signals, and natural and artificial interference.", "Magnitude of residual errors from these sources depends on geometric dilution of precision.", "Artificial errors may result from jamming devices and threaten ships and aircraft or from intentional signal degradation through selective availability, which limited accuracy to ≈ , but has been switched off since May 1, 2000." ], [ "Accuracy enhancement and surveying" ], [ "Regulatory spectrum issues concerning GPS receivers", "In the United States, GPS receivers are regulated under the Federal Communications Commission's (FCC) Part 15 rules.", "As indicated in the manuals of GPS-enabled devices sold in the United States, as a Part 15 device, it \"must accept any interference received, including interference that may cause undesired operation\".", "With respect to GPS devices in particular, the FCC states that GPS receiver manufacturers \"must use receivers that reasonably discriminate against reception of signals outside their allocated spectrum\".", "For the last 30 years, GPS receivers have operated next to the Mobile Satellite Service band, and have discriminated against reception of mobile satellite services, such as Inmarsat, without any issue.The spectrum allocated for GPS L1 use by the FCC is 1559 to 1610 MHz, while the spectrum allocated for satellite-to-ground use owned by Lightsquared is the Mobile Satellite Service band.", "Since 1996, the FCC has authorized licensed use of the spectrum neighboring the GPS band of 1525 to 1559 MHz to the Virginia company LightSquared.", "On March 1, 2001, the FCC received an application from LightSquared's predecessor, Motient Services, to use their allocated frequencies for an integrated satellite-terrestrial service.", "In 2002, the U.S. GPS Industry Council came to an out-of-band-emissions (OOBE) agreement with LightSquared to prevent transmissions from LightSquared's ground-based stations from emitting transmissions into the neighboring GPS band of 1559 to 1610 MHz.", "In 2004, the FCC adopted the OOBE agreement in its authorization for LightSquared to deploy a ground-based network ancillary to their satellite system – known as the Ancillary Tower Components (ATCs) – \"We will authorize MSS ATC subject to conditions that ensure that the added terrestrial component remains ancillary to the principal MSS offering.", "We do not intend, nor will we permit, the terrestrial component to become a stand-alone service.\"", "This authorization was reviewed and approved by the U.S. Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee, which includes the U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Space Force, U.S. Army, U.S. Coast Guard, Federal Aviation Administration, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), U.S. Department of the Interior, and U.S. Department of Transportation.In January 2011, the FCC conditionally authorized LightSquared's wholesale customers—such as Best Buy, Sharp, and C Spire—to only purchase an integrated satellite-ground-based service from LightSquared and re-sell that integrated service on devices that are equipped to only use the ground-based signal using LightSquared's allocated frequencies of 1525 to 1559 MHz.", "In December 2010, GPS receiver manufacturers expressed concerns to the FCC that LightSquared's signal would interfere with GPS receiver devices although the FCC's policy considerations leading up to the January 2011 order did not pertain to any proposed changes to the maximum number of ground-based LightSquared stations or the maximum power at which these stations could operate.", "The January 2011 order makes final authorization contingent upon studies of GPS interference issues carried out by a LightSquared led working group along with GPS industry and Federal agency participation.", "On February 14, 2012, the FCC initiated proceedings to vacate LightSquared's Conditional Waiver Order based on the NTIA's conclusion that there was currently no practical way to mitigate potential GPS interference.GPS receiver manufacturers design GPS receivers to use spectrum beyond the GPS-allocated band.", "In some cases, GPS receivers are designed to use up to 400 MHz of spectrum in either direction of the L1 frequency of 1575.42 MHz, because mobile satellite services in those regions are broadcasting from space to ground, and at power levels commensurate with mobile satellite services.", "As regulated under the FCC's Part 15 rules, GPS receivers are not warranted protection from signals outside GPS-allocated spectrum.", "This is why GPS operates next to the Mobile Satellite Service band, and also why the Mobile Satellite Service band operates next to GPS.", "The symbiotic relationship of spectrum allocation ensures that users of both bands are able to operate cooperatively and freely.The FCC adopted rules in February 2003 that allowed Mobile Satellite Service (MSS) licensees such as LightSquared to construct a small number of ancillary ground-based towers in their licensed spectrum to \"promote more efficient use of terrestrial wireless spectrum\".", "In those 2003 rules, the FCC stated: \"As a preliminary matter, terrestrial Commercial Mobile Radio Service ('CMRS') and MSS ATC are expected to have different prices, coverage, product acceptance and distribution; therefore, the two services appear, at best, to be imperfect substitutes for one another that would be operating in predominantly different market segments ... MSS ATC is unlikely to compete directly with terrestrial CMRS for the same customer base...\".", "In 2004, the FCC clarified that the ground-based towers would be ancillary, noting: \"We will authorize MSS ATC subject to conditions that ensure that the added terrestrial component remains ancillary to the principal MSS offering.", "We do not intend, nor will we permit, the terrestrial component to become a stand-alone service.\"", "In July 2010, the FCC stated that it expected LightSquared to use its authority to offer an integrated satellite-terrestrial service to \"provide mobile broadband services similar to those provided by terrestrial mobile providers and enhance competition in the mobile broadband sector\".", "GPS receiver manufacturers have argued that LightSquared's licensed spectrum of 1525 to 1559 MHz was never envisioned as being used for high-speed wireless broadband based on the 2003 and 2004 FCC ATC rulings making clear that the Ancillary Tower Component (ATC) would be, in fact, ancillary to the primary satellite component.", "To build public support of efforts to continue the 2004 FCC authorization of LightSquared's ancillary terrestrial component vs. a simple ground-based LTE service in the Mobile Satellite Service band, GPS receiver manufacturer Trimble Navigation Ltd. formed the \"Coalition To Save Our GPS\".The FCC and LightSquared have each made public commitments to solve the GPS interference issue before the network is allowed to operate.", "According to Chris Dancy of the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, airline pilots with the type of systems that would be affected \"may go off course and not even realize it\".", "The problems could also affect the Federal Aviation Administration upgrade to the air traffic control system, United States Defense Department guidance, and local emergency services including 911.On February 14, 2012, the FCC moved to bar LightSquared's planned national broadband network after being informed by the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), the federal agency that coordinates spectrum uses for the military and other federal government entities, that \"there is no practical way to mitigate potential interference at this time\".", "LightSquared is challenging the FCC's action." ], [ "Similar systems", "Following the United States' deployment of GPS, other countries have also developed their own satellite navigation systems.", "These systems include:* The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was developed at the same time as GPS, but suffered from incomplete coverage of the globe until the mid-2000s.", "GLONASS reception in addition to GPS can be combined in a receiver thereby allowing for additional satellites available to enable faster position fixes and improved accuracy, to within .", "* China's BeiDou Navigation Satellite System began global services in 2018 and finished its full deployment in 2020.", "* The Galileo navigation satellite system, a global system being developed by the European Union and other partner countries, began operation in 2016, and is expected to be fully deployed by 2020.", "* Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) is a GPS satellite-based augmentation system to enhance GPS's accuracy in Asia-Oceania, with satellite navigation independent of GPS scheduled for 2023.", "* The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System, deployed by India." ], [ "See also", "* List of GPS satellites* GPS satellite blocks* GPS signals* Satellite navigation software* GPS/INS* GPS spoofing* Indoor positioning system* Local-area augmentation system* Local positioning system* Military invention* Mobile phone tracking* Navigation paradox* Notice Advisory to Navstar Users* S-GPS* Geostationary balloon satellite" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * Global Positioning System Open Courseware from MIT, 2012*" ], [ "External links", "* FAA GPS FAQ* GPS.gov – General public education website created by the U.S. Government" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Germany" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Germany''', officially the '''Federal Republic of Germany''', is a country in the western region of Central Europe.", "It is the second-most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union.", "Germany lies between the Baltic and North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south.", "Its 16 constituent states have a total population of over 84 million, cover a combined area of and are bordered by Denmark to the north, Poland and the Czech Republic to the east, Austria and Switzerland to the south, and France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands to the west.", "The nation's capital and most populous city is Berlin and its main financial centre is Frankfurt; the largest urban area is the Ruhr.Settlement in what is now Germany began in the Lower Paleolithic, with various tribes inhabiting it from the Neolithic onward, chiefly the Celts.", "Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity.", "A region named Germania was documented before AD 100.In 962, the Kingdom of Germany formed the bulk of the Holy Roman Empire.", "During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation.", "Following the Napoleonic Wars and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the German Confederation was formed in 1815.Formal unification of Germany into the modern nation-state commenced on 18 August 1866 with the North German Confederation Treaty establishing the Prussia-led North German Confederation later transformed in 1871 into the German Empire.", "After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was in turn transformed into the semi-presidential Weimar Republic.", "The Nazi seizure of power in 1933 led to the establishment of a totalitarian dictatorship, World War II, and the Holocaust.", "After the end of World War II in Europe and a period of Allied occupation, in 1949, Germany as a whole was organized into two separate polities with limited sovereignty: the Federal Republic of Germany, generally known as West Germany, and the German Democratic Republic, known as East Germany, while Berlin continued its ''de jure'' Four Power status.", "The Federal Republic of Germany was a founding member of the European Economic Community and the European Union, while the German Democratic Republic was a communist Eastern Bloc state and member of the Warsaw Pact.", "After the fall of the communist led-government in East Germany, German reunification saw the former East German states join the Federal Republic of Germany on 3 October 1990.Germany has been described as a great power with a strong economy; it has the largest economy in Europe.", "As a global power in industrial, scientific and technological sectors, it is both the world's third-largest exporter and importer.", "As a developed country it offers social security, a universal health care system, and tuition-free university education.", "Germany is a member of the United Nations, European Union, NATO, Council of Europe, G7, G20, and OECD.", "It has the third-greatest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.== Etymology ==The English word ''Germany'' derives from the Latin , which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine.", "The German term , originally ('the German lands') is derived from (cf.", "''Dutch''), descended from Old High German 'of the people' (from or 'people'), originally used to distinguish the language of the common people from Latin and its Romance descendants.", "This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic 'of the people' (see also the Latinised form ), derived from , descended from Proto-Indo-European *'''' 'people', from which the word ''Teutons'' also originates." ], [ "History", "Pre-human ancestors, the ''Danuvius guggenmosi'', who were present in Germany over 11 million years ago, are theorized to be among the earliest ones to walk on two legs.", "Ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago.", "The first non-modern human fossil (the Neanderthal) was discovered in the Neander Valley.", "Similarly dated evidence of modern humans has been found in the Swabian Jura, including 42,000-year-old flutes which are the oldest musical instruments ever found, the 40,000-year-old Lion Man, and the 35,000-year-old Venus of Hohle Fels.", "The Nebra sky disk, created during the European Bronze Age, has been attributed to a German site.=== Germanic tribes, Roman frontier and the Frankish Empire ===Basilica of Constantine in Trier (''Augusta Treverorum''), built in the 4th centuryThe Germanic peoples are thought to date from the Nordic Bronze Age, early Iron Age, or the Jastorf culture.", "From southern Scandinavia and northern Germany, they expanded south, east, and west, coming into contact with the Celtic, Iranian, Baltic, and Slavic tribes.Under Augustus, the Roman Empire began to invade lands inhabited by the Germanic tribes, creating a short-lived Roman province of Germania between the Rhine and Elbe rivers.", "In 9 AD, three Roman legions were defeated by Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.", "The outcome of this battle dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania, and is thus considered one of the most important events in European history.", "By 100 AD, when Tacitus wrote ''Germania'', Germanic tribes had settled along the Rhine and the Danube (the Limes Germanicus), occupying most of modern Germany.", "However, Baden-Württemberg, southern Bavaria, southern Hesse and the western Rhineland had been incorporated into Roman provinces.Around 260, Germanic peoples broke into Roman-controlled lands.", "After the invasion of the Huns in 375, and with the decline of Rome from 395, Germanic tribes moved farther southwest: the Franks established the Frankish Kingdom and pushed east to subjugate Saxony and Bavaria, and areas of what is today eastern Germany were inhabited by Western Slavic tribes.=== East Francia and the Holy Roman Empire ===East Francia in 843Martin Luther, born in Eisleben in 1483, challenged the indulgences of the Catholic Church, giving rise to the Reformation and Protestantism.Charlemagne founded the Carolingian Empire in 800; it was divided in 843.The eastern successor kingdom of East Francia stretched from the Rhine in the west to the Elbe river in the east and from the North Sea to the Alps.", "Subsequently, the Holy Roman Empire emerged from it.", "The Ottonian rulers (919–1024) consolidated several major duchies.", "In 996, Gregory V became the first German Pope, appointed by his cousin Otto III, whom he shortly after crowned Holy Roman Emperor.", "The Holy Roman Empire absorbed northern Italy and Burgundy under the Salian emperors (1024–1125), although the emperors lost power through the Investiture controversy.Under the Hohenstaufen emperors (1138–1254), German princes encouraged German settlement to the south and east ().", "Members of the Hanseatic League, mostly north German towns, prospered in the expansion of trade.", "The population declined starting with the Great Famine in 1315, followed by the Black Death of 1348–1350.The Golden Bull issued in 1356 provided the constitutional structure of the Empire and codified the election of the emperor by seven prince-electors.Johannes Gutenberg introduced moveable-type printing to Europe, laying the basis for the democratization of knowledge.", "In 1517, Martin Luther incited the Protestant Reformation and his translation of the Bible began the standardization of the language; the 1555 Peace of Augsburg tolerated the \"Evangelical\" faith (Lutheranism), but also decreed that the faith of the prince was to be the faith of his subjects ().", "From the Cologne War through the Thirty Years' Wars (1618–1648), religious conflict devastated German lands and significantly reduced the population.The Peace of Westphalia ended religious warfare among the Imperial Estates; their mostly German-speaking rulers were able to choose Catholicism, Lutheranism, or Calvinism as their official religion.", "The legal system initiated by a series of Imperial Reforms (approximately 1495–1555) provided for considerable local autonomy and a stronger Imperial Diet.", "The House of Habsburg held the imperial crown from 1438 until the death of Charles VI in 1740.Following the War of the Austrian Succession and the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Charles VI's daughter Maria Theresa ruled as empress consort when her husband, Francis I, became emperor.From 1740, dualism between the Austrian Habsburg monarchy and the Kingdom of Prussia dominated German history.", "In 1772, 1793, and 1795, Prussia and Austria, along with the Russian Empire, agreed to the Partitions of Poland.", "During the period of the French Revolutionary Wars, the Napoleonic era and the subsequent final meeting of the Imperial Diet, most of the Free Imperial Cities were annexed by dynastic territories; the ecclesiastical territories were secularised and annexed.", "In 1806 the was dissolved; France, Russia, Prussia, and the Habsburgs (Austria) competed for hegemony in the German states during the Napoleonic Wars.=== German Confederation and Empire ===The German Confederation in 1815Following the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna founded the German Confederation, a loose league of 39 sovereign states.", "The appointment of the emperor of Austria as the permanent president reflected the Congress's rejection of Prussia's rising influence.", "Disagreement within restoration politics partly led to the rise of liberal movements, followed by new measures of repression by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich.", "The , a tariff union, furthered economic unity.", "In light of revolutionary movements in Europe, intellectuals and commoners started the revolutions of 1848 in the German states, raising the German question.", "King Frederick William IV of Prussia was offered the title of emperor, but with a loss of power; he rejected the crown and the proposed constitution, a temporary setback for the movement.King William I appointed Otto von Bismarck as the Minister President of Prussia in 1862.Bismarck successfully concluded the war with Denmark in 1864; the subsequent decisive Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 enabled him to create the North German Confederation which excluded Austria.", "After the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War, the German princes proclaimed the founding of the German Empire in 1871.Prussia was the dominant constituent state of the new empire; the King of Prussia ruled as its Kaiser, and Berlin became its capital.In the period following the unification of Germany, Bismarck's foreign policy as chancellor of Germany secured Germany's position as a great nation by forging alliances and avoiding war.", "However, under Wilhelm II, Germany took an imperialistic course, leading to friction with neighbouring countries.", "A dual alliance was created with the multinational realm of Austria-Hungary; the Triple Alliance of 1882 included Italy.", "Britain, France and Russia also concluded alliances to protect against Habsburg interference with Russian interests in the Balkans or German interference against France.", "At the Berlin Conference in 1884, Germany claimed several colonies including German East Africa, German South West Africa, Togoland, and Kamerun.", "Later, Germany further expanded its colonial empire to include holdings in the Pacific and China.", "The colonial government in South West Africa (present-day Namibia), from 1904 to 1907, carried out the annihilation of the local Herero and Namaqua peoples as punishment for an uprising; this was the 20th century's first genocide.The assassination of Austria's crown prince on 28 June 1914 provided the pretext for Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia and trigger World War I.", "After four years of warfare, in which approximately two million German soldiers were killed, a general armistice ended the fighting.", "In the German Revolution (November 1918), Wilhelm II and the ruling princes abdicated their positions, and Germany was declared a federal republic.", "Germany's new leadership signed the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, accepting defeat by the Allies.", "Germans perceived the treaty as humiliating, which was seen by historians as influential in the rise of Adolf Hitler.", "Germany lost around 13% of its European territory and ceded all of its colonial possessions in Africa and the Pacific.=== Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany ===Adolf Hitler, dictator of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945A map of German-occupied Europe in 1942 during World War II with areas controlled by the German Reich shown in bold blackOn 11 August 1919, President Friedrich Ebert signed the democratic Weimar Constitution.", "In the subsequent struggle for power, communists seized power in Bavaria, but conservative elements elsewhere attempted to overthrow the Republic in the .", "Street fighting in the major industrial centres, the occupation of the Ruhr by Belgian and French troops, and a period of hyperinflation followed.", "A debt restructuring plan and the creation of a new currency in 1924 ushered in the Golden Twenties, an era of artistic innovation and liberal cultural life.The worldwide Great Depression hit Germany in 1929.Chancellor Heinrich Brüning's government pursued a policy of fiscal austerity and deflation which caused unemployment of nearly 30% by 1932.The Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler became the largest party in the Reichstag after a special election in 1932 and Hindenburg appointed Hitler as chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933.After the Reichstag fire, a decree abrogated basic civil rights and the first Nazi concentration camp opened.", "On 23 March 1933, the Enabling Act gave Hitler unrestricted legislative power, overriding the constitution, and marked the beginning of Nazi Germany.", "His government established a centralised totalitarian state, withdrew from the League of Nations, and dramatically increased the country's rearmament.", "A government-sponsored programme for economic renewal focused on public works, the most famous of which was the .In 1935, the regime withdrew from the Treaty of Versailles and introduced the Nuremberg Laws which targeted Jews and other minorities.", "Germany also reacquired control of the Saarland in 1935, remilitarised the Rhineland in 1936, annexed Austria in 1938, annexed the Sudetenland in 1938 with the Munich Agreement, and in violation of the agreement occupied Czechoslovakia in March 1939.", "(Night of Broken Glass) saw the burning of synagogues, the destruction of Jewish businesses, and mass arrests of Jewish people.In August 1939, Hitler's government negotiated the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact that divided Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence.", "On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland, beginning World War II in Europe; Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September.", "In the spring of 1940, Germany conquered Denmark and Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France, forcing the French government to sign an armistice.", "The British repelled German air attacks in the Battle of Britain in the same year.", "In 1941, German troops invaded Yugoslavia, Greece and the Soviet Union.", "By 1942, Germany and its allies controlled most of continental Europe and North Africa, but following the Soviet victory at the Battle of Stalingrad, the Allied reconquest of North Africa and invasion of Italy in 1943, German forces suffered repeated military defeats.", "In 1944, the Soviets pushed into Eastern Europe; the Western allies landed in France and entered Germany despite a final German counteroffensive.", "Following Hitler's suicide during the Battle of Berlin, Germany signed the surrender document on 8 May 1945, ending World War II in Europe and Nazi Germany.", "Following the end of the war, surviving Nazi officials were tried for war crimes at the Nuremberg trials.In what later became known as the Holocaust, the German government persecuted minorities, including interning them in concentration and death camps across Europe.", "The regime systematically murdered 6 million Jews, at least 130,000 Romani, 275,000 disabled, thousands of Jehovah's Witnesses, thousands of homosexuals, and hundreds of thousands of political and religious opponents.", "Nazi policies in German-occupied countries resulted in the deaths of an estimated 2.7 million Poles, 1.3 million Ukrainians, 1 million Belarusians and 3.5 million Soviet prisoners of war.", "German military casualties have been estimated at 5.3 million, and around 900,000 German civilians died.", "Around 12 million ethnic Germans were expelled from across Eastern Europe, and Germany lost roughly one-quarter of its pre-war territory.=== East and West Germany ===A map of Germany in 1947, following the end of World War II, including American, Soviet, British, and French occupation zones and the French-controlled Saar Protectorate.", "Territories east of the Oder-Neisse line were transferred to Poland and the Soviet Union under the terms of the Potsdam Conference.After Nazi Germany surrendered, the Allies ''de jure'' abolished the German state and partitioned Berlin and Germany's remaining territory into four occupation zones.", "The western sectors, controlled by France, the United Kingdom, and the United States, were merged on 23 May 1949 to form the Federal Republic of Germany (); on 7 October 1949, the Soviet Zone became the German Democratic Republic (GDR) (; DDR).", "They were informally known as West Germany and East Germany.", "East Germany selected East Berlin as its capital, while West Germany chose Bonn as a provisional capital, to emphasise its stance that the two-state solution was temporary.West Germany was established as a federal parliamentary republic with a \"social market economy\".", "Starting in 1948 West Germany became a major recipient of reconstruction aid under the American Marshall Plan.", "Konrad Adenauer was elected the first federal chancellor of Germany in 1949.The country enjoyed prolonged economic growth () beginning in the early 1950s.", "West Germany joined NATO in 1955 and was a founding member of the European Economic Community.", "On 1 January 1957, the Saarland joined West Germany.East Germany was an Eastern Bloc state under political and military control by the Soviet Union via occupation forces and the Warsaw Pact.", "Although East Germany claimed to be a democracy, political power was exercised solely by leading members () of the communist-controlled Socialist Unity Party of Germany, supported by the , an immense secret service.", "While East German propaganda was based on the benefits of the GDR's social programmes and the alleged threat of a West German invasion, many of its citizens looked to the West for freedom and prosperity.", "The Berlin Wall, built in 1961, prevented East German citizens from escaping to West Germany, becoming a symbol of the Cold War.Tensions between East and West Germany were reduced in the late 1960s by Chancellor Willy Brandt's .", "In 1989, Hungary decided to dismantle the Iron Curtain and open its border with Austria, causing the emigration of thousands of East Germans to West Germany via Hungary and Austria.", "This had devastating effects on the GDR, where regular mass demonstrations received increasing support.", "In an effort to help retain East Germany as a state, the East German authorities eased border restrictions, but this actually led to an acceleration of the reform process culminating in the ''Two Plus Four Treaty'' under which Germany regained full sovereignty.", "This permitted German reunification on 3 October 1990, with the accession of the five re-established states of the former GDR.", "The fall of the Wall in 1989 became a symbol of the Fall of Communism, the Dissolution of the Soviet Union, German reunification and (\"the turning point\").=== Reunified Germany and the European Union ===The Berlin Wall during its fall in 1989 and the Brandenburg Gate (background) was one of the first developments in the end of the Cold War, leading ultimately to the dissolution of the Soviet Union.United Germany was considered the enlarged continuation of West Germany so it retained its memberships in international organisations.", "Based on the Berlin/Bonn Act (1994), Berlin again became the capital of Germany, while Bonn obtained the unique status of a (federal city) retaining some federal ministries.", "The relocation of the government was completed in 1999, and modernisation of the East German economy was scheduled to last until 2019.Since reunification, Germany has taken a more active role in the European Union, signing the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 and the Lisbon Treaty in 2007, and co-founding the eurozone.", "Germany sent a peacekeeping force to secure stability in the Balkans and sent German troops to Afghanistan as part of a NATO effort to provide security in that country after the ousting of the Taliban.In the 2005 elections, Angela Merkel became the first female chancellor.", "In 2009, the German government approved a €50 billion stimulus plan.", "Among the major German political projects of the early 21st century are the advancement of European integration, the energy transition () for a sustainable energy supply, the debt brake for balanced budgets, measures to increase the fertility rate (pronatalism), and high-tech strategies for the transition of the German economy, summarised as Industry 4.0.During the 2015 European migrant crisis, the country took in over a million refugees and migrants." ], [ "Geography", "A physical map of GermanyGermany is the seventh-largest country in Europe; bordering Denmark to the north, Poland and the Czech Republic to the east, Austria to the southeast, and Switzerland to the south-southwest.", "France, Luxembourg and Belgium are situated to the west, with the Netherlands to the northwest.", "Germany is also bordered by the North Sea and, at the north-northeast, by the Baltic Sea.", "German territory covers , consisting of of land and of water.Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Alps (highest point: the Zugspitze at ) in the south to the shores of the North Sea () in the northwest and the Baltic Sea () in the northeast.", "The forested uplands of central Germany and the lowlands of northern Germany (lowest point: in the municipality Neuendorf-Sachsenbande, Wilstermarsch at below sea level) are traversed by such major rivers as the Rhine, Danube and Elbe.", "Significant natural resources include iron ore, coal, potash, timber, lignite, uranium, copper, natural gas, salt, and nickel.=== Climate ===Most of Germany has a temperate climate, ranging from oceanic in the north and west to continental in the east and southeast.", "Winters range from the cold in the Southern Alps to cool and are generally overcast with limited precipitation, while summers can vary from hot and dry to cool and rainy.", "The northern regions have prevailing westerly winds that bring in moist air from the North Sea, moderating the temperature and increasing precipitation.", "Conversely, the southeast regions have more extreme temperatures.From February 2019 – 2020, average monthly temperatures in Germany ranged from a low of in January 2020 to a high of in June 2019.Average monthly precipitation ranged from 30 litres per square metre in February and April 2019 to 125 litres per square metre in February 2020.Average monthly hours of sunshine ranged from 45 in November 2019 to 300 in June 2019.=== Biodiversity ===Berchtesgaden National Park in BavariaThe territory of Germany can be divided into five terrestrial ecoregions: Atlantic mixed forests, Baltic mixed forests, Central European mixed forests, Western European broadleaf forests, and Alps conifer and mixed forests.", "51% of Germany's land area is devoted to agriculture, while 30% is forested and 14% is covered by settlements or infrastructure.Plants and animals include those generally common to Central Europe.", "According to the National Forest Inventory, beeches, oaks, and other deciduous trees constitute just over 40% of the forests; roughly 60% are conifers, particularly spruce and pine.", "There are many species of ferns, flowers, fungi, and mosses.", "Wild animals include roe deer, wild boar, mouflon (a subspecies of wild sheep), fox, badger, hare, and small numbers of the Eurasian beaver.", "The blue cornflower was once a German national symbol.The 16 national parks in Germany include the Jasmund National Park, the Vorpommern Lagoon Area National Park, the Müritz National Park, the Wadden Sea National Parks, the Harz National Park, the Hainich National Park, the Black Forest National Park, the Saxon Switzerland National Park, the Bavarian Forest National Park and the Berchtesgaden National Park.", "In addition, there are 17 Biosphere Reserves, and 105 nature parks.", "More than 400 zoos and animal parks operate in Germany.", "The Berlin Zoo, which opened in 1844, is the oldest in Germany, and claims the most comprehensive collection of species in the world." ], [ "Politics", " 155px 157pxFrank-Walter SteinmeierPresident(representative head of state)Olaf ScholzChancellor(head of government)Germany is a federal, parliamentary, representative democratic republic.", "Federal legislative power is vested in the parliament consisting of the (Federal Diet) and (Federal Council), which together form the legislative body.", "The is elected through direct elections using the mixed-member proportional representation system.", "The members of the represent and are appointed by the governments of the sixteen federated states.", "The German political system operates under a framework laid out in the 1949 constitution known as the (Basic Law).", "Amendments generally require a two-thirds majority of both the and the ; the fundamental principles of the constitution, as expressed in the articles guaranteeing human dignity, the separation of powers, the federal structure, and the rule of law, are valid in perpetuity.The president, currently Frank-Walter Steinmeier, is the head of state and invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers.", "He is elected by the (federal convention), an institution consisting of the members of the and an equal number of state delegates.", "The second-highest official in the German order of precedence is the (President of the Bundestag), who is elected by the and responsible for overseeing the daily sessions of the body.", "The third-highest official and the head of government is the chancellor, who is appointed by the after being elected by the party or coalition with the most seats in the .", "The chancellor, currently Olaf Scholz, is the head of government and exercises executive power through his Cabinet.Since 1949, the party system has been dominated by the Christian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party of Germany.", "So far every chancellor has been a member of one of these parties.", "However, the smaller liberal Free Democratic Party and the Alliance 90/The Greens have also been junior partners in coalition governments.", "Since 2007, the democratic socialist party The Left has been a staple in the German , though they have never been part of the federal government.", "In the 2017 German federal election, the right-wing populist Alternative for Germany gained enough votes to attain representation in the parliament for the first time.=== Constituent states ===Germany is a federation and comprises sixteen constituent states which are collectively referred to as .", "Each state () has its own constitution, and is largely autonomous in regard to its internal organisation.", "Germany is divided into 401 districts () at a municipal level; these consist of 294 rural districts and 107 urban districts.", "State Capital Area (km2) Population (2018) Nominal GDP billions EUR (2022) Nominal GDP per capita EUR (2022) Baden-Württemberg Stuttgart 35,75111,069,533 572 50,982 Bavaria Munich 70,55013,076,721 716 53,768 Berlin Berlin 8923,644,826 179 48,147 Brandenburg Potsdam 29,6542,511,917 88 34,610 Bremen Bremen 420682,986 38 56,901 Hamburg Hamburg 7551,841,179 144 76,910 Hesse Wiesbaden 21,1156,265,809 323 50,751 Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Schwerin 23,2141,609,675 53 32,837 Lower Saxony Hanover 47,5937,982,448 339 41,826 North Rhine-Westphalia Düsseldorf 34,11317,932,651 793 43,910 Rhineland-Palatinate Mainz 19,8544,084,844 17141,366 Saarland Saarbrücken 2,569990,509 38 38,944 Saxony Dresden 18,4164,077,937 146 35,909 Saxony-Anhalt Magdeburg 20,4522,208,321 75 34,505 Schleswig-Holstein Kiel 15,8022,896,712 112 41,925 Thuringia Erfurt 16,2022,143,145 71 33,756 Germany Berlin 357,38683,019,213 3867 45,839=== Law ===Germany has a civil law system based on Roman law with some references to Germanic law.", "The (Federal Constitutional Court) is the German Supreme Court responsible for constitutional matters, with power of judicial review.", "Germany's supreme court system is specialised: for civil and criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the inquisitorial Federal Court of Justice, and for other affairs the courts are the Federal Labour Court, the Federal Social Court, the Federal Fiscal Court and the Federal Administrative Court.Criminal and private laws are codified on the national level in the and the respectively.", "The German penal system seeks the rehabilitation of the criminal and the protection of the public.", "Except for petty crimes, which are tried before a single professional judge, and serious political crimes, all charges are tried before mixed tribunals on which lay judges () sit side by side with professional judges.Germany has a low murder rate with 1.18 murders per 100,000 .", "In 2018, the overall crime rate fell to its lowest since 1992.Same-sex marriage has been legal in Germany since 2017, and LGBT rights are generally protected in the nation.=== Foreign relations ===Germany hosted the 2022 G7 summit at Schloss Elmau in Bavaria.Germany has a network of 227 diplomatic missions abroad and maintains relations with more than 190 countries.", "Germany is a member of NATO, the OECD, the G7, the G20, the World Bank and the IMF.", "It has played an influential role in the European Union since its inception and has maintained a strong alliance with France and all neighbouring countries since 1990.Germany promotes the creation of a more unified European political, economic and security apparatus.", "The governments of Germany and the United States are close political allies.", "Cultural ties and economic interests have crafted a bond between the two countries resulting in Atlanticism.", "After 1990, Germany and Russia worked together to establish a \"strategic partnership\" in which energy development became one of the most important factors.", "As a result of the cooperation, Germany imported most of its natural gas and crude oil from Russia.The development policy of Germany is an independent area of foreign policy.", "It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development and carried out by the implementing organisations.", "The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community.", "It was the world's second-biggest aid donor in 2019 after the United States.=== Military ===A German TPz Fuchs armoured personnel carrierGermany's military, the (Federal Defence), is organised into the (Army and special forces ), (Navy), (Air Force), (Joint Medical Service), (Joint Support Service) and (Cyber and Information Domain Service) branches.", "In absolute terms, German military expenditure is the eighth-highest in the world.", "In 2018, military spending was at $49.5 billion, about 1.2% of the country's GDP, well below the NATO target of 2%.", "However, in response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Chancellor Olaf Scholz announced that German military expenditure would be increased past the NATO target of 2%, along with a one-time 2022 infusion of 100 billion euros, representing almost double the 53 billion euro military budget for 2021., the has a strength of 184,001 active soldiers and 80,947 civilians.", "Reservists are available to the armed forces and participate in defence exercises and deployments abroad.", "Until 2011, military service was compulsory for men at age 18, but this has been officially suspended and replaced with a voluntary service.", "Since 2001 women may serve in all functions of service without restriction.", "According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Germany was the fourth-largest exporter of major arms in the world from 2014 to 2018.In peacetime, the is commanded by the Minister of Defence.", "In state of defence, the Chancellor would become commander-in-chief of the .", "The role of the is described in the Constitution of Germany as defensive only.", "But after a ruling of the Federal Constitutional Court in 1994, the term \"defence\" has been defined to not only include protection of the borders of Germany, but also crisis reaction and conflict prevention, or more broadly as guarding the security of Germany anywhere in the world.", "the German military has about 3,600 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of international peacekeeping forces, including about 1,200 supporting operations against Daesh, 980 in the NATO-led Resolute Support Mission in Afghanistan, and 800 in Kosovo." ], [ "Economy", "Frankfurt, a leading business centre in Europe and the seat of the European Central BankGermany has a social market economy with a highly skilled labour force, a low level of corruption, and a high level of innovation.", "It is the world's third-largest exporter and third-largest importer, and has the largest economy in Europe, the world's third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the fifth-largest by PPP.", "Its GDP per capita measured in purchasing power standards amounts to 121% of the EU27 average.", "The service sector contributes approximately 69% of the total GDP, industry 31%, with Germany having the largest manufacturing sector in Europe, and agriculture 1% .", "The unemployment rate published by Eurostat amounts to 3.2% , which is the fourth-lowest in the EU.Germany is part of the European single market which represents more than 450 million consumers.", "In 2017, the country accounted for 28% of the eurozone economy according to the International Monetary Fund.", "Germany introduced the common European currency, the euro, in 2002.Its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank, which is headquartered in Frankfurt.Being home to the modern car, the automotive industry in Germany is regarded as one of the most competitive and innovative in the world, and is the sixth-largest by production as of 2021.Germany is home to Volkswagen Group, the world's second-largest automotive manufacturer in 2022 by both vehicle production and sales, and is the third-largest exporter of cars as of 2023.The top ten exports of Germany are vehicles, machinery, chemical goods, electronic products, electrical equipments, pharmaceuticals, transport equipments, basic metals, food products, and rubber and plastics.Of the world's 500 largest stock-market-listed companies measured by revenue in 2023, the Fortune Global 500, 32 are headquartered in Germany.", "30 major Germany-based companies are included in the DAX, the German stock market index which is operated by Frankfurt Stock Exchange.", "Well-known international brands include Mercedes-Benz, BMW, Volkswagen, Audi, Siemens, Allianz, Adidas, Porsche, Bosch and Deutsche Telekom.", "Berlin is a hub for startup companies and has become the leading location for venture capital funded firms in the European Union.", "Germany is recognised for its large portion of specialised small and medium enterprises, known as the model.", "These companies represent 48% of the global market leaders in their segments, labelled hidden champions.Research and development efforts form an integral part of the German economy, with the country ranking fourth in research and development expenditure since 2005.In 2018, Germany ranked fourth globally in terms of number of science and engineering research papers published.", "Research institutions in Germany include the Max Planck Society, the Helmholtz Association, and the Fraunhofer Society and the Leibniz Association.", "Germany is the largest contributor to the European Space Agency.", "Germany was ranked 8th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.=== Infrastructure ===An ICE 3 train on the Cologne–Frankfurt high-speed rail line, with operating speed up to With its central position in Europe, Germany is a transport hub for the continent.", "Its road network is among the densest in Europe.", "The motorway (Autobahn) is widely known for having no general federally mandated speed limit for some classes of vehicles.", "The Intercity Express or ''ICE'' train network serves major German cities as well as destinations in neighbouring countries with speeds up to .", "The largest German airports are Frankfurt Airport, Munich Airport and Berlin Brandenburg Airport.", "The Port of Hamburg is one of the twenty largest container ports in the world., Germany was the world's seventh-largest consumer of energy.", "All nuclear power plants were phased out in 2023.It meets the country's power demands using 40% renewable sources, and it has been called an \"early leader\" in solar and offshore wind.", "Germany is committed to the Paris Agreement and several other treaties promoting biodiversity, low emission standards, and water management.", "The country's household recycling rate is among the highest in the world—at around 65%.", "The country's greenhouse gas emissions per capita were the ninth-highest in the EU , but these numbers have been trending downward.", "The German energy transition () is the recognised move to a sustainable economy by means of energy efficiency and renewable energy.", "Germany has reduced its primary energy consumption by 11% between 1990 and 2015 and set itself goals of reducing it by 30% by 2030 and by 50% by 2050.=== Tourism ===Neuschwanstein Castle in BavariaDomestic and international travel and tourism combined directly contribute over €105.3 billion to German GDP.", "Including indirect and induced impacts, the industry supports 4.2 million jobs.", "Germany is the eighth-most-visited country.", "Its most popular landmarks include Cologne Cathedral, the Brandenburg Gate, the Reichstag, the Dresden Frauenkirche, Neuschwanstein Castle, Heidelberg Castle, the Wartburg, and Sanssouci Palace.", "The Europa-Park near Freiburg is Europe's second-most popular theme park resort." ], [ "Demographics", "German and Lower Sorbian in Cottbus (''Chóśebuz'') in BrandenburgWith a population of 80.2 million according to the 2011 German Census, rising to 83.7 million , Germany is the most populous country in the European Union, the second-most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the nineteenth-most populous country in the world.", "Its population density stands at .", "The fertility rate of 1.57 children born per woman (2022 estimates) is below the replacement rate of 2.1 and is one of the lowest fertility rates in the world.", "Since the 1970s, Germany's death rate has exceeded its birth rate.", "However, Germany is witnessing increased birth rates and migration rates since the beginning of the 2010s.", "Germany has the third oldest population in the world, with an average age of 47.4 years.Four sizeable groups of people are referred to as national minorities because their ancestors have lived in their respective regions for centuries: There is a Danish minority in the northernmost state of Schleswig-Holstein; the Sorbs, a Slavic population, are in the Lusatia region of Saxony and Brandenburg; the Roma and Sinti live throughout the country; and the Frisians are concentrated in Schleswig-Holstein's western coast and in the north-western part of Lower Saxony.After the United States, Germany is the second-most popular immigration destination in the world.", "In 2015, following the 2015 refugee crisis, the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs listed Germany as host to the second-highest number of international migrants worldwide, about 5% or 12 million of all 244 million migrants.", "Refugee crises have resulted in substantial population increases.", "For example, the major influx of Ukrainian immigrants following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, meaning over 1.06 million refugees from Ukraine were recorded in Germany as of April 2023., Germany ranks seventh among EU countries in terms of the percentage of migrants in the country's population, at 13.1%.", "In 2022 there were 23.8 million people, 28.7 percent of the total population, who had a migration background.Germany has a number of large cities.", "There are 11 officially recognised metropolitan regions.", "The country's largest city is Berlin, while its largest urban area is the Ruhr.=== Religion ===Cologne Cathedral, a UNESCO World Heritage SiteChristianity was introduced to the area of modern Germany by 300 AD and became fully Christianized by the time of Charlemagne in the eighth and ninth century.", "After the Reformation started by Martin Luther in the early 16th century, many people left the Catholic Church and became Protestant, mainly Lutheran and Calvinist.According to the 2011 census, Christianity was the largest religion in Germany, with 66.8% of respondents identifying as Christian, of which 3.8% were not church members.", "31.7% declared themselves as Protestants, including members of the Protestant Church in Germany (which encompasses Lutheran, Reformed, and administrative or confessional unions of both traditions) and the free churches (); 31.2% declared themselves as Roman Catholics, and Orthodox believers constituted 1.3%.", "According to data from 2016, the Catholic Church and the Evangelical Church claimed 28.5% and 27.5%, respectively, of the population.", "Islam is the second-largest religion in the country.In the 2011 census, 1.9% of respondents (1.52 million people) gave their religion as Islam, but this figure is deemed unreliable because a disproportionate number of adherents of this faith (and other religions, such as Judaism) are likely to have made use of their right not to answer the question.", "Most of the Muslims are Sunnis and Alevites from Turkey, but there are a small number of Shi'ites, Ahmadiyyas and other denominations.", "Other religions comprise less than one per cent of Germany's population.A study in 2018 estimated that 38% of the population are not members of any religious organization or denomination, though up to a third may still consider themselves religious.", "Irreligion in Germany is strongest in the former East Germany, which used to be predominantly Protestant before the enforcement of state atheism, and in major metropolitan areas.=== Languages ===German is the official and predominantly spoken language in Germany.", "It is one of 24 official and working languages of the European Union, and one of the three procedural languages of the European Commission.", "German is the most widely spoken first language in the European Union, with around 100 million native speakers.Recognised native minority languages in Germany are Danish, Low German, Low Rhenish, Sorbian, Romani, North Frisian and Saterland Frisian; they are officially protected by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.", "The most used immigrant languages are Turkish, Arabic, Kurdish, Polish, Italian, Greek, Spanish, Serbo-Croatian, Bulgarian and other Balkan languages, as well as Russian.", "Germans are typically multilingual: 67% of German citizens claim to be able to communicate in at least one foreign language and 27% in at least two.=== Education ===Heidelberg University, Germany's oldest institution of higher learning and generally considered one of its most renownedResponsibility for educational supervision in Germany is primarily organised within the individual states.", "Optional kindergarten education is provided for all children between three and six years old, after which school attendance is compulsory for at least nine years depending on the state.", "Primary education usually lasts for four to six years.", "Secondary schooling is divided into tracks based on whether students pursue academic or vocational education.", "A system of apprenticeship called leads to a skilled qualification which is almost comparable to an academic degree.", "It allows students in vocational training to learn in a company as well as in a state-run trade school.", "This model is well regarded and reproduced all around the world.Most of the German universities are public institutions, and students traditionally study without fee payment.", "The general requirement for attending university is the .", "According to an OECD report in 2014, Germany is the world's third leading destination for international study.", "The established universities in Germany include some of the oldest in the world, with Heidelberg University (established in 1386), Leipzig University (established in 1409) and the University of Rostock (established in 1419) being the oldest.", "The Humboldt University of Berlin, founded in 1810 by the liberal educational reformer Wilhelm von Humboldt, became the academic model for many Western universities.", "In the contemporary era Germany has developed eleven Universities of Excellence.=== Health ===The Hospital of the Holy Spirit in Lübeck, established in 1286, is a precursor to modern hospitals.Germany's system of hospitals, called , dates from medieval times, and today, Germany has the world's oldest universal health care system, dating from Bismarck's social legislation of the 1880s.", "Since the 1880s, reforms and provisions have ensured a balanced health care system.", "The population is covered by a health insurance plan provided by statute, with criteria allowing some groups to opt for a private health insurance contract.", "According to the World Health Organization (WHO), Germany's health care system was 77% government-funded and 23% privately funded .", "In 2014, Germany spent 11.3% of its GDP on health care.Germany ranked 21st in the world in 2019 in life expectancy with 78.7 years for men and 84.8 years for women according to the WHO, and it had a very low infant mortality rate (4 per 1,000 live births).", ", the principal cause of death was cardiovascular disease, at 37%.", "Obesity in Germany has been increasingly cited as a major health issue.", "A 2014 study showed that 52 per cent of the adult German population was overweight or obese." ], [ "Culture", "A German Christmas market in DresdenCulture in German states has been shaped by major intellectual and popular currents in Europe, both religious and secular, and its scientists, writers and philosophers have played a significant role in the development of Western thought.", "A global opinion poll for the BBC revealed that Germany is recognised for having the most positive influence in the world in 2013 and 2014.Germany is well known for such folk festival traditions as the Oktoberfest and Christmas customs, which include Advent wreaths, Christmas pageants, Christmas trees, Stollen cakes, and other practices.", "UNESCO inscribed 52 properties in Germany on the World Heritage List.", "There are a number of public holidays in Germany determined by each state; 3 October has been a national day of Germany since 1990, celebrated as the (German Unity Day).=== Music ===Ludwig van Beethoven, one of the most famed composers of classical music, was born in Bonn in 1770.German classical music includes works by some of the world's most well-known composers.", "Dieterich Buxtehude, Johann Sebastian Bach and Georg Friedrich Händel were influential composers of the Baroque period.", "Ludwig van Beethoven was a crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras.", "Carl Maria von Weber, Felix Mendelssohn, Robert Schumann and Johannes Brahms were significant Romantic composers.", "Richard Wagner was known for his operas.", "Richard Strauss was a leading composer of the late Romantic and early modern eras.", "Karlheinz Stockhausen and Wolfgang Rihm are important composers of the 20th and early 21st centuries.As of 2013, Germany was the second-largest music market in Europe, and fourth-largest in the world.", "German popular music of the 20th and 21st centuries includes the movements of Neue Deutsche Welle, pop, Ostrock, heavy metal/rock, punk, pop rock, indie, Volksmusik (folk music), schlager pop and German hip hop.", "German electronic music gained global influence, with Kraftwerk and Tangerine Dream pioneering in this genre.", "DJs and artists of the techno and house music scenes of Germany have become well known (e.g.", "Paul van Dyk, Felix Jaehn, Paul Kalkbrenner, Robin Schulz and Scooter).=== Art, design and architecture ===German painters have influenced Western art.", "Albrecht Dürer, Hans Holbein the Younger, Matthias Grünewald and Lucas Cranach the Elder were important German artists of the Renaissance, Johann Baptist Zimmermann of the Baroque, Caspar David Friedrich and Carl Spitzweg of Romanticism, Max Liebermann of Impressionism and Max Ernst of Surrealism.", "Several German art groups formed in the 20th century; (The Bridge) and (The Blue Rider) influenced the development of expressionism in Munich and Berlin.", "The New Objectivity arose in response to expressionism during the Weimar Republic.", "After World War II, broad trends in German art include neo-expressionism and the New Leipzig School.German designers became early leaders of modern product design.", "The Berlin Fashion Week and the fashion trade fair Bread & Butter are held twice a year.Architectural contributions from Germany include the Carolingian and Ottonian styles, which were precursors of Romanesque.", "Brick Gothic is a distinctive medieval style that evolved in Germany.", "Also in Renaissance and Baroque art, regional and typically German elements evolved (e.g.", "Weser Renaissance).", "Vernacular architecture in Germany is often identified by its timber framing () traditions and varies across regions, and among carpentry styles.", "When industrialisation spread across Europe, classicism and a distinctive style of historicism developed in Germany, sometimes referred to as ''style''.", "Expressionist architecture developed in the 1910s in Germany and influenced Art Deco and other modern styles.", "Germany was particularly important in the early modernist movement: it is the home of Werkbund initiated by Hermann Muthesius (New Objectivity), and of the Bauhaus movement founded by Walter Gropius.", "Ludwig Mies van der Rohe became one of the world's most renowned architects in the second half of the 20th century; he conceived of the glass façade skyscraper.", "Renowned contemporary architects and offices include Pritzker Prize winners Gottfried Böhm and Frei Otto.=== Literature and philosophy ===Brothers Grimm, who collected and published popular German folk talesGerman literature can be traced back to the Middle Ages and the works of writers such as Walther von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach.", "Well-known German authors include Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and Theodor Fontane.", "The collections of folk tales published by the Brothers Grimm popularised German folklore on an international level.", "The Grimms also gathered and codified regional variants of the German language, grounding their work in historical principles; their , or German Dictionary, sometimes called the Grimm dictionary, was begun in 1838 and the first volumes published in 1854.Influential authors of the 20th century include Gerhart Hauptmann, Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse, Heinrich Böll, and Günter Grass.", "The German book market is the third-largest in the world, after the United States and China.", "The Frankfurt Book Fair is the most important in the world for international deals and trading, with a tradition spanning over 500 years.", "The Leipzig Book Fair also retains a major position in Europe.German philosophy is historically significant: Gottfried Leibniz's contributions to rationalism; the enlightenment philosophy by Immanuel Kant; the establishment of classical German idealism by Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling; Arthur Schopenhauer's composition of metaphysical pessimism; the formulation of communist theory by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels; Friedrich Nietzsche's development of perspectivism; Gottlob Frege's contributions to the dawn of analytic philosophy; Martin Heidegger's works on Being; Oswald Spengler's historical philosophy; and the development of the Frankfurt School have all been very influential.=== Media ===Babelsberg Studio in PotsdamThe largest internationally operating media companies in Germany are the Bertelsmann enterprise, Axel Springer SE and ProSiebenSat.1 Media.", "Germany's television market is the largest in Europe, with some 38 million TV households.", "Around 90% of German households have cable or satellite TV, with a variety of free-to-view public and commercial channels.", "There are more than 300 public and private radio stations in Germany; Germany's national radio network is the Deutschlandradio and the public Deutsche Welle is the main German radio and television broadcaster in foreign languages.", "Germany's print market of newspapers and magazines is the largest in Europe.", "The papers with the highest circulation are , , and .", "The largest magazines include and .", "Germany has a large video gaming market, with over 34 million players nationwide.", "The Gamescom is the world's largest gaming convention.German cinema has made major technical and artistic contributions to film.", "The first works of the Skladanowsky Brothers were shown to an audience in 1895.The renowned Babelsberg Studio in Potsdam was established in 1912, thus being the first large-scale film studio in the world.", "Early German cinema was particularly influential with German expressionists such as Robert Wiene and Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau.", "Director Fritz Lang's ''Metropolis'' (1927) is referred to as the first major science-fiction film.", "After 1945, many of the films of the immediate post-war period can be characterised as (rubble film).", "East German film was dominated by state-owned film studio DEFA, while the dominant genre in West Germany was the (\"homeland film\").", "During the 1970s and 1980s, New German Cinema directors such as Volker Schlöndorff, Werner Herzog, Wim Wenders, and Rainer Werner Fassbinder brought West German auteur cinema to critical acclaim.The Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film (\"Oscar\") went to the German production ''The Tin Drum'' () in 1979, to ''Nowhere in Africa'' () in 2002, and to ''The Lives of Others'' () in 2007.Various Germans won an Oscar for their performances in other films.", "The annual European Film Awards ceremony is held every other year in Berlin, home of the European Film Academy.", "The Berlin International Film Festival, known as \"Berlinale\", awarding the \"Golden Bear\" and held annually since 1951, is one of the world's leading film festivals.", "The \"Lolas\" are annually awarded in Berlin, at the German Film Awards.=== Cuisine ===Bavarian Bratwurst with mustard, a pretzel, and German beerGerman cuisine varies from region to region and often neighbouring regions share some culinary similarities, including with the southern regions of Bavaria and Swabia, Switzerland, and Austria.", "International varieties such as pizza, sushi, Chinese food, Greek food, Indian cuisine, and doner kebab are popular.Bread is a significant part of German cuisine and German bakeries produce about 600 main types of bread and 1,200 types of pastries and rolls ().", "German cheeses account for about 22% of all cheese produced in Europe.", "In 2012 over 99% of all meat produced in Germany was either pork, chicken or beef.", "Germans produce their ubiquitous sausages in almost 1,500 varieties, including Bratwursts and Weisswursts.The national alcoholic drink is beer.", "German beer consumption per person stands at in 2013 and remains among the highest in the world.", "German beer purity regulations date back to the 16th century.", "Wine has become popular in many parts of the country, especially close to German wine regions.", "In 2019, Germany was the ninth-largest wine producer in the world.The 2018 Michelin Guide awarded eleven restaurants in Germany three stars, giving the country a cumulative total of 300 stars.=== Sports ===German national football team after winning the FIFA World Cup for the fourth time in 2014Football is the most popular sport in Germany.", "With more than 7 million official members, the German Football Association (''Deutscher Fußball-Bund'') is the largest single-sport organisation worldwide, and the German top league, the Bundesliga, attracts the second-highest average attendance of all professional sports leagues in the world.", "The German men's national football team won the FIFA World Cup in 1954, 1974, 1990, and 2014, the UEFA European Championship in 1972, 1980 and 1996, and the FIFA Confederations Cup in 2017.Germany is one of the leading motor sports countries in the world.", "Constructors like BMW and Mercedes are prominent manufacturers in motor sport.", "Porsche has won the 24 Hours of Le Mans race 19 times, and Audi 13 times ().", "The driver Michael Schumacher has set many motor sport records during his career, having won seven Formula One World Drivers' Championships.", "Sebastian Vettel is also among the most successful Formula One drivers of all time.German athletes historically have been successful contenders in the Olympic Games, ranking third in an all-time Olympic Games medal count when combining East and West German medals prior to German reunification.", "In 1936 Berlin hosted the Summer Games and the Winter Games in Garmisch-Partenkirchen.", "Munich hosted the Summer Games of 1972." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of Germany" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "'''Sources'''* *" ], [ "External links", "* Official site of the Federal Government* Official tourism site* Germany from BBC News* Germany.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Germany from the OECD* Germany at the EU*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Guatemala City" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Guatemala City''' (), formally '''New Guatemala of Assumption and the Ancient''' (), known locally as '''Guate''', is the capital and largest city of Guatemala, and the most populous urban area in Central America.", "The city is located in the south-central part of the country, nestled in a mountain valley called Valle de la Ermita ().", "The city is also the capital of the Guatemala Department.Guatemala City is the site of the Mayan city of Kaminaljuyu, founded around 1500 BC.", "Following an earthquake in La Antigua in 1776 it was made capital of the Captaincy General of Guatemala.", "In 1821, Guatemala City was the scene of the declaration of independence of Central America from Spain, after which it became the capital of the newly established United Provinces of Central America (later the Federal Republic of Central America).In 1847, Guatemala declared itself an independent republic, with Guatemala City as its capital.", "The capital was originally located in what is now Antigua Guatemala, and was moved to its current location in 1776.Guatemala City and the original location in Antigua Guatemala were almost completely destroyed by the 1917–18 earthquakes.", "Reconstructions following the earthquakes have resulted in a more modern architectural landscape.", "Today, Guatemala City is the political, cultural, and economic center of Guatemala." ], [ "History", "===Early history===\"Cerrito del Carmen\" church.", "First construction ever built by the Spaniards in the valley that eventually became Guatemala City.Human settlement on the present site of Guatemala City began with the Maya, who built a large ceremonial center at Kaminaljuyu.", "This large Maya settlement, the biggest outside the Maya lowlands in the Yucatán Peninsula, rose to prominence around 300 BC due to an increase in mining and trading of obsidian, a valuable commodity for the pre-Columbian civilizations in Mesoamerica.", "Kaminaljuyu then collapsed around 300 AD for unknown causes.", "A series of devastating earthquakes had left the old capital city, Antigua Guatemala, in ruins and unusable to the Spanish colonial authorities.", "During this period the central plaza, with the Cathedral of Guatemala City and the Palace of the Captain-General, were constructed.", "After Central American independence from Spain the city became the capital of the United Provinces of Central America in 1821.The 19th century saw the construction of the monumental Carrera Theater in the 1850s, and the modern-day Presidential Palace in the 1890s.", "At this time the city was expanding around the 30 de Junio Boulevard and elsewhere, displacing native settlements on the peripheries of the growing city.", "Earthquakes in 1917–1918 destroyed many historic structures.", "Under President Jorge Ubico in the 1930s a hippodrome and many new public buildings were constructed, although slums that had formed after the 1917–1918 earthquakes continued to lack basic amenities.Guatemala City continues to be subject to natural disasters, with the latest being the two disasters that struck in May 2010: the eruption of the Pacaya volcano and, two days later, the torrential downpours from Tropical Storm Agatha.===Contemporary history===Zone 10 of Guatemala CityGuatemala City serves as the economic, governmental, and cultural epicenter of the nation of Guatemala.", "The city also functions as Guatemala's main transportation hub, hosting an international airport, La Aurora International Airport, and serving as the origination or end points for most of Guatemala's major highways.", "The city, with its robust economy, attracts hundreds of thousands of rural migrants from Guatemala's interior hinterlands and serves as the main entry point for most foreign immigrants seeking to settle in Guatemala.In addition to a wide variety of restaurants, hotels, shops, and a modern BRT transport system (Transmetro), the city is home to many art galleries, theaters, sports venues and museums (including some fine collections of Pre-Columbian art) and provides a growing number of cultural offerings.", "Guatemala City not only possesses a history and culture unique to the Central American region, it also furnishes all the modern amenities of a world class city, ranging from an IMAX Theater to the Ícaro film festival (Festival Ícaro), where independent films produced in Guatemala and Central America are debuted." ], [ "Structure and growth", "Plaza España at nightEvening view from a planeCiudad Cayalá, a city inside Guatemala City Guatemala City is located in the mountainous regions of the country, between the Pacific coastal plain to the south and the northern lowlands of the Peten region.The city's metropolitan area has recently grown very rapidly and has absorbed most of the neighboring municipalities of Villa Nueva, San Miguel Petapa, Mixco, San Juan Sacatepequez, San José Pinula, Santa Catarina Pinula, Fraijanes, San Pedro Ayampuc, Amatitlán, Villa Canales, Palencia, and Chinautla, forming what is now known as the Guatemala City Metropolitan Area.The city is subdivided into 22 zones (\"Zonas\") designed by the urban engineering of Raúl Aguilar Batres, each one with its own streets (\"Calles\"), avenues (\"Avenidas\") and, sometimes, \"Diagonal\" Streets, making it pretty easy to find addresses in the city.", "Zones are numbered 1–25, with Zones 20, 22 and 23 not existing as they would have fallen in two other municipalities' territory.", "Addresses are assigned according to the street or avenue number, followed by a dash and the number of metres it is away from the intersection.For example, the INGUAT Office on \"7a Av.", "1-17, Zona 4\" is a building which is located on Avenida 7, 17 meters away from the intersection with Calle 1, toward Calle 2 in zone 4.7a Av.", "1-17, Zona 4; and 7a Av.", "1-17, Zona 10, are two radically different addresses.Short streets/avenues do not get new sequenced number, for example, 6A Calle is a short street between 6a and 7a.Some \"avenidas\" or \"Calles\" have a name in addition to their number, if it is very wide; for example, Avenida la Reforma is an avenue which separates Zone 9 and 10, and Calle Montúfar is Calle 12 in Zone 9.Calle 1 Avenida 1 Zona 1 is the center of every city in Guatemala.Zone One is the Historic Center (Centro Histórico), lying in the very heart of the city, the location of many important historic buildings, including the Palacio Nacional de la Cultura (National Palace of Culture), the Metropolitan Cathedral, the National Congress, the Casa Presidencial (Presidential House), the National Library, and Plaza de la Constitución (Constitution Plaza, old Central Park).", "Efforts to revitalize this important part of the city have been undertaken by the municipal government.Besides the parks, the city offers a portfolio of entertainment in the region, focused on the so-called Zona Viva and the Calzada Roosevelt, as well as four degrees North.", "Casino activity is considerable, with several located in different parts of the Zona Viva.", "The area around the East market is being redeveloped.Within the financial district are the tallest buildings in the country, including: Club Premier, Tinttorento, Atlantis building, Atrium, Tikal Futura, Building of Finances, Towers Building Batteries, Torres Botticelli, Tadeus, building of the INTECAP, Royal Towers, Towers Geminis, Industrial Bank towers, Holiday Inn Hotel, Premier of the Americas, among many others to be used for offices, apartments, etc.", "Also included are projects such as Zona Pradera and Interamerica's World Financial Center.One of the most outstanding mayors was the engineer Martin Prado Vélez, who took over in 1949, and ruled the city during the reformist Presidents Juan José Arévalo and Jacobo Arbenz Guzman, although he was not a member of the ruling party at the time and was elected due his well-known capabilities.", "Of cobanero origin, married with Marta Cobos, he studied at the University of San Carlos; under his tenure, among other modernist works of the city, infrastructure projects included El Incienso bridge, the construction of the Roosevelt Avenue, the main road axis from East to West of the city, the town hall building, and numerous road works which meant the widening of the colonial city, its order in the cardinal points and the generation of a ring road with the first cloverleaf interchange in the city.In an attempt to control the rapid growth of the city, the municipal government (Municipalidad de Guatemala), headed by longtime Mayor Álvaro Arzú, has implemented a plan to focus growth along important arterial roads and apply Transit-oriented development (TOD) characteristics.", "This plan, denominated POT (Plan de Ordenamiento Territorial), aims to allow taller building structures of mixed uses to be built next to large arterial roads, and gradually decline in height and density moving away from such.", "It is also worth mentioning, that due to the airport being in the south of the city, height limits based on aeronautical considerations have been applied to the construction code.", "This limits the maximum height for a building, at in Zone 10, up to in Zone 1." ], [ "Climate", "Despite its location in the tropics, Guatemala City has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen ''Aw'') bordering humid subtropical climate (''Cwa''), due to its relatively high altitude which moderate the average temperatures.", "Guatemala City is generally very warm, almost springlike, throughout the course of the year.", "It occasionally gets hot during the dry season, but not as hot and humid as in Central American cities at sea level.", "The hottest month is April.", "The rainy season extends from May to October, coinciding with the tropical storm and hurricane season in the western Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea, while the dry season extends from November to April.", "The city can at times be windy, which also leads to lower ambient temperatures.The city's average annual temperature ranges are during the day and at night; its average relative humidity is 82% in the morning and 58% in the evening; and its average dew point is .===Volcanic activity===Four stratovolcanoes are visible from the city, two of them active.", "The nearest and most active is Pacaya, which at times erupts a considerable amount of ash.", "These volcanoes lie to the south of the Valle de la Ermita, providing a natural barrier between Guatemala City and the Pacific lowlands that define the southern regions of Guatemala.", "Agua, Fuego, Pacaya, and Acatenango comprise a line of 33 stratovolcanoes that stretches across the breadth of Guatemala, from the Salvadorian border to the Mexican border.===Earthquakes===Lying on the Ring of Fire, the Guatemalan highlands and the Valle de la Ermita are frequently shaken by large earthquakes.", "The last large tremor to hit the Guatemala City region occurred in the 1976, on the Motagua Fault, a left-lateral strike-slip fault that forms the boundary between the Caribbean Plate and the North American Plate.", "The 1976 event registered 7.5 on the moment magnitude scale.", "Smaller, less severe tremors are frequently felt in Guatemala City and environs.===Mudslides===Torrential downpours, similar to the more famous monsoons, occur frequently in the Valle de la Ermita during the rainy season, leading to flash floods that sometimes inundate the city.", "Due to these heavy rainfalls, some of the slums perched on the steep edges of the canyons that criss-cross the Valle de la Ermita are washed away and buried under mudslides, as in October 2005.Tropical waves, tropical storms and hurricanes sometimes strike the Guatemalan highlands, which also bring torrential rains to the Guatemala City region and trigger these deadly mudslides.===Piping pseudokarst===2007 SinkholeThe 2010 sinkhole in Zona 2In February 2007, a very large, deep circular hole with vertical walls opened in northeastern Guatemala City (), killing five people.", "This sinkhole, which is classified by geologists as either a \"piping feature\" or \"piping pseudokarst\", was deep, and apparently was created by fluid from a sewer eroding the loose volcanic ash, limestone, and other pyroclastic deposits that underlie Guatemala City.", "As a result, one thousand people were evacuated from the area.", "This piping feature has since been mitigated by City Hall by providing proper maintenance to the sewerage collection system, and plans to develop the site have been proposed.", "However, critics believe municipal authorities have neglected needed maintenance on the city's aging sewerage system, and have speculated that more dangerous piping features are likely to develop unless action is taken.3 years later the 2010 Guatemala City sinkhole arose." ], [ "Demographics", "Aerial view of Guatemala CityIt is estimated that the population of Guatemala City urban area is about 3 million.", "The growth of the city's population has been robust, abetted by the mass migration of Guatemalans from the rural hinterlands to the largest and most vibrant regional economy in Guatemala.", "Among inhabitants of Guatemala City, those of Spanish and Mestizo descent are the most numerous.", "Guatemala City also has sizable indigenous populations, divided among the 23 distinct Mayan groups present in Guatemala.", "The numerous Mayan languages are now spoken in certain quarters of Guatemala City, making the city a linguistically rich area.", "Foreigners and foreign immigrants comprise the final distinct group of Guatemala City inhabitants, representing a very small minority among the city's denizens.Due to mass migration from impoverished rural districts wracked with political instability, Guatemala City's population has exploded since the 1970s, severely straining the existing bureaucratic and physical infrastructure of the city.", "As a result, chronic traffic congestion, shortages of safe potable water in some areas of the city, and a sudden and prolonged surge in crime have become perennial problems.", "The infrastructure, although continuing to grow and improve in some areas, is lagging in relation to the increasing population of rural migrants, who tend to be poorer." ], [ "Communications", "Guatemala City is headquarters to many communications and telecom companies, among them Tigo, Claro-Telgua, and Movistar-Telefónica.", "These companies also offer cable television, internet services and telephone access.", "Due to Guatemala City's large and concentrated consumer base in comparison to the rest of the country, these telecom and communications companies provide most of their services and offerings within the confines of the city.", "There are also seven local television channels, in addition to numerous international channels.", "The international channels range from children's programming, like Nickelodeon and the Disney Channel, to more adult offerings, such as E!", "and HBO.", "While international programming is dominated by entertainment from the United States, domestic programming is dominated by shows from Mexico.", "Due to its small and relatively income-restricted domestic market, Guatemala City produces very little in the way of its own programming outside of local news and sports." ], [ "Economy and finance", "Guatemala City, as the capital, is home to Guatemala's central bank, from which Guatemala's monetary and fiscal policies are formulated and promulgated.", "Guatemala City is also headquarters to numerous regional private banks, among them CitiBank, Banco Agromercantil, Banco Promerica, Banco Industrial, Banco GyT Continental, Banco de Antigua, Banco Reformador, Banrural, Grupo Financiero de Occidente, BAC Credomatic, and Banco Internacional.By far the richest and most powerful regional economy within Guatemala, Guatemala City is the largest market for goods and services, which provides the greatest number of investment opportunities for public and private investors in all of Guatemala.", "Financing for these investments is provided by the regional private banks, as well as through foreign direct investment mostly coming from the United States.", "Guatemala City's ample consumer base and service sector is represented by the large department store chains present in the city, among them Siman, Hiper Paiz & Paiz (Walmart), Price Smart, ClubCo, Cemaco, Sears, and Office Depot.File:Banco Agromercantilguate.jpg|Agromercantil Bank" ], [ "Places of interest by zones", "Guatemala City is divided into 22 zones in accordance with the urban layout plan designed by Raúl Aguilar Batres.", "Each zone has its own streets and avenues, facilitating navigation within the city.", "Zones are numbered 1 through 25.However, numbers 20, 22 and 23 have not been designated to zones, thus these zones do not exist within the city proper.ZoneMain placesPicturesZone 1* Miguel Angel Asturias cultural center (includes the National Theater)* Museums* Historic Downtown District* La Sexta Boulevard* National Palace* Biblioteca Nacional de Guatemala* National cathedral* Teatro Abril* Hogar Rafael Ayau* Centro Cultural de España en GuatemalaGuatemala National Theater National cathedralZone 2* Hipódromo del Norte park** Guatemala's Relief Map** Enrique Torrebiarte Baseball Stadium* Simeón Cañas Avenue* (national brewery)Guatemala's relief mapZone 3* Guatemala City General Cemetery* City dumpGuatemala City General CemeteryCity dumpZone 4* financial center* La Terminal Market* Cuatro Grados Norte borough financial centerZone 5* Doroteo Guamuch Flores National Stadium* Olympic Villa* La Limonada () National StadiumZone 6* church* Cementos Progreso Stadium church, before 1917Zone 7* Kaminaljuyú Archeological Site* Erick Barrondo Sports Park* Peri-Roosevelt Mall* Megacentro MallKaminal JuyuZone 9* Torre del Reformador* Parque de la Industria * Avenida Reforma* Torre del ReformadorPlazuela españaZone 10* Universidad Francisco Marroquín* Ixchel Museum of Indigenous Textiles and Clothing* Universidad Galileo* Museo Popol Vuh* Zona Viva* Jardín Botánico* La Pradera mall* Plaza Fontabella shopping center* Oakland MallZona Viva at night universityZone 11* Museo de Miraflores* Miraflores Mall* Hotel Tikal Futura * Hospital Roosevelt* Centro Universitario Metropolitano de la Universidad de San Carlos* Calzada Roosevelt (highway) Zone 12* University of San Carlos central campus*IRTRA Mundo PetapaUniversity of San Carlos Central CampusZone 13* Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología* Museo Nacional de Arte Moderno \"Carlos Mérida\"* Museo Nacional de Historia Natural* Parque Zoológico La Aurora* La Aurora International Airport* Avenida Las Américas* Reloj de FloresLa Aurora International AirportMuseo Nacional de Arqueología y EtnologíaZone 14* Centro Recreativo Universitario ''Los Arcos''* Las Américas avenue* Europlaza EuroplazaZone 15* Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Guatemala City Temple *Universidad Del Valle de Guatemala Latter Day Saints Guatemala City TempleZone 16* Universidad Rafael Landívar* Guatemala Military Hospital* Universidad Panamericana de Guatemala* Paseo CayaláUniversidad Rafael Landívar''Paseo Cayalá'' upscale new district" ], [ "Transportation", "TransmetroTransurbanoLa Aurora International Airport*Renovated and expanded, La Aurora International Airport lies to the south of the city center.", "La Aurora serves as Guatemala's principal air hub.", "*Public transport is provided by buses and supplemented by a BRT system.", "The three main highways that bisect and serve Guatemala start in the city (CA9 Transoceanic Highway – Puerto San Jose to Puerto Santo Tomas de Castilla –, CA1 Panamerican Highway – from the Mexican border to Salvadorian border – and to Peten).", "Construction of freeways and underpasses by the municipal government, the implementation of reversible lanes during peak rush-hour traffic, as well as the establishment of the Department of Metropolitan Transit Police (PMT), has helped improve traffic flow in the city.", "Despite these municipal efforts, the Guatemala City metropolitan area still faces growing traffic congestion.", "*A BRT (bus rapid transit) system called Transmetro, consisting of special-purpose lanes for high-capacity buses, began operating in 2007, and aimed to improve traffic flow in the city through the implementation of an efficient mass transit system.", "The system consists of five lines.", "It is expected to be expanded around 10 lines, with some over-capacity expected lines being considered for Light Metro or Heavy Metro.Traditional buses are now required to discharge passengers at transfer stations at the city's edge to board the Transmetro.", "This is being implemented as new Transmetro lines become established.", "In conjunction with the new mass transit implementation in the city, there is also a prepaid bus card system called Transurbano that is being implemented in the metro area to limit cash handling for the transportation system.", "A new fleet of buses tailored for this system has been purchased from a Brazilian firm.A light rail line known as Metro Riel is proposed." ], [ "Universities and schools", "Guatemala City is home to ten universities, among them the oldest institution of higher education in Central America, the University of San Carlos of Guatemala.", "Founded in 1676, the Universidad de San Carlos is older than all North American universities except for Harvard University.The other nine institutions of higher education to be found in Guatemala City include the Universidad Mariano Gálvez, the Universidad Panamericana, the Universidad Mesoamericana, the Universidad Rafael Landivar, the Universidad Francisco Marroquín, the Universidad del Valle, the Universidad del Istmo, Universidad Galileo, Universidad da Vinci, and the Universidad Rural.", "Whereas these nine named universities are private, the Universidad de San Carlos remains the only public institution of higher learning." ], [ "Sports", "Estadio Doroteo Guamuch FloresGuatemala City possesses several sportsgrounds and is home to many sports clubs.", "Football is the most popular sport, with CSD Municipal, Aurora F.C., and Comunicaciones being the main clubs.The Estadio Doroteo Guamuch Flores, located in the Zone 5 of the city, is the largest stadium in the country, followed in capacity by the Estadio Cementos Progreso, Estadio del Ejército, and Estadio El Trébol.", "An important multi-functional hall is the Domo Polideportivo de la CDAG.The city has hosted several promotional functions and some international sports events: in 1950 it hosted the VI Central American and Caribbean Games, and in 2000 the FIFA Futsal World Championship.", "On 4 July 2007 the International Olympic Committee gathered in Guatemala City and voted Sochi to become the host for the 2014 Winter Olympics and Paralympics.", "In April 2010, it hosted the XIVth Pan-American Mountain Bike Championships.Guatemala City hosted the 2008 edition of the CONCACAF Futsal Championship, played at the Domo Polideportivo from 2 to 8 June 2008." ], [ "Panoramic views of Guatemala City", "===1875======2020===" ], [ "International relations", "===International organizations with headquarters in Guatemala City===* Central American Parliament===Twin towns – sister cities===Guatemala City is twinned with:CityJurisdictionCountryYearCaracasCapital District1969San SalvadorSan Salvador1979MadridMadrid1983HollywoodFlorida1987LimaLima1987Santiago de ChileMetropolitan Santiago1991SaltilloCoahuila1993La HabanaLa Habana1997BogotáDistrito Capital1997San Pedro SulaCortés1999Santa Cruz de TenerifeSanta Cruz de Tenerife2002San JoséSan José2005Ciudad de PanamáPanamá2005TaipeiNorthern Taiwan2007ManaguaManagua2008BeijingBeijing2009ProvidenceRhode Island2016" ], [ "Notable residents", "*Raúl Aguilar Batres, engineer, creator of Guatemala City's system of avenue/street notation*María Dolores Bedoya, Central American independence activist*Alejandro Giammattei, President of Guatemala*Álvaro Arzú, President of Guatemala and six times mayor of Guatemala City*Miguel Ángel Asturias, writer and diplomat, Nobel Prize Laureate*Ricardo Arjona, singer-songwriter*Manuel Colom Argueta, former mayor of Guatemala City and politician*Toti Fernández, triathlete and ultramarathon runner*Juan José Gutiérrez, CEO of Pollo Campero and on the board of directors of Corporación Multi Inversiones.", "He has been featured on the cover of ''Newsweek'' as Super CEO and named one of the Ten Big Thinkers for Big Business.", "*Ted Hendricks, Oakland Raiders NFL Hall of Fame Linebacker.", "4-time Super Bowl Champion.", "*Jorge de León, performance artist*Zipacná de León (1948–2002), painter*Carlos Mérida, painter*Jimmy Morales, Former President of Guatemala*Gaby Moreno, singer-songwriter*Carlos Peña, singer, winner of Latin American Idol 2007*Luis Oliva, actor, singer and director*Georgina Pontaza, actress and artistic director of the Teatro Abril and Teatro Fantasía *Fernando Quevedo, theoretical physicist, professor of High Energy Physics at the University of Cambridge*Rodolfo Robles, physician.", "He discovered onchocercosis \"Robles' Disease\".", "*Fabiola Rodas, winner of The Third TV Azteca's Desafio de Estrellas, 2nd Place in The Last Generation of La Academia*Gabriela Asturias Ruiz, neuroscientist*Carlos Ruíz, football/soccer player*Shery, singer-songwriter*Jaime Viñals, mountaineer; he scaled seven highest peaks in the world*Luis von Ahn, computer scientist, founder of Duolingo, CAPTCHA's creator and Researcher at Carnegie Mellon University*Rodrigo Saravia, Guatemala national team footballer*Sergio Custodio, professor and writer in logic and metaphysics" ], [ "See also", "* List of places in Guatemala* ''''''''''* ''''''''''" ], [ "Notes and references", "===References===" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * Official Website of the Municipalidad de Guatemala" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "GNU" ], [ "Introduction", "'''GNU''' () is an extensive collection of free software (385 packages as of September 2023), which can be used as an operating system or can be used in parts with other operating systems.", "The use of the completed GNU tools led to the family of operating systems popularly known as Linux.", "Most of GNU is licensed under the GNU Project's own General Public License (GPL).Richard Stallman, founder of the GNU projectGNU is also the project within which the free software concept originated.", "Richard Stallman, the founder of the project, views GNU as a \"technical means to a social end\".", "Relatedly, Lawrence Lessig states in his introduction to the second edition of Stallman's book ''Free Software, Free Society'' that in it Stallman has written about \"the social aspects of software and how Free Software can create community and social justice\"." ], [ "Name", "''GNU'' is a recursive acronym for \"GNU's Not Unix!", "\", chosen because GNU's design is Unix-like, but differs from Unix by being free software and containing no Unix code.", "Stallman chose the name by using various plays on words, including the song ''The Gnu''." ], [ "History", "Development of the GNU operating system was initiated by Richard Stallman while he worked at MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.", "It was called the GNU Project, and was publicly announced on September 27, 1983, on the net.unix-wizards and net.usoft newsgroups by Stallman.", "Software development began on January 5, 1984, when Stallman quit his job at the Lab so that they could not claim ownership or interfere with distributing GNU components as free software.The goal was to bring a completely free software operating system into existence.", "Stallman wanted computer users to be free to study the source code of the software they use, share software with other people, modify the behavior of software, and publish their modified versions of the software.", "This philosophy was published as the GNU Manifesto in March 1985.Richard Stallman's experience with the Incompatible Timesharing System (ITS), an early operating system written in assembly language that became obsolete due to discontinuation of PDP-10, the computer architecture for which ITS was written, led to a decision that a portable system was necessary.", "It was thus decided that the development would be started using C and Lisp as system programming languages, and that GNU would be compatible with Unix.", "At the time, Unix was already a popular proprietary operating system.", "The design of Unix was modular, so it could be reimplemented piece by piece.Much of the needed software had to be written from scratch, but existing compatible third-party free software components were also used such as the TeX typesetting system, the X Window System, and the Mach microkernel that forms the basis of the GNU Mach core of GNU Hurd (the official kernel of GNU).", "With the exception of the aforementioned third-party components, most of GNU has been written by volunteers; some in their spare time, some paid by companies, educational institutions, and other non-profit organizations.", "In October 1985, Stallman set up the Free Software Foundation (FSF).", "In the late 1980s and 1990s, the FSF hired software developers to write the software needed for GNU.As GNU gained prominence, interested businesses began contributing to development or selling GNU software and technical support.", "The most prominent and successful of these was Cygnus Solutions, now part of Red Hat." ], [ "Components", "The system's basic components include the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), the GNU C library (glibc), and GNU Core Utilities (coreutils), but also the GNU Debugger (GDB), GNU Binary Utilities (binutils), and the GNU Bash shell.", "GNU developers have contributed to Linux ports of GNU applications and utilities, which are now also widely used on other operating systems such as BSD variants, Solaris and macOS.Many GNU programs have been ported to other operating systems, including proprietary platforms such as Microsoft Windows and macOS.", "GNU programs have been shown to be more reliable than their proprietary Unix counterparts.As of January 2022, there are a total of 459 GNU packages (including decommissioned, 383 excluding) hosted on the official GNU development site." ], [ "GNU as an operating system", "In its original meaning, and one still common in hardware engineering, the operating system is a basic set of functions to control the hardware and manage things like task scheduling and system calls.", "In modern terminology used by software developers, the collection of these functions is usually referred to as a kernel, while an 'operating system' is expected to have a more extensive set of programmes.", "The GNU project maintains two kernels itself, allowing the creation of pure GNU operating systems, but the GNU toolchain is also used with non-GNU kernels.", "Due to the two different definitions of the term 'operating system', there is an ongoing debate concerning the naming of distributions of GNU packages with a non-GNU kernel.", "(See below.", ")=== With kernels maintained by GNU and FSF ===Parabola GNU/Linux-libre, an example of an FSF approved distribution that uses a rolling release model==== GNU Hurd ====The original kernel of GNU Project is the GNU Hurd (together with the GNU Mach microkernel), which was the original focus of the Free Software Foundation (FSF).With the April 30, 2015 release of the Debian GNU/Hurd 2015 distro, GNU now provides all required components to assemble an operating system that users can install and use on a computer.However, the Hurd kernel is not yet considered production-ready but rather a base for further development and non-critical application usage.==== Linux-libre ====As of 2012, a fork of the Linux kernel became officially part of the GNU Project in the form of Linux-libre, a variant of Linux with all proprietary components removed.The GNU Project has endorsed Linux-libre distributions, such as Trisquel, Parabola GNU/Linux-libre, PureOS and GNU Guix System.=== With non-GNU kernels ===Trisquel, an example of an FSF approved distributionBecause of the development status of Hurd, GNU is usually paired with other kernels such as Linux or FreeBSD.", "Whether the combination of GNU libraries with external kernels is a GNU operating system with a kernel (e.g.", "GNU with Linux), because the GNU collection renders the kernel into a usable operating system as understood in modern software development, or whether the kernel is an operating system unto itself with a GNU layer on top (i.e.", "Linux with GNU), because the kernel can operate a machine without GNU, is a matter of ongoing debate.", "The FSF maintains that an operating system built using the Linux kernel and GNU tools and utilities should be considered a variant of GNU, and promotes the term ''GNU/Linux'' for such systems (leading to the GNU/Linux naming controversy).", "This view is not exclusive to the FSF.", "Notably, Debian, one of the biggest and oldest Linux distributions, refers to itself as ''Debian GNU/Linux''." ], [ "Copyright, GNU licenses, and stewardship", "The GNU Project recommends that contributors assign the copyright for GNU packages to the Free Software Foundation, though the Free Software Foundation considers it acceptable to release small changes to an existing project to the public domain.", "However, this is not required; package maintainers may retain copyright to the GNU packages they maintain, though since only the copyright holder may enforce the license used (such as the GNU GPL), the copyright holder in this case enforces it rather than the Free Software Foundation.For the development of needed software, Stallman wrote a license called the GNU General Public License (first called Emacs General Public License), with the goal to guarantee users freedom to share and change free software.", "Stallman wrote this license after his experience with James Gosling and a program called UniPress, over a controversy around software code use in the GNU Emacs program.", "For most of the 80s, each GNU package had its own license: the Emacs General Public License, the GCC General Public License, etc.", "In 1989, FSF published a single license they could use for all their software, and which could be used by non-GNU projects: the GNU General Public License (GPL).This license is now used by most of GNU software, as well as a large number of free software programs that are not part of the GNU Project; it also historically has been the most commonly used free software license (though recently challenged by the MIT license).", "It gives all recipients of a program the right to run, copy, modify and distribute it, while forbidding them from imposing further restrictions on any copies they distribute.", "This idea is often referred to as copyleft.In 1991, the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), then known as the Library General Public License, was written for the GNU C Library to allow it to be linked with proprietary software.", "1991 also saw the release of version 2 of the GNU GPL.", "The GNU Free Documentation License (FDL), for documentation, followed in 2000.The GPL and LGPL were revised to version 3 in 2007, adding clauses to protect users against hardware restrictions that prevent users from running modified software on their own devices.Besides GNU's packages, the GNU Project's licenses can and are used by many unrelated projects, such as the Linux kernel, often used with GNU software.", "A majority of free software such as the X Window System, is licensed under permissive free software licenses." ], [ "Logo", "120pxThe logo for GNU is a gnu head.", "Originally drawn by Etienne Suvasa, a bolder and simpler version designed by Aurelio Heckert is now preferred.", "It appears in GNU software and in printed and electronic documentation for the GNU Project, and is also used in Free Software Foundation materials.leftThere was also a modified version of the official logo.", "It was created by the Free Software Foundation in September 2013 in order to commemorate the 30th anniversary of the GNU Project." ], [ "See also", "* Free software movement* History of free and open-source software* List of computing mascots* :Category:Computing mascots" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Ports of GNU utilities for Microsoft Windows* The daemon, the GNU and the penguin" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gradualism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gradualism''', from the Latin (\"step\"), is a hypothesis, a theory or a tenet assuming that change comes about gradually or that variation is gradual in nature and happens over time as opposed to in large steps.", "Uniformitarianism, incrementalism, and reformism are similar concepts.", "For the Social democratics, the socialist society is achieved through gradualism." ], [ "Geology and biology", "In the natural sciences, gradualism is the theory which holds that profound change is the cumulative product of slow but continuous processes, often contrasted with catastrophism.", "The theory was proposed in 1795 by James Hutton, a Scottish geologist, and was later incorporated into Charles Lyell's theory of uniformitarianism.", "Tenets from both theories were applied to biology and formed the basis of early evolutionary theory.Charles Darwin was influenced by Lyell's ''Principles of Geology'', which explained both uniformitarian methodology and theory.", "Using uniformitarianism, which states that one cannot make an appeal to any force or phenomenon which cannot presently be observed (see catastrophism), Darwin theorized that the evolutionary process must occur gradually, not in saltations, since saltations are not presently observed, and extreme deviations from the usual phenotypic variation would be more likely to be selected against.Gradualism is often confused with the concept of phyletic gradualism.", "It is a term coined by Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge to contrast with their model of punctuated equilibrium, which is gradualist itself, but argues that most evolution is marked by long periods of evolutionary stability (called stasis), which is punctuated by rare instances of branching evolution." ], [ "Politics and society", "In politics, gradualism is the hypothesis that social change can be achieved in small, discrete increments rather than in abrupt strokes such as revolutions or uprisings.", "Gradualism is one of the defining features of political liberalism and reformism.", "Machiavellian politics pushes politicians to espouse gradualism.In socialist politics and within the socialist movement, the concept of gradualism is frequently distinguished from reformism, with the former insisting that short-term goals need to be formulated and implemented in such a way that they inevitably lead into long-term goals.", "It is most commonly associated with the libertarian socialist concept of dual power and is seen as a middle way between reformism and revolutionism.Martin Luther King Jr. was opposed to the idea of gradualism as a method of eliminating segregation.", "The United States government wanted to try to integrate African-Americans and European-Americans slowly into the same society, but many believed it was a way for the government to put off actually doing anything about racial segregation:" ], [ "Linguistics and language change", "In linguistics, language change is seen as gradual, the product of chain reactions and subject to cyclic drift.", "The view that creole languages are the product of catastrophism is heavily disputed." ], [ "Morality", "===Christianity======Buddhism, Theravada and Yoga=== Gradualism is the approach of certain schools of Buddhism and other Eastern philosophies (e.g.", "Theravada or Yoga), that enlightenment can be achieved step by step, through an arduous practice.", "The opposite approach, that insight is attained all at once, is called subitism.", "The debate on the issue was very important to the history of the development of Zen, which rejected gradualism, and to the establishment of the opposite approach within the Tibetan Buddhism, after the Debate of Samye.", "It was continued in other schools of Indian and Chinese philosophy." ], [ "Types", "Phyletic gradualism is a model of evolution which theorizes that most speciation is slow, uniform and gradual.", "When evolution occurs in this mode, it is usually by the steady transformation of a whole species into a new one (through a process called anagenesis).", "In this view no clear line of demarcation exists between an ancestral species and a descendant species, unless splitting occurs.Punctuated gradualism is a microevolutionary hypothesis that refers to a species that has \"relative stasis over a considerable part of its total duration and underwent periodic, relatively rapid, morphologic change that did not lead to lineage branching\".", "It is one of the three common models of evolution.", "While the traditional model of palaeontology, the phylogenetic model, states that features evolved slowly without any direct association with speciation, the relatively newer and more controversial idea of punctuated equilibrium claims that major evolutionary changes do not happen over a gradual period but in localized, rare, rapid events of branching speciation.", "Punctuated gradualism is considered to be a variation of these models, lying somewhere in between the phyletic gradualism model and the punctuated equilibrium model.", "It states that speciation is not needed for a lineage to rapidly evolve from one equilibrium to another but may show rapid transitions between long-stable states.Contradictorial gradualism is the paraconsistent treatment of fuzziness developed by Lorenzo Peña which regards true contradictions as situations wherein a state of affairs enjoys only partial existence.Gradualism in social change implemented through reformist means is a moral principle to which the Fabian Society is committed.", "In a more general way, reformism is the assumption that gradual changes through and within existing institutions can ultimately change a society's fundamental economic system and political structures; and that an accumulation of reforms can lead to the emergence of an entirely different economic system and form of society than present-day capitalism.", "That hypothesis of social change grew out of opposition to revolutionary socialism, which contends that revolution is necessary for fundamental structural changes to occur.In the terminology of NWO-related speculations, gradualism refers to the gradual implementation of a totalitarian world government." ], [ "See also", "* Evolution* Uniformitarianism* Incrementalism* Normalization (sociology)* Reformism* Catastrophism* Saltation* Punctuated equilibrium* Accelerationism* Boiling frog" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Greek" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Greek''' may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:*Greeks, an ethnic group*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all known varieties of Greek**Mycenaean Greek, most ancient attested form of the language (16th to 11th centuries BC)**Ancient Greek, forms of the language used c. 1000–330 BC**Koine Greek, common form of Greek spoken and written during Classical antiquity**Medieval Greek or Byzantine Language, language used between the Middle Ages and the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople**Modern Greek, varieties spoken in the modern era (from 1453 AD)*Greek alphabet, script used to write the Greek language*Greek Orthodox Church, several Churches of the Eastern Orthodox Church*Ancient Greece, the ancient civilization before the end of Antiquity*Old Greek, the language as spoken from Late Antiquity to around 1500 AD*Greek mythology, a body of myths originally told by the Ancient Greeks" ], [ "Other uses", "*''Greek'' (play), a 1980 play by Steven Berkoff*''Greek'' (opera), a 1988 opera by Mark-Antony Turnage, based on Steven Berkoff's play*''Greek'' (TV series) (also stylized ''GRΣΣK''), 2007 ABC Family channel's comedy-drama television series set at a fictitious college's fictional Greek system.", "*Greek-letter organizations (GLOs), social organizations for undergraduate students at North American colleges*Greek love, a term referring variously to male bonding, homosexuality, pederasty and anal sex*Greek Revival architecture, an architectural movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries*Greek Theatre (Los Angeles), a theatre located at Griffith Park in Los Angeles, California*Greeking, a style of displaying or rendering text or symbols in a computer display or typographic layout*Greeks, a group of scholars in 16th-century England who were part of the Grammarians' War*Greeks (finance), quantities representing the sensitivity of the price of derivatives*Nick the Greek (Nick Dandolos, 1883-1966), professional gambler*Phil the Greek, a nickname for Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (1921-2021)*The Greek, a fictional character on the HBO drama ''The Wire.", "''*''The Greeks'' (book), a 1951 non-fiction book on classical Greece by H. D. F. Kitto" ], [ "See also", "**Greek dialects (disambiguation)*Greek to me, an idiom for something not understandable*Greeks (disambiguation)*Hellenic (disambiguation)*Name of Greece, names for the country*Names of the Greeks, terms for the Greek people" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Germanic languages" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Germanic languages''' are a branch of the Indo-European language family spoken natively by a population of about 515 million people mainly in Europe, North America, Oceania and Southern Africa.", "The most widely spoken Germanic language, English, is also the world's most widely spoken language with an estimated 2 billion speakers.", "All Germanic languages are derived from Proto-Germanic, spoken in Iron Age Scandinavia and Germany.The West Germanic languages include the three most widely spoken Germanic languages: English with around 360–400 million native speakers; German, with over 100 million native speakers; and Dutch, with 24 million native speakers.", "Other West Germanic languages include Afrikaans, an offshoot of Dutch originating from the Afrikaners of South Africa, with over 7.1 million native speakers; Low German, considered a separate collection of unstandardized dialects, with roughly 4.35–7.15 million native speakers and probably 6.7–10 million people who can understand it (at least 2.2 million in Germany (2016) and 2.15 million in the Netherlands (2003)); Yiddish, once used by approximately 13 million Jews in pre-World War II Europe, now with approximately 1.5 million native speakers; Scots, with 1.5 million native speakers; Limburgish varieties with roughly 1.3 million speakers along the Dutch–Belgian–German border; and the Frisian languages with over 500,000 native speakers in the Netherlands and Germany.The largest North Germanic languages are Swedish, Danish and Norwegian, which are in part mutually intelligible and have a combined total of about 20 million native speakers in the Nordic countries and an additional five million second language speakers; since the Middle Ages, however, these languages have been strongly influenced by Middle Low German, a West Germanic language, and Low German words account for about 30–60% of their vocabularies according to various estimates.", "Other extant North Germanic languages are Faroese, Icelandic, and Elfdalian, which are more conservative languages with no significant Low German influence, more complex grammar and limited mutual intelligibility with other North Germanic languages today.The East Germanic branch included Gothic, Burgundian, and Vandalic, all of which are now extinct.", "The last to die off was Crimean Gothic, spoken until the late 18th century in some isolated areas of Crimea.The SIL ''Ethnologue'' lists 48 different living Germanic languages, 41 of which belong to the Western branch and six to the Northern branch; it places Riograndenser Hunsrückisch German in neither of the categories, but it is often considered a German dialect by linguists.", "The total number of Germanic languages throughout history is unknown as some of them, especially the East Germanic languages, disappeared during or after the Migration Period.", "Some of the West Germanic languages also did not survive past the Migration Period, including Lombardic.", "As a result of World War II and subsequent mass expulsion of Germans, the German language suffered a significant loss of ''Sprachraum'', as well as moribundity and extinction of several of its dialects.", "In the 21st century, German dialects are dying out as Standard German gains primacy.The common ancestor of all of the languages in this branch is called Proto-Germanic, also known as Common Germanic, which was spoken in about the middle of the 1st millennium BC in Iron Age Scandinavia.", "Proto-Germanic, along with all of its descendants, notably has a number of unique linguistic features, most famously the consonant change known as \"Grimm's law.\"", "Early varieties of Germanic entered history when the Germanic tribes moved south from Scandinavia in the 2nd century BC to settle in the area of today's northern Germany and southern Denmark." ], [ "Modern status", "The present-day distribution of the Germanic languages in Europe:'''North Germanic languages''''''West Germanic languages'''Dots indicate areas where it is common for native non-Germanic speakers to also speak a neighbouring Germanic language, lines indicate areas where it is common for native Germanic speakers to also speak a non-Germanic or other neighbouring Germanic language.|alt====West Germanic languages===English is an official language of Belize, Canada, Nigeria, Falkland Islands, Saint Helena, Malta, New Zealand, Ireland, South Africa, Philippines, Jamaica, Dominica, Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, American Samoa, Palau, St. Lucia, Grenada, Barbados, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Puerto Rico, Guam, Hong Kong, Singapore, Pakistan, India, Papua New Guinea, Namibia, Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands and former British colonies in Asia, Africa and Oceania.", "Furthermore, it is the ''de facto'' language of the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia, as well as a recognized language in Nicaragua and Malaysia.German is a language of Austria, Belgium, Germany, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg and Switzerland and has regional status in Italy, Poland, Namibia and Denmark.", "German also continues to be spoken as a minority language by immigrant communities in North America, South America, Central America, Mexico and Australia.", "A German dialect, Pennsylvania Dutch, is still used among various populations in the American state of Pennsylvania in daily life.", "A group of Alemannic German dialects commonly referred to as Alsatian is spoken in Alsace, part of modern France.Dutch is an official language of Aruba, Belgium, Curaçao, the Netherlands, Sint Maarten, and Suriname.", "The Netherlands also colonized Indonesia, but Dutch was scrapped as an official language after Indonesian independence.", "Today, it is only used by older or traditionally educated people.", "Dutch was until 1983 an official language in South Africa but evolved into and was replaced by Afrikaans, a partially mutually intelligible daughter language of Dutch.Afrikaans is one of the 11 official languages in South Africa and is a ''lingua franca'' of Namibia.", "It is used in other Southern African nations, as well.Low German is a collection of very diverse dialects spoken in the northeast of the Netherlands and northern Germany.", "Some dialects like East Pomeranian have been imported to South America.Scots is spoken in Lowland Scotland and parts of Ulster (where the local dialect is known as Ulster Scots).Frisian is spoken among half a million people who live on the southern fringes of the North Sea in the Netherlands and Germany.Luxembourgish is a Moselle Franconian dialect that is spoken mainly in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, where it is considered to be an official language.", "Similar varieties of Moselle Franconian are spoken in small parts of Belgium, France, and Germany.Yiddish, once a native language of some 11 to 13 million people, remains in use by some 1.5 million speakers in Jewish communities around the world, mainly in North America, Europe, Israel, and other regions with Jewish populations.Limburgish varieties are spoken in the Limburg and Rhineland regions, along the Dutch–Belgian–German border.===North Germanic languages===In addition to being the official language in Sweden, Swedish is also spoken natively by the Swedish-speaking minority in Finland, which is a large part of the population along the coast of western and southern Finland.", "Swedish is also one of the two official languages in Finland, along with Finnish, and the only official language in Åland.", "Swedish is also spoken by some people in Estonia.Danish is an official language of Denmark and in its overseas territory of the Faroe Islands, and it is a ''lingua franca'' and language of education in its other overseas territory of Greenland, where it was one of the official languages until 2009.Danish, a locally recognized minority language, is also natively spoken by the Danish minority in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein.Norwegian is the official language of Norway.", "Norwegian is also the official language in the overseas territories of Norway such as Svalbard, Jan Mayen, Bouvet island, Queen Maud Land and Peter I island.Icelandic is the official language of Iceland.Faroese is the official language of the Faroe Islands, and is also spoken by some people in Denmark.===Statistics===Area of the Nordic Bronze Age culture, ca 1200 BC+ Germanic languages by number of native speakers (in millions) Language Native speakers English 360–400 German 100 Dutch 24 Swedish 11.1 Afrikaans 7.2 Danish 5.5 Norwegian 5.3 Low German3.8 Yiddish 1.5 Scots 1.5 Frisian languages 0.5 Luxembourgish 0.4 Icelandic 0.3 Faroese 0.07 Other Germanic languages 0.01 Total est.", "515" ], [ "History", "The approximate extent of Germanic languages in the early 10th century:All Germanic languages are thought to be descended from a hypothetical Proto-Germanic, united by subjection to the sound shifts of Grimm's law and Verner's law.", "These probably took place during the Pre-Roman Iron Age of Northern Europe from .", "Proto-Germanic itself was likely spoken after , and Proto-Norse from the 2nd century AD and later is still quite close to reconstructed Proto-Germanic, but other common innovations separating Germanic from Proto-Indo-European suggest a common history of pre-Proto-Germanic speakers throughout the Nordic Bronze Age.From the time of their earliest attestation, the Germanic varieties are divided into three groups: West, East, and North Germanic.", "Their exact relation is difficult to determine from the sparse evidence of runic inscriptions.The western group would have formed in the late Jastorf culture, and the eastern group may be derived from the 1st-century variety of Gotland, leaving southern Sweden as the original location of the northern group.", "The earliest period of Elder Futhark (2nd to 4th centuries) predates the division in regional script variants, and linguistically essentially still reflects the Common Germanic stage.", "The Vimose inscriptions include some of the oldest datable Germanic inscriptions, starting in .The earliest coherent Germanic text preserved is the 4th-century Gothic translation of the New Testament by Ulfilas.", "Early testimonies of West Germanic are in Old Frankish/Old Dutch (the 5th-century Bergakker inscription), Old High German (scattered words and sentences 6th century and coherent texts 9th century), and Old English (oldest texts 650, coherent texts 10th century).", "North Germanic is only attested in scattered runic inscriptions, as Proto-Norse, until it evolves into Old Norse by about 800.Longer runic inscriptions survive from the 8th and 9th centuries (Eggjum stone, Rök stone), longer texts in the Latin alphabet survive from the 12th century (), and some skaldic poetry dates back to as early as the 9th century.By about the 10th century, the varieties had diverged enough to make mutual intelligibility difficult.", "The linguistic contact of the Viking settlers of the Danelaw with the Anglo-Saxons left traces in the English language and is suspected to have facilitated the collapse of Old English grammar that, combined with the influx of Romance Old French vocabulary after the Norman Conquest, resulted in Middle English from the 12th century.The East Germanic languages were marginalized from the end of the Migration Period.", "The Burgundians, Goths, and Vandals became linguistically assimilated by their respective neighbors by about the 7th century, with only Crimean Gothic lingering on until the 18th century.During the early Middle Ages, the West Germanic languages were separated by the insular development of Middle English on one hand and by the High German consonant shift on the continent on the other, resulting in Upper German and Low Saxon, with graded intermediate Central German varieties.", "By early modern times, the span had extended into considerable differences, ranging from Highest Alemannic in the South to Northern Low Saxon in the North, and, although both extremes are considered German, they are hardly mutually intelligible.", "The southernmost varieties had completed the second sound shift, while the northern varieties remained unaffected by the consonant shift.The North Germanic languages, on the other hand, remained unified until well past 1000 AD, and in fact the mainland Scandinavian languages still largely retain mutual intelligibility into modern times.", "The main split in these languages is between the mainland languages and the island languages to the west, especially Icelandic, which has maintained the grammar of Old Norse virtually unchanged, while the mainland languages have diverged greatly." ], [ "Distinctive characteristics", "Germanic languages possess a number of defining features compared with other Indo-European languages.Some of the best-known are the following:# The sound changes known as Grimm's Law and Verner's Law, which shifted the values of all the Indo-European stop consonants (for example, original * became Germanic * in most cases; compare ''three'' with Latin , ''two'' with Latin , ''do'' with Sanskrit ).", "The recognition of these two sound laws were seminal events in the understanding of the regular nature of linguistic sound change and the development of the comparative method, which forms the basis of modern historical linguistics.# The development of a strong stress on the first syllable of the word, which triggered significant phonological reduction of all other syllables.", "This is responsible for the reduction of most of the basic English, Norwegian, Danish and Swedish words into monosyllables, and the common impression of modern English and German as consonant-heavy languages.", "Examples are Proto-Germanic → ''strength'', → ''ant'', → ''head'', → ''hear'', → German \"autumn, harvest\", → German \"witch, hag\".# A change known as Germanic umlaut, which modified vowel qualities when a high front vocalic segment (, or ) followed in the next syllable.", "Generally, back vowels were fronted, and front vowels were raised.", "In many languages, the modified vowels are indicated with a umlaut mark (e.g., in German, pronounced , respectively).", "This change resulted in pervasive alternations in related words — prominent in modern German and present to a lesser extent in modern English (e.g., ''mouse/mice'', ''goose/geese'', ''broad/breadth'', ''tell/told'', ''old/elder'', ''foul/filth'', ''gold/gild'').# Large numbers of vowel qualities.", "English has around 11–12 vowels in most dialects (not counting diphthongs), Standard Swedish has 17 pure vowels (monophthongs), standard German and Dutch 14, and Danish at least 11.The Amstetten dialect of Bavarian German has 13 distinctions among long vowels alone, one of the largest such inventories in the world.# ''Verb second'' (V2) word order, which is uncommon cross-linguistically.", "Exactly one noun phrase or adverbial element must precede the verb; in particular, if an adverb or prepositional phrase precedes the verb, then the subject must immediately follow the finite verb.", "In modern English, this survives to a lesser extent, known as \"inversion\": examples include some constructions with ''here'' or ''there'' (''Here comes the sun; there are five continents''), verbs of speech after a quote (''\"Yes\", said John''), sentences beginning with certain conjunctions (''Hardly had he said this when...; Only much later did he realize...'') and sentences beginning with certain adverbs of motion to create a sense of drama (''Over went the boat; out ran the cat; Pop Goes The Weasel'').", "It is more common in other modern Germanic languages.Other significant characteristics are:# The reduction of the various tense and aspect combinations of the Indo-European verbal system into only two: the present tense and the past tense (also called the preterite).# The development of a new class of weak verbs that use a dental suffix (, or ) instead of vowel alternation (Indo-European ablaut) to indicate past tense.", "The vast majority of verbs in all Germanic languages are weak; the remaining verbs with vowel ablaut are the strong verbs.", "The distinction has been lost in Afrikaans.# A distinction in definiteness of a noun phrase that is marked by different sets of inflectional endings for adjectives, the so-called strong and weak inflections.", "A similar development happened in the Balto-Slavic languages.", "This distinction has been lost in modern English but was present in Old English and remains in all other Germanic languages to various degrees.# Some words with etymologies that are difficult to link to other Indo-European families but with variants that appear in almost all Germanic languages.", "See Germanic substrate hypothesis.#Discourse particles, which are a class of short, unstressed words which speakers use to express their attitude towards the utterance or the hearer.", "This word category seems to be rare outside of the Germanic languages.", "An example would be the word 'just', which the speaker can use to express surprise.Some of the characteristics present in Germanic languages were not present in Proto-Germanic but developed later as areal features that spread from language to language:* Germanic umlaut only affected the North and West Germanic languages (which represent all modern Germanic languages) but not the now-extinct East Germanic languages, such as Gothic, nor Proto-Germanic, the common ancestor of all Germanic languages.", "* The large inventory of vowel qualities is a later development, due to a combination of Germanic umlaut and the tendency in many Germanic languages for pairs of long/short vowels of originally identical quality to develop distinct qualities, with the length distinction sometimes eventually lost.", "Proto-Germanic had only five distinct vowel qualities, although there were more actual vowel phonemes because length and possibly nasality were phonemic.", "In modern German, long-short vowel pairs still exist but are also distinct in quality.", "* Proto-Germanic probably had a more general S-O-V-I word order.", "However, the tendency toward V2 order may have already been present in latent form and may be related to Wackernagel's Law, an Indo-European law dictating that sentence clitics must be placed second.Roughly speaking, Germanic languages differ in how conservative or how progressive each language is with respect to an overall trend toward analyticity.", "Some, such as Icelandic and, to a lesser extent, German, have preserved much of the complex inflectional morphology inherited from Proto-Germanic (and in turn from Proto-Indo-European).", "Others, such as English, Swedish, and Afrikaans, have moved toward a largely analytic type." ], [ "Linguistic developments", "The subgroupings of the Germanic languages are defined by shared innovations.", "It is important to distinguish innovations from cases of linguistic conservatism.", "That is, if two languages in a family share a characteristic that is not observed in a third language, that is evidence of common ancestry of the two languages ''only if'' the characteristic is an innovation compared to the family's proto-language.The following innovations are common to the Northwest Germanic languages (all but Gothic):* The lowering of /u/ to /o/ in initial syllables before /a/ in the following syllable: → ''bode'', Icelandic \"messages\" (\"a-Umlaut\", traditionally called ''Brechung'')* \"Labial umlaut\" in unstressed medial syllables (the conversion of /a/ to /u/ and /ō/ to /ū/ before /m/, or /u/ in the following syllable)* The conversion of /ē1/ into /ā/ (vs. Gothic /ē/) in stressed syllables.", "In unstressed syllables, West Germanic also has this change, but North Germanic has shortened the vowel to /e/, then raised it to /i/.", "This suggests it was an areal change.", "* The raising of final /ō/ to /u/ (Gothic lowers it to /a/).", "It is kept distinct from the nasal /ǭ/, which is not raised.", "* The monophthongization of /ai/ and /au/ to /ē/ and /ō/ in non-initial syllables (however, evidence for the development of /au/ in medial syllables is lacking).", "* The development of an intensified demonstrative ending in /s/ (reflected in English \"this\" compared to \"the\")* Introduction of a distinct ablaut grade in Class VII strong verbs, while Gothic uses reduplication (e.g.", "Gothic ''haihait''; ON, OE ''hēt'', preterite of the Gmc verb ''*haitan'' \"to be called\") as part of a comprehensive reformation of the Gmc Class VII from a reduplicating to a new ablaut pattern, which presumably started in verbs beginning with vowel or /h/ (a development which continues the general trend of de-reduplication in Gmc); there are forms (such as OE dial.", "''heht'' instead of ''hēt'') which retain traces of reduplication even in West and North GermanicThe following innovations are also common to the Northwest Germanic languages but represent areal changes:* Proto-Germanic /z/ > /r/ (e.g.", "Gothic ''dius''; ON ''dȳr'', OHG ''tior'', OE ''dēor'', \"wild animal\"); note that this is not present in Proto-Norse and must be ordered after West Germanic loss of final /z/* Germanic umlautThe following innovations are common to the West Germanic languages:* Loss of final /z/.", "In single-syllable words, Old High German retains it (as /r/), while it disappears in the other West Germanic languages.", "* Change of ð (fricative allophone of /d/) to stop d in all environments.", "* Change of /lþ/ to stop /ld/ (except word-finally).", "* West Germanic gemination of consonants, except ''r'', before /j/.", "This only occurred in short-stemmed words due to Sievers' law.", "Gemination of /p/, /t/, /k/ and /h/ is also observed before liquids.", "* Labiovelar consonants become plain velar when non-initial.", "* A particular type of ''umlaut'' /e-u-i/ > /i-u-i/.", "* Changes to the 2nd person singular past-tense: Replacement of the past-singular stem vowel with the past-plural stem vowel, and substitution of the ending ''-t'' with ''-ī''.", "* Short forms (''*stān, stēn'', ''*gān, gēn'') of the verbs for \"stand\" and \"go\"; but note that Crimean Gothic also has ''gēn''.", "* The development of a gerund.The following innovations are common to the Ingvaeonic subgroup of the West Germanic languages, which includes English, Frisian, and in a few cases Dutch and Low German, but not High German:* The so-called Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law, with loss of /n/ before voiceless fricatives: e.g.", "''*munþ'', ''*gans'' > Old English ''mūþ, gōs'' > \"mouth, goose\", but German ''Mund, Gans''.", "* The loss of the Germanic reflexive pronoun .", "Dutch has reclaimed the reflexive pronoun from Middle High German .", "* The reduction of the three Germanic verbal plural forms into one form ending in ''-þ''.", "* The development of Class III weak verbs into a relic class consisting of four verbs (''*sagjan'' \"to say\", ''*hugjan'' \"to think\", ''*habjan'' \"to have\", ''*libjan'' \"to live\"; cf.", "the numerous Old High German verbs in ''-ēn'').", "* The split of the Class II weak verb ending ''*-ō-'' into ''*-ō-/-ōja-'' (cf.", "Old English ''-ian'' < ''-ōjan'', but Old High German ''-ōn'').", "* Development of a plural ending '''*-ōs''' in a-stem nouns (note, Gothic also has ''-ōs'', but this is an independent development, caused by terminal devoicing of ''*-ōz''; Old Frisian has ''-ar'', which is thought to be a late borrowing from Danish).", "Cf.", "modern English plural ''-(e)s'', but German plural ''-e''.", "* Possibly, the monophthongization of Germanic ''*ai'' to ''ē/ā'' (this may represent independent changes in Old Saxon and Anglo-Frisian).The following innovations are common to the Anglo-Frisian subgroup of the Ingvaeonic languages:* Raising of nasalized ''a, ā'' into ''o, ō''.", "* Anglo-Frisian brightening: Fronting of non-nasal ''a, ā'' to ''æ,ǣ'' when not followed by ''n'' or ''m''.", "* Metathesis of ''CrV'' into ''CVr'', where ''C'' represents any consonant and ''V'' any vowel.", "* Monophthongization of ''ai'' into ''ā''." ], [ "Common linguistic features", "===Phonology===The oldest Germanic languages all share a number of features, which are assumed to be inherited from Proto-Germanic.", "Phonologically, it includes the important sound changes known as Grimm's Law and Verner's Law, which introduced a large number of fricatives; late Proto-Indo-European had only one, /s/.The main vowel developments are the merging (in most circumstances) of long and short /a/ and /o/, producing short /a/ and long /ō/.", "That likewise affected the diphthongs, with PIE /ai/ and /oi/ merging into /ai/ and PIE /au/ and /ou/ merging into /au/.", "PIE /ei/ developed into long /ī/.", "PIE long /ē/ developed into a vowel denoted as /ē1/ (often assumed to be phonetically ), while a new, fairly uncommon long vowel /ē2/ developed in varied and not completely understood circumstances.", "Proto-Germanic had no front rounded vowels, but all Germanic languages except for Gothic subsequently developed them through the process of i-umlaut.Proto-Germanic developed a strong stress accent on the first syllable of the root, but remnants of the original free PIE accent are visible due to Verner's Law, which was sensitive to this accent.", "That caused a steady erosion of vowels in unstressed syllables.", "In Proto-Germanic, that had progressed only to the point that absolutely-final short vowels (other than /i/ and /u/) were lost and absolutely-final long vowels were shortened, but all of the early literary languages show a more advanced state of vowel loss.", "This ultimately resulted in some languages (like Modern English) losing practically all vowels following the main stress and the consequent rise of a very large number of monosyllabic words.====Table of outcomes====The following table shows the main outcomes of Proto-Germanic vowels and consonants in the various older languages.", "For vowels, only the outcomes in stressed syllables are shown.", "Outcomes in unstressed syllables are quite different, vary from language to language and depend on a number of other factors (such as whether the syllable was medial or final, whether the syllable was open or closed and (in some cases) whether the preceding syllable was light or heavy).Notes:* ''C-'' means before a vowel (word-initially, or sometimes after a consonant).", "* ''-C-'' means between vowels.", "* ''-C'' means after a vowel (word-finally or before a consonant).", "Word-final outcomes generally occurred ''after'' deletion of final short vowels, which occurred shortly after Proto-Germanic and is reflected in the history of all written languages except for Proto-Norse.", "* The above three are given in the order ''C-'', ''-C-'', ''-C''.", "If one is omitted, the previous one applies.", "For example, ''f, -v-'' means that ''v'' occurs after a vowel regardless of what follows.", "* Something like ''a(…u)'' means \"''a'' if /u/ occurs in the next syllable\".", "* Something like ''a(n)'' means \"''a'' if /n/ immediately follows\".", "* Something like ''(n)a'' means \"''a'' if /n/ immediately precedes\".+ Development of Germanic sounds Proto-Germanic (Pre-)Gothic Old Norse Old English Old High German a a a, ɔ(...u) æ, a(...a), a/o(n), æ̆ă(h,rC,lC) a a(...i) e, ø(...u) e, æ, ĭy̆(h,rC,lC) e, a(hs,ht,Cw) ãː aː aː oː aː ãː(...i) æː eː äː æː eː, ɛː(V) aː æː, æa(h) aː æː(...i) æː æː äː e i, ɛ(h,hʷ,r) ja, jø(...u), (w,r,l)e, (w,r,l)ø(...u) e, ĕŏ(h,w,rC) e, i(...u) e(...i) i, y(...w) i i eː eː, ɛː(V) eː eː i i, ɛ(h,hʷ,r) i, y(...w) i, ĭŭ(h,w,rC) i iː iː iː iː, iu(h) iː oː oː, ɔː(V) oː oː uo oː(...i) øː eː üö u u, ɔ(h,hʷ,r) u, o(...a) u, o(...a) u, o(...a) u(...i) y y ü uː uː, ɔː(V) uː uː uː uː(...i) yː yː üː ai ai ei, ey(...w), aː(h,r) aː ei, eː(r,h,w,#) ai(...i) ei, æː(h,r) æː au au au, oː(h) æa ou, oː(h,T) au(...i) ey, øː(h) iy öü, öː(h,T) eu iu juː, joː(T) eo io, iu(...i/u) eu(...i) yː iy p p p p pf-, -ff-, -f t t t t ts-, -ss-, -s k k k k, tʃ(i,e,æ)-, -k-, -(i)tʃ-, -tʃ(i)- k-, -xx-, -x kʷ kʷ kv, -k kw-, -k-, -(i)tʃ-, -tʃ(i)- kw-, -xx-, -x b-, -β- b-, -β-, -f b-, -v- b-, -v-, -f b d-, -ð- d-, -ð-, -þ d-, -ð- d t ɣ-, -ɣ- g-, -ɣ-, -x g-, -ɣ- g-, j(æ,e,i)-, -ɣ-, -j(æ,e,i)-, -(æ,e,i)j- g f f f, -v- f, -v-, -f f, p þ þ þ, -ð- þ, -ð-, -þ d x h h, -∅- h, -∅-, -h h xʷ hʷ xv, -∅- hw, -∅-, -h hw, -h- s s s-, -z- s-, -z-, -s ṣ-, -ẓ-, -ṣ z -z-, -s r -r-, -∅ -r-, -∅ r r r r r l l l l l n n n-, -∅(s,p,t,k), -∅ n, -∅(f,s,þ) n m m m m m j j ∅-, -j-, -∅ j j w w ∅-, v-(a,e,i), -v-, -∅ w w===Morphology===The oldest Germanic languages have the typical complex inflected morphology of old Indo-European languages, with four or five noun cases; verbs marked for person, number, tense and mood; multiple noun and verb classes; few or no articles; and rather free word order.", "The old Germanic languages are famous for having only two tenses (present and past), with three PIE past-tense aspects (imperfect, aorist, and perfect/stative) merged into one and no new tenses (future, pluperfect, etc.)", "developing.", "There were three moods: indicative, subjunctive (developed from the PIE optative mood) and imperative.", "Gothic verbs had a number of archaic features inherited from PIE that were lost in the other Germanic languages with few traces, including dual endings, an inflected passive voice (derived from the PIE mediopassive voice), and a class of verbs with reduplication in the past tense (derived from the PIE perfect).", "The complex tense system of modern English (e.g.", "''In three months, the house will still be being built'' or ''If you had not acted so stupidly, we would never have been caught'') is almost entirely due to subsequent developments (although paralleled in many of the other Germanic languages).Among the primary innovations in Proto-Germanic are the preterite present verbs, a special set of verbs whose present tense looks like the past tense of other verbs and which is the origin of most modal verbs in English; a past-tense ending; (in the so-called \"weak verbs\", marked with ''-ed'' in English) that appears variously as /d/ or /t/, often assumed to be derived from the verb \"to do\"; and two separate sets of adjective endings, originally corresponding to a distinction between indefinite semantics (\"a man\", with a combination of PIE adjective and pronoun endings) and definite semantics (\"the man\", with endings derived from PIE ''n''-stem nouns).Note that most modern Germanic languages have lost most of the inherited inflectional morphology as a result of the steady attrition of unstressed endings triggered by the strong initial stress.", "(Contrast, for example, the Balto-Slavic languages, which have largely kept the Indo-European pitch accent and consequently preserved much of the inherited morphology.)", "Icelandic and to a lesser extent modern German best preserve the Proto–Germanic inflectional system, with four noun cases, three genders, and well-marked verbs.", "English and Afrikaans are at the other extreme, with almost no remaining inflectional morphology.The following shows a typical masculine ''a''-stem noun, Proto-Germanic ''*fiskaz'' (\"fish\"), and its development in the various old literary languages:+ Declension of ''a''-stem noun ''*fiskaz'' \"fish\" in various languages Proto-Germanic Gothic Old Norse Old High German Middle High German Modern German Old English Old Saxon Old Frisian Singular Nominative *fisk-az fisk-s fisk-r visk visch Fisch fisc fisc fisk Vocative *fisk fisk Accusative *fisk-ą fisk fisk Genitive *fisk-as, -is fisk-is fisk-s visk-es visch-es Fisch-es fisc-es < fisc-æs fisc-as, -es fisk-is, -es Dative *fisk-ai fisk-a fisk-i visk-a visch-e Fisch-(e) fisc-e < fisc-æ fisc-a, -e fisk-a, -i, -e Instrumental *fisk-ō fisk-a — visk-u — — fisc-e < fisc-i fisc-u — Plural Nominative, Vocative *fisk-ôs, -ôz fisk-ōs fisk-ar visk-a visch-e Fisch-e fisc-as fisc-ōs, -ās fisk-ar, -a Accusative *fisk-anz fisk-ans fisk-a visk-ā Genitive *fisk-ǫ̂ fisk-ē fisk-a visk-ō fisc-a fisc-ō, -ā fisk-a Dative *fisk-amaz fisk-am fisk-um, -om visk-um visch-en Fisch-en fisc-um fisc-un, -on fisk-um, -on, -em Instrumental *fisk-amiz — — — — — — — —====Strong vs. weak nouns and adjectives====Originally, adjectives in Proto-Indo-European followed the same declensional classes as nouns.", "The most common class (the ''o/ā'' class) used a combination of ''o''-stem endings for masculine and neuter genders and ''ā''-stems ending for feminine genders, but other common classes (e.g.", "the ''i'' class and ''u'' class) used endings from a single vowel-stem declension for all genders, and various other classes existed that were based on other declensions.", "A quite different set of \"pronominal\" endings was used for pronouns, determiners, and words with related semantics (e.g., \"all\", \"only\").An important innovation in Proto-Germanic was the development of two separate sets of adjective endings, originally corresponding to a distinction between indefinite semantics (\"a man\") and definite semantics (\"the man\").", "The endings of indefinite adjectives were derived from a combination of pronominal endings with one of the common vowel-stem adjective declensions – usually the ''o/ā'' class (often termed the ''a/ō'' class in the specific context of the Germanic languages) but sometimes the ''i'' or ''u'' classes.", "Definite adjectives, however, had endings based on ''n''-stem nouns.", "Originally both types of adjectives could be used by themselves, but already by Proto-Germanic times a pattern evolved whereby definite adjectives had to be accompanied by a determiner with definite semantics (e.g., a definite article, demonstrative pronoun, possessive pronoun, or the like), while indefinite adjectives were used in other circumstances (either accompanied by a word with indefinite semantics such as \"a\", \"one\", or \"some\" or unaccompanied).In the 19th century, the two types of adjectives – indefinite and definite – were respectively termed \"strong\" and \"weak\", names which are still commonly used.", "These names were based on the appearance of the two sets of endings in modern German.", "In German, the distinctive case endings formerly present on nouns have largely disappeared, with the result that the load of distinguishing one case from another is almost entirely carried by determiners and adjectives.", "Furthermore, due to regular sound change, the various definite (''n''-stem) adjective endings coalesced to the point where only two endings (''-e'' and ''-en'') remain in modern German to express the sixteen possible inflectional categories of the language (masculine/feminine/neuter/plural crossed with nominative/accusative/dative/genitive – modern German merges all genders in the plural).", "The indefinite (''a/ō''-stem) adjective endings were less affected by sound change, with six endings remaining (''-, -e, -es, -er, -em, -en''), cleverly distributed in a way that is capable of expressing the various inflectional categories without too much ambiguity.", "As a result, the definite endings were thought of as too \"weak\" to carry inflectional meaning and in need of \"strengthening\" by the presence of an accompanying determiner, while the indefinite endings were viewed as \"strong\" enough to indicate the inflectional categories even when standing alone.", "(This view is enhanced by the fact that modern German largely uses weak-ending adjectives when accompanying an indefinite article, and hence the indefinite/definite distinction no longer clearly applies.)", "By analogy, the terms \"strong\" and \"weak\" were extended to the corresponding noun classes, with ''a''-stem and ''ō''-stem nouns termed \"strong\" and ''n''-stem nouns termed \"weak\".However, in Proto-Germanic – and still in Gothic, the most conservative Germanic language – the terms \"strong\" and \"weak\" are not clearly appropriate.", "For one thing, there were a large number of noun declensions.", "The ''a''-stem, ''ō''-stem, and ''n''-stem declensions were the most common and represented targets into which the other declensions were eventually absorbed, but this process occurred only gradually.", "Originally the ''n''-stem declension was not a single declension but a set of separate declensions (e.g., ''-an'', ''-ōn'', ''-īn'') with related endings, and these endings were in no way any \"weaker\" than the endings of any other declensions.", "(For example, among the eight possible inflectional categories of a noun — singular/plural crossed with nominative/accusative/dative/genitive — masculine ''an''-stem nouns in Gothic include seven endings, and feminine ''ōn''-stem nouns include six endings, meaning there is very little ambiguity of \"weakness\" in these endings and in fact much less than in the German \"strong\" endings.)", "Although it is possible to group the various noun declensions into three basic categories — vowel-stem, ''n''-stem, and other-consonant-stem (a.k.a.", "\"minor declensions\") — the vowel-stem nouns do not display any sort of unity in their endings that supports grouping them together with each other but separate from the ''n''-stem endings.It is only in later languages that the binary distinction between \"strong\" and \"weak\" nouns become more relevant.", "In Old English, the ''n''-stem nouns form a single, clear class, but the masculine ''a''-stem and feminine ''ō''-stem nouns have little in common with each other, and neither has much similarity to the small class of ''u''-stem nouns.", "Similarly, in Old Norse, the masculine ''a''-stem and feminine ''ō''-stem nouns have little in common with each other, and the continuations of the masculine ''an''-stem and feminine ''ōn/īn''-stem nouns are also quite distinct.", "It is only in Middle Dutch and modern German that the various vowel-stem nouns have merged to the point that a binary strong/weak distinction clearly applies.As a result, newer grammatical descriptions of the Germanic languages often avoid the terms \"strong\" and \"weak\" except in conjunction with German itself, preferring instead to use the terms \"indefinite\" and \"definite\" for adjectives and to distinguish nouns by their actual stem class.In English, both sets of adjective endings were lost entirely in the late Middle English period.==Classification==Note that divisions between and among subfamilies of Germanic are rarely precisely defined; most form continuous clines, with adjacent varieties being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not.", "Within the Germanic language family are East Germanic, West Germanic, and North Germanic.", "However, East Germanic languages became extinct several centuries ago.Germanic languages and main dialect groupsAll living Germanic languages belong either to the West Germanic or to the North Germanic branch.The West Germanic group is the larger by far, further subdivided into Anglo-Frisian on one hand and Continental West Germanic on the other.", "Anglo-Frisian notably includes English and all its variants, while Continental West Germanic includes German (standard register and dialects), as well as Dutch (standard register and dialects).", "East Germanic includes most notably the extinct Gothic and Crimean Gothic languages.Modern classification looks like this.", "For a full classification, see List of Germanic languages.", "* '''Germanic'''** West Germanic*** High German languages (includes Standard German and its dialects)**** Upper German***** Alemannic German (includes Alsatian and Swiss German)***** Bavarian****** Mòcheno language****** Cimbrian****** Hutterite German**** Yiddish**** High Franconian (a transitional dialect between Upper and Central German)**** Central German***** East Central German****** Wymysorys***** West Central German****** Luxembourgish****** Pennsylvania Dutch****** Hunsrik*** Low German**** West Low German**** East Low German**** Plautdietsch (Mennonite Low German)*** Low Franconian**** Dutch and its dialects**** Afrikaans (a separate standard language)**** Limburgish (an official minority *language)*** Anglo-Frisian**** Anglic (or English)***** English and its dialects***** Scots in Scotland and Ulster**** Frisian*****West Frisian*****East Frisian******Saterland Frisian (last remaining dialect of East Frisian)*****North Frisian** North Germanic*** West Scandinavian**** Norwegian (of Western branch origin, but heavily influenced by the Eastern branch)**** Icelandic**** Faroese**** Elfdalian*** East Scandinavian**** Danish**** Swedish***** Dalecarlian dialects*** Gutnish** East Germanic *** Gothic *** Burgundian *** Vandalic *** Crimean Gothic" ], [ "Writing", "Germanic – Romance language border: • Early Middle Ages • Early Twentieth Century The earliest evidence of Germanic languages comes from names recorded in the 1st century by Tacitus (especially from his work ''Germania''), but the earliest Germanic writing occurs in a single instance in the 2nd century BC on the Negau helmet.From roughly the 2nd century AD, certain speakers of early Germanic varieties developed the Elder Futhark, an early form of the runic alphabet.", "Early runic inscriptions also are largely limited to personal names and difficult to interpret.", "The Gothic language was written in the Gothic alphabet developed by Bishop Ulfilas for his translation of the Bible in the 4th century.", "Later, Christian priests and monks who spoke and read Latin in addition to their native Germanic varieties began writing the Germanic languages with slightly modified Latin letters.", "However, throughout the Viking Age, runic alphabets remained in common use in Scandinavia.Modern Germanic languages mostly use an alphabet derived from the Latin Alphabet.", "In print, German used to be predominately set in blackletter typefaces (e.g., fraktur or schwabacher) until the 1940s, while ''Kurrent'' and, since the early 20th century, ''Sütterlin'' were formerly used for German handwriting.", "Yiddish is written using an adapted Hebrew alphabet." ], [ "Vocabulary comparison", "The table compares cognates in several different Germanic languages.", "In some cases, the meanings may not be identical in each language.", "West Germanic North Germanic East GermanicReconstructed Proto-Germanic Anglo-Frisian ContinentalWestEast English West Frisian Dutch Low German German Icelandic Norwegian(Nynorsk) Swedish Danish Gothic † apple apel appel Appel Apfel epli eple äpple æble ''apel'' *ap(u)laz can kinne kunnen känen können kunna kunne, kunna kunna kunne kunnan *kanna daughter dochter dochter Dochter Tochter dóttir dotter dotter datter dauhtar *đuχtēr dead dea dood dod tot dauður daud död død dauþs *đauđaz deep djip diep deip tief djúpur djup djup dyb diups *đeupaz earth ierde aarde Ir(d) Erde jörð jord jord jord airþa *erþō egg aei, aai ei Ei Ei egg egg ägg æg *addi *ajjaz fish fisk vis Fisch Fisch fiskur fisk fisk fisk fisks *fiskaz go gean gaan gahn gehen ganga gå gå(nga) gå (gange) gaggan *ȝanȝanan good goed goed gaud gut góð(ur) god god god gōþ(is) *ȝōđaz hear hearre horen hüren hören heyra høyra, høyre höra høre hausjan *χauzjanan, *χausjanan I ik ik ick ich ég eg jag jeg ik *eka live libje leven lewen leben lifa leva leva leve liban *liƀēnan night nacht nacht Nacht Nacht nótt natt natt nat nahts *naχtz one ien één ein, en eins einn ein en en áins *ainaz ridge rêch rug Rügg(en) Rücken hryggur rygg rygg ryg – *χruȝjaz sit sitte zitten sitten sitzen sitja sitja, sitta sitta sidde sitan *setjanan seek sykje zoeken säuken suchen sækja søkja söka søge sōkjan *sōkjanan that dat dat dat das það det det det þata *þat thank (noun) tank dank Dank Dank þökk takk tack tak þagks *þankaz true trou trouw tru treu tryggur trygg trygg tryg triggws *trewwaz two twa twee twei zwei, zwo tveir, tvær, tvö to två, tu to twái, twós, twa *twō(u) us ús ons uns uns oss oss oss os uns *uns- way wei weg Weg Weg vegur veg väg vej wigs weȝaz white wyt wit witt weiß hvítur kvit vit hvid *χwītaz word wurd woord Wurd Wort orð ord ord ord waurd *wurđan year jier jaar Johr Jahr ár år år år jēr *jēran" ], [ "See also", "* List of Germanic languages* Language families and languages* List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents* Germanization * Anglicization* Germanic name* Germanic verb and its various subordinated articles* Germanic placename etymology* German name* German placename etymology* Isogloss* South Germanic languages" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * ===Germanic languages in general===* * * ===Proto-Germanic===* * ;Gothic* * ===Old Norse===* * ===Old English===* * * * * * * * * ===Old High German===* *" ], [ "External links", "* Germanic Lexicon Project* 'Hover & Hear' pronunciations of the same Germanic words in dozens of Germanic languages and 'dialects', including English accents, and compare instantaneously side by side* ''Bibliographie der Schreibsprachen'': Bibliography of medieval written forms of High and Low German and Dutch* Swadesh lists of Germanic basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)* Germanic languages fragments—YouTube (14:06)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "German language" ], [ "Introduction", "'''German''' (Standard High German: , ) is a West Germanic language mainly spoken in Western and Central Europe.", "It is the most widely spoken and official or co-official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and the Italian province of South Tyrol.", "It is also an official language of Luxembourg and Belgium, as well as a recognized national language in Namibia.", "Outside Germany, it is also spoken by German communities in France (Alsace), Czech Republic (North Bohemia), Poland (Upper Silesia), Slovakia (Košice Region, Spiš, and Hauerland), and Hungary (Sopron).German is part of the West Germanic branch of the Germanic language family, which itself is part of the larger Indo-European language family.", "It is most closely related to other West Germanic languages, namely Afrikaans, Dutch, English, the Frisian languages, Scots.", "It also contains close similarities in vocabulary to some languages in the North Germanic group, such as Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish.", "Modern German gradually developed from the Old High German which in turn developed from Proto-Germanic at some point in the Early Middle Ages.", "German is the second-most widely spoken Germanic and West Germanic language after English as both a first or second language.Today, German is one of the major languages of the world.", "It is the most spoken native language within the European Union.", "German is also widely taught as a foreign language, especially in continental Europe, where it is the third most taught foreign language (after English and French), and the United States.", "The language has been influential in the fields of philosophy, theology, science, and technology.", "It is the second-most commonly used scientific language and among the most widely used languages on websites.", "The German-speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of annual publication of new books, with one-tenth of all books (including e-books) in the world being published in German.German is an inflected language, with four cases for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative); three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter); and two numbers (singular, plural).", "It has strong and weak verbs.", "The majority of its vocabulary derives from the ancient Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, while a smaller share is partly derived from Latin and Greek, along with fewer words borrowed from French and Modern English.German is a pluricentric language; the three standardized variants are German, Austrian, and Swiss Standard German.", "Standard German is sometimes referred as ''High German'' while referring to its regional origin of the High German languages.", "It is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many varieties existing in Europe and other parts of the world.", "Some of these non-standard varieties have become recognized and protected by regional or national governments.Since 2004, heads of state of the German-speaking countries have met every year and the Council for German Orthography has been the main international body regulating German orthography." ], [ "Classification", "'''Anglic languages''''''Anglo-Frisian languages''' Anglic and'''North Sea Germanic languages''' Anglo-Frisian and'''West Germanic languages''' North Sea Germanic and...... German (High):...... YiddishMaurer's classification of German tribes (German)The Germanic languages in contemporary EuropeGerman is an Indo-European language that belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages.", "The Germanic languages are traditionally subdivided into three branches: North Germanic, East Germanic, and West Germanic.", "The first of these branches survives in modern Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Faroese, and Icelandic, all of which are descended from Old Norse.", "The East Germanic languages are now extinct, and Gothic is the only language in this branch which survives in written texts.", "The West Germanic languages, however, have undergone extensive dialectal subdivision and are now represented in modern languages such as English, German, Dutch, Yiddish, Afrikaans, and others.Within the West Germanic language dialect continuum, the Benrath and Uerdingen lines (running through Düsseldorf-Benrath and Krefeld-Uerdingen, respectively) serve to distinguish the Germanic dialects that were affected by the High German consonant shift (south of Benrath) from those that were not (north of Uerdingen).", "The various regional dialects spoken south of these lines are grouped as High German dialects, while those spoken to the north comprise the Low German and Low Franconian dialects.", "As members of the West Germanic language family, High German, Low German, and Low Franconian have been proposed to be further distinguished historically as Irminonic, Ingvaeonic, and Istvaeonic, respectively.", "This classification indicates their historical descent from dialects spoken by the Irminones (also known as the Elbe group), Ingvaeones (or North Sea Germanic group), and Istvaeones (or Weser–Rhine group).Standard German is based on a combination of Thuringian-Upper Saxon and Upper Franconian dialects, which are Central German and Upper German dialects belonging to the High German dialect group.", "German is therefore closely related to the other languages based on High German dialects, such as Luxembourgish (based on Central Franconian dialects) and Yiddish.", "Also closely related to Standard German are the Upper German dialects spoken in the southern German-speaking countries, such as Swiss German (Alemannic dialects) and the various Germanic dialects spoken in the French region of Grand Est, such as Alsatian (mainly Alemannic, but also CentralandUpper Franconian dialects) and Lorraine Franconian (Central Franconian).After these High German dialects, standard German is less closely related to languages based on Low Franconian dialects (e.g., Dutch and Afrikaans), Low German or Low Saxon dialects (spoken in northern Germany and southern Denmark), neither of which underwent the High German consonant shift.", "As has been noted, the former of these dialect types is Istvaeonic and the latter Ingvaeonic, whereas the High German dialects are all Irminonic; the differences between these languages and standard German are therefore considerable.", "Also related to German are the Frisian languages—North Frisian (spoken in Nordfriesland), Saterland Frisian (spoken in Saterland), and West Frisian (spoken in Friesland)—as well as the Anglic languages of English and Scots.", "These Anglo-Frisian dialects did not take part in the High German consonant shift, and the Anglic languages also adopted much vocabulary from both Old Norse and the Norman language." ], [ "History", "=== Old High German ===The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the Migration Period, which separated Old High German dialects from Old Saxon.", "This sound shift involved a drastic change in the pronunciation of both voiced and voiceless stop consonants (''b'', ''d'', ''g'', and ''p'', ''t'', ''k'', respectively).", "The primary effects of the shift were the following below.", "* Voiceless stops became long (geminated) voiceless fricatives following a vowel;* Voiceless stops became affricates in word-initial position, or following certain consonants;* Voiced stops became voiceless in certain phonetic settings.Voiceless stopfollowing a vowelWord-initialvoiceless stopVoiced stop/p/→/ff//p/→/pf//b/→/p//t/→/ss//t/→/ts//d/→/t//k/→/xx//k/→/kx//g/→/k/The approximate extent of Germanic languages in the early 10th century:While there is written evidence of the Old High German language in several Elder Futhark inscriptions from as early as the sixth century AD (such as the Pforzen buckle), the Old High German period is generally seen as beginning with the ''Abrogans'' (written ), a Latin-German glossary supplying over 3,000 Old High German words with their Latin equivalents.", "After the ''Abrogans'', the first coherent works written in Old High German appear in the ninth century, chief among them being the ''Muspilli'', Merseburg charms, and '''', and other religious texts (the ''Georgslied'', ''Ludwigslied'', ''Evangelienbuch'', and translated hymns and prayers).", "The ''Muspilli'' is a Christian poem written in a Bavarian dialect offering an account of the soul after the Last Judgment, and the Merseburg charms are transcriptions of spells and charms from the pagan Germanic tradition.", "Of particular interest to scholars, however, has been the '''', a secular epic poem telling the tale of an estranged father and son unknowingly meeting each other in battle.", "Linguistically, this text is highly interesting due to the mixed use of Old Saxon and Old High German dialects in its composition.", "The written works of this period stem mainly from the Alamanni, Bavarian, and Thuringian groups, all belonging to the Elbe Germanic group (Irminones), which had settled in what is now southern-central Germany and Austria between the second and sixth centuries, during the great migration.In general, the surviving texts of Old High German (OHG) show a wide range of dialectal diversity with very little written uniformity.", "The early written tradition of OHG survived mostly through monasteries and scriptoria as local translations of Latin originals; as a result, the surviving texts are written in highly disparate regional dialects and exhibit significant Latin influence, particularly in vocabulary.", "At this point monasteries, where most written works were produced, were dominated by Latin, and German saw only occasional use in official and ecclesiastical writing.===Middle High German===While there is no complete agreement over the dates of the Middle High German (MHG) period, it is generally seen as lasting from 1050 to 1350.This was a period of significant expansion of the geographical territory occupied by Germanic tribes, and consequently of the number of German speakers.", "Whereas during the Old High German period the Germanic tribes extended only as far east as the Elbe and Saale rivers, the MHG period saw a number of these tribes expanding beyond this eastern boundary into Slavic territory (known as the '''').", "With the increasing wealth and geographic spread of the Germanic groups came greater use of German in the courts of nobles as the standard language of official proceedings and literature.", "A clear example of this is the '''' employed in the Hohenstaufen court in Swabia as a standardized supra-dialectal written language.", "While these efforts were still regionally bound, German began to be used in place of Latin for certain official purposes, leading to a greater need for regularity in written conventions.While the major changes of the MHG period were socio-cultural, High German was still undergoing significant linguistic changes in syntax, phonetics, and morphology as well (e.g.", "diphthongization of certain vowel sounds: '''' (OHG & MHG \"house\")''→ (regionally in later MHG)→'' (NHG), and weakening of unstressed short vowels to schwa ə: '''' (OHG \"days\")→'''' (MHG)).A great wealth of texts survives from the MHG period.", "Significantly, these texts include a number of impressive secular works, such as the , an epic poem telling the story of the dragon-slayer Siegfried (), and the ''Iwein,'' an Arthurian verse poem by Hartmann von Aue (), lyric poems, and courtly romances such as ''Parzival'' and ''Tristan''.", "Also noteworthy is the '''', the first book of laws written in Middle ''Low'' German ().", "The abundance and especially the secular character of the literature of the MHG period demonstrate the beginnings of a standardized written form of German, as well as the desire of poets and authors to be understood by individuals on supra-dialectal terms.The Middle High German period is generally seen as ending when the 1346–53 Black Death decimated Europe's population.===Early New High German===German language area and major dialectal divisions around 1900Modern High German begins with the Early New High German (ENHG) period, which the Wilhelm Scherer dates 13501650, terminating with the end of the Thirty Years' War.", "This period saw the further displacement of Latin by German as the primary language of courtly proceedings and, increasingly, of literature in the German states.", "While these states were still part of the Holy Roman Empire, and far from any form of unification, the desire for a cohesive written language that would be understandable across the many German-speaking principalities and kingdoms was stronger than ever.", "As a spoken language German remained highly fractured throughout this period, with a vast number of often mutually incomprehensible regional dialects being spoken throughout the German states; the invention of the printing press and the publication of Luther's vernacular translation of the Bible in 1534, however, had an immense effect on standardizing German as a supra-dialectal written language.The ENHG period saw the rise of several important cross-regional forms of chancery German, one being '''', used in the court of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, and the other being '''', used in the Electorate of Saxony in the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg.Alongside these courtly written standards, the invention of the printing press led to the development of a number of printers' languages ('''') aimed at making printed material readable and understandable across as many diverse dialects of German as possible.", "The greater ease of production and increased availability of written texts brought about increased standardisation in the written form of German.Modern High German translation of the Christian Bible by the Protestant reformer Martin Luther (1534).", "The widespread popularity of the Bible translated into High German by Luther helped establish modern Standard German.One of the central events in the development of ENHG was the publication of Luther's translation of the Bible into High German (the New Testament was published in 1522; the Old Testament was published in parts and completed in 1534).", "Luther based his translation primarily on the '''' of Saxony, spending much time among the population of Saxony researching the dialect so as to make the work as natural and accessible to German speakers as possible.", "Copies of Luther's Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region, translating words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect.", "Luther said the following concerning his translation method: Luther's translation of the Bible into High German was also decisive for the German language and its evolution from Early New High German to modern Standard German.", "The publication of Luther's Bible was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy in early modern Germany, and promoted the development of non-local forms of language and exposed all speakers to forms of German from outside their own area.", "With Luther's rendering of the Bible in the vernacular, German asserted itself against the dominance of Latin as a legitimate language for courtly, literary, and now ecclesiastical subject-matter.", "His Bible was ubiquitous in the German states: nearly every household possessed a copy.", "Nevertheless, even with the influence of Luther's Bible as an unofficial written standard, a widely accepted standard for written German did not appear until the middle of the eighteenth century.===Habsburg Empire===Map of Central Europe in 1648:Ethnolinguistic map comprising the territories of Austria-Hungary (1910), with German-speaking areas shown in redGerman was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe.", "Until the mid-nineteenth century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire.", "Its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality.Prague () and Budapest (Buda, ), to name two examples, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain; others, like Pressburg (, now Bratislava), were originally settled during the Habsburg period and were primarily German at that time.", "Prague, Budapest, Bratislava, and cities like Zagreb () or Ljubljana (), contained significant German minorities.In the eastern provinces of Banat, Bukovina, and Transylvania (), German was the predominant language not only in the larger towns—like (Timișoara), (Sibiu), and (Brașov)—but also in many smaller localities in the surrounding areas.=== Standardization ===In 1901, the Second Orthographic Conference ended with a (nearly) complete standardization of the Standard German language in its written form, and the Duden Handbook was declared its standard definition.", "Punctuation and compound spelling (joined or isolated compounds) were not standardized in the process.Participants of Meetings of German-speaking countries (2004-present)The () had established conventions for German pronunciation in theatres, three years earlier; however, this was an artificial standard that did not correspond to any traditional spoken dialect.", "Rather, it was based on the pronunciation of German in Northern Germany, although it was subsequently regarded often as a general prescriptive norm, despite differing pronunciation traditions especially in the Upper-German-speaking regions that still characterise the dialect of the area todayespecially the pronunciation of the ending as ɪk instead of ɪç.", "In Northern Germany, High German was a foreign language to most inhabitants, whose native dialects were subsets of Low German.", "It was usually encountered only in writing or formal speech; in fact, most of High German was a written language, not identical to any spoken dialect, throughout the German-speaking area until well into the 19th century.Official revisions of some of the rules from 1901 were not issued until the controversial German orthography reform of 1996 was made the official standard by governments of all German-speaking countries.", "Media and written works are now almost all produced in Standard German which is understood in all areas where German is spoken." ], [ "Geographical distribution", "As a result of the German diaspora, as well as the popularity of German taught as a foreign language, the geographical distribution of German speakers (or \"Germanophones\") spans all inhabited continents.However, an exact, global number of native German speakers is complicated by the existence of several varieties whose status as separate \"languages\" or \"dialects\" is disputed for political and linguistic reasons, including quantitatively strong varieties like certain forms of Alemannic and Low German.", "With the inclusion or exclusion of certain varieties, it is estimated that approximately 9095 million people speak German as a first language, 1025million speak it as a second language, and 75100million as a foreign language.", "This would imply the existence of approximately 175220million German speakers worldwide.German sociolinguist Ulrich Ammon estimated a number of 289 million German foreign language speakers without clarifying the criteria by which he classified a speaker.=== Europe ===The German language in Europe:''Map shows Austria and South Tyrol, Italy.", "'', about 90million people, or 16% of the European Union's population, spoke German as their mother tongue, making it the second-most widely spoken language on the continent after Russian and the second biggest language in terms of overall speakers (after English), as well as the most spoken native language.====German Sprachraum====The area in central Europe where the majority of the population speaks German as a first language and has German as a (co-)official language is called the \"German ''Sprachraum''\".", "German is the official language of the following countries:* Germany * Austria * 17 cantons of Switzerland* LiechtensteinGerman is a co-official language of the following countries:* Belgium (as majority language only in the German-speaking Community, which represents 0.7% of the Belgian population)* Luxembourg, along with French and Luxembourgish* Switzerland, co-official at the federal level with French, Italian, and Romansh, and at the local level in four cantons: Bern (with French), Fribourg (with French), Grisons (with Italian and Romansh) and Valais (with French)* Italy, (as majority language only in the Autonomous Province of South Tyrol, which represents 0.6% of the Italian population)====Outside the German Sprachraum====Although expulsions and (forced) assimilation after the two World wars greatly diminished them, minority communities of mostly bilingual German native speakers exist in areas both adjacent to and detached from the Sprachraum.Within Europe, German is a recognized minority language in the following countries:* Czech Republic (see also: Germans in the Czech Republic)* Denmark (see also: North Schleswig Germans)* Hungary (see also: Germans of Hungary)* Poland (see also German minority in Poland; German is an auxiliary and co-official language in 31 communes)* Romania (see also: Germans of Romania)* Russia (see also: Germans in Russia)* Slovakia (see also: Carpathian Germans)In France, the High German varieties of Alsatian and Moselle Franconian are identified as \"regional languages\", but the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages of 1998 has not yet been ratified by the government.===Africa=======Namibia====Bilingual German-English sign at a bakery in Namibia, where German is a national languageNamibia also was a colony of the German Empire, from 1884 to 1915.About 30,000 people still speak German as a native tongue today, mostly descendants of German colonial settlers.", "The period of German colonialism in Namibia also led to the evolution of a Standard German-based pidgin language called \"Namibian Black German\", which became a second language for parts of the indigenous population.", "Although it is nearly extinct today, some older Namibians still have some knowledge of it.German remained a ''de facto'' official language of Namibia after the end of German colonial rule alongside English and Afrikaans, and had ''de jure'' co-official status from 1984 until its independence from South Africa in 1990.However, the Namibian government perceived Afrikaans and German as symbols of apartheid and colonialism, and decided English would be the sole official language upon independence, stating that it was a \"neutral\" language as there were virtually no English native speakers in Namibia at that time.", "German, Afrikaans, and several indigenous languages thus became \"national languages\" by law, identifying them as elements of the cultural heritage of the nation and ensuring that the state acknowledged and supported their presence in the country.Today, Namibia is considered to be the only German-speaking country outside of the ''Sprachraum'' in Europe.", "German is used in a wide variety of spheres throughout the country, especially in business, tourism, and public signage, as well as in education, churches (most notably the German-speaking Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia (GELK)), other cultural spheres such as music, and media (such as German language radio programs by the Namibian Broadcasting Corporation).", "The is one of the three biggest newspapers in Namibia and the only German-language daily in Africa.====Rest of Africa====An estimated 12,000 people speak German or a German variety as a first language in South Africa, mostly originating from different waves of immigration during the 19th and 20th centuries.", "One of the largest communities consists of the speakers of \"Nataler Deutsch\", a variety of Low German concentrated in and around Wartburg.", "The South African constitution identifies German as a \"commonly used\" language and the Pan South African Language Board is obligated to promote and ensure respect for it.Cameroon was a colony of the German Empire from 1884 to 1916.However, German was replaced by French and English, the languages of the two successor colonial powers, after its loss in World War I.", "Nevertheless since the 21st century, German has become a popular foreign language among pupils and students, with 300,000 people learning or speaking German in Cameroon in 2010 and over 230,000 in 2020.Today Cameroon is one of the African countries outside Namibia with the highest number of people learning German.===North America===In the United States, German is the fifth most spoken language in terms of native and second language speakers after English, Spanish, French, and Chinese (with figures for Cantonese and Mandarin combined), with over 1 million total speakers.", "In the states of North Dakota and South Dakota, German is the most common language spoken at home after English.", "As a legacy of significant German immigration to the country, German geographical names can be found throughout the Midwest region, such as New Ulm and Bismarck (North Dakota's state capital), plus many other regions.A number of German varieties have developed in the country and are still spoken today, such as Pennsylvania Dutch and Texas German.===South America===In Brazil, the largest concentrations of German speakers are in the states of Rio Grande do Sul (where Riograndenser Hunsrückisch developed), Santa Catarina, and Espírito Santo.German dialects (namely Hunsrik and East Pomeranian) are recognized languages in the following municipalities in Brazil: * Espírito Santo (statewide cultural language): Domingos Martins, Laranja da Terra, Pancas, Santa Maria de Jetibá, Vila Pavão* Rio Grande do Sul (Riograndenser Hunsrückisch German is a designated cultural language in the state): Santa Maria do Herval, Canguçu* Santa Catarina: Antônio Carlos, Pomerode (standard German recognized)Small concentrations of German-speakers and their descendants are also found in Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Venezuela, and Bolivia.===Oceania===In Australia, the state of South Australia experienced a pronounced wave of Prussian immigration in the 1840s (particularly from Silesia region).", "With the prolonged isolation from other German speakers and contact with Australian English, a unique dialect known as Barossa German developed, spoken predominantly in the Barossa Valley near Adelaide.", "Usage of German sharply declined with the advent of World War I, due to the prevailing anti-German sentiment in the population and related government action.", "It continued to be used as a first language into the 20th century, but its use is now limited to a few older speakers.As of the 2013 census, 36,642 people in New Zealand spoke German, mostly descendants of a small wave of 19th century German immigrants, making it the third most spoken European language after English and French and overall the ninth most spoken language.A German creole named was historically spoken in the former German colony of German New Guinea, modern day Papua New Guinea.", "It is at a high risk of extinction, with only about 100 speakers remaining, and a topic of interest among linguists seeking to revive interest in the language.===As a foreign language===Self-reported knowledge of German as a foreign language in the EU member states (+Turkey and UK), in per cent of the adult population (+15), 2005Like English, French, and Spanish, German has become a standard foreign language throughout the world, especially in the Western World.", "German ranks second on par with French among the best known foreign languages in the European Union (EU) after English, as well as in Russia, and Turkey.", "In terms of student numbers across all levels of education, German ranks third in the EU (after English and French) and in the United States (after Spanish and French).", "In British schools, where learning a foreign language is not mandatory, a dramatic decline in entries for German A-Level has been observed.", "In 2020, approximately 15.4million people were enrolled in learning German across all levels of education worldwide.", "This number has decreased from a peak of 20.1million in 2000.Within the EU, not counting countries where it is an official language, German as a foreign language is most popular in Eastern and Northern Europe, namely the Czech Republic, Croatia, Denmark, the Netherlands, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Sweden, Poland, and Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "German was once, and to some extent still is, a lingua franca in those parts of Europe." ], [ "Standard German", "Self-reported knowledge of German within the nations of the European UnionThe basis of Standard German developed with the Luther Bible and the chancery language spoken by the Saxon court, part of the regional High German group.", "However, there are places where the traditional regional dialects have been replaced by new vernaculars based on Standard German; that is the case in large stretches of Northern Germany but also in major cities in other parts of the country.", "It is important to note, however, that the colloquial Standard German differs from the formal written language, especially in grammar and syntax, in which it has been influenced by dialectal speech.Standard German differs regionally among German-speaking countries in vocabulary and some instances of pronunciation and even grammar and orthography.", "This variation must not be confused with the variation of local dialects.", "Even though the national varieties of Standard German are only somewhat influenced by the local dialects, they are very distinct.", "German is thus considered a pluricentric language, with currently three national standard varieties of German: Standard German German, Standard Austrian German and Standard Swiss German.", "In comparison to other European languages (e.g.", "Portuguese, English), the multi-standard character of German is still not widely acknowledged.", "However, 90% of Austrian secondary school teachers of German consider German has having \"more than one\" standard variety.", "In this context, some scholars speak of a One Standard German Axiom that has been maintained as a core assumption of German dialectology.In most regions, the speakers use a continuum, e.g.", "\"Umgangssprache\" (colloquial standards) from more dialectal varieties to more standard varieties depending on the circumstances.===Varieties===The national and regional standard varieties of GermanIn German linguistics, German dialects are distinguished from varieties of Standard German.The ''varieties of Standard German'' refer to the different local varieties of the pluricentric German.", "They differ mainly in lexicon and phonology, but also smaller grammatical differences.", "In certain regions, they have replaced the traditional German dialects, especially in Northern Germany.", "* German Standard German* Austrian Standard German* Swiss Standard GermanIn the German-speaking parts of Switzerland, mixtures of dialect and standard are very seldom used, and the use of Standard German is largely restricted to the written language.", "About 11% of the Swiss residents speak Standard German at home, but this is mainly due to German immigrants.", "This situation has been called a ''medial diglossia''.", "Swiss Standard German is used in the Swiss education system, while Austrian German is officially used in the Austrian education system." ], [ "Dialects", "The German dialects are the traditional local varieties of the language; many of them are not mutually intelligible with standard German, and they have great differences in lexicon, phonology, and syntax.", "If a narrow definition of language based on mutual intelligibility is used, many German dialects are considered to be separate languages (for instance by ISO 639-3).", "However, such a point of view is unusual in German linguistics.The German dialect continuum is traditionally divided most broadly into High German and Low German, also called Low Saxon.", "However, historically, High German dialects and Low Saxon/Low German dialects do not belong to the same language.", "Nevertheless, in today's Germany, Low Saxon/Low German is often perceived as a dialectal variation of Standard German on a functional level even by many native speakers.The variation among the German dialects is considerable, with often only neighbouring dialects being mutually intelligible.", "Some dialects are not intelligible to people who know only Standard German.", "However, all German dialects belong to the dialect continuum of High German and Low Saxon.===Low German===The Low German dialectsMiddle Low German was the lingua franca of the Hanseatic League.", "It was the predominant language in Northern Germany until the 16th century.", "In 1534, the Luther Bible was published.", "It aimed to be understandable to a broad audience and was based mainly on Central and Upper German varieties.", "The Early New High German language gained more prestige than Low German and became the language of science and literature.", "Around the same time, the Hanseatic League, a confederation of northern ports, lost its importance as new trade routes to Asia and the Americas were established, and the most powerful German states of that period were located in Middle and Southern Germany.The 18th and 19th centuries were marked by mass education in Standard German in schools.", "Gradually, Low German came to be politically viewed as a mere dialect spoken by the uneducated.", "The proportion of the population who can understand and speak it has decreased continuously since World War II.", "* Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in the area: most of the Ruhr (Dortmund, Essen, Bochum, Gelsenkirchen, Hagen, Herne, Bottrop, Recklinghausen), Hamburg, Bremen, Hanover, Bielefeld, Münster, Braunschweig, Kiel, Groningen, Lübeck, Rostock, Hamm, Oldenburg, Osnabrück, Enschede, Paderborn, Wolfsburg, Göttingen, Bremerhaven, Salzgitter, Gütersloh, Hildesheim, and historically also Berlin, Halle (Saale), Magdeburg and Potsdam.===Low Franconian===The Low Franconian dialects fall within a linguistic category used to classify a number of historical and contemporary West Germanic varieties most closely related to, and including, the Dutch language.", "Consequently, the vast majority of the Low Franconian dialects are spoken outside of the German language area.", "Low Franconian dialects are spoken in the Netherlands, Belgium, South Africa, Suriname and Namibia, and along the Lower Rhine in Germany, in North Rhine-Westphalia.", "The region in Germany encompasses parts of the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region and of the Ruhr.", "The Low Franconian dialects have three different standard varieties: In the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname, it is Dutch, which is itself a Low Franconian language.", "In South Africa, it is Afrikaans, which is also categorized as Low Franconian.", "During the Middle Ages and Early Modern Period, the Low Franconian dialects now spoken in Germany, used Middle Dutch or Early Modern Dutch as their literary language and Dachsprache.", "Following a 19th-century change in Prussian language policy, use of Dutch as an official and public language was forbidden; resulting in Standard German taking its place as the region's official language.", "As a result, these dialects are now considered German dialects from a socio-linguistic point of view.The Low Franconian dialects in Germany are divided by the Uerdingen line (north of which \"i\" is pronounced as \"ik\" and south of which as \"ich\") into northern and southern Low Franconian.", "The northern variants comprise Kleverlandish, which is most similar to Standard Dutch.", "The other ones are transitional between Low Franconian and Ripuarian, but closer to Low Franconian.", "* Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in the area: Cape Town, Pretoria, Brussels, Gqeberha, Amsterdam, Düsseldorf*, Rotterdam, The Hague, Antwerp, Duisburg*, Utrecht, Wuppertal*, Mönchengladbach*, Ghent, Bloemfontein, Eindhoven, Paramaribo, Krefeld*, Almere, Oberhausen*, Tilburg, Nijmegen, Mülheim an der Ruhr*, Arnhem, Haarlem, Amersfoort, Solingen*, Neuss*, Breda, Apeldoorn, Zwolle, Zoetermeer, Leiden, Maastricht, Dordrecht, Bruges, Remscheid*, 's-Hertogenbosch, Delft, Moers*, Leuven, Willemstad, and the south of Essen*.", "city with German as standard language===High German===The Central German dialectsFranconian dialects(The Rhenish fan)1.Low Franconian''ik–ich line''''maken–machen line''2.Middle Franconian''Dorp–Dorf line''''dat–das line''''Appel–Apfel line''3.High FranconianThe High German dialects consist of the Central German, High Franconian and Upper German dialects.", "The High Franconian dialects are transitional dialects between Central and Upper German.", "The High German varieties spoken by the Ashkenazi Jews have several unique features and are considered as a separate language, Yiddish, written with the Hebrew alphabet.====Central German====The Central German dialects are spoken in Central Germany, from Aachen in the west to Görlitz in the east.", "Modern Standard German is mostly based on Central German dialects.=====West Central German=====The West Central German dialects are the Central Franconian dialects (Ripuarian and Moselle Franconian) and the Rhenish Franconian dialects (Hessian and Palatine).", "These dialects are considered as* German in Germany and Belgium* Luxembourgish in Luxembourg* Lorraine Franconian in Moselle, France* Alsatian (in a Rhenish Franconian variant) in Alsace bossue, France* Limburgish or Kerkrade dialect in the Netherlands.", "* Transylvanian Saxon in Transylvania, Romania (considered a variant of German)* Banat Swabian in Banat, Romania (considered a variant of German)Luxembourgish as well as Transylvanian Saxon and Banat Swabian are based on Moselle Franconian dialects.", "* Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in the area: Cologne, Frankfurt am Main, Bonn, Mannheim, Wiesbaden, Aachen, Mainz, Kassel, Saarbrücken, Ludwigshafen am Rhein, Leverkusen, Heidelberg, Darmstadt, Offenbach am Main, Luxembourg City, Koblenz, Bergisch Gladbach, Trier, Siegen, Hanau, Kaiserslautern, the south of Düsseldorf, and in Romania: Cluj-Napoca (German: Klausenburg), Timișoara (Temeschburg), Brașov (Kronstadt), Oradea (Großwardein), Arad, Sibiu (Hermannstadt) and Târgu Mureș (Neumarkt am Mieresch).=====East Central German=====Further east, the non-Franconian, East Central German dialects are spoken (Thuringian, Upper Saxon, Erzgebirgisch (dialect of the Ore Mountains) and North Upper Saxon–South Markish, and earlier, in the then German-speaking parts of Silesia also Silesian, and in then German southern East Prussia also High Prussian).", "* Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in the area: Berlin, Leipzig, Dresden, Halle (Saale), Magdeburg, Erfurt, Potsdam, Chemnitz and Jena.====High Franconian====The Upper German and High Franconian (transitional between Central and Upper German)The High Franconian dialects are transitional dialects between Central and Upper German.", "They consist of the East and South Franconian dialects.=====East Franconian=====The East Franconian dialects are spoken in the region of Franconia.", "Franconia consists of the Bavarian districts of Upper, Middle, and Lower Franconia, the region of South Thuringia (those parts of Thuringia south of the Thuringian Forest), and the eastern parts of the region of Heilbronn-Franken (Tauber Franconia and Hohenlohe) in northeastern Baden-Württemberg.", "East Franconian is also spoken in most parts of Saxon Vogtland (in the Vogtland District around Plauen, Reichenbach im Vogtland, Auerbach/Vogtl., Oelsnitz/Vogtl.", "and Klingenthal).", "East Franconian is colloquially referred to as \"Fränkisch\" (Franconian) in Franconia (including Bavarian Vogtland), and as \"Vogtländisch\" (Vogtlandian) in Saxon Vogtland.", "* Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in the area: Nuremberg, Fürth, Würzburg and Erlangen.=====South Franconian=====South Franconian is spoken in northern Baden-Württemberg and in the northeasternmost tip of Alsace (around Wissembourg) in France.", "In Baden-Württemberg, they are considered dialects of German, and in Alsace a South Franconian variant of Alsatian.", "* Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in the area: Karlsruhe and Heilbronn.====Upper German====The Upper German dialects are the Alemannic and Swabian dialects in the west and the Austro-Bavarian dialects in the east.=====Alemannic and Swabian=====Swiss German restaurant sign in Andermatt: \"Chuchichäschtli\", in Standard German \"Küchenkästlein\"Alemannic dialects are spoken in Switzerland (High Alemannic in the densely populated Swiss Plateau including Zürich and Bern, in the south also Highest Alemannic, and Low Alemannic in Basel), Baden-Württemberg (Swabian and Low Alemannic, in the southwest also High Alemannic), Bavarian Swabia (Swabian, in the southwesternmost part also Low Alemannic), Vorarlberg/Austria (Low, High, and Highest Alemannic), Alsace/France (Low Alemannic, in the southernmost part also High Alemannic), Liechtenstein (High and Highest Alemannic), and in the district of Reutte in Tyrol, Austria (Swabian).", "The Alemannic dialects are considered* German in Baden-Württemberg and Bavarian Swabia, Germany* Vorarlbergerisch in Vorarlberg, Austria (considered dialects of German)* Swiss German in Switzerland and Liechtenstein* Alsatian in Alsace, FranceIn Germany, the Alemannic dialects are often referred to as Swabian in Bavarian Swabia and in the historical region of Württemberg, and as Badian in the historical region of Baden.The southernmost German-speaking municipality is in the Alemannic region: Zermatt in the Canton of Valais, Switzerland, as is the capital of Liechtenstein: Vaduz.", "* Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in the area: Stuttgart, Zürich, Augsburg, Strasbourg (Alsatian: Strossburi), Freiburg im Breisgau, Basel, Bern, Ulm, Pforzheim, Reutlingen, Winterthur and Mulhouse (Alsatian: Mìlhüsa).=====Austro-Bavarian=====The Austro-Bavarian dialectsThe Austro-Bavarian dialects are spoken in Austria (Vienna, Lower and Upper Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Salzburg, Burgenland, and in most parts of Tyrol), southern and eastern Bavaria (Upper and Lower Bavaria as well as Upper Palatinate), and South Tyrol.", "Austro-Bavarian is also spoken in southwesternmost Saxony: in the southernmost tip of Vogtland (in the Vogtland District around Adorf, Bad Brambach, Bad Elster and Markneukirchen), where it is referred to as Vogtländisch (Vogtlandian), just like the East Franconian variant that dominates in Vogtland.", "There is also one single Austro-Bavarian village in Switzerland: Samnaun in the Canton of the Grisons.The northernmost Austro-Bavarian village is Breitenfeld (municipality of Markneukirchen, Saxony), the southernmost village is Salorno sulla Strada del Vino (German: Salurn an der Weinstraße), South Tyrol.", "* Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in the area: Vienna, Munich, Graz, Linz, Regensburg, Salzburg, Ingolstadt, Innsbruck, Bolzano (German: Bozen) and Klagenfurt am Wörthersee." ], [ "Regiolects", "* Berlinian, the High German regiolect or dialect of Berlin with Low German substrate* Missingsch, a Low-German-coloured variety of High German.", "* Ruhrdeutsch (Ruhr German), the High German regiolect of the Ruhr area." ], [ "Grammar", "German is a fusional language with a moderate degree of inflection, with three grammatical genders; as such, there can be a large number of words derived from the same root.===Noun inflection===+ Declension of the Standard German definite articleCase Plural Nominative Dative Genitive Accusative German nouns inflect by case, gender, and number:* four cases: nominative, accusative, genitive, and dative.", "* three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.", "Word endings sometimes reveal grammatical gender: for instance, nouns ending in (-ing), (-ship), or (-hood, -ness) are feminine, nouns ending in or (diminutive forms) are neuter and nouns ending in (-ism) are masculine.", "Others are more variable, sometimes depending on the region in which the language is spoken.", "And some endings are not restricted to one gender, for example: (-er), such as (feminine), celebration, party; (masculine), labourer; and (neuter), thunderstorm.", "* two numbers: singular and plural.This degree of inflection is considerably less than in Old High German and other old Indo-European languages such as Latin, Ancient Greek, and Sanskrit, and it is also somewhat less than, for instance, Old English, modern Icelandic, or Russian.", "The three genders have collapsed in the plural.", "With four cases and three genders plus plural, there are 16 permutations of case and gender/number of the article (not the nouns), but there are only six forms of the definite article, which together cover all 16 permutations.", "In nouns, inflection for case is required in the singular for strong masculine and neuter nouns only in the genitive and in the dative (only in fixed or archaic expressions), and even this is losing ground to substitutes in informal speech.", "Weak masculine nouns share a common case ending for genitive, dative, and accusative in the singular.", "Feminine nouns are not declined in the singular.", "The plural has an inflection for the dative.", "In total, seven inflectional endings (not counting plural markers) exist in German: .Like the other Germanic languages, German forms noun compounds in which the first noun modifies the category given by the second: (\"dog hut\"; specifically: \"dog kennel\").", "Unlike English, whose newer compounds or combinations of longer nouns are often written \"open\" with separating spaces, German (like some other Germanic languages) nearly always uses the \"closed\" form without spaces, for example: (\"tree house\").", "Like English, German allows arbitrarily long compounds in theory (see also English compounds).", "The longest German word verified to be actually in (albeit very limited) use is , which, literally translated, is \"beef labelling supervision duties assignment law\" from (cattle), (meat), (labelling), (supervision), (duties), (assignment), (law).", "However, examples like this are perceived by native speakers as excessively bureaucratic, stylistically awkward, or even satirical.===Verb inflection===The inflection of standard German verbs includes:* Two main conjugation classes: weak and strong (as in English).", "Additionally, there is a third class, known as mixed verbs, whose conjugation combines features of both the strong and weak patterns.", "* Three persons: first, second and third.", "* Two numbers: singular and plural.", "* Three moods: indicative, imperative and subjunctive (in addition to infinitive).", "* Two voices: active and passive.", "The passive voice uses auxiliary verbs and is divisible into static and dynamic.", "Static forms show a constant state and use the verb ''to be'' (sein).", "Dynamic forms show an action and use the verb ''to become'' (werden).", "* Two tenses without auxiliary verbs (present and preterite) and four tenses constructed with auxiliary verbs (perfect, pluperfect, future and future perfect).", "* The distinction between grammatical aspects is rendered by combined use of the subjunctive or preterite marking so the plain indicative voice uses neither of those two markers; the subjunctive by itself often conveys reported speech; subjunctive plus preterite marks the conditional state; and the preterite alone shows either plain indicative (in the past), or functions as a (literal) alternative for either reported speech or the conditional state of the verb, when necessary for clarity.", "* The distinction between perfect and progressive aspect is and has, at every stage of development, been a productive category of the older language and in nearly all documented dialects, but strangely enough it is now rigorously excluded from written usage in its present normalised form.", "* Disambiguation of completed vs. uncompleted forms is widely observed and regularly generated by common prefixes ('''' to look, '''' to see – unrelated form: ).====Verb prefixes====The meaning of basic verbs can be expanded and sometimes radically changed through the use of a number of prefixes.", "Some prefixes have a specific meaning; the prefix '''''' refers to destruction, as in (to tear apart), (to break apart), (to cut apart).", "Other prefixes have only the vaguest meaning in themselves; '''''' is found in a number of verbs with a large variety of meanings, as in (to try) from (to seek), (to interrogate) from (to take), (to distribute) from (to share), (to understand) from (to stand).Other examples include the following: (to stick), (to detain); (to buy), (to sell); (to hear), (to cease); (to drive), (to experience).Many German verbs have a separable prefix, often with an adverbial function.", "In finite verb forms, it is split off and moved to the end of the clause and is hence considered by some to be a \"resultative particle\".", "For example, , meaning \"to go along\", would be split, giving (Literal: \"Go you with?", "\"; Idiomatic: \"Are you going along?", "\").Indeed, several parenthetical clauses may occur between the prefix of a finite verb and its complement (ankommen = to arrive, er kam an = he arrived, er ist angekommen = he has arrived):: A selectively literal translation of this example to illustrate the point might look like this:: He \"came\" on Friday evening, after a hard day at work and the usual annoyances that had time and again been troubling him for years now at his workplace, with questionable joy, to a meal which, as he hoped, his wife had already put on the table, finally home \"to\".===Word order===German word order is generally with the V2 word order restriction and also with the SOV word order restriction for main clauses.", "For yes–no questions, exclamations, and wishes, the finite verb always has the first position.", "In subordinate clauses, the verb occurs at the very end.German requires a verbal element (main verb or auxiliary verb) to appear second in the sentence.", "The verb is preceded by the topic of the sentence.", "The element in focus appears at the end of the sentence.", "For a sentence without an auxiliary, these are several possibilities:: (The old man gave me yesterday the book; normal order): (The book gave to me yesterday the old man): (The book gave the old man to me yesterday): (The book gave to me the old man yesterday): (Yesterday gave to me the old man the book, normal order): (To me gave the old man the book yesterday (entailing: as for someone else, it was another date))The position of a noun in a German sentence has no bearing on its being a subject, an object or another argument.", "In a declarative sentence in English, if the subject does not occur before the predicate, the sentence could well be misunderstood.However, German's flexible word order allows one to emphasise specific words:Normal word order::: :: The manager entered yesterday at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand his office.Second variant in normal word order::: :: The manager entered his office yesterday at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand.", ": This variant accentuates the time specification and that he carried an umbrella.Object in front::: :: His office entered the manager yesterday at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand.", ": The object (his office) is thus highlighted; it could be the topic of the next sentence.Adverb of time in front::: :: Yesterday entered the manager at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand his office.", "(but today without umbrella)Both time expressions in front::: .", ":: Yesterday at 10 o'clock entered the manager with an umbrella in the hand his office.", ": The full-time specification is highlighted.Another possibility::: .", ":: Yesterday at 10 o'clock entered the manager his office with an umbrella in the hand.", ": Both the time specification and the fact he carried an umbrella are accentuated.Swapped adverbs::: :: The manager entered with an umbrella in the hand yesterday at 10 o'clock his office.", ": The phrase is highlighted.Swapped object::: :: The manager entered yesterday at 10 o'clock his office with an umbrella in the hand.", ": The time specification and the object (his office) are lightly accentuated.The flexible word order also allows one to use language \"tools\" (such as poetic meter and figures of speech) more freely.====Auxiliary verbs====When an auxiliary verb is present, it appears in second position, and the main verb appears at the end.", "This occurs notably in the creation of the perfect tense.", "Many word orders are still possible:: (The old man has me today the book given.", "): ('''''The book''''' has the old man me today given.", "): ('''''Today''''' has the old man me the book given.", ")The main verb may appear in first position to put stress on the action itself.", "The auxiliary verb is still in second position.", ": ('''''Given''''' has me the old man the book '''today'''.)", "The bare fact that the book has been given is emphasized, as well as 'today'.====Modal verbs====Sentences using modal verbs place the infinitive at the end.", "For example, the English sentence \"Should he go home?\"", "would be rearranged in German to say \"Should he (to) home go?\"", "().", "Thus, in sentences with several subordinate or relative clauses, the infinitives are clustered at the end.", "Compare the similar clustering of prepositions in the following (highly contrived) English sentence: \"What did you bring that book that I do not like to be read to out of up for?", "\"====Multiple infinitives====German subordinate clauses have all verbs clustered at the end.", "Given that auxiliaries encode future, passive, modality, and the perfect, very long chains of verbs at the end of the sentence can occur.", "In these constructions, the past participle formed with is often replaced by the infinitive.", ": ''V psv perf mod'': One suspects that the deserter probably shot become be should.", ": (\"It is suspected that the deserter probably had been shot\"): : He knew not that the agent a picklock had make let: : He knew not that the agent a picklock make let had: (\"He did not know that the agent had had a picklock made\")The order at the end of such strings is subject to variation, but the second one in the last example is unusual." ], [ "Vocabulary", "Most German vocabulary is derived from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family.", "However, there is a significant amount of loanwords from other languages, in particular Latin, Greek, Italian, French, and most recently English.", "In the early 19th century, Joachim Heinrich Campe estimated that one fifth of the total German vocabulary was of French or Latin origin.Latin words were already imported into the predecessor of the German language during the Roman Empire and underwent all the characteristic phonetic changes in German.", "Their origin is thus no longer recognizable for most speakers (e.g.", ", , , , from Latin , , , , ).", "Borrowing from Latin continued after the fall of the Roman Empire during Christianisation, mediated by the church and monasteries.", "Another important influx of Latin words can be observed during Renaissance humanism.", "In a scholarly context, the borrowings from Latin have continued until today, in the last few decades often indirectly through borrowings from English.", "During the 15th to 17th centuries, the influence of Italian was great, leading to many Italian loanwords in the fields of architecture, finance and music.", "The influence of the French language in the 17th to 19th centuries resulted in an even greater import of French words.", "The English influence was already present in the 19th century, but it did not become dominant until the second half of the 20th century.Thus, Notker Labeo translated the Aristotelian treatises into pure (Old High) German in the decades after the year 1000.The tradition of loan translation revitalized in the 17th and 18th century with poets like Philipp von Zesen or linguists like Joachim Heinrich Campe, who introduced close to 300 words, which are still used in modern German.", "Even today, there are movements that promote the substitution of foreign words that are deemed unnecessary with German alternatives.As in English, there are many pairs of synonyms due to the enrichment of the Germanic vocabulary with loanwords from Latin and Latinized Greek.", "These words often have different connotations from their Germanic counterparts and are usually perceived as more scholarly.", "*  – \"history, historical\", ()*  – \"humaneness, humane\", ()*  – \"millennium\", ()*  – \"perception\", ()*  – \"vocabulary\", ()* – \"dictionary, wordbook\", ()* – \"to try\", ()* – \"to propose\", ()The ''Deutsches Wörterbuch'' (1st vol., 1854) by the Brothers GrimmThe size of the vocabulary of German is difficult to estimate.", "The (''German Dictionary''), initiated by the Brothers Grimm (Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm) and the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language, already contained over 330,000 headwords in its first edition.", "The modern German scientific vocabulary is estimated at nine million words and word groups (based on the analysis of 35 million sentences of a corpus in Leipzig, which as of July 2003 included 500million words in total)." ], [ "Orthography", "Austria's standardized cursiveGermany's standardized cursiveWritten texts in German are easily recognisable as such by distinguishing features such as umlauts and certain orthographical features– German is the only major language that capitalizes all nouns, a relic of a widespread practice in Northern Europe in the early modern era (including English for a while, into the 1700s)– and the frequent occurrence of long compounds.", "Because legibility and convenience set certain boundaries, compounds consisting of more than three or four nouns are almost exclusively found in humorous contexts.", "(English also can string nouns together, though it usually separates the nouns with spaces: as, for example, \"toilet bowl cleaner\".", ")In German orthography, nouns are capitalised, which makes it easier for readers to determine the function of a word within a sentence.", "This convention is almost unique to German today (shared perhaps only by the closely related Luxembourgish language and several insular dialects of the North Frisian language), but it was historically common in other languages such as Danish (which abolished the capitalization of nouns in 1948) and English.===Present===Before the German orthography reform of 1996, ''ß'' replaced ''ss'' after long vowels and diphthongs and before consonants, word-, or partial-word endings.", "In reformed spelling, ''ß'' replaces ''ss'' only after long vowels and diphthongs.Since there is no traditional capital form of ''ß'', it was replaced by ''SS'' (or ''SZ'') when capitalization was required.", "For example, (tape measure) became in capitals.", "An exception was the use of ß in legal documents and forms when capitalizing names.", "To avoid confusion with similar names, lower case ''ß'' was sometimes maintained (thus \"\" instead of \"\").", "Capital ß (ẞ) was ultimately adopted into German orthography in 2017, ending a long orthographic debate (thus \" and \").Umlaut vowels (ä, ö, ü) are commonly transcribed with ae, oe, and ue if the umlauts are not available on the keyboard or other medium used.", "In the same manner, ß can be transcribed as ss.", "Some operating systems use key sequences to extend the set of possible characters to include, amongst other things, umlauts; in Microsoft Windows this is done using Alt codes.", "German readers understand these transcriptions (although they appear unusual), but they are avoided if the regular umlauts are available, because they are a makeshift and not proper spelling.", "(In Westphalia and Schleswig-Holstein, city and family names exist where the extra e has a vowel lengthening effect, e.g.", "''Raesfeld'' , ''Coesfeld'' and ''Itzehoe'' , but this use of the letter e after a/o/u does not occur in the present-day spelling of words other than proper nouns.", ")There is no general agreement on where letters with umlauts occur in the sorting sequence.", "Telephone directories treat them by replacing them with the base vowel followed by an e. Some dictionaries sort each umlauted vowel as a separate letter after the base vowel, but more commonly words with umlauts are ordered immediately after the same word without umlauts.", "As an example in a telephone book occurs after but before (because Ä is replaced by Ae).", "In a dictionary comes after , but in some dictionaries and all other words starting with ''Ä'' may occur after all words starting with ''A''.", "In some older dictionaries or indexes, initial ''Sch'' and ''St'' are treated as separate letters and are listed as separate entries after ''S'', but they are usually treated as S+C+H and S+T.Written German also typically uses an alternative opening inverted comma (quotation mark) as in .===Past===A Russian dictionary from 1931, showing the \"German alphabet\" – the 3rd and 4th columns of each half are Fraktur and Kurrent respectively, with the footnote explaining ligatures used in FrakturUntil the early 20th century, German was printed in blackletter typefaces (in Fraktur, and in Schwabacher), and written in corresponding handwriting (for example Kurrent and Sütterlin).", "These variants of the Latin alphabet are very different from the serif or sans-serif Antiqua typefaces used today, and the handwritten forms in particular are difficult for the untrained to read.", "The printed forms, however, were claimed by some to be more readable when used for Germanic languages.", "The Nazis initially promoted Fraktur and Schwabacher because they were considered Aryan, but they abolished them in 1941, claiming that these letters were Jewish.", "It is believed that this script was banned during the Nazi régime, as they realized that Fraktur would inhibit communication in the territories occupied during World War II.The Fraktur script however remains present in everyday life in pub signs, beer brands and other forms of advertisement, where it is used to convey a certain rusticality and antiquity.A proper use of the long s (), ſ, is essential for writing German text in Fraktur typefaces.", "Many Antiqua typefaces also include the long s. A specific set of rules applies for the use of long s in German text, but nowadays it is rarely used in Antiqua typesetting.", "Any lower case \"s\" at the beginning of a syllable would be a long s, as opposed to a terminal s or short s (the more common variation of the letter s), which marks the end of a syllable; for example, in differentiating between the words (guard-house) and (tube of polish/wax).", "One can easily decide which \"s\" to use by appropriate hyphenation, ( vs. ).", "The long s only appears in lower case." ], [ "Consonant shifts", "German does not have any dental fricatives (as English '''th''').", "The '''th''' sound, which the English language still has, disappeared on the continent in German with the consonant shifts between the 8th and 10th centuries.", "It is sometimes possible to find parallels between English and German by replacing the English '''th''' with '''d''' in German: \"Thank\" → in German , \"this\" and \"that\" → and , \"thou\" (old 2nd person singular pronoun) → , \"think\" → , \"thirsty\" → and many other examples.Likewise, the '''gh''' in Germanic English words, pronounced in several different ways in modern English (as an '''f''' or not at all), can often be linked to German '''ch''': \"to laugh\" → , \"through\" → , \"high\" → , \"naught\" → , \"light\" → or , \"sight\" → , \"daughter\" → , \"neighbo(u)r\" → .", "This is due to the fact that English '''gh''' was historically pronounced in the same way as German '''ch''' (as /x/ and /ç/ in an allophonic relationship, or potentially as /x/ in all circumstances as in modern Dutch) with these word pairs originally (Up until around the mid to late 16th century) sounding far more similar than they do today." ], [ "Literature", "The German language is used in German literature and can be traced back to the Middle Ages, with the most notable authors of the period being Walther von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach.The , whose author remains unknown, is also an important work of the epoch.", "The fairy tales collected and published by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm in the 19th century became famous throughout the world.Reformer and theologian Martin Luther, who translated the Bible into High German (a regional group or German varieties at southern and therefore ''higher'' regions), is widely credited for attibuted to the basis for the modern Standard German language.", "Among the best-known poets and authors in German are Lessing, Goethe, Schiller, Kleist, Hoffmann, Brecht, Heine and Kafka.", "Fourteen German-speaking people have won the Nobel Prize in literature: Theodor Mommsen, Rudolf Christoph Eucken, Paul von Heyse, Gerhart Hauptmann, Carl Spitteler, Thomas Mann, Nelly Sachs, Hermann Hesse, Heinrich Böll, Elias Canetti, Günter Grass, Elfriede Jelinek, Herta Müller and Peter Handke, making it the second-most awarded linguistic region (together with French) after English.", "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe(1749–1832) Friedrich Schiller(1759–1805) Brothers Grimm(1785–1863) Thomas Mann(1875–1955) Hermann Hesse(1877–1962) x150px x150px x150px x150px x150px" ], [ "See also", "* Outline of German language * Denglisch* Deutsch (disambiguation)* German family name etymology* German toponymy* Germanism (linguistics)* German exonyms* List of German expressions in English* List of German words of French origin* List of pseudo-German words in English* List of terms used for Germans* List of countries and territories where German is an official language* Names of Germany* DDR German" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Dissemination of the German language in Europe around 1913 (map, 300 dpi)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Greek language" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Greek''' (, ; ) is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece, Cyprus, Italy (in Calabria and Salento), southern Albania, and other regions of the Balkans, the Black Sea coast, Asia Minor, and the Eastern Mediterranean.", "It has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,400 years of written records.", "Its writing system is the Greek alphabet, which has been used for approximately 2,800 years; previously, Greek was recorded in writing systems such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary.", "The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Coptic, Gothic, and many other writing systems.The Greek language holds a very important place in the history of the Western world.", "Beginning with the epics of Homer, ancient Greek literature includes many works of lasting importance in the European canon.", "Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science and philosophy were originally composed.", "The New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek.", "Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, the Greek texts and Greek societies of antiquity constitute the objects of study of the discipline of Classics.During antiquity, Greek was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world.", "It eventually became the official language of the Byzantine Empire and developed into Medieval Greek.", "In its modern form, Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union.", "It is spoken by at least 13.5 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the many other countries of the Greek diaspora.Greek roots have been widely used for centuries and continue to be widely used to coin new words in other languages; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary.Idealised portrayal of the author Homer" ], [ "History", "Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, or possibly earlier.", "The earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the world's oldest recorded living language.", "Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now-extinct Anatolian languages.===Periods===Proto-Greek-speaking area according to linguist Vladimir I. GeorgievThe Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods:* '''Proto-Greek''': the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek.", "The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age.", "* '''Mycenaean Greek''': the language of the Mycenaean civilization.", "It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards.", "* '''Ancient Greek''': in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilization.", "It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire.", "Ancient Greek fell into disuse in Western Europe in the Middle Ages but remained officially in use in the Byzantine world and was reintroduced to the rest of Europe with the Fall of Constantinople and Greek migration to western Europe.", "* '''Koine Greek''' (also known as '''Hellenistic Greek'''): The fusion of Ionian with Attic, the dialect of Athens, began the process that resulted in the creation of the first common Greek dialect, which became a lingua franca across the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East.", "Koine Greek can be initially traced within the armies and conquered territories of Alexander the Great; after the Hellenistic colonization of the known world, it was spoken from Egypt to the fringes of India.", "After the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became the first or second language in the Roman Empire.", "The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek because the Apostles used this form of the language to spread Christianity.", "Because it was the original language of the New Testament, and the Old Testament was translated into it as the Septuagint, that variety of Koine Greek may be referred to as '''New Testament Greek''' or sometimes '''Biblical Greek'''.Distribution of varieties of Greek in Anatolia, 1910.Demotic in yellow.", "Pontic in orange.", "Cappadocian Greek in green, with green dots indicating individual Cappadocian Greek villages.", "* '''Medieval Greek''' (also known as '''Byzantine Greek'''): the continuation of Koine Greek up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century.", "''Medieval Greek'' is a cover phrase for a whole continuum of different speech and writing styles, ranging from vernacular continuations of spoken Koine that were already approaching Modern Greek in many respects, to highly learned forms imitating classical Attic.", "Much of the written Greek that was used as the official language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine.", "* '''Modern Greek''' (also known as '''Neo-Hellenic'''): Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period, as early as the 11th century.", "It is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it.===Diglossia===In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia: the coexistence of vernacular and archaizing written forms of the language.", "What came to be known as the Greek language question was a polarization between two competing varieties of Modern Greek: Dimotiki, the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, and Katharevousa, meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki and Ancient Greek developed in the early 19th century that was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state.", "In 1976, Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, after having incorporated features of Katharevousa and thus giving birth to Standard Modern Greek, used today for all official purposes and in education.===Historical unity===The distribution of major modern Greek dialect areasThe historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language are often emphasized.", "Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition been interrupted to the extent that one can speak of a new language emerging.", "Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language.", "It is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages.", "According to one estimation, \"Homeric Greek is probably closer to Demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English\"." ], [ "Geographic distribution", "Geographic distribution of Greek language in the Russian Empire (1897 census)Greek is spoken today by at least 13 million people, principally in Greece and Cyprus along with a sizable Greek-speaking minority in Albania near the Greek-Albanian border.", "A significant percentage of Albania's population has knowledge of the Greek language due in part to the Albanian wave of immigration to Greece in the 1980s and '90s and the Greek community in the country.", "Prior to the Greco-Turkish War and the resulting population exchange in 1923 a very large population of Greek-speakers also existed in Turkey, though very few remain today.", "A small Greek-speaking community is also found in Bulgaria near the Greek-Bulgarian border.", "Greek is also spoken worldwide by the sizable Greek diaspora which has notable communities in the United States, Australia, Canada, South Africa, Chile, Brazil, Argentina, Russia, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, and throughout the European Union, especially in Germany.Historically, significant Greek-speaking communities and regions were found throughout the Eastern Mediterranean, in what are today Southern Italy, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Egypt, and Libya; in the area of the Black Sea, in what are today Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan; and, to a lesser extent, in the Western Mediterranean in and around colonies such as Massalia, Monoikos, and Mainake.", "It was also used as the official language of government and religion in the Christian Nubian kingdoms, for most of their history.===Official status===Greek, in its modern form, is the official language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population.", "It is also the official language of Cyprus (nominally alongside Turkish).", "Because of the membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the organization's 24 official languages.", "Greek is recognized as a minority language in Albania, and used co-officially in some of its municipalities, in the districts of Gjirokastër and Sarandë.", "It is also an official minority language in the regions of Apulia and Calabria in Italy.", "In the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, Greek is protected and promoted officially as a regional and minority language in Armenia, Hungary, Romania, and Ukraine.", "It is recognized as a minority language and protected in Turkey by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne." ], [ "Characteristics", "The phonology, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary of the language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to the modern period.", "The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodizations, relatively arbitrary, especially because, in all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it.===Phonology===Spoken Modern GreekAcross its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows a mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas.", "It has only oral vowels and a fairly stable set of consonantal contrasts.", "The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek phonology for details):* replacement of the pitch accent with a stress accent.", "* simplification of the system of vowels and diphthongs: loss of vowel length distinction, monophthongisation of most diphthongs and several steps in a chain shift of vowels towards (iotacism).", "* development of the voiceless aspirated plosives and to the voiceless fricatives and , respectively; the similar development of to may have taken place later (the phonological changes are not reflected in the orthography, and both earlier and later phonemes are written with φ, θ, and χ).", "* development of the voiced plosives , , and to their voiced fricative counterparts (later ), , and .===Morphology===In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes, a limited but productive system of compounding and a rich inflectional system.", "Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in the nominal and verbal systems.", "The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by the genitive).", "The verbal system has lost the infinitive, the synthetically-formed future, and perfect tenses and the optative mood.", "Many have been replaced by periphrastic (analytical) forms.====Nouns and adjectives====Pronouns show distinctions in person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), number (singular, dual, and plural in the ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), and gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and decline for case (from six cases in the earliest forms attested to four in the modern language).", "Nouns, articles, and adjectives show all the distinctions except for a person.", "Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun.====Verbs====The inflectional categories of the Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression.", "Greek verbs have synthetic inflectional forms for: Ancient Greek Modern Greek Person first, second and third also second person formal Number singular, dual and plural singular and plural tense present, past and future past and non-past (future is expressed by a periphrastic construction) aspect imperfective, perfective (traditionally called ''aorist'') and perfect (sometimes also called ''perfective''; see note about terminology) imperfective and perfective/aorist (perfect is expressed by a periphrastic construction) mood indicative, subjunctive, imperative and optative indicative, subjunctive, and imperative (other modal functions are expressed by periphrastic constructions) Voice active, medio-passive, and passive active and medio-passive===Syntax===Many aspects of the syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow the noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial.", "However, the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language.", "Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks the infinitive entirely (employing a raft of new periphrastic constructions instead) and uses participles more restrictively.", "The loss of the dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well).", "Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO.===Vocabulary===Modern Greek inherits most of its vocabulary from Ancient Greek, which in turn is an Indo-European language, but also includes a number of borrowings from the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before the arrival of Proto-Greeks, some documented in Mycenaean texts; they include a large number of Greek toponyms.", "The form and meaning of many words have changed.", "Loanwords (words of foreign origin) have entered the language, mainly from Latin, Venetian, and Turkish.", "During the older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word.", "Modern borrowings (from the 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected; other modern borrowings are derived from Albanian, South Slavic (Macedonian/Bulgarian) and Eastern Romance languages (Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian)." ], [ "Greek loanwords in other languages", "Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English.", "Example words include: ''mathematics'', ''physics'', ''astronomy'', ''democracy'', ''philosophy'', ''athletics, theatre, rhetoric'', ''baptism'', ''evangelist'', etc.", "Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as a basis for coinages: ''anthropology'', ''photography'', ''telephony'', ''isomer'', ''biomechanics'', ''cinematography'', etc.", "Together with Latin words, they form the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary; for example, all words ending in ''–logy'' (\"discourse\").", "There are many English words of Greek origin." ], [ "Classification", "Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family.", "The ancient language most closely related to it may be ancient Macedonian, which, by most accounts, was a distinct dialect of Greek itself.", "Aside from the Macedonian question, current consensus regards Phrygian as the closest relative of Greek, since they share a number of phonological, morphological and lexical isoglosses, with some being exclusive between them.", "Scholars have proposed a Graeco-Phrygian subgroup out of which Greek and Phrygian originated.Among living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related to Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian) or the Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan), but little definitive evidence has been found.", "In addition, Albanian has also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian, and it has been proposed that they all form a higher-order subgroup along with other extinct languages of the ancient Balkans; this higher-order subgroup is usually termed Palaeo-Balkan, and Greek has a central position in it." ], [ "Writing system", "===Linear B===Linear B, attested as early as the late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek.", "It is basically a syllabary, which was finally deciphered by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick in the 1950s (its precursor, Linear A, has not been deciphered and most likely encodes a non-Greek language).", "The language of the Linear B texts, Mycenaean Greek, is the earliest known form of Greek.===Cypriot syllabary===Greek inscription in Cypriot syllabic scriptAnother similar system used to write the Greek language was the Cypriot syllabary (also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediate Cypro-Minoan syllabary), which is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences.", "The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the 11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor of the standard Greek alphabet.===Greek alphabet===Ancient epichoric variants of the Greek alphabet from Euboea, Ionia, Athens, and Corinth comparing to modern GreekGreek has been written in the Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century BC.", "It was created by modifying the Phoenician alphabet, with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels.", "The variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late Ionic variant, introduced for writing classical Attic in 403 BC.", "In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed.", "The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit a faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill.The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase (majuscule) and lowercase (minuscule) form.", "The letter sigma has an additional lowercase form (ς) used in the final position of a word: upper caseΑΒΓΔΕΖΗΘΙΚΛΜΝΞΟΠΡΣΤΥΦΧΨΩ lower caseαβγδεζηθικλμνξοπρσςτυφχψω====Diacritics====In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of diacritical signs: three different accent marks (acute, grave, and circumflex), originally denoting different shapes of pitch accent on the stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks (rough and smooth breathing), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and the diaeresis, used to mark the full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong.", "These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period.", "Actual usage of the grave in handwriting saw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of the acute during the late 20th century, and it has only been retained in typography.After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used.", "Since then, Greek has been written mostly in the simplified monotonic orthography (or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis.", "The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system), is still used internationally for the writing of Ancient Greek.====Punctuation====In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (•), known as the ''ano teleia'' ().", "In Greek the comma also functions as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (''ó,ti'', 'whatever') from (''óti'', 'that').Ancient Greek texts often used ''scriptio continua'' ('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries.", "Boustrophedon, or bi-directional text, was also used in Ancient Greek.===Latin alphabet===Greek has occasionally been written in the Latin script, especially in areas under Venetian rule or by Greek Catholics.", "The term / applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (because / is an older Greek term for West-European dating to when most of (Roman Catholic Christian) West Europe was under the control of the Frankish Empire).", "/ (meaning 'Catholic Chiot') alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island of Chios.", "Additionally, the term Greeklish is often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications.The Latin script is nowadays used by the Greek-speaking communities of Southern Italy.===Hebrew alphabet===The Yevanic dialect was written by Romaniote and Constantinopolitan Karaite Jews using the Hebrew Alphabet.===Arabic alphabet===Some Greek Muslims from Crete wrote their Cretan Greek in the Arabic alphabet.", "The same happened among Epirote Muslims in Ioannina.", "This usage is sometimes called aljamiado, as when Romance languages are written in the Arabic alphabet." ], [ "Example text", "Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in Greek::Transcription of the example text into Latin alphabet::Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in English::\"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.", "They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.\"" ], [ "See also", "* List of medical roots, suffixes and prefixes" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** ** ** * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "; General background* Greek Language, Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia.", "* The Greek Language and Linguistics Gateway, useful information on the history of the Greek language, application of modern Linguistics to the study of Greek, and tools for learning Greek.", "* Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, The Greek Language Portal, a portal for Greek language and linguistic education.", "* The Perseus Project has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including dictionaries.", "* Ancient Greek Tutorials, Berkeley Language Center of the University of California, Berkeley; Language learning* Hellenistic Greek Lessons Greek-Language.com provides a free online grammar of Hellenistic Greek.", "* komvos.edu.gr, a website for the support of people who are being taught the Greek language.", "* New Testament Greek Three graduated courses designed to help students learn to read the Greek New Testament* Books on Greek language that are taught at schools in Greece * Greek Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh list appendix)* USA Foreign Service Institute Modern Greek basic course* Identifies the grammatical functions of all the words in sentences entered, using Perseus.", "; Dictionaries* Greek Lexical Aids, descriptions of both online lexicons (with appropriate links) and Greek Lexicons in Print.", "* The Greek Language Portal, dictionaries of all forms of Greek (Ancient, Hellenistic, Medieval, Modern)* scanned images from S. C. Woodhouse's English–Greek dictionary, 1910; Literature* Center for Neo-Hellenic Studies, a non-profit organization that promotes modern Greek literature and culture* Research lab of modern Greek philosophy, a large e-library of modern Greek texts/books" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Golem" ], [ "Introduction", "A Prague reproduction of the GolemA '''golem''' ( ; ) is an animated, anthropomorphic being in Jewish folklore, which is entirely created from inanimate matter, usually clay or mud.", "The most famous golem narrative involves Judah Loew ben Bezalel, the late 16th-century rabbi of Prague.", "According to ''Moment'' magazine, \"the golem is a highly mutable metaphor with seemingly limitless symbolism.", "It can be a victim or villain, man or woman—or sometimes both.", "Over the centuries, it has been used to connote war, community, isolation, hope, and despair.\"" ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''golem'' occurs once in the Bible in Psalm 139:16, which uses the word (; my golem), that means \"my light form\", \"raw\" material, connoting the unfinished human being before God's eyes.", "The Mishnah uses the term for an uncultivated person: \"Seven characteristics are in an uncultivated person, and seven in a learned one\", () (Avot 5:9 in the Hebrew text; English translations vary).In Modern Hebrew, is used to mean \"dumb\" or \"helpless\", or a pupa.", "Similarly, it is often used today as a metaphor for a mindless lunk or entity that serves a man under controlled conditions, but is hostile to him under other conditions.", "\"Golem\" passed into Yiddish as to mean someone who is lethargic or beneath a stupor." ], [ "History", "===Earliest stories===The oldest stories of golems date to early Judaism.", "In the Talmud (Tractate Sanhedrin 38b), Adam was initially created as a golem () when his dust was \"kneaded into a shapeless husk\".", "Like Adam, all golems are created from mud by those close to divinity, but no anthropogenic golem is fully human.", "Early on, the main disability of the golem was its inability to speak.", "Sanhedrin 65b describes Rava creating a man ().", "He sent the man to Rav Zeira.", "Rav Zeira spoke to him, but he did not answer.", "Rav Zeira said, \"You were created by the sages; return to your dust\" ().During the Middle Ages, passages from the ''Sefer Yetzirah'' (''Book of Formation'') were studied as a means to create and animate a golem, although little in the writings of Jewish mysticism supports this belief.", "It was believed that golems could be activated by an ecstatic experience induced by the ritualistic use of various letters of the Hebrew alphabet forming a \"\" (any one of the Names of God), wherein the was written on a piece of paper and inserted in the mouth or in the forehead of the golem.A golem is inscribed with Hebrew words in some tales (for example, some versions of Chełm and Prague, as well as in Polish tales and versions of the Brothers Grimm), such as the word (, \"truth\" in Hebrew) written on its forehead.", "The golem could then be deactivated by removing the aleph (א) in , thus changing the inscription from \"truth\" to \"death\" ( , meaning \"dead\").The earliest known written account of how to create a golem can be found in ''Sodei Razayya'' by Eleazar ben Judah of Worms of the late 12th and early 13th centuries.Samuel of Speyer (12th century) was said to have created a golem.One source credits 11th-century Solomon ibn Gabirol with creating a golem, possibly female, for household chores.In 1625, Joseph Delmedigo wrote that \"many legends of this sort are current, particularly in Germany.", "\"===The Golem of Chełm===The oldest description of the creation of a golem by a historical figure is included in a tradition connected to Rabbi Eliyahu of Chełm (1550–1583).A Polish Kabbalist, writing in about 1630–1650, reported the creation of a golem by Rabbi Eliyahu thusly: \"And I have heard, in a certain and explicit way, from several respectable persons that one man living close to our time, whose name is R. Eliyahu, the master of the name, who made a creature out of matter Heb.", "''Golem'' and form Heb.", "''tzurah'' and it performed hard work for him, for a long period, and the name of ''emet'' was hanging upon his neck until he finally removed it for a certain reason, the name from his neck and it turned to dust.\"", "A similar account was reported by a Christian author, Christoph Arnold, in 1674.Rabbi Jacob Emden (d. 1776) elaborated on the story in a book published in 1748: \"As an aside, I'll mention here what I heard from my father's holy mouth regarding the Golem created by his ancestor, the Gaon R. Eliyahu Ba'al Shem of blessed memory.", "When the Gaon saw that the Golem was growing larger and larger, he feared that the Golem would destroy the universe.", "He then removed the Holy Name that was embedded on his forehead, thus causing him to disintegrate and return to dust.", "Nonetheless, while he was engaged in extracting the Holy Name from him, the Golem injured him, scarring him on the face.", "\"According to the Polish Kabbalist, \"the legend was known to several persons, thus allowing us to speculate that the legend had indeed circulated for some time before it was committed to writing and, consequently, we may assume that its origins are to be traced to the generation immediately following the death of R. Eliyahu, if not earlier.", "\"===The classic narrative: The Golem of Prague===Rabbi Loew statue at the New City Hall of PragueRabbi Loew and Golem by Mikoláš Aleš, 1899Old New Synagogue of Prague with the rungs of the ladder to the attic on the wall.", "In the legend, the Golem was in the loftThe Úštěk Synagogue with a statue of a Golem in ÚštěkThe most famous golem narrative involves Judah Loew ben Bezalel, the late 16th-century rabbi of Prague, also known as the Maharal, who reportedly \"created a golem out of clay from the banks of the Vltava River and brought it to life through rituals and Hebrew incantations to defend the Prague ghetto from antisemitic attacks and pogroms\".", "Depending on the version of the legend, the Jews in Prague were to be either expelled or killed under the rule of Rudolf II, the Holy Roman Emperor.", "The Golem was called Josef and was known as Yossele.", "He was said to be able to make himself invisible and summon spirits from the dead.", "Rabbi Loew deactivated the Golem on Friday evenings by removing the ''shem'' before the Sabbath (Saturday) began, so as to let it rest on Sabbath.One Friday evening, Rabbi Loew forgot to remove the ''shem'', and feared that the Golem would desecrate the Sabbath.", "A different story tells of a golem that fell in love, and when rejected, became the violent monster seen in most accounts.", "Some versions have the golem eventually going on a murderous rampage.", "The rabbi then managed to pull the ''shem'' from his mouth and immobilize him in front of the synagogue, whereupon the golem fell in pieces.", "The Golem's body was stored in the attic ''genizah'' of the Old New Synagogue, where it would be restored to life again if needed.Rabbi Loew then forbade anyone except his successors from going into the attic.", "Rabbi Yechezkel Landau, a successor of Rabbi Loew, reportedly wanted to go up the steps to the attic when he was Chief Rabbi of Prague to verify the tradition.", "Rabbi Landau fasted and immersed himself in a mikveh, wrapped himself in phylacteries and a prayer-shawl and started ascending the steps.", "At the top of the steps, he hesitated and then came immediately back down, trembling and frightened.", "He then re-enacted Rabbi Loew's original warning.According to legend, the body of Rabbi Loew's Golem still lies in the synagogue's attic.", "When the attic was renovated in 1883, no evidence of the Golem was found.", "Some versions of the tale state that the Golem was stolen from the ''genizah'' and entombed in a graveyard in Prague's Žižkov district, where the Žižkov Television Tower now stands.", "A recent legend tells of a Nazi agent ascending to the synagogue attic, dying under suspicious circumstances thereafter.", "The attic is not open to the general public.Some Orthodox Jews believe that the Maharal did actually create a golem.", "The evidence for this belief has been analyzed from an Orthodox Jewish perspective by Shnayer Z. Leiman.===Sources of the Prague narrative===The general view of historians and critics is that the story of the Golem of Prague was a German literary invention of the early 19th century.", "According to John Neubauer, the first writers on the Prague Golem were:* 1837: Berthold Auerbach, ''Spinoza''* 1841: Gustav Philippson, ''Der Golam, eine Legende''* 1841: Franz Klutschak, ''Der Golam des Rabbi Löw''* 1842: Adam Tendlau ''Der Golem des Hoch-Rabbi-Löw''* 1847: Leopold Weisel, ''Der Golem''A few slightly earlier examples are known, in 1834 and 1836.All of these early accounts of the Golem of Prague are in German by Jewish writers.", "They are suggested to have emerged as part of a Jewish folklore movement parallel with the contemporary German folklore movement.The origins of the story have been obscured by attempts to exaggerate its age and to pretend that it dates from the time of the Maharal.", "Rabbi Yudel Rosenberg (1859–1935) of Tarłów, before moving to Canada where he became one of its most prominent rabbis, is said to have originated the idea that the narrative dates from the time of the Maharal.", "Rosenberg published ''Nifl'os Maharal'' (''Wonders of Maharal'') (Piotrków, 1909), which purported to be an eyewitness account by the Maharal's son-in-law, who had helped to create the Golem.Rosenberg claimed that the book was based upon a manuscript that he found in the main library in Metz.", "''Wonders of Maharal'' \"is generally recognized in academic circles to be a literary hoax\".", "Gershom Sholem observed that the manuscript \"contains not ancient legends, but modern fiction\".", "Rosenberg's claim was further disseminated in Chayim Bloch's (1881–1973) ''The Golem: Legends of the Ghetto of Prague'', English edition 1925.The ''Jewish Encyclopedia'' of 1906 cites the historical work ''Zemach David'' by David Gans, a disciple of the Maharal, published in 1592.In it, Gans writes of an audience between the Maharal and Rudolph II: \"Our lord the emperor ... Rudolph ... sent for and called upon our master Rabbi Low ben Bezalel and received him with a welcome and merry expression, and spoke to him face to face, as one would to a friend.", "The nature and quality of their words are mysterious, sealed, and hidden.", "\"But it has been said of this passage, \"Even when the Maharal is eulogized, whether in David Gans' ''Zemach David'' or on his epitaph ..., not a word is said about the creation of a golem.", "No Hebrew work published in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries (even in Prague) is aware that the Maharal created a golem.\"", "Furthermore, the Maharal himself did not refer to the Golem in his writings.", "Rabbi Yedidiah Tiah Weil (1721–1805), a Prague resident, who described the creation of golems, including those created by Rabbis Avigdor Kara of Prague (died 1439) and Eliyahu of Chelm, did not mention the Maharal.", "Rabbi Meir Perils' biography of the Maharal published in 1718 does not mention a golem." ], [ "The Golem of Vilna", "A similar tradition relates to the Vilna Gaon or \"the saintly genius from Vilnius\" (1720–1797).", "Rabbi Chaim Volozhin (Lithuania 1749–1821) reported in an introduction to ''Sifra de Tzeniuta'' that he once presented to his teacher, the Vilna Gaon, ten different versions of a certain passage in the ''Sefer Yetzira'' and asked the Gaon to determine the correct text.", "The Gaon immediately identified one version as the accurate rendition of the passage.The amazed student then commented to his teacher that, with such clarity, he should easily be able to create a live human.", "The Gaon affirmed Rabbi Chaim's assertion and said that he once began to create a person when he was a child, under the age of 13, but during the process, he received a sign from Heaven ordering him to desist because of his tender age." ], [ "Theme of hubris", "A statue of the Prague Golem created for the film ''The Emperor and the Golem''The existence of a golem is sometimes a mixed blessing.", "Golems are not intelligent, and if commanded to perform a task, they will perform the instructions literally.", "In many depictions, golems are inherently perfectly obedient.", "In its earliest known modern form, the Golem of Chełm became enormous and uncooperative.", "In one version of this story, the rabbi had to resort to trickery to deactivate it, whereupon it crumbled upon its creator and crushed him.A similar theme of hubris is seen in ''Frankenstein'', ''The Sorcerer's Apprentice'', and some other stories in popular culture, such as ''The Terminator''.", "The theme manifests itself in ''R.U.R.''", "(''Rossum's Universal Robots''), Karel Čapek's 1921 play that coined the term robot.", "The play was written in Prague, and while Čapek denied that he modeled the robot after the golem, many similarities are seen in the plot." ], [ "Culture of the Czech Republic", "The golem is a popular figure in the Czech Republic.", "The 1915 novel by Gustav Meyrink (''The Golem'') was briefly popular and did much to keep the imagination about the golem going.", "Several restaurants and other businesses have names that make reference to the creature.", "A Czech strongman, René Richter goes by the nickname \"Golem\", and a Czech monster truck outfit calls itself the \"Golem Team\".Abraham Akkerman preceded his article on human automatism in the contemporary city with a short satirical poem on a pair of golems turning human." ], [ "Clay Boy variation", "A Yiddish and Slavic folktale is the Clay Boy, which combines elements of the golem and ''The Gingerbread Man'', in which a lonely couple makes a child out of clay, with disastrous or comical consequences.In one common Russian version, an older couple, whose children have left home, make a boy out of clay and dry him by their hearth.", "The Clay Boy (, ) comes to life; at first, the couple is delighted and treats him like a real child, but the Clay Boy does not stop growing and eats all their food, then all their livestock, and then the Clay Boy eats his parents.", "The Clay Boy rampages through the village until he is smashed by a quick-thinking goat." ], [ "Golem in popular culture", "=== Film and television ===Golems are frequently depicted in movies and television shows.", "Programs with them in the title include:* ''The Golem'' (, shown in the United States as ''The Monster of Fate''), a 1915 German silent horror film, written and directed by Paul Wegener and Henrik Galeen.", "* ''The Golem and the Dancing Girl'' (), a 1917 German silent comedy-horror film, directed by Paul Wegener and Rochus Gliese.", "* ''The Golem: How He Came into the World'' (, also referred to as ''Der Golem''), a 1920 German silent horror film, directed by Paul Wegener and Carl Boese.", "* ''Le Golem'' (), a 1936 Czechoslovak monster movie directed by Julien Duvivier in French.", "*''The Limehouse Golem'', a 2016-film about a fictional series of Jack the Ripper-esque murders in Victorian London.Other references to golems in popular culture include:* ''The Golem'' (), the first novel by Gustav Meyrink and adapted for television in 1967, for film in 1980, and for the stage in 2013.", "* ''Daimajin'', a 1966 Japanese ''kaiju'' film directed by Kimiyoshi Yasuda.", "* ''It!", "'', a 1967 British horror film directed by Herbert J.", "Leder.", "* \"Kaddish\", a 1997 episode of ''The X-Files''.", "* The 1995 ''Gargoyles'' episode \"Golem\" featured a golem made in the image of a stone statue that was created by Rabbi Loew (voiced by Victor Brandt) to defend the Jewish inhabitants of Prague from raiders and had been passed down to his descendant Max Loew (voiced by Scott Weil).", "* \"You Gotta Know When to Golem\" is a short story during \"Treehouse of Horror XVII\", part of the long-running series of ''The Simpsons'' Halloween specials.", "The Golem, voiced by Richard Lewis, is controlled via paper notes by Bart and used to wreak havoc on the citizens of Springfield.", "* \"Denial, Anger, Acceptance\", a 1999 episode of ''The Sopranos''.", "Tony Soprano a Hasidic business owner claims to have created a Golem.", "* Inglourious Basterds, a 2009 film written and directed by Quentin Tarantino, includes a fictional version of Adolf Hitler repeating fearful speculation that \"The Bear Jew,\" who kills German soldiers with a bat, is a golem.", "* In the 4th episode of season 4 of ''Grimm'' (\"Dyin' on a Prayer\"), a golem plays an important role.", "* The 2013 ''Supernatural'' episode \"Everybody Hates Hitler\" features a golem (portrayed by John DeSantis) who had been used to fight the Nazis in Belarus during World War II.", "In the present, the golem has been passed down from Rabbi Bass (portrayed by Hal Linden) to his grandson Aaron Bass (portrayed by Adam Rose).", "While Aaron had a hard time controlling the golem at first, they did help Sam Winchester and Dean Winchester fight against a group of Nazi necromancers led by Commandant Eckhart (portrayed by Bernhard Forcher).", "* In the SyFy series ''The Magicians'' there is a golem made of a main character.", "It appears in the episodes \"Homecoming\" and \"Be The Penny\".", "* The 2019 Netflix series ''The Order'' features a recurring character (portrayed by Dylan Playfair) who is revealed to be a golem in season 1.", "* The majority of the CW series ''Legacies'' (a spin-off of ''The Vampire Diaries'') centers around defeating a golem.", "* ''The Golem'', a 2018 Israeli horror film features a golem in the form of a dead child.File:Golem 1920 Poster.jpg|Movie poster for ''Der Golem'' (1920)File:Golem by Philippe Semeria.jpg|The Hebrew letters on the creature's head read \"emét\", meaning \"truth\".", "In some versions of the Chełm and Prague narratives, the Golem is killed by removing the first letter, making the word spell \"mét\", meaning \"dead\".===Literature===* Marge Piercy's 1991 science fiction novel, ''He, She, and It'', features intertwined narratives, one of which is a retelling of the story of Rabbi Loew and his creation of a golem in medieval Prague.", "* Terry Pratchett's 1996 Discworld novel ''Feet of Clay'' feature a number of Golems who reside in the city of Ankh-Morpork.", "Golems also appear in ''Going Postal'' and ''Making Money'' and make cameos throughout the remainder of the series.", "* Michael Chabon's 2000 novel The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay features a story of a Golem like creature that is shipped to the United States.", "* The 2004 book ''The Golem's Eye'' by Jonathan Stroud features a magically rendered golem as the main threat.", "* David Brin's 2002 science fiction book, Kiln People, is based on the premise that people can make short-lived clay-based copies of themselves.", "The golems have the same motives and memories as the humans that made them.", "* Brandon Mull's 2006 book series Fablehaven prominently contains a golem character, one which is more faithful to traditional portrayals through its depiction as a protector of the community.", "* Catherynne M. Valente’s novel The Girl Who Circumnavigated Fairyland and later books in the series feature a golem made of soap, Lye, as a recurring character.", "* The Marvel Comics superhero, Captain America, as the character's creators, Joe Simon and Jack Kirby, originally conceived of him, has been described as a variant of the Golem concept: a protector of the Jewish community created by one of its elders (Dr. Abraham Erskine).", "* ''The Golem and the Jinni'' is a debut novel written by Helene Wecker, published by Harper in April 2013.It combines the genre of historical fiction with elements of fantasy, telling the story of two displaced magical creatures in 19th century New York City, reflecting the fate of contemporary immigrants to the USA.===Tabletop and video games===* Golems appear in the fantasy role-playing game ''Dungeons & Dragons'' (first published in 1974), and the influence of ''Dungeons & Dragons'' has led to the inclusion of golems in other tabletop role-playing games, as well as in video games.", "There are many varieties of golems in the game, and ''Backstab'' reviewer Philippe Tessier called the creature a \"classic of ''D&D''\".", "The clay golem is based on the golem of Medieval Jewish folklore, though changed from \"a cherished defender to an unthinking hulk\".", "The flesh golem is related to Frankenstein's monster as Universal's 1931 film, seen in e.g.", "being empowered by electricity, though again with the difference of being essentially an unthinking machine in the game.", "''D&D'''s golems are also rooted in Gothic fiction more generally, and are typical denizens of the Ravenloft setting.", "The flesh golem was ranked ninth among the ten best mid-level monsters by the authors of ''Dungeons & Dragons For Dummies'' for both 3rd and 4th edition.", "* There is a golem stone enemy is the video game ''Dragon Warrior'' for the Nintendo Entertainment System.", "* There is a golem character in ''Little Samson'', a game released on the Nintendo Entertainment System.", "*Golems are a recurring character in the ''Final Fantasy'' series of video games.", "* Games in the ''''Minecraft'' franchise'' contain many different types of golems.", "In the main game, there are iron and snow golems.", "In ''Minecraft Legends'', there are Cobblestone Golems, Plank Golems, Mossy Golems, and Grindstone Golems.", "*The Pokémon Golett and Golurk are inspired by the Golem of Prague.===Music===* A number of scores have been written to accompany or based on the 1920 film, including by Daniel Hoffman and performed by the San Francisco-based ensemble Davka and by Karl-Errnst Sasse.", "* In 1962, Abraham Ellstein's opera ''The Golem'', commissioned by the New York City Opera, premiered at City Opera, New York.", "* In 1994, composer Richard Teitelbaum composed \"Golem\", based on the Prague legend and combining music with electronics." ], [ "See also", "* Artificial intelligence* Brazen head* Czech folklore* Dybbuk* Frankenstein's monster* The Gingerbread Man and Kolobok (edible golems)* Homunculus* Pinocchio* Prometheus* Pygmalion and Galatea (mythology)* Creation of life from clay* Shabti* Talos* Totem* Tulpa* Tupilaq* Zombie" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * Translated (2008) as ''Jewish Stories of Prague, Jewish Prague in History and Legend''.", "." ], [ "External links", "* \"Golem of Prague, Fact or Ficton?\"", "on Yutorah.org" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "George Orwell" ], [ "Introduction", "\t'''Eric Arthur Blair''' (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950) was an English novelist, essayist, journalist, and critic who wrote under the pen name of '''George Orwell'''.", "His work is characterised by lucid prose, social criticism, opposition to totalitarianism, and support of democratic socialism.Orwell produced literary criticism, poetry, fiction, and polemical journalism.", "He is known for the allegorical novella ''Animal Farm'' (1945) and the dystopian novel ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' (1949).", "His non-fiction works, including ''The Road to Wigan Pier'' (1937), documenting his experience of working-class life in the industrial north of England, and ''Homage to Catalonia'' (1938), an account of his experiences soldiering for the Republican faction of the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), are as critically respected as his essays on politics, literature, language and culture.Born in India, Blair was raised and educated in England from when he was one year old.", "After school he became an Imperial policeman in Burma, before returning to Suffolk, England, where he began his writing career as George Orwell—a name inspired by a favourite location, the River Orwell.", "He made a living from occasional pieces of journalism, and also worked as a teacher or bookseller while living in London.", "From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, his success as a writer grew and his first books were published.", "He was wounded fighting in the Spanish Civil War, leading to his first period of ill health on return to England.", "During the Second World War he served as a sergeant in the Greenwich Home Guard (1940–41), worked as a journalist and, between 1941 and 1943, worked for the BBC.", "The 1945 publication of ''Animal Farm'' led to fame during his lifetime.", "During his final years, he worked on ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' and moved between London and the Scottish island of Jura.", "''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' was published in June 1949, less than a year before his death.Orwell's work remains influential in popular culture and in political culture, and the adjective \"Orwellian\"—describing totalitarian and authoritarian social practices—is part of the English language, like many of his neologisms, such as \"Big Brother\", \"Thought Police\", \"Room 101\", \"Newspeak\", \"memory hole\", \"doublethink\", and \"thoughtcrime\".", "In 2008, ''The Times'' named Orwell the second-greatest British writer since 1945." ], [ "Life", "===Early years===Orwell's birthplace in Motihari, Bihar, IndiaEric Arthur Blair was born on 25 June 1903 in Motihari, Bengal Presidency (now Bihar), British India into what he described as a \"lower-upper-middle class\" family.", "His great-great-grandfather, Charles Blair, was a wealthy slaveowning country gentleman and absentee owner of two Jamaican plantations; hailing from Dorset, he married Lady Mary Fane, daughter of the 8th Earl of Westmorland.", "His grandfather, Thomas Richard Arthur Blair, was an Anglican clergyman.", "Orwell's father was Richard Walmesley Blair, who worked as a Sub-Deputy Opium Agent in the Opium Department of the Indian Civil Service, overseeing the production and storage of opium for sale to China.", "His mother, Ida Mabel Blair (''née'' Limouzin), grew up in Moulmein, Burma, where her French father was involved in speculative ventures.", "Eric had two sisters: Marjorie, five years older; and Avril, five years younger.", "When Eric was one year old, his mother took him and Marjorie to England.", "In 2014 restoration work began on Orwell's birthplace and ancestral house in Motihari.Blair family home at Shiplake, OxfordshireIn 1904, Ida Blair settled with her children at Henley-on-Thames in Oxfordshire.", "Eric was brought up in the company of his mother and sisters and, apart from a brief visit in mid-1907, he did not see his father until 1912.Aged five, Eric was sent as a day-boy to a convent school in Henley-on-Thames, which Marjorie also attended.", "It was a Roman Catholic convent run by French Ursuline nuns.", "His mother wanted him to have a public school education, but his family could not afford the fees.", "Through the social connections of Ida Blair's brother Charles Limouzin, Blair gained a scholarship to St Cyprian's School, Eastbourne, East Sussex.", "Arriving in September 1911, he boarded at the school for the next five years, returning home only for school holidays.", "Although he knew nothing of the reduced fees, he \"soon recognised that he was from a poorer home\".", "Blair hated the school and many years later wrote an essay \"Such, Such Were the Joys\", published posthumously, based on his time there.", "At St Cyprian's, Blair first met Cyril Connolly, who became a writer and who, as the editor of ''Horizon'', published several of Orwell's essays.Before the First World War, the family moved south to Shiplake, Oxfordshire, where Eric became friendly with the Buddicom family, especially their daughter Jacintha.", "When they first met, he was standing on his head in a field.", "Asked why, he said, \"You are noticed more if you stand on your head than if you are right way up.\"", "Jacintha and Eric read and wrote poetry, and dreamed of becoming famous writers.", "He said that he might write a book in the style of H. G. Wells's ''A Modern Utopia''.", "During this period, he also enjoyed shooting, fishing and birdwatching with Jacintha's brother and sister.While at St Cyprian's, Blair wrote two poems that were published in the ''Henley and South Oxfordshire Standard''.", "He came second to Connolly in the Harrow History Prize, had his work praised by the school's external examiner, and earned scholarships to Wellington and Eton.", "But inclusion on the Eton scholarship roll did not guarantee a place, and none was immediately available for Blair.", "He chose to stay at St Cyprian's until December 1916, in case a place at Eton became available.Henley and South Oxfordshire Standard''In January, Blair took up the place at Wellington, where he spent the Spring term.", "In May 1917 a place became available as a King's Scholar at Eton.", "At this time the family lived at Mall Chambers, Notting Hill Gate.", "Blair remained at Eton until December 1921, when he left midway between his 18th and 19th birthdays.", "Wellington was \"beastly\", Blair told Jacintha, but he said he was \"interested and happy\" at Eton.", "His principal tutor was A. S. F. Gow, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, who also gave him advice later in his career.", "Blair was briefly taught French by Aldous Huxley.", "Steven Runciman, who was at Eton with Blair, noted that he and his contemporaries appreciated Huxley's linguistic flair.", "Cyril Connolly followed Blair to Eton, but because they were in separate years, they did not associate with each other.Blair's academic performance reports suggest that he neglected his studies, but during his time at Eton he worked with Roger Mynors to produce a college magazine, ''The Election Times'', joined in the production of other publications—''College Days'' and ''Bubble and Squeak''—and participated in the Eton Wall Game.", "His parents could not afford to send him to a university without another scholarship, and they concluded from his poor results that he would not be able to win one.", "Runciman noted that he had a romantic idea about the East, and the family decided that Blair should join the Imperial Police, the precursor of the Indian Police Service.", "For this he had to pass an entrance examination.", "In December 1921 he left Eton and travelled to join his retired father, mother, and younger sister Avril, who that month had moved to 40 Stradbroke Road, Southwold, Suffolk, the first of their four homes in the town.", "Blair was enrolled at a crammer there called Craighurst, and brushed up on his Classics, English, and History.", "He passed the entrance exam, coming seventh out of the 26 candidates who exceeded the pass mark.===Policing in Burma===Blair pictured in a passport photo in Burma.", "This was the last time he had a toothbrush moustache; he would later acquire a pencil moustache similar to other British officers stationed in Burma.Blair's maternal grandmother lived at Moulmein, so he chose a posting in Burma, then still a province of British India.", "In October 1922 he sailed on board SS ''Herefordshire'' via the Suez Canal and Ceylon to join the Indian Imperial Police in Burma.", "A month later, he arrived at Rangoon and travelled to the police training school in Mandalay.", "He was appointed an Assistant District Superintendent (on probation) on 29 November 1922, with effect from 27 November and at the pay of Rs.", "525 per month.", "After a short posting at Maymyo, Burma's principal hill station, he was posted to the frontier outpost of Myaungmya in the Irrawaddy Delta at the beginning of 1924.Working as an imperial police officer gave him considerable responsibility while most of his contemporaries were still at university in England.", "When he was posted farther east in the Delta to Twante as a sub-divisional officer, he was responsible for the security of some 200,000 people.", "At the end of 1924, he was posted to Syriam, closer to Rangoon.", "Syriam had the refinery of the Burmah Oil Company, \"the surrounding land a barren waste, all vegetation killed off by the fumes of sulphur dioxide pouring out day and night from the stacks of the refinery.\"", "But the town was near Rangoon, a cosmopolitan seaport, and Blair went into the city as often as he could, \"to browse in a bookshop; to eat well-cooked food; to get away from the boring routine of police life\".", "In September 1925 he went to Insein, the home of Insein Prison, the second largest prison in Burma.", "In Insein, he had \"long talks on every conceivable subject\" with Elisa Maria Langford-Rae (who later married Kazi Lhendup Dorjee).", "She noted his \"sense of utter fairness in minutest details\".", "By this time, Blair had completed his training and was receiving a monthly salary of Rs.", "740, including allowances.Blair recalled he faced hostility from the Burmese, \"in the end the sneering yellow faces of young men that met me everywhere, the insults hooted after me when I was at a safe distance, got badly on my nerves\".", "He recalled that \"I was stuck between my hatred of the empire I served and my rage against the evil-spirited little beasts who tried to make my job impossible\".British Club in Katha, Myanmar In Burma, Blair acquired a reputation as an outsider.", "He spent much of his time alone, reading or pursuing non-''pukka'' activities, such as attending the churches of the Karen ethnic group.", "A colleague, Roger Beadon, recalled (in a 1969 recording for the BBC) that Blair was fast to learn the language and that before he left Burma, \"was able to speak fluently with Burmese priests in 'very high-flown Burmese'.\"", "Blair made changes to his appearance in Burma that remained for the rest of his life, including adopting a pencil moustache.", "Emma Larkin writes in the introduction to ''Burmese Days'', \"While in Burma, he acquired a moustache similar to those worn by officers of the British regiments stationed there.", "He also acquired some tattoos; on each knuckle he had a small untidy blue circle.", "Many Burmese living in rural areas still sport tattoos like this—they are believed to protect against bullets and snake bites.", "\"In April 1926 he moved to Moulmein, where his maternal grandmother lived.", "At the end of that year, he was assigned to Katha in Upper Burma, where he contracted dengue fever in 1927.Entitled to a leave in England that year, he was allowed to return in July due to his illness.", "While on leave in England and on holiday with his family in Cornwall in September 1927, he reappraised his life.", "Deciding against returning to Burma, he resigned from the Indian Imperial Police to become a writer, with effect from 12 March 1928 after five-and-a-half years of service.", "He drew on his experiences in the Burma police for the novel ''Burmese Days'' (1934) and the essays \"A Hanging\" (1931) and \"Shooting an Elephant\" (1936).===London and Paris===The blue house on the right was Blair's 1927 lodgings in Portobello Road, London.In England, he settled back in the family home at Southwold, renewing acquaintance with local friends and attending an Old Etonian dinner.", "He visited his old tutor Gow at Cambridge for advice on becoming a writer.", "In 1927 he moved to London.", "Ruth Pitter, a family acquaintance, helped him find lodgings, and by the end of 1927 he had moved into rooms in Portobello Road; a blue plaque commemorates his residence there.", "Pitter's involvement in the move \"would have lent it a reassuring respectability in Mrs. Blair's eyes.\"", "Pitter had a sympathetic interest in Blair's writing, pointed out weaknesses in his poetry, and advised him to write about what he knew.", "In fact he decided to write of \"certain aspects of the present that he set out to know\" and ventured into the East End of London—the first of the occasional sorties he would make to discover for himself the world of poverty and the down-and-outers who inhabit it.", "He had found a subject.", "These sorties, explorations, expeditions, tours or immersions were made intermittently over a period of five years.In imitation of Jack London, whose writing he admired (particularly ''The People of the Abyss''), Blair started to explore the poorer parts of London.", "On his first outing he set out to Limehouse Causeway, spending his first night in a common lodging house, possibly George Levy's \"kip\".", "For a while he \"went native\" in his own country, dressing like a tramp, adopting the name P.S.", "Burton and making no concessions to middle-class ''mores'' and expectations; he recorded his experiences of the low life for use in \"The Spike\", his first published essay in English, and in the second half of his first book, ''Down and Out in Paris and London'' (1933).Left Bank in the 5th arrondissement, where Blair lived in ParisIn early 1928 he moved to Paris.", "He lived in the rue du Pot de Fer, a working class district in the 5th arrondissement.", "His aunt Ellen (Nellie) Kate Limouzin also lived in Paris (with the Esperantist Eugène Lanti) and gave him social and, when necessary, financial support.", "He began to write novels, including an early version of ''Burmese Days'', but nothing else survives from that period.", "He was more successful as a journalist and published articles in ''Monde'', a political/literary journal edited by Henri Barbusse (his first article as a professional writer, \"La Censure en Angleterre\", appeared in that journal on 6 October 1928); ''G.", "K.'s Weekly'', where his first article to appear in England, \"A Farthing Newspaper\", was printed on 29 December 1928; and ''Le Progrès Civique'' (founded by the left-wing coalition Le Cartel des Gauches).", "Three pieces appeared in successive weeks in ''Le Progrès Civique'': discussing unemployment, a day in the life of a tramp, and the beggars of London, respectively.", "\"In one or another of its destructive forms, poverty was to become his obsessive subject—at the heart of almost everything he wrote until ''Homage to Catalonia''.", "\"He fell seriously ill in February 1929 and was taken to the Hôpital Cochin in the 14th arrondissement, a free hospital where medical students were trained.", "His experiences there were the basis of his essay \"How the Poor Die\", published in 1946.He chose not to identify the hospital, and indeed was deliberately misleading about its location.", "Shortly afterwards, he had all his money stolen from his lodging house.", "Whether through necessity or to collect material, he undertook menial jobs such as dishwashing in a fashionable hotel on the rue de Rivoli, which he later described in ''Down and Out in Paris and London''.", "In August 1929, he sent a copy of \"The Spike\" to John Middleton Murry's ''New Adelphi'' magazine in London.", "The magazine was edited by Max Plowman and Sir Richard Rees, and Plowman accepted the work for publication.===Southwold===Southwold Pier in Southwold.", "Orwell wrote ''A Clergyman's Daughter'' (1935) in the town, basing the fictional town of Knype Hill partly on Southwold.In December 1929 after nearly two years in Paris, Blair returned to England and went directly to his parents' house in Southwold, a coastal town in Suffolk, which remained his base for the next five years.", "The family was well established in the town, and his sister Avril was running a tea-house there.", "He became acquainted with many local people, including Brenda Salkeld, the clergyman's daughter who worked as a gym-teacher at St Felix Girls' School in the town.", "Although Salkeld rejected his offer of marriage, she remained a friend and regular correspondent for many years.", "He also renewed friendships with older friends, such as Dennis Collings, whose girlfriend Eleanor Jacques was also to play a part in his life.In early 1930 he stayed briefly in Bramley, Leeds, with his sister Marjorie and her husband Humphrey Dakin, who was as unappreciative of Blair as when they knew each other as children.", "Blair was writing reviews for ''Adelphi'' and acting as a private tutor to a disabled child at Southwold.", "He then became tutor to three young brothers, one of whom, Richard Peters, later became a distinguished academic.", "\"His history in these years is marked by dualities and contrasts.", "There is Blair leading a respectable, outwardly eventless life at his parents' house in Southwold, writing; then in contrast, there is Blair as Burton (the name he used in his down-and-out episodes) in search of experience in the kips and spikes, in the East End, on the road, and in the hop fields of Kent.\"", "He went painting and bathing on the beach, and there he met Mabel and Francis Fierz, who later influenced his career.", "Over the next year he visited them in London, often meeting their friend Max Plowman.", "He also often stayed at the homes of Ruth Pitter and Richard Rees, where he could \"change\" for his sporadic tramping expeditions.", "One of his jobs was domestic work at a lodgings for half a crown (two shillings and sixpence, or one-eighth of a pound) a day.Blair now contributed regularly to ''Adelphi'', with \"A Hanging\" appearing in August 1931.From August to September 1931 his explorations of poverty continued, and, like the protagonist of ''A Clergyman's Daughter'', he followed the East End tradition of working in the Kent hop fields.", "He kept a diary about his experiences there.", "Afterwards, he lodged in the Tooley Street kip, but could not stand it for long, and with financial help from his parents moved to Windsor Street, where he stayed until Christmas.", "\"Hop Picking\", by Eric Blair, appeared in the October 1931 issue of ''New Statesman'', whose editorial staff included his old friend Cyril Connolly.", "Mabel Fierz put him in contact with Leonard Moore, who became his literary agent in April 1932.At this time Jonathan Cape rejected ''A Scullion's Diary'', the first version of ''Down and Out''.", "On the advice of Richard Rees, he offered it to Faber and Faber, but their editorial director, T. S. Eliot, also rejected it.", "Blair ended the year by deliberately getting himself arrested, so that he could experience Christmas in prison, but after he was picked up and taken to Bethnal Green police station in the East End of London the authorities did not regard his \"drunk and disorderly\" behaviour as imprisonable, and after two days in a cell he returned home to Southwold.===Teaching career===In April 1932 Blair became a teacher at The Hawthorns High School, a school for boys, in Hayes, West London.", "This was a small school offering private schooling for children of local tradesmen and shopkeepers, and had only 14 or 16 boys aged between ten and sixteen, and one other master.", "While at the school he became friendly with the curate of the local parish church and became involved with activities there.", "Mabel Fierz had pursued matters with Moore, and at the end of June 1932, Moore told Blair that Victor Gollancz was prepared to publish ''A Scullion's Diary'' for a £40 advance, through his recently founded publishing house, Victor Gollancz Ltd, which was an outlet for radical and socialist works.At the end of the summer term in 1932, Blair returned to Southwold, where his parents had used a legacy to buy their own home.", "Blair and his sister Avril spent the holidays making the house habitable while he also worked on ''Burmese Days''.", "He was also spending time with Eleanor Jacques, but her attachment to Dennis Collings remained an obstacle to his hopes of a more serious relationship.", "\"Clink\", an essay describing his failed attempt to get sent to prison, appeared in the August 1932 number of ''Adelphi''.", "He returned to teaching at Hayes and prepared for the publication of his book, now known as ''Down and Out in Paris and London''.", "He wished to publish under a different name to avoid any embarrassment to his family over his time as a \"tramp\".", "In a letter to Moore (dated 15 November 1932), he left the choice of pseudonym to Moore and to Gollancz.", "Four days later, he wrote to Moore, suggesting the pseudonyms P. S. Burton (a name he used when tramping), Kenneth Miles, George Orwell, and H. Lewis Allways.", "He finally adopted the pen name George Orwell because \"It is a good round English name.\"", "The name George was inspired by the patron saint of England, and Orwell after the River Orwell in Suffolk which was one of Orwell's favourite locations.", "''Down and Out in Paris and London'' was published by Victor Gollancz in London on 9 January 1933 and received favourable reviews, with Cecil Day-Lewis complimenting Orwell's \"clarity and good sense\", and ''The Times Literary Supplement'' comparing Orwell's eccentric characters to the characters of Dickens.", "''Down and Out'' was modestly successful and was next published by Harper & Brothers in New York.In mid-1933 Blair left Hawthorns to become a teacher at Frays College, in Uxbridge, west London.", "This was a much larger establishment with 200 pupils and a full complement of staff.", "He acquired a motorcycle and took trips through the surrounding countryside.", "On one of these expeditions he became soaked and caught a chill that developed into pneumonia.", "He was taken to a cottage hospital in Uxbridge, where for a time his life was believed to be in danger.", "When he was discharged in January 1934, he returned to Southwold to convalesce and, supported by his parents, never returned to teaching.He was disappointed when Gollancz turned down ''Burmese Days'', mainly on the grounds of potential suits for libel, but Harper were prepared to publish it in the United States.", "Meanwhile, Blair started work on the novel ''A Clergyman's Daughter'', drawing upon his life as a teacher and on life in Southwold.", "Eleanor Jacques was now married and had gone to Singapore and Brenda Salkeld had left for Ireland, so Blair was relatively isolated in Southwold—working on the allotments, walking alone and spending time with his father.", "Eventually in October, after sending ''A Clergyman's Daughter'' to Moore, he left for London to take a job that had been found for him by his aunt Nellie Limouzin.===Hampstead===This job was as a part-time assistant in Booklovers' Corner, a second-hand bookshop in Hampstead run by Francis and Myfanwy Westrope, who were friends of Nellie Limouzin in the Esperanto movement.", "The Westropes were friendly and provided him with comfortable accommodation at Warwick Mansions, Pond Street.", "He was sharing the job with Jon Kimche, who also lived with the Westropes.", "Blair worked at the shop in the afternoons and had his mornings free to write and his evenings free to socialise.", "These experiences provided background for the novel ''Keep the Aspidistra Flying'' (1936).", "As well as the various guests of the Westropes, he was able to enjoy the company of Richard Rees and the ''Adelphi'' writers and Mabel Fierz.", "The Westropes and Kimche were members of the Independent Labour Party, although at this time Blair was not seriously politically active.", "He was writing for the ''Adelphi'' and preparing ''A Clergyman's Daughter'' and ''Burmese Days'' for publication.English Heritage blue plaque in Kentish Town, London where Orwell lived from August 1935 until January 1936At the beginning of 1935 he had to move out of Warwick Mansions, and Mabel Fierz found him a flat in Parliament Hill.", "''A Clergyman's Daughter'' was published on 11 March 1935.In early 1935 Blair met his future wife Eileen O'Shaughnessy, when his landlady, Rosalind Obermeyer, who was studying for a master's degree in psychology at University College London, invited some of her fellow students to a party.", "One of these students, Elizaveta Fen, a biographer and future translator of Chekhov, recalled Blair and his friend Richard Rees \"draped\" at the fireplace, looking, she thought, \"moth-eaten and prematurely aged.\"", "Around this time, Blair had started to write reviews for ''The New English Weekly''.In June, ''Burmese Days'' was published and Cyril Connolly's positive review in the ''New Statesman'' prompted Blair to re-establish contact with his old friend.", "In August, he moved into a flat, at 50 Lawford Road, Kentish Town, which he shared with Michael Sayers and Rayner Heppenstall.", "The relationship was sometimes awkward and Blair and Heppenstall even came to blows, though they remained friends and later worked together on BBC broadcasts.", "Blair was now working on ''Keep the Aspidistra Flying'', and also tried unsuccessfully to write a serial for the ''News Chronicle''.", "By October 1935 his flatmates had moved out and he was struggling to pay the rent on his own.", "He remained until the end of January 1936, when he stopped working at Booklovers' Corner.", "In 1980, English Heritage honoured Orwell with a blue plaque at his Kentish Town residence.===''The Road to Wigan Pier''===At this time, Victor Gollancz suggested Orwell spend a short time investigating social conditions in economically depressed Northern England.", "Two years earlier, J.", "B. Priestley had written about England north of the Trent, sparking an interest in reportage.", "The Depression had also introduced a number of working-class writers from the North of England to the reading public.", "It was one of these working-class authors, Jack Hilton, whom Orwell sought for advice.", "Orwell had written to Hilton seeking lodging and asking for recommendations on his route.", "Hilton was unable to provide him lodging, but suggested that he travel to Wigan rather than Rochdale, \"for there are the colliers and they're good stuff.", "\"On 31 January 1936, Orwell set out by public transport and on foot, reaching Manchester via Coventry, Stafford, the Potteries and Macclesfield.", "Arriving in Manchester after the banks had closed, he had to stay in a common lodging-house.", "The next day he picked up a list of contacts sent by Richard Rees.", "One of these, the trade union official Frank Meade, suggested Wigan, where Orwell spent February staying in dirty lodgings over a tripe shop.", "In Wigan, he visited many homes to see how people lived, took detailed notes of housing conditions and wages earned, went down Bryn Hall coal mine, and used the local public library to consult public health records and reports on working conditions in mines.During this time, he was distracted by concerns about style and possible libel in ''Keep the Aspidistra Flying''.", "He made a quick visit to Liverpool and during March, stayed in south Yorkshire, spending time in Sheffield and Barnsley.", "As well as visiting mines, including Grimethorpe, and observing social conditions, he attended meetings of the Communist Party and of Oswald Mosley (\"his speech the usual claptrap—The blame for everything was put upon mysterious international gangs of Jews\") where he saw the tactics of the Blackshirts (\"...one is liable to get both a hammering and a fine for asking a question which Mosley finds it difficult to answer.\").", "He also made visits to his sister at Headingley, during which he visited the Brontë Parsonage at Haworth, where he was \"chiefly impressed by a pair of Charlotte Brontë's cloth-topped boots, very small, with square toes and lacing up at the sides.", "\"A former warehouse at Wigan Pier is named after Orwell.No 2 Kits Lane, Wallington, Hertfordshire, Orwell's residence 1936–1940Orwell needed somewhere he could concentrate on writing his book, and once again help was provided by Aunt Nellie, who was living at Wallington, Hertfordshire in a very small 16th-century cottage called the \"Stores\".", "Wallington was a tiny village north of London, and the cottage had almost no modern facilities.", "Orwell took over the tenancy and moved in on 2 April 1936.He started work on ''The Road to Wigan Pier'' by the end of April, but also spent hours working on the garden, planting a rose garden which is still extant, and revealing four years later that \"outside my work the thing I care most about is gardening, especially vegetable gardening\".", "He also tested the possibility of reopening the Stores as a village shop.", "''Keep the Aspidistra Flying'' was published by Gollancz on 20 April 1936.On 4 August, Orwell gave a talk at the Adelphi Summer School held at Langham, entitled ''An Outsider Sees the Distressed Areas''; others who spoke at the school included John Strachey, Max Plowman, Karl Polanyi and Reinhold Niebuhr.The result of his journeys through the north was ''The Road to Wigan Pier'', published by Gollancz for the Left Book Club in 1937.The first half of the book documents his social investigations of Lancashire and Yorkshire, including an evocative description of working life in the coal mines.", "The second half is a long essay on his upbringing and the development of his political conscience, which includes an argument for socialism (although he goes to lengths to balance the concerns and goals of socialism with the barriers it faced from the movement's own advocates at the time, such as \"priggish\" and \"dull\" socialist intellectuals and \"proletarian\" socialists with little grasp of the actual ideology).", "Gollancz feared the second half would offend readers and added a disculpatory preface to the book while Orwell was in Spain.Orwell's research for ''The Road to Wigan Pier'' led to him being placed under surveillance by the Special Branch from 1936, for 12 years, until one year before the publication of ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''.Orwell married Eileen O'Shaughnessy on 9 June 1936.Shortly afterwards, the political crisis began in Spain and Orwell followed developments there closely.", "At the end of the year, concerned by Francisco Franco's military uprising (supported by Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and local groups such as Falange), Orwell decided to go to Spain to take part in the Spanish Civil War on the Republican side.", "Under the erroneous impression that he needed papers from some left-wing organisation to cross the frontier, on John Strachey's recommendation he applied unsuccessfully to Harry Pollitt, leader of the British Communist Party.", "Pollitt was suspicious of Orwell's political reliability; he asked him whether he would undertake to join the International Brigades and advised him to get a safe-conduct from the Spanish Embassy in Paris.", "Not wishing to commit himself until he had seen the situation ''in situ'', Orwell instead used his Independent Labour Party contacts to get a letter of introduction to John McNair in Barcelona.===Spanish Civil War===The square in Barcelona renamed in Orwell's honourOrwell set out for Spain on about 23 December 1936, dining with Henry Miller in Paris on the way.", "Miller told Orwell that going to fight in the Civil War out of some sense of obligation or guilt was \"sheer stupidity\" and that the Englishman's ideas \"about combating Fascism, defending democracy, etc., etc., were all baloney\".", "A few days later in Barcelona, Orwell met John McNair of the Independent Labour Party (ILP) Office who quoted him: \"I've come to fight against Fascism\", but if someone had asked him what he was fighting ''for'', \"I should have answered: 'Common decency'\".", "Orwell stepped into a complex political situation in Catalonia.", "The Republican government was supported by a number of factions with conflicting aims, including the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM – Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista), the anarcho-syndicalist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and the Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia (a wing of the Spanish Communist Party, which was backed by Soviet arms and aid).", "Orwell was at first exasperated by this \"kaleidoscope\" of political parties and trade unions, \"with their tiresome names\".", "The ILP was linked to the POUM so Orwell joined the POUM.After a time at the Lenin Barracks in Barcelona he was sent to the relatively quiet Aragon Front under Georges Kopp.", "By January 1937 he was at Alcubierre above sea level, in the depth of winter.", "There was very little military action and Orwell was shocked by the lack of munitions, food and firewood as well as other extreme deprivations.", "With his Cadet Corps and police training, Orwell was quickly made a corporal.", "On the arrival of a British ILP Contingent about three weeks later, Orwell and the other English militiaman, Williams, were sent with them to Monte Oscuro.", "The newly arrived ILP contingent included Bob Smillie, Bob Edwards, Stafford Cottman and Jack Branthwaite.", "The unit was then sent on to Huesca.Meanwhile, back in England, Eileen had been handling the issues relating to the publication of ''The Road to Wigan Pier'' before setting out for Spain herself, leaving Nellie Limouzin to look after The Stores.", "Eileen volunteered for a post in John McNair's office and with the help of Georges Kopp paid visits to her husband, bringing him English tea, chocolate and cigars.", "Orwell had to spend some days in hospital with a poisoned hand and had most of his possessions stolen by the staff.", "He returned to the front and saw some action in a night attack on the Nationalist trenches where he chased an enemy soldier with a bayonet and bombed an enemy rifle position.In April, Orwell returned to Barcelona.", "Wanting to be sent to the Madrid front, which meant he \"must join the International Column\", he approached a Communist friend attached to the Spanish Medical Aid and explained his case.", "\"Although he did not think much of the Communists, Orwell was still ready to treat them as friends and allies.", "That would soon change.\"", "This was the time of the Barcelona May Days and Orwell was caught up in the factional fighting.", "He spent much of the time on a roof, with a stack of novels, but encountered Jon Kimche from his Hampstead days during the stay.", "The subsequent campaign of lies and distortion carried out by the Communist press, in which the POUM was accused of collaborating with the fascists, had a dramatic effect on Orwell.", "Instead of joining the International Brigades as he had intended, he decided to return to the Aragon Front.", "Once the May fighting was over, he was approached by a Communist friend who asked if he still intended transferring to the International Brigades.", "Orwell expressed surprise that they should still want him, because according to the Communist press he was a fascist.", "\"No one who was in Barcelona then, or for months later, will forget the horrible atmosphere produced by fear, suspicion, hatred, censored newspapers, crammed jails, enormous food queues and prowling gangs of armed men.", "\"Memorial plaque in Lleida marking where Orwell received treatment at the Hospital Santa María de Lleida for his bullet wound to the neckAfter his return to the front, he was wounded in the throat by a sniper's bullet.", "At 6 ft 2 in (1.88 m), Orwell was considerably taller than the Spanish fighters and had been warned against standing against the trench parapet.", "Unable to speak, and with blood pouring from his mouth, Orwell was carried on a stretcher to Siétamo, loaded on an ambulance and after a bumpy journey via Barbastro arrived at the hospital in Lleida.", "He recovered sufficiently to get up and on 27 May 1937 was sent on to Tarragona and two days later to a POUM sanatorium in the suburbs of Barcelona.", "The bullet had missed his main artery by the barest margin and his voice was barely audible.", "It had been such a clean shot that the wound immediately went through the process of cauterisation.", "He received electrotherapy treatment and was declared medically unfit for service.By the middle of June, the political situation in Barcelona had deteriorated and the POUM—painted by the pro-Soviet Communists as a Trotskyist organisation—was outlawed and under attack.", "The Communist line was that the POUM were \"objectively\" Fascist, hindering the Republican cause.", "\"A particularly nasty poster appeared, showing a head with a POUM mask being ripped off to reveal a Swastika-covered face beneath.\"", "Members, including Kopp, were arrested and others were in hiding.", "Orwell and his wife were under threat and had to lie low, although they broke cover to try to help Kopp.Finally with their passports in order, they escaped from Spain by train, diverting to Banyuls-sur-Mer for a short stay before returning to England.", "In the first week of July 1937 Orwell arrived back at Wallington; on 13 July 1937 a deposition was presented to the Tribunal for Espionage & High Treason in Valencia, charging the Orwells with \"rabid Trotskyism\", and being agents of the POUM.", "The trial of the leaders of the POUM and of Orwell (in his absence) took place in Barcelona in October and November 1938.Observing events from French Morocco, Orwell wrote that they were \"only a by-product of the Russian Trotskyist trials and from the start every kind of lie, including flagrant absurdities, has been circulated in the Communist press.\"", "Orwell's experiences in the Spanish Civil War gave rise to ''Homage to Catalonia'' (1938).In his book, ''The International Brigades: Fascism, Freedom and the Spanish Civil War,'' Giles Tremlett writes that according to Soviet files, Orwell and his wife Eileen were spied on in Barcelona in May 1937.", "\"The papers are documentary evidence that not only Orwell, but also his wife Eileen, were being watched closely\".===Rest and recuperation===Laurence O'Shaughnessy's former home, the large house on the corner, 24 Crooms Hill, Greenwich, LondonOrwell returned to England in June 1937, and stayed at the O'Shaughnessy home at Greenwich.", "He found his views on the Spanish Civil War out of favour.", "Kingsley Martin rejected two of his works and Gollancz was equally cautious.", "At the same time, the communist ''Daily Worker'' was running an attack on ''The Road to Wigan Pier'', taking out of context Orwell writing that \"the working classes smell\"; a letter to Gollancz from Orwell threatening libel action brought a stop to this.", "Orwell was also able to find a more sympathetic publisher for his views in Fredric Warburg of Secker & Warburg.", "Orwell returned to Wallington, which he found in disarray after his absence.", "He acquired goats, a cockerel (rooster) he called Henry Ford and a poodle puppy he called Marx; and settled down to animal husbandry and writing ''Homage to Catalonia''.There were thoughts of going to India to work on ''The Pioneer'', a newspaper in Lucknow, but by March 1938 Orwell's health had deteriorated.", "He was admitted to Preston Hall Sanatorium at Aylesford, Kent, a British Legion hospital for ex-servicemen to which his brother-in-law Laurence O'Shaughnessy was attached.", "He was thought initially to be suffering from tuberculosis and stayed in the sanatorium until September.", "A stream of visitors came to see him, including Common, Heppenstall, Plowman and Cyril Connolly.", "Connolly brought with him Stephen Spender, a cause of some embarrassment as Orwell had referred to Spender as a \"pansy friend\" some time earlier.", "''Homage to Catalonia'' was published in London by Secker & Warburg and was a commercial flop; it re-emerged in the 1950s, following on the success of Orwell's later books.", "In the latter part of his stay at the clinic, Orwell was able to go for walks in the countryside and study nature.The novelist L. H. Myers secretly funded a trip to French Morocco for half a year for Orwell to avoid the English winter and recover his health.", "The Orwells set out in September 1938 via Gibraltar and Tangier to avoid Spanish Morocco and arrived at Marrakech.", "They rented a villa on the road to Casablanca and during that time Orwell wrote ''Coming Up for Air''.", "They arrived back in England on 30 March 1939 and ''Coming Up for Air'' was published in June.", "Orwell spent time in Wallington and Southwold working on a Dickens essay and it was in June 1939 that Orwell's father, Richard Blair, died.===Second World War and ''Animal Farm''===Lansdowne Terrace, Bloomsbury, London, Orwell wrote for ''Horizon'' magazine (co-founded by Stephen Spender) from 1940At the outbreak of the Second World War, Orwell's wife Eileen started working in the Censorship Department of the Ministry of Information in central London, staying during the week with her family in Greenwich.", "Orwell also submitted his name to the Central Register for war work, but nothing transpired.", "\"They won't have me in the army, at any rate at present, because of my lungs\", Orwell told Geoffrey Gorer.", "He returned to Wallington, and in late 1939 he wrote material for his first collection of essays, ''Inside the Whale''.", "For the next year he was occupied writing reviews for plays, films and books for ''The Listener'', ''Time and Tide'' and ''New Adelphi''.", "On 29 March 1940 his long association with ''Tribune'' began with a review of a sergeant's account of Napoleon's retreat from Moscow.", "At the beginning of 1940, the first edition of Connolly's ''Horizon'' appeared, and this provided a new outlet for Orwell's work as well as new literary contacts.", "In May the Orwells took lease of a flat in London at Dorset Chambers, Chagford Street, Marylebone.", "It was the time of the Dunkirk evacuation, and the death in Flanders, France of Eileen's brother, Dr. Laurence O'Shaughnessy, caused her considerable grief and long-term depression.", "Throughout this period Orwell kept a wartime diary.Orwell was declared \"unfit for any kind of military service\" by the Medical Board in June, but soon afterwards found an opportunity to become involved in war activities by joining the British Home Guard.", "He shared Tom Wintringham's socialist vision for the Home Guard as a revolutionary People's Militia.", "His lecture notes for instructing platoon members include advice on street fighting, field fortifications, and the use of mortars of various kinds.", "Sergeant Orwell managed to recruit Fredric Warburg to his unit.", "During the Battle of Britain he used to spend weekends with Warburg and his new Zionist friend, Tosco Fyvel, at Warburg's house at Twyford, Berkshire.", "At Wallington he worked on \"England Your England\" and in London wrote reviews for various periodicals.", "Visiting Eileen's family in Greenwich brought him face-to-face with the effects of the Blitz on East London.", "In 1940 he first worked for the BBC as a producer on their Indian Section (Eastern Service), while the broadcaster and writer Venu Chitale was his secretary.", "In mid-1940, Warburg, Fyvel and Orwell planned Searchlight Books.", "Eleven volumes eventually appeared, of which Orwell's ''The Lion and the Unicorn: Socialism and the English Genius'', published on 19 February 1941, was the first.Early in 1941 he began to write for the American ''Partisan Review'' which linked Orwell with The New York Intellectuals who were also anti-Stalinist, and contributed to the Gollancz anthology ''The Betrayal of the Left'', written in the light of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (although Orwell referred to it as the Russo-German Pact and the Hitler-Stalin Pact).", "He also applied unsuccessfully for a job at the Air Ministry.", "Meanwhile, he was still writing reviews of books and plays and at this time met the novelist Anthony Powell.", "He also took part in a few radio broadcasts for the Eastern Service of the BBC.", "In March the Orwells moved to a seventh-floor flat at Langford Court, St John's Wood, while at Wallington Orwell was \"digging for victory\" by planting potatoes.In August 1941, Orwell finally obtained \"war work\" when he was taken on full-time by the BBC's Eastern Service.", "When interviewed for the job he indicated that he \"accepted absolutely the need for propaganda to be directed by the government\" and stressed his view that, in wartime, discipline in the execution of government policy was essential.", "He supervised cultural broadcasts to India to counter propaganda from Nazi Germany designed to undermine imperial links.", "This was Orwell's first experience of the rigid conformity of life in an office, and it gave him an opportunity to create cultural programmes with contributions from T. S. Eliot, Dylan Thomas, E. M. Forster, Ahmed Ali, Mulk Raj Anand, and William Empson among others.At the end of August he had a dinner with H. G. Wells which degenerated into a row because Wells had taken offence at observations Orwell made about him in a ''Horizon'' article.", "In October Orwell had a bout of bronchitis and the illness recurred frequently.", "David Astor was looking for a provocative contributor for ''The Observer'' and invited Orwell to write for him—the first article appearing in March 1942.In early 1942 Eileen changed jobs to work at the Ministry of Food and in mid-1942 the Orwells moved to a larger flat, a ground floor and basement, 10a Mortimer Crescent in Maida Vale/Kilburn—\"the kind of lower-middle-class ambience that Orwell thought was London at its best.\"", "Around the same time Orwell's mother and sister Avril, who had found work in a sheet-metal factory behind King's Cross Station, moved into a flat close to George and Eileen.Orwell spoke on many BBC and other broadcasts, but no recordings are known to survive.At the BBC, Orwell introduced ''Voice'', a literary programme for his Indian broadcasts, and by now was leading an active social life with literary friends, particularly on the political left.", "Late in 1942, he started writing regularly for the left-wing weekly ''Tribune'' directed by Labour MPs Aneurin Bevan and George Strauss.", "In March 1943, Orwell's mother died, and around the same time he told Moore he was starting work on a new book, which turned out to be ''Animal Farm''.In September 1943, Orwell resigned from the BBC post that he had occupied for two years.", "His resignation followed a report confirming his fears that few Indians listened to the broadcasts, but he was also keen to concentrate on writing ''Animal Farm''.", "On 24 November 1943, six days before his last day of service, his adaptation of the fairy tale, Hans Christian Andersen's ''The Emperor's New Clothes'' was broadcast.", "It was a genre in which he was greatly interested and which appeared on ''Animal Farm''s title page.", "At this time he also resigned from the Home Guard on medical grounds.In November 1943, Orwell was appointed literary editor at ''Tribune'', where his assistant was his old friend Jon Kimche.", "Orwell was on staff until early 1945, writing over 80 book reviews and on 3 December 1943 started his regular personal column, \"As I Please\", usually addressing three or four subjects in each.", "He was still writing reviews for other magazines, including ''Partisan Review'', ''Horizon'', and the New York ''Nation'' and becoming a respected pundit among left-wing circles but also a close friend of people on the right such as Powell, Astor and Malcolm Muggeridge.", "By April 1944 ''Animal Farm'' was ready for publication.", "Gollancz refused to publish it, considering it an attack on the Soviet regime which was a crucial ally in the war.", "A similar fate was met from other publishers (including T. S. Eliot at Faber and Faber) until Jonathan Cape agreed to take it.In May the Orwells had the opportunity to adopt a child, thanks to the contacts of Eileen's sister-in-law Gwen O'Shaughnessy, then a doctor in Newcastle upon Tyne.", "In June a V-1 flying bomb struck Mortimer Crescent and the Orwells had to find somewhere else to live.", "Orwell had to scrabble around in the rubble for his collection of books, which he had finally managed to transfer from Wallington, carting them away in a wheelbarrow.", "Another blow was Cape's reversal of his plan to publish ''Animal Farm''.", "The decision followed his personal visit to Peter Smollett, an official at the Ministry of Information.", "Smollett was later identified as a Soviet agent.The Orwells spent some time in the North East, near Carlton, County Durham, dealing with matters in the adoption of a boy whom they named Richard Horatio Blair.", "By September 1944 they had set up home in Islington, at 27b Canonbury Square.", "Baby Richard joined them there, and Eileen gave up her work at the Ministry of Food to look after her family.", "Secker & Warburg had agreed to publish ''Animal Farm'', planned for the following March, although it did not appear in print until August 1945.By February 1945 David Astor had invited Orwell to become a war correspondent for ''The Observer''.", "Orwell had been looking for the opportunity throughout the war, but his failed medical reports prevented him from being allowed anywhere near action.", "He went first to liberated Paris and then to Germany and Austria, to such cities as Cologne and Stuttgart.", "He was never in the front line and was never under fire, but he followed the troops closely, \"sometimes entering a captured town within a day of its fall while dead bodies lay in the streets.\"", "Some of his reports were published in the ''Manchester Evening News''.It was while he was there that Eileen went into hospital for a hysterectomy and died under anaesthetic on 29 March 1945.She had not given Orwell much notice about this operation because of worries about the cost and because she expected to make a speedy recovery.", "Orwell returned home for a while and then went back to Europe.", "He returned finally to London to cover the 1945 general election at the beginning of July.", "''Animal Farm: A Fairy Story'' was published in Britain on 17 August 1945, and a year later in the US, on 26 August 1946.===Jura and ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''===''Animal Farm'' had particular resonance in the post-war climate and its worldwide success made Orwell a sought-after figure.", "For the next four years, Orwell mixed journalistic work—mainly for ''Tribune'', ''The Observer'' and the ''Manchester Evening News'', though he also contributed to many small-circulation political and literary magazines—with writing his best-known work, ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'', which was published in 1949.He was a leading figure in the so-called Shanghai Club (named after a restaurant in Soho) of left-leaning and émigré journalists, among them E. H. Carr, Sebastian Haffner, Isaac Deutscher, Barbara Ward and Jon Kimche.Barnhill farmhouse on the Isle of Jura, Scotland.", "Orwell completed ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' while living here.In the year following Eileen's death he published around 130 articles and a selection of his ''Critical Essays'', while remaining active in various political lobbying campaigns.", "He employed a housekeeper, Susan Watson, to look after his adopted son at the Islington flat, which visitors now described as \"bleak\".", "In September he spent a fortnight on the island of Jura in the Inner Hebrides and saw it as a place to escape from the hassle of London literary life.", "David Astor was instrumental in arranging a place for Orwell on Jura.", "Astor's family owned Scottish estates in the area and a fellow Old Etonian, Robin Fletcher, had a property on the island.", "In late 1945 and early 1946 Orwell made several hopeless and unwelcome marriage proposals to younger women, including Celia Kirwan (who later became Arthur Koestler's sister-in-law); Ann Popham, who happened to live in the same block of flats; and Sonia Brownell, one of Connolly's coterie at the ''Horizon'' office.", "Orwell suffered a tubercular haemorrhage in February 1946 but disguised his illness.", "In 1945 or early 1946, while still living at Canonbury Square, Orwell wrote an article on \"British Cookery\", complete with recipes, commissioned by the British Council.", "Given the post-war shortages, both parties agreed not to publish it.", "His sister Marjorie died of kidney disease in May.On 22 May 1946, Orwell set off to live on Jura in Barnhill, an abandoned farmhouse without outbuildings.", "The house with stands near the northern end of the island, at the end of a five-mile (8 km) heavily rutted track from Ardlussa, where the owners lived.", "Conditions at the farmhouse were primitive but the natural history and the challenge of improving the place appealed to Orwell.", "His sister Avril accompanied him there and the young novelist Paul Potts made up the party.", "In July Susan Watson arrived with Orwell's son Richard.", "Tensions developed and Potts departed after one of his manuscripts was used to light the fire.", "Orwell meanwhile set to work on ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''.", "Later Susan Watson's boyfriend David Holbrook arrived.", "A fan of Orwell since school days, he found the reality very different, with Orwell hostile and disagreeable probably because of Holbrook's membership of the Communist Party.", "Watson could no longer stand being with Avril and she and her boyfriend left.Orwell returned to London in late 1946 and picked up his literary journalism again.", "Now a well-known writer, he was swamped with work.", "Apart from a visit to Jura in the new year he stayed in London for one of the coldest British winters on record and with such a national shortage of fuel that he burnt his furniture and his child's toys.", "The heavy smog in the days before the Clean Air Act 1956 did little to help his health, about which he was reticent, keeping clear of medical attention.", "Meanwhile, he had to cope with rival claims of publishers Gollancz and Warburg for publishing rights.", "About this time he co-edited a collection titled ''British Pamphleteers'' with Reginald Reynolds.", "As a result of the success of ''Animal Farm'', Orwell was expecting a large bill from the Inland Revenue and he contacted a firm of accountants whose senior partner was Jack Harrison.", "The firm advised Orwell to establish a company to own his copyright and to receive his royalties and set up a \"service agreement\" so that he could draw a salary.", "Such a company, \"George Orwell Productions Ltd\" (GOP Ltd) was set up on 12 September 1947, although the service agreement was not then put into effect.", "Jack Harrison left the details at this stage to junior colleagues.Orwell left London for Jura on 10 April 1947.In July he ended the lease on the Wallington cottage.", "Back on Jura he worked on ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' and made good progress.", "During that time his sister's family visited, and Orwell led a disastrous boating expedition, on 19 August, which nearly led to loss of life whilst trying to cross the notorious Gulf of Corryvreckan and gave him a soaking which was not good for his health.", "In December a chest specialist was summoned from Glasgow who pronounced Orwell seriously ill, and a week before Christmas 1947 he was in Hairmyres Hospital in East Kilbride, then a small village in the countryside, on the outskirts of Glasgow.", "Tuberculosis was diagnosed and the request for permission to import streptomycin to treat Orwell went as far as Aneurin Bevan, then Minister of Health.", "David Astor helped with supply and payment and Orwell began his course of streptomycin on 19 or 20 February 1948.By the end of July 1948 Orwell was able to return to Jura and by December he had finished the manuscript of ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''.", "In January 1949, in a very weak condition, he set off for a sanatorium at Cranham, Gloucestershire, escorted by Richard Rees.", "Unluckily for Orwell, streptomycin could not be continued, as he developed toxic epidermal necrolysis, a rare side effect of streptomycin.One of the ''Animal Farm'' cartoon strips produced for the Cold War anti-communist department of the British Foreign Office, the IRDThe sanatorium at Cranham consisted of a series of small wooden chalets or huts in a remote part of the Cotswolds near Stroud.", "Visitors were shocked by Orwell's appearance and concerned by the shortcomings and ineffectiveness of the treatment.", "Friends were worried about his finances, but by now he was comparatively well off.", "He was writing to many of his friends, including Jacintha Buddicom, who had \"rediscovered\" him, and in March 1949, was visited by Celia Kirwan.", "Kirwan had just started working for a Foreign Office unit, the Information Research Department (IRD), set up by the Labour government to publish anti-communist propaganda, and Orwell gave her a list of people he considered to be unsuitable as IRD authors because of their pro-communist leanings.", "Orwell's list, not published until 2003, consisted mainly of writers but also included actors and Labour MPs.", "To further promote ''Animal Farm'', the IRD commissioned cartoon strips, drawn by Norman Pett, to be placed in newspapers across the globe.", "Orwell received more streptomycin treatment and improved slightly.", "This repeat dose of streptomycin, especially after the side effect had been noticed, has been called \"ill-advised\".", "He then received penicillin, with doctors knowing fully well it was ineffective against tuberculosis.", "It is presumed it was given to treat his bronchiectasis.", "In June 1949 ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' was published, to critical acclaim.===Final months and death===University College Hospital in London where Orwell diedOrwell's health continued to decline after the diagnosis of tuberculosis in December 1947.In mid-1949, he courted Sonia Brownell, and they announced their engagement in September, shortly before he was removed to University College Hospital in London.", "Sonia took charge of Orwell's affairs and attended him diligently in the hospital.", "Friends of Orwell stated that Brownell helped him through the painful last months of his life and, according to Anthony Powell, cheered Orwell up greatly.", "However, others have argued that she may have also been attracted to him primarily because of his fame.In September 1949, Orwell invited his accountant Harrison to visit him at the hospital, and Harrison claimed that Orwell then asked him to become director of GOP Ltd and to manage the company, but there was no independent witness.", "Orwell's wedding took place in the hospital room on 13 October 1949, with David Astor as best man.", "Orwell was in decline and was visited by an assortment of visitors including Muggeridge, Connolly, Lucian Freud, Stephen Spender, Evelyn Waugh, Paul Potts, Anthony Powell, and his Eton tutor Anthony Gow.", "Plans to go to the Swiss Alps were mooted.", "Further meetings were held with his accountant, at which Harrison and Mr and Mrs Blair were confirmed as directors of the company, and at which Harrison claimed that the \"service agreement\" was executed, giving copyright to the company.", "Orwell's health was in decline again by Christmas.", "On the evening of 20 January 1950, Potts visited Orwell and slipped away on finding him asleep.", "Jack Harrison visited later and claimed that Orwell gave him 25% of the company.", "Early on the morning of 21 January, an artery burst in Orwell's lungs, killing him at age 46.All Saints' parish churchyard, Sutton Courtenay, OxfordshireOrwell had requested to be buried in accordance with the Anglican rite in the graveyard of the closest church to wherever he happened to die.", "The graveyards in central London had no space, and so in an effort to ensure his last wishes could be fulfilled, his widow appealed to his friends to see whether any of them knew of a church with space in its graveyard.", "David Astor lived in Sutton Courtenay, Berkshire (present-day Oxfordshire), and arranged for Orwell to be interred in the churchyard of All Saints' there.", "Orwell's gravestone bears the epitaph: \"Here lies Eric Arthur Blair, born June 25th 1903, died January 21st 1950\"; no mention is made on the gravestone of his more famous pen name.The funeral was organised by Anthony Powell and Malcom Muggeridge.", "Powell chose the hymns: \"All people that on earth do dwell\", \"Guide me, O thou great Redeemer\" and \"Ten thousand times ten thousand\".Orwell's adopted son, Richard Horatio Blair, was brought up by Orwell's sister, Avril Dunn (née Blair), his legal guardian, and her husband, Bill Dunn.In 1979, Sonia Brownell brought a High Court action against Harrison when he declared an intention to subdivide his 25 per cent share of the company between his three children.", "For Sonia, the consequence of this manoeuvre would have made getting overall control of the company three times more difficult.", "She was considered to have a strong case, but was becoming increasingly ill and eventually was persuaded to settle out of court on 2 November 1980.She died on 11 December 1980, aged 62." ], [ "Literary career and legacy", "During most of his career, Orwell was best known for his journalism, in essays, reviews, columns in newspapers and magazines and in his books of reportage: ''Down and Out in Paris and London'' (describing a period of poverty in these cities), ''The Road to Wigan Pier'' (describing the living conditions of the poor in northern England, and class division generally) and ''Homage to Catalonia''.", "According to Irving Howe, Orwell was \"the best English essayist since Hazlitt, perhaps since Dr Johnson\".Modern readers are more often introduced to Orwell as a novelist, particularly through his enormously successful titles ''Animal Farm'' and ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''.", "The former is often thought to reflect degeneration in the Soviet Union after the Russian Revolution and the rise of Stalinism; the latter, life under totalitarian rule.", "''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' is often compared to ''Brave New World'' by Aldous Huxley; both are powerful dystopian novels warning of a future world where the state machine exerts complete control over social life.", "In 1984, ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' and Ray Bradbury's ''Fahrenheit 451'' were honoured with the Prometheus Award for their contributions to dystopian literature.", "In 2011 he received it again for ''Animal Farm''.", "In 2003, ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' was listed at number 8 and ''Animal Farm'' at number 46 on the BBC's The Big Read poll.", "In 2021, readers of the ''New York Times Book Review'' rated ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' third in a list of \"The best books of the past 125 years.", "\"''Coming Up for Air'', his last novel before World War II, is the most \"English\" of his novels; alarms of war mingle with images of idyllic Thames-side Edwardian childhood of protagonist George Bowling.", "The novel is pessimistic; industrialism and capitalism have killed the best of Old England, and there were great, new external threats.", "In homely terms, its protagonist George Bowling posits the totalitarian hypotheses of Franz Borkenau, Orwell, Ignazio Silone and Koestler: \"Old Hitler's something different.", "So's Joe Stalin.", "They aren't like these chaps in the old days who crucified people and chopped their heads off and so forth, just for the fun of it ...", "They're something quite new—something that's never been heard of before\".===Literary influences===In an autobiographical piece that Orwell sent to the editors of ''Twentieth Century Authors'' in 1940, he wrote: \"The writers I care about most and never grow tired of are: Shakespeare, Swift, Fielding, Dickens, Charles Reade, Flaubert and, among modern writers, James Joyce, T. S. Eliot and D. H. Lawrence.", "But I believe the modern writer who has influenced me most is W. Somerset Maugham, whom I admire immensely for his power of telling a story straightforwardly and without frills.\"", "Elsewhere, Orwell strongly praised the works of Jack London, especially his book ''The Road''.", "Orwell's investigation of poverty in ''The Road to Wigan Pier'' strongly resembles that of Jack London's ''The People of the Abyss'', in which the American journalist disguises himself as an out-of-work sailor to investigate the lives of the poor in London.", "In his essay \"Politics vs.", "Literature: An Examination of Gulliver's Travels\" (1946) Orwell wrote: \"If I had to make a list of six books which were to be preserved when all others were destroyed, I would certainly put ''Gulliver's Travels'' among them.\"", "On H. G. Wells he wrote, \"The minds of all of us, and therefore the physical world, would be perceptibly different if Wells had never existed.", "\"Orwell was an admirer of Arthur Koestler and became a close friend during the three years that Koestler and his wife Mamain spent at the cottage of Bwlch Ocyn, a secluded farmhouse that belonged to Clough Williams-Ellis, in the Vale of Ffestiniog.", "Orwell reviewed Koestler's ''Darkness at Noon'' for the ''New Statesman'' in 1941, saying:Other writers Orwell admired included: Ralph Waldo Emerson, George Gissing, Graham Greene, Herman Melville, Henry Miller, Tobias Smollett, Mark Twain, Joseph Conrad, and Yevgeny Zamyatin.", "He was both an admirer and a critic of Rudyard Kipling, praising Kipling as a gifted writer and a \"good bad poet\" whose work is \"spurious\" and \"morally insensitive and aesthetically disgusting,\" but undeniably seductive and able to speak to certain aspects of reality more effectively than more enlightened authors.", "He had a similarly ambivalent attitude to G. K. Chesterton, whom he regarded as a writer of considerable talent who had chosen to devote himself to \"Roman Catholic propaganda\", and to Evelyn Waugh, who was, he wrote, \"about as good a novelist as one can be (i.e.", "as novelists go today) while holding untenable opinions\".===Orwell as literary critic===Throughout his life Orwell continually supported himself as a book reviewer.", "His reviews are well known and have had an influence on literary criticism.", "He wrote in the conclusion to his 1940 essay on Charles Dickens,George Woodcock suggested that the last two sentences also describe Orwell.Orwell wrote a critique of George Bernard Shaw's play ''Arms and the Man''.", "He considered this Shaw's best play and the most likely to remain socially relevant, because of its theme that war is not, generally speaking, a glorious romantic adventure.", "His 1945 essay ''In Defence of P.G.", "Wodehouse'' contains an amusing assessment of Wodehouse's writing and also argues that his broadcasts from Germany (during the war) did not really make him a traitor.", "He accused The Ministry of Information of exaggerating Wodehouse's actions for propaganda purposes.=== Food writing ===In 1946, the British Council commissioned Orwell to write an essay on British food as part of a drive to promote British relations abroad.", "In his essay titled \"British Cookery\", Orwell described the British diet as \"a simple, rather heavy, perhaps slightly barbarous diet\" and where \"hot drinks are acceptable at most hours of the day\".", "He discusses the ritual of breakfast in the UK, \"this is not a snack but a serious meal.", "The hour at which people have their breakfast is of course governed by the time at which they go to work.\"", "He wrote that high tea in the United Kingdom consisted of a variety of savoury and sweet dishes, but \"no tea would be considered a good one if it did not include at least one kind of cake\", before adding \"as well as cakes, biscuits are much eaten at tea-time\".", "Orwell included his own recipe for marmalade, a popular British spread on toast.", "However, the British Council declined to publish the essay on the grounds that it was too problematic to write about food at the time of strict rationing in the UK following the war.", "In 2019, the essay was discovered in the British Council's archives along with the rejection letter.", "The British Council issued an official apology to Orwell over the rejection of the commissioned essay, stating it was \"delighted to make amends for its slight on perhaps the UK's greatest political writer of the 20th Century, by re-producing the original essay in full – along with the unfortunate rejection letter.", "\"===Reception and evaluations of Orwell's works===1984'' at the Playhouse Theatre in the West End.", "Orwell's works have been adapted for stage, screen and television.", "They have also inspired commercials and songs, and he is often quoted.", "Historian John Rodden called him a \"cultural icon\".Arthur Koestler said that Orwell's \"uncompromising intellectual honesty made him appear almost inhuman at times\".", "Ben Wattenberg stated: \"Orwell's writing pierced intellectual hypocrisy wherever he found it\".", "According to historian Piers Brendon, \"Orwell was the saint of common decency who would in earlier days, said his BBC boss Rushbrook Williams, 'have been either canonised—or burnt at the stake.", "Raymond Williams in ''Politics and Letters: Interviews with New Left Review'' describes Orwell as a \"successful impersonation of a plain man who bumps into experience in an unmediated way and tells the truth about it\".", "Christopher Norris declared that Orwell's \"homespun empiricist outlook—his assumption that the truth was just there to be told in a straightforward common-sense way—now seems not merely naïve but culpably self-deluding\".", "The American scholar Scott Lucas has described Orwell as an enemy of the Left.", "John Newsinger has argued that Lucas could only do this by portraying \"all of Orwell's attacks on Stalinism – as if they were attacks on socialism, despite Orwell's continued insistence that they were not\".Orwell's work has taken a prominent place in the school literature curriculum in England, with ''Animal Farm'' a regular examination topic at the end of secondary education (GCSE), and ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' a topic for subsequent examinations below university level (A Levels).", "A 2016 UK poll saw ''Animal Farm'' ranked the nation's favourite book from school.Historian John Rodden stated: \"John Podhoretz did claim that if Orwell were alive today, he'd be standing with the neo-conservatives and against the Left.", "And the question arises, to what extent can you even begin to predict the political positions of somebody who's been dead three decades and more by that time?", "\"In ''Orwell's Victory'', Christopher Hitchens argues: \"In answer to the accusation of inconsistency Orwell as a writer was forever taking his own temperature.", "In other words, here was someone who never stopped testing and adjusting his intelligence\".John Rodden points out the \"undeniable conservative features in the Orwell physiognomy\" and remarks on how \"to some extent Orwell facilitated the kinds of uses and abuses by the Right that his name has been put to.", "In other ways there has been the politics of selective quotation.\"", "Rodden refers to the essay \"Why I Write\", in which Orwell refers to the Spanish Civil War as being his \"watershed political experience\", saying: \"The Spanish War and other events in 1936–37, turned the scale.", "Thereafter I knew where I stood.", "Every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written directly or indirectly ''against'' totalitarianism and ''for'' democratic socialism as I understand it.\"", "(emphasis in original) Rodden goes on to explain how, during the McCarthy era, the introduction to the Signet edition of ''Animal Farm'', which sold more than 20 million copies, makes use of selective quotation:Fyvel wrote about Orwell: \"His crucial experience ... was his struggle to turn himself into a writer, one which led through long periods of poverty, failure and humiliation, and about which he has written almost nothing directly.", "The sweat and agony was less in the slum-life than in the effort to turn the experience into literature.", "\"===Influence on language and writing===In his essay \"Politics and the English Language\" (1946), Orwell wrote about the importance of precise and clear language, arguing that vague writing can be used as a powerful tool of political manipulation because it shapes the way we think.", "In that essay, Orwell provides six rules for writers:Orwell worked as a journalist at ''The Observer'' for seven years, and its editor David Astor gave a copy of this celebrated essay to every new recruit.", "In 2003, literary editor at the newspaper Robert McCrum wrote, \"Even now, it is quoted in our style book\".", "Journalist Jonathan Heawood noted: \"Orwell's criticism of slovenly language is still taken very seriously.", "\"Andrew N. Rubin argues that \"Orwell claimed that we should be attentive to how the use of language has limited our capacity for critical thought just as we should be equally concerned with the ways in which dominant modes of thinking have reshaped the very language that we use.", "\"The adjective \"Orwellian\" connotes an attitude and a policy of control by propaganda, surveillance, misinformation, denial of truth and manipulation of the past.", "In ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'', Orwell described a totalitarian government that controlled thought by controlling language, making certain ideas literally unthinkable.", "Several words and phrases from ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' have entered popular language.", "\"Newspeak\" is a simplified and obfuscatory language designed to make independent thought impossible.", "\"Doublethink\" means holding two contradictory beliefs simultaneously.", "The \"Thought Police\" are those who suppress all dissenting opinion.", "\"Prolefeed\" is homogenised, manufactured superficial literature, film and music used to control and indoctrinate the populace through docility.", "\"Big Brother\" is a supreme dictator who watches everyone.", "Other neologisms from the novel include, \"Two Minutes Hate\", \"Room 101\", \"memory hole\", \"unperson\", and \"thoughtcrime\", as well as providing direct inspiration for the neologism \"groupthink\".Orwell may have been the first to use the term \"cold war\" to refer to the state of tension between powers in the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc that followed World War II in his essay, \"You and the Atom Bomb\", published in ''Tribune'' on 19 October 1945.He wrote:===Modern culture===Selection of publications by the Orwell SocietyThe Orwell Society was formed in 2011 to promote understanding of the life and work of Orwell.", "A registered UK charity, it was founded and inaugurated by Dione Venables at Phyllis Court members club in Henley-on-Thames, Oxfordshire, a club that was often visited by Orwell in his youth.Apart from theatre adaptations of his books, several stage plays were written with Orwell as one of the main characters.", "* In 2012, a musical play, ''One Georgie Orwell'', by Peter Cordwell and Carl Picton was performed at the Greenwich Theatre, London.", "It explored Orwell's life, his concerns for the world that he lived in, and for the Britain that he loved.", "* In 2014, a play written by playwright Joe Sutton titled ''Orwell in America'' was first performed by the Northern Stage theatre company in White River Junction, Vermont.", "It is a fictitious account of Orwell doing a book tour in the United States (something he never did in his lifetime).", "It moved to off-Broadway in 2016.", "* In 2017, ''Mrs Orwell'' by British playwright Tony Cox opened at the Old Red Lion Theatre in London before transferring to the Southwark Playhouse.", "The play centres on Orwell's second wife Sonia Brownell (played by Cressida Bonas), her reasons for marrying Orwell and her relationship with Lucian Freud.", "* In 2019, Tasmanian theatre company Blue Cow presented the play ''101'' by Cameron Hindrum, in which Orwell is seen working on his novel ''1984'' \"while keeping his severe illness at bay and balancing the demands of fatherhood, art, family and success.", "\"Orwell is the main character in a 2017 novel, ''The Last Man in Europe'', by Australian author Dennis Glover.", "Orwell's birthplace, a bungalow in Motihari, Bihar, India, was opened as a museum in May 2015, several years after local residents petitioned for conservation of the building.", "In January 2021, Orwell's bust near the museum was vandalised.=== Archive ===In 1960 Orwell's widow Sonia deposited his papers on permanent loan to University College London.", "The collection contains Orwell's literary notebooks, manuscripts and typescripts of his work, personal and political diaries, correspondence and family material.", "Since the initial donation the papers - now known as the George Orwell Archive - have been supplemented by further donations from family, friends and business associates.", "Orwell's son Richard Blair has purchased additional material for the collection since its inception; in 2023 Blair was awarded an Honorary Fellowship from University College London for his contributions.", "The majority of the archive has been digitised and made available for everyone to access online.University College London also holds an extensive collection of Orwell's books, including rare and early editions of his works, translations into other languages and titles from his own library.===Statue===Statue of George Orwell outside Broadcasting House, headquarters of the BBCA statue of George Orwell, sculpted by the British sculptor Martin Jennings, was unveiled on 7 November 2017 outside Broadcasting House, the headquarters of the BBC.", "The wall behind the statue is inscribed with the following phrase: \"If liberty means anything at all, it means the right to tell people what they do not want to hear\".", "These are words from his proposed preface to ''Animal Farm'' and a rallying cry for the idea of free speech in an open society." ], [ "Personal life", "===Childhood===Jacintha Buddicom's account, ''Eric & Us'', provides an insight into Blair's childhood.", "She quoted his sister Avril that \"he was essentially an aloof, undemonstrative person\" and said herself of his friendship with the Buddicoms: \"I do not think he needed any other friends beyond the schoolfriend he occasionally and appreciatively referred to as 'CC'\".", "She could not recall him having schoolfriends to stay and exchange visits as her brother Prosper often did in holidays.", "Cyril Connolly provides an account of Blair as a child in ''Enemies of Promise''.", "Years later, Blair mordantly recalled his prep school in the essay \"Such, Such Were the Joys\", claiming among other things that he \"was made to study like a dog\" to earn a scholarship, which he alleged was solely to enhance the school's prestige with parents.", "Jacintha Buddicom repudiated Orwell's schoolboy misery described in the essay, stating that \"he was a specially happy child\".", "She noted that he did not like his name because it reminded him of a book he greatly disliked—''Eric, or, Little by Little'', a Victorian boys' school story.Orwell's time at Eton College was formative in his attitude and his later career as a writer.Connolly remarked of him as a schoolboy, \"The remarkable thing about Orwell was that alone among the boys he was an intellectual and not a parrot for he thought for himself\".", "At Eton, John Vaughan Wilkes, his former headmaster's son at St Cyprians, recalled that \"he was extremely argumentative—about anything—and criticising the masters and criticising the other boys ... We enjoyed arguing with him.", "He would generally win the arguments—or think he had anyhow.\"", "Roger Mynors concurs: \"Endless arguments about all sorts of things, in which he was one of the great leaders.", "He was one of those boys who thought for himself.", "\"Blair liked to carry out practical jokes.", "Buddicom recalls him swinging from the luggage rack in a railway carriage like an orangutan to frighten a woman passenger out of the compartment.", "At Eton, he played tricks on John Crace, his housemaster, among which was to enter a spoof advertisement in a college magazine implying pederasty.", "Gow, his tutor, said he \"made himself as big a nuisance as he could\" and \"was a very unattractive boy\".", "Later Blair was expelled from the crammer at Southwold for sending a dead rat as a birthday present to the town surveyor.", "In one of his ''As I Please'' essays he refers to a protracted joke when he answered an advertisement for a woman who claimed a cure for obesity.Blair had an interest in natural history which stemmed from his childhood.", "In letters from school he wrote about caterpillars and butterflies, and Buddicom recalls his keen interest in ornithology.", "He also enjoyed fishing and shooting rabbits, and conducting experiments as in cooking a hedgehog or shooting down a jackdaw from the Eton roof to dissect it.", "His zeal for scientific experiments extended to explosives—again Buddicom recalls a cook giving notice because of the noise.", "Later in Southwold, his sister Avril recalled him blowing up the garden.", "When teaching he enthused his students with his nature-rambles both at Southwold and at Hayes.", "His adult diaries are permeated with his observations on nature.===Relationships and marriage===Buddicom and Blair lost touch shortly after he went to Burma and she became unsympathetic towards him.", "She wrote that it was because of the letters he wrote complaining about his life, but an addendum to ''Eric & Us'' by Venables reveals that he may have lost her sympathy through an incident which was, at best, a clumsy attempt at seduction.Mabel Fierz, who later became Blair's confidante, said: \"He used to say the one thing he wished in this world was that he'd been attractive to women.", "He liked women and had many girlfriends I think in Burma.", "He had a girl in Southwold and another girl in London.", "He was rather a womaniser, yet he was afraid he wasn't attractive.", "\"Brenda Salkield (Southwold) preferred friendship to any deeper relationship and maintained a correspondence with Blair for many years, particularly as a sounding board for his ideas.", "She wrote: \"He was a great letter writer.", "Endless letters, and I mean when he wrote you a letter he wrote pages.\"", "His correspondence with Eleanor Jacques (London) was more prosaic, dwelling on a closer relationship and referring to past rendezvous or planning future ones in London and Burnham Beeches.Richard in 2018 reciting his father's work at his graveside during an annual visit to All Saints' churchyard, Sutton CourtenayWhen Orwell was in the sanatorium in Kent, his wife's friend Lydia Jackson visited.", "He invited her for a walk and out of sight \"an awkward situation arose.\"", "Jackson was to be the most critical of Orwell's marriage to Eileen O'Shaughnessy, but their later correspondence hints at a complicity.", "Eileen at the time was more concerned about Orwell's closeness to Brenda Salkield.", "Orwell had an affair with his secretary at ''Tribune'' which caused Eileen much distress, and others have been mooted.", "In a letter to Ann Popham he wrote: \"I was sometimes unfaithful to Eileen, and I also treated her badly, and I think she treated me badly, too, at times, but it was a real marriage, in the sense that we had been through awful struggles together and she understood all about my work, etc.\"", "Similarly he suggested to Celia Kirwan that they had both been unfaithful.", "There are several testaments that it was a well-matched and happy marriage.In June 1944, Orwell and Eileen adopted a three-week-old boy they named Richard Horatio.", "According to Richard, Orwell was a wonderful father who gave him devoted, if rather rugged, attention and a great degree of freedom.", "After Orwell's death Richard went to live with Orwell's sister and her husband.Blair was very lonely after Eileen's death in 1945, and desperate for a wife, both as companion for himself and as mother for Richard.", "He proposed marriage to four women, including Celia Kirwan, and eventually Sonia Brownell accepted.", "Orwell had met her when she was assistant to Cyril Connolly, at ''Horizon'' literary magazine.", "They were married on 13 October 1949, only three months before Orwell's death.", "Some maintain that Sonia was the model for Julia in ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''.===Social interactions===Orwell was noted for very close and enduring friendships with a few friends, but these were generally people with a similar background or with a similar level of literary ability.", "Ungregarious, he was out of place in a crowd and his discomfort was exacerbated when he was outside his own class.", "Though representing himself as a spokesman for the common man, he often appeared out of place with real working people.", "His brother-in-law Humphrey Dakin, a \"Hail fellow, well met\" type, who took him to a local pub in Leeds, said that he was told by the landlord: \"Don't bring that bugger in here again.\"", "Adrian Fierz commented \"He wasn't interested in racing or greyhounds or pub crawling or shove ha'penny.", "He just did not have much in common with people who did not share his intellectual interests.\"", "Awkwardness attended many of his encounters with working-class representatives, as with Pollitt and McNair, but his courtesy and good manners were often commented on.", "Jack Common observed on meeting him for the first time, \"Right away manners, and more than manners—breeding—showed through.", "\"In his tramping days, he did domestic work for a time.", "His extreme politeness was recalled by a member of the family he worked for; she declared that the family referred to him as \"Laurel\" after the film comedian.", "With his gangling figure and awkwardness, Orwell's friends often saw him as a figure of fun.", "Geoffrey Gorer commented \"He was awfully likely to knock things off tables, trip over things.", "I mean, he was a gangling, physically badly co-ordinated young man.", "I think his feeling was that even the inanimate world was against him.\"", "When he shared a flat with Heppenstall and Sayer, he was treated in a patronising manner by the younger men.", "At the BBC in the 1940s, \"everybody would pull his leg\" and Spender described him as having real entertainment value \"like, as I say, watching a Charlie Chaplin movie\".", "A friend of Eileen's reminisced about her tolerance and humour, often at Orwell's expense.One biography of Orwell accused him of having had an authoritarian streak.", "In Burma, he struck out at a Burmese boy who, while \"fooling around\" with his friends, had \"accidentally bumped into him\" at a station, resulting in Orwell falling \"heavily\" down some stairs.", "One of his former pupils recalled being beaten so hard he could not sit down for a week.", "When sharing a flat with Orwell, Heppenstall came home late one night in an advanced stage of loud inebriation.", "The upshot was that Heppenstall ended up with a bloody nose and was locked in a room.", "When he complained, Orwell hit him across the legs with a shooting stick and Heppenstall then had to defend himself with a chair.", "Years later, after Orwell's death, Heppenstall wrote a dramatic account of the incident called \"The Shooting Stick\" and Mabel Fierz confirmed that Heppenstall came to her in a sorry state the following day.Orwell got on well with young people.", "The pupil he beat considered him the best of teachers and the young recruits in Barcelona tried to drink him under the table without success.", "His nephew recalled Uncle Eric laughing louder than anyone in the cinema at a Charlie Chaplin film.In the wake of his most famous works, he attracted many uncritical hangers-on, but many others who sought him found him aloof and even dull.", "With his soft voice, he was sometimes shouted down or excluded from discussions.", "At this time, he was severely ill; it was wartime or the austerity period after it; during the war his wife suffered from depression; and after her death he was lonely and unhappy.", "In addition to that, he always lived frugally and seemed unable to care for himself properly.", "As a result of all this, people found his circumstances bleak.", "Some, like Michael Ayrton, called him \"Gloomy George\", but others developed the idea that he was an \"English secular saint\".Although Orwell was frequently heard on the BBC for panel discussion and one-man broadcasts, no recorded copy of his voice is known to exist.===Lifestyle===Orwell was a heavy smoker, who rolled his own cigarettes from strong shag tobacco, despite his bronchial condition.", "His penchant for the rugged life often took him to cold and damp situations, both in the long term, as in Catalonia and Jura, and short term, for example, motorcycling in the rain and suffering a shipwreck.", "Described by ''The Economist'' as \"perhaps the 20th century's best chronicler of English culture\", Orwell considered fish and chips, football, the pub, strong tea, cut-price chocolate, the movies, and radio among the chief comforts for the working class.", "He advocated a patriotic defence of a British way of life that could not be trusted to intellectuals or, by implication, the state:Orwell enjoyed strong tea—he had Fortnum & Mason's tea brought to him in Catalonia.", "His 1946 essay, \"A Nice Cup of Tea\", appeared in the ''London Evening Standard'' article on how to make tea, with Orwell writing, \"tea is one of the mainstays of civilisation in this country and causes violent disputes over how it should be made\", with the main issue being whether to put tea in the cup first and add the milk afterward, or the other way round, on which he states, \"in every family in Britain there are probably two schools of thought on the subject\".", "He appreciated English beer, taken regularly and moderately, despised drinkers of lager, and wrote about an imagined, ideal British pub in his 1946 ''Evening Standard'' article, \"The Moon Under Water\".", "Not as particular about food, he enjoyed the wartime \"Victory Pie\" and extolled canteen food at the BBC.", "He preferred traditional English dishes, such as roast beef, and kippers.", "His 1945 essay, \"In Defence of English Cooking\", included Yorkshire pudding, crumpets, muffins, innumerable biscuits, Christmas pudding, shortbread, various British cheeses and Oxford marmalade.", "Reports of his Islington days refer to the cosy afternoon tea table.His dress sense was unpredictable and usually casual.", "In Southwold, he had the best cloth from the local tailor, but was equally happy in his tramping outfit.", "His attire in the Spanish Civil War, along with his size-12 boots, was a source of amusement.", "David Astor described him as looking like a prep school master, while according to the Special Branch dossier, Orwell's tendency to dress \"in Bohemian fashion\" revealed that the author was \"a Communist\".Orwell's confusing approach to matters of social decorum—on the one hand expecting a working-class guest to dress for dinner, and on the other, slurping tea out of a saucer at the BBC canteen—helped stoke his reputation as an English eccentric." ], [ "Views", "===Religion===Orwell was an atheist and a robust critic of Christianity.", "Nevertheless, he was sentimentally attached to church services, and was buried in All Saints' parish churchyard in Sutton Courtenay, Oxfordshire.Orwell was an atheist who identified himself with the humanist outlook on life.", "Despite this, and despite his criticisms of both religious doctrine and religious organisations, he nevertheless regularly participated in the social and civic life of the church, including by attending Church of England Holy Communion.", "Acknowledging this contradiction, he once said: \"It seems rather mean to go to HC Holy Communion when one doesn't believe, but I have passed myself off for pious & there is nothing for it but to keep up with the deception.\"", "He had two Anglican marriages and left instructions for an Anglican funeral.", "Orwell was also well-read in Biblical literature and could quote lengthy passages from the Book of Common Prayer from memory.", "His extensive knowledge of the Bible came coupled with unsparing criticism of its philosophy, and as an adult he could not bring himself to believe in its tenets.", "He said in part V of his essay, \"Such, Such Were the Joys\", that \"Till about the age of fourteen I believed in God, and believed that the accounts given of him were true.", "But I was well aware that I did not love him.\"", "Orwell directly contrasted Christianity with secular humanism in his essay \"Lear, Tolstoy and the Fool\", finding the latter philosophy more palatable and less \"self-interested\".", "Literary critic James Wood wrote that in the struggle, as he saw it, between Christianity and humanism, \"Orwell was on the humanist side, of course—basically an unmetaphysical, English version of Camus's philosophy of perpetual godless struggle.", "\"Orwell's writing was often explicitly critical of religion, and Christianity in particular.", "He found the church to be a \"selfish ... church of the landed gentry\" with its establishment \"out of touch\" with the majority of its communicants and altogether a pernicious influence on public life.", "In their 1972 study, ''The Unknown Orwell'', the writers Peter Stansky and William Abrahams noted that at Eton Blair displayed a \"sceptical attitude\" to Christian belief.", "Crick observed that Orwell displayed \"a pronounced anti-Catholicism\".", "Evelyn Waugh, writing in 1946, acknowledged Orwell's high moral sense and respect for justice but believed \"he seems never to have been touched at any point by a conception of religious thought and life.\"", "His contradictory and sometimes ambiguous views about the social benefits of religious affiliation mirrored the dichotomies between his public and private lives: Stephen Ingle wrote that it was as if the writer George Orwell \"vaunted\" his unbelief while Eric Blair the individual retained \"a deeply ingrained religiosity\".===Politics===Orwell liked to provoke arguments by challenging the status quo, but he was also a traditionalist with a love of old English values.", "He criticised and satirised, from the inside, the various social milieux in which he found himself—provincial town life in ''A Clergyman's Daughter''; middle-class pretension in ''Keep the Aspidistra Flying''; preparatory schools in \"Such, Such Were the Joys\"; and some socialist groups in ''The Road to Wigan Pier''.", "In his ''Adelphi'' days, he described himself as a \"Tory-anarchist\".", "Of colonialism in ''Burmese Days'', he portrays the English colonists as a \"dull, decent people, cherishing and fortifying their dullness behind a quarter of a million bayonets.", "\"In 1928, Orwell began his career as a professional writer in Paris at a journal owned by the French Communist Henri Barbusse.", "His first article, \"La Censure en Angleterre\" (\"Censorship in England\"), was an attempt to account for the \"extraordinary and illogical\" moral censorship of plays and novels then practised in Britain.", "His own explanation was that the rise of the \"puritan middle class\", who had stricter morals than the aristocracy, tightened the rules of censorship in the 19th century.", "Orwell's first published article in his home country, \"A Farthing Newspaper\", was a critique of the new French daily the ''Ami du Peuple''.", "This paper was sold much more cheaply than most others, and was intended for ordinary people to read.", "Orwell pointed out that its proprietor François Coty also owned the right-wing dailies ''Le Figaro'' and ''Le Gaulois'', which the ''Ami du Peuple'' was supposedly competing against.", "Orwell suggested that cheap newspapers were no more than a vehicle for advertising and anti-leftist propaganda, and predicted the world might soon see free newspapers which would drive legitimate dailies out of business.Writing for ''Le Progrès Civique'', Orwell described the British colonial government in Burma and India:====Spanish Civil War and socialism====Orwell joined the British Independent Labour Party during his time in the Spanish Civil War and became a defender of democratic socialism and a critic of totalitarianism for the rest of his life.The Spanish Civil War played the most important part in defining Orwell's socialism.", "He wrote to Cyril Connolly from Barcelona on 8 June 1937: \"I have seen wonderful things and at last really believe in Socialism, which I never did before.\"", "Having witnessed anarcho-syndicalist communities, for example in Anarchist Catalonia, and the subsequent brutal suppression of the anarcho-syndicalists, anti-Stalin communist parties and revolutionaries by the Soviet Union-backed Communists, Orwell returned from Catalonia a staunch anti-Stalinist and joined the British Independent Labour Party, his card being issued on 13 June 1938.In Part 2 of ''The Road to Wigan Pier'', published by the Left Book Club, Orwell stated that \"a real Socialist is one who wishes—not merely conceives it as desirable, but actively wishes—to see tyranny overthrown\".", "Orwell stated in \"Why I Write\" (1946): \"Every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written, directly or indirectly, against totalitarianism and for democratic socialism, as I understand it.\"", "Orwell's conception of socialism was of a planned economy alongside democracy, which was the common notion of socialism in the early and middle 20th century.", "Orwell's emphasis on \"democracy\" primarily referred to a strong emphasis on civil liberties within a socialist economy as opposed to majoritarian rule, though he was not necessarily opposed to majority rule.", "Orwell was a proponent of a federal socialist Europe, a position outlined in his 1947 essay \"Toward European Unity\", which first appeared in ''Partisan Review''.", "According to biographer John Newsinger:In his 1938 essay \"Why I joined the Independent Labour Party,\" published in the ILP-affiliated ''New Leader'', Orwell wrote:Towards the end of the essay, he wrote: \"I do not mean I have lost all faith in the Labour Party.", "My most earnest hope is that the Labour Party will win a clear majority in the next General Election.", "\"In 1939, Orwell wrote that \"Trotsky, in exile, denounces the Russian dictatorship, but he is probably as much responsible for it as any man now living, and there is no certainty that as a dictator he would be preferable to Stalin, though undoubtedly he has a much more interesting mind.\"", "In 1945, he wrote that \"The fact that Trotskyists are everywhere a persecuted minority, and that the accusation usually made against them, i.e.", "of collaborating with the Fascists, is obviously false, creates the impression that Trotskyism is intellectually and morally superior to Communism; but it is doubtful whether there is much difference.", "\"====The Second World War====Orwell was opposed to rearmament against Nazi Germany and at the time of the Munich Agreement he signed a manifesto entitled \"If War Comes We Shall Resist\"—but he changed his view after the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the outbreak of the war.", "He left the ILP because of its opposition to the war and adopted a political position of \"revolutionary patriotism\".", "On 21 March 1940 he wrote a review of Adolf Hitler's ''Mein Kampf'' for ''The New English Weekly'', in which he analysed the dictator's psychology.", "According to Orwell \"a thing that strikes one is the rigidity of his mind, the way in which his world-view doesn't develop.", "It is the fixed vision of a monomaniac and not likely to be much affected by the temporary manoeuvres of power politics\".", "Asking \"how was it that he was able to put his monstrous vision across?", "\", Orwell tried to understand why Hitler was worshipped by the German people: \"The situation in Germany, with its seven million unemployed, was obviously favourable for demagogues.", "But Hitler could not have succeeded against his many rivals if it had not been for the attraction of his own personality, which one can feel even in the clumsy writing of ''Mein Kampf'', and which is no doubt overwhelming when one hears his speeches...The fact is that there is something deeply appealing about him.", "The initial, personal cause of his grievance against the universe can only be guessed at; but at any rate the grievance is here.", "He is the martyr, the victim, Prometheus chained to the rock, the self-sacrificing hero who fights single-handed against impossible odds.", "If he were killing a mouse he would know how to make it seem like a dragon.\"", "In December 1940 he wrote in ''Tribune'' (the Labour left's weekly): \"We are in a strange period of history in which a revolutionary has to be a patriot and a patriot has to be a revolutionary.\"", "During the war, Orwell was highly critical of the popular idea that an Anglo-Soviet alliance would be the basis of a post-war world of peace and prosperity.", "In 1942, commenting on London ''Times'' editor E. H. Carr's pro-Soviet views, Orwell stated that \"all the appeasers, e.g.", "Professor E.H. Carr, have switched their allegiance from Hitler to Stalin.", "\"In his reply (dated 15 November 1943) to an invitation from the Duchess of Atholl to speak for the British League for European Freedom, he stated that he did not agree with their objectives.", "He admitted that what they said was \"more truthful than the lying propaganda found in most of the press\", but added that he could not \"associate himself with an essentially Conservative body\" that claimed to \"defend democracy in Europe\" but had \"nothing to say about British imperialism\".", "His closing paragraph stated: \"I belong to the Left and must work inside it, much as I hate Russian totalitarianism and its poisonous influence in this country.", "\"====Jews, antisemitism and zionism====His relationship to Jews has been a recurring topic in various publications.", "Texts with an obvious antisemitic slant, as well as texts with a determined rejection of antisemitism, from different periods of Orwell's career, and his comments about the increasing conflict between Jews and Arabs in Palestine under the British Mandate are quoted.Under the headline \"Orwell's evolving views on Jews\", Raymond S. Solomon draws an arc from Orwell's first book ''Down and Out in Paris and London'' up to ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''.", "Anshel Pfeffer asks \"Was Orwell an anti-Semite?\"", "in the Israeli daily ''Haaretz''.", "Paul Seeliger, editor of the compilation of Orwell's texts ''On Jews and Antisemitism'', describes his relationship to antisemitism and Jewish issues as \"ambivalent\".Writing in early 1945 a long essay titled \"Antisemitism in Britain\", for the ''Contemporary Jewish Record'', Orwell stated that antisemitism was on the increase in Britain and that it was \"irrational and will not yield to arguments\".", "He argued that it would be useful to discover why anti-Semites could \"swallow such absurdities on one particular subject while remaining sane on others\".", "He wrote: \"For quite six years the English admirers of Hitler contrived not to learn of the existence of Dachau and Buchenwald. ...", "Many English people have heard almost nothing about the extermination of German and Polish Jews during the present war.", "Their own anti-Semitism has caused this vast crime to bounce off their consciousness.\"", "In ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'', written shortly after the war, Orwell portrayed the Party as enlisting anti-Semitic passions against their enemy, Goldstein.====''Tribune'' and post-war Britain====Orwell joined the staff of ''Tribune'' magazine as literary editor, and from then until his death, was a left-wing (though hardly orthodox) Labour-supporting democratic socialist.On 1 September 1944, writing about the Warsaw uprising, Orwell expressed in ''Tribune'' his hostility against the influence of the alliance with the USSR over the allies: \"Do remember that dishonesty and cowardice always have to be paid for.", "Do not imagine that for years on end you can make yourself the boot-licking propagandist of the sovietic regime, or any other regime, and then suddenly return to honesty and reason.", "Once a whore, always a whore.\"", "According to Newsinger, although Orwell \"was always critical of the 1945–51 Labour government's moderation, his support for it began to pull him to the right politically.", "This did not lead him to embrace conservatism, imperialism or reaction, but to defend, albeit critically, Labour reformism.\"", "Between 1945 and 1947, with A. J. Ayer and Bertrand Russell, he contributed a series of articles and essays to ''Polemic'', a short-lived British \"Magazine of Philosophy, Psychology, and Aesthetics\" edited by the ex-Communist Humphrey Slater.Orwell publicly defended P. G. Wodehouse against charges of being a Nazi sympathiser—occasioned by his agreement to do some broadcasts over the German radio in 1941—a defence based on Wodehouse's lack of interest in and ignorance of politics.Special Branch, the intelligence division of the Metropolitan Police, maintained a file on Orwell for more than 20 years of his life.", "The dossier, published by The National Archives, states that, according to one investigator, Orwell had \"advanced Communist views and several of his Indian friends say that they have often seen him at Communist meetings\".", "MI5, the intelligence department of the Home Office, noted: \"It is evident from his recent writings—'The Lion and the Unicorn'—and his contribution to Gollancz's symposium ''The Betrayal of the Left'' that he does not hold with the Communist Party nor they with him.", "\"===Sexuality===Sexual politics plays an important role in ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''.", "In the novel, people's intimate relationships are strictly governed by the party's Junior Anti-Sex League, by opposing sexual relations and instead encouraging artificial insemination.", "Personally, Orwell disliked what he thought as misguided middle-class revolutionary emancipatory views, expressing disdain for \"every fruit-juice drinker, nudist, sandal-wearer, sex-maniacs\".Orwell was also openly against homosexuality.", "Speaking at the 2003 George Orwell Centenary Conference, Daphne Patai said: \"Of course he was homophobic.", "That has nothing to do with his relations with his homosexual friends.", "Certainly, he had a negative attitude and a certain kind of anxiety, a denigrating attitude towards homosexuality.", "That is definitely the case.", "I think his writing reflects that quite fully.", "\"Orwell used the homophobic epithets \"nancy\" and \"pansy\", for example, in expressions of contempt for what he called the \"pansy Left\", and \"nancy poets\", i.e.", "left-wing homosexual or bisexual writers and intellectuals such as Stephen Spender and W. H. Auden.", "The protagonist of ''Keep the Aspidistra Flying'', Gordon Comstock, conducts an internal critique of his customers when working in a bookshop, and there is an extended passage of several pages in which he concentrates on a homosexual male customer, and sneers at him for his \"nancy\" characteristics, including a lisp, which he identifies in detail, with some disgust.", "Stephen Spender \"thought Orwell's occasional homophobic outbursts were part of his rebellion against the public school\"." ], [ "Biographies of Orwell", "Orwell's will requested that no biography of him be written, and his widow, Sonia Brownell, repelled every attempt by those who tried to persuade her to let them write about him.", "Various recollections and interpretations were published in the 1950s and 1960s, but Sonia saw the 1968 ''Collected Works'' as the record of his life.", "She did appoint Malcolm Muggeridge as official biographer, but later biographers have seen this as deliberate spoiling as Muggeridge eventually gave up the work.", "In 1972, two American authors, Peter Stansky and William Abrahams, produced ''The Unknown Orwell'', an unauthorised account of his early years that lacked any support or contribution from Sonia Brownell.Sonia Brownell then commissioned Bernard Crick, a professor of politics at the University of London, to complete a biography and asked Orwell's friends to co-operate.", "Crick collated a considerable amount of material in his work, which was published in 1980, but his questioning of the factual accuracy of Orwell's first-person writings led to conflict with Brownell, and she tried to suppress the book.", "Crick concentrated on the facts of Orwell's life rather than his character, and presented primarily a political perspective on Orwell's life and work.After Sonia Brownell's death, other works on Orwell were published in the 1980s, particularly in 1984.These included collections of reminiscences by Audrey Coppard and Crick and Stephen Wadhams.In 1991, Michael Shelden, an American professor of literature, published a biography.", "More concerned with the literary nature of Orwell's work, he sought explanations for Orwell's character and treated his first-person writings as autobiographical.", "Shelden introduced new information that sought to build on Crick's work.", "Shelden speculated that Orwell possessed an obsessive belief in his failure and inadequacy.Peter Davison's publication of the ''Complete Works of George Orwell'', completed in 2000, made most of the Orwell Archive accessible to the public.", "Jeffrey Meyers, a prolific American biographer, was first to take advantage of this and published a book in 2001 that investigated the darker side of Orwell and questioned his saintly image.", "''Why Orwell Matters'' (released in the United Kingdom as ''Orwell's Victory'') was published by Christopher Hitchens in 2002.In 2003, the centenary of Orwell's birth resulted in biographies by Gordon Bowker and D. J. Taylor, both academics and writers in the United Kingdom.", "Taylor notes the stage management which surrounds much of Orwell's behaviour and Bowker highlights the essential sense of decency which he considers to have been Orwell's main motivation.", "An updated edition of Taylor's biography has been published in 2023 entitled ''Orwell: The New Life'', published by Constable.In 2018, Ronald Binns published the first detailed study of Orwell's years in Suffolk, ''Orwell in Southwold''.", "In 2020, Professor Richard Bradford wrote a new biography, entitled ''Orwell: A Man of Our Time'' while in 2021 Rebecca Solnit reflected on what gardening may have meant to Orwell and what it means to gardeners everywhere, in her book ''Orwell's Roses''.", "Two books about Orwell's relationship with his first wife, Eileen O'Shaughnessy, and her role in his life and career, have been published: ''Eileen: The Making of George Orwell'' by Sylvia Topp (2020) and ''Wifedom: Mrs Orwell's Invisible Life'' by Anna Funder (2023).", "In her book Funder claims that Orwell was misogynistic and sadistic.", "This sparked a strong controversy among Orwell's biographers, particularly with Topp.", "Celia Kirwan's family also intervened in the discussion, believing that the attribution to their relative of a relationship with Orwell, as stated by Funder, is false.", "The publishing house of ''Wifedom'' was forced to remove that reference from the book.According to Blake Morrison, after D. J. Taylor's 2023 ''Orwell: The New Life'' \"No further biography will be needed for the foreseeable future, though it seems that one or even two of Orwell's journals are lying in a Moscow archive.\"" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Novels===* 1934 – ''Burmese Days''* 1935 – ''A Clergyman's Daughter''* 1936 – ''Keep the Aspidistra Flying''* 1939 – ''Coming Up for Air''* 1945 – ''Animal Farm''* 1949 – ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''===Nonfiction===* 1933 – ''Down and Out in Paris and London''* 1937 – ''The Road to Wigan Pier''* 1938 – ''Homage to Catalonia''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Anderson, Paul (ed.).", "''Orwell in Tribune: 'As I Please' and Other Writings''.", "Methuen/Politico's 2006.", "* Azurmendi, Joxe (1984): George Orwell.", "1984: Reality exists in the human mind, ''Jakin'', 32: 87–103.", "* Bounds, Philip.", "''Orwell and Marxism: The Political and Cultural Thinking of George Orwell''.", "I.B.", "Tauris.", "2009.", "* Bowker, Gordon.", "''George Orwell''.", "Little Brown.", "2003.", "* Buddicom, Jacintha.", "''Eric & Us''.", "Finlay Publisher.", "2006.", "* Caute, David.", "''Dr.", "Orwell and Mr. Blair'', Weidenfeld & Nicolson.", "* Crick, Bernard.", "''George Orwell: A Life''.", "Penguin.", "1982.", "* Davison, Peter; Angus, Ian; Davison, Sheila (eds.).", "2000 ''A Kind of Compulsion''.", "London: Random House * Flynn, Nigel.", "''George Orwell''.", "The Rourke Corporation, Inc.", "1990.", "* Haycock, David Boyd.", "''I Am Spain: The Spanish Civil War and the Men and Women who went to Fight Fascism''.", "Old Street Publishing.", "2013.", "* Hitchens, Christopher.", "''Why Orwell Matters''.", "Basic Books.", "2003.", "* Hollis, Christopher.", "''A Study of George Orwell: The Man and His Works''.", "Chicago: Henry Regnery Co.", "1956.", "* Larkin, Emma.", "''Secret Histories: Finding George Orwell in a Burmese Teashop''.", "Penguin.", "2005.", "* Lee, Robert A.", "''Orwell's Fiction''.", "University of Notre Dame Press, 1969.", "* Leif, Ruth Ann.", "''Homage to Oceania.", "The Prophetic Vision of George Orwell''.", "Ohio State U.P.", "1969* Meyers, Jeffery.", "''Orwell: Wintry Conscience of a Generation''.", "W.W. Norton.", "2000.", "* Newsinger, John.", "''Orwell's Politics''.", "Macmillan.", "1999.", "* .", "* * Rodden, John (ed.).", "''The Cambridge Companion to George Orwell''.", "Cambridge.", "2007.", "* Shelden, Michael.", "''Orwell: The Authorized Biography''.", "HarperCollins.", "1991.", "* Smith, D. & Mosher, M. ''Orwell for Beginners''.", "1984.London: Writers and Readers Publishing Cooperative.", "* Taylor, D. J.", "''Orwell: The Life''.", "Henry Holt and Company.", "2003.", "* West, W. J.", "''The Larger Evils''.", "Edinburgh: Canongate Press.", "1992.", "(Nineteen Eighty-Four – The truth behind the satire.", ")* West, W. J.", "(ed.).", "''George Orwell: The Lost Writings''.", "New York: Arbor House.", "1984.", "* Williams, Raymond.", "''Orwell'', Fontana/Collins, 1971* Wood, James.", "\"A Fine Rage.\"", "''The New Yorker''.", "2009.85(9):54.", "* Woodcock, George.", "''The Crystal Spirit''.", "Little Brown.", "1966." ], [ "Further reading", "* * Morgan, W. John, 'Pacifism or Bourgeois Pacifism?", "Huxley, Orwell, and Caudwell'.", "Chapter 5 in Morgan, W. John and Guilherme, Alexandre (Eds.", "), ''Peace and War-Historical, Philosophical, and Anthropological Perspectives'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2020, pp, 71–96..* Orwell, George.", "''Diaries'', edited by Peter Davison (W. W. Norton & Company; 2012) 597 pages; annotated edition of 11 diaries kept by Orwell, from August 1931 to September 1949.", "* Orwell, George.", "''On Jews and Antisemitism'', introduced, edited and annotated by Paul Seeliger (Berlin: Comino; 2022) 304 pages, * * Ostrom, Hans and Halton, William.", "''Orwell's \"Politics and the English Language\" in the Age of Pseudocracy'' (New York: Routledge, 2018) * Wilson, S. M. and Huxtable, J.", "''\"Such, Such Were the Joys: graphic novel\"'' (London: Pluto Press, Sept 2021)" ], [ "External links", "* Blair, Eric Arthur (George Orwell) (1903–1950) at the ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''* George Orwell at the British Library* * Works:* * * * Orwell Daily, on Substack (orwell.substack.com), emailing Orwell's works on the day they were written* The complete works of George Orwell (george-orwell.org), a fan siteCatalogs and collections:* * * Orwell Papers at University College London* Orwell Collection (rare and early editions of Orwell's works) at University College London" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Goeldi's marmoset" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Goeldi's marmoset''' or '''Goeldi's monkey''' ('''''Callimico goeldii''''') is a small, South American New World monkey that lives in the upper Amazon basin region of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, and Peru.", "It is the only species classified in the genus '''''Callimico''''', and the monkeys are sometimes referred to as \"callimicos\".", "The species takes its name from its discoverer, Swiss-Brazilian naturalist Emil August Goeldi.Goeldi's marmosets are blackish or blackish-brown in color and the hair on their head and tail sometimes has red, white, or silverly brown highlights.", "Their bodies are about long, and their tails are about long.", "They weigh about 0.4835 kg in captivity and 0.500 kg in the wild.", "Their digits have claw like nails except for the hallux, which serve for clinging, scansorial travel, and to extract food from trees." ], [ "Taxonomy and evolution", "Goeldi's marmoset was first described in 1904, making ''Callimico'' one of the more recent monkey genera to be described.", "In older classification schemes it was sometimes placed in its own family '''Callimiconidae''' and sometimes, along with the marmosets and tamarins, in the subfamily Callitrichinae in the family Cebidae.", "More recently, Callitrichinae has been (re-)elevated to family status as Callitrichidae.Molecular phylogenetics shows that ''C.", "goeldii'' evolved from an ancestral callitrichine and shares this origin with marmosets making them sister taxa.", "One evolutionary argument to account for their differences, states that ''C.", "goeldii'' conserves primitive traits such as single births and a third molar lost in many marmosets.", "Alternatively, another evolutionary argument indicates that Callimicos came from a two-molar marmoset and reintroduced the remote traits, which in either case selectively give them the ability to access to different resources and occupy different niches.", "Similarities in delayed embryonic development and secondary limb-bone ossification between ''C.", "goeldii'' and marmosets are evidence of their close evolutionary relationship." ], [ "Reproduction", "Females reach sexual maturity at 8.5 months, males at 16.5 months.", "The gestation period lasts from 144 to 159 days.", "Callimicos studied in captivity in North America and Europe for near 40 years have shown to produce on average 3.5 offspring during their lifetime.", "However, 30% of the females and 45% of the males observed in these settings never reproduced.Unlike other New World monkeys, they have the capacity to give birth twice a year.", "Biannual births occur regularly in captivity and less consistently in the wild and are attributed to postpartum estrus that allows the female to be ready to reproduce soon after parturition.", "The availability of fungus -an important food source for ''C.", "goeldii''- throughout the year also contributes to these multiple births.The mother carries a single baby monkey per pregnancy, whereas most other species in the family Callitrichidae usually give birth to twins.", "These singleton births provide the offspring with longer maternal care and weaning delay that results in faster growth rates and in turn earlier sexual maturity than the other marmosets." ], [ "Infant care", "For the first 2–3 weeks the mother acts as the primary caregiver after which the father and the helpers, who are often the siblings, share many of the responsibilities.", "However, mothers in the wild have been observed giving their babies to other members of the troop as early as 10 days after parturition, which is late for other marmosets.At birth, Callimicos offspring weigh 10% the weight of their mother's whereas the twinning marmosets weight double that amount, which explains the delay in allocare in ''C.", "goeldii'' since it is not as crucial as it is for its counterparts.", "Cooperative care in callitrichines is therefore necessary to help mothers recover from gestation, parturition, and lactation as well as to share the energetic cost of carrying the infant among the helpers and the father.Caregivers must also provide food to the infants when they turn 4 weeks of age.", "The task of food provisioning includes tolerance to food robbing since infants are at a stage of learning how to forage by themselves.", "Also at week 4, mothers stop nursing in the wild, but that behaviour is believed to be influenced by the presence of the observers and therefore, it is suspected that nursing resumes when humans are not present.", "Whereas ''C.", "goeldii'' in captivity, nursing extends until the infant is 8–15 weeks old.", "Thus, the offspring will be weaned when it becomes about 63 days of age.", "There is no difference between male and female helpers on the amount of involvement on infant care.", "Even juvenile ''C.", "goeldii'' participate as active caregivers.Infants are carried entirely during the first month and 63% of the time on the next month.", "They do not leave their guardian side until they become 2.5 months of age and around 3 months old, they are rarely carried, but locomotive independence comes more forcibly than voluntarily.", "Females outnumber males by 2 to 1.The life expectancy in captivity is about 10 years." ], [ "Development", "From birth to about 18 months old, callimicos grow faster than other marmosets in part because the energy they would otherwise invest on thermal regulation and activity costs if they were not carried by their mothers is instead directed to growth.", "Likewise, a longer lactation period is also responsible for a faster development.", "Growth rate and weight gain is similar in both male and female infants and juveniles." ], [ "Distribution and habitat", "Callimicos’ geographic distribution extends from the Colombian Amazon in the Rio Caquetá to the Peruvian Amazon down to the western Brazilian Amazon and into the Pando department of northwestern Bolivia.", "Its presence on the Ecuadorian Amazon has yet to be confirmed.", "The distribution of this species is patchy, and its density seems to be dependent on its polyspecific associations with tamarins.Sightings of callimicos have been made at the base of the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes in Colombia in the Department of Putumayo along the Putumayo and Caquetá rivers.In Peru, to the north of the country, they occur in the Pucacuro National Reserve close to the Tigre River, where they are known as Chichi by residents in the area.", "To the south, they are found at the Centro de Investigación y Capacitación Río Los Amigos (CICRA), the Manu National Park, and the Concesión de Conservación Rodal Semillero Tahuamanu (CCRST), as well as at areas adjacent to the two later ones.", "Callimicos were also spotted near the Yurua River and Sierra del Divisor in groups of 3 to 12 individuals each.Some of the records were obtained by trapping from the 70s through the early 2010s and on one of those occasions, the group was brought for breeding at the Centro de Conservación y Reprodución de Primates in Iquitos.", "Provisioning in stationary sites and playbacks that mimicked their vocalizations and that of tamarines with whom they associate were also employed to attract them.In Brazil, they occur in the south-west Amazon of the state of Acre in Brazil, over the Serra do Divisor south near Juruá river, into the Gregório river at the state of Amazonas, to the Laco river, further south to the upper Purús and in the Madeira basin near the Abunã river in the state of Rondônia.", "High densities of this species have been recorded in the Pando department in Bolivia.Goeldi's marmosets prefer to forage in dense scrubby undergrowth; perhaps because of this, they are rare, with groups living in separate patches of suitable habitat, separated by miles of unsuitable flora.", "In the wet season, their diet includes fruit, insects, spiders, lizards, frogs, and snakes.", "In the dry season, they feed on fungi, the only tropical primates known to depend on this source of food.", "They live in small social groups (approximately six individuals) that stay within a few feet of one another most of the time, staying in contact via high-pitched calls.", "They are also known to form polyspecific groups with tamarins such as the white-lipped tamarin and brown-mantled tamarin.", "This is perhaps because Goeldi's marmosets are not known to have the X-linked polymorphism which enables some individuals of other New World monkey species to see in full tri-chromatic vision." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Goeldis monkey - butterfly lunch - big.jpg|Marmoset eating a butterflyFile:Callimico goeldii in Venezuela.jpg|Marmoset in VenezuelaFile:Callimico goeldii, Universeum.ogv|''Callimico goeldii'' at Universeum, Gothenburg, Sweden" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "****ARKive - images and movies of the Goeldi's monkey ''(Callimico goeldii)''* Press release on recent research on Goeldi's monkey by scientists at the University of Washington* Primate Info Net ''Callimico goeldii'' Factsheet* Pictures of Goeldi's Monkey" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gambling" ], [ "Introduction", "Caravaggio, ''The Cardsharps'' (), depicting card sharps.", "'''Gambling''' (also known as '''betting''' or '''gaming''') is the wagering of something of value (\"the stakes\") on a random event with the intent of winning something else of value, where instances of strategy are discounted.", "Gambling thus requires three elements to be present: consideration (an amount wagered), risk (chance), and a prize.", "The outcome of the wager is often immediate, such as a single roll of dice, a spin of a roulette wheel, or a horse crossing the finish line, but longer time frames are also common, allowing wagers on the outcome of a future sports contest or even an entire sports season.The term \"gaming\" in this context typically refers to instances in which the activity has been specifically permitted by law.", "The two words are not mutually exclusive; ''i.e.", "'', a \"gaming\" company offers (legal) \"gambling\" activities to the public and may be regulated by one of many gaming control boards, for example, the Nevada Gaming Control Board.", "However, this distinction is not universally observed in the English-speaking world.", "For instance, in the United Kingdom, the regulator of gambling activities is called the Gambling Commission (not the Gaming Commission).", "The word ''gaming'' is used more frequently since the rise of computer and video games to describe activities that do not necessarily involve wagering, especially online gaming, with the new usage still not having displaced the old usage as the primary definition in common dictionaries.", "\"Gaming\" has also been used to circumvent laws against \"gambling\".", "The media and others have used one term or the other to frame conversations around the subjects, resulting in a shift of perceptions among their audiences.Gambling is also a major international commercial activity, with the legal gambling market totaling an estimated $335 billion in 2009.In other forms, gambling can be conducted with materials that have a value, but are not real money.", "For example, players of marbles games might wager marbles, and likewise games of ''Pogs'' or ''Magic: The Gathering'' can be played with the collectible game pieces (respectively, small discs and trading cards) as stakes, resulting in a meta-game regarding the value of a player's collection of pieces." ], [ "History", "Gambling dates back at least to the Paleolithic period, before written history.", "In Mesopotamia the earliest six-sided dice date to about 3000 BCE.", "However, they were based on astragali dating back thousands of years earlier.", "In China, gambling houses were widespread in the first millennium BCE, and betting on fighting animals was common.", "Lotto games and dominoes (precursors of Pai Gow) appeared in China as early as the 10th century.Playing cards appeared in the 9th century CE in China.", "Records trace gambling in Japan back at least as far as the 14th century.Poker, the most popular U.S. card game associated with gambling, derives from the Persian game As-Nas, dating back to the 17th century.The first known casino, the Ridotto, started operating in 1638 in Venice, Italy.===Great Britain===Gambling has been a main recreational activity in Great Britain for centuries.", "Queen Elizabeth I chartered a lottery that was drawn in 1569.Horseracing has been a favorite theme for over three centuries.", "It has been heavily regulated.", "Historically much of the opposition comes from Nonconformist Protestants, and from social reformers.=== United States===Gambling has been a popular activity in the United States for centuries.", "It has also been suppressed by law in many areas for almost as long.", "By the early 20th century, gambling was almost uniformly outlawed throughout the U.S. and thus became a largely illegal activity, helping to spur the growth of the mafia and other criminal organizations.", "The late 20th century saw a softening in attitudes towards gambling and a relaxation of laws against it." ], [ "Regulation", "Ship of Fools, 1494\"Players and courtesans under a tent\" by Cornelis de VosMany jurisdictions, local as well as national, either ban gambling or heavily control it by licensing the vendors.", "Such regulation generally leads to gambling tourism and illegal gambling in the areas where it is not allowed.", "The involvement of governments, through regulation and taxation, has led to a close connection between many governments and gambling organizations, where legal gambling provides significant government revenue, such as in Monaco and Macau, China.There is generally legislation requiring that gambling devices be statistically random, to prevent manufacturers from making some high-payoff results impossible.", "Since these high payoffs have very low probability, a house bias can quite easily be missed unless the devices are checked carefully.Most jurisdictions that allow gambling require participants to be above a certain age.", "In some jurisdictions, the gambling age differs depending on the type of gambling.", "For example, in many American states one must be over 21 to enter a casino, but may buy a lottery ticket after turning 18.===Insurance===Because contracts of insurance have many features in common with wagers, insurance contracts are often distinguished in law as agreements in which either party has an interest in the \"bet-upon\" outcome ''beyond'' the specific financial terms.", "e.g.", ": a \"bet\" with an insurer on whether one's house will burn down is not gambling, but rather ''insurance'' – as the homeowner has an obvious interest in the continued existence of their home ''independent of'' the purely financial aspects of the \"bet\" (i.e.", "the insurance policy).", "Nonetheless, both insurance and gambling contracts are typically considered aleatory contracts under most legal systems, though they are subject to different types of regulation.===Asset recovery===Under common law, particularly English Law (English unjust enrichment), a gambling contract may not give a casino ''bona fide'' purchaser status, permitting the recovery of stolen funds in some situations.", "In ''Lipkin Gorman v Karpnale Ltd'', where a solicitor used stolen funds to gamble at a casino, the House of Lords overruled the High Court's previous verdict, adjudicating that the casino return the stolen funds less those subject to any change of position defence.", "U.S. Law precedents are somewhat similar.", "For case law on recovery of gambling losses where the loser had stolen the funds see \"Rights of owner of stolen money as against one who won it in gambling transaction from thief\".An interesting question is what happens when the person trying to make recovery is the gambler's spouse, and the money or property lost was either the spouse's, or was community property.", "This was a minor plot point in a Perry Mason novel, ''The Case of the Singing Skirt'', and it cites an actual case ''Novo v. Hotel Del Rio''." ], [ "Religious views", "Max Kaur and religious leaders protest against gambling, Tallinn, Estonia.=== Buddhism ===Lord Buddha stated gambling as a source of destruction in Singalovada Sutra.=== Hinduism ===Ancient Hindu poems like the Gambler's Lament and the ''Mahabharata'' testify to the existence of gambling among ancient Indians, while highlighting its destructive impact.", "The text ''Arthashastra'' ( BCE) recommends taxation and control of gambling.===Judaism===Ancient Jewish authorities frowned on gambling, even disqualifying professional gamblers from testifying in court.===Christianity=======Catholicism====The Catholic Church holds the position that there is no moral impediment to gambling, so long as it is fair, all bettors have a reasonable chance of winning, there is no fraud involved, and the parties involved do not have actual knowledge of the outcome of the bet (unless they have disclosed this knowledge), and as long as the following conditions are met: the gambler can afford to lose the bet, and stops when the limit is reached, and the motivation is entertainment and not personal gain leading to the \"love of money\" or making a living.", "In general, Catholic bishops have opposed casino gambling on the grounds that it too often tempts people into problem gambling or addiction, and has particularly negative effects on poor people; they sometimes also cite secondary effects such as increases in loan sharking, prostitution, corruption, and general public immorality.", "Some parish pastors have also opposed casinos for the additional reason that they would take customers away from church bingo and annual festivals where games such as blackjack, roulette, craps, and poker are used for fundraising.", "St. Thomas Aquinas wrote that gambling should be especially forbidden where the losing bettor is underage or otherwise not able to consent to the transaction.", "Gambling has often been seen as having social consequences, as satirized by Balzac.", "For these social and religious reasons, most legal jurisdictions limit gambling, as advocated by Pascal.====Protestantism====Gambling views among Protestants vary, with some either discouraging or forbidding their members from participation in gambling.", "Methodists, in accordance with the doctrine of outward holiness, oppose gambling which they believe is a sin that feeds on greed.", "Other denominations that discourage gambling are the United Methodist Church, the Free Methodist Church, the Evangelical Wesleyan Church, the Salvation Army, and the Church of the Nazarene.Other Protestants that oppose gambling include Mennonites, Schwarzenau Brethren, Quakers, the Christian Reformed Church in North America, the Church of the Lutheran Confession, the Southern Baptist Convention, the Assemblies of God, and the Seventh-day Adventist Church.====Other Christian denominations====Other churches that oppose gambling include the Jehovah's Witnesses, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the , and the Members Church of God International.===Islam===There is a consensus among the ''‘Ulema’'' (, Scholars (of Islam)) that gambling is ''haraam'' (, sinful or forbidden).", "In assertions made during its prohibition, Muslim jurists describe gambling as being both un-Qur’anic, and as being generally harmful to the Muslim Ummah (, Community).", "The Arabic terminology for gambling is ''Maisir''.", "In parts of the world that implement full Shari‘ah, such as Aceh, punishments for Muslim gamblers can range up to 12 lashes or a one-year prison term and a fine for those who provide a venue for such practises.", "Some Islamic nations prohibit gambling; most other countries regulate it.===Bahá'í Faith===According to the Most Holy Book, paragraph 155, gambling is forbidden." ], [ "Types", "===Casino games===While almost any game can be played for money, and any game typically played for money can also be played just for fun, some games are generally offered in a casino setting.====Table games====The Caesars Palace main fountain.", "The statue is a copy of the ancient ''Winged Victory of Samothrace''.A pachinko parlor in Tokyo, JapanMahjong tiles====Electronic gambling====RAY's Ruusu and Tuplapotti slot machines in Finland* Online roulette* Pachinko* Sic Bo* Slot machine* Video poker* Video bingo====Other gambling====* Bingo* Keno===Non-casino games===Gambling games that take place outside of casinos include bingo (as played in the US and UK), dead pool, lotteries, pull-tab games and scratchcards, and Mahjong.Other non-casino gambling games include:* Non-casino card games, including historical games like Basset, Ecarté, Lansquenet and Put.", "Technically, a gambling card game is one in which the cards are not actually played but simply bet on.", "* Carnival Games such as The Razzle or Hanky Pank* Coin-tossing games such as Head and Tail, Two-up* Confidence tricks such as Three-card Monte or the Shell game* Dice-based games, such as Backgammon, Liar's dice, Passe-dix, Hazard, Threes, Pig, or Mexico (or Perudo);===Fixed-odds betting===Fixed-odds betting and Parimutuel betting frequently occur at many types of sporting events, and political elections.", "In addition many bookmakers offer fixed odds on a number of non-sports related outcomes, for example the direction and extent of movement of various financial indices, the winner of television competitions such as ''Big Brother'', and election results.", "Interactive prediction markets also offer trading on these outcomes, with \"shares\" of results trading on an open market.====Parimutuel betting====One of the most widespread forms of gambling involves betting on horse or greyhound racing.", "Wagering may take place through parimutuel pools, or bookmakers may take bets personally.", "Parimutuel wagers pay off at prices determined by support in the wagering pools, while bookmakers pay off either at the odds offered at the time of accepting the bet; or at the median odds offered by track bookmakers at the time the race started.====Sports betting====Tokyo Racecourse in Tokyo, JapanBetting on team sports has become an important service industry in many countries.", "Before the advent of the internet, millions of people played the football pools every week in the United Kingdom.", "In addition to organized sports betting, both legal and illegal, there are many side-betting games played by casual groups of spectators, such as NCAA basketball tournament Bracket Pools, Super Bowl Squares, Fantasy Sports Leagues with monetary entry fees and winnings, and in-person spectator games like Moundball.===Virtual sports===Based on Sports Betting, Virtual Sports are fantasy and never played sports events made by software that can be played every time without wondering about external things like weather conditions.===Arbitrage betting===Arbitrage betting is a theoretically risk-free betting system in which every outcome of an event is bet upon so that a known profit will be made by the bettor upon completion of the event regardless of the outcome.", "Arbitrage betting is a combination of the ancient art of arbitrage trading and gambling, which has been made possible by the large numbers of bookmakers in the marketplace, creating occasional opportunities for arbitrage.===Other types of betting===One can also bet with another person that a statement is true or false, or that a specified event will happen (a \"back bet\") or will not happen (a \"lay bet\") within a specified time.", "This occurs in particular when two people have opposing but strongly held views on truth or events.", "Not only do the parties hope to gain from the bet, they place the bet also to demonstrate their certainty about the issue.", "Some means of determining the issue at stake must exist.", "Sometimes the amount bet remains nominal, demonstrating the outcome as one of principle rather than of financial importance.Betting exchanges allow consumers to both back and lay at odds of their choice.", "Similar in some ways to a stock exchange, a bettor may want to back a horse (hoping it will win) or lay a horse (hoping it will lose, effectively acting as bookmaker).Spread betting allows gamblers to wagering on the outcome of an event where the pay-off is based on the accuracy of the wager, rather than a simple \"win or lose\" outcome.", "For example, a wager can be based on the when a point is scored in the game in minutes and each minute away from the prediction increases or reduces the payout." ], [ "Staking systems", "Many betting systems have been created in an attempt to \"beat the house\" but no system can make a mathematically unprofitable bet in terms of expected value profitable over time.", "Widely used systems include:* Card counting – Many systems exist for blackjack to keep track of the ratio of ten values to all others; when this ratio is high the player has an advantage and should increase the amount of their bets.", "Keeping track of cards dealt confers an advantage in other games as well.", "* Due-column betting – A variation on fixed profits betting in which the bettor sets a target profit and then calculates a bet size that will make this profit, adding any losses to the target.", "* Fixed profits – the stakes vary based on the odds to ensure the same profit from each winning selection.", "* Fixed stakes – a traditional system of staking the same amount on each selection.", "* Kelly – the optimum level to bet to maximize your future median bank level.", "* Martingale – A system based on staking enough each time to recover losses from previous bet(s) until one wins." ], [ "Other uses of the term", "''Gloria Mundi, or The Devil addressing the sun'', a cartoon showing the British politician Charles James Fox standing on a roulette wheel perched atop a globe showing England and continental Europe.", "The implication is that his penniless state, indicated by turned-out pockets, is due to gambling.Many risk-return choices are sometimes referred to colloquially as \"gambling.\"", "Whether this terminology is acceptable is a matter of debate:* Emotional or physical risk-taking, where the risk-return ratio is not quantifiable (e.g., skydiving, campaigning for political office, asking someone for a date, etc.", ")* Insurance is a method of shifting risk from one party to another.", "Insurers use actuarial methods to calculate appropriate premiums, which is similar to calculating gambling odds.", "Insurers set their premiums to obtain a long term positive expected return in the same manner that professional gamblers select which bets to make.", "While insurance is sometimes distinguished from gambling by the requirement of an insurable interest, the equivalent in gambling is simply betting against one's own best interests (e.g., a sports coach betting against his own team to mitigate the financial repercussions of a losing season).", "* Situations where the possible return is of secondary importance to the wager/purchase (e.g.", "entering a raffle in support of a charitable cause)Investments are also usually not considered gambling, although some investments can involve significant risk.", "Examples of investments include stocks, bonds and real estate.", "Starting a business can also be considered a form of investment.", "Investments are generally not considered gambling when they meet the following criteria:* Economic utility* Positive expected returns (at least in the long term)* Underlying value independent of the risk being undertakenSome speculative investment activities are particularly risky, but are sometimes perceived to be different from gambling:* Foreign currency exchange (forex) transactions* Prediction markets* Securities derivatives, such as options or futures, where the value of the derivative is dependent on the value of the underlying asset at a specific point in time (typically the derivative's associated expiration date)" ], [ "Negative consequences", "Problem gambling has multiple symptoms.", "Gamblers often play again to try to win back money they have lost, and some gamble to relieve feelings of helplessness and anxiety.In the United Kingdom, the Advertising Standards Authority has censured several betting firms for advertisements disguised as news articles suggesting falsely that a person had cleared debts and paid for medical expenses by gambling online.", "The firms face possible fines.A 2020 study of 32 countries found that the greater the amount of gambling activity in a given country, the more volatile that country's stock-market prices are.A '''' or ''levanting'' characterises the act of absconding following the outcome of a bet." ], [ "Psychological biases", "Gamblers may exhibit a number of cognitive and motivational biases that distort the perceived odds of events and that influence their preferences for gambles.", "* ''Preference for likely outcomes''.", "When gambles are selected through a choice process – when people indicate which gamble they prefer from a set of gambles (e.g., win/lose, over/under) – people tend to prefer to bet on the outcome that is more likely to occur.", "Bettors tend to prefer to bet on favorites in athletic competitions, and sometimes will accept even bets on favorites when offered more favorable bets on the less likely outcome (e.g., an underdog team).", "* ''Optimism/Desirability Bias'''.'''''", "Gamblers also exhibit optimism, overestimating the likelihood that desired events will occur.", "Fans of NFL underdog teams, for example, will prefer to bet on their teams at even odds than to bet on the favorite, whether the bet is $5 or $50.", "* ''Reluctance to bet against (hedge) desired outcomes.''", "People are reluctant to bet against desired outcomes that are relevant to their identity.", "Gamblers exhibit reluctance to bet against the success of their preferred U.S. presidential candidates and Major League Baseball, National Football League, National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) basketball, and NCAA hockey teams.", "More than 45% of NCAA fans in Studies 5 and 6, for instance, turned down a \"free\" real $5 bet against their team.", "From a psychological perspective, such a \"hedge\" creates an interdependence dilemma – a motivational conflict between a short-term monetary gain and the long-term benefits accrued from feelings of identification with and loyalty to a position, person, or group whom the bettor desires to succeed.", "In economic terms, this conflicted decision can be modeled as a trade-off between the outcome utility gained by hedging (e.g., money) and the diagnostic costs it incurs (e.g., disloyalty).", "People make inferences about their beliefs and identity from their behavior.", "If a person is uncertain about an aspect of their identity, such as the extent to which they values a candidate or team, hedging may signal to them that they are not as committed to that candidate or team as they originally believed.", "If the diagnostic cost of this self-signal and the resulting identity change are substantial, it may outweigh the outcome utility of hedging, and they may reject even very generous hedges.", "* ''Ratio bias.''", "Gamblers will prefer gambles with worse odds that are drawn from a large sample (e.g., drawing one red ball from an urn containing 89 red balls and 11 blue balls) to better odds that are drawn from a small sample (drawing one red ball from an urn containing 9 red balls and one blue ball).", "* ''Gambler's fallacy/positive recency bias.''" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Chambers, Kerry.", "''Gambling for profit: Lotteries, gaming machines, and casinos in cross-national focus'' (U of Toronto press, 2011).", "* Ferentzy, Peter, and Nigel Turner.", "\"Gambling and organized crime-A review of the literature.\"", "''Journal of Gambling Issues'' 23 (2009): 111–155.", "* Ferentzy, Peter, and Nigel E. Turner.", "''A history of problem gambling'' (Springer-Verlag, 2013) * Haller, Mark H. \"The changing structure of American gambling in the twentieth century.\"", "''Journal of Social Issues'' 35.3 (1979): 87–114.", "* Richard, Brian.", "\"Diffusion of an economic development policy innovation: Explaining the international spread of casino gambling.\"", "''Journal of Gambling Studies'' 26.2 (2010): 287–300.Online* Schwartz, David G. ''Roll The Bones: The History of Gambling'' (2006), scholarly history with global perspective excerpt" ], [ "External links", "* * Center for Gaming Research – at University of Nevada, Las Vegas* Institute for the Study of Gambling and Commercial Gaming at the University of Nevada, Reno" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Game theory" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Game theory''' is the study of mathematical models of strategic interactions among rational agents.", "It has applications in many fields of social science, used extensively in economics as well as in logic, systems science and computer science.", "Traditional game theory addressed two-person zero-sum games, in which a participant's gains or losses are exactly balanced by the losses and gains of the other participant.", "In the 21st century, game theory applies to a wider range of behavioral relations, and it is now an umbrella term for the science of logical decision making in humans, animals, as well as computers.Modern game theory began with the idea of mixed-strategy equilibria in two-person zero-sum game and its proof by John von Neumann.", "Von Neumann's original proof used the Brouwer fixed-point theorem on continuous mappings into compact convex sets, which became a standard method in game theory and mathematical economics.", "His paper was followed by ''Theory of Games and Economic Behavior'' (1944), co-written with Oskar Morgenstern, which considered cooperative games of several players.", "The second edition provided an axiomatic theory of expected utility, which allowed mathematical statisticians and economists to treat decision-making under uncertainty.Game theory was developed extensively in the 1950s, and was explicitly applied to evolution in the 1970s, although similar developments go back at least as far as the 1930s.", "Game theory has been widely recognized as an important tool in many fields.", "John Maynard Smith was awarded the Crafoord Prize for his application of evolutionary game theory in 1999, and fifteen game theorists have won the Nobel Prize in economics as of 2020, including most recently Paul Milgrom and Robert B. Wilson." ], [ "History", "===Precursors===Discussions on the mathematics of games began long before the rise of modern mathematical game theory.", "Cardano's work ''Liber de ludo aleae'' (''Book on Games of Chance''), which was written around 1564 but published posthumously in 1663, sketches some basic ideas on games of chance.", "In the 1650s, Pascal and Huygens developed the concept of expectation on reasoning about the structure of games of chance.", "Pascal argued for equal division when chances are equal while Huygens extended the argument by considering strategies for a player who can make any bet with any opponent so long as its terms are equal.", "Huygens later published his gambling calculus as ''De ratiociniis in ludo aleæ'' (''On Reasoning in Games of Chance'') in 1657.In 1713, a letter attributed to Charles Waldegrave, an active Jacobite and uncle to British diplomat James Waldegrave, analyzed a game called \"le her\".", "Waldegrave provided a minimax mixed strategy solution to a two-person version of the card game, and the problem is now known as Waldegrave problem.", "In 1838, Antoine Augustin Cournot considered a duopoly and presented a solution that is the Nash equilibrium of the game in his (''Researches into the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth'').In 1913, Ernst Zermelo published (''On an Application of Set Theory to the Theory of the Game of Chess''), which proved that the optimal chess strategy is strictly determined.", "This paved the way for more general theorems.In 1938, the Danish mathematical economist Frederik Zeuthen proved that the mathematical model had a winning strategy by using Brouwer's fixed point theorem.", "In his 1938 book and earlier notes, Émile Borel proved a minimax theorem for two-person zero-sum matrix games only when the pay-off matrix is symmetric and provided a solution to a non-trivial infinite game (known in English as Blotto game).", "Borel conjectured the non-existence of mixed-strategy equilibria in finite two-person zero-sum games, a conjecture that was proved false by von Neumann.===Birth and early developments===John von NeumannGame theory emerged as a unique field when John von Neumann published the paper ''On the Theory of Games of Strategy'' in 1928.Von Neumann's original proof used Brouwer's fixed-point theorem on continuous mappings into compact convex sets, which became a standard method in game theory and mathematical economics.", "Von Neumann's work in game theory culminated in his 1944 book ''Theory of Games and Economic Behavior'', co-authored with Oskar Morgenstern.", "The second edition of this book provided an axiomatic theory of utility, which reincarnated Daniel Bernoulli's old theory of utility (of money) as an independent discipline.", "This foundational work contains the method for finding mutually consistent solutions for two-person zero-sum games.", "Subsequent work focused primarily on cooperative game theory, which analyzes optimal strategies for groups of individuals, presuming that they can enforce agreements between them about proper strategies.John NashIn 1950, the first mathematical discussion of the prisoner's dilemma appeared, and an experiment was undertaken by notable mathematicians Merrill M. Flood and Melvin Dresher, as part of the RAND Corporation's investigations into game theory.", "RAND pursued the studies because of possible applications to global nuclear strategy.", "Around this same time, John Nash developed a criterion for mutual consistency of players' strategies known as the Nash equilibrium, applicable to a wider variety of games than the criterion proposed by von Neumann and Morgenstern.", "Nash proved that every finite n-player, non-zero-sum (not just two-player zero-sum) non-cooperative game has what is now known as a Nash equilibrium in mixed strategies.Game theory experienced a flurry of activity in the 1950s, during which the concepts of the core, the extensive form game, fictitious play, repeated games, and the Shapley value were developed.", "The 1950s also saw the first applications of game theory to philosophy and political science.===Prize-winning achievements===In 1965, Reinhard Selten introduced his solution concept of subgame perfect equilibria, which further refined the Nash equilibrium.", "Later he would introduce trembling hand perfection as well.", "In 1994 Nash, Selten and Harsanyi became Economics Nobel Laureates for their contributions to economic game theory.In the 1970s, game theory was extensively applied in biology, largely as a result of the work of John Maynard Smith and his evolutionarily stable strategy.", "In addition, the concepts of correlated equilibrium, trembling hand perfection and common knowledge were introduced and analyzed.In 1994, John Nash was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in the Economic Sciences for his contribution to game theory.", "Nash's most famous contribution to game theory is the concept of the Nash equilibrium, which is a solution concept for non-cooperative games.", "A Nash equilibrium is a set of strategies, one for each player, such that no player can improve their payoff by unilaterally changing their strategy.In 2005, game theorists Thomas Schelling and Robert Aumann followed Nash, Selten, and Harsanyi as Nobel Laureates.", "Schelling worked on dynamic models, early examples of evolutionary game theory.", "Aumann contributed more to the equilibrium school, introducing equilibrium coarsening and correlated equilibria, and developing an extensive formal analysis of the assumption of common knowledge and of its consequences.In 2007, Leonid Hurwicz, Eric Maskin, and Roger Myerson were awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics \"for having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory\".", "Myerson's contributions include the notion of proper equilibrium, and an important graduate text: ''Game Theory, Analysis of Conflict''.", "Hurwicz introduced and formalized the concept of incentive compatibility.In 2012, Alvin E. Roth and Lloyd S. Shapley were awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics \"for the theory of stable allocations and the practice of market design\".", "In 2014, the Nobel went to game theorist Jean Tirole." ], [ "Different types of games", "===Cooperative / non-cooperative===A game is ''cooperative'' if the players are able to form binding commitments externally enforced (e.g.", "through contract law).", "A game is ''non-cooperative'' if players cannot form alliances or if all agreements need to be self-enforcing (e.g.", "through credible threats).Cooperative games are often analyzed through the framework of ''cooperative game theory'', which focuses on predicting which coalitions will form, the joint actions that groups take, and the resulting collective payoffs.", "It is opposed to the traditional ''non-cooperative game theory'' which focuses on predicting individual players' actions and payoffs and analyzing Nash equilibria.", "The focus on individual payoff can result in a phenomenon known as Tragedy of the Commons, where resources are used to a collectively inefficient level.", "The lack of formal negotiation leads to the deterioration of public goods through over-use and under provision that stems from private incentives.Cooperative game theory provides a high-level approach as it describes only the structure, strategies, and payoffs of coalitions, whereas non-cooperative game theory also looks at how bargaining procedures will affect the distribution of payoffs within each coalition.", "As non-cooperative game theory is more general, cooperative games can be analyzed through the approach of non-cooperative game theory (the converse does not hold) provided that sufficient assumptions are made to encompass all the possible strategies available to players due to the possibility of external enforcement of cooperation.", "While using a single theory may be desirable, in many instances insufficient information is available to accurately model the formal procedures available during the strategic bargaining process, or the resulting model would be too complex to offer a practical tool in the real world.", "In such cases, cooperative game theory provides a simplified approach that allows analysis of the game at large without having to make any assumption about bargaining powers.===Symmetric / asymmetric===A symmetric game is a game where each player earns the same payoff when making the same choice.", "In other words, the identity of the player does not change the resulting game facing the other player.", "Many of the commonly studied 2×2 games are symmetric.", "The standard representations of chicken, the prisoner's dilemma, and the stag hunt are all symmetric games.", "Some scholars would consider certain asymmetric games as examples of these games as well.", "However, the most common payoffs for each of these games are symmetric.The most commonly studied asymmetric games are games where there are not identical strategy sets for both players.", "For instance, the ultimatum game and similarly the dictator game have different strategies for each player.", "It is possible, however, for a game to have identical strategies for both players, yet be asymmetric.", "For example, the game pictured in this section's graphic is asymmetric despite having identical strategy sets for both players.===Zero-sum / non-zero-sum===Zero-sum games (more generally, constant-sum games) are games in which choices by players can neither increase nor decrease the available resources.", "In zero-sum games, the total benefit goes to all players in a game, for every combination of strategies, and always adds to zero (more informally, a player benefits only at the equal expense of others).", "Poker exemplifies a zero-sum game (ignoring the possibility of the house's cut), because one wins exactly the amount one's opponents lose.", "Other zero-sum games include matching pennies and most classical board games including Go and chess.Many games studied by game theorists (including the famed prisoner's dilemma) are non-zero-sum games, because the outcome has net results greater or less than zero.", "Informally, in non-zero-sum games, a gain by one player does not necessarily correspond with a loss by another.Constant-sum games correspond to activities like theft and gambling, but not to the fundamental economic situation in which there are potential gains from trade.", "It is possible to transform any constant-sum game into a (possibly asymmetric) zero-sum game by adding a dummy player (often called \"the board\") whose losses compensate the players' net winnings.===Simultaneous / sequential===Simultaneous games are games where both players move simultaneously, or instead the later players are unaware of the earlier players' actions (making them ''effectively'' simultaneous).", "Sequential games (or dynamic games) are games where players do not make decisions simultaneously, and player's earlier actions affect the outcome and decisions of other players.", "This need not be perfect information about every action of earlier players; it might be very little knowledge.", "For instance, a player may know that an earlier player did not perform one particular action, while they do not know which of the other available actions the first player actually performed.The difference between simultaneous and sequential games is captured in the different representations discussed above.", "Often, normal form is used to represent simultaneous games, while extensive form is used to represent sequential ones.", "The transformation of extensive to normal form is one way, meaning that multiple extensive form games correspond to the same normal form.", "Consequently, notions of equilibrium for simultaneous games are insufficient for reasoning about sequential games; see subgame perfection.In short, the differences between sequential and simultaneous games are as follows: Sequential Simultaneous Normally denoted by Decision trees Payoff matrices Yes No Time axis?", "Yes No Also known as ===Perfect information and imperfect information===information set.An important subset of sequential games consists of games of perfect information.", "A game with perfect information means that all players, at every move in the game, know the previous history of the game and the moves previously made by all other players.", "In reality, this can be applied to firms and consumers having information about price and quality of all the available goods in a market.", "An imperfect information game is played when the players do not know all moves already made by the opponent such as a simultaneous move game.", "Examples of perfect-information games include tic-tac-toe, checkers, chess, and Go.Many card games are games of imperfect information, such as poker and bridge.", "Perfect information is often confused with complete information, which is a similar concept pertaining to the common knowledge of each player's sequence, strategies, and payoffs throughout gameplay.", "Complete information requires that every player know the strategies and payoffs available to the other players but not necessarily the actions taken, whereas perfect information is knowledge of all aspects of the game and players.", "Games of incomplete information can be reduced, however, to games of imperfect information by introducing \"moves by nature\".=== Bayesian game ===One of the assumptions of the Nash equilibrium is that every player has correct beliefs about the actions of the other players.", "However, there are many situations in game theory where participants do not fully understand the characteristics of their opponents.", "Negotiators may be unaware of their opponent's valuation of the object of negotiation, companies may be unaware of their opponent's cost functions, combatants may be unaware of their opponent's strengths, and jurors may be unaware of their colleague's interpretation of the evidence at trial.", "In some cases, participants may know the character of their opponent well, but may not know how well their opponent knows his or her own character.Bayesian game means a strategic game with incomplete information.", "For a strategic game, decision makers are players, and every player has a group of actions.", "A core part of the imperfect information specification is the set of states.", "Every state completely describes a collection of characteristics relevant to the player such as their preferences and details about them.", "There must be a state for every set of features that some player believes may exist.Example of a Bayesian gameFor example, where Player 1 is unsure whether Player 2 would rather date her or get away from her, while Player 2 understands Player 1's preferences as before.", "To be specific, supposing that Player 1 believes that Player 2 wants to date her under a probability of 1/2 and get away from her under a probability of 1/2 (this evaluation comes from Player 1's experience probably: she faces players who want to date her half of the time in such a case and players who want to avoid her half of the time).", "Due to the probability involved, the analysis of this situation requires to understand the player's preference for the draw, even though people are only interested in pure strategic equilibrium.=== Combinatorial games ===Games in which the difficulty of finding an optimal strategy stems from the multiplicity of possible moves are called combinatorial games.", "Examples include chess and Go.", "Games that involve imperfect information may also have a strong combinatorial character, for instance backgammon.", "There is no unified theory addressing combinatorial elements in games.", "There are, however, mathematical tools that can solve some particular problems and answer some general questions.Games of perfect information have been studied in combinatorial game theory, which has developed novel representations, e.g.", "surreal numbers, as well as combinatorial and algebraic (and sometimes non-constructive) proof methods to solve games of certain types, including \"loopy\" games that may result in infinitely long sequences of moves.", "These methods address games with higher combinatorial complexity than those usually considered in traditional (or \"economic\") game theory.", "A typical game that has been solved this way is Hex.", "A related field of study, drawing from computational complexity theory, is game complexity, which is concerned with estimating the computational difficulty of finding optimal strategies.Research in artificial intelligence has addressed both perfect and imperfect information games that have very complex combinatorial structures (like chess, go, or backgammon) for which no provable optimal strategies have been found.", "The practical solutions involve computational heuristics, like alpha–beta pruning or use of artificial neural networks trained by reinforcement learning, which make games more tractable in computing practice.===Infinitely long games===Games, as studied by economists and real-world game players, are generally finished in finitely many moves.", "Pure mathematicians are not so constrained, and set theorists in particular study games that last for infinitely many moves, with the winner (or other payoff) not known until ''after'' all those moves are completed.The focus of attention is usually not so much on the best way to play such a game, but whether one player has a winning strategy.", "(It can be proven, using the axiom of choice, that there are gameseven with perfect information and where the only outcomes are \"win\" or \"lose\"for which ''neither'' player has a winning strategy.)", "The existence of such strategies, for cleverly designed games, has important consequences in descriptive set theory.===Discrete and continuous games===Much of game theory is concerned with finite, discrete games that have a finite number of players, moves, events, outcomes, etc.", "Many concepts can be extended, however.", "Continuous games allow players to choose a strategy from a continuous strategy set.", "For instance, Cournot competition is typically modeled with players' strategies being any non-negative quantities, including fractional quantities.Continuous games allow the possibility for players to communicate with each other under certain rules, primarily the enforcement of a communication protocol between the players.", "By communicating, players have been noted to be willing to provide a larger amount of goods in a public good game than they ordinarily would in a discrete game, and as a result, the players are able to manage resources more efficiently than they would in Discrete games, as they share resources, ideas and strategies with one another.", "This incentivises, and causes, continuous games to have a higher median cooperation rate.===Differential games===Differential games such as the continuous pursuit and evasion game are continuous games where the evolution of the players' state variables is governed by differential equations.", "The problem of finding an optimal strategy in a differential game is closely related to the optimal control theory.", "In particular, there are two types of strategies: the open-loop strategies are found using the Pontryagin maximum principle while the closed-loop strategies are found using Bellman's Dynamic Programming method.A particular case of differential games are the games with a random time horizon.", "In such games, the terminal time is a random variable with a given probability distribution function.", "Therefore, the players maximize the mathematical expectation of the cost function.", "It was shown that the modified optimization problem can be reformulated as a discounted differential game over an infinite time interval.===Evolutionary game theory===Evolutionary game theory studies players who adjust their strategies over time according to rules that are not necessarily rational or farsighted.", "In general, the evolution of strategies over time according to such rules is modeled as a Markov chain with a state variable such as the current strategy profile or how the game has been played in the recent past.", "Such rules may feature imitation, optimization, or survival of the fittest.In biology, such models can represent evolution, in which offspring adopt their parents' strategies and parents who play more successful strategies (i.e.", "corresponding to higher payoffs) have a greater number of offspring.", "In the social sciences, such models typically represent strategic adjustment by players who play a game many times within their lifetime and, consciously or unconsciously, occasionally adjust their strategies.===Stochastic outcomes (and relation to other fields)===Individual decision problems with stochastic outcomes are sometimes considered \"one-player games\".", "They may be modeled using similar tools within the related disciplines of decision theory, operations research, and areas of artificial intelligence, particularly AI planning (with uncertainty) and multi-agent system.", "Although these fields may have different motivators, the mathematics involved are substantially the same, e.g.", "using Markov decision processes (MDP).Stochastic outcomes can also be modeled in terms of game theory by adding a randomly acting player who makes \"chance moves\" (\"moves by nature\").", "This player is not typically considered a third player in what is otherwise a two-player game, but merely serves to provide a roll of the dice where required by the game.For some problems, different approaches to modeling stochastic outcomes may lead to different solutions.", "For example, the difference in approach between MDPs and the minimax solution is that the latter considers the worst-case over a set of adversarial moves, rather than reasoning in expectation about these moves given a fixed probability distribution.", "The minimax approach may be advantageous where stochastic models of uncertainty are not available, but may also be overestimating extremely unlikely (but costly) events, dramatically swaying the strategy in such scenarios if it is assumed that an adversary can force such an event to happen.", "(See Black swan theory for more discussion on this kind of modeling issue, particularly as it relates to predicting and limiting losses in investment banking.", ")General models that include all elements of stochastic outcomes, adversaries, and partial or noisy observability (of moves by other players) have also been studied.", "The \"gold standard\" is considered to be partially observable stochastic game (POSG), but few realistic problems are computationally feasible in POSG representation.===Metagames===These are games the play of which is the development of the rules for another game, the target or subject game.", "Metagames seek to maximize the utility value of the rule set developed.", "The theory of metagames is related to mechanism design theory.The term metagame analysis is also used to refer to a practical approach developed by Nigel Howard, whereby a situation is framed as a strategic game in which stakeholders try to realize their objectives by means of the options available to them.", "Subsequent developments have led to the formulation of confrontation analysis.===Pooling games===These are games prevailing over all forms of society.", "Pooling games are repeated plays with changing payoff table in general over an experienced path, and their equilibrium strategies usually take a form of evolutionary social convention and economic convention.", "Pooling game theory emerges to formally recognize the interaction between optimal choice in one play and the emergence of forthcoming payoff table update path, identify the invariance existence and robustness, and predict variance over time.", "The theory is based upon topological transformation classification of payoff table update over time to predict variance and invariance, and is also within the jurisdiction of the computational law of reachable optimality for ordered system.===Mean field game theory===Mean field game theory is the study of strategic decision making in very large populations of small interacting agents.", "This class of problems was considered in the economics literature by Boyan Jovanovic and Robert W. Rosenthal, in the engineering literature by Peter E. Caines, and by mathematicians Pierre-Louis Lions and Jean-Michel Lasry." ], [ "Representation of games", "The games studied in game theory are well-defined mathematical objects.", "To be fully defined, a game must specify the following elements: the ''players'' of the game, the ''information'' and ''actions'' available to each player at each decision point, and the ''payoffs'' for each outcome.", "(Eric Rasmusen refers to these four \"essential elements\" by the acronym \"PAPI\".)", "A game theorist typically uses these elements, along with a solution concept of their choosing, to deduce a set of equilibrium strategies for each player such that, when these strategies are employed, no player can profit by unilaterally deviating from their strategy.", "These equilibrium strategies determine an equilibrium to the game—a stable state in which either one outcome occurs or a set of outcomes occur with known probability.In games, players typically have a 'Dominant Strategy', where they are incentivised to choose the best possible strategy that gives them the maximum payoff, and stick to it even when the other player/s change their strategies or choose a different option.", "However, depending on the possible payoffs, one of the players may not possess a 'Dominant Strategy', while the other player might.", "A player not having a dominant strategy is not a confirmation that another player won't have a dominant strategy of their own, which puts the first player at an immediate disadvantage.However, there is the chance of both players possessing Dominant Strategies, when their chosen strategies and their payoffs are dominant, and the combined payoffs form an equilibrium.", "When this occurs, it creates a Dominant Strategy Equilibrium.", "This can cause a Social Dilemma, where a game possesses an equilibrium created by two or multiple players who all have dominant strategies, and the game's solution is different to what the cooperative solution to the game would have been.There is also the chance of a player having more than one dominant strategy.", "This occurs when reacting to multiple strategies from a second player, and the first player's separate responses having different strategies to each other.", "This means that there is no chance of a Nash Equilibrium occurring within the game.Most cooperative games are presented in the characteristic function form, while the extensive and the normal forms are used to define noncooperative games.===Extensive form===An extensive form gameThe extensive form can be used to formalize games with a time sequencing of moves.", "Extensive form games can be visualised using game trees (as pictured here).", "Here each vertex (or node) represents a point of choice for a player.", "The player is specified by a number listed by the vertex.", "The lines out of the vertex represent a possible action for that player.", "The payoffs are specified at the bottom of the tree.", "The extensive form can be viewed as a multi-player generalization of a decision tree.", "To solve any extensive form game, backward induction must be used.", "It involves working backward up the game tree to determine what a rational player would do at the last vertex of the tree, what the player with the previous move would do given that the player with the last move is rational, and so on until the first vertex of the tree is reached.The game pictured consists of two players.", "The way this particular game is structured (i.e., with sequential decision making and perfect information), ''Player 1'' \"moves\" first by choosing either or (fair or unfair).", "Next in the sequence, ''Player 2'', who has now observed ''Player 1''s move, can choose to play either or (accept or reject).", "Once ''Player 2'' has made their choice, the game is considered finished and each player gets their respective payoff, represented in the image as two numbers, where the first number represents Player 1's payoff, and the second number represents Player 2's payoff.", "Suppose that ''Player 1'' chooses and then ''Player 2'' chooses : ''Player 1'' then gets a payoff of \"eight\" (which in real-world terms can be interpreted in many ways, the simplest of which is in terms of money but could mean things such as eight days of vacation or eight countries conquered or even eight more opportunities to play the same game against other players) and ''Player 2'' gets a payoff of \"two\".The extensive form can also capture simultaneous-move games and games with imperfect information.", "To represent it, either a dotted line connects different vertices to represent them as being part of the same information set (i.e.", "the players do not know at which point they are), or a closed line is drawn around them.", "(See example in the imperfect information section.", ")===Normal form===The normal (or strategic form) game is usually represented by a matrix which shows the players, strategies, and payoffs (see the example to the right).", "More generally it can be represented by any function that associates a payoff for each player with every possible combination of actions.", "In the accompanying example there are two players; one chooses the row and the other chooses the column.", "Each player has two strategies, which are specified by the number of rows and the number of columns.", "The payoffs are provided in the interior.", "The first number is the payoff received by the row player (Player 1 in our example); the second is the payoff for the column player (Player 2 in our example).", "Suppose that Player 1 plays ''Up'' and that Player 2 plays ''Left''.", "Then Player 1 gets a payoff of 4, and Player 2 gets 3.When a game is presented in normal form, it is presumed that each player acts simultaneously or, at least, without knowing the actions of the other.", "If players have some information about the choices of other players, the game is usually presented in extensive form.Every extensive-form game has an equivalent normal-form game, however, the transformation to normal form may result in an exponential blowup in the size of the representation, making it computationally impractical.===Characteristic function form===In games that possess removable utility, separate rewards are not given; rather, the characteristic function decides the payoff of each unity.", "The idea is that the unity that is 'empty', so to speak, does not receive a reward at all.The origin of this form is to be found in John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern's book; when looking at these instances, they guessed that when a union appears, it works against the fractionas if two individuals were playing a normal game.", "The balanced payoff of C is a basic function.", "Although there are differing examples that help determine coalitional amounts from normal games, not all appear that in their function form can be derived from such.Formally, a characteristic function is seen as: (N,v), where N represents the group of people and is a normal utility.Such characteristic functions have expanded to describe games where there is no removable utility.===Alternative game representations===Alternative game representation forms are used for some subclasses of games or adjusted to the needs of interdisciplinary research.", "In addition to classical game representations, some of the alternative representations also encode time related aspects.NameYearMeansType of gamesTimeCongestion game1973functionssubset of n-person games, simultaneous movesNoSequential form1994matrices2-person games of imperfect informationNoTimed games1994functions2-person gamesYesGala1997logicn-person games of imperfect informationNoGraphical games2001graphs, functionsn-person games, simultaneous movesNoLocal effect games2003functionssubset of n-person games, simultaneous movesNoGDL2005logicdeterministic n-person games, simultaneous movesNoGame Petri-nets2006Petri netdeterministic n-person games, simultaneous movesNoContinuous games2007functionssubset of 2-person games of imperfect informationYesPNSI2008Petri netn-person games of imperfect informationYesAction graph games2012graphs, functionsn-person games, simultaneous movesNo" ], [ "General and applied uses", "As a method of applied mathematics, game theory has been used to study a wide variety of human and animal behaviors.", "It was initially developed in economics to understand a large collection of economic behaviors, including behaviors of firms, markets, and consumers.", "The first use of game-theoretic analysis was by Antoine Augustin Cournot in 1838 with his solution of the Cournot duopoly.", "The use of game theory in the social sciences has expanded, and game theory has been applied to political, sociological, and psychological behaviors as well.Although pre-twentieth-century naturalists such as Charles Darwin made game-theoretic kinds of statements, the use of game-theoretic analysis in biology began with Ronald Fisher's studies of animal behavior during the 1930s.", "This work predates the name \"game theory\", but it shares many important features with this field.", "The developments in economics were later applied to biology largely by John Maynard Smith in his 1982 book ''Evolution and the Theory of Games''.In addition to being used to describe, predict, and explain behavior, game theory has also been used to develop theories of ethical or normative behavior and to prescribe such behavior.", "In economics and philosophy, scholars have applied game theory to help in the understanding of good or proper behavior.", "Game-theoretic arguments of this type can be found as far back as Plato.", "An alternative version of game theory, called chemical game theory, represents the player's choices as metaphorical chemical reactant molecules called \"knowlecules\".", "Chemical game theory then calculates the outcomes as equilibrium solutions to a system of chemical reactions.===Description and modeling===A four-stage centipede gameThe primary use of game theory is to describe and model how human populations behave.", "Some scholars believe that by finding the equilibria of games they can predict how actual human populations will behave when confronted with situations analogous to the game being studied.", "This particular view of game theory has been criticized.", "It is argued that the assumptions made by game theorists are often violated when applied to real-world situations.", "Game theorists usually assume players act rationally, but in practice, human rationality and/or behavior often deviates from the model of rationality as used in game theory.", "Game theorists respond by comparing their assumptions to those used in physics.", "Thus while their assumptions do not always hold, they can treat game theory as a reasonable scientific ideal akin to the models used by physicists.", "However, empirical work has shown that in some classic games, such as the centipede game, guess 2/3 of the average game, and the dictator game, people regularly do not play Nash equilibria.", "There is an ongoing debate regarding the importance of these experiments and whether the analysis of the experiments fully captures all aspects of the relevant situation.Some game theorists, following the work of John Maynard Smith and George R. Price, have turned to evolutionary game theory in order to resolve these issues.", "These models presume either no rationality or bounded rationality on the part of players.", "Despite the name, evolutionary game theory does not necessarily presume natural selection in the biological sense.", "Evolutionary game theory includes both biological as well as cultural evolution and also models of individual learning (for example, fictitious play dynamics).===Prescriptive or normative analysis===Some scholars see game theory not as a predictive tool for the behavior of human beings, but as a suggestion for how people ought to behave.", "Since a strategy, corresponding to a Nash equilibrium of a game constitutes one's best response to the actions of the other players – provided they are in (the same) Nash equilibrium – playing a strategy that is part of a Nash equilibrium seems appropriate.", "This normative use of game theory has also come under criticism.=== Use of game theory in Economics ===Game theory is a major method used in mathematical economics and business for modeling competing behaviors of interacting agents.", "Applications include a wide array of economic phenomena and approaches, such as auctions, bargaining, mergers and acquisitions pricing, fair division, duopolies, oligopolies, social network formation, agent-based computational economics, general equilibrium, mechanism design, and voting systems; and across such broad areas as experimental economics, behavioral economics, information economics, industrial organization, and political economy.This research usually focuses on particular sets of strategies known as \"solution concepts\" or \"equilibria\".", "A common assumption is that players act rationally.", "In non-cooperative games, the most famous of these is the Nash equilibrium.", "A set of strategies is a Nash equilibrium if each represents a best response to the other strategies.", "If all the players are playing the strategies in a Nash equilibrium, they have no unilateral incentive to deviate, since their strategy is the best they can do given what others are doing.The payoffs of the game are generally taken to represent the utility of individual players.A prototypical paper on game theory in economics begins by presenting a game that is an abstraction of a particular economic situation.", "One or more solution concepts are chosen, and the author demonstrates which strategy sets in the presented game are equilibria of the appropriate type.", "Economists and business professors suggest two primary uses (noted above): ''descriptive'' and ''prescriptive''.==== Application in Managerial Economics ====Game theory also has an extensive use in a specific branch or stream of economics – Managerial Economics.", "One important usage of it in the field of managerial economics is in analyzing strategic interactions between firms.", "For example, firms may be competing in a market with limited resources, and game theory can help managers understand how their decisions impact their competitors and the overall market outcomes.", "Game theory can also be used to analyze cooperation between firms, such as in forming strategic alliances or joint ventures.", "Another use of game theory in managerial economics is in analyzing pricing strategies.", "For example, firms may use game theory to determine the optimal pricing strategy based on how they expect their competitors to respond to their pricing decisions.", "Overall, game theory serves as a useful tool for analyzing strategic interactions and decision making in the context of managerial economics.=== Uses of game theory in Business ===The Chartered Institute of Procurement & Supply (CIPS) promotes knowledge and use of game theory within the context of business procurement.", "CIPS and TWS Partners have conducted a series of surveys designed to explore the understanding, awareness and application of game theory among procurement professionals.", "Some of the main findings in their third annual survey (2019) include:*application of game theory to procurement activity has increased – at the time it was at 19% across all survey respondents*65% of participants predict that use of game theory applications will grow*70% of respondents say that they have \"only a basic or a below basic understanding\" of game theory*20% of participants had undertaken on-the-job training in game theory*50% of respondents said that new or improved software solutions were desirable*90% of respondents said that they do not have the software they need for their work.===Use of game theory in project management===Sensible decision-making is critical for the success of projects.", "In project management, game theory is used to model the decision-making process of players, such as investors, project managers, contractors, sub-contractors, governments and customers.", "Quite often, these players have competing interests, and sometimes their interests are directly detrimental to other players, making project management scenarios well-suited to be modeled by game theory.Piraveenan (2019) in his review provides several examples where game theory is used to model project management scenarios.", "For instance, an investor typically has several investment options, and each option will likely result in a different project, and thus one of the investment options has to be chosen before the project charter can be produced.", "Similarly, any large project involving subcontractors, for instance, a construction project, has a complex interplay between the main contractor (the project manager) and subcontractors, or among the subcontractors themselves, which typically has several decision points.", "For example, if there is an ambiguity in the contract between the contractor and subcontractor, each must decide how hard to push their case without jeopardizing the whole project, and thus their own stake in it.", "Similarly, when projects from competing organizations are launched, the marketing personnel have to decide what is the best timing and strategy to market the project, or its resultant product or service, so that it can gain maximum traction in the face of competition.", "In each of these scenarios, the required decisions depend on the decisions of other players who, in some way, have competing interests to the interests of the decision-maker, and thus can ideally be modeled using game theory.Piraveenan summarises that two-player games are predominantly used to model project management scenarios, and based on the identity of these players, five distinct types of games are used in project management.", "* Government-sector–private-sector games (games that model public–private partnerships)* Contractor–contractor games* Contractor–subcontractor games* Subcontractor–subcontractor games* Games involving other playersIn terms of types of games, both cooperative as well as non-cooperative, normal-form as well as extensive-form, and zero-sum as well as non-zero-sum are used to model various project management scenarios.===Political science===The application of game theory to political science is focused in the overlapping areas of fair division, political economy, public choice, war bargaining, positive political theory, and social choice theory.", "In each of these areas, researchers have developed game-theoretic models in which the players are often voters, states, special interest groups, and politicians.Early examples of game theory applied to political science are provided by Anthony Downs.", "In his 1957 book ''An Economic Theory of Democracy'', he applies the Hotelling firm location model to the political process.", "In the Downsian model, political candidates commit to ideologies on a one-dimensional policy space.", "Downs first shows how the political candidates will converge to the ideology preferred by the median voter if voters are fully informed, but then argues that voters choose to remain rationally ignorant which allows for candidate divergence.", "Game theory was applied in 1962 to the Cuban Missile Crisis during the presidency of John F. Kennedy.It has also been proposed that game theory explains the stability of any form of political government.", "Taking the simplest case of a monarchy, for example, the king, being only one person, does not and cannot maintain his authority by personally exercising physical control over all or even any significant number of his subjects.", "Sovereign control is instead explained by the recognition by each citizen that all other citizens expect each other to view the king (or other established government) as the person whose orders will be followed.", "Coordinating communication among citizens to replace the sovereign is effectively barred, since conspiracy to replace the sovereign is generally punishable as a crime.", "Thus, in a process that can be modeled by variants of the prisoner's dilemma, during periods of stability no citizen will find it rational to move to replace the sovereign, even if all the citizens know they would be better off if they were all to act collectively.A game-theoretic explanation for democratic peace is that public and open debate in democracies sends clear and reliable information regarding their intentions to other states.", "In contrast, it is difficult to know the intentions of nondemocratic leaders, what effect concessions will have, and if promises will be kept.", "Thus there will be mistrust and unwillingness to make concessions if at least one of the parties in a dispute is a non-democracy.However, game theory predicts that two countries may still go to war even if their leaders are cognizant of the costs of fighting.", "War may result from asymmetric information; two countries may have incentives to mis-represent the amount of military resources they have on hand, rendering them unable to settle disputes agreeably without resorting to fighting.", "Moreover, war may arise because of commitment problems: if two countries wish to settle a dispute via peaceful means, but each wishes to go back on the terms of that settlement, they may have no choice but to resort to warfare.", "Finally, war may result from issue indivisibilities.Game theory could also help predict a nation's responses when there is a new rule or law to be applied to that nation.", "One example is Peter John Wood's (2013) research looking into what nations could do to help reduce climate change.", "Wood thought this could be accomplished by making treaties with other nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.", "However, he concluded that this idea could not work because it would create a prisoner's dilemma for the nations.=== Use of game theory in defence science and technology ===Game theory has been used extensively to model decision-making scenarios relevant to defence applications.", "Most studies that has applied game theory in defence settings are concerned with Command and Control Warfare, and can be further classified into studies dealing with (i) Resource Allocation Warfare (ii) Information Warfare (iii) Weapons Control Warfare, and (iv) Adversary Monitoring Warfare.", "Many of the problems studied are concerned with sensing and tracking, for example a surface ship trying to track a hostile submarine and the submarine trying to evade being tracked, and the interdependent decision making that takes place with regards to bearing, speed, and the sensor technology activated by both vessels.", "Ho et al provides a concise summary of the state-of-the-art with regards to the use of game theory in defence applications and highlights the benefits and limitations of game theory in the considered scenarios.=== Use of game theory in biology ===Unlike those in economics, the payoffs for games in biology are often interpreted as corresponding to fitness.", "In addition, the focus has been less on equilibria that correspond to a notion of rationality and more on ones that would be maintained by evolutionary forces.", "The best-known equilibrium in biology is known as the ''evolutionarily stable strategy'' (ESS), first introduced in .", "Although its initial motivation did not involve any of the mental requirements of the Nash equilibrium, every ESS is a Nash equilibrium.In biology, game theory has been used as a model to understand many different phenomena.", "It was first used to explain the evolution (and stability) of the approximate 1:1 sex ratios.", "suggested that the 1:1 sex ratios are a result of evolutionary forces acting on individuals who could be seen as trying to maximize their number of grandchildren.Additionally, biologists have used evolutionary game theory and the ESS to explain the emergence of animal communication.", "The analysis of signaling games and other communication games has provided insight into the evolution of communication among animals.", "For example, the mobbing behavior of many species, in which a large number of prey animals attack a larger predator, seems to be an example of spontaneous emergent organization.", "Ants have also been shown to exhibit feed-forward behavior akin to fashion (see Paul Ormerod's ''Butterfly Economics'').Biologists have used the game of chicken to analyze fighting behavior and territoriality.According to Maynard Smith, in the preface to ''Evolution and the Theory of Games'', \"paradoxically, it has turned out that game theory is more readily applied to biology than to the field of economic behaviour for which it was originally designed\".", "Evolutionary game theory has been used to explain many seemingly incongruous phenomena in nature.One such phenomenon is known as biological altruism.", "This is a situation in which an organism appears to act in a way that benefits other organisms and is detrimental to itself.", "This is distinct from traditional notions of altruism because such actions are not conscious, but appear to be evolutionary adaptations to increase overall fitness.", "Examples can be found in species ranging from vampire bats that regurgitate blood they have obtained from a night's hunting and give it to group members who have failed to feed, to worker bees that care for the queen bee for their entire lives and never mate, to vervet monkeys that warn group members of a predator's approach, even when it endangers that individual's chance of survival.", "All of these actions increase the overall fitness of a group, but occur at a cost to the individual.Evolutionary game theory explains this altruism with the idea of kin selection.", "Altruists discriminate between the individuals they help and favor relatives.", "Hamilton's rule explains the evolutionary rationale behind this selection with the equation , where the cost to the altruist must be less than the benefit to the recipient multiplied by the coefficient of relatedness .", "The more closely related two organisms are causes the incidences of altruism to increase because they share many of the same alleles.", "This means that the altruistic individual, by ensuring that the alleles of its close relative are passed on through survival of its offspring, can forgo the option of having offspring itself because the same number of alleles are passed on.", "For example, helping a sibling (in diploid animals) has a coefficient of , because (on average) an individual shares half of the alleles in its sibling's offspring.", "Ensuring that enough of a sibling's offspring survive to adulthood precludes the necessity of the altruistic individual producing offspring.", "The coefficient values depend heavily on the scope of the playing field; for example if the choice of whom to favor includes all genetic living things, not just all relatives, we assume the discrepancy between all humans only accounts for approximately 1% of the diversity in the playing field, a coefficient that was in the smaller field becomes 0.995.Similarly if it is considered that information other than that of a genetic nature (e.g.", "epigenetics, religion, science, etc.)", "persisted through time the playing field becomes larger still, and the discrepancies smaller.===Computer science and logic===Game theory has come to play an increasingly important role in logic and in computer science.", "Several logical theories have a basis in game semantics.", "In addition, computer scientists have used games to model interactive computations.", "Also, game theory provides a theoretical basis to the field of multi-agent systems.Separately, game theory has played a role in online algorithms; in particular, the -server problem, which has in the past been referred to as ''games with moving costs'' and ''request-answer games''.", "Yao's principle is a game-theoretic technique for proving lower bounds on the computational complexity of randomized algorithms, especially online algorithms.The emergence of the Internet has motivated the development of algorithms for finding equilibria in games, markets, computational auctions, peer-to-peer systems, and security and information markets.", "Algorithmic game theory and within it algorithmic mechanism design combine computational algorithm design and analysis of complex systems with economic theory.===Philosophy===Game theory has been put to several uses in philosophy.", "Responding to two papers by , used game theory to develop a philosophical account of convention.", "In so doing, he provided the first analysis of common knowledge and employed it in analyzing play in coordination games.", "In addition, he first suggested that one can understand meaning in terms of signaling games.", "This later suggestion has been pursued by several philosophers since Lewis.", "Following game-theoretic account of conventions, Edna Ullmann-Margalit (1977) and Bicchieri (2006) have developed theories of social norms that define them as Nash equilibria that result from transforming a mixed-motive game into a coordination game.Game theory has also challenged philosophers to think in terms of interactive epistemology: what it means for a collective to have common beliefs or knowledge, and what are the consequences of this knowledge for the social outcomes resulting from the interactions of agents.", "Philosophers who have worked in this area include Bicchieri (1989, 1993), Skyrms (1990), and Stalnaker (1999).In ethics, some (most notably David Gauthier, Gregory Kavka, and Jean Hampton) authors have attempted to pursue Thomas Hobbes' project of deriving morality from self-interest.", "Since games like the prisoner's dilemma present an apparent conflict between morality and self-interest, explaining why cooperation is required by self-interest is an important component of this project.", "This general strategy is a component of the general social contract view in political philosophy (for examples, see and ).Other authors have attempted to use evolutionary game theory in order to explain the emergence of human attitudes about morality and corresponding animal behaviors.", "These authors look at several games including the prisoner's dilemma, stag hunt, and the Nash bargaining game as providing an explanation for the emergence of attitudes about morality (see, e.g., and ).=== Retail and consumer product pricing ===Game theory applications are often used in the pricing strategies of retail and consumer markets, particularly for the sale of inelastic goods.", "With retailers constantly competing against one another for consumer market share, it has become a fairly common practice for retailers to discount certain goods, intermittently, in the hopes of increasing foot-traffic in brick and mortar locations (websites visits for e-commerce retailers) or increasing sales of ancillary or complimentary products.Black Friday, a popular shopping holiday in the US, is when many retailers focus on optimal pricing strategies to capture the holiday shopping market.", "In the Black Friday scenario, retailers using game theory applications typically ask \"what is the dominant competitor's reaction to me?\"", "In such a scenario, the game has two players: the retailer, and the consumer.", "The retailer is focused on an optimal pricing strategy, while the consumer is focused on the best deal.", "In this closed system, there often is no dominant strategy as both players have alternative options.", "That is, retailers can find a different customer, and consumers can shop at a different retailer.", "Given the market competition that day, however, the dominant strategy for retailers lies in outperforming competitors.", "The open system assumes multiple retailers selling similar goods, and a finite number of consumers demanding the goods at an optimal price.", "A blog by a Cornell University professor provided an example of such a strategy, when Amazon priced a Samsung TV $100 below retail value, effectively undercutting competitors.", "Amazon made up part of the difference by increasing the price of HDMI cables, as it has been found that consumers are less price discriminatory when it comes to the sale of secondary items.Retail markets continue to evolve strategies and applications of game theory when it comes to pricing consumer goods.", "The key insights found between simulations in a controlled environment and real-world retail experiences show that the applications of such strategies are more complex, as each retailer has to find an optimal balance between pricing, supplier relations, brand image, and the potential to cannibalize the sale of more profitable items.===Epidemiology===Since the decision to take a vaccine for a particular disease is often made by individuals, who may consider a range of factors and parameters in making this decision (such as the incidence and prevalence of the disease, perceived and real risks associated with contracting the disease, mortality rate, perceived and real risks associated with vaccination, and financial cost of vaccination), game theory has been used to model and predict vaccination uptake in a society.=== Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning ===Game theory has multiple applications in the field of AI/ML.", "It is often used in developing autonomous systems that can make complex decisions in uncertain environment.", "Some other areas of application of game theory in AI/ML context are as follows - multi-agent system formation, reinforcement learning, mechanism design etc.", "By using game theory to model the behavior of other agents and anticipate their actions, AI/ML systems can make better decisions and operate more effectively." ], [ "Well known examples of games", "===Prisoner's dilemma===+ Standard prisoner's dilemma payoff matrix B stayssilent Bbetrays A stayssilent Abetrays William Poundstone described the game in his 1993 book Prisoner's Dilemma:Two members of a criminal gang, A and B, are arrested and imprisoned.", "Each prisoner is in solitary confinement with no means of communication with their partner.", "The principal charge would lead to a sentence of ten years in prison; however, the police do not have the evidence for a conviction.", "They plan to sentence both to two years in prison on a lesser charge but offer each prisoner a Faustian bargain: If one of them confesses to the crime of the principal charge, betraying the other, they will be pardoned and free to leave while the other must serve the entirety of the sentence instead of just two years for the lesser charge.The dominant strategy (and therefore the best response to any possible opponent strategy), is to betray the other, which aligns with the sure-thing principle.", "However, both prisoners staying silent would yield a greater reward for both of them than mutual betrayal.===Battle of the sexes ===The \"battle of the sexes\" is a term used to describe the perceived conflict between men and women in various areas of life, such as relationships, careers, and social roles.", "This conflict is often portrayed in popular culture, such as movies and television shows, as a humorous or dramatic competition between the genders.", "This conflict can be depicted in a game theory framework.", "This is an example of non-cooperative games.An example of the \"battle of the sexes\" can be seen in the portrayal of relationships in popular media, where men and women are often depicted as being fundamentally different and in conflict with each other.", "For instance, in some romantic comedies, the male and female protagonists are shown as having opposing views on love and relationships, and they have to overcome these differences in order to be together.In this game, there are two pure strategy Nash equilibria one where both the players choose the same strategy and the other where the players choose different options.", "If the game is played in mixed strategies, where each player chooses their strategy randomly, then there is an infinite number of Nash equilibria.", "However, in the context of the \"battle of the sexes\" game, the assumption is usually made that the game is played in pure strategies.===Ultimatum game===The ultimatum game is a game that has become a popular instrument of economic experiments.", "An early description is by Nobel laureate John Harsanyi in 1961.One player, the proposer, is endowed with a sum of money.", "The proposer is tasked with splitting it with another player, the responder (who knows what the total sum is).", "Once the proposer communicates his decision, the responder may accept it or reject it.", "If the responder accepts, the money is split per the proposal; if the responder rejects, both players receive nothing.", "Both players know in advance the consequences of the responder accepting or rejecting the offer.", "The game demonstrates how social acceptance, fairness, and generosity influence the players decisions.Ultimatum game has a variant, that is the dictator game.", "They are mostly identical, except in dictator game the responder has no power to reject the proposer's offer.===Trust game===The Trust Game is an experiment designed to measure trust in economic decisions.", "It is also called \"the investment game\" and is designed to investigate trust and demonstrate its importance rather than \"rationality\" of self-interest.", "The game was designed by Berg Joyce, John Dickhaut and Kevin McCabe in 1995.In the game, one player (the investor) is given a sum of money and must decide how much of it to give to another player (the trustee).", "The amount given is then tripled by the experimenter.", "The trustee then decides how much of the tripled amount to return to the investor.", "If the recipient is completely self interested, then he/she should return nothing.", "However that is not true as the experiment conduct.", "The outcome suggest that people are willing to place a trust, by risking some amount of money, in the belief that there would be reciprocity.=== Cournot Competition ===The Cournot competition model involves players choosing quantity of a homogenous product to produce independently and simultaneously, where marginal cost can be different for each firm and the firm's payoff is profit.", "The production costs are public information and the firm aims to find their profit-maximizing quantity based on what they believe the other firm will produce and behave like monopolies.", "In this game firms want to produce at the monopoly quantity but there is a high incentive to deviate and produce more, which decreases the market-clearing price.", "For example, firms may be tempted to deviate from the monopoly quantity if there is a low monopoly quantity and high price, with the aim of increasing production to maximize profit.", "However this option does not provide the highest payoff, as a firm's ability to maximize profits depends on its market share and the elasticity of the market demand.", "The Cournot equilibrium is reached when each firm operates on their reaction function with no incentive to deviate, as they have the best response based on the other firms output.", "Within the game, firms reach the Nash equilibrium when the Cournot equilibrium is achieved.", "Equilibrium for Cournot quantity competition=== Bertrand Competition ===The Bertrand competition assumes homogenous products and a constant marginal cost and players choose the prices.", "The equilibrium of price competition is where the price is equal to marginal costs, assuming complete information about the competitors' costs.", "Therefore, the firms have an incentive to deviate from the equilibrium because a homogenous product with a lower price will gain all of the market share, known as a cost advantage." ], [ "In popular culture", "* Based on the 1998 book by Sylvia Nasar, the life story of game theorist and mathematician John Nash was turned into the 2001 biopic ''A Beautiful Mind'', starring Russell Crowe as Nash.", "* The 1959 military science fiction novel ''Starship Troopers'' by Robert A. Heinlein mentioned \"games theory\" and \"theory of games\".", "In the 1997 film of the same name, the character Carl Jenkins referred to his military intelligence assignment as being assigned to \"games and theory\".", "* The 1964 film ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' satirizes game theoretic ideas about deterrence theory.", "For example, nuclear deterrence depends on the threat to retaliate catastrophically if a nuclear attack is detected.", "A game theorist might argue that such threats can fail to be ''credible'', in the sense that they can lead to subgame imperfect equilibria.", "The movie takes this idea one step further, with the Soviet Union irrevocably committing to a catastrophic nuclear response without making the threat public.", "* The 1980s power pop band Game Theory was founded by singer/songwriter Scott Miller, who described the band's name as alluding to \"the study of calculating the most appropriate action given an adversary... to give yourself the minimum amount of failure\".", "* ''Liar Game'', a 2005 Japanese manga and 2007 television series, presents the main characters in each episode with a game or problem that is typically drawn from game theory, as demonstrated by the strategies applied by the characters.", "* The 1974 novel ''Spy Story'' by Len Deighton explores elements of game theory in regard to cold war army exercises.", "* The 2008 novel ''The Dark Forest'' by Liu Cixin explores the relationship between extraterrestrial life, humanity, and game theory.", "* The prime antagonist Joker in the movie ''The Dark Knight'' presents game theory concepts—notably the prisoner's dilemma in a scene where he asks passengers in two different ferries to bomb the other one to save their own.", "* In the 2018 film ''Crazy Rich Asians'', the female lead Rachel Chu is a professor of economics and game theory at New York University.", "At the beginning of the film she is seen in her NYU classroom playing a game of poker with her teaching assistant and wins the game by bluffing; then in the climax of the film, she plays a game of mahjong with her boy friend's disapproving mother Eleanor, losing the game to Eleanor on purpose but winning her approval as a result.", "* In the 2017 film Molly's Game, Brad who is inexperienced poker player, makes an irrational betting decision without realising and causes his opponent Harlan to deviate from his Nash Equilibrium strategy, resulting in a significant loss when Harlan loses the hand." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Lists'''* List of cognitive biases* List of emerging technologies* List of games in game theory" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===Textbooks and general literature===* .", "* , Description.", "* .", "Suitable for undergraduate and business students.", "* .", "Suitable for upper-level undergraduates.", "* * * .", "Suitable for advanced undergraduates.", "** Published in Europe as .", "* * .", "Presents game theory in formal way suitable for graduate level.", "* Joseph E. Harrington (2008) ''Games, strategies, and decision making'', Worth, .", "Textbook suitable for undergraduates in applied fields; numerous examples, fewer formalisms in concept presentation.", "* * * *Maschler, Michael; Solan, Eilon; Zamir, Shmuel (2013), ''Game Theory'', Cambridge University Press, .", "Undergraduate textbook.", "* .", "Suitable for a general audience.", "* .", "Undergraduate textbook.", "* * .", "A modern introduction at the graduate level.", "* * .", "A leading textbook at the advanced undergraduate level.", "* * Consistent treatment of game types usually claimed by different applied fields, e.g.", "Markov decision processes.===Historically important texts===* * * * * :*reprinted edition: * * * * Shapley, L.S.", "(1953), A Value for n-person Games, In: Contributions to the Theory of Games volume II, H. W. Kuhn and A. W. Tucker (eds.", ")* Shapley, L.S.", "(1953), Stochastic Games, Proceedings of National Academy of Science Vol.", "39, pp. 1095–1100.", "* English translation: \"On the Theory of Games of Strategy,\" in A. W. Tucker and R. D. Luce, ed.", "(1959), ''Contributions to the Theory of Games'', v. 4, p. 42.Princeton University Press.", "* * ===Other material===* * * * Allan Gibbard, \"Manipulation of voting schemes: a general result\", ''Econometrica'', Vol.", "41, No.", "4 (1973), pp. 587–601.", "* * * , (2002 edition)* .", "A layman's introduction.", "* .", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* James Miller (2015): Introductory Game Theory Videos.", "* * Paul Walker: History of Game Theory Page.", "* David Levine: Game Theory.", "Papers, Lecture Notes and much more stuff.", "* Alvin Roth: — Comprehensive list of links to game theory information on the Web* Adam Kalai: Game Theory and Computer Science — Lecture notes on Game Theory and Computer Science* Mike Shor: GameTheory.net — Lecture notes, interactive illustrations and other information.", "* Jim Ratliff's Graduate Course in Game Theory (lecture notes).", "* Don Ross: Review Of Game Theory in the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''.", "* Bruno Verbeek and Christopher Morris: Game Theory and Ethics* Elmer G. Wiens: Game Theory — Introduction, worked examples, play online two-person zero-sum games.", "* Marek M. Kaminski: Game Theory and Politics — Syllabuses and lecture notes for game theory and political science.", "* Websites on game theory and social interactions* Kesten Green's — See Papers for evidence on the accuracy of forecasts from game theory and other methods .", "* McKelvey, Richard D., McLennan, Andrew M., and Turocy, Theodore L. (2007) '' Gambit: Software Tools for Game Theory''.", "* Benjamin Polak: Open Course on Game Theory at Yale videos of the course* Benjamin Moritz, Bernhard Könsgen, Danny Bures, Ronni Wiersch, (2007) '' Spieltheorie-Software.de: An application for Game Theory implemented in JAVA''.", "* Antonin Kucera: Stochastic Two-Player Games.", "* Yu-Chi Ho: What is Mathematical Game Theory; What is Mathematical Game Theory (#2); What is Mathematical Game Theory (#3); What is Mathematical Game Theory (#4)-Many person game theory; What is Mathematical Game Theory ?", "( #5) – Finale, summing up, and my own view" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Germany" ], [ "Introduction", "Population between 1800 and 2000Population density in Germany, by kreis/districtPopulation density in 1925The '''demography of Germany''' is monitored by the ''Statistisches Bundesamt'' (Federal Statistical Office of Germany).", "According to the most recent data, Germany's population is 84,607,016 (30 September 2023) making it the most populous country in the European Union and the nineteenth-most populous country in the world.", "The total fertility rate was rated at 1.58 in 2021, significantly below the replacement rate of 2.1.For a long time Germany had one of the world's lowest fertility rates of around 1.3 to 1.4, however there has been a small increase in recent years.", "Due to the low birth rate Germany has recorded more deaths than births every year since 1972, which means 2021 was the 50th consecutive year the German population would have decreased without immigration.", "However, due to immigration the population has actually increased during the last half-century.", "In 2019 the number of people with a foreign background was 26%; this category includes foreigners, naturalized citizens, ethnic German repatriates from Eastern Europe and the children of all of the above.Until the early 20th century Germany was also a large emigrant nation; in the 19th century more than 5 million citizens of the German Empire emigrated to the US alone, and in the early 20th century Germany lost another two million to the US as well as significant numbers to Latin America, Canada and Eastern Europe.", "However, after World War II immigration began to outweigh emigration, as around 14 million ethnic Germans were expelled from the former eastern provinces of the Reich and other areas in Eastern Europe.", "Of these, roughly 12 million made their way to present-day Germany and several hundred thousand settled in Austria and other countries, while several hundred thousand died.", "Some additional 4.5 million ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe repatriated after 1950, especially around the end of the Eastern Bloc and mostly from the former Soviet Union, Poland and Romania.Large-scale immigration to West Germany began during the time of the Wirtschaftswunder from the 1950s to early 1970s when Germany had a shortage of workers and let in Southern Europeans from countries like Turkey, Italy and Spain on a temporary basis as guest workers.", "The liberalisation of guest worker legislation allowed many to stay and build a life in West Germany.", "Germany saw another large wave of immigration towards the end of the 20th century, driven by German reunification, refugee inflows from the Yugoslav Wars and large numbers of Turkish nationals seeking asylum.", "The next large immigration wave began after eastern expansion of the European Union in 2011 as Eastern Europeans were now allowed to live and work in Germany without a visa.", "During the European migrant crisis of the mid 2010s Germany took in a large number of refugees, both in absolute terms and relative to other EU member states; the country recorded 476,649 asylum seekers in 2015, 745,545 in 2016 and declining numbers thereafter.Germany has one of the world's highest levels of education, technological development, and economic productivity.", "Since the end of World War II, the number of students entering university has more than tripled, and the trade and technical schools are among the world's best.", "With a per capita income of about €40,883 in 2018, Germany is a broadly middle-class society.", "However, there has been a strong increase in the number of children living in poverty.", "In 1965, one in 75 children was on the welfare rolls; but by 2007 this had increased to one child in six.", "These children live in relative poverty, but not necessarily in absolute poverty.", "Millions of Germans travel overseas each year.", "The social welfare system provides for universal health care, unemployment compensation, child benefits and other social programmes.", "Germany's aging population and struggling economy strained the welfare system in the 1990s, so the government adopted a wide-ranging programme of – still controversial – belt-tightening reforms, Agenda 2010, including the labour-market reforms known as Hartz concept." ], [ "History", "===1945–1990===Population evolution of Germany, since 1950After the World War II border shifts and expulsions, the Germans from Central and Eastern Europe and the former eastern territories moved westward to post-war Germany.", "During the partition of Germany, many Germans from East Germany fled to West Germany for political and economic reasons.", "Since Germany's reunification, there are ongoing migrations from the eastern ''New Länder'' to the western ''Old Länder'' for economic reasons.The Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic followed different paths when it came to demographics.", "The politics of the German Democratic Republic was pronatalistic while that of the Federal Republic was compensatory.Fertility in the GDR was higher than that in the FRG.", "Demographic politics was only one of the reasons.", "Women in the GDR had fewer \"biographic options\", young motherhood was expected of them.", "State funded costfree childcare was available to all mothers.", ";Mother's mean age at first birth in East and West Germany:Note: Berlin is included into East Germany for the year 2002 and 2008.Source: Kreyenfeld (2002); Kreyenfeld et al.", "(2010); HFD Germany (2010) Year 196019701980198520022008West Germany 24.9 23.825.026.227.628.7East Germany 23.0 22.522.322.326.427.5===1990–today===About 1.7 million people have left the new federal states (the East) since the fall of the Berlin Wall, or 12% of the population; a disproportionately high number of them were women under 35.After 1990, the total fertility rate (TFR) in the East dropped to 0.772 in 1994.This has been attributed to a \"demographic shock\": people not only had fewer children, they were also less likely to marry or divorce after the end of the GDR; the biographic options of the citizens of the former GDR had increased.", "Young motherhood seemed to be less attractive and the age of the first birth rose sharply.In the following years, the TFR in the East started to rise again, surpassing 1.0 in 1997 and 1.3 in 2004, and reaching the West's TFR (1.37) in 2007.In 2010, the East's fertility rate (1.459) clearly exceeded that of the West (1.385), while Germany's overall TFR had risen to 1.393, the highest value since 1990, which was still far below the natural replacement rate of 2.1 and the birth rates seen under communism.", "In 2016, the TFR was 1.64 in the East and 1.60 in the West.Between 1989 and 2009, about 2,000 schools closed because there were fewer children.In some regions the number of women between the ages of 20 and 30 has dropped by more than 30%.", "In 2004, in the age group 18–29 (statistically important for starting families) there were only 90 women for every 100 men in the new federal states (the East, including Berlin).Until 2007 family politics in the federal republic was compensatory, which means that poor families received more family benefits (such as the ''Erziehungsgeld'') than rich ones.", "In 2007 the so-called ''Elterngeld'' was introduced.", "According to Christoph Butterwegge the Elterngeld was meant to \"motivate highly educated women to have more children\"; the poor on the other hand were disadvantaged by the ''Elterngeld'', and now received lower child benefits than the middle classes.", "The very well-off (who earn more than 250.000 Euro per annum) and those on welfare receive no Elterngeld payments.In 2013 the following most recent developments were noticed:* The income of families with young children has risen.", "Persons holding a college degree, persons older than 30 years and parents with only one child benefited the most.", "Single parents and young parents did not benefit.", "* Fathers are becoming more involved in parenting, and 28% of them now take some time off work (3.3 months on average) when their children are born.", "* Mothers are more likely to work and as a result less likely to be economically deprived than they used to be.", "* The birth rate of college-educated women has risen.In the new federal states the fertility rate of college-educated women is now higher than that of those without college degrees.", "Differences in value priorities and the better availability of childcare in the eastern states are discussed as possible reasons.In 2019, the non-profit Austrian Institute of Economic Research and the Bertelsmann Stiftung published a study about the economic impact of demographics.", "The researchers assume a reduction in the per capita income of €3,700 until 2040." ], [ "Population", "Historical population of GermanyThe contemporary demographics of Germany used to also be measured by a series of full censuses mandated by the state, with the most recent held in 1987.Since reunification, German authorities rely on a ''micro census''.Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review.", "Due to the privacy concerns of the German population after reunification, Germany did not hold a regular census until the EU-mandated 2011 German Census.", "The requirement was met with large disapproval.", "As required by the EU, Germany now continues to hold censuses every 10 years.", "*One birth every 43 seconds*One death every 34 seconds*Net gain of one person every 4 minutes*One net migrant every 2 minutes=== Population growth ===;Population growth rate::–0.17% (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 208th:===Fertility===Fertility rate in Germany by district, average of 2017–2019The total fertility rate is the number of children born per woman.", "It is based on fairly good data for the entire period.", "Sources: Our World In Data and Gapminder Foundation.+ Total fertility rate in Germany Years 18001801180218031804180518061807180818091810 5.45.40 5.39 5.39 5.38 5.38 5.37 5.37 5.36 5.36 5.35 Years 1811181218131814181518161817181818191820 5.35 5.34 5.34 5.33 5.33 5.32 5.32 5.33 5.35 5.37 Years 1821182218231824182518261827182818291830 5.35 5.33 5.31 5.28 5.26 5.17 5.07 4.97 4.88 4.78 Years 1831183218331834183518361837183818391840 4.80 4.83 4.85 4.88 4.9 4.9 4.9 4.9 4.9 4.9 Years 1841184218431844184518461847184818491850 4.9 4.95 4.97 5.00 5.02 5.02 5.02 5.01 5.01 5.01 Years 1851185218531854185518561857185818591860 4.87 4.74 4.60 4.47 4.33 4.45 4.56 4.67 4.79 4.90 Years 1861186218631864186518661867186818691870 4.93 4.96 5.00 5.03 5.06 5.09 5.11 5.13 5.16 5.18 Years 1871187218731874187518761877187818791880 5.24 5.30 5.35 5.41 5.46 5.38 5.30 5.22 5.14 5.06 Years 1881188218831884188518861887188818891890 5.14 5.21 5.29 5.28 5.26 5.25 5.23 5.22 5.21 5.20 Years 189118921893189418951896189718981899 5.18 5.17 5.16 5.14 5.11 5.09 5.06 5.04 4.99 ;Mother's mean age at first birth::29.4 years (2015 est.", ")=== Life expectancy ===Sources: Our World In Data and the United Nations.Life expectancy in Germany since 1875Life expectancy in Germany since 1960 by gender'''1875–1950'''Years187518851895190519111915192519351946Life expectancy in Germany38.539.542.845.549.040.557.461.560.5'''1950–2015'''PeriodLife expectancy inYearsPeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195567.51985–199075.01955–196068.91990–199576.01960–196570.01995–200077.31965–197070.72000–200578.61970–197571.22005–201079.71975–198072.32010–201580.41980–198573.72015–202081.1Source: ''UN World Population Prospects'';Life expectancy at birth::''total population:'' 80.8 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 34th:''male:'' 78.5 years:''female:'' 83.3 years (2017 est.", ")=== Age structure ===:''0–14 years:'' 12.83% (male 5,299,798 /female 5,024,184):''15–24 years:'' 9.98% (male 4,092,901 /female 3,933,997):''25–54 years:'' 39.87% (male 16,181,931 /female 15,896,528):''55–64 years:'' 14.96% (male 5,989,111 /female 6,047,449):''65 years and over:'' 22.36% (male 7,930,590 /female 10,061,248) (2018 est.", "):'''Median age'''::total: 47.4 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 3rd:male: 46.2 years:female: 48.5 years (2018 est.", ")File:Germany Sex By Age 1933.png|Population pyramid in 1933File:Germany sex by age 1946 10 29.png|Population pyramid in 1946File:Germany sex by age 1950 12 31.png|Population pyramid in 1950File:Population Pyramid Germany Year 2000.png|Population pyramid in 2000381x381pxThree population pyramids of Germany: in 1889, 1989 and 2000" ], [ "Vital statistics", "===Statistics since 1817===Population statistics since 1817.Territorial changes of Germany occurred in 1866 (establishment of North German Confederation, 1871) (German unification and annexation of Alsace-Lorraine), 1918/1919, 1921/1922, 1945/1946 and in 1990.Death data is incomplete for both world wars, especially WWII.Average population (June 30)Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Crude migration change (per 1000)Total Fertility Rates All ofGermany FRG (Former)GDR 1817 25,009,000 987,856 675,243 312,613 39.5 27.0 12.5 1818 25,369,000 1,002,076 687,500 314,576 39.5 27.1 12.4 2.0 1819 25,733,000 1,067,920 717,951 349,969 41.5 27.9 13.6 0.7 1820 26,101,000 1,041,430 636,864 404,566 39.9 24.4 15.5 -1.2 1821 26,473,000 1,080,098 606,232 473,867 40.8 22.9 17.9 -3.6 1822 26,851,000 1,065,985 660,535 405,450 39.7 24.6 15.1 -0.8 1823 27,217,000 1,056,020 666,817 389,203 38.8 24.5 14.3 -0.7 1824 27,571,000 1,064,241 667,218 397,022 38.6 24.2 14.4 -1.4 1825 27,930,000 1,092,063 684,285 407,778 39.1 24.5 14.6 -1.6 1826 28,259,000 1,099,275 737,560 361,715 38.9 26.1 12.8 -1.0 1827 28,558,000 1,030,944 753,931 277,013 36.1 26.4 9.7 0.9 1828 28,863,000 1,041,954 767,756 274,199 36.1 26.6 9.5 1.2 1829 29,143,000 1,028,748 810,175 218,573 35.3 27.8 7.5 2.2 1830 29,392,000 1,043,416 805,341 238,075 35.5 27.4 8.1 0.4 1831 29,642,000 1,037,047 901,117 136,353 35.0 30.4 4.6 3.9 1832 29,906,000 1,019,795 864,283 155,511 34.1 28.9 5.2 3.7 1833 30,185,000 1,107,790 860,273 247,517 36.7 28.2 8.2 1.1 1834 30,467,000 1,145,559 895,730 249,829 37.6 29.4 8.2 1.1 1835 30,802,000 1,121,193 807,012 314,180 36.4 26.2 10.2 0.8 1836 31,129,000 1,142,434 806,241 336,193 36.7 25.9 10.8 -0.2 1837 31,455,000 1,141,817 915,341 226,476 36.3 29.1 7.2 3.3 1838 31,824,000 1,155,211 827,424 327,787 36.3 26.0 10.3 1.4 1839 32,223,000 1,172,917 876,466 296,452 36.4 27.2 9.2 3.3 1840 32,621,000 1,187,404 864,457 322,948 36.4 26.5 9.9 2.5 1841 32,979,000 1,201,587 864,075 337,512 36.4 26.2 10.2 0.8 1842 33,298,000 1,251,102 902,529 348,573 37.6 27.1 10.5 -0.8 1843 33,605,000 1,209,762 905,608 304,154 36.0 26.9 9.1 0.1 1844 33,922,000 1,216,429 830,345 386,084 35.9 24.5 11.4 -2.0 1845 34,284,000 1,278,286 867,729 410,557 37.3 25.3 12.0 -1.3 1846 34,610,000 1,244,369 939,436 304,933 36.0 27.1 8.8 0.7 1847 34,784,000 1,156,820 983,981 172,839 33.3 28.3 5.0 0 1848 34,839,000 1,160,533 1,011,954 148,579 33.3 29.0 4.3 -2.7 1849 35,004,000 1,333,379 947,476 385,903 38.1 27.1 11.0 -6.3 1850 35,303,000 1,311,726 903,521 408,203 37.2 25.6 11.6 -3.1 1851 35,620,000 1,306,877 889,601 417,276 36.7 25.0 11.7 -2.7 1852 35,858,000 1,271,446 1,018,135 253,311 35.5 28.4 7.1 -0.4 1853 35,989,000 1,244,192 978,650 265,542 34.6 27.2 7.4 -3.7 1854 35,923,000 1,226,769 972,726 254,043 34.0 27.0 6.9 -8.7 1855 36,136,000 1,162,945 1,016,284 146,661 32.2 28.1 4.1 1.8 1856 36,257,000 1,215,390 913,913 301,477 33.5 25.2 8.3 -5.0 1857 36,524,000 1,315,034 991,753 323,281 36.0 27.2 8.9 -1.5 1858 36,828,000 1,354,817 985,176 368,641 36.8 26.8 10.0 -1.7 1859 37,188,000 1,393,339 956,924 436,415 37.5 25.7 11.7 -1.9 1860 37,609,000 1,367,012 873,364 493,648 36.3 23.2 13.1 -1.8 1861 38,001,000 1,357,355 972,989 384,366 35.7 25.6 10.1 0.3 1862 38,360,000 1,358,896 945,530 413,366 35.4 24.6 10.8 -1.4 1863 38,763,000 1,454,340 996,193 458,147 37.5 25.7 11.8 -1.3 1864 39,187,000 1,481,778 1,027,756 454,022 37.8 26.2 11.6 -0.7 1865 39,545,000 1,488,620 1,091,419 397,201 37.6 27.6 10.0 -0.9 1866 39,765,000 1,505,287 1,217,591 287,696 37.8 30.6 7.2 -1.6 1867 40,031,000 1,471,747 1,045,534 426,213 36.8 26.1 10.6 -3.9 1868 40,223,000 1,481,727 1,110,620 371,107 36.8 27.6 9.2 -4.4 1869 40,493,000 1,529,387 1,089,503 439,884 37.8 26.9 10.9 -4.2 1870 40,804,000 1,569,206 1,117,875 451,331 38.5 27.4 11.1 -3.4 1871 40,997,000 1,414,248 1,212,869 201,379 34.5 29.6 4.9 -0.2 4.47 1872 41,230,000 1,626,037 1,194,732 431,305 39.5 29.0 10.5 -4.8 5.11 1873 41,564,000 1,648,117 1,174,293 473,824 39.7 28.3 11.4 -3.3 5.17 1874 42,004,000 1,683,440 1,122,396 561,044 40.1 26.7 13.4 -2.8 5.24 1875 42,518,000 1,724,412 1,172,393 552,019 40.6 27.6 13.0 -0.8 5.34 1876 43,059,000 1,761,046 1,134,452 626,594 40.9 26.3 14.6 -1.9 5.42 1877 43,610,000 1,744,659 1,152,023 592,636 40.0 26.4 13.6 -0.8 5.34 1878 44,135,000 1,716,852 1,156,337 560,515 35.5 28.4 12.7 -0.7 5.20 1879 44,655,000 1,737,080 1,143,168 593,912 38.9 26.2 12.5 -0.7 5.22 1880 45,095,000 1,696,175 1,173,205 522,970 37.6 26.0 11.6 -1.7 5.05 1881 45,426,000 1,682,649 1,156,391 525,758 37.0 25.5 11.5 -4.2 4.98 1882 45,717,000 1,702,348 1,176,853 525,495 37.2 25.7 11.5 -5.1 5.01 1883 46,014,000 1,683,699 1,190,002 493,697 36.6 25.9 10.7 -4.2 4.92 1884 46,335,000 1,725,583 1,203,500 522,083 37.2 26.0 11.3 -4.3 5.02 1885 46,705,000 1,729,927 1,199,742 530,185 37.0 25.7 11.4 -3.4 4.99 1886 47,103,000 1,746,133 1,233,737 512,396 37.1 26.2 10.9 -2.4 4.99 1887 47,540,000 1,757,079 1,151,924 605,155 36.9 24.2 12.7 -3.4 4.96 1888 48,020,000 1,761,407 1,142,826 618,581 36.6 23.7 12.9 -2.8 4.92 1889 48,512,000 1,772,570 1,153,087 619,483 36.4 23.7 12.8 -2.6 4.88 1890 49,239,000 1,759,253 1,199,006 560,247 35.7 24.4 11.4 3.6 4.78 1891 49,767,000 1,840,172 1,164,421 675,751 37.0 23.4 13.6 -2.9 4.92 1892 50,279,000 1,795,971 1,211,402 584,569 35.7 24.1 11.6 -1.3 4.73 1893 50,778,000 1,865,715 1,248,201 617,514 36.8 24.6 12.2 -2.3 4.83 1894 51,339,000 1,841,205 1,144,331 696,874 35.9 22.3 13.6 -2.6 4.70 1895 52,001,000 1,877,278 1,151,488 725,790 36.1 22.1 14.0 -1.1 4.71 1896 52,753,000 1,914,749 1,098,966 815,783 36.3 20.8 15.5 -1.0 4.72 1897 53,549,000 1,926,690 1,142,056 784,634 36.1 21.3 14.7 0.4 4.67 1898 54,406,000 1,964,731 1,117,860 846,871 36.1 20.5 15.6 0.4 4.69 1899 55,248,000 1,980,304 1,185,197 795,107 35.9 21.5 14.4 1.1 4.66 1900 56,046,000 1,996,139 1,236,382 759,757 35.6 22.1 13.6 0.8 4.63 1901 56,874,000 2,032,313 1,174,489 857,824 35.7 20.7 15.0 -0.2 4.65 1902 57,767,000 2,024,735 1,122,492 902,243 35.1 19.4 15.7 0 4.56 1903 58,629,000 1,983,078 1,170,905 812,173 33.8 20.0 13.8 1.1 4.40 1904 59,475,000 2,025,847 1,163,183 862,664 34.0 19.6 14.5 -0.1 4.42 1905 60,314,000 1,987,153 1,194,314 792,839 33.0 19.8 13.1 1.0 4.27 1906 61,153,000 2,022,477 1,112,202 910,275 33.1 18.2 14.9 -1.0 4.28 1907 62,013,000 1,999,933 1,117,309 882,624 32.3 18.0 14.2 -0.1 4.18 1908 62,863,000 2,015,052 1,135,490 879,562 32.1 18.1 14.0 -0.3 4.15 1909 63,857,000 1,978,278 1,094,217 884,061 31.0 17.2 13.9 1.9 4.01 1910 64,568,000 1,924,778 1,045,665 879,113 29.8 16.2 13.6 -2.5 3.85 1911 65,359,000 1,870,729 1,130,784 739,945 28.6 17.3 11.3 1.0 3.69 1912 66,146,000 1,869,636 1,029,749 839,887 28.3 15.6 12.7 -0.7 3.64 1913 66,978,000 1,838,750 1,004,950 833,800 27.5 15.0 12.4 0.2 3.53 1914 67,790,000 1,818,596 1,291,310 527,286 26.8 19.0 7.8 4.3 3.44 1915 67,883,000 1,382,546 1,450,420 –67,874 20.4 21.4 –1.0 2.4 2.58 1916 67,715,000 1,029,484 1,298,054 –268,570 15.2 19.2 –4.1 1.6 1.90 1917 67,368,000 912,109 1,345,424 –433,315 13.9 20.6 –6.4 1.3 1.66 1918 66,811,000 926,813 1,606,475 –679,662 14.3 24.8 –10.2 1.9 1.67 1919 62,897,000 1,260,500 978,380 282,120 20.0 15.6 4.5 -63.1 2.37 1920 61,794,000 1,599,287 932,929 666,358 25.9 15.1 10.8 -28.3 3.06 1921 62,473,000 1,581,130 869,555 711,575 25.3 13.9 11.4 -0.4 2.98 1922 61,890,000 1,424,804 890,181 534,623 23.0 14.4 8.6 -17.9 2.69 1923 62,250,000 1,318,489 866,754 451,735 21.2 13.9 7.2 -1.4 2.45 1924 62,740,000 1,290,763 766,957 523,806 20.6 12.2 8.3 -0.4 2.37 1925 63,110,000 1,311,259 753,017 558,242 20.8 11.9 8.8 -2.9 2.38 1926 63,510,000 1,245,471 742,955 502,516 19.6 11.7 7.9 -1.6 2.23 1927 63,940,000 1,178,892 765,331 413,561 18.4 12.0 6.5 0.3 2.09 1928 64,470,000 1,199,998 747,444 452,554 18.6 11.6 7.0 1.3 2.11 1929 64,670,000 1,164,062 814,545 349,517 18.0 12.6 5.4 -2.3 2.02 1930 65,130,000 1,144,151 718,807 425,344 17.6 11.0 6.5 0.6 1.98 1931 65,510,000 1,047,775 734,165 313,610 16.0 11.2 4.8 1.0 1.80 1932 65,716,000 993,126 707,642 285,484 15.1 10.8 4.3 -1.2 1.70 1933 66,027,000 971,174 737,877 233,297 14.7 11.2 3.5 1.2 1.67 1934 66,409,000 1,198,350 725,000 473,000 18.0 10.9 7.1 -1.3 2.07 1935 66,871,000 1,263,976 792,018 471,958 18.9 11.8 7.1 -0.1 2.20 1936 67,349,000 1,278,583 795,793 482,790 19.0 11.8 7.2 -0.1 2.25 1937 67,831,000 1,277,046 794,367 482,679 18.8 11.7 7.1 0.1 2.28 1938 68,424,000 1,348,534 799,220 549,314 19.7 11.7 8.0 0.7 2.45 1939 69,314,000 1,413,230 854,348 558,882 20.4 12.3 8.1 4.9 2.59 1940 69,838,000 1,402,258 885,591 516,667 20.1 12.7 7.4 0.2 2.59 1941 70,244,000 1,308,232 844,435 463,797 18.6 12.0 6.6 -0.8 2.43 1942 70,834,000 1,055,915 847,861 208,054 14.9 12.0 2.9 5.5 1.97 1943 70,411,000 1,124,718 853,246 271,472 16.0 12.1 3.9 -9.9 2.10 1944 69,000,000 1,090,000(e) 915,000 175,000 15.8 13.3 2.5 -22.5 2.05 1945 66,000,000 820,000(e) 1,210,000 –390,000 12.4 18.3 –5.9 -37.6 1.56 1946 64,260,000 921,998 1,001,331 –79,333 14.3 15.6 –1.2 -25.2 1.76 1947 65,842,000 1,028,421 932,628 95,793 15.6 14.2 1.5 23.1 1.92 2.01 1.75 1948 67,365,000 1,049,074 804,839 244,235 15.6 11.9 3.6 19.5 1.96 2.07 1.76 1949 68,080,000 1,106,803 770,852 335,951 16.3 11.3 4.9 5.7 2.11 2.14 2.03 1950 68,374,000 1,116,701 748,329 368,372 16.3 10.9 5.4 -1.1 2.14 2.10 2.35 1951 68,882,000 1,106,380 752,697 353,683 16.1 10.9 5.1 2.3 2.16 2.06 2.46 1952 69,171,000 1,105,084 767,639 337,445 16.0 11.1 4.9 -0.7 2.16 2.08 2.42 1953 69,564,000 1,095,029 790,654 304,375 15.7 11.4 4.4 1.3 2.15 2.07 2.40 1954 69,934,000 1,109,743 775,291 334,452 15.9 11.1 4.8 0.5 2.18 2.12 2.38 1955 70,307,000 1,113,408 795,938 317,470 15.8 11.3 4.5 0.8 2.18 2.11 2.38 1956 70,711,000 1,137,169 812,111 325,058 16.1 11.5 4.6 1.1 2.22 2.19 2.30 1957 71,166,000 1,165,555 840,195 325,360 16.4 11.8 4.6 1.8 2.28 2.28 2.24 1958 71,637,000 1,175,870 818,418 357,452 16.4 11.4 5.0 1.6 2.29 2.29 2.22 1959 72,180,000 1,243,922 835,402 408,520 17.2 11.6 5.7 1.9 2.36 2.34 2.37 1960 72,664,000 1,261,614 876,721 384,893 17.4 12.1 5.3 1.4 2.37 2.37 2.35 1961 73,352,000 1,313,505 850,300 463,205 17.9 11.6 6.3 3.2 2.45 2.47 2.42 1962 74,049,000 1,316,534 878,814 437,720 17.8 11.9 5.9 3.6 2.44 2.45 2.42 1963 75,019,000 1,355,595 895,070 460,525 18.1 11.9 6.1 7.0 2.51 2.52 2.47 1964 75,273,000 1,357,304 870,319 486,985 18.0 11.6 6.5 -3.1 2.54 2.55 2.48 1965 76,061,000 1,325,386 907,882 417,504 17.4 11.9 5.5 5.0 2.50 2.51 2.48 1966 76,734,000 1,318,303 911,984 406,319 17.2 11.9 5.3 3.5 2.51 2.54 2.43 1967 76,954,000 1,272,276 914,417 357,859 16.5 11.9 4.7 -1.8 2.48 2.54 2.34 1968 77,249,000 1,214,968 976,521 238,447 15.7 12.6 3.1 0.7 2.38 2.39 2.30 1969 77,918,000 1,142,366 988,092 154,274 14.7 12.7 2.0 6.7 2.21 2.20 2.24 1970 77,772,000 1,047,737 975,664 72,073 13.5 12.5 0.9 -2.8 2.03 1.99 2.19 1971 78,355,000 1,013,396 965,623 47,773 12.9 12.3 0.6 6.9 1.96 1.92 2.13 1972 78,717,000 901,657 965,689 −64,032 11.5 12.3 −0.8 5.4 1.73 1.72 1.79 1973 78,951,000 815,969 962,988 −147,019 10.3 12.2 −1.9 4.9 1.56 1.54 1.58 1974 78,966,000 805,500 956,573 −151,073 10.2 12.1 −1.9 2.1 1.53 1.51 1.54 1975 78,862,000 782,310 989,649 −207,339 9.9 12.5 −2.6 1.3 1.48 1.45 1.54 1976 78,299,000 798,334 966,873 −168,539 10.2 12.3 −2.2 -4.9 1.51 1.46 1.64 1977 78,161,000 805,496 931,155 −125,659 10.3 11.9 −1.6 -0.2 1.51 1.40 1.85 1978 78,066,000 808,619 955,550 −146,931 10.4 12.2 −1.9 0.7 1.50 1.38 1.90 1979 78,082,000 817,217 944,474 −127,257 10.5 12.1 −1.6 1.8 1.50 1.39 1.90 1980 78,295,000 865,789 952,371 −86,582 11.1 12.2 −1.1 3.8 1.56 1.44 1.94 1981 78,399,000 862,100 954,436 −92,336 11.0 12.2 −1.2 2.5 1.53 1.43 1.85 1982 78,293,000 861,275 943,832 −82,557 11.0 12.1 −1.1 -0.3 1.51 1.41 1.86 1983 78,082,000 827,933 941,032 −113,099 10.6 12.1 −1.4 -1.3 1.43 1.33 1.79 1984 77,797,000 812,292 917,299 −105,007 10.4 11.8 −1.3 -2.4 1.39 1.29 1.74 1985 77,619,000 813,803 929,649 −115,846 10.5 12.0 −1.5 -0.8 1.37 1.28 1.73 1986 77,635,000 848,232 925,426 −77,194 10.9 11.9 −1.0 1.2 1.41 1.34 1.70 1987 77,718,000 867,969 901,291 −33,322 11.2 11.6 −0.4 1.5 1.43 1.37 1.74 1988 78,116,000 892,993 900,627 −7,634 11.4 11.5 −0.1 5.2 1.46 1.41 1.67 1989 78,677,000 880,459 903,441 −22,982 11.2 11.5 −0.3 7.5 1.42 1.39 1.56 1990 79,753,227 905,675 921,445 -15,770 11.4 11.6 −0.2 13.9 1.45 1.45 1.52 1991 80,274,564 830,019 911,245 −81,226 10.4 11.4 −1.0 7.5 1.33 1.42 0.98 1992 80,974,632 809,114 885,443 −76,329 10.1 11.0 −1.0 9.7 1.29 1.40 0.83 1993 81,338,093 798,447 897,270 −98,823 9.9 11.1 −1.2 5.7 1.28 1.39 0.78 1994 81,538,603 769,603 884,661 −115,058 9.5 10.9 −1.4 3.9 1.24 1.35 0.77 1995 81,817,499 765,221 884,588 −119,367 9.4 10.8 −1.5 4.9 1.25 1.34 0.84 1996 82,012,162 796,013 882,843 −86,830 9.7 10.8 −1.1 3.5 1.32 1.40 0.95 1997 82,057,379 812,173 860,389 −48,216 9.9 10.5 −0.6 1.2 1.37 1.44 1.04 199882,037,011 785,034 852,382 −67,348 9.6 10.4 −0.8 0.6 1.36 1.41 1.09 1999 82,163,475 770,744 846,330 −75,586 9.4 10.3 −0.9 2.4 1.36 1.41 1.15 2000 82,259,540 766,999 838,797 −71,798 9.3 10.2 −0.9 2.1 1.38 1.41 1.21 2001 82,440,309 734,475 828,541 −94,066 8.9 10.1 −1.1 3.3 1.35 1.38 1.23 2002 82,536,680 719,250 841,686 −122,436 8.7 10.2 −1.5 2.7 1.34 1.37 1.24 2003 82,531,671 706,721 853,946 −147,225 8.6 10.3 −1.8 1.7 1.34 1.36 1.26 2004 82,500,849 705,622 818,271 −112,649 8.5 9.9 −1.4 1.0 1.36 1.37 1.31 2005 82,437,995 685,795 830,227 −144,432 8.3 10.1 −1.8 1.0 1.34 1.36 1.30 2006 82,314,906 672,724 821,627 −148,903 8.2 10.0 −1.8 0.3 1.33 1.34 1.30 2007 82,217,837 684,862 827,155 −142,293 8.3 10.0 −1.7 0.5 1.37 1.38 1.37 2008 81,802,257 682,514 844,439 −161,925 8.3 10.3 −2.0 -3.1 1.38 1.37 1.40 2009 81,802,257 665,126 854,544 −189,418 8.1 10.4 −2.3 2.3 1.36 1.35 1.40 2010 81,751,602 677,947 858,768 −180,821 8.3 10.5 −2.2 1.6 1.39 1.39 1.46 2011 80,233,100 662,685 852,328 −189,643 8.1 10.4 −2.3 -16.3 1.39 1.38 1.46 2012 80,399,300 673,544 869,582 −196,038 8.4 10.8 −2.4 4.5 1.41 1.40 1.48 2013 80,585,700 682,069 893,825 −211,756 8.5 11.1 −2.6 4.9 1.42 1.41 1.49 2014 80,925,000 714,927 868,356 −153,429 8.9 10.8 −1.9 6.1 1.47 1.47 1.54 2015 81,459,000 737,575 925,200 −187,625 9.1 11.4 −2.3 8.9 1.50 1.50 1.56 2016 82,349,400 792,141 910,902 −118,761 9.6 11.1 −1.4 12.31.591.601.64 2017 82,665,600 784,901 932,272 −147,371 9.5 11.3 −1.8 5.6 1.57 1.58 1.61 2018 82,887,000 787,523 954,874 −167,351 9.5 11.5 −2.0 4.7 1.57 1.58 1.60 2019 83,073,062 778,090 939,520 −161,430 9.4 11.3 −1.9 4.1 1.54 1.56 1.56 2020 83,122,889 773,144 985,572 −212,428 9.3 11.8 −2.6 3.21.53 1.55 1.54 2021 83,129,285 795,492 1,023,687 −228,195 9.6 12.3 −2.7 2.8 1.58 1.60 1.54 2022 84,079,811 738,819 1,066,341 –327,522 8.8 12.7 –3.9 15.3 1.46 1.48 1.4320231,020,907 12.2In 2022, 547,254 (74.07%) children were born to mothers with German citizenship, while 97,345 (13.18%) children were born to mothers with European citizenship (excluding Turkey) and 94,220 (12.75%) children were born to mothers with other citizenship.===Current vital statistics===+ Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''January—October 2022''' 624,076 862,256 -238,180 '''January—October 2023''' 576,535 835,688 -259,153 '''Difference''' -47,541 (−7.61%) -26,588 (-3.08%) -20,973===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 39 145 941 41 073 754 80 219 695 100 0–4 1 714 872 1 624 023 3 338 895 4.16 5–9 1 809 024 1 716 806 3 525 830 4.40 10–14 2 021 305 1 919 261 3 940 566 4.91 15–19 2 057 155 1 956 725 4 013 880 5.00 20–24 2 463 932 2 371 707 4 835 639 6.03 25–29 2 455 885 2 416 648 4 872 533 6.07 30–34 2 385 305 2 366 606 4 751 911 5.92 35–39 2 378 055 2 364 838 4 742 893 5.91 40–44 3 209 481 3 141 708 6 351 189 7.92 45–49 3 547 254 3 452 425 6 999 679 8.73 50–54 3 113 463 3 092 831 6 206 294 7.74 55–59 2 668 976 2 750 474 5 419 450 6.76 60–64 2 298 903 2 403 912 4 702 815 5.86 65-69 1 999 287 2 174 064 4 173 351 5.20 70-74 2 247 196 2 614 043 4 861 239 6.06 75-79 1 413 881 1 856 402 3 270 283 4.08 80-84 878 797 1 449 286 2 328 083 2.90 85-89 369 029 966 047 1 335 076 1.66 90-94 95 074 335 526 430 600 0.54 95-99 17 388 88 656 106 044 0.13 100+ 1 679 11 766 13 445 0.02Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 5 545 201 5 260 090 10 805 291 13.47 15–64 26 578 409 26 317 874 52 896 283 65.94 65+ 7 022 331 9 495 790 16 518 121 20.59Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 41 026 519 42 128 512 83 155 031 100 0–4 2 036 084 1 933 054 3 969 138 4.77 5–9 1 944 171 1 839 397 3 783 568 4.55 10–14 1 916 110 1 808 984 3 725 094 4.48 15–19 1 991 487 1 865 287 3 856 774 4.64 20–24 2 394 221 2 176 270 4 570 491 5.50 25–29 2 552 806 2 360 133 4 912 939 5.91 30–34 2 876 938 2 704 150 5 581 088 6.71 35–39 2 688 873 2 602 003 5 290 876 6.36 40–44 2 531 208 2 503 680 5 034 888 6.05 45–49 2 526 278 2 509 582 5 035 860 6.06 50–54 3 265 131 3 222 093 6 487 224 7.80 55–59 3 414 124 3 403 194 6 817 318 8.20 60–64 2 866 561 2 951 576 5 818 137 7.00 65-69 2 333 788 2 565 316 4 899 104 5.89 70-74 1 854 514 2 113 556 3 968 070 4.77 75-79 1 551 030 1 916 998 3 468 028 4.17 80-84 1 432 318 1 998 184 3 430 502 4.13 85-89 615 608 1 046 633 1 662 241 2.00 90-94 200 432 471 151 671 583 0.81 95-99 30 826 120 817 151 643 0.18 100-104 3 122 13 587 16 709 0.02 105-109 703 2 417 3 120 <0.01 110+ 186 450 636 <0.01Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 5 896 365 5 581 435 11 477 800 13.80 15–64 27 107 627 26 297 968 53 405 595 64.22 65+ 8 022 527 10 249 109 18 271 636 21.97" ], [ "Social issues", "Most childbirths in Germany happen within marriage.", "Out of 778,080 births in 2019, 258,835 were to unmarried parents, which means that around 33% or one third of the children are born out of wedlock, while two thirds are within.", "This percentage of unmarried birth has long been growing and reached 33% in 2010, more than twice of what it was in 1990.However in recent years it has started to stagnate or even decrease.The Mikrozensus done in 2008 revealed that the number of children a German woman aged 40 to 75 had, was closely linked to her educational achievement.In Western Germany the most educated women were the most likely to be childless.", "26% of those groups stated they were childless, while 16% of those having an intermediate education, and 11% of those having compulsory education, stated the same.In Eastern Germany however, 9% of the most educated women of that age group and 7% of those who had an intermediary education were childless, while 12% of those having only compulsory education were childless.The reason for that east-western difference is that the GDR had an \"educated mother scheme\" and actively tried to encourage first births among the more educated.", "It did so by propagandizing the opinion that every educated woman should \"present at least one child to socialism\" and also by financially rewarding its more educated citizen to become parents.", "The government especially tried to persuade students to become parents while still in college and it was quite successful in doing so.", "In 1986 38% of all women, who were about to graduate from college, were mothers of at least one child and additional 14% were pregnant and 43% of all men, who were about to graduate from college, were fathers of at least one child.", "There was a sharp decline in the birth rate and especially in the birth rate of the educated after the fall of the Berlin wall.", "Nowadays, 5% of those about to graduate from college are parents.The more educated a Western German mother aged 40 to 75 was in 2008, the less likely she was to have a big family.", "Percent of Western German mothers having 1, 2 and 3 or more children by educational attainment number of children compulsory education intermediary education highest education one child 22 30 31 two children 39 48 48 three or more children 39 22 21The same was true for a mother living in Eastern Germany in 2008.Percent of Eastern German mothers having 1, 2 and 3 and more children by educational attainment number of children compulsory education intermediary education highest education one child 23 33 33 two children 37 46 51 three or more children 40 21 16In 2011, this trend was reversed in Eastern Germany, where more highly educated women now had a somewhat higher fertility rate than the rest of the population.Persons who said they had no religion tend to have fewer children than those who identify as Christians, and studies also found that conservative-leaning Christians had more children compared to liberal-leaning Christians.A study done in 2005 in the western German state of Nordrhein-Westfalen by the HDZ revealed that childlessness was especially widespread among scientists.", "It showed that 78% of the women scientists and 71% of the male scientists working in that state were childless.=== Homelessness ===" ], [ "Ethnic minorities and migrant background (''Migrationshintergrund'')", "Germany does not collect data on the ethnic and racial identifications of its citizens, but does collect data on the background group by birth of an individual.", "The Federal Statistical Office defines persons with a migrant background as all persons who migrated to the present area of the Federal Republic of Germany after 1949, plus all foreign nationals born in Germany and all persons born in Germany as German nationals with at least one parent who migrated to Germany or was born in Germany as a foreign national.", "The figures presented here are based on this definition only.In 2010, 2.3 million families with children under 18 years were living in Germany, in which at least one parent had foreign roots.", "They represented 29% of the total of 8.1 million families with minor children.", "Compared with 2005 – the year when the microcensus started to collect detailed information on the population with a migrant background – the proportion of migrant families has risen by 2 percentage points.", "In 2019, 40% children under 5 years old had migrant background.Most of the families with a migrant background live in the western part of Germany.", "In 2010, the proportion of migrant families in all families was 32% in the former territory of the Federal Republic.", "This figure was more than double that in the new Länder (incl.", "Berlin) where it stood at 15%.", "Eastern Germany has a much lower proportion of immigrants than the West, as the GDR did not let in that many guest workers and Eastern Germany's economy is not doing as well as West Germany's and had a higher percentage of jobless persons until recently.", "However in recent years the number of people with an immigrant background in East Germany has been growing as refugees (as well as German Repatriates) are distributed with the Königssteiner Schlüssel, so every German state has to take the same number of them compared to its population and economy.", "In 2019 19.036 million people or 89,6% of people with an immigrant background live in Western Germany (excluding Berlin), being 28,7% of its population, while 1.016 million people with immigrant background 4,8% live in Eastern States, being 8,2% of population, and 1.194 million people with an immigrant background 5,6% live in Berlin, being 33,1% of its population.In 2019, 26% of Germans of any age group (up from 18,4% in 2008) and 39% of German children (up from 30% in 2008) had at least one parent born abroad.", "Average age for Germans with at least one parent born abroad was 35.6 years (up from 33.8 years in 2008), while that for Germans, who had two parents born in Germany was 47.3 years (up from 44.6 in 2008).In 2022, 41 percent of the under-15 age group had a migrant background, 36 percent of the 15 to 49-year-old age group had a migrant background and 19 percent of the age group above (50+).The largest groups of people with an immigrant background in Germany are people that have Turkey, Poland and Russia as their ancestral homelands., the population by background was as follows:Major groups which reside in Germany by ancestry as of 2019Background groupYear2005201120162022Number%Number%Number%Number%European (excluding people with European background from Africa, America, Oceania and Asia)72,625,00085.8%71,111,00085.5%20x20px ''EU-27 States''69,315,00085.1%66,849,00080.4%'''''' '''Without migrant background''''''66,413,000''''''81.3%''''''64,551,000''''''81.4%''''''62,989,000''''''77.4%''''''59,278,000''''''71.3%'''20x20px Polish1,046,0001,424,0001,868,0002,3%2,201,0002.6%20x20px Romanian406,000472,000788,0001%1,096,0001.3%20x20px Italian794,000701,000861,0001,1%905,0001.1%20x20px Greek386,000349,000443,0000,5%434,0000.5%20x20px Croat410,000325,000441,0000,5%419,0000.5%20x20px Austrian309,000254,000280,0000,3%353,0000.4%20x20px Bulgarian49,00077,000238,0000,3%340,0000.4%20x20px Spanish173,000142,000209,0000,3%233,0000.3%20x20px Dutch190,000203,000206,0000,3%233,0000.3%border11 French157,000153,000168,0000,2%228,0000.3%Other EU member states (primarily Hungarian, Czech, and Portuguese)824,0001%1,129,0001.4%''European Other''3,310,0004,1%4,262,0005.1%20x20px Russian1,290,0001,189,0001,223,0001,5%1,354,0001.6%20x20px Ukrainian–246,000272,0000,3%583,0000.7% Kosovar Albanian–270,000356,0000,4%542,0000.7%20x20px Bosnian329,000202,000248,0000,3%538,0000.6%20x20px Serb263,065252,000288,0000,4%382,0000.5%Others (primarily Macedonian, Swiss and British)923,0001,1%863,0001%Asians6,218,0007,6%8,495,00010.3%20x20px Turkish2,766,0002,643,0002,797,0003,4%2,835,0003.4%20x20px Kazakh–917,000969,0001,2%1,325,0001.6%20x20px Syrian–53,000521,0000,6%1,225,0001.5%20x20px Afghan88,000131,000231,0000,3%435,0000.5%20x20px Iraqi113,000106,000206,0000,3%393,0000.5%20x20px Iranian150,000130,000164,0000,2%304,0000.4%20x20px Chinese80,00093,000157,0000,2%217,0000.3%20x20px Vietnamese150,000146,000167,0000,2%207,0000.2%Others (primarily Indian, ethnic German repatriates from other post-Soviet Asian states and Arabs from other countries)1,006,0001,2%1,554,0001.9%African477,000508,000744,0000,9%1,159,0001.4%Sub-Saharan African222,000246,000395,0000,5%660,0000.8%20x20px Moroccan147,000141,000191,0000,2%257,0000.3%Other Maghreb countries:108,000121,000158,0000,2%242,0000.3%Americas331,000324,000421,0000,5%682,0000.8%20x20px American140,000123,000154,0000,2%216,0000.3%Other peoples from the American continent191,000201,000267,0000,3%466,0000.5%Australia/Oceania–40,0000,05%26,0000.03%Other/unspecified/mixed2,536,0001,310,0001,381,0001,7%1,628,0001.9%Total: Foreign background15,227,00014,796,00018,443,00022,6%23,825,00028.7%Total81,640,00079,347,00081,432,000100%83,103,000100%File:Age structure by migration background in Germany in 2021.svg|Age structure by migration background in Germany in 2021File:Without migration background age structure in Germany in 2021.svg|Without migration background age structureFile:With migration background age structure in Germany in 2021.svg|With migration backgroundFile:One parent with migration background age structure in Germany in 2021.svg|One parent with migration background Simone Hauswald.JPG|Simone Hauswald has a migration background due to one side of her parents being foreign-born.Mesut Özil (9881761465) Cropped.jpg|Mesut Özil is classified as having a migrant background because both of his parents were born in Turkey.Helene Fischer Wiener Stadthalle Mai 2011.jpg|Helene Fischer has a migrant background despite being ethnically German because she was born in the Soviet Union to parents of the German minority in Russia.Four other sizable groups of people are referred to as \"national minorities\" (''nationale Minderheiten'') because they have lived in their respective regions for centuries: Danes, Frisians, Roma and Sinti, and Sorbs.", "There is a Danish minority (about 50,000, according to government sources) in the northernmost state of Schleswig-Holstein.", "Eastern and Northern Frisians live at Schleswig-Holstein's western coast, and in the north-western part of Lower Saxony.", "They are part of a wider community (Frisia) stretching from Germany to the northern Netherlands.", "The Sorbs, a Slavic people with about 60,000 members (according to government sources), are in the Lusatia region of Saxony and Brandenburg.", "They are the last remnants of the Slavs that lived in central and eastern Germany since the 7th century to have kept their traditions and not been completely integrated into the wider German nation.Until World War II the Poles were recognized as one of the national minorities.", "In 1924 the Union of Poles in Germany had initiated cooperation between all national minorities in Germany under the umbrella organization Association of National Minorities in Germany.", "Some of the union members wanted the Polish communities in easternmost Germany (now Poland) to join the newly established Polish nation after World War I.", "Even before the German invasion of Poland, leading anti-Nazi members of the Polish minority were deported to concentration camps; some were executed at the Piaśnica murder site.", "Minority rights for Poles in Germany were revoked by Hermann Göring's World War II decree of 27 February 1940, and their property was confiscated.After the war ended, the German government did not re-implement national minority rights for ethnic Poles.", "The reason for this is that the areas of Germany which formerly had a native Polish minority were annexed to Poland and the Soviet Union, while almost all of the native German populations (formerly the ethnic majority) in these areas subsequently fled or were expelled by force.", "With the mixed German-Polish territories now lost, the German government subsequently regarded ethnic Poles residing in what remained of Germany as immigrants, just like any other ethnic population with a recent history of arrival.", "In contrast, Germans living in Poland are recognized as national minority and have granted seats in Polish Parliament.", "It must be said, however, that an overwhelming number of Germans in Poland have centuries-old historical ties to the lands they now inhabit, whether from living in territory that once belonged to the German state, or from centuries-old communities.", "In contrast, most Poles in present-day Germany are recent immigrants, though there are some communities which have been present since the 19th and perhaps even the 18th centuries.", "Despite protests by some in the older Polish-German communities, and despite Germany being now a signatory to the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, Germany has so far refused to re-implement minority rights for ethnic Poles, based on the fact that almost all areas of historically mixed German-Polish heritage (where the minority rights formerly existed) are no longer part of Germany and because the vast majority of ethnic Poles now residing in Germany are recent immigrants.Roma people have been in Germany since the Middle Ages.", "They were persecuted by the Nazis, and thousands of Roma living in Germany were killed by the Nazi regime.", "Nowadays, they are spread all over Germany, mostly living in major cities.", "It is difficult to estimate their exact number, as the German government counts them as \"persons without migrant background\" in their statistics.", "There are also many assimilated Sinti and Roma.", "A vague figure given by the German Department of the Interior is about 70,000.In contrast to the old-established Roma population, the majority of them do not have German citizenship, and are classified as immigrants or refugees.A family of so-called \"Spätaussiedler\" (repatriates of ethnic German origin), because the parents were born abroad they will be counted as \"persons with immigrant background\"After World War II, 14 million ethnic Germans were expelled from the eastern territories of Germany and homelands outside the former German Empire.", "The accommodation and integration of these ''Heimatvertriebene'' in the remaining part of Germany, in which many cities and millions of apartments had been destroyed, was a major effort in the post-war occupation zones and later states of Germany.Since the 1960s, ethnic Germans from the People's Republic of Poland and Soviet Union (especially from Kazakhstan, Russia, and Ukraine), have come to Germany.", "During the time of Perestroika, and after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the number of immigrants increased heavily.", "Some of these immigrants are of mixed ancestry.", "During the 10-year period between 1987 and 2001, a total of 1,981,732 ethnic Germans from the FSU immigrated to Germany, along with more than a million of their non-German relatives.", "After 1997, however ethnic Slavs or those belonging to Slavic-Germanic mixed origins outnumbered those with only Germanic descent amongst the immigrants.", "The total number of people currently living in Germany having FSU connection is around 4 to 4.5 million (Including Germans, Slavs, Jews, and those of mixed origins), out of that more than 50% are of German descent.Germany now has Europe's third-largest Jewish population.", "In 2004, twice as many Jews from former Soviet republics settled in Germany as in Israel, bringing the total inflow to more than 100,000 since 1991.Jews have a voice in German public life through the Central Council of Jews in Germany (Zentralrat der Juden in Deutschland).", "Some Jews from the former Soviet Union are of mixed heritage.", "Today, less than 0.1% of the total population of Germany is Jewish.In 2019 there were also a growing number of at least 529,000 black Afro-Germans defined as people with an African migrant background.", "Out of them more than 400 thousand have a citizenship of a Subsahara-African country, with others being German citizens.", "Most of them live in Berlin and Hamburg.", "Numerous persons from northern African Tunisia and Morocco live in Germany.", "While they are considered members of a minority group, for the most part, they do not considers themselves \"Afro-Germans,\" nor are most of them perceived as such by the German people.", "However, Germany does not keep any statistics regarding ethnicity or race.", "Hence, the exact number of Germans of African descent is unknown.Germany's biggest East Asian minorities are the Chinese people in Germany, numbering 189,000and Vietnamese people in Germany, numbering 188,000, many of whom living in Berlin and eastern Germany.Also there are about 35,000 Japanese citizens residing in Germany.", "There are also groups of South Asian and Southeast Asian immigrants.", "Around 163,000 Indians and 124,000 Pakistanis live in Germany.", "Additionally some 30,000 Filipino citizens and more than 20,000 Indonesian citizens reside in Germany.Numerous descendants of the so-called ''Gastarbeiter'' live in Germany.", "The ''Gastarbeiter'' mostly came from Turkey, Italy, Greece, Spain, Morocco, Portugal, the former Yugoslavia, Tunisia and Chile.Also included were Vietnam, Mongolia, North Korea, Angola, Mozambique and Cuba when the former East Germany existed until reunification in 1990.The (socialist) German Democratic Republic (East Germany) however had their guest-workers stay in single-sex dormitories.", "Female guest workers had to sign contracts saying that they were not allowed to fall pregnant during their stay.", "If they fell pregnant nevertheless they faced forced abortion or deportation.", "This is one of the reasons why the vast majority of ethnic minorities today lives in western Germany and also one of the reasons why minorities such as the Vietnamese have the most unusual population pyramid, with nearly all second-generation Vietnamese Germans born after 1989.Proportion of Germans without a migrant background (2016)second-largest number of international migrants worldwide.", "In 2016, around 23% of Germany's population do not hold a German passport or are descendants of immigrants." ], [ "Foreign nationals in Germany", "German and foreign national population pyramid of Germany in 2021As the end of 2022, the most common groups of resident foreign nationals in Germany were as follows:This list does not include non-ethnic Germans with German nationality and foreign nationals without resident status.RankNationalityPopulation (31.12.2022) Total 13,383,910 1,487,1102 1,164,2003 923,8054 883,6705 880,7806 644,9707 436,3258 429,6659 377,24010 361,27011 290,61512 284,59513 280,85014 251,36515 233,77516 214,69517 210,38518 193,46019 185,75520 150,29521 149,55022 146,38023 143,55524 140,32025 139,435 121,42027 120,53528 108,55529 95,09530 84,605" ], [ "Population density and distribution", "municipalityWith an estimated 83.2 million inhabitants in December 2020, Germany is the second-most populous country in Europe after Russia, and ranks as the 19th largest country in the world in terms of population.", "Its population density stands at 233 inhabitants per square kilometer.===States===Germany comprises sixteen states that are collectively referred to as ''Länder''.", "Due to differences in size and population the subdivision of these states varies, especially between city-states (''Stadtstaaten'') and states with larger territories (''Flächenländer'').", "For regional administrative purposes four states, namely Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Hesse and North Rhine-Westphalia, consist of a total of 19 Government Districts (''Regierungsbezirke'').", "As of 2019 Germany is divided into 400 districts (''Kreise'') on municipal level, these consist of 294 rural districts and 106 urban districts.Germany states by foreigners as percentage of population as of November 2020 State Capital Area(km2) Population(31 December 2022) Foreigners Population density(per km2) North Rhine-Westphalia Düsseldorf 34,11218,139,116 2,828,367 532 Bavaria Munich 70,54113,369,116 2,073,494 190 Baden-Württemberg Stuttgart 35,74811,280,257 2,012,237 316 Lower Saxony Hanover 47,7098,140,242 959,786 171 Hesse Wiesbaden 21,1166,391,360 1,199,775 303 Rhineland-Palatinate Mainz 19,8584,159,150 566,026 209 Saxony Dresden 18,4504,086,152 300,164 221 Berlin Berlin 8913,755,251 834,349 4,215 Schleswig-Holstein Kiel 15,8042,953,270 299,787 187 Brandenburg Potsdam 29,6542,573,135 179,872 87 Saxony-Anhalt Magdeburg 20,4542,186,643 160,990 107 Thuringia Erfurt 16,2022,126,846 161,291 131 Hamburg Hamburg 7551,892,122 363,283 2,506 Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Schwerin 23,2951,628,378 105,437 70 Saarland Saarbrücken 2,571992,666 139,189 386 Bremen Bremen 419684,864 144,148 1,634 Germany Berlin 357,58284,358,845 12,324,195 236===Urbanization===Germany officially has eleven metropolitan regions.", "In 2005, Germany had 82 cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants.Metropolitan regionLocationDescriptionPopulationLarge Minority GroupsRhine-Ruhr90pxThe metropolitan area is part of the pan-European Blue Banana mega region and is a significant industrial and commercial hub, home to many of Germany's biggest corporations and contributing as much as 15% to the German GDP.", "Included in the rather polycentric conurbation are the cities of Cologne, Düsseldorf, Bonn, Dortmund and Essen served by two of the country's largest airports Düsseldorf Airport and the Cologne Bonn Airport.", "Particularly among young Germans, Cologne and Düsseldorf are known for their nightlife and open-minded atmosphere.", "approx.", "10 millionTurks, Poles, Italians, Romanians, Africans, Arabs, Greeks, Dutch, Russians, Serbs, Bulgarians and SpaniardsBerlin/Brandenburg90pxBerlin is the capital and largest city.", "It lies in the eastern part of the country, completely surrounded by the rather sparsely populated state of Brandenburg.", "Berlin is regarded as one of Europe's most open, vibrant and ever changing capitals.", "The city is arguably the most diverse city in Germany regarding culture and ethnicity.", "Regarded as an economically weak region of Germany for a long time, it is now transforming itself into the entrepreneurial center of Europe.", "Dubbed the \"Silicon Allee\" by insiders of the tech industry, Berlin is home to countless startup companies and one of Germany's densest knowledge hubs with 4 public universities and countless research centers.approx.", "6 millionTurks, Russians, Poles, Africans, Italians, Americans, Vietnamese, Serbs, Arabs, Bulgarians, Romanians, French and SpaniardsMunich90pxThe metropolitan area in and around Munich has one of Germany's highest standard of living.", "Housing some of the countries largest car and machine companies, it is known for its economic strength mixed with the uniqueness of Bavarian culture, taking up almost the entirety of southern Bavaria.", "It is the closest metropolitan area to the Alps.approx.", "5.7 millionTurks, Albanians, Croats, Italians, Poles, Greeks, Austrians, Romanians, Arabs, Africans and SerbsRhine-Main90pxFrankfurt is the financial and commercial center both for Germany and continental Europe.", "Almost all of Germany's big banks and the ECB have their HQ located inside the city of Frankfurt.", "Despite not having a population of over a million, it is Germany's only city with a large, visible cluster of skyscrapers.", "The city is one of Europe's biggest transit hubs with Europe's 6th busiest airport (Frankfurt airport), Germany's second busiest railway stations and one of the EU's most heavily used interchanges.approx.", "5.5 millionTurks, Poles, Italians, African, Croats, Romanians, Greeks, Serbs, Spaniards, Americans, Chinese, Arabs and IndiansHamburg90pxHamburg is the country's second largest city and the biggest Hanseatic city in Europe.", "It is Europe's 3rd busiest container port with just under 9 million TEUs annually.", "The city is proud of its diverse nightlife and music scene centered in and around the famous St. Pauli district.approx.", "5.3 millionTurks, Albanians, Poles, African, Portuguese, Romanians, Russians, Italians and SpaniardsStuttgart90pxStuttgart has a reputation for research, inventions and industry.", "The German headquarters of many international enterprises are in Stuttgart.", "This contrasts with the strong rural, down-to-earth attitude of the Stuttgarters throughout the classes.", "A popular slogan is \"We are good at everything.", "Except speaking High (standard) German.\"approx.", "5.2 millionTurks, Albanians, Greeks, Dutch, Italians, Croats, Serbs, French, Chinese, Romanians, Americans and Spaniards.Hannover–Braunschweig–Göttingen–Wolfsburg90pxThe relatively urban south of Lower Saxony, located on route between the Ruhr area and Berlin, and the route form Hamburg to the south, has been important for logistics, industry, but also developed a strong standing in the service industries.approx.", "3.7 millionTurks, Kurds (especially around Celle), Serbs, Ukrainians, Greeks, Russians, Italians (especially in Wolfsburg) and Spanish (Especially in Hanover).Bremen/Oldenburg90px Located in the northwestern part of Germany, the main axis contains the cities of Bremen, Delmenhorst and Oldenburg, with the cities of Wilhelmshaven and Bremerhaven being the northern corners at the north sea.", "Major rural areas are covered in between these cities.", "There is a smooth transition to the Hamburg metropolitan area to the east.approx.", "2.7 millionTurks, Russians, Albanians, Serbs, Portuguese, Iranians, Dutch, Americans and Britons.Central German Metropolitan Region80pxThe economic region stretches across three federal states.", "The major city is Leipzig in Saxony, other important cities are Halle/Saale, Gera and Jena.", "The region is known for its universities and research, for its trade fairs and conventions, as a central distribution hub (Leipzig-Halle-Airport), as center for chemical and industrial production, for the well preserved inner cities and the developed classical and alternative cultural scene.", "Leipzig is one of the fastest-growing cities in Germany, with a rising economy.approx.", "2.4 milRussians, Poles, Vietnamese, Italians, Romanians, Ukrainians, Chinese, Turks, Portuguese, people from Syria, from Kazakhstan and from Afghanistan." ], [ "Immigration", " The United Nations Population Fund lists Germany as host to the third-highest number of international migrants worldwide, behind the United States and Saudi Arabia.", "The largest ethnic group of non-German origin are the Turkish.", "Since the 1960s, West and later reunified Germany has attracted immigrants primarily from Southern and Eastern Europe as well as Turkey, many of whom (or their children) have acquired German citizenship over time.", "While most of these immigrants initially arrived as guest workers, changes to guest worker legislation allowed many to stay and to build lives in Germany.Germany had signed special visa agreements with several countries in times of severe labour shortages or when particular skills were deficient within the country.", "During the 1960s and 1970s, agreements were signed with the governments of Turkey, Yugoslavia, Italy and Spain to help Germany overcome its severe labour shortage.As of 2012, after Germany fully legalized visa-free immigrants from the eastern states of the EU, the largest sources of net immigration to Germany were other European countries, most importantly Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Italy, Spain, and Greece; notably, in the case of Turkey, German Turks moving to Turkey slightly outnumbered new immigrants in 2012, however, in recent years there are more Turkish immigrants in Germany than emigrants again, including illegal Turkish migrants.In 2015, there was a large increase in asylum applications following the 2015 refugee crisis, mainly due to the violent conflicts in Syria, Iraq and Afghanistan: 476,649 asylum applications were counted that year.", "This number went up to even 745,545 in 2016 and began to decline after it.In 2022, some 23.8 million people in Germany, or 28.7% of the population have migrant background.Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, over 1.06 million refugees from Ukraine were recorded in Germany as of April 2023." ], [ "Education", "Cadets of the German Navy exercising in front of one of the gyms of Germany's naval officers school, the Marineschule MürwikResponsibility for educational oversight in Germany lies primarily with the individual federated states.", "Since the 1960s, a reform movement has attempted to unify secondary education into a ''Gesamtschule'' (comprehensive school); several West German states later simplified their school systems to two or three tiers.", "A system of apprenticeship called ''Duale Ausbildung'' (\"dual education\") allows pupils in vocational training to learn in a company as well as in a state-run vocational school.Optional kindergarten education is provided for all children between three and six years old, after which school attendance is compulsory for at least nine years, depending on the state.", "Primary education usually lasts for four years and public schools are not stratified at this stage.", "In contrast, secondary education includes three traditional types of schools focused on different levels of academic ability: the ''Gymnasium'' enrols the most academically promising children and prepares students for university studies; the ''Realschule'' for intermediate students lasts six years; the ''Hauptschule'' prepares pupils for vocational education.In addition Germany has a comprehensive school known as the ''Gesamtschule''.", "While some German schools such as the Gymnasium and the Realschule have rather strict entrance requirements, the Gesamtschule does not have such requirements.", "They offer college preparatory classes for the students who are doing well, general education classes for average students, and remedial courses for those who aren't doing that well.", "In most cases students attending a Gesamtschule may graduate with the Hauptschulabschluss, the Realschulabschluss or the Abitur depending on how well they did in school.The percentage of students attending a Gesamtschule varies by Bundesland.", "In 2007 the State of Brandenburg more than 50% of all students attended a Gesamtschule, while in the State of Bavaria less than 1% did.The general entrance requirement for university is Abitur, a qualification normally based on continuous assessment during the last few years at school and final examinations; however there are a number of exceptions, and precise requirements vary, depending on the state, the university and the subject.", "Germany's universities are recognised internationally; in the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) for 2008, six of the top 100 universities in the world are in Germany, and 18 of the top 200.Nearly all German universities are public institutions, tuition fees in the range of €500 were introduced in some states after 2006, but quickly abolished again until 2014.", "''Percentage of jobholders holding Hauptschulabschluss, Realschulabschluss or Abitur in Germany'''''1970''''''1982''''''1991''''''2000''''''Hauptschulabschluss'''87,7%79,3%66,5%54,9%'''Realschulabschluss'''10,9%17,7%27%34,1%'''Abitur'''1,4%3%6,5%11%===Literacy===Over 99% of those of age 15 and above are estimated to be able to read and write.", "However, a growing number of inhabitants are functionally illiterate.", "The young are much more likely to be functionally illiterate than the old.", "According to a study done by the University of Bremen in cooperation with the \"Bundesverband Alphabetisierung e.V.", "\", 10% of youngsters living in Germany are functionally illiterate and one quarter are able to understand only basic level texts.", "Illiteracy rates of youngsters vary by ethnic group and parents' socioeconomic class." ], [ "Health", "The life expectancy in Germany is 81.1 years (78.7 years males, 83.6 years females, 2020 est.).", ", the principal cause of death was cardiovascular disease, at 42%, followed by malignant tumours, at 25%., about 82,000 Germans had been infected with HIV/AIDS and 26,000 had died from the disease (cumulatively, since 1982).This article may incorporate text from this source, which is in the public domain.According to a 2005 survey, 27% of German adults are smokers.A 2009 study shows Germany is near the median in terms of overweight and obese people in Europe." ], [ "Religion", "2020 map of Christian denominations in the states of GermanyThe national constitutions of 1919 and 1949 guarantee freedom of faith and religion; earlier, these freedoms were mentioned only in state constitutions.", "The modern constitution of 1949 also states that no one may be discriminated against due to their faith or religious opinions.", "A state church does not exist in Germany (see Freedom of religion in Germany).According to a 1990s poll by ''Der Spiegel'', 45% of Germans believe in God, and a quarter in Jesus Christ.", "According to the Eurobarometer Poll 2010, 44% of German citizens responded that \"they believe there is a God\", 25% responded that \"they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force\" and 27% responded that \"they don't believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force\".", "4% gave no response.Christianity is the largest religion in Germany, comprising an estimated 53.9% of the country's population.Smaller religious groups (less than 1%) include Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism.The two largest churches, the Roman Catholic Church and the Protestant Church in Germany (EKD), have lost significant number of adherents.", "In 2020 the Catholic Church accounted for 26.7% and the Evangelical Church for 24.3% of the population.", "Orthodox Church has 1.9% and other Christian churches and groups summed up to 1.1% of the population.", "Since the reunification of Germany, the number of non-religious people has grown and an estimated 40.7% of the country's population are not affiliated with any church or religion.The other religions make up to less than 1% of the population.", "Buddhism has around 200,000 adherents (0.2%), Judaism has around 200,000 adherents (0.2%), Hinduism 90,000 (0.1%), Sikhism 75,000 (0.1%) and Yazidis religion (45,000–60,000).", "All other religious communities in Germany have fewer than 50,000 (<0.1%) adherents.Protestantism is concentrated in the north and east and Roman Catholicism is concentrated in the south and west.", "According to the last nationwide census, Protestantism is more widespread among the population with German citizenship; there are slightly more Catholics total because of the Catholic immigrant population (including such groups as Poles and Italians).", "The former Pope, Benedict XVI, was born in Bavaria.", "Non-religious people, including atheists and agnostics, might make up as many as 55% of the total population, and are especially numerous in the former East Germany and major metropolitan areas.Of the roughly 4 million Muslims, most are Sunnis and Alevites from Turkey, but there are a small number of Shi'ites and other denominations.", "1.9% of the country's overall population declare themselves Orthodox Christians, with Serbs, Greeks, Romanians, Ukrainians and Russians being the most numerous.", "Germany has Europe's third-largest Jewish population (after France and the United Kingdom).", "In 2004, twice as many Jews from former Soviet republics settled in Germany as in Israel, bringing the total Jewish population to more than 200,000, compared to 30,000 prior to German reunification.", "Large cities with significant Jewish populations include Berlin, Frankfurt and Munich.", "Around 250,000 active Buddhists live in Germany; 50% of them are Asian immigrants.===2011 Census===Census results were as follows:* Roman Catholic Church: 24,740,380 or 30.8% of the German population;* Protestant Church: 24,328,100 or 30.3% of the German population;* Other, atheist or not specified (including Protestants outside EKD): 31,151,210 or 38.9% of the German population." ], [ "Languages", "German is the only official and most widely spoken language.", "Standard German is understood throughout the country.In 2021, the Federal Statistical Office of Germany included a new question regarding the language spoken at home in the micro-census, a large sample survey that yearly covers approximately 1% of the German population living in private households, and the results were as follows:+Languages spoken at home, 2022 micro censusLanguageAbsolute numberPercentageTotal population83,103,000100.00Only German65,440,00078.75Mostly German4,125,0004.96Mostly another language13,538,00016.29Of whichAlbanian509,0000.61Arabic1,348,0001.62Bosnian237,0000.29Bulgarian218,0000.26Chinese145,0000.17Danish15,0000.02English861,0001.04French190,0000.23Greek286,0000.34Italian496,0000.60Croatian384,0000.46Kurdish511,0000.61Macedonian87,0000.10Dutch97,0000.12Pahto36,0000.04Persian391,0000.47Polish937,0001.13Portuguese167,0000.20Romanian670,0000.81Russian1,639,0001.97Serbian252,0000.30Spanish284,0000.34Turkish1,879,0002.26Hungarian203,0000.24Ukrainian191,0000.23Vietnamese138,0000.17Another Europeanlanguage277,0000.33Another African language243,0000.29Another Asianlanguage514,0000.62Another language333,0000.4===Minority languages===Bilingual German-Sorbian city limit signsDanish, Low German, Low Rhenish, the Sorbian languages (Lower Sorbian and Upper Sorbian), and the two Frisian languages, Saterfrisian and North Frisian, are officially recognized and protected as minority languages by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in their respective regions.", "With speakers of Romany living in all parts of Germany, the federal government has promised to take action to protect the language.", "Until now, only Hesse has followed Berlin's announcement, and agreed on implementing concrete measures to support Romany speakers.Germany is a strong supporter of the Charter, as evidenced by things like the 2022 report from the Secretary General of the Council of Europe specifically naming Germany as an example of how to incorporate minority languages in State media.", "Still, Germany—like many other signatories of the Charter—has room for improvement in its implementation of the Charter.+ Protected Minority Languages in Germany Language StatesDanish Schleswig-HolsteinNorth Frisian Schleswig-HolsteinSaterland Frisian Lower SaxonyLow German Brandenburg, Bremen, Hamburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Schleswig-Holstein, North Rhine-WestphaliaLow Rhenish North Rhine-Westphalia Upper Sorbian SaxonyLower Sorbian BrandenburgRomany Hesse ''de facto'', ''de jure'' in all states (see text)===High German dialects===City limits sign; this city is called ''Emlichheim'' in High German and ''Emmelkamp'' in Low German.German dialects – some quite distinct from the standard language – are used in everyday speech, especially in rural regions.", "Many dialects, for example the Upper German varieties, are to some degree cultivated as symbols of regional identity and have their own literature, theaters and some TV programming.", "While speaking a dialect outside its native region might be frowned upon, in their native regions some dialects can be spoken by all social classes.", "Nevertheless, partly due to the prevalence of Standard German in media, the use of dialects has declined over the past century, especially in the younger population.The social status of different German dialects can vary greatly.", "The Alemannic and Bavarian dialects of the south are positively valued by their speakers and can be used in almost all social circumstances.", "The Saxonian and Thuringian dialects have less prestige and are subject to derision.", "While Bavarian and Alemannic have kept much of their distinctiveness, the Middle German dialects, which are closer to Standard German, have lost some of their distinctive lexical and grammatical features and tend to be only pronunciation variants of Standard German.===Low Saxon dialects===Low Saxon is officially recognized as a language on its own, but despite this fact, there's little official action taken on fostering the language.", "Historically one third of Germany's territory and population was Low Saxon speaking.", "No data was ever collected on the actual number of speakers, but today the number of speakers ranges around 5 million persons.", "Despite this relatively high number of speakers there is very little coverage in the media (mostly on NDR TV, no regular programming) and very little education in or on the language.", "The language is not fixed as part of the school curriculum and Low Saxon is used as a medium of instruction in one school only in the whole Germany (as a \"model project\" in primary school sided by education in Standard German).", "As a consequence the younger generation refused to adopt the native language of their parents.", "Language prevalence dropped from more than 90% (depending on the exact region) in the 1930s to less than 5% today.", "This accounts for a massive intergenerational gap in language use.", "Older people regularly use the language and take private initiative to maintain the language, but the lack of innovative potential of the younger generation hinders language maintenance.", "The language too has an own literature (around 150 published books every year) and there are many theatres (mostly lay stages, but some professional ones, like for example Ohnsorg-Theater).Use of Low Saxon is mainly restricted to use among acquaintances, like family members, neighbours and friends.", "A meeting of a village council can be held almost completely in Low Saxon if all participants know each other (as long as written protocols are written in Standard German), but a single foreigner can make the whole switching to Standard German.The Low Saxon dialects are different in their status too.", "There's a north–south gradient in language maintenance.", "The Southern dialects of Westfalian, Eastfalian and Brandenburgish have had much stronger speaker losses, than the northern coastal dialects of Northern Low Saxon.", "While Eastfalian has lost speakers to Standard German, Westfalian has lost speakers to Standard German and Standard German based regiolect of the Rhine-Ruhr area.", "Brandenburgish speakers mostly switched to the Standard German-based regiolect of Berlin.", "Brandenburgish is almost completely replaced by the Berlin regiolect.", "Northern Low Saxon speakers switched mostly to pure Standard German.===Foreign languages===English is the most common foreign language and almost universally taught by the secondary level; it is also taught at elementary level in some states.", "Other commonly-taught languages are French, Italian, Spanish and Russian.", "Dutch is taught in states bordering the Netherlands, and Polish in the eastern states bordering Poland.Latin and Ancient Greek are part of the classical education syllabus offered in many secondary schools.According to a 2004 survey, two-thirds of Germany's citizens have at least basic knowledge of English.", "About 20% consider themselves to be competent speakers of French, followed by speakers of Russian (7%), Italian (6.1%), and Spanish (5.6%).", "The relatively high number of Russian speakers is a result of immigration from the former Soviet Union to Germany for almost 10 consecutive years, plus its having been learned in school by many older former East Germans as compulsory first foreign language." ], [ "See also", "* Germans* Census in Germany" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Homepage of the Federal Statistical Office Germany (in English)* German demographics in Online-Databank HISTAT (in German, Registration needed)* Dossier \"The Aging Society\" of the Goethe-Institut* Demographic Profile Germany: United in Decline Allianz Knowledge" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Germany" ], [ "Introduction", " The economy of Germany is a highly developed social market economy.", "It has the largest national economy in Europe, the third-largest by nominal GDP in the world, and fifth by GDP (PPP).", "Due to a volatile currency exchange rate, Germany's GDP as measured in dollars fluctuates sharply.", "In 2017, the country accounted for 28% of the euro area economy according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF).", "Germany is a founding member of the European Union and the Eurozone.In 2016, Germany recorded the highest trade surplus in the world, worth $310 billion.", "This economic result made it the biggest capital exporter globally.", "Germany is one of the largest exporters globally with $1.81 trillion worth of goods and services exported in 2019.The service sector contributes around 70% of the total GDP, industry 29.1%, and agriculture 0.9%.", "Exports accounted for 50.3% of national output.", "The top 10 exports of Germany are vehicles, machinery, chemical goods, electronic products, electrical equipment, pharmaceuticals, transport equipment, basic metals, food products, and rubber and plastics.", "The economy of Germany is the largest manufacturing economy in Europe, and it is less likely to be affected by a financial downturn.", "Germany conducts applied research with practical industrial value and sees itself as a bridge between the latest university insights and industry-specific product and process improvements.", "It generates a great deal of knowledge in its own laboratories.Germany is rich in timber, lignite, potash, and salt.", "Some minor sources of natural gas are being exploited in the state of Lower Saxony.", "Until German reunification, the German Democratic Republic mined for uranium in the Ore Mountains (see also: SAG/SDAG Wismut).", "Energy in Germany is sourced predominantly by fossil fuels (30%), with wind power in second place, then nuclear power, gas, solar, biomass (wood and biofuels), and hydro.", "Germany is the first major industrialised nation to commit to the renewable energy transition called ''Energiewende''.", "Germany is the leading producer of wind turbines in the world.", "Renewables produced 46% of electricity consumed in Germany (as of 2019).", "99 per cent of all German companies belong to the German \"''Mittelstand''\", small and medium-sized enterprises, which are mostly family-owned.", "These companies represent 48% of the global market leaders in their segments, labelled hidden champions.", "Of the world's 2000 largest publicly listed companies measured by revenue, the Fortune Global 2000, 53 are headquartered in Germany, with the top 10 being the following: Allianz, the world's largest insurance company and one of the largest financial services groups and asset managers, largest in Europe; Munich Re, also one of the largest insurance companies; Daimler, Volkswagen, and BMW, among the biggest car markers in the world; Siemens, the world's biggest industrial machinery company; Deutsche Telekom, one of the world's largest telecommunication companies; Bayer, among the biggest biomedical companies; BASF, the world's 2nd biggest chemical producer; and SAP, Europe's biggest software company.6 of the 10 biggest EU metropolitan areas by GDP are in Germany.Germany is the world's top location for trade fairs.", "Around two thirds of the world's leading trade fairs take place in Germany.", "The largest annual international trade fairs and congresses are held in several German cities such as Hanover, Frankfurt, Cologne, Leipzig, and Düsseldorf." ], [ "History", "Real GDP per capita development in Germany since 1820===Age of Industrialisation===The Industrial Revolution in Germany got underway approximately a century later than in the United Kingdom, France, and Belgium, partly because Germany only became a unified country in 1871.File:Maschinenbau-Anstalt Borsig, Berlin Chausseestraße, 1847, Karl Eduard Biermann.jpg|Train factory of August Borsig in 1847File:Kemna Lokomotiven.jpg|Many companies, such as steam-machine producer J. Kemna, modeled themselves on English industry.File:BASF Werk Ludwigshafen 1881.JPG|BASF plant in Ludwigshafen, 1881File:Karl Benz Automobile.jpg|The invention of the automobile.", "Bertha Benz and Karl Benz in a Benz Viktoria, model 1894File:4a15881u.tif|The invention of the cruise ship.", "Albert Ballin's SS ''Auguste Viktoria'' in 1890File:Bonn-Cölner-Eisenbahn 1844.jpg|Railway construction as an expression of the Industrial Revolution (here the Bonn-Cölner railway around 1844)The establishment of the ''Deutscher Zollverein'' (German Customs Union) in 1834 and the expansion of railway systems were the main drivers of Germany's industrial development and political union.", "From 1834, tariff barriers between increasing numbers of the ''Kleindeutschland'' German states were eliminated.", "In 1835 the first German railway linked the Franconian cities of Nuremberg and Fürth – it proved so successful that the decade of the 1840s saw \"railway mania\" in all the German states.", "Between 1845 and 1870, of rail had been built and in 1850 Germany was building its own locomotives.", "Over time, other German states joined the customs union and started linking their railroads, which began to connect the corners of Germany.", "The growth of free trade and a rail system across Germany intensified economic development which opened up new markets for local products, created a pool of middle managers, increased the demand for engineers, architects, and skilled machinists, and stimulated investments in coal and iron.Another factor that propelled German industry forward was the unification of the monetary system, made possible in part by political unification.", "The Deutsche Mark, a new monetary coinage system backed by gold, was introduced in 1871.However, this system did not fully come into use as silver coins retained their value until 1907.The victory of Prussia and her allies over Napoleon III of France in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 marked the end of French hegemony in Europe and resulted in the proclamation of the German Empire in 1871.The establishment of the empire inherently presented Europe with the reality of a new populous and industrialising polity possessing a considerable, and undeniably increasing, economic and diplomatic presence.", "The influence of French economic principles produced important institutional reforms in Germany, including the abolition of feudal restrictions on the sale of large landed estates, the reduction of the power of the guilds in the cities, and the introduction of a new, more efficient commercial law.", "Nonetheless, political decisions about the economy of the empire were still largely controlled by a coalition of \"rye and iron\", that is the Prussian Junker landowners of the east and the Ruhr heavy industry of the west.Regarding politics and society, between 1881 and 1889 Chancellor Otto von Bismarck promoted laws that provided social insurance and improved working conditions.", "He instituted the world's first welfare state.", "Germany was the first to introduce social insurance programmes including universal healthcare, compulsory education, sickness insurance, accident insurance, disability insurance, and a retirement pension.", "Moreover, the government's universal education policy bore fruit with Germany achieving the highest literacy rate in the world – 99% – education levels that provided the nation with more people good at handling numbers, more engineers, chemists, opticians, skilled workers for its factories, skilled managers, knowledgeable farmers, and skilled military personnel.By 1900, Germany surpassed Britain in steel production and became the largest producer behind only the United States.", "The German economic miracle was also intensified by unprecedented population growth from 35 million in 1850 to 67 million in 1913.From 1895 to 1907, the number of workers engaged in machine building doubled from half a million to well over a million.", "Only 40 per cent of Germans lived in rural areas by 1910, a drop from 67% at the birth of the Empire.", "Industry accounted for 60 per cent of the gross national product in 1913.The German chemical industry became the most advanced in the world, and by 1914 the country was producing half the world's electrical equipment.The rapid advance to industrial maturity led to a drastic shift in Germany's economic situation – from a rural economy into a major exporter of finished goods.", "The ratio of the finished product to total exports jumped from 38% in 1872 to 63% in 1912.By 1913 Germany had come to dominate all the European markets.", "By 1914 Germany had become one of the biggest exporters in the world.===Weimar Republic and Third Reich===Gross national product and GNP deflator, year on year change in %, 1926 to 1939, in Germany.", "Via google to Pdf-file of German publicationOccupation by administrative district in the 1925 censusThe Nazis rose to power while unemployment was very high, but achieved full employment later thanks to massive public works programmes such as the ''Reichsbahn'', ''Reichspost'', and the ''Reichsautobahn'' projects.", "In 1935 rearmament in contravention of the Treaty of Versailles added to the economy.The post-1931 financial crisis economic policies of expansionary fiscal policies (as Germany was off the gold standard) was advised by their non-Nazi Minister of Economics, Hjalmar Schacht, who in 1933 became the president of the central bank.", "Schacht later resigned from the post in 1938 and was replaced by Hermann Göring.The trading policies of the Third Reich aimed at self-sufficiency but with a lack of raw materials Germany would have to maintain trade links but on bilateral preferences, foreign exchange controls, import quotas, and export subsidies under what was called the \"New Plan\"(''Neuer Plan'') of 19 September 1934.The \"New Plan\" was based on trade with less developed countries who would trade raw materials for German industrial goods saving currency.", "Southern Europe was preferable to Western Europe and North America as there could be no trade blockades.", "This policy became known as the ''Grosswirtschaftsraum'' (\"greater economic area\") policy.Eventually, the Nazi party developed strong relationships with big business and abolished trade unions in 1933 in order to form the Reich Labour Service (RAD), German Labour Front (DAF) to set working hours, Beauty of Labour (SDA) which set working conditions, and Strength through Joy (KDF) to ensure sports clubs for workers.===West Germany===The Volkswagen Beetle was an icon of West German reconstruction.Beginning with the replacement of the Reichsmark with the Deutsche Mark as legal tender, a lasting period of low inflation and rapid industrial growth was overseen by the government led by German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and his minister of economics, Ludwig Erhard, raising West Germany from total wartime devastation to one of the most developed nations in modern Europe.In 1953 it was decided that Germany was to repay $1.1 billion of the aid it had received.", "The last repayment was made in June 1971.Apart from these factors, hard work and long hours at full capacity among the population in the 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s and extra labour supplied by thousands of ''Gastarbeiter'' (\"guest workers\") provided a vital base for the economic upturn.===East Germany===By the early 1950s, the Soviet Union had seized reparations in the form of agricultural and industrial products and demanded further heavy reparation payments.", "Silesia with the Upper Silesian Coal Basin, and Stettin, a prominent natural port, were lost to Poland.Exports from West Germany exceeded $323 billion in 1988.In the same year, East Germany exported $30.7 billion worth of goods; 65% to other communist states.", "East Germany had zero unemployment.===Federal Republic===, Germany is the third-largest exporter and third-largest importer in the world, producing the largest trade surplus as a national economy.The German economy practically stagnated in the beginning of the 2000s.", "The worst growth figures were achieved in 2002 (+1.4%), in 2003 (+1.0%), and in 2005 (+1.4%).", "Unemployment was also chronically high.", "Due to these problems, together with Germany's aging population, the welfare system came under considerable strain.", "This led the government to push through a wide-ranging programme of belt-tightening reforms, Agenda 2010, including the labour market reforms known as Hartz I - IV.In the later part of the first decade of 2000, the world economy experienced high growth, from which Germany as a leading exporter also profited.", "Some credit the Hartz reforms with achieving high growth and declining unemployment but others contend that they resulted in a massive decrease in standards of living and that its effects are limited and temporary.The nominal GDP of Germany contracted in the second and third quarters of 2008, putting the country in a technical recession following a global and European recession cycle.", "German industrial output dropped to 3.6% in September vis-à-vis August.", "In January 2009 the German government under Angela Merkel approved a €50 billion ($70 billion) economic stimulus plan to protect several sectors from a downturn and a subsequent rise in unemployment rates.", "Germany exited the recession in the second and third quarters of 2009, mostly due to rebounding manufacturing orders and exports - primarily from outside the Eurozone - and relatively steady consumer demand.Germany is a founding member of the EU, the G8, and the G20, and was the world's largest exporter from 2003 to 2008.In 2011 it remained the third largest exporter and third largest importer.", "Most of the country's exports are in engineering, especially machinery, automobiles, chemical goods, and metals.", "Germany is a leading producer of wind turbines and solar-power technology.", "Annual trade fairs and congresses are held in cities throughout Germany.", "2011 was a record-breaking year for the German economy.", "German companies exported goods worth over €1 trillion ($1.3 trillion), the highest figure in history.", "The number of people in work has risen to 41.6 million, the highest recorded figure.Through 2012, Germany's economy continued to be stronger relative to local neighbouring nations.", "In 2023, Germany experienced economic difficulties as a result of the closure of Russian natural gas resources due to Western sanctions following the Russian invasion of Ukraine.", "Germany imported 55% of its gas from Russia at the time when Russia started the invasion in 2022.Amid a global energy crisis, Chancellor Olaf Scholz committed to weaken dependence on Russian energy imports by halting certification of Nord Stream 2, while also committing to his long-term predecessor Angela Merkel's policy of phasing out nuclear energy.", "As of December 2023, Germany is the third largest economy in nominal terms in the world after the United States and China, and the largest economy in Europe.", "It is the third largest export nation in the world." ], [ "Data", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2021 (with IMF staff estimates in 2022–2027).", "Inflation below 5% is in green.YearGDP(in Bil.", "US$PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in Bil.", "US$nominal)GDP per capita(in US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Per cent)Unemployment(in Per cent)Government debt(in % of GDP)1980855.311,130.4853.711,109.71.3%5.4%3.4%n/a1981937.212,174.0718.39,329.60.1%6.3%4.8%n/a1982987.312,833.5693.59,015.0-0.8%5.3%6.7%n/a19831,041.913,590.8691.99,025.21.6%3.3%8.1%n/a19841,110.014,537.9651.98,537.82.8%2.4%8.1%n/a19851,170.215,364.3661.08,678.92.2%2.1%8.1%n/a19861,222.716,041.5944.112,387.02.4%-0.1%7.8%n/a19871,271.316,676.81,174.915,411.51.5%0.2%7.8%n/a19881,365.317,801.41,266.616,514.73.7%1.3%7.7%n/a19891,474.419,033.21,257.416,232.13.9%2.8%6.8%n/a19901,617.120,482.91,598.620,249.15.7%2.7%6.2%n/a19911,755.621,951.91,875.623,453.15.0%3.5%5.5%39.0%19921,830.022,733.42,136.326,538.01.9%5.0%6.6%41.5%19931,855.122,917.92,072.525,603.0-1.0%4.5%7.8%45.1%19941,940.223,909.42,209.927,233.52.4%2.7%8.4%47.5%19952,011.424,738.02,588.031,829.61.5%1.7%8.2%54.9%19962,064.925,347.02,498.130,664.30.8%1.3%8.9%57.8%19972,138.026,230.32,214.727,170.71.8%1.5%9.7%58.9%19982,205.827,082.82,242.127,528.22.0%0.6%9.4%59.5%19992,279.127,990.72,197.126,984.21.9%0.6%8.6%60.4%20002,398.429,443.71,948.823,924.92.9%1.4%8.0%59.3%20012,493.830,592.11,945.823,869.81.7%1.9%7.8%58.2%20022,527.630,983.32,077.025,460.3-0.2%1.3%8.6%59.9%20032,559.331,384.12,501.030,668.8-0.7%1.1%9.7%63.5%20042,659.232,645.22,813.134,534.81.2%1.8%10.3%65.2%20052,762.533,963.12,848.435,020.20.7%1.9%11.0%67.5%20062,956.336,419.42,994.936,894.53.8%1.8%10.0%66.9%20073,126.738,605.13,426.042,299.93.0%2.3%8.5%64.2%20083,217.339,835.33,744.946,367.91.0%2.8%7.4%65.7%20093,053.537,939.03,407.642,338.7-5.7%0.2%7.2%73.2%20103,219.540,100.83,402.442,379.74.2%1.1%6.6%82.0%20113,415.042,541.23,748.746,697.43.9%2.5%5.5%79.4%20123,487.243,359.43,529.443,883.40.4%2.2%5.1%80.7%20133,628.644,993.73,733.946,299.40.4%1.6%5.0%78.3%20143,807.147,011.13,890.148,035.82.2%0.8%4.7%75.3%20153,890.147,622.33,357.941,107.21.5%0.7%4.4%71.9%20164,164.750,574.23,468.942,124.22.2%0.4%3.9%69.0%20174,411.753,373.93,689.544,636.82.7%1.7%3.6%64.6%20184,561.655,021.03,976.247,961.01.0%1.9%3.2%61.3%20194,692.156,468.03,888.746,798.81.1%1.4%3.0%58.9%20204,573.354,993.43,886.646,735.3-3.7%0.4%3.6%68.0%20214,888.458,757.24,262.851,237.62.6%3.2%3.6%69.6%20225,316.963,834.94,031.148,397.81.5%8.5%2.9%71.1%20235,490.265,865.34,120.249,430.1-0.3%7.2%3.4%68.3%20245,689.668,235.14,337.452,017.61.5%3.5%3.3%65.6%20255,920.671,011.24,546.554,530.92.2%2.6%3.2%63.1%20266,143.073,716.84,740.756,889.61.8%2.0%3.0%61.0%20276,346.076,204.64,925.059,140.71.3%2.0%3.0%59.7%===Companies===Of the world's 500 largest stock-market-listed companies measured by revenue in 2010, the Fortune Global 500, 37 are headquartered in Germany.", "40 Germany-based companies are included in the DAX, the most popular German stock market index.", "Well-known global brands are Mercedes-Benz, BMW, SAP, Siemens, Volkswagen, Adidas, Audi, Allianz, Porsche, Bayer, BASF, Bosch, and Nivea.Germany is recognised for its specialised small and medium enterprises, known as the ''Mittelstand'' model.", "SMEs account for more than 99 per cent of German companies.", "Around 1,000 of these companies are global market leaders in their segment and are labelled hidden champions.From 1991 to 2010, 40,301 mergers and acquisitions with an involvement of German firms with a total known value of 2,422 bil.", "EUR have been announced.", "The largest transactions since 1991 are: the acquisition of Mannesmann by Vodafone for 204.8 bil.", "EUR in 1999, the merger of Daimler-Benz with Chrysler to form DaimlerChrysler in 1998 valued at 36.3 bil.", "EUR.Berlin developed an international startup ecosystem and became a leading location for venture capital funded firms in the European Union.The sector with the highest number of companies registered in Germany is Services with 1,443,708 companies followed by Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate and Construction with 480,593 and 173,167 companies respectively.Volkswagen headquarters in WolfsburgThe list includes the largest German companies by revenue in 2011: Rank Name Headquarters Ticker Revenue(Mil.", "€) Profit(Mil.", "€) Employees(World) 1.Volkswagen Group Wolfsburg VOWG 159,000 15,800 502,000 2.E.ON Essen EONGn 113,000 −1,900 79,000 3.Daimler Stuttgart DAIGn 107,000 6,000 271,000 4.Siemens Berlin, München SIEGn 74,000 6,300 360,000 5.BASF Ludwigshafen am Rhein BASFn 73,000 6,600 111,000 6.BMW München BMWG 69,000 4,900 100,000 7.Metro Düsseldorf MEOG 67,000 740 288,000 8.Schwarz Gruppe Neckarsulm 63,000 N/A 315,000 9.Deutsche Telekom Bonn DTEGn 59,000 670 235,000 10.Deutsche Post Bonn DPWGn 53,000 1,300 471,000 — Bosch Gerlingen 73,100 2,300 390,000 — Uniper Düsseldorf UNSE01 67,300 13,000 — Allianz München ALVG 104,000 2,800 141,000 — Deutsche Bank Frankfurt am Main DBKGn 4,300 101,000===Mergers and acquisitions===Since German reunification, there have been 52,258 mergers or acquisitions deals inbound or outbound in Germany.", "The most active year in terms of value was 1999 with a cumulated value of 48.bil.", "EUR, twice as much as the runner up which was 2006 with 24.bil.", "EUR (see graphic \"M&A in Germany\").Here is a list of the top 10 deals (ranked by value) that include a German company.", "The Vodafone - Mannesmann deal is still the biggest deal in global history.RankDateAcquirerAcquirer NationTargetTarget NationValue (in bil.", "USD)114 Nov 1999Vodafone AirTouch PLCUnited KingdomMannesmann AGGermany202.79218 May 2016Bayer AGGermanyMonsanto CoUnited States56.6036 May 1998Daimler-Benz AGGermanyChrysler CorpUnited States40.47416 Aug 2016Linde AGGermanyPraxair IncUnited States35.16521 Oct 1999Mannesmann AGGermanyOrange PLCUnited Kingdom32.59624 Jul 2000Deutsche Telekom AGGermanyVoiceStream Wireless CorpUnited States29.40717 May 1999Rhone-Poulenc SAFranceHoechst AGGermany21.92823 Mar 2006Bayer AGGermanySchering AGGermany21.40901 Apr 2001Allianz AGGermanyDresdner Bank AGGermany19.661030 May 2005Unicredito Italiano SpAItalyBayerische Hypo- und VereinsGermany18.26" ], [ "Economic region", "Germany is part of a monetary union, the Eurozone (dark blue), and of the EU single market.", "Germany as a federation is a polycentric country and does not have a single economic centre.", "The stock exchange is located in Frankfurt am Main, the largest Media company (Bertelsmann SE & Co. KGaA) is headquartered in Gütersloh; the largest car manufacturers are in Wolfsburg (Volkswagen), Stuttgart (Mercedes-Benz and Porsche), and Munich (Audi and BMW).Germany is an advocate of closer European economic and political integration.", "Its commercial policies are increasingly determined by agreements among European Union (EU) members and EU single market legislation.", "Germany introduced the common European currency, the euro on 1 January 1999.Its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank in Frankfurt.The southern states (\"''Bundesländer''\"), especially Bayern, Baden-Württemberg, and Hessen, are economically stronger than the northern states.", "One of Germany's traditionally strongest (and at the same time oldest) economic regions is the Ruhr area in the west, between Duisburg and Dortmund.", "27 of the country's 100 largest companies are located there.", "In recent years, however, the area, whose economy is based on natural resources and heavy industry, has seen a substantial rise in unemployment (2010: 8.7%).The economy of Bayern and Baden-Württemberg, the states with the lowest number of unemployed people (2018: 2.7%, 3.1%), on the other hand, is based on high-value products.", "Important sectors are automobiles, electronics, aerospace, and biomedicine, among others.", "Baden-Württemberg is an industrial centre especially for the automobile and machine-building industry and the home of brands like Mercedes-Benz (Daimler), Porsche and Bosch.With the reunification on 3 October 1990, Germany began the major task of reconciling the economic systems of the two former republics.", "Interventionist economic planning ensured gradual development in eastern Germany up to the level of former West Germany, but the standard of living and annual income remains significantly higher in western German states.", "The modernisation and integration of the eastern German economy continues to be a long-term process scheduled to last until the year 2019, with annual transfers from west to east amounting to roughly $80 billion.", "The overall unemployment rate has consistently fallen since 2005 and reached a 20-year low in 2012.The country in July 2014 began legislating to introduce a federally mandated minimum wage which would come into effect on 1 January 2015.On 25 May 2023, a declaration of a recession in the German economy was made.", "It was reported that Gross Domestic Product (GDP) had contracted by 0.3% between January and March.", "This contraction was largely due to increased prices which discouraged consumer spending.", "The statistics office in Germany reported that household spending had dropped by 1.2% in the first quarter of the year.===German states===+ List of German states by GRP in 2019StatesRankGRP (in billions EUR€)Share of GDP (%) ''''''—'''3,435.760''''''100'''1711.41921.22632.89718.23524.32515.14307.0368.85294.4778.66153.2914.37145.0034.28128.0973.89123.2703.61097.9622.91174.3302.11263.8661.91363.5451.91446.5671.31536.2531.11633.6231.0===Wealth===Hasso PlattnerThe following top 10 list of German billionaires is based on an annual assessment of wealth and assets compiled and published by ''Forbes'' magazine on 1 March 2016.# '''$27.9 billion''' Albrecht family# '''$20.3 billion''' Theo Albrecht Jr.# '''$18.5 billion''' Susanne Klatten# '''$18.1 billion''' Georg Schaeffler# '''$16.4 billion''' Dieter Schwarz # '''$15.6 billion''' Stefan Quandt# '''$15.4 billion''' Michael Otto# '''$11.7 billion''' Heinz Hermann Thiele# '''$10 billion''' Klaus-Michael Kühne# '''$9.5 billion''' Hasso PlattnerWolfsburg is the city in Germany with the country's highest per capita GDP, at $128,000.The following top 10 list of German cities with the highest per capita GDP is based on a study by the Cologne Institute for Economic Research on 31 July 2013.# '''$128,000''' Wolfsburg, Lower Saxony# '''$114,281''' Frankfurt am Main, Hesse# '''$108,347''' Schweinfurt, Bavaria# '''$104,000''' Ingolstadt, Bavaria# '''$99,389''' Regensburg, Bavaria# '''$92,525''' Düsseldorf, North Rhine-Westphalia# '''$92,464''' Ludwigshafen am Rhein, Rhineland-Palatinate# '''$91,630''' Erlangen, Bavaria# '''$91,121''' Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg# '''$88,692''' Ulm, Baden-Württemberg" ], [ "Sectors", "German exports in 2006Germany has a social market economy characterised by a highly qualified labour force, a developed infrastructure, a large capital stock, a low level of corruption, and a high level of innovation.", "It has the largest national economy in Europe, the third largest by nominal GDP in the world, and ranked fifth by GDP (PPP) in 2023.The service sector contributes around 70% of the total GDP, industry 29.1%, and agriculture 0.9%.===Primary===In 2010 agriculture, forestry, and mining accounted for only 0.9% of Germany's gross domestic product (GDP) and employed only 2.4% of the population, down from 4% in 1991.Agriculture is extremely productive, and Germany can cover 90% of its nutritional needs with domestic production.", "Germany is the third-largest agricultural producer in the European Union after France and Italy.", "Germany's principal agricultural products are potatoes, wheat, barley, sugar beets, fruit, and cabbages.", "Despite the country's high level of industrialisation, almost one-third of its territory is covered by forest.", "The forestry industry provides for about two-thirds of domestic consumption of wood and wood products, so Germany is a net importer of these items.Strip mining lignite at Tagebau Garzweiler near Grevenbroich, GermanyThe German soil is relatively poor in raw materials.", "Only lignite (brown coal) and potash salt (''Kalisalz'') are available in significant quantities.", "However, the former GDR's Wismut mining company produced a total of 230,400 tonnes of uranium between 1947 and 1990 and made East Germany the fourth-largest producer of uranium ore worldwide (largest in USSR's sphere of control) at the time.", "Oil, natural gas, and other resources are, for the most part, imported from other countries.Potash salt is mined in the centre of the country (Niedersachsen, Sachsen-Anhalt, and Thüringen).", "The most important producer is K+S (formerly Kali und Salz AG).Germany's bituminous coal deposits were created more than 300 million years ago from swamps which extended from the present-day South England, over the Ruhr area to Poland.", "Lignite deposits developed similarly, but during a later period, about 66 million years ago.", "Because the wood is not yet completely transformed into coal, brown coal contains less energy than bituminous coal.Lignite is extracted in the extreme western and eastern parts of the country, mainly in Nordrhein-Westfalen, Sachsen, and Brandenburg.", "Considerable amounts are burned in coal plants near the mining areas, to produce electricity.", "Transporting lignite over far distances is not economically feasible, therefore the plants are located practically next to the extraction sites.", "Bituminous coal is mined in Nordrhein-Westfalen and Saarland.", "Most power plants burning bituminous coal operate on imported material, therefore the plants are located not only near to the mining sites, but throughout the country.In 2019, the country was the world's 3rd largest producer of selenium, the world's 5th largest producer of potash, the world's 5th largest producer of boron, the world's 7th largest producer of lime, the world's 13th largest producer of fluorspar, the world's 14th largest producer of feldspar, the world's 17th largest producer of graphite, the world's 18th largest producer of sulfur, in addition to being the 4th largest world producer of salt.===Industry===The world's largest coherent chemistry plant BASF in LudwigshafenIndustry and construction accounted for 30.7% of the gross domestic product in 2017 and employed 24.2% of the workforce.", "Germany excels in the production of automobiles, machinery, electrical equipment, and chemicals.", "With the manufacture of 5.2 million vehicles in 2009, Germany was the world's fourth-largest producer and largest exporter of automobiles.", "German automotive companies enjoy an extremely strong position in the so-called premium segment, with a combined world market share of about 90%.Small- to medium-sized manufacturing firms (''Mittelstand'' companies) which specialise in technologically advanced niche products and are often family-owned form a major part of the German economy.", "It is estimated that about 1,500 German companies occupy a top three position in their respective market segment worldwide.", "In about two thirds of all industry sectors German companies belong to the top three competitors.Germany is the only country among the top five arms exporters that is not a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council.===Services===In 2017 services constituted 68.6% of gross domestic product (GDP), and the sector employed 74.3% of the workforce.", "The subcomponents of services are financial, renting, and business activities (30.5%); trade, hotels and restaurants, and transport (18%); and other service activities (21.7%).Germany is the seventh most visited country in the world, with a total of 407 million overnights during 2012.This number includes 68.83 million nights by foreign visitors.", "In 2012, over 30.4 million international tourists arrived in Germany.", "Berlin has become the third most visited city destination in Europe.", "Additionally, more than 30% of Germans spend their holiday in their own country, with the biggest share going to Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.", "Domestic and international travel and tourism combined directly contribute over EUR43.2 billion to German GDP.", "Including indirect and induced impacts, the industry contributes 4.5% of German GDP and supports 2 million jobs (4.8% of total employment).", "The largest annual international trade fairs and congresses are held in several German cities such as Hannover, Frankfurt, and Berlin." ], [ "Government finances", " Inverted yield curve in 2008 and Negative interest rates 2014-2022The debt-to-GDP ratio of Germany had its peak in 2010 when it stood at 80.3% and decreased since then.", "According to Eurostat, the government gross debt of Germany amounts to €2,152.0 billion or 71.9% of its GDP in 2015.The federal government achieved a budget surplus of €12.1 billion ($13.1 billion) in 2015.Germany's credit rating by credit rating agencies Standard & Poor's, Moody's, and Fitch Ratings stands at the highest possible rating ''AAA'' with a stable outlook in 2016.Germany's \"debt clock\" (''Schuldenuhr'') reversed for the first time in 20 years in January 2018.It is now currently increasing at 10,424.00 per second (October 2020).Economists generally see Germany's current account surplus as undesirable." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Energy===Germany is the world's fifth-largest consumer of energy, and two-thirds of its primary energy was imported in 2002.In the same year, Germany was Europe's largest consumer of electricity, totaling 512.9 terawatt-hours.", "Government policy promotes energy conservation and the development of renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, biomass, hydroelectric, and geothermal energy.", "As a result of energy-saving measures, energy efficiency has been improving since the beginning of the 1970s.", "The government has set the goal of meeting half the country's energy demands from renewable sources by 2050.Renewable energy also plays an increasing role in the labour market: Almost 700,000 people are employed in the energy sector.", "About 50 per cent of them work with renewable energies.The largest solar power and third-largest wind power capacity in the world is installed in Germany.In 2000, the red-green coalition under Chancellor Schröder and the German nuclear power industry agreed to phase out all nuclear power plants by 2021.The conservative coalition under Chancellor Merkel reversed this decision in January 2010, electing to keep plants open.", "The nuclear disaster of the Japanese nuclear plant Fukushima in March 2011 however, changed the political climate fundamentally: Older nuclear plants have been shut down.", "Germany is seeking to have wind, solar, biogas, and other renewable energy sources play a bigger role, as the country looks to completely phase out nuclear power by 2022 and coal-fired power plants by 2038.Renewable energy yet still plays a more modest role in energy consumption, though German solar and wind power industries play a leading role worldwide.In 2009, Germany's total energy consumption (not just electricity) came from the following sources: oil 34.6%, natural gas 21.7%, lignite 11.4%, bituminous coal 11.1%, nuclear power 11.0%, hydro and wind power 1.5%, others 9.0%.In the first half of 2021, coal, natural gas, and nuclear energy comprised 56% of the total electricity fed into Germany's grid in the first half of 2021.Coal was the leader out of the conventional energy sources, comprising over 27% of Germany's electricity.", "Wind power's contribution to the electric grid was 22%.There are 3 major entry points for oil pipelines: in the northeast (the Druzhba pipeline, coming from Gdańsk), west (coming from Rotterdam) and southeast (coming from Nelahozeves).", "The oil pipelines of Germany do not constitute a proper network, and sometimes only connect two different locations.", "Major oil refineries are located in or near the following cities: Schwedt, Spergau, Vohburg, Burghausen, Karlsruhe, Cologne, Gelsenkirchen, Lingen, Wilhelmshaven, Hamburg, and Heide.Germany's network of natural gas pipelines, on the other hand, is dense and well-connected.", "Imported pipeline gas comes mostly from Russia, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom.", "Although gas imports from Russia have been historically reliable, even during the Cold War, recent price disputes between Gazprom and former Soviet states, such as Ukraine, have also affected Germany.", "As a result, high political importance is placed on the construction of the Nord Stream 1 pipeline, running from Vyborg in Russia along the Baltic sea to Greifswald in Germany.", "This direct connection avoids third-party transit countries.", "Germany imports 50% to 75% of its natural gas from Russia.===Transport===The ICE 3 trainset in FrankfurtWith its central position in Europe, Germany is an important transportation hub.", "This is reflected in its dense and modern transportation networks.", "The extensive motorway (''Autobahn'') network ranks worldwide third largest in its total length and features a lack of blanket speed limits on the majority of routes.Germany has established a polycentric network of high-speed trains.", "The Intercity Express or ''ICE'' is the most advanced service category of the Deutsche Bahn and serves major German cities as well as destinations in neighbouring countries.", "The train maximum speed varies between 200 km/h and 320 km/h (125-200 mph).", "Connections are offered at either 30-minute, hourly, or two-hourly intervals.", "German railways are heavily subsidised, receiving €17.0 billion in 2014.The largest German airports are Frankfurt Airport and Munich Airport, both are global hubs of Lufthansa.", "Other major airports are Berlin Brandenburg Airport, Düsseldorf, Hamburg, Hanover, Cologne/Bonn, and Stuttgart.===Banking system===7 German banks are among the biggest in the world.", "As of 2019, Germany is the country in Europe with the highest number of credit institutions: between 1,600 and 1,800.The types of institutions are in strong competition with each other: 390 ''Sparkassen'' and 8 public ''Landesbanken'' groups (1,200 billion euros of deposits), private commercial banks (DB, Commerzbank, and Unicredit-HypoVereinsbank, for 780 billion), cooperative credit banks (700 billion euros), savings banks, and ''Raiffeisen''.", "The total of the system is worth 3,800 billion.", "75% of retail customer deposits are managed by savings banks and cooperative credit banks.According to Eurostat, in 2022 Germany also recorded the highest European rate of gross savings (19.98% of disposable income)." ], [ "Technology", "Liquid crystal as visualised by a polarizing microscope.", "Germany is a pioneer research centre for nanotechnology and materials engineering.Germany's achievements in sciences have been significant, and research and development efforts form an integral part of the economy.Germany is also one of the leading countries in developing and using green technologies.", "Companies specialising in green technology have an estimated turnover of €200 billion.", "German expertise in engineering, science, and research is eminently respectable.The lead markets of Germany's green technology industry are power generation, sustainable mobility, material efficiency, energy efficiency, waste management and recycling, sustainable water management.Regarding triadic patents, Germany is in third place after the U.S. and Japan.", "With more than 26,500 registrations for patents submitted to the European Patent Office, Germany is the leading European nation.", "Siemens, Bosch, and BASF, with almost 5,000 registrations for patents between them in 2008, are among the top 5 of more than 35,000 companies registering patents.", "Together with the U.S. and Japan, about patents for nano, bio, and new technologies Germany is one of the world's most active nations.", "With around one-third of triadic patents, Germany leads the way worldwide in the field of vehicle emission reduction.According to Winfried Kretschmann, who is premier of the region where Daimler is based, \"China dominates the production of solar cells.", "Tesla is ahead in electric cars and Germany has lost the first round of digitalization to Google, Apple, and the like.", "Whether Germany has a future as an industrial economy will depend on whether we can manage the ecological and digital transformation of our economy\"." ], [ "Challenges", "Despite economic prosperity, Germany's biggest threat to future economic development is the nation's declining birthrate which is among the lowest in the world.", "This is particularly prevalent in parts of society with higher education.", "As a result, the numbers of workers are expected to decrease and the government spending needed to support pensioners and healthcare will increase if the trend is not reversed.Less than a quarter of German people expect living conditions to improve in the coming decades.On August 25, 2020, Federal Statistical Office of Germany revealed that the German economy plunged by 9.7% in the second quarter which is the worst on record.", "The latest figures show how hard the German economy was hit by the government measures in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.Energy-intensive German industry and German exporters were hit particularly hard by the 2022 global energy crisis.", "Economy Minister Robert Habeck warned that the planned end of Russian energy imports will permanently raise energy prices for German industry and consumers.===Poverty======Homelessness======Climate change===" ], [ "See also", "* Association of German Chambers of Industry and Commerce* Codetermination in Germany* Deutsche Bundesbank* German Federal Association of Young Entrepreneurs* German model* Metropolitan regions in Germany* List of German states by unemployment rate* List of German cities by GDP* Trade unions in Germany" ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", " * Federal Statistical Office (Destatis)* Deutsche Bundesbank * World Bank Germany Trade Statistics * Germany - OECD * Germany profile at the CIA World Factbook* Germany profile at The World Bank" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Germany" ], [ "Introduction", "Frankfurt Airport, the fourth-busiest airport in EuropeLeipzig Hauptbahnhof, Europe's largest railway station by floor areaCologne–Frankfurt high-speed rail line, running parallel to Bundesautobahn 3As a densely populated country in a central location in Europe and with a developed economy, Germany has a dense transport infrastructure.One of the first limited-access highway systems in the world to have been built, the extensive German Autobahn network has no general speed limit for light vehicles (although there are speed limits in many sections today, and there is an limit for trucks).", "The country's most important waterway is the river Rhine, and largest port is that of Hamburg.", "Frankfurt Airport is a major international airport and European transport hub.", "Air travel is used for greater distances within Germany but faces competition from the state-owned Deutsche Bahn's rail network.", "High-speed trains called ICE connect cities for passenger travel with speeds up to 300 km/h.", "Many German cities have rapid transit systems and public transport is available in most areas.", "Buses have historically only played a marginal role in long-distance passenger service, as all routes directly competing with rail services were technically outlawed by a law dating to 1935 (during the Nazi era).", "Only in 2012 was this law officially amended and thus a long-distance bus market has also emerged in Germany since then.Since German reunification substantial effort has been made to improve and expand transport infrastructure in what was formerly East Germany.", "Due to Germany's varied history, main traffic flows have changed from primarily East-West (old Prussia and the German Empire) to primarily North-South (the 1949-1990 German partition era) to a more balanced flow with both major North-South and East-West corridors, both domestically and in transit.", "Infrastructure, which was further hampered by the havoc wars and scorched earth policies as well as reparations wrought, had to be adjusted and upgraded with each of those shifts.", "'''''Verkehrsmittel''''' () '''''and Verkehrszeichen''''' - Transportation signs in Germany are available here in German and English." ], [ "Road and automotive transport", "===Overview===Map of the German autobahn networkThe volume of traffic in Germany, especially goods transportation, is at a very high level due to its central location in Europe.In the past few decades, much of the freight traffic shifted from rail to road, which led the Federal Government to introduce a motor toll for trucks in 2005.Individual road usage increased resulting in a relatively high traffic density to other nations.", "A further increase of traffic is expected in the future.High-speed vehicular traffic has a long tradition in Germany given that the first freeway (Autobahn) in the world, the AVUS, and the world's first automobile were developed and built in Germany.", "Germany possesses one of the most dense road systems of the world.", "German motorways have no blanket speed limit for light vehicles.", "However, posted limits are in place on many dangerous or congested stretches as well as where traffic noise or pollution poses a problem (20.8% under static or temporary limits and an average 2.6% under variable traffic control limit applications as of 2015).The German government has had issues with upkeep of the country's autobahn network, having had to revamp the Eastern portion's transport system since the unification of Germany between the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) and the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany).", "With that, numerous construction projects have been put on hold in the west, and a vigorous reconstruction has been going since the late 1990s.", "However, ever since the European Union formed, an overall streamlining and change of route plans have occurred as faster and more direct links to former Soviet bloc countries now exist and are in the works, with intense co-operation among European countries.Intercity bus service within Germany fell out of favour as post-war prosperity increased, and became almost extinct when legislation was introduced in the 1980s to protect the national railway.", "After that market was deregulated in 2012, some 150 new intercity bus lines have been established, leading to a significant shift from rail to bus for long journeys.", "The market has since consolidated with Flixbus controlling over 90% of it and also expanding into neighboring countries.=== Roads ===Three-lane autobahnAn airport taxiway crossing the Bundesautobahn 14Germany has approximately 650,000 km of roads, of which 231,000 km are non-local roads.", "The road network is extensively used with nearly 2 trillion km travelled by car in 2005, in comparison to just 70 billion km travelled by rail and 35 billion km travelled by plane.The Autobahn is the German federal highway system.", "The official German term is '''' (plural '''', abbreviated 'BAB'), which translates as 'federal motorway'.", "Where no local speed limit is posted, the advisory limit ''(Richtgeschwindigkeit)'' is 130 km/h.", "The ''Autobahn'' network had a total length of about in 2016, which ranks it among the most dense and longest systems in the world.", "Only federally built controlled-access highways meeting certain construction standards including at least two lanes per direction are called ''\"Bundesautobahn\"''.", "They have their own, blue-coloured signs and their own numbering system.", "All ''Autobahnen'' are named by using the capital letter A, followed by a blank and a number (for example A 8).The main ''Autobahnen'' going all across Germany have single digit numbers.", "Shorter highways of regional importance have double digit numbers (like A 24, connecting Berlin and Hamburg).", "Very short stretches built for heavy local traffic (for example ring roads or the A 555 from Cologne to Bonn) usually have three digits, where the first digit depends on the region.East–west routes are usually even-numbered, north–south routes are usually odd-numbered.", "The numbers of the north–south ''Autobahnen'' increase from west to east; that is to say, the more easterly roads are given higher numbers.", "Similarly, the east–west routes use increasing numbers from north to south.The autobahns are considered the safest category of German roads: for example, in 2012, while carrying 31% of all motorized road traffic, they only accounted for 11% of Germany's traffic fatalities.German autobahns are still toll-free for light vehicles, but on 1 January 2005, a blanket mandatory toll on heavy trucks was introduced.The national roads in Germany are called ''Bundesstraßen'' (federal roads).", "Their numbers are usually well known to local road users, as they appear (written in black digits on a yellow rectangle with black border) on direction traffic signs and on street maps.", "A Bundesstraße is often referred to as \"B\" followed by its number, for example \"B1\", one of the main east–west routes.", "More important routes have lower numbers.", "Odd numbers are usually applied to north–south oriented roads, and even numbers for east–west routes.", "Bypass routes are referred to with an appended \"a\" (alternative) or \"n\" (new alignment), as in \"B 56n\".Other main public roads are maintained by the ''Bundesländer'' (states), called ''Landesstraße'' (country road) or ''Staatsstraße'' (state road).", "The numbers of these roads are prefixed with \"L\", \"S\" or \"St\", but are usually not seen on direction signs or written on maps.", "They appear on the kilometre posts on the roadside.", "Numbers are unique only within one state.The ''Landkreise'' (districts) and municipalities are in charge of the minor roads and streets within villages, towns and cities.", "These roads have the number prefix \"K\" indicating a ''Kreisstraße''." ], [ "Rail transport", "===Overview===ICE 3 train at Stuttgart HauptbahnhofGermany features a total of 43,468 km railways, of which at least 19,973 km are electrified (2014).Deutsche Bahn (German Rail) is the major German railway infrastructure and service operator.", "Though Deutsche Bahn is a private company, the government still holds all shares and therefore Deutsche Bahn can still be called a state-owned company.", "Since its reformation under private law in 1994, Deutsche Bahn AG (DB AG) no longer publishes details of the tracks it owns; in addition to the DBAG system there are about 280 privately or locally owned railway companies which own an approximate 3,000 km to 4,000 km of the total tracks and use DB tracks in ''open access''.Railway subsidies amounted to €17.0 billion in 2014 and there are significant differences between the financing of long-distance and short-distance (or local) trains in Germany.", "While long-distance trains can be run by any railway company, the companies also receive no subsidies from the government.", "Local trains however are subsidised by the German states, which pay the operating companies to run these trains and indeed in 2013, 59% of the cost of short-distance passenger rail transport was covered by subsidies.", "This resulted in many private companies offering to run local train services as they can provide cheaper service than the state-owned Deutsche Bahn.", "Track construction is entirely and track maintenance partly government financed both for long and short range trains.", "On the other hand, all rail vehicles are charged track access charges by DB Netz which in turn delivers (part of) its profits to the federal budget.High speed rail started in the early 1990s with the introduction of the Inter City Express (ICE) into revenue service after first plans to modernize the rail system had been drawn up under the government of Willy Brandt.", "While the high speed network is not as dense as those of France or Spain, ICE or slightly slower (max.", "speed 200 km/h) Intercity (IC) serve most major cities.", "Several extensions or upgrades to high speed lines are under construction or planned for the near future, some of them after decades of planning.The fastest high-speed train operated by Deutsche Bahn, the InterCityExpress or ICE connects major German and neighbouring international centres such as Zürich, Vienna, Copenhagen, Paris, Amsterdam and Brussels.", "The rail network throughout Germany is extensive and provides services in most areas.", "On regular lines, at least one train every two hours will call even in the smallest of villages during the day.", "Nearly all larger metropolitan areas are served by S-Bahn, U-Bahn, Straßenbahn and/or bus networks.The German government on 13 February 2018 announced plans to make public transportation free as a means to reduce road traffic and decrease air pollution to EU-mandated levels.", "The new policy will be put to the test by the end of the year in the cities of Bonn, Essen, Herrenberg, Reutlingen and Mannheim.", "Issues remain concerning the costs of such a move as ticket sales for public transportation constitute a major source of income for cities.=== International freight trains ===While Germany and most of contiguous Europe use , differences in signalling, rules and regulations, electrification voltages, etc.", "create obstacles for freight operations across borders.", "These obstacles are slowly being overcome, with international (in- and outgoing) and transit (through) traffic being responsible for a large part of the recent uptake in rail freight volume.", "EU regulations have done much to harmonize standards, making cross border operations easier.", "Maschen Marshalling Yard near Hamburg is the second biggest in the world and the biggest in Europe.", "It serves as a freight hub distributing goods from Scandinavia to southern Europe and from Central Europe to the port of Hamburg and overseas.", "Being a densely populated prosperous country in the center of Europe, there are many important transit routes through Germany.", "The Mannheim–Karlsruhe–Basel railway has undergone upgrades and refurbishments since the 1980s and will likely undergo further upgrades for decades to come as it is the main route from the North Sea Ports to northern Italy via the Gotthard Base Tunnel.=== S-Bahn ===Almost all major metro areas of Germany have suburban rail systems called S-Bahnen (''Schnellbahnen'').", "These usually connect larger agglomerations to their suburbs and often other regional towns, although the Rhein-Ruhr S-Bahn connects several large cities.", "An S-Bahn calls at all intermediate stations and runs more frequently than other trains.", "In Berlin and Hamburg the S-Bahn has a U-Bahn-like service and uses a third rail whereas all other S-Bahn services rely on catenary power supply.=== Rapid transit (U-Bahn) ===Train (MVG Class C) on the Munich U-BahnRelatively few cities have a full-fledged underground U-Bahn system; S-Bahn (suburban commuter railway) systems are far more common.", "In some cities the distinction between U-Bahn and S-Bahn systems is blurred; for instance, some S-Bahn systems run underground, have frequencies similar to U-Bahn, and form part of the same integrated transport network.", "A larger number of cities has upgraded their tramways to light rail standards.", "These systems are called Stadtbahn (not to be confused with S-Bahn).Cities with U-Bahn systems are:* Berlin (U-Bahn)* Hamburg (U-Bahn)* Munich (U-Bahn)* Nuremberg/Fürth (U-Bahn)Street car passengers and tram systems by German LänderWith the exception of Hamburg, all of those aforementioned cities also have a tram system, often with new lines built to light rail standards.", "Berlin and Hamburg (as well as the then independent city of Schöneberg whose lone subway line is today's line 4 of the Berlin U-Bahn) began building their networks before World War I whereas Nuremberg and Munich - despite earlier attempts in the 1930s and 1940s - only opened their networks in the 1970s (in time for the 1972 Summer Olympics in the case of Munich).Logo of the Stadtbahn Stuttgart the prominence of the U-Bahn-like \"U\" compared to the \"Stadtbahn\" term makes the confusion understandableCities with ''Stadtbahn'' systems can be found in the article Trams in Germany.", "Locals sometimes confuse ''Stadtbahn'' and \"proper\" ''U-Bahn'' as the logo for the former sometimes employs a white U on a blue background similar to the logo of the latter (in most cases, however, the Stadtbahn-logo includes additions to that U-logo).", "Furthermore, Stadtbahn systems often include partially or wholly underground sections (especially in city centers) and in the case of Frankfurt U-Bahn what is properly a ''Stadtbahn'' is even officially called an U-Bahn.", "To some extent this confusion was deliberate at the time of the opening of the Stadtbahn networks, as it was seen at the time to be more desirable to have a \"proper\" U-Bahn system than a \"mere\" tram system and many cities which embarked on Stadtbahn building projects did so with the official goal of eventually converting the entire network to U-Bahn standards.===Trams (Straßenbahn)===Germany was among the first countries to have electric streetcars, and Berlin has one of the longest tram networks in the world.", "Many West German cities abandoned their previous tram systems in the 1960s and 1970s while others upgraded them to \"Stadtbahn\" (~light rail) standard, often including underground sections.", "In the East, most cities retained or even expanded their tram systems and since reunification a trend towards new tram construction can be observed in most of the country.", "Today the only major German city without a tram or light rail system is Hamburg.", "Tram-train systems like the Karlsruhe model first came to prominence in Germany in the early 1990s and are implemented or discussed in several cities, providing coverage far into the rural areas surrounding cities.", "Trams exist in all but two of the states of Germany (Hamburg and Schleswig Holstein being the exception) and in 13 of the 16 state capitals (Wiesbaden being the capital outside the aforementioned states without a tram system).", "While there have been attempts to (re)-establish tram systems in many cities that formerly had them (for example Aachen, Kiel, Hamburg) as well as in some cities that never had them, but are comparatively close to a city that does (for example Erlangen, Wolfsburg), only a handful of such proposals have come to fruition since World War II - the Saarbahn (trams defunct in 1965; Saarbahn established in 1997) in Saarbrücken, Heilbronn Stadtbahn (defunct in 1955, re-established as an extension of Stadtbahn Karlsruhe in 1998) and a few extensions across the border - the Strasbourg tramway to Kehl and the Trams in Basel to Weil am Rhein." ], [ "Air transport", "Short distances and the extensive network of motorways and railways make airplanes uncompetitive for travel within Germany.", "Only about 1% of all distance travelled was by plane in 2002.But due to a decline in prices with the introduction of low-fares airlines, domestic air travel is becoming more attractive.", "In 2013 Germany had the fifth largest passenger air market in the world with 105,016,346 passengers.", "However, the advent of new faster rail lines often leads to cuts in service by the airlines or even total abandonment of routes like Frankfurt-Cologne, Berlin-Hannover or Berlin-Hamburg.=== Airlines ===:''see: List of airlines of Germany''Lufthansa and Air Berlin aircraftGermany's largest airline is Lufthansa, which was privatised in the 1990s.", "Lufthansa also operates two regional subsidiaries under the Lufthansa Regional brand and a low-cost subsidiary, Eurowings, which operates independently.", "Lufthansa flies a dense network of domestic, European and intercontinental routes.", "Germany's second-largest airline was Air Berlin, which also operated a network of domestic and European destinations with a focus on leisure routes as well as some long-haul services.", "Air Berlin declared bankruptcy in 2017 with the last flight under its own name in October of that year.Charter and leisure carriers include Condor, TUIfly, MHS Aviation and Sundair.", "Major German cargo operators are Lufthansa Cargo, European Air Transport Leipzig (which is a subsidiary of DHL) and AeroLogic (which is jointly owned by DHL and Lufthansa Cargo).===Airports===:''see: List of airports in Germany''Airports of GermanyFrankfurt Airport is Germany's largest airport, a major transportation hub in Europe and the world's twelfth busiest airport.", "It is one of the airports with the largest number of international destinations served worldwide.", "Depending on whether total passengers, flights or cargo traffic are used as a measure, it ranks first, second or third in Europe alongside London Heathrow Airport and Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport.", "Germany's second biggest international airport is Munich Airport, followed by Berlin Brandenburg Airport and Düsseldorf Airport.There are several more scheduled passenger airports throughout Germany, mainly serving European metropolitan and leisure destinations.", "Intercontinental long-haul routes are operated to and from the airports in Frankfurt, Munich, Berlin, Düsseldorf, Cologne/Bonn, Hamburg and Stuttgart.", "'''Airports — with paved runways:'''* total: 318** over 3,047 m: 14** 2,438 to 3,047 m: 49** 1,524 to 2,437 m: 60** 914 to 1,523 m: 70** under 914 m: 125 (2013 est.", ")'''Airports — with unpaved runways:'''* total: 221**over 3,047 m: 0**2,438 to 3,047 m: 0**1,524 to 2,437 m: 1**914 to 1,523 m: 35**under 914 m: 185 (2013 est.", ")'''Heliports:''' 23 (2013 est.)" ], [ "Water transport", "Port of Hamburg'''Waterways:''' 7,467 km (2013); major rivers include the Rhine and Elbe; Kiel Canal is an important connection between the Baltic Sea and North Sea and one of the busiest waterways in the world, the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal links Rotterdam on the North Sea with the Black Sea.", "It passes through the highest point reachable by ocean-going vessels from the sea.", "The Canal has gained importance for leisure cruises in addition to cargo traffic.", "'''Pipelines:''' oil 2,400 km (2013)'''Ports and harbours:''' Berlin, Bonn, Brake, Bremen, Bremerhaven, Cologne, Dortmund, Dresden, Duisburg, Emden, Fürth, Hamburg, Karlsruhe, Kiel, Lübeck, Magdeburg, Mannheim, Nuremberg, Oldenburg, Rostock, Stuttgart, WilhelmshavenThe port of Hamburg is the largest sea-harbour in Germany and ranks #3 in Europe (after Rotterdam and Antwerpen), #17 worldwide (2016), in total container traffic.", "'''Merchant marine:'''total: 427 ships '''Ships by type:''' barge carrier 2, bulk carrier 6, cargo ship 51, chemical tanker 15, container ship 298, Liquified Gas Carrier 6, passenger ship 4, petroleum tanker 10, refrigerated cargo 3, roll-on/roll-off ship 6 (2010 est.", ")Ferries operate mostly between mainland Germany and its islands, serving both tourism and freight transport.", "Car ferries also operate across the Baltic Sea to the Nordic countries, Russia and the Baltic countries.", "Rail ferries operate across the Fehmahrnbelt, from Rostock to Sweden (both carrying passenger trains) and from the Mukran port in Sassnitz on the island of Rügen to numerous Baltic Sea destinations (freight only)." ], [ "See also", "*List of airports in Germany*License plates in Germany*List of motorways in Germany*List of federal highways in Germany*Tourism in Germany*9-Euro-Ticket" ], [ "External links", "* CIA World Factbook - see section on transportation" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Germany" ], [ "Introduction", "The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) is a Central European country and member of the European Union, G4, G7, the G20, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).", "It maintains a network of 229 diplomatic missions abroad and holds relations with more than 190 countries.", "As one of the world's leading industrialized countries it is recognized as a major power in European and global affairs." ], [ "History", "The history of German foreign policy covers diplomatic developments and international history since 1871.Before 1866, Habsburg Austria and its German Confederation were the nominal leader in German affairs, but the Hohenzollern Kingdom of Prussia exercised increasingly dominant influence in German affairs, owing partly to its ability to participate in German Confederation politics through its Brandenburg holding, and its ability to influence trade through its Zollverein network.", "The question of excluding or including Austria's influence was settled by the Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War in 1866.The unification of Germany was made possible by the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in which the smaller states joined behind Prussia in a smashing victory over France.", "The German Empire was put together in 1871 by Otto von Bismarck, who dominated German and indeed all of European diplomatic history until he was forced to resign in 1890." ], [ "Primary institutions and actors", "===Federal Cabinet===The three cabinet-level ministries responsible for guiding Germany's foreign policy are the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development and the Federal Foreign Office.", "In practice, most German federal departments play some role in shaping foreign policy in the sense that there are few policy areas left that remain outside of international jurisdiction.", "The bylaws of the Federal Cabinet (as delineated in Germany's Basic Law), however, assign the Federal Foreign Office a coordinating function.", "Accordingly, other ministries may only invite foreign guests or participate in treaty negotiations with the approval of the Federal Foreign Office.===Bundestag===With respect to foreign policy, the Bundestag acts in a supervisory capacity.", "Each of its committees – most notably the foreign relations committee – oversees the country's foreign policy.", "The consent of the Bundestag (and insofar as Länder are impacted, the Bundesrat) is required to ratify foreign treaties.", "If a treaty legislation passes first reading, it is referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, which is capable of delaying ratification and prejudice decision through its report to the Bundestag.In 1994, a full EU Committee was also created for the purpose of addressing the large flow of EU-related topics and legislation.", "Also, the committee has the mandate to speak on behalf of the Bundestag and represent it when deciding an EU policy position.", "A case in point was the committee's involvement regarding the European Union's eastern enlargement wherein the Committee on Foreign Affairs is responsible for relations with ECE states while the EU Committee is tasked with the negotiations.===NGOs===There is a raft of NGOs in Germany that engage foreign policy issues.", "These NGOs include think-tanks (German Council on Foreign Relations), single-issue lobbying organizations (Amnesty International), as well as other organizations that promote stronger bilateral ties between Germany and other countries (Atlantic Bridge).", "While the budgets and methods of NGOs are distinct, the overarching goal to persuade decision-makers to the wisdom of their own views is a shared one.", "In 2004, a new German governance framework, particularly on foreign and security policy areas, emerged where NGOs are integrated into actual policymaking.", "The idea is that the cooperation between state and civil society groups increases the quality of conflict resolution, development cooperation and humanitarian aid for fragile states.", "The framework seeks to benefit from the expertise of the NGOs in exchange for these groups to have a chance for influencing foreign policy." ], [ "Disputes", "Chancellor Gerhard Schröder with U.S. President George W. Bush at the White House in 2001In 2001, the discovery that the terrorist cell which carried out the attacks against the United States on 11 September 2001, was based in Hamburg, sent shock waves through the country.The government of Chancellor Gerhard Schröder backed the following U.S. military actions, sending Bundeswehr troops to Afghanistan to lead a joint NATO program to provide security in the country after the ousting of the Taliban.Nearly all of the public was strongly against America's 2003 invasion of Iraq, and any deployment of troops.", "This position was shared by the SPD/Green government, which led to some friction with the United States.In August 2006, the German government disclosed a botched plot to bomb two German trains.", "The attack was to occur in July 2006 and involved a 21-year-old Lebanese man, identified only as Youssef Mohammed E. H. Prosecutors said Youssef and another man left suitcases stuffed with crude propane-gas bombs on the trains.As of February 2007, Germany had about 3,000 NATO-led International Security Assistance Force force in Afghanistan as part of the War on Terrorism, the third largest contingent after the United States (14,000) and the United Kingdom (5,200).", "German forces are mostly in the more secure north of the country.However, Germany, along with some other larger European countries (with the exception of the UK and the Netherlands), have been criticised by the UK and Canada for not sharing the burden of the more intensive combat operations in southern Afghanistan." ], [ "Global initiatives", "===Humanitarian aid===Germany is the largest net contributor to the United Nations and has several development agencies working in Africa and the Middle East.", "The development policy of the Federal Republic of Germany is an independent area of German foreign policy.", "It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and carried out by the implementing organisations.", "The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community.", "It is the world's third biggest aid donor after the United States and France.", "Germany spent 0.37 per cent of its gross domestic product (GDP) on development, which is below the government's target of increasing aid to 0.51 per cent of GDP by 2010.The international target of 0.7% of GNP would have not been reached either.===Ecological involvement===" ], [ "International organizations", "Germany is a member of the Council of Europe, European Union, European Space Agency, G4, G8, International Monetary Fund, NATO, OECD, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, UN, World Bank Group and the World Trade Organization.===European Union===The flag of EuropeEuropean integration has gone a long way since the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the Elysée Treaty.", "Peaceful collaborations with its neighbors remain one of Germany's biggest political objectives, and Germany has been on the forefront of most achievements made in European integration:* Maastricht TreatyMost of the social issues facing European countries in general: immigration, aging populations, straining social-welfare and pension systems – are all important in Germany.Germany seeks to maintain peace through the \"deepening\" of integration among current members of the European Union member states* European Defence Force* Introduction of the single currency € EuroGermany has been the largest net contributor to EU budgets for decades (in absolute terms – given Germany's comparatively large population – not per capita) and seeks to limit the growth of these net payments in the enlarged union.", "* European Constitution===NATO===A meeting of NATO heads of States and governments on 11 July 2018 in BrusselsUnder the doctrine introduced by the 2003 Defense Policy Guidelines, Germany continues to give priority to the transatlantic partnership with the United States through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.", "However, Germany is giving increasing attention to coordinating its policies with the European Union through the Common Foreign and Security Policy.===UN===The German Federal Government began an initiative to obtain a permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council, as part of the Reform of the United Nations.", "This would require approval of a two-thirds majority of the member states and approval of all five Security Council veto powers.This aspiration could be successful due to Germany's good relations with the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation.", "Germany is a stable and democratic republic and a G7 country which are also favourable attributes.", "The United Kingdom and France support German ascension to the supreme body.", "The U.S. is sending mixed signals.NATO member states, including Germany, decided not to sign the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, a binding agreement for negotiations for the total elimination of nuclear weapons, supported by more than 120 nations." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Germany maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate123456789101112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536373839404142434445464748495051525354555657585960616263646566—676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170171172173174175176177178179180181182183184185186187188—189190—191—192" ], [ "Bilateral relations", "===Africa=== Country NotesSee Algeria–Germany relations* Algeria has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in Algiers.See Angola–Germany relations* Angola has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Luanda.", "* Botswana has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Gaborone.", "* Burundi has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Bujumbura.", "* Cabo Verde has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany is represented in Cabo Verde through its embassy in Senegal.See Cameroon–Germany relations* Cameroon has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Yaoundé.See Central African Republic–Germany relations* The Central African Republic is represented in Germany through its embassy in France.", "* Following the closing of the German embassy in Bangui in 1997 Germany is represented through its embassy in Cameroon.", "* Chad has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in N'Djamena.", "* Comoros is represented in Germany through its embassy in Belgium.", "* Germany is represented in Comoros through its embassy in Tanzania.See Democratic Republic of the Congo–Germany relations* DR Congo has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Kinshasa.", "* Republic of the Congo has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Brazzaville.See Egypt–Germany relations* Egypt has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt and Hamburg.", "* Germany has an embassy in Cairo.See Eritrea–Germany relations* Eritrea has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate general in Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in AsmaraSee Ethiopia–Germany relations* Ethiopia has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Gabon has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Libreville.See Germany–Ghana relations* Ghana has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Accra.See Germany–Guinea relations* Germany has an embassy in Conakry* Guinea has an embassy in BerlinSee Germany–Kenya relations* Germany has an embassy in Nairobi.", "* Kenya has an embassy in Berlin.See Germany–Liberia relations* Liberia has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Monrovia.See Germany–Libya relations* Libya has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in TripoliSee Germany–Madagascar relations* Madagascar has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Antananarivo.See Germany–Mali relations* Mali has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Bamako.See Germany–Mauritania relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 28 November 1960 when has been accredited first Ambassador of FRG to Mauritania with residence in Dakar, M. Reichhold.", "On 6 May 1961 first Ambassador of Mauritania to FRG M. Mamadou Toure presented his credentials to President Lubke.", "* Mauritania has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Nouakchott.See Germany–Morocco relations* Morocco has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf and Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in Rabat.See Germany–Mozambique relations* Mozambique has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Maputo.See Germany–Namibia relations* Namibia has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Windhoek.See Germany–Niger relations* Niger has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Niamey.See Germany–Nigeria relations* Nigeria has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "*Germany has an embassy in Abuja and a consulate-general in Lagos.See Germany–Rwanda relations* Rwanda has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Kigali.", "* São Tomé and Príncipe is represented in Germany through its embassy in Belgium.", "* Germany is represented in São Tomé and Príncipe though its embassy in Gabon.See Germany–Senegal relations* Senegal has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Dakar.", "* Sierra Leone has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Freetown.See Germany–Somalia relations* Somalia has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany is represented in Somalia through its embassy in Kenya.See Germany–South Africa relations* South Africa has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Munich.", "*Germany has an embassy in Pretoria and a consulate-general in Cape Town.See Germany–South Sudan relations* South Sudan has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Juba.See Germany–Sudan relations* Sudan has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Due to the war in Sudan, Germany closed its embassy in Khartoum in 2023.See Germany–Tanzania relations* Tanzania has an embassy in Berlin.", "*Germany has an embassy in Dar-es-Salaam.See Germany–Togo relations* Togo has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Lomé.", "* Tunisia has an embassy in Berlin, a consulate-general in Bonn, and consulates in Hamburg and Munich.", "* Germany has an embassy in Tunis.See Germany–Uganda relations* Uganda has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Kampala.", "* Zambia has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Lusaka.", "* Zimbabwe has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Harare.===Americas=== Country Notes* Antigua and Barbuda is represented in Germany through its embassy in the United Kingdom.", "* Germany is represented in Antigua and Barbuda through its embassy in Trinidad and Tobago.See Argentina–Germany relations* Argentina has an embassy in Berlin, consulates-general in Frankfurt and Hamburg, and a consulate in Bonn.", "* Germany has an embassy in Buenos Aires.", "*''See also'': German Argentine* The Bahamas is represented in Germany through its embassy in the United Kingdom.", "* Germany is represented in the Bahamas through its embassy in Jamaica.See Barbados–Germany relations* Barbados is represented in Germany through its embassy in Brussels, (Belgium).", "* Germany is represented in Barbados from its embassy in Port of Spain, (Trinidad and Tobago).", "* Belize is represented in Germany through its embassy in Brussels.", "* Germany is represented in Belize through its embassy in Guatemala.See Bolivia–Germany relations* Diplomatic relations between the two states were broken during the First World War.", "* Relations were restored after the war under the agreement concluded on 20 July 1921.", "* Bolivia has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in La Paz.", "*''See also'': German BoliviansSee Brazil–Germany relations* Brazil has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt and Munich.", "* Germany has an embassy in Brasilia and consulates-general in Porto Alegre, Recife, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.", "*''See also'': German BrazilianSee Canada–Germany relationsCanada operates consulates in Munich and Düsseldorf.", "In addition to its embassy in Ottawa, Germany maintains consulates in Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.See Chile–Germany relations* Chile has an embassy in Berlin, consulates-general in Frankfurt, Hamburg, and Munich and honorary consulates in Bremen, Cologne and Stuttgart.", "*Germany has an embassy in Santiago and honorary consulates in Antofagasta, Concepción, La Serena, Puerto Montt, Punta Arenas, Temuco, Valdivia, and Vina del Mar.See Colombia–Germany relations* Colombia has an embassy in Berlin, a consulate-general in Frankfurt and three honorary consulates in Bremen, Hamburg and Stuttgart.", "* Germany has an embassy in Bogotá and four honorary consulates in Armenia, Barranquilla, Cali, and Medellin.", "* Costa Rica has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in San José.", "See Cuba–Germany relations* Cuba has an embassy in Berlin and an embassy outpost in Bonn.", "* Germany has an embassy in Havana.", "* The Federal Republic of Germany Germany ended diplomatic relations on January 14, 1963, due to the Hallstein Doctrine, two days after Cuba recognized the German Democratic Republic.", "* Diplomatic relations were re-established on 18 January 1975.", "* Dominica is represented in Germany through its embassy in London.", "* Germany is represented in Dominica through its embassy in Trinidad and Tobago.", "* The Dominican Republic has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt and Hamburg.", "* Germany has an embassy in Santo Domingo.See Ecuador–Germany relations* Ecuador has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate in Hamburg.", "* Germany has an embassy in Quito.", "* El Salvador has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in San Salvador.", "* Grenada has closed its embassy in Germany on 17 August 2013.", "* Germany is represented in Grenada through its embassy in Trinidad and Tobago.", "* Guatemala has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Guatemala City.See Germany–Guyana relations* Guyana is represented in Germany through its embassy in Brussels.", "* Germany is represented in Guyana through its embassy in Trinidad and Tobago.See Germany–Haiti relations* Haiti has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Port-au-Prince.", "* Honduras has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Tegucigalpa.See Germany–Jamaica relations* Jamaica has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Kingston.See Germany–Mexico relations* Mexico has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate in Frankfurt.", "*Germany has an embassy in Mexico City.", "*''See also'': German immigration to Mexico* Nicaragua has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Managua.", "* Panama has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Hamburg.", "* Germany has an embassy in Panama City.See Germany–Paraguay relations* Paraguay has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in Asunción and three honorary consulates in Ciudad del Este, Encarnación, and Neu-Halbstadt.", "*A few towns, like that of Filadelfia and Nueva Germania, were founded by Germans, and still retain some Germans.", "Alfredo Stroessner, the dictator of Paraguay for 35 years, had a German immigrant father.", "* List of ambassadors of Paraguay to Germany*''See also:'' Germans in Paraguay.See Germany–Peru relations* Peru has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Hamburg, Munich and Offenbach.", "*Germany has an embassy in Lima, and honorary consulates in Arequipa, Piura, Bagua, and Trujillo.", "*Formal diplomatic relations between the two countries have existed since the 19th century.", "These were severed on January 26, 1943, during World War II, and resumed on 28 June 1951 (only with the Federal Republic of Germany).", "*''See also: German Peruvians''* St. Kitts and Nevis is represented in Germany through its High Commission in the United Kingdom.", "* Germany is represented in St. Kitts and Nevis through its embassy in Trinidad and Tobago.", "* St. Lucia is represented in Germany through its High Commission in the United Kingdom.", "* Germany is represented in St. Lucia through its embassy in Trinidad and Tobago.", "* St. Vincent and the Grenadines is represented in Germany through its High Commission in the United Kingdom.", "* Germany is represented in St. Vincent and the Grenadines through its embassy in Trinidad and Tobago.", "* Suriname is represented in Germany through its embassy in the Netherlands.", "* Germany is represented in Suriname through its embassy in Trinidad and Tobago.", "* Trinidad and Tobago is represented in Germany through its High Commission in the United Kingdom.", "* Germany has an embassy in Port of Spain.See Germany–United States relationsFormer chancellor Angela Merkel has sought warmer relations with the United States and to rebuild political ties on common values and beliefs.", "* United States has an embassy in Berlin, an embassy outpost in Bonn, consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Leipzig and Munich, as well as a consular agency in Bremen.", "*Germany has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and consulates-general in Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York City and San Francisco.", "*''See also'': German AmericanSee Germany–Uruguay relations* Uruguay has an embassy in Berlin, a general consulate in Hamburg and five honorary consulate (in Bremen, Frankfurt am Main, Essen, Munich, and Stuttgart).", "*Germany has an embassy in Montevideo.", "* Germany is Uruguay's principal trading partner in the European Union.See Germany–Venezuela relations* Venezuela has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt and Hamburg.", "* Germany has an embassy in Caracas.===Asia=== Country NotesSee Afghanistan–Germany relations* Germany was one of the first nations to recognise Afghan sovereignty, following the Soviet Union in 1991.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Bonn and Grünwald.", "*Germany had an embassy in Kabul and a consulate-general in Mazar-i-Sharif.", "* Afghanistan and Germany established close ties in 1935, as Afghanistan sought to break from their historical patterns of British and Russian alignment.", "Afghanistan resisted calls from Moscow and London to expel the Italian and German diplomatic corps for most of World War II.See Armenia–Germany relationsArmenian-German relations have always been stable and solid; they continue to work together and advance through the years in cooperation.", "Their leaders have discussed bilateral relations and noted that they have considerably improved over the last few years.", "* Armenia has an embassy in Berlin and honorary consulates in Frankfurt, Karlsruhe, Magdeburg, and Munich.", "* Germany has an embassy in Yerevan and an honorary consulate in Gyumri.See Azerbaijan–Germany relations* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Baku.See Bahrain–Germany relations* Bahrain has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Manama.After the independence of Bangladesh in 1971 East Germany was the third country in the world, and the first country in Europe, to officially recognise Bangladesh in 1972.Bangladesh also warmly greeted German reunification.", "As an economic power as well as an important member of the European Union (EU), Germany is a reliable partner of Bangladesh in development cooperation.", "After establishment of diplomatic relations, the bilateral relations between the two countries began to grow steadily.", "Bangladesh is a priority partner country of German Development Cooperation (GTZ).", "In trade with Germany, Bangladesh has for years recorded a large surplus.", "Germany is the second largest export market of Bangladesh after the US.", "The cultural relationship of both the countries is very strong.", "The cultural cooperation between them is mainly channeled through the Goethe Institute that work on developing the cultural ties between both the countries by sponsoring local and German cultural activities.", "Both Germany and Bangladesh share common views on various international issues and work together in the UN and in other international forum.", "They have maintained and developed close and friendly relations in a wide range of field.", "The two countries are harmonized together by their commitment to various sectors mutually agreed upon, which is expected to be strengthened further in future.", "* Bangladesh has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Dhaka.The Governments of the Federal Republic of Germany and the Kingdom of Bhutan have maintained diplomatic relations since 25 November 2020.This move further deepened the friendly relations between the two countries.", "Consular relations have been in place since July 2000.Bhutan has agreed to let Germany set up an honorary consulate in Thimphu.", "Bhutan has an honorary consulate-general in Germany.", "* Bhutan is represented in Germany through its mission to the EU in Brussels.", "* Germany is represented in Bhutan through its embassy in India.See Brunei–Germany relations* Brunei has an embassy in Berlin* Germany has an embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan.", "See Cambodia–Germany relations* Cambodia has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Phnom Penh.See China–Germany relationsGermany has good relationships with the People's Republic of China, even though Angela Merkel and large parts of Germany's political class have recently criticised the People's Republic for holding back reforms in the field of democracy and human rights.", "In recent years trade between them has reached high volumes, both in imports and exports.", "In July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including Germany, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China's mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang re-education camps.", "* China has an embassy in Berlin, an embassy outpost in Bonn, consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, and an Economic and Trade Office of the Special Administrative Region of Hong Kong.", "* Germany has an embassy in Beijing and consulates-general in Chengdu, Hong Kong, Guangzhou, Shanghai, and Shenyang.See Germany–Hong Kong relationsThere are no formal diplomatic relations between Hong Kong and Germany, due to the character of Hong Kong being a Special Administrative Region and not an independent nation.", "* Hong Kong has an Economic and Trade Office in Berlin.", "* Germany has a consulate-general in Hong Kong.", "* ''See also: Chinese-German relations.", "''During the Cold War India maintained diplomatic relations with both West Germany and East Germany.", "Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the reunification of Germany, relations have further improved.", "The German ambassador to India, Bernd Mutzelburg, once said that India and Germany, are not just 'natural partners', but important countries in a globalised world.", "Germany is India's largest trade partner in Europe.", "German Chancellor Angela Merkel visited India recently, as did the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi visit Germany.", "Both countries have been working towards gaining permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council.", "As both countries are strong liberal democracies, they have similar objectives.", "UN reforms, fighting terrorism and climate change, and promotion of science, education, technology, and human rights, are some areas of shared interests, and collaboration between these two countries.", "Culturally too, Indian and German writers and philosophers, have influenced each other.", "Recently, Germany has invested in developing education and skills amongst rural Indians.", "Germany was one of the first countries to agree with the Indo-US Nuclear deal.", "* India have an embassy in Berlin and three consulate generals in Frankfurt, Munich, and Hamburg.", "*Germany have an embassy in New Delhi and four consulate generals in Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata and Mumbai.See Germany–Indonesia relations*Indonesia and Germany have traditionally enjoyed good, intensive and wide-ranging relations.", "*Germany and Indonesia, as the largest members of the European Union and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), respectively, take similar positions on many issues relating to the development of the two regional organizations.", "*Indonesia has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt and Hamburg.", "*Germany has an embassy in Jakarta.See Germany–Iran relations* Iran has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt, Hamburg, and Munich.", "*Germany has an embassy in Tehran.See Germany–Iraq relations* Iraq has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in Baghdad and a consulate-general in Erbil.", "* There are currently some 84,000–150,000 Iraqis living in Germany.See Germany–Israel relationsGermany-Israel relations refers to the special relationship between Israel and Germany based on shared beliefs, Western values and a combination of historical perspectives.Among the most important factors in their relations is Nazi Germany's role in the genocide of European Jews during the Holocaust.Following German history during the Holocaust, one of Postwar Germany's aims was to establish and maintain relations of Wiedergutmachung with the State of Israel.", "Starting with the Reparations Agreement in 1952, support for the national security of the State of Israel is central to German foreign policy.Germany has been actively involved in the Egypt–Israel peace treaty in 1979, the Oslo Accords (1993) which led to the Israel–Jordan peace treaty in 1994 and the continuing Israeli–Palestinian peace process which make Germany arguably (next to the United States) Israel's closest ally.", "*Israel has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Munich.", "*Germany has an embassy in Tel Aviv.", "*''See also'': History of the Jews in GermanySee Germany–Japan relationsRegular meetings between the two countries have led to several cooperations.", "In 2004 German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder and Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi agreed upon cooperations in the assistance for reconstruction of Iraq and Afghanistan, the promotion of economic exchange activities, youth and sports exchanges as well as exchanges and cooperation in science, technology and academic fields.After China, Japan is Germany's principal trading partner in Asia in 2006.", "* Japan has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, and Munich.", "* Germany has an embassy in Tokyo and a consulate-general in Osaka.See Germany–Jordan relations* Jordan has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Amman and an honorary consulate in Aqaba.See Germany–Kazakhstan relations* Kazakhstan and Germany have established partnerships in the energy, technology and raw materials sectors.", "*Germany has a national pavilion at the Astana Expo 2017.", "* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Berlin, an embassy outpost in Bonn, a consultaetegeneral in Frankfurt, and a consulate in Munich.", "*Germany has an embassy in Astana and a consulate-general in Almaty.See Germany–Kuwait relations* Kuwait has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "*Germany has an embassy in Kuwait City.", "* Kyrgyzstan has an embassy in Berlin, an embassy outpost in Bonn, and a consulate in Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in Bishkek.See Germany–Laos relations* Laos has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Vientiane.See Germany–Lebanon relations* Lebanon has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Beirut.See Germany–Malaysia relations* Malaysia has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "*Germany has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.See Germany–Maldives relations* The Maldives have an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany is represented in the Maldives through its embassy in Sri Lanka.See Germany–Mongolia relations* Mongolia has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Ulaanbaatar.See Germany–Nepal relations* Nepal has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Kathmandu.See Germany–North Korea relations* North Korea has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Pyongyang.See Germany–Oman relations* Oman has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Muscat.See Germany–Pakistan relationsPakistan and Germany enjoy extremely close, warm and historical relations.", "Germany is Pakistan's fourth largest trading partner and biggest trading partner in the EU.", "Germany has been a reliable partner in trade, development, military, scientific and cultural co-operation.", "The collaboration between Germany and Pakistan dates back to the creation of Pakistan.", "Germany is home to 53,668 Pakistani immigrants.", "* Pakistan has an embassy in Berlin, a consulate-general in Frankfurt, and honorary consulates in Frankfurt, Düsseldorf, Hamburg, and Isartal.", "*Germany has an embassy in Islamabad, a consulate-general in Karachi, and an honorary consulate in Lahore.", "*See also Pakistanis in Germany \"Palestinian territories\"See Germany–Palestine relations* Palestine has a representative office in Berlin.", "* Germany has a representative office in Ramallah.See Germany–Philippines relationsThe relationship between Germany and the Philippines remains strong and positive.", "In 1955 an agreement was signed which led to a dynamic cooperation between the two countries.", "* The Philippines has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in Manila.See Germany–Qatar relations* Qatar has an embassy in Berlin, an embassy outpost in Bonn, and a consulate-general in Munich.", "* Germany has an embassy in Doha.See Germany–Saudi Arabia relations* Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in Riyadh and a consulate-general in Jeddah.See Germany–Singapore relations* Singapore has an embassy in Berlin.", "*Germany has an embassy in Singapore.See Germany–South Korea relations * The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Germany and the Joseon Dynasty of Korea started on 26 November 1883.", "* The number of the South Koreans living in Germany in 2011 was about 31,000.", "*South Korea has an embassy in Berlin, an embassy outpost in Bonn, and consulates-general in Frankfurt and Hamburg.", "*Germany has an embassy in Seoul.", "*''See also:'' Foreign relations of South Korea#Europe.See Germany–Sri Lanka relations* Sri Lanka has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in Colombo.", "See Germany–Syria relations* Syria has an embassy in Berlin.", "* The German embassy in Damascus closed on 19 January 2012.", "* Syria was from 22 February 1958 until 28 September 1961 part of the United Arab Republic.", "In 1961 Syria left the union with Egypt and re-established its independence.See Germany–Tajikistan relations* Tajikistan has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Dushanbe.See Germany–Thailand relations* Thailand has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt and Munich.", "* Germany has an embassy in Bangkok.See Germany–Turkey relationsGood Turkish/Ottoman-German relations from the 19th century onwards.", "They were allies in First World War.", "Germany promoted Turkish immigration after 1945 when it suffered an acute labor shortage.", "They were called ''Gastarbeiter'' (German for ''guest workers'').", "Most Turks in Germany trace their ancestry to Central and Eastern Anatolia.", "Today, Turks are Germany's largest ethnic minority and form most of Germany's Muslim minority.", "Berlin is home to about 250,000 Turks, making it the largest Turkish community outside of Turkey.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Berlin, Düsseldorf, Essen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Hannover, Hürth, Karlsruhe, Mainz, Munich, Münster, Nuremberg, and Stuttgart.", "* Germany has an embassy in Ankara, consulates-general in Istanbul and İzmir, and a consulate in Antalya.", "* Germany opposes Turkey's EU membership.", "* Turkmenistan has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate in Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in Ashgabat.See Germany–United Arab Emirates relations* UAE has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Bonn and Munich.", "*Germany has an embassy in Abu Dhabi and a consulate-general in Dubai.See Germany–Uzbekistan relations* Uzbekistan has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in Tashkent.See Germany–Vietnam relations* Vietnam has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "*Germany has an embassy in Hanoi and a consulate-general in Ho Chi Minh City.See Germany–Yemen relations* Yemen has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in Sanaʽa which at the moment is only working to a limited extend due to the civil war.=== Europe ===; Balkan statesThe European Union and the eurozoneThe German government was a strong supporter of the enlargement of NATO.Germany was one of the first nations to recognize Croatia and Slovenia as independent nations, rejecting the concept of Yugoslavia as the only legitimate political order in the Balkans (unlike other European powers, who first proposed a pro-Belgrade policy).", "This is why Serb authorities sometimes referred to \"new German imperialism\" as one of the main reasons for Yugoslavia's collapse.", "German troops participate in the multinational efforts to bring \"peace and stability\" to the Balkans.", "; Central EuropeWeimar triangle (France, Germany and Poland); Germany continues to be active economically in the states of Central Europe, and to actively support the development of democratic institutions.", "In the 2000s, Germany has been arguably the centerpiece of the European Union (though the importance of France cannot be overlooked in this connection).", "Country NotesSee Albania-Germany relations*Albania has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Munich.", "*Germany has an embassy in Tirana.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.", "*''See also'': Albanians in Germany* Andorra is accredited to Germany from its embassy in Vienna, Austria.", "* Germany is accredited to Andorra from its embassy in Madrid, Spain.See Austria–Germany relationsRelations between them are close because as countries have strong historical and cultural ties.", "* Austria has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Munich.", "* Germany has an embassy in Vienna.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.See Belarus-Germany relations* Belarus has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Munich.", "* Germany has an embassy in Minsk.See Belgium–Germany relations* Belgium has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Brussels.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Bosnia and Herzegovina–Germany relationsThe German government has made continuous efforts concerning the peace process after the civil war.", "* Bosnia and Herzegovina has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt, Munich, and Stuttgart.", "* Germany has an embassy in Sarajevo.See Bulgaria–Germany relationsThe Bulgarian government views Germany as its key strategic partner in the EU.", "* Bulgaria has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt and Munich.", "* Germany has an embassy in Sofia.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Croatia–Germany relations* There are more than 200,000 Croats who live in Germany.", "Historically Germany has had a close collaboration with Croatia.", "*Croatia has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich and Stuttgart, and honorary consulates in Dresden and Mainz.", "* Germany has an embassy in Zagreb and an honorary consulate in Osijek.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Cyprus–Germany relations* In 2004, an agreement on mutual recognition of university degrees was signed, designed to facilitate Cypriot and German students' admission to German and Cypriot universities.", "* There is a close and trustful cooperation at a government level.", "Minister of State Hoyer visited Cyprus on 11 and 12 February 2010.Federal Foreign Minister Westerwelle met with his Cypriot counterpart Marcos Kyprianou in Berlin on 2 March.", "*Cyprus has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Hamburg.", "* Germany has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.See Czech Republic–Germany relationsToday, they share 815 km of common borders.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Berlin, consulates-general in Dresden and Munich, a consulate in Düsseldorf, and honorary consulates in Dortmund, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Nuremberg, and Rostock.", "* Germany has an embassy in Prague.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Denmark–Germany relations* Denmark has an embassy in Berlin and three consulates-general in Flensburg, Hamburg and Munich.", "* Germany has an embassy in Copenhagen * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Estonia–Germany relations* Estonia has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Finland–Germany relations* Finland has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See France–Germany relationsBeing the historic core of Europe and the \"twin engine for European integration\", the cooperation with France is one of the most central elements of German foreign policy.", "The Elysée Treaty from 1963 set the foundation for a collaboration that – next to the European project – also repeatedly called for a \"Core Union\" with maximum integration.", "In recent times, France and Germany are among the most enthusiastic proponents of the further integration of the EU.", "They are sometimes described as the \"twin engine\" or \"core countries\" pushing for moves.", "* France has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, Saarbrücken, Suttgart.", "* Germany has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Bordeaux, Lyon, Marseille, and Strasbourg.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Germany–Greece relations* The first Greek Embassy in Berlin was established in 1834, when Berlin was the capital of the Kingdom of Prussia.", "* Greece has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, Stuttgart.", "* Germany has an embassy in Athens and a consulate-general in Thessaloniki.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Georgia–Germany relations* Georgia has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in Tbilisi.See Germany–Holy See relations* Holy See has an apostolic nunciature in Berlin.", "* Germany's embassy to the Holy See is located in Rome.See Germany–Hungary relations* Hungary has an embassy in Berlin, consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Munich, and Stuttgart, an honorary consulate-general in Bremerhaven, and honorary consulates in Dresdener, Erfurt, Essen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Nuremberg, and Schwerin.", "*Germany has an embassy in Budapest and an honorary consulate in Pécs.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Germany–Iceland relations* German-Icelandic cultural relations go back more than a thousand years; they share a Germanic cultural background.", "*Iceland has an embassy in Berlin and nine honorary consulates in Bremen, Cologne, Cuxhaven, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, Stuttgart, and Warnemünde.", "*Germany has an embassy in Reykjavík an honorary consulates in Akureyri and Seyðisfjörður.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.See Germany–Ireland relations* As Ireland was neutral during World War II, it was able to maintain diplomatic relations with Germany throughout the war.", "Nonetheless, at least one Irish merchant vessel was destroyed by a German submarine.", "* Ireland has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt and honorary consulates in Bergisch Gladbach, Hamburg, Munich, and Stuttgart.", "*Germany has an embassy in Dublin and an honorary consulate Galway.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.See Germany–Italy relations* These two countries were part of the Holy Roman Empire.", "* The Italian regions of Friuli-Venezia Giulia and South Tyrol were located inside the boundaries of the German Confederation.", "* Relations were established after the Unification of Italy.", "* They enjoy friendly relations and were members of the Axis during World War II, formed an alliance during the Cold War (West Germany), and are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Italy has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-generals in Cologne, Frankfurt, Hannover, Munich, and Suttgart, consulates in Freiburg and Dortmund, and a consular agency in Wolfsburg.", "* Germany has an embassy in Rome and a consulate-general in Milan.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Germany–Kosovo relations* Germany is the second-largest donor to Kosovo, behind the United States.", "*Kosovo will open an embassy in Berlin, a consulate-general in Munich, and consulates in Frankfurt and Stuttgart.", "*Germany has an embassy in Pristina since 27 February 2008.See Germany–Latvia relations* Diplomatic relations were first established following Latvia's independence from Russian rule, under agreement signed in Berlin on 15 July 1920.These relation lasted until the Soviet take over of Latvia in 1940.", "* Relations were reestablished in 1991, following the collapse of the Soviet Union.", "* Latvia has an embassy in Berlin and honorary consulates in Bremen, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Künzelsau, Munich and Rostock.", "*Germany has an embassy in Riga.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Germany–Liechtenstein relations* Liechtenstein has an embassy in Berlin.", "*Germany is accredited to Liechtenstein from its embassy in Bern, Switzerland.See Germany–Lithuania relations* Lithuania has an embassy in Berlin and honorary consulates in Dresden, Erfurt, Essen, Künzelsau, and Munich.", "*Germany has an embassy in Vilnius and an honorary consulate in Klaipėda.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Germany–Luxembourg relations* Luxembourg has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Germany–Malta relations* Malta has an embassy in Berlin.", "*Germany has an embassy in Valletta.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.See Germany–Moldova relations* Moldova has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in Chisinau.", "* Monaco has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany is accredited to Monaco from its embassy in Paris, France.See Germany–Montenegro relations* Montenegro has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in Podgorica.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.", "* Germany is an EU member and Montenegro is an EU candidate.See Germany–Netherlands relations* Relations were established following the unification of Germany in 1871.", "* During the First World War, the German army refrained from attacking the Netherlands, and thus relations between the two states were preserved.", "At war's end in 1918, the former Kaiser Wilhelm II fled to the Netherlands, where he lived till his death in 1941.", "* The German army occupied the Netherlands during the Second World War and kept the country under occupation in 1940–1945.", "* Netherlands has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf and Munich.", "*Germany has an embassy in The Hague and a consulate-general which is at the same time an embassy outpost in Amsterdam.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "See Germany–North Macedonia relations* North Macedonia has an embassy in Berlin, an embassy outpost in Bonn, and a consulate-general in Munich.", "* Germany has an embassy in Skopje.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.See Germany–Norway relations* Norway has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Oslo.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.See Germany–Poland relationsDuring the Cold War, communist Poland had good relations with East Germany, but had strained relations with West Germany.", "After the fall of communism, Poland and the reunited Germany have had a mostly positive but occasionally strained relationship due to some political issues.", "After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Germany has been a proponent of Poland's participation in NATO and the European Union.", "The Polish-German border is 467 km long.", "* Poland has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Cologne, Hamburg, and Munich.", "* Germany has an embassy in Warsaw, consulates-general in Gdańsk, Kraków, Wrocław and a consulate in Opole, which is an outpost of the consulate-general in Wrocław.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Germany–Portugal relations* Portugal has an embassy in Berlin, consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Hamburg, Stuttgart, and an outpost of the consulate-general Stuttgart in Hattersheim am Main.", "* Germany has an embassy in Lisbon.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Germany–Romania relations* Both countries have – due to a formerly significant number of Germans of Romania – also cultural relations.", "* Romania has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Bonn, Munich, and Stuttgart.", "*Germany has an embassy in Bucharest and consulates in Sibiu and Timișoara.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Germany–Russia relationsGermany tries to keep Russia engaged with the rest of the Western world.", "The future aim is to promote a stable market-economy liberal democracy in Russia, which is part of the Western world.", "* Russia has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Moscow and a consulate-general in Saint Petersburg.", "* San Marino is represented in Germany through its Ambassador in San Marino.", "* Germany is represented in Germany through its embassy in Rome and its consulate-general in Milan.See Germany–Serbia relations* There are 505,000 registered people of Serbian descent living in Germany.", "*Germans of Serbia today constitute a small minority, but used to be the largest minority in Serbia before World War II.", "*Serbia has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, and Stuttgart.", "*Germany has an embassy in Belgrade.", "* Germany is an EU member and Serbia is an EU candidate.See Germany–Slovakia relations* Slovakia has an embassy in Berlin, a general consulate in Munich and honorary consulates in Bad Homburg vor der Höhe, Hildesheim, Leipzig, Stuttgart.", "*Germany has an embassy in Bratislava and honorary consulates in Košice and Žilina.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Germany–Slovenia relations* Slovenia has an embassy in Berlin, and a consulate-general in Munich.", "*Germany has an embassy in Ljubljana.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Diplomatic relations were established on 15 December 2017* Sovereign Military Order of Malta has an Embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany is represented to Sovereign Military Order of Malta through its Embassy to the Holy See.See Germany–Spain relations* Spain has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, and Stuttgart.", "*Germany has an embassy in Madrid, a consulate-general in Barcelona, and consulates in Las Palmas, Málaga, and Palma de Mallorca.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Germany–Sweden relations* Relations have been strong with cultural and economic cooperation.", "* Sweden has an embassy in Berlin and 12 honorary consulates.", "*Germany has an embassy in Stockholm and 8 honorary consulates.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.", "* Germany supports Sweden's NATO membership.See Germany–Switzerland relations* Switzerland has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt, Munich, and Stuttgart.", "* Germany has an embassy in Bern.See Germany–Ukraine relations*Ukraine has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg and Munich.", "*Germany has an embassy in Kyiv and a consulate-general in Dnipro.See Germany–United Kingdom relations* The United Kingdom has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf and Munich.", "The United Kingdom also has honorary consulates in Bremen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Hannover, Kiel, and Stuttgart.", "* Germany has an embassy in London and a consulate-general in Edinburgh.", "Germany also has honorary consulates in Aberdeen, Barrow upon Humber, Belfast, Bristol, Cardiff, Coventry, Dover, Glasgow, Hamilton (Bermuda), Kirkwall (Orkney), Leeds, Lerwick (Shetland), Liverpool, Newcastle upon Tyne, Plymouth, Southampton, Saint Helier (Jersey), Saint Peter Port (Guernsey), and Tortola (British Virgin Islands).", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.", "*Germany recorded its highest foreign direct investment with a surge in UK companies setting up operations to keep a post-Brexit presence in the EU in 2022.===Oceania=== Country NotesSee Australia–Germany relations* Australia has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in Canberra and a consulate-general in Sydney.", "* Fiji is represented in Germany through its embassy in Brussels.", "* Germany is represented in Fiji through its embassy in New Zealand.", "* Kiribati has an honorary consulate in Hamburg.", "* Germany is represented in Kiribati through its embassy in New Zealand.", "* The Marshall Islands is represented in Germany through its permanent mission to the United Nations.", "* Germany is represented in the Marshall Islands through its embassy in the Philippines.", "* Micronesia is represented in Germany though its embassy in the United States.", "* Germany is represented in Germany through its embassy in the Philippines.", "* Nauru is represented in Germany through its consulate-general in Australia.", "* Germany is represented in Nauru through its embassy in Australia.See Germany–New Zealand relations* New Zealand has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Hamburg.", "* Germany has an embassy in Wellington.", "* Palau is represented in Germany through its embassy in the United States.", "* Germany is represented in Palau through its embassy in the Philippines.", "* Papua New Guinea is accredited to Germany from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "*Germany is accredited to Papua New Guinea from its embassy in Canberra, Australia.", "* Samoa is accredited to Germany from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "*Germany is accredited to Samoa from its embassy in Wellington, New Zealand.", "* Solomon Islands is represented in Germany through its embassy in Belgium.", "* Germany is represented in Solomon Islands through its embassy in Australia.See Germany–Tonga relations* Tonga is accredited to Germany from its embassy in London, United Kingdom.", "*Germany is accredited to Tonga from its embassy in Wellington, New Zealand.", "* Tuvalu is represented in Germany through its embassy in Belgium.", "* Germany is represented in Tuvalu through its embassy in New Zealand.", "* Vanuatu is represented in Germany through its embassy in Belgium.", "* Germany is represented in Vanuatu through its embassy in Australia." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "See also", "* Anglo-German naval arms race* Human rights in Germany* List of diplomatic missions in Germany* List of diplomatic missions of Germany* Security issues in Germany* Visa requirements for German citizens" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===German diplomacy===* Bark, Dennis L., and David R. Gress.", "''A History of West Germany.", "Vol.", "1: From Shadow to Substance, 1945–1963.Vol.", "2: Democracy and Its Discontents, 1963–1991'' (1993), the standard scholarly history* Blumenau, Bernhard, 'German Foreign Policy and the 'German Problem' During and After the Cold War: Changes and Continuities'.", "in: B Blumenau, J Hanhimäki & B Zanchetta (eds), ''New Perspectives on the End of the Cold War: Unexpected Transformations?''", "Ch.", "5.London: Routledge, 2018..* Brandenburg, Erich.", "''From Bismarck to the World War: A History of German Foreign Policy 1870-1914'' (1927) online.", "* Buse, Dieter K., and Juergen C. Doerr, eds.", "''Modern Germany: an encyclopedia of history, people and culture, 1871-1990'' (2 vol.", "Garland, 1998).", "* Clark, Claudia.", "''Dear Barack: The Extraordinary Partnership of Barack Obama and Angela Merkel'' (2021)* Cole, Alistair.", "''Franco-German Relations'' (2000)* Feldman, Lily Gardner.", "''Germany's Foreign Policy of Reconciliation: From Enmity to Amity'' (Rowman & Littlefield; 2012) 393 pages; on German relations with France, Israel, Poland, and Czechoslovakia/the Czech Republic.", "excerpt* Forsberg, Tuomas.", "\"From Ostpolitik to ‘frostpolitik’?", "Merkel, Putin and German foreign policy towards Russia.\"", "''International Affairs'' 92.1 (2016): 21-42.online* Gaskarth, Jamie, and Kai Oppermann.", "\"Clashing traditions: German foreign policy in a New Era.\"", "''International Studies Perspectives'' 22.1 (2021): 84-105.online* Geiss, Imanuel.", "''German foreign policy, 1871–1914'' (1976)* Haftendorn, Helga.", "''German Foreign Policy Since 1945'' (2006), 441pp* Hanrieder, Wolfram F. '' Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy'' (1991) * Heuser, Beatrice.", "''NATO, Britain, France & the FRG: Nuclear Strategies & Forces for Europe, 1949-2000'' (1997) 256pp* Hewitson, Mark.", "\"Germany and France before the First World War: a reassessment of Wilhelmine foreign policy.\"", "''English Historical Review'' 115.462 (2000): 570–606.in JSTOR* Junker, Detlef, ed.", "''The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War'' (2 vol 2004), 150 short essays by scholars covering 1945–1990 excerpt and text search vol 1; excerpt and text search vol 2* Kefferputz, Roderick and Jeremy Stern.", "\"The United States, Germany, and World Order: New Priorities for a Changing Alliance.\"", "''Atlantic Council: Issue Brief'' (2021) online* Kimmich, Christoph.", "''German Foreign Policy 1918-1945: A Guide to Research and Research Materials'' (2nd ed.", "Scholarly Resources, 1991) 264 pp.", "* Leitz, Christian.", "''Nazi Foreign Policy, 1933-1941: The Road to Global War'' (2004)* Maulucci Jr., Thomas W. ''Adenauer's Foreign Office: West German Diplomacy in the Shadow of the Third Reich'' (2012) excerpt* Oppermann, Kai.", "\"National role conceptions, domestic constraints and the new 'normalcy' in German foreign policy: the Eurozone crisis, Libya and beyond.\"", "''German Politics''; 21.4 (2012): 502-519.", "* Paterson, William E. \"Foreign Policy in the Grand Coalition.\"", "''German politics'' 19.3-4 (2010): 497-514.", "* Papayoanou, Paul A.", "\"Interdependence, institutions, and the balance of power: Britain, Germany, and World War I.\"", "''International Security'' 20.4 (1996): 42–76.", "* Schwarz, Hans-Peter.", "''Konrad Adenauer: A German Politician and Statesman in a Period of War, Revolution and Reconstruction'' (2 vol 1995) excerpt and text search vol 2.", "* Schmitt, Bernadotte E. \"Triple Alliance and Triple Entente, 1902-1914.\"", "''American Historical Review'' 29.3 (1924): 449–473.in JSTOR*Sontag, Raymond James.", "''Germany and England: Background of Conflict, 1848-1898'' (1938)* Spang, Christian W. and Rolf-Harald Wippich, eds.", "''Japanese-German Relations, 1895-1945: War, Diplomacy and Public Opinion'' (2006)* Weinberg, Gerhard L. ''The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany'' (2 vol, 1970–80).", "* Wright, Jonathan.", "''Germany and the Origins of the Second World War'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2007) 223pp.", "online review* Young, William.", "''German Diplomatic Relations 1871-1945: The Wilhelmstrasse and the Formulation of Foreign Policy'' (2006); how the foreign ministry shaped policy===World/European diplomatic context===* Albrecht-Carrié, René.", "''A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna'' (1958), 736pp; a basic introduction that gives context to Germany's roles* Kaiser, David E. ''Economic Diplomacy and the Origins of the Second World War: Germany, Britain, France, and Eastern Europe, 1930-1939'' (Princeton UP, 2015).", "* Kennedy, Paul.", "''The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000'' (1989) excerpt and text search; very wide-ranging, with much on economic power* Langer, William.", "''An Encyclopedia of World History'' (5th ed.", "1973), very detailed outline* Langer, William.", "''European Alliances and Alignments 1870-1890'' (2nd ed.", "1950); advanced coverage of Bismarckian system* Langer, William L. '' The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890-1902'' (2 vol, 1935) * Macmillan, Margaret.", "''The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914'' (2013) cover 1890s to 1914; see esp.", "ch 3–5, 8, * Mowat, R. B.", "''A History of European Diplomacy 1815-1914'' (1922), basic introduction* Schroeder, Paul W. ''The Transformation of European Politics 1763-1848'' (1996) * Steiner, Zara.", "''The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919-1933'' (2007) excerpt and text search* Steiner, Zara.", "''The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933-1939'' (2011) excerpt and text search* Taylor, A. J. P. ''The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848–1918'' (1957) excerpt and text search, advanced coverage of all major powers" ], [ "External links", "* German -Bashing and the Breakup of Yugoslavia, (\"The Donald W. Treadgold Papers in Russian, East European and Central Asian Studies, nº 16, March 1998).", "University of Washington: HMJ School of International Studies* The German Economy in the New Europe* EU Enlargement and Transatlantic Relations* Bierling, Stephan.", "''Die Außenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Normen, Akteure, Entscheidungen.", "2.Auflage''.", "München: Oldenbourg, 2005 .", "* von Bredow, Wilfried.", "''Die Außenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Eine Einführung''.", "Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2006 .", "* Permanent Mission of Germany to the United Nations* Auswärtiges Amt* AICGS American Institute for Contemporary German Studies* SWP German Institute for International and Security Affairs" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Germany" ], [ "Introduction", "Germany is a democratic and federal parliamentary republic, where federal legislative power is vested in the (the parliament of Germany) and the (the representative body of the , Germany's regional states).The federal system has, since 1949, been dominated by the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD).", "The judiciary of Germany is independent of the executive and the legislature, while it is common for leading members of the executive to be members of the legislature as well.", "The political system is laid out in the 1949 constitution, the (Basic Law), which remained in effect with minor amendments after German reunification in 1990.The constitution emphasizes the protection of individual liberty in an extensive catalogue of human and civil rights and divides powers both between the federal and state levels and between the legislative, executive and judicial branches.West Germany was a founding member of the European Community in 1958, which became the EU in 1993.Germany is part of the Schengen Area, and has been a member of the eurozone since 1999.It is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G7, the G20 and the OECD.", "According to the V-Dem Democracy indices Germany was 2023 the 15th most electoral democratic country in the world." ], [ "History", "===Before 1998===Beginning with the election of Konrad Adenauer in 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany had Christian Democratic chancellors for 20 years until a coalition between the Social Democrats and the Liberals took over.", "From 1982, Christian Democratic leader Helmut Kohl was chancellor in a coalition with the Liberals for 16 years.", "In this period fell the reunification of Germany, in 1990: the German Democratic Republic joined the Federal Republic.", "In the former GDR's territory, five ''Länder'' (states) were established or reestablished.", "The two parts of Berlin united as one \"Land\" (state).The political system of the Federal Republic remained more or less unchanged.", "Specific provisions for the former GDR territory were enabled via the ''unification treaty'' between the Federal Republic and the GDR prior to the unification day of 3 October 1990.However, Germany saw in the following two distinct party systems: the Green party and the Liberals remained mostly West German parties, while in the East the former socialist state party, now called The Left Party, flourished along with the Christian Democrats and Social Democrats.===1998–2005===Gerhard Schröder in the 2002 electionsJoschka Fischer in the 2005 electionsAfter 16 years of the Christian–Liberal coalition, led by Helmut Kohl, the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) together with the Greens won the Bundestag elections of 1998.SPD vice chairman Gerhard Schröder positioned himself as a centrist candidate, in contradiction to the leftist SPD chairman Oskar Lafontaine.", "The Kohl government was hurt at the polls by slower economic growth in the East in the previous two years, and constantly high unemployment.", "The final margin of victory was sufficiently high to permit a \"red-green\" coalition of the SPD with Alliance 90/The Greens (), bringing the Greens into a national government for the first time.Initial problems of the new government, marked by policy disputes between the moderate and traditional left wings of the SPD, resulted in some voter disaffection.", "Lafontaine left the government (and later his party) in early 1999.The CDU won in some important state elections but was hit in 2000 by a party donation scandal from the Kohl years.", "As a result of this Christian Democratic Union (CDU) crisis, Angela Merkel became chair.The next election for the was on 22 September 2002.Gerhard Schröder led the coalition of SPD and Greens to an eleven-seat victory over the Christian Democrat challengers headed by Edmund Stoiber (CSU).", "Three factors are generally cited that enabled Schröder to win the elections despite poor approval ratings a few months before and a weaker economy: good handling of the 100-year flood, firm opposition to the US 2003 invasion of Iraq, and Stoiber's unpopularity in the east, which cost the CDU crucial seats there.In its second term, the red–green coalition lost several very important state elections, for example in Lower Saxony where Schröder was the prime minister from 1990 to 1998.On 20 April 2003, chancellor Schröder announced massive labor market reforms, called Agenda 2010, that cut unemployment benefits.", "Although these reforms sparked massive protests, they are now credited with being in part responsible for the relatively strong economic performance of Germany during the euro-crisis and the decrease in unemployment in Germany in the years 2006–2007.===2005–2009===Seats in the Bundestag after the 2005 elections: Former chancellor: Angela Merkel of the Christian DemocratsOn 22 May 2005 the SPD received a devastating defeat in its former heartland, North Rhine-Westphalia.", "Half an hour after the election results, the SPD chairman Franz Müntefering announced that the chancellor would clear the way for new federal elections.This took the republic by surprise, especially because the SPD was below 20% in polls at the time.", "The CDU quickly announced Angela Merkel as Christian Democrat candidate for chancellor, aspiring to be the first female chancellor in German history.New for the 2005 election was the alliance between the newly formed Electoral Alternative for Labor and Social Justice (WASG) and the PDS, planning to fuse into a common party (see Left Party.PDS).", "With the former SPD chairman, Oskar Lafontaine for the WASG and Gregor Gysi for the PDS as prominent figures, this alliance soon found interest in the media and in the population.", "Polls in July saw them as high as 12%.Whereas in May and June 2005 victory of the Christian Democrats seemed highly likely, with some polls giving them an absolute majority, this picture changed shortly before the election on 18 September 2005.Olaf Scholz, chancellor since 2021Frank-Walter Steinmeier was the Social Democrat candidate for chancellor in 2009 and president of Germany since 2017.The election results of 18 September were surprising because they differed widely from the polls of the previous weeks.", "The Christian Democrats even lost votes compared to 2002, narrowly reaching the first place with only 35.2%, and failed to get a majority for a \"black–yellow\" government of CDU/CSU and liberal FDP.", "But the red–green coalition also failed to get a majority, with the SPD losing votes, but polling 34.2% and the greens staying at 8.1%.", "The Left reached 8.7% and entered the ''Bundestag'', whereas the far-right NPD only got 1.6%.The most likely outcome of coalition talks was a so-called grand coalition between the Christian Democrats (CDU/CSU) and the Social Democrats (SPD).", "Three party coalitions and coalitions involving The Left had been ruled out by all interested parties (including The Left itself).", "On 22 November 2005, Angela Merkel was sworn in by President Horst Köhler for the office of Bundeskanzlerin.The existence of the grand coalition on federal level helped smaller parties' electoral prospects in state elections.", "Since in 2008, the CSU lost its absolute majority in Bavaria and formed a coalition with the FDP, the grand coalition had no majority in the ''Bundesrat'' and depended on FDP votes on important issues.", "In November 2008, the SPD re-elected its already retired chair Franz Müntefering and made Frank-Walter Steinmeier its leading candidate for the federal election in September 2009.As a result of that federal election, the grand coalition brought losses for both parties and came to an end.", "The SPD suffered the heaviest losses in its history and was unable to form a coalition government.", "The CDU/CSU had only little losses but also reached a new historic low with its worst result since 1949.The three smaller parties thus had more seats in the German ''Bundestag'' than ever before, with the liberal party FDP winning 14.6% of votes.=== 2009–2013 ===Seats in the Bundestag after the 2009 elections: Sigmar Gabriel: SPD chairman from 2009 to 2017, 2013–2017 Deputy to the ChancellorThe CDU/CSU and FDP together held 332 seats (of 622 total seats) and had been in coalition since 27 October 2009.Angela Merkel was re-elected as chancellor, and Guido Westerwelle served as the foreign minister and vice chancellor of Germany.", "After being elected into the federal government, the FDP suffered heavy losses in the following state elections.", "The FDP had promised to lower taxes in the electoral campaign, but after being part of the coalition they had to concede that this was not possible due to the economic crisis of 2008.Because of the losses, Guido Westerwelle had to resign as chair of the FDP in favor of Philipp Rösler, federal minister of health, who was consequently appointed as vice chancellor.", "Shortly after, Philipp Rösler changed office and became federal minister of economics and technology.After their electoral fall, the Social Democrats were led by Sigmar Gabriel, a former federal minister and prime minister of Lower Saxony, and by Frank-Walter Steinmeier as the head of the parliamentary group.", "He resigned on 16 January 2017 and proposed his longtime friend and president of European Parliament Martin Schulz as his successor and chancellor candidate.Germany has seen increased political activity by citizens outside the established political parties with respect to local and environmental issues such as the location of Stuttgart 21, a railway hub, and construction of Berlin Brandenburg Airport.=== 2013–2017 ===Seats in the Bundestag after the 2013 elections: The 18th federal elections in Germany resulted in the re-election of Angela Merkel and her Christian democratic parliamentary group of the parties CDU and CSU, receiving 41.5% of all votes.", "Following Merkel's first two historically low results, her third campaign marked the CDU/CSU's best result since 1994 and only for the second time in German history the possibility of gaining an absolute majority.", "Their former coalition partner, the FDP, narrowly failed to reach the 5% threshold and did not gain seats in the Bundestag.Not having reached an absolute majority, the CDU/CSU formed a grand coalition with the social-democratic SPD after the longest coalition talks in history, making the head of the party Sigmar Gabriel vice-chancellor and federal minister for economic affairs and energy.", "Together they held 504 of a total 631 seats (CDU/CSU 311 and SPD 193).", "The only two opposition parties were The Left (64 seats) and Alliance '90/The Greens (63 seats), which was acknowledged as creating a critical situation in which the opposition parties did not even have enough seats to use the special controlling powers of the opposition.=== 2017–2021 ===Seats in the Bundestag after the 2017 elections: The 19th federal elections in Germany took place on 24 September 2017.The two big parties, the conservative parliamentary group CDU/CSU and the social democrat SPD were in a similar situation as in 2009, after the last grand coalition had ended, and both had suffered severe losses; reaching their second worst and worst result respectively in 2017.Many votes in the 2017 elections went to smaller parties, leading the right-wing populist party AfD (Alternative for Germany) into the Bundestag which marked a big shift in German politics since it was the first far-right party to win seats in parliament since the 1950s.With Merkel's candidacy for a fourth term, the CDU/CSU only reached 33.0% of the votes, but won the highest number of seats, leaving no realistic coalition option without the CDU/CSU.", "As all parties in the Bundestag strictly ruled out a coalition with the AfD, the only options for a majority coalition were a so-called \"Jamaican\" coalition (CDU/CSU, FDP, Greens; named after the party colors resembling those of the Jamaican flag) and a grand coalition with the SPD, which was at first opposed by the Social Democrats and their leader Martin Schulz.Coalition talks between the three parties of the \"Jamaican\" coalition were held but the final proposal was rejected by the liberals of the FDP, leaving the government in limbo.", "Following the unprecedented situation, for the first time in German history different minority coalitions or even direct snap coalitions were also heavily discussed.", "At this point, Federal President Steinmeier invited leaders of all parties for talks about a government, being the first president in the history of the Federal Republic to do so.Official coalition talks between CDU/CSU and SPD started in January 2018 and led to a renewal of the grand coalition on 12 March 2018 as well as the subsequent re-election of Angela Merkel as chancellor.=== 2021 onwards ===Scheduled elections for the new Bundestag were held on 26 September 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic.", "Angela Merkel did not stand for a fifth term but handed her post over after the second longest term for a chancellor in German history.", "Olaf Scholz was sworn in as the new chancellor on 8 December 2021.His Social Democrats had won the majority of votes and formed a liberal-left coalition government with The Greens and the FDP.In February 2022, Frank-Walter Steinmeier was elected for a second five-year term as Germany's president.", "Although largely ceremonial post, he has been seen as a symbol of consensus and continuity.After Russia's Feb. 24 invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Germany's previous foreign policy towards Russia (traditional Ostpolitik) has been severely criticized for having been too credulous and soft." ], [ "Constitution", "The \"Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany\" (Grundgesetz der Bundesrepublik Deutschland) is the Constitution of Germany.", "It was formally approved on 8 May 1949, and, with the signature of the Allies of World War II on 12 May, came into effect on 23 May, as the constitution of those states of West Germany that were initially included within the Federal Republic.", "The 1949 Basic Law is a response to the perceived flaws of the 1919 Weimar Constitution, which failed to prevent the rise of the Nazi party in 1933.Since 1990, in the course of the reunification process after the fall of the Berlin Wall, the Basic Law also applies to the eastern states of the former German Democratic Republic." ], [ "Executive", "===Head of state===Bellevue PalaceThe German head of state is the federal president.", "As in Germany's parliamentary system of government, the federal chancellor runs the government and day-to-day politics, while the role of the federal president is mostly ceremonial.", "The federal president, by their actions and public appearances, represents the state itself, its existence, its legitimacy, and unity.", "Their office involves an integrative role.", "Nearly all actions of the federal president become valid only after a countersignature of a government member of Germany.The president is not obliged by Constitution to refrain from political views.", "The president is expected to give direction to general political and societal debates, but not in a way that is linked to party politics.", "Most German presidents were active politicians and party members prior to the office, which means that they have to change their political style when becoming president.", "The function comprises the official residence of Bellevue Palace.Under Article 59 (1) of the Basic Law, the federal president represents the Federal Republic of Germany in matters of international law, concludes treaties with foreign states on its behalf and accredits diplomats.All federal laws must be signed by the president before they can come into effect.", "The president does not have formal a veto, but the conditions for refusing to sign a law on the basis of unconstitutionality are the subject of debate.", "The office is currently held by Frank-Walter Steinmeier (since 2017).", "The federal president does have a role in the political system, especially at the establishment of a new government and the dissolution of the Bundestag (parliament).", "This role is usually nominal but can become significant in case of political instability.", "Additionally, a federal president together with the Federal Council can support the government in a \"legislatory emergency state\" to enable laws against the will of the Bundestag (Article 81 of the Basic Law).", "However, so far the federal president has never had to use these \"reserve powers\".===Head of government===German ChancelleryThe ''Bundeskanzler'' (federal chancellor) heads the ''Bundesregierung'' (federal government) and thus the executive branch of the federal government.", "They are elected by and responsible to the ''Bundestag'', Germany's parliament.", "The other members of the government are the federal ministers; they are chosen by the Chancellor.", "Germany, like the United Kingdom, can thus be classified as a parliamentary system.", "The office is currently held by Olaf Scholz (since 2021).", "The Chancellor cannot be removed from office during a four-year term unless the ''Bundestag'' has agreed on a successor.", "This constructive vote of no confidence is intended to avoid a similar situation to that of the Weimar Republic in which the executive did not have enough support in the legislature to govern effectively, but the legislature was too divided to name a successor.", "The current system also prevents the Chancellor from calling a snap election.Except in the periods 1969–1972 and 1976–1982, when the Social Democratic party of Chancellor Brandt and Schmidt came in second in the elections, the chancellor has always been the candidate of the largest party, usually supported by a coalition of two parties with a majority in the parliament.", "The chancellor appoints one of the federal ministers as their deputy, who has the unofficial title Vice Chancellor ().", "The office is currently held by Robert Habeck (since 2021).", "===Cabinet===The German Cabinet ( or ) is the chief executive body of the Federal Republic of Germany.", "It consists of the chancellor and the cabinet ministers.", "The fundamentals of the cabinet's organization are set down in articles 62–69 of the Basic Law.", "The current cabinet is Scholz (since 2021).", "===Agencies===Agencies of the German government include:*Federal Intelligence Service ()*Federal Bureau of Aircraft Accident Investigation ()*Federal Aviation Office ()*Federal Bureau for Maritime Casualty Investigation ()*Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency ()*Federal Railway Accident Investigation Board ()*Federal Railway Authority ()" ], [ "Legislature", "Federal legislative power is divided between the ''Bundestag'' and the ''Bundesrat''.", "The ''Bundestag'' is directly elected by the German people, while the ''Bundesrat'' represents the governments of the regional states (''Länder'').", "The federal legislature has powers of exclusive jurisdiction and concurrent jurisdiction with the states in areas specified in the constitution.The ''Bundestag'' is more powerful than the ''Bundesrat'' and only needs the latter's consent for proposed legislation related to revenue shared by the federal and state governments, and the imposition of responsibilities on the states.", "In practice, however, the agreement of the ''Bundesrat'' in the legislative process is often required, since federal legislation frequently has to be executed by state or local agencies.", "In the event of disagreement between the ''Bundestag'' and the ''Bundesrat'', either side can appeal to the (Mediation Committee), a conference committee-like body of 16 ''Bundesrat'' and 16 ''Bundestag'' members, to find a compromise.===Bundestag===Reichstag buildingThe ''Bundestag'' (Federal Diet) is elected for a four-year term and consists of 598 or more members elected by a means of mixed-member proportional representation, which Germans call \"personalised proportional representation\".", "299 members represent single-seat constituencies and are elected by a first-past-the-post electoral system.", "A party must receive either 5% of the national vote or three direct constituencies to be eligible for non-constituency seats in the ''Bundestag''.", "This rule, often called the \"five-percent hurdle\", was incorporated into Germany's election law to prevent political fragmentation and minority parties from becoming disproportionately influential.", "Parties representing ethnic minorities are exempt from this threshold.", "Parties that obtain fewer constituency seats than their national share of the vote are allotted seats from party lists to make up the difference.", "In contrast, parties that obtain more constituency seats than their national share of the vote are allowed to keep these so-called overhang seats.", "In federal elections since 2013, other parties obtain extra seats (\"balance seats\") that offset advantages from their rivals' overhang seats.", "The current ''Bundestag'' is the largest in German history with 736 members.A 2023 reform of German election law limits the size of the ''Bundestag'' to 630 members for upcoming federal elections.", "Unless exempt from the hurdle, parties that do not make the 5% threshold will no longer be granted representation in parliament even if their candidates win three constituencies.", "In the same context, the system of overhang and balance seats will also be abolished.", "Opposition parties have announced they will challenge the decision in Federal Constitutional Court.The first ''Bundestag'' elections were held in the Federal Republic of Germany (\"West Germany\") on 14 August 1949.Following reunification, elections for the first all-German ''Bundestag'' were held on 2 December 1990.The last federal election was held on 26 September 2021." ], [ "Judiciary", "Constitutional court in KarlsruheGermany follows the civil law tradition.", "The judicial system comprises three types of courts.", "* Ordinary courts, dealing with criminal and most civil cases, are the most numerous by far.", "The Federal Court of Justice of Germany () is the highest ordinary court and also the highest court of appeals.", "* Specialized courts hear cases related to administrative, labour, social, fiscal and patent law.", "* Constitutional court focus on judicial review and constitutional interpretation.", "The Federal Constitutional Court () is the highest court dealing with constitutional matters.The main difference between the Federal Constitutional Court and the Federal Court of Justice is that the Federal Constitutional Court may only be called if a constitutional matter within a case is in question (e.g.", "a possible violation of human rights in a criminal trial), while the Federal Court of Justice may be called in any case." ], [ "Foreign relations", "Germany is a member of the European Union and the Eurozone.Germany maintains a network of 229 diplomatic missions abroad and holds relations with more than 190 countries.", "It is the largest contributor to the budget of the European Union (providing 27%) and third largest contributor to the United Nations (providing 8%).", "Germany is a member of the NATO defence alliance, the Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the G8, the G20, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).Germany has played a leading role in the European Union since its inception and has maintained a strong alliance with France since the end of World War II.", "The alliance was especially close in the late 1980s and early 1990s under the leadership of Christian Democrat Helmut Kohl and Socialist François Mitterrand.", "Germany is at the forefront of European states seeking to advance the creation of a more unified European political, defence, and security apparatus.", "For a number of decades after WWII, the Federal Republic of Germany kept a notably low profile in international relations, because of both its recent history and its occupation by foreign powers.Defence Ministers of the NATO member states in 2000, an organisation West Germany joined in 1955During the Cold War, Germany's partition by the Iron Curtain made it a symbol of East–West tensions and a political battleground in Europe.", "However, Willy Brandt's ''Ostpolitik'' was a key factor in the ''détente'' of the 1970s.", "In 1999, Chancellor Gerhard Schröder's government defined a new basis for German foreign policy by taking a full part in the decisions surrounding the NATO war against Yugoslavia and by sending German troops into combat for the first time since World War II.Chancellor Angela Merkel, the head of government, hosting the G8 summit in Heiligendamm (2007)The governments of Germany and the United States are close political allies.", "The 1948 Marshall Plan and strong cultural ties have crafted a strong bond between the two countries, although Schröder's very vocal opposition to the Iraq War had suggested the end of Atlanticism and a relative cooling of German–American relations.", "The two countries are also economically interdependent: 5.0% of German exports in goods are US-bound and 3.5% of German imported goods originate from the US with a trade deficit of -63,678.5 million dollars for the United States (2017).", "Other signs of the close ties include the continuing position of German–Americans as the largest reported ethnic group in the US, and the status of Ramstein Air Base (near Kaiserslautern) as the largest US military community outside the US.The policy on foreign aid is an important area of German foreign policy.", "It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and carried out by the implementing organisations.", "The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community.", "It is the world's fourth biggest aid donor after the United States, the United Kingdom and France.", "Germany spent 0.37 per cent of its gross domestic product (GDP) on development, which is below the government's target of increasing aid to 0.51 per cent of GDP by 2010." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Germany comprises sixteen states that are collectively referred to as .", "Due to differences in size and population, the subdivision of these states varies especially between city-states () and states with larger territories ().", "For regional administrative purposes five states, namely Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Hesse, North Rhine-Westphalia and Saxony, consist of a total of 22 Government Districts ().", "As of 2009 Germany is divided into 403 districts () on municipal level, these consist of 301 rural districts and 102 urban districts.Map (Clickable) State Capital Area (km2) Population Baden-Württemberg Stuttgart 35,75210,717,000 Bavaria Munich 70,54912,444,000 Berlin Berlin 8923,400,000 Brandenburg Potsdam 29,4772,568,000 Bremen Bremen 404663,000 Hamburg Hamburg 7551,735,000 Hesse Wiesbaden 21,1156,098,000 Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Schwerin 23,1741,720,000 Lower Saxony Hanover 47,6188,001,000 North Rhine-Westphalia Düsseldorf 34,04318,075,000 Rhineland-Palatinate Mainz 19,8474,061,000 Saarland Saarbrücken 2,5691,056,000 Saxony Dresden 18,4164,296,000 Saxony-Anhalt Magdeburg 20,4452,494,000 Schleswig-Holstein Kiel 15,7632,829,000 Thuringia Erfurt 16,1722,355,000" ], [ "See also", "* Federalism in Germany*German governing coalition* List of political parties in Germany* List of Federal Republic of Germany governments* Lobbying in Germany* Party finance in Germany* Political culture of Germany" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official Site of the Bundesregierung, in English* Official source of election results* Official source from the German Embassy in Washington, DC" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of geometry" ], [ "Introduction", "Cyclopaedia''.Geometry (from the ; ''geo-'' \"earth\", ''-metron'' \"measurement\") arose as the field of knowledge dealing with spatial relationships.", "Geometry was one of the two fields of pre-modern mathematics, the other being the study of numbers (arithmetic).Classic geometry was focused in compass and straightedge constructions.", "Geometry was revolutionized by Euclid, who introduced mathematical rigor and the axiomatic method still in use today.", "His book, ''The Elements'' is widely considered the most influential textbook of all time, and was known to all educated people in the West until the middle of the 20th century.In modern times, geometric concepts have been generalized to a high level of abstraction and complexity, and have been subjected to the methods of calculus and abstract algebra, so that many modern branches of the field are barely recognizable as the descendants of early geometry.", "(See Areas of mathematics and Algebraic geometry.)" ], [ "Early geometry", "The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to early peoples, such as the ancient Indus Valley (see Harappan mathematics) and ancient Babylonia (see Babylonian mathematics) from around 3000 BC.", "Early geometry was a collection of empirically discovered principles concerning lengths, angles, areas, and volumes, which were developed to meet some practical need in surveying, construction, astronomy, and various crafts.", "Among these were some surprisingly sophisticated principles, and a modern mathematician might be hard put to derive some of them without the use of calculus and algebra.", "For example, both the Egyptians and the Babylonians were aware of versions of the Pythagorean theorem about 1500 years before Pythagoras and the Indian Sulba Sutras around 800 BC contained the first statements of the theorem; the Egyptians had a correct formula for the volume of a frustum of a square pyramid.===Egyptian geometry===The ancient Egyptians knew that they could approximate the area of a circle as follows:::::Area of Circle ≈ (Diameter) x 8/9 2.Problem 50 of the Ahmes papyrus uses these methods to calculate the area of a circle, according to a rule that the area is equal to the square of 8/9 of the circle's diameter.", "This assumes that is 4×(8/9)2 (or 3.160493...), with an error of slightly over 0.63 percent.", "This value was slightly less accurate than the calculations of the Babylonians (25/8 = 3.125, within 0.53 percent), but was not otherwise surpassed until Archimedes' approximation of 211875/67441 = 3.14163, which had an error of just over 1 in 10,000.Ahmes knew of the modern 22/7 as an approximation for , and used it to split a hekat, hekat x 22/x x 7/22 = hekat; however, Ahmes continued to use the traditional 256/81 value for for computing his hekat volume found in a cylinder.Problem 48 involved using a square with side 9 units.", "This square was cut into a 3x3 grid.", "The diagonal of the corner squares were used to make an irregular octagon with an area of 63 units.", "This gave a second value for of 3.111...The two problems together indicate a range of values for between 3.11 and 3.16.Problem 14 in the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus gives the only ancient example finding the volume of a frustum of a pyramid, describing the correct formula::where ''a'' and ''b'' are the base and top side lengths of the truncated pyramid and ''h'' is the height.===Babylonian geometry===The Babylonians may have known the general rules for measuring areas and volumes.", "They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if ''π'' is estimated as 3.The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the base and the height, however, the volume of the frustum of a cone or a square pyramid was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases.", "The Pythagorean theorem was also known to the Babylonians.", "Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used ''π'' as 3 and 1/8.The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven miles today.", "This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time.", "There have been recent discoveries showing that ancient Babylonians may have discovered astronomical geometry nearly 1400 years before Europeans did.===Vedic India geometry===''Rigveda'' manuscript in Devanagari.The Indian Vedic period had a tradition of geometry, mostly expressed in the construction of elaborate altars.Early Indian texts (1st millennium BC) on this topic include the ''Satapatha Brahmana'' and the ''Śulba Sūtras''.According to , the ''Śulba Sūtras'' contain \"the earliest extant verbal expression of the Pythagorean Theorem in the world, although it had already been known to the Old Babylonians.\"", "The diagonal rope ('''') of an oblong (rectangle) produces both which the flank (''pārśvamāni'') and the horizontal ('''') produce separately.\"", "They contain lists of Pythagorean triples, which are particular cases of Diophantine equations.They also contain statements (that with hindsight we know to be approximate) about squaring the circle and \"circling the square.", "\"The ''Baudhayana Sulba Sutra'', the best-known and oldest of the ''Sulba Sutras'' (dated to the 8th or 7th century BC) contains examples of simple Pythagorean triples, such as: , , , , and as well as a statement of the Pythagorean theorem for the sides of a square: \"The rope which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an area double the size of the original square.\"", "It also contains the general statement of the Pythagorean theorem (for the sides of a rectangle): \"The rope stretched along the length of the diagonal of a rectangle makes an area which the vertical and horizontal sides make together.", "\"According to mathematician S. G. Dani, the Babylonian cuneiform tablet Plimpton 322 written c. 1850 BC \"contains fifteen Pythagorean triples with quite large entries, including (13500, 12709, 18541) which is a primitive triple, indicating, in particular, that there was sophisticated understanding on the topic\" in Mesopotamia in 1850 BC.", "\"Since these tablets predate the Sulbasutras period by several centuries, taking into account the contextual appearance of some of the triples, it is reasonable to expect that similar understanding would have been there in India.\"", "Dani goes on to say: \"As the main objective of the ''Sulvasutras'' was to describe the constructions of altars and the geometric principles involved in them, the subject of Pythagorean triples, even if it had been well understood may still not have featured in the ''Sulvasutras''.", "The occurrence of the triples in the ''Sulvasutras'' is comparable to mathematics that one may encounter in an introductory book on architecture or another similar applied area, andwould not correspond directly to the overall knowledge on the topic at that time.", "Since, unfortunately, no other contemporaneous sources have been found it may never be possible to settle this issue satisfactorily.", "\"In all, three ''Sulba Sutras'' were composed.", "The remaining two, the ''Manava Sulba Sutra'' composed by Manava (fl.", "750-650 BC) and the ''Apastamba Sulba Sutra'', composed by Apastamba (c. 600 BC), contained results similar to the ''Baudhayana Sulba Sutra''." ], [ "Greek geometry", "===Classical Greek geometry===For the ancient Greek mathematicians, geometry was the crown jewel of their sciences, reaching a completeness and perfection of methodology that no other branch of their knowledge had attained.", "They expanded the range of geometry to many new kinds of figures, curves, surfaces, and solids; they changed its methodology from trial-and-error to logical deduction; they recognized that geometry studies \"eternal forms\", or abstractions, of which physical objects are only approximations; and they developed the idea of the \"axiomatic method\", still in use today.====Thales and Pythagoras====Pythagorean theorem: ''a''2 + ''b''2 = ''c''2Thales (635-543 BC) of Miletus (now in southwestern Turkey), was the first to whom deduction in mathematics is attributed.", "There are five geometric propositions for which he wrote deductive proofs, though his proofs have not survived.", "Pythagoras (582-496 BC) of Ionia, and later, Italy, then colonized by Greeks, may have been a student of Thales, and traveled to Babylon and Egypt.", "The theorem that bears his name may not have been his discovery, but he was probably one of the first to give a deductive proof of it.", "He gathered a group of students around him to study mathematics, music, and philosophy, and together they discovered most of what high school students learn today in their geometry courses.", "In addition, they made the profound discovery of incommensurable lengths and irrational numbers.====Plato====Plato (427-347 BC) was a philosopher, highly esteemed by the Greeks.", "There is a story that he had inscribed above the entrance to his famous school, \"Let none ignorant of geometry enter here.\"", "However, the story is considered to be untrue.", "Though he was not a mathematician himself, his views on mathematics had great influence.", "Mathematicians thus accepted his belief that geometry should use no tools but compass and straightedge – never measuring instruments such as a marked ruler or a protractor, because these were a workman's tools, not worthy of a scholar.", "This dictum led to a deep study of possible compass and straightedge constructions, and three classic construction problems: how to use these tools to trisect an angle, to construct a cube twice the volume of a given cube, and to construct a square equal in area to a given circle.", "The proofs of the impossibility of these constructions, finally achieved in the 19th century, led to important principles regarding the deep structure of the real number system.", "Aristotle (384-322 BC), Plato's greatest pupil, wrote a treatise on methods of reasoning used in deductive proofs (see Logic) which was not substantially improved upon until the 19th century.===Hellenistic geometry=======Euclid====Statue of Euclid in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History.Elements, (c. 1310)Euclid (c. 325-265 BC), of Alexandria, probably a student at the Academy founded by Plato, wrote a treatise in 13 books (chapters), titled ''The Elements of Geometry'', in which he presented geometry in an ideal axiomatic form, which came to be known as Euclidean geometry.", "The treatise is not a compendium of all that the Hellenistic mathematicians knew at the time about geometry; Euclid himself wrote eight more advanced books on geometry.", "We know from other references that Euclid's was not the first elementary geometry textbook, but it was so much superior that the others fell into disuse and were lost.", "He was brought to the university at Alexandria by Ptolemy I, King of Egypt.", "''The Elements'' began with definitions of terms, fundamental geometric principles (called ''axioms'' or ''postulates''), and general quantitative principles (called ''common notions'') from which all the rest of geometry could be logically deduced.", "Following are his five axioms, somewhat paraphrased to make the English easier to read.# Any two points can be joined by a straight line.# Any finite straight line can be extended in a straight line.# A circle can be drawn with any center and any radius.# All right angles are equal to each other.# If two straight lines in a plane are crossed by another straight line (called the transversal), and the interior angles between the two lines and the transversal lying on one side of the transversal add up to less than two right angles, then on that side of the transversal, the two lines extended will intersect (also called the parallel postulate).Concepts, that are now understood as algebra, were expressed geometrically by Euclid, a method referred to as Greek geometric algebra.====Archimedes====Archimedes (287-212 BC), of Syracuse, Sicily, when it was a Greek city-state, is often considered to be the greatest of the Greek mathematicians, and occasionally even named as one of the three greatest of all time (along with Isaac Newton and Carl Friedrich Gauss).", "Had he not been a mathematician, he would still be remembered as a great physicist, engineer, and inventor.", "In his mathematics, he developed methods very similar to the coordinate systems of analytic geometry, and the limiting process of integral calculus.", "The only element lacking for the creation of these fields was an efficient algebraic notation in which to express his concepts.====After Archimedes====medieval scholars.", "The compass in this 13th-century manuscript is a symbol of God's act of Creation.After Archimedes, Hellenistic mathematics began to decline.", "There were a few minor stars yet to come, but the golden age of geometry was over.", "Proclus (410-485), author of ''Commentary on the First Book of Euclid'', was one of the last important players in Hellenistic geometry.", "He was a competent geometer, but more importantly, he was a superb commentator on the works that preceded him.", "Much of that work did not survive to modern times, and is known to us only through his commentary.", "The Roman Republic and Empire that succeeded and absorbed the Greek city-states produced excellent engineers, but no mathematicians of note.The great Library of Alexandria was later burned.", "There is a growing consensus among historians that the Library of Alexandria likely suffered from several destructive events, but that the destruction of Alexandria's pagan temples in the late 4th century was probably the most severe and final one.", "The evidence for that destruction is the most definitive and secure.", "Caesar's invasion may well have led to the loss of some 40,000-70,000 scrolls in a warehouse adjacent to the port (as Luciano Canfora argues, they were likely copies produced by the Library intended for export), but it is unlikely to have affected the Library or Museum, given that there is ample evidence that both existed later.Civil wars, decreasing investments in maintenance and acquisition of new scrolls and generally declining interest in non-religious pursuits likely contributed to a reduction in the body of material available in the Library, especially in the 4th century.", "The Serapeum was certainly destroyed by Theophilus in 391, and the Museum and Library may have fallen victim to the same campaign." ], [ "Classical Indian geometry", "In the Bakhshali manuscript, there is a handful of geometric problems (including problems about volumes of irregular solids).", "The Bakhshali manuscript also \"employs a decimal place value system with a dot for zero.\"", "Aryabhata's ''Aryabhatiya'' (499) includes the computation of areas and volumes.Brahmagupta wrote his astronomical work '''' in 628.Chapter 12, containing 66 Sanskrit verses, was divided into two sections: \"basic operations\" (including cube roots, fractions, ratio and proportion, and barter) and \"practical mathematics\" (including mixture, mathematical series, plane figures, stacking bricks, sawing of timber, and piling of grain).", "In the latter section, he stated his famous theorem on the diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral:'''Brahmagupta's theorem:''' If a cyclic quadrilateral has diagonals that are perpendicular to each other, then the perpendicular line drawn from the point of intersection of the diagonals to any side of the quadrilateral always bisects the opposite side.Chapter 12 also included a formula for the area of a cyclic quadrilateral (a generalization of Heron's formula), as well as a complete description of rational triangles (''i.e.''", "triangles with rational sides and rational areas).", "'''Brahmagupta's formula:''' The area, ''A'', of a cyclic quadrilateral with sides of lengths ''a'', ''b'', ''c'', ''d'', respectively, is given by: where ''s'', the semiperimeter, given by: '''Brahmagupta's Theorem on rational triangles:''' A triangle with rational sides and rational area is of the form::for some rational numbers and .Parameshvara Nambudiri was the first mathematician to give a formula for the radius of the circle circumscribing a cyclic quadrilateral.", "The expression is sometimes attributed to Lhuilier 1782, 350 years later.", "With the sides of the cyclic quadrilateral being ''a, b, c,'' and ''d'', the radius ''R'' of the circumscribed circle is::" ], [ "Chinese geometry", "The ''Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art'', first compiled in 179 AD, with added commentary in the 3rd century by Liu Hui.", "''Haidao Suanjing'', Liu Hui, 3rd century.The first definitive work (or at least oldest existent) on geometry in China was the ''Mo Jing'', the Mohist canon of the early philosopher Mozi (470-390 BC).", "It was compiled years after his death by his followers around the year 330 BC.", "Although the ''Mo Jing'' is the oldest existent book on geometry in China, there is the possibility that even older written material existed.", "However, due to the infamous Burning of the Books in a political maneuver by the Qin Dynasty ruler Qin Shihuang (r. 221-210 BC), multitudes of written literature created before his time were purged.", "In addition, the ''Mo Jing'' presents geometrical concepts in mathematics that are perhaps too advanced not to have had a previous geometrical base or mathematic background to work upon.The ''Mo Jing'' described various aspects of many fields associated with physical science, and provided a small wealth of information on mathematics as well.", "It provided an 'atomic' definition of the geometric point, stating that a line is separated into parts, and the part which has no remaining parts (i.e.", "cannot be divided into smaller parts) and thus forms the extreme end of a line is a point.", "Much like Euclid's first and third definitions and Plato's 'beginning of a line', the ''Mo Jing'' stated that \"a point may stand at the end (of a line) or at its beginning like a head-presentation in childbirth.", "(As to its invisibility) there is nothing similar to it.\"", "Similar to the atomists of Democritus, the ''Mo Jing'' stated that a point is the smallest unit, and cannot be cut in half, since 'nothing' cannot be halved.", "It stated that two lines of equal length will always finish at the same place, while providing definitions for the ''comparison of lengths'' and for ''parallels'', along with principles of space and bounded space.", "It also described the fact that planes without the quality of thickness cannot be piled up since they cannot mutually touch.", "The book provided definitions for circumference, diameter, and radius, along with the definition of volume.The Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) period of China witnessed a new flourishing of mathematics.", "One of the oldest Chinese mathematical texts to present geometric progressions was the ''Suàn shù shū'' of 186 BC, during the Western Han era.", "The mathematician, inventor, and astronomer Zhang Heng (78-139 AD) used geometrical formulas to solve mathematical problems.", "Although rough estimates for pi (π) were given in the ''Zhou Li'' (compiled in the 2nd century BC), it was Zhang Heng who was the first to make a concerted effort at creating a more accurate formula for pi.", "Zhang Heng approximated pi as 730/232 (or approx 3.1466), although he used another formula of pi in finding a spherical volume, using the square root of 10 (or approx 3.162) instead.", "Zu Chongzhi (429-500 AD) improved the accuracy of the approximation of pi to between 3.1415926 and 3.1415927, with 355⁄113 (密率, Milü, detailed approximation) and 22⁄7 (约率, Yuelü, rough approximation) being the other notable approximation.", "In comparison to later works, the formula for pi given by the French mathematician Franciscus Vieta (1540-1603) fell halfway between Zu's approximations.===''The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art''===''The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art'', the title of which first appeared by 179 AD on a bronze inscription, was edited and commented on by the 3rd century mathematician Liu Hui from the Kingdom of Cao Wei.", "This book included many problems where geometry was applied, such as finding surface areas for squares and circles, the volumes of solids in various three-dimensional shapes, and included the use of the Pythagorean theorem.", "The book provided illustrated proof for the Pythagorean theorem, contained a written dialogue between of the earlier Duke of Zhou and Shang Gao on the properties of the right angle triangle and the Pythagorean theorem, while also referring to the astronomical gnomon, the circle and square, as well as measurements of heights and distances.", "The editor Liu Hui listed pi as 3.141014 by using a 192 sided polygon, and then calculated pi as 3.14159 using a 3072 sided polygon.", "This was more accurate than Liu Hui's contemporary Wang Fan, a mathematician and astronomer from Eastern Wu, would render pi as 3.1555 by using 142⁄45.Liu Hui also wrote of mathematical surveying to calculate distance measurements of depth, height, width, and surface area.", "In terms of solid geometry, he figured out that a wedge with rectangular base and both sides sloping could be broken down into a pyramid and a tetrahedral wedge.", "He also figured out that a wedge with trapezoid base and both sides sloping could be made to give two tetrahedral wedges separated by a pyramid.", "Furthermore, Liu Hui described Cavalieri's principle on volume, as well as Gaussian elimination.", "From the ''Nine Chapters'', it listed the following geometrical formulas that were known by the time of the Former Han Dynasty (202 BCE–9 CE).", "'''Areas for the'''*Square*Rectangle*Circle*Isosceles triangle*Rhomboid*Trapezoid*Double trapezium*Segment of a circle*Annulus ('ring' between two concentric circles)'''Volumes for the'''*Parallelepiped with two square surfaces*Parallelepiped with no square surfaces*Pyramid*Frustum of pyramid with square base*Frustum of pyramid with rectangular base of unequal sides*Cube*Prism*Wedge with rectangular base and both sides sloping*Wedge with trapezoid base and both sides sloping*Tetrahedral wedge*Frustum of a wedge of the second type (used for applications in engineering)*Cylinder*Cone with circular base*Frustum of a cone*SphereContinuing the geometrical legacy of ancient China, there were many later figures to come, including the famed astronomer and mathematician Shen Kuo (1031-1095 CE), Yang Hui (1238-1298) who discovered Pascal's Triangle, Xu Guangqi (1562-1633), and many others." ], [ "Islamic Golden Age", "Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah''By the beginning of the 9th century, the \"Islamic Golden Age\" flourished, the establishment of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad marking a separate tradition of science in the medieval Islamic world, building not only Hellenistic but also on Indian sources.Although the Islamic mathematicians are most famed for their work on algebra, number theory and number systems, they also made considerable contributions to geometry, trigonometry and mathematical astronomy, and were responsible for the development of algebraic geometry.Al-Mahani (born 820) conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as duplicating the cube to problems in algebra.", "Al-Karaji (born 953) completely freed algebra from geometrical operations and replaced them with the arithmetical type of operations which are at the core of algebra today.Thābit ibn Qurra (known as Thebit in Latin) (born 836) contributed to a number of areas in mathematics, where he played an important role in preparing the way for such important mathematical discoveries as the extension of the concept of number to (positive) real numbers, integral calculus, theorems in spherical trigonometry, analytic geometry, and non-Euclidean geometry.", "In astronomy Thabit was one of the first reformers of the Ptolemaic system, and in mechanics he was a founder of statics.", "An important geometrical aspect of Thabit's work was his book on the composition of ratios.", "In this book, Thabit deals with arithmetical operations applied to ratios of geometrical quantities.", "The Greeks had dealt with geometric quantities but had not thought of them in the same way as numbers to which the usual rules of arithmetic could be applied.", "By introducing arithmetical operations on quantities previously regarded as geometric and non-numerical, Thabit started a trend which led eventually to the generalisation of the number concept.In some respects, Thabit is critical of the ideas of Plato and Aristotle, particularly regarding motion.", "It would seem that here his ideas are based on an acceptance of using arguments concerning motion in his geometrical arguments.", "Another important contribution Thabit made to geometry was his generalization of the Pythagorean theorem, which he extended from special right triangles to all triangles in general, along with a general proof.Ibrahim ibn Sinan ibn Thabit (born 908), who introduced a method of integration more general than that of Archimedes, and al-Quhi (born 940) were leading figures in a revival and continuation of Greek higher geometry in the Islamic world.", "These mathematicians, and in particular Ibn al-Haytham, studied optics and investigated the optical properties of mirrors made from conic sections.Astronomy, time-keeping and geography provided other motivations for geometrical and trigonometrical research.", "For example, Ibrahim ibn Sinan and his grandfather Thabit ibn Qurra both studied curves required in the construction of sundials.", "Abu'l-Wafa and Abu Nasr Mansur both applied spherical geometry to astronomy.A 2007 paper in the journal ''Science'' suggested that girih tiles possessed properties consistent with self-similar fractal quasicrystalline tilings such as the Penrose tilings." ], [ "Renaissance", "An engraving by Albrecht Dürer featuring Mashallah, from the title page of the ''De scientia motus orbis'' (Latin version with engraving, 1504).", "As in many medieval illustrations, the compass here is an icon of religion as well as science, in reference to God as the architect of creationThe transmission of the Greek Classics to medieval Europe via the Arabic literature of the 9th to 10th century \"Islamic Golden Age\" began in the 10th century and culminated in the Latin translations of the 12th century.A copy of Ptolemy's ''Almagest'' was brought back to Sicily by Henry Aristippus (d. 1162), as a gift from the Emperor to King William I (r. 1154–1166).", "An anonymous student at Salerno travelled to Sicily and translated the ''Almagest'' as well as several works by Euclid from Greek to Latin.", "Although the Sicilians generally translated directly from the Greek, when Greek texts were not available, they would translate from Arabic.", "Eugenius of Palermo (d. 1202) translated Ptolemy's ''Optics'' into Latin, drawing on his knowledge of all three languages in the task.The rigorous deductive methods of geometry found in Euclid's ''Elements of Geometry'' were relearned, and further development of geometry in the styles of both Euclid (Euclidean geometry) and Khayyam (algebraic geometry) continued, resulting in an abundance of new theorems and concepts, many of them very profound and elegant.Advances in the treatment of perspective were made in Renaissance art of the 14th to 15th century which went beyond what had been achieved in antiquity.", "In Renaissance architecture of the ''Quattrocento'', concepts of architectural order were explored and rules were formulated.", "A prime example of is the Basilica di San Lorenzo in Florence by Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446).In c. 1413 Filippo Brunelleschi demonstrated the geometrical method of perspective, used today by artists, by painting the outlines of various Florentine buildings onto a mirror.", "Soon after, nearly every artist in Florence and in Italy used geometrical perspective in their paintings, notably Masolino da Panicale and Donatello.", "Melozzo da Forlì first used the technique of upward foreshortening (in Rome, Loreto, Forlì and others), and was celebrated for that.", "Not only was perspective a way of showing depth, it was also a new method of composing a painting.", "Paintings began to show a single, unified scene, rather than a combination of several.As shown by the quick proliferation of accurate perspective paintings in Florence, Brunelleschi likely understood (with help from his friend the mathematician Toscanelli), but did not publish, the mathematics behind perspective.", "Decades later, his friend Leon Battista Alberti wrote ''De pictura'' (1435/1436), a treatise on proper methods of showing distance in painting based on Euclidean geometry.", "Alberti was also trained in the science of optics through the school of Padua and under the influence of Biagio Pelacani da Parma who studied Alhazen's ''Optics'.Piero della Francesca elaborated on Della Pittura in his ''De Prospectiva Pingendi'' in the 1470s.", "Alberti had limited himself to figures on the ground plane and giving an overall basis for perspective.", "Della Francesca fleshed it out, explicitly covering solids in any area of the picture plane.", "Della Francesca also started the now common practice of using illustrated figures to explain the mathematical concepts, making his treatise easier to understand than Alberti's.", "Della Francesca was also the first to accurately draw the Platonic solids as they would appear in perspective.Perspective remained, for a while, the domain of Florence.", "Jan van Eyck, among others, was unable to create a consistent structure for the converging lines in paintings, as in London's The Arnolfini Portrait, because he was unaware of the theoretical breakthrough just then occurring in Italy.", "However he achieved very subtle effects by manipulations of scale in his interiors.", "Gradually, and partly through the movement of academies of the arts, the Italian techniques became part of the training of artists across Europe, and later other parts of the world.The culmination of these Renaissance traditions finds its ultimate synthesis in the research of the architect, geometer, and optician Girard Desargues on perspective, optics and projective geometry.The ''Vitruvian Man'' by Leonardo da Vinci(c. 1490) depicts a man in two superimposed positions with his arms and legs apart and inscribed in a circle and square.", "The drawing is based on the correlations of ideal human proportions with geometry described by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius in Book III of his treatise ''De Architectura''." ], [ "Modern geometry", "===The 17th century===Discourse on Method by René DescartesIn the early 17th century, there were two important developments in geometry.", "The first and most important was the creation of analytic geometry, or geometry with coordinates and equations, by René Descartes (1596–1650) and Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665).", "This was a necessary precursor to the development of calculus and a precise quantitative science of physics.", "The second geometric development of this period was the systematic study of projective geometry by Girard Desargues (1591–1661).", "Projective geometry is the study of geometry without measurement, just the study of how points align with each other.", "There had been some early work in this area by Hellenistic geometers, notably Pappus (c. 340).", "The greatest flowering of the field occurred with Jean-Victor Poncelet (1788–1867).In the late 17th century, calculus was developed independently and almost simultaneously by Isaac Newton (1642–1727) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716).", "This was the beginning of a new field of mathematics now called analysis.", "Though not itself a branch of geometry, it is applicable to geometry, and it solved two families of problems that had long been almost intractable: finding tangent lines to odd curves, and finding areas enclosed by those curves.", "The methods of calculus reduced these problems mostly to straightforward matters of computation.===The 18th and 19th centuries=======Non-Euclidean geometry====The very old problem of proving Euclid's Fifth Postulate, the \"Parallel Postulate\", from his first four postulates had never been forgotten.", "Beginning not long after Euclid, many attempted demonstrations were given, but all were later found to be faulty, through allowing into the reasoning some principle which itself had not been proved from the first four postulates.", "Though Omar Khayyám was also unsuccessful in proving the parallel postulate, his criticisms of Euclid's theories of parallels and his proof of properties of figures in non-Euclidean geometries contributed to the eventual development of non-Euclidean geometry.", "By 1700 a great deal had been discovered about what can be proved from the first four, and what the pitfalls were in attempting to prove the fifth.", "Saccheri, Lambert, and Legendre each did excellent work on the problem in the 18th century, but still fell short of success.", "In the early 19th century, Gauss, Johann Bolyai, and Lobachevsky, each independently, took a different approach.", "Beginning to suspect that it was impossible to prove the Parallel Postulate, they set out to develop a self-consistent geometry in which that postulate was false.", "In this they were successful, thus creating the first non-Euclidean geometry.", "By 1854, Bernhard Riemann, a student of Gauss, had applied methods of calculus in a ground-breaking study of the intrinsic (self-contained) geometry of all smooth surfaces, and thereby found a different non-Euclidean geometry.", "This work of Riemann later became fundamental for Einstein's theory of relativity.William Blake's \"Newton\" is a demonstration of his opposition to the 'single-vision' of scientific materialism; here, Isaac Newton is shown as 'divine geometer' (1795)It remained to be proved mathematically that the non-Euclidean geometry was just as self-consistent as Euclidean geometry, and this was first accomplished by Beltrami in 1868.With this, non-Euclidean geometry was established on an equal mathematical footing with Euclidean geometry.While it was now known that different geometric theories were mathematically possible, the question remained, \"Which one of these theories is correct for our physical space?\"", "The mathematical work revealed that this question must be answered by physical experimentation, not mathematical reasoning, and uncovered the reason why the experimentation must involve immense (interstellar, not earth-bound) distances.", "With the development of relativity theory in physics, this question became vastly more complicated.====Introduction of mathematical rigor====All the work related to the Parallel Postulate revealed that it was quite difficult for a geometer to separate his logical reasoning from his intuitive understanding of physical space, and, moreover, revealed the critical importance of doing so.", "Careful examination had uncovered some logical inadequacies in Euclid's reasoning, and some unstated geometric principles to which Euclid sometimes appealed.", "This critique paralleled the crisis occurring in calculus and analysis regarding the meaning of infinite processes such as convergence and continuity.", "In geometry, there was a clear need for a new set of axioms, which would be complete, and which in no way relied on pictures we draw or on our intuition of space.", "Such axioms, now known as Hilbert's axioms, were given by David Hilbert in 1894 in his dissertation ''Grundlagen der Geometrie'' (''Foundations of Geometry'').", "Some other complete sets of axioms had been given a few years earlier, but did not match Hilbert's in economy, elegance, and similarity to Euclid's axioms.====Analysis situs, or topology====In the mid-18th century, it became apparent that certain progressions of mathematical reasoning recurred when similar ideas were studied on the number line, in two dimensions, and in three dimensions.", "Thus the general concept of a metric space was created so that the reasoning could be done in more generality, and then applied to special cases.", "This method of studying calculus- and analysis-related concepts came to be known as analysis situs, and later as topology.", "The important topics in this field were properties of more general figures, such as connectedness and boundaries, rather than properties like straightness, and precise equality of length and angle measurements, which had been the focus of Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry.", "Topology soon became a separate field of major importance, rather than a sub-field of geometry or analysis.====Geometry of more than 3 dimensions====The 19th century saw the development of the general concept of Euclidean space by Ludwig Schläfli, who extended Euclidean geometry beyond three dimensions.", "He discovered all the higher-dimensional analogues of the Platonic solids, finding that there are exactly six such regular convex polytopes in dimension four, and three in all higher dimensions.In 1878 William Kingdon Clifford introduced what is now termed geometric algebra, unifying William Rowan Hamilton's quaternions with Hermann Grassmann's algebra and revealing the geometric nature of these systems, especially in four dimensions.", "The operations of geometric algebra have the effect of mirroring, rotating, translating, and mapping the geometric objects that are being modeled to new positions.===The 20th century===Developments in algebraic geometry included the study of curves and surfaces over finite fields as demonstrated by the works of among others André Weil, Alexander Grothendieck, and Jean-Pierre Serre as well as over the real or complex numbers.", "Finite geometry itself, the study of spaces with only finitely many points, found applications in coding theory and cryptography.", "With the advent of the computer, new disciplines such as computational geometry or digital geometry deal with geometric algorithms, discrete representations of geometric data, and so forth." ], [ "Timeline" ], [ "See also", "* ''Flatland'', a book by \"A.", "Square\" about two– and three-dimensional space, to understand the concept of four dimensions*Timeline of geometry – Notable events in the history of geometry*History of Euclidean geometry*History of non-Euclidean geometry*History of mathematics*History of measurement*History of space (mathematics)*Important publications in geometry*Interactive geometry software*List of geometry topics*Modern triangle geometry" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "******Needham, Joseph (1986), ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth'', Taipei: Caves Books Ltd**" ], [ "External links", "* Islamic Geometry* Geometry in the 19th Century at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy* Arabic mathematics : forgotten brilliance?" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "George H. W. Bush" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Herbert Walker Bush''' (June 12, 1924 – November 30, 2018) was an American politician, diplomat, and businessman who served as the 41st president of the United States from 1989 to 1993.A member of the Republican Party, he also served as the 43rd vice president from 1981 to 1989 under Ronald Reagan, and in various other federal positions prior to that.Bush was born into the wealthy, established New England Bush family and raised in Greenwich, Connecticut.", "He attended Phillips Academy before serving as a pilot in the United States Navy Reserve during World War II.", "Afterward, he graduated from Yale and moved to West Texas, where he established a successful oil company.", "Following an unsuccessful run for the United States Senate in 1964, he was elected to represent Texas's 7th congressional district in 1966.President Richard Nixon appointed Bush as the ambassador to the United Nations in 1971 and as chairman of the Republican National Committee in 1973.President Gerald Ford appointed him as the chief of the Liaison Office to the People's Republic of China in 1974 and as the director of Central Intelligence in 1976.Bush ran for president in 1980 but was defeated in the Republican presidential primaries by Reagan, who then selected Bush as his vice presidential running mate.", "In the 1988 presidential election, Bush defeated Democrat Michael Dukakis.Foreign policy drove Bush's presidency as he navigated the final years of the Cold War and played a key role in the reunification of Germany.", "He presided over the invasion of Panama and the Gulf War, ending the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait in the latter conflict.", "Though the agreement was not ratified until after he left office, Bush negotiated and signed the North American Free Trade Agreement, which created a trade bloc consisting of the United States, Canada and Mexico.", "Domestically, Bush reneged on a 1988 campaign promise by enacting legislation to raise taxes to justify reducing the budget deficit.", "He championed and signed three pieces of bipartisan legislation in 1990, the Americans with Disabilities Act, the Immigration Act and the Clean Air Act Amendments.", "He also appointed David Souter and Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court.", "Bush lost the 1992 presidential election to Democrat Bill Clinton following an economic recession, his turnaround on his tax promise, and the increased emphasis of foreign policy in a post–Cold War political climate.After leaving office in 1993, Bush was active in humanitarian activities, often working alongside Clinton.", "With the victory of his son, George W. Bush, in the 2000 presidential election, the two became the second father–son pair to serve as the nation's president, following John Adams and John Quincy Adams.", "Another son, Jeb Bush, unsuccessfully sought the Republican presidential nomination in the 2016 primaries.", "Historians generally rank Bush as an above-average president." ], [ "Early life and education (1924–1948)", "George Herbert Walker Bush was born on June 12, 1924, in Milton, Massachusetts.", "He was the second son of Prescott Bush and Dorothy (Walker) Bush, and a younger brother of Prescott Bush Jr. His paternal grandfather, Samuel P. Bush, worked as an executive for a railroad parts company in Columbus, Ohio, while his maternal grandfather and namesake, George Herbert Walker, led Wall Street investment bank W. A. Harriman & Co. Walker was known as \"Pop\", and young Bush was called \"Poppy\" as a tribute to him.The Bush family moved to Greenwich, Connecticut, in 1925, and Prescott took a position with W. A. Harriman & Co. (which later merged into Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.) the following year.", "Bush spent most of his childhood in Greenwich, at the family vacation home in Kennebunkport, Maine, or at his maternal grandparents' plantation in South Carolina.Because of the family's wealth, Bush was largely unaffected by the Great Depression.", "He attended Greenwich Country Day School from 1929 to 1937 and Phillips Academy, an elite private academy in Massachusetts, from 1937 to 1942.While at Phillips Academy, he served as president of the senior class, secretary of the student council, president of the community fund-raising group, a member of the editorial board of the school newspaper, and captain of the varsity baseball and soccer teams.File:George H W Bush at Age One and One-Half, ca 1925.gif|Bush at his grandfather's house in Kennebunkport, File:George H. W. Bush in 1942 Pot Pourri.jpg|Bush in Phillips Academy's 1942 yearbook=== World War II ===Bush in his Grumman TBF Avenger aboard USS ''San Jacinto'' in 1944On his 18th birthday, immediately after graduating from Phillips Academy, he enlisted in the United States Navy as a naval aviator.", "After a period of training, he was commissioned as an ensign in the Naval Reserve at Naval Air Station Corpus Christi on June 9, 1943, becoming one of the youngest pilots in the Navy.", "Beginning in 1944, Bush served in the Pacific theater, where he flew a Grumman TBF Avenger, a torpedo bomber capable of taking off from aircraft carriers.", "His squadron was assigned to the as a member of Air Group 51, where his lanky physique earned him the nickname \"Skin\".Bush flew his first combat mission in May 1944, bombing Japanese-held Wake Island, and was promoted to lieutenant (junior grade) on August 1, 1944.During an attack on a Japanese installation in Chichijima, Bush's aircraft successfully attacked several targets but was downed by enemy fire.", "Though both of Bush's fellow crew members died, Bush successfully bailed out from the aircraft and was rescued by the submarine .", "Several of the aviators shot down during the attack were captured and executed, and their livers were cannibalized by their captors.", "Bush's survival after such a close brush with death shaped him profoundly, leading him to ask, \"Why had I been spared and what did God have for me?\"", "He was later awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his role in the mission.Bush returned to ''San Jacinto'' in November 1944, participating in operations in the Philippines.", "In early 1945, he was assigned to a new combat squadron, VT-153, where he trained to participate in an invasion of mainland Japan.", "Between March and May 1945, he trained in Auburn, Maine, where he and Barbara lived in a small apartment.", "On September 2, 1945, before any invasion took place, Japan formally surrendered following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.", "Bush was released from active duty that same month but was not formally discharged from the Navy until October 1955, when he had reached the rank of lieutenant.", "By the end of his period of active service, Bush had flown 58 missions, completed 128 carrier landings, and recorded 1228 hours of flight time.=== Marriage ===Bush met Barbara Pierce at a Christmas dance in Greenwich in December 1941, and, after a period of courtship, they became engaged in December 1943.While Bush was on leave from the Navy, they married in Rye, New York, on January 6, 1945.The Bushes enjoyed a strong marriage, and Barbara would later be a popular First Lady, seen by many as \"a kind of national grandmother\".", "They had six children: George W. (b.", "1946), Robin (1949–1953), Jeb (b.", "1953), Neil (b.", "1955), Marvin (b.", "1956), and Doro (b.", "1959).", "Their oldest daughter, Robin, died of leukemia in 1953.=== College years ===Bush enrolled at Yale College, where he took part in an accelerated program that enabled him to graduate in two and a half years rather than the usual four.", "He was a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity and was elected its president.", "He also captained the Yale baseball team and played in the first two College World Series as a left-handed first baseman.", "Like his father, he was a member of the Yale cheerleading squad and was initiated into the Skull and Bones secret society.", "He graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1948 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics." ], [ "Business career (1948–1963)", "Bush, top right, standing with his wife and children, mid-1960sAfter graduating from Yale, Bush moved his young family to West Texas.", "Biographer Jon Meacham writes that Bush's relocation to Texas allowed him to move out of the \"daily shadow of his Wall Street father and Grandfather Walker, two dominant figures in the financial world,\" but would still allow Bush to \"call on their connections if he needed to raise capital.\"", "His first position in Texas was an oil field equipment salesman for Dresser Industries, which was led by family friend Neil Mallon.", "While working for Dresser, Bush lived in various places with his family: Odessa, Texas; Ventura, Bakersfield and Compton, California; and Midland, Texas.", "In 1952, he volunteered for the successful presidential campaign of Republican candidate Dwight D. Eisenhower.", "That same year, his father won election to represent Connecticut in the United States Senate as a member of the Republican Party.With support from Mallon and Bush's uncle, George Herbert Walker Jr., Bush and John Overbey launched the Bush-Overbey Oil Development Company in 1951.In 1953, he co-founded the Zapata Petroleum Corporation, an oil company that drilled in the Permian Basin in Texas.", "In 1954, he was named president of the Zapata Offshore Company, a subsidiary which specialized in offshore drilling.", "Shortly after the subsidiary became independent in 1959, Bush moved the company and his family from Midland to Houston.", "There, he befriended James Baker, a prominent attorney who later became an important political ally.", "Bush remained involved with Zapata until the mid-1960s, when he sold his stock in the company for approximately $1 million.In 1988, ''The Nation'' published an article alleging that Bush worked as an operative of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) during the 1960s; Bush denied this claim." ], [ "Early political career (1963–1971)", "=== Entry into politics ===Former president Dwight D. Eisenhower with BushBy the early 1960s, Bush was widely regarded as an appealing political candidate, and some leading Democrats attempted to convince Bush to become a Democrat.", "He declined to leave the Republican Party, later citing his belief that the national Democratic Party favored \"big, centralized government\".", "The Democratic Party had historically dominated Texas, but Republicans scored their first major victory in the state with John G. Tower's victory in a 1961 special election to the United States Senate.", "Motivated by Tower's victory and hoping to prevent the far-right John Birch Society from coming to power, Bush ran for the chairmanship of the Harris County Republican Party, winning election in February 1963.Like most other Texas Republicans, Bush supported conservative Senator Barry Goldwater over the more centrist Nelson Rockefeller in the 1964 Republican Party presidential primaries.In 1964, Bush sought to unseat liberal Democrat Ralph W. Yarborough in Texas's U.S. Senate election.", "Bolstered by superior fundraising, Bush won the Republican primary by defeating former gubernatorial nominee Jack Cox in a run-off election.", "In the general election, Bush attacked Yarborough's vote for the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which banned racial and gender discrimination in public institutions and many privately owned businesses.", "Bush argued that the act unconstitutionally expanded the federal government's powers, but he was privately uncomfortable with the racial politics of opposing the act.", "He lost the election 56 percent to 44 percent, though he did run well ahead of Barry Goldwater, the Republican presidential nominee.", "Despite the loss, ''The New York Times'' reported that Bush was \"rated by political friend and foe alike as the Republicans' best prospect in Texas because of his attractive personal qualities and the strong campaign he put up for the Senate\".=== U.S. House of Representatives ===Bush in 1969In 1966, Bush ran for the United States House of Representatives in Texas's 7th congressional district, a newly redistricted seat in the Greater Houston area.", "Initial polling showed him trailing his Democratic opponent, Harris County District Attorney Frank Briscoe, but he ultimately won the race with 57 percent of the vote.", "To woo potential candidates in the South and Southwest, House Republicans secured Bush an appointment to the powerful United States House Committee on Ways and Means, making Bush the first freshman to serve on the committee since 1904.His voting record in the House was generally conservative.", "He supported the Nixon administration's Vietnam policies but broke with Republicans on the issue of birth control, which he supported.", "He also voted for the Civil Rights Act of 1968, although it was generally unpopular in his district.", "In 1968, Bush joined several other Republicans in issuing the party's Response to the State of the Union address; Bush's part of the address focused on a call for fiscal responsibility.Though most other Texas Republicans supported Ronald Reagan in the 1968 Republican Party presidential primaries, Bush endorsed Richard Nixon, who went on to win the party's nomination.", "Nixon considered selecting Bush as his running mate in the 1968 presidential election, but he ultimately chose Spiro Agnew instead.", "Bush won re-election to the House unopposed, while Nixon defeated Hubert Humphrey in the presidential election.", "In 1970, with President Nixon's support, Bush gave up his seat in the House to run for the Senate against Yarborough.", "Bush easily won the Republican primary, but Yarborough was defeated by the more conservative Lloyd Bentsen in the Democratic primary.", "Ultimately, Bentsen defeated Bush, taking 53.5 percent of the vote." ], [ "Nixon and Ford administrations (1971–1977)", "=== Ambassador to the United Nations ===Bush as ambassador to the United Nations, 1971After the 1970 Senate election, Bush accepted a position as a senior adviser to the president, but he convinced Nixon to instead appoint him as the U.S.", "Ambassador to the United Nations.", "The position represented Bush's first foray into foreign policy, as well as his first major experiences with the Soviet Union and China, the two major U.S. rivals in the Cold War.", "During Bush's tenure, the Nixon administration pursued a policy of détente, seeking to ease tensions with both the Soviet Union and China.", "Bush's ambassadorship was marked by a defeat on the China question, as the United Nations General Assembly voted, in Resolution 2758, to expel the Republic of China and replace it with the People's Republic of China in October 1971.In the 1971 crisis in Pakistan, Bush supported an Indian motion at the UN General Assembly to condemn the Pakistani government of Yahya Khan for waging genocide in East Pakistan (modern Bangladesh), referring to the \"tradition which we have supported that the human rights question transcended domestic jurisdiction and should be freely debated\".", "Bush's support for India at the UN put him into conflict with Nixon who was supporting Pakistan, partly because Yahya Khan was a useful intermediary in his attempts to reach out to China and partly because the president was fond of Yahya Khan.=== Chairman of the Republican National Committee ===After Nixon won a landslide victory in the 1972 presidential election, he appointed Bush as chair of the Republican National Committee (RNC).", "In that position, he was charged with fundraising, candidate recruitment, and making appearances on behalf of the party in the media.When Agnew was being investigated for corruption, Bush assisted, at the request of Nixon and Agnew, in pressuring John Glenn Beall Jr., the U.S.", "Senator from Maryland, to force his brother, George Beall the U.S. Attorney in Maryland, to shut down the investigation into Agnew.", "Attorney Beall ignored the pressure.During Bush's tenure at the RNC, the Watergate scandal emerged into public view; the scandal originated from the June 1972 break-in of the Democratic National Committee but also involved later efforts to cover up the break-in by Nixon and other members of the White House.", "Bush initially defended Nixon steadfastly, but as Nixon's complicity became clear he focused more on defending the Republican Party.Following the resignation of Vice President Agnew in 1973 for a scandal unrelated to Watergate, Bush was considered for the position of vice president, but the appointment instead went to Gerald Ford.", "After the public release of an audio recording that confirmed that Nixon had plotted to use the CIA to cover up the Watergate break-in, Bush joined other party leaders in urging Nixon to resign.", "When Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974, Bush noted in his diary that \"There was an aura of sadness, like somebody died...", "The resignation speech was vintage Nixon—a kick or two at the press—enormous strains.", "One couldn't help but look at the family and the whole thing and think of his accomplishments and then think of the shame... President Gerald Ford's swearing-in offered indeed a new spirit, a new lift.", "\"=== Head of U.S. Liaison Office in China ===Bush as U.S. Liaison to China, Upon his ascension to the presidency, Ford strongly considered Bush, Donald Rumsfeld, and Nelson Rockefeller for the vacant position of vice president.", "Ford ultimately chose Nelson Rockefeller, partly because of the publication of a news report claiming that Bush's 1970 campaign had benefited from a secret fund set up by Nixon; Bush was later cleared of any suspicion by a special prosecutor.", "Bush accepted appointment as Chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in the People's Republic of China, making him the de facto ambassador to China.", "According to biographer Jon Meacham, Bush's time in China convinced him that American engagement abroad was needed to ensure global stability and that the United States \"needed to be visible but not pushy, muscular but not domineering.", "\"=== Director of Central Intelligence ===Bush, as CIA Director, listens at a meeting following the assassinations in Beirut of Francis E. Meloy Jr. and Robert O. Waring, 1976In January 1976, Ford brought Bush back to Washington to become the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI), placing him in charge of the CIA.", "In the aftermath of the Watergate scandal and the Vietnam War, the CIA's reputation had been damaged for its role in various covert operations.", "Bush was tasked with restoring the agency's morale and public reputation.", "During Bush's year in charge of the CIA, the U.S. national security apparatus actively supported Operation Condor operations and right-wing military dictatorships in Latin America.", "Meanwhile, Ford decided to drop Rockefeller from the ticket for the 1976 presidential election; he considered Bush as his running mate, but ultimately chose Bob Dole.", "In his capacity as DCI, Bush gave national security briefings to Jimmy Carter both as a presidential candidate and as president-elect." ], [ "1980 presidential election", "Bush's tenure at the CIA ended after Carter narrowly defeated Ford in the 1976 presidential election.", "Out of public office for the first time since the 1960s, Bush became chairman on the executive committee of the First International Bank in Houston.", "He also spent a year as a part-time professor of Administrative Science at Rice University's Jones School of Business, continued his membership in the Council on Foreign Relations, and joined the Trilateral Commission.", "Meanwhile, he began to lay the groundwork for his candidacy in the 1980 Republican Party presidential primaries.", "In the 1980 Republican primary campaign, Bush faced Ronald Reagan, who was widely regarded as the front-runner, as well as other contenders like Senator Bob Dole, Senator Howard Baker, Texas Governor John Connally, Congressman Phil Crane, and Congressman John B. Anderson.Ronald Reagan, moderator Jon Breen, and Bush participate in the Nashua, New Hampshire, presidential debate, 1980Bush's campaign cast him as a youthful, \"thinking man's candidate\" who would emulate the pragmatic conservatism of President Eisenhower.", "Amid the Soviet–Afghan War, which brought an end to a period of détente, and the Iran hostage crisis, in which 52 Americans were taken hostage, the campaign highlighted Bush's foreign policy experience.", "At the outset of the race, Bush focused heavily on winning the January 21 Iowa caucuses, making 31 visits to the state.", "He won a close victory in Iowa with 31.5% to Reagan's 29.4%.", "After the win, Bush stated that his campaign was full of momentum, or \"the Big Mo\", and Reagan reorganized his campaign.", "Partly in response to the Bush campaign's frequent questioning of Reagan's age (Reagan turned 69 in 1980), the Reagan campaign stepped up attacks on Bush, painting him as an elitist who was not truly committed to conservatism.", "Prior to the New Hampshire primary, Bush and Reagan agreed to a two-person debate, organized by ''The Nashua Telegraph'' but paid for by the Reagan campaign.Days before the debate, Reagan announced that he would invite four other candidates to the debate; Bush, who had hoped that the one-on-one debate would allow him to emerge as the main alternative to Reagan in the primaries, refused to debate the other candidates.", "All six candidates took the stage, but Bush refused to speak in the presence of the other candidates.", "Ultimately, the other four candidates left the stage, and the debate continued, but Bush's refusal to debate anyone other than Reagan badly damaged his campaign in New Hampshire.", "He decisively lost New Hampshire's primary to Reagan, winning just 23 percent of the vote.", "Bush revitalized his campaign with a victory in Massachusetts but lost the next several primaries.", "As Reagan built up a commanding delegate lead, Bush refused to end his campaign, but the other candidates dropped out of the race.", "Criticizing his more conservative rival's policy proposals, Bush famously labeled Reagan's supply side–influenced plans for massive tax cuts as \"voodoo economics\".", "Though he favored lower taxes, Bush feared that dramatic reductions in taxation would lead to deficits and, in turn, cause inflation.upright=1.22After Reagan clinched a majority of delegates in late May, Bush reluctantly dropped out of the race.", "At the 1980 Republican National Convention, Reagan made the last-minute decision to select Bush as his vice presidential nominee after negotiations with Ford regarding a Reagan–Ford ticket collapsed.", "Though Reagan had resented many of the Bush campaign's attacks during the primary campaign, and several conservative leaders had actively opposed Bush's nomination, Reagan ultimately decided that Bush's popularity with moderate Republicans made him the best and safest pick.", "Bush, who had believed his political career might be over following the primaries, eagerly accepted the position and threw himself into campaigning for the Reagan–Bush ticket.", "The 1980 general election campaign between Reagan and Carter was conducted amid a multitude of domestic concerns and the ongoing Iran hostage crisis, and Reagan sought to focus the race on Carter's handling of the economy.", "Though the race was widely regarded as a close contest for most of the campaign, Reagan ultimately won over the large majority of undecided voters.", "Reagan took 50.7 percent of the popular vote and 489 of the 538 electoral votes, while Carter won 41% of the popular vote and John Anderson, running as an independent candidate, won 6.6% of the popular vote." ], [ "Vice presidency (1981–1989)", "Official portrait, As vice president, Bush generally maintained a low profile, recognizing the constitutional limits of the office; he avoided decision-making or criticizing Reagan in any way.", "This approach helped him earn Reagan's trust, easing tensions left over from their earlier rivalry.", "Bush also generally enjoyed a good relationship with Reagan staffers, including Bush's close friend James Baker, who served as Reagan's initial chief of staff.", "His understanding of the vice presidency was heavily influenced by Vice President Walter Mondale, who enjoyed a strong relationship with President Carter in part because of his ability to avoid confrontations with senior staff and Cabinet members, and by Vice President Nelson Rockefeller's difficult relationship with some members of the White House staff during the Ford administration.", "The Bushes attended a large number of public and ceremonial events in their positions, including many state funerals, which became a common joke for comedians.", "As the president of the Senate, Bush also stayed in contact with members of Congress and kept the president informed on occurrences on Capitol Hill.=== First term ===United States' invasion of Grenada with a group of bipartisan members of Congress in October 1983On March 30, 1981, while Bush was in Texas, Reagan was shot and seriously wounded by John Hinckley Jr. Bush immediately flew back to Washington D.C.; when his plane landed, his aides advised him to proceed directly to the White House by helicopter to show that the government was still functioning.", "Bush rejected the idea, fearing that such a dramatic scene risked giving the impression that he sought to usurp Reagan's powers and prerogatives.", "During Reagan's short period of incapacity, Bush presided over Cabinet meetings, met with congressional and foreign leaders, and briefed reporters.", "Still, he consistently rejected invoking the Twenty-fifth Amendment.", "Bush's handling of the attempted assassination and its aftermath made a positive impression on Reagan, who recovered and returned to work within two weeks of the shooting.", "From then on, the two men would have regular Thursday lunches in the Oval Office.Reagan assigned Bush to chair two special task forces, one on deregulation and one on international drug smuggling.", "Both were popular issues with conservatives, and Bush, largely a moderate, began courting them through his work.", "The deregulation task force reviewed hundreds of rules, making specific recommendations on which ones to amend or revise to curb the size of the federal government.", "The Reagan administration's deregulation push strongly impacted broadcasting, finance, resource extraction, and other economic activities, and the administration eliminated numerous government positions.", "Bush also oversaw the administration's national security crisis management organization, which had traditionally been the responsibility of the National Security Advisor.", "In 1983, Bush toured Western Europe as part of the Reagan administration's ultimately successful efforts to convince skeptical NATO allies to support the deployment of Pershing II missiles.Reagan's approval ratings fell after his first year in office, but they bounced back when the United States began to emerge from recession in 1983.Former vice president Walter Mondale was nominated by the Democratic Party in the 1984 presidential election.", "Down in the polls, Mondale selected Congresswoman Geraldine Ferraro as his running mate in hopes of galvanizing support for his campaign, thus making Ferraro the first female major party vice presidential nominee in U.S. history.", "She and Bush squared off in a single televised vice presidential debate.", "Public opinion polling consistently showed a Reagan lead in the 1984 campaign, and Mondale was unable to shake up the race.", "In the end, Reagan won re-election, winning 49 of 50 states and receiving 59% of the popular vote to Mondale's 41%.=== Second term ===Vice President Bush standing with President Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev on the New York City waterfront in 1988Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in the Soviet Union in 1985.Rejecting the ideological rigidity of his three elderly sick predecessors, Gorbachev insisted on urgently needed economic and political reforms called \"glasnost\" (openness) and \"perestroika\" (restructuring).", "At the 1987 Washington Summit, Gorbachev and Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, which committed both signatories to the total abolition of their respective short-range and medium-range missile stockpiles.", "The treaty began a new era of trade, openness, and cooperation between the two powers.", "President Reagan and Secretary of State George Shultz took the lead in these negotiations, but Bush sat in on many meetings.", "Bush did not agree with many of the Reagan policies, but he did tell Gorbachev that he would seek to continue improving relations if he succeeded Reagan.", "On July 13, 1985, Bush became the first vice president to serve as acting president when Reagan underwent surgery to remove polyps from his colon; Bush served as the acting president for approximately eight hours.In 1986, the Reagan administration was shaken by a scandal when it was revealed that administration officials had secretly arranged weapon sales to Iran during the Iran–Iraq War.", "The officials had used the proceeds to fund the Contra rebels in their fight against the leftist Sandinista government in Nicaragua.", "Democrats had passed a law that appropriated funds could not be used to help the Contras.", "Instead, the administration used non-appropriated funds from the sales.", "When news of the affair broke to the media, Bush stated that he had been \"out of the loop\" and unaware of the diversion of funds.", "Biographer Jon Meacham writes that \"no evidence was ever produced proving Bush was aware of the diversion to the contras,\" but he criticizes Bush's \"out of the loop\" characterization, writing that the \"record is clear that Bush was aware that the United States, in contravention of its own stated policy, was trading arms for hostages\".", "The Iran–Contra scandal, as it became known, did serious damage to the Reagan presidency, raising questions about Reagan's competency.", "Congress established the Tower Commission to investigate the scandal, and, at Reagan's request, a panel of federal judges appointed Lawrence Walsh as a special prosecutor charged with investigating the Iran–Contra scandal.", "The investigations continued after Reagan left office, and, though Bush was never charged with a crime, the Iran–Contra scandal would remain a political liability for him.On July 3, 1988, the guided missile cruiser accidentally shot down Iran Air Flight 655, killing 290 passengers.", "Bush, then-vice president, defended his country at the United Nations by arguing that the U.S. attack had been a wartime incident and the crew of ''Vincennes'' had acted appropriately to the situation.==== 1988 presidential election ====Bush began planning for a presidential run after the 1984 election, and he officially entered the 1988 Republican Party presidential primaries in October 1987.He put together a campaign led by Reagan staffer Lee Atwater, which also included his son, George W. Bush, and media consultant Roger Ailes.", "Though he had moved to the right during his time as vice president, endorsing a Human Life Amendment and repudiating his earlier comments on \"voodoo economics\", Bush still faced opposition from many conservatives in the Republican Party.", "His major rivals for the Republican nomination were Senate Minority Leader Bob Dole of Kansas, Representative Jack Kemp of New York, and Christian televangelist Pat Robertson.", "Reagan did not publicly endorse any candidate but privately expressed support for Bush.Though considered the early front-runner for the nomination, Bush came in third in the Iowa caucus, behind Dole and Robertson.", "Much as Reagan had done in 1980, Bush reorganized his staff and concentrated on the New Hampshire primary.", "With help from Governor John H. Sununu and an effective campaign attacking Dole for raising taxes, Bush overcame an initial polling deficit and won New Hampshire with 39 percent of the vote.", "After Bush won South Carolina and 16 of the 17 states holding a primary on Super Tuesday, his competitors dropped out of the race.Bush, occasionally criticized for his lack of eloquence compared to Reagan, delivered a well-received speech at the Republican convention.", "Known as the \"thousand points of light\" speech, it described Bush's vision of America: he endorsed the Pledge of Allegiance, prayer in schools, capital punishment, and gun rights.", "Bush also pledged that he would not raise taxes, stating: \"Congress will push me to raise taxes, and I'll say no, and they'll push, and I'll say no, and they'll push again.", "And all I can say to them is: read my lips.", "No new taxes.\"", "Bush selected little-known Senator Dan Quayle of Indiana as his running mate.", "Though Quayle had compiled an unremarkable record in Congress, he was popular among many conservatives, and the campaign hoped that Quayle's youth would appeal to younger voters.Bush won the 1988 presidential election with 53.4% of the popular vote and a large majority of the electoral vote.Meanwhile, the Democratic Party nominated Governor Michael Dukakis, known for presiding over an economic turnaround in Massachusetts.", "Leading in the general election polls against Bush, Dukakis ran an ineffective, low-risk campaign.", "The Bush campaign attacked Dukakis as an unpatriotic liberal extremist and seized on the Willie Horton case, in which a convicted felon from Massachusetts raped a woman while on a prison furlough, a program Dukakis supported as governor.", "The Bush campaign charged that Dukakis presided over a \"revolving door\" that allowed dangerous convicted felons to leave prison.", "Dukakis damaged his own campaign with a widely mocked ride in an M1 Abrams tank and poor performance at the second presidential debate.", "Bush also attacked Dukakis for opposing a law that would require all students to recite the Pledge of Allegiance.", "The election is widely considered to have had a high level of negative campaigning, though political scientist John Geer has argued that the share of negative ads was in line with previous presidential elections.Bush defeated Dukakis by a margin of 426 to 111 in the Electoral College, and he took 53.4 percent of the national popular vote.", "Bush ran well in all the major regions of the country, but especially in the South.", "He became the fourth sitting vice president to be elected president and the first to do so since Martin Van Buren in 1836 and the first person to succeed a president from his own party via election since Herbert Hoover in 1929.In the concurrent congressional elections, Democrats retained control of both houses of Congress." ], [ "Presidency (1989–1993)", "Chief Justice William Rehnquist administers the Presidential Oath of Office to Bush.Bush was inaugurated on January 20, 1989, succeeding Ronald Reagan.", "In his inaugural address, Bush said:Bush's first major appointment was that of James Baker as Secretary of State.", "Leadership of the Department of Defense went to Dick Cheney, who had previously served as Gerald Ford's chief of staff and would later serve as vice president under his son George W. Bush.", "Jack Kemp joined the administration as Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, while Elizabeth Dole, the wife of Bob Dole and a former Secretary of Transportation, became the Secretary of Labor under Bush.", "Bush retained several Reagan officials, including Secretary of the Treasury Nicholas F. Brady, Attorney General Dick Thornburgh, and Secretary of Education Lauro Cavazos.", "New Hampshire Governor John Sununu, a strong supporter of Bush during the 1988 campaign, became chief of staff.", "Brent Scowcroft was appointed as the National Security Advisor, a role he had also held under Ford.=== Foreign affairs ======= End of the Cold War ====During the first year of his tenure, Bush paused Reagan's détente policy toward the Soviet Union.", "Bush and his advisers were initially divided on Gorbachev; some administration officials saw him as a democratic reformer, but others suspected him of trying to make the minimum changes necessary to restore the Soviet Union to a competitive position with the United States.", "In 1989, all the Communist governments collapsed in Eastern Europe.", "Gorbachev declined to send in the Soviet military, effectively abandoning the Brezhnev Doctrine.", "The U.S. was not directly involved in these upheavals, but the Bush administration avoided gloating over the demise of the Eastern Bloc to avoid undermining further democratic reforms.Bush and Gorbachev met at the Malta Summit in December 1989.Though many on the right remained wary of Gorbachev, Bush came away believing that Gorbachev would negotiate in good faith.", "For the remainder of his term, Bush sought cooperative relations with Gorbachev, believing he was the key to peace.", "The primary issue at the Malta Summit was the potential reunification of Germany.", "While Britain and France were wary of a reunified Germany, Bush joined German chancellor Helmut Kohl in pushing for German reunification.", "Bush believed that a reunified Germany would serve American interests.", "After extensive negotiations, Gorbachev agreed to allow a reunified Germany to be a part of NATO, and Germany officially reunified in October 1990 after paying billions of marks to Moscow.Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev at the Helsinki Summit in 1990Gorbachev used force to suppress nationalist movements within the Soviet Union itself.", "A crisis in Lithuania left Bush in a difficult position, as he needed Gorbachev's cooperation in the reunification of Germany and feared that the collapse of the Soviet Union could leave nuclear arms in dangerous hands.", "The Bush administration mildly protested Gorbachev's suppression of Lithuania's independence movement but took no action to intervene directly.", "Bush warned independence movements of the disorder that could come with secession from the Soviet Union; in a 1991 address that critics labeled the \"Chicken Kiev speech\", he cautioned against \"suicidal nationalism\".", "In July 1991, Bush and Gorbachev signed the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I) treaty, in which both countries agreed to cut their strategic nuclear weapons by 30 percent.In August 1991, hard-line Communists launched a coup against Gorbachev; while the coup quickly fell apart, it broke the remaining power of Gorbachev and the central Soviet government.", "Later that month, Gorbachev resigned as general secretary of the Communist party, and Russian president Boris Yeltsin ordered the seizure of Soviet property.", "Gorbachev clung to power as the President of the Soviet Union until December 1991, when the Soviet Union dissolved.", "Fifteen states emerged from the Soviet Union, and of those states, Russia was the largest and most populous.", "Bush and Yeltsin met in February 1992, declaring a new era of \"friendship and partnership\".", "In January 1993, Bush and Yeltsin agreed to START II, which provided for further nuclear arms reductions on top of the original START treaty.==== Invasion of Panama ====Through the late 1980s, the U.S. provided aid to Manuel Noriega, the anti-Communist leader of Panama.", "Noriega had long-standing ties to United States intelligence agencies, including during Bush's tenure as Director of Central Intelligence, and was also deeply involved in drug trafficking.", "In May 1989, Noriega annulled the results of a democratic presidential election in which Guillermo Endara had been elected.", "Bush objected to the annulment of the election and worried about the status of the Panama Canal with Noriega still in office.", "Bush dispatched 2,000 soldiers to the country, where they began conducting regular military exercises violating prior treaties.", "After Panamanian forces shot a U.S. serviceman in December 1989, Bush ordered the United States invasion of Panama, known as \"Operation Just Cause\".", "The invasion was the first large-scale American military operation unrelated to the Cold War in more than 40 years.", "American forces quickly took control of the Panama Canal Zone and Panama City.", "Noriega surrendered on January 3, 1990, and was quickly transported to a prison in the United States.", "Twenty-three Americans died in the operation, while another 394 were wounded.", "Noriega was convicted and imprisoned on racketeering and drug trafficking charges in April 1992.Historian Stewart Brewer argues that the invasion \"represented a new era in American foreign policy\" because Bush did not justify the invasion under the Monroe Doctrine or the threat of Communism, but rather because it was in the best interests of the United States.==== Gulf War ====Bush meets with Robert Gates, General Colin Powell, Secretary Dick Cheney and others about the situation in the Persian Gulf, 1991Faced with massive debts and low oil prices in the aftermath of the Iran–Iraq War, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein decided to conquer the country of Kuwait, a small, oil-rich country situated on Iraq's southern border.", "After Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, Bush imposed economic sanctions on Iraq and assembled a multi-national coalition opposed to the invasion.", "The administration feared that a failure to respond to the invasion would embolden Hussein to attack Saudi Arabia or Israel and wanted to discourage other countries from similar aggression.", "Bush also wanted to ensure continued access to oil, as Iraq and Kuwait collectively accounted for 20 percent of the world's oil production, and Saudi Arabia produced another 26 percent of the world's oil supply.At Bush's insistence, in November 1990, the United Nations Security Council approved a resolution authorizing the use of force if Iraq did not withdraw from Kuwait by January 15, 1991.Gorbachev's support and China's abstention helped ensure passage of the United Nations resolution.", "Bush convinced Britain, France, and other nations to commit soldiers to an operation against Iraq.", "He won important financial backing from Germany, Japan, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.", "In January 1991, Bush asked Congress to approve a joint resolution authorizing a war against Iraq.", "Bush believed that the United Nations resolution had already provided him with the necessary authorization to launch a military operation against Iraq.", "Still, he wanted to show that the nation was united behind military action.", "Despite the opposition of a majority of Democrats in both the House and the Senate, Congress approved the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 1991.After the January 15 deadline passed without an Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait, U.S. and coalition forces conducted a bombing campaign that devastated Iraq's power grid and communications network and resulted in the desertion of about 100,000 Iraqi soldiers.", "In retaliation, Iraq launched Scud missiles at Israel and Saudi Arabia, but most missiles did little damage.", "On February 23, coalition forces began a ground invasion into Kuwait, evicting Iraqi forces by the end of February 27.About 300 Americans and approximately 65 soldiers from other coalition nations died during the military action.", "A ceasefire was arranged on March 3, and the United Nations passed a resolution establishing a peacekeeping force in a demilitarized zone between Kuwait and Iraq.", "A March 1991 Gallup poll showed that Bush had an approval rating of 89 percent, the highest presidential approval rating in the history of Gallup polling.", "After 1991, the United Nations maintained economic sanctions against Iraq, and the United Nations Special Commission was assigned to ensure that Iraq did not revive its weapons of mass destruction program.==== NAFTA ====From left to right: (standing) President Carlos Salinas, President Bush, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney; (seated) Jaime Serra Puche, Carla Hills, and Michael Wilson at the NAFTA Initialing Ceremony, October 1992In 1987, the U.S. and Canada reached a free trade agreement that eliminated many tariffs between the two countries.", "President Reagan had intended it as the first step towards a larger trade agreement to eliminate most tariffs among the United States, Canada, and Mexico.", "The Bush administration, along with the Progressive Conservative Canadian prime minister Brian Mulroney, spearheaded the negotiations of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with Mexico.", "In addition to lowering tariffs, the proposed treaty would affect patents, copyrights, and trademarks.", "In 1991, Bush sought fast track authority, which grants the president the power to submit an international trade agreement to Congress without the possibility of amendment.", "Despite congressional opposition led by House Majority Leader Dick Gephardt, both houses of Congress voted to grant Bush fast track authority.", "NAFTA was signed in December 1992, after Bush lost reelection, but President Clinton won ratification of NAFTA in 1993.NAFTA was controversial for its impact on wages, jobs, and overall economic growth.", "In 2020, it was replaced entirely by the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA).=== Domestic affairs ======= Economy and fiscal issues ====The U.S. economy had generally performed well since emerging from recession in late 1982, but it slipped into a mild recession in 1990.The unemployment rate rose from 5.9 percent in 1989 to a high of 7.8 percent in mid-1991.Large federal deficits, spawned during the Reagan years, rose from $152.1 billion in 1989 to $220 billion for 1990; the $220 billion deficit represented a threefold increase since 1980.As the public became increasingly concerned about the economy and other domestic affairs, Bush's well-received handling of foreign affairs became less of an issue for most voters.", "Bush's top domestic priority was to end federal budget deficits, which he saw as a liability for the country's long-term economic health and standing in the world.", "As he was opposed to major defense spending cuts and had pledged not to raise taxes, the president had major difficulties in balancing the budget.Bush and congressional leaders agreed to avoid major changes to the budget for fiscal year 1990, which began in October 1989.However, both sides knew spending cuts or new taxes would be necessary for the following year's budget to avoid the draconian automatic domestic spending cuts required by the Gramm–Rudman–Hollings Balanced Budget Act of 1987.Bush and other leaders also wanted to cut deficits because Federal Reserve Chair Alan Greenspan refused to lower interest rates and thus stimulate economic growth unless the federal budget deficit was reduced.", "In a statement released in late June 1990, Bush said that he would be open to a deficit reduction program which included spending cuts, incentives for economic growth, budget process reform, as well as tax increases.", "To fiscal conservatives in the Republican Party, Bush's statement represented a betrayal, and they heavily criticized him for compromising so early in the negotiations.In September 1990, Bush and congressional Democrats announced a compromise to cut mandatory and discretionary programs funding while raising revenue, partly through a higher gas tax.", "The compromise additionally included a \"pay as you go\" provision that required that new programs be paid for at the time of implementation.", "House Minority Whip Newt Gingrich led the conservative opposition to the bill, strongly opposing any form of tax increase.", "Some liberals also criticized the budget cuts in the compromise, and in October, the House rejected the deal, resulting in a brief government shutdown.", "Without the strong backing of the Republican Party, Bush agreed to another compromise bill, this one more favorable to Democrats.", "The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990 (OBRA-90), enacted on October 27, 1990, dropped much of the gasoline tax increase in favor of higher income taxes on top earners.", "It included cuts to domestic spending, but the cuts were not as deep as those proposed in the original compromise.", "Bush's decision to sign the bill damaged his standing with conservatives and the general public, but it also laid the groundwork for the budget surpluses of the late 1990s.==== Discrimination ====The disabled had not received legal protections under the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964, and many faced discrimination and segregation by the time Bush took office.", "In 1988, Lowell P. Weicker Jr. and Tony Coelho introduced the Americans with Disabilities Act, which barred employment discrimination against qualified individuals with disabilities.", "The bill had passed the Senate but not the House and was reintroduced in 1989.Though some conservatives opposed the bill due to its costs and potential burdens on businesses, Bush strongly supported it, partly because his son, Neil, had struggled with dyslexia.", "After the bill passed both houses of Congress, Bush signed the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 into law in July 1990.The act required employers and public accommodations to make \"reasonable accommodations\" for disabled people while providing an exception when such accommodations imposed an \"undue hardship\".Senator Ted Kennedy later led the congressional passage of a separate civil rights bill designed to facilitate launching employment discrimination lawsuits.", "In vetoing the bill, Bush argued that it would lead to racial quotas in hiring.", "In November 1991, Bush signed the Civil Rights Act of 1991, which was largely similar to the bill he had vetoed in the previous year.In August 1990, Bush signed the Ryan White CARE Act, the largest federally funded program dedicated to assisting persons living with HIV/AIDS.", "Throughout his presidency, the AIDS epidemic grew dramatically in the U.S. and around the world, and Bush often found himself at odds with AIDS activist groups who criticized him for not placing a high priority on HIV/AIDS research and funding.", "Frustrated by the administration's lack of urgency on the issue, ACT UP dumped the ashes of deceased HIV/AIDS patients on the White House lawn during a viewing of the AIDS Quilt in 1992.By that time, HIV had become the leading cause of death in the U.S. for men aged 25–44.==== Environment ====In June 1989, the Bush administration proposed a bill to amend the Clean Air Act.", "Working with Senate Majority Leader George J. Mitchell, the administration won passage of the amendments over the opposition of business-aligned members of Congress who feared the impact of tougher regulations.", "The legislation sought to curb acid rain and smog by requiring decreased emissions of chemicals such as sulfur dioxide, and was the first major update to the Clean Air Act since 1977.Bush also signed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 in response to the ''Exxon Valdez'' oil spill.", "However, the League of Conservation Voters criticized some of Bush's other environmental actions, including his opposition to stricter auto-mileage standards.==== Points of Light ====Bush devoted attention to voluntary service to solve some of America's most serious social problems.", "He often used the \"thousand points of light\" theme to describe the power of citizens to solve community problems.", "In his 1989 inaugural address, Bush said, \"I have spoken of a thousand points of light, of all the community organizations that are spread like stars throughout the Nation, doing good.\"", "During his presidency, Bush honored numerous volunteers with the Daily Point of Light Award, a tradition that his presidential successors continued.", "In 1990, the Points of Light Foundation was created as a nonprofit organization in Washington to promote this spirit of volunteerism.", "In 2007, the Points of Light Foundation merged with the Hands On Network to create a new organization, Points of Light.==== Judicial appointments ====Bush appointed Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court in 1991.Bush appointed two justices to the Supreme Court of the United States.", "In 1990, Bush appointed a largely unknown state appellate judge, David Souter, to replace liberal icon William J. Brennan Jr. Souter was easily confirmed and served until 2009, but joined the liberal bloc of the court, disappointing Bush.", "In 1991, Bush nominated conservative federal judge Clarence Thomas to succeed Thurgood Marshall, a long-time liberal stalwart.", "Thomas, the former head of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), faced heavy opposition in the Senate, as well as from pro-choice groups and the NAACP.", "His nomination faced another difficulty when Anita Hill accused Thomas of having sexually harassed her during his time as the chair of EEOC.", "Thomas won confirmation in a narrow 52–48 vote; 43 Republicans and 9 Democrats voted to confirm Thomas's nomination, while 46 Democrats and 2 Republicans voted against confirmation.", "Thomas became one of the most conservative justices of his era.==== Other issues ====Bush's education platform consisted mainly of offering federal support for a variety of innovations, such as open enrollment, incentive pay for outstanding teachers, and rewards for schools that improve performance with underprivileged children.", "Though Bush did not pass a major educational reform package during his presidency, his ideas influenced later reform efforts, including Goals 2000 and the No Child Left Behind Act.", "Bush signed the Immigration Act of 1990, which led to a 40 percent increase in legal immigration to the United States.", "The act more than doubled the number of visas given to immigrants on the basis of job skills.", "In the wake of the savings and loan crisis, Bush proposed a $50 billion package to rescue the savings and loans industry, and also proposed the creation of the Office of Thrift Supervision to regulate the industry.", "Congress passed the Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery, and Enforcement Act of 1989, which incorporated most of Bush's proposals.=== Public image ===Bush's approval ratings (red) compared to his disapproval ratings (blue) during his presidencyBush was widely seen as a \"pragmatic caretaker\" president who lacked a unified and compelling long-term theme in his efforts.", "Bush's sound bite where he refers to the issue of overarching purpose as \"the vision thing\" has become a metonym applied to other political figures accused of similar difficulties.", "His ability to gain broad international support for the Gulf War and the war's result were seen as both a diplomatic and military triumph, rousing bipartisan approval, though his decision to withdraw without removing Saddam Hussein left mixed feelings, and attention returned to the domestic front and a souring economy.", "A ''New York Times'' article mistakenly depicted Bush as being surprised to see a supermarket barcode reader; the report of his reaction exacerbated the notion that he was \"out of touch\".Bush was popular throughout most of his presidency given his high approval ratings.", "After the Gulf war concluded in February 1991, his approval rating saw a high of 89 percent, before gradually declining for the rest of the year, and eventually falling below 50 percent according to a January 1992 Gallup poll.", "His sudden drop in his favorability was likely due to the early 1990s recession, which shifted his image from \"conquering hero\" to \"politician befuddled by economic matters\".", "At the elite level, several commentators and political experts lamented the state of American politics in 1991–1992 and reported the voters were angry.", "Many analysts blamed the poor quality of national election campaigns.=== 1992 presidential campaign ===Bush announced his reelection bid in early 1992; with a coalition victory in the Persian Gulf War and high approval ratings, Bush's reelection initially looked likely.", "As a result, many leading Democrats, including Mario Cuomo, Dick Gephardt, and Al Gore, declined to seek their party's presidential nomination.", "However, Bush's tax increase angered many conservatives, who believed that Bush had strayed from the conservative principles of Ronald Reagan.", "He faced a challenge from conservative political columnist Pat Buchanan in the 1992 Republican primaries.", "Bush fended off Buchanan's challenge and won his party's nomination at the 1992 Republican National Convention.", "Still, the convention adopted a socially conservative platform strongly influenced by the Christian right.1992 presidential election by Bill Clinton.Meanwhile, the Democrats nominated Governor Bill Clinton of Arkansas.", "A moderate who was affiliated with the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), Clinton favored welfare reform, deficit reduction, and a tax cut for the middle class.", "In early 1992, the race took an unexpected twist when Texas billionaire H. Ross Perot launched a third-party bid, claiming that neither Republicans nor Democrats could eliminate the deficit and make government more efficient.", "His message appealed to voters across the political spectrum disappointed with both parties' perceived fiscal irresponsibility.", "Perot also attacked NAFTA, which he claimed would lead to major job losses.", "National polling taken in mid-1992 showed Perot in the lead, but Clinton experienced a surge through effective campaigning and the selection of Senator Al Gore, a popular and relatively young Southerner, as his running mate.Clinton won the election, taking 43 percent of the popular vote and 370 electoral votes, while Bush won 37.5 percent of the popular vote and 168 electoral votes.", "Perot won 19% of the popular vote, one of the highest totals for a third-party candidate in U.S. history, drawing equally from both major candidates, according to exit polls.", "Clinton performed well in the Northeast, the Midwest, and the West Coast, while also waging the strongest Democratic campaign in the South since the 1976 election.", "Several factors were important in Bush's defeat.", "The ailing economy which arose from recession may have been the main factor in Bush's loss, as 7 in 10 voters said on election day that the economy was either \"not so good\" or \"poor\".", "On the eve of the 1992 election, the unemployment rate stood at 7.8%, which was the highest it had been since 1984.The president was also damaged by his alienation of many conservatives in his party.", "Bush partially blamed Perot for his defeat, though exit polls showed that Perot drew his voters about equally from Clinton and Bush.Despite his defeat, Bush left office with a 56 percent job approval rating in January 1993.Like many of his predecessors, Bush issued a series of pardons during his last days in office.", "In December 1992, he granted executive clemency to six former senior government officials implicated in the Iran-Contra scandal, most prominently former Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger.", "The charges against the six were that they lied to or withheld information from Congress.", "The pardons effectively brought an end to the Iran-Contra scandal.According to Seymour Martin Lipset, the 1992 election had several unique characteristics.", "Voters felt that economic conditions were worse than they were, which harmed Bush.", "A rare event was the presence of a strong third-party candidate.", "Liberals launched a backlash against 12 years of a conservative White House.", "The chief factor was Clinton uniting his party and winning over several heterogeneous groups." ], [ "Post-presidency (1993–2018)", "=== Appearances ===After leaving office, Bush and his wife built a retirement house in the community of West Oaks, Houston.", "He established a presidential office within the Park Laureate Building on Memorial Drive in Houston.", "He also frequently spent time at his vacation home in Kennebunkport, took annual cruises in Greece, went on fishing trips in Florida, and visited the Bohemian Club in Northern California.", "He declined to serve on corporate boards but delivered numerous paid speeches and was an adviser to The Carlyle Group, a private equity firm.", "He never published his memoirs, but he and Brent Scowcroft co-wrote ''A World Transformed'', a 1998 work on foreign policy.", "Portions of his letters and his diary were later published as ''The China Diary of George H. W. Bush'' and ''All the Best, George Bush''.During a 1993 visit to Kuwait, Bush was targeted in an assassination plot directed by the Iraqi Intelligence Service.", "President Clinton retaliated when he ordered the firing of 23 cruise missiles at Iraqi Intelligence Service headquarters in Baghdad.", "Bush did not publicly comment on the assassination attempt or the missile strike, but privately spoke with Clinton shortly before the strike took place.", "In the 1994 gubernatorial elections, his sons George W. and Jeb concurrently ran for Governor of Texas and Governor of Florida.", "Concerning their political careers, he advised them both that \"at some point both of you may want to say 'Well, I don't agree with my Dad on that point' or 'Frankly I think Dad was wrong on that.'", "Do it.", "Chart your own course, not just on the issues but on defining yourselves\".", "George W. won his race against Ann Richards while Jeb lost to Lawton Chiles.", "After the results came in, the elder Bush told ABC, \"I have very mixed emotions.", "Proud father, is the way I would sum it all up.\"", "Jeb would again run for governor of Florida in 1998 and win at the same time that his brother George W. won re-election in Texas.", "It marked the second time in United States history that a pair of brothers served simultaneously as governors.George and Barbara Bush, 2001Bush supported his son's candidacy in the 2000 presidential election but did not actively campaign in the election and did not deliver a speech at the 2000 Republican National Convention.", "George W. Bush defeated Al Gore in the 2000 election and was re-elected in 2004.Bush and his son thus became the second father–son pair to each serve as President of the United States, following John Adams and John Quincy Adams.", "Through previous administrations, the elder Bush had ubiquitously been known as \"George Bush\" or \"President Bush\", but following his son's election, the need to distinguish between them has made retronymic forms such as \"George H. W. Bush\" and \"George Bush Sr.\" and colloquialisms such as \"Bush 41\" and \"Bush the Elder\" more common.", "Bush advised his son on some personnel choices, approving of the selection of Dick Cheney as running mate and the retention of George Tenet as CIA Director.", "However, he was not consulted on all appointments, including that of his old rival, Donald Rumsfeld, as Secretary of Defense.", "Though he avoided giving unsolicited advice to his son, Bush and his son also discussed some policy matters, especially regarding national security issues.In his retirement, Bush used the public spotlight to support various charities.", "Despite earlier political differences with Bill Clinton, the two former presidents eventually became friends.", "They appeared together in television ads, encouraging aid for victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami and Hurricane Katrina.", "However, when interviewed by Jon Meacham, Bush criticized Donald Rumsfeld, Dick Cheney, and even his son George W. Bush for their handling of foreign policy after the September 11 attacks.=== Final years ===From left to right: George H. W. Bush, Barack Obama, George W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and Jimmy CarterBush supported Republican John McCain in the 2008 presidential election, and Republican Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election, but both were defeated by Democrat Barack Obama.", "In 2011, Obama awarded Bush with the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor in the United States.Bush supported his son Jeb's bid in the 2016 Republican primaries.", "Jeb Bush's campaign struggled, however, and he withdrew from the race during the primaries.", "Neither George H. W. nor George W. Bush endorsed the eventual Republican nominee, Donald Trump; all three Bushes emerged as frequent critics of Trump's policies and speaking style, while Trump frequently criticized George W. Bush's presidency.", "George H. W. later said he voted for the Democratic nominee, Hillary Clinton, in the general election.", "After the election, Bush wrote a letter to President-elect Donald Trump in January 2017 to inform him that because of his poor health, he would not be able to attend Trump's inauguration on January 20; he gave him his best wishes.In August 2017, after the violence at Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, both presidents Bush released a joint statement saying, \"America must always reject racial bigotry, anti-Semitism, and hatred in all forms.", "... As we pray for Charlottesville, we are all reminded of the fundamental truths recorded by that city's most prominent citizen in the Declaration of Independence: we are all created equal and endowed by our Creator with unalienable rights.", "\"On April 17, 2018, Barbara Bush died at the age of 92 at her home in Houston, Texas.", "Her funeral was held at St. Martin's Episcopal Church in Houston four days later.", "Bush, along with former presidents Barack Obama, George W. Bush (son), Bill Clinton and First Ladies Melania Trump, Michelle Obama, Laura Bush (daughter-in-law) and Hillary Clinton attended the funeral and posed together for a photo as a sign of unity.On November 1, 2018, Bush went to the polls to vote early in the midterm elections.", "This would be his final public appearance.=== Death and funeral ===Members of the public pay their respects at the casket of President Bush lying in state in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C.After a long battle with vascular Parkinson's disease, Bush died at his home in Houston on November 30, 2018, at the age of 94.At the time of his death he was the longest-lived U.S. president, a distinction now held by Jimmy Carter.", "He was also the third-oldest vice president.", "Bush lay in state in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol from December 3 through December 5; he was the 12th U.S. president to be accorded this honor.", "Then, on December 5, Bush's casket was transferred from the Capitol rotunda to Washington National Cathedral where a state funeral was held.", "After the funeral, Bush's body was transported to George H.W.", "Bush Presidential Library in College Station, Texas, where he was buried next to his wife Barbara and daughter Robin.", "At the funeral, former president George W. Bush eulogized his father saying,\"He looked for the good in each person, and he usually found it.\"" ], [ "Personal life", "In May 1991, ''The New York Times'' revealed that Bush had developed Graves' disease, a non-contagious thyroid condition that his wife Barbara also had.", "Bush had two separate hip replacement surgeries in 2000 and 2007.Thereafter, Bush started to experience weakness in his legs, which was attributed to vascular parkinsonism, a form of Parkinson's disease.", "He progressively developed problems walking, initially needing a walking stick for mobility aid before he eventually came to rely on a wheelchair from 2011 onwards.Bush was a lifelong Episcopalian and a member of St. Martin's Episcopal Church in Houston.", "As President, Bush regularly attended services at St. John's Episcopal Church in Washington D.C.", "He cited various moments in his life on the deepening of his faith, including his escape from Japanese forces in 1944, and the death of his three-year-old daughter Robin in 1953.His faith was reflected in his \"thousand points of light\" speech, his support for prayer in schools, and his support for the pro-life movement (following his election as vice president)." ], [ "Legacy", "=== Historical reputation ===NAS JRB during Hurricane Katrina relief efforts, 2005Polls of historians and political scientists have ranked Bush in the top half of presidents.", "A 2018 poll of the American Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Bush as the 17th best president out of 44.A 2017 C-SPAN poll of historians also ranked Bush as the 20th best president out of 43.Richard Rose described Bush as a \"guardian\" president, and many other historians and political scientists have similarly described Bush as a passive, hands-off president who was \"largely content with things as they were\".", "Professor Steven Knott writes that \"generally the Bush presidency is viewed as successful in foreign affairs but a disappointment in domestic affairs.", "\"Biographer Jon Meacham writes that, after he left office, many Americans viewed Bush as \"a gracious and underappreciated man who had many virtues but who had failed to project enough of a distinctive identity and vision to overcome the economic challenges of 1991–92 and to win a second term.\"", "Bush himself noted that his legacy was \"lost between the glory of Reagan ... and the trials and tribulations of my sons.\"", "In the 2010s, Bush was fondly remembered for his willingness to compromise, which contrasted with the intensely partisan era that followed his presidency.In 2018, ''Vox'' highlighted Bush for his \"pragmatism\" as a moderate Republican president by working across the aisle.", "They specifically noted Bush's accomplishments within the domestic policy by making bipartisan deals, including raising the tax budget among the wealthy with the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990.Bush also helped pass the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 which ''The New York Times'' described as \"the most sweeping anti-discrimination law since the Civil Rights Act of 1964.In response to the ''Exxon Valdez'' oil spill, Bush built another bipartisan coalition to strengthen the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990.Bush also championed and signed into a law the Immigration Act of 1990, a sweeping bipartisan immigration reform act that made it easier for immigrants to legally enter the county, while also granting immigrants fleeing violence the temporary protected status visa, as well as lifted the pre-naturalization English testing process, and finally \"eliminated the exclusion of homosexuals under what Congress now deemed the medically unsound classification of \"sexual deviant\" that was included in the 1965 act.\"", "Bush stated, \"Immigration is not just a link to our past but its also a bridge to America's future\".According to ''USA Today'', the legacy of Bush's presidency was defined by his victory over Iraq after the invasion of Kuwait and by his presiding over the dissolution of the Soviet Union and German reunification.", "Michael Beschloss and Strobe Talbott praise Bush's handling of the Soviet Union, especially how he prodded Gorbachev in terms of releasing control over the satellite states and permitting German unification—and especially a united Germany in NATO.", "Andrew Bacevich judges the Bush administration as \"morally obtuse\" in the light of its \"business-as-usual\" attitude towards China after the massacre in Tiananmen Square and its uncritical support of Gorbachev as the Soviet Union disintegrated.", "David Rothkopf argues:However, ''TIME'' has criticized Bush's domestic policies involving \"drugs, homelessness, racial hostility, education gaps, and issues with the environment\", and it argues that these issues in the United States became worse in the 21st century primarily due to Bush setting a poor example and his handling of these concepts during his presidency.=== Memorials, awards, and honors ===The George H.W.", "Bush Presidential Library and Museum on the west campus of Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas, 2011In 1990, ''Time'' magazine named him the Man of the Year.", "In 1997, the Houston Intercontinental Airport was renamed as the George Bush Intercontinental Airport.", "In 1999, the CIA headquarters in Langley, Virginia, was named the ''George Bush Center for Intelligence'' in his honor.", "In 2011, Bush, an avid golfer, was inducted in the World Golf Hall of Fame.", "The (CVN-77), the tenth and last supercarrier of the United States Navy, was named for Bush.", "Bush is commemorated on a postage stamp that was issued by the United States Postal Service in 2019.The George H.W.", "Bush Presidential Library and Museum, the tenth U.S. presidential library, was completed in 1997.It contains the presidential and vice presidential papers of Bush and the vice presidential papers of Dan Quayle.", "The library is located on a site on the west campus of Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas.", "Texas A&M University also hosts the Bush School of Government and Public Service, a graduate public policy school.", "In 2012, Phillips Academy also awarded Bush its Alumni Award of Distinction." ], [ "See also", "* Electoral history of George H. W. Bush* List of members of the American Legion* List of presidents of the United States" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Works cited ===* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "=== Secondary sources ===* * * * * Cox, Michael, and Steven Hurst.", "\"'His finest hour?", "'George Bush and the diplomacy of German unification.\"", "''Diplomacy and statecraft'' 13.4 (2002): 123–150.", "* Cull, Nicholas J.", "\"Speeding the Strange Death of American Public Diplomacy: The George H. W. Bush Administration and the US Information Agency.\"", "''Diplomatic History'' 34.1 (2010): 47–69.", "* * * Engel, Jeffrey A.", "\"A Better World...but Don't Get Carried Away: The Foreign Policy of George H. W. Bush Twenty Years On.\"", "''Diplomatic History'' 34.1 (2010): 25–46.", "* Engel, Jeffrey A.", "''When the World Seemed New: George H. W. Bush and the End of the Cold War'' (2018) excerpt* * * Han, Lori Cox.", "''A presidency upstaged: The public leadership of George HW Bush'' (Texas A&M University Press, 2011).", "* * * Maynard, Christopher.", "''Out of the shadow: George H. W. Bush and the end of the Cold War'' (Texas A&M University Press, 2008).", "* * * * * Troy, Gil.", "\"Stumping in the bookstores: A literary history of the 1992 presidential campaign.\"", "''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' (1995): 697–710.online* * * * === Primary sources ===* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* George H.W.", "Bush Presidential Library Center* White House biography* Full audio of a number of Bush speeches Miller Center of Public Affairs* * * 1992 election episode in CNN's Race for the White House* * Extensive essays on Bush and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs* ** \"Life Portrait of George H. W. Bush\", from C-SPAN's ''American Presidents: Life Portraits'', December 13, 1999* ''George H. W. Bush''  an American Experience documentary* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "GPS (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''GPS''' is the Global Positioning System, a satellite-based navigation system.", "'''GPS''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Technology", "* GPS navigation device, especially an automotive navigation system* Generalized processor sharing, an algorithm to fairly share computer processing time* General Problem Solver, a 1959 computer program* Satellite navigation, GPS (global positioning system) in common parlance" ], [ "Organizations", "* Crossroads GPS (Grassroots Policy Strategies), a nonprofit corporation that works in conjunction with the Super PAC American Crossroads* Fusion GPS, American commercial and strategic research firm* Gap Inc. stock ticker* Ghana Prisons Service* GPS (band), a progressive rock band* GPS Rugby, an Australian rugby union club* Geirus Policies and Standards committee, a body of the Rabbinical Council of America* Gabungan Parti Sarawak, a Malaysian political coalition based in Sarawak===Education===* Greenwich Public Schools, a school district in Greenwich, Connecticut, US* Gilbert Public Schools, a school district in Gilbert, Arizona, US* Girls Preparatory School, an all-girls prep school in Chattanooga, Tennessee, US* Athletic Association of the Great Public Schools of New South Wales, an association of private boys' schools, Australia* Great Public Schools Association of Queensland Inc., an association of nine Australian schools* Grosse Pointe South High School, a public high school in Grosse Pointe, Michigan, US* Greenville Public Schools (a.k.a.", "Greenville Public School District), a school district in Greenville, Mississippi, US* The School of Global Policy and Strategy, an institute of international studies at the University of California, San Diego===Medicine===* Goodpasture syndrome, a rare autoimmune disease* Gray platelet syndrome, a rare congenital autosomal recessive bleeding disorder" ], [ "Other uses", "* Seymour Airport (IATA code), Galápagos Islands, Ecuador* ''Fareed Zakaria GPS'' (''Global Public Square''), a CNN television show* Geometrical Products Specification, an international standard for geometric dimensioning and tolerancing* Genealogical Proof Standard (see also Cluster genealogy)* \"GPS\" (song), a song by Maluma* \"Var är jag\", renamed to \"GPS\", a song by Basshunter from his ''LOL '' album" ], [ "See also", "* Grams of protein per dollar (gP/$), a means of representing the cost of amino acids in a food product" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "George Berkeley" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Berkeley''' (; 12 March 168514 January 1753) – known as '''Bishop Berkeley''' (Bishop of Cloyne of the Anglican Church of Ireland) – was an Anglo-Irish philosopher whose primary achievement was the advancement of a theory he called \"immaterialism\" (later referred to as \"subjective idealism\" by others).", "This theory denies the existence of material substance and instead contends that familiar objects like tables and chairs are ideas perceived by the mind and, as a result, cannot exist without being perceived.", "Berkeley is also known for his critique of abstraction, an important premise in his argument for immaterialism.In 1709, Berkeley published his first major work, ''An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision'', in which he discussed the limitations of human vision and advanced the theory that the proper objects of sight are not material objects, but light and colour.", "This foreshadowed his chief philosophical work, ''A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge'', in 1710, which, after its poor reception, he rewrote in dialogue form and published under the title ''Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous'' in 1713.Repr.", "in In this collection of essays, Turbayne's work comprised two papers that had been published in Philosophy and Phenomenological Research:* \"Berkeley's Two Concepts of Mind\"* C. Turbayne's reply to S. A.", "Grave, \"A Note on Berkeley's Conception of the Mind\" (''Philosophy and Phenomenological Research'', 1962, vol.", "22, No.", "4, , ).", "In this book, Berkeley's views were represented by Philonous (Greek: \"lover of mind\"), while Hylas (\"hyle\", Greek: \"matter\") embodies the Irish thinker's opponents, in particular John Locke.Berkeley argued against Isaac Newton's doctrine of absolute space, time and motion in ''De Motu'' (''On Motion''), published 1721.His arguments were a precursor to the views of Ernst Mach and Albert Einstein.", "In 1732, he published ''Alciphron'', a Christian apologetic against the free-thinkers, and in 1734, he published ''The Analyst'', a critique of the foundations of calculus, which was influential in the development of mathematics.Interest in Berkeley's work increased after World War II because he tackled many of the issues of paramount interest to philosophy in the 20th century, such as the problems of perception, the difference between primary and secondary qualities, and the importance of language." ], [ "Biography", "===Ireland===Berkeley was born at his family home, Dysart Castle, near Thomastown, County Kilkenny, Ireland, the eldest son of William Berkeley, a cadet of the noble family of Berkeley whose ancestry can be traced back to the Anglo-Saxon period and who had served as feudal lords and landowners in Gloucester, England.", "Little is known of his mother.", "He was educated at Kilkenny College and attended Trinity College Dublin, where he was elected a Scholar in 1702, being awarded BA in 1704 and MA and a Fellowship in 1707.He remained at Trinity College after completion of his degree as a tutor and Greek lecturer.His earliest publication was on mathematics, but the first that brought him notice was his ''An Essay towards a New Theory of Vision'', first published in 1709.In the essay, Berkeley examines visual distance, magnitude, position and problems of sight and touch.", "While this work raised much controversy at the time, its conclusions are now accepted as an established part of the theory of optics.The next publication to appear was the ''Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge'' in 1710, which had great success and gave him a lasting reputation, though few accepted his theory that nothing exists outside the mind.", "This was followed in 1713 by ''Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous'', in which he propounded his system of philosophy, the leading principle of which is that the world, as represented by our senses, depends for its existence on being perceived.For this theory, the ''Principles'' gives the exposition and the ''Dialogues'' the defence.", "One of his main objectives was to combat the prevailing materialism of his time.", "The theory was largely received with ridicule, while even those such as Samuel Clarke and William Whiston, who did acknowledge his \"extraordinary genius,\" were nevertheless convinced that his first principles were false.=== England and Europe ===Shortly afterwards, Berkeley visited England and was received into the circle of Addison, Pope and Steele.", "In the period between 1714 and 1720, he interspersed his academic endeavours with periods of extensive travel in Europe, including one of the most extensive Grand Tours of the length and breadth of Italy ever undertaken.", "In 1721, he took Holy Orders in the Church of Ireland, earning his doctorate in divinity, and once again chose to remain at Trinity College Dublin, lecturing this time in Divinity and in Hebrew.", "In 1721/2 he was made Dean of Dromore and, in 1724, Dean of Derry.In 1723, Berkeley was named co-heir of Esther Vanhomrigh, along with the barrister Robert Marshall.", "This naming followed Vanhomrigh's violent quarrel with Jonathan Swift, who had been her intimate friend for many years.", "Vanhomrigh's choice of legatees caused a good deal of surprise since she did not know either of them well, although Berkeley as a very young man had known her father.", "Swift said that he did not grudge Berkeley his inheritance, much of which vanished in a lawsuit in any event.", "A story that Berkeley and Marshall disregarded a condition of the inheritance that they must publish the correspondence between Swift and Vanessa is probably untrue.In 1725, Berkeley began the project of founding a college in Bermuda for training ministers and missionaries in the colony, in pursuit of which he gave up his deanery with its income of £1100.===Marriage and America===In 1728, he married Anne Forster, daughter of John Forster, Chief Justice of the Irish Common Pleas, and Forster's first wife Rebecca Monck.", "He then went to America on a salary of £100 per annum.", "He landed near Newport, Rhode Island, where he bought a plantation at Middletownthe famous \"Whitehall\".", "Berkeley purchased several enslaved Africans to work on the plantation.", "In 2023, Trinity College in Dublin removed Berkeley's name from one of its libraries because of his slave ownership and his active defense of slavery.It has been claimed that \"he introduced Palladianism into America by borrowing a design from William Kent's ''Designs of Inigo Jones'' for the door-case of his house in Rhode Island, Whitehall.\"", "He also brought to New England John Smibert, the Scottish artist he \"discovered\" in Italy, who is generally regarded as the founding father of American portrait painting.", "Meanwhile, he drew up plans for the ideal city he planned to build on Bermuda.", "He lived at the plantation while he waited for funds for his college to arrive.", "The funds, however, were not forthcoming.", "\"With the withdrawal from London of his own persuasive energies, opposition gathered force; and the Prime Minister, Walpole grew steadily more sceptical and lukewarm.", "At last it became clear that the essential Parliamentary grant would be not forthcoming\" and in 1732 he left America and returned to London.He and Anne had four children who survived infancy: Henry, George, William and Julia, and at least two other children who died in infancy.", "William's death in 1751 was a great cause of grief to his father.===Episcopate in Ireland===Berkeley was nominated to be the Bishop of Cloyne in the Church of Ireland on 18 January 1734.He was consecrated as such on 19 May 1734.He was the Bishop of Cloyne until his death on 14 January 1753, although he died at Oxford (see below).===Humanitarian work===While living in London's Saville Street, he took part in efforts to create a home for the city's abandoned children.", "The Foundling Hospital was founded by royal charter in 1739, and Berkeley is listed as one of its original governors.===Last works===His last two publications were ''Siris: A Chain of Philosophical Reflexions and Inquiries Concerning the Virtues of Tarwater, And divers other Subjects connected together and arising one from another'' (1744) and ''Further Thoughts on Tar-water'' (1752).", "Pine tar is an effective antiseptic and disinfectant when applied to cuts on the skin, but Berkeley argued for the use of pine tar as a broad panacea for diseases.", "His 1744 work on tar-water sold more copies than any of his other books during Berkeley's lifetime.He remained at Cloyne until 1752, when he retired.", "With his wife and daughter Julia, he went to Oxford to live with his son George and supervise his education.", "He died soon afterwards and was buried in Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford.", "His affectionate disposition and genial manners made him much loved and held in warm regard by many of his contemporaries.", "Anne outlived her husband by many years, and died in 1786." ], [ "Contributions to philosophy<!--'Esse est percipi' redirects here-->", "The use of the concepts of \"spirit\" and \"idea\" is central in Berkeley's philosophy.", "As used by him, these concepts are difficult to translate into modern terminology.", "His concept of \"spirit\" is close to the concept of \"conscious subject\" or of \"mind\", and the concept of \"idea\" is close to the concept of \"sensation\" or \"state of mind\" or \"conscious experience\".Thus Berkeley denied the existence of matter as a metaphysical substance, but did not deny the existence of physical objects such as apples or mountains (\"I do not argue against the existence of any one thing that we can apprehend, either by sense or reflection.", "That the things I see with mine eyes and touch with my hands do exist, really exist, I make not the least question.", "The only thing whose existence we deny, is that which philosophers call matter or corporeal substance.", "And in doing of this, there is no damage done to the rest of mankind, who, I dare say, will never miss it.", "\", ''Principles'' #35).", "This basic claim of Berkeley's thought, his \"idealism\", is sometimes and somewhat derisively called \"immaterialism\" or, occasionally, subjective idealism.", "In ''Principles'' #3, he wrote, using a combination of Latin and English, ''esse is percipi'' (to be is to be perceived), most often if slightly inaccurately attributed to Berkeley as the pure Latin phrase '''''esse est percipi'''''.", "The phrase appears associated with him in authoritative philosophical sources, e.g., \"Berkeley holds that there are no such mind-independent things, that, in the famous phrase, ''esse est percipi (aut percipere)''—to be is to be perceived (or to perceive).", "\"Hence, human knowledge is reduced to two elements: that of spirits and of ideas (''Principles'' #86).", "In contrast to ideas, a spirit cannot be perceived.", "A person's spirit, which perceives ideas, is to be comprehended intuitively by inward feeling or reflection (''Principles'' #89).", "For Berkeley, we have no direct 'idea' of spirits, albeit we have good reason to believe in the existence of other spirits, for their existence explains the purposeful regularities we find in experience (\"It is plain that we cannot know the existence of other spirits otherwise than by their operations, or the ideas by them excited in us\", ''Dialogues'' #145).", "This is the solution that Berkeley offers to the problem of other minds.", "Finally, the order and purposefulness of the whole of our experience of the world and especially of nature overwhelms us into believing in the existence of an extremely powerful and intelligent spirit that causes that order.", "According to Berkeley, reflection on the attributes of that external spirit leads us to identify it with God.", "Thus a material thing such as an apple consists of a collection of ideas (shape, color, taste, physical properties, etc.)", "which are caused in the spirits of humans by the spirit of God.===Theology===A convinced adherent of Christianity, Berkeley believed God to be present as an immediate cause of all our experiences.Here is Berkeley's proof of the existence of God:As T. I. Oizerman explained:Berkeley believed that God is not the distant engineer of Newtonian machinery that in the fullness of time led to the growth of a tree in the university quadrangle.", "Rather, the perception of the tree is an idea that God's mind has produced in the mind, and the tree continues to exist in the quadrangle when \"nobody\" is there, simply because God is an infinite mind that perceives all.The philosophy of David Hume concerning causality and objectivity is an elaboration of another aspect of Berkeley's philosophy.", "A.A. Luce, the most eminent Berkeley scholar of the 20th century, constantly stressed the continuity of Berkeley's philosophy.", "The fact that Berkeley returned to his major works throughout his life, issuing revised editions with only minor changes, also counts against any theory that attributes to him a significant volte-face.===Relativity arguments===John Locke (Berkeley's intellectual predecessor) states that we define an object by its primary and secondary qualities.", "He takes heat as an example of a secondary quality.", "If you put one hand in a bucket of cold water, and the other hand in a bucket of warm water, then put both hands in a bucket of lukewarm water, one of your hands is going to tell you that the water is cold and the other that the water is hot.", "Locke says that since two different objects (both your hands) perceive the water to be hot ''and'' cold, then the heat is not a quality of the water.While Locke used this argument to distinguish primary from secondary qualities, Berkeley extends it to cover primary qualities in the same way.", "For example, he says that size is not a quality of an object because the size of the object depends on the distance between the observer and the object, or the size of the observer.", "Since an object is a different size to different observers, then size is not a quality of the object.", "Berkeley rejects shape with a similar argument and then asks: if neither primary qualities nor secondary qualities are of the object, then how can we say that there is anything more than the qualities we observe?Relativity is the idea that there is no objective, universal truth; it is a state of dependence in which the existence of one independent object is solely dependent on that of another.", "According to Locke, characteristics of primary qualities are mind-independent, such as shape, size, etc., whereas secondary qualities are mind-dependent, for example, taste and colour.", "George Berkeley refuted John Locke's belief on primary and secondary qualities because Berkeley believed that \"we cannot abstract the primary qualities (e.g shape) from secondary ones (e.g colour)\".", "Berkeley argued that perception is dependent on the distance between the observer and the object, and \"thus, we cannot conceive of mechanist material bodies which are extended but not (in themselves) colored\".", "What perceived can be the same type of quality, but completely opposite from each other because of different positions and perceptions, what we perceive can be different even when the same types of things consist of contrary qualities.", "Secondary qualities aid in people's conception of primary qualities in an object, like how the colour of an object leads people to recognize the object itself.", "More specifically, the colour red can be perceived in apples, strawberries, and tomatoes, yet we would not know what these might look like without its colour.", "We would also be unaware of what the colour red looked like if red paint, or any object that has a perceived red colour, failed to exist.", "From this, we can see that colours cannot exist on their own and can solely represent a group of perceived objects.", "Therefore, both primary and secondary qualities are mind-dependent: they cannot exist without our minds.", "George Berkeley was a philosopher who opposed rationalism and \"classical\" empiricism.", "He was a \"subjective idealist\" or \"empirical idealist\", who believed that reality is constructed entirely of immaterial, conscious minds and their ideas; everything that exists is somehow dependent on the subject perceiving it, except the subject themselves.", "He refuted the existence of abstract objects that many other philosophers believed to exist, notably Plato.", "According to Berkeley, \"an abstract object does not exist in space or time and which is therefore entirely non-physical and non-mental\"; however, this argument contradicts his relativity argument.", "If \"esse est percipi\", (Latin meaning that to exist is to be perceived) is true, then the objects in the relativity argument made by Berkeley can either exist or not.", "Berkeley believed that only the minds' perceptions and the Spirit that perceives are what exists in reality; what people perceive every day is only the idea of an object's existence, but the objects themselves are not perceived.", "Berkeley also discussed how, at times, materials cannot be perceived by oneself, and the mind of oneself cannot understand the objects.", "However, there also exists an \"omnipresent, eternal mind\" that Berkeley believed to consist of God and the Spirit, both omniscient and all-perceiving.", "According to Berkeley, God is the entity who controls everything, yet Berkeley also argued that \"abstract objects do not exist in space or time\".", "In other words, as Warnock argues, Berkeley \"had recognized that he could not square with his own talk of ''spirits'', of our minds and of God; for these are perceivers and not among objects of perception.", "Thus he says, rather weakly and without elucidation, that in addition to our ideas we also have ''notions''—we know what it means to speak of ''spirits'' and their operations.", "\"However, the relativity argument violates the idea of immaterialism.", "Berkeley's immaterialism argues that \"esse est percipi (aut percipere)\", which in English is to be is to be perceived (or to perceive).", "That is saying only what perceived or perceives is real, and without our perception or God's nothing can be real.", "Yet, if the relativity argument, also by Berkeley, argues that the perception of an object depends on the different positions, then this means that what perceived can either be real or not because the perception does not show that whole picture and the whole picture cannot be perceived.", "Berkeley also believes that \"when one perceives mediately, one perceives one idea by means of perceiving another\".", "By this, it can be elaborated that if the standards of what perceived at first are different, what perceived after that can be different, as well.", "In the heat perception described above, one hand perceived the water to be hot and the other hand perceived the water to be cold due to relativity.", "If applying the idea \"to be is to be perceived\", the water should be both cold and hot because both perceptions are perceived by different hands.", "However, the water cannot be cold and hot at the same time for it self-contradicts, so this shows that what perceived is not always true because it sometimes can break the law of noncontradiction.", "In this case, \"it would be arbitrary anthropocentrism to claim that humans have special access to the true qualities of objects\".", "The truth for different people can be different, and humans are limited to accessing the absolute truth due to relativity.", "Summing up, nothing can be absolutely true due to relativity or the two arguments, to be is to be perceived and the relativity argument, do not always work together.===New theory of vision===In his ''Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision'', Berkeley frequently criticised the views of the Optic Writers, a title that seems to include Molyneux, Wallis, Malebranche and Descartes.", "In sections 1–51, Berkeley argued against the classical scholars of optics by holding that: ''spatial depth, as the distance that separates the perceiver from the perceived object is itself invisible''.", "That is, we do not see space directly or deduce its form logically using the laws of optics.", "Space for Berkeley is no more than a contingent expectation that visual and tactile sensations will follow one another in regular sequences that we come to expect through habit.Berkeley goes on to argue that visual cues, such as the perceived extension or 'confusion' of an object, can only be used to indirectly judge distance, because the viewer learns to associate visual cues with tactile sensations.", "Berkeley gives the following analogy regarding indirect distance perception: one perceives distance indirectly just as one perceives a person's embarrassment indirectly.", "When looking at an embarrassed person, we infer indirectly that the person is embarrassed by observing the red colour on the person's face.", "We know through experience that a red face tends to signal embarrassment, as we've learned to associate the two.The question concerning the visibility of space was central to the Renaissance perspective tradition and its reliance on classical optics in the development of pictorial representations of spatial depth.", "This matter was debated by scholars since the 11th-century Arab polymath and mathematician Alhazen (Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham) affirmed in experimental contexts the visibility of space.", "This issue, which was raised in Berkeley's theory of vision, was treated at length in the ''Phenomenology of Perception'' of Maurice Merleau-Ponty, in the context of confirming the visual perception of spatial depth (''la profondeur''), and by way of refuting Berkeley's thesis.Berkeley wrote about the perception of size in addition to that of distance.", "He is frequently misquoted as believing in size–distance invariance—a view held by the Optic Writers.", "This idea is that we scale the image size according to distance in a geometrical manner.", "The error may have become commonplace because the eminent historian and psychologist E. G. Boring perpetuated it.", "In fact, Berkeley argued that the same cues that evoke distance also evoke size, and that we do not first see size and then calculate distance.", "It is worth quoting Berkeley's words on this issue (Section 53):What inclines men to this mistake (beside the humour of making one see by geometry) is, that the same perceptions or ideas which suggest distance, do also suggest magnitude ...", "I say they do not first suggest distance, and then leave it to the judgement to use that as a medium, whereby to collect the magnitude; but they have as close and immediate a connexion with the magnitude as with the distance; and suggest magnitude as independently of distance, as they do distance independently of magnitude.Berkeley claimed that his visual theories were “vindicated” by a 1728 report regarding the recovery of vision in a 13-year-old boy operated for congenital cataracts by surgeon William Cheselden.", "In 2021, the name of Cheselden's patient was published for the first time: Daniel Dolins.", "Berkeley knew the Dolins family, had numerous social links to Cheselden, including the poet Alexander Pope, and Princess Caroline, to whom Cheselden's patient was presented.", "The report misspelled Cheselden's name, used language typical of Berkeley, and may even have been ghost-written by Berkeley.", "Unfortunately, Dolins was never able to see well enough to read, and there is no evidence that the surgery improved Dolins' vision at any point prior to his death at age 30.===Philosophy of physics===\"Berkeley's works display his keen interest in natural philosophy ... from his earliest writings (''Arithmetica'', 1707) to his latest (''Siris'', 1744).", "Moreover, much of his philosophy is shaped fundamentally by his engagement with the science of his time.\"", "The profundity of this interest can be judged from numerous entries in Berkeley's ''Philosophical Commentaries'' (1707–1708), e.g.", "\"Mem.", "to Examine & accurately discuss the scholium of the 8th Definition of Mr Newton's Principia.\"", "(#316)Berkeley argued that forces and gravity, as defined by Newton, constituted \"occult qualities\" that \"expressed nothing distinctly\".", "He held that those who posited \"something unknown in a body of which they have no idea and which they call the principle of motion, are in fact simply stating that the principle of motion is unknown.\"", "Therefore, those who \"affirm that active force, action, and the principle of motion are really in bodies are adopting an opinion not based on experience.\"", "Forces and gravity existed nowhere in the phenomenal world.", "On the other hand, if they resided in the category of \"soul\" or \"incorporeal thing\", they \"do not properly belong to physics\" as a matter.", "Berkeley thus concluded that forces lay beyond any kind of empirical observation and could not be a part of proper science.", "He proposed his theory of signs as a means to explain motion and matter without reference to the \"occult qualities\" of force and gravity.===Berkeley's razor==='''Berkeley's razor''' is a rule of reasoning proposed by the philosopher Karl Popper in his study of Berkeley's key scientific work ''De Motu''.", "Berkeley's razor is considered by Popper to be similar to Ockham's razor but \"more powerful\".", "It represents an extreme, empiricist view of scientific observation that states that the scientific method provides us with no true insight into the nature of the world.", "Rather, the scientific method gives us a variety of partial explanations about regularities that hold in the world and that are gained through experiment.", "The nature of the world, according to Berkeley, is only approached through proper metaphysical speculation and reasoning.", "Popper summarises Berkeley's razor as such:A general practical result—which I propose to call \"Berkeley's razor\"—of Berkeley's analysis of physics allows us ''a priori'' to eliminate from physical science all essentialist explanations.", "If they have a mathematical and predictive content they may be admitted ''qua'' mathematical hypotheses (while their essentialist interpretation is eliminated).", "If not they may be ruled out altogether.", "This razor is sharper than Ockham's: ''all'' entities are ruled out except those which are perceived.In another essay of the same book titled \"Three Views Concerning Human Knowledge\", Popper argues that Berkeley is to be considered as an instrumentalist philosopher, along with Robert Bellarmine, Pierre Duhem and Ernst Mach.", "According to this approach, scientific theories have the status of serviceable fictions, useful inventions aimed at explaining facts, and without any pretension to being true.", "Popper contrasts instrumentalism with the above-mentioned essentialism and his own \"critical rationalism\".===Philosophy of mathematics===In addition to his contributions to philosophy, Berkeley was also very influential in the development of mathematics, although in a rather indirect sense.", "\"Berkeley was concerned with mathematics and its philosophical interpretation from the earliest stages of his intellectual life.\"", "Berkeley's \"Philosophical Commentaries\" (1707–1708) witness to his interest in mathematics:Axiom.", "No reasoning about things whereof we have no idea.", "Therefore no reasoning about Infinitesimals.", "(#354)Take away the signs from Arithmetic & Algebra, & pray what remains?", "(#767)These are sciences purely Verbal, & entirely useless but for Practise in Societys of Men.", "No speculative knowledge, no comparison of Ideas in them.", "(#768)In 1707, Berkeley published two treatises on mathematics.", "In 1734, he published ''The Analyst'', subtitled ''A DISCOURSE Addressed to an Infidel Mathematician'', a critique of calculus.", "Florian Cajori called this treatise \"the most spectacular event of the century in the history of British mathematics.\"", "However, a recent study suggests that Berkeley misunderstood Leibnizian calculus.", "The mathematician in question is believed to have been either Edmond Halley, or Isaac Newton himself—though if to the latter, then the discourse was posthumously addressed, as Newton died in 1727.", "''The Analyst'' represented a direct attack on the foundations and principles of calculus and, in particular, the notion of fluxion or infinitesimal change, which Newton and Leibniz used to develop the calculus.", "In his critique, Berkeley coined the phrase \"ghosts of departed quantities\", familiar to students of calculus.", "Ian Stewart's book ''From Here to Infinity'' captures the gist of his criticism.Berkeley regarded his criticism of calculus as part of his broader campaign against the religious implications of Newtonian mechanicsas a defence of traditional Christianity against deism, which tends to distance God from His worshipers.", "Specifically, he observed that both Newtonian and Leibnizian calculus employed infinitesimals sometimes as positive, nonzero quantities and other times as a number explicitly equal to zero.", "Berkeley's key point in \"The Analyst\" was that Newton's calculus (and the laws of motion based in calculus) lacked rigorous theoretical foundations.", "He claimed that:In every other Science Men prove their Conclusions by their Principles, and not their Principles by the Conclusions.", "But if in yours you should allow your selves this unnatural way of proceeding, the Consequence would be that you must take up with Induction, and bid adieu to Demonstration.", "And if you submit to this, your Authority will no longer lead the way in Points of Reason and Science.Berkeley did not doubt that calculus produced real-world truth; simple physics experiments could verify that Newton's method did what it claimed to do.", "\"The cause of Fluxions cannot be defended by reason\", but the results could be defended by empirical observation, Berkeley's preferred method of acquiring knowledge at any rate.", "Berkeley, however, found it paradoxical that \"Mathematicians should deduce true Propositions from false Principles, be right in Conclusion, and yet err in the Premises.\"", "In ''The Analyst'' he endeavoured to show \"how Error may bring forth Truth, though it cannot bring forth Science\".", "Newton's science, therefore, could not on purely scientific grounds justify its conclusions, and the mechanical, deistic model of the universe could not be rationally justified.The difficulties raised by Berkeley were still present in the work of Cauchy whose approach to calculus was a combination of infinitesimals and a notion of limit, and were eventually sidestepped by Weierstrass by means of his (ε, δ) approach, which eliminated infinitesimals altogether.", "More recently, Abraham Robinson restored infinitesimal methods in his 1966 book ''Non-standard analysis'' by showing that they can be used rigorously.===Moral philosophy===The tract ''A Discourse on Passive Obedience'' (1712) is considered Berkeley's major contribution to moral and political philosophy.In ''A Discourse on Passive Obedience'', Berkeley defends the thesis that people have \"a moral duty to observe the negative precepts (prohibitions) of the law, including the duty not to resist the execution of punishment.\"", "However, Berkeley does make exceptions to this sweeping moral statement, stating that we need not observe precepts of \"usurpers or even madmen\" and that people can obey different supreme authorities if there are more than one claims to the highest authority.Berkeley defends this thesis with deductive proof stemming from the laws of nature.", "First, he establishes that because God is perfectly good, the end to which he commands humans must also be good, and that end must not benefit just one person, but the entire human race.", "Because these commands—or laws—if practised, would lead to the general fitness of humankind, it follows that they can be discovered by the right reason—for example, the law to never resist supreme power can be derived from reason because this law is \"the only thing that stands between us and total disorder\".", "Thus, these laws can be called the laws of nature, because they are derived from God—the creator of nature himself.", "\"These laws of nature include duties never to resist the supreme power, lie under oath ... or do evil so that good may come of it.", "\"One may view Berkeley's doctrine on Passive Obedience as a kind of 'Theological Utilitarianism', insofar as it states that we have a duty to uphold a moral code which presumably is working towards the ends of promoting the good of humankind.", "However, the concept of 'ordinary' utilitarianism is fundamentally different in that it \"makes utility the one and only ''ground'' of obligation\"—that is, Utilitarianism is concerned with whether particular actions are morally permissible in specific situations, while Berkeley's doctrine is concerned with whether or not we should follow moral rules in any and all circumstances.", "Whereas act utilitarianism might, for example, justify a morally impermissible act in light of the specific situation, Berkeley's doctrine of Passive Obedience holds that it is never morally permissible to not follow a moral rule, even when it seems like breaking that moral rule might achieve the happiest ends.", "Berkeley holds that even though sometimes, the consequences of an action in a specific situation might be bad, the general tendencies of that action benefit humanity.Other important sources for Berkeley's views on morality are ''Alciphron'' (1732), especially dialogues I–III, and the ''Discourse to Magistrates'' (1738).\"", "''Passive Obedience'' is notable partly for containing one of the earliest statements of rule utilitarianism.===Immaterialism===George Berkeley’s theory that matter does not exist comes from the belief that \"sensible things are those only which are immediately perceived by sense.\"", "Berkeley says in his book called ''Principles of Human Knowledge'' that \"the ideas of sense are stronger, livelier, and clearer than those of the imagination; and they are also steady, orderly and coherent.\"", "From this we can tell that the things that we are perceiving are truly real rather than it just being a dream.All knowledge comes from perception; what we perceive are ideas, not things in themselves; a thing in itself must be outside experience; so the world only consists of ideas and minds that perceive those ideas; a thing only exists so far as it perceives or is perceived.", "Through this we can see that consciousness is considered something that exists to Berkeley due to its ability to perceive.", "\"'To be,' said of the object, means to be perceived, 'esse est percipi'; 'to be', said of the subject, means to perceive or 'percipere'.\"", "Having established this, Berkeley then attacks the \"opinion strangely prevailing amongst men, that houses, mountains, rivers, and in a word all sensible objects have an existence natural or real, distinct from being perceived\".", "He believes this idea to be inconsistent because such an object with an existence independent of perception must have both sensible qualities, and thus be known (making it an idea), and also an insensible reality, which Berkeley believes is inconsistent.", "Berkeley believes that the error arises because people think that perceptions can imply or infer something about the material object.", "Berkeley calls this concept ''abstract ideas''.", "He rebuts this concept by arguing that people cannot conceive of an object without also imagining the sensual input of the object.", "He argues in ''Principles of Human Knowledge'' that, similar to how people can only sense matter with their senses through the actual sensation, they can only conceive of matter (or, rather, ideas of matter) through the idea of sensation of matter.", "This implies that everything that people can conceive in regards to matter is only ideas about matter.", "Thus, matter, should it exist, must exist as collections of ideas, which can be perceived by the senses and interpreted by the mind.", "But if matter is just a collection of ideas, then Berkeley concludes that matter, in the sense of a material substance, does not exist as most philosophers of Berkeley's time believed.", "Indeed, if a person visualizes something, then it must have some colour, however dark or light; it cannot just be a shape of no colour at all if a person is to visualize it.Berkeley's ideas raised controversy because his argument refuted Descartes' philosophy, which was expanded upon by Locke, and resulted in the rejection of Berkeley's form of empiricism by several philosophers of the eighteenth century.", "In Locke's philosophy, \"the world causes the perceptual ideas we have of it by the way it interacts with our senses.\"", "This contradicts with Berkeley's philosophy because not only does it suggest the existence of physical causes in the world, but in fact, there is no physical world beyond our ideas.", "The only causes that exist in Berkeley's philosophy are those that are a result of the use of the will.Berkeley's theory relies heavily on his form of empiricism, which in turn relies heavily on the senses.", "His empiricism can be defined by five propositions: all significant words stand for ideas; all knowledge of things is about ideas; all ideas come from without or from within; if from without it must be by the senses, and they are called sensations (the real things), if from within they are the operations of the mind, and are called thoughts.", "Berkeley clarifies his distinction between ideas by saying they \"are imprinted on the senses,\" \"perceived by attending to the passions and operations of the mind,\" or \"are formed by help of memory and imagination.\"", "One refutation of his idea was: if someone leaves a room and stops perceiving that room does that room no longer exist?", "Berkeley answers this by claiming that it is still being perceived and the consciousness that is doing the perceiving is God.", "(This makes Berkeley's argument hinge upon an omniscient, omnipresent deity.)", "This claim is the only thing holding up his argument which is \"depending for our knowledge of the world, and of the existence of other minds, upon a God that would never deceive us.\"", "Berkeley anticipates a second objection, which he refutes in ''Principles of Human Knowledge''.", "He anticipates that the materialist may take a representational materialist standpoint: although the senses can only perceive ideas, these ideas resemble (and thus can be compared to) the actual, existing object.", "Thus, through the sensing of these ideas, the mind can make inferences as to matter itself, even though pure matter is non-perceivable.", "Berkeley's objection to that notion is that \"an idea can be like nothing but an idea; a colour or figure can be like nothing but another colour or figure\".", "Berkeley distinguishes between an idea, which is mind-dependent, and a material substance, which is not an idea and is mind-independent.", "As they are not alike, they cannot be compared, just as one cannot compare the colour red to something that is invisible, or the sound of music to silence, other than that one exists and the other does not.", "This is called the likeness principle: the notion that an idea can only be like (and thus compared to) another idea.Berkeley attempted to show how ideas manifest themselves into different objects of knowledge:Berkeley also attempted to prove the existence of God throughout his beliefs in immaterialism." ], [ "Influence", "Berkeley's ''Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge'' was published three years before the publication of Arthur Collier's ''Clavis Universalis'', which made assertions similar to those of Berkeley's.", "However, there seemed to have been no influence or communication between the two writers.German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer once wrote of him: \"Berkeley was, therefore, the first to treat the subjective starting-point really seriously and to demonstrate irrefutably its absolute necessity.", "He is the father of idealism...\".Berkeley is considered one of the originators of British empiricism.", "A linear development is often traced from three great \"British Empiricists\", leading from Locke through Berkeley to Hume.Berkeley influenced many modern philosophers, especially David Hume.", "Thomas Reid admitted that he put forward a drastic criticism of Berkeleianism after he had been an admirer of Berkeley's philosophical system for a long time.", "Berkeley's \"thought made possible the work of Hume and thus Kant, notes Alfred North Whitehead.\"", "Some authors draw a parallel between Berkeley and Edmund Husserl.When Berkeley visited America, the American educator Samuel Johnson visited him, and the two later corresponded.", "Johnson convinced Berkeley to establish a scholarship program at Yale, and to donate a large number of books as well as his plantation to the college when the philosopher returned to England.", "It was one of Yale's largest and most important donations; it doubled its library holdings, improved the college's financial position and brought Anglican religious ideas and English culture into New England.", "Johnson also took Berkeley's philosophy and used parts of it as a framework for his own American Practical Idealism school of philosophy.", "As Johnson's philosophy was taught to about half the graduates of American colleges between 1743 and 1776, and over half of the contributors to the ''Declaration of Independence ''were connected to it, Berkeley's ideas were indirectly a foundation of the American Mind.Outside of America, during Berkeley's lifetime his philosophical ideas were comparatively uninfluential.", "But interest in his doctrine grew from the 1870s when Alexander Campbell Fraser, \"the leading Berkeley scholar of the nineteenth century\", published ''The Works of George Berkeley''.", "A powerful impulse to serious studies in Berkeley's philosophy was given by A.", "A. Luce and Thomas Edmund Jessop, \"two of the twentieth century's foremost Berkeley scholars\", thanks to whom Berkeley scholarship was raised to the rank of a special area of historico-philosophical science.", "In addition, the philosopher Colin Murray Turbayne wrote extensively on Berkeley's use of language as a model for visual, physiological, natural and metaphysical relationships.The proportion of Berkeley scholarship, in literature on the history of philosophy, is increasing.", "This can be judged from the most comprehensive bibliographies on George Berkeley.", "During the period of 1709–1932, about 300 writings on Berkeley were published.", "That amounted to 1.5 publications per annum.", "During the course of 1932–79, over one thousand works were brought out, i.e., 20 works per annum.", "Since then, the number of publications has reached 30 per annum.", "In 1977 publication began in Ireland of a special journal on Berkeley's life and thought (''Berkeley Studies'').", "In 1988, the Australian philosopher Colin Murray Turbayne established the International Berkeley Essay Prize Competition at the University of Rochester in an effort to advance scholarship and research on the works of Berkeley.Other than philosophy, Berkeley also influenced modern psychology with his work on John Locke's theory of association and how it could be used to explain how humans gain knowledge in the physical world.", "He also used the theory to explain perception, stating that all qualities were, as Locke would call them, \"secondary qualities\", therefore perception laid entirely in the perceiver and not in the object.", "These are both topics today studied in modern psychology." ], [ "Appearances in literature", "Lord Byron's ''Don Juan'' references immaterialism in the Eleventh Canto: When Bishop Berkeley said 'there was no matter,' And proved it—'t was no matter what he said: They say his system 't is in vain to batter, Too subtle for the airiest human head; And yet who can believe it?", "I would shatter Gladly all matters down to stone or lead, Or adamant, to find the world a spirit, And wear my head, denying that I wear it.Herman Melville humorously references Berkeley in Chapter 20 of Mardi (1849), when outlining a character's belief of being on board a ghostship:And here be it said, that for all his superstitious misgivings about the brigantine; his imputing to her something equivalent to a purely phantom-like nature, honest Jarl was nevertheless exceedingly downright and practical in all hints and proceedings concerning her.", "Wherein, he resembled my Right Reverend friend, Bishop Berkeley–truly, one of your lords spiritual—who, metaphysically speaking, holding all objects to be mere optical delusions, was, notwithstanding, extremely matter-of-fact in all matters touching matter itself.", "Besides being pervious to the points of pins, and possessing a palate capable of appreciating plum-puddings:—which sentence reads off like a pattering of hailstones.James Joyce references Berkeley's philosophy in the third episode of ''Ulysses'' (1922):Who watches me here?", "Who ever anywhere will read these written words?", "Signs on a white field.", "Somewhere to someone in your flutiest voice.", "The good bishop of Cloyne took the veil of the temple out of his shovel hat: veil of space with coloured emblems hatched on its field.", "Hold hard.", "Coloured on a flat: yes, that's right.", "Flat I see, then think distance, near, far, flat I see, east, back.", "Ah, see now!In commenting on a review of ''Ada or Ardor'', author Vladimir Nabokov alludes to Berkeley's philosophy as informing his novel:And finally I owe no debt whatsoever (as Mr. Leonard seems to think) to the famous Argentine essayist and his rather confused compilation \"A New Refutation of Time.\"", "Mr. Leonard would have lost less of it had he gone straight to Berkeley and Bergson.", "(''Strong Opinions'', pp.", "2892–90)James Boswell, in the part of his ''Life of Samuel Johnson'' covering the year 1763, recorded Johnson's opinion of one aspect of Berkeley's philosophy:After we came out of the church, we stood talking for some time together of Bishop Berkeley's ingenious sophistry to prove the non-existence of matter, and that every thing in the universe is merely ideal.", "I observed, that though we are satisfied his doctrine is untrue, it is impossible to refute it.", "I shall never forget the alacrity with which Johnson answered, striking his foot with mighty force against a large stone, till he rebounded from it,– \"I refute it ''thus''.\"" ], [ "Commemoration", "Both the University of California, Berkeley, and the city of Berkeley, California, were named after him, although the pronunciation has evolved to suit American English: ( ).", "The naming was suggested in 1866 by Frederick H. Billings, a trustee of what was then called the College of California.", "Billings was inspired by Berkeley's ''Verses on the Prospect of Planting Arts and Learning in America'', particularly the final stanza: \"Westward the course of empire takes its way; the first four Acts already past, a fifth shall close the Drama with the day; time's noblest offspring is the last\".The Town of Berkley, currently the least populated town in Bristol County, Massachusetts, was founded on 18 April 1735 and named for George Berkeley.A residential college and an Episcopal seminary at Yale University also bear Berkeley's name.", "\"Bishop Berkeley's Gold Medals\" were two awards given annually at Trinity College Dublin, \"provided outstanding merit is shown\", to candidates answering a special examination in Greek.", "The awards were founded in 1752 by Berkeley.", "However, they have not been awarded since 2011.Other elements of Berkeley's legacy at Trinity are currently under review (as of 2023) due to his support of slavery.", "For example, the library at Trinity that was named after him in 1978 is to be \"de-named,\" Trinity announced in April 2023.Another memorialization of him in the form of a stained glass window will remain, but used as part of \"a retain-and-explain approach\" where his legacy will be given further context.An Ulster History Circle blue plaque commemorating him is located in Bishop Street Within, city of Derry.Berkeley's farmhouse in Middletown, Rhode Island, is preserved as Whitehall Museum House, also known as Berkeley House, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970.St.", "Columba's Chapel, located in the same town, was formerly named \"The Berkeley Memorial Chapel,\" and the appellation still survives at the end of the formal name of the parish, \"St. Columba's, the Berkeley Memorial Chapel\"." ], [ "Writings", "===Original publications===* ''Arithmetica'' (1707)* ''Miscellanea Mathematica'' (1707)* ''Philosophical Commentaries'' or ''Common-Place Book'' (1707–08, notebooks)* ''An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision'' (1709)* ''A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge'', Part I (1710)* ''Passive Obedience, or the Christian doctrine of not resisting the Supreme Power'' (1712)* ''Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous'' (1713)* ''An Essay Towards Preventing the Ruin of Great Britain'' (1721)* ''De Motu'' (1721)* ''A Proposal for Better Supplying Churches in our Foreign Plantations, and for converting the Savage Americans to Christianity by a College to be erected in the Summer Islands'' (1725)* ''A Sermon preached before the incorporated Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts'' (1732)* ''Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher'' (1732)* * ''The Theory of Vision, or Visual Language, shewing the immediate presence and providence of a Deity, vindicated and explained'' (1733)* ''The Analyst: A Discourse Addressed to an Infidel Mathematician'' (1734)* ''A Defence of Free-thinking in Mathematics, with Appendix concerning Mr. Walton's vindication of Sir Isaac Newton's Principle of Fluxions'' (1735)* ''Reasons for not replying to Mr. Walton's Full Answer'' (1735)* ''The Querist, containing several queries proposed to the consideration of the public'' (three parts, 1735–37).", "* ''A Discourse addressed to Magistrates and Men of Authority'' (1736)* ''Siris, a chain of philosophical reflections and inquiries, concerning the virtues of tar-water'' (1744).", "* ''A Letter to the Roman Catholics of the Diocese of Cloyne'' (1745)* ''A Word to the Wise, or an exhortation to the Roman Catholic clergy of Ireland'' (1749)* ''Maxims concerning Patriotism'' (1750)* ''Farther Thoughts on Tar-water'' (1752)* ''Miscellany'' (1752)===Collections===* ''The Works of George Berkeley, D.D.", "Late Bishop of Cloyne in Ireland.", "To which is added, an account of his life, and several of his letters to Thomas Prior, Esq.", "Dean Gervais, and Mr. Pope, &c. &c.'' Printed for George Robinson, Pater Noster Row, 1784.Two volumes.", "* ''The Works of George Berkeley, D.D., formerly Bishop of Cloyne: Including Many of His Writings Hitherto Unpublished; With Prefaces, Annotations, His Life and Letters, and an Account of His Philosophy''.", "Ed.", "by Alexander Campbell Fraser.", "In 4 Volumes.", "Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1901.", "** Vol.", "1** Vol.", "2** Vol.", "3** Vol.", "4* ''The Works of George Berkeley.''", "Ed.", "by A.", "A. Luce and T. E. Jessop.", "Nine volumes.", "Edinburgh and London, 1948–1957.", "* Ewald, William B., ed., 1996.", "''From Kant to Hilbert: A Source Book in the Foundations of Mathematics'', 2 vols.", "Oxford Uni.", "Press.", "** 1707.", "''Of Infinites'', 16–19.", "** 1709.", "''Letter to Samuel Molyneaux'', 19–21.", "** 1721.", "''De Motu'', 37–54.", "** 1734.", "''The Analyst'', 60–92." ], [ "See also", "* List of people on stamps of Ireland* Solipsism* \"Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius\"* Yogacara and consciousness-only schools of thought" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "===Bibliographic resources===* Jessop T. E., ''Luce A.", "A.''", "''A bibliography of George Berkeley'' 2 edn., Springer, 1973.", "* Turbayne C. M. ''A Bibliography of George Berkeley 1963–1979'' in: Berkeley: Critical and Interpretive Essays – via Google Books, Manchester, 1982.pp. 313–29.", "* ''Berkeley Bibliography (1979–2010)'' – A Supplement to those of Jessop and Turbayne by Silvia Parigi.", "* ''A Bibliography on George Berkeley'' – About 300 works from the 19th century to our days.===Philosophical studies===* Daniel, Stephen H.", "(ed.", "), ''Re-examining Berkeley's Philosophy'', Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007.", "* Daniel, Stephen H.", "(ed.", "), ''New Interpretations of Berkeley's Thought'', Amherst: Humanity Books, 2008.", "* Dicker, Georges, ''Berkeley's Idealism.", "A Critical Examination'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.", "*Gaustad, Edwin.", "''George Berkeley in America''.", "New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959.", "* Pappas, George S., ''Berkeley's Thought'', Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000.", "*Stoneham, Tom, ''Berkeley's World: An Examination of the Three Dialogues'', Oxford University Press, 2002.", "*Warnock, Geoffrey J., ''Berkeley'', Penguin Books, 1953.", "* Winkler, Kenneth P., ''The Cambridge Companion to Berkeley'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.;Attribution*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * p. 349.", "* * * * ** \"Shows a thorough mastery of the literature on Berkeley, along with very perceptive remarks about the strength and weaknesses of most of the central commentators. ...", "Exhibits a mastery of all the material, both primary and secondary ...\" Charles Larmore, for the Editorial Board, ''Journal of Philosophy''.", "** R. Muehlmann is one of the Berkeley Prize Winners.", "* Edward Chaney (2000), 'George Berkeley's Grand Tours: The Immaterialist as Connoisseur of Art and Architecture', in E. Chaney, ''The Evolution of the Grand Tour: Anglo-Italian Cultural Relations since the Renaissance'', 2nd ed.", "London, Routledge.", "* * * Costica Bradatan (2006), ''The Other Bishop Berkeley.", "An Exercise in Reenchantment'', Fordham University Press, New York* New Interpretations of Berkeley's Thought.", "Ed.", "by S. H. Daniel.", "New York: Humanity Books, 2008, 319 pp. .", "** For reviews see:** Reviewed by Marc A. Hight , Hampden–Sydney College** Reviewed by Thomas M. Lennon – Berkeley Studies 19 (2008):51–56.", ";Secondary literature available on the Internet* Most sources listed below are suggested by Dr. Talia M. Bettcher in ''Berkeley: a Guide for the Perplexed'' (2008).", "See the textbook's description.", "* * Luce, A.", "A.", "''Berkeley and Malebranche.", "A Study in the Origins of Berkeley's Thought''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1934 (2nd edn, with additional Preface, 1967).", "* Russell B. Berkeley // Bertrand Russell A History of Western Philosophy 3:1:16 (1945)* Turbayne, Colin Murray (1959).", "\"Berkeley's Two Concepts of Mind\" - ''Philosophy and Phenomenological Research'', Vol.", "20, No.", "1, Sept. 1959, pp.", "85-92 on JSTOR.org* Turbayne, Colin Murray (1962).", "\"Berkeley's Two Concepts of Mind Part II\" - ''Philosophy and Phenomenological Research'', Vol.", "22, No.", "3, March 1962, pp.", "383-386 on JSTOR.org * ** Reviewed by: Désirée Park.", "''Studi internazionali filosofici'' 3 (1971):228–30; G. J. Warnock.", "''Journal of Philosophy'' 69, 15 (1972):460–62; Günter Gawlick \"Menschheitsglück und Wille Gottes: Neues Licht auf Berkeleys Ethik.\"", "''Philosophische Rundschau'' 1–2 (January 1973):24–42; H. M. Bracken.", "''Eighteenth-Century Studies'' 3 (1973): 396–97; and Stanley Grean.", "''Journal of the History of Philosophy'' 12, 3 (1974): 398–403.", "* Tipton, I. C. '' Berkeley, The Philosophy of Immaterialism'' London: Methuen, 1974.", "** \"Ian C. Tipton, one of the world's great Berkeley scholars and longtime president of the International Berkeley Society.", "... Of the many works about Berkeley that were published in the twentieth century, few rival in importance his ''Berkeley: The Philosophy of Immaterialism'' ...", "The philosophical insight, combined with the mastery of Berkeley's texts, that Ian brought to this work make it one of the masterpieces of Berkeley scholarship.", "It is not surprising therefore that, when the Garland Publishing Company brought out, late in 1980s, a 15-volume collection of major works on Berkeley, Ian's book was one of only two full-length studies of Berkeley published after 1935 to be included\" (Charles J. McCracken.", "In Memoriam: Ian C. Tipton // The Berkeley Newsletter 17 (2006), p. 4).", "* Winkler, Kenneth P. '' Berkeley: An Interpretation''.", "Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.", "* * Berman, David. ''", "George Berkeley: Idealism and the Man''.", "Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994.", "* * ''The Cambridge Companion to Berkeley''.", "(EPUP, Google Books).", "Ed.", "by Kenneth P. Winkler.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.", "* Daniel, Stephen H., ed.", "''Reexamining Berkeley's Philosophy''.", "Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007.", "* Roberts, John.", "''A Metaphysics for the Mob: The Philosophy of George Berkeley'' (EPUP, Google Books).", "New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.– 172 p. ** Reviewed by Marc A. Hight , University of Tartu/Hampden–Sydney College" ], [ "External links", "* George Berkeley at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)* * George Berkeley in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy* Berkeley's Philosophy of Science in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy* International Berkeley Society* A list of the published works by and about Berkeley as well as online links* Berkeley's Life and Works * * * * Another perspective on how Berkeley framed his immaterialism* Original texts and discussion concerning ''The Analyst'' controversy* * Contains more easily readable versions of New Theory of Vision, Principles of Human Knowledge, Three Dialogues, and Alciphron* An extensive compendium of online resources, including a gallery of Berkeley's images* .", "* Electronic Texts for philosopher Charlie Dunbar (1887–1971):* Broad, C. D. Berkeley's Argument About Material Substance New York: 1975 (Repr.", "of the 1942 ed.", "publ.", "by the British Academy, London.", ")* Broad, C. D. Berkeley's Denial of Material Substance – Published in: ''The Philosophical Review'' Vol.", "LXIII (1954).", "* Rick Grush syllabus Empiricism (J. Locke, G. Berkeley, D. Hume)* Berkeley's (1734) ''The Analyst'' – digital facsimile." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "G. E. Moore" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Edward Moore''' (4 November 1873 – 24 October 1958) was an English philosopher, who with Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein and earlier Gottlob Frege was among the initiators of analytic philosophy.", "He and Russell began deemphasizing the idealism which was then prevalent among British philosophers and became known for advocating common-sense concepts and contributing to ethics, epistemology and metaphysics.", "He was said to have an \"exceptional personality and moral character\".", "Ray Monk later dubbed him \"the most revered philosopher of his era\".", "As Professor of Philosophy at the University of Cambridge, he influenced but abstained from the Bloomsbury Group, an informal set of intellectuals.", "He edited the journal ''Mind''.", "He was a member of the Cambridge Apostles from 1894 to 1901, a fellow of the British Academy from 1918, and was chairman of the Cambridge University Moral Sciences Club in 1912–1944.As a humanist, he presided over the British Ethical Union (now Humanists UK) in 1935–1936." ], [ "Life", "George Edward Moore was born in Upper Norwood, in south-east London, on 4 November 1873, the middle child of seven of Daniel Moore, a medical doctor, and Henrietta Sturge.", "His grandfather was the author George Moore.", "His eldest brother was Thomas Sturge Moore, a poet, writer and engraver.He was educated at Dulwich College and, in 1892, began attending Trinity College, Cambridge, to learn classics and moral sciences.", "He became a Fellow of Trinity in 1898 and was later University of Cambridge Professor of Mental Philosophy and Logic from 1925 to 1939.Moore is known best now for defending ethical non-naturalism, his emphasis on common sense for philosophical method, and the paradox that bears his name.", "He was admired by and influenced other philosophers and some of the Bloomsbury Group.", "But unlike his colleague and admirer Bertrand Russell, who for some years thought Moore fulfilled his \"ideal of genius\", he is mostly unknown presently except among academic philosophers.", "Moore's essays are known for their clarity and circumspection of writing style and methodical and patient treatment of philosophical problems.", "He was critical of modern philosophy for lack of progress, which he saw as a stark contrast to the dramatic advances in the natural sciences since the Renaissance.", "Among Moore's most famous works are his ''Principia Ethica'', and his essays, \"The Refutation of Idealism\", \"A Defence of Common Sense\", and \"A Proof of the External World\".Moore was an important and admired member of the secretive Cambridge Apostles, a discussion group drawn from the British intellectual elite.", "At the time another member, 22-year-old Bertrand Russell, wrote \"I almost worship him as if he were a god.", "I have never felt such an extravagant admiration for anybody\", and would later write that \"for some years he fulfilled my ideal of genius.", "He was in those days beautiful and slim, with a look almost of inspiration as deeply passionate as Spinoza's\".From 1918 to 1919, Moore was chairman of the Aristotelian Society, a group committed to systematic study of philosophy, its historical development and its methods and problems.", "He was appointed to the Order of Merit in 1951.Moore died in England in the Evelyn Nursing Home on 24 October 1958.He was cremated at Cambridge Crematorium on 28 October 1958 and his ashes interred at the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in the city.", "His wife, Dorothy Ely (1892–1977), was buried there.", "Together, they had two sons, the poet Nicholas Moore and the composer Timothy Moore." ], [ "Philosophy", "===Ethics===The title page of ''Principia Ethica''.His influential work ''Principia Ethica'' is one of the main inspirations of the reaction against ethical naturalism (see ethical non-naturalism) and is partly responsible for the twentieth-century concern with meta-ethics.====The naturalistic fallacy====Moore asserted that philosophical arguments can suffer from a confusion between the use of a term in a particular argument and the definition of that term (in all arguments).", "He named this confusion the naturalistic fallacy.", "For example, an ethical argument may claim that if an item has certain properties, then that item is 'good.'", "A hedonist may argue that 'pleasant' items are 'good' items.", "Other theorists may argue that 'complex' things are 'good' things.", "Moore contends that, even if such arguments are correct, they do not provide definitions for the term 'good'.", "The property of 'goodness' cannot be defined.", "It can only be shown and grasped.", "Any attempt to define it (X is good if it has property Y) will simply shift the problem (Why is Y-ness good in the first place?", ").====Open-question argument====Moore's argument for the indefinability of 'good' (and thus for the fallaciousness in the \"naturalistic fallacy\") is often termed the open-question argument; it is presented in §13 of ''Principia Ethica''.", "The argument concerns the nature of statements such as \"Anything that is pleasant is also good\" and the possibility of asking questions such as \"Is it ''good'' that x is pleasant?\".", "According to Moore, these questions are ''open'' and these statements are ''significant''; and they will remain so no matter what is substituted for \"pleasure\".", "Moore concludes from this that any analysis of value is bound to fail.", "In other words, if value could be analysed, then such questions and statements would be trivial and obvious.", "Since they are anything but trivial and obvious, value must be indefinable.Critics of Moore's arguments sometimes claim that he is appealing to general puzzles concerning analysis (cf.", "the paradox of analysis), rather than revealing anything special about value.", "The argument clearly depends on the assumption that if 'good' were definable, it would be an analytic truth about 'good', an assumption that many contemporary moral realists like Richard Boyd and Peter Railton reject.", "Other responses appeal to the Fregean distinction between sense and reference, allowing that value concepts are special and ''sui generis'', but insisting that value properties are nothing but natural properties (this strategy is similar to that taken by non-reductive materialists in philosophy of mind).====Good as indefinable====Moore contended that goodness cannot be analysed in terms of any other property.", "In ''Principia Ethica'', he writes:: It may be true that all things which are good are also something else, just as it is true that all things which are yellow produce a certain kind of vibration in the light.", "And it is a fact, that Ethics aims at discovering what are those other properties belonging to all things which are good.", "But far too many philosophers have thought that when they named those other properties they were actually defining good; that these properties, in fact, were simply not \"other,\" but absolutely and entirely the same with goodness.", "(''Principia'', § 10 ¶ 3)Therefore, we cannot define 'good' by explaining it in other words.", "We can only indicate a ''thing'' or an ''action'' and say \"That is good.\"", "Similarly, we cannot describe to a person born totally blind exactly what yellow is.", "We can only show a sighted person a piece of yellow paper or a yellow scrap of cloth and say \"That is yellow.", "\"====Good as a non-natural property====In addition to categorising 'good' as indefinable, Moore also emphasized that it is a non-natural property.", "This means that it cannot be empirically or scientifically tested or verifiedit is not analyzable by \"natural science\".====Moral knowledge====Moore argued that, once arguments based on the naturalistic fallacy had been discarded, questions of intrinsic goodness could be settled only by appeal to what he (following Sidgwick) termed \"moral intuitions\": self-evident propositions which recommend themselves to moral thought, but which are not susceptible to either direct proof or disproof (''Principia'', § 45).", "As a result of his opinion, he has often been described by later writers as an advocate of ethical intuitionism.", "Moore, however, wished to distinguish his opinions from the opinions usually described as \"Intuitionist\" when ''Principia Ethica'' was written:Moore distinguished his view from the opinion of deontological intuitionists, who claimed that \"intuitions\" could determine questions about what ''actions'' are right or required by duty.", "Moore, as a consequentialist, argued that \"duties\" and moral rules could be determined by investigating the ''effects'' of particular actions or kinds of actions (''Principia'', § 89), and so were matters for empirical investigation rather than direct objects of intuition (''Principia'', § 90).", "According to Moore, \"intuitions\" revealed not the rightness or wrongness of specific actions, but only what items were good in themselves, as ''ends to be pursued''.==== Right action, duty and virtue ====Moore holds that are those producing the most good.", "The difficulty with this is that the consequences of most actions are too complex for us to properly take into account, especially the long-term consequences.", "Because of this, Moore suggests that the definition of duty is limited to what generally produces better results than probable alternatives in a comparatively near future.", "Whether a given rule of action is also a ''duty'' depends to some extent on the conditions of the corresponding society but ''duties'' agree mostly with what common-sense recommends.", "Virtues, like honesty, can in turn be defined as ''permanent dispositions'' to perform duties.", "===Proof of an external world===One of the most important parts of Moore's philosophical development was his differing with the idealism that dominated British philosophy (as represented by the works of his former teachers F. H. Bradley and John McTaggart), and his defence of what he regarded as a \"common sense\" type of realism.", "In his 1925 essay \"A Defence of Common Sense\", he argued against idealism and scepticism toward the external world, on the grounds that they could not give reasons to accept that their metaphysical premises were more plausible than the reasons we have for accepting the common sense claims about our knowledge of the world, which sceptics and idealists must deny.", "He famously put the point into dramatic relief with his 1939 essay \"Proof of an External World\", in which he gave a common sense argument against scepticism by raising his right hand and saying \"Here is one hand\" and then raising his left and saying \"And here is another\", then concluding that there are at least two external objects in the world, and therefore that he knows (by this argument) that an external world exists.", "Not surprisingly, not everyone preferring sceptical doubts found Moore's method of argument entirely convincing; Moore, however, defends his argument on the grounds that sceptical arguments seem invariably to require an appeal to \"philosophical intuitions\" that we have considerably less reason to accept than we have for the common sense claims that they supposedly refute.", "(the \"Here is one hand\" argument also influenced Ludwig Wittgenstein, who spent his last years working out a new method for Moore's argument in the remarks that were published posthumously as ''On Certainty''.", ")===Moore's paradox===Moore is also remembered for drawing attention to the peculiar inconsistency involved in uttering a sentence such as \"It is raining, but I do not believe it is raining\", a puzzle now commonly termed \"Moore's paradox\".", "The puzzle is that it seems inconsistent for anyone to ''assert'' such a sentence; but there doesn't seem to be any ''logical contradiction'' between \"It is raining\" and \"I don't believe that it is raining\", because the former is a statement about the weather and the latter a statement about a person's belief about the weather, and it is perfectly logically possible that it may rain whilst a person does not believe that it is raining.In addition to Moore's own work on the paradox, the puzzle also inspired a great deal of work by Ludwig Wittgenstein, who described the paradox as the most impressive philosophical insight that Moore had ever introduced.", "It is said that when Wittgenstein first heard this paradox one evening (which Moore had earlier stated in a lecture), he rushed round to Moore's lodgings, got him out of bed and insisted that Moore repeat the entire lecture to him.===Organic wholes===Moore's description of the principle of the organic whole is extremely straightforward, nonetheless, and a variant on a pattern that began with Aristotle:: The value of a whole must not be assumed to be the same as the sum of the values of its parts (''Principia'', § 18).According to Moore, a moral actor cannot survey the 'goodness' inherent in the various parts of a situation, assign a value to each of them, and then generate a sum in order to get an idea of its total value.", "A moral scenario is a complex assembly of parts, and its total value is often created by the relations between those parts, and not by their individual value.", "The organic metaphor is thus very appropriate: biological organisms seem to have emergent properties which cannot be found anywhere in their individual parts.", "For example, a human brain seems to exhibit a capacity for thought when none of its neurons exhibit any such capacity.", "In the same way, a moral scenario can have a value different than the sum of its component parts.To understand the application of the organic principle to questions of value, it is perhaps best to consider Moore's primary example, that of a consciousness experiencing a beautiful object.", "To see how the principle works, a thinker engages in \"reflective isolation\", the act of isolating a given concept in a kind of null-context and determining its intrinsic value.", "In our example, we can easily see that, of themselves, beautiful objects and consciousnesses are not particularly valuable things.", "They might have some value, but when we consider the total value of a consciousness experiencing a beautiful object, it seems to exceed the simple sum of these values.", "Hence the value of a whole must not be assumed to be the same as the sum of the values of its parts." ], [ "Works", "The gravestone of G. E. Moore and his wife Dorothy Moore in the Ascension Parish Burial Ground, Cambridge.", "* G. E. Moore, \" The Nature of Judgment\" (1899)* * G. E. Moore, ''Principia Ethica'' (1903)* G. E. Moore, \" Review of Franz Brentano's ''The Origin of the Knowledge of Right and Wrong''\" (1903)* G. E. Moore, \" The Refutation of Idealism\" (1903)* * G. E. Moore, \" The Nature and Reality of the Objects of Perception\" (1905–6)* * * G. E. Moore, ''Ethics'' (1912)* G. E. Moore, \" Some Judgments of Perception\" (1918)* G. E. Moore, ''Philosophical Studies'' (1922) papers published 1903–21** G. E. Moore, \" The Conception of Intrinsic Value\"** G. E. Moore, \" The Nature of Moral Philosophy\"* G. E. Moore, \" Are the Characteristics of Things Universal or Particular?\"", "(1923)* G. E. Moore, \" A Defence of Common Sense\" (1925)* G. E. Moore and F. P. Ramsey, '' Facts and Proposition (Symposium)'' (1927)* W. Kneale and G. E. Moore, \"Symposium: Is Existence a Predicate?\"", "(1936)* G. E. Moore, \"An Autobiography,\" and \"A reply to my critics,\" in: ''The Philosophy Of G. E. Moore''.", "ed.", "Schilpp, Paul Arthur (1942).", "* G. E. Moore, ''Some Main Problems of Philosophy'' (1953) lectures delivered 1910–11** G. E. Moore, Ch.", "3, \" Propositions\"* G. E. Moore, ''Philosophical Papers'' (1959)** G. E. Moore, Ch.", "7: \" Proof of an External World\"* \"Margin Notes by G. E. Moore on The Works of Thomas Reid (1849: With Notes by Sir William Hamilton)\".", "* G. E. Moore, ''The Early Essays'', edited by Tom Regan, Temple University Press (1986).", "* G. E. Moore, ''The Elements of Ethics'', edited and with an introduction by Tom Regan, Temple University Press, (1991).", "* G. E. Moore, 'On Defining \"Good,'\" in ''Analytic Philosophy: Classic Readings,'' Stamford, CT: Wadsworth, 2002, pp.", "1–10.." ], [ "See also", "* ''The Right and the Good''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Daval, René.", "''Moore et la philosophie analytique'', 1997, Presses Universitaires de France (PUF), * Regan, Tom (1986).", "''Bloomsbury's Prophet: G.E.", "Moore and the Development of His Moral Philosophy'', Temple University Press." ], [ "External links", "* George Edward Moore – philosophypages.com* The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy** George Edward Moore** Moore's Moral Philosophy* * * * * Trinity College Chapel* '' G. E. Moore and the Cambridge School of Analysis,'' Thomas Baldwin, ''The Oxford Handbook of The History of Analytic Philosophy''* Open Access papers by Moore published in ''Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society'' and ''Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume.''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Genus–differentia definition" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''genus–differentia definition''' is a type of intensional definition, and it is composed of two parts:# '''a genus''' (or family): An existing definition that serves as a portion of the new definition; all definitions with the same genus are considered members of that genus.# '''the differentia''': The portion of the definition that is not provided by the genus.For example, consider these two definitions:* ''a triangle'': A plane figure that has 3 straight bounding sides.", "* ''a quadrilateral'': A plane figure that has 4 straight bounding sides.Those definitions can be expressed as one genus and two ''differentiae'':# ''one genus'':#* ''the genus for both a triangle and a quadrilateral'': \"A plane figure\"# ''two differentiae'':#* ''the differentia for a triangle'': \"that has 3 straight bounding sides.", "\"#* ''the differentia for a quadrilateral'': \"that has 4 straight bounding sides.", "\"The use of a genus (Greek: ''genos'') and a differentia (Greek: ''diaphora'') in constructing a definition goes back at least as far as Aristotle (384–322 BCE).", "Furthermore, a genus may fulfill certain characteristics (described below) that qualify it to be referred to as ''a species'', a term derived from the Greek word ''eidos'', which means \"form\" in Plato's dialogues but should be taken to mean \"species\" in Aristotle's corpus." ], [ "Differentiation and Abstraction", "The process of producing new definitions by ''extending'' existing definitions is commonly known as '''differentiation''' (and also as '''derivation''').", "The reverse process, by which just part of an existing definition is used itself as a new definition, is called '''abstraction'''; the new definition is called ''an abstraction'' and it is said to have been ''abstracted away from'' the existing definition.For instance, consider the following:* ''a square'': a quadrilateral that has interior angles which are all right angles, and that has bounding sides which all have the same length.A part of that definition may be singled out (using parentheses here):* ''a square'': (a quadrilateral that has interior angles which are all right angles), and that has bounding sides which all have the same length.and with that part, an abstraction may be formed:* ''a rectangle'': a quadrilateral that has interior angles which are all right angles.Then, the definition of ''a square'' may be recast with that abstraction as its genus:* ''a square'': a rectangle that has bounding sides which all have the same length.Similarly, the definition of ''a square'' may be rearranged and another portion singled out:* ''a square'': (a quadrilateral that has bounding sides which all have the same length), and that has interior angles which are all right angles.leading to the following abstraction:* ''a rhombus'': a quadrilateral that has bounding sides which all have the same length.Then, the definition of ''a square'' may be recast with that abstraction as its genus:* ''a square'': a rhombus that has interior angles which are all right angles.In fact, the definition of ''a square'' may be recast in terms of both of the abstractions, where one acts as the genus and the other acts as the differentia:* ''a square'': a rectangle that is a rhombus.", "* ''a square'': a rhombus that is a rectangle.Hence, abstraction is crucial in simplifying definitions." ], [ "Multiplicity", "When multiple definitions could serve equally well, then all such definitions apply simultaneously.", "Thus, ''a square'' is a member of both the genus ''a rectangle'' and the genus ''a rhombus''.", "In such a case, it is notationally convenient to consolidate the definitions into one definition that is expressed with multiple genera (and possibly no differentia, as in the following):* ''a square'': a rectangle and a rhombus.or completely equivalently:* ''a square'': a rhombus and a rectangle.More generally, a collection of equivalent definitions (each of which is expressed with one unique genus) can be recast as one definition that is expressed with genera.", "Thus, the following:* ''a Definition'': a Genus1 that is a Genus2 and that is a Genus3 and that is a... and that is a Genusn-1 and that is a Genusn, which has some non-genus Differentia.", "* ''a Definition'': a Genus2 that is a Genus1 and that is a Genus3 and that is a... and that is a Genusn-1 and that is a Genusn, which has some non-genus Differentia.", "* ''a Definition'': a Genus3 that is a Genus1 and that is a Genus2 and that is a... and that is a Genusn-1 and that is a Genusn, which has some non-genus Differentia.", "* ...* ''a Definition'': a Genusn-1 that is a Genus1 and that is a Genus2 and that is a Genus3 and that is a... and that is a Genusn, which has some non-genus Differentia.", "* ''a Definition'': a Genusn that is a Genus1 and that is a Genus2 and that is a Genus3 and that is a... and that is a Genusn-1, which has some non-genus Differentia.could be recast as:* ''a Definition'': a Genus1 and a Genus2 and a Genus3 and a... and a Genusn-1 and a Genusn, which has some non-genus Differentia." ], [ "Structure", "A genus of a definition provides a means by which to specify an ''is-a relationship'':* A square is a rectangle, which is a quadrilateral, which is a plane figure, which is a...* A square is a rhombus, which is a quadrilateral, which is a plane figure, which is a...* A square is a quadrilateral, which is a plane figure, which is a...* A square is a plane figure, which is a...* A square is a...The non-genus portion of the differentia of a definition provides a means by which to specify a ''has-a relationship'':* A square has an interior angle that is a right angle.", "* A square has a straight bounding side.", "* A square has a...When a system of definitions is constructed with genera and differentiae, the definitions can be thought of as nodes forming a hierarchy or—more generally—a directed acyclic graph; a node that has no predecessor is ''a most general definition''; each node along a directed path is ''more '''differentiated''''' (or ''more '''derived''''') than any one of its predecessors, and a node with no successor is ''a most differentiated'' (or ''a most derived'') definition.When a definition, ''S'', is the tail of each of its successors (that is, ''S'' has at least one successor and each direct successor of ''S'' is a most differentiated definition), then ''S'' is often called ''the '''species''''' of each of its successors, and each direct successor of ''S'' is often called ''an '''individual''''' (or ''an '''entity''''') of the species ''S''; that is, the genus of an individual is synonymously called ''the species'' of that individual.", "Furthermore, the differentia of an individual is synonymously called ''the identity'' of that individual.", "For instance, consider the following definition:* ''the John Smith'': a human that has the name 'John Smith'.In this case:* The whole definition is ''an individual''; that is, ''the John Smith'' is an individual.", "* The genus of ''the John Smith'' (which is \"a human\") may be called synonymously ''the species'' of ''the John Smith''; that is, ''the John Smith'' is an individual of the species ''a human''.", "* The differentia of ''the John Smith'' (which is \"that has the name 'John Smith'\") may be called synonymously ''the identity'' of ''the John Smith''; that is, ''the John Smith'' is identified among other individuals of the same species by the fact that ''the John Smith'' is the one \"that has the name 'John Smith'\".As in that example, the identity itself (or some part of it) is often used to refer to the entire individual, a phenomenon that is known in linguistics as a ''pars pro toto synecdoche''." ], [ "See also", "* Hyponymy and hypernymy" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Firearm" ], [ "Introduction", "The M16 rifle and the AK-47, two common firearms with significant influences on firearm design|301x301pxA '''firearm''' is any type of gun that uses an explosive charge and is designed to be readily carried and used by an individual.", "The term is legally defined further in different countries (see Legal definitions).The first firearms originated in 10th-century China, when bamboo tubes containing gunpowder and pellet projectiles were mounted on spears to make the portable fire lance, operable by a single person, which was later used effectively as a shock weapon in the siege of De'an in 1132.In the 13th century, fire lance barrels were replaced with metal tubes and transformed into the metal-barreled hand cannon.", "The technology gradually spread throughout Eurasia during the 14th century.", "Older firearms typically used black powder as a propellant, but modern firearms use smokeless powder or other propellants.", "Most modern firearms (with the notable exception of smoothbore shotguns) have rifled barrels to impart spin to the projectile for improved flight stability.Modern firearms can be described by their caliber (i.e.", "bore diameter).", "For pistols and rifles this is given in millimeters or inches (e.g.", "7.62mm or .308 in.", "), or in the case of shotguns by their gauge (e.g.", "12 ga. and 20 ga.).", "They are also described by the type of action employed (e.g.", "muzzleloader, breechloader, lever, bolt, pump, revolver, semi-automatic, fully automatic, etc.", "), together with the usual means of deportment (i.e.", "hand-held or mechanical mounting).", "Further classification may make reference to the type of barrel used (i.e.", "rifled) and to the barrel length (e.g.", "24 inches), to the firing mechanism (e.g.", "matchlock, wheellock, flintlock, or percussion lock), to the design's primary intended use (e.g.", "hunting rifle), or to the commonly accepted name for a particular variation (e.g.", "Gatling gun).Shooters aim firearms at their targets with hand-eye coordination, using either iron sights or optical sights.", "The accurate range of pistols generally does not exceed , while most rifles are accurate to using iron sights, or to longer ranges whilst using optical sights.", "(Firearm rounds may be dangerous or lethal well beyond their accurate range; the minimum distance for safety is much greater than the specified range for accuracy).", "Purpose-built sniper rifles and anti-materiel rifles are accurate to ranges of more than ." ], [ "Types", "A firearm is a barreled ranged weapon that inflicts damage on targets by launching one or more projectiles driven by rapidly expanding high-pressure gas produced by exothermic combustion (deflagration) of a chemical propellant, historically black powder, now smokeless powder.In the military, firearms are categorized into ''heavy'' and ''light'' weapons regarding their portability by infantry.", "Light firearms are those that can be readily carried by individual foot soldier, though they might still require more than one individual (crew-served) to achieve optimal operational capacity.", "Heavy firearms are those that are too large and heavy to be transported on foot, or too unstable against recoil, and thus require the support of a weapons platform (e.g.", "a fixed mount, wheeled carriage, vehicle, aircraft or water vessel) to be tactically mobile or useful.The subset of light firearms that only use kinetic projectiles and are compact enough to be operated to full capacity by a single infantryman (individual-served) are also referred to as '''small arms'''.", "Such firearms include handguns such as pistols, revolvers, and derringers; and long guns such as rifles (and their subtypes), shotguns, submachine guns, and machine guns.Among the world's arms manufacturers, the top firearms manufacturers are Browning, Remington, Colt, Ruger, Smith & Wesson, Savage, Mossberg (US), Heckler & Koch, SIG Sauer, Walther (Germany), ČZUB (Czech Republic), Glock, Steyr-Mannlicher (Austria), FN Herstal (Belgium), Beretta (Italy), Norinco (China), Tula Arms, and Kalashnikov (Russia), while former top producers included Mauser (Germany), Springfield Armory (US), and Rock Island Armory under Armscor (Philippines).", "the Small Arms Survey reported that there were over one billion firearms distributed globally, of which 857 million (about 85 percent) were in civilian hands.", "U.S. civilians alone account for 393 million (about 46 percent) of the worldwide total of civilian-held firearms.", "This amounts to \"120.5 firearms for every 100 residents\".", "The world's armed forces control about 133 million (about 13 percent) of the global total of small arms, of which over 43 percent belong to two countries: the Russian Federation (30.3 million) and China (27.5 million).", "Law enforcement agencies control about 23 million (about 2 percent) of the global total of small arms.=== Handguns ===Colt Single Action Army revolverThe Glock 19, a pistol chambered in 9×19mm Parabellum.A ''handgun'' is, as defined generally and in many gun laws, a firearm that can be used with a single hand.", "They are the smallest of all firearms, and are common as sidearms, concealed carry weapons, or as backup weapons for self-defense.Handguns can be categorized into two broad types: pistols, which have a single fixed firing chamber machined into the rear of the barrel, and are often loaded using magazines of varying capacities; revolvers, which have a number of firing chambers or \"charge holes\" in a revolving cylinder, each one loaded with a single cartridge or charge; and derringers, broadly defined as any handgun that is not a traditional pistol nor a revolver.There are various types of the aforementioned handguns designed for different mechanisms or purposes, such as single-shot, manual repeating, semi-automatic, or automatic pistols; single-action, double-action, or double-action/single-action revolvers; and small, compact handguns for concealed carry such as pocket pistols and \"Saturday night specials\".Examples of pistols include the Glock, Browning Hi-Power, M1911 pistol, Makarov pistol, Walther PP, Luger pistol, Mauser C96, and Beretta 92.Examples of revolvers include the Colt Single Action Army, Smith & Wesson Model 10, Colt Official Police, Colt Python, New Nambu M60, and Mateba Autorevolver.", "Examples of derringers include the Remington Model 95, FP-45 Liberator, and COP .357 Derringer.=== Long guns ===A ''long gun'' is any firearm with a notably long barrel, typically a length of (there are restrictions on minimum barrel length in many jurisdictions; maximum barrel length is usually a matter of practicality).", "Unlike a handgun, long guns are designed to be held and fired with both hands, while braced against either the hip or the shoulder for better stability.", "The receiver and trigger group is mounted into a stock made of wood, plastic, metal, or composite material, which has sections that form a foregrip, rear grip, and optionally (but typically) a shoulder mount called the ''butt''.", "Early long arms, from the Renaissance up to the mid-19th century, were generally smoothbore firearms that fired one or more ball shot, called muskets or arquebus depending on caliber and firing mechanism.", "Since the 19th and 20th centuries, various types of long guns have been created for different purposes.==== Rifles ====The Mosin–Nagant, a rifle chambered in 7.62×54mmRA ''rifle'' is a long gun that has riflings (spiral grooves) machined into the bore (inner) surface of its barrel, imparting a gyroscopically-stabilizing spin to the bullets that it fires.", "A descendant of the musket, rifles produce a single point of impact with each firing with a long range and high accuracy.", "For this reason, as well as for their ubiquity, rifles are very popular among militaries as service rifles, police as accurate long-range alternatives to their traditional shotgun long guns, and civilians for hunting, shooting sports, and self-defense.Many types of rifles exist owing to their wide adoption and versatility, ranging from mere barrel length differences as in short-barreled rifles and carbines, to classifications per the rifle's function and purpose as in semi-automatic rifles, automatic rifles and sniper rifles, to differences in the rifle's action as in bolt-action, lever-action, and break-action rifles.Examples of rifles of various types include the Henry rifle, Winchester rifle, Lee–Enfield, Gewehr 98, M1 Garand, MAS-36 rifle, AKM, Ruger 10/22, Heckler & Koch G3, Remington Model 700, and Heckler & Koch HK417.==== Shotguns ====The Mossberg 500, a shotgun chambered in 12-gaugeDaewoo USAS-12 automatic shotgunA ''shotgun'' is a long gun that has a predominantly smoothbore barrel—meaning it lacks rifling—designed to fire a number of shot pellets in each discharge.", "These shot pellet sizes commonly range between 2 mm #9 birdshot and 8.4 mm #00 (double-aught) buckshot, and produce a cluster of impact points with considerably less range and accuracy, since shot spreads during flight.", "Shotguns are also capable of firing single solid projectiles called slugs, or specialty (often \"less lethal\") munitions such as bean bags or tear gas to function as a riot gun or breaching rounds to function as a door breaching shotgun.", "Shotgun munitions, regardless of type, are packed into shotgun shells (cartridges designed specifically for shotguns) that are loaded into the shotgun for use; these shells are commonly loose and manually loaded one-by-one, though some shotguns accept magazines.Shotguns share many qualities with rifles, such as both being descendants of early long guns such as the musket; both having bolt-action, lever-action, break-action, pump-action, semi-automatic, and automatic variants; and both being popular with militaries, police, and civilians for largely the same reasons.", "However, unlike rifles, shotguns are less favored by militaries due to their low accuracy and limited effectiveness in modern warfare, with combat shotguns often only used for breaching or close-quarters combat and sometimes limited to underbarrel attachments such as the M26 Modular Accessory Shotgun System, though shotguns are still favored by civilians for the suitability of shot spread in hunting and clay pigeon shooting.Double-barreled shotguns, is a break-action shotgun with two parallel barrels, allowing two single shots that can be fired simultaneously or sequentially in quick succession.Examples of shotguns include the Winchester Model 1897, Ithaca 37, Remington Model 870, Mossberg 500, Benelli M4, Franchi SPAS-12, Atchisson AA-12, and Knight's Armament Company Masterkey.==== Carbines ====The M1 carbine.M4 CarbineA ''carbine'' is a long gun, usually a rifle, that has had its barrel shortened from its original length or is of a certain size smaller than standard rifles, but is still large enough to be considered a long gun.", "How considerable the difference is between a rifle and a carbine varies; for example, the standard Heckler & Koch G36's barrel has a length of 480 mm (18.9 in), the G36K carbine variant's barrel is 318 mm (12.5 in), and the G36C compact variant's barrel is 228 mm (9.0 in).", "Some carbines are also redesigned compared to their rifle counterparts, such as the aforementioned G36/G36K and G36C, or the AK-74 and AKS-74U.", "However, some carbines, such as the M1 carbine, are not a variant of any existing design and are their own firearm model.", "Carbines are regardless very similar to rifles and often have the same actions (single-shot, lever-action, bolt-action, semi-automatic, automatic, etc.", ").The small size of a carbine provides lower weight and better maneuverability, making it ideal for close-quarters combat and storage in compact areas.", "This makes them popular firearms among special forces and police tactical units alongside submachine guns.", "They are also popular with (and were originally mostly intended for) military personnel in roles that are expected to engage in combat, but where a full-size rifle would be an impediment to the primary duties of that soldier (logistical personnel, airborne forces, military engineers, officers, etc.", "), though since the late 20th century these have been superseded to a degree in some roles by personal defense weapons.", "Carbines are also common among civilian firearm owners who have size, space, and power concerns similar to military and police users.Examples of carbines include the Winchester Model 1892, Rifle No.", "5 Mk I, SKS, M1 carbine, Ruger Mini-14, M4 carbine, and Kel-Tec SUB-2000.==== Assault rifles ====AK-107 assault rifleAn ''assault rifle'' is commonly defined as a selective fire rifle chambered in an intermediate cartridge (such as 5.56×45mm NATO, 7.62×39mm, 5.45×39mm, and .300 AAC Blackout) and fed with a detachable magazine.", "Assault rifles are also usually smaller than full-sized rifles such as battle rifles.Originating with the StG 44 produced by Nazi Germany during World War II, assault rifles have since become extremely popular among militaries and other armed groups due to their universal versatility, and they have made up the vast majority of standard-issue military service rifles since the mid-20th century.", "Various configurations of assault rifle exist, such as the bullpup, in which the firing grip is located in front of the breech instead of behind it.Examples of assault rifles include the Kalashnikov rifles of Soviet and Russian origin (such as the AK-47, AKM, and AK-74), as well as the American M4 carbine and M16 rifle.==== Battle rifles ====The FN FAL, a battle rifle chambered in 7.62×51mm NATOA ''battle rifle'' is commonly defined as a semi-automatic or selective fire rifle that is larger or longer than an assault rifle and is chambered in a \"full-power\" cartridge (such as 7.62x51mm NATO, 7.92x57mm Mauser, and 7.62x54mmR).", "The term originated as a retronym to differentiate older full-powered rifles of these configurations (e.g.", "M1 Garand) from newer assault rifles using intermediate cartridges (e.g.", "AKM), but it is sometimes used to describe similar modern rifles such as the FN SCAR.Battle rifles serve similar purposes as assault rifles, as they both are usually employed by ground infantry for essentially the same purposes.", "However, some prefer battle rifles for their more powerful cartridge, despite the added recoil.", "Some designated marksman rifles are configured from battle rifles, such as the Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle and United States Marine Corps Designated Marksman Rifle, both essentially heavily modified and modernized variants of the M14 rifle.Examples of rifles considered to be battle rifles include the FG 42, Gewehr 43, FN FAL, Howa Type 64, and Desert Tech MDR.==== Sniper rifles ====The Accuracy International Arctic Warfare, a sniper rifle chambered in 7.62×51mm NATO and .308 WinchesterBarrett M82 anti-material rifleA ''sniper rifle'' is, per widespread definition, a high-powered precision rifle, often bolt-action or semi-automatic, with an effective range farther than that of a standard rifle.", "Though any rifle in a sniper configuration (usually with a telescopic sight and bipod) can be considered a sniper rifle, most sniper rifles are purpose-built for their applications, or are variants of existing rifles that have been modified to function as sniper rifles, such as the Type 97 sniper rifle, which was essentially a standard Type 38 rifle that was modified to be lighter and come with a telescopic sight.Related developments are anti-materiel rifles, high-caliber rifles designed to destroy enemy materiel such as vehicles, supplies, or hardware; anti-tank rifles, anti-materiel rifles that were designed specifically to combat early armoured fighting vehicles, but are now largely obsolete due to advances in vehicle armour; scout rifles, a broad class of rifles generally summed up as short, lightweight, portable sniper rifles; and designated marksman rifles, semi-automatic high-precision rifles, usually chambered in intermediate or full-power cartridges, that fill the range gap between sniper rifles and rifles, and are designed for designated marksmen in squads.Examples of sniper and scout rifles include the M40 rifle, Heckler & Koch PSG1, Walther WA 2000, Accuracy International AWM, M24 Sniper Weapon System, Steyr Scout, Sako TRG, and CheyTac Intervention.", "Examples of anti-materiel and anti-tank rifles include the Mauser Tankgewehr M1918, Boys anti-tank rifle, PTRS-41, Barrett M82, Gepárd anti-materiel rifle, and McMillan TAC-50.Examples of designated marksman rifles include the SVD, SR-25, Dragunov SVU, Marine Scout Sniper Rifle, Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle, and M110 Semi-Automatic Sniper System.==== Automatic rifles ====Soviet AVS-36, one of the early automatic rifles.", "Traditional automatic rifles have been superseded by modern assault rifles and light machine guns.An ''automatic rifle'' is a magazine-fed rifle that is capable of automatic fire.", "They include most assault rifles and battle rifles, but originated as their own category of rifles capable of automatic fire, as opposed to the bolt-action and semi-automatic rifles commonly issued to infantry at the time.", "They usually have smaller magazine capacities than machine guns; for example, the French Chauchat had a 20-round box magazine, while the Hotchkiss Mle 1914 machine gun, then the French Army's standard machine gun, was fed by a 250-round ammunition belt.Though automatic rifles are sometimes considered to be their own category, they are also occasionally considered to be other types of firearms that postdated their invention, commonly as light machine guns.", "Automatic rifles are sometimes confused with machine guns or vice versa, or are defined as such by law; for example, the National Firearms Act and Firearm Owners Protection Act define a \"machine gun\" in United States Code ''Title 26, Subtitle E, Chapter 53, Subchapter B, Part 1, § 5845'' as \"... any firearm which shoots ... automatically more than one shot, without manual reloading, by a single function of the trigger\".", "\"Machine gun\" is therefore largely synonymous with \"automatic weapon\" in American civilian parlance, covering all automatic firearms.", "In most jurisdictions, automatic rifles, as well as automatic firearms in general, are prohibited from civilian purchase or are at least heavily restricted; in the U.S. for instance, most automatic rifles are Title II weapons that require certain licenses and are greatly regulated.Examples of automatic rifles include the Cei-Rigotti, Chauchat, Lewis gun, Fedorov Avtomat, and M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle.==== Machine guns ====M60, a machine gun chambered in 7.62×51mm NATOM249 light machine gunA ''machine gun'' is a fully-automatic firearm, chambered in intermediate or full-power rifle cartridges, designed to provide sustained automatic direct fire as opposed to the semi-automatic or burst fire of standard rifles.", "They are commonly associated with being belt-fed, though many machine guns are also fed by box, drum, pan, or hopper magazines.", "They generally have a high rate of fire and a large ammunition capacity, and are often used for suppressive fire to support infantry advances or defend positions from enemy assaults.", "Owing to their versatility and firepower, they are also commonly installed on military vehicles and military aircraft, either as main or ancillary weapons.", "Many machine guns are individual-served and can be operated by a single soldier, though some are crew-served weapons that require a dedicated crew of soldiers to operate, usually between two and six soldiers depending on the machine gun's operation and the crew members' roles (ammunition bearers, spotters, etc.", ").Machine guns can be divided into three categories: light machine guns, individual-served machine guns of an intermediate cartridge that are usually magazine-fed; medium machine guns, belt-fed machine guns of a full-power caliber and a certain weight that can be operated by an individual but tend to work best with a crew; and heavy machine guns, machine guns that are too large and heavy to be carried and are thus mounted to something (like a tripod or military vehicle), and require a crew to operate.", "A general-purpose machine gun combines these categories under one flexible machine gun platform, often one that is most suitable as a light or medium machine gun but fares well as a heavy machine gun.", "A closely related concept is the squad automatic weapon, a portable machine gun, usually a light machine gun or even a modified rifle, designed and fielded to provide a squad with rapid direct fire.Examples of machine guns include the Maxim gun, M2 Browning, Bren light machine gun, MG 42, PK machine gun, FN MAG, M249 light machine gun, RPK, IWI Negev, and M134 Minigun.==== Submachine guns ====Thompson, blowback-operated, selective-fire submachine gunThe Heckler & Koch MP5, a submachine gun chambered in 9×19mm ParabellumA ''submachine gun'' is a magazine-fed carbine chambered in a low-caliber handgun cartridge (such as 9×19mm Parabellum, .45 ACP, .22 Long Rifle, and .40 S&W).", "They cannot be considered machine guns due to their low caliber, hence the prefix \"sub-\" to differentiate them from proper machine guns.", "Submachine guns are commonly associated with high rates of fire, automatic fire capabilities, and low recoil, though many submachine guns differentiate from this in various ways, such as having fairly low rates of fire or including burst and semi-automatic modes available through selective fire.", "Most submachine guns are the size of carbines and short-barreled rifles, and use similar configurations.", "Many are designed to take as little space as possible for use in close-quarters or for easy storage in vehicles and cases.", "Some submachine guns are designed and configured to strongly resemble pistols even down to size, and are thus occasionally classed as machine pistols, even if they are not actually a handgun (i.e.", "designed to require two hands to use).Submachine guns are considered ideal for close-quarters combat and are cheap to mass-produce.", "They were very common in military service through much of the 20th century, but have since been superseded in most combat roles by rifles, carbines, and personal defense weapons due to their low effective range and poor penetration against most body armor developed since the late 20th century.", "However, they remain popular among special forces and police for their effectiveness in close-quarters and low likelihood to overpenetrate targets.Examples of submachine guns include the MP 18, MP 40, Thompson submachine gun, M3 submachine gun, Uzi, Heckler & Koch MP5, Spectre M4, Steyr TMP, Heckler & Koch UMP, PP-2000, KRISS Vector, and SIG MPX.==== Personal defense weapons ====The Heckler & Koch MP7, a personal defense weapon chambered in HK 4.6×30mmA ''personal defense weapon'' is, in simplest terms, a submachine gun that is designed to fire ammunition with ballistic performance that is similar to (but not actually a type of) rifle cartridges, often called \"sub-intermediate\" cartridges.", "In this way, it combines the high automatic rate of fire, reliable low recoil, and lightweight compact maneuverability of submachine guns with the versatility, penetration, and effective range of rifles, effectively making them an \"in-between\" of submachine guns and carbines.Personal defense weapons were developed to provide rear and \"second-line\" personnel not otherwise armed with high-caliber firearms (vehicle and weapon crews, engineers, logistical personnel, etc.)", "with a method of effective self-defense against skirmishers and infiltrators who cannot effectively be defeated by low-powered submachine guns and handguns, often the only firearms suitable for those personnel (while they could be issued rifles or carbines, those would become unnecessary burdens in their normal duties, during which the likelihood of hostility is fairly rare regardless, making their issuance questionable).", "Thus, per their name, personal defense weapons allow these personnel to effectively defend themselves from enemies and repel attacks themselves or at least until support can arrive.", "They are not intended for civilian self-defense due to their nature as automatic firearms (which are usually prohibited from civilian purchase), though some semi-automatic PDWs exist for the civilian market, albeit often with longer barrels.Examples of personal defense weapons include the FN P90, Heckler & Koch MP7, AAC Honey Badger, and ST Kinetics CPW." ], [ "Action", "The semi-automatic Colt AR-15 (top) and the pump action Remington Model 870 (bottom); these weapons' actions are common for their respective types.Types aside, firearms are also categorized by their \"action\", which describes their loading, firing, and unloading cycle.=== Manual ===''Manual action'' or ''manual operation'' is essentially any type of firearm action that is loaded, and usually also fired, one cartridge at a time by the user, rather than automatically.", "Manual action firearms can be divided into two basic categories: single-shot firearms that can only be fired once per barrel before it must be reloaded or charged via an external mechanism or series of steps; and repeating firearms that can be fired multiple times per barrel, but can only be fired once with each subsequent pull of the trigger or ignite, and the firearm's action must be reloaded or charged via an internal mechanism between trigger pulls.Types of manual actions include lever action, bolt action, and pump action.==== Lever action ====''Lever action'' is a repeating action that is operated by using a cocking handle (the \"lever\") located around the trigger guard area (often incorporating it) that is pulled down then back up to move the bolt via internal linkages and cock the firing pin mechanism, expelling the old cartridge and loading a new one.==== Bolt action ====''Bolt action'' is a repeating (and rarely single-shot) action that is operated by directly manipulating the bolt via a bolt handle.", "The bolt is unlocked from the receiver, then pulled back to open the breech, ejecting a cartridge, and cocking the striker and engaging it against the sear; when the bolt is returned to the forward position, a new cartridge, if loaded, is pushed out of the magazine and into the barrel chamber, and the breech is re-locked.Two designs of bolt action exist: ''rotating bolt'', where the bolt must be axially rotated to unlock and lock the receiver; and ''straight pull'', which does not require the bolt to be rotated, simplifying the bolt action mechanism and allowing for a greater rate of fire.==== Pump action ====''Pump action'' or ''slide action'' is a repeating action that is operated by moving a sliding handguard (the \"pump\") on the gun's forestock rearward (frontward on some models), ejecting any spent cartridges and cocking the hammer or striker, then moving the handguard forward to load a new cartridge into the chamber.", "It is most common on shotguns, though pump action rifles and grenade launchers also exist.=== Semi-automatic ===''Semi-automatic'', ''self-loading'', or ''autoloading'' is a firearm action that, after a single discharge, automatically performs the feeding and ignition procedures necessary to prepare the firearm for a subsequent discharge.", "Semi-automatic firearms only discharge once with each trigger actuation, and the trigger must be actuated again to fire another cartridge.Types of semi-automatic actions and modes include automatic, burst, and selective.==== Automatic ====''Automatic'' is a firearm action that uses the same automated action cycling as semi-automatic, but continues to do so for as long as the trigger is actuated, until the trigger is let go of or the firearm is depleted of available ammunition.", "The excess energy released from a discharged cartridge is used to load a new cartridge into the chamber, then igniting the propellant and discharging said new cartridge by delivering a hammer or striker impact on the primer.", "Automatic firearms are further defined by the type of cycling principles used, such as recoil operation (uses energy from the recoil to cycle the action), blowback (uses energy from the cartridge case as it is pushed by expanding gas), blow forward (use propellant gas pressure to open the breech), or gas operation (uses high-pressure gas from a fired cartridge to dispose of the spent case and load a new cartridge).==== Burst ====''Burst'' is a fire mode of some semi-automatic and automatic firearms that fires a predetermined amount of rounds—usually two or three—in the same manner as automatic fire.", "Depending on the firearm, a single trigger actuation may fire the full burst of rounds, or it must be depressed for the entire discharge, with a single pull of the trigger firing a single round or an incomplete burst.", "Most firearms with burst capabilities have it as a fire mode secondary to semi-automatic and automatic.==== Selective fire ====''Selective fire'' or ''select fire'' is the capability of a firearm to have its fire mode adjusted between semi-automatic, burst, or automatic.", "The modes are chosen by means of a fire mode selector, which varies depending on the weapon's design.", "The presence of selective-fire modes on firearms allows more efficient use of ammunition for specific tactical needs, either precision-aimed or suppressive fire.", "Selective fire is most commonly found on assault rifles and submachine guns." ], [ "Use as a blunt weapon", "A United States Air Force trainee buttstroking a target dummy with an unloaded M16 rifleFirearms can be used as blunt weapons, for instance to conserve limited ammunition or when ammunition has run out entirely.New recruits of the Israel Defense Forces undergo training on the safe practice of using the M16 rifle as a blunt weapon, mainly so that in close-quarter fighting, the weapon cannot be pulled away from them.", "Other training includes the recruit learning how to jab parts of the body with the muzzle and using the butt stock as a weapon.Forensic medicine recognizes evidence for various types of blunt-force injuries produced by firearms.", "For example, \"pistol-whipping\" typically leaves semicircular or triangular lacerations of skin produced by the butt of a pistol.In armed robberies, beating the victims with firearms is a more common way to complete the robbery, rather than shooting or stabbing them.Examples include:* Buttstroking, striking with the butt stock of a firearm.", "* Pistol-whipping, striking someone with a handgun.", "* Striking with the muzzle end of a firearm without a bayonet attached." ], [ "History", "Hand cannon from the Chinese Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)The first firearms were invented in 10th century China when the man-portable fire lance (a bamboo or metal tube that could shoot ignited gunpowder) was combined with projectiles such as scrap metal, broken porcelain, or darts/arrows.An early depiction of a firearm is a sculpture from a cave in Sichuan, China.", "The sculpture dates to the 12th century and represents a figure carrying a vase-shaped bombard, with flames and a cannonball coming out of it.", "The oldest surviving gun, a hand cannon made of bronze, has been dated to 1288 because it was discovered at a site in modern-day Acheng District, Heilongjiang, China, where the ''Yuan Shi'' records that battles were fought at that time.", "The firearm had a barrel of a diameter, a chamber for the gunpowder and a socket for the firearm's handle.", "It is long and without the handle, which would have been made of wood.The Arabs and Mamluks had firearms in the late-13th century.", "Europeans obtained firearms in the 14th century.", "The Koreans adopted firearms from the Chinese in the 14th century.", "The Iranians (first Aq Qoyunlu and Safavids) and Indians (first Mughals) all got them no later than the 15th century, from the Ottoman Turks.", "The people of the Nusantara archipelago of Southeast Asia used the long arquebus at least by the last quarter of the 15th century.The istinggar, a result of Indo-Portuguese gun-making traditionsEven though the knowledge of making gunpowder-based weapons in the Nusantara archipelago had been known after the failed Mongol invasion of Java (1293), and the predecessor of firearms, the pole gun (bedil tombak), was recorded as being used by Java in 1413, the knowledge of making \"true\" firearms came much later, after the middle of 15th century.", "It was brought by the Islamic nations of West Asia, most probably the Arabs.", "The precise year of introduction is unknown, but it may be safely concluded to be no earlier than 1460.Before the arrival of the Portuguese in Southeast Asia, the natives already possessed firearms, the Java arquebus.A) The matchlock gun with button for trigger, which came to Lisbon from Bohemia, used by the Portuguese until the conquest of Goa in 1510.B) The Indo-Portuguese matchlock gun resulted from the combination of Portuguese and Goan gunmaking.", "C) The Japanese matchlock gun appeared as a copy of the first firearm introduced in the Japanese islands.The technology of firearms in Southeast Asia further improved after the Portuguese capture of Malacca (1511).", "Starting in the 1513, the traditions of German-Bohemian gun-making merged with Turkish gun-making traditions.", "This resulted in the Indo-Portuguese tradition of matchlocks.", "Indian craftsmen modified the design by introducing a very short, almost pistol-like buttstock held against the cheek, not the shoulder, when aiming.", "They also reduced the caliber and made the gun lighter and more balanced.", "This was a hit with the Portuguese who did a lot of fighting aboard ship and on river craft, and valued a more compact gun.", "The Malaccan gunfounders, compared as being in the same level with those of Germany, quickly adapted these new firearms, and thus a new type of arquebus, the istinggar, appeared.", "The Japanese did not acquire firearms until the 16th century, and then from the Portuguese rather than from the Chinese.A musketeer (1608)Developments in firearms accelerated during the 19th and 20th centuries.", "Breech-loading became more or less a universal standard for the reloading of most hand-held firearms and continues to be so with some notable exceptions (such as mortars).", "Instead of loading individual rounds into weapons, magazines holding multiple munitions were adopted—these aided rapid reloading.", "Automatic and semi-automatic firing mechanisms meant that a single soldier could fire many more rounds in a minute than a vintage weapon could fire over the course of a battle.", "Polymers and alloys in firearm construction made weaponry progressively lighter and thus easier to deploy.", "Ammunition changed over the centuries from simple metallic ball-shaped projectiles that rattled down the barrel to bullets and cartridges manufactured to high precision.", "Especially in the past century particular attention has focused on accuracy and sighting to make firearms altogether far more accurate than ever before.", "More than any single factor though, firearms have proliferated due to the advent of mass production—enabling arms-manufacturers to produce large quantities of weaponry to a consistent standard.Velocities of bullets increased with the use of a \"jacket\" of metals such as copper or copper alloys that covered a lead core and allowed the bullet to glide down the barrel more easily than exposed lead.", "Such bullets are known as \"full metal jacket\" (FMJ).", "Such FMJ bullets are less likely to fragment on impact and are more likely to traverse through a target while imparting less energy.", "Hence, FMJ bullets impart less tissue damage than non-jacketed bullets that expand.", "This led to their adoption for military use by countries adhering to the Hague Convention of 1899.That said, the basic principle behind firearm operation remains unchanged to this day.", "A musket of several centuries ago is still similar in principle to a modern-day rifle—using the expansion of gases to propel projectiles over long distances—albeit less accurately and rapidly.===Early firearm models=======Fire lances====A cavalryman wielding a fire lance.The Chinese fire lance from the 10th century was the direct predecessor to the modern concept of the firearm.", "It was not a gun itself, but an addition to soldiers' spears.", "Originally it consisted of paper or bamboo barrels that would contain incendiary gunpowder that could be lit one time and which would project flames at the enemy.", "Sometimes Chinese troops would place small projectiles within the barrel that would also be projected when the gunpowder was lit, but most of the explosive force would create flames.", "Later, the barrel was changed to be made of metal, so that more explosive gunpowder could be used and put more force into the propulsion of projectiles.====Hand cannons====A Swiss soldier firing a hand cannon.The original predecessor of all firearms, the Chinese hand cannon from the 13th century, was loaded with gunpowder and the projectile (initially lead shot, later replaced by cast iron) through the muzzle, while a fuse was placed at the rear.", "This fuse was lit, causing the gunpowder to ignite and propel the projectiles.", "In military use, the standard hand cannon was tremendously powerful, while also being somewhat erratic due to the relative inability of the gunner to aim the weapon, or to control the ballistic properties of the projectile.", "Recoil could be absorbed by bracing the barrel against the ground using a wooden support, the forerunner of the stock.", "Neither the quality nor amount of gunpowder, nor the consistency in projectile dimensions was controlled, with resulting inaccuracy in firing due to windage, variance in gunpowder composition, and the difference in diameter between the bore and the shot.", "Hand cannons were replaced around the 15th century by lighter carriage-mounted artillery pieces, and ultimately by the arquebus.In the 1420s, gunpowder was used to propel missiles from hand-held tubes during the Hussite revolt in Bohemia.====Arquebuses====A 17th Century arquebus at the Château de Foix Museum, France.The arquebus is a long gun that appeared in Europe and the Ottoman Empire during the 15th Century.", "The term ''arquebus'' is derived from the Dutch word ''haaqbus'' (literally meaning ''hook gun'').", "The term arquebus was applied to many different types of guns.", "In their earliest form they were defensive weapon mounts on German city walls in the 15th Century.", "The addition of a shoulder stock, priming pan and matchlock mechanism in the late 15th century turned the arquebus into a handheld firearm, and also first firearm equipped with a trigger.", "Heavy arquebuses mounted on war wagons were called ''arquebus a croc''.", "These heavy arquebuses fired a lead ball of about 3.5 ounces (100g).====Muskets====frigate Grand Turk.Muzzle-loading muskets (smooth-bored long guns) were among the first firearms developed.", "The firearm was loaded through the muzzle with gunpowder, optionally with some wadding, and then with a bullet (usually a solid lead ball, but musketeers could shoot stones when they ran out of bullets).", "Greatly improved muzzleloaders (usually rifled instead of smooth-bored) are manufactured today and have many enthusiasts, many of whom hunt large and small game with their guns.", "Muzzleloaders have to be manually reloaded after each shot; a skilled archer could fire multiple arrows faster than most early muskets could be reloaded and fired, although by the mid-18th century when muzzleloaders became the standard small-armament of the military, a well-drilled soldier could fire six rounds in a minute using prepared cartridges in his musket.", "Before then, the effectiveness of muzzleloaders was hindered both by the low reloading speed and, before the firing mechanism was perfected, by the very high risk posed by the firearm to the person attempting to fire it.One interesting solution to the reloading problem was the \"Roman Candle Gun\" with superposed loads.", "This was a muzzleloader in which multiple charges and balls were loaded one on top of the other, with a small hole in each ball to allow the subsequent charge to be ignited after the one ahead of it was ignited.", "It was neither a very reliable nor popular firearm, but it enabled a form of \"automatic\" fire long before the advent of the machine gun.===Firing mechanisms=======Matchlock==== Various Japanese (samurai) Edo period matchlocks (''tanegashima'')Matchlocks were the first and simplest firearms-firing mechanisms developed.", "In the matchlock mechanism, the powder in the gun barrel was ignited by a piece of burning cord called a \"match\".", "The match was wedged into one end of an S-shaped piece of steel.", "When the trigger (often actually a lever) was pulled, the match was brought into the open end of a \"touch hole\" at the base of the gun barrel, which contained a very small quantity of gunpowder, igniting the main charge of gunpowder in the gun barrel.", "The match usually had to be relit after each firing.", "The main parts of the matchlock firing mechanism are the pan, match, arm, and trigger.", "A benefit of the pan and arm swivel being moved to the side of the gun was it gave a clear line of fire.", "An advantage to the matchlock firing mechanism is that it did not misfire.", "However, it also came with some disadvantages.", "One disadvantage involved weather: in rain, the match could not be kept lit to fire the weapon.", "Another issue with the match was it could give away the position of soldiers because of the glow, sound, and smell.", "While European pistols were equipped with wheellock and flintlock mechanisms, Asian pistols used matchlock mechanisms.====Wheellock====A wheellock pistol mechanism from the 17th centuryThe wheellock action, a successor to the matchlock, predated the flintlock.", "Despite its many faults, the wheellock was a significant improvement over the matchlock in terms of both convenience and safety, since it eliminated the need to keep a smoldering match in proximity to loose gunpowder.", "It operated using a small wheel (much like that on a cigarette lighter) which was wound up with a key before use and which, when the trigger was pulled, spun against a flint, creating the shower of sparks that ignited the powder in the touch hole.", "Supposedly invented by Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), the Italian Renaissance man, the wheellock action was an innovation that was not widely adopted due to the high cost of the clockwork mechanism.====Flintlock====Flintlock mechanismThe flintlock action represented a major innovation in firearm design.", "The spark used to ignite the gunpowder in the touch hole came from a sharpened piece of flint clamped in the jaws of a \"cock\" which, when released by the trigger, struck a piece of steel called the \"frizzen\" to generate the necessary sparks.", "(The spring-loaded arm that holds a piece of flint or pyrite is referred to as a cock because of its resemblance to a rooster.)", "The cock had to be manually reset after each firing, and the flint had to be replaced periodically due to wear from striking the frizzen.", "(See also flintlock mechanism, snaphance, Miquelet lock.)", "The flintlock was widely used during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries in both muskets and rifles.====Percussion cap====Percussion caps (caplock mechanisms), coming into wide service in the early 19th century, offered a dramatic improvement over flintlocks.", "With the percussion-cap mechanism, the small primer charge of gunpowder used in all preceding firearms was replaced by a completely self-contained explosive charge contained in a small brass \"cap\".", "The cap was fastened to the touch hole of the gun (extended to form a \"nipple\") and ignited by the impact of the gun's \"hammer\".", "(The hammer is roughly the same as the cock found on flintlocks except that it does not clamp onto anything.)", "In the case of percussion caps the hammer was hollow on the end to fit around the cap in order to keep the cap from fragmenting and injuring the shooter.Once struck, the flame from the cap, in turn, ignited the main charge of gunpowder, as with the flintlock, but there was no longer any need to charge the touch hole with gunpowder, and even better, the touch hole was no longer exposed to the elements.", "As a result, the percussion-cap mechanism was considerably safer, far more weatherproof, and vastly more reliable (cloth-bound cartridges containing a pre-measured charge of gunpowder and a ball had been in regular military service for many years, but the exposed gunpowder in the entry to the touch hole had long been a source of misfires).", "All muzzleloaders manufactured since the second half of the 19th-century use percussion caps except those built as replicas of the flintlock or earlier firearms.===Loading techniques===Percussion cap and early bolt action formMost early firearms were muzzle-loading.", "This form of loading has several disadvantages, such as a slow rate of fire and having to expose oneself to enemy fire to reload—as the weapon had to be pointed upright so the powder could be poured through the muzzle into the breech, followed by the ramming the projectile into the breech.", "As effective methods of sealing the breech developed along with sturdy, weatherproof, self-contained metallic cartridges, muzzle-loaders were replaced by single-shot breech loaders.", "Eventually, single-shot weapons were replaced by the following repeater-type weapons.====Internal magazines====Many firearms made from the late-19th century through the 1950s used internal magazines to load the cartridge into the chamber of the weapon.", "The most notable and revolutionary weapons of this period appeared during the U.S. Civil War of 1861–1865: the Spencer and Henry repeating rifles.", "Both used fixed tubular magazines, the former having the magazine in the buttstock and the latter under the barrel, which allowed a larger capacity.", "Later weapons used fixed box magazines that could not be removed from the weapon without disassembling the weapon itself.", "Fixed magazines permitted the use of larger cartridges and eliminated the hazard of having the bullet of one cartridge butting next to the primer or rim of another cartridge.", "These magazines are loaded while they are in the weapon, often using a stripper clip.", "A clip is used to transfer cartridges into the magazine.", "Some notable weapons that use internal magazines include the Mosin–Nagant, the Mauser Kar 98k, the Springfield M1903, the M1 Garand, and the SKS.", "Firearms that have internal magazines are usually, but not always, rifles.", "Some exceptions to this include the Mauser C96 pistol, which uses an internal magazine, and the Breda 30, an Italian light machine gun.====Detachable magazines====Many modern firearms use what are called detachable or box magazines as their method of chambering a cartridge.", "Detachable magazines can be removed from the weapon without disassembling the firearms, usually by pushing a magazine release.====Belt-fed weapons====A belt or ammunition belt, a device used to retain and feed cartridges into a firearm, is commonly used with machine guns.", "Belts were originally composed of canvas or cloth with pockets spaced evenly to allow the belt to be mechanically fed into the gun.", "These designs were prone to malfunctions due to the effects of oil and other contaminants altering the belt.", "Later belt-designs used permanently-connected metal links to retain the cartridges during feeding.", "These belts were more tolerant to exposure to solvents and oil.", "Notable weapons that use belts include the M240, the M249, the M134 Minigun, and the PK Machine Gun.===Cartridges=== (From left to right): A .577 Snider cartridge (1867), a .577/450 Martini-Henry cartridge (1871), a later drawn brass .577/450 Martini-Henry cartridge, and a .303 British Mk VII SAA Ball cartridge.Frenchman Louis-Nicolas Flobert invented the first rimfire metallic cartridge in 1845.His cartridge consisted of a percussion cap with a bullet attached to the top.", "Flobert then made what he called \"parlor guns\" for this cartridge, as these rifles and pistols were designed to be shot in indoor shooting-parlors in large homes.", "These 6mm Flobert cartridges do not contain any powder, the only propellant substance contained in the cartridge is the percussion cap.", "In English-speaking countries, the 6mm Flobert cartridge corresponds to .22 BB Cap and .22 CB Cap ammunition.", "These cartridges have a relatively low muzzle-velocity of around 700 ft/s (210 m/s).Cartridges represented a major innovation: firearms ammunition, previously delivered as separate bullets and powder, was combined in a single metallic (usually brass) cartridge containing a percussion cap, powder, and a bullet in one weatherproof package.", "The main technical advantage of the brass cartridge case was the effective and reliable sealing of high-pressure gasses at the breech, as the gas pressure forces the cartridge case to expand outward, pressing it firmly against the inside of the gun-barrel chamber.", "This prevents the leakage of hot gas which could injure the shooter.", "The brass cartridge also opened the way for modern repeating arms, by uniting the bullet, gunpowder, and primer into one assembly that could be fed reliably into the breech by mechanical action in the firearm.Before this, a \"cartridge\" was simply a pre-measured quantity of gunpowder together with a ball in a small cloth bag (or rolled paper cylinder), which also acted as wadding for the charge and ball.", "This early form of cartridge had to be rammed into the muzzleloader's barrel, and either a small charge of gunpowder in the touch hole or an external percussion cap mounted on the touch hole ignited the gunpowder in the cartridge.", "Cartridges with built-in percussion caps (called \"primers\") continue to this day to be the standard in firearms.", "In cartridge-firing firearms, a hammer (or a firing pin struck by the hammer) strikes the cartridge primer, which then ignites the gunpowder within.", "The primer charge is at the base of the cartridge, either within the rim (a \"rimfire\" cartridge) or in a small percussion cap embedded in the center of the base (a \"centerfire\" cartridge).", "As a rule, centerfire cartridges are more powerful than rimfire cartridges, operating at considerably higher pressures than rimfire cartridges.", "Centerfire cartridges are also safer, as a dropped rimfire cartridge has the potential to discharge if its rim strikes the ground with sufficient force to ignite the primer.", "This is practically impossible with most centerfire cartridges.Nearly all contemporary firearms load cartridges directly into their breech.", "Some additionally or exclusively load from a magazine that holds multiple cartridges.", "A magazine is a part of the firearm which exists to store ammunition and to assist in its feeding by the action into the breech (such as through the rotation of a revolver's cylinder or by spring-loaded platforms in most pistol and rifle designs).", "Some magazines, such as that of most centerfire hunting rifles and all revolvers, are internal to and inseparable from the firearm, and are loaded by using a \"clip\".", "A clip (the term often mistakingly refers to a detachable \"magazine\") is a device that holds the ammunition by the rim of the case and is designed to assist the shooter in reloading the firearm's magazine.", "Examples include revolver speedloaders, the stripper clip used to aid loading rifles such as the Lee–Enfield or Mauser 98, and the en-bloc clip used in loading the M1 Garand.", "In this sense, \"magazines\" and \"clips\", though often used synonymously, refer to different types of devices.===Repeating firearms===The French FAMAS, example of a bullpup rifleThe M4 carbine, a modern service rifle capable of being fired automatically.", "It is in service by the U.S. military and has a wide ability for customization.Many firearms are \"single shot\": i.e., each time a cartridge is fired, the operator must manually re-cock the firearm and load another cartridge.", "The classic single-barreled shotgun offers a good example.", "A firearm that can load multiple cartridges as the firearm is re-cocked is considered a \"repeating firearm\" or simply a \"repeater\".", "A lever-action rifle, a pump-action shotgun, and most bolt-action rifles are good examples of repeating firearms.", "A firearm that automatically re-cocks and reloads the next round with each trigger-pull is considered a semi-automatic or autoloading firearm.The first \"rapid firing\" firearms were usually similar to the 19th-century Gatling gun, which would fire cartridges from a magazine as fast as and as long as the operator turned a crank.", "Eventually, the \"rapid\" firing mechanism was perfected and miniaturized to the extent that either the recoil of the firearm or the gas pressure from firing could be used to operate it, thus the operator needed only to pull a trigger—this made the firing mechanisms truly \"automatic\".", "An automatic (or \"fully automatic\") firearm automatically re-cocks, reloads, and fires as long as the trigger is depressed.", "An automatic firearm is capable of firing multiple rounds with one pull of the trigger.", "The Gatling gun may have been the first automatic weapon, though the modern trigger-actuated machine gun was not widely introduced until the First World War (1914–1918) with the German \"Spandau\" (adopted in 1908) and the British Lewis gun (in service from 1914).", "Automatic rifles such as the Browning Automatic Rifle were in common use by the military during the early part of the 20th century, and automatic rifles that fired handgun rounds, known as submachine guns, also appeared at this time.", "Many modern military firearms have a selective fire option, which is a mechanical switch that allows the firearm to be fired either in the semi-automatic or fully automatic mode.", "In the current M16A2 and M16A4 variants of the U.S.-made M16, continuous fully-automatic fire is not possible, having been replaced by an automatic burst of three cartridges (this conserves ammunition and increases controllability).Automatic weapons are largely restricted to military and paramilitary organizations, though many automatic designs are infamous for their use by civilians." ], [ "Health hazards", "Firearm hazard is quite notable, with a significant impact on the health system.", "In 2001, for quantification purposes, it was estimated that the cost of fatalities and injuries was US$4700 million per year in Canada (US$170 per Canadian) and US$100,000 million per year in the U.S. (US$300 per American).===Death===Gun-related homicide and suicide ''rates'' in high-income OECD countries, 2010, ordered by total death rates (homicide plus suicide plus other gun-related deaths)From 1990 to 2015, global deaths from assault by firearm rose from 128,000 to 173,000, however this represents a drop in rate from 2.41/100,000 to 2.35/100,000, as world population has increased by more than two billion.In 2017, there were 39,773 gun-related deaths in the United States; over 60% were suicides from firearms.", "In 2001, firearms were involved in cases constituting the second leading cause of \"mechanism of injury deaths\" (which are deaths which occur as a direct, identifiable, and immediate consequence of an event, such as a shooting or poisoning, and do not include deaths due to \"natural causes\" or \"indirect causes\" such as chronic alcohol abuse or tobacco use) after motor vehicle accidents, which comprised the majority of deaths in this category.", "The most recent, complete data, from 2017, shows gunshot related homicides as having been the 31st most common cause of death in the US, while gunshot related suicides was the 21st most common cause of death.", "Accidental discharge of a firearm accounted for the 59th most common cause of death, with 486 deaths in 2017, while 616 individuals were killed by law enforcement, comprising the 58th most common cause of death.", "The total number of deaths related to firearms in 2017 was 38,882 (not including incidents of deaths resulting from lethal force when used by law enforcement), while the most common cause of death, heart disease, claimed 647,457 lives, over sixteen times that of firearms, including suicides.", "The most recent data from the CDC, from 2020, shows that deaths involving firearms accounted for about 0.2% of all deaths nationwide in 2020, of which about two-thirds were suicides.In the 52 high- and middle-income countries, with a combined population of 1,400 million and not engaged in civil conflict, fatalities due to firearm injuries were estimated at 115,000 people per annum, in the 1990s.In those 52 countries, a firearm is the first method used for homicide (two-thirds) but only the second method for suicide (20%.To prevent unintentional injury, gun safety training includes education on proper firearm storage and firearm-handling etiquette.===Injury===Based on US data, it is estimated that three people are injured for one killed.A 2017 study found that attacks account for more than half (50.2%) of all nonfatal gun injuries, while unintentional injuries make up more than one-third (36.7%).=== PTSD (Post-traumatic stress disorder) ===PTSD or Post-traumatic stress disorder is extremely prevalent in the aftermath of different firearm-related events, such as mass shootings, injuries, and police-involved incidents.", "In particular, military Veterans are especially at high risk for the development of PTSD.", "In 2004, Hoge et al.", "found that soldiers that fought in Iraq or Afghanistan who significantly engaged in firefights had a linear association with the risk of PTSD.", "Hoge found that the rates of PTSD ranged from 4.5% from those who had not been involved in firefights to 19.3% to those involved in five or more firefights, displaying an apparent correlation between risk of PTSD and firefights.", "Additionally, school shootings are often studied and exhibit a connection between PTSD and the involvement with firearms.", "It was found that rates of PTSD were highest in students that were in direct exposure, which was around 9.7% of the recorded population.", "Rates would be as low as 3.4% in those with no exposure.=== Lead exposure ===Many bullets used with firearms are made of lead.", "If lead reaches the bloodstream, which can occur when handling ammunition, it can lead to issues with brain development, damage to the kidney.", "Extremely high levels can lead to seizures, unconsciousness, and even death.", "===Noise===A common hazard of repeated firearm use is noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL).", "NIHL can result from long-term exposure to noise or from high intensity impact noises such as gunshots.", "Individuals who shoot guns often have a characteristic pattern of hearing loss referred to as \"shooters ear\".", "They often have a high-frequency loss with better hearing in the low frequencies and one ear is typically worse than the other.", "The ear on the side the shooter is holding the gun will receive protection from the sound wave from the shoulder while the other ear remains unprotected and more susceptible to the full impact of the sound wave.The intensity of a gunshot does vary; lower caliber guns are typically on the softer side while higher caliber guns are often louder.", "The intensity of a gunshot though typically ranges from 140 dB to 175 dB.", "Indoor shooting also causes loud reverberations which can also be as damaging as the actual gunshot itself.", "According to the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, noise above 85 dB can begin to cause hearing loss.", "While many sounds cause damage over time, at the intensity level of a gunshot (140 dB or louder), damage to the ear can occur instantly.Shooters use custom hearing protection such as electronic type hearing protection for hunters which can amplify soft sounds like leaves crunching while reducing the intensity of the gunshot and custom hearing protection for skeet shooting.Even with hearing protection, due to the high intensity of the noise guns produce shooters still develop hearing loss over time." ], [ "Legal definitions", "Firearms include a variety of ranged weapons and there is no agreed-upon definition.", "For instance, English language laws of big legal entities such as the United States, India, the European Union and Canada use different definitions.", "Other English language definitions are provided by international treaties.===United States===In the United States, under 26 USC § 5845 (a), the term \"firearm\" meansThis is the ATF definition of a title II \"NFA firearm\", as defined by the National Firearms Act, and not the definition of a title I firearm, which includes firearms not restricted by the NFA.", "ATF forms dealing with Title II weapons all state the above-mentioned information, however, the above information is only applicable for the purposes of those forms.", "For practical purposes, a firearm, in the U.S., is defined as the part of a weapon- designed to use expanded gas caused by the combustion of explosive material, to propel a projectile- which houses the fire control group (trigger & sear).According to the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, if gas pressurization is achieved through ''mechanical'' gas compression rather than through chemical propellant combustion, then the device is technically an air gun, not a firearm.===India===In India, the arms act, 1959, provides a definition of firearms where \"firearms\" means arms of any description designed or adapted to discharge a projectile or projectiles of any kind by the action of any explosive or other forms of energy, and includes:===European Union===In the European Union, a European Directive amended by EU directive 2017/853 set minimum standards regarding civilian firearms acquisition and possession that EU member states must implement into their national legal systems.", "In this context, since 2017, firearms are considered as \"any portable barrelled weapon that expels, is designed to expel or may be converted to expel a shot, bullet or projectile by the action of a combustible propellant\".", "For legal reasons, objects can be considered a firearm if they have the appearance of a firearm or are made in a way that makes it possible to convert them to a firearm.", "Member states may be allowed to exclude from their gun control law items such as antique weapons, or specific purposes items that can only be used for that sole purpose.===United Kingdom===In the UK, a firearm does not have to use a combustible propellant, as explained by Crown Prosecution Service Guidance Firearms The Firearms Act 1968 Section 57(1B), uses the definition of a firearm as a \"lethal barrelled weapon\" as a \"barrelled weapon of any description from which a shot, bullet or other missile, with kinetic energy of more than one joule as measured at the muzzle of the weapon, can be discharged\".", "As such, low-energy air rifles and pistols also fall under UK firearm legislation, although the licensing requirements of low-energy weapons are more relaxed.===Canada===In Canada, firearms are defined by the Criminal Code:===Australia===Australia has a definition of firearms in its 1996 legal act:===South Africa===In South Africa, Firearms Control Act No.", "60 of 2000 defines firearms since June 2001, with a 2006 amendment of the definition:===International treaties===An inter-American convention defines firearms as:An international UN protocol on firearms considers that" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* .", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "George Washington" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Washington''' (February 22, 1732, 1799) was an American Founding Father, military officer, and politician who served as the first president of the United States from 1789 to 1797.Appointed by the Second Continental Congress as commander of the Continental Army in 1775, Washington led Patriot forces to victory in the American Revolutionary War and then served as president of the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which drafted and ratified the Constitution of the United States and established the U.S. federal government.", "Washington has thus been known as the \"Father of his Country\".Washington's first public office, from 1749 to 1750, was as surveyor of Culpeper County in the Colony of Virginia.", "He subsequently received military training and was assigned command of the Virginia Regiment during the French and Indian War.", "He was later elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses and was named a delegate to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, which appointed him commander-in-chief of the Continental Army.", "Washington led American forces to a decisive victory over the British in the Revolutionary War, leading the British to sign the Treaty of Paris, which acknowledged the sovereignty and independence of the United States.", "He resigned his commission in 1783 after the conclusion of the Revolutionary War.Washington played an indispensable role in adopting and ratifying the Constitution, which replaced the Articles of Confederation in 1789.He was then twice elected president by the Electoral College unanimously.", "As the first U.S. president, Washington implemented a strong, well-financed national government while remaining impartial in a fierce rivalry that emerged between cabinet members Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton.", "During the French Revolution, he proclaimed a policy of neutrality while additionally sanctioning the Jay Treaty.", "He set enduring precedents for the office of president, including republicanism, a peaceful transfer of power, the use of the title \"Mr. President\", and the two-term tradition.", "His 1796 farewell address became a preeminent statement on republicanism in which he wrote about the importance of national unity and the dangers that regionalism, partisanship, and foreign influence pose to it.Washington's image is an icon of American culture.", "He has been memorialized by monuments, a federal holiday, various media depictions, geographical locations including the national capital, the State of Washington, stamps, and currency.", "In 1976, Washington was posthumously promoted to the rank of general of the Armies, the highest rank in the U.S. Army.", "Washington consistently ranks in both popular and scholarly polls as one of the greatest presidents in American history." ], [ "Early life (1732–1752)", "Ferry Farm, the Washington family residence on the Rappahannock River in Stafford County, Virginia, where Washington spent much of his youthGeorge Washington was born on February 22, 1732, at Popes Creek in Westmoreland County, Virginia.", "He was the first of six children of Augustine and Mary Ball Washington.", "His father was a justice of the peace and a prominent public figure who had four additional children from his first marriage to Jane Butler.", "The family moved to Little Hunting Creek in 1734 before eventually settling in Ferry Farm near Fredericksburg, Virginia.", "When Augustine died in 1743, Washington inherited Ferry Farm and ten slaves; his older half-brother Lawrence inherited Little Hunting Creek and renamed it Mount Vernon.Washington did not have the formal education his elder brothers received at Appleby Grammar School in England, but he did attend the Lower Church School in Hartfield.", "He learned mathematics, including trigonometry, and land surveying, and became a talented draftsman and mapmaker.", "By early adulthood, he was writing with \"considerable force\" and \"precision\".", "As a teenager, to practice his penmanship, Washington compiled over a hundred rules for social interaction styled ''Rules of Civility and Decent Behaviour in Company and Conversation'', copied from an English translation of a French book of manners.Washington often visited Mount Vernon and Belvoir, the plantation of William Fairfax, Lawrence's father-in-law.", "Fairfax became Washington's patron and surrogate father, and Washington spent a month in 1748 with a team surveying Fairfax's Shenandoah Valley property.", "The following year, he received a surveyor's license from the College of William & Mary.", "Even though Washington had not served the customary apprenticeship, Fairfax appointed him surveyor of Culpeper County, Virginia, where he took his oath of office July 20, 1749.He subsequently familiarized himself with the frontier region, and though he resigned from the job in 1750, he continued to do surveys west of the Blue Ridge Mountains.", "By 1752, he had bought almost in the Valley and owned .In 1751, Washington made his only trip abroad when he accompanied Lawrence to Barbados, hoping the climate would cure his brother's tuberculosis.", "Washington contracted smallpox during that trip, which left his face slightly scarred.", "Lawrence died in 1752, and Washington leased Mount Vernon from his widow Anne; he inherited it outright after her death in 1761." ], [ "Colonial military career (1752–1758)", "Lawrence Washington's service as adjutant general of the Virginia militia inspired George to seek a commission.", "Virginia's lieutenant governor, Robert Dinwiddie, appointed Washington as a major and commander of one of the four militia districts.", "The British and French were competing for control of the Ohio Valley: the British were constructing forts along the Ohio River, and the French between the Ohio River and Lake Erie.In October 1753, Dinwiddie appointed Washington as a special envoy.", "He had sent Washington to demand French forces to vacate land that was claimed by the British.", "Washington was also appointed to make peace with the Iroquois Confederacy, and to gather further intelligence about the French forces.", "Washington met with Half-King Tanacharison, and other Iroquois chiefs, at Logstown, and gathered information about the numbers and locations of the French forts, as well as intelligence concerning individuals taken prisoner by the French.", "Washington was nicknamed Conotocaurius by Tanacharison.", "The name, meaning \"devourer of villages\", had been given to his great-grandfather John Washington in the late 17th century by the Susquehannock.Washington's party reached the Ohio River in November 1753, and was intercepted by a French patrol.", "The party was escorted to Fort Le Boeuf, where Washington was received in a friendly manner.", "He delivered the British demand to vacate to the French commander Saint-Pierre, but the French refused to leave.", "Saint-Pierre gave Washington his official answer after a few days' delay, as well as food and winter clothing for his party's journey back to Virginia.", "Washington completed the precarious mission in 77 days, in difficult winter conditions, achieving a measure of distinction when his report was published in Virginia and London.===French and Indian War===An 1855 engraving of then Lieutenant Colonel Washington holding night council during the Battle of Fort Necessity in Fayette County, PennsylvaniaIn February 1754, Dinwiddie promoted Washington to lieutenant colonel and second-in-command of the 300-strong Virginia Regiment, with orders to confront French forces at the Forks of the Ohio.", "Washington set out with half the regiment in April and soon learned a French force of 1,000 had begun construction of Fort Duquesne there.", "In May, having set up a defensive position at Great Meadows, he learned that the French had made camp away; he decided to take the offensive.The French detachment proved to be only about 50 men, so Washington advanced on May 28 with a small force of Virginians and Indian allies to ambush them.", "During the ambush, French forces were killed outright with muskets and hatchets, including French commander Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, who had been carrying a diplomatic message for the British.", "The French later found their countrymen dead and scalped, blaming Washington, who had retreated to Fort Necessity.The full Virginia Regiment joined Washington at Fort Necessity the following month with news that he had been promoted to command of the regiment and colonel upon the regimental commander's death.", "The regiment was reinforced by an independent company of a hundred South Carolinians led by Captain James Mackay; his royal commission outranked Washington's and a conflict of command ensued.", "On July 3, a French force attacked with 900 men, and the ensuing battle ended in Washington's surrender.", "He signed a surrender document in which he unwittingly took responsibility for \"assassinating\" Jumonville, later blaming the translator for not properly translating it.In the aftermath, Colonel James Innes took command of intercolonial forces, the Virginia Regiment was divided, and Washington was offered a captaincy in one of the newly formed regiments.", "He refused, however, as it would have been a demotion and instead resigned his commission.", "The \"Jumonville affair\" became the incident which ignited the French and Indian War, later to become part of the Seven Years' War.", "''Washington the Soldier'', an 1834 portrait of Washington on horseback during the Battle of the MonongahelaIn 1755, Washington served voluntarily as an aide to General Edward Braddock, who led a British expedition to expel the French from Fort Duquesne and the Ohio Country.", "On Washington's recommendation, Braddock split the army into one main column and a lightly equipped \"flying column\".", "Suffering from severe dysentery, Washington was left behind, and when he rejoined Braddock at Monongahela the French and their Indian allies ambushed the divided army.", "Two-thirds of the British force became casualties, including the mortally wounded Braddock.", "Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Gage, Washington, still very ill, rallied the survivors and formed a rear guard, allowing the remnants of the force to disengage and retreat.During the engagement, he had two horses shot from under him, and his hat and coat were bullet-pierced.", "His conduct under fire redeemed his reputation among critics of his command in the Battle of Fort Necessity, but he was not included by the succeeding commander (Colonel Thomas Dunbar) in planning subsequent operations.The Virginia Regiment was reconstituted in August 1755, and Dinwiddie appointed Washington its commander, again with the rank of colonel.", "Washington clashed over seniority almost immediately, this time with John Dagworthy, another captain of superior royal rank, who commanded a detachment of Marylanders at the regiment's headquarters in Fort Cumberland.", "Washington, impatient for an offensive against Fort Duquesne, was convinced Braddock would have granted him a royal commission and pressed his case in February 1756 with Braddock's successor as Commander-in-Chief, William Shirley, and again in January 1757 with Shirley's successor, Lord Loudoun.", "Shirley ruled in Washington's favor only in the matter of Dagworthy; Loudoun humiliated Washington, refused him a royal commission and agreed only to relieve him of the responsibility of manning Fort Cumberland.In 1758, the Virginia Regiment was assigned to the British Forbes Expedition to capture Fort Duquesne.", "Washington disagreed with General John Forbes' tactics and chosen route.", "Forbes nevertheless made Washington a brevet brigadier general and gave him command of one of the three brigades that would assault the fort.", "The French had abandoned the fort and the valley before the assault, however, and Washington only saw a friendly fire incident which left 14 dead and 26 injured.", "Frustrated, he resigned his commission soon afterwards and returned to Mount Vernon.Under Washington, the Virginia Regiment had defended of frontier against twenty Indian attacks in ten months.", "He increased the professionalism of the regiment as it grew from 300 to 1,000 men, and Virginia's frontier population suffered less than other colonies.", "Though he failed to realize a royal commission, he gained self-confidence, leadership skills, and knowledge of British military tactics.", "The destructive competition Washington witnessed among colonial politicians fostered his later support of a strong central government." ], [ "Marriage, civilian, and political life (1755–1775)", "On January 6, 1759, Washington, at age 26, married Martha Dandridge Custis, the 27-year-old widow of wealthy plantation owner Daniel Parke Custis.", "The marriage took place at Martha's estate; she was intelligent, gracious, and experienced in managing a planter's estate, and the couple had a happy marriage.", "They moved to Mount Vernon, near Alexandria, where he lived as a planter of tobacco and wheat and emerged as a political figure.Washington's 1751 bout with smallpox is thought to have rendered him sterile, though it is equally likely that \"Martha may have sustained injury during the birth of Patsy, her final child, making additional births impossible.\"", "The couple lamented not having any children together.", "Despite this, the two raised Martha's two children John Parke Custis (Jacky) and Martha Parke Custis (Patsy), and later Jacky's two youngest children Eleanor Parke Custis (Nelly) and George Washington Parke Custis (Washy), along with numerous nieces and nephews.The marriage gave Washington control over Martha's one-third dower interest in the Custis estate, and he managed the remaining two-thirds for Martha's children; the estate also included 84 slaves.", "As a result, he became one of the wealthiest men in Virginia, which increased his social standing.At Washington's urging, Governor Lord Botetourt fulfilled Dinwiddie's 1754 promise of land bounties to all-volunteer militia during the French and Indian War.", "In late 1770, Washington inspected the lands in the Ohio and Great Kanawha regions, and he engaged surveyor William Crawford to subdivide it.", "Crawford allotted to Washington; Washington told the veterans that their land was hilly and unsuitable for farming, and he agreed to purchase , leaving some feeling they had been duped.", "He also doubled the size of Mount Vernon to and, by 1775, had increased its slave population by more than a hundred.As a respected military hero and large landowner, Washington held local offices and was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature, representing Frederick County in the House of Burgesses for seven years beginning in 1758.He first ran for the seat in 1755 but was soundly beaten by Hugh West.", "When he ran in 1758, Washington plied voters with beer, brandy, and other beverages.", "Despite being away serving on the Forbes Expedition, he won the election with roughly 40 percent of the vote, defeating three opponents with the help of local supporters.Early in his legislative career, Washington rarely spoke or even attended legislative sessions.", "He would later become a prominent critic of Britain's taxation policy and mercantilist policies towards the American colonies and became more politically active starting in the 1760s.Washington imported luxuries and other goods from England, paying for them by exporting tobacco.", "His profligate spending combined with low tobacco prices left him £1,800 in debt by 1764, prompting him to diversify his holdings.", "In 1765, because of erosion and other soil problems, he changed Mount Vernon's primary cash crop from tobacco to wheat and expanded operations to include corn flour milling and fishing.Washington soon was counted among the political and social elite in Virginia.", "From 1768 to 1775, he invited some 2,000 guests to Mount Vernon, mostly those whom he considered people of rank, and was known to be exceptionally cordial toward guests.", "Washington also took time for leisure with fox hunting, fishing, dances, theater, cards, backgammon, and billiards.Washington's stepdaughter Patsy suffered from epileptic attacks from age 12, and she died at Mount Vernon in 1773.The following day, he wrote to Burwell Bassett: \"It is easier to conceive, than to describe, the distress of this Family\".", "He canceled all business activity and remained with Martha every night for three months.===Opposition to the British Parliament and Crown===Washington played a central role before and during the American Revolution.", "His distrust of the British military had begun when he was passed over for promotion into the Regular Army.", "Opposed to taxes imposed by the British Parliament on the Colonies without proper representation, he and other colonists were also angered by the Royal Proclamation of 1763 which banned American settlement west of the Allegheny Mountains and protected the British fur trade.Washington believed the Stamp Act 1765 was an \"Act of Oppression\" and celebrated its repeal the following year.", "In March 1766, Parliament passed the Declaratory Act asserting that Parliamentary law superseded colonial law.", "In the late 1760s, the interference of the British Crown in American lucrative western land speculation spurred the American Revolution.", "Washington was a prosperous land speculator, and in 1767, he encouraged \"adventures\" to acquire backcountry western lands.", "Washington helped lead widespread protests against the Townshend Acts passed by Parliament in 1767, and he introduced a proposal in May 1769 which urged Virginians to boycott British goods; the Acts were mostly repealed in 1770.Parliament sought to punish Massachusetts colonists for their role in the Boston Tea Party in 1774 by passing the Coercive Acts, which Washington saw as \"an invasion of our rights and privileges\".", "He said Americans must not submit to acts of tyranny since \"custom and use shall make us as tame and abject slaves, as the blacks we rule over with such arbitrary sway\".", "That July, he and George Mason drafted a list of resolutions for the Fairfax County committee, including a call to end the Atlantic slave trade, which were adopted.On August 1, Washington attended the First Virginia Convention.", "There, he was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress.", "As tensions rose in 1774, he helped train militias in Virginia and organized enforcement of the Continental Association boycott of British goods instituted by the Congress.The American Revolutionary War broke out on April 19, 1775, with the Battles of Lexington and Concord and the Siege of Boston.", "Upon hearing the news, Washington was \"sobered and dismayed\", and he hastily departed Mount Vernon on May 4, 1775, to join the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia." ], [ "Commander in chief (1775–1783)", "''General Washington, Commander of the Continental Army'', a 1776 portrait by alt=Formal painting of General George Washington, standing in uniform, as commander of the Continental ArmyOn June 14, 1775, Congress created the Continental Army and John Adams nominated Washington as its commander-in-chief, mainly because of his military experience and the belief that a Virginian would better unite the colonies.", "He was unanimously elected by Congress the next day.", "Washington appeared before Congress in uniform and gave an acceptance speech on June 16, declining a salary, though he was later reimbursed expenses.Washington was commissioned on June 19 and officially appointed by Congress as \"General & Commander in chief of the army of the United Colonies and of all the forces raised or to be raised by them\".", "He was instructed to take charge of the Siege of Boston on June 22, 1775.Congress chose his primary staff officers, including Major General Artemas Ward, Adjutant General Horatio Gates, Major General Charles Lee, Major General Philip Schuyler, and Major General Nathanael Greene.", "Henry Knox, a young bookkeeper, impressed Adams and Washington with ordnance knowledge and was subsequently promoted to colonel and chief of artillery.", "Similarly, Washington was impressed by Alexander Hamilton's intelligence and bravery.", "He would later promote him to colonel and appoint him his aide-de-camp.Washington initially banned the enlistment of blacks, both free and enslaved, into the Continental Army.", "The British saw an opportunity to divide the colonies, and the colonial governor of Virginia issued a proclamation, which promised freedom to slaves if they joined the British.", "Desperate for manpower by late 1777, Washington relented and overturned his ban.", "By the end of the war, around one-tenth of Washington's army were blacks.", "Following the British surrender, Washington sought to enforce terms of the preliminary Treaty of Paris (1783) by reclaiming slaves freed by the British and returning them to servitude.", "He arranged to make this request to Sir Guy Carleton on May 6, 1783.Instead, Carleton issued 3,000 freedom certificates and all former slaves in New York City were able to leave before the city was evacuated by the British in late November 1783.===Siege of Boston===Early in 1775, in response to the growing rebellious movement, London sent British troops to occupy Boston, led by General Thomas Gage, commander of British forces in America.", "They set up fortifications, making the city impervious to attack.", "Local militias surrounded the city and effectively trapped the British troops, resulting in a standoff.Washington arriving in Boston on July 2, 1775, to take command of the Continental ArmyAs Washington headed for Boston, word of his march preceded him, and he was greeted everywhere; gradually, he became a symbol of the Patriot cause.", "Upon arrival on July 2, 1775, two weeks after the Battle of Bunker Hill, he set up headquarters in Cambridge.", "When he went to inspect the army, he found undisciplined militia.", "After consultation, he initiated Benjamin Franklin's suggested reforms: drilling the soldiers and imposing strict discipline.", "Washington ordered his officers to identify the skills of recruits to ensure military effectiveness, while removing incompetent officers.", "He petitioned Gage, his former superior, to release captured Patriot officers from prison and treat them humanely.", "In October 1775, King George III declared that the colonies were in open rebellion and relieved Gage of command for incompetence, replacing him with General William Howe.The Continental Army, reduced to only 9,600 men by January 1776 due to expiring short-term enlistments, had to be supplemented with militia.", "Soon, they were joined by Knox with heavy artillery captured from Fort Ticonderoga.", "When the Charles River froze over, Washington was eager to cross and storm Boston, but General Gates and others were opposed to untrained militia striking well-garrisoned fortifications.", "Instead, he agreed to secure the Dorchester Heights, 100 feet above Boston, with Knox's artillery to try to force the British out.On March 9, under cover of darkness, Washington's troops bombarded British ships in Boston harbor.", "On March 17, 9,000 British troops and Loyalists began a chaotic ten-day evacuation aboard 120 ships.", "Soon after, Washington entered the city with 500 men, with explicit orders not to plunder the city.", "He refrained from exerting military authority in Boston, leaving civilian matters in the hands of local authorities.===New York and New Jersey=======Battle of Long Island====''Battle of Long Island'', an 1858 painting by alt=Painting by Alonzo Chappel, 1858, showing the frantic battle scene of the Battle of Long Island, with smoke in the backgroundAfter the victory at Boston, Washington correctly guessed that the British would return to New York City, a Loyalist stronghold, and retaliate.", "He arrived there on April 13, 1776, and ordered the construction of fortifications to thwart the expected British attack.", "He also ordered his occupying forces to treat civilians and their property with respect, to avoid the abuses Bostonians suffered at the hands of British troops.Howe transported his resupplied army, with the British fleet, from Halifax to New York City.", "George Germain, who ran the British war effort in England, believed it could be won with one \"decisive blow\".", "The British forces, including more than a hundred ships and thousands of troops, began arriving on Staten Island on July2 to lay siege to the city.", "After the Declaration of Independence was unanimously adopted on July 4, Washington informed his troops on July9 that Congress had declared the united colonies to be \"free and independent states\".Howe's troop strength totaled 32,000 regulars and Hessian auxiliaries, and Washington's consisted of 23,000, mostly raw recruits and militia.", "In August, Howe landed 20,000 troops at Gravesend, Brooklyn, and approached Washington's fortifications Opposing his generals, Washington chose to fight, based on inaccurate information that Howe's army had only 8,000-plus troops.", "In the Battle of Long Island, Howe assaulted Washington's flank and inflicted 1,500 Patriot casualties, the British suffering 400.Washington retreated, instructing General William Heath to acquire river craft.", "On August 30, General William Alexander held off the British and gave cover while the army crossed the East River under darkness to Manhattan without loss of life or materiel, although Alexander was captured.Howe was emboldened by his Long Island victory and dispatched Washington as \"George Washington, Esq.\"", "in futility to negotiate peace.", "Washington declined, demanding to be addressed with diplomatic protocol, as general and fellow belligerent, not as a \"rebel\", lest his men be hanged as such if captured.", "The Royal Navy bombarded the unstable earthworks on lower Manhattan Island.", "Despite misgivings, Washington heeded the advice of Generals Greene and Putnam to defend Fort Washington.", "They were unable to hold it; Washington abandoned the fort and ordered his army north to the White Plains.Howe's pursuit forced Washington to retreat across the Hudson River to Fort Lee to avoid encirclement.", "Howe landed his troops on Manhattan in November and captured Fort Washington, inflicting high casualties on the Americans.", "Washington was responsible for delaying the retreat, though he blamed Congress and General Greene.", "Loyalists in New York City considered Howe a liberator and spread a rumor that Washington had set fire to the city.", "Patriot morale reached its lowest when Lee was captured.", "Now reduced to 5,400 troops, Washington's army retreated through New Jersey, and Howe broke off pursuit to set up winter quarters in New York.====Crossing the Delaware, Trenton, and Princeton====''Washington Crossing the Delaware'', an 1851 portrait by Emanuel Leutze|alt=Famous 1851 painting by Emanuel Leutze, depicting Washington, standing in a boat with his troops, crossing the icy Delaware River, with soldiers pushing away chunks of ice''The Passage of the Delaware'', an 1819 portrait by Thomas Sully''The Capture of the Hessians at Trenton, December 26, 1776'', a John Trumbull portrait depicting the Battle of Trenton|alt=Painting showing Washington on horseback, accepting the surrender of Hessian troops after the Battle at TrentonWashington crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania, where Lee's replacement General John Sullivan joined him with 2,000 more troops.", "The future of the Continental Army was in doubt due to lack of supplies, a harsh winter, expiring enlistments, and desertions.", "Washington was disappointed that many New Jersey residents were Loyalists or skeptical about independence.Howe split up his army and posted a Hessian garrison at Trenton to hold western New Jersey and the east shore of the Delaware.", "Desperate for a victory, Washington and his generals devised a surprise attack on Trenton.", "The army was to cross the Delaware in three divisions: one led by Washington (2,400 troops), another by General James Ewing (700), and the third by Colonel John Cadwalader (1,500).", "The force was to then split, with Washington taking the Pennington Road and General Sullivan traveling south on the river's edge.Washington ordered a 60-mile search for Durham boats to transport his army, and the destruction of vessels that could be used by the British.", "He personally risked capture while staking out the Jersey shoreline alone leading up to the crossing.", "Washington crossed the Delaware on Christmas night, 1776.His men followed across the ice-obstructed river from McConkey's Ferry, with 40 men per vessel.", "The wind churned up the waters, and they were pelted with hail, but by 3:00 a.m. on December 26, they made it across with no losses.", "Knox was delayed, managing frightened horses and about 18 field guns on flat-bottomed ferries.", "Cadwalader and Ewing failed to cross due to the ice and heavy currents.", "Once Knox arrived, Washington proceeded to Trenton, rather than risk being spotted returning his army to Pennsylvania.The troops spotted Hessian positions a mile from Trenton, so Washington split his force into two columns, rallying his men: \"Soldiers keep by your officers.", "For God's sake, keep by your officers.\"", "The two columns were separated at the Birmingham crossroads.", "General Greene's column took the upper Ferry Road, led by Washington, and General Sullivan's column advanced on River Road.", "The Americans marched in sleet and snowfall.", "Many were shoeless with bloodied feet, and two died of exposure.", "At sunrise, Washington, aided by Colonel Knox and artillery, led his men in a surprise attack on the unsuspecting Hessians and their commander, Colonel Johann Rall.", "The Hessians had 22 killed, including Colonel Rall, 83 wounded, and 850 captured with supplies.Washington retreated across the Delaware to Pennsylvania and returned to New Jersey on January 3, 1777, launching an attack on British regulars at Princeton, with 40 Americans killed or wounded and 273 British killed or captured.", "American Generals Hugh Mercer and John Cadwalader were being driven back by the British when Mercer was mortally wounded.", "Washington arrived and led the men in a counterattack which advanced to within of the British line.Some British troops retreated after a brief stand, while others took refuge in Nassau Hall, which became the target of Colonel Alexander Hamilton's cannons.", "Washington's troops charged, the British surrendered in less than an hour, and 194 soldiers laid down their arms.", "Howe retreated to New York City where his army remained inactive until early the next year.", "Washington took up winter headquarters in Jacob Arnold's Tavern in Morristown, New Jersey, while he received munition from the Hibernia mines.", "While in Morristown, Washington's troops disrupted British supply lines and expelled them from parts of New Jersey.During his stay in Morristown, Washington ordered the inoculation of Continental troops against smallpox.", "This went against the wishes of the Continental Congress who had issued a proclamation prohibiting it, but Washington feared the spread of smallpox in the army.", "The mass inoculation proved successful, with only isolated infections occurring and no regiments incapacitated by the disease.The British still controlled New York, and many Patriot soldiers did not re-enlist or deserted after the harsh winter campaign.", "Congress instituted greater rewards for re-enlisting and punishments for desertion to effect greater troop numbers.", "Strategically, Washington's victories at Trenton and Princeton were pivotal; they revived Patriot morale and quashed the British strategy of showing overwhelming force followed by offering generous terms, changing the course of the war.", "In February 1777, word of the American victories reached London, and the British realized the Patriots were in a position to demand unconditional independence.===Philadelphia=======Brandywine, Germantown, and Saratoga====In July 1777, British General John Burgoyne led the Saratoga campaign south from Quebec through Lake Champlain and recaptured Fort Ticonderoga intending to divide New England, including control of the Hudson River.", "However, General Howe in British-occupied New York City blundered, taking his army south to Philadelphia rather than up the Hudson River to join Burgoyne near Albany.Washington and Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette rushed to Philadelphia to engage Howe.", "In the Battle of Brandywine, on September 11, 1777, Howe outmaneuvered Washington and marched unopposed into the nation's capital at Philadelphia.", "A Patriot attack failed against the British at Germantown in October.In Upstate New York, the Patriots were led by General Horatio Gates.", "Concerned about Burgoyne's movements southward, Washington sent reinforcements north with Generals Benedict Arnold, his most aggressive field commander, and Benjamin Lincoln.", "On October 7, 1777, Burgoyne tried to take Bemis Heights but was isolated from support by Howe.", "He was forced to retreat to Saratoga and ultimately surrendered after the Battles of Saratoga.", "As Washington suspected, Gates' victory emboldened his critics.Biographer John Alden maintains, \"It was inevitable that the defeats of Washington's forces and the concurrent victory of the forces in upper New York should be compared.\"", "Admiration for Washington was waning, including little credit from John Adams.====Valley Forge and Monmouth====''Washington and Lafayette at Valley Forge'', a 1907 portrait by alt=Painting showing Washington and the Marquis de Lafayette on horseback in a winter setting, at Valley Forge''Washington Rallying the Troops at Monmouth'', an 1854 portrait by Emanuel Leutze depicting Washington at the Battle of Monmouth|alt=Painting showing Washington on horseback, sword raised, in the midst of battle.Washington and his Continental Army of 11,000 men went into winter quarters at Valley Forge north of Philadelphia in December 1777.There they lost between 2,000 and 3,000 men as a result of disease and lack of food, clothing, and shelter.", "The British were comfortably quartered in Philadelphia, paying for supplies in pounds sterling, while Washington struggled with a devalued American paper currency.", "The woodlands were soon exhausted of game.", "By February, Washington was facing lowered morale and increased desertions among his troops.An internal revolt by his officers, led by Major General Thomas Conway, prompted some members of Congress to consider removing Washington from command.", "Washington's supporters resisted, and the matter was dropped after much deliberation.", "Once the plot was exposed, Conway wrote an apology to Washington, resigned, and returned to France.Washington made repeated petitions to Congress for provisions.", "He received a congressional delegation to check the Army's conditions and expressed the urgency of the situation, proclaiming: \"Something must be done.", "Important alterations must be made.\"", "He recommended that Congress expedite supplies, and Congress agreed to strengthen and fund the army's supply lines by reorganizing the commissary department.", "By late February, supplies began arriving.", "Meanwhile, Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben's incessant drilling transformed Washington's recruits into a disciplined fighting force by the end of winter camp.", "For his services, Washington promoted Von Steuben to Major General and made him chief of staff.In early 1778, the French responded to Burgoyne's defeat and entered into a Treaty of Alliance with the Americans.", "Congress ratified the treaty in May, which amounted to a French declaration of war against Britain.", "In May 1778, Howe resigned and was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton.The British evacuated Philadelphia for New York that June and Washington summoned a war council of American and French generals.", "He chose a partial attack on the retreating British at the Battle of Monmouth.", "Generals Charles Lee and Lafayette moved with 4,000 men, without Washington's knowledge, and bungled their first attack on June 28.Washington relieved Lee and achieved a draw after an expansive battle.", "At nightfall, the British continued their retreat to New York, and Washington moved his army outside the city.", "Monmouth was Washington's last battle in the North.===West Point espionage===Washington became America's first spymaster by designing an espionage system against the British.", "In 1778, Major Benjamin Tallmadge formed the Culper Ring at Washington's direction to covertly collect information about the British in New York.", "Washington had disregarded incidents of disloyalty by Benedict Arnold, who had distinguished himself in many campaigns, including his invasion of Quebec and the Battle of Saratoga.In 1780, Arnold began supplying British spymaster John André with sensitive information intended to compromise Washington and capture West Point, a key American defensive position on the Hudson River.", "Historians Nathaniel Philbrick and Ron Chernow noted possible reasons for Arnold's defection to be his anger at losing promotions to junior officers, or repeated slights from Congress.", "He was also deeply in debt, profiteering from the war, and disappointed by Washington's lack of support during his eventual court-martial.After repeated requests, Washington agreed to give Arnold command of West Point in August.", "On September 21, Arnold met André and gave him plans to take over the garrison.", "While returning to British lines, André was captured by militia who discovered the plans; upon hearing the news of André's capture on September 24, while waiting to greet and have breakfast with Washington, Arnold immediately fled to , the ship that had brought André to West Point, and escaped to New York.Upon being told about Arnold's treason, Washington recalled the commanders positioned under Arnold at key points around the fort to prevent any complicity.", "He assumed personal command at West Point and reorganized its defenses.", "André's trial for espionage ended in a death sentence, and Washington offered to return him to the British in exchange for Arnold, but Clinton refused.", "André was hanged on October 2, 1780, despite his request for a firing squad, to deter other spies.===Southern theater and Yorktown===Rochambeau give final orders before launching the Siege of Yorktown in Yorktown, Virginia in September 1781.|alt=Generals Washington and Rochambeau, standing in front of HQ tent, giving last orders before the attack on YorktownIn late 1778, General Clinton shipped 3,000 troops from New York to Georgia and launched a Southern invasion against Savannah, reinforced by 2,000 British and Loyalist troops.", "They repelled an attack by American patriots and French naval forces, which bolstered the British war effort.In June 1778, Iroquois warriors joined with Loyalist rangers led by Walter Butler and killed more than 200 frontiersmen, laying waste to the Wyoming Valley in Northeastern Pennsylvania.", "In mid-1779, in response to this and other attacks on New England towns, Washington ordered General John Sullivan to lead an expedition to force the Iroquois out of New York by effecting \"the total destruction and devastation\" of their villages and taking their women and children hostage.", "The expedition systematically destroyed Iroquois villages and food stocks, and forced at least 5,036 Iroquois to flee to British Canada.", "The campaign directly killed a few hundred Iroquois, but according to historian Rhiannon Koehler, the net effect was to reduce the Iroquois by half.", "They became unable to survive the harsh winter of 1779–1780; some historians now describe the campaign as a genocide.Washington's troops went into quarters at Morristown, New Jersey for their worst winter of the war, with temperatures well below freezing.", "New York Harbor was frozen, snow covered the ground for weeks, and the troops again lacked provisions.In January 1780, Clinton assembled 12,500 troops and attacked Charles Town, South Carolina, defeating General Benjamin Lincoln.", "By June, they occupied the South Carolina Piedmont.", "Clinton returned to New York and left 8,000 troops under the command of General Charles Cornwallis.", "Congress replaced Lincoln with Horatio Gates; after his defeat in the Battle of Camden, Gates was replaced by Nathanael Greene, Washington's initial choice, but the British had firm control of the South.", "Washington was reinvigorated, however, when Lafayette returned from France with more ships, men, and supplies, and 5,000 veteran French troops led by Marshal Rochambeau arrived at Newport, Rhode Island in July 1780.French naval forces then landed, led by Admiral de Grasse.Washington's army went into winter quarters at New Windsor, New York in December 1780; he urged Congress and state officials to expedite provisions so the army would not \"continue to struggle under the same difficulties they have hitherto endured\".", "On March 1, 1781, Congress ratified the Articles of Confederation, but the government that took effect on March 2 did not have the power to levy taxes, and it loosely held the states together.General Clinton sent Benedict Arnold, now a British Brigadier General with 1,700 troops, to Virginia to capture Portsmouth and conduct raids on Patriot forces; Washington responded by sending Lafayette south to counter Arnold's efforts.", "Washington initially hoped to bring the fight to New York, drawing off British forces from Virginia and ending the war there, but Rochambeau advised him that Cornwallis in Virginia was the better target.", "De Grasse's fleet arrived off the Virginia coast, cutting off British retreat.", "Seeing the advantage, Washington made a feint towards Clinton in New York, then headed south to Virginia.====Yorktown====The siege of Yorktown was a decisive victory by the combined forces of the Continental Army commanded by Washington, the French Army commanded by General Comte de Rochambeau, and the French Navy commanded by Admiral de Grasse.", "On August 19, the march to Yorktown led by Washington and Rochambeau began, which is known now as the \"celebrated march\".", "Washington was in command of an army of 7,800 Frenchmen, 3,100 militia, and 8,000 Continentals.", "Inexperienced in siege warfare, he often deferred to the judgment of General Rochambeau and relied on his advice.", "Despite this, Rochambeau never challenged Washington's authority as the battle's commanding officer.By late September, Patriot-French forces surrounded Yorktown, trapped the British Army, and prevented British reinforcements from Clinton in the North, while the French navy emerged victorious at the Battle of the Chesapeake.", "The final American offensive began with a shot fired by Washington.", "The siege ended with a British surrender on October 19, 1781; over 7,000 British soldiers became prisoners of war.", "Washington negotiated the terms of surrender for two days, and the official signing ceremony took place on October 19; Cornwallis claimed illness and was absent, sending General Charles O'Hara as his proxy.", "As a gesture of goodwill, Washington held a dinner for the American, French, and British generals, all of whom fraternized on friendly terms and identified with one another as members of the same professional military caste.Afterwards, Washington moved the army to New Windsor, New York where they remained stationed until the Treaty of Paris was signed on September 3, 1783, formally ending the war.", "Although the peace treaty did not happen for two years following the end of the battle, Yorktown proved to be the last significant battle or campaign of the Revolutionary War, with the British Parliament agreeing to cease hostilities in March 1782.===Demobilization and resignation===''General George Washington Resigning His Commission'', an 1824 portrait by John Trumbull|alt=Painting by John Trumbull, depicting General Washington, standing in Maryland State House hall, surrounded by statesmen and others, resigning his commissionWhen peace negotiations began in April 1782, both the British and French began gradually evacuating their forces.", "With the American treasury empty, unpaid and mutinous soldiers forced the adjournment of Congress.", "In March 1783, Washington successfully calmed the Newburgh Conspiracy, a planned munity by American officers; Congress promised each a five-year bonus.", "Washington submitted an account of $450,000 in expenses which he had advanced to the army, equivalent to $ million in .", "The account was settled, though it was allegedly vague about large sums and included expenses his wife had incurred through visits to his headquarters.The following month, a Congressional committee led by Alexander Hamilton began adapting the army for peacetime.", "In August 1783, Washington gave the Army's perspective to the committee in his ''Sentiments on a Peace Establishment'', which advised Congress to keep a standing army, create a \"national militia\" of separate state units, and establish a navy and a national military academy.The Treaty of Paris was signed on September 3, 1783, and Britain officially recognized American independence.", "Washington disbanded his army, giving a farewell address to his soldiers on November 2.During this time, Washington oversaw the evacuation of British forces in New York and was greeted by parades and celebrations.", "Along with Governor George Clinton, he took formal possession of the city on November 25.In early December 1783, Washington bade farewell to his officers at Fraunces Tavern and resigned as commander-in-chief soon thereafter.", "In a final appearance in uniform, he gave a statement to the Congress: \"I consider it an indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my official life, by commending the interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence of them, to his holy keeping.\"", "Washington's resignation was acclaimed at home and abroad and showed a skeptical world that the new republic would not degenerate into chaos.The same month, Washington was appointed president-general of the Society of the Cincinnati, a newly established hereditary fraternity of Revolutionary War officers.", "He served in this capacity for the remainder of his life." ], [ "Early republic (1783–1789)", "===Return to Mount Vernon===Washington was longing to return home after spending just ten days at Mount Vernon out of years of war.", "He arrived on Christmas Eve, delighted to be \"free of the bustle of a camp and the busy scenes of public life\".", "He was a celebrity and was fêted during a visit to his mother at Fredericksburg in February 1784, and he received a constant stream of visitors wishing to pay their respects at Mount Vernon.Washington reactivated his interests in the Great Dismal Swamp and Potomac canal projects begun before the war, though neither paid him any dividends, and he undertook a 34-day, trip to check on his land holdings in the Ohio Country.", "He oversaw the completion of the remodeling work at Mount Vernon, which transformed his residence into the mansion that survives to this day—although his financial situation was not strong.", "Creditors paid him in depreciated wartime currency, and he owed significant amounts in taxes and wages.", "Mount Vernon had made no profit during his absence, and he saw persistently poor crop yields due to pestilence and poor weather.", "His estate recorded its eleventh year running at a deficit in 1787, and there was little prospect of improvement.To make his estate profitable again, Washington undertook a new landscaping plan and succeeded in cultivating a range of fast-growing trees and native shrubs.", "He also began breeding mules after being gifted a Spanish jack by King Charles III of Spain in 1784.There were few mules in the United States at that time, and he believed that they would revolutionize agriculture and transportation.===Constitutional Convention of 1787===''Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States'', a 1940 portrait by Howard Chandler Christy depicting Washington as the presiding officer at the Constitutional Convention in 1787|alt=Painting by Howard Chandler Christy, depicting the signing of the Constitution of the United States, with Washington as the presiding officer standing at rightBefore returning to private life in June 1783, Washington called for a strong union.", "Though he was concerned that he might be criticized for meddling in civil matters, he sent a circular letter to the states, maintaining that the Articles of Confederation was no more than \"a rope of sand\".", "He believed the nation was on the verge of \"anarchy and confusion\", was vulnerable to foreign intervention, and that a national constitution would unify the states under a strong central government.When Shays' Rebellion erupted in Massachusetts over taxation, Washington was further convinced that a national constitution was needed.", "Some nationalists feared that the new republic had descended into lawlessness, and they met on September 11, 1786, at Annapolis to ask Congress to revise the Articles of Confederation.", "One of their biggest efforts was getting Washington to attend.", "Congress agreed to a Constitutional Convention to be held in Philadelphia in Spring 1787, with each state to send delegates.On December 4, 1786, Washington was chosen to lead the Virginia delegation, but he declined on December 21.He had concerns about the legality of the convention and consulted James Madison, Henry Knox, and others.", "They persuaded him to attend as his presence might induce reluctant states to send delegates and smooth the way for the ratification process while also giving legitimacy to the convention.", "On March 28, Washington told Governor Edmund Randolph that he would attend the convention but made it clear that he was urged to attend.Washington arrived in Philadelphia on May 9, 1787, though a quorum was not attained until May 25.Benjamin Franklin nominated Washington to preside over the convention, and he was unanimously elected to serve as president general.", "The convention's state-mandated purpose was to revise the Articles of Confederation, and the new government would be established when the resulting document was \"duly confirmed by the several states\".", "Randolph introduced Madison's Virginia Plan on May 27, the third day of the convention.", "It called for an entirely new constitution and a sovereign national government, which Washington highly recommended.On July 10, Washington wrote to Alexander Hamilton: \"I almost despair of seeing a favorable issue to the proceedings of our convention and do therefore repent having had any agency in the business.\"", "Nevertheless, he lent his prestige to the work of the other delegates, unsuccessfully lobbying many to support ratification of the Constitution, such as anti-federalists Edmund Randolph and George Mason.", "The final version was voted on and signed by 39 of 55 delegates on September 17, 1787.===Chancellor of William & Mary===In 1788, the Board of Visitors of the College of William & Mary decided to re-establish the position of Chancellor, and elected Washington to the office on January 18.The College Rector Samuel Griffin wrote to Washington inviting him to the post, and in a letter dated April 30, 1788, Washington accepted the position of the 14th Chancellor of the College of William & Mary.", "He continued to serve through his presidency until his death on December 14, 1799.===First presidential election===The delegates to the Convention anticipated a Washington presidency and left it to him to define the office once elected.The state electors under the Constitution voted for the president on February 4, 1789, and Washington suspected that most Republicans had not voted for him.", "The mandated March4 date passed without a Congressional quorum to count the votes, but a quorum was reached on April 5.The votes were tallied the next day, and Washington won the majority of every state's electoral votes.", "He was informed of his election as president by Congressional Secretary Charles Thomson.", "John Adams received the next highest number of votes and was elected vice president.", "Despite feeling \"anxious and painful sensations\" about leaving Mount Vernon, he departed for New York City on April 16 to be inaugurated." ], [ "Presidency (1789–1797)", "''President George Washington'', a 1795 portrait by alt=Painting by Gilbert Stuart (1795), formal portrait of President George WashingtonWashington was inaugurated on April 30, 1789, taking the oath of office at Federal Hall in New York City.", "His coach was led by militia and a marching band and followed by statesmen and foreign dignitaries in an inaugural parade, with a crowd of 10,000.Chancellor Robert R. Livingston administered the oath, using a Bible provided by the Masons, after which the militia fired a 13-gun salute.", "Washington read a speech in the Senate Chamber, asking \"that Almighty Being ... consecrate the liberties and happiness of the people of the United States\".", "Though he wished to serve without a salary, Congress insisted that he accept it, later providing Washington $25,000 per year to defray costs of the presidency, equivalent to $ million today.Washington wrote to James Madison: \"As the first of everything in our situation will serve to establish a precedent, it is devoutly wished on my part that these precedents be fixed on true principles.\"", "To that end, he preferred the title \"Mr. President\" over more majestic names proposed by the Senate, including \"His Excellency\" and \"His Highness the President\".", "His executive precedents included the inaugural address, messages to Congress, and the cabinet form of the executive branch.Washington planned to resign after his first term, but political strife convinced him to remain in office.", "He was an able administrator and a judge of talent and character, and he regularly talked with department heads to get their advice.", "He tolerated opposing views, despite fears that a democratic system would lead to political violence, and he conducted a smooth transition of power to his successor.", "He remained non-partisan throughout his presidency and opposed the divisiveness of political parties, but he favored a strong central government, was sympathetic to a Federalist form of government, and leery of the Republican opposition.Washington dealt with major problems.", "The old Confederation lacked the powers to handle its workload and had weak leadership, no executive, a small bureaucracy of clerks, large debt, worthless paper money, and no power to establish taxes.", "He had the task of assembling an executive department and relied on Tobias Lear for advice selecting its officers.", "Britain refused to relinquish its forts in the American West, and Barbary pirates preyed on American merchant ships in the Mediterranean before the United States even had a navy.===Cabinet and executive departments===Congress created executive departments in 1789, including the State Department in July, the War Department in August, and the Treasury Department in September.", "Washington appointed Edmund Randolph as Attorney General, Samuel Osgood as Postmaster General, Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State, Henry Knox as Secretary of War, and Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury.", "Washington's cabinet became a consulting and advisory body, not mandated by the Constitution.Washington's cabinet members formed rival parties with sharply opposing views, most fiercely illustrated between Hamilton and Jefferson.", "Washington restricted cabinet discussions to topics of his choosing, without participating in the debate.", "He occasionally requested cabinet opinions in writing and expected department heads to agreeably carry out his decisions.===Domestic issues===Washington was apolitical and opposed the formation of parties, suspecting that conflict would undermine republicanism.", "He exercised great restraint in using his veto power, writing that \"I give my Signature to many Bills with which my Judgment is at variance...\"His closest advisors formed two factions, portending the First Party System.", "Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton formed the Federalist Party to promote national credit and a financially powerful nation.", "Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson opposed Hamilton's agenda and founded the Jeffersonian Republicans.", "Washington favored Hamilton's agenda, however, and it ultimately went into effect—resulting in bitter controversy.Washington proclaimed November 26, 1789, as a day of Thanksgiving to encourage national unity.", "\"It is the duty of all nations to acknowledge the providence of Almighty God, to obey His will, to be grateful for His benefits, and humbly to implore His protection and favor.\"", "He spent that day fasting and visiting debtors in prison to provide them with food and beer.====African Americans====In response to two antislavery petitions that were presented to Congress in 1790, slaveholders in Georgia and South Carolina threatened to \"blow the trumpet of civil war\".", "Washington and Congress responded with a series of racist measures: naturalization was denied to black immigrants; blacks were barred from serving in state militias; the Southwest Territory (later the state of Tennessee) was permitted to maintain slavery; and two more slave states were admitted (Kentucky in 1792 and Tennessee in 1796).", "On February 12, 1793, Washington signed into law the Fugitive Slave Act, which overrode state laws and courts, allowing agents to cross state lines to return escaped slaves.", "Many free blacks in the north decried the law believing it would allow bounty hunting and kidnapping.", "The Fugitive Slave Act gave effect to the Constitution's Fugitive Slave Clause, and the Act was passed overwhelmingly in Congress.At the same time, Washington signed a reenactment of the Northwest Ordinance in 1789, which had freed all slaves brought after 1787 into a vast expanse of federal territory north of the Ohio River, except for slaves escaping from slave states.", "The 1787 law lapsed when the new U.S. Constitution was ratified in 1789.He also signed the Slave Trade Act of 1794, which sharply limited American involvement in the Atlantic slave trade.", "On February 18, 1791, Congress admitted the free state of Vermont into the Union as the 14th state as of March 4, 1791.====National Bank====President's House in Philadelphia, where both Washington and then John Adams worked and resided until completion of the White House in 1800|alt=Engraving of President Washington's House in Philadelphia, his residence from 1790 to 1797Washington's first term was largely devoted to economic concerns.", "Establishment of public credit became a primary challenge for the federal government.", "Hamilton submitted a report to a deadlocked Congress, and he, Madison, and Jefferson reached the Compromise of 1790 in which Jefferson agreed to Hamilton's debt proposals in exchange for moving the nation's capital temporarily to Philadelphia and then south near Georgetown on the Potomac River.", "The terms were legislated in the Funding Act of 1790 and the Residence Act, both of which Washington signed into law.", "Congress authorized the assumption and payment of the nation's debts, with funding provided by customs duties and excise taxes.Hamilton caused controversy in Cabinet by advocating for the establishment of the First Bank of the United States.", "Madison and Jefferson objected to the idea, but legislation creating the bank easily passed Congress.", "Jefferson and Randolph insisted the federal government was going beyond its constitutional authority.", "Hamilton argued the government could charter the bank under the implied powers granted by the constitution.", "Washington sided with Hamilton and signed the bank legislation on February 25, 1791.The rift between Hamilton and Jefferson, meanwhile, became openly hostile.The nation's first financial crisis occurred in March 1792.Hamilton's Federalists exploited large loans to gain control of U.S. debt securities, causing a run on the national bank; the markets returned to normal by mid-April.", "Jefferson believed Hamilton was part of the scheme, despite Hamilton's efforts to ameliorate.====Jefferson–Hamilton feud====Jefferson and Hamilton adopted diametrically opposed political principles.", "Hamilton believed in a strong national government requiring a national bank and foreign loans to function, while Jefferson believed the states and the farm element should primarily direct the government; he also resented the idea of banks and foreign loans.", "To Washington's dismay, the two men persistently entered into disputes and infighting.", "Hamilton demanded that Jefferson resign if he could not support Washington, and Jefferson told Washington that Hamilton's fiscal system would lead to the overthrow of the republic.", "Washington urged them to call a truce for the sake of the nation, but they ignored him.Jefferson's political actions, his support of Freneau's ''National Gazette'', and his attempts to undermine Hamilton nearly led Washington to dismiss him from the cabinet; he ultimately resigned his position in December 1793, and Washington forsook him.The feud led to the well-defined Federalist and Republican parties, and party affiliation became necessary for election to Congress by 1794.Washington remained aloof from congressional attacks on Hamilton, but did not publicly protect him.", "The Hamilton–Reynolds sex scandal opened Hamilton to disgrace, but Washington continued to hold him in \"very high esteem\".====Whiskey Rebellion====Fort Cumberland, Maryland, before their march to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion in Western PennsylvaniaIn March 1791, at Hamilton's urging, with support from Madison, Congress imposed an excise tax on distilled spirits to help curtail the national debt, which took effect in July.", "Grain farmers strongly protested in Pennsylvania's frontier districts; they argued that they were unrepresented and were shouldering too much of the debt, comparing their situation to British taxation pre-Revolution.On August 2, Washington assembled his cabinet to discuss the situation.", "Unlike Washington, who had reservations about using force, Hamilton was eager to suppress the rebellion with federal authority.", "Wanting to avoid involving the federal government, Washington first called on Pennsylvania state officials to take the initiative, but they declined.", "On August 7, Washington issued his first proclamation for calling up state militias.", "After appealing for peace, he reminded the protestors that, unlike the rule of the British crown, the Federal law was issued by state-elected representatives.Threats and violence against tax collectors, however, escalated into defiance against federal authority in 1794 and gave rise to the Whiskey Rebellion.", "Washington issued a final proclamation on September 25, threatening the use of military force to no avail.", "The federal army was not up to the task, so Washington invoked the Militia Act of 1792 to summon state militias.", "Governors sent troops, initially commanded by Washington, who handed over command to Henry Lee to lead them into the rebellious districts.", "They took 150 prisoners, and the remaining rebels dispersed.", "Two of the prisoners were condemned to death, but Washington exercised his Constitutional authority for the first time and pardoned them.Washington's forceful action demonstrated that the new government could protect itself and its tax collectors.", "This represented the first use of federal military force against the states and citizens.", "Washington justified his action against \"certain self-created societies\", which he regarded as \"subversive organizations\" that threatened the national union.", "He did not dispute their right to protest, but he insisted that their dissent must not violate federal law.", "Congress agreed and extended their congratulations to him; only Madison and Jefferson expressed indifference.===Foreign affairs===In April 1792, the French Revolutionary Wars began between Britain and France, and Washington declared America's neutrality.", "The revolutionary government of France sent diplomat Edmond-Charles Genêt to America, and he was welcomed with great enthusiasm.", "He created a network of new Democratic-Republican Societies promoting France's interests, but Washington denounced them and demanded that the French recall Genêt.", "The National Assembly of France granted Washington honorary French citizenship on August 26, 1792, during the early stages of the French Revolution.Hamilton formulated the Jay Treaty to normalize trade relations with Britain while removing them from western forts, and also to resolve financial debts remaining from the Revolution.", "Chief Justice John Jay acted as Washington's negotiator and signed the treaty on November 19, 1794; critical Jeffersonians, however, supported France.", "Washington deliberated, then supported the treaty because it avoided war with Britain, but was disappointed that its provisions favored Britain.", "He mobilized public opinion and secured ratification in the Senate but faced frequent public criticism.The British agreed to abandon their forts around the Great Lakes, and the United States modified the boundary with Canada.", "The government liquidated numerous pre-Revolution debts, and the British opened the British West Indies to American trade.", "The treaty secured peace with Britain and a decade of prosperous trade.", "Jefferson claimed that it angered France and \"invited rather than avoided\" war.", "Relations with France deteriorated afterward and, two days before Washington's term ended, the French Directory declared the authority to seize American ships, leaving succeeding president John Adams with prospective war.===Native American affairs===''Battle of Fallen Timbers'', an 1896 portrait by Rufus Fairchild Zogbaum depicting the final battle of the Northwest Indian WarDuring the fall of 1789, Washington had to contend with the British refusing to evacuate their forts in the Northwest frontier and their concerted efforts to incite Indian tribes to attack American settlers.", "The Northwest tribes under Miami chief Little Turtle allied with the British to resist American expansion, and killed 1,500 settlers between 1783 and 1790.Seneca chief Red Jacket was Washington's peace emissary with the Northwestern ConfederacyWashington declared that \"the Government of the United States are determined that their Administration of Indian Affairs shall be directed entirely by the great principles of Justice and humanity\", and provided that treaties should negotiate their land interests.", "The administration regarded powerful tribes as foreign nations, and Washington even smoked a peace pipe and drank wine with them at the President's House in Philadelphia.", "He made numerous attempts to conciliate them; he equated killing indigenous peoples with killing whites and sought to integrate them into European American culture.In the Southwest, negotiations failed between federal commissioners and raiding Indian tribes seeking retribution.", "Washington invited Creek Chief Alexander McGillivray and 24 leading chiefs to New York to negotiate a treaty and treated them like foreign dignitaries.", "Knox and McGillivray concluded the Treaty of New York on August 7, 1790, which provided the tribes with agricultural supplies and McGillivray with the rank of Brigadier General and an annual salary of $1,200, .In 1790, Washington sent Brigadier General Josiah Harmar to pacify the Northwest tribes, but Little Turtle routed him twice and forced him to withdraw.", "The Northwestern Confederacy of tribes used guerrilla tactics and were an effective force against the sparsely manned American Army.", "Washington sent Major General Arthur St. Clair from Fort Washington on an expedition to restore peace in the territory in 1791.On November 4, St. Clair's forces were ambushed and soundly defeated by tribal forces with few survivors.Washington replaced the disgraced St. Clair with the Revolutionary War hero Anthony Wayne.", "From 1792 to 1793, Wayne instructed his troops on Native American warfare tactics and instilled discipline which was lacking under St. Clair.", "In August 1794, Washington sent Wayne into tribal territory with authority to drive them out by burning their villages and crops in the Maumee Valley.", "On August 24, the American army defeated the Northwestern Confederacy at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, and the Treaty of Greenville in August 1795 opened two-thirds of the Ohio Country for American settlement.===Second term===USS ''Constitution'', commissioned and named by President Washington in 1794Washington initially planned to retire after his first term, weary of office and in poor health.", "After dealing with the infighting in his own cabinet and with partisan critics, he showed little enthusiasm for a second term, while Martha also wanted him not to run.", "Washington's nephew George Augustine Washington, managing Mount Vernon in his absence, was critically ill, further increasing Washington's desire to retire.Many, however, urged him to run for a second term.", "Madison told him that his absence would only allow the dangerous political rift in his cabinet and the House to worsen.", "Jefferson also pleaded with him not to retire, agreeing to drop his attacks on Hamilton, and stating that he would also retire if Washington did.", "Hamilton maintained that Washington's absence would be \"deplored as the greatest evil\" to the country.", "With the election of 1792 nearing, Washington relented and agreed to run.On February 13, 1793, the Electoral College unanimously re-elected Washington president, and John Adams as vice president by a vote of 77 to 50.He was sworn into office by Associate Justice William Cushing on March 4, 1793, in the Senate Chamber of Congress Hall in Philadelphia.", "Afterwards, Washington gave a brief address before immediately retiring to the President's House.On April 22, 1793, when the French Revolutionary Wars broke out, Washington issued a proclamation which declared American neutrality.", "He was resolved to pursue \"a conduct friendly and impartial toward the belligerent Powers\" while also warning Americans not to intervene in the conflict.", "Although Washington recognized France's revolutionary government, he would eventually ask French minister to the United States Edmond-Charles Genêt be recalled over the Citizen Genêt affair.", "Genêt was a diplomatic troublemaker who was openly hostile toward Washington's neutrality policy.", "He procured four American ships as privateers to strike at Spanish forces (British allies) in Florida while organizing militias to strike at other British possessions.", "However, his efforts failed to draw the United States into the conflict.On July 31, 1793, Jefferson submitted his resignation from cabinet.", "Hamilton, desiring more income for his family, resigned from office in January 1795 and was replaced by Oliver Wolcott Jr..", "While his relationship with Washington would remain friendly, Washington's relationship with his Secretary of War Henry Knox deteriorated after rumors that Knox had profited from contracts for the construction of U.S. frigates which had been commissioned under the Naval Act of 1794 in order to combat Barbary pirates, forcing Knox to resign.In the final months of his presidency, Washington was assailed by his political foes and a partisan press who accused him of being ambitious and greedy.", "He came to regard the press as a disuniting, \"diabolical\" force of falsehoods.", "At the end of his second term, Washington retired for personal and political reasons, dismayed with personal attacks, and to ensure that a truly contested presidential election could be held.", "He did not feel bound to a two-term limit, but his retirement set a significant precedent.===Farewell Address===Washington's Farewell Address, published by the ''American Daily Advertiser'' on September 19, 1796|alt=Newspaper showing Washington's Farewell AddressIn 1796, Washington declined to run for a third term of office.", "In May 1792, in anticipation of his retirement, Washington instructed James Madison to prepare a \"valedictory address\", an initial draft of which was entitled the \"Farewell Address\".", "In May 1796, Washington sent the manuscript to Alexander Hamilton who did an extensive rewrite, while Washington provided final edits.", "On September 19, 1796, David Claypoole's ''American Daily Advertiser'' published the final version.Washington stressed that national identity was paramount, as a united America would safeguard freedom and prosperity.", "He warned the nation of three eminent dangers: regionalism, partisanship, and foreign entanglements, and said the \"name of AMERICAN, which belongs to you, in your national capacity, must always exalt the just pride of patriotism\".", "Washington called for men to move beyond partisanship for the common good, stressing that the United States must concentrate on its own interests.", "He warned against foreign alliances and their influence in domestic affairs, and bitter partisanship and the dangers of political parties.", "He counseled friendship and commerce with all nations, but advised against involvement in European wars.", "He stressed the importance of religion, asserting that \"religion and morality are indispensable supports\" in a republic.", "Washington's address favored Hamilton's Federalist ideology and economic policies.He closed the address by reflecting on his legacy:After initial publication, many Republicans, including Madison, criticized the Address and described it as an anti-French campaign document, with Madison believing that Washington was strongly pro-British.In 1839, Washington biographer Jared Sparks maintained that Washington's \"Farewell Address was printed and published with the laws, by order of the legislatures, as an evidence of the value they attached to its political precepts, and of their affection for its author.\"", "In 1972, Washington scholar James Flexner referred to the Farewell Address as receiving as much acclaim as Thomas Jefferson's Declaration of Independence and Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address.", "In 2010, historian Ron Chernow called the ''Farewell Address'' one of the most influential statements on republicanism." ], [ "Post-presidency (1797–1799)", "===Retirement===Washington retired to Mount Vernon in March 1797 and devoted time to his plantations and other business interests.", "His plantation operations were only minimally profitable, and his lands in the west (Piedmont) were under Indian attacks and yielded little income, with squatters there refusing to pay rent.", "He attempted to sell these but without success.", "He became an even more committed Federalist.", "He vocally supported the Alien and Sedition Acts and convinced Federalist John Marshall to run for Congress to weaken the Jeffersonian hold on Virginia.Washington grew restless in retirement, prompted by tensions with France; in a continuation of the French Revolutionary Wars, French privateers began seizing American ships in 1798, and relations deteriorated with France and led to the \"Quasi-War\".", "Washington wrote to Secretary of War James McHenry offering to organize President Adams' army.", "Adams nominated him for a lieutenant general commission on July 4, 1798, and the position of commander-in-chief of the armies.", "Washington served as the commanding general from July 13, 1798, until his death 17 months later.", "He participated in planning for a provisional army, but avoided involvement in details.", "In advising McHenry of potential officers for the army, he appeared to make a complete break with Jefferson's Democratic-Republicans: \"you could as soon scrub the blackamoor white, as to change the principles of a profest Democrat; and that he will leave nothing unattempted to overturn the government of this country.\"", "Washington delegated the active leadership of the army to Hamilton, a major general.", "No army invaded the United States during this period, and Washington did not assume a field command.Washington was known to be rich because of the well-known \"glorified façade of wealth and grandeur\" at Mount Vernon, but nearly all his wealth was in the form of land and slaves rather than ready cash.", "To supplement his income, he erected a distillery for substantial whiskey production.", "He bought land parcels to spur development around the new Federal City named in his honor, and he sold individual lots to middle-income investors rather than multiple lots to large investors, believing they would more likely commit to making improvements.===Final days and death===''Washington on his Deathbed'', an 1851 portrait by Junius Brutus StearnsOn December 12, 1799, Washington inspected his farms on horseback.", "He returned home late and had guests for dinner, sitting down for the meal without changing his damp clothes from the inclement weather of the day.", "He had a sore throat the next day but was well enough to mark trees for cutting.", "That evening, Washington complained of chest congestion.", "The next morning, however, he awoke to an inflamed throat and difficulty breathing.", "He ordered estate overseer George Rawlins to remove nearly a pint of his blood; bloodletting was a common practice of the time.", "His family summoned doctors James Craik, Gustavus Richard Brown, and Elisha C. Dick.", "A fourth doctor, William Thornton, arrived some hours after Washington died.Brown initially believed Washington had quinsy; Dick thought the condition was a more serious \"violent inflammation of the throat\".", "They continued the process of bloodletting to approximately five pints, but Washington's condition deteriorated further.", "Dick proposed a tracheotomy, but the other physicians were not familiar with that procedure and disapproved.", "Washington instructed Brown and Dick to leave the room, while he assured Craik, \"Doctor, I die hard, but I am not afraid to go.", "\"Washington's death came more swiftly than expected.", "On his deathbed, out of fear of being entombed alive, he instructed his private secretary Tobias Lear to wait three days before his burial.", "According to Lear, Washington died between 10 p.m. and 11 p.m. on December 14, 1799, with Martha seated at the foot of his bed.", "His last words were \"'Tis well\", from his conversation with Lear about his burial.", "He was 67.Congress immediately adjourned for the day upon news of Washington's death, and the Speaker's chair was shroud in black the next morning.", "The funeral was held four days after his death on December 18, 1799, at Mount Vernon, where his body was interred.", "Cavalry and foot soldiers led the procession, and six colonels served as the pallbearers.", "The Mount Vernon funeral service was restricted mostly to family and friends.", "Reverend Thomas Davis read the funeral service by the vault with a brief address, followed by a ceremony performed by members of Washington's Masonic lodge in Alexandria, Virginia.", "Word of his death traveled slowly.", "But as it reached other regions of the nation, church bells rang in the cities, and many businesses closed.", "Memorial processions were held in major cities of the United States.", "Martha wore a black mourning cape for one year, and she burned her correspondence with Washington to protect its privacy, though five letters between the couple are known to have survived: two from Martha to George and three from him to her.The diagnosis of Washington's illness and the immediate cause of his death have been subjects of debate since his death.", "The published account of doctors Craik and Brown stated that his symptoms were consistent with cynanche trachealis, a term then used to describe severe inflammation of the upper windpipe, including quinsy.", "Accusations have persisted since Washington's death concerning medical malpractice.", "Modern medical authors, however, largely have concluded that he likely died from severe epiglottitis complicated by the treatments, including multiple doses of calomel, a purgative, and extensive bloodletting which likely caused hypovolemic shock." ], [ "Burial, net worth, and aftermath", "sarcophagi of George (right) and Martha Washington at the entrance to their tomb in Mount VernonWashington was buried in the Washington family vault at Mount Vernon.", "At the time of his death, his estate was worth an estimated $780,000 in 1799, equivalent to $ million in .", "Washington's peak net worth was $587 million, including 300 slaves.", "Washington held title to more than 65,000 acres of land in 37 different locations.In 1830, a disgruntled ex-employee of the estate attempted to steal what he thought was Washington's skull, prompting the construction of a more secure vault.", "In his will, Washington had left instructions for the construction of a new vault as the old family vault was crumbling and needed repair even before his death.", "A new vault was constructed at Mount Vernon the following year to receive the remains of George and Martha and other relatives.In 1832, a joint Congressional committee debated moving his body from Mount Vernon to a crypt in the United States Capitol.", "The crypt had been built by architect Charles Bulfinch in the 1820s during the reconstruction of the burned-out capital, after the Burning of Washington by the British during the War of 1812.Southern opposition was intense, antagonized by an ever-growing rift between North and South; many were concerned that Washington's remains could end up on \"a shore foreign to his native soil\" if the country became divided, and Washington's remains stayed in Mount Vernon.On October 7, 1837, Washington's remains, still in the original lead coffin, were placed within a marble sarcophagus designed by William Strickland and constructed by John Struthers.", "The sarcophagus was sealed and encased with planks, and an outer vault was constructed around it.", "The outer vault has the sarcophagi of both George and Martha Washington; the inner vault has the remains of other Washington family members and relatives." ], [ "Personal life", "''The Washington Family'', a late 18th century portrait by Edward Savage depicting George and Martha Washington with her grandchildren and an unnamed enslaved manWashington was somewhat reserved in personality, but was known for having a strong presence.", "He made speeches and announcements when required, but he was not a noted orator nor debater.", "He was taller than most of his contemporaries; accounts of his height vary from to tall, he weighed between as an adult, and was known for his great strength.He had grey-blue eyes and long reddish-brown hair.", "He did not wear a powdered wig; instead he wore his hair curled, powdered, and tied in a queue in the fashion of the day.Washington frequently suffered from severe tooth decay and ultimately lost all his teeth but one.", "He had several sets of false teeth during his presidency.", "Contrary to common lore, these were not made of wood, but of metal, ivory, bone, animal teeth, and human teeth possibly obtained from slaves.", "These dental problems left him in constant pain, which he treated with laudanum.Washington was a talented equestrian, with Thomas Jefferson describing him as \"the best horseman of his age\".", "He collected thoroughbreds at Mount Vernon, his two favorite horses being Blueskin and Nelson.", "He enjoyed hunting foxes, deer, ducks, and other game.", "He was an excellent dancer and frequently attended the theater.", "He drank alcohol in moderation but was morally opposed to excessive drinking, smoking tobacco, gambling, and profanity.===Religious and spiritual views===''Washington as Master of his Lodge'', an 1870 rendering of the 1793 eventWashington was descended from Anglican minister Lawrence Washington, whose troubles with the Church of England may have prompted his heirs to emigrate to America.", "He was baptized as an infant in April 1732 and became a devoted member of the Anglican Church.", "He served more than 20 years as a vestryman and churchwarden at Fairfax Parish and Truco Parish in Virginia.", "He privately prayed and read the Bible daily, and publicly encouraged people and the nation to pray.", "He may have taken communion on a regular basis prior to the Revolution, but he did not do so following the war.Washington believed in a \"wise, inscrutable, and irresistible\" Creator God who was active in the Universe, contrary to deistic thought.", "He referred to God in American Enlightenment terms, including ''Providence'', the ''Creator'', or the ''Almighty'', and the ''Divine Author'' or ''Supreme Being''.", "He believed in a divine power who watched over battlefields, was involved in the outcome of war, protected his life, and was involved in American politics and specifically the creation of the United States.", "Historian Ron Chernow has argued that Washington avoided evangelistic Christianity or hellfire-and-brimstone speech along with communion or anything inclined to \"flaunt his religiosity\", saying that he \"never used his religion as a device for partisan purposes or in official undertakings\".", "No mention of Jesus Christ appears in his private correspondence, and such references are rare in his public writings.", "At the same time, Washington frequently quoted from the Bible or paraphrased it, and often referred to the Anglican ''Book of Common Prayer''.Washington emphasized religious toleration in a nation with numerous denominations and religions.", "He publicly attended services of different Christian denominations and prohibited anti-Catholic celebrations in the Army.", "He engaged workers at Mount Vernon without regard for religious belief or affiliation.", "While president, he acknowledged major religious sects and gave speeches on religious toleration.", "He was distinctly rooted in the ideas, values, and modes of thinking of the Enlightenment, but he harbored no contempt of organized Christianity and its clergy, \"being no bigot myself to any mode of worship\".", "In 1793, speaking to members of the New Church in Baltimore, Washington said, \"We have abundant reason to rejoice that in this Land the light of truth and reason has triumphed over the power of bigotry and superstition.", "\"Freemasonry was a widely accepted institution in the late 18th century, known for advocating moral teachings.", "Washington was attracted to the Masons' dedication to the Enlightenment principles of rationality, reason, and brotherhood.", "American Masonic lodges did not share the anti-clerical views of the controversial European lodges.A Masonic lodge was established in Fredericksburg, Virginia in September 1752, and Washington was initiated two months later at the age of 20 as one of its first Entered Apprentices.", "Within a year, he progressed through its ranks to become a Master Mason.", "Washington had high regard for the Masonic Order, but his lodge attendance was sporadic.", "In 1777, a convention of Virginia lodges asked him to be the Grand Master of the newly established Grand Lodge of Virginia, but he declined due to his commitments leading the Continental Army.", "After 1782, he frequently corresponded with Masonic lodges and members, and he was listed as Master in the Virginia charter of Alexandria Lodge No.", "22 in 1788." ], [ "Slavery", "In Washington's lifetime, slavery was deeply ingrained in the economic and social fabric of the Colony of Virginia, which continued after the Revolution and the establishment of Virginia as a state.", "Slavery was legal in all of the Thirteen Colonies prior to the American Revolution.===Washington's slaves===''Washington the Farmer at Mount Vernon'', an 1851 portrait by Junius Brutus StearnsWashington owned and rented enslaved African Americans, and during his lifetime over 577 slaves lived and worked at Mount Vernon.", "He acquired them through inheritance, gaining control of 84 dower slaves upon his marriage to Martha, and purchased at least 71 slaves between 1752 and 1773.From 1786, he rented slaves; at the time of his death he was renting 41.Prior to the Revolutionary War, Washington's view on slavery was the same as most Virginia planters of the time.", "Beginning in the 1760s, however, Washington gradually grew to oppose it.", "His first doubts were prompted by his transition from tobacco to grain crops, which left him with a costly surplus of slaves, causing him to question the system's economic efficiency.", "His growing disillusionment with the institution was spurred by the principles of the Revolution and revolutionary friends such as Lafayette and Hamilton.", "Most historians agree the Revolution was central to the evolution of Washington's attitudes on slavery; \"After 1783,\" Kenneth Morgan writes, \"... Washington began to express inner tensions about the problem of slavery more frequently, though always in private\".", "Regardless, Washington would remain dependent on slave labor to work his farms.The many contemporary reports of slave treatment at Mount Vernon are varied and conflicting.", "Historian Kenneth Morgan maintains that Washington was frugal on spending for clothes and bedding for his slaves, and only provided them with just enough food, and that he maintained strict control over his slaves, instructing his overseers to keep them working hard from dawn to dusk year-round.", "In contrast, historian Dorothy Twohig said: \"Food, clothing, and housing seem to have been at least adequate\".Washington faced growing debts involved with the costs of supporting slaves.", "He held an \"engrained sense of racial superiority\" towards African Americans but harbored no ill feelings toward them.", "Some enslaved families worked at different locations on the plantation but were allowed to visit one another on their days off.", "Washington's slaves received two hours off for meals during the workday and were given time off on Sundays and religious holidays.Some accounts report that Washington opposed flogging but at times sanctioned its use, generally as a last resort, on both men and women slaves.", "Washington used both reward and punishment to encourage discipline and productivity in his slaves.", "He tried appealing to an individual's sense of pride, gave better blankets and clothing to the \"most deserving\", and motivated his slaves with cash rewards.", "He believed \"watchfulness and admonition\" were better deterrents against transgressions but would punish those who \"will not do their duty by fair means\".", "Punishment ranged in severity from demotion back to fieldwork, through whipping and beatings, to permanent separation from friends and family by sale.", "Historian Ron Chernow maintains that overseers were required to warn slaves before resorting to the lash and required Washington's written permission before whipping, though his extended absences did not always permit this.Ona Judge, enslaved servant in Washington's presidential householdDuring his presidency, Washington brought several of his slaves to the federal capital.", "When the capital moved from New York City to Philadelphia in 1791, the president began rotating his slave household staff periodically between the capital and Mount Vernon.", "This was done deliberately to circumvent Pennsylvania's Slavery Abolition Act, which stated that any slave who lived there for more than six months was automatically freed.In May 1796, Martha's personal and favorite slave Ona Judge escaped to Portsmouth, New Hampshire.", "At Martha's behest, Washington attempted to capture Ona, using a Treasury agent, but failed.", "In February 1797, around the time of his 65th birthday, Washington's personal slave Hercules Posey escaped from Mount Vernon to Philadelphia and was never found.In February 1786, Washington took a census of Mount Vernon and recorded 224 slaves.", "By 1799, the slave population at Mount Vernon totaled 317, including 143 children.", "Washington owned 124 slaves, leased 40, and held 153 for his wife's dower interest.", "Washington supported many slaves who were too young or too old to work, greatly increasing Mount Vernon's slave population and causing the plantation to operate at a loss.===Abolition and manumission===Based on his private papers and on accounts from his contemporaries, Washington slowly developed a cautious sympathy toward abolitionism that eventually ended with his will freeing his long-time valet Billy Lee, and then subsequently freeing the rest of his personally owned slaves outright upon Martha's death.", "As president, he remained publicly silent on the topic of slavery, believing it was a nationally divisive issue that could undermine the union.During the Revolutionary War, Washington's views on slavery began to change.", "In a 1778 letter to Lund Washington, he made clear his desire \"to get quit of Negroes\" when discussing the exchange of slaves for the land he wanted to buy.", "The next year, Washington stated his intention not to separate enslaved families as a result of \"a change of masters\".", "During the 1780s, Washington privately expressed his support for gradual emancipation.", "In the 1780s, he gave moral support to a plan proposed by Lafayette to purchase land and free slaves to work on it, but declined to participate in the experiment.Washington privately expressed support for emancipation to prominent Methodists Thomas Coke and Francis Asbury in 1785 but declined to sign their petition.", "In personal correspondence the next year, he made clear his desire to see the institution of slavery ended by a gradual legislative process, a view that correlated with the mainstream antislavery literature published in the 1780s that Washington possessed.", "He significantly reduced his purchases of slaves after the war but continued to acquire them in small numbers.In 1788, Washington declined a suggestion from a leading French abolitionist, Jacques Brissot, to establish an abolitionist society in Virginia, stating that although he supported the idea, the time was not yet right.", "Historian Philip D. Morgan wrote that Washington was determined not to risk national unity.", "Washington never responded to any of the antislavery petitions he received, and the subject was not mentioned in either his last address to Congress or his Farewell Address.In 1794, Washington privately told Tobias Lear, his personal secretary, that he found slavery repugnantThe first clear indication that Washington seriously intended to free his slaves appears in a letter written to his secretary, Tobias Lear, in 1794.Washington instructed Lear to find buyers for his land in western Virginia, explaining in a private coda that he was doing so \"to liberate a certain species of property which I possess, very repugnantly to my own feelings\".", "The plan, along with others Washington considered in 1795 and 1796, could not be realized because he failed to find buyers for his land, his reluctance to break up slave families, and the refusal of the Custis heirs to help prevent such separations by freeing their dower slaves at the same time.On July 9, 1799, Washington finished making his last will; the longest provision concerned slavery.", "All his slaves were to be freed after the death of his wife.", "Washington said he did not free them immediately because his slaves intermarried with his wife's dower slaves.", "He forbade their sale or transportation out of Virginia.", "The provision also provided that old and young freed people be taken care of indefinitely; younger ones were to be taught to read and write and placed in suitable occupations.", "Washington emancipated 123 slaves, one of the few large slave-holding Virginians during the Revolutionary Era to do so.On January 1, 1801, one year after George Washington's death, Martha Washington signed an order to free his slaves.", "Many of them, having never strayed far from Mount Vernon, were reluctant to leave; others refused to abandon spouses or children still held as dower slaves by the Custis estate and also stayed with or near Martha.", "Following Washington's instructions in his will, funds were used to feed and clothe the young, aged, and infirm slaves until the early 1830s." ], [ "Historical reputation and legacy", "''Washington, the Constable'', a 1797 portrait by Gilbert StuartWashington's legacy endures as one of the most influential in American history since he served as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, a hero of the Revolution, and the first president of the United States.", "Various historians maintain that he also was a dominant factor in America's founding.", "Revolutionary War comrade Henry Lee eulogized him as \"First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen\".", "Lee's words became the hallmark by which Washington's reputation was impressed upon the American memory, with some biographers regarding him as the great exemplar of republicanism.", "He set many precedents for the national government and the presidency in particular, and he was called the \"Father of His Country\" as early as 1778.Washington is among the highest-ranked U.S. Presidents.Washington became an international symbol for liberation and nationalism as the leader of the first successful revolution against a colonial empire.", "The Federalists made him the symbol of their party, but the Jeffersonians continued to distrust his influence for years and delayed building the Washington Monument.", "Washington was elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences on January 31, 1781.In 1879, Congress proclaimed Washington's Birthday to be a federal holiday.", "Through a congressional joint resolution Public Law 94-479, passed on January 19, 1976, with an effective appointment date of July 4, 1976, he was posthumously appointed to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States during the American Bicentennial.", "President Gerald Ford stated that Washington would \"rank first among all officers of the Army, past and present\".", "On March 13, 1978, Washington was militarily promoted to the rank of General of the Armies.In 1809, Mason Locke Weems wrote a hagiographic biography to honor Washington.", "Historian Ron Chernow maintains that Weems attempted to humanize Washington, making him look less stern, and to inspire \"patriotism and morality\" and to foster \"enduring myths\", such as Washington's refusal to lie about damaging his father's cherry tree.", "Weems' accounts have never been proven or disproven.", "Historian John Ferling, however, maintains that Washington remains the only founder and president ever to be referred to as \"godlike\", and points out that his character has been the most scrutinized by historians.", "Biographer Douglas Southall Freeman concluded, \"The great big thing stamped across that man is character.\"", "Expanding on Freeman's assessment, historian David Hackett Fischer defined Washington's character as \"integrity, self-discipline, courage, absolute honesty, resolve, and decision, but also forbearance, decency, and respect for others\".", "Polls of historians have consistently placed Washington among the highest-ranked of presidents.In the 21st century, Washington's reputation has been critically scrutinized.Ron Chernow describes Washington as always trying to be even-handed in dealing with the Natives.", "He states that Washington hoped they would abandon their itinerant hunting life and adapt to fixed agricultural communities in the manner of white settlers.", "He also maintains that Washington never advocated outright confiscation of tribal land or the forcible removal of tribes and that he berated American settlers who abused natives, admitting that he held out no hope for peaceful relations as long as \"frontier settlers entertain the opinion that there is not the same crime (or indeed no crime at all) in killing a native as in killing a white man.", "\"By contrast, Colin G. Calloway wrote that, \"Washington had a lifelong obsession with getting Indian land, either for himself or for his nation, and initiated policies and campaigns that had devastating effects in Indian country.\"", "He stated:Along with other Founding Fathers, Washington has been condemned for holding enslaved people.", "Though he expressed the desire to see the abolition of slavery come through legislation, he did not initiate or support any initiatives for bringing about its end.", "This has led to calls from some activists to remove his name from public buildings and his statue from public spaces.===Places, namesakes, and monuments===Many places and monuments have been named in honor of Washington, most notably Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States, and the state of Washington, the only U.S. state to be named after a president.On February 21, 1885, the Washington Monument was dedicated.", "The 555-foot marble obelisk, which stands on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., was built between 1848–1854 and 1879–1884 and was the tallest structure in the world between 1884 and 1889.Washington appears as one of four U.S. presidents on the ''Shrine of Democracy'', a colossal statue by Gutzon Borglum on Mount Rushmore in South Dakota.A number of secondary schools and universities are named in honor of Washington, including George Washington University and Washington University in St. Louis.===Currency and postage===Washington appears on contemporary U.S. currency, including the one-dollar bill, the Presidential one-dollar coin and the quarter-dollar coin (the Washington quarter).", "Washington and Benjamin Franklin appeared on the nation's first postage stamps in 1847.Washington has since appeared on many postage issues, more than any other person." ], [ "See also", "* Founders Online* List of American Revolutionary War battles* List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War* Timeline of the American Revolution* The Washington Papers" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Book sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Miscellaneous===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* George Washington's Mount Vernon* The Papers of George Washington, subset of Founders Online from the National Archives* * * In Our Time: Washington & the American Revolution, BBC Radio4 discussion with Carol Berkin, Simon Middleton, & Colin Bonwick (June 24, 2004)* Great Lives: George Washington, BBC Radio4 discussion with Matthew Parris, Michael Rose, & Frank Grizzard (October 21, 2016)* George Washington on C-SPAN* Scholarly coverage of Washington at the Miller Center, University of Virginia" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gulf Coast of the United States" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Gulf Coast of the United States''', also known as the '''Gulf South''' or the '''South Coast''', is the coastline along the Southern United States where they meet the Gulf of Mexico.", "The coastal states that have a shoreline on the Gulf of Mexico are Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, and these are known as the ''Gulf States''.The economy of the Gulf Coast area is dominated by industries related to energy, petrochemicals, fishing, aerospace, agriculture, and tourism.", "The large cities of the region are (from west to east) Brownsville, Corpus Christi, Houston, Galveston, Beaumont, Lake Charles, Lafayette, Baton Rouge, New Orleans, Gulfport, Biloxi, Mobile, Pensacola, Navarre, St. Petersburg, and Tampa.", "All are the centers or major cities of their respective metropolitan areas and many of which contain large ports." ], [ "Geography", "Houston is the largest city and urban area along the Gulf CoastThe Gulf Coast is made of many inlets, bays, and lagoons.", "The coast is intersected by numerous rivers, the largest of which is the Mississippi River.", "Much of the land along the Gulf Coast is, or was, marshland.", "Ringing the Gulf Coast is the Gulf Coastal Plain, which reaches from Southern Texas to the western Florida Panhandle, while the western portions of the Gulf Coast are made up of many barrier islands and peninsulas, including the Padre Island along the Texas coast.", "These landforms protect numerous bays and inlets providing as a barrier to oncoming waves.", "The central part of the Gulf Coast, from eastern Texas through Louisiana, consists primarily of marshland.", "The eastern part of the Gulf Coast, predominantly Florida, is dotted with many bays and inlets.===Climate===Night time astronaut image of the northern Gulf coast.The Gulf Coast climate is humid subtropical, although Southwest Florida features a tropical climate.", "Much of the year is warm to hot along the Gulf Coast, while the three winter months bring periods of cool (or rarely, cold) weather mixed with mild temperatures.", "The area is highly vulnerable to hurricanes as well as floods and severe thunderstorms.", "Much of the Gulf Coast has a summer precipitation maximum, with July or August commonly the wettest month due to the combination of frequent summer thunderstorms produced by relentless heat and humidity, and tropical weather systems (tropical depressions, tropical storms and hurricanes), while winter and early spring rainfall also can be heavy.", "This pattern is evident in southern cites as Houston, Texas; New Orleans, Louisiana; Mobile, Alabama; and Pensacola, Florida.", "However, the central and southern Florida peninsula and South Texas has a pronounced winter dry season, as at Tampa and Fort Myers, Florida.", "On the central and southern Texas coast, winter, early spring and mid-summer are markedly drier, and September is the wettest month on average (as at Corpus Christi and Brownsville, Texas).", "Tornadoes are infrequent at the coast but do occur; however, they occur more frequently in inland portions of Gulf Coast states.", "Over most of the Gulf Coast from Houston, Texas, eastward, extreme rainfall events are a significant threat, commonly from tropical weather systems, which can bring 4 to 10 or more inches of rain in a single day.", "In August 2017, Hurricane Harvey made landfall along the central Texas coast, then migrated to and stalled over the greater Houston area for several days, producing extreme, unprecedented rainfall totals of over 40 inches (1,000 mm) in many areas, unleashing widespread flooding.", "Climate scientists predict more hurricanes for Florida and the Texas coastline in particular.", "Earthquakes are extremely rare to the area, but a 6.0 earthquake in the Gulf of Mexico on September 10, 2006, could be felt from the cities of New Orleans to Tampa.===Rising sea levels===Due to the release of greenhouse gas emissions, glaciers and ice sheets are melting and expanding the oceans.", "The United States coastlines are projected to rise 1 foot in three decades or between 10 and 12 inches on average by 2050.The Gulf Coast will likely see the biggest change, with sea levels expected to rise between 14 and 18 inches.", "The Global and Regional Sea Level Rise Report predicted more frequent, major and destructive high tide flooding events along with taller storm surges by 2050 after scientists determined high tide flooding has been \"increasingly common\" over the past few years due to the rising sea levels.", "The impacts are expected to be dramatic.", "Low-lying coastal areas are expected to experience multiple factors, including increased levels of flooding, accelerated erosion, loss of wetlands and low-lying terrestrial ecosystems, and seawater intrusion into freshwater sources.", "Rising sea level and erosion will also imperil critical habitats for many commercially important fisheries that depend on inshore waters for either permanent residence or nursery area.", "In 2021 alone rising sea levels cost the United States approximately $2.6 billion in relief efforts and caused at least seven deaths.", "By 2051, the cost of flood damage is expected to increase by 61%, or $32 billion." ], [ "Economic activities", "NOAA map of the 3,856 oil and gas platforms extant off the Gulf Coast in 2006.The Gulf Coast is a major center of economic activity.", "The marshlands along the Louisiana and Texas coasts provide breeding grounds and nurseries for ocean life that drive the fishing and shrimping industries.", "The Port of South Louisiana (Metropolitan New Orleans in Laplace) and the Port of Houston are two of the ten busiest ports in the world by cargo volume.", "As of 2004, seven of the top ten busiest ports in the U.S. are on the Gulf Coast.The discovery of oil and gas deposits along the coast and offshore, combined with easy access to shipping, have made the Gulf Coast the heart of the U.S. petrochemical industry.", "The coast contains nearly 4,000 oil platforms.Besides the above, the region features other important industries including aerospace and biomedical research, as well as older industries such as agriculture and — especially since the development of the Gulf Coast beginning in the 1920s and the increase in wealth throughout the United States — tourism." ], [ "History", "Map of the Louisiana PurchaseHurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita have destroyed a number of museums and archives in the Gulf Coast.", "In 2008 floods in Iowa destroyed the local ''Flood Museum'' which held materials from the Great Mississippi and Missouri Rivers Flood of 1993.Before European settlers arrived in the region, the Gulf Coast was home to several pre-Columbian kingdoms which had extensive trade networks with empires such as the Aztecs and the Mississippi Mound Builders.", "Shark and alligator teeth and shells from the Gulf have been found as far north as Ohio, in the mounds of the Hopewell culture.The first Europeans to settle the Gulf Coast were primarily the French and the Spanish.", "The Louisiana Purchase (1803), Adams–Onís Treaty (1819) and the Texas Revolution (1835-1836) made the Gulf Coast a part of the United States during the first half of the 19th century.", "As the U.S. population continued to expand its frontiers westward, the Gulf Coast was a natural magnet in the South providing access to shipping lanes and both national and international commerce.", "The development of sugar and cotton production (enabled by slavery) allowed the South to prosper.", "By the mid 19th century the city of New Orleans, being situated as a key to commerce on the Mississippi River and in the Gulf, had become the largest U.S. city not on the Atlantic seaboard and the fourth largest in the U.S. overall.Two major events were turning points in the earlier history of the Gulf Coast region.", "The first was the American Civil War, which caused severe damage to some economic sectors in the South, including the Gulf Coast.", "The second event was the Galveston Hurricane of 1900.At the end of the 19th century Galveston was, with New Orleans, one of the most developed cities in the region.", "The city had the third busiest port in the U.S. and its financial district was known as the \"Wall Street of the South\".", "Hurricane KatrinaSince then the Gulf Coast has been hit with numerous other hurricanes.", "On August 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast as a Category 3 hurricane.", "It was the most damaging storm in the history of the United States, causing upwards of $80 billion in damages, and leaving over 1,800 dead.", "Again in 2008 the Gulf Coast was struck by a catastrophic hurricane.", "Due to its immense size, Hurricane Ike caused devastation from the Louisiana coastline all the way to the Kenedy County, Texas, region near Corpus Christi.", "In addition, Ike caused flooding and significant damage along the Mississippi coastline and the Florida Panhandle Ike killed 112 people and left upwards of 300 people missing, never to be found.", "Hurricane Ike was the third most damaging storm in the history of the United States, causing more than $25 billion in damage along the coast, leaving hundreds of thousands of people homeless, and sparking the largest search-and-rescue operation in U.S. history.Other than the hurricanes, the Gulf Coast has redeveloped dramatically over the course of the 20th century.", "The gulf coast is highly populated.", "The petrochemical industry, launched with the major discoveries of oil in Texas and spurred on by further discoveries in the Gulf waters, has been a vehicle for development in the central and western Gulf which has spawned development on a variety of fronts in these regions.", "Texas in particular has benefited tremendously from this industry over the course of the 20th century and economic diversification has made the state a magnet for population and home to more Fortune 500 companies than any other U.S. state.", "Florida has grown as well, driven to a great extent by its long established tourism industry but also by its position as a gateway to the Caribbean and Latin America.", "As of 2006, these two states are the second and fourth most populous states in the nation, respectively (see this article).", "Other areas of the Gulf Coast have benefited less, though economic development fueled by tourism has greatly increased property values along the coast, and is now a severe danger to the valuable but fragile ecosystems of the Gulf Coast." ], [ "Metropolitan areas", "The following table lists the 11 largest core-based statistical areas along the Gulf Coast.+Metropolitan statistical areas on the United States Gulf CoastRankMetropolitan statistical area2020 pop.", "(est.", ")1Houston-The Woodlands, TX Combined Statistical Area7,340,8232Tampa-St. Petersburg-Clearwater, FL Metropolitan Statistical Area3,243,9633New Orleans-Metairie-Hammond, LA-MS Combined Statistical Area1,510,672\t4Cape Coral-Fort Myers-Naples, FL Combined Statistical Area1,226,5535North Port-Sarasota, FL Combined Statistical Area1,087,9156McAllen-Edinburg, TX Combined Statistical Area939,4667Baton Rouge, LA Metropolitan Statistical Area858,5718Mobile-Daphne-Fairhope, AL Combined Statistical Area661,9649Lafayette-Opelousas-Morgan City, LA Combined Statistical Area619,52910Pensacola-Ferry Pass, FL-AL Combined Statistical Area547,78411Corpus Christi-Kingsville-Alice, TX Combined Statistical Area536,258" ], [ "Transportation", "===Road=======Major Interstates====I-45 and I-10/U.S.", "90 near Downtown Houston Highway Significant cities served 25px Interstate 2 Harlingen, McAllen 25px Interstate 4 Tampa 25px Interstate 10 Houston, Baytown, Beaumont, Lake Charles, Lafayette, Baton Rouge, New Orleans, Slidell, Gulfport, Biloxi, Mobile, Pensacola 25px Interstate 12Baton Rouge, Hammond, Slidell 25px Interstate 37 Corpus Christi 25px Interstate 45 Galveston, Houston 25px Interstate 49 New Orleans (future), Houma (future), Thibodaux (future), Lafayette 25px Interstate 55 Hammond 25px Interstate 59 Slidell 25px Interstate 65 Mobile 25px Interstate 69 Victoria (future), Houston 25px Interstate 69E Brownsville, Harlingen, Corpus Christi, Victoria (future) 25px Interstate 69W Victoria (future) 25px Interstate 75 Naples, Fort Myers, North Port, Sarasota, Bradenton, St. Petersburg, Tampa====Major U.S. routes==== Highway Significant cities served 25px U.S. 11 New Orleans 25px U.S. 17 Punta Gorda 25px U.S. 19 St. Petersburg, Tampa 25px U.S. 29 Pensacola 25px U.S. 31 Spanish Fort 25px U.S. 41 Naples, Fort Myers, Sarasota, Bradenton, St. Petersburg, Tampa 25px U.S. 43 Mobile 25px U.S. 45 Mobile 25px U.S. 49 Biloxi, Gulfport 25px U.S. 51 Hammond 25px U.S. 59 Houston, Victoria 25px U.S. 61 New Orleans 25px U.S. 69 Beaumont, Port Arthur 25px U.S. 77 Brownsville, Corpus Christi, Harlingen, Victoria 25px U.S. 83 Brownsville, Harlingen 25px U.S. 87 Port Lavaca, Victoria 25px U.S. 90 Beaumont, Biloxi, Crestview, Houma, Houston, Lafayette, Lake Charles, Mobile, New Orleans, Pascagoula, Pensacola, Thibodaux 25px U.S. 92 St. Petersburg, Tampa 25px U.S. 96 Beaumont, Port Arthur 25px U.S. 98 Fort Walton Beach, Mobile, Pensacola, Panama City====Other significant routes==== Highway Significant cities served 25px LA 1 Grand Isle, Port Fourchon, Thibodaux 25px S.R.", "85 Crestview, Fort Walton Beach 25px S.H.", "35 Houston, Bay City, Port Lavaca, Rockport, Corpus Christi 25px S.H.", "288 Houston, Lake Jackson, Freeport===Air=======International service====Louis Armstrong New Orleans International AirportInternational destinations George Bush Intercontinental Airport - Houston Argentina, Bahamas, Belize, Bonaire, Brazil, Canada, Cayman Islands, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, France, Germany, Guatemala, Honduras, Jamaica, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Norway, Panama, Peru, Qatar, Russia, Singapore, Trinidad and Tobago,Turkey, Turks and Caicos Islands, UAE, United Kingdom, Venezuela Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport Canada, France, Germany, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, United Kingdom Southwest Florida International Airport Canada, Germany Tampa International Airport Bahamas, Canada, Cayman Islands, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Germany, Iceland, Jamaica, Mexico, Panama, Switzerland, United Kingdom William P. Hobby Airport - Houston Aruba, Belize, Cayman Islands, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Mexico===Rail=======Amtrak service====''Sunset Limited'' at Houston.", "Train Route Gulf Coast cities served ''City of New Orleans'' Chicago to New Orleans New Orleans ''Crescent'' New York to New Orleans New Orleans, Picayune, MS, Slidell, LA ''Silver Star'' New York to Miami Tampa, with connection available to Amtrak Thruway to Clearwater, FL, Bradenton, FL, Sarasota, FL, Port Charlotte, FL and Fort Myers, FL ''Sunset Limited'' Los Angeles to Orlando (temporarily New Orleans) Bay St. Louis, MS, Beaumont, TX, Biloxi, Crestview, FL, Gulfport, MS, Houston, Lafayette, LA, Lake Charles, LA, Baton Rouge, LA, Mobile, New Orleans, Panama City, FL, Scriever, LA, Pascagoula, MS, Pensacola, FL" ], [ "See also", "*East Coast of the United States*West Coast of the United States*Emerald Coast*Florida Panhandle*Geography of the United States*Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force*Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission*Houston*List of ports in the United States*Megaregions of the United States*Mississippi Gulf Coast*New Orleans*Tampa*West Florida*Gulf Coast of Mexico" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "* Drescher, Christopher F., Stefan E. Schulenberg, and C. Veronica Smith.", "\"The Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and the Mississippi Gulf Coast: Mental health in the context of a technological disaster.\"", "''American Journal of Orthopsychiatry'' 84.2 (2014): 142.", "* Smith, F. Todd ''Louisiana and the Gulf South Frontier, 1500–1821'' (Louisiana State University Press; 2014) 304 pages* Williamson, James M., and John L. Pender.", "\"Economic Stimulus and the Tax Code The Impact of the Gulf Opportunity Zone.\"", "''Public Finance Review'' (2014): 1091142114557724." ], [ "External links", "* \"Map of the Gulf Coast from Florida to Mexico\" from 1639 via the World Digital Library" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Galaxy formation and evolution" ], [ "Introduction", "The study of '''galaxy formation and evolution''' is concerned with the processes that formed a heterogeneous universe from a homogeneous beginning, the formation of the first galaxies, the way galaxies change over time, and the processes that have generated the variety of structures observed in nearby galaxies.", "Galaxy formation is hypothesized to occur from structure formation theories, as a result of tiny quantum fluctuations in the aftermath of the Big Bang.", "The simplest model in general agreement with observed phenomena is the Lambda-CDM model—that is, that clustering and merging allows galaxies to accumulate mass, determining both their shape and structure.", "Hydrodynamics simulation, which simulates both baryons and dark matter, is widely used to study galaxy formation and evolution." ], [ "Commonly observed properties of galaxies", "Hubble tuning fork diagram of galaxy morphologyBecause of the inability to conduct experiments in outer space, the only way to “test” theories and models of galaxy evolution is to compare them with observations.", "Explanations for how galaxies formed and evolved must be able to predict the observed properties and types of galaxies.Edwin Hubble created an early galaxy classification scheme, now known as the Hubble tuning-fork diagram.", "It partitioned galaxies into ellipticals, normal spirals, barred spirals (such as the Milky Way), and irregulars.", "These galaxy types exhibit the following properties which can be explained by current galaxy evolution theories:* Many of the properties of galaxies (including the galaxy color–magnitude diagram) indicate that there are fundamentally two types of galaxies.", "These groups divide into blue star-forming galaxies that are more like spiral types, and red non-star forming galaxies that are more like elliptical galaxies.", "* Spiral galaxies are quite thin, dense, and rotate relatively fast, while the stars in elliptical galaxies have randomly oriented orbits.", "* The majority of giant galaxies contain a supermassive black hole in their centers, ranging in mass from millions to billions of times the mass of the Sun.", "The black hole mass is tied to the host galaxy bulge or spheroid mass.", "* Metallicity has a positive correlation with the absolute magnitude (luminosity) of a galaxy.There is a common misconception that Hubble believed incorrectly that the tuning fork diagram described an evolutionary sequence for galaxies, from elliptical galaxies through lenticulars to spiral galaxies.", "This is not the case; instead, the tuning fork diagram shows an evolution from simple to complex with no temporal connotations intended.", "Astronomers now believe that disk galaxies likely formed first, then evolved into elliptical galaxies through galaxy mergers.Current models also predict that the majority of mass in galaxies is made up of dark matter, a substance which is not directly observable, and might not interact through any means except gravity.", "This observation arises because galaxies could not have formed as they have, or rotate as they are seen to, unless they contain far more mass than can be directly observed." ], [ "Formation of disk galaxies", "The earliest stage in the evolution of galaxies is their formation.", "When a galaxy forms, it has a disk shape and is called a spiral galaxy due to spiral-like \"arm\" structures located on the disk.", "There are different theories on how these disk-like distributions of stars develop from a cloud of matter: however, at present, none of them exactly predicts the results of observation.=== Top-down theories ===Olin Eggen, Donald Lynden-Bell, and Allan Sandage in 1962, proposed a theory that disk galaxies form through a monolithic collapse of a large gas cloud.", "The distribution of matter in the early universe was in clumps that consisted mostly of dark matter.", "These clumps interacted gravitationally, putting tidal torques on each other that acted to give them some angular momentum.", "As the baryonic matter cooled, it dissipated some energy and contracted toward the center.", "With angular momentum conserved, the matter near the center speeds up its rotation.", "Then, like a spinning ball of pizza dough, the matter forms into a tight disk.", "Once the disk cools, the gas is not gravitationally stable, so it cannot remain a singular homogeneous cloud.", "It breaks, and these smaller clouds of gas form stars.", "Since the dark matter does not dissipate as it only interacts gravitationally, it remains distributed outside the disk in what is known as the dark halo.", "Observations show that there are stars located outside the disk, which does not quite fit the \"pizza dough\" model.", "It was first proposed by Leonard Searle and Robert Zinn that galaxies form by the coalescence of smaller progenitors.", "Known as a top-down formation scenario, this theory is quite simple yet no longer widely accepted.=== Bottom-up theory ===More recent theories include the clustering of dark matter halos in the bottom-up process.", "Instead of large gas clouds collapsing to form a galaxy in which the gas breaks up into smaller clouds, it is proposed that matter started out in these “smaller” clumps (mass on the order of globular clusters), and then many of these clumps merged to form galaxies, which then were drawn by gravitation to form galaxy clusters.", "This still results in disk-like distributions of baryonic matter with dark matter forming the halo for all the same reasons as in the top-down theory.", "Models using this sort of process predict more small galaxies than large ones, which matches observations.Astronomers do not currently know what process stops the contraction.", "In fact, theories of disk galaxy formation are not successful at producing the rotation speed and size of disk galaxies.", "It has been suggested that the radiation from bright newly formed stars, or from an active galactic nucleus can slow the contraction of a forming disk.", "It has also been suggested that the dark matter halo can pull the galaxy, thus stopping disk contraction.The Lambda-CDM model is a cosmological model that explains the formation of the universe after the Big Bang.", "It is a relatively simple model that predicts many properties observed in the universe, including the relative frequency of different galaxy types; however, it underestimates the number of thin disk galaxies in the universe.", "The reason is that these galaxy formation models predict a large number of mergers.", "If disk galaxies merge with another galaxy of comparable mass (at least 15 percent of its mass) the merger will likely destroy, or at a minimum greatly disrupt the disk, and the resulting galaxy is not expected to be a disk galaxy (see next section).", "While this remains an unsolved problem for astronomers, it does not necessarily mean that the Lambda-CDM model is completely wrong, but rather that it requires further refinement to accurately reproduce the population of galaxies in the universe." ], [ "Galaxy mergers and the formation of elliptical galaxies", "Artist's image of a firestorm of star birth deep inside the core of a young, growing elliptical galaxy.NGC 4676 (Mice Galaxies) is an example of a present merger.The Antennae Galaxies are a pair of colliding galaxies – the bright, blue knots are young stars that have recently ignited as a result of the merger.ESO 325-G004, a typical elliptical galaxy.Elliptical galaxies (most notably supergiant ellipticals, such as ESO 306-17) are among some of the largest known thus far.", "Their stars are on orbits that are randomly oriented within the galaxy (i.e.", "they are not rotating like disk galaxies).", "A distinguishing feature of elliptical galaxies is that the velocity of the stars does not necessarily contribute to flattening of the galaxy, such as in spiral galaxies.", "Elliptical galaxies have central supermassive black holes, and the masses of these black holes correlate with the galaxy's mass.Elliptical galaxies have two main stages of evolution.", "The first is due to the supermassive black hole growing by accreting cooling gas.", "The second stage is marked by the black hole stabilizing by suppressing gas cooling, thus leaving the elliptical galaxy in a stable state.", "The mass of the black hole is also correlated to a property called sigma which is the dispersion of the velocities of stars in their orbits.", "This relationship, known as the M-sigma relation, was discovered in 2000.Elliptical galaxies mostly lack disks, although some bulges of disk galaxies resemble elliptical galaxies.", "Elliptical galaxies are more likely found in crowded regions of the universe (such as galaxy clusters).Astronomers now see elliptical galaxies as some of the most evolved systems in the universe.", "It is widely accepted that the main driving force for the evolution of elliptical galaxies is mergers of smaller galaxies.", "Many galaxies in the universe are gravitationally bound to other galaxies, which means that they will never escape their mutual pull.", "If those colliding galaxies are of similar size, the resultant galaxy will appear similar to neither of the progenitors, but will instead be elliptical.", "There are many types of galaxy mergers, which do not necessarily result in elliptical galaxies, but result in a structural change.", "For example, a minor merger event is thought to be occurring between the Milky Way and the Magellanic Clouds.Mergers between such large galaxies are regarded as violent, and the frictional interaction of the gas between the two galaxies can cause gravitational shock waves, which are capable of forming new stars in the new elliptical galaxy.", "By sequencing several images of different galactic collisions, one can observe the timeline of two spiral galaxies merging into a single elliptical galaxy.In the Local Group, the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are gravitationally bound, and currently approaching each other at high speed.", "Simulations show that the Milky Way and Andromeda are on a collision course, and are expected to collide in less than five billion years.", "During this collision, it is expected that the Sun and the rest of the Solar System will be ejected from its current path around the Milky Way.", "The remnant could be a giant elliptical galaxy." ], [ "Galaxy quenching", "Star formation in what are now \"dead\" galaxies sputtered out billions of years ago.One observation that must be explained by a successful theory of galaxy evolution is the existence of two different populations of galaxies on the galaxy color-magnitude diagram.", "Most galaxies tend to fall into two separate locations on this diagram: a \"red sequence\" and a \"blue cloud\".", "Red sequence galaxies are generally non-star-forming elliptical galaxies with little gas and dust, while blue cloud galaxies tend to be dusty star-forming spiral galaxies.As described in previous sections, galaxies tend to evolve from spiral to elliptical structure via mergers.", "However, the current rate of galaxy mergers does not explain how all galaxies move from the \"blue cloud\" to the \"red sequence\".", "It also does not explain how star formation ceases in galaxies.", "Theories of galaxy evolution must therefore be able to explain how star formation turns off in galaxies.", "This phenomenon is called galaxy \"quenching\".Stars form out of cold gas (see also the Kennicutt–Schmidt law), so a galaxy is quenched when it has no more cold gas.", "However, it is thought that quenching occurs relatively quickly (within 1 billion years), which is much shorter than the time it would take for a galaxy to simply use up its reservoir of cold gas.", "Galaxy evolution models explain this by hypothesizing other physical mechanisms that remove or shut off the supply of cold gas in a galaxy.", "These mechanisms can be broadly classified into two categories: (1) preventive feedback mechanisms that stop cold gas from entering a galaxy or stop it from producing stars, and (2) ejective feedback mechanisms that remove gas so that it cannot form stars.One theorized preventive mechanism called “strangulation” keeps cold gas from entering the galaxy.", "Strangulation is likely the main mechanism for quenching star formation in nearby low-mass galaxies.", "The exact physical explanation for strangulation is still unknown, but it may have to do with a galaxy's interactions with other galaxies.", "As a galaxy falls into a galaxy cluster, gravitational interactions with other galaxies can strangle it by preventing it from accreting more gas.", "For galaxies with massive dark matter halos, another preventive mechanism called “virial shock heating” may also prevent gas from becoming cool enough to form stars.Ejective processes, which expel cold gas from galaxies, may explain how more massive galaxies are quenched.", "One ejective mechanism is caused by supermassive black holes found in the centers of galaxies.", "Simulations have shown that gas accreting onto supermassive black holes in galactic centers produces high-energy jets; the released energy can expel enough cold gas to quench star formation.Our own Milky Way and the nearby Andromeda Galaxy currently appear to be undergoing the quenching transition from star-forming blue galaxies to passive red galaxies." ], [ "Hydrodynamics Simulation", "Dark energy and dark matter account for most of the Universe's energy, so it is valid to ignore baryons when simulating large-scale structure formation (using methods such as N-body simulation).", "However, since the visible components of galaxies consist of baryons, it is crucial to include baryons in the simulation to study the detailed structures of galaxies.", "At first, the baryon component consists of mostly hydrogen and helium gas, which later transforms into stars during the formation of structures.", "From observations, models used in simulations can be tested and the understanding of different stages of galaxy formation can be improved.===Euler equations===In cosmological simulations, astrophysical gases are typically modeled as inviscid ideal gases that follow the Euler equations, which can be expressed mainly in three different ways: Lagrangian, Eulerian, or arbitrary Lagrange-Eulerian methods.", "Different methods give specific forms of hydrodynamical equations.", "When using the Lagrangian approach to specify the field, it is assumed that the observer tracks a specific fluid parcel with its unique characteristics during its movement through space and time.", "In contrast, the Eulerian approach emphasizes particular locations in space that the fluid passes through as time progresses.===Baryonic Physics===To shape the population of galaxies, the hydrodynamical equations must be supplemented by a variety of astrophysical processes mainly governed by baryonic physics.====Gas cooling====Processes, such as collisional excitation, ionization, and inverse Compton scattering, can cause the internal energy of the gas to be dissipated.", "In the simulation, cooling processes are realized by coupling cooling functions to energy equations.", "Besides the primordial cooling, at high temperature,, heavy elements (metals) cooling dominates.", "When , the fine structure and molecular cooling also need to be considered to simulate the cold phase of the interstellar medium.====Interstellar medium====Complex multi-phase structure, including relativistic particles and magnetic field, makes simulation of interstellar medium difficult.", "In particular, modeling the cold phase of the interstellar medium poses technical difficulties due to the short timescales associated with the dense gas.", "In the early simulations, the dense gas phase is frequently not modeled directly but rather characterized by an effective polytropic equation of state.", "More recent simulations use a multimodal distribution to describe the gas density and temperature distributions, which directly model the multi-phase structure.", "However, more detailed physics processes needed to be considered in future simulations, since the structure of the interstellar medium directly affects star formation.====Star formation====As cold and dense gas accumulates, it undergoes gravitational collapse and eventually forms stars.", "To simulate this process, a portion of the gas is transformed into collisionless star particles, which represent coeval, single-metallicity stellar populations and are described by an initial underlying mass function.", "Observations suggest that star formation efficiency in molecular gas is almost universal, with around 1% of the gas being converted into stars per free fall time.", "In simulations, the gas is typically converted into star particles using a probabilistic sampling scheme based on the calculated star formation rate.", "Some simulations seek an alternative to the probabilistic sampling scheme and aim to better capture the clustered nature of star formation by treating star clusters as the fundamental unit of star formation.", "This approach permits the growth of star particles by accreting material from the surrounding medium.", "In addition to this, modern models of galaxy formation track the evolution of these stars and the mass they return to the gas component, leading to an enrichment of the gas with metals.====Stellar feedback====Stars have an influence on their surrounding gas by injecting energy and momentum.", "This creates a feedback loop that regulates the process of star formation.", "To effectively control star formation, stellar feedback must generate galactic-scale outflows that expel gas from galaxies.", "Various methods are utilized to couple energy and momentum, particularly through supernova explosions, to the surrounding gas.", "These methods differ in how the energy is deposited, either thermally or kinetically.", "However, excessive radiative gas cooling must be avoided in the former case.", "Cooling is expected in dense and cold gas, but it cannot be reliably modeled in cosmological simulations due to low resolution.", "This leads to artificial and excessive cooling of the gas, causing the supernova feedback energy to be lost via radiation and significantly reducing its effectiveness.", "In the latter case, kinetic energy cannot be radiated away until it thermalizes.", "However, using hydrodynamically-decoupled wind particles to inject momentum non-locally into the gas surrounding active star-forming regions may still be necessary to achieve large-scale galactic outflows.", "Recent models explicitly model stellar feedback.", "These models not only incorporate supernova feedback but also consider other feedback channels such as energy and momentum injection from stellar winds, photoionization, and radiation pressure resulting from radiation emitted by young, massive stars.", "During the Cosmic Dawn, galaxy formation occurred in short bursts of 5 to 30 Myr due to stellar feedbacks.====Supermassive black holes====Simulation of supermassive black holes is also considered, numerically seeding them in dark matter haloes, due to their observation in many galaxies and the impact of their mass on the mass density distribution.", "Their mass accretion rate is frequently modeled by the Bondi-Hoyle model.====Active galactic nuclei ====Active galactic nuclei (AGN) have an impact on the observational phenomena of supermassive black holes, and further have a regulation of black hole growth and star formation.", "In simulations, AGN feedback is usually classified into two modes, namely quasar and radio mode.", "Quasar mode feedback is linked to the radiatively efficient mode of black hole growth and is frequently incorporated through energy or momentum injection.", "The regulation of star formation in massive galaxies is believed to be significantly influenced by radio mode feedback, which occurs due to the presence of highly-collimated jets of relativistic particles.", "These jets are typically linked to X-ray bubbles that possess enough energy to counterbalance cooling losses.====Magnetic fields====The ideal magnetohydrodynamics approach is commonly utilized in cosmological simulations since it provides a good approximation for cosmological magnetic fields.", "The effect of magnetic fields on the dynamics of gas is generally negligible on large cosmological scales.", "Nevertheless, magnetic fields are a critical component of the interstellar medium since they provide pressure support against gravity and affect the propagation of cosmic rays.====Cosmic rays====Cosmic rays play a significant role in the interstellar medium by contributing to its pressure, serving as a crucial heating channel, and potentially driving galactic gas outflows.", "The propagation of cosmic rays is highly affected by magnetic fields.", "So in the simulation, equations describing the cosmic ray energy and flux are coupled to magnetohydrodynamics equations.====Radiation Hydrodynamics====Radiation hydrodynamics simulations are computational methods used to study the interaction of radiation with matter.", "In astrophysical contexts, radiation hydrodynamics is used to study the epoch of reionization when the Universe had high redshift.", "There are several numerical methods used for radiation hydrodynamics simulations, including ray-tracing, Monte Carlo, and moment-based methods.", "Ray-tracing involves tracing the paths of individual photons through the simulation and computing their interactions with matter at each step.", "This method is computationally expensive but can produce very accurate results." ], [ "Gallery", "A young elliptical.jpg|NGC 3610 shows some structure in the form of a bright disc, implying that it formed only a short time ago.NGC891.jpg|NGC 891, a very thin disk galaxyM101 hires STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg|An image of Messier 101, a prototypical spiral galaxy seen face-onwarped galaxy.jpg|A spiral galaxy, ESO 510-G13, was warped as a result of colliding with another galaxy.", "After the other galaxy is completely absorbed, the distortion will disappear.", "The process typically takes millions if not billions of years." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * List of galaxies* * * * * Red nugget, small galaxies packed with large amounts of red stars* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* NOAO gallery of galaxy images ** Image of Andromeda galaxy (M31) * Javascript passive evolution calculator for early type (elliptical) galaxies* Video on the evolution of galaxies by Canadian astrophysicist Doctor P" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Generation X" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Generation X''' (often shortened to '''Gen X''') is the demographic cohort following the Baby Boomers and preceding Millennials.", "Researchers and popular media often use the mid-1960s as its starting birth years and the late 1970s as its ending birth years, with the generation being generally defined as people born from 1965 to 1980.By this definition and U.S. Census data, there are 65.2 million Gen Xers in the United States as of 2019.Most of Generation X are the children of the Silent Generation and early Baby Boomers; Xers are also often the parents of Millennials and Generation Z.As children in the 1970s and 1980s, a time of shifting societal values, Gen Xers were sometimes called the \"latchkey generation\", which stems from their returning as children from school to an empty home and needing to use a key to let themselves in.", "This was a result of what is now called free-range parenting, plus increasing divorce rates, and increased maternal participation in the workforce prior to widespread availability of childcare options outside the home.As adolescents and young adults in the 1980s and 1990s, Xers were dubbed the \"MTV Generation\" (a reference to the music video channel), sometimes being characterized as slackers, cynical, and disaffected.", "Some of the many cultural influences on Gen X youth included a proliferation of musical genres with strong social-tribal identity such as alternative rock, hip hop, punk, post-punk, and heavy metal, in addition to later forms developed by Gen Xers themselves (e.g., grunge, grindcore and related genres).", "Film, both the birth of franchise mega-sequels and a proliferation of independent film (enabled in part by video) was also a notable cultural influence.", "Video games, both in amusement parlours and in devices in Western homes, were also a major part of juvenile entertainment for the first time.", "Politically, in many Eastern Bloc countries, Generation X experienced the last days of communism and the transition to capitalism as part of its youth.", "In much of the Western world, a similar time period was defined by a dominance of conservatism and free market economics.In their midlife during the early 21st century, research describes Gen Xers as active, happy, and achieving a work–life balance.", "The cohort has also been more broadly credited as entrepreneurial, and productive in the workplace." ], [ "Terminology and etymology", "Douglas Coupland popularized the term ''Generation X'' in his 1991 novel ''Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture''.The term ''Generation X'' has been used at various times to describe alienated youth.", "In the early 1950s, Hungarian photographer Robert Capa first used ''Generation X'' as the title for a photo-essay about young men and women growing up immediately following World War II.", "The term first appeared in print in a December 1952 issue of ''Holiday'' magazine announcing their upcoming publication of Capa's photo-essay.", "From 1976 to 1981, English musician Billy Idol used the moniker as the name for his punk rock band.", "Idol had attributed the name of his band to the book ''Generation X'', a 1964 book on British popular youth culture written by journalists Jane Deverson and Charles Hamblett—a copy of which had been owned by Idol's mother.", "These uses of the term appear to have no connection to Robert Capa's photo-essay.The term acquired a modern application after the release of ''Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture'', a 1991 novel written by Canadian author Douglas Coupland; however, the definition used there is \"born in the late 1950s and 1960s\", which is about ten years earlier than definitions that came later.", "In 1987, Coupland had written a piece in ''Vancouver Magazine'' titled \"Generation X\" which was \"the seed of what went on to become the book\".", "Coupland referenced Billy Idol's band Generation X in the 1987 article and again in 1989 in ''Vista'' magazine.", "In the book proposal for his novel, Coupland writes that ''Generation X'' is \"taken from the name of Billy Idol’s long-defunct punk band of the late 1970s\".", "However, in 1995 Coupland denied the term's connection to the band, stating that:The book's title came not from Billy Idol's band, as many supposed, but from the final chapter of a funny sociological book on American class structure titled ''Class'', by Paul Fussell.", "In his final chapter, Fussell named an 'X' category of people who wanted to hop off the merry-go-round of status, money, and social climbing that so often frames modern existence.Author William Strauss noted that around the time Coupland's 1991 novel was published the symbol \"X\" was prominent in popular culture, as the film ''Malcolm X'' was released in 1992, and that the name \"Generation X\" ended up sticking.", "The \"X\" refers to an unknown variable or to a desire not to be defined.", "Strauss's coauthor Neil Howe noted the delay in naming this demographic cohort saying, \"Over 30 years after their birthday, they didn't have a name.", "I think that's germane.\"", "Previously, the cohort had been referred to as Post-Boomers, Baby Busters (which refers to the drop in birth rates following the baby boom in the western world, particularly in the U.S.), New Lost Generation, latchkey kids, MTV Generation, and the 13th Generation (the 13th generation since American independence)." ], [ "Date and age range definitions", "Western fertility rates, 1960–1980Generation X is the demographic cohort following the post–World War II baby-boom, representing a generational change from the baby boomers.", "Many researchers and demographers use dates that correspond to the fertility-patterns in the population.", "For Generation X, in the U.S. (and broadly, in the Western world), the period begins at a time when fertility rates started to significantly decrease, following the baby boom peak of the late 1950s, until an upswing in the late 1970s and eventual recovery at the start of the 1980s.In the U.S., the Pew Research Center, a non-partisan think-tank, delineates a Generation X period of 1965–1980 which has, albeit gradually, come to gain acceptance in academic circles.", "Moreover, although fertility rates are preponderant in the definition of start and end dates, the center remarks: \"Generations are analytical constructs, it takes time for popular and expert consensus to develop as to the precise boundaries that demarcate one generation from another.\"", "Pew takes into account other factors, notably the labor market as well as attitudinal and behavioral trends of a group.", "Writing for Pew's ''Trend'' magazine in 2018, psychologist Jean Twenge observed that the \"birth year boundaries of Gen X are debated but settle somewhere around 1965–1980\".", "According to this definition, the oldest Gen Xer is years old and the youngest is, or is turning, years old in .U.S.", "fertility rates, 1963–1981The Brookings Institution, another U.S. think-tank, sets the Gen X period as between 1965 and 1981.The U.S. Federal Reserve Board uses 1965–1980 to define Gen X.", "The U.S. Social Security Administration (SSA) defines the years for Gen X as between 1964 and 1979.The US Department of Defense (DoD), conversely, use dates 1965 to 1977.In their 2002 book ''When Generations Collide'', Lynne Lancaster and David Stillman use 1965 to 1980, while in 2012 authors Jain and Pant also used parameters of 1965 to 1980.U.S.", "news outlets such as ''The New York Times'' and ''The Washington Post'' describe Generation X as people born between 1965 and 1980.Gallup, Bloomberg, ''Business Insider'', and ''Forbes'' use 1965–1980.", "''Time'' magazine states that Generation X is \"roughly defined as anyone born between 1965 and 1980\".", "George Masnick of the Harvard Joint Center for Housing Studies puts this generation in the time-frame of 1965 to 1984, in order to satisfy the premise that boomers, Xers, and millennials \"cover equal 20-year age spans\".In Australia, the McCrindle Research Center uses 1965–1979.In the UK, the Resolution Foundation think-tank defines Gen X as those born between 1966 and 1980.PricewaterhouseCoopers, a multinational professional services network headquartered in London, describes Generation X employees as those born from 1965 to 1980.===Other age range markers===On the basis of the time it takes for a generation to mature, U.S. authors William Strauss and Neil Howe define Generation X as those born between 1961 and 1981 in their 1991 book titled ''Generations'', and differentiate the cohort into an early and late wave.", "Jeff Gordinier, in his 2008 book ''X Saves the World'', include those born between 1961 and 1977 but possibly as late as 1980.George Masnick of the Harvard Joint Center for Housing Studies puts this generation in the time-frame of 1965 to 1984, in order to satisfy the premise that boomers, Xers, and millennials \"cover equal 20-year age spans\".", "In 2004, journalist J. Markert also acknowledged the 20-year increments but goes one step further and subdivides the generation into two 10-year cohorts with early and later members of the generation.", "The first begins in 1966 and ends in 1975 and the second begins in 1976 and ends in 1985; this thinking is applied to each generation (Silent, boomers, Gen X, millennials, etc.", ").Based on external events of historical importance, Schewe and Noble in 2002 argue that a cohort is formed against significant milestones and can be any length of time.", "Against this logic, Generation X begins in 1966 and ends in 1976, with those born between 1955 and 1965 being labelled as \"trailing-edge boomers\".In Canada, professor David Foot describes Generation X as late boomers and includes those born between 1960 and 1966, whilst the \"Bust Generation\", those born between 1967 and 1979, is considered altogether a separate generation, in his 1996 book ''Boom Bust & Echo: How to Profit from the Coming Demographic Shift''.===Generational cuspers===People born in the latter half of the Baby Boomers from the early 1960s to the early years of Generation X are sometimes called Generation Jones.", "People born in the Generation X / millennial cusp years of the late 1970s and early to mid-1980s are sometimes called Xennials.", "Other names include Generation Catalano, and the ''Oregon Trail'' Generation.", "These \"microgenerations\" share characteristics of both generations." ], [ "Demographics", "===United States===U.S.", "living adult generationsThere are differences in Gen X population numbers depending on the date-range selected.", "In the U.S., using Census population projections, the Pew Research Center found that the Gen X population born from 1965 to 1980 numbered 65.2 million in 2019.The cohort is likely to overtake Boomers in 2028.A 2010 Census report counted approximately 84 million people living in the US who are defined by birth years ranging from the early 1960s to the early 1980s.", "In a 2012 article for the Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University, George Masnick wrote that the \"Census counted 82.1 million\" Gen Xers in the U.S. Masnick concluded that immigration filled in any birth year deficits during low fertility years of the late 1960s and early 1970s.", "Jon Miller at the Longitudinal Study of American Youth at the University of Michigan wrote that \"Generation X refers to adults born between 1961 and 1981\" and it \"includes 84 million people\".", "In their 1991 book ''Generations'', authors Howe and Strauss indicated that the total number of Gen X individuals in the U.S. was 88.5 million.====Impact of family planning programs====U.S.", "Live Births Registered and Legal Abortions Reported 1970–1980The birth control pill, introduced in 1960, was one contributing factor of declining birth rates.", "Initially, the pill spread rapidly amongst married women as an approved treatment for menstrual disturbance.", "However, it was also found to prevent pregnancy and was prescribed as a contraceptive in 1964.The pill, as it became commonly known, reached younger, unmarried college women in the late 1960s when state laws were amended and reduced the age of majority from 21 to ages 18–20.These policies are commonly referred to as the Early Legal Access (ELA) laws.Another major factor was abortion, only available in a few states until its legalisation in a 1973 US Supreme Court decision in ''Roe v.", "Wade.''", "This was replicated elsewhere, with reproductive rights legislation passed, notably in the UK (1967), France (1975), West Germany (1976), New Zealand (1977), Italy (1978), and the Netherlands (1980).", "From 1973 to 1980, the abortion rate per 1,000 US women aged 15–44 increased from 16% to 29% with more than 9.6 million terminations of pregnancy practiced.", "Between 1970 and 1980, on average, for every 10 American citizens born, 3 were aborted.", "However, increased immigration during the same period of time helped to partially offset declining birth-rates and contributed to making Generation X an ethnically and culturally diverse demographic cohort.====Parental lineage====Generally, Gen Xers are the children of the Silent Generation and older Baby Boomers." ], [ "Characteristics", "=== In the United States =======As children and adolescents =========Rising divorce rates and women workforce participation=====Strauss and Howe, who wrote several books on generations, including one specifically on Generation X titled ''13th Gen: Abort, Retry, Ignore, Fail?''", "(1993), reported that Gen Xers were children at a time when society was less focused on children and more focused on adults.", "Xers were children during a time of increasing divorce rates, with divorce rates doubling in the mid-1960s, before peaking in 1980.Strauss and Howe described a cultural shift where the long-held societal value of staying together for the sake of the children was replaced with a societal value of parental and individual self-actualization.", "Strauss wrote that society \"moved from what Leslie Fiedler called a 1950s-era 'cult of the child' to what Landon Jones called a 1970s-era 'cult of the adult'\".", "''The Generation Map'', a report from Australia's McCrindle Research Center writes of Gen X children: Boomer parents were the most divorced generation in Australian history\".", "According to Christine Henseler in the 2012 book ''Generation X Goes Global: Mapping a Youth Culture in Motion'', \"We watched the decay and demise (of the family), and grew callous to the loss.\"U.S.", "Marriages Ending in Divorce 1950–1990The Gen X childhood coincided with the sexual revolution of the 1960s to 1980s, which Susan Gregory Thomas described in her book ''In Spite of Everything'' as confusing and frightening for children in cases where a parent would bring new sexual partners into their home.", "Thomas also discussed how divorce was different during the Gen X childhood, with the child having a limited or severed relationship with one parent following divorce, often the father, due to differing societal and legal expectations.", "In the 1970s, only nine U.S. states allowed for joint custody of children, which has since been adopted by all 50 states following a push for joint custody during the mid-1980s.", "''Kramer vs. Kramer'', a 1979 American legal drama based on Avery Corman's best-selling novel, came to epitomize the struggle for child custody and the demise of the traditional nuclear family.U.S.", "Participation Rates for Women Professionals 1966–2013The rapid influx of Boomer women into the labor force that began in the 1970s was marked by the confidence of many in their ability to successfully pursue a career while meeting the needs of their children.", "This resulted in an increase in latchkey children, leading to the terminology of the \"latchkey generation\" for Generation X.", "These children lacked adult supervision in the hours between the end of the school day and when a parent returned home from work in the evening, and for longer periods of time during the summer.", "Latchkey children became common among all socioeconomic demographics, but this was particularly so among middle- and upper-class children.", "The higher the educational attainment of the parents, the higher the odds the children of this time would be latchkey children, due to increased maternal participation in the workforce at a time before childcare options outside the home were widely available.", "McCrindle Research Centre described the cohort as \"the first to grow up without a large adult presence, with both parents working\", stating this led to Gen Xers being more peer-oriented than previous generations.=====Conservative and neoliberal turn=====Some older Gen Xers started high school in the waning years of the Carter presidency, but much of the cohort became socially and politically conscious during the Reagan Era.", "President Ronald Reagan, voted in office principally by the Boomer generation, embraced ''laissez-faire'' economics with vigor.", "His policies included cuts in the growth of government spending, reduction in taxes for the higher echelon of society, legalization of stock buybacks, and deregulation of key industries.", "Measures had drastic consequences on the social fabric of the country even if, gradually, reforms gained acceptability and exported overseas to willing participants.", "The early 1980s recession saw unemployment rise to 10.8% in 1982; requiring, more often than not, dual parental incomes.", "One in five American children grew up in poverty during this time.", "The federal debt almost tripled during Reagan's time in office, from $998 billion in 1981 to $2.857 trillion in 1989, placing greater burden of repayment on the incoming generation.U.S.", "Department of Health booklet published in 1988Government expenditure shifted from domestic programs to defense.", "Remaining funding initiatives, moreover, tended to be diverted away from programs for children and often directed toward the elderly population, with cuts to Medicaid and programs for children and young families, and protection and expansion of Medicare and Social Security for the elderly population.", "These programs for the elderly were not tied to economic need.", "Congressman David Durenberger criticized this political situation, stating that while programs for poor children and for young families were cut, the government provided \"free health care to elderly millionaires\".=====The crack epidemic and AIDS=====Gen Xers came of age or were children during the 1980s crack epidemic, which disproportionately impacted urban areas as well as the African-American community.", "The U.S. Drug turf battles increased violent crime.", "Crack addiction impacted communities and families.", "Between 1984 and 1989, the homicide rate for black males aged 14 to 17 doubled in the U.S., and the homicide rate for black males aged 18 to 24 increased almost as much.", "The crack epidemic had a destabilizing impact on families, with an increase in the number of children in foster care.", "In 1986, President Reagan signed the Anti-Drug Abuse Act to enforce strict mandatory minimum sentencing for drug users.", "He also increased the federal budget for supply-reduction efforts.Fear of the impending AIDS epidemic of the 1980s and 1990s loomed over the formative years of Generation X.", "The emergence of AIDS coincided with Gen X's adolescence, with the disease first clinically observed in the U.S. in 1981.By 1985, an estimated one-to-two million Americans were HIV-positive.", "This particularly hit the LGBT community.", "As the virus spread, at a time before effective treatments were available, a public panic ensued.", "Sex education programs in schools were adapted to address the AIDS epidemic, which taught Gen X students that sex could kill them.=====The rise of home computing=====An 8-bit 1977 Apple IIGen Xers were the first children to have access to personal computers in their homes and at schools.", "In the early 1980s, the growth in the use of personal computers exploded.", "Manufacturers such as Commodore, Atari, and Apple responded to the demand via 8-bit and 16-bit machines.", "This in turn stimulated the software industries with corresponding developments for backup storage, use of the floppy disk, zip drive, and CD-ROM.At school, several computer projects were supported by the Department of Education under United States Secretary of Education Terrel Bell's \"Technology Initiative\".", "This was later mirrored in the UK's 1982 Computers for Schools programme and, in France, under the 1985 scheme ''Plan Informatique pour Tous (IPT).", "''=====The post–civil rights generation=====In the U.S., Generation X was the first cohort to grow up post-integration after the racist Jim Crow laws.", "They were described in a marketing report by ''Specialty Retail'' as the kids who \"lived the civil rights movement\".", "They were among the first children to be bused to attain integration in the public school system.", "In the 1990s, Strauss reported Gen Xers were \"by any measure the least racist of today's generations\".", "In the U.S., Title IX, which passed in 1972, provided increased athletic opportunities to Gen X girls in the public school setting.", "''Roots'', based on the novel by Alex Haley and broadcast as a 12-hour series, was viewed as a turning point in the country's ability to relate to the afro-American history.====As young adults=========Continued growth in college enrollments=====Total Fall Enrollment in U.S. degree granting Institutions 1965–1998In the U.S., compared to the Boomer generation, Generation X was more educated than their parents.", "The share of young adults enrolling in college steadily increased from 1983, before peaking in 1998.In 1965, as early Boomers entered college, total enrollment of new undergraduates was just over 5.7 million individuals across the public and private sectors.", "By 1983, the first year of Gen X college enrollments (as per Pew Research's definition), this figure had reached 12.2 million.", "This was an increase of 53%, effectively a doubling in student intake.", "As the 1990s progressed, Gen X college enrollments continued to climb, with increased loan borrowing as the cost of an education became substantially more expensive compared to their peers in the mid-1980s.", "By 1998, the generation's last year of college enrollment, those entering the higher education sector totaled 14.3 million.", "In addition, unlike Boomers and previous generations, women outpaced men in college completion rates.=====Adjusting to a new societal environment=====For early Gen Xer graduates entering the job market at the end of the 1980s, economic conditions were challenging and did not show signs of major improvements until the mid-1990s.", "In the U.S., restrictive monetary policy to curb rising inflation and the collapse of a large number of savings and loan associations (private banks that specialized in home mortgages) impacted the welfare of many American households.", "This precipitated a large government bailout, which placed further strain on the budget.", "Furthermore, three decades of growth came to an end.", "The social contract between employers and employees, which had endured during the 1960s and 1970s and was scheduled to last until retirement, was no longer applicable.", "By the late 1980s, there were large-scale layoffs of Boomers, corporate downsizing, and accelerated offshoring of production.On the political front, in the U.S. the generation became ambivalent if not outright disaffected with politics.", "They had been reared in the shadow of the Vietnam War and the Watergate scandal.", "They came to maturity under the Reagan and George H. W. Bush presidencies, with first-hand experience of the impact of neoliberal policies.", "Few had experienced a Democratic administration and even then, only, at an atmospheric level.", "For those on the left of the political spectrum, the disappointments with the previous Boomer student mobilizations of the 1960s and the collapse of those movements towards a consumerist \"greed is good\" and \"yuppie\" culture during the 1980s felt, to a greater extent, hypocrisy if not outright betrayal.", "Hence, the preoccupation on \"authenticity\" and not \"selling-out\".", "The Revolutions of 1989 and the collapse of the socialist utopia with the fall of the Berlin Wall, moreover, added to the disillusionment that any alternative to the capitalist model was possible.=====Birth of the slacker=====In 1990, ''Time'' magazine published an article titled \"Living: Proceeding with Caution\", which described those then in their 20s as aimless and unfocused.", "Media pundits and advertisers further struggled to define the cohort, typically portraying them as \"unfocused twentysomethings\".", "A MetLife report noted: \"media would portray them as the ''Friends'' generation: rather self-involved and perhaps aimless...but fun\".", "Gen Xers were often portrayed as apathetic or as \"slackers\", lacking bearings, a stereotype which was initially tied to Richard Linklater's comedic and essentially plotless 1991 film ''Slacker''.", "After the film was released, \"journalists and critics thought they put a finger on what was different about these young adults in that 'they were reluctant to grow up' and 'disdainful of earnest action'\".", "Ben Stiller's 1994 film ''Reality Bites'' also sought to capture the zeitgeist of the generation with a portrayal of the attitudes and lifestyle choices of the time.Negative stereotypes of Gen X young adults continued, including that they were \"bleak, cynical, and disaffected\".", "In 1998, such stereotypes prompted sociological research at Stanford University to study the accuracy of the characterization of Gen X young adults as cynical and disaffected.", "Using the national General Social Survey, the researchers compared answers to identical survey questions asked of 18–29-year-olds in three different time periods.", "Additionally, they compared how older adults answered the same survey questions over time.", "The surveys showed 18–29-year-old Gen Xers did exhibit higher levels of cynicism and disaffection than previous cohorts of 18–29-year-olds surveyed.", "However, they also found that cynicism and disaffection had increased among all age groups surveyed over time, not just young adults, making this a period effect, not a cohort effect.", "In other words, adults of all ages were more cynical and disaffected in the 1990s, not just Generation X.In a 2023 interview with television host Bill Maher on the podcast ''Club Random with Bill Maher'', vocalist and guitarist Billy Corgan hinted at how the Smashing Pumpkins spoke to the disillusionment felt by many Gen Xers as they reached adulthood, noting:==== Rise of the Internet and the dot-com bubble ====By the mid-late 1990s, under Bill Clinton's presidency, economic optimism had returned to the U.S., with unemployment reduced from 7.5% in 1992 to 4% in 2000.Younger members of Gen X, straddling across administrations, politically experienced a \"liberal renewal\".", "In 1997, ''Time'' magazine published an article titled \"Generation X Reconsidered\", which retracted the previously reported negative stereotypes and reported positive accomplishments.", "The article cited Gen Xers' tendency to found technology startup companies and small businesses, as well as their ambition, which research showed was higher among Gen X young adults than older generations.", "Yet, the slacker moniker stuck.", "As the decade progressed, Gen X gained a reputation for entrepreneurship.", "In 1999, ''The New York Times'' dubbed them \"Generation 1099\", describing them as the \"once pitied but now envied group of self-employed workers whose income is reported to the Internal Revenue Service not on a W-2 form, but on Form 1099\".America Online (AOL) version 2.0 program disk for Microsoft Windows (1994), widely used by younger Gen Xers to access the InternetConsumer access to the Internet and its commercial development throughout the 1990s witnessed a frenzy of IT initiatives.", "Newly created companies, launched on stock exchanges globally, were formed with dubitable revenue generation or cash flow.", "When the dot-com bubble eventually burst in 2000, early Gen Xers who had embarked as entrepreneurs in the IT industry while riding the Internet wave, as well as newly qualified programmers at the tail-end of the generation (who had grown up with AOL and the first Web browsers), were both caught in the crash.", "This had major repercussions, with cross-generational consequences; five years after the bubble burst, new matriculation of IT Millennial undergraduates fell by 40% and by as much as 70% in some information systems programs.However, following the crisis, sociologist Mike Males reported continued confidence and optimism among the cohort.", "He reported \"surveys consistently find 80% to 90% of Gen Xers self-confident and optimistic\".", "Males wrote \"these young Americans should finally get the recognition they deserve\", praising the cohort and stating that \"the permissively raised, universally deplored Generation X is the true 'great generation', for it has braved a hostile social climate to reverse abysmal trends\".", "He described them as the hardest-working group since the World War II generation.", "He reported Gen Xers' entrepreneurial tendencies helped create the high-tech industry that fueled the 1990s economic recovery.", "In 2002, ''Time'' magazine published an article titled ''Gen Xers Aren't Slackers After All'', reporting that four out of five new businesses were the work of Gen Xers.=====Response to 9/11=====In the U.S., Gen Xers were described as the major heroes of the September 11 terrorist attacks by author William Strauss.", "The firefighters and police responding to the attacks were predominantly from Generation X. Additionally, the leaders of the passenger revolt on United Airlines Flight 93 were also, by majority, Gen Xers.", "Author Neil Howe reported survey data which showed that Gen Xers were cohabiting and getting married in increasing numbers following the terrorist attacks.", "Gen X survey respondents reported that they no longer wanted to live alone.", "In October 2001, the ''Seattle Post-Intelligencer'' wrote of Gen Xers: \"Now they could be facing the most formative events of their lives and their generation.\"", "The ''Greensboro News & Record'' reported members of the cohort \"felt a surge of patriotism since terrorists struck\" by giving blood, working for charities, donating to charities, and by joining the military to fight the War on Terror.", "''The Jury Expert'', a publication of The American Society of Trial Consultants, reported: \"Gen X members responded to the terrorist attacks with bursts of patriotism and national fervor that surprised even themselves.", "\"====In midlife=========Achieving a work-life balance=====In 2011, survey analysis from the ''Longitudinal Study of American Youth'' found Gen Xers (defined as those who were then between the ages of 30 and 50) to be \"balanced, active, and happy\" in midlife and as achieving a work-life balance.", "The Longitudinal Study of Youth is an NIH-NIA funded study by the University of Michigan which has been studying Generation X since 1987.The study asked questions such as \"Thinking about all aspects of your life, how happy are you?", "If zero means that you are very unhappy and 10 means that you are very happy, please rate your happiness.\"", "LSA reported that \"mean level of happiness was 7.5 and the median (middle score) was 8.Only four percent of Generation X adults indicated a great deal of unhappiness (a score of three or lower).", "Twenty-nine percent of Generation X adults were very happy with a score of 9 or 10 on the scale.", "\"In 2014, Pew Research provided further insight, describing the cohort as \"savvy, skeptical and self-reliant; they're not into preening or pampering, and they just might not give much of a hoot what others think of them.", "Or whether others think of them at all.\"", "Furthermore, guides regarding managing multiple generations in the workforce describe Gen Xers as: independent, resilient, resourceful, self-managing, adaptable, cynical, pragmatic, skeptical of authority, and as seeking a work-life balance.=====Entrepreneurship as an individual trait=====Google co-founder Sergey Brin, speaking at a Web 2.0 conferenceIndividualism is one of the defining traits of Generation X, and is reflected in their entrepreneurial spirit.", "In the 2008 book ''X Saves the World: How Generation X Got the Shaft but Can Still Keep Everything from Sucking'', author Jeff Gordinier describes Generation X as a \"dark horse demographic\" which \"doesn't seek the limelight\".", "Gordiner cites examples of Gen Xers' contributions to society such as: Google, Wikipedia, Amazon.com, and YouTube, arguing that if Boomers had created them, \"we'd never hear the end of it\".", "In the book, Gordinier contrasts Gen Xers to Baby Boomers, saying Boomers tend to trumpet their accomplishments more than Gen Xers do, creating what he describes as \"elaborate mythologies\" around their achievements.", "Gordiner cites Steve Jobs as an example, while Gen Xers, he argues, are more likely to \"just quietly do their thing\".In a 2007 article published in the Harvard Business Review, authors Strauss and Howe wrote of Generation X: \"They are already the greatest entrepreneurial generation in U.S. history; their high-tech savvy and marketplace resilience have helped America prosper in the era of globalization.\"", "According to authors Michael Hais and Morley Winograd:Small businesses and the entrepreneurial spirit that Gen Xers embody have become one of the most popular institutions in America.", "There's been a recent shift in consumer behavior and Gen Xers will join the \"idealist generation\" in encouraging the celebration of individual effort and business risk-taking.", "As a result, Xers will spark a renaissance of entrepreneurship in economic life, even as overall confidence in economic institutions declines.", "Customers, and their needs and wants (including Millennials) will become the North Star for an entire new generation of entrepreneurs.A 2015 study by Sage Group reports Gen Xers \"dominate the playing field\" with respect to founding startups in the United States and Canada, with Xers launching the majority (55%) of all new businesses in 2015.=====Income benefits of a college education=====Unlike Millennials, Generation X was the last generation in the U.S. for whom higher education was broadly financially remunerative.", "In 2019, the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis published research (using data from the 2016 ''Survey of Consumer Finances'') demonstrating that after controlling for race and age, cohort families with heads of household with post-secondary education and born before 1980 have seen wealth and income premiums, while, for those after 1980, the wealth premium has weakened to a point of statistical insignificance (in part because of the rising cost of college).", "The income premium, while remaining positive, has declined to historic lows, with more pronounced downward trajectories among heads of household with postgraduate degrees.=====Parenting and volunteering=====In terms of advocating for their children in the educational setting, author Neil Howe describes Gen X parents as distinct from Baby Boomer parents.", "Howe argues that Gen Xers are not helicopter parents, which Howe describes as a parenting style of Boomer parents of Millennials.", "Howe described Gen Xers instead as \"stealth fighter parents\", due to the tendency of Gen X parents to let minor issues go and to not hover over their children in the educational setting, but to intervene forcefully and swiftly in the event of more serious issues.", "In 2012, the Corporation for National and Community Service ranked Gen X volunteer rates in the U.S. at \"29.4% per year\", the highest compared with other generations.", "The rankings were based on a three-year moving average between 2009 and 2011.=====Income differential with previous generations=====A report titled ''Economic Mobility: Is the American Dream Alive and Well?''", "focused on the income of males 30–39 in 2004 (those born April 1964March 1974).", "The study was released on 25 May 2007 and emphasized that this generation's men made less (by 12%) than their fathers had at the same age in 1974, thus reversing a historical trend.", "It concluded that, per year increases in household income generated by fathers/sons slowed from an average of 0.9% to 0.3%, barely keeping pace with inflation.", "\"Family incomes have risen though (over the period 1947 to 2005) because more women have gone to work\", \"supporting the incomes of men, by adding a second earner to the family.", "And as with male income, the trend is downward.", "\"===Elsewhere===Although, globally, children and adolescents of Generation X will have been heavily influenced by U.S. cultural industries with shared global currents (e.g., rising divorce rates, the AIDS epidemic, advancements in ICT), there is not one U.S.-born raised concept but multiple perspectives and geographical outgrowths.", "Even within the period of analysis, inside national communities, commonalities will have differed on the basis of one's birth date.", "The generation, Christine Henseler also remarks, was shaped as much by real-world events, within national borders, determined by specific political, cultural, and historical incidents.", "She adds \"In other words, it is in between both real, clearly bordered spaces and more fluid global currents that we can spot the spirit of Generation X.\"", "In 2016, a global consumer insights project from Viacom International Media Networks and Viacom, based on over 12,000 respondents across 21 countries, reported on Gen X's unconventional approach to sex, friendship, and family, their desire for flexibility and fulfillment at work and the absence of midlife crisis for Gen Xers.", "The project also included a 20 min documentary titled ''Gen X Today''.==== Russia ====In Russia, Generation Xers are referred to as \"the last Soviet children\", as the last children to come of age prior to the downfall of communism in their nation and prior to the Dissolution of the Soviet Union.", "Those that reached adulthood in the 1980s and grew up educated in the doctrines of Marxism and Leninism found themselves against a background of economic and social change, with the advent of Mikhail Gorbachev to power and ''Perestroika''.", "However, even before the collapse of the Soviet Union and the disbanding of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, surveys demonstrated that Russian young people repudiated the key features of the Communist worldview that their party leaders, schoolteachers, and even parents had tried to instill in them.", "This generation, caught in the transition between Marxism–Leninism and an unknown future, and wooed by the new domestic political classes, remained largely apathetic.==== France ====In France, \"Generation X\" is not as widely known or used to define its members.", "Politically, this loosely denotes those born in the early 1960s to the early 1980s.", "Although fertility rates started to fall in 1965, number of births in France only followed suit in 1975.There is general agreement that, domestically, the event that is accepted in France as the separating point between the Baby Boomer generation and Generation X are the French strikes and violent riots of May 1968 with those of the generation too young to participate.", "Those at the start of the cohort are sometimes referred to as 'Génération Bof' because of their tendency to use the word 'bof', which, translated into English, means \"whatever\".The generation is closely associated with socialist François Mitterrand who served as President of France during two consecutive terms between 1981 and 1995 as most transitioned from teenagers into adulthood during that period.", "Economically, Xers started when the new labour market was emerging and were the first to fully experience the advent of the post-industrial society.", "For those at the tail-end of the generation, educational and defence reforms, a new style ''baccalauréat général'' with three distinct streams in 1995 (the preceding programme, introduced in 1968) the 2002 licence-master-doctorat reform for first Millennial graduates (DEUG, Maîtrise, DESS and DEA degrees no longer awarded), and the cessation of military conscription in 1997 (for those born after January 1979) are considered as new transition points to the next.====Republic of Ireland====The term \"Generation X\" is used to describe Irish people born between 1965 and 1985; they grew up during The Troubles and the 1980s economic recession, coming of age during the Celtic Tiger period of prosperity in the 1990s onward.", "The appropriateness of the term to Ireland has been questioned, with Darach Ó Séaghdha noting that \"Generation X is usually contrasted with the one before by growing up in smaller and different family units on account of their parents having greater access to contraception and divorce – again, things that were not widely available in Ireland.", "''Contraception was only available under prescription in 1978 and without prescription in 1985; divorce was illegal until 1996.''", "However, this generation was in prime position to benefit from the Celtic Tiger, the Peace Process and liberalisations introduced on foot of EU membership and was less likely to emigrate than those that came before and after.", "You could say that in many ways, these are Ireland’s real Boomers.", "\"Culturally, Britpop, Celtic rock, the trad revival, ''Father Ted'', the 1990 FIFA World Cup and rave culture were significant.", "The Divine Comedy song \"Generation Sex\" (1998) painted a picture of hedonism in the late 20th century, as well as its effect on the media.", "David McWilliams' 2005 book ''The Pope's Children: Ireland's New Elite'' profiled Irish people born in the 1970s (just prior to the papal visit to Ireland), which was a baby boom that saw Ireland's population increase for the first time since the 1840s Great Famine.", "The Pope's Children were in position to benefit from the Celtic Tiger and the newly liberal culture, where the Catholic Church had significantly less social power.==== United Kingdom ========= As children, adolescents and young adults =========== Political environment ======The United Kingdom's Economic and Social Research Council described Generation X as \"Thatcher's children\" because the cohort grew up while Margaret Thatcher was Prime Minister from 1979 to 1990, \"a time of social flux and transformation\".", "Those born in the late 1960s and early 1970s grew up in a period of social unrest.", "While unemployment was low in the early 1970s, industrial and social unrest escalated.", "Strike action culminated in the \"Winter of Discontent\" in 1978–79, and the Troubles began to unfold in Northern Ireland.", "The turn to neoliberal policies introduced and maintained by consecutive conservative governments from 1979 to 1997 marked the end of the post-war consensus.====== Education ======The almost universal dismantling of the grammar school system in Great Britain during the 1960s and the 1970s meant that the vast majority of the cohort attended secondary modern schools, relabelled comprehensive schools.", "Compulsory education ended at the age of 16.As older members of the cohort reached the end of their mandatory schooling, levels of educational enrollment among older adolescents remained below much of the Western world.", "By the early 1980s, some 80% to 90% of school leavers in France and West Germany received vocational training, compared with 40% in the United Kingdom.", "By the mid-1980s, over 80% of pupils in the United States and West Germany and over 90% in Japan stayed in education until the age of eighteen, compared with 33% of British pupils.", "There was, however, broadly a rise in education levels among this age range as Generation X passed through it.In 1990, 25% of young people in England stayed in some kind of full-time education after the age of 18, this was an increase from 15% a decade earlier.", "Later, the Further and Higher Education Act 1992 and the liberalisation of higher education in the UK saw greater numbers of those born towards the tail-end of the generation gaining university places.====== Employment ======The 1980s, when some of Generation X reached working age, was an era defined by high unemployment rates.", "This was particularly true of the youngest members of the working aged population.", "In 1984, 26% of 16 to 24 year olds were neither in full-time education or participating in the workforce.", "However, this figure did decrease as the economic situation improved reaching 17% by 1993.===== In midlife =====Generation X were far more likely to have children out of wedlock than their parents.", "The number of babies being born to unmarried parents in England and Wales rose from 11% in 1979, a quarter in 1998, 40% by 2002 and almost half in 2012.They were also significantly more likely to have children later in life than their predecessors.", "The average age of a mother giving birth rose from 27 in 1982 to 30 in 2012.That year saw 29,994 children born to mothers over the age 40, an increase of 360% from 2002.A 2016 study of over 2,500 British office workers conducted by Workfront found that survey respondents of all ages selected those from Generation X as the hardest-working employees and members of the workforce (chosen by 60%).", "Gen X was also ranked highest among fellow workers for having the strongest work ethic (chosen by 59.5%), being the most helpful (55.4%), the most skilled (54.5%), and the best troubleshooters/problem-solvers (41.6%).===== Political evolution =====Ipsos MORI reports that at the 1987 and 1992 general elections, the first United Kingdom general elections where significant numbers of Generation X members could vote, a plurality of 18 to 24 year olds opted for the Labour Party by a small margin.", "The polling organisation's figures suggest that in 1987, 39% of that age group voted Labour, 37% for the Conservatives and 22% for the SDP–Liberal Alliance.", "Five years later, these numbers were fairly similar at 38% Labour, 35% Conservative and 19% Liberal Democrats, a party by then formed from the previously mentioned alliance.", "Both these elections saw a fairly significant lead for the Conservatives in the popular vote among the general population.At the 1997 General election where Labour won a large majority of seats and a comfortable lead in the popular vote, research suggests that voters under the age of 35 were more likely to vote Labour if they turned out than the wider electorate but significantly less likely to vote than in 1992.Analysts suggested this may have been due to fewer differences in policies between the major parties and young people having less of a sense of affiliation with particular political parties than older generations.", "A similar trend continued at the 2001 and 2005 general elections as turnout dropped further among both the relatively young and the wider public.Voter turnout across the electorate began to recover from a 2001 low until the 2017 general election.", "Generation X also became more likely to vote as they entered the midlife age demographics.", "Polling suggests a plurality of their age group backed the Conservatives in 2010 and 2015 but less overwhelming than much of the older generation.", "At the 2016 EU membership referendum and 2017 general election, Generation X was split with younger members appearing to back remain and Labour and older members tending towards Leave and Conservative in a British electorate more polarised by age than ever before.", "At the 2019 general election, voting trends continued to be heavily divided by age but a plurality of younger as well as older generation X members (then 39 to 55 year olds) voted Conservative.The 297x297px==== Germany ====In Germany, \"Generation X\" is not widely used or applied.", "Instead, reference is made to \"Generation Golf\" in the previous West German republic, based on a novel by Florian Illies.", "In the east, children of the \"Mauerfall\" or coming down of the wall.", "For former East Germans, there was adaptation, but also a sense of loss of accustomed values and structures.", "These effects turned into romantic narratives of their childhood.", "For those in the West, there was a period of discovery and exploration of what had been a forbidden land.==== South Africa ====In South Africa, Gen Xers spent their formative years of the 1980s during the \"hyper-politicized environment of the final years of apartheid\"." ], [ "Arts and culture", "This illustration shows three cultural touchstones for Generation X: singer Michael Jackson, who dominated pop charts in the 1980s; alien characters from the popular arcade video game ''Space Invaders''; and a videocassette, which revolutionized home entertainment by enabling TV viewers to record shows and watch prerecorded films at home.=== Music ===Gen Xers were the first cohort to come of age with MTV.", "They were the first generation to experience the emergence of music videos as teenagers and are sometimes called the MTV Generation.", "Gen Xers were responsible for the alternative rock movement of the 1990s and 2000s, including the grunge subgenre.", "Hip hop has also been described as defining music of the generation, particularly artists such as Tupac Shakur, N.W.A., and The Notorious B.I.G.====Punk rock====The Offspring performing in 2008 in Fortaleza, BrazilFrom 1974 to 1976, a new generation of rock bands arose, such as the Ramones, Johnny Thunders and the Heartbreakers, The Dictators in New York City, the Sex Pistols, the Clash, the Damned, and Buzzcocks in the United Kingdom, and the Saints in Brisbane.", "By late 1976, these acts were generally recognized as forming the vanguard of \"punk rock\", and as 1977 approached, punk rock became a major and highly controversial cultural phenomenon in the UK.", "It spawned a punk subculture which expressed a youthful rebellion, characterized by distinctive styles of clothing and adornment (ranging from deliberately offensive T-shirts, leather jackets, studded or spiked bands and jewelry, as well as bondage and S&M clothes) and a variety of anti-authoritarian ideologies that have since been associated with the form.", "By 1977 the influence of punk rock music and its subculture became more pervasive, spreading throughout various countries worldwide.", "It generally took root in local scenes that tended to reject affiliation with the mainstream.", "In the late 1970s, punk experienced its second wave.", "Acts that were not active during its formative years adopted the style.", "While at first punk musicians were not Gen Xers themselves (many of them were late Boomers, or Generation Jones), the fanbase for punk became increasingly Gen X-oriented as the earliest Xers entered their adolescence, and it therefore made a significant imprint on the cohort.", "By the 1980s, faster and more aggressive subgenres such as hardcore punk (e.g., Minor Threat), street punk (e.g., the Exploited, NOFX) and anarcho-punk (e.g., Subhumans) became the predominant modes of punk rock.", "Musicians identifying with or inspired by punk often later pursued other musical directions, resulting in a broad range of spinoffs.", "This development gave rise to genres such as post-punk, new wave and later indie pop, alternative rock, and noise rock.", "Gen Xers were no longer simply the consumers of punk, they became the creators as well.", "By the 1990s, punk rock re-emerged into the mainstream.", "Punk rock and pop punk bands with Gen X members such as Green Day, Rancid, The Offspring, and Blink-182 brought widespread popularity to the genre .====Hard rock====Arguably in a similar way to punk, a sense of disillusionment, angst and anger catalysed hard rock and heavy metal to grow from the earlier influence of rock.====Post-punk====The energy generated by the punk movement launched a subsequent proliferation of weird and eclectic post-punk sub cultures, spanning new wave, goth, etc., and influencing the New Romantics.====Grunge====Nirvana singer Kurt Cobain (pictured here in 1992) was called the \"voice of Generation X\" in the 1990s, playing the same role for this demographic as Bob Dylan and John Lennon played for Baby Boomers in the 1960s.A notable example of alternative rock is grunge music and the associated subculture that developed in the Pacific Northwest of the U.S. Grunge song lyrics have been called the \"...product of Generation X malaise\".", "Vulture commented: \"the best bands arose from the boredom of latchkey kids\".", "\"People made records entirely to please themselves because there was nobody else to please\" commented producer Jack Endino.", "Grunge lyrics are typically dark, nihilistic, angst-filled, anguished, and often addressing themes such as social alienation, despair and apathy.", "''The Guardian'' wrote that grunge \"didn't recycle banal cliches but tackled weighty subjects\".", "Topics of grunge lyrics included homelessness, suicide, rape, broken homes, drug addiction, self-loathing, misogyny, domestic abuse and finding \"meaning in an indifferent universe\".", "Grunge lyrics tended to be introspective and aimed to enable the listener to see into hidden personal issues and examine depravity in the world.", "Notable grunge bands include: Nirvana, Pearl Jam, Alice in Chains, Stone Temple Pilots and Soundgarden.====Hip hop====This cartoon depicts a 1980s-era dancer doing breakdancing, an African-American dance form that was a key part of hip hop culture.The golden age of hip hop refers to hip hop music made from the mid-1980s to mid-1990s, typically by artists originating from the New York metropolitan area.", "The music style was characterized by its diversity, quality, innovation and influence after the genre's emergence and establishment in the previous decade.", "There were various types of subject matter, while the music was experimental and the sampling eclectic.", "Artists associated with the era include LL Cool J, Run–D.M.C., Public Enemy, the Beastie Boys, KRS-One, Eric B.", "& Rakim, De La Soul, Big Daddy Kane, EPMD, A Tribe Called Quest, Wu-Tang Clan, Slick Rick, Ultramagnetic MC's, and the Jungle Brothers.", "Releases by these acts co-existed in this period with, and were as commercially viable as, those of early gangsta rap artists such as Ice-T, Geto Boys and N.W.A, the sex raps of 2 Live Crew and Too Short, and party-oriented music by acts such as Kid 'n Play, The Fat Boys, DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince and MC Hammer.In addition to lyrical self-glorification, hip hop was also used as a form of social protest.", "Lyrical content from the era often drew attention to a variety of social issues, including afrocentric living, drug use, crime and violence, religion, culture, the state of the American economy, and the modern man's struggle.", "Conscious and political hip hop tracks of the time were a response to the effects of American capitalism and former President Reagan's conservative political economy.", "According to Rose Tricia, \"In rap, relationships between black cultural practice, social and economic conditions, technology, sexual and racial politics, and the institution policing of the popular terrain are complex and in constant motion\".", "Even though hip hop was used as a mechanism for different social issues, it was still very complex with issues within the movement itself.", "There was also often an emphasis on black nationalism.", "Hip hop artists often talked about urban poverty and the problems of alcohol, drugs, and gangs in their communities.", "Public Enemy's most influential song, \"Fight the Power\", came out at this time; the song speaks up to the government, proclaiming that people in the ghetto have freedom of speech and rights like every other American.===Film=======Indie films====Kevin Smith is an influential Gen X indie filmmaker, his flagship film being ''Clerks''.Gen Xers were largely responsible for the \"indie film\" movement of the 1990s, both as young directors and in large part as the film audiences which were fueling demand for such films.", "In cinema, directors Kevin Smith, Quentin Tarantino, Sofia Coppola, John Singleton, Spike Jonze, David Fincher, Steven Soderbergh, and Richard Linklater have been called Generation X filmmakers.", "Smith is most known for his View Askewniverse films, the flagship film being ''Clerks'', which is set in New Jersey circa 1994, and focuses on two convenience-store clerks in their twenties.", "Linklater's ''Slacker'' similarly explores young adult characters who were interested in philosophizing.While not a member of Gen X himself, director John Hughes has been recognized as having created classic 1980s teen films with early Gen X characters which \"an entire generation took ownership of\", including ''The Breakfast Club'', ''Sixteen Candles'', ''Weird Science'', and ''Ferris Bueller's Day Off''.In France, a new movement emerged, the ''Cinéma du look'', spearheaded by filmmakers Luc Besson, Jean-Jacques Beineix and Leos Carax.", "Although not Gen Xers themselves, ''Subway'' (1985), ''37°2 le matin'' (English: ''Betty Blue''; 1986), and ''Mauvais Sang'' (1986) sought to capture on screen the generation's malaise, sense of entrapment, and desire to escape.====Franchise mega sequels====The birth of franchise mega-sequels in the science fiction, fantasy, and horror fiction genres, such as the epic space opera ''Star Wars'' and the ''Halloween'' franchise, had a profound and notable cultural influence.===Literature===The literature of early Gen Xers is often dark and introspective.", "In the U.S., authors such as Elizabeth Wurtzel, David Foster Wallace, Bret Easton Ellis, and Douglas Coupland captured the zeitgeist of this generation.", "In France, Michel Houellebecq and Frédéric Beigbeder rank among major novelists whose work also reflect the dissatisfaction and melancholies of the cohort.", "In the UK, Alex Garland, author of ''The Beach'' (1996), further added to the genre." ], [ "Health problems", "While previous research has indicated that the likelihood of heart attacks was declining among Americans aged 35 to 74, a 2018 study published in the American Heart Association's journal ''Circulation'' revealed that this did not apply to the younger half of that cohort (controlling for age, Generation X have not seen a reduction in heart attack risk, versus previous generations).", "Data from 28,000 patients from across the United States who were hospitalized for heart attacks between 1995 and 2014 showed that a growing proportion were between the ages of 35 and 54.The proportion of heart-attack patients in this age group at the end of the study was 32%, up from 27% at the start of the study.", "This increase is most pronounced among women, for whom the number rose from 21% to 31%.", "A common theme among those who suffered from heart attacks is that they also had high-blood pressure, diabetes, and chronic kidney disease.", "These changes have been faster for women than for men.", "Experts suggest a number of reasons for this.", "Conditions such as coronary artery disease are traditionally viewed as a man's problem, and as such female patients are not considered high-risk.", "More often than in previous generations, Generation X women are both the primary caretakers of their families and full-time employees, reducing time for self-care." ], [ "Offspring", "Generation X are usually the parents of Generation Z, and sometimes Millennials.", "Jason Dorsey, who works for the Center of Generational Kinetics, observed that like their parents from Generation X, members of Generation Z tend to be autonomous and pessimistic.", "They need validation less than the Millennials and typically become financially literate at an earlier age, as many of their parents bore the full brunt of the Great Recession." ], [ "See also", "* Generation Jones* List of generations* Zillennials" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*'' Generation X Goes Global: Mapping a Youth Culture in Motion'' , Christine Henseler, Ed.", "; 2012* \"Generation X's journey from jaded to sated\" – ''Salon'', 1 October 2013* ''Gen X Today''—2016 documentary by Viacom International Media Networks" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Guam" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Guam''' ( ; ) is an organized, unincorporated territory of the United States in the Micronesia subregion of the western Pacific Ocean.", "Guam's capital is Hagåtña, and the most populous village is Dededo.", "It is the westernmost point and territory of the United States, reckoned from the geographic center of the U.S.", "In Oceania, Guam is the largest and southernmost of the Mariana Islands and the largest island in Micronesia.Indigenous Guamanians are the Chamorro, who are related to the Austronesian peoples of the Malay archipelago, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Polynesia.", "But unlike most of its neighbors, the Chamorro language is not classified as a Micronesian or Polynesian language.", "Rather, like Palauan, it possibly constitutes an independent branch of the Malayo-Polynesian language family.", "As of 2022, Guam's population was 168,801.Chamorros are the largest ethnic group, but a minority on the multi-ethnic island.", "The territory spans and has a population density of .", "The Chamorro people settled Guam and the Mariana islands approximately 3,500 years ago.", "Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, while in the service of Spain, was the first European to visit and claim the island on March 6, 1521.Guam was fully colonized by Spain in 1668.Between the 16th and 18th centuries, Guam was an important stopover for Spanish Manila galleons.", "During the Spanish–American War, the United States captured Guam on June 21, 1898.Under the 1898 Treaty of Paris, Spain ceded Guam to the U.S. effective April 11, 1899.Before World War II, Guam was one of five American jurisdictions in the Pacific Ocean, along with Wake Island in Micronesia, American Samoa and Hawaii in Polynesia, and the Philippines.", "On December 8, 1941, hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Guam was captured by the Japanese, who occupied the island for two and a half years.", "During the occupation, Guamanians were subjected to forced labor, incarceration, torture and execution.", "American forces recaptured the island on July 21, 1944, which is commemorated as Liberation Day.", "Since the 1960s, Guam's economy has been supported primarily by tourism and the U.S. military, for which Guam is a major strategic asset.", "Its future political status has been a matter of significant discussion, with public opinion polls indicating a strong preference for American statehood.An unofficial but frequently used territorial motto is \"Where America's Day Begins\", which refers to the island's proximity to the International Date Line.", "Guam is among the 17 non-self-governing territories listed by the United Nations, and has been a member of the Pacific Community since 1983." ], [ "History", "=== Pre-Contact era ===A map showing the Neolithic Austronesian migrations into the islands of the Indo-Pacific|368x368pxGuam, along with the Mariana Islands, were the first islands settled by humans in Remote Oceania.", "It was also the first and the longest of the ocean-crossing voyages of the Austronesian peoples, and is separate from the later Polynesian settlement of the rest of Remote Oceania.", "They were first settled around 1500 to 1400 BC, by migrants departing from the Philippines which was followed by a second migration from the Caroline Islands in the first millennium AD.", "A third migration wave took place from Island Southeast Asia, likely the Philippines or eastern Indonesia, by 900 AD.These original settlers of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands evolved into the Chamorro people, historically known as Chamorros after first contact with the Spaniards.", "The ancient Chamorro society had four classes: (chiefs), (upper class), (middle class), and (lower class).", "The were located in the coastal villages, which meant they had the best access to fishing grounds.", "The were located in the island's interior.", "and rarely communicated with each other.", "The often used as intermediaries.There were also \"\" or \"\", shamans with magical powers and \"'\" or \"\", healers who used different kinds of plants and natural materials to make medicine.", "Belief in spirits of ancient Chamorros called \"\" still persists as a remnant of pre-European culture.", "It is believed that \"\" or \"\" are the only ones who can safely harvest plants and other natural materials from their homes or \"\" without incurring the wrath of the \".\"", "Their society was organized along matrilineal clans.The Chamorro people raised colonnades of megalithic capped pillars called upon which they built their homes.", "Latte stones are stone pillars that are found only in the Mariana Islands.", "They are a recent development in Pre-Contact Chamorro society.", "The latte-stone was used as a foundation on which thatched huts were built.", "Latte stones consist of a base shaped from limestone called the and with a capstone, or , made either from a large brain coral or limestone, placed on top.", "A possible source for these stones, the Rota Latte Stone Quarry, was discovered in 1925 on Rota.=== Spanish era ===Manila Galleon by the Chamorro in the Ladrones Islands, Boxer CodexThe first European to travel to Guam was Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan, sailing for the King of Spain, when he sighted the island on March 6, 1521, during his fleet's circumnavigation of the globe.", "Despite Magellan's visit, Guam was not officially claimed by Spain until January 26, 1565, by Miguel López de Legazpi.", "From 1565 to 1815, Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands, the only Spanish outposts in the Pacific Ocean east of the Philippines, were reprovisioning stops for the Manila galleons, a fleet that covered the Pacific trade route between Acapulco and Manila.Spanish colonization commenced on June 15, 1668, with the arrival of a mission led by Diego Luis de San Vitores, who established the first Catholic church.", "The islands were part of the Spanish East Indies, and part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, based in Mexico City.", "The Spanish-Chamorro Wars on Guam began in 1670 over growing tensions with the Jesuit mission, with the last large-scale uprising in 1683.Intermittent warfare, plus the typhoons of 1671 and 1693, and in particular the smallpox epidemic of 1688, reduced the Chamorro population from 50,000 to 10,000, and finally to less than 5,000.Up until the late 19th century, Guam was encountered by adventurers and pirates, including Thomas Cavendish, Olivier van Noort, John Eaton, William Dampier, Woodes Rogers, John Clipperton, George Shelvocke and William \"Bully\" Hayes.The island became a rest stop for whalers starting in 1823.A devastating typhoon struck the island on August 10, 1848, followed by a severe earthquake on January 25, 1849, which resulted in many refugees from the Caroline Islands, victims of a resultant tsunami.", "This earthquake was much more powerful than the 8.2 one that occurred on August 8, 1993.After a smallpox epidemic killed 3,644 Guamanians in 1856, Carolinians and Japanese were permitted to settle in the Marianas.=== American era ===Hagåtña –1900After almost four centuries as part of the Kingdom of Spain, the United States occupied the island following Spain's defeat in the 1898 Spanish–American War, as part of the Treaty of Paris of 1898.Guam was transferred to the United States Navy control on December 23, 1898, by Executive Order 108-A from 25th President William McKinley.Guam was a station for American merchants and warships traveling to and from the Philippines, which was another American acquisition from Spain, while the Northern Mariana Islands were sold by Spain to Germany for part of its rapidly expanding German Empire.", "A U.S. Navy yard was established at Piti in 1899.A United States Marine Corps barracks was established at Sumay in 1901.A marine seaplane unit was stationed in Sumay from 1921 to 1930, the first in the Pacific.", "The Commercial Pacific Cable Company built a telegraph/telephone station in 1903 for the first trans-Pacific communications cable, followed by Pan American World Airways establishing a seaplane base at Sumay for its trans-Pacific ''China Clipper'' route.==== World War I ====On 10 December 1914 the '''SMS ''Cormoran''''' (or '''SMS ''Cormoran II'''''), a German armed merchant raider, was forced to seek port at Apra Harbor on the U.S. territory of Guam after running short on coal.", "The United States, which was neutral at the time refused to supply provisions sufficient for the ''Cormoran'' to make a German port so the ship and her crew were interned until 1917.On the morning of April 7, 1917 word reached Guam by telegraph cable that the U.S. Congress had declared war on Germany.", "The Naval Governor of Guam, Roy Campbell Smith, sent two officers to inform the ''Cormoran'' that a state of war existed between the two countries, that the crew were now prisoners of war, and that the ship must be surrendered.", "Meanwhile, the USS ''Supply'' blocked the entrance to Apra Harbor to prevent any attempt to flee.", "In a separate boat, the two officers were accompanied by a barge commanded by Lt. W.A.", "Hall, who was designated prize master, and had brought 18 sailors and 15 Marines from the barracks at Sumay.Seeing a launch from ''Cormoran'' hauling a barge of supplies back shore, Hall ordered shots fired across the bow of the launch until it hove to.", "Meanwhile, the two officers reached ''Cormoran'' and informed Captain Adalbert Zuckschwerdt of the situation.", "Zuckschwerdt agreed to surrender his crew but refused to turn over the ship.", "The U.S. officers informed Zuckschwerdt that the ''Cormoran'' would be treated as an enemy combatant and left to inform Governor Smith of the situation.", "Unbeknownst to the Americans, the Germans had secreted an explosive device in the ship's coal bunker.", "Minutes after the Americans left, an explosion aboard ''Cormoran'' hurled debris across the harbor and her crew began abandoning ship.", "The two American boats and USS ''Supply'' immediately began to recover German sailors from the water, saving all but seven of the roughly 370 ''Cormoran'' crew.", "This incident, including the warning shots against the launch, accounted for the first violent action of the United States in World War I, first shots fired by the U.S. against Germany in World War I, the first German prisoners of war captured by the U.S., and the first Germans killed in action by the U.S. in World War I.==== World War II ====U.S.", "Marines walk through the ruins of Hagåtña, July 1944.During World War II, the Empire of Japan attacked and invaded in the 1941 Battle of Guam on December 8, at the same time as the attack on Pearl Harbor.", "The Japanese renamed Guam (Great Shrine Island).", "The Japanese occupation of Guam lasted about 31 months.", "During this period, the indigenous people of Guam were subjected to forced labor, family separation, incarceration, execution, concentration camps, and forced prostitution.Approximately 1,000 people died during the occupation, according to later US Congressional committee testimony in 2004.Some historians estimate that war violence killed 10% of Guam's then 20,000 population.", "The United States returned and fought the 1944 Battle of Guam from July 21 to August 10, to recapture the island.", "July 21 is now a territorial holiday, Liberation Day.==== Post-war ====After World War II, the Guam Organic Act of 1950 established Guam as an unincorporated organized territory of the United States, provided for the structure of the island's civilian government, and granted the people U.S. citizenship.", "The Governor of Guam was federally appointed until 1968 when the Guam Elective Governor Act provided for the office's popular election.", "Since Guam is not a U.S. state, U.S. citizens residing on Guam are not allowed to vote for president and their congressional representative is a non-voting member.They do, however, vote for party delegates in presidential primaries.", "In 1969, a referendum on unification with the Northern Mariana Islands was held and rejected.", "During the 1970s, Maryly Van Leer Peck started an engineering program, expanded University of Guam, and founded Guam Community College.", "In the same period, Alby Mangels, Australian adventurer and filmmaker of ''World Safari'' visited Guam during his six-year escapade on the leg of his voyage through the Pacific aboard the ''Klaraborg''.The removal of Guam's security clearance by President John F. Kennedy in 1963 allowed for the development of a tourism industry.", "When the United States closed U.S.", "Naval Base Subic Bay and Clark Air Base bases in the Philippines after the expiration of their leases in the early 1990s, many of the forces stationed there were relocated to Guam.The 1997 Asian financial crisis, which hit Japan particularly hard, severely affected Guam's tourism industry.", "Military cutbacks in the 1990s also disrupted the island's economy.", "Economic recovery was further hampered by devastation from super typhoons Paka in 1997 and Pongsona in 2002, as well as the effects of the September 11 terrorist attacks and the crash of Korean Air Flight 801 on tourism." ], [ "Geography and environment", "A photograph of Guam from space captured by NASA's now decommissioned Earth observation satellite, ''Earth Observing-1'' (EO-1), December 2011Guam is long and wide.", "It has an area of .", "It is the 32nd largest island of the United States.", "It is the southernmost and largest island in the Mariana Island archipelago, as well as the largest in Micronesia.", "Guam's Point Udall is the westernmost point of the U.S., as measured from the geographic center of the United States.The Mariana chain of which Guam is a part, was created by collision of the Pacific and Philippine Sea tectonic plates.", "Guam is located on the micro Mariana Plate between the two.", "Guam is the closest land mass to the Mariana Trench, the deep subduction zone that runs east of the Marianas.", "Volcanic eruptions established the base of the island in the Eocene, roughly 56 to 33.9 million years ago.", "The north of Guam is a result of this base being covered with layers of coral reef, turning into limestone, and then being thrust upward by tectonic activity to create a plateau.The rugged south of the island is a result of more recent volcanic activity.", "Cocos Island off the southern tip of Guam is the largest of the many small islets along the coastline.", "Guam's highest point is Mount Lamlam at above sea level.", "If its base is considered to be the nearby ''Challenger'' Deep, the deepest surveyed point in the Oceans, Mount Lamlam is the world's tallest mountain at .Politically, Guam is divided into 19 villages.", "The majority of the population lives on the coralline limestone plateaus of the north, with political and economic activity centered in the central and northern regions.", "The rugged geography of the south largely limits settlement to rural coastal areas.", "The western coast is leeward of the trade winds and is the location of Apra Harbor, the capital Hagåtña, and the tourist center of Tumon.", "The U.S. Defense Department owns about 29% of the island, under the management of Joint Region Marianas.===Climate===Guam National Wildlife Refuge beach at Ritidian PointGuam has a tropical rainforest climate on the Köppen scale (Köppen Af).", "Its driest month of March almost qualifies as a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen ''Am'').", "The weather is generally hot and humid throughout the year with little seasonal temperature variation.", "Guam is known to have equable temperatures year-round.", "Trade winds are fairly constant throughout the year.", "There is often a weak westerly monsoon influence in summer.Guam has two distinct seasons: Wet and dry season.", "The dry season runs from January through May.", "June is the transitional period.", "The wet season runs from July through November.", "Guam's average annual rainfall was between 1981 and 2010.The wettest month on record at Guam Airport has been August 1997 with .", "The driest was February 2015 with .", "The wettest calendar year was 1976 with .", "The driest year was in 1998 with .", "The most rainfall in a single day occurred on October 15, 1953, when fell.The mean high temperature is .", "The mean low is .", "Temperatures rarely exceed or fall below .", "The relative humidity commonly exceeds 84 percent at night throughout the year, but the average monthly humidity hovers near 66 percent.The highest temperature ever recorded in Guam was on April 18, 1971, and April 1, 1990.A record low of was set on February 1, 2021.The lowest recorded temperature was 65 °F (18.3 °C), set on February 8, 1973.Guam lies in the path of typhoons and it is common for the island to be threatened by tropical storms and possible typhoons during the wet season.", "The highest risk of typhoons is from August through November, where typhoons and tropical storms are most probable in the western Pacific.", "They can, however, occur year-round.", "Typhoons that have caused major damage on Guam in the American period include the Typhoon of 1900, Karen (1962), Pamela (1976), Paka (1997), Pongsona (2002), and Mawar (2023).Since Typhoon Pamela in 1976, wooden structures have been largely replaced by concrete structures.", "During the 1980s, wooden utility poles began to be replaced by typhoon-resistant concrete and steel poles.", "After the local Government enforced stricter construction codes, many home and business owners have built their structures out of reinforced concrete with installed typhoon shutters.=== Ecology ===dredged, Tumon Bay is now a marine preserve.Guam has experienced severe effects of invasive species upon the natural biodiversity of the island.", "These include the local extinction of endemic bird species after the introduction of the brown tree snake, an infestation of the Asiatic rhinoceros beetle destroying coconut palms, and the effect of introduced feral mammals and amphibians.Wildfires plague the forested areas of Guam every dry season despite the island's humid climate.", "Most fires are caused by humans with 80% resulting from arson.", "Poachers often start fires to attract deer to the new growth.", "Invasive grass species that rely on fire as part of their natural life cycle grow in many regularly burned areas.", "Grasslands and \"barrens\" have replaced previously forested areas leading to greater soil erosion.During the rainy season, sediment is carried by the heavy rains into the Fena Lake Reservoir and Ugum River, leading to water quality problems for southern Guam.", "Eroded silt also destroys the marine life in reefs around the island.", "Soil stabilization efforts by volunteers and forestry workers (planting trees) have had little success in preserving natural habitats.The introduction of the brown tree snake nearly eradicated the native bird population.Efforts have been made to protect Guam's coral reef habitats from pollution, eroded silt and overfishing, problems that have led to decreased fish populations.", "This has both ecological and economic value, as Guam is a significant vacation spot for scuba divers, and one study found that Guam's reefs are worth $127 million per year.", "In recent years, the Department of Agriculture, Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources has established several new marine preserves where fish populations are monitored by biologists.", "These are located at Pati Point, Piti Bomb Holes, Sasa Bay, Achang Reef Flat, and Tumon Bay.Before adopting U.S. Environmental Protection Agency standards, portions of Tumon Bay were dredged by the hotel chains to provide a better experience for hotel guests.", "Tumon Bay has since been made into a preserve.", "A federal Guam National Wildlife Refuge in northern Guam protects the decimated sea turtle population in addition to a small colony of Mariana fruit bats.Harvest of sea turtle eggs was a common occurrence on Guam before World War II.", "The green sea turtle (''Chelonia mydas'') was harvested legally on Guam before August 1978, when it was listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act.", "The hawksbill sea turtle (''Eretmochelys imbricata'') has been on the endangered list since 1970.In an effort to ensure the protection of sea turtles on Guam, routine sightings are counted during aerial surveys and nest sites are recorded and monitored for hatchlings." ], [ "Demographics", "In the 2020 United States Census, the largest ethnic group were the native Chamorros, accounting for 32.8% of the population.", "Asians, including Filipinos, Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese, accounted for 35.5% of the population.", "Other ethnic groups of Micronesia, including those of Chuukese, Palauan, and Pohnpeians, accounted for 13.2%.", "10% of the population were multiracial, (two or more races).", "European Americans made up 6.8% of the population; 1% are African Americans, and 3% are Hispanic; there are 1,740 Mexicans in Guam, and there are other Hispanic ethnicities on the island.", "The estimated interracial marriage rate is over 40%.The official languages of the island are English and Chamorro.", "Unlike most of its neighbors, Chamorro is not classified as a Micronesian or Polynesian language.", "Rather, like Palauan, it possibly constitutes an independent branch of the Malayo-Polynesian language family.", "Filipino is also commonly spoken across the island.", "Other Pacific and Asian languages are spoken in Guam as well.", "Spanish, which was the language of administration for 300 years, influenced the Chamorro language.The predominant religion of Guam is Christianity.", "Three-quarters of the population adheres to Catholicism, while most of the remainder belong to Protestant churches.", "According to the Pew Research Center, the religious demography of Guam in 2010 was as follows:* Catholicism: 75%* Protestantism: 17.7%* Other religions: 1.6%* Folk religions: 1.5%* Other Christianity: 1.4%* Buddhism: 1.1%* Eastern Orthodoxy: <1%* Hinduism: <1%* Islam: <1%* Judaism: <1%In 2020, the Vatican noted that 87.72% of the population is Catholic, with 54 priests and 64 nuns across 27 parishes." ], [ "Culture", "The Guam Museum in Hagåtña opened in 2016The culture of Guam is a reflection of traditional Chamorro customs, in combination with American, Spanish and Mexican traditions.", "Post-European-contact Chamorro Guamanian culture is a combination of American, Spanish, Filipino, other Micronesian Islander and Mexican traditions.", "Few indigenous pre-Hispanic customs remained following Spanish contact, but include plaiting and pottery.", "There has been a resurgence of interest among the Chamorro to preserve the language and culture.Hispanic influences are manifested in the local language, music, dance, sea navigation, cuisine, fishing, games (such as , , , and ), songs, and fashion.", "The island's original community are Chamorro natives, who have inhabited Guam for almost 4000 years.", "They had their own language related to the languages of Indonesia and southeast Asia.", "The Spanish later called them Chamorros.", "A derivative of the word, Chamorri, means \"noble race\".", "They began to grow rice on the island.Youth performance of traditional dance at Micronesia Mall, 2012Historically, the native people of Guam venerated the bones of their ancestors.", "They kept the skulls in their houses in small baskets, and practiced incantations before them when it was desired to attain certain objects.", "During Spanish rule (1668–1898) the majority of the population was converted to Catholicism and religious festivities such as Easter and Christmas became widespread.", "Many Chamorros have Spanish surnames, although few of the inhabitants are themselves descended from the Spaniards.", "Instead, Spanish names and surnames became commonplace after their conversion to Catholicism and the imposition of the Catálogo alfabético de apellidos in Guam.Historically, the diet of the native inhabitants of Guam consisted of fish, fowl, rice, breadfruit, taro, yams, bananas, and coconuts used in a variety of dishes.", "Post-contact Chamorro cuisine is largely based on corn, and includes tortillas, tamales, atole, and chilaquiles, which are a clear influence from Mesoamerica, principally Mexico, from Spanish trade with Asia.Due to foreign cultural influence from Spain, most aspects of the early indigenous culture have been lost, though there has been a resurgence in preserving any remaining pre-Hispanic culture in the last few decades.", "Some scholars have traveled throughout the Pacific Islands, conducting research to study what the original Chamorro cultural practices such as dance, language, and canoe building may have been like.===Sports===outrigger canoe team at TumonGuam's most popular sport is American football, followed by basketball and baseball respectively.", "Soccer, Jiu Jitsu, and Rugby are also somewhat popular.", "Guam hosted the Pacific Games in 1975 and 1999.At the 2007 Games, Guam finished 7th of 22 countries in the medal count, and 14th at the 2011 Games.Guam men's national basketball team and the women's team are traditional powerhouses in the Oceania region, behind the Australia men's national basketball team and the New Zealand national basketball team.", ", the men's team is the reigning champion of the Pacific Games Basketball Tournament.", "Guam is home to various basketball organizations, including the Guam Basketball Association.The Guam national football team was founded in 1975 and joined FIFA in 1996.It was once considered one of FIFA's weakest teams, and experienced their first victory over a FIFA-registered side in 2009.Guam hosted qualifying games on the island for the first time in 2015 and, in 2018, clinched their first FIFA World Cup Qualifying win.", "The Guam national rugby union team played its first match in 2005 and has never qualified for a Rugby World Cup.As an aspect of cultural revival, sling competitions are also being organized on Guam.", "As a national pastime of cultural import, the ovoid shape on Guamian flag is that of a sling stone." ], [ "Economy", "Beaches at the tourist center of TumonGuam's economy depends primarily on tourism, Department of Defense installations and locally owned businesses.", "Under the provisions of a special law by Congress, it is Guam's treasury rather than the U.S. treasury that receives the federal income taxes paid by local taxpayers, including military and civilian federal employees assigned to Guam.===Tourism===Lying in the western Pacific, Guam is a popular destination for Japanese and South Korean tourists.", "Its tourist hub, Tumon, features over 20 large hotels, a Duty Free Shoppers Galleria, Pleasure Island district, indoor aquarium, Sandcastle Las Vegas–styled shows and other shopping and entertainment venues.", "It is a relatively short flight from Asia or Australia compared to Hawaii, with hotels and seven public golf courses accommodating over a million tourists per year.75% of the tourists are Japanese.", "Guam also receives a sizable number of tourists from South Korea, the U.S., the Philippines, and Taiwan.", "Significant sources of revenue include duty-free designer shopping outlets, and the American-style malls: Micronesia Mall, Guam Premier Outlets, the Agana Shopping Center, and the world's largest Kmart.Terminal at Antonio B.", "Won Pat International Airport.", "The airport hosts a hub of United Airlines, Guam's largest private-sector employer.The economy had been stable since 2000 due to increased tourism.", "It was expected to stabilize with the transfer of U.S. Marine Corps' 3rd Marine Expeditionary Force, currently in Okinawa, Japan (approximately 8,000 Marines, along with their 10,000 dependents), to Guam between 2010 and 2015.However, the move was delayed until late 2020.The number of Marines decreased to 5,000, with the move expected to be complete in 2025., Guam's largest single private sector employer with about 1,400 jobs, was Continental Micronesia, a subsidiary of Continental Airlines.", "It is now a part of United Airlines, a subsidiary of Chicago-based United Airlines Holdings, Inc. the Continental Micronesia annual payroll in Guam was $90 million.=== Budget and unemployment ===In 2003, Guam had a 14% unemployment rate, and the government suffered a $314 million budget shortfall.", "As of 2019 the unemployment rate had dropped to 6.1%.", "By September 2020, the unemployment rate had risen again to 17.9%.", "As of June, 2023 the unemployment rate had fallen to 4.0%.=== Pacific migration to Guam ===The Compacts of Free Association between the United States, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Republic of Palau accords the former entities of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands a political status of \"free association\" with the United States.", "The Compacts give citizens of these island nations generally no restrictions to reside in the United States, and its territories.", "Many people from other Pacific islands were attracted to Guam due to its proximity, environmental, and cultural familiarity.Over the years, it has been claimed by some in Guam that the territory has had to bear the brunt of this agreement, in the form of public assistance programs and public education for migrants from the regions involved.", "It has been argued that the federal government should compensate the states and territories affected by this type of migration.", "Over the years, Congress has appropriated \"Compact Impact\" aid to Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and Hawaii.", "Eventually this appropriation was written into each renewed Compact.", "Some, however, continue to claim the compensation is not enough, or that the distribution of actual compensation received is significantly disproportionate.=== Military bases ===A map of U.S. military lands on Guam, 2010Joint Region Marianas maintains jurisdiction over installations, which cover approximately , or 29% of the island's total land area.", "These include:* U.S.", "Naval Base Guam, U.S. Navy (Santa Rita), comprising the Orote Peninsula, additional lands, and with jurisdiction of the majority of Apra Harbor* Andersen Air Force Base, U.S. Air Force (Yigo), including Northwest Field* Marine Corps Base Camp Blaz, U.S. Marine Corps (Dededo)* Ordnance Annex, U.S. Navy – South Central Highlands (formerly known as Naval Magazine)* Naval Computer and Telecommunications Station Guam, U.S. Navy (Dededo), sometimes referred to \"NCTS Finegayan\"* Naval Radio Station Barrigada (Barrigada), often referred to as \"Radio Barrigada\"* Joint Region Marianas Headquarters (Asan), at Nimitz Hill Annex* Naval Hospital Guam (Agana Heights)* South Finegayan (Dededo), a military housing complex* Andersen South (Yigo), formerly Marine Barracks Guam until its closure in 1992* Fort Juan Muña, Guam National Guard (Tamuning)In 2010, the U.S. military proposed building a new aircraft carrier berth on Guam and moving 8,600 Marines, and 9,000 of their dependents, to Guam from Okinawa, Japan.", "Including the required construction workers, this buildup would increase Guam's population by a total of 79,000, a 49% increase over its 2010 population of 160,000.In a February 2010 letter, the United States Environmental Protection Agency sharply criticized these plans because of a water shortfall, sewage problems and the impact on coral reefs.", "As of 2022, the Marine Corps has decided to place 5,000 Marines on the island within the first half of the 2020s, with 1,300 already stationed on the base." ], [ "Government and politics", "Incumbent governor Lou Leon GuerreroGuam is governed by a popularly elected governor and a unicameral 15-member legislature, whose members are known as senators.", "Its judiciary is overseen by the Supreme Court of Guam.The District Court of Guam is the court of United States federal jurisdiction in the territory.", "Guam elects one delegate to the United States House of Representatives, currently Republican James Moylan.", "The delegate does not have a vote on the final passage of legislation, but is accorded a vote in committee, and the privilege to speak to the House.U.S.", "citizens in Guam vote in a presidential straw poll for their choice in the U.S. presidential general election, but since Guam has no votes in the Electoral College, the poll has no real effect.", "However, in sending delegates to the Republican and Democratic national conventions, Guam does have influence in the national presidential race.", "These delegates are elected by local party conventions.===Political status===James Moylan is the Delegate for Guam's at-large congressional district.In the 1980s and early 1990s, there was a significant movement in favor of this U.S. territory becoming a commonwealth, which would give it a level of self-government similar to Puerto Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands.", "In a 1982 plebiscite, voters indicated interest in seeking commonwealth status.", "However, the federal government rejected the version of a commonwealth that the government of Guam proposed, because its clauses were incompatible with the Territorial Clause (Art.", "IV, Sec.", "3, cl.", "2) of the U.S. Constitution.", "Other movements advocate U.S. statehood for Guam, union with the state of Hawaii, or union with the Northern Mariana Islands as a single territory, or independence.A Commission on Decolonization was established in 1997 to educate the people of Guam about the various political status options in its relationship with the U.S.: statehood, free association, and independence.", "The island has been considering another non-binding plebiscite on decolonization since 1998.The group was dormant for some years.", "In 2013, the commission began seeking funding to start a public education campaign.", "There were few subsequent developments until late 2016.In early December 2016, the Commission scheduled a series of education sessions in various villages about the current status of Guam's relationship with the U.S. and the self-determination options that might be considered.", "The commission's current executive director is Edward Alvarez and there are ten members.", "The group is expected to release position papers on independence and statehood but the contents have not yet been completed.The United Nations is in favor of greater self-determination for Guam and other such territories.", "The UN's Special Committee on Decolonization has agreed to endorse the Governor's education plan.", "The commission's May 2016 report states: \"With academics from the University of Guam, the Commission was working to create and approve educational materials.", "The Office of the Governor was collaborating closely with the Commission\" in developing educational materials for the public.The United States Department of the Interior approved a $300,000 grant for decolonization education, Edward Alvarez told the United Nations Pacific Regional Seminar in May 2016.", "\"We are hopeful that this might indicate a shift in United States policy to its Non-Self-Governing Territories such as Guam, where they will be more willing to engage in discussions about our future and offer true support to help push us towards true self-governances and self-determination.", "\"On July 31, 2020, the Government of Guam joined the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO).Its future political status has been a matter of significant discussion, with public opinion polls indicating a strong preference of statehood.===Villages===Hagåtña from the Spanish-built Fort Santa AguedaGuam is divided into 19 municipal villages:* Agana Heights* Asan‑Maina* Barrigada* Chalan Pago‑Ordot* Dededo* Hågat* Hagåtña* Humåtak* Inalåhan* Malesso'* Mangilao* Mongmong‑Toto‑Maite* Piti* Sånta Rita-Sumai* Sinajana* Talo'fo'fo* Tamuning* Yigo* Yona" ], [ "Transportation and communications", "Guam Highway 8 route markerMost of the island has state-of-the-art mobile phone services and high-speed internet widely available through either cable or DSL.", "Guam was added to the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) in 1997.The country code 671 became NANP area code 671.This removed the barrier of high-cost international long-distance calls to the U.S. mainland.Guam is a major hub for submarine communications cables between the Western U.S., Hawaii, Australia and Asia.", "Guam currently serves twelve submarine cables, with most continuing to China.", "In 2012 ''Slate'' stated that the island has \"tremendous bandwidth\" and internet prices comparable to those of the U.S. Mainland due to being at the junction of undersea cables.In 1899, the local postage stamps were overprinted \"Guam\" as was done for the other former Spanish colonies, but this was discontinued shortly thereafter and regular U.S. postage stamps have been used ever since.", "Guam is part of the U.S.", "Postal System (postal abbreviation: GU, ZIP code range: 96910–96932).", "Mail to Guam from the U.S. mainland is considered domestic and no additional charges are required.", "Private shipping companies, such as FedEx, UPS, and DHL, however, have no obligation to do so, and do not regard Guam as domestic.The speed of mail traveling between Guam and the states varies depending on size and time of year.", "Light, first-class items generally take less than a week to or from the mainland.", "Larger first-class or Priority items can take a week or two.", "Fourth-class mail, such as magazines, are transported by sea after reaching Hawaii.", "Most residents use post office boxes or private mail boxes, although residential delivery is becoming increasingly available.", "Incoming mail not from the Americas should be addressed to \"Guam\" instead of \"USA\" to avoid being routed the long way through the U.S. mainland and possibly charged a higher rate (especially from Asia).Construction at the Port of Guam, 2014The Port of Guam is the island's lifeline, because most products must be shipped into Guam for consumers.", "It receives the weekly calls of the Hawaii-based shipping line Matson, Inc. whose container ships connect Guam with Honolulu, Hawaii; Los Angeles, California; Oakland, California and Seattle, Washington.", "The port is also the regional transhipment hub for over 500,000 customers throughout the Micronesian region.", "The port is the shipping and receiving point for containers designated for the island's U.S. Department of Defense installations, Andersen Air Force Base and Commander, Naval Forces Marianas and eventually the Third Marine Expeditionary Force.Guam is served by the Antonio B.", "Won Pat International Airport.", "The island is outside the United States customs zone, so Guam is responsible for establishing and operating its own customs and quarantine agency and jurisdiction.", "Therefore, the U.S. Customs and Border Protection only carries out immigration, but not customs functions.", "Since Guam is under federal immigration jurisdiction, passengers arriving directly from the United States skip immigration and proceed directly to Guam Customs and Quarantine.Due to the Guam and CNMI visa waiver program for certain countries, an eligibility pre-clearance check is carried on Guam for flights to the States.", "For travel from the Northern Mariana Islands to Guam, a pre-flight passport and visa check is performed before boarding the flight to Guam.", "On flights from Guam to the Northern Mariana Islands, no immigration check is performed.", "Traveling between Guam and the States through a foreign point requires a passport.Most residents travel within Guam using personally owned vehicles.", "The Guam Regional Transit Authority provides fixed route bus and paratransit services, and some commercial companies operate buses between tourist-frequented locations." ], [ "Education", "The Umatac Outdoor Library, built in 1933, was the first library in southern Guam.Guam Public Library System operates the Nieves M. Flores Memorial Library in Hagåtña and five branch libraries.The Guam Department of Education serves the entire island of Guam.", "In 2000, 32,000 students attended Guam's public schools, including 26 elementary schools, eight middle schools, and six high schools and alternative schools.", "Guam Public Schools have struggled with problems such as high dropout rates and poor test scores.Guam's educational system has always faced unique challenges as a small community located from the U.S. mainland with a very diverse student body including many students who come from backgrounds without traditional American education.", "An economic downturn in Guam since the mid-1990s has compounded the problems in schools.Before September 1997, the U.S. Department of Defense partnered with the Guam Board of Education.", "In September 1997, the Department of Defense Education Activity (DoDEA) opened its own schools for children of military personnel.", "DoDEA schools, which also serve children of some federal civilian employees, had an attendance of 2,500 in 2000.DoDEA Guam operates three elementary/middle schools and one high school.The University of Guam (UOG) and Guam Community College, both fully accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges, offer courses in higher education.", "UOG is a member of the exclusive group of only 106 land-grant institutions in the entire United States.", "Pacific Islands University is a small Christian liberal arts institution, nationally accredited by the Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools." ], [ "Health care", "The Government of Guam maintains the island's main health care facility, Guam Memorial Hospital, in Tamuning.", "U.S. board certified doctors and dentists practice in all specialties.", "The U.S.", "Naval Hospital in Agana Heights serves active-duty members and dependents of the military community.There is one subscriber-based air ambulance located on the island, CareJet, which provides emergency patient transportation across Guam and surrounding islands.", "A private hospital, the Guam Regional Medical City, opened in early 2016.Medicaid is accepted in Guam." ], [ "See also", "* 51st state* Index of Guam-related articles* Lists of hospitals in the United States#Insular areas* List of people from Guam* Outline of Guam* Voting in Guam" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===* * * ===Further reading===* * *" ], [ "External links", "* * ''Guampedia'' – Guam's online Encyclopedia* \"Guam Society of America\", fosters the Chamorro language, culture, and traditions* ''The Insular Empire: America in the Mariana Islands'', PBS documentary film website.", "* Guam.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* U.S. Census Bureau: Island Areas Census 2000* Geology and Hydrology of Guam* * Portals to the World: Guam from the U.S. Library of Congress.", "* * * Guam Census ()" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gemini 10" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gemini 10''' (officially '''Gemini X''') was a 1966 crewed spaceflight in NASA's Gemini program.", "It was the 8th crewed Gemini flight, the 16th crewed American flight, and the 24th spaceflight of all time (includes X-15 flights over ).", "During the mission, flown by future STS-1 Commander John Young and future Apollo 11 Command Module Pilot Michael Collins, Collins became the first person to perform two extravehicular activities." ], [ "Crew", "===Backup crew======Support crew===*Edwin E. \"Buzz\" Aldrin (Houston CAPCOM)*L. Gordon Cooper Jr. (Cape and Houston CAPCOM)Jim Lovell and Buzz Aldrin had originally been named the backup crew, but after Charles Bassett and Elliot See died in a T-38 crash, they were moved to the backup crew for Gemini 9 and Alan Bean and Clifton Williams were moved to the Gemini 10 flight." ], [ "Mission parameters", "*'''Mass:''' *'''Perigee:''' *'''Apogee:''' *'''Inclination:''' 28.87°*'''Period:''' 88.79 min===Docking===*'''Docked''': July 19, 1966 - 04:15:00 UTC*'''Undocked''': July 20, 1966 - 19:00:00 UTC===Space walk===* Collins - EVA 1 (stand up)**'''Start''': July 19, 1966, 21:44:00 UTC**'''End''': July 19, 1966, 22:33:00 UTC**'''Duration''': 0 hours, 49 minutes* Collins - EVA 2**'''Start''': July 20, 1966, 23:01:00 UTC**'''End''': July 20, 1966, 23:40:00 UTC**'''Duration''': 0 hours, 39 minutes" ], [ "Objectives", "Gemini X Ultraviolet LensGemini 10 was designed to achieve rendezvous and docking with an Agena Target Vehicle (ATV), and EVA.", "It was also planned to dock with the ATV from the Gemini 8 mission.", "This Agena's battery power had failed months earlier, and an approach and docking would demonstrate the ability to rendezvous with a passive object.", "It would be also the first mission to fire the Agena's own rocket, allowing them to reach higher orbits.Gemini 10 established that radiation at high altitude was not a problem.", "After docking with their Agena booster in low orbit, Young and Collins used it to climb temporarily to .", "After leaving the first Agena, they then rendezvoused with the derelict Agena left over from the aborted Gemini 8 flight—thus executing the program's first double rendezvous.", "With no electricity on board the second Agena, the rendezvous was accomplished with eyes only—no radar.Launch of Gemini 10 missionAfter the rendezvous, Collins spacewalked over to the dormant Agena at the end of a tether, making him the first person to meet another spacecraft in orbit.", "Collins then retrieved a cosmic dust-collecting panel from the side of the Agena.", "As he was concentrating on keeping his tether clear of the Gemini and Agena, Collins' Hasselblad camera worked itself free and drifted away, so he was unable to take photographs during the spacewalk." ], [ "Flight", "The Agena launched perfectly for the second time, after problems had occurred with the targets for Gemini 6 and 9.Gemini 10 followed 100 minutes later and entered a orbit.", "They were behind the Agena.", "Two anomalous events occurred during the launch.", "At liftoff, a propellant fill umbilical became snared with its release lanyard.", "It ripped out of the LC-19 service tower and remained attached to the second stage during ascent.", "Tracking camera footage also showed that the first stage oxidizer tank dome ruptured after staging and released a cloud of nitrogen tetroxide.", "The telemetry package on the first stage had been disabled at staging, so visual evidence was the only data available.", "Film review of the Titan II ICBM launches found at least seven other instances of post-staging tank ruptures, most likely caused by flying debris, second stage engine exhaust, or structural bending.", "NASA finally decided that this phenomenon did not pose any safety risk to the astronauts and took no corrective action.", "Gemini 10 Agena Info Agena GATV-5005 NSSDC ID: 1966-065A Mass Launch site LC-14 Launch date July 18, 1966 Launch time 20:39:46 UTC 1st perigee 1st apogee Period 90.46 m Inclination 28.85 Reentered December 29, 1966===First rendezvous===Collins was unable to use the sextant for navigation as it did not seem to work as expected.", "At first he mistook airglow as the real horizon when trying to make some fixes on stars.", "When the image didn't seem right he tried another instrument, but this was not practical to use as it had a very small field of view.They had a backup in the form of the computers on the ground.", "They made their first burn to put them into a orbit.", "However Young didn't realize that during the next burn, he had the spacecraft turned slightly, which meant that they introduced an out-of-plane error.", "This meant two extra burns were necessary, and by the time they had docked with the Agena, 60% of their fuel had been consumed.", "It was decided to keep the Gemini docked to the Agena as long as possible, as this would mean that they could use the fuel on board the Agena for attitude control.The first burn of the Agena engine lasted 80 seconds and put them in a orbit.", "This was the highest a person had ever been, although the record was soon surpassed by Gemini 11, which went to over .", "This burn was quite a ride for the crew.", "Because the Gemini and Agena docked nose-to-nose, the forces experienced were \"eyeballs out\" as opposed to \"eyeballs in\" for a launch from Earth.", "The crew took a couple of pictures when they reached apogee but were more interested in what was going on in the spacecraft — checking the systems and watching the radiation dosage meter.After this they had their sleep period which lasted for eight hours and then they were ready for another busy day.", "The crew's first order of business was to make a second burn with the Agena engine to put them into the same orbit as the Gemini 8 Agena.", "This was at 20:58 UTC on July 19 and lasted 78 seconds and took off their speed, putting them into a orbit.", "They made one more burn of the Agena to circularize their orbit to .===EVA 1===The first of two EVAs on Gemini 10 was a standup EVA, where Collins would stand in the open hatch and take photographs of stars as part of experiment S-13.They used a 70 mm general purpose camera to image the southern Milky Way in ultraviolet.", "After orbital sunrise Collins photographed a color plate on the side of the spacecraft (MSC-8) to see whether film reproduced colors accurately in space.", "He reentered the spacecraft six minutes early when both astronauts found that their eyes were irritated, which was caused by a minor leak of lithium hydroxide in the astronauts' oxygen supply.", "After repressurizing the cabin, they ran the oxygen at high rates and flushed the environment system.After the exercise of the EVA Young and Collins slept in their second 'night' in space.", "The next 'morning' they started preparing for the second rendezvous and another EVA.===Second rendezvous===After undocking from their Agena, the crew thought they sighted the Gemini 8 Agena.", "It however turned out to be their own Agena away, while their target was away.", "It was not until just over away that they saw it as a faint star.", "After a few more correction burns, they were station-keeping away from the Gemini 8 Agena.", "They found the Agena to be very stable and in good condition.===EVA 2===At 48 hours and 41 minutes into the mission, the second EVA began.", "Collins' first task was to retrieve a Micrometeorite Collector (S-12) from the side of the spacecraft.", "This he accomplished with some difficulty (similar to that encountered by Eugene Cernan on Gemini 9A).", "The collector floated out of the cabin at some time during the EVA, and was lost.Collins next traveled over to the Agena and tried to grab onto the docking cone but found this impossible as it was smooth and had no grip.", "He used a nitrogen-propelled Hand-Held Maneuvering Unit (HHMU) to move himself towards the Gemini and then back to the Agena.", "This time he was able to grab hold of some wire bundles and retrieved the Micrometeorite Collector (S-10) from the Agena.", "He decided against replacing it as a piece of shroud had come loose on the Agena which could have snared the umbilical, and returning to the Gemini was deemed the safest course of action.The last tasks remaining on this EVA were to test out the HHMU, test orbital mechanics using a tether between the Gemini and Agena, and for Young in the spacecraft to translate over to a passive Collins.", "However, due to low propellant quantity remaining, combined with intermittent telemetry to monitor it, these fuel costly manoeuvres were abandoned and the EVA was finished after only 39 minutes.", "During this time, it took the crew eight minutes to close the hatch as they had some difficulty with the umbilical.", "It was jettisoned along with the chestpack used by Collins an hour later when they opened the hatch for the third and final time.===Experiments===There were ten other experiments that the crew performed during the mission.", "Three were interested in radiation: MSC-3 was the Tri-Axis Magnetometer which measured levels in the South Atlantic Anomaly.", "There was also MSC-6, a beta spectrometer, which measured potential radiation doses for Apollo missions, and MSC-7, a bremsstrahlung spectrometer which detected radiation flux as a function of energy when the spacecraft passed through the South Atlantic Anomaly.S-26 investigated the ion and electron wake of the spacecraft.", "This provided limited results due to the lack of fuel for attitude control, but found that electron and ion temperatures were higher than expected and it registered shock effects during docking and undocking.The S-5 and S-6 experiments were performed, which were previously carried on Gemini 9A; these were Synoptic Terrain and Synoptic Weather photography respectively.", "There was also S-1 which was intended to image the Zodiacal light.", "All of these experiments were of little use as the film used was only half as sensitive as Gemini 9A and the dirty windows lowered the transmission of light by a factor of six.The crew also tried to perform D-5, a navigation experiment.", "They were only able to track five stars, with six needed for accurate measurements.", "The last experiment, D-10, was to investigate an ion-sensing attitude control system.", "This experiment measured the attitude of the spacecraft from the flow of ions and electrons around the spacecraft in orbit.", "The results from this experiment showed the system to be accurate and responsive.===Re-entry===Splashdown of Gemini 10.The last day of the mission was short and retrofire came at 70 hours and 10 minutes into the mission.", "They landed only away from the intended landing site and were recovered by .The Gemini 10 mission was supported by the following U.S. Department of Defense resources: 9,067 personnel, 78 aircraft and 13 ships." ], [ "Insignia", "Fliteline MedallionThe patch is simple in design but highly symbolic.", "The main feature is a large X with a Gemini and Agena orbiting around it.", "The two stars have a variety of meanings: the two rendezvous attempts, Castor and Pollux in Gemini or the two crew members.", "This is one of the few crew patches without the crew's name.", "It is able to be displayed \"upside down\" but is correctly shown with the spacecraft to the right.", "It was designed by Young's first wife, Barbara." ], [ "Spacecraft location", "The Gemini 10 space capsule on display at the Cosmosphere in KansasFor many years the spacecraft was the centerpiece of a space exhibition at Norsk Teknisk Museum, Oslo, Norway.", "It was returned on request in 2002.The spacecraft is currently on display at the Cosmosphere in Hutchinson, Kansas." ], [ "See also", "* Agena Target Vehicle* Extra-vehicular activity* List of spacewalks* Splashdown* Space exploration* U.S. space exploration history on U.S. stamps* Space suit* Space capsule" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* NASA Gemini 10 press kit - July 15, 1966* Gemini 10 Mission Report (PDF) August 1966** U.S. Space Objects Registry https://web.archive.org/web/20090521121750/http://usspaceobjectsregistry.state.gov/search/index.cfm" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gardening" ], [ "Introduction", "A gardener maintaining topiary in Tulcán, Ecuador'''Gardening''' is the process of growing plants for their vegetables, fruits, flowers, herbs, and appearances within a designated space.", "Gardens fulfill a wide assortment of purposes including but not limited to production of aesthetically pleasing areas, medicines, cosmetics, dyes, foods, wildlife habitats, and saleable goods(see market gardening).", "In addition, gardening may be practiced for its therapeutic, health, educational, cultural, philosophical, environmental, and religious benefits.Gardening varies in scale.", "There are immense palace gardens such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, or the 800 hectare Versailles gardens, large fruit orchards, vast forest gardens, small backyard gardens, and container gardens grown inside or outside.", "Gardening may be very specialized, with only one type of plant grown, or involve a variety of plants in mixed plantings." ], [ "History", "Robert Hart's forest garden in Shropshire, England===Ancient times===Forest gardening, a forest-based food production system, is the world's oldest form of gardening.After the emergence of the first civilizations, wealthy individuals began to create gardens for aesthetic purposes.", "Ancient Egyptian tomb paintings from the New Kingdom (around 1500 BC) provide some of the earliest physical evidence of ornamental horticulture and landscape design; they depict lotus ponds surrounded by symmetrical rows of acacias and palms.", "A notable example of ancient ornamental gardens were the Hanging Gardens of Babylon—one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World —while ancient Rome had dozens of gardens.Wealthy ancient Egyptians used gardens for providing shade.", "Egyptians associated trees and gardens with gods, believing that their deities were pleased by gardens.", "Gardens in ancient Egypt were often surrounded by walls with trees planted in rows.", "Among the most popular species planted were date palms, sycamores, fig trees, nut trees, and willows.", "These gardens were a sign of higher socioeconomic status.", "In addition, wealthy ancient Egyptians grew vineyards, as wine was a sign of the higher social classes.", "Roses, poppies, daisies and irises could all also be found in the gardens of the Egyptians.Assyria was renowned for its beautiful gardens.", "These tended to be wide and large, some of them used for hunting game—rather like a game reserve today—and others as leisure gardens.", "Cypresses and palms were some of the most frequently planted types of trees.Gardens were also available in Kush.", "In Musawwarat es-Sufra, the Great Enclosure dated to the 3rd century BC included splendid gardens.Ancient Roman gardens were laid out with hedges and vines and contained a wide variety of flowers—acanthus, cornflowers, crocus, cyclamen, hyacinth, iris, ivy, lavender, lilies, myrtle, narcissus, poppy, rosemary and violets—as well as statues and sculptures.", "Flower beds were popular in the courtyards of rich Romans.===The Middle Ages===A gardener at work, 1607The Middle Ages represent a period of decline in gardens for aesthetic purposes.", "After the fall of Rome, gardening was done for the purpose of growing medicinal herbs and/or decorating church altars.", "Monasteries carried on a tradition of garden design and intense horticultural techniques during the medieval period in Europe.Generally, monastic garden types consisted of kitchen gardens, infirmary gardens, cemetery orchards, cloister garths and vineyards.", "Individual monasteries might also have had a \"green court\", a plot of grass and trees where horses could graze, as well as a cellarer's garden or private gardens for obedientiaries, monks who held specific posts within the monastery.Islamic gardens were built after the model of Persian gardens and they were usually enclosed by walls and divided in four by watercourses.", "Commonly, the centre of the garden would have a reflecting pool or pavilion.", "Specific to the Islamic gardens are the mosaics and glazed tiles used to decorate the rills and fountains that were built in these gardens.By the late 13th century, rich Europeans began to grow gardens for leisure and for medicinal herbs and vegetables.", "They surrounded the gardens by walls to protect them from animals and to provide seclusion.", "During the next two centuries, Europeans started planting lawns and raising flowerbeds and trellises of roses.", "Fruit trees were common in these gardens and also in some, there were turf seats.", "At the same time, the gardens in the monasteries were a place to grow flowers and medicinal herbs but they were also a space where the monks could enjoy nature and relax.The gardens in the 16th and 17th century were symmetric, proportioned and balanced with a more classical appearance.", "Most of these gardens were built around a central axis and they were divided into different parts by hedges.", "Commonly, gardens had flowerbeds laid out in squares and separated by gravel paths.Gardens in Renaissance were adorned with sculptures, topiary and fountains.", "In the 17th century, knot gardens became popular along with the hedge mazes.", "By this time, Europeans started planting new flowers such as tulips, marigolds and sunflowers.===Cottage gardens===A cottage garden in BrittanyCottage gardens, which emerged in Elizabethan times, appear to have originated as a local source for herbs and fruits.", "One theory is that they arose out of the Black Death of the 1340s, when the death of so many laborers made land available for small cottages with personal gardens.", "According to the late 19th-century legend of origin, these gardens were originally created by the workers that lived in the cottages of the villages, to provide them with food and herbs, with flowers planted among them for decoration.", "Farm workers were provided with cottages that had architectural quality set in a small garden—about —where they could grow food and keep pigs and chickens.Authentic gardens of the yeoman cottager would have included a beehive and livestock, and frequently a pig and sty, along with a well.", "The peasant cottager of medieval times was more interested in meat than flowers, with herbs grown for medicinal use rather than for their beauty.", "By Elizabethan times there was more prosperity, and thus more room to grow flowers.", "Even the early cottage garden flowers typically had their practical use—violets were spread on the floor (for their pleasant scent and keeping out vermin); calendulas and primroses were both attractive and used in cooking.", "Others, such as sweet William and hollyhocks, were grown entirely for their beauty.===18th century===Sheffield Park Garden, a landscape garden originally laid out in the 18th century by Capability BrownIn the 18th century, gardens were laid out more naturally, without any walls.", "This style of smooth undulating grass, which would run straight to the house, clumps, belts and scattering of trees and his serpentine lakes formed by invisibly damming small rivers, were a new style within the English landscape, a \"gardenless\" form of landscape gardening, which swept away almost all the remnants of previous formally patterned styles.", "The English landscape garden usually included a lake, lawns set against groves of trees, and often contained shrubberies, grottoes, pavilions, bridges and follies such as mock temples, Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape.", "This new style emerged in England in the early 18th century, and spread across Europe, replacing the more formal, symmetrical garden à la française of the 17th century as the principal gardening style of Europe.", "The English garden presented an idealized view of nature.", "They were often inspired by paintings of landscapes by Claude Lorraine and Nicolas Poussin, and some were Influenced by the classic Chinese gardens of the East, which had recently been described by European travelers.", "The work of Lancelot 'Capability' Brown was particularly influential.", "Also, in 1804 the Horticultural Society was formed.Gardens of the 19th century contained plants such as the monkey puzzle or Chile pine.", "This is also the time when the so-called \"gardenesque\" style of gardens evolved.", "These gardens displayed a wide variety of flowers in a rather small space.", "Rock gardens increased in popularity in the 19th century.In ancient India, patterns from sacred geometry and mandalas were used to design gardens.", "Distinct mandala patterns denoted specific deities, planets, or even constellations.", "Such a garden was also referred to as a 'Mandala Vaatika'.", "The word 'Vaatika' can mean garden, plantation or parterre." ], [ "Types", "Conservatory of Flowers in Golden Gate Park, San FranciscoHanging baskets in Thornbury, South GloucestershireAn organic garden on a school campusResidential gardening takes place near the home, in a space referred to as the garden.", "Although a garden typically is located on the land near a residence, it may also be located on a roof, in an atrium, on a balcony, in a window box, on a patio or vivarium.Gardening also takes place in non-residential green areas, such as parks, public or semi-public gardens (botanical gardens or zoological gardens), amusement parks, along transportation corridors, and around tourist attractions and garden hotels.", "In these situations, a staff of gardeners or groundskeepers maintains the gardens.", "* Indoor gardening is concerned with the growing of houseplants within a residence or building, in a conservatory, or in a greenhouse.", "Indoor gardens are sometimes incorporated as part of air conditioning or heating systems.", "Indoor gardening extends the growing season in the fall and spring and can be used for winter gardening.", "* Native plant gardening is concerned with the use of native plants with or without the intent of creating wildlife habitat.", "The goal is to create a garden in harmony with, and adapted to a given area.", "This type of gardening typically reduces water usage, maintenance, and fertilization costs, while increasing native faunal interest.", "* Water gardening is concerned with growing plants adapted to pools and ponds.", "Bog gardens are also considered a type of water garden.", "These all require special conditions and considerations.", "A simple water garden may consist solely of a tub containing the water and plant(s).", "In aquascaping, a garden is created within an aquarium tank.", "* Container gardening is concerned with growing plants in any type of container either indoors or outdoors.", "Common containers are pots, hanging baskets, and planters.", "Container gardening is usually used in atriums and on balconies, patios, and roof tops.", "* Hügelkultur is concerned with growing plants on piles of rotting wood, as a form of raised bed gardening and composting in situ.", "An English loanword from German, it means \"mound garden.\"", "Toby Hemenway, noted permaculture author and teacher, considers wood buried in trenches to also be a form of hugelkultur referred to as a dead wood swale.", "Hugelkultur is practiced by Sepp Holzer as a method of forest gardening and agroforestry, and by Geoff Lawton as a method of dryland farming and desert greening.", "When used as a method of disposing of large volumes of waste wood and woody debris, hugelkultur accomplishes carbon sequestration.", "It is also a form of xeriscaping.", "* Community gardening is a social activity in which an area of land is gardened by a group of people, providing access to fresh produce, herbs, flowers and plants as well as access to satisfying labor, neighborhood improvement, sense of community and connection to the environment.", "Community gardens are typically owned in trust by local governments or nonprofits.", "* Garden sharing partners landowners with gardeners in need of land.", "These shared gardens, typically front or back yards, are usually used to produce food that is divided between the two parties.", "* Organic gardening uses natural, sustainable methods, fertilizers and pesticides to grow non-genetically modified crops.", "*Biodynamic gardening or biodynamic agriculture is similar to organic gardening, but includes various esoteric concepts drawn from the ideas of Rudolf Steiner, such as astrological sowing and planting calendar and particular field and compost preparations.", "*Commercial gardening is a more intensive type of gardening that involves the production of vegetables, nontropical fruits, and flowers from local farmers.", "Commercial gardening began because farmers would sell locally to stop food from spoiling faster because of the transportation of goods from a far distance.", "Mediterranean agriculture is also a common practice that commercial gardeners use.", "Mediterranean agriculture is the practice of cultivating animals such as sheep to help weed and provide manure for vine crops, grains, or citrus.", "Gardeners can easily train these animals to not eat the actual plant." ], [ "Social aspects", "People can express their political or social views in gardens, intentionally or not.", "The lawn vs. garden issue is played out in urban planning as the debate over the \"land ethic\" that is to determine urban land use and whether hyper hygienist bylaws (e.g.", "weed control) should apply, or whether land should generally be allowed to exist in its natural wild state.", "In a famous Canadian Charter of Rights case, \"Sandra Bell vs. City of Toronto\", 1997, the right to cultivate all native species, even most varieties deemed noxious or allergenic, was upheld as part of the right of free expression.Community gardening comprises a wide variety of approaches to sharing land and gardens.Garden at the Schultenhof in Mettingen, North Rhine-Westphalia, GermanyPeople often surround their house and garden with a hedge.", "Common hedge plants are privet, hawthorn, beech, yew, leyland cypress, hemlock, arborvitae, barberry, box, holly, oleander, forsythia and lavender.", "The idea of open gardens without hedges may be distasteful to those who enjoy privacy.The Slow Food movement has sought in some countries to add an edible school yard and garden classrooms to schools, e.g.", "in Fergus, Ontario, where these were added to a public school to augment the kitchen classroom.", "Garden sharing, where urban landowners allow gardeners to grow on their property in exchange for a share of the harvest, is associated with the desire to control the quality of one's food, and reconnect with soil and community.In US and British usage, the production of ornamental plantings around buildings is called ''landscaping'', ''landscape maintenance'' or ''grounds keeping'', while international usage uses the term ''gardening'' for these same activities.Also gaining popularity is the concept of \"Green Gardening\" which involves growing plants using organic fertilizers and pesticides so that the gardening process – or the flowers and fruits produced thereby – doesn't adversely affect the environment or people's health in any manner.===Laws and restrictions===In some parts of the world, particularly the United States, gardening can be restricted by law or by rules and regulations imposed by a home-owner's association.", "In the United States, such rules may prohibit homeowners from growing vegetable gardens, prohibit xeriscaping or meadow gardens, or require garden plants to be chosen from a pre-approved list, to preserve the aesthetics of the neighborhood.", "Numerous challenges to these laws, ordinances and regulations have emerged in recent years, with some resulting in legislation protecting a homeowner's right to cultivate native plants or grow vegetables.", "Laws protecting a homeowner's right to grow food plants have been termed \"right to garden\" laws." ], [ "Benefits", "Gardening is considered by many people to be a relaxing activity.", "There are also many studies about the positive effects on mental and physical health in relation to gardening.", "Specifically, gardening is thought to increase self-esteem and reduce stress.", "As writer and former teacher Sarah Biddle notes, one's garden may become a \"tiny oasis to relax and recharge one's batteries.\"", "Involving in gardening activities aid in creativity, observational skills, learning, planning and physical movement.Others consider gardening to be a good hedge against supply chain disruptions with increased worries that the public cannot always trust that the grocery store shelves will be fully stocked.", "In April 2022, about 31% of grocery products were out of stock which is an 11% increase from November 2021.Gardening can also support good numbers and a wide range of pollinators, but worryingly bees and other pollinators are in decline.", "Gardeners can make a difference to help reverse this trend.", "The main thing that matters is that they get their share of nectar to fuel their busy lifestyles, and this is where gardening can help them." ], [ "Comparison with farming", "Berms of fava beans have been planted at Hayes Valley Farm, a community-built farm on the former Central freeway ramps of San FranciscoGardening for beauty is likely nearly as old as farming for food, however for most of history for the majority of people there was no real distinction since the need for food and other useful products trumped other concerns.", "Small-scale, subsistence agriculture (called hoe-farming) is largely indistinguishable from gardening.", "A patch of potatoes grown by a Peruvian peasant or an Irish smallholder for personal use could be described as either a garden or a farm.", "Gardening for average people evolved as a separate discipline, more concerned with aesthetics, recreation and leisure, under the influence of the pleasure gardens of the wealthy.", "Meanwhile, farming has evolved (in developed countries) in the direction of commercialization, economics of scale, and monocropping.In respect to its food-producing purpose, gardening is distinguished from farming chiefly by scale and intent.", "Farming occurs on a larger scale, and with the production of salable goods as a major motivation.", "Gardening happens on a smaller scale, primarily for pleasure and to produce goods for the gardener's own family or community.", "There is some overlap between the terms, particularly in that some moderate-sized vegetable growing concerns, often called market gardening, can fit in either category.The key distinction between gardening and farming is essentially one of scale; gardening can be a hobby or an income supplement, but farming is generally understood as a full-time or commercial activity, usually involving more land and quite different practices.", "One distinction is that gardening is labor-intensive and employs very little infrastructural capital, sometimes no more than a few tools, e.g.", "a spade, hoe, basket and watering can.", "By contrast, larger-scale farming often involves irrigation systems, chemical fertilizers and harvesters or at least ladders, e.g.", "to reach up into fruit trees.", "However, this distinction is becoming blurred with the increasing use of power tools in even small gardens.Monty Don has speculated on an atavistic connection between present-day gardeners and pre-modern peasantry.The term precision agriculture is sometimes used to describe gardening using intermediate technology (more than tools, less than harvesters), especially of organic varieties.", "Gardening is effectively scaled up to feed entire villages of over 100 people from specialized plots.", "A variant is the community garden which offers plots to urban dwellers." ], [ "Ornaments and accessories", "A classical urn at Palm House, the Belfast Botanic Gardens, Northern Ireland, as garden ornamentThere is a wide range of garden ornaments and accessories available in the market for both the professional gardener and the amateur to exercise their creativity.", "These are used to add decoration or functionality, and may be made from a wide range of materials such as copper, stone, wood, bamboo, stainless steel, clay, stained glass, concrete, or iron.", "Examples include trellis, garden furniture, gnomes, statues, outdoor fireplaces, fountains, rain chains, urns, bird baths and feeders, wind chimes, and garden lighting such as candle lanterns and oil lamps.", "The use of these items can be part of the expression of a gardener's gardening personality." ], [ "As art", "Garden design is considered to be an art in most cultures, distinguished from gardening, which generally means ''garden maintenance''.", "Garden design can include different themes such as perennial, butterfly, wildlife, Japanese, water, tropical, or shade gardens.In Japan, Samurai and Zen monks were often required to build decorative gardens or practice related skills like flower arrangement known as ''ikebana''.", "In 18th-century Europe, country estates were refashioned by landscape gardeners into formal gardens or landscaped park lands, such as at Versailles, France, or Stowe, England.", "Today, landscape architects and garden designers continue to produce artistically creative designs for private garden spaces.", "In the US, professional landscape designers are certified by the Association of Professional Landscape Designers." ], [ "Pests", "Garden pests are generally plants, fungi, or animals (frequently insects) that engage in activity that the gardener considers undesirable.", "A pest may crowd out desirable plants, disturb soil, stunt the growth of young seedlings, steal or damage fruit, or otherwise kill plants, hamper their growth, damage their appearance, or reduce the quality of the edible or ornamental portions of the plant.", "Aphids, spider mites, slugs, snails, ants, birds, and even cats are commonly considered to be garden pests.The flame flower (''Tropaeolum speciosum''), climbs over other plants to a sunlit positionBecause gardeners may have different goals, organisms considered \"garden pests\" vary from gardener to gardener.", "''Tropaeolum speciosum'', for example, may be considered a desirable and ornamental garden plant, or it may be considered a pest if it seeds and starts to grow where it is not wanted.", "As another example, in lawns, moss can become dominant and be impossible to eradicate.", "In some lawns, lichens, especially very damp lawn lichens such as ''Peltigera lactucfolia'' and ''P.", "membranacea'', can become difficult to control and are considered pests.===Pest control===There are many ways by which unwanted pests are removed from a garden.", "The techniques vary depending on the pest, the gardener's goals, and the gardener's philosophy.", "For example, snails may be dealt with through the use of a chemical pesticide, an organic pesticide, hand-picking, barriers, or simply growing snail-resistant plants.Pest control is often done through the use of pesticides, which may be either organic or artificially synthesized.", "Pesticides may affect the ecology of a garden due to their effects on the populations of both target and non-target species.", "For example, unintended exposure to some neonicotinoid pesticides has been proposed as a factor in the recent decline in honey bee populations.", "A mole vibrator can deter mole activity in a garden.Other means of control include the removal of infected plants, using fertilizers and biostimulants to improve the health and vigour of plants so they better resist attack, practising crop rotation to prevent pest build-up, using companion planting, and practising good garden hygiene, such as disinfecting tools and clearing debris and weeds which may harbour pests.CCI .22LR snake shot loaded with #12 shot==== Garden guns ====Garden guns are smooth-bore shotguns specifically made to fire .22 caliber snake shot, and are commonly used by gardeners and farmers for pest control.", "Garden guns are short-range weapons that can do little harm past and are relatively quiet when fired with snake shot, compared to a standard ammunition.", "These guns are especially effective inside of barns and sheds, as the snake shot will not shoot holes in the roof or walls, or more importantly injure livestock with a ricochet.", "They are also used for pest control at airports, warehouses, stockyards, etc." ], [ "See also", "* Arboretum* Bonsai* Cultigen* Eyecatchers* Garden writing* Growbag* Introduced species* Impact gardening* List of gardening topics* List of horticulture and gardening books* List of professional gardeners* Master gardener program* No-dig gardening" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* National Gardening Association (USA)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Graffiti" ], [ "Introduction", "An abandoned roof felt factory with graffiti in Santalahti, Tampere, Finland'''Graffiti''' (plural; singular '''''graffiti''''' or '''''graffito''''', the latter rarely used except in archeology) is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view.", "Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire (see also mural).Graffiti is a controversial subject.", "In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities.", "Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban \"problem\" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions." ], [ "Etymology", "Ancient graffito in the Kom Ombo Temple, Egypt\"Graffiti\" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form \"graffito\" are from the Italian word ''graffiato'' (\"scratched\").", "The term \"graffiti\" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface.", "A related term is \"sgraffito\", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it.", "This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them.", "In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used.", "The word originates from Greek —''graphein''—meaning \"to write\"." ], [ "History", "Ancient Pompeii graffito caricature of a politician.", "Villa of the Mysteries.", "the Castellania, in VallettaThe term ''graffiti'' originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii.", "Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia.", "Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.=== Ancient graffiti ===Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia.", "The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago.", "Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the \"mirror wall\", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries.", "Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there.", "One reads:Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems.", "Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its ''walis'', and people used to read and circulate them very widely.Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls.When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the ''grottesche'' style of decoration.There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.File : Graffiti 4.JPG|Graffiti from the Museum of ancient graffiti, France 2487(Admiror paries).jpg|Ironic wall inscription commenting on boring graffitiJesus graffito.jpg|Satirical Alexamenos graffito, possibly the earliest known representation of JesusAncientgrafS.jpg|Graffiti, Church of the Holy Sepulchre, JerusalemCrusader Graffiti in the Church of the holy supulchure Jerusalem Victor 2011 -1-21.jpg|Crusader graffiti in the Church of the Holy SepulchreHagia-sofia-viking.jpg|Viking mercenary graffiti at the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, TurkeySigiriya-graffiti.jpg|Graffiti on the Mirror Wall, Sigiriya, Sri Lanka=== Contemporary graffiti ===Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s.", "Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.The oldest known example of graffiti \"monikers\" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s.", "The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, ''Who is Bozo Texino?", "''.In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:During World War II and for decades after, the phrase \"Kilroy was here\" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture.", "Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed \"Yardbird\" or \"Bird\"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words \"Bird Lives\".Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-309-0816-20A, Italien, Soldat zeichnend.jpg|Soldier with tropical fantasy graffiti (1943–1944)Graffiti inside the ruins of the German Reichstag building.jpg|Soviet Army graffiti in the ruins of the Reichstag, in Berlin (1945)Kilroy Was Here - Washington DC WWII Memorial - Jason Coyne.jpg|Permanent engraving of Kilroy on the World War II Memorial, in Washington, D.C.NYC R36 1 subway car.png|New York City Subway trains were covered in graffiti (1973).GRAFFITI ON A WALL IN CHICAGO.", "SUCH WRITING HAS ADVANCED AND BECOME AN ART FORM, PARTICULARLY IN METROPOLITAN AREAS.... - NARA - 556232.jpg|Graffiti in Chicago (1973)=== Modern Graffiti ===Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia.", "Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti.", "Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art.", "Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains.", "and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight.", "The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century.", "Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading \"Clapton is God\" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton.", "Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967.The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture.", "Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s.", "Fab5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983.=== Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture ===With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization.", "In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent \"Peace, Love, and Linux.\"", "IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system.", "In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings \"a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse\".=== Global developments ======= South America ====Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil \"boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... earning it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration\".", "Graffiti \"flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities\".", "Artistic parallels \"are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York\".", "The \"sprawling metropolis\", of São Paulo has \"become the new shrine to graffiti\"; Manco alludes to \"poverty and unemployment ... and the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples\", and to \"Brazil's chronic poverty\", as the main engines that \"have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture\".", "In world terms, Brazil has \"one of the most uneven distributions of income.", "Laws and taxes change frequently\".", "Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the \"folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised\", that is South American graffiti art.A graffiti piece by the artist DeDe found in Tel AvivProminent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak.", "Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of ''pichação'' and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of ''grafite''.==== Middle East ====Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran.", "The major Iranian newspaper ''Hamshahri'' has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls.", "Tokyo-based design magazine, ''PingMag'', has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work.", "The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall.", "Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London.", "The religious reference \"נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן\" (\"Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman\") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19.Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially.", "Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.==== Southeast Asia ====There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur.", "Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.File:Grafiti, Čakovec (Croatia).2.jpg|Graffiti on a wall in Čakovec, CroatiaFile:Graffiti in Budapest, Pestszentlőrinc.jpg|Graffiti of the character Bender on a wall in Budapest, HungaryFile:Graffiti in Ho Chi Minh City.JPG|Graffiti in Ho Chi Minh City, VietnamFile:Mr. Wany's work-in-progress artwork for Kul Sign Festival.JPG|Graffiti art in Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaFile:Graffiti in Yogyakarta, Indonesia.jpg|Graffiti in Yogyakarta, IndonesiaFile:Camperdown Memorial Rest Park Graffiti.jpg|Graffiti on a park wall in Sydney, AustraliaFile:Graffitiensaopaulo.jpg|Graffiti in São Paulo, BrazilFile:Absurdious-001.jpg|Absourdios.", "Tehran-Iran, 2009." ], [ "Types of graffiti", "=== Methods and production ===The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece.", "This includes such techniques as scribing.", "However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti.", "From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti.", "Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.File:Vlg shop.jpg|The first graffiti shop in Russia was opened in 1992 in Tver.File:Eurofestival graffiti 2.jpg|Graffiti application at Eurofestival in Turku, FinlandFile:Graffity in the making...(On a wall at Thrissur) CIMG9868.JPG|Graffiti application in India using natural pigments (mostly charcoal, plant saps, and dirt)File:Graffity in the making...(On a wall at Thrissur) CIMG9873.jpg|Completed landscape scene, in Thrissur, Kerala, IndiaFile:Leake Street TQ3079 352.JPG|A graffiti artist at work in London=== Stencil graffiti ===Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image.", "The stencil is then placed on the \"canvas\" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis.=== Tagging ===Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting \"their name, initial or logo onto a public surface\" in a handstyle unique to the writer.", "Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.A tag in Dallas, reading \"Spore\"A number of recent examples of graffiti make use of hashtags.=== Modern experimentation ===Knitted graffiti in Seattle, WashingtonStephen Duneier's Spiderweb Yarnbomb installation hides and highlights previous graffiti.Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies.", "For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists.", "yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti.", "Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists." ], [ "Uses", "Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture \"the avant-garde won't give up\".Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art.", "According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal.In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run.", "The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling.", "Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint.", "Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles \"Galang\" and \"Bucky Done Gun\", and her cover art.", "Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery.", "Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building.", "Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought.", "It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind.", "It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc.", "Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.=== Personal expression ===Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment.", "It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something.", "However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism.", "And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted \"graffiti\" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity.", "This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons.", "Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered \"performance art\" despite the image of the \"singing and dancing star\" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream.", "Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society.", "He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine.", "In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest.", "Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side.", "One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side.", "A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money.", "Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art.", "Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public.", "Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value.", "Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts.", "Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well.", "\"One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome\"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission.", "In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper ''Ilta-Sanomat'' publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background.", "The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.Graffiti at the Temple of Philae (XIII).jpg|Drawing at Temple of Philae, Egypt, depicting three men with rods, or staves4091(Quisquis amat).jpg|Inscription in Pompeii lamenting a frustrated love: \"Whoever loves, let him flourish, let him perish who knows not love, let him perish twice over whoever forbids love\"Post Apocalyptic Zombie Graffiti, Jan 2015.jpg|Post-apocalyptic despairMermaid Sliema.JPG|Mermaid in Sliema, Malta=== Territorial ===Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others.", "These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose.", "The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies.", "Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.=== As advertising ===Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally.", "Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV.", "In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.1969(Lais felat).jpg|Ancient Pompeiian graffiti advertising by a pimpGrafitti as advertising in China 02.jpg|Graffiti as advertising in Haikou, Hainan Province, China, which is an extremely common form of graffiti seen throughout the countryWarszawa Stary Mokotów graffiti on shop window.jpg|Graffiti as legal advertising on a grocer's shop window in Warsaw, Poland=== Radical and political ===Black bloc members spray graffiti on a wall during an Iraq War Protest in Washington, D.C.Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes.", "It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques.", "One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s.", "In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene.", "The city was covered with names such as \"De Zoot\", \"Vendex\", and \"Dr Rat\".", "To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called ''Gallery Anus''.", "So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.anarchist symbolsThe student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as ''L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire'' (\"Boredom is counterrevolutionary\") and ''Lisez moins, vivez plus'' (\"Read less, live more\").", "While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as \"on the street\" or \"underground\", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements.", "These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint.", "Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices.", "Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest.The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices.", "For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.12\", an anti-police message insulting the police on a wall in MinneapolisFile:Graffiti - No To Vaccine - Ystad-2021.jpg|Graffiti with orthodox cross at the Catholic Church in Ystad, 2021File:Revolution - 2014.jpg|\"Revolution\".", "Sweden, 2014.File:Anti Iraqi war graffiti by street artist Sony Montana in Cancun, Mexico.jpg|Anti Iraqi war graffiti by street artist Sony Montana in Cancún, Mexico (2007)File:Vote for Filip Filipovic.jpg|Wall in Belgrade, Serbia, with the slogan \"Vote for Filip Filipović\", who was the communist candidate for the mayor of Belgrade (1920)File:The separation barrier which runs through Bethlehem.jpg|An interpretation of ''Liberty Leading the People'' on the separation barrier which runs through BethlehemFile:BerlinAnhalterBunker.jpg|WWII bunker near Anhalter Bahnhof (Berlin) with a graffiti inscription ''Wer Bunker baut, wirft Bomben'' (those who build bunkers, throw bombs)File:Amsterdam Grafitti Freedom Lives When the State Dies.png|Graffiti on the train line leading to Central Station in AmsterdamFile:Riia-002.JPG|\"Let's JOKK\" in Tartu refers to political scandal with the Estonian Reform Party (2012).File:Pieksämäki - Kekkos-graffiti IMG 0227 C.JPG|Stencil in Pieksämäki representing former president of Finland, Urho Kekkonen, well known in Finnish popular cultureFile:Keep your rosaries graffiti.jpg|Feminist graffiti in A Coruña, Spain, that reads ''Enough with rosaries in our ovaries''File:Australia steals Timor Oil.jpg|East Timorese protest against Australian petroleum extractionFile:Kiss-EastSideGallery.jpg|Graffiti of two communist leaders kissing, on the Berlin WallFile:Bethlehem Wall Graffiti 1.jpg|Ironic graffiti in Bethlehem, PalestineFile:Berliner Mauer.jpg|Berlin Wall: \"Anyone who wants to keep the world as it is, does not want it to remain\"File:ACAB - Cusco, Peru.jpg|A pig above ACAB, beside anti-Fujimorism graffiti in Cusco, Peru=== Genocide denial ===In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words \"General, thank to your mother\".", "Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how \"veneration of historical and wartime figures\" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that \"in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past\".", "Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future.", "In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' \"cultural heritage\", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their \"formal education\" and \"inheritance\".Mural in Bar, Montenegro, depicting the war criminal Ratko MladićThere are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression.", "Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave.", "Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of \"tacit endorsement\".", "Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.=== Offensive graffiti ===\"One World\"Gang symbol markings on public property, Millwood, WashingtonGraffiti may also be used as an offensive expression.", "This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly).", "Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as \"racist\".", "It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant \"local code\" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.", ":A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities.", "So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities.", "Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come.", "A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti.", "Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads.", "In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours." ], [ "Decorative and high art", "A bronze work by Jonesy on a wall in Brick Lane (London).", "Diameter about 8 cm.In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat.", "It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink.", "In an article about the exhibition in the magazine ''Time Out'', curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works.", "The project today known as \"Walls of the World\" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images.", "It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries.", "In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled \"Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent...\" (The walls whisper, shout and sing...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts.", "Oxford University Press's art history text ''Australian Painting 1788–2000'' concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.File:Graffiti Obelisco.jpg|Graffiti in Buenos Aires, showing the ObeliskFile:Graffiti (Budapest, Pestszentlőrinc).jpg|Graffiti on a wall in Budapest, HungaryFile:Graffiti in Tikkurila.jpg|Graffiti on the wall of pedestrian tunnel in Tikkurila, Vantaa, Finland" ], [ "Environmental effects", "Spray paint has many negative environmental effects.", "The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs.", "A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti." ], [ "Government responses", "Poster at a US military base in Kuwait decrying graffiti, itself having been graffitied=== Asia ===In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film ''Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China'', Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference.", "Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the ''King of Kowloon'' for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area.", "Now some of his work is preserved officially.In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists.", "Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated \"Graffiti Zones\".", "From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites.", "Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, \"We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too.", "It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti\".", "The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district.", "graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation.", "However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, \"Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved.", "We don't go after it proactively.", "\"In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism.", "Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs.", "Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning.", "''The New York Times'' ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests.", "Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994.Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011.Park alleged that the initial in \"G-20\" sounds like the Korean word for \"rat\", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit.", "This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression.", "The court ruled that the painting, \"an ominous creature like a rat\" amounts to \"an organized criminal activity\" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.File:Tsang graffiti.jpg|Street graffiti in Hong KongFile:201712 Graffiti on a building of Shentangqiao1.jpg|The Graffiti Piece \"Tante\" (by Chen Dongfan) on the surface wall of an old residential building in Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China=== Europe ===Graffiti removal in BerlinIn Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called ''I Love Budapest'' and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.=== United Kingdom ===The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation.", "In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing \"on the spot\" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16.The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed \"cool\" or \"edgy'\" image.To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: \"Graffiti is not art, it's crime.", "On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem.", "\"In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act.", "This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time.", "After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million.", "Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years.", "The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the \"spray and run\".File:Mur de tags au Forum de Barcelone.jpg|Multi-artist graffiti in Barcelona, SpainFile:KGD zumaia 1.jpg|Integration of graffiti into its environment, Zumaia, Spain (2016)File:Grafiti na Trsatu, Rijeka (Croatia).jpg|Graffiti made by school children in Rijeka, CroatiaFile:ქორქ?.jpg|Graffiti written in Georgian script, Tbilisi, GeorgiaFile:Princip Gavrilo grafit.JPG|Historical graffito of Gavrilo Princip in Belgrade, SerbiaFile:NN 07-08-2020 46.jpg|Graffiti on a garage near a school in Nizhny Novgorod, RussiaFile:Stadion Ljudski Vrt (19577579076).jpg|Football related graffiti in Maribor, SloveniaFile:Our Lady of the Hattifatteners (cropped).jpg|Graffiti by Hazul in Porto, Portugal=== Australia ===Camperdown (2009)In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists.", "One early example is the \"Graffiti Tunnel\" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint.", "Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.", "Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere.", "Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced \"anti-graffiti squads\", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority).", "However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti.", "Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising.", "The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction.", "All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city.", "Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent.", "As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent.", "Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.=== New Zealand ===Former Christchurch stock yardsIn February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property.", "New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service.", "The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.=== United States ===An elevator position indicator with scratch graffiti==== Tracker databases ====Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism.", "They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way.", "These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget.", "The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible.", "This has two main benefits for law enforcement.", "One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked.", "Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident.", "These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.==== Gang injunctions ====Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti.", "Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property.", "Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.==== Hotlines and reward programs ====To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed.", "San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention.", "One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal.", "The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline.", "Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away.", "If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes.", "Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact.", "Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism.", "The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.==== Search warrants ====When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to \"(tagger's name)\"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.SUBWAY CAR - NARA - 554325.jpg|Rampant graffiti hampers visibility into and out of subway cars (1973).Graffiti Tunnel (2078441177).jpg|Graffiti-lined tunnel in San FranciscoSmear Street Art1.jpg|Graffiti in Los Angeles (2006)Love your country, not government.jpg|Anti-governmental graffiti in Bolinas, CaliforniaI'm a Man Mural in Memphis 2.jpg|Protest art in Memphis, TennesseeCortlandt Alley, New York-L1002108.jpg|Graffiti in Cortlandt Alley, Tribeca, Lower Manhattan (2023)== Documentaries ==* ''80 Blocks from Tiffany's'' (1979), a rare glimpse of the late 1970s in New York City toward the end of the notorious South Bronx gangs, the documentary shows many aspects of the South Bronx's predominantly Puerto Rican community, including reformed gang members, current gang members, the police, and the community leaders who try to reach out to them.", "* ''Stations of the Elevated'' (1980), the earliest documentary about subway graffiti in New York City, with music by Charles Mingus* ''Style Wars'' (1983), an early documentary on hip hop culture, made in New York City* ''Piece by Piece'' (2005), a feature-length documentary on the history of San Francisco graffiti from the early 1980s* ''Infamy'' (2005), a feature-length documentary about graffiti culture as told through the experiences of six well-known graffiti writers and a graffiti buffer* ''NEXT: A Primer on Urban Painting'' (2005), a documentary about global graffiti culture* ''RASH'' (2005), a feature documentary about Melbourne, Australia, and the artists who make it a living host for street art* ''Jisoe'' (2007), a glimpse into the life of a Melbourne, Australia, graffiti writer shows the audience an example of graffiti in struggling Melbourne Areas.", "* ''Roadsworth: Crossing the Line'' (2009), about Montréal artist Peter Gibson and his controversial stencil art on public roads* ''Exit Through The Gift Shop'' (2010) was produced by the notorious artist Banksy.", "It tells the story of Thierry Guetta, a French immigrant in Los Angeles, and his obsession with street art; Shepard Fairey and Invader, whom Guetta discovers is his cousin, are also in the film.", "* ''Still on and non the wiser'' (2011) is a ninety-minute-long documentation that accompanies the exhibition with the same name in the Kunsthalle Barmen of the Von der Heydt-Museum in Wuppertal (Germany).", "It draws vivid portrayals of the artists by means of very personal interviews and also catches the creation process of the works before the exhibition was opened.", "* ''Graffiti Wars'' (2011), a documentary detailing King Robbo's feud with Banksy as well as the authorities' differing attitude towards graffiti and street art== Dramas ==* ''Wild Style'' (1983), about hip hop and graffiti culture in New York City* ''Turk 182'' (1985), about graffiti as political activism* ''Bomb the System'' (2002), about a crew of graffitists in modern-day New York City* ''Quality of Life'' (2004) was shot in the Mission District of San Francisco, co-written by and starring a retired graffiti writer.", "* ''Wholetrain'' (2006), a German film" ], [ "See also", "* Anti-graffiti coating* Stencil graffiti* Yarn bombing" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Baird, J.", "A.; C. Taylor (eds.", "), 2011, ''Ancient Graffiti in Context''.", "New York: Routledge." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Godzilla" ], [ "Introduction", "\t is a fictional monster, or ''kaiju'', that debuted in the eponymous 1954 film, directed and cowritten by Ishirō Honda.", "The character has since become an international pop culture icon, appearing in various media: 33 Japanese films produced by Toho Co., Ltd., five American films, and numerous video games, novels, comic books, and television shows.", "Godzilla has been dubbed the '''King of the Monsters''', an epithet first used in ''Godzilla, King of the Monsters!''", "(1956), the American localization of the 1954 film.Godzilla is a prehistoric reptilian monster, awakened and empowered after many years by nuclear radiation.", "With the nuclear bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the ''Lucky Dragon 5'' incident still fresh in the Japanese consciousness, Godzilla was conceived as a metaphor for nuclear weapons.", "Others have suggested that Godzilla is a metaphor for the United States, a \"giant beast\" woken from its \"slumber\" that then takes terrible vengeance on Japan.", "As the film series expanded, some storylines took on less-serious undertones, portraying Godzilla as an antihero or as a lesser threat who defends humanity.", "Later films address disparate themes and commentary, including Japan's apathy, neglect, and ignorance of its imperial past, natural disasters, and the human condition.Godzilla has been featured alongside many supporting characters and over the decades, has faced off against various human opponents, such as the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF), in addition to other gargantuan monsters, including Gigan, King Ghidorah, and Mechagodzilla.", "Godzilla has fought alongside allies such as Anguirus, Mothra, and Rodan as well as had offspring, including Godzilla Junior and Minilla.", "Godzilla has also battled characters and creatures from other franchises, in crossover media—such as King Kong—as well as various Marvel Comics characters, like S.H.I.E.L.D., the Fantastic Four, and the Avengers." ], [ "Appearances", "First appearing in 1954, Godzilla has starred in a total of thirty-eight films: thirty-three Japanese films produced and distributed by Toho Co., Ltd. and five American films, one produced by TriStar Pictures and four produced by Legendary Pictures.", "He has also appeared in countless other entertainment mediums, which include comic book lines, novelizations, and video games; each appearance expands upon the universe created by the films." ], [ "Development", "===Naming===Although the process of creating Godzilla's first film is comprehensively recorded, exactly how its name came to be remains unintelligible.", "The most widely accepted report of its origin is that producer Tomoyuki Tanaka named the monster after a sturdy Toho worker who was jokingly dubbed , a portmanteau of the Japanese words and .", "The account has been acknowledged by Toho themselves, director Ishirō Honda, producer Tanaka, special effects director Eiji Tsuburaya, producer , and production head , with Satō and Mori recalling that the employee was named Shirō Amikura.", "However, Honda's widow Kimi dismissed the employee-name story as a tall tale in a 1998 BBC documentary on Godzilla, believing that Honda, Tanaka, and Tsuburaya gave \"considerable thought\" to the name of the monster, stating, \"the backstage boys at Toho loved to joke around with tall stories, but I don't believe that one\".", "Honda's longtime assistant director added: \"Those of us who were closest to them don't even know how and why they came up with ''Gojira''.", "\"Toho later translated the monster's Japanese name as \"Godzilla\" for overseas distribution.", "The first recorded foreign usage of \"Godzilla\" was printed in the ''Hawaii Tribune-Herald'' on November 20, 1955.During the development of the American version of ''Godzilla Raids Again'' (1955), Godzilla's name was changed to \"Gigantis\" by producer Paul Schreibman, who wanted to create a character distinct from Godzilla.=== Characterization ===Within the context of the Japanese films, Godzilla's exact origins vary, but it is generally depicted as an enormous, violent, prehistoric sea monster awakened and empowered by nuclear radiation.", "Although the specific details of Godzilla's appearance have varied slightly over the years, the overall impression has remained consistent.", "Inspired by the fictional ''Rhedosaurus'' created by animator Ray Harryhausen for the film ''The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms'', Godzilla's character design was conceived as that of an amphibious reptilian monster based around the loose concept of a dinosaur with an erect standing posture, scaly skin, an anthropomorphic torso with muscular arms, lobed bony plates along its back and tail, and a furrowed brow.Art director Akira Watanabe combined attributes of a ''Tyrannosaurus'', an ''Iguanodon'', a ''Stegosaurus'' and an alligator to form a sort of blended chimera, inspired by illustrations from an issue of ''Life'' magazine.", "To emphasize the monster's relationship with the atomic bomb, its skin texture was inspired by the keloid scars seen on the survivors of Hiroshima.", "The basic design has a reptilian visage, a robust build, an upright posture, a long tail and three rows of serrated plates along the back.", "In the original film, the plates were added for purely aesthetic purposes, in order to further differentiate Godzilla from any other living or extinct creature.", "Godzilla is sometimes depicted as green in comics, cartoons, and movie posters, but the costumes used in the movies were usually painted charcoal grey with bone-white dorsal plates up until the film ''Godzilla 2000: Millennium''.In the original Japanese films, Godzilla and all the other monsters are referred to with gender-neutral pronouns equivalent to \"it\", while in the English dubbed versions, Godzilla is explicitly described as a male.", "In his book, Godzilla co-creator Tomoyuki Tanaka suggested that the monster was probably male.", "In the 1998 film ''Godzilla'', the monster is referred to as a male and is depicted laying eggs through parthenogenesis.", "In the Legendary ''Godzilla'' films, Godzilla is referred to as a male.Godzilla's allegiance and motivations have changed from film to film to suit the needs of the story.", "Although Godzilla does not like humans, it will fight alongside humanity against common threats.", "However, it makes no special effort to protect human life or property and will turn against its human allies on a whim.", "It is not motivated to attack by predatory instinct; it does not eat people and instead sustains itself on nuclear radiation and an omnivorous diet.", "When inquired if Godzilla was \"good or bad\", producer Shōgo Tomiyama likened it to a Shinto \"God of Destruction\" which lacks moral agency and cannot be held to human standards of good and evil.", "\"He totally destroys everything and then there is a rebirth.", "Something new and fresh can begin.", "\"====Abilities====Godzilla'' (1954)King Kong in ''King Kong vs. Godzilla'' (1962).", "This film attracted the highest Japanese box office attendance figures in the entire ''Godzilla'' series to date.Godzilla's signature weapon is its \"atomic heat beam\" (also known as \"atomic breath\"), nuclear energy that it generates inside of its body, uses electromagnetic force to concentrate it into a laser-like high velocity projectile and unleashes it from its jaws in the form of a blue or red radioactive beam.", "Toho's special effects department has used various techniques to render the beam, from physical gas-powered flames to hand-drawn or computer-generated fire.", "Godzilla is shown to possess immense physical strength and muscularity.", "Haruo Nakajima, the actor who played Godzilla in the original films, was a black belt in judo and used his expertise to choreograph the battle sequences.Godzilla is amphibious: it has a preference for traversing Earth's hydrosphere when in hibernation or migration, can breathe underwater and is described in the original film by the character Dr. Yamane as a transitional form between a marine and a terrestrial reptile.", "Godzilla is shown to have great vitality: it is immune to conventional weaponry thanks to its rugged hide and ability to regenerate, and as a result of surviving a nuclear explosion, it cannot be destroyed by anything less powerful.", "One incarnation possesses an electromagnetic pulse-producing organ in its body which generates an asymmetrical permeable shield, making it impervious to all damage except for a short period when the organ recycles.Various films, non-canonical television shows, comics, and games have depicted Godzilla with additional powers, such as an atomic pulse, magnetism, precognition, fireballs, convert electromagnetic energy into intensive body heat, converting shed blood into temporary tentacle limbs, an electric bite, superhuman speed, laser beams emitted from its eyes and even flight.====Roar====Godzilla has a distinctive disyllabic roar (transcribed in several comics as ''Skreeeonk!", "''), which was created by composer Akira Ifukube, who produced the sound by rubbing a pine tar-resin-coated glove along the string of a contrabass and then slowing down the playback.", "In the American version of ''Godzilla Raids Again'' (1955) titled ''Gigantis the Fire Monster'' (1959), Godzilla's roar was mostly substituted with that of the monster Anguirus.", "From ''The Return of Godzilla'' (1984) to ''Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah'' (1991), Godzilla was given a deeper and more threatening-sounding roar than in previous films, though this change was reverted from ''Godzilla vs. Mothra'' (1992) onward.", "For the 2014 American film, sound editors Ethan Van der Ryn and Erik Aadahl refused to disclose the source of the sounds used for their Godzilla's roar.", "Aadahl described the two syllables of the roar as representing two different emotional reactions, with the first expressing fury and the second conveying the character's soul.====Size====Teizō Toshimitsu sculpting a prototype for Godzilla's designGodzilla's size is inconsistent, changing from film to film and even from scene to scene for the sake of artistic license.", "The miniature sets and costumes were typically built at a – scale and filmed at 240 frames per second to create the illusion of great size.", "In the original 1954 film, Godzilla was scaled to be tall.", "This was done so Godzilla could just peer over the largest buildings in Tokyo at the time.", "In the 1956 American version, Godzilla is estimated to be tall, because producer Joseph E. Levine felt that 50 m did not sound \"powerful enough\".As the series progressed, Toho would rescale the character, eventually making Godzilla as tall as .", "This was done so that it would not be dwarfed by the newer, bigger buildings in Tokyo's skyline, such as the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Building which Godzilla destroyed in the film ''Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah'' (1991).", "Supplementary information, such as character profiles, would also depict Godzilla as weighing between .In the American film ''Godzilla'' (2014) from Legendary Pictures, Godzilla was scaled to be and weighing , making it the largest film version at that time.", "Director Gareth Edwards wanted Godzilla \"to be so big as to be seen from anywhere in the city, but not too big that he couldn't be obscured\".", "For ''Shin Godzilla'' (2016), Godzilla was made even taller than the Legendary version, at .", "In ''Godzilla: Planet of the Monsters'' (2017), Godzilla's height was increased further still to .", "In ''Godzilla: King of the Monsters'' (2019) and ''Godzilla vs. Kong'' (2020), Godzilla's height was increased to from the 2014 incarnation.===Special effects===Suit fitting on the set of ''Godzilla Raids Again'' (1955), with Haruo Nakajima portraying Godzilla on the leftGodzilla's appearance has traditionally been portrayed in the films by an actor wearing a latex costume, though the character has also been rendered in animatronic, stop-motion and computer-generated form.", "Taking inspiration from ''King Kong'', special effects artist Eiji Tsuburaya had initially wanted Godzilla to be portrayed via stop-motion, but prohibitive deadlines and a lack of experienced animators in Japan at the time made suitmation more practical.The first suit, weighing in excess of , consisted of a body cavity made of thin wires and bamboo wrapped in chicken wire for support and covered in fabric and cushions, which were then coated in latex.", "It was held together by small hooks on the back, though subsequent Godzilla suits incorporated a zipper.", "Prior to 1984, most Godzilla suits were made from scratch, thus resulting in slight design changes in each film appearance.", "The most notable changes from 1962 to 1975 were the reduction in Godzilla's number of toes and the removal of the character's external ears and prominent fangs, features which would all later be reincorporated in the Godzilla designs from ''The Return of Godzilla'' (1984) onward.", "The most consistent Godzilla design was maintained from ''Godzilla vs. Biollante'' (1989) to ''Godzilla vs. Destoroyah'' (1995), when the suit was given a cat-like face and double rows of teeth.Several suit actors had difficulties in performing as Godzilla due to the suits' weight, lack of ventilation and diminished visibility.", "Haruo Nakajima, who portrayed Godzilla from 1954 to 1972, said the materials used to make the 1954 suit (rubber, plastic, cotton, and latex) were hard to find after World War II.", "The suit weighed 100 kilograms after its completion and required two men to help Nakajima put it on.", "When he first put it on, he sweated so heavily that his shirt was soaked within seconds.", "Kenpachiro Satsuma in particular, who portrayed Godzilla from 1984 to 1995, described how the Godzilla suits he wore were even heavier and hotter than their predecessors because of the incorporation of animatronics.", "Satsuma himself suffered numerous medical issues during his tenure, including oxygen deprivation, near-drowning, concussions, electric shocks and lacerations to the legs from the suits' steel wire reinforcements wearing through the rubber padding.", "The ventilation problem was partially solved in the suit used in 1994's ''Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla'', which was the first to include an air duct that allowed suit actors to last longer during performances.", "In ''The Return of Godzilla'' (1984), some scenes made use of a 16-foot high robotic Godzilla (dubbed the \"Cybot Godzilla\") for use in close-up shots of the creature's head.", "The Cybot Godzilla consisted of a hydraulically powered mechanical endoskeleton covered in urethane skin containing 3,000 computer operated parts which permitted it to tilt its head and move its lips and arms.In ''Godzilla'' (1998), special effects artist Patrick Tatopoulos was instructed to redesign Godzilla as an incredibly fast runner.", "At one point, it was planned to use motion capture from a human to create the movements of the computer-generated Godzilla, but it was said to have ended up looking too much like a man in a suit.", "Tatopoulos subsequently reimagined the creature as a lean, digitigrade bipedal, iguana-like creature that stood with its back and tail parallel to the ground, rendered via CGI.", "Several scenes had the monster portrayed by stuntmen in suits.", "The suits were similar to those used in the Toho films, with the actors' heads being located in the monster's neck region and the facial movements controlled via animatronics.", "However, because of the creature's horizontal posture, the stuntmen had to wear metal leg extenders, which allowed them to stand off the ground with their feet bent forward.", "The film's special effects crew also built a scale animatronic Godzilla for close-up scenes, whose size outmatched that of Stan Winston's ''T.", "rex'' in ''Jurassic Park''.", "Kurt Carley performed the suitmation sequences for the adult Godzilla.In ''Godzilla'' (2014), the character was portrayed entirely via CGI.", "Godzilla's design in the reboot was intended to stay true to that of the original series, though the film's special effects team strove to make the monster \"more dynamic than a guy in a big rubber suit.\"", "To create a CG version of Godzilla, the Moving Picture Company (MPC) studied various animals such as bears, Komodo dragons, lizards, lions and wolves, which helped the visual effects artists visualize Godzilla's body structure, like that of its underlying bone, fat and muscle structure, as well as the thickness and texture of its scales.", "Motion capture was also used for some of Godzilla's movements.", "T. J.", "Storm provided the performance capture for Godzilla by wearing sensors in front of a green screen.", "Storm reprised the role of Godzilla in ''Godzilla: King of the Monsters'', portraying the character through performance capture.", "In ''Shin Godzilla'', a majority of the character was portrayed via CGI, with Mansai Nomura portraying Godzilla through motion capture.", "In 2024, ''Godzilla Minus One'' was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects, becoming the first ''Godzilla'' film nominated for an Oscar." ], [ "Cultural impact", "Godzilla's star on the Hollywood Walk of FameGodzilla is one of the most recognizable symbols of Japanese popular culture worldwide and remains an important facet of Japanese films, embodying the ''kaiju'' subset of the ''tokusatsu'' genre.", "Godzilla's vaguely humanoid appearance and strained, lumbering movements endeared it to Japanese audiences, who could relate to Godzilla as a sympathetic character, despite its wrathful nature.", "Audiences respond positively to the character because it acts out of rage and self-preservation and shows where science and technology can go wrong.In 1967, the Keukdong Entertainment Company of South Korea, with production assistance from Toei Company, produced ''Yongary, Monster from the Deep'', a reptilian monster who invades South Korea to consume oil.", "The film and character has often been branded as an imitation of Godzilla.Godzilla has been considered a filmographic metaphor for the United States, as well as an allegory of nuclear weapons in general.", "The earlier ''Godzilla'' films, especially the original, portrayed Godzilla as a frightening nuclear-spawned monster.", "Godzilla represented the fears that many Japanese held about the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the possibility of recurrence.As the series progressed, so did Godzilla, changing into a less destructive and more heroic character.", "''Ghidorah'' (1964) was the turning point in Godzilla's transformation from villain to hero, by pitting him against a greater threat to humanity, King Ghidorah.", "Godzilla has since been viewed as an anti-hero.", "Roger Ebert cites Godzilla as a notable example of a villain-turned-hero, along with King Kong, Jaws (''James Bond''), the Terminator and John Rambo.Godzilla is considered \"the original radioactive superhero\" due to his accidental radioactive origin story predating Spider-Man (1962 debut), though Godzilla did not become a hero until ''Ghidorah'' in 1964.By the 1970s, Godzilla came to be viewed as a superhero, with the magazine ''King of the Monsters'' in 1977 describing Godzilla as \"Superhero of the '70s.\"", "Godzilla had surpassed Superman and Batman to become \"the most universally popular superhero of 1977\" according to Donald F. Glut.", "Godzilla was also voted the most popular movie monster in ''The Monster Times'' poll in 1973, beating Count Dracula, King Kong, the Wolf Man, the Mummy, the Creature from the Black Lagoon and the Frankenstein Monster.Paleontologist Kenneth Carpenter's skeletal diagram of Godzilla in a modern dinosaur posture In 1996, Godzilla received the MTV Lifetime Achievement Award, as well as being given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2004 to celebrate the premiere of the character's 50th anniversary film, ''Godzilla: Final Wars''.", "Godzilla's pop-cultural impact has led to the creation of numerous parodies and tributes, as seen in media such as ''Bambi Meets Godzilla'', which was ranked as one of the \"50 greatest cartoons\", two episodes of ''Mystery Science Theater 3000'' and the song \"Godzilla\" by Blue Öyster Cult.", "Godzilla has also been used in advertisements, such as in a commercial for Nike, where Godzilla lost an oversized one-on-one game of basketball to a giant version of NBA player Charles Barkley.", "The commercial was subsequently adapted into a comic book illustrated by Jeff Butler.", "Godzilla has also appeared in a commercial for Snickers candy bars, which served as an indirect promo for the 2014 film.", "Godzilla's success inspired the creation of numerous other monster characters, such as Gamera, Reptilicus of Denmark, Yonggary of South Korea, Pulgasari of North Korea, Gorgo of the United Kingdom and the ''Cloverfield'' monster of the United States.", "''Dakosaurus'' is an extinct sea crocodile of the Jurassic Period, which researchers informally nicknamed \"Godzilla\".", "Paleontologists have written tongue-in-cheek speculative articles about Godzilla's biology, with Kenneth Carpenter tentatively classifying it as a ceratosaur based on its skull shape, four-fingered hands, and dorsal scutes and paleontologist Darren Naish expressing skepticism, while commenting on Godzilla's unusual morphology.Godzilla's ubiquity in pop culture has led to the mistaken assumption that the character is in the public domain, resulting in litigation by Toho to protect their corporate asset from becoming a generic trademark.", "In April 2008, Subway depicted a giant monster in a commercial for their Five Dollar Footlongs sandwich promotion.", "Toho filed a lawsuit against Subway for using the character without permission, demanding $150,000 in compensation.", "In February 2011, Toho sued Honda for depicting a fire-breathing monster in a commercial for the Honda Odyssey.", "The monster was never mentioned by name, being seen briefly on a video screen inside the minivan.", "The Sea Shepherd Conservation Society christened a vessel the ''MV Gojira''.", "Its purpose is to target and harass Japanese whalers in defense of whales in the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary.", "The ''MV Gojira'' was renamed the in May 2011, due to legal pressure from Toho.", "Gojira is the name of a French death metal band, formerly known as Godzilla; legal problems forced the band to change their name.", "In May 2015, Toho launched a lawsuit against Voltage Pictures over a planned picture starring Anne Hathaway.", "Promotional material released at the Cannes Film Festival used images of Godzilla.Steven Spielberg cited ''Godzilla'' as an inspiration for ''Jurassic Park'' (1993), specifically ''Godzilla, King of the Monsters!''", "(1956), which he grew up watching.", "Spielberg described ''Godzilla'' as \"the most masterful of all the dinosaur movies because it made you believe it was really happening.\"", "''Godzilla'' also influenced the Spielberg film ''Jaws'' (1975).", "''Godzilla'' has also been cited as an inspiration by filmmakers Martin Scorsese and Tim Burton.A carnivorous dinosaur from the Triassic period was named ''Gojirasaurus'' in 1997''.''", "The main-belt asteroid 101781 Gojira, discovered by American astronomer Roy Tucker at the Goodricke-Pigott Observatory in 1999, was named in honor of the creature.", "The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 11 July 2018 ().", "The largest megamullion, located 600 kilometres to the south-east of Okinotorishima, the southernmost Japanese island, is named the Godzilla Megamullion.", "The Japan Coast Guard played a role in name, reaching an agreement with Toho.", "Toho's Chief Godzilla officer Keiji Ota stated that \"I am truly honored that (the megamullion) bears Godzilla's name, the Earth's most powerful monster.", "\"===Cultural ambassador===In April 2015, the Shinjuku ward of Tokyo named Godzilla a special resident and official tourism ambassador to encourage tourism.", "During an unveiling of a giant Godzilla bust at Toho headquarters, Shinjuku mayor Kenichi Yoshizumi stated, \"Godzilla is a character that is the pride of Japan.\"", "The mayor extended a residency certificate to an actor in a rubber suit representing Godzilla, but as the suit's hands were not designed for grasping, it was accepted on Godzilla's behalf by a Toho executive.", "Reporters noted that Shinjuku's ward has been flattened by Godzilla in three Toho movies." ], [ "References", " ===Sources===* * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Official ''Godzilla'' website by Toho Co., Ltd* Official website of Toho Co., Ltd (Japanese)* Godzilla on IMDb" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "King Kong vs. Godzilla" ], [ "Introduction", " is a 1962 Japanese ''kaiju'' film directed by Ishirō Honda, with special effects by Eiji Tsuburaya.", "Produced and distributed by Toho Co., Ltd, it is the third film in both the ''Godzilla'' and ''King Kong'' franchises, as well as the first Toho-produced film featuring King Kong.", "It is also the first time that each character appeared on film in color and widescreen.", "The film stars Tadao Takashima, Kenji Sahara, Yū Fujiki, Ichirō Arishima, and Mie Hama, with Shoichi Hirose as King Kong and Haruo Nakajima as Godzilla.", "In the film, Godzilla is reawakened by an American submarine and a pharmaceutical company captures King Kong for promotional uses, which culminate in a battle with Godzilla on Mount Fuji.The project began with a story outline devised by ''King Kong'' stop motion animator Willis O'Brien around 1960, in which Kong battles a giant Frankenstein Monster; O'Brien gave the outline to producer John Beck for development.", "Behind O'Brien's back and without his knowledge, Beck gave the project to Toho to produce the film, replacing the giant Frankenstein Monster with Godzilla and scrapping O'Brien's original story.", "''King Kong vs. Godzilla'' was released theatrically in Japan on August 11, 1962 and grossed , making it the second-highest-grossing Japanese film in history upon its release.", "The film remains the most attended ''Godzilla'' film in Japan to date, and is credited with encouraging Toho to prioritize the continuation of the ''Godzilla'' series after seven years of dormancy.", "A heavily re-edited \"Americanized\" version of the film was released theatrically in the United States by Universal International Inc. on June 26, 1963.The film was followed by ''Mothra vs. Godzilla'', released on April 29, 1964." ], [ "Plot", "Mr. Tako, head of Pacific Pharmaceuticals, is frustrated with the television shows his company is sponsoring and wants something to boost his ratings.", "When a doctor tells Tako about a giant monster he discovered on the small Faro Island, Tako believes that it would be a brilliant idea to use the monster to gain publicity.", "Tako sends two men, Osamu Sakurai and Kinsaburo Furue, to find and bring back the monster.", "Meanwhile, the American nuclear submarine ''Seahawk'' gets caught in an iceberg.", "The iceberg collapses, unleashing Godzilla, who had been trapped within it since 1955.Godzilla destroys the submarine and makes its way towards Japan, attacking a military base as it journeys southward.", "On Faro Island, a gigantic octopus crawls ashore and attacks the native village in search of Farolacton juice, taken from a species of red berry native to the island.", "The mysterious Faro monster, revealed to be King Kong, arrives and defeats the octopus.", "Kong drinks several vases full of the juice while the islanders perform a ceremony, which causes him to fall asleep.", "Sakurai and Furue place Kong on a large raft and begin to transport him back to Japan.", "Mr. Tako arrives on the ship transporting Kong, but a JSDF ship stops them and orders that Kong must be kept out of Japan.", "Meanwhile, Godzilla arrives in Japan and terrorizes the countryside.", "Kong wakes up and breaks free from the raft.", "Reaching the mainland, Kong confronts Godzilla and proceeds to throw giant rocks at Godzilla.", "Godzilla is not fazed by King Kong's rock attack and uses its heat ray to burn him.", "Kong retreats after realizing that he is not yet ready to take on Godzilla.", "The JSDF digs a large pit laden with explosives and poison gas and lures Godzilla into it, but Godzilla is unharmed.", "They next string up a barrier of power lines around the city filled with 1,000,000 volts of electricity, which proves effective against Godzilla.", "Kong approaches Tokyo and tears through the power lines, feeding off the electricity, which seems to make him stronger.", "Kong then enters Tokyo and captures Fumiko, Sakurai's sister, taking her to the National Diet Building which he then scales.", "The JSDF launches capsules full of vaporised Farolacton juice, which puts Kong to sleep, and rescue Fumiko.", "The JSDF decides to transport Kong via balloons to Godzilla, in hopes that they will kill each other.", "The next morning, Kong is deployed by helicopter next to Godzilla at the summit of Mount Fuji and the two engage in battle.", "Godzilla initially has the advantage, dazing Kong with a devastating dropkick and repeated tail blows to his head.", "Godzilla attempts to burn Kong to death by using its atomic breath to set fire to the foliage around Kong's body.", "A bolt of lightning from thunder clouds strikes Kong, reviving him and charging him up, and the battle resumes.", "Godzilla and King Kong fight their way down the mountain and into Atami, where the two monsters destroy Atami Castle while trading blows, before falling off a cliff together into Sagami Bay.", "After a brief underwater battle, only Kong resurfaces from the water, victorious, and he swims back toward his home island.", "There is no sign of Godzilla, but the JSDF speculates that it is possible it survived." ], [ "Cast", "===Japanese version======American version===Cast taken from ''Japan's Favorite Mon-Star'', except where cited otherwise." ], [ "Production", "===Crew===* Ishirō Honda – director* Eiji Tsuburaya – special effects director* Kōji Kajita – assistant director* Toshio Takashima – lighting* Takeo Kita – art director* Teruaki Abe – art director* Akira Watanabe – special effects art director* Kuichirō Kishida – special effects lighting* Masao Fujiyoshi – sound recording* Thomas Montgomery – director (American footage)* John Beck – producer (American version)* Paul Mason – writer (American version)* Bruce Howard – writer (American version)* Peter Zinner – editorial and music supervision (American version)Personnel taken from ''Japan's Favorite Mon-Star''.===Conception===Willis O'Brien for the proposed ''King Kong Meets Frankenstein''.", "The project evolved into ''King Kong vs. Godzilla'', with Godzilla replacing the giant Frankenstein Monster as King Kong's opponent.", "''King Kong vs. Godzilla'' had its roots in an earlier concept for a new ''King Kong'' feature developed by Willis O'Brien, animator of the original stop-motion Kong.", "Around 1960, O'Brien came up with a proposed treatment, ''King Kong Meets Frankenstein'', where Kong would fight against a giant Frankenstein Monster in San Francisco.", "O'Brien took the project (which consisted of some concept art and a screenplay treatment) to RKO to secure permission to use the King Kong character.", "During this time, the story was renamed ''King Kong vs. the Ginko'' when it was believed that Universal had the rights to the Frankenstein name.", "O'Brien was introduced to producer John Beck, who promised to find a studio to make the film (at this point, RKO was no longer a production company).", "Beck took the story treatment and hired George Worthing Yates to write the screenplay for the film.", "The story was slightly altered and the title changed to ''King Kong vs. Prometheus'', returning the name to the original Frankenstein concept (''The Modern Prometheus'' was the alternate title of the original novel).", "The November 2, 1960 issue of ''Variety'' reported that Beck had even asked a filmmaker named Jerry Guran (a possible misspelling of filmmaker Nathan Juran's pseudonym Jerry Juran) to direct the film.", "However, the cost of stop-motion animation discouraged potential studios from putting the film into production.", "After shopping the script around overseas, Beck eventually attracted the interest of the Japanese studio Toho, which had long wanted to make a ''King Kong'' film.", "After purchasing the script, they decided to replace the giant Frankenstein Monster with Godzilla to be King Kong's opponent and would have Shinichi Sekizawa rewrite Yates' script.", "The studio thought that it would be the perfect way to celebrate its 30th year in production.", "It was one of five big banner releases for the company to celebrate the anniversary alongside ''Sanjuro'', ''Chūshingura'', ''Lonely Lane'', and ''Born in Sin''.", "John Beck's dealings with Willis O'Brien's project were done behind his back, and O'Brien was never credited for his idea.", "O'Brien attempted to sue Beck, but lacked the money to do so, and on November 8, 1962, he died in his home in Los Angeles at the age of 76.O'Brien's wife Darlyne later cited \"the frustration of the ''King Kong vs. Frankenstein'' deal\" as the cause of his death.", "Merian C. Cooper, the producer and Co-Director of the 1933 ''King Kong'' film, was bitterly opposed to the project, stating in a letter addressed to his friend Douglas Burden, \"I was indignant when some Japanese company made a belittling thing, to a creative mind, called ''King Kong vs. Godzilla''.", "I believe they even stooped so low as to use a man in a gorilla suit, which I have spoken out against so often in the early days of ''King Kong''\".", "In 1963, he filed a lawsuit to enjoin distribution of the movie against John Beck, as well as Toho and Universal (the film's U.S. copyright holder) claiming that he outright owned the King Kong character, but the lawsuit never went through, as it turned out he was not Kong's sole legal owner as he had previously believed.===Themes===Director Ishirō Honda wanted the theme of the movie to be a satire of the television industry in Japan.", "In April 1962, TV networks and their various sponsors started producing outrageous programming and publicity stunts to grab audiences' attention after two elderly viewers reportedly died at home while watching a violent wrestling match on TV.", "The various rating wars between the networks and banal programming that followed this event caused widespread debate over how TV would affect Japanese culture with Sōichi Ōya stating TV was creating \"a nation of 100 million idiots\".", "Honda stated \"People were making a big deal out of ratings, but my own view of TV shows was that they did not take the viewer seriously, that they took the audience for granted...so I decided to show that through my movie\" and \"the reason I showed the monster battle through the prism of a ratings war was to depict the reality of the times\".", "Honda addressed this by having a pharmaceutical company sponsor a TV show and going to extremes for a publicity stunt for ratings by capturing a giant monster stating \"All a medicine company would have to do is just produce good medicines you know?", "But the company doesn't think that way.", "They think they will get ahead of their competitors if they use a monster to promote their product.\"", "Honda would work with screenwriter Shinichi Sekizawa on developing the story stating that \"Back then Sekizawa was working on pop songs and TV shows so he really had a clear insight into television\".===Filming===Special effects director Eiji Tsuburaya was planning on working on other projects at this point in time such as a new version of a fairy tale film script called ''Princess Kaguya'', but he postponed those to work on this project with Toho instead since he was such a huge fan of King Kong.", "He stated in an early 1960s interview with the Mainichi Newspaper, \"But my movie company has produced a very interesting script that combined King Kong and Godzilla, so I couldn't help working on this instead of my other fantasy films.", "The script is special to me; it makes me emotional because it was ''King Kong'' that got me interested in the world of special photographic techniques when I saw it in 1933.", "\"Early drafts of the script were sent back with notes from the studio asking that the monster antics be made as \"funny as possible\".", "This comical approach was embraced by Tsuburaya, who wanted to appeal to children's sensibilities and broaden the genre's audience.", "Much of the monster battle was filmed to contain a great deal of humor but the approach was not favoured by most of the effects crew, who \"couldn't believe\" some of the things Tsuburaya asked them to do, such as Kong and Godzilla volleying a giant boulder back and forth.", "With the exception of the next film, ''Mothra vs. Godzilla'', this film began the trend to portray Godzilla and the monsters with more and more anthropomorphism as the series progressed, to appeal more to younger children.", "Ishirō Honda was not a fan of the dumbing down of the monsters.", "Years later, Honda stated in an interview.", "\"I don't think a monster should ever be a comical character,\" and \"The public is more entertained when the great King Kong strikes fear into the hearts of the little characters.\"", "The decision was also taken to shoot the film in a (2.35:1) scope ratio (TohoScope) and to film in color (Eastman Color), marking both monsters' first widescreen and color portrayals.Toho had planned to shoot the film on location in Sri Lanka, but abandoned the idea after being forced to pay RKO roughly ($220,000) for the rights to the King Kong character, which forced the company to scale down their original production costs.", "The bulk of the film was shot on the Japanese island of Izu Ōshima instead.", "The movie's production budget came out to ().Suit actors Shoichi Hirose (as King Kong) and Haruo Nakajima (as Godzilla) were given mostly free rein by Tsuburaya to choreograph their own moves.", "The men would rehearse for hours and would base their moves on those of professional wrestling (a sport that was growing in popularity in Japan), in particular the moves of Toyonobori.During pre-production, Tsuburaya had toyed with the idea of using Willis O'Brien's stop-motion technique instead of the suitmation process used in the first two ''Godzilla'' films, but budgetary concerns prevented him from using the process, and the more cost-efficient suitmation was used instead.", "However, some brief stop-motion was used in a couple of quick sequences.", "Two of these sequences were animated by Minoru Nakano.Eiji Tsuburaya directs Shoichi Hirose (in the King Kong suit) and Haruo Nakajima (in the Godzilla suit) on the Mount Fuji set during filming.A brand new Godzilla suit was designed for this film and some slight alterations were done to its overall appearance.", "These alterations included the removal of its tiny ears, three toes on each foot rather than four, enlarged central dorsal fins, and a bulkier body.", "These new features gave Godzilla a more reptilian/dinosaurian appearance.", "Outside of the suit, a meter-high model and a small puppet were also built.", "Another puppet (from the waist up) was also designed that had a nozzle in the mouth to spray out liquid mist simulating Godzilla's atomic breath.", "However the shots in the film where this prop was employed (far away shots of Godzilla breathing its atomic breath during its attack on the Arctic Military base) were ultimately cut from the film.", "These cut scenes can be seen in the Japanese theatrical trailer.", "Finally, a separate prop of Godzilla's tail was also built for close-up practical shots when its tail would be used (such as the scene where Godzilla trips Kong with its tail).", "The tail prop would be swung offscreen by a stagehand.Sadamasa Arikawa (who worked with Tsuburaya) said that the sculptors had a hard time coming up with a King Kong suit that appeased Tsuburaya.", "The first suit was rejected for being too fat with long legs giving Kong what the crew considered an almost cute look.", "A few other designs were done before Tsuburaya would approve the final look that was ultimately used in the film.", "The suit's body design was a team effort by brothers Koei Yagi and Kanji Yagi and was covered with expensive yak hair, which Eizō Kaimai hand-dyed brown.", "Because RKO instructed that the face must be different from the original's design, sculptor Teizō Toshimitsu based Kong's face on the Japanese macaque rather than a gorilla, and designed two separate masks.", "As well, two separate pairs of arms were also created.", "One pair were extended arms operated by poles inside the suit to give Kong a gorilla-like illusion, while the other pair were at normal arms-length and featured gloves that were used for scenes that required Kong to grab items and wrestle with Godzilla.", "Suit actor Hirose had to be sewn into the suit in order to hide the zipper.", "This would force him to be trapped inside the suit for large amounts of time and would cause him much physical discomfort.", "In the scene where Kong drinks the berry juice and falls asleep, he was trapped in the suit for three hours.", "Besides the suit with the two separate arm attachments, a meter-high model and a puppet of Kong (used for closeups) were also built.", "As well, a huge prop of Kong's hand was built for the scene where he grabs Mie Hama (Fumiko) and carries her off.For the attack of the giant octopus, four live octopuses were used.", "They were forced to move among the miniature huts by having hot air blown onto them.", "After the filming of that scene was finished, three of the four octopuses were released.", "The fourth became special effects director Tsuburaya's dinner.", "These sequences were filmed on a miniature set outdoors on the Miura Coast, According to assistant special effects cinematographer Kōichi Kawakita, the crew had difficulty getting the live octopuses to move.", "Along with the live animals, two rubber octopus puppets were built, with the larger one being covered with plastic wrap to simulate mucous.", "Some stop-motion tentacles were also created for the scene where the octopus grabs a native and tosses him.", "These sequences were shot indoors at Toho's studios.The special effects crew filmed a sequence in which Godzilla rampages through Takasaki, Gunma Prefecture, and destroys the Takasaki Kannon Statue, but this scene was cut from the final film.", "Despite this scene being cut, Godzilla is still said to have passed through Takasaki in the film.Since King Kong was seen as the bigger draw and Godzilla was still considered a 'villain' at this point in the series, the decision was made to not only give King Kong top billing but also to present him as the winner of the climactic fight.", "While the ending of the film does look somewhat ambiguous, Toho confirmed that King Kong was indeed the winner in their 1962–63 English-language film program ''Toho Films Vol.", "8'', which states in the film's plot synopsis, \"''A spectacular duel is arranged on the summit of Mt.", "Fuji and King Kong is victorious.", "But after he has won...''\" While producer Tomoyuki Tanaka stated in his 1983 and 1984 books, ''The Complete History of Toho Special Effects Movies'', and ''Definitive Edition Godzilla Introduction'' that he believed the battle ended in a draw, Toho still maintains that Kong was the victor on their global website in 2023." ], [ "Release", "===Theatrical===''King Kong vs. Godzilla'' was released in Japan by Toho on August 11, 1962, where it played alongside ''Myself and I'' for two weeks, afterward, it was extended by one more week and screened alongside the anime film ''Touring the World''.", "The film was re-released twice as part of the Toho Champion Festival, a children's festival centered on marathon screenings of ''kaiju'' films and cartoons.", "The film was first heavily re-cut and screened at the festival on March 21, 1970, and again on March 19, 1977, to coincide with the Japanese release of the 1976 version of ''King Kong''.", "The 1970 Champion Festival version was edited by the film’s director Ishirō Honda, who shortened the runtime to just 74 minutes.", "In 1983, the film was screened across Japan alongside 9 other ''kaiju'' films as part of the ''Godzilla 1983 Revival Festival''.", "The festival's success became the catalyst for relaunching the ''Godzilla'' series with ''The Return of Godzilla''.In North America, ''King Kong vs. Godzilla'' premiered in New York City on June 26, 1963.The film was also released in many international markets.", "In Germany, it was known as ''Die Rückkehr des King Kong'' (\"The Return of King Kong\") and in Italy as ''Il trionfo di King Kong'' (\"The Triumph of King Kong\").To celebrate the film's 50th anniversary, Bay Area Film Events (BAFE) planned to screen the film at the Historic BAL Theatre in San Leandro, California, on June 16, 2012, as a double feature with ''Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All-Out Attack''.===American version===When John Beck sold the ''King Kong vs Prometheus'' script to Toho (which became ''King Kong vs. Godzilla''), he was given exclusive rights to produce a version of the film for release in non-Asian territories.", "He was able to line up a couple of potential distributors in Warner Bros. and Universal-International even before the film began production.", "Beck, accompanied by two Warner Bros. representatives, attended at least two private screenings of the film on the Toho Studios lot before it was released in Japan.John Beck enlisted the help of two Hollywood writers, Paul Mason and Bruce Howard, to write a new screenplay.", "After discussions with Beck, the two wrote the American version and worked with editor Peter Zinner to remove scenes, recut others, and change the sequence of several events.", "To give the film more of an American feel, Mason and Howard decided to insert new footage that would convey the impression that the film was actually a newscast.", "The television actor Michael Keith played newscaster Eric Carter, a United Nations reporter who spends much of the time commenting on the action from the U.N. Headquarters via an International Communications Satellite (ICS) broadcast.", "Harry Holcombe was cast as Dr. Arnold Johnson, the head of the Museum of Natural History in New York City, who tries to explain Godzilla's origin and his and Kong's motivations.Beck and his crew were able to obtain library music from a host of older films, including ''Creature from the Black Lagoon'' (1954).", "Cues from these scores were used to almost completely replace the original Japanese score by Akira Ifukube and give the film a more Western sound.", "They also obtained stock footage from the film ''The Mysterians'' from RKO (the film's U.S. copyright holder at the time) which was used not only to represent the ICS, but which was also utilized during the film's climax.", "Stock footage of a massive earthquake from ''The Mysterians'' was employed to make the earthquake caused by Kong and Godzilla's plummet into the ocean much more violent than the comparatively tame tremor seen in the Japanese version.", "This added footage features massive tidal waves, flooded valleys, and the ground splitting open swallowing up various huts.Beck spent roughly $12,000 making his English version and sold the film to Universal-International for roughly $200,000 on April 29, 1963.The film was released theatrically in the United States on June 26 of that year, as a double feature with ''The Traitors''.Starting in 1963, Toho's international sales booklets began advertising an English dub of ''King Kong vs. Godzilla'' alongside Toho-commissioned, unedited international dubs of movies such as ''Giant Monster Varan'' and ''The Last War''.", "By association, it is thought that this ''King Kong vs. Godzilla'' dub is an unedited English-language international version not known to have been released on home video.===Home media===In July 2014, the Japanese version was released for the first time on Blu-ray in Japan as part of Toho's plan to release the entire series on the Blu-ray format for Godzilla's 60th anniversary.", "Universal Pictures released the English-language version of the film on Blu-ray on April 1, 2014, along with ''King Kong Escapes''.", "The Blu-ray sold $738,063 in domestic video sales.", "In 2019, the Japanese and American versions were included in a Blu-ray box set released by The Criterion Collection, which included all 15 films from the franchise's Shōwa era.", "The 4K remaster of the Japanese version was released on Blu-ray and 4K Blu-ray in May 2021.The special features for the 2021 Blu-ray include one of the Toho Champion Festival reissues of the film, the film's theatrical trailer, and a still gallery." ], [ "Reception", "===Box office===In Japan, this film has the highest box office attendance figures of all of the ''Godzilla'' films to date.", "It sold 11.2 million tickets during its initial theatrical run, accumulating ($972,000) in distribution rental earnings.", "The film became the second-highest-grossing Japanese-produced film in history upon its release and was the fourth-highest-grossing film released in Japan that year as well as Toho's second-biggest release.", "At an average 1962 Japanese ticket price, ticket sales were equivalent to estimated gross receipts of approximately ().Including re-releases, the film accumulated a lifetime figure of 12.55 million tickets sold in Japan, with distribution rental earnings of .", "The 1970 re-release sold 870,000 tickets, equivalent to estimated gross receipts of approximately ().", "The 1977 re-release sold 480,000 tickets, equivalent to estimated gross receipts of approximately ().", "This adds up to total estimated Japanese gross receipts of approximately ().", "In the United States, the film grossed $2.7 million, accumulating a profit (via rentals) of $1.25 million.", "Overall, the film is estimated to have earned worldwide.===Critical response===On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 52% based on 21 reviews, with an average rating of 5.10/10.On Metacritic, the film has a score of 40/100, based on 4 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".The reviews tended to evaluate the film as an exploitation or kiddie film.", "Some of the more positive reviews were from James Powers of ''The Hollywood Reporter'' who wrote \"A funny monster picture?", "That's what Universal has in \"''King Kong Versus Godzilla'' \".", "Audiences which patronize this kind of picture will eat it up.", "It should be a big success via the multiple booking, exploitation route.\"", "While the review from ''Box Office'' stated \"Exploitation-minded exhibitors should have a field day with this Japanese import.", "While the story is preposterous and loaded with stilted dialogue...the special effects are unusual and merit considerable praise\".", "John Cutts of ''Films and Filming'' wrote \"Sublime stuff.", "Richly comic, briskly paced, oddly touching, and thoroughly irresistible.", "Outrageous of course, and deplorably acted and atrociously dubbed to boot.", "But what matters most is the sheer invention of its exemplary trick work.", "\"The review from ''Variety'' stated \"To the list of this century's great preliminary bouts—Dempsey-Firpo, Sullivan-Paar, Nixon-Kennedy, Paterson-Liston, Steve Reeves-Gordon Scott—add the main event \"''King Kong Versus Godzilla'' \".", "From the mysterious East comes the monstrosity to end all monstrosities, the epic clash between the 30-year-old, breast-beating, Hollywood-born-and-bred gorilla with the overactive pituitary and the seven-year-old, pea-brained, flame-throated, tail-wagging cross between a Stegosaurus and a Tyrannosaurus rex who fights out of Tokyo, Japan.", "Onward and upward with the arts\".", "While Eugene Archer of ''The New York Times'' said\"''King Kong Versus Godzilla'' should be explicit enough title for anyone.", "Viewers who attend the ridiculous melodrama unveiled at neighborhood theaters should know exactly what to expect and get what they deserve.", "The one real surprise of this cheap reprise of earlier Hollywood and Japanese horror films is the ineptitude of its fakery.", "When the pair of prehistoric monsters finally get together for their battle royal, the effect is nothing more than a couple of dressed-up stuntmen throwing cardboard rocks at each other.", "\"''Den of Geek'' ranked the film at number eight in their 2019 ranking of the Shōwa ''Godzilla'' films, writing that the film has a \"sturdy, surprisingly crafty story\" but calling Kong's design and appearance a \"major drawback.\"", "''Variety'' listed it number sixteen on their 2021 ranking of every ''Godzilla'' film.", "''Collider'' ranked the film number two on their Shōwa Godzilla list in 2022, describing the fight choreography as \"beautiful.\"" ], [ "Preservation", "The original Japanese version of ''King Kong vs. Godzilla'' is infamous for being one of the most poorly-preserved ''tokusatsu'' films.", "In 1970, director Ishirō Honda prepared an edited version of the film for the Toho Champion Festival, a children's matinee program that showcased edited re-releases of older ''kaiju'' films along with cartoons and then-new ''kaiju'' films.", "Honda cut 24 minutes from the film's original negative and, as a result, the highest quality source for the cut footage was lost.", "For years, all that was thought to remain of the uncut 1962 version was a faded, heavily damaged 16mm element from which rental prints had been made.", "1980s restorations for home video integrated the 16mm deleted scenes into the 35mm Champion cut, resulting in wildly inconsistent picture quality.On July 14, 2016, a 4K restoration of a completely 35mm sourced version of the film aired on ''The Godzilla First Impact'', a series of 4K broadcasts of Godzilla films on the Nihon Eiga Senmon Channel." ], [ "Legacy", "Due to the great box office success of this film, Toho wanted to produce a sequel immediately.", "Shinichi Sekizawa was brought back to write the screenplay tentatively titled .", "Sekizawa revealed that Kong had killed Godzilla during their underwater battle in Sagami Bay with a line of dialogue stating \"Godzilla, who sank and died in the waters off Atami\".", "As the story progressed, Godzilla's body is salvaged from the Ocean by a group of entrepreneurs who hope to display the remains at a planned resort.", "Meanwhile, King Kong is found in Africa where he had been protecting a baby (the sole survivor of a plane crash).", "After the baby is rescued by investigators, and is taken back to Japan, Kong follows the group and rampages through the country looking for the infant.", "Godzilla is then revived with hopes of driving off Kong.", "The story ends with both monsters plummeting into a volcano.", "The project was ultimately cancelled.", "A couple of years later, United Productions of America (UPA) and Toho conceived the idea to pit Godzilla against a giant Frankenstein Monster and commissioned Takeshi Kimura to write a screenplay titled ''Frankenstein vs. Godzilla'', with Jerry Sohl and Reuben Bercovitch writing the story and synopsis for the film.", "However, Toho would cancel this project as well and instead decided to match Mothra against Godzilla in ''Mothra vs. Godzilla''.", "This began a formula where ''kaiju'' from past Toho films would be added into the ''Godzilla'' franchise.Toho was interested in producing a series around their version of King Kong but were refused by RKO.", "However, Toho would handle the character once more in 1967 to help Rankin/Bass co-produce their film ''King Kong Escapes'', which was loosely based on a cartoon series Rankin/Bass had produced.Henry G. Saperstein was impressed with the giant octopus scene and requested a giant octopus to appear in ''Frankenstein Conquers the World'' and ''The War of the Gargantuas''.", "The giant octopus appeared in an alternate ending for ''Frankenstein Conquers the World'' that was intended for overseas markets, but went unused.", "As a result, the octopus instead appeared in the opening of ''The War of the Gargantuas''.", "The film's King Kong suit was recycled and altered to depict Goro in the second episode of ''Ultra Q'', and the suit's torso was later reused to portray King Kong in the water scenes of ''King Kong Escapes''.Filmmaker Shizuo Nakajima recreated several scenes from this film in his 1983 fan film ''Legendary Giant Beast Wolfman vs. Godzilla'', including the scenes where Godzilla emerges from an iceberg and attacks a train during his rampage on the Japanese mainland.In 1990, Toho expressed interest in remaking the film as ''Godzilla vs. King Kong''.", "However, producer Tomoyuki Tanaka stated that obtaining the rights to King Kong proved difficult.", "Toho then considered producing ''Godzilla vs. Mechani-Kong'' but effects director Koichi Kawakita confirmed that obtaining the likeness of King Kong also proved difficult.", "Mechani-Kong was replaced by Mechagodzilla, and the project was developed into ''Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II'' in 1993.In October 2015, Legendary Pictures announced plans for a King Kong vs Godzilla film of their own (unrelated to Toho's version), which was released in the United States on March 31, 2021, simultaneously in theaters and on HBO Max.===Dual ending myth===For many years, a popular myth has persisted that in the Japanese version of the film, Godzilla emerges as the winner.", "The myth originated in the pages of ''Spacemen'' magazine, a 1960s sister magazine to the influential publication ''Famous Monsters of Filmland''.", "In an article about the film, it is incorrectly stated that there were two endings and \"If you see ''King Kong vs Godzilla'' in Japan, Hong Kong or some Oriental sector of the world, Godzilla wins!\"", "The article was reprinted in various issues of ''Famous Monsters of Filmland'' in the years following, such as in issues #51 and #114.This misinformation would be accepted as fact and persist for decades.", "For example, a question in the \"Genus III\" edition of the popular board game ''Trivial Pursuit'' asked, \"Who wins in the Japanese version of ''King Kong vs.", "Godzilla''?\"", "and stated that the correct answer was \"Godzilla\".", "Various media have repeated this falsehood, including the ''Los Angeles Times''.There are technically minor differences in the ending between both versions.", "For example, in the Japanese version, both Godzilla and King Kong's roars are heard during the film's fade to black while in the American version only Kong's roar is heard.", "However in both versions, the final shot of Kong swimming away alone is unchanged." ], [ "See also", "* List of American films of 1963* ''Godzilla vs. Kong''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* ''King Kong vs. Godzilla'' at the official ''Godzilla'' website by Toho Co., Ltd. ** ''King Kong vs. Godzilla'' at the official Toho website ** ''King Kong vs. Godzilla'' at the official English-language Toho website* * * * ''King Kong vs. Godzilla'' at Movie-Censorship - detailed comparison between the Japanese and American versions of the film *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ebirah, Horror of the Deep" ], [ "Introduction", " is a 1966 Japanese '' kaiju'' film directed by Jun Fukuda and produced and distributed by Toho Co., Ltd.", "The film stars Akira Takarada, Kumi Mizuno, Akihiko Hirata and Eisei Amamoto, and features the fictional monster characters Godzilla, Mothra, and Ebirah.", "It is the seventh film in the '' Godzilla'' franchise, and features special effects by Sadamasa Arikawa, under the supervision of Eiji Tsuburaya.", "In the film, Godzilla and Ebirah are portrayed by Haruo Nakajima and Hiroshi Sekita, respectively.During its development, ''Ebirah, Horror of the Deep'' was intended to feature King Kong, but the character was replaced by Godzilla.", "The film was released to theaters in Japan on December 17, 1966, and was released directly to television in the United States under the title '''''Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster''''' in 1968 by Film Ventures International." ], [ "Plot", "After Yata is lost at sea, his brother Ryota steals a yacht with his two friends and a bank robber.", "However, the crew runs afoul of Ebirah, a giant lobster-like creature, and washes ashore on Letchi Island.", "There, the Red Bamboo, a terrorist organization, manufactures heavy water for selling weapons of mass destruction and a yellow liquid that keeps Ebirah at bay, presumably controlling him.", "The Red Bamboo has enslaved natives from nearby Infant Island to create the yellow liquid, while the natives hope that Mothra will awaken in her winged, adult form and rescue them.In their efforts to avoid capture, Ryota and his friends, aided by Daiyo, a native girl, come across Godzilla, who previously fought Ghidorah and is now sleeping within a cliffside cavern.", "The group devises a plan to defeat the Red Bamboo and escape the island.", "In the process, they awaken Godzilla using a makeshift lightning rod.", "Godzilla fights Ebirah, but the huge crustacean escapes.", "Godzilla is then attacked by a giant condor by the name of Ookondoru and a squadron of Red Bamboo fighter jets.", "Using its atomic ray, Godzilla destroys the jets and kills the giant bird.The humans retrieve the missing Yata and free the enslaved natives as Godzilla begins to destroy the Red Bamboo's base of operations, smashing a tower that causes a countdown that will destroy the island in a nuclear explosion.", "Godzilla fights Ebirah and defeats it, ripping its claws off, and forcing it to retreat into the sea.", "The natives await for Mothra to carry them off in a large net.", "However, when she gets to the island, Mothra is challenged by Godzilla due to a previous confrontation.", "Mothra manages to repel Godzilla and save her people and the human heroes.", "Godzilla also escapes just before the bomb detonates and destroys the island." ], [ "Cast" ], [ "Production", "===Writing===By 1966, Toho had their sights set on bringing back King Kong back to the silver screen.", "Their deal with RKO allowed them the use of King Kong for five years, an agreement that would be over in 1967.Why Toho waited so long to produce another Kong film is unknown.", "The planned movie, Operation Robinson Caruso: King Kong vs. Ebirah (ロビンソン·クルーソー作戦 キングコング対エビラ, Robinson Kurūsō Sakusen: Kingu Kongu tai Ebira), was a co-production with Rankin/Bass, who was about to debut their animated program, ''The King Kong Show'', in September of that same year.", "According to Toho Special Effects Movies Complete Works, Jun Fukuda was approached about an untitled US–Japanese King Kong co-production April 21, 1966.Even before that, in February 1966, Toho's senior staff member Makoto Fujimoto met with a movie theater owner in Kansai and revealed that the New Year's season would see the release of a new King Kong movie.The concept was first pitched by Shinichi Sekizawa on July 13, 1966.However, Rankin-Bass was displeased that Toho was dead-set on Jun Fukuda directing the live-action and Eiji Tsuburaya's protege, Sadamasa Arikawa, directing special effects.", "Rankin-Bass was equally dead set on the creative team being Ishiro Honda and Eiji Tsuburaya.", "When Toho refused to budge and was unable to compromise, Rankin-Bass dropped out of the project.", "Toho liked the script so much that they just decided to substitute Godzilla in place of Kong and made it as ''Godzilla, Ebirah, Mothra: Big Duel in the South Seas'' for their New Year's Blockbuster.", "Rankin-Bass and Toho would settle their differences the next year and would begin work on ''King Kong Escapes'' (1967), which was based on the recent King Kong cartoon and would feature Honda at the director's helm.Even with the loss of one of the title characters, though, Toho continued with production on Sekizawa's screenplay.", "Little was done to tweak the script and Godzilla displays a Kong-inspired interest in Daiyo.", "It's even possible the electric shock to revive Kong was a nod to the ape's love of electricity in ''King Kong vs. Godzilla''.According to Teruyoshi Nakano, Godzilla was supposed to fight a giant octopus in this film.", "However, Nakano likely confused this film with an early version of ''All Monsters Attack'' (1969).", "Both Nakano and Fukuda acted as though they were unaware the film ever started out starring King Kong.", "Fukuda said, \"Godzilla was in the first draft of the script that I saw.", "I don't know what the earlier drafts were like.\"", "Fukuda further elaborated that making the film \"was like pouring two cups of water into one.", "I had to cut one sequence after another.\"", "What these cut scenes contained are unknown, but Godzilla's infamous helicopter spin of Ebirah, which exists only in publicity photos, was apparently planned for the film, as storyboards exist of the scene.===Filming===This is the first of two ''Godzilla'' films in which a Pacific island is the primary setting, rather than a location inside Japan.", "The second and final one is ''Son of Godzilla'' (1967).Director Jun Fukuda notes that producer Tomoyuki Tanaka was not particularly active on this production, with the exception of being involved with the budget.", "The producer would, however, visit the set \"often\" to watch progress but only as an observer.Daiyo was originally to be played by Noriko Takahashi, from ''Frankenstein vs. Baragon'' (1965), but fell ill with appendicitis during production was replaced with Kumi Mizuno at the last second.Although Eiji Tsuburaya is credited as the special effects director, actual directorial duties were handed over to Teisho Arikawa, who at this stage had been promoted to Tsuburaya's first assistant director.", "Tsuburaya still had the final say on effects sequences but served more of a supervisor role on the production.With a new special effects director in the seat, Toho tried to limit the effects budget.", "Sadamasa Arikawa lamented that Toho likely did this due to his inexperience and TV history, noting that \"Toho couldn't have made too many demands about the budget if Mr. Tsuburaya had been in charge\" and that he \"was also doing TV work then, so they must have figured I could produce the movie cheaply.\"", "To keep the budget down, Toho instructed Arikawa to avoid expensive composite shots as much as possible.", "Although the movie has minimal composite shots, it is not devoid of them as scenes such as Godzilla's foot composited near actress Kumi Mizuno or a sequence of Mothra composited as her followers rush toward her are some examples of these sequences that made it into the final film.Jun Fukuda was not fond of the film.", "In an interview, he was quoted saying, \"Toho sent me a copy of the VHS tape edition of Godzilla vs The Sea Monsters when it was released.", "It was like opening up an old wound, I didn't watch the tape.", "\"===Music===Director Jun Fukuda selected Masaru Sato to score his films to give it a \"different touch from Ishiro Honda's\", noting Sato's music was lighter than Akira Ifukube's.", "Producer Tomoyuki Tanaka didn't agree with this decision but Fukuda won out in the end.===Special effects===The underwater sequences were filmed on an indoor soundstage where the Godzilla and Ebirah suits were filmed through the glass of a water-filled aquarium, with some scenes of the Godzilla suit shot separately underwater as well.", "Haruo Nakajima wore a wet suit under the Godzilla suit for every scene that required him to be in the water, which took a week to complete the water scenes, Nakajima stated, \"I worked overtime until about eight o'clock every day.", "I lived in the water!", "Generally, in the summer, everybody wants to go in the pool and play, but, when it comes to kaiju movies, it is totally different.", "Most of the scenes that they shoot in the water are not in the summer, but in the winter.", "In the middle of winter, shooting started at nine in the morning, going until noon, and then we'd take an hour off.", "But we'd go from 1:00 P.M. until around 5:00 at night.", "I needed to stay in the water all day in the suit, and shooting took a week.\"" ], [ "Release", "===Theatrical===''Ebirah, Horror of the Deep'' was released theatrically in Japan on December 17, 1966, where it was distributed by Toho.The American version of the film was released directly to television by Continental Distributing in 1968 under the title ''Godzilla versus the Sea Monster''.", "The film may have received theatrical distribution in the United States as a Walter Reade, Jr.", "Presentation, but this has not been confirmed.", "It was also featured on ''Mystery Science Theater 3000'' as the last episode for the second season.===Home media===The film was released on DVD on February 8, 2005 by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment.", "The film was released on Blu-ray on May 6, 2014 by Kraken Releasing.", "In 2019, the Japanese version was included in a Blu-ray box set released by the Criterion Collection, which included all 15 films from the franchise's Shōwa era.", "There are two English versions.", "The first one was dubbed in the 1960s by a company called Titra and featured Hal Linden.", "It was featured on VHS releases.", "The second one was dubbed with extra scenes and dialogue for DVD and Blu Ray releases.", "The Titra version did not use the entire movie for dubbing." ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Godzilla on the web (Japan)* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Son of Godzilla" ], [ "Introduction", " is a 1967 Japanese ''kaiju'' film directed by Jun Fukuda, with special effects by Sadamasa Arikawa, under the supervision of Eiji Tsuburaya.", "Produced and distributed by Toho Co., Ltd, it is the eighth film in the ''Godzilla'' franchise.", "It stars Tadao Takashima, Akira Kubo, Akihiko Hirata, and Beverly Maeda, with Hiroshi Sekita, Seiji Onaka, and Haruo Nakajima as Godzilla, and Marchan the Dwarf as Minilla.", "''Son of Godzilla'' received a theatrical release in Japan on December 16, 1967, it received mixed reactions to critics and audience.", "It was released directly to television in the United States in 1969 through the Walter Reade Organization." ], [ "Plot", "A team of scientists are trying to perfect a weather-controlling system.", "Their efforts are hampered by the arrival of a nosy reporter and by the sudden presence of giant praying mantises.", "A reporter, Maki Goro, arrives on the island to find the scientists somewhat stir-crazy from the events, and is allowed to stay as a maintenance worker.", "Whilst there he also glimpses a mysterious woman the scientists were unaware of, apparently living in the jungle.", "The first test of the weather control system goes awry when the remote control for a radioactive balloon is jammed by an unexplained signal coming from the center of the island.", "Eventually finding the woman, Saeko Matsumiya, she is revealed to be the daughter of a previous researcher on the island who warned about a gigantic species of spider.", "The balloon detonates prematurely, creating a radioactive storm that causes the giant mantises to grow to enormous sizes.", "Investigating the mantises, which are named Kamacuras (Gimantis in the English-dubbed version), the scientists find the monstrous insects digging an egg out from under a pile of earth.", "The egg hatches, revealing a baby Godzilla.", "The scientists realize that the baby's telepathic cries for help were the cause of the interference that ruined their experiment.", "Shortly afterwards, Godzilla arrives on the island in response to the infant's cries, demolishing the scientist's base while rushing to defend the baby.", "Godzilla kills two of the Kamacuras during the battle while one manages to fly away to safety.", "Saeko introduces herself to and bonds with the baby kaiju, feeding it some fruit.", "Godzilla then returns and adopts the baby.The baby Godzilla, named Minilla, quickly grows to about half the size of the adult Godzilla and Godzilla begins instructing its new charge on the important monster skills of roaring and using its atomic ray, as Mako and Saeko observe them.", "At first, Minilla has difficulty producing anything more than atomic smoke rings, but Godzilla discovers that stressful conditions (i.e.", "stomping on its tail) or motivation produces a true radioactive blast.", "Minilla comes to the aid of Saeko when she is attacked by a Kamacuras, but inadvertently awakens Kumonga (Spiga in the English-dubbed version), a giant spider that was sleeping in a valley which killed Saeko's father.", "Kumonga attacks Saeko's cave where the scientists are hiding and Minilla stumbles into the fray.Kumonga traps Minilla and the final Kamacuras with its webbing, but as Kumonga begins to feed on the deceased Kamacuras, Godzilla arrives.", "Godzilla saves Minilla and they work together to defeat Kumonga by using their atomic rays on the giant spider.", "Hoping to keep the monsters from interfering in their attempt to escape the island, the scientists finally use their perfected weather altering device on the island and the once tropical island becomes buried in snow and ice.", "As the scientists are saved by an American submarine, Godzilla and Minilla begin to hibernate as they wait for the island to become tropical again." ], [ "Cast" ], [ "Production", "===Writing===For the second ''Godzilla'' film in a row, Toho produced an island themed adventure with a smaller budget than most of their monster films from this time period.", "While the a-list crew of talent was hired to work on that year's ''King Kong Escapes'', (Ishirō Honda, Eiji Tsuburaya, and Akira Ifukube), the second string crew of cheaper talent was once again tapped to work on this project as they had done with ''Ebirah, Horror of the Deep''.", "This included Jun Fukuda (director), Sadamasa Arikawa (special effects), and Masaru Sato (composer).", "This was the first film where Arikawa was officially listed as the director of Special Effects, although he did receive some supervision from Tsuburaya when he was available.", "''Son of Godzilla'' was the first Godzilla film to feature a female writer.", "Kazue Shiba collaborated with Shinichi Sekizawa on the film's screenplay.", "The early draft of the film, done by Kazue Shiba, titled Two Godzilla's: Japan S.O.S.", "(2つのゴジラ：日本S.O.S.", "!, Gojira: Tsu no Nihon S.O.S.!).", "The overall plot is the same but Kumonga and the Kamacuras are not in the story.Sadamasa Arikawa gives instructions to Marchan the Dwarf (Minilla).", "\"Marchan the Dwarf\" was hired to play the character partially for his ability to perform athletic rolls and flips inside the thick rubber suit.===Filming===Filming took place in Guam and areas in Japan including Gotemba, Lake Yamana, the Fuji Five Lakes region, and Oshima.Toho wanted to create a baby Godzilla to appeal to the \"date crowd\" (a genre of films that were very popular among young couples during this time period), with the idea that girls would like a \"cute\" baby monster.", "For the idea behind Minilla, Fukuda stated, \"We wanted to take a new approach, so we gave Godzilla a child.", "We thought it would be a little strange if we gave Godzilla a daughter, so instead we gave him a son\".", "Fukuda also wanted to portray the monsters almost as people in regards to the father-son relationship between Godzilla and Minilla, as Fukuda stated \"We focused on the relationship between Godzilla and his son throughout the course of ''Son of Godzilla''.At the time, Sekizawa was already tired of writing the series and likely complained that he had run out of ideas for further monster movies, and director Jun Fukuda heartily agreed.", "Producer Tomoyuki Tanaka then proposed the idea of introducing a son to Godzilla.The budget for the film was 260,000,000 yen.", "When Son of Godzilla was released on December 16, 1967 in Japan, it sold 2,480,000 tickets.", "When the film was re-issued on August 1, 1973, it received 610,000 attendees, adding up to a rough attendance total of 3,090,000.===Special effects===The Godzilla suit built for this film was the biggest in terms of size and girth.", "This was done in order to give Godzilla a \"paternal\" appearance and to give a parent-like stature in contrast next to Minilla.", "Because of the size of the suit, seasoned Godzilla suit actor Haruo Nakajima was only hired to play Godzilla in two scenes because the suit was much too big for him to wear.", "The smaller suit he had worn for the films ''Ebirah, Horror of the Deep'' and ''Invasion of Astro-Monster'' was used for these sequences.", "The much larger Seji Onaka instead played Godzilla in the film, although he was replaced midway through filming by Hiroshi Sekita after he broke his fingers.Minilla was designed to incorporate features of not only a baby Godzilla but a human baby was well.", "Minilla's face was patterned after the character Chibita from the popular manga ''Osomatsu-kun'' published by Shogakukan in Weekly Shonen Saturday at the time.", "\"Marchan the Dwarf\" was hired to play the character due to his ability to play-act and to give the character a childlike ambiance.", "He was also hired because of his ability to perform athletic rolls and flips inside the thick rubber suit.Outside of the two monster suits, various marionettes and puppets were used to portray the Island's gigantic inhabitants.", "The various giant preying mantises known as Kamacuras and the huge spider Kumonga.", "Arikawa would usually have 20 puppeteers at a time working on the various marionettes.", "The massive Kumonga puppet needed 2 to 3 people at a time to operate each leg.Styrofoam and paraffin were used for the snow falling on Solgell Island.===Deleted scenes===Many scenes were shot but deleted showing Godzilla being mean or harsh to Minilla.", "One sequence shows Godzilla leaving Minilla behind on the freezing Sollgel Island and making it to shore before turning back was cut from the final film's ending.", "A portion of this sequence has been preserved in both the trailer and an outtake reel included with the Godzilla Final Box DVD collection as supplemental material.", "More deleted footage included Godzilla expecting the newborn Minilla to get up and walk after the Kamacuras have been defeated.", "Another featured Godzilla head-butting Minilla to make him stop following Saeko.", "One scene included Minilla being able to fire his own type of atomic breath during his fight with Kamacuras.", "However, in the final film, the smoke rings and his Godzilla breath were utilized instead.", "It is unknown who was responsible for these bits being deleted, but it was possibly Tsuburaya since he would not have allowed time and resources to be wasted shooting each such scenes if he was not okay with them in the first place." ], [ "Release", "=== Theatrical ===''Son of Godzilla'' was distributed theatrically in Japan by Toho on December 16, 1967.The film was released theatrically in the United Kingdom in August 1969, as a double feature with ''Ebirah, Horror of the Deep''.", "''Son of Godzilla'' was never released theatrically in the United States, instead being released directly to television by Walter Reade Sterling as well as American International Pictures (AIP-TV) in some markets in 1969.The American television version was cut to 84 minutes.===Home media===In 2005, the film was released on DVD by Sony Pictures in its original uncut length with the original Japanese audio and Toho's international English dub.", "In 2019, the Japanese version and export English version was included in a Blu-ray box set released by the Criterion Collection, which included all 15 films from the franchise's Shōwa era." ], [ "Reception", "In a contemporary review, the ''Monthly Film Bulletin'' declared the film to be \"out of the top drawer of the Toho Company's monster file, with the special effects department achieving their best results in monster locomotion\" and that the film \"has the advantage of a more soundly constructed story than most of its predecessors and a delightful vein of humor that allows for a gentle parody of the genre.", "\"According to the Polish writer Aleksandra Ziółkowska-Boehm, the film appealed to Polish journalist Melchior Wańkowicz: \"On August 9, Tomuś's birthday, we all went to see ''Son of Godzilla''.", "I was afraid Melchior would be irritated by this film's type.", "I was again surprised, I watched with what interest he looked at the picture.", "Later he said that he had never seen this genre, but he was delighted with the technique of realization.", "\"On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, approval rating of 60% based on 15 reviews, with an average rating of 4.7/10." ], [ "See also", "* List of Japanese films of 1967* List of science fiction films of the 1960s" ], [ "References", ";Footnotes;Bibliography* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Godzilla on the web(Japan)* * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Destroy All Monsters" ], [ "Introduction", " is a 1968 Japanese epic ''kaiju'' film directed by Ishirō Honda, with special effects directed by Sadamasa Arikawa and supervised by Eiji Tsuburaya.", "The film, which was produced and distributed by Toho Co., Ltd, is the ninth film in the ''Godzilla'' franchise, and features eleven monster characters, including Godzilla, Mothra, Rodan, King Ghidorah, Anguirus, and Minilla.", "The film stars Akira Kubo, Jun Tazaki, Yukiko Kobayashi and Yoshio Tsuchiya.In the film, humans have achieved world peace by the year 1999, and various giant monsters are confined to an area known as Monsterland.", "The monsters are freed from the area and are mind-controlled by aliens known as Kilaaks, who send them to attack major cities.", "When the monsters are freed from the Kilaaks' influence, the aliens send King Ghidorah to challenge the other monsters.", "''Destroy All Monsters'' was released theatrically in Japan on August 1, 1968.The film was released by American International Pictures with an English-language dub in the United States on May 23, 1969.Contemporary American reviews were mixed, with praise mainly held for the climactic monster battle.", "Retrospectively, the film has received more praise, and is considered a favorite among ''Godzilla'' fans for its \"audacious and simple story\", \"innovative action sequences\", and a \"memorably booming\" score by Akira Ifukube." ], [ "Plot", "At the close of the 20th century (1999 in the dub), all of the Earth's kaiju have been collected by the United Nations Science Committee and confined in an area known as Monsterland, located in the Ogasawara island chain.", "A special control center is constructed underneath the island to ensure that the monsters stay secure and to serve as a research facility to study them.When communications with Monsterland are suddenly and mysteriously severed, and all of the monsters begin attacking world capitals, Dr. Yoshida of the UNSC orders Captain Yamabe and the crew of his spaceship, Moonlight SY-3, to investigate Ogasawara.", "There, they discover that the scientists, led by Dr. Otani, have become mind-controlled slaves of a feminine alien race identifying themselves as the Kilaaks, who reveal that they are in control of the monsters.", "Their leader demands that the human race surrender, or face total annihilation.Godzilla attacks New York City, Rodan invades Moscow, Mothra lays waste to Beijing, Gorosaurus destroys Paris (although Baragon was credited for its destruction), and Manda attacks London.", "The attacks were set in to motion to draw attention away from Japan, so that the aliens can establish an underground stronghold near Mount Fuji.", "The Kilaaks then turn their next major attack onto Tokyo and, without serious opposition, become arrogant in their aims until the UNSC discover, after recovering the Kilaaks' monster mind-control devices from around the world, that they have switched to broadcasting the control signals from their base under the Moon's surface.", "In a desperate battle, the crew of the SY-3 destroys the Kilaak's lunar outpost and returns the alien control system to Earth.With all of the monsters under the control of the UNSC, the Kilaaks call King Ghidorah, who is dispatched to protect the alien stronghold at Mount Fuji, battling Godzilla, Minilla, Mothra, Rodan, Gorosaurus, Anguirus, Kumonga and Varan.", "While seemingly invincible, King Ghidorah is eventually overpowered by the combined strength of the Earth monsters and is killed.", "Refusing to admit defeat, the Kilaaks produce their ace, a burning monster they call the Fire Dragon, which begins to torch Tokyo and destroys the control center on Ogasawara.", "Suddenly, Godzilla attacks and destroys the Kilaaks' underground base, revealing that the Earth's monsters instinctively know who their enemies are.", "Captain Yamabe then pursues the Fire Dragon in the SY-3 and narrowly achieves victory for the human race.", "The Fire Dragon is revealed to be a flaming Kilaak saucer and is destroyed.", "With the Kilaaks defeated, Godzilla and the other monsters eventually return to Monsterland to live in peace." ], [ "Cast" ], [ "Production", "===Writing===Special effects director Sadamasa Arikawa noted that Toho were going to potentially end the ''Godzilla'' series as \"Producer Tanaka figured that all the ideas had just run out.\"", "Several sources attest that the film was announced alongside ''Son of Godzilla'', possibly as a competing project.The film was written by Takeshi Kimura and Ishirō Honda, making it the first ''Godzilla'' film since ''Godzilla Raids Again'' not written by Shinichi Sekizawa.", "Takeshi Kimura is credited to the pen name Kaoru Mabuchi in the film's credits.", "Kimura and Honda's script developed the concept of Monsterland (referred to as Monster Island in future films).The earliest screenplay, written by Kimura in 1967, was titled ''Monster Chushingura'' (怪獣忠臣蔵, Kaiju Chūshingura).", "(The word ''chushingura'' refers to a famous historical story in Japan about the rebellion of 47 samurai who took revenge after their master was unjustly forced to commit suicide).", "Supposedly, in this version, every monster in Toho’s arsenal was to be included, even King Kong, Sanda, and Gaira.", "In an interview with David Miller, Ishiro Honda even said “The original idea was to show all of the monsters.”The first initial screenplay, preliminary titled ''Monster Total Advancement Order'' (怪獣総進撃命令, Kaijū Sōshingeki Meirei), by Takashi Kamura (as Kaoru Mabuchi) was submitted on November 22, 1967, included a confirmed roster of Godzilla, Mothra (larva), King Ghidorah, Rodan, Baragon, Varan, Kumonga, Manda, Maguma, and Ebirah.", "Everything plays out just as in the finished film except that Maguma and Baragon guard the Kilaak base and Baragon actually attacks Paris.", "Also, in this iteration, Varan and Rodan work in tandem to attack King Ghidorah in the final battle.When it was decided to adapt ''Two Godzillas!", ": Japan SOS'' (an earlier version of ''Son of Godzilla'') instead, the script was shelved for next year, by then the rights to Kong had expired.", "Ishiro Honda also wanted to show lunar colonies and brand new hybrid monsters, the results of interbreeding and genetic splicing.", "He also wanted to delve more deeply into undersea farming to feed the monsters.", "But because of budget constraints he couldn't show all this.", "In later scripts, the number of monsters was cut as well.===Filming===Director Ishiro Honda was fascinated by the concept of a \"monster farm\", in particular the idea of how humanity could feed them.", "He noted that a \"huge amount of protein\" would be needed and envisioned cloning along with undersea farming to accomplish this.", "However, despite the director's fascination with this concept, the final movie devotes very little time to it outside of the brief introduction to Monsterland and showing Rodan feasting on a dolphin.", "The director laments that of the original complex idea only the basic \"idea of a Monster Island survived.", "\"As the film has several monsters who continuously return in the films, the location was developed to be a faraway island where the monsters are pacified.", "This tied other films not related to the ''Godzilla'' series within its universe, as creatures such as Manda (from ''Atragon'') and Varan (''Varan the Unbelievable'') exist.", "The film features footage from ''Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster'' (1964), specifically King Ghidorah's fiery birth scene.Like with ''Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster'' (1966), Teisho Arikawa was the actual special effects director for the movie, although Eiji Tsuburaya is credited for it.", "However, Tsuburaya had more of a supervisor role regarding the special effects.During the monster’s attack on Tokyo, you can see Godzilla steps over a construction crane model.", "Looking back on it, Haruo Nakajima did so because he worried he might trip over it and fall.", "He regretted doing that since he should have kicked it out of the way since it was a very non-monster like thing to do.School children visiting the set during production, posing with some of the cast, monster suits and props.Eiji Tsuburaya was always getting letters from kids asking to see a real monster.", "So, he arranged for Toho to invite to the studio around 100 kids who would be entering first grade.", "In Japan, entrance into grade school involves a special ceremony to welcome the kids, so this lucky bunch got to see all the monsters on the set rather than endure the usual boring speeches from school officials.", "On March 26, 1968, the kids assembled at the Mount Fuji set in Stage 11 and were entertained by all 11 monsters and they were also greeted by stars Akira Kubo and Jun Tazaki.In spring of 1968, while ''Destroy all Monsters'' was in production, the Imperial Theater of London was staging a production Oliver in Tokyo and one of the plays child stars known only as Michael was a big Godzilla fan and he wanted to visit Toho.", "But he could not because his commitment to the play would not allow him.", "Toho surprised him with a visit from the monsters and actress Yukiko Kobayashi.At the climatic battle at Mount Fuji, Haruo Nakajima wanted Godzilla to reprise his “jumping shie” from ''Invasion of Astro Monster'' (1965), but Ishiro Honda removed it from the final film.===Special effects===New monster suits for Godzilla and Anguirus were constructed for the film, while Rodan, Kumonga, Minilla, Gorosaurus, Manda, Baragon, Mothra, and King Ghidorah suits were modified from previous films, with King Ghidorah having less detail than he had in previous films.There were 3 different scales of the Moonlight SY-3 created or the film.", "The largest was 1 meter (3 feet) long used mainly used for shots of the spaceship flying across the surface of the Moon, landing and taking off, and for battle with the Fire Dragon (UFO).", "The core of the model was solid wood with surface details made of balsa wood and molded fiber glass with puddy and paint used to disguise the wood grain and the seams.", "This model had collapsible wings, functional landing gear and fully firing engines.", "A 50 cm version was made for use for the booster stage and a 30 cm version was made for perspective flying shots.", "Both smaller versions were made of balsa wood covered in putty and paint.For the scene when Gorosaurus comes out of the ground (through a tunnel presumably dug by Baragon) under the Arc de Triomphe, the floor of the set was six and half feet above the ground with the arc built on top of it.", "A forklift was brought in under the set and the monster was put on the forklift.", "They then raised the monster up through the ground by raising the forklift.The fire trap set by the Kilaaks to trap the Moonlight SY-3 used real flamethrowers.", "Fire retardant materials were used in the rock walls in the crater.===Deleted Scene===After attacking New York, Godzilla was to arrive in London and fight Manda but the scene was cut.", "The scene release in the 1990s included bonus features of the film’s Japanese LaserDisc.", "Stunt performers fighting for fun a way of goofing off between takes, director Ishirô Honda said \"why was the scene is cut?", "Because it doesn't makes sense of wise story, Godzilla and Manda were being mind-controlled by their same as villains, they wouldn’t just start fighting each other.", "It wasn’t a great fight by any means, since Manda is one of the few monsters in the franchise that Godzilla never fought and appeared in two films with Godzilla, yet they didn’t battle in any of them.\"" ], [ "Release", "===Box office===''Destroy All Monsters'' was released in Japan on 1 August 1968 where it was distributed by Toho.", "It was released on a double bill with a reissue of the film ''Atragon''.", "The film had a budget of roughly ¥200,000,000 yen and received an attendance of 2,580,000.The film was reissued theatrically in Japan in 1972 where it was re-edited by Honda to a 74-minute running time and released with the title ''Godzilla: Lightning Fast Strategy'' (ゴジラ電撃大作戦, Gojira Dengeki Daisakusen).", "''Destroy All Monsters'' continued the decline in ticket sales in Japan for the ''Godzilla'' series, earning 2.6 million in ticket sales.", "In comparison, ''Invasion of Astro-Monster'' brought in 3.8 million and ''Son of Godzilla'' collected 2.5 million.===US release===The film was released in the United States by American International Pictures with an English-language dub on 23 May 1969.The film premiered in the United States in Cincinnati.", "American International Pictures hired Titra Studios to dub the film into English.", "The American version of the film remains relatively close to the Japanese original.", "Among the more notable removed elements include Akira Ifukube's title theme (the credits are moved to the end of the film) and a brief shot of Minilla shielding his eyes and ducking when King Ghidorah drops Anguirus from the sky.", "''Destroy All Monsters'' was shown on American television until the early 1980s.", "It resurfaced on cable broadcast on the Sci-Fi Channel in 1996, and was broadcast as part of the Svengoolie TV show on April 29, 2023.===Home media===The AIP release of ''Destroy All Monsters'' was never released on home video in the United States, depsite Orion Home Video at one point having distribution rights.", "It was finally released on VHS by ADV Films in 1998 which featured English-dubbed dialogue from Toho's own international version of the film.", "In 2011, Tokyo Shock released the film on DVD and Blu-ray and in 2014 the company re-released it on DVD and Blu-ray.", "In 2019, the Japanese version and export English version were included in a Blu-ray box set released by the Criterion Collection, which included all 15 films from the franchise's Shōwa era.In 2021, Toho premiered a 4K remaster of the film on the Nippon Classic Movie Channel, along with seven other Godzilla films also remastered in 4K.", "The film was downscaled to 2K for broadcast.===Critical response===From contemporary reviews, both ''Variety'' and ''Monthly Film Bulletin'' noted the film's best scenes involved the monsters together, while criticising the filmmaking.", "''Variety'' reviewed the English-dubbed version of the film stating that it may appeal to \"Sci-fi addicts and monster fans\" while stating that the \"plot is on comic strip level, special effects depend on obvious miniatures and acting (human) is from school of ''Flash Gordon''\" and that the film's strength relied on its \"monster rally\".", "The ''Monthly Film Bulletin'' opined that \"the model work is poor, and as usual the script is junior comic-strip\".", "Both reviews mentioned the monsters' final scene with ''Variety'' commenting that it was \"clever\" and the ''Monthly Film Bulletin'' stating that \"apart from the monsters statutory devastation of world capitals ... the monsters have disappointingly little to do until they get together in the last reel for a splendid battle\" The ''Monthly Film Bulletin'' commented that the film was \"almost worth sitting through the banalities for the final confrontation on Mount Fuji\" noting the son of Godzilla \"endearingly applauding from a safe distance\" and \"the victorious monsters performing a celebratory jig\".From retrospective reviews, Steve Biodrowski of ''Cinefantastique'' commented that the film \"is too slim in its storyline, too thin in its characterizations, to be considered a truly great film ...", "But for the ten-year-old living inside us all, it is entertainment of the most awesome sort.\"", "Matt Paprocki of ''Blogcritics'' said the film is \"far from perfect\" and \"can be downright boring at times\" but felt that \"the destruction scenes make up for everything else\" and \"the final battle is an epic that simply can't be matched\".The film is considered a cult favorite among fans of the ''Godzilla'' franchise.", "In Steve Ryfle and Ed Godziszewski's 2017 book covering Ishiro Honda's filmography, they expressed that ''Destroy All Monsters'' is now seen as the \"last truly spirited entry\" in Toho's initial series of ''kaiju'' films, due to \"its audacious and simple story, a bounty of monsters and destruction, and a memorably booming soundtrack from Akira Ifukube\".On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, approval rating of 80% based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 6.6/10." ], [ "See also", "* List of films featuring dinosaurs* List of Japanese films of 1968* List of science fiction films of the 1960s" ], [ "References", ";Notes===Sources===****** **" ], [ "External links", "* * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Godzilla vs. Megalon" ], [ "Introduction", " is a 1973 Japanese ''kaiju'' film directed by Jun Fukuda, written by Fukuda and Shinichi Sekizawa, and produced by Tomoyuki Tanaka, with special effects by Teruyoshi Nakano.", "Distributed by Toho and produced under their effects subsidiary Toho–Eizo, it is the 13th film in the ''Godzilla'' franchise, and features the fictional monster characters Godzilla, Megalon, and Gigan, along with the mecha character Jet Jaguar.", "The film stars Katsuhiko Sasaki, Hiroyuki Kawase, Yutaka Hayashi, and Robert Dunham, alongside Shinji Takagi as Godzilla, Hideto Date as Megalon, Kenpachiro Satsuma as Gigan, and Tsugutoshi Komada as Jet Jaguar.", "''Godzilla vs. Megalon'' was released theatrically in Japan on March 17, 1973, it received generally mixed reviews from critics and audiences with criticism of its special effects and use of stock footage in previous Godzilla films.", "The film was given a theatrical release in the United States during the summer of 1976 by Cinema Shares.", "Given this release and subsequent home media, the film has become one of the most well-known kaiju films in the United States.", "The film's popularity might also be a major contributor to Western perceptions of kaiju films as comedic or campy.", "The film received revived recognition after an appearance on ''Mystery Science Theater 3000'' in 1991.The film was followed up by ''Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla'' on March 21, 1974." ], [ "Plot", "In the first part of 1971 (197X in the Japanese version), the second of a series of underground nuclear tests is conducted, near the Aleutians, sending shockwaves as far as Monster Island in the South Pacific, severely damaging the island paradise and sending Anguirus plummeting into the depths of the Earth, with Godzilla narrowly escaping the fissure into which its friends tumble.For millions of years, Seatopia, an opulent undersea civilization that resides in vast cities reminiscent of those of Ancient Greece and Rome, has existed in relative peace, ruled by Emperor Antonio, but nuclear tests in recent years have severely affected the cities via the earthquakes the tests produced.", "With the Seatopian capital badly affected by the most recent test, the Seatopians plan to unleash their civilization's beetle-styled god, Megalon, to destroy the surface world out of vengeance.On the surface, an inventor named Goro Ibuki, his little brother Rokuro, and Goro's friend Hiroshi Jinkawa are off on an outing near a lake when Seatopia makes itself known to the Earth by drying up the lake the trio was relaxing nearby and using it as a base of operation.", "As they return home they are ambushed by agents of Seatopia who are trying to steal Jet Jaguar, a humanoid robot under construction by the trio of inventors.", "However the agents' first attempt is botched and they are forced to flee to safety.Some time later, Jet Jaguar is completed but the trio of inventors are knocked unconscious by the returning Seatopian agents.", "The agents' plan is to use Jet Jaguar to guide and direct Megalon to destroy whatever city Seatopia commands him to do.", "Goro and Rokuro are sent to be killed, while Hiroshi is taken hostage.", "Megalon is finally released to the surface while Jet Jaguar is put under the control of the Seatopians and is used to guide Megalon to attack Tokyo with the Japan Self Defense Forces failing to defeat the monster.", "Eventually, the trio of heroes manage to escape their situation with the Seatopians and reunite to devise a plan to send Jet Jaguar to get Godzilla's help using Jet Jaguar's secondary control system.After uniting with Japan's Defense Force, Goro manages to regain control of Jet Jaguar and sends the robot to Monster Island to bring Godzilla to fight Megalon.", "Without a guide to control its actions, Megalon flails around relentlessly and aimlessly fighting with the Defense Force and destroying the outskirts of Tokyo.", "The Seatopians learn of Jet Jaguar's turn and thus send out a distress call to their allies, the Space Hunter Nebula M aliens (from the previous film) to send the alien monster Gigan to assist their allies.As Godzilla journeys to fight Megalon, Jet Jaguar starts acting on its own and ignoring commands to the surprise of its inventors and grows to gigantic proportions to face Megalon itself until Godzilla arrives.", "The battle is roughly at a standstill until Gigan arrives and both Megalon and Gigan double team against Jet Jaguar.", "Godzilla finally arrives to assist Jet Jaguar and the odds become even.", "After a long and brutal fight, Gigan and Megalon both retreat and Godzilla and Jet Jaguar shake hands on a job well done.", "Jet Jaguar bids Godzilla farewell and Godzilla returns to its home on Monster Island.", "Jet Jaguar returns back to human size and returns home with Goro and Rokuro." ], [ "Cast" ], [ "Production", "===Development===The origins of Megalon can be traced back to 1969's ''All Monsters Attack'', as the original working idea for the film's antagonist Gabara was initially envisioned as a giant mole cricket called Gebara.", "The character was later reworked into Kaoru Mabuchi's 1971 treatment for ''Godzilla vs. the Space Monsters: Earth Defense Directive'', a precursor to 1972's ''Godzilla vs. Gigan''.", "The proposal called for Megalon to be paired with Gigan and King Ghidorah under the command of the hostile alien invader Miko, only to be defeated and driven off by the combined might of Godzilla, Anguirus, and a brand new monster called Majin Tuol.", "The next draft of the script, titled ''The Return of King Ghidorah!", "'', retained the core villain cast of Gigan, King Ghidorah, and Megalon, but replaced Anguirus and Majin Tuol with Varan and Rodan.", "However, most of the proposed monsters were cut, leading to the final version of ''Godzilla vs. Gigan''.Contrary to popular belief, there is no evidence ''Godzilla vs. Megalon'' was originally planned as a Jet Jaguar solo film, and no Japanese sources have surfaced which claim otherwise.", "Rather, the creation of Jet Jaguar was the result of a contest Toho had for children in mid-to-late 1972.The winner of the contest was an elementary school student, who submitted the drawing of a robot called Red Arone.", "Red Arone was turned into a monster suit, but when the child was shown the suit, he became upset because the suit did not resemble his original design.", "The boy's original design was white but the costume was colored red, blue and yellow.", "Red Arone was used for publicity, but Toho had renamed the character Jet Jaguar and had special effects director Teruyoshi Nakano redesign the character, only keeping the colors from the Red Arone suit.", "The Red Arone suit had a different head and wings.According to Teruyoshi Nakano, ''Godzilla vs. Megalon'' was a replacement project for another film that was cancelled at the last minute, and evidence suggests this cancelled film was ''Godzilla vs. Red Moon'', slated for 1973.As a result, the project was postponed during pre-production.", "Screenwriter Shinichi Sekizawa had no time to write out a full script, and instead thought out a general story.", "Director Jun Fukuda ultimately ended up writing the screenplay.The film had three early treatments, each written by Shinichi Sekizawa, one was titled ''Godzilla vs.", "The Megalon Brothers: The Undersea Kingdom's Annihilation Strategy'' which was completed in September 1972.The second was titled ''Insect Monster Megalon vs. Godzilla: Undersea Kingdom's Annihilation Strategy'', which was turned in on September 5, 1972, and the third draft was submitted on September 7, 1972.The production time totaled nearly six months from planning to finish.===Creature design===According to Teruyoshi Nakano, the Godzilla suit used in this film (nicknamed \"MegaroGoji\" メガロゴジ ) was made in a week, making it the fastest Godzilla suit ever made to date.", "They did not have time to make the eyes work correctly, something they had more time to fix for Godzilla's five appearances on Toho's superhero TV series ''Zone Fighter'' (1973), which was produced around the same time.The Megalon suit was one of the heaviest suits produced since the 1954 ''Godzilla'' suit, which made it even more difficult to raise the Megalon suit via wires in certain scenes up to the point where Nakano almost decided to scrap those scenes altogether.", "Since the film was shot in the winter, Katsuhiko Sasaki stated that director Jun Fukuda gave him and Yutaka Hayashi a shot of whiskey to warm them up.The Gigan suit is similar to the previous design, but the suit was made thinner, less bulky, the horn on the head was less pointed, and the buzzsaw didn't move, since it was made of static pieces.", "This suit also has different-sized back fins, a more circular visor, scales running up the back/sides of the neck and longer legs compared to the original version.===Filming===Teruyoshi Nakano recalls how the film was rushed and that it took three weeks to shoot, stating, \"It went into productions without enough preparation.", "There was no time to ask Mr. Sekizawa to write the script, so Mr. Sekizawa kind of thought up the general story and director Fukuda wrote the screenplay.", "The screenplay was completed right before crank-in\".", "The film also heavily employs stock footage from previous films such as ''Mothra vs. Godzilla'', ''Ghidorah the Three-Headed Monster'' (both from 1964), ''The War of the Gargantuas'' (1966), ''Ebirah, Horror of the Deep'' (1966), ''Destroy All Monsters'' (1968), ''Godzilla vs. Hedorah'' (1971), and ''Godzilla vs. Gigan'' (1972)." ], [ "English versions", "King Kong'') incorrectly places the monsters atop the World Trade Center; no such scene - nor any scenes set in the United States at all, for that matter - occurs in the film itself.In 1976, Cinema Shares gave ''Godzilla vs. Megalon'' a wide theatrical release in the United States and launched a massive marketing campaign for the film, along with the poster, buttons with one of the four monsters' faces on them were released.", "Given away at theatrical showings was a comic that told a simplified version of the film, which incorrectly named Jet Jaguar as \"Robotman\" and Gigan as \"Borodan\".", "These incorrect names were also featured in the U.S. trailer.Cinema Shares originally planned to use the uncut Toho international English version, but to ensure a G rating, several minor cuts were made, which resulted in the film running three minutes shorter than the original version.", "These cuts included a majority of the opening titles, several mild obscenities and some shots of barely-visible pornographic magazine clips when the main characters are kidnapped in a truck.", "''Godzilla vs. Megalon'' is the first Godzilla film to receive an American prime time network television premiere, where it was broadcast nationwide at 9:00 PM on NBC on March 15, 1977.However, to accommodate commercials, the film was only shown in a one-hour time slot, which resulted in the film being cut down to 48 minutes.", "John Belushi hosted the broadcast where he did some skits, all in a Godzilla suit.Mel Maron (who was president of Cinema Shares at the time) chose to release ''Godzilla vs. Megalon'' because he saw Godzilla as a heroic figure by that point and felt the timing was right to show children a hero who was a friendly monster and not Superman.The U.S. rights for the film eventually fell into the public domain in the late 80s, which resulted in companies releasing poorly-cropped, fullscreen VHS tapes mastered from pan and scan sources.", "This also led to the film being featured in ''Mystery Science Theater 3000''.", "In 1988, New World Video intended to release the original uncut version of the English dub but declined the project because it lacked the budget that was required for a full release.", "However, despite this, the film was released uncut and in widescreen in 1992 by UK company Polygram Ltd as a double feature with ''Godzilla vs. Gigan''.", "In 1998 the film was again released by UK company, 4 Front Video.", "As of now it appears those are the only two VHS tapes on the film that are unedited and in high quality.", "It was also released on DVD by Power Multimedia in 1999 in Taiwan.", "Originally the Sci-Fi Channel (now SyFy) showed the cut version, until finally in 2002 as Toho regained ownership of that title alongside ''Godzilla vs. Gigan'' and ''Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla'' (both of which also were released by Cinema Shares) and broadcast the film fully uncut for the first time in the U.S." ], [ "Release", "===Box office===In Japan, ''Godzilla vs. Megalon'' sold approximately 980,000 tickets.", "It was the first ''Godzilla'' film to sell less than one million admissions.", "It earned ¥220 million in Japan distribution income (rentals).The film was a success in American theaters, earning $383,744 in its first three days in Texas and Louisiana alone.", "The film grossed about worldwide.===Critical response===''Godzilla vs. Megalon'' was released theatrically in America on May 9, 1976, though the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' indicates that it opened there in June, and ''The New York Times'' indicates that it opened in New York City on July 11.", "''The New York Times'' film critic Vincent Canby, who a decade before had given a negative review to ''Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster'', gave ''Godzilla vs. Megalon'' a generally positive review.", "In his review on July 12, 1976, Canby said, \"''Godzilla vs. Megalon'' completes the canonization of Godzilla...It's been a remarkable transformation of character - the dragon has become St.", "George...It's wildly preposterous, imaginative and funny (often intentionally).", "It demonstrates the rewards of friendship, between humans as well as monsters, and it is gentle.", "\"''Godzilla vs. Megalon'' has attracted the ire of many ''Godzilla'' fans in the decades since its original release.", "The film contributed to the reputation of ''Godzilla'' films in the United States as cheap children's entertainment that should not be taken seriously.", "It has been described as \"incredibly, undeniably, mind-numbingly bad\" and one of the \"poorer moments\" in the history of kaiju films.Author Stephen Mark Rainey's critique of the film was strongly negative, published in Japanese Giants, issue four.", "1977.Edited and published by Bradford G. Boyle.In particular, the special effects of the film have been heavily criticized.", "One review described the Godzilla costume as appearing to be \"crossed with Kermit the Frog\" and another sneeringly compared it to ''Godzilla vs. Gigan'', stating that it did \"everything wrong that ''Gigan'' did, and then some.\"", "However, most of the criticism is of the lack of actual special effects work, as most of it consists of stock footage from previous films, including ''Godzilla vs. Gigan'' and ''Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster'', but a few pieces of effects work have garnered praise, specifically a scene where Megalon breaks through a dam and the draining of the lake.The other aspects of the film have been similarly skewered.", "The acting is usually described as flat and generally poor, and as not improving, or sometimes, worsening, the already weak script.", "One part of the film, on the other hand, has garnered almost universal praise: Godzilla's final attack on Megalon, a flying kick.", "It has been called the saving grace of the film, and was made famous by the mock exclamations of shock and awe displayed on ''Godzilla vs. Megalon''s appearance on ''Mystery Science Theater 3000''.", "Through the end of season three to the middle of season five, that clip would be shown during the opening of each show.Despite all this, the film is also one of the most widely seen ''Godzilla ''films in the United States — it was popular in its initial theatrical release, largely because of an aggressive marketing campaign, including elaborate posters of the two title monsters battling atop New York City's World Trade Center towers, presumably to capitalize on the hype surrounding the Dino De Laurentiis remake of ''King Kong'', which used a similar image for its own poster.On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, approval rating of 38% based on 8 reviews, with an average rating of 4.7/10.===Home media===The film was released numerous times in the VHS format, mostly as videos from bargain basement studios that featured the edited TV version (which was wrongly assumed to be in the public domain for many years), while PolyGram and 4 Front released the unedited version of the film in 1992 and 1998, respectively.", "Some rumors have circulated that the film's original VHS releases in the States were uncut, but there is no evidence confirming or denying this.", "Media Blasters acquired the DVD rights to both ''Godzilla vs. Megalon'' and ''Destroy All Monsters''.", "Both films were released under one of the company's divisions, Tokyo Shock.", "Media Blasters originally planned to release ''Godzilla vs. Megalon'' on DVD and Blu-ray on December 20, 2011; however, because of technical difficulties with the dubbing and Toho having yet to give its approval for the release, the DVD/Blu-ray release was delayed.", "Media Blasters finally released the film on August 14, 2012, but only on a bare-bones DVD and Blu-ray.", "Despite this, a manufacturing error led to several copies of the originally planned version featuring bonus content being released by accident.", "These special features versions are incredibly rare and are not labeled differently from the standard version, making them nearly impossible to find.", "This release was commercially the first to remaster the film to its original full-length version.", "In 2019, the Japanese version and export English dub were included in a Blu-ray box set released by the Criterion Collection, which included all 15 films from the franchise's Shōwa era." ], [ "References", ";Bibliography* Canby, Vincent.", "(July 22, 1976).", "''Another 'Godzilla' Movie; Monster Is Now a Good Guy'' (film review at ''The New York Times'').", "* * * * Stanley, John.", "\"Godzilla - The Asian Beast Who Refuses to Die\".", "''San Francisco Chronicle'' (Sunday Datebook), June 20, 1976 (review of ''Godzilla vs. Megalon'' - actually a history of the ''Godzilla'' films to date, mentions ''Megalon'' currently playing at three theaters and a drive-in in passing)." ], [ "External links", "* Godzilla on the web * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Godzilla vs. Biollante" ], [ "Introduction", " is a 1989 Japanese ''kaiju'' film directed and written by Kazuki Ōmori, with special effects by Kōichi Kawakita.", "Distributed by Toho and produced under their subsidiary Toho Pictures, it is the 17th film in the ''Godzilla'' franchise, the second film in the franchise's Heisei period, and a sequel to 1984's ''The Return of Godzilla''.", "The film stars Kunihiko Mitamura, Yoshiko Tanaka, Masanobu Takashima, Megumi Odaka, Toru Minegishi, Yasuko Sawaguchi, Toshiyuki Nagashima, Yoshiko Kuga, Ryunosuke Kaneda and Kōji Takahashi.", "This was Odaka's first appearance in the ''Godzilla'' franchise as Miki Saegusa, and would reprise the role in every film for the remainder of the Heisei series.In the film, corporations struggle for control over samples of Godzilla's cells, while the monster itself battles a creature born from a combination of Godzilla's cells, the cells of a plant, and the cells of a woman.", "The idea originated from a public story-writing contest, and set a trend common to all Heisei era movies, in which Godzilla faces off against opponents capable of metamorphosing into new, progressively more powerful forms.", "''Godzilla vs. Biollante'' was released theatrically in Japan on December 16, 1989.It received generally positive reviews who praised the storyline, visual effects, and Sugiyama's score, but was a disappointment at the Japanese box office due to competition with ''Back to the Future Part II''.", "It received a direct-to-video release in the United States on November 25, 1992, through HBO Video.In Japan, it was followed by ''Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah'' in 1991." ], [ "Plot", "In the aftermath of Godzilla's attack on Tokyo and later imprisonment at Mount Mihara in 1985, the monster's cells are secretly delivered to the Saradia Institute of Technology and Science, where they are to be merged with genetically modified plants in the hope of transforming Saradia's deserts into fertile land and ending the country's economic dependence on oil wells.", "Dr. Genshiro Shiragami and his daughter, Erika, are enlisted to aid with the project, but a terrorist bombing destroys the institute's laboratory, ruining the cells and killing Erika.Five years later, Shiragami has returned to Japan and merged some of Erika's cells with those of a rose in an attempt to preserve her soul.", "Meanwhile, scientist Kazuhito Kirishima and Lieutenant Goro Gondo of the JSDF are using the Godzilla cells they collected to create \"Anti-Nuclear Energy Bacteria\" (ANEB), hoping it can serve as a weapon against Godzilla should it return.", "They attempt to recruit Shiragami to aid them, but are rebuffed.", "International tensions increase over the Godzilla cells, as they are coveted by both the Saradia Institute of Technology and Science and the American Bio-Major organization.", "An explosion from Mount Mihara causes tremors across the area, including Shiragami's home, badly damaging the roses.", "Shiragami agrees to join the JSDF's effort and is given access to the Godzilla cells, which he secretly merges with one of the roses.", "A night later, rival Bio-Major and Saradian agents break into Shiragami's lab, but are attacked by a large plant-like creature which later escapes to Lake Ashi and is named \"Biollante\" by Shiragami.Bio-Major agents plant explosives around Mount Mihara and blackmail the Diet of Japan, warning the explosives will be detonated and thus free Godzilla if the cells are not handed over.", "Kirishima and Gondo attempt to trade, but Saradian agent SSS9 thwarts the attempt and escapes with the cells.", "The explosives are detonated, and Godzilla is released.", "Godzilla attempts to reach the nearest power plant to replenish its supply of nuclear energy, but Biollante calls out to Godzilla.", "Godzilla arrives at the lake to engage Biollante in a vicious battle, and emerges as the victor.", "Godzilla then proceeds toward the power plant at Tsuruga, but psychic Miki Saegusa uses her powers to divert it toward Osaka instead.", "The city is quickly evacuated before Godzilla makes landfall.", "A team led by Gondo meet Godzilla at the central district and fire rockets infused with the ANEB into its body.", "Gondo is killed in the process, and Godzilla leaves unharmed.Kirishima recovers the cells and returns them to the JSDF.", "Shiragami theorizes that if Godzilla's body temperature is increased, the ANEB should work against it.", "The JSDF erects microwave-emitting plates during an artificial thunderstorm, hitting Godzilla with lightning and heating up its body temperature during a battle near the shores of Wakasa Bay.", "Godzilla is only moderately affected, but Biollante, having obtained a more powerful form, arrives to engage Godzilla in battle once again.", "After a long battle, the fight ends after Godzilla fires an atomic heat ray inside Biollante's mouth, severely injuring Biollante.", "An exhausted Godzilla collapses on the beach as the bacterial infection finally takes hold, and Biollante splits apart into glowing spores which rise into the sky, forming an image of Erika among the stars.", "Shiragami, watching the scene, is shot by SSS9.Kirishima chases the assassin and, after a brief scuffle, SSS9 is killed by a microwave-emitting plate activated by Sho Kuroki.", "Godzilla reawakens and leaves for the ocean." ], [ "Cast" ], [ "Production", "===Pre-production===Tomoyuki Tanaka announced a sequel to ''The Return of Godzilla'' in 1985, but was skeptical of its possibilities, as the film had been of little financial benefit to Toho, and the failure of ''King Kong Lives'' following year convinced him that audiences were not ready for a continuation of the ''Godzilla'' series.", "He relented after the success of ''Little Shop of Horrors'', and proceeded to hold a public story-writing contest for a possible script.", "In consideration of ''The Return of Godzilla'''s marginal success in Japan, Tanaka insisted that the story focus on a classic monster vs. monster theme.", "Tanaka handed the five finalist entries to director Kazuki Ōmori, despite the two's initially hostile relationship; the latter had previously held Tanaka responsible for the decline in the ''Godzilla'' series' quality during the 1970s.", "Ōmori chose the entry of dentist Shinichiro Kobayashi, who wrote his story with the hypothetical death of his daughter in mind.Kobayashi's submission was notable for its emphasis on dilemmas concerning biotechnology rather than nuclear energy, and revolved around a scientist grieving for his deceased daughter and attempting to keep her soul alive by merging her genes with those of a plant.", "The scientist's initial experiments would have resulted in the creation of a giant rat-like amphibian called Deutalios, which would have landed in Tokyo Bay and been killed by Godzilla.", "A female reporter investigating the scientist's activities would have suffered from psychic visions of plants with humanoid faces compelling her to infiltrate the scientist's laboratory.", "The scientist would have later confessed his intentions, and the finale would have had Godzilla battling a human-faced Biollante who defeats him by searing his flesh with acid.Ōmori proceeded to modify the story into a workable script over a period of three years, using his background as a biologist to create a plausible plot involving genetic engineering and botany.", "In order to preserve the series' anti-nuclear message, he linked the creation of Biollante to the use of Godzilla cells, and replaced Kobayashi's journalist character with Miki Saegusa.", "He openly admitted that directing a ''Godzilla'' film was secondary to his desire to make a James Bond movie, and thus added elements of the spy film genre into the plot.", "Unlike the case with later, more committee-driven ''Godzilla'' films, Ōmori was given considerable leeway in writing and directing the film, which Toho staff later judged to have been an error resulting in a movie with a very narrow audience.===Special effects===Preparation of the Biollante model for the final battle scene.", "The model required 32 wires to operate.Koichi Kawakita, who had previously worked for Tsuburaya Productions, replaced Teruyoshi Nakano as head of the series' special effects unit after Toho became impressed at his work in ''Gunhed''.", "Kawakita made use of ''Gunhed'''s special effects team Studio OX, and initially wanted to make Godzilla more animal-like, using crocodiles as references, but was berated by Tanaka, who declared Godzilla to be \"a monster\" rather than an animal.", "Kenpachiro Satsuma returned to portray Godzilla, hoping to improve his performance by making it less anthropomorphic than in previous films.", "Suitmaker Noboyuki Yasamaru created a Godzilla suit made specifically with Satsuma's measurements in mind, unlike the previous one which was initially built for another performer and caused Satsuma discomfort.", "The resulting 242 lb suit proved more comfortable than the last, having a lower center of gravity and more mobile legs.", "A second 176 lb suit was built for outdoor underwater scenes.", "The head's size was reduced, and the whites around the eyes removed.", "On the advice of story finalist Shinichiro Kobayashi, a double row of teeth was incorporated in the jaws.", "As with the previous film, animatronic models were used for close-up shots.", "These models were an improvement over the last, as they were made from the same molds used for the main costume, and included an articulated tongue and intricate eye motion.", "The suit's dorsal plates were filled with light bulbs for scenes in which Godzilla uses his atomic ray, thus lessening reliance on optical animation, though they electrocuted Satsuma the first time they were activated.", "Satsuma was also obliged to wear protective goggles when in the suit during scenes in which Godzilla battles the JSDF, as real explosives were used on set.", "The film was mainly shot at the Toho lot, although some filming occued on location at the East Fuji Maneuver Area.Designing and building the Biollante props proved problematic, as traditional suitmation techniques made realizing the requested design of the creature's first form difficult, and the resulting cumbersome model for Biollante's final form was met with disbelief from the special effects team.", "Biollante's first form was performed by Masao Takegami, who sat within the model's trunk area on a platform just above water level.", "While the creature's head movements were simple to operate, its vines were controlled by an intricate array of overhead wires which proved difficult for Satsuma to react to during combat scenes as they offered no tension, thus warranting Satsuma to feign receiving blows from them, despite not being able to perceive them.", "Biollante's final form was even more difficult to operate, as its vine network took hours to rig up on set.", "Visibility in both the Godzilla and final form Biollante suits was poor, thus causing difficulties for Takegami in aiming the creature's head when firing sap, which permanently stained anything it landed on.While it was initially decided to incorporate stop motion animation into the film, the resulting sequences were scrapped, as Kawakita felt they failed to blend in with the live-action footage effectively.", "The film however became the first of its kind to use CGI, though its usage was limited to scenes involving computer generated schematics.", "The original cut of the movie had the first battle culminating in Biollante's spores falling around the hills surrounding Lake Ashino and blooming into fields of flowers, though this was removed as the flowers were out of scale.===Music===Unlike the previous film, ''Godzilla vs. Biollante'' incorporates themes from Akira Ifukube's original ''Godzilla'' theme, though the majority of the soundtrack was composed of original themes by Koichi Sugiyama.", "The score was orchestrated by conductor David Howell through the Kansai Philharmonic, though Howell himself had never viewed the movie, and thus was left to interpret what the scenes would consist of when conducting the orchestra." ], [ "English version", "After the film was released in Japan, Toho commissioned a Hong Kong company named Omni Productions to dub the film into English.In early 1990, Toho entered discussions with Miramax to distribute the film.", "When talks broke off, Toho filed a lawsuit in Los Angeles Federal Court, accusing Miramax of entering an oral agreement in June to pay Toho $500,000 to distribute the film.", "This lawsuit delayed the film's release for two years.", "An out of court settlement was reached with Miramax buying the rights to the film for an unreported figure.", "Miramax would have entertained thoughts of releasing the film in theaters, but in the end it was decided to release the film straight to home video instead.", "HBO released the film on VHS in 1992 and Laserdisc in 1993.Miramax utilized the uncut English international version of the film for this release." ], [ "Release", "===Home media===''Godzilla vs. Biollante'' was released on VHS by HBO Home Video on November 25, 1992.It was later relicensed by Miramax and released on Blu-ray and DVD by Echo Bridge on December 4, 2012.It was released as a double feature and 8-disk movie pack on both Blu-ray and DVD with ''Mega Shark Versus Giant Octopus'' (2009) by Echo Bridge Home Entertainment in 2013.It was last released by Lionsgate on Blu-ray and DVD on October 7, 2014.On the latter two releases, the film is rated PG by the Motion Picture Association for \"traditional Godzilla violence\".In 2021, Toho premiered a 4K remaster of the film on the Nippon Classic Movie Channel, along with seven other Godzilla films also remastered in 4K.", "The film was downscaled to 2K for broadcast." ], [ "Reception", "===Box office===In Japan, the film sold approximately 2 million tickets, grossing .===Critical response===''Godzilla vs. Biollante'' has received positive reviews, with praise for the story, music and visuals.Ed Godziszewski of Monster Zero said the film is \"by no means a classic\" but felt that \"for the first time in well over 20 years, a Godzilla script is presented with some fresh, original ideas and themes.\"", "Joseph Savitski of Beyond Hollywood said the film's music is \"a major detraction\", but added that it's \"not only one of the most imaginative films in the series, but also the most enjoyable to watch.\"", "Japan Hero said, \"This is definitely a Godzilla movie not to be missed.", "\"In their scholarly book ''Japan's Green Monsters'' on kaiju cinema, Rhoads and McCorkle offer an ecocritical assessment of ''Godzilla vs. Biollante''.", "The scholars focus on the film's critique of genetic engineering and biotechnology years before the subject appeared in more popular Hollywood blockbusters like Steven Spielberg's 1993 blockbuster ''Jurassic Park''.", "Rhoads and McCorkle counter prior reviews of the film and argue that ''Godzilla vs. Biollante'' possesses far deeper environmental messages than the obvious ones present on the film's surface.In July 2014, in a poll reported by the , ''Godzilla vs. Biollante'' was selected as the best ''Godzilla'' film by a group of fans and judges.Composer Akira Ifukube, who had refused to compose the film's score, stated on interview that he disliked the way Koichi Sugiyama had modernized his Godzilla theme, and defined the Saradia theme as \"ridiculous\", on account of it sounding more European than Middle Eastern.On Rotten Tomatoes, approval rating of 71% based on 7 reviews, with a rating average of 5/10.\"" ], [ "See also", "*List of Japanese films of 1989*List of science fiction films of the 1980s*List of monster movies*Biollante" ], [ "References", ";Bibliography* *Anon (2015), ゴジラvsビオランテ コンプリーション Godzilla vs. Biollante Completion, Hobby Japan," ], [ "External links", "* title=ゴジラvsビオランテ ''Gojira tai Biorante'' (Japanese) at Japanese Movie Database****Watch two behind-the-scenes documentaries (Japanese with English subtitles)" ] ]
wikipedia