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[ [ "Terror of Mechagodzilla" ], [ "Introduction", " is a 1975 Japanese ''kaiju'' film directed by Ishirō Honda (his final film as a director), written by Yukiko Takayama, and produced by Tomoyuki Tanaka and Henry G. Saperstein, with special effects by Teruyoshi Nakano.", "Distributed by Toho and produced under their effects subsidiary Toho–Eizo, it is the 15th film in the ''Godzilla'' franchise, serving as a direct sequel to the 1974 film ''Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla'', the final film in the initial Showa Era of the franchise before Godzilla returned nine years later in ''The Return of Godzilla'', directed by Ishirō Honda and scored by Akira Ifukube before their deaths.", "''Terror of Mechagodzilla'' stars Katsuhiko Sasaki, Tomoko Ai, Akihiko Hirata, and Gorō Mutsumi, and features Toru Kawai, Kazunari Mori, and Tatsumi Nikamoto as the fictional monster characters Godzilla, Mechagodzilla 2, and Titanosaurus, respectively.", "The film was released theatrically in Japan on March 15, 1975, to mostly positive reviews.", "UK in June 1976 under the title '''''Monsters From an Unknown Planet'''''.", "It received a limited release in the United States in 1978 by Bob Conn Enterprises under the title '''''The Terror of Godzilla'''''.", "The film remains the least financially successful entry in the ''Godzilla'' franchise to this day." ], [ "Plot", "Following the events of ''Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla'', Interpol agents search for Mechagodzilla's remains at the bottom of the Okinawan Sea in the hopes of gathering information on the robot's builders, the alien Simeons.", "However, their submarine is attacked by a giant, aquatic dinosaur called Titanosaurus and the crew vanishes.Interpol launches an investigation into the incident.", "With the help of marine biologist Akira Ichinose, they trace Titanosaurus to a reclusive, mad scientist named Shinzô Mafune, who wants to destroy mankind.", "While the group visits the scientist's old home, they meet Mafune's daughter, Katsura, who claims her father is dead and that she burned his notes about Titanosaurus at his request.", "Unbeknownst to Interpol, the living Mafune is visited by Tsuda, an aide to the Simeon leader Mugal, who is leading a project to rebuild Mechagodzilla.", "Mugal offers the Simeons' services to Mafune so that their respective monsters can wipe out mankind and allow them to rebuild the world for themselves.Complicating matters, Ichinose falls in love with Katsura and unwittingly gives her Interpol's information on the Simeons, Mechagodzilla, and Titanosaurus.", "She is also revealed to be a cyborg, having undergone cybernetic surgery after she was nearly killed during one of her father's experiments as a child, and implanted with Mechagodzilla's control device.", "An impatient Mafune releases Titanosaurus on Yokosuka without the aliens' permission.", "While Interpol discovers the dinosaur is vulnerable to supersonic waves, Katsura destroys their supersonic wave oscillator.", "However, Godzilla arrives and easily defeats Titanosaurus, causing the latter to retreat.When Ichinose visits Katsura, the Simeons capture him and force him to watch as they unleash Mechagodzilla 2 and Titanosaurus on Tokyo.", "At the same time, Interpol repairs their wave oscillator and the Japanese armed forces struggle to fend off the monsters.", "Godzilla arrives but is initially outmatched until Interpol distracts Titanosaurus with the repaired wave oscillator, allowing Godzilla to focus on Mechagodzilla 2.Interpol agents infiltrate the aliens' hideout, rescue Ichinose, and kill Mafune and many of the aliens.", "The remaining Simeons attempt to escape, but Godzilla shoots down their ships with its atomic breath.", "The wounded Katsura shoots herself to destroy Mechagodzilla 2's control device and dies in Ichinose's arms.", "With the robot non-functional, Godzilla tosses it into a chasm before blasting it with its atomic breath, causing Mechagodzilla to explode and get buried.", "With help from Interpol, Godzilla then defeats Titanosaurus, who returns to the sea." ], [ "Cast" ], [ "Production", "===Development===A Shinto priest performs a purification ceremony prior to the start of filmingThe original screenplay that Yukiko Takayama created after winning Toho's story contest for the next installment in the Godzilla series was picked by assistant producer Kenji Tokoro and was submitted for approval on July 1, 1974, less than four months after ''Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla'' was released.The original concept is similar to the finished version of ''Terror of Mechagodzilla'', with many of the changes being budgetary in nature.", "The most obvious alteration is the removal of the two dinosaurs called the Titans, which merged to become Titanosaurus in the first draft.", "It was an interesting concept, although something that was also under-explained, considering the magnitude of such an occurrence of the creatures merging.", "Another noticeable change to the script is that of the final battle, which does not move to the countryside but instead would have reduced Tokyo to rubble during the ensuing conflict between the three monsters.After her initial draft, Takayama submitted a revised version on October 14, 1974.This went through a third revision on December 4, and then yet another on December 28 of that same year before it was met with approval and filming began.Jun Fukuda was initially offered the role of director for this instalment but refused having finally had enough of the series.", "Before Ishiro Honda agreed to return rumours persist Yoshimitsu Banno was also asked to direct due to Tomoyuki Tanaka being pleased with his work on Prophecies of Nostradamus.Director Ishiro Honda later lamented not having been able to work with the story's writer, Yukiko Takayama, on other films, enjoying that a \"woman's perspective was especially fresh\" for the genre.Kensho Yamashita, who would later direct ''Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla'' was the chief assistant director on the project.", "He notes, though, that Honda never actually assigned any of the shooting to him, possibly because he was happy to be directing again after a long gap in his career and wanted to do the work himself.===Nudity===This film is one of two ''Godzilla'' films with brief nudity (the other being 1994's ''Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla'').", "The scene occurs when Katsura undergoes an operation to have Mechagodzilla 2's control device placed inside her body, at which point her breasts are exposed.", "While she was portrayed by a mannequin in the scene, the scene was cut when the film was released in the U.S., both from the theatrical and TV versions of the film, and was also missing from the UK theatrical version, though the scene was intact in the 1992 VHS release which used the ''Terror of Mechagodzilla'' title." ], [ "English version", "Bob Conn Enterprises' theatrical poster for the 1978 U.S release of ''The Terror of Godzilla''.", "The images of the monsters come from a promotional still for ''Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla''.Toho titled its English version of the film ''Terror of Mechagodzilla'' and had it dubbed into English in Hong Kong.", "This “international version” has never seen wide release in the United States, but has been issued on VHS in the United Kingdom by PolyGram Video Ltd. and on DVD in Taiwan by Power Multimedia.The film was given a North American theatrical release in March 1978 by independent distributor Bob Conn Enterprises under the title ''The Terror of Godzilla''.", "Just as Cinema Shares had done with the previous three ''Godzilla'' movies, Bob Conn Enterprises chose to utilize the Toho-commissioned English dub instead of hiring a new crew to re-dub the film.", "''The Terror of Godzilla'' was heavily edited to obtain a \"G\" rating from the MPAA.", "Several scenes with violent content were entirely removed, disrupting the flow of the narrative.Henry G. Saperstein, who sold the theatrical rights to Bob Conn Enterprises, also released the film to television in late 1978, this time under Toho's international title, ''Terror of Mechagodzilla''.", "Unlike ''The Terror of Godzilla'', the television version remained mostly uncut, with only the shot of Katsura's naked breasts excised.", "Saperstein's editors also added a 10-minute prologue that served as a brief history of Godzilla, with footage from Saperstein's English versions of ''Invasion of Astro-Monster'' and ''All Monsters Attack'' (the latter of which utilized stock footage from both ''Ebirah, Horror of the Deep'' and ''Son of Godzilla'').In the mid-1980s, the U.S. television version, ''Terror of Mechagodzilla'', was replaced by the theatrical edit, ''The Terror of Godzilla'', on television and home video.", "For some reason, the title was also changed to ''Terror of Mechagodzilla''.", "The 1994 Paramount release of ''Terror of Mechagodzilla'' listed a running time of 89 minutes on the slipcase, implying that this release would be the longer version first shown on American TV.", "The actual video cassette featured the edited theatrical version.", "In a 1995 interview with ''G-Fan'' magazine, Saperstein was surprised to hear about this mistake.", "In 1997 on Channel 4 in the U.K., three Godzilla movies were shown back to back late at night, starting with ''Godzilla vs. Megalon'', ''Godzilla vs. Gigan'' and then ''Terror of Mechagodzilla''; all were dubbed versions.", "This showing was uncut, including the Katsura nudity scene, but it did not have the Western-made prologue.In the mid-2000s, the television version showed up again on Monsters HD, and in 2007, it made its home video debut as the U.S. version on the Classic Media DVD.", "Although the added prologue was originally framed for fullscreen television, it was cropped and shown in widescreen on the disc.", "The rest of the movie featured the audio from Saperstein's television version synced to the video from the Japanese version.The first article about the movie's storyline was published in Japanese Giants #4 in 1977, edited and published by Bradford G. Boyle, and was written by Richard H. Campbell, creator of ''The Godzilla Fan News Letter'' (a.k.a.", "\"The Gang\")." ], [ "Reception", "===Critical response===On American Rotten Tomatoes, approval rating of 43% based on 7 reviews, with a rating average of 6/10.", "\"===Box office===In Japan, the film sold 980,000 tickets.", "Despite earning mixed reviews, it would be the least-attended ''Godzilla'' film in Japan and also one of only two ''Godzilla'' films to sell less than 1 million tickets.", "This was part of a decline in attendance for monster movies as a whole and Toho put the production of monster movies on hold.", "Toho had no intention of permanently ending the ''Godzilla'' series.", "Throughout the remainder of the 1970s, several new Godzilla stories were submitted by various writers and producers.", "None of these films, however, were ultimately made.", "It was not until 1984 and ''Godzilla'''s 30th anniversary that Toho would start production on a new Godzilla movie.===Home media===The film has been released several times on DVD in the United States.", "The first release, by Simitar Entertainment, was on May 6, 1998 in a fullscreen version under the title ''The Terror of Godzilla''.", "The second release, by First Classic Media and distributed by Sony Music Entertainment, was on September 17, 2002.It was released both individually and as part of the ''Ultimate Godzilla DVD Collection'' box set, the latter being released on the same day.It was then re-released by Second Classic Media, this time distributed by Genius Entertainment, on November 20, 2007 both individually and as part of the ''Godzilla Collection'' box set on April 29, 2008.In 2019, both the Japanese version and the export English version were included in a Blu-ray box set released by the Criterion Collection, which included all 15 films from the franchise's Shōwa era." ], [ "References", ";Notes;Bibliography* * * * " ], [ "External links", " Godzilla on the web (Japan)* * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah" ], [ "Introduction", " is a 1991 Japanese ''kaiju'' film written and directed by Kazuki Ōmori and produced by Shōgo Tomiyama.", "Distributed by Toho and produced under their subsidiary Toho Pictures, it is the 18th film in the ''Godzilla'' franchise, and is the third film in the franchise's Heisei period.", "The film features the fictional monster characters Godzilla and King Ghidorah, and stars Kōsuke Toyohara, Anna Nakagawa, Megumi Odaka, Katsuhiko Sasaki, Akiji Kobayashi, Yoshio Tsuchiya, and Robert Scott Field.", "The plot revolves around time-travelers from the future who convince Japan to travel back in time to prevent Godzilla's mutation, only to reveal their true motives by unleashing King Ghidorah onto the nation.The production crew of ''Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah'' remained largely unchanged from that of the previous film in the series, ''Godzilla vs. Biollante''.", "Because the previous installment was a box office disappointment, due to a lack of child viewership and alleged competition with the ''Back to the Future'' franchise, the producers of ''Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah'' were compelled to create a film with more fantasy elements, along with time travel.", "''Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah'' was the first ''Godzilla'' film since 1975's ''Terror of Mechagodzilla'' to feature a newly orchestrated score by Akira Ifukube.", "The film was released theatrically in Japan on December 14, 1991, and was followed by ''Godzilla vs. Mothra'' the following year.", "It was released direct-to-video in North America in 1998 by Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment.", "Despite mixed reviews from critics, ''Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah'' was more financially successful at the box office than ''Godzilla vs. Biollante''.", "The film attracted controversy outside Japan due to its perceived Japanese nationalist themes." ], [ "Plot", "In 1992, Godzilla is still weakened after being infected by the ANEB (Anti-Nuclear Energy Bacteria).", "Meanwhile, science fiction author Kenichiro Terasawa is writing a book about the monster and learns of a group of Japanese soldiers stationed on Lagos Island during the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign.", "In February 1944, while threatened by American forces, the Japanese soldiers were saved by a mysterious dinosaur, which Terasawa theorizes was subsequently mutated into Godzilla in 1954 after a hydrogen bomb test on the island.", "Yasuaki Shindo, a wealthy businessman and army veteran who commanded the Lagos Garrison, confirms that the dinosaur did indeed exist.Meanwhile, a UFO named MOTHER lands near Mount Fuji.", "When the JSDF investigates, they are greeted by Wilson, Grenchiko, Emmy Kano, and the android M-11.The visitors, known as the \"Futurians\", explain that they are from the year 2204, where Godzilla has completely destroyed Japan.", "The Futurians plan to travel back in time to 1944 and remove the dinosaur from Lagos Island before the island is irradiated, thus preventing the mutation of the creature into Godzilla.", "As proof of their story, Emmy presents a copy of Terasawa's book, which has not yet been completed in the present.The Futurians, Terasawa, Miki Saegusa, and Professor Mazaki, board MOTHER's time machine, KIDS, and travel back to 1944 to Lagos Island.", "There, as American forces land and engage the Japanese forces commanded by Shindo, the dinosaur attacks and kills the American soldiers.", "The U.S. Navy then uses a detachment of warships to bombard the dinosaur from the sea and gravely wounds it.", "After Shindo and his men leave the island, M-11 uses KIDS to teleport the dinosaur from Lagos Island to the Bering Strait.", "Before returning to 1992, the Futurians secretly leave three small creatures called Dorats on Lagos Island, which are exposed to radiation from the hydrogen bomb test in 1954 and merge to become King Ghidorah.", "After returning to 1992, the Futurians use King Ghidorah to subjugate Japan and issue an ultimatum, but Japan refuses to surrender.Feeling sympathy for the Japanese people, Emmy reveals to Terasawa the truth behind the Futurians' mission: in the 23rd century, Japan is an economic superpower that has surpassed the United States, Russia, and China, and even bought out the entirety of South America and Africa.", "The Futurians traveled back in time in order to change history and prevent Japan's future economic dominance by creating King Ghidorah and using it to destroy present-day Japan.", "At the same time, they also planned to erase Godzilla from history so that it would not pose a threat to their plans.", "After M-11 brings Emmy back to the UFO, she reprograms the android so it will help her.Shindo plans to send his nuclear submarine to the Bering Strait and irradiate the dinosaur in order to recreate Godzilla.", "However, Terasawa discovers too late that a Russian nuclear submarine sank there in the 1970s and released enough radiation to mutate the dinosaur into Godzilla.", "En route to the Bering Strait, Shindo's submarine is destroyed by Godzilla, who absorbs its radiation, recovers from the ANEB and becomes larger.", "Godzilla arrives in Japan and is met by King Ghidorah.", "They fight at equal strength, each immune to the other's attacks.", "With M-11 and Terasawa's aid, Emmy sabotages the UFO's control over King Ghidorah, causing the three-headed monster to lose focus during the battle.", "Godzilla eventually ends the battle by blasting off Ghidorah's middle head.", "Before sending King Ghidorah crashing into the Sea of Okhotsk, Godzilla destroys the UFO, killing Wilson and Grenchiko.", "Godzilla then turns its ire on Japan, first attacking Sapporo, then Tokyo, where it kills Shindo.Emmy travels to the future with M-11 and returns to the present day with Mecha-King Ghidorah, a cybernetic version of King Ghidorah.", "The cybernetic Ghidorah blasts Godzilla with beams, which proves useless.", "Godzilla then counters by relentlessly blasting Ghidorah with its atomic breath before Ghidorah launches clamps to restrain Godzilla.", "Ghidorah carries Godzilla out of Japan, but Godzilla breaks from its restraints and causes Ghidorah to send both crashing into the ocean.", "Emmy then returns to the future with M-11 in KIDS, but not before informing Terasawa that she is his descendant.At the bottom of the ocean, Godzilla awakens and roars over Mecha-King Ghidorah's remains before swimming away." ], [ "Cast" ], [ "Production", "Preparations for the first fight scene===Conception===Although the previously filmed ''Godzilla vs. Biollante'' had been the most expensive ''Godzilla'' film produced at the time, its low audience attendance and loss of revenue convinced executive producer and ''Godzilla'' series creator Tomoyuki Tanaka to revitalize the series by bringing back iconic monsters from pre-1984 ''Godzilla'' movies, specifically Godzilla's archenemy King Ghidorah.", "''Godzilla vs. Biollante'' director and writer Kazuki Ōmori had initially hoped to start a standalone series centered on Mothra, and was in the process of rewriting a 1990 script for the unrealized film ''Mothra vs. Bagan''.", "The film was ultimately scrapped by Toho, under the assumption that, unlike Godzilla, Mothra would have been a difficult character to market overseas.", "The planning stages for a sequel to ''Godzilla vs. Biollante'' were initially hampered by Tanaka's deteriorating health, thus prompting the takeover of Shōgo Tomiyama as producer.", "The new producer felt that the financial failure of ''Godzilla vs. Biollante'' was due to the plot being too sophisticated for child audiences, and thus intended to return some of the fantasy elements of the pre-1984 ''Godzilla'' films to the series.", "Ōmori himself blamed the lackluster performance of ''Godzilla vs. Biollante'' on competition with ''Back to the Future Part II'', and thus concluded that audiences wanted plots involving time travel.", "His approach to the film also differed from ''Godzilla vs. Biollante'' in his greater emphasis on developing the personalities of the monsters rather than the human characters.Akira Ifukube agreed to compose the film's score on the insistence of his daughter, after as he was dissatisfied with the way his compositions had been treated in ''Godzilla vs. Biollante''.===Special effects===A prop of the time machine KIDS on display at Akashi City Museum of CultureThe Godzilla suits used in ''Godzilla vs. Biollante'' were reused in ''Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah'', though with slight modifications.", "The original suit used for land-based and full body shots had its head replaced with a wider and flatter one, and the body cut in half.", "The upper half was used in scenes where Godzilla emerges from the sea and during close-ups during the character's first fight with King Ghidorah.", "The suit used previously for scenes set at sea was modified with rounder shoulders, a more prominent chest, and an enhanced face, and was used throughout the majority of the film's Godzilla scenes.The redesigned King Ghidorah featured much more advanced wirework puppetry than its predecessors, and effects team leader Koichi Kawakita designed the \"Godzillasaurus\" as a more paleontologically accurate-looking dinosaur than Godzilla itself as a nod to American filmmakers aspiring to direct their own ''Godzilla'' films with the intention of making the monster more realistic.", "Ōmori's original draft specified that the dinosaur that would become Godzilla was a ''Tyrannosaurus'', though this was rejected by creature designer Shinji Nishikawa, who stated that he \"couldn't accept that a tyrannosaur could become Godzilla\".", "The final suit combined features of ''Tyrannosaurus'' with Godzilla, and real octopus blood was used during the bombardment scene.", "Because the Godzillasaurus' arms were much smaller than Godzilla's, suit performer Wataru Fukuda had to operate them with levers within the costume.", "The creature's distress calls were recycled Gamera cries." ], [ "Home media", "The Columbia/TriStar Home Video DVD version was released in 1998 as a single disc double feature with ''Godzilla vs. Mothra''.", "The picture was full frame (1.33:1) NTSC and the audio in English (2.0).", "There were no subtitles.", "Extras included the trailer for ''Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah'' and ''Godzilla vs. Mothra''.The Sony Blu-ray version was released on May 6, 2014 as a two-disc double feature with ''Godzilla vs. Mothra''.", "The picture was MPEG-4 AVC (1.85:1) 1080p and the audio was in Japanese and English (DTS-HD Master Audio 2.0).", "Subtitles were added in English, English SDH and French.", "Extras included the theatrical trailer and three teasers in HD with English subtitles." ], [ "Reception", "Joseph Savitski of ''Beyond Hollywood'' said \"This entry in the popular monster series is a disappointing and flawed effort unworthy of the “Godzilla” name.\"", "Film historian and critic David Kalat wrote \"Despite its shortcomings, illogic, and overpopulated cast, ''Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah'' is crammed full of ideas, richly visualized innovations, a genuine spirit of fun, and some of the most complex emotional manipulation ever to grace the series.", "\"===Controversy===The film was considered controversial at the time of its release, being contemporary to a period of economic tension between America and Japan, but mainly due to its fictional World War II depictions.", "Gerald Glaubitz of the Pearl Harbor Survivors Association appeared alongside director Kazuki Ōmori on ''Entertainment Tonight'' and condemned the film as being in \"very poor taste\" and detrimental to American-Japanese relations.", "Ishirō Honda also criticized Ōmori, stating that the scene in which Godzilla attacks and crushes American G.I.s went \"too far\".", "Conversely, Godzilla historian Steve Ryfle said American media reports of supposed anti-Americanism \"weren't really thought-provoking or insightful.\"", "Ōmori has denied all such allegations, stating that the American extras in the film had been \"happy about being crushed and squished by Godzilla.\"", "Commenting on the controversy in 2006, Ōmori stated:" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Watch a behind-the-scenes documentary (Japanese with English subtitles)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Godzilla vs. Mothra" ], [ "Introduction", " is a 1992 Japanese ''kaiju'' film directed by Takao Okawara, with special effects by Kōichi Kawakita.", "Distributed by Toho and produced under their subsidiary Toho Pictures, it is the 19th film in the ''Godzilla'' franchise, and is the fourth film in the franchise's Heisei era.", "The film features the fictional monster characters Godzilla, Mothra, and Battra, and stars Tetsuya Bessho, Satomi Kobayashi, Takehiro Murata, Megumi Odaka, Shiori Yonezawa, Makoto Otake, Akiji Kobayashi, Koichi Ueda, Shinya Owada, Keiko Imamura, Sayaka Osawa, Saburo Shinoda and Akira Takarada, with Kenpachiro Satsuma as Godzilla.", "The plot follows Battra and Mothra's attempts to stop Godzilla from attacking Yokohama.Originally conceived as a standalone Mothra film entitled ''Mothra vs. Bagan'', the film is notable for its return to a more fantasy-based, family-oriented atmosphere, evocative of older ''Godzilla'' films.", "Although he did not return as director, Ōmori continued his trend of incorporating Hollywood elements into his screenplay, in this case nods to the ''Indiana Jones'' franchise.", "''Godzilla vs. Mothra'' was released theatrically in Japan on December 12, 1992, and receiving some positive reviews from critics.", "''Godzilla vs. Mothra'' was released direct-to-video in the United States in 1998 by Columbia Tristar Home Video under the title ''Godzilla and Mothra: The Battle for Earth''.", "The film was the second highest-grossing film in Japan in 1993, with ''Jurassic Park'' being the highest-grossing.It was followed by ''Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II''." ], [ "Plot", "In mid-1992, following the events of ''Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah'', a meteoroid crashes in the Ogasawara Trench and awakens Godzilla.", "Six months later, explorer Takuya Fujito is detained after stealing an ancient artifact.", "Later, a representative of the Japanese Prime Minister offers to have Takuya's charges dropped if he explores Infant Island with his ex-wife, Masako Tezuka and Kenji Ando, the secretary of the rapacious Marutomo company.", "After the trio arrives on the island, they find a cave containing a depiction of two giant insects in battle.", "Further exploration leads them to a giant egg and a pair of diminutive humanoids called the Cosmos, who identify the egg as belonging to Mothra.The Cosmos tell of an ancient civilization that tried to control the Earth's climate 12,000 years ago, thus provoking the Earth into creating Battra.", "Battra, a male divine moth similar to Mothra, but much more fearsome in appearance, destroyed the civilisation and their weather-controlling device but then became uncontrollable, and started to harm the very planet that created him.", "Mothra was then sent by the Earth to fight Battra, who eventually lost.", "The Cosmos explain how the meteoroid uncovered Mothra's egg, and may have awoken Battra, who is still embittered over humanity's interference in the Earth's natural order.The Marutomo company sends a freighter to Infant Island to pick up the egg, ostensibly to protect it.", "As they are sailing, Godzilla surfaces and heads toward the newly hatched Mothra larva.", "Battra, also as a larva, soon appears and joins the fight, allowing Mothra to retreat.", "The battle between Godzilla and Battra is eventually taken underwater, where the force of the battle causes a giant crack on the Philippine Sea Plate that swallows the two.Masako and Takuya later discover Ando's true intentions when he kidnaps the Cosmos and takes them to Marutomo headquarters, where the CEO intends to use them for publicity purposes.", "Mothra enters Tokyo in an attempt to rescue the Cosmos, but is attacked by the JSDF.", "The wounded Mothra heads for the National Diet Building and starts constructing a cocoon around herself.", "Meanwhile, Godzilla surfaces from Mount Fuji, while Battra frees himself from the Earth's crust and continues towards Japan.Both Mothra and Battra attain their imago forms and converge at Yokohama Cosmo World where they begin to fight once more.", "Godzilla interrupts the battle and initially attacks Battra.", "Mothra then briefly incapacitates Godzilla and comes to Battra's aid before returning to battle with Godzilla.", "Battra then returns the favor coming to Mothra's defense.", "Regrouping, the two moths decide to join forces against Godzilla, determining him to be the greater threat to the planet.", "Eventually, Mothra and Battra overwhelm Godzilla and carry it over the ocean.", "Godzilla bites Battra's neck and fires its atomic breath into the wound, killing him.", "A tired Mothra drops Godzilla and the lifeless Battra into the water below, sealing Godzilla below the surface by creating a mystical glyph with scales from her wings.", "The next morning, the Cosmos explain that Battra had been waiting many years to destroy an even larger asteroid that would threaten the Earth in 1999.Mothra had promised she would stop the future collision if Battra were to die, and she and the Cosmos leave Earth as the humans bid farewell." ], [ "Cast" ], [ "Production", "The idea of shooting a movie featuring a revamped Mothra dated back to a screenplay written in 1990 by Kazuki Omori entitled ''Mothra vs. Bagan'', which revolved around a vengeful dragon called Bagan who sought to destroy humanity for its abuse of the Earth's resources, only to be defeated by Mothra, the goddess of peace.", "However, following the poor box office performance of ''Godzilla vs. Biollante'', the project was ultimately scrapped by Toho, under the assumption that Mothra was a character born purely out of Japanese culture, and thus would have been difficult to market overseas unlike the more internationally recognized Godzilla.After the success of ''Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah'', producer Shōgo Tomiyama and ''Godzilla'' series creator Tomoyuki Tanaka proposed resurrecting King Ghidorah in a film entitled ''Ghidorah's Counterattack'', but relented when polls demonstrated that Mothra was more popular with women, who comprised the majority of Japan's population.", "Tomiyama replaced Ōmori with Takao Okawara as director, but maintained Ōmori as screenwriter.", "Hoping to maintain as much of ''Mothra vs. Bagan'' as possible, Ōmori reconceptualized Bagan as Badora, a dark twin to Mothra.", "The character was later renamed Battra (a portmanteau of \"battle\" and \"Mothra\"), as the first name was disharmonious in Japanese.", "Tomiyama had intended to feature ''Mothra'' star Frankie Sakai, but was unable to because of scheduling conflicts.", "The final battle between Godzilla, Mothra and Battra was originally meant to have a more elaborate conclusion; as in the final product, Godzilla would have been transported to sea, only to kill Battra and plunge into the ocean.", "However, the site of their fall would have been the submerged, Stonehenge-like ruins of the Cosmos civilization, which would have engulfed and trapped Godzilla with a forcefield activated by Mothra.Ishirō Honda, who directed the first ''Godzilla'' film and many others, visited the set shortly before dying.===Special effects===Koichi Kawakita continued his theme of giving Godzilla's opponents the ability to metamorphose, and had initially intended to have Mothra killed off, only to be reborn as the cybernetic moth ''MechaMothra'', though this was scrapped early in production, thus making ''Godzilla vs. Mothra'' the first post-1984 ''Godzilla'' movie to not feature a mecha contraption.", "The underwater scenes were filmed through an aquarium filled with fish set between the performers and the camera.", "Kawakita's team constructed a new Godzilla suit from previously used molds, though it was made slimmer than previous suits, the neck given more prominent ribbing, and the arrangement of the character's dorsal plates was changed so that the largest plate was placed on the middle of the back.", "The arms were more flexible at the biceps, and the face was given numerous cosmetic changes; the forehead was reduced and flattened, the teeth scaled down, and the eyes given a golden tint.", "The head was also electronically modified to allow more vertical mobility.", "Filming the Godzilla scenes was hampered when the suit previously used for ''Godzilla vs. Biollante'' and ''Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah'', which was needed for some stunt-work, was stolen from Toho studios, only to be recovered at Lake Okutama in bad condition.", "The remains of the suit were recycled for the first battle sequence.", "Godzilla's roar was reverted to the high-pitched shriek from pre-1984 ''Godzilla'' films, while Battra's sound effects were recycled from those of Rodan.", "In designing Battra, which the script described as a \"black Mothra\", artist Shinji Nishikawa sought to distance its design from Mothra's by making its adult form more similar to its larval one than is the case with Mothra, and combining Mothra's two eyes into one." ], [ "Release", "''Godzilla vs. Mothra'' was released in Japan on December 12, 1992 where it was distributed by Toho.", "The film sold approximately 4,200,000 tickets in Japan, becoming the number one Japanese film on the domestic market in the period that included the year 1993.It earned ¥2.22 billion in distribution income, and grossed in total.The film was released in the United States as ''Godzilla and Mothra: The Battle for Earth'' on April 28, 1998 on home video by Columbia TriStar Home Video." ], [ "Critical response", "Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes has a 78% approval rating from critics, based on 9 reviews with an average score of 5.7/10.Ed Godziszewski of Monster Zero said, \"Rushed into production but a few months after ''Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah'', this film is unable to hide its hurried nature but effects-wise, the film makes up for the story's shortcomings and then some.\"", "Japan Hero said, \"While this movie is not the best of the Heisei series, it is still a really interesting movie.", "The battles are cool, and Battra was an interesting idea.", "If you have never seen this movie, I highly recommend it.", "\"Stomp Tokyo said the film is \"one of the better ''Godzilla'' movies in that the scenes in which monsters do not appear actually make some sort of sense.", "And for once, they are acted with some gusto, so that we as viewers can actually come to like the characters on screen, or at least be entertained by them.\"", "Mike Bogue of American Kaiju said the film \"does not live up to its potential\", but added that \"its colorful and elaborate spectacle eventually won him over\" and \"the main story thread dealing with the eventual reconciliation of the divorced couple adequately holds the human plot together.\"" ], [ "Home media", "The film was released by Sony on Blu-ray in ''The Toho Godzilla Collection'' on May 6, 2014." ], [ "Awards", " Year Award Category Recipient Result1993Tokyo Sports Movie AwardsBest Leading ActorTetsuya Bessho1993 Best Grossing Films AwardGolden Award and Money-Making Star Award''Godzilla and Mothra: The Battle for Earth''1993 Awards of The Japanese AcademyNewcomer of the Year''Keiko Imamura, Sayaka Osawa''Best Music Score''Akira Ifukube''Best Supporting Actor''Takehiro Murata''" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* " ], [ "External links", "*** Godzilla vs. Mothra on Wikizilla*Watch the documentary ''The Men Who Created Godzilla: Kawakita's First Class Movie Story'' (1992) (Japanese with English subtitles)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Godzilla (1954 film)" ], [ "Introduction", " is a 1954 Japanese epic ''kaiju'' film directed and co-written by Ishirō Honda, with special effects by Eiji Tsuburaya.", "Produced and distributed by Toho Co., Ltd., it is the first film in the ''Godzilla'' franchise.", "The film stars Akira Takarada, Momoko Kōchi, Akihiko Hirata, and Takashi Shimura, with Haruo Nakajima and Katsumi Tezuka as Godzilla.", "In the film, Japan's authorities deal with the sudden appearance of a giant monster, whose attacks trigger fears of nuclear holocaust in post-war Japan.", "''Godzilla'' entered production after a Japanese-Indonesian co-production collapsed.", "Tsuburaya originally proposed for a giant octopus before the filmmakers decided on a dinosaur-inspired creature.", "''Godzilla'' pioneered a form of special effects called suitmation in which a stunt performer wearing a suit interacts with miniature sets.", "Principal photography ran 51 days, and special effects photography ran 71 days.", "''Godzilla'' premiered in Nagoya on October 27, 1954 and received a wide release in Japan on November 3.It was met with mixed reviews upon release but was a box-office success, winning the Japanese Movie Association Award for Best Special Effects.", "The film earned ¥183 million in distributor rentals, making it the eighth-highest-grossing Japanese film of that year.", "In 1956, a heavily-re-edited \"Americanized\" version, titled ''Godzilla, King of the Monsters!", "'', was released in the United States.The film spawned a multimedia franchise that was recognized by ''Guinness World Records'' as the longest-running film franchise in history.", "The character Godzilla has since become an international popular culture icon.", "The film and Tsuburaya have been largely credited for establishing the template for ''tokusatsu'' media.", "The film received reappraisal in later years and has since been regarded as one of the best monster films ever made.", "The film was followed by the sequel ''Godzilla Raids Again'', released on April 24, 1955." ], [ "Plot", "When the Japanese freighter ''Eiko-maru'' is destroyed near Odo Island, another ship, the ''Bingo-maru'', is sent to investigate, only to meet the same fate with few survivors.", "A fishing boat from Odo is also destroyed with one survivor.", "Fishing catches mysteriously drop to zero and are blamed by an elder on the ancient sea creature known as \"Godzilla.\"", "Reporters arrive on Odo Island to further investigate.", "A villager tells one of the reporters that something in the sea is ruining the fishing.", "That evening, a storm strikes the island and destroys the reporters' helicopter, and Godzilla, briefly seen by some of the villagers, attacks the village, killing several people.Odo Island residents travel to Tokyo to demand disaster relief.", "The villagers' and the reporters' evidence describes damage consistent with something large crushing the village.", "The government sends paleontologist Kyohei Yamane to lead an investigation on the island, where giant radioactive footprints and a trilobite are discovered.", "The village alarm bell is rung, and Yamane and the villagers rush to see the monster but retreat after they see that it is a giant dinosaur.", "Yamane presents his findings in Tokyo, estimating that Godzilla is 50 m tall and evolved from an ancient sea creature becoming a terrestrial creature.", "He concludes that Godzilla has been disturbed by underwater hydrogen bomb testing.", "Debate ensues about notifying the public about the danger of the monster.", "Meanwhile, several ships are lost at sea.Ten frigates are dispatched to attempt to kill the monster using depth charges.", "The mission disappoints Yamane, who wants Godzilla to be studied.", "When Godzilla survives the attack, officials appeal to Yamane for ideas to kill the monster, but Yamane tells them that Godzilla is unkillable, has survived H-bomb testing, and must be studied.", "Yamane's daughter, Emiko, decides to break off her arranged engagement to Yamane's colleague, Daisuke Serizawa, because of her love for Hideto Ogata, a salvage ship captain.", "When a reporter arrives and asks to interview Serizawa, Emiko escorts the reporter to Serizawa's home.", "After Serizawa refuses to divulge his current work to the reporter, he agrees to give Emiko a demonstration of his recent project if she keeps it a secret.", "The demonstration horrifies her, and she leaves without mentioning the engagement.", "Shortly after she returns home, Godzilla surfaces from Tokyo Bay and attacks Shinagawa.", "After attacking a passing train, Godzilla returns to the ocean.After consulting international experts, the Japanese Self-Defense Forces construct a 30 m high and 50,000 V electrified fence along the coast using electrical pylons, and deploy forces to stop and kill Godzilla.", "Dismayed that there is no plan to study Godzilla for its resistance to radiation, Yamane returns home, where Emiko and Ogata await and hope to get his consent for them to wed.", "When Ogata disagrees with Yamane and argues that the threat that Godzilla poses outweighs any potential benefits from studying the monster, Yamane tells him to leave.", "Godzilla resurfaces and breaks through the fence to Tokyo with its atomic breath.", "The monster rampages through the city, killing thousands.", "The JSDF's efforts at a counterattack using tanks and F-86 Sabre fighter jets fail when Godzilla returns to Tokyo Bay.", "The next day, hospitals and shelters are crowded with the maimed and the dead, and some survivors suffer from radiation sickness.Distraught by the devastation, Emiko tells Ogata about Serizawa's research, a weapon called the \"Oxygen Destroyer,\" which disintegrates oxygen atoms and causes organisms to die from a combination of asphyxiation and rapid chemical dissolution.", "Emiko and Ogata go to Serizawa to convince him to use the Oxygen Destroyer, but he initially refuses and explains that if he uses the device, the superpowers of the world will surely force him to construct more Oxygen Destroyers for use as a superweapon.", "After watching a program displaying the nation's current tragedy, Serizawa finally accepts their pleas.", "As Serizawa burns his notes, Emiko breaks down crying.A navy ship takes Ogata and Serizawa to plant the device in Tokyo Bay.", "After finding Godzilla, Serizawa activates the device, cuts off his air support, and takes the secret of the Oxygen Destroyer to his grave.", "Godzilla emerges from the water, screaming in agony, then sinks to the bottom of the bay and disintegrates.", "Yamane believes that if nuclear weapons testing continues, another Godzilla may awaken in the future." ], [ "Cast", "* Akira Takarada as Hideto Ogata* Momoko Kōchi as Emiko Yamane* Akihiko Hirata as Dr. Daisuke Serizawa* Takashi Shimura as Dr. Kyohei Yamane* Fuyuki Murakami as Dr. Tanabe* Sachio Sakai as Hagiwara* Ren Yamamoto as Masaji Yamada* Toyoaki Suzuki as Shinkichi Yamada* Toranosuke Ogawa as the President of the Nankai Shipping Company* Hiroshi Hayashi as the Chairman of Diet Committee* Seijiro Onda as Oyama, Diet Committee member* Kin Sugai as Ozawa, Diet Committee member* Shoichi Hirose as a member of the Diet Committee* Kokuten Kōdō as the old fisherman* Yū Fujiki as ''Eiko-Maru'' wireless communications officer* Kenji Sahara as a reporter and a partygoer* Ishirō Honda as a substation worker* Haruo Nakajima as Godzilla, a newspaper reporter, and a substation engineer* Katsumi Tezuka as Godzilla and a newspaper deskmanCast taken from ''Japan's Favorite Mon-Star'', except where cited otherwise." ], [ "Themes", "In the film, Godzilla symbolizes nuclear holocaust from Japan's perspective and has since been culturally identified as a strong metaphor for nuclear weapons.", "Producer Tomoyuki Tanaka stated, \"The theme of the film, from the beginning, was the terror of the bomb.", "Mankind had created the bomb, and now nature was going to take revenge on mankind.\"", "Director Ishirō Honda filmed Godzilla's Tokyo rampage to mirror the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and stated, \"If Godzilla had been a dinosaur or some other animal, he would have been killed by just one cannonball.", "But if he were equal to an atomic bomb, we wouldn't know what to do.", "So, I took the characteristics of an atomic bomb and applied them to Godzilla.", "\"On March 1, 1954, just a few months before the film was made, the Japanese fishing vessel ''Daigo Fukuryū Maru'' (\"Lucky Dragon No.", "5\") had been showered with radioactive fallout from the U.S. military's 15-megaton \"Castle Bravo\" hydrogen bomb test at nearby Bikini Atoll.", "The boat's catch was contaminated, spurring a panic in Japan about the safety of eating fish, and the crew was sickened, with one crew member eventually dying from radiation sickness.", "The event led to the emergence of a large and enduring anti-nuclear movement that gathered 30 million signatures on an anti-nuclear petition by August 1955 and eventually became institutionalized as the Japan Council against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs.", "The film's opening scene of Godzilla destroying a Japanese vessel is a direct reference to these events and had a strong impact on Japanese viewers, with the recent event still fresh in the mind of the public.Academics Anne Allison, Thomas Schnellbächer, and Steve Ryfle have said that ''Godzilla'' contains political and cultural undertones that can be attributed to what the Japanese had experienced in World War II and that Japanese audiences were able to connect emotionally to the monster.", "They theorized that the viewers saw Godzilla as a victim and felt that the creature's backstory reminded them of their experiences in World War II.", "The academics have also claimed that as the atomic bomb testing that woke Godzilla was carried out by the United States, the film can in a way be seen to blame the United States for the problems and struggles that Japan experienced after World War II had ended.", "They also felt that the film could have served as a cultural coping method to help the people of Japan move on from the events of the war.Brian Merchant from ''Motherboard'' called the film \"a bleak, powerful metaphor for nuclear power that still endures today,\" and on its themes, he stated: \"It's an unflinchingly bleak, deceptively powerful film about coping with and taking responsibility for incomprehensible, man-made tragedy.", "Specifically, nuclear tragedies.", "It's arguably the best window into post-war attitudes towards nuclear power we've got—as seen from the perspective of its greatest victims.\"", "Terrence Rafferty from ''The New York Times'' said Godzilla was \"an obvious gigantic, unsubtle, grimly purposeful metaphor for the atomic bomb\" and felt the film was \"extraordinarily solemn, full of earnest discussions\".Mark Jacobson from the website of ''New York'' magazine said that Godzilla \"transcends humanist prattle.", "Very few constructs have so perfectly embodied the overriding fears of a particular era.", "He is the symbol of a world gone wrong, a work of man that once created cannot be taken back or deleted.", "He rears up out of the sea as a creature of no particular belief system, apart from even the most elastic version of evolution and taxonomy, a reptilian id that lives inside the deepest recesses of the collective unconscious that cannot be reasoned with, a merciless undertaker who broaches no deals.\"", "Regarding the film, Jacobson stated, \"Honda's first Godzilla... is in line with these inwardly turned post-war films and perhaps the most brutally unforgiving of them.", "Shame-ridden self-flagellation was in order, and who better to supply the rubber-suited psychic punishment than the Rorschach-shaped big fella himself?", "\"Tim Martin from ''The Daily Telegraph'' said that the original 1954 film was \"a far cry from its B-movie successors.", "It was a sober allegory of a film with ambitions as large as its thrice-normal budget, designed to shock and horrify an adult audience.", "Its roster of frightening images—cities in flames, overstuffed hospitals, irradiated children—would have been all too familiar to cinema-goers for whom memories of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were still less than a decade old, while its script posed deliberately inflammatory questions about the balance of postwar power and the development of nuclear energy.\"", "Martin also commented on how the film's themes were omitted in the American version by stating, \"Its thematic preoccupation with nuclear energy proved even less acceptable to the American distributors who, after buying the film, began an extensive reshoot and re-cut for Western markets.\"" ], [ "Production", "===Crew===* Ishirō Honda – director, co-writer* Eiji Tsuburaya – special effects director* Kōji Kajita – assistant director* Teruo Maki – production manager* Choshiro Ishii – lighting* Takeo Kita – chief art director* Satoshi Chuko – art director* Akira Watanabe – special effects art director* Kuichirō Kishida – special effects lighting* Teizō Toshimitsu – monster builder* Hisashi Shimonaga – sound recording* Ichiro Minawa – sound and musical effects Personnel taken from The Criterion Collection.===Development===In 1954, Toho originally planned to produce , a Japanese-Indonesian co-production that would have starred Ryō Ikebe as a former Japanese soldier who was stationed in the Dutch East Indies during the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, and Yoshiko Yamaguchi as his half-Indonesian love interest.", "However, anti-Japanese sentiment in Indonesia put political pressure on the government to deny visas for the Japanese filmmakers.", "The film was to be co-produced with Perfini, filmed on location in Jakarta in color, a first for a major Toho production, and was to open markets for Japanese films in Southeast Asia.Producer Tomoyuki Tanaka flew to Jakarta to renegotiate with the Indonesian government but was unsuccessful.", "On the flight back to Japan, he conceived the idea for a giant monster film, inspired by the 1953 film ''The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms'' and the ''Daigo Fukuryū Maru'' incident, which happened in March 1954.The film's opening sequence is a direct reference to the incident.", "Tanaka felt the film had potential because nuclear fears were generating news and monster films were becoming popular because of the financial success of ''The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms'' and the 1952 re-release of ''King Kong'', the latter of which earned more money than previous releases.During his flight, Tanaka wrote an outline with the working title and pitched it to executive producer Iwao Mori.", "Mori approved the project in mid–April 1954 after special effects director Eiji Tsuburaya agreed to do the film's effects and confirmed that the film was financially feasible.", "Mori also felt the project was perfect as a vehicle for Tsuburaya and to test the storyboarding system that he instituted at the time.", "Mori also approved Tanaka's choice to have Ishirō Honda direct the film and shortened the title of the production to ''Project G'' (G for Giant), as well as giving the production classified status and ordered Tanaka to minimize his attention on other films and mainly focus on ''Project G''.Toho originally intended for Senkichi Taniguchi to direct the film, as he was originally attached to direct ''In the Shadow of Glory''.", "However, Taniguchi declined the assignment.", "Honda was not Toho's first choice for the film's director, but his wartime experience made him an ideal candidate for the film's anti-nuclear themes.", "Several other directors passed on the project, feeling the idea was \"stupid,\" but Honda accepted the assignment because of his interest in science and \"unusual things\" and stated, \"I had no problem taking it seriously.\"", "It was during the production of ''Godzilla'' that Honda worked with assistant director Kōji Kajita for the first time.", "Afterwards, Kajita would go on to collaborate with Honda as his chief assistant director for 17 films over the course of 10 years.", "Science fiction films lacked respect from film critics and so Honda, Tanaka, and Tsuburaya agreed on depicting a monster attack as if it were a real event, with the serious tone of a documentary.===Writing===Tsuburaya submitted an outline of his own that was written three years prior to ''Godzilla'' and featured a giant octopus attacking ships in the Indian Ocean.", "In May 1954, Tanaka hired sci-fi writer to write the story.", "Only 50 pages long and written in 11 days, Kayama's treatment depicted Dr. Yamane wearing dark shades, a cape and living in a European-style house from which he emerged only at night.", "Godzilla was portrayed as more animal-like by coming ashore to feed on animals, with an ostensibly gorilla-like interest in females.", "Kayama's story also featured less destruction, and borrowed a scene from ''The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms'' by having Godzilla attack a lighthouse.", "Kayama added his own critical stance on nuclear weapons by opening with a voice-over detailing and criticizing the 1952 and 1954 hydrogen bomb tests.", "This was followed by a montage of shots that included real footage of the ''Daigo Fukuryū Maru'' aftermath, its victims, and the paranoia that followed.", "Kayama also repurposed ideas from an early story he had written about a giant lizard that strolled on hind legs.Takeo Murata and Honda co-wrote the screenplay in three weeks and confined themselves in a Japanese inn in Tokyo's Shibuya ward.", "On writing the script, Murata stated, \"Director Honda and I...racked our brains to make Mr. Kayama's original treatment into a full, working vision.\"", "Murata said that Tsuburaya and Tanaka pitched their ideas as well.", "Tanaka requested that they do not spend too much money, but Tsuburaya encouraged them to \"do whatever it takes to make it work.\"", "Murata and Honda redeveloped key characters and elements by adding Emiko's love triangle.", "In Kayama's story, Serizawa was depicted as merely a colleague of Dr. Yamane's.", "Godzilla's full appearance was to be revealed during the Odo Island hurricane, but Honda and Murata opted to show parts of the creature as the film built up to his full reveal.", "Honda and Murata also introduced the characters Hagiwara and Dr. Tanabe in their draft, but the role of Shinkichi, who had a substantial role in Kayama's story, was cut down.Honda toned down much of Kayama's political criticism, especially the opening, because he felt it was inappropriate to use the ''Daigo Fukuryū Maru'' incident and wanted to depict Godzilla like an invisible fear.A novel, written by Kayama, was published on October 25, 1954, by Iwaya Shoten as .===Creature design===The filmmakers took inspiration from various dinosaurs to shape Godzilla's final design.Godzilla was designed by Teizō Toshimitsu and Akira Watanabe under Eiji Tsuburaya's supervision.", "Early on, Tanaka contemplated having the monster be gorilla-like or whale-like in design because of the name \"Gojira\", a combination of the Japanese words for and , but he eventually settled on a dinosaur-like design.", "Kazuyoshi Abe was hired earlier to design Godzilla, but his ideas were later rejected since Godzilla looked too humanoid and mammalian, with a head shaped like a mushroom cloud; however, Abe was retained to help draw the film's storyboards.Toshimitsu and Watanabe decided to base Godzilla's design on dinosaurs and, by using dinosaur books and magazines as a reference, combined elements of a Tyrannosaurus, Iguanodon and the dorsal fins of a Stegosaurus.", "Despite wanting to use stop motion animation, Tsuburaya reluctantly settled on suitmation.", "Toshimitsu sculpted three clay models on which the suit would be based.", "The first two were rejected, but the third was approved by Tsuburaya, Tanaka, and Honda.The Godzilla suit was constructed by Kanju Yagi, Yasuei Yagi, and Eizo Kaimai, who used thin bamboo sticks and wire to build a frame for the interior of the suit and added metal mesh and cushioning over it to bolster its structure and finally applied coats of latex.", "Coats of molten rubber were additionally applied, followed by carved indentations and strips of latex glued onto the surface of the suit to create Godzilla's scaly hide.", "This first version of the suit weighed 100 kilograms (220 pounds).", "For close-ups, Toshimitsu created a smaller scale, mechanical, hand-operated puppet that sprayed streams of mist from its mouth to act as Godzilla's atomic breath.Haruo Nakajima and Katsumi Tezuka were chosen to perform in the Godzilla suit because of their strength and endurance.", "At the first costume fitting, Nakajima fell down inside the suit since it had been created by using heavy latex and inflexible materials.", "This first version of the suit was cut into two and used for scenes requiring only partial shots of Godzilla or close-ups, with the lower half fitted with rope suspenders for Nakajima to wear.", "For full-body shots, a second identical suit was created, which was made lighter than the first suit, but Nakajima could still be inside for only three minutes before passing out.", "Nakajima lost 20 pounds during the production of the film.", "Nakajima would go on to portray Godzilla and other monsters until his retirement in 1972.Tezuka filmed scenes in the Godzilla suit, but his older body made him unable to fully commit to the physical demands required by the role.", "As a result, few of his scenes made it to the final cut, as very few scenes were considered usable.", "Tezuka filled in for Nakajima when he was unavailable or needed relief from the physically-demanding role.Godzilla's name was also a source of consternation for the filmmakers.", "Because the monster had no name, the first draft of the film was not called ''Gojira'' but rather titled ''G'', also known as ''Kaihatsu keikaku G'' (\"''Development Plan G''\"), but the \"G\" of the title stood for \"Giant.\"", "Nakajima confirmed that Toho held a contest to name the monster.", "The monster was eventually named ''Gojira''.", "One explanation that is chalked up to legend is that a hulking Toho Studios employee's physical attributes led him to be nicknamed ''Gojira''.", "In a 1998 BBC documentary on Godzilla, Kimi Honda, the widow of the director, dismissed the employee-name story as a tall tale and stated that she believed that Honda, Tanaka, and Tsuburaya gave \"considerable thought\" to the name of the monster: \"the backstage boys at Toho loved to joke around with tall stories, but I don't believe that one.\"", "In 2003, a Japanese television special claimed to have identified the anonymous hulking Toho employee as Shiro Amikura, a Toho contract actor from the 1950s.===Special effects===The Godzilla suit was produced with rough materials, which only gave suit-performer Haruo Nakajima three minutes inside the suit before he would pass out from heat and exhaustion.", "The miniatures were constructed at certain scales to appear smaller than the Godzilla suit.The film's special effects were directed by Eiji Tsuburaya.", "For the effects footage to sync with the live-action footage, Honda and Tsuburaya would develop plans early during development and briefly meet prior to the day's shoot.", "Kajita would shuttle Tsuburaya to Honda's set to observe how a scene was being shot and where the actors were being positioned.", "Kajita also ushered Honda to the effects stage to observe how Tsuburaya was shooting certain effects.", "Honda edited the live-action footage, and he left blank leaders for Tsuburaya to insert the effects footage.", "At times, Honda had to cut out certain effects footage.", "Tsuburaya disapproved of these decisions because Honda's cuts did not match the effects; however, Honda had final say in those matters.Tsuburaya originally wanted to use stop motion for the film's special effects but realized that it would have taken seven years to complete based on the current staff and infrastructure at Toho.", "Settling on suitmation and miniature effects, Tsuburaya and his crew scouted the locations that Godzilla was to destroy and were nearly arrested after a security guard overheard their plans for destruction but were released after they showed police their Toho business cards.", "Kintaro Makino, the chief of miniature construction, was given blueprints by Akira Watanabe for the miniatures and assigned 30 to 40 workers from the carpentry department to build them, which took a month to build the scaled down version of Ginza.", "Most of the miniatures were built at 1:25 scale, but the Diet Building was scaled down to a 1:33 scale to look smaller than Godzilla.", "It proved to be too expensive to use stop-motion extensively throughout the picture, but the final film included a stop-motion scene of Godzilla's tail destroying the Nichigeki Theater Building.The buildings' framework were made of thin wooden boards reinforced with a mixture of plaster and white chalk.", "Explosives were installed inside miniatures that were to be destroyed by Godzilla's atomic breath.", "Some were sprayed with gasoline to make them burn more easily; others included small cracks so they could crumble easily.", "Optical animation techniques were used for Godzilla's glowing dorsal fins by having hundreds of cells, which were drawn frame by frame.", "Haruo Nakajima perspired inside the suit so much that the Yagi brothers had to dry out the cotton lining every morning and sometimes reline the interior of the suit and repair damages.The typhoon waves were created by stagehands who overturned barrels of water into a water tank where the miniature Odo Island shoreline was built.", "Multiple composition shots were used for the Odo Island scenes.", "Most of the Odo Island scenes were filmed near rice fields.", "Toho hired en masse part-time employees to work on the film's optical effects.", "Half of the 400 hired staff were mostly part-timers with little to no experience.", "An early version of Godzilla's full reveal was filmed that featured Godzilla, via hand-operated puppet, devouring a cow.", "Sadamasa Arikawa thought the scene was too gruesome and convinced Tsuburaya to refilm it.", "Optical effects were utilized for Godzilla's footprints on the beach by painting them onto glass and inserting it onto an area of the live-action footage.", "Special effects photography lasted for 71 days.===Filming===On the first day of filming, Honda addressed a crew of 30 to read the script and to leave the project if they did not feel convinced since he wanted to work only with those who had confidence in him and the film.", "Most of the film was shot in the Toho lot.", "Honda's team also filmed on location in the Shima Peninsula in Mie Prefecture to film the Odo Island scenes, which used 50 Toho extras and Honda's team establishing their base in the town of Toba.", "Local villagers were also used as extras for the Odo Island scenes.", "The dance ritual scene was filmed on location in Mie Prefecture, with local villagers performing as the dancers.", "The cast and crew commuted every morning by boat to Toba, Mie, and worked under harsh weather temperatures.", "Honda worked shirtless and so suffered a blistering sunburn on his back that left permanent scars.Toho had negotiated with the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) to film scenes requiring the military and filmed target practices and drills for the film.", "Honda's team followed a convoy of JSDF vehicles for the convoy dispatch scene.", "Two thousand girls were used from an all-girls high school for the prayer-for-peace scene.", "The filmmakers had little co-operation from the JSDF and had to rely on World War II stock footage, provided by the Japanese military, for certain scenes.", "The stock footage was sourced from 16 mm prints.", "Honda's team spent 51 days shooting the film." ], [ "Music and sound effects", "The film's score was composed by Akira Ifukube.", "After meeting with Tomoyuki Tanaka, Eiji Tsuburaya, and Ishirō Honda, Ifukube enthusiastically accepted the job.", "After learning that the main character was a monster, Ifukube said, \"I couldn't sit still when I heard that in this movie the main character was a reptile that would be rampaging through the city.\"", "Ifukube was not shown the final film and had only a week to compose his music.", "Within that time, he was shown only a model of Godzilla and the screenplay.", "Tsuburaya briefly showed Ifukube some footage but with the effects missing and Tsuburaya attempting to describe how the scene would unfold.", "Ifukube recalled, \"I was very confused.", "So I tried to make music that would remind you of something enormous.\"", "Ifukube used low-pitch brass and string instruments.It was Honda's idea to make Godzilla roar, despite the fact that reptiles do not have vocal cords.", "Shimonaga and Minawa were originally tasked with creating the roar, but Ifukube became involved after taking interest in creating sound effects.", "Ifukube and Honda discussed what type of sounds were going to be used in certain scenes and other details concerning sounds.", "Minawa went to the zoo and recorded various animal roars and played them back at certain speeds.", "However, the sounds proved unsatisfactory and went unused.", "Ifukube borrowed a contrabass from the Japan Art University's music department and created Godzilla's roar by loosening the strings and rubbing them with a leather glove.", "The sound was recorded and played at a reduced speed, which achieved the effect of the roar used in the film.", "The technique would be adopted by Toho as a standard method in creating monster roars in the following years.There are conflicting reports as to how Godzilla's footsteps were created.", "One claim states that they were created with a knotted rope hitting a kettle drum that was recorded and processed through an echo box.", "Some Japanese texts claim that the footsteps were sourced from an explosion with the ending clipped off and processed through an electronic reverb unit.", "However, Ifukube told ''Cult Movies'' that the footsteps were created using a primitive amplifier that made a loud clap when struck.", "The optical recording equipment contained four audio tracks: one for principal dialogue, one for background chatter, ambient noises, tanks, planes, and one for the roars and footsteps.", "An independent audio track was used to prevent bleeding over other audio.The music and sound effects of Godzilla's rampage were recorded live simultaneously.", "While Ifukube conducted the NHK Philharmonic orchestra, a foley artists watched Godzilla's rampage projected on a screen and used tin, concrete debris, wood, and other equipment to simulate sounds that would sync with the footage.", "A new take would be needed if the foley artist had missed a cue.", "Many of Ifukube's themes and motifs associated with Godzilla were introduced in the film, such as the March, the Horror theme, and the Requiem.", "The \"Self Defense Force March\" had become synonymous with Godzilla that Ifukube later referred to it as \"Godzilla's theme.\"", "Ifukube considers his music for the film his finest film score." ], [ "Release", "===Marketing===During production, Mori devised promotional strategies to generate public interest such as a radio play, ; 11 episodes were produced based on the screenplay and were aired on Saturdays on the NHK radio network from July 17 to September 25, 1954.In an attempt to build mystery, Mori banned reporters from the set and kept the special effects techniques and other behind the scenes crafts secret.", "Nakajima's suit performance as Godzilla would not be revealed until the 1960s.", "However, Godzilla's image was widely publicized.", "Godzilla's image was added to the company stationary, cut-out pictures and posters were displayed in theaters and stores, large advertisement balloons were flown to major Japanese cities, and a Godzilla doll was mounted onto a truck and driven around Tokyo.", "The film's theatrical trailer debuted in theaters on October 20, 1954.===Theatrical===''Godzilla'' was first released in Nagoya on October 27, 1954, and released nationwide on November 3, 1954.At the time of the film's release, it set a new opening day record for any Toho film by selling 33,000 tickets at Toho's cinemas in Tokyo and selling out at Nichigeki Theater.", "As a result, Toho's CEO personally called Honda to congratulate him.", "Honda's wife, Kimi, commented \"that sort of thing didn't usually happen.\"", "An 84-minute cut of the Japanese version was theatrically released in West Germany on April 10, 1956, as ''Godzilla''.", "That version removes the Japanese Diet argument, the acknowledgement of Godzilla as a \"child of the H-bomb,\" references to Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and an altered translation of the mother holding her children.From 1955 to the 1960s, ''Godzilla'' played in theaters catering to Japanese-Americans in predominantly Japanese neighborhoods in the United States.", "In the summer of 1982, an English-subtitled version was shown at film festivals and art house cinemas in New York, Chicago, and other U.S. cities, including The Film Center of the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, where it was screened in late August of that year.", "Later that year, the film was re-released theatrically in Japan on November 21, to commemorate Toho's 50th anniversary.", "Since its release, the 1954 film remained unavailable officially in the United States until 2004.To coincide with the film's 50th anniversary, art-house distributor Rialto Pictures gave the film a traveling tour-style limited release, coast-to-coast, across the United States, on May 7, 2004.It ran uncut with English subtitles until December 19, 2004.The film never played on more than six screens at any given point during its limited release.", "The film played in roughly sixty theaters and cities across the United States during its -month release.", "In October 2005, the British Film Institute theatrically released the Japanese version in the United Kingdom.On April 18, 2014, Rialto re-released the film in the United States, coast-to-coast, using another limited-style traveling tour.", "That coincided with Godzilla's 60th anniversary but also celebrated the American ''Godzilla'' film, which was released that same year.", "To avoid confusion with the Hollywood feature, the Rialto release was subtitled ''The Japanese Original''.", "It was screened in 66 theaters in 64 cities from April 18 to October 31, 2014.For its 67th anniversary, a 4K remaster of the film, along with other ''Godzilla'' films, was screened in Alamo Drafthouse Cinema locations on November 3, 2021.===American version===After the film's success in Japan, Toho sold the American rights to Joseph E. Levine for $25,000.A heavily-altered version of the film was released in the United States and worldwide as ''Godzilla, King of the Monsters!''", "on April 27, 1956.This version trimmed the original down to 80 minutes and featured new footage with Canadian actor Raymond Burr interacting with body doubles mixed with Honda's footage to make it seem as if he were part of the original Japanese production.", "Many of the film's political themes were trimmed or removed completely.", "It was this version of the original ''Godzilla'' film that introduced audiences worldwide to the character and franchise and the only version to which critics and scholars had access until 2004, when the 1954 film was released in select theaters in North America.", "''Godzilla, King of the Monsters!''", "grossed $2 million during its theatrical run, more than what the 1954 film grossed in Japan.Honda was unaware that ''Godzilla'' had been re-edited until Toho released ''Godzilla, King of the Monsters!''", "in Japan in May 1957 as ''Monster King Godzilla''.", "Toho converted the entire film from its original scope to a widescreen 2.35:1 scope, which resulted in an awkward crop for the entire film.", "Japanese subtitles were given to the Japanese actors since their original dialogue differed greatly from the original script and were dubbed in English.", "Since the release of the film, Toho had adopted the epithet \"King of the Monsters\" for Godzilla, which has since appeared in official marketing, advertisement, and promotional materials." ], [ "Home media", "===Japan===In 1985, the Japanese version of ''Godzilla'' was released on LaserDisc in Japan by Toho, followed by a VHS release in 1988.Toho released the film on DVD in 2001 and on Blu-ray in 2009.In 2008, Toho remastered the film in high-definition and premiered it on the Japanese Movie Speciality Channel, along with the rest of the Godzilla films that were also remastered in HD.", "In March 2021, Toho premiered a 4K remaster of the film on the Nippon Classic Movie Channel, along with seven other Godzilla films also remastered in 4K.", "The 4K remaster was downscaled to 2K for broadcast.===International===The American version was released on VHS and DVD by Simitar Entertainment in 1998 and Classic Media in 2002.In 2005, the British Film Institute released the Japanese version on DVD in the United Kingdom that includes the original mono track and several extra features, such as documentaries and commentary tracks by film historians Steve Ryfle, Ed Godziszewski, and Keith Aiken.", "The DVD also includes a documentary about the ''Daigo Fukuryū Maru'', a Japanese fishing boat that was caught in an American nuclear blast and partially inspired the creation of the film.In 2006, Classic Media released the Japanese and American version on a two-disc DVD in the United States and Canada.", "This release features trailers and audio commentaries for both films by Ryfle and Godziszewski (separate from the BFI commentaries), two 13-minute documentaries titled \"Godzilla Story Development\" and \"Making of the Godzilla Suit,\" and a 12-page essay booklet by Ryfle.", "This release also restores the original ending credits of the American film, which until recently were thought to have been lost.In 2009, Classic Media released ''Godzilla'' on Blu-ray.", "This release includes the same special features from the 2006 Classic Media DVD release but does not feature the American version.", "In 2012, the Criterion Collection released a \"new high-definition digital restoration\" of ''Godzilla'' on Blu-ray and DVD.", "This release includes a remaster of the American version, ''Godzilla, King of the Monsters!", "'', as well as other special features such as interviews with Akira Ikufube, Japanese film critic Tadao Sato, actor Akira Takarada, Godzilla performer Haruo Nakajima, effects technicians Yoshio Irie and Eizo Kaimai and audio commentaries on both films by film historian David Kalat.In 2014, Classic Media reissued ''Godzilla'' and ''Godzilla, King of the Monsters!''", "on DVD, to commemorate the release of Legendary's ''Godzilla'' film.", "This release retained the same specs and features as the 2006 DVD release.", "In 2017, Janus Films and the Criterion Collection acquired the film, as well as other Godzilla titles, to stream on Starz and FilmStruck.", "In 2019, the film and the American version were included in the ''Godzilla: The Showa Era Films'' Blu-ray box set released by the Criterion Collection, which included all 15 films from the franchise's Shōwa era.", "In May 2020, the Japanese and American version became available on HBO Max upon its launch." ], [ "Reception", "===Box office===During its initial Japanese theatrical run, the film set an opening record with the highest first-day ticket sales in Tokyo, before it went on to sell tickets; it was the eighth best-attended film in Japan that year.", "The film earned (just under $510,000) in distributor rentals during its initial run, with total lifetime gross receipts of .", "Adjusted for inflation, the film's original Japanese box office run in 1954 was equivalent to in 1998.During its 2004 limited theatrical release in North America, the film grossed $38,030 on its opening weekend and grossed $412,520 by the end of its limited run.", "For the 2014 limited re-release in North America, it grossed $10,903 after playing in one theater in New York and grossed $150,191 at the end of its run.", "In the United Kingdom, the film sold 3,643 tickets from limited releases in 20052006 and 20162017.===Critical response in Japan===Prior to the release of the film, skeptics predicted the film would flop.", "At the time of the film's release, Japanese reviews were mixed.", "Japanese critics accused the film of exploiting the widespread devastation that the country had suffered in World War II, as well as the ''Daigo Fukuryū Maru'' incident, which occurred a few months before filming began.", "Ishiro Honda lamented years later in the ''Tokyo Journal'', \"They called it grotesque junk, and said it looked like something you'd spit up.", "I felt sorry for my crew because they had worked so hard!", "\"Others said that depicting a fire-breathing organism was strange.", "Honda also believed that Japanese critics began to change their minds after the good reviews the film received in the United States: \"The first film critics to appreciate ''Godzilla'' were those in the U.S.", "When ''Godzilla'' was released there as ''Godzilla, King of the Monsters!''", "in 1956, the critics said such things as, 'For the start, this film frankly depicts the horrors of the Atomic Bomb', and by these evaluations, the assessment began to impact critics in Japan and has changed their opinions over the years.", "\"As time went on, the film gained more respect in its home country.", "In 1984, ''Kinema Junpo'' magazine listed ''Godzilla'' as one of the top 20 Japanese films of all time, and a survey of 370 Japanese film critics published in ''Nihon Eiga Besuto 150'' (''Best 150 Japanese Films''), had ''Godzilla'' ranked as the 27th best Japanese film ever made.", "The film was nominated for two Japanese Movie Association awards.", "One for best special effects and the other for best film.", "It won best special effects but lost best picture to Akira Kurosawa's ''Seven Samurai''.", "Kurosawa later listed the film as one of his 100 favorite films.===Critical response internationally===''Godzilla'' received mostly critical acclaim from Western reviewers.", "Owen Gleiberman from ''Entertainment Weekly'' described the film as more \"serious\" than the 1956 American cut, but \"its tone just veers closer to that of solemn American B-horror cheese like ''Them!''", "The real difference is that the film's famous metaphor for the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki looks more nuttily masochistic than ever.\"", "Luke Y. Thompson from ''Dallas Observer'' defended the film's effects as products of their time and felt that viewers would be \"surprised by what they see.\"", "He stated, \"This ain't your standard goofy monster rampage.\"", "Peter Bradshaw from ''The Guardian'' awarded the film four stars out of five, praised the storytelling as \"muscular\" and the nuclear themes as \"passionate and fascinatingly ambiguous\", and stated, \"the sheer fervency of this film takes it beyond the crash-bang entertainment of most blockbusters, ancient and modern.\"", "David Nusair from Reel Film Reviews awarded the film one-and-a-half stars out of four and stated that it turns into a \"terminally erratic narrative that's more dull than engrossing.\"", "Nusair criticized Honda for his \"inability to offer up even a single compelling human character,\" found the film's ending to be \"anticlimactic and pointless,\" and concluded that \"the film is entirely lacking in elements designed to capture and hold the viewer's ongoing attention.", "\"Roger Ebert from the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' gave the film one-and-a-half stars out of four and stated that \"regaled for 50 years by the stupendous idiocy of the American version of ''Godzilla'', audiences can now see the original Japanese version, which is equally idiotic, but, properly decoded, was the ''Fahrenheit 9/11'' of its time.\"", "Ebert criticized the effects as looking \"crude,\" felt the effects of the 1933 film ''King Kong'' to be \"more convincing,\" and concluded, \"This is a bad movie, but it has earned its place in history.", "\"Keith Uhlich from ''Time Out'' awarded the film four stars out of five; calling the film \"Pop Art as purge;\" and praised the film's characters, themes, and Godzilla as a \"potent and provocative metaphor, a lumbering embodiment of atomic-age anxieties birthed from mankind's own desire to destroy.\"", "Desson Thomson from the ''Washington Post'' called the film's effects \"pretty extraordinary\" and \"amazingly credible\" for their time.", "Thomson felt some of the acting was \"ham-handed\" but said that \"there's a surprisingly powerful thrust to this film.\"", "Mick LaSalle from the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' called the film a \"classic,\" stating, \"Such moments go beyond spectacle.", "''Godzilla'' is a collective metaphor and a collective nightmare, a message film that says more than its message, that captures, with a horrified poetry, the terrors that stomped through the minds of people 50 years ago.", "\"===Accolades=== Award Date of ceremony Category Recipient(s) Result Saturn Awards May 10, 2007 Best Classic Film DVD Release Godzilla June 24, 2008 Best DVD Collection \"The Godzilla Collection\" Rondo Hatton Classic Horror Awards March 24, 2007 Best Classic DVD GodzillaApril 13, 2013 Best Commentary David Kalat Best Classic DVD Godzilla (Criterion Blu-Ray)2016 International Film Music Critics Association February 25, 2017 Best Re-Release or Re-Recording of an Existing Score Akira Ifukube, Kaoru Wada, and Masaru Hayakawa" ], [ "Legacy", "Since its release, ''Godzilla'' has been regarded as one of the best giant monster films ever made, and critic Allen Perkins called the film \"not just a classic monster movie, but also an important cinematic achievement.\"", "In 2010, the film was ranked No.", "31 in ''Empire'' magazine's \"100 Best Films Of World Cinema\".", "In 2013, ''Rolling Stone'' ranked the film No.", "1 on their \"Best Monster Movies of All Time\" list.", "In 2015, ''Variety'' listed the film amongst their \"10 Best Monster Movies of All-Time\" list.", "In 2019, ''Slant Magazine'' ranked it the 10th best science-fiction films ever produced and ''Time Out Film'' ranked the film No.", "9 on their \"50 best monster movies\" list.The film spawned a multimedia franchise consisting of 36 films in total, video games, books, comics, toys, and other media.", "The ''Godzilla'' franchise has been recognized by ''Guinness World Records'' as being the longest-running film franchise in history.", "Since his debut, Godzilla became an international pop culture icon, inspiring countless rip-offs, imitations, parodies and tributes.", "The 1954 film and its special effects director Eiji Tsuburaya have been largely credited for establishing the template for ''tokusatsu'', a technique of practical special effects filmmaking that would become essential in Japan's film industry after the release of ''Godzilla''.", "Critic and scholar Ryusuke Hikawa said: \"Disney created the template for American animation.", "In the same way, (special-effects studio) Tsuburaya created the template for the Japanese movie business.", "It was their use of cheap but craftsman-like approaches to movie-making that made tokusatsu unique.\"", "Tsuburaya would later reuse footage of Godzilla from the film for the first episode of ''Kaiju Booska'' (1966-1967).Steven Spielberg cited ''Godzilla'' as an inspiration for ''Jurassic Park'' (1993), specifically the 1956 American localization ''Godzilla, King of the Monsters!", "'', which he grew up watching.", "Jason Notte of ''HuffPost'' credited ''Godzilla, King of the Monsters!''", "for heralding foreign films to a wider Western audience, declaring it \"the most important foreign film in American history.", "\"===American films===In 1998, TriStar Pictures released a reboot, titled ''Godzilla'', directed by Roland Emmerich.", "Emmerich wanted his ''Godzilla'' to have nothing to do with Toho's ''Godzilla'' but chose to retain key elements from the 1954 film, stating, \"We took part of the original movie's basic storyline, in that the creature becomes created by radiation and it becomes a big challenge.", "But that's all we took.", "\"In 2014, Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures released a reboot, also titled ''Godzilla'', directed by Gareth Edwards.", "Edwards stated that his film was inspired by the 1954 film, and attempted to retain some of its themes, stating, \"Godzilla is a metaphor for Hiroshima in the original movie.", "We tried to keep that, and there are a lot of themes from the '54 movie that we've kept.\"" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * * * *** * * * * * ** * " ], [ "External links", " * ''Godzilla'' at the official ''Godzilla'' website by Toho Co., Ltd. * * * * * ''Godzilla: Poetry After the A-Bomb'' an essay by J. Hoberman at the Criterion Collection" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "The Return of Godzilla" ], [ "Introduction", " is a 1984 Japanese ''kaiju'' film directed by Koji Hashimoto, with special effects by Teruyoshi Nakano.", "Distributed by Toho and produced under their subsidiary Toho Pictures, it is the 16th film in the ''Godzilla'' franchise, the last film produced in the Shōwa era, and the first film in the Heisei series.", "In Japan, the film was followed by ''Godzilla vs. Biollante'' in 1989.", "''The Return of Godzilla'' stars Ken Tanaka, Yasuko Sawaguchi, Yosuke Natsuki, and Keiju Kobayashi, with Kenpachiro Satsuma as Godzilla.", "The film serves as both a sequel to the original 1954 film and a reboot of the franchise that ignores the events of every Shōwa era film aside from the original ''Godzilla'', placing itself in line with the darker tone and themes of the original film and returning Godzilla to his destructive, antagonistic roots.", "The film was released theatrically in Japan on December 15, 1984, Critics praised Godzilla's return, Koroku's score, themes, special effects and darker tone.", "The following year, a heavily-re-edited localized version, titled '''''Godzilla 1985''''', was released in the United States by New World Pictures; it features new footage, with Raymond Burr reprising his role from ''Godzilla, King of the Monsters!''", "(1956), itself an American localization of ''Godzilla'' (1954)." ], [ "Plot", "The Japanese fishing vessel ''Yahata Maru'' is caught in strong currents off the shores of Daikoku Island.", "As the boat drifts into shore, the island begins to erupt, and a giant monster lifts itself out of the volcano.", "A few days later, reporter Goro Maki is sailing in the area and finds the vessel intact but deserted.", "As he explores the vessel, he finds all the crew dead except for Hiroshi Okumura, who has been badly wounded.", "Suddenly a giant ''Shockirus'' sea louse attacks him but he is saved by Okumura.In Tokyo, Okumura realizes by looking at pictures that the monster he saw was a new Godzilla.", "Maki writes an article about the account, but the news of Godzilla's return is kept secret and his article is withheld.", "Maki visits Professor Hayashida, whose parents were lost in the 1954 Godzilla attack.", "Hayashida describes Godzilla as a living, invincible nuclear weapon able to cause mass destruction.", "At Hayashida's laboratory, Maki meets Okumura's sister, Naoko, and informs her that her brother is alive and at the police hospital.A Soviet submarine is destroyed in the Pacific.", "The Soviets believe the attack was perpetrated by the Americans, and a diplomatic crisis ensues, which threatens to escalate into nuclear war.", "The Japanese intervene and reveal that Godzilla was behind the attacks.", "The Japanese cabinet meets to discuss Japan's defense.", "A new weapon is revealed, the Super X, a specially-armored flying fortress that will defend the capital.", "The Japanese military is put on alert.Godzilla attacks the Ihama nuclear power plant in Shizuoka Prefecture.", "While feeding off the reactor, it is distracted by a flock of birds and leaves the facility.", "Hayashida believes that Godzilla was distracted instinctively by a homing signal from the birds.", "Hayashida, together with geologist Minami, propose to the Japanese Cabinet, that Godzilla could be lured back to Mount Mihara on Ōshima Island by a similar signal, and a volcanic eruption could be started, capturing Godzilla.Prime Minister Mitamura meets with Soviet and American envoys and declares that nuclear weapons will not be used on Godzilla, even if Godzilla were to attack the Japanese mainland.", "Meanwhile, the Soviets have their own plans to counter the threat posed by Godzilla, and a Soviet control ship disguised as a freighter in Tokyo Harbor prepares to launch a nuclear missile from one of their orbiting satellites should Godzilla attack.Godzilla is sighted at dawn in Tokyo Bay heading towards Tokyo, causing mass evacuations.", "The JASDF attacks Godzilla but fails to stop its advance on the city.", "Godzilla soon emerges and makes short work of the JSDF stationed there.", "The battle causes damage to the Soviet ship and starts a missile launch countdown.", "The captain dies as he attempts to stop the missile from launching.", "Godzilla proceeds towards Shinjuku, wreaking havoc along the way.", "Godzilla is confronted by four laser-armed trucks and the Super X.", "Because Godzilla's heart is similar to a nuclear reactor, the cadmium shells that are fired into its mouth by the Super X seal and slow down its heart, knocking Godzilla unconscious.The countdown ends and the Soviet missile is launched, but it is destroyed by an American counter-missile.", "Hayashida and Okumura are extracted from Tokyo via helicopter and taken to Mt.", "Mihara to set up the homing device before the two missiles collide above Tokyo.", "The destruction of the nuclear missile produces an electrical storm and an EMP, which revives Godzilla once more and temporarily disables the Super X.An enraged Godzilla bears down on the Super X just as it manages to get airborne again.", "The Super X's weapons prove ineffective against the kaiju, resulting in even more destruction in the city as Godzilla chases it through several skyscrapers.", "Godzilla finally destroys the Super X by dropping a skyscraper on top of it.", "Godzilla continues its rampage until Hayashida uses the homing device to distract it.", "Godzilla leaves Tokyo and swims across Tokyo Bay, following the homing device to Mount Mihara.", "There, Godzilla follows the device and falls into the mouth of the volcano.", "Okumura activates detonators at the volcano, creating a controlled eruption that traps Godzilla inside." ], [ "Cast" ], [ "Production", "===Development===After the box office failure of ''Terror of Mechagodzilla'', Toho attempted to reinvigorate the franchise several times during the late 1970s and early 1980s.", "The first attempt was the announcement of a color remake of the original 1954 film entitled ''The Rebirth of Godzilla'' in 1977, but the project was shelved.", "A year later, it was announced that Toho would develop a film jointly with UPA studios entitled ''Godzilla vs. the Devil'', though this, along with UPA producer Henry G. Saperstein's proposed ''Godzilla vs. Gargantua'', also never materialized.", "''Godzilla'' series creator Tomoyuki Tanaka took charge of reviving the franchise in 1979, Godzilla's 25th anniversary, intending to return the series to its dark, anti-nuclear roots in the wake of the Three Mile Island accident.", "Hoping to win back adult audiences alienated by the fantastical approach to ''Godzilla'' films taken during the 1970s, Tanaka was further encouraged in his vision by the contemporary success of adult-oriented horror and science fiction movies like ''King Kong'', ''Invasion of the Body Snatchers'', ''Alien'' and ''The Thing''.", "A draft story entitled ''Resurrection of Godzilla'' was submitted by Tanaka and Akira Murao in 1980, and had Godzilla pitted against a shape-shifting monster called Bakan in the backdrop of an illegal nuclear waste disposal site.", "In 1983, Murao and Hideichi Nagahara collaborated on a revised script for ''Resurrection of Godzilla'', however, the project was cancelled due to budgetary concerns.", "That same year, American director Steve Miner proposed directing a ''Godzilla'' film at his own expense.", "Toho approved of the project, and Miner hired Fred Dekker to write the screenplay and paleosculptor Steve Czerkas to redesign the monster.", "The project was however hampered by Miner's insistence on using prohibitively costly stop-motion animation and shooting the film in 3D, and was thus rejected by major American movie studios.", "Under pressure from a 10,000-member group of Japanese ''Godzilla'' fans calling themselves the \"Godzilla Resurrection Committee\", Tanaka decided to helm a Japanese film for \"strictly domestic consumption\" to be released jointly alongside Miner's movie.Construction of the hydraulic \"Cybot\" GodzillaIn an effort to disavow Godzilla's increasingly heroic and anthropomorphic depiction in previous films, Tanaka insisted on making a direct sequel to the original 1954 movie.", "He hired screenwriter Shuichi Nagahara, who wrote a screenplay combining elements of the previously cancelled ''The Resurrection of Godzilla'' and Miner's still unproduced film, including an intensification of hostilities during the Cold War and a flying fortress which fires missiles into Godzilla's mouth.", "Koji Hashimoto was hired as director after Ishirō Honda declined the offer, as he was assisting Akira Kurosawa with ''Kagemusha'' and ''Ran'', and felt that the franchise should have been discontinued after the death of Eiji Tsuburaya.Composer Akira Ifukube was offered to score the film but respectfully declined.", "At the time, it was rumored that Ifukube refused to participate in the film due to the changes made to Godzilla, stating, \"I do not write music for 80-meter monsters\".", "However, this quote was later clarified, by Ifukube's biographer Erik Homenick and ''Japanese Giants'' editor Ed Godziszewski, as a joke spread by fans which was later misinterpreted as fact.", "Ifukube declined to score the film due to his priorities, at the time, teaching composition at the Tokyo College of Music.===Special effects===The special effects were directed by Teruyoshi Nakano, who had directed the special effects of several previous ''Godzilla'' films.", "The decision was made by Tanaka to increase the apparent height of Godzilla from to so that Godzilla would not be dwarfed by the contemporary skyline of Tokyo.", "This meant that the miniatures had to be built to a th scale, and this contributed to an increase in the budget of the film to $6.25 million.", "Tanaka and Nakano supervised suit-maker Noboyuki Yasumaru in constructing a new Godzilla design, incorporating ears and four toes, features not seen since ''Godzilla Raids Again''.", "Nakano insisted on infusing elements into the design that suggested sadness, such as downward-slanting eyes and sloping shoulders.Suit construction took two months, and consisted of separately casting body-part molds with urethane on a pre-built, life-size statue of the final design.", "Yasumaru personally took charge of all phases of suit-building, unlike in previous productions wherein the different stages of suit-production were handled by different craftsmen.", "The final suit was constructed to accommodate stuntman Hiroshi Yamawaki, but he declined suddenly, and was replaced by veteran suit actor Kenpachiro Satsuma, who had portrayed Hedorah and Gigan in the Showa Era.", "Because the suit wasn't built to his measurements, Satsuma had difficulty performing, being able to last only ten minutes within it, and losing 12 pounds during filming.", "Hoping to avoid having Godzilla move in an overly human fashion, Nakano instructed Satsuma to base his actions on Noh, a traditional Japanese dance.Taking inspiration from the publicity surrounding the 40-foot tall King Kong model from Dino De Laurentiis's 1976 film of the same name, Toho spent a reported ¥52,146 (approximately $475.00) on a 16-foot high robotic Godzilla (dubbed \"Cybot\") for use in close-up shots of the creature's head.", "The Cybot consisted of a hydraulically-powered mechanical endoskeleton covered in urethane skin containing 3,000 computer operated parts which permitted it to tilt its head, and move its lips and arms.", "Unlike previous Godzilla suits, whose lower jaws consisted of wire-operated flaps, the Cybot's jaws were hinged like those of an actual animal, and slid back as they opened.", "A life-size, crane operated foot was also built for close-up shots of city destruction scenes.", "Part of the film was shot on location on Izu Ōshima, where the climax of the story takes place." ], [ "Release", "===Theatrical===''The Return of Godzilla'' was released on December 15, 1984 in Japan where it was distributed by Toho.", "The film sold 3.2 million tickets in Japan, earning in rentals at the Japanese box office.", "The film grossed a total of at the box office.===Home video===In May 2016, Kraken Releasing revealed plans to release the original Japanese version of ''The Return of Godzilla'' and its international English dub on DVD and Blu-ray in North America on September 13, 2016.However, it was also revealed that the Americanized version of the film, ''Godzilla 1985'' would not be featured in the release due to ongoing copyright issues concerning music cues that New World Pictures borrowed from ''Def-Con 4'' for use in ''Godzilla 1985''." ], [ "Alternate English versions", "===Exported English dub===Shortly after the film's completion, Toho's foreign sales division, Toho International Co., Ltd, had the film dubbed into English by an unidentified firm in Hong Kong.", "No cuts were made, though credits and other titles were accordingly rendered in English.", "The international English dub features the voice of news anchor and radio announcer John Culkin in the role of Goro Maki, and actor Barry Haigh as Prime Minister Mitamura.", "The English version fully dubs all dialogue into English, including that of the Soviet and American characters.", "The international English dub was released on VHS in the U.K. by Carlton Home Entertainment on July 24, 1998.In 2016, the international English dub was included on the U.S. DVD and Blu-Ray releases from Kraken, though the audio mix was not the original monaural track that was originally heard on Toho's English language prints.", "The English dialogue was originally mixed with an alternate music and effects track that contained different music edits and sound effects from the Japanese theatrical version, most notably a distinct \"cry\" produced by Godzilla during the film's ending.", "The U.S. home video version instead uses the conventional music and effects track used for the regular Japanese version mixed in DTS 5.1 surround sound instead of mono.===''Godzilla 1985''===After the film's lackluster performance in the Japanese box office and the ultimate shelving of Steve Miner's ''Godzilla 3D'' project, Toho decided to distribute the film overseas in order to regain lost profits.", "New World Pictures acquired ''The Return of Godzilla'' for distribution in North America, and changed the title to ''Godzilla 1985'', bringing back Raymond Burr in order to commemorate the 30th anniversary of ''Godzilla: King of the Monsters!", "''.Originally, New World reportedly planned to re-write the dialogue in order to turn the film into a tongue-in-cheek comedy starring Leslie Nielsen (à la ''What's Up, Tiger Lily?", "''), but this plan was reportedly scrapped because Raymond Burr expressed displeasure at the idea, taking the idea of Godzilla as a nuclear metaphor seriously.", "The only dialogue left over from that script was \"That's quite an urban renewal program they've got going on over there,\" said by Major McDonahue.", "All of Burr's scenes were filmed in one day to suit his schedule.", "He was paid US$50,000.The reverse shots, of the actors he was speaking to, were filmed the next day, and the American filming was completed in three days.", "One of the most controversial changes done on the film was having Soviet Colonel Kashirin deliberately launch the nuclear missile rather than die in attempting to prevent its launch.", "Director R. J. Kizer later attributed this to New World's management's conservative leanings.The newly edited film also contained numerous product placements for Dr Pepper, which had twice used Godzilla in its commercials.", "Dr Pepper's marketing director at one point insisted that Raymond Burr drink Dr Pepper during a scene, and the suggestion was put to the actor by Kizer.", "Burr reportedly responded by \"fixing me with one of those withering glares and just said nothing.", "\"Roger Ebert and Vincent Canby gave the film negative reviews." ], [ "See also", "KaijuList of Japanese films of 1984List of science-fiction films of the 1980sList of monster movies" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * " ], [ "External links", "** ''The Return of Godzilla'' at the Movie Review Query Engine" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Johann Gottlieb Fichte" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Johann Gottlieb Fichte''' (; ; 19 May 1762 – 29 January 1814) was a German philosopher who became a founding figure of the philosophical movement known as German idealism, which developed from the theoretical and ethical writings of Immanuel Kant.", "Recently, philosophers and scholars have begun to appreciate Fichte as an important philosopher in his own right due to his original insights into the nature of self-consciousness or self-awareness.", "Fichte was also the originator of ''thesis–antithesis–synthesis'', an idea that is often erroneously attributed to Hegel.", "Like Descartes and Kant before him, Fichte was motivated by the problem of subjectivity and consciousness.", "Fichte also wrote works of political philosophy; he has a reputation as one of the fathers of German nationalism." ], [ "Biography", "===Origins===Fichte was born in Rammenau, Upper Lusatia, and baptized a Lutheran.", "The son of a ribbon weaver, Fichte was born into a pious family that had lived in the region for generations.", "Christian Fichte, Johann Gottlieb's father, married somewhat above his class.", "It has been suggested that a certain impatience which Fichte himself displayed throughout his life was an inheritance from his mother.He received a rudimentary education from his father.", "He showed remarkable ability from an early age, and it was owing to his reputation among the villagers that he gained the opportunity for a better education than he otherwise would have received.", "The story runs that the Freiherr von Miltitz, a country landowner, arrived too late to hear the local pastor preach.", "He was, however, informed that a lad in the neighborhood would be able to repeat the sermon almost ''verbatim''.", "As a result, the baron took Fichte into his protection and paid for his tuition.===Early schooling===Fichte was placed in the family of Pastor Krebel at Niederau near Meissen, and there received a thorough grounding in the classics.", "From this time onward, Fichte saw little of his parents.", "In October 1774, he attended the celebrated foundation-school at Pforta near Naumburg.", "Freiherr von Miltitz continued to support him, but died in 1774.The Pforta school is associated with the names of Novalis, August Wilhelm Schlegel, Friedrich Schlegel, and Nietzsche.", "The spirit of the institution was semi-monastic and, while the education was excellent, it is doubtful whether there was enough social life and contact with the world for Fichte.===Theological studies and private tutoring===In 1780, Fichte began study at the University of Jena's Lutheran theology seminary.", "He was transferred a year later to study at the Leipzig University.", "Fichte seems to have supported himself during this period of poverty and struggle.", "Without the financial support by von Miltitz, Fichte had to end his studies without completing his degree.From 1784 to 1788, Fichte precariously supported himself as tutor for various Saxon families.", "In early 1788, he returned to Leipzig in the hope of finding a better employment, but eventually he had to settle for a less promising position with the family of an innkeeper in Zürich.", "He lived in Zürich for the next two years (1788–1790), where he met his future wife, Johanna Rahn, and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi.", "He also became, in 1793, a member of the Freemasonry lodge \"Modestia cum Libertate\", with which Johann Wolfgang Goethe was also connected.", "In the spring of 1790, he became engaged to Johanna.", "Fichte began to study the works of Kant in the summer of 1790.This occurred initially because one of Fichte's students wanted to know about Kant's writings.", "They had a lasting effect on his life and thought.", "However, while Fichte was studying Kantian philosophy, the Rahn family suffered financial reverses.", "His impending marriage had to be postponed.===Kant===From Zürich, Fichte returned to Leipzig in May 1790.In early 1791, he obtained a tutorship in Warsaw in the house of a Polish nobleman.", "The situation, however, quickly proved disagreeable and he was released.", "He then got a chance to see Kant at Königsberg.", "After a disappointing interview on 4 July of the same year, he shut himself in his lodgings and threw all his energies into the composition of an essay which would attract Kant's attention and interest.", "This essay, completed in five weeks, was the ''Versuch einer Critik aller Offenbarung'' (''Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation'', 1792).", "In this book, according to Dieter Henrich, Fichte investigated the connections between divine revelation and Kant's critical philosophy.", "The first edition was published without Kant's or Fichte's knowledge and without Fichte's name or signed preface.", "It was thus believed by the public to be a new work by Kant.When Kant cleared the confusion and openly praised the work and author, Fichte's reputation skyrocketed.", "In a letter to Karl Reinhold, Jens Baggeson wrote that it was \"...the most shocking and astonishing news... since nobody but Kant could have written this book.", "This amazing news of a third sun in the philosophical heavens has set me into such confusion\".", "Kant waited seven years to make public statement about the incident; after considerable external pressure he dissociated himself from Fichte.", "In his statement, he inscribed, \"May God protect us from our friends.", "From our enemies, we can try to protect ourselves.", "\"===Jena===In October 1793, Fichte was married in Zürich, where he remained the rest of the year.", "Stirred by the events and principles of the French Revolution, he wrote and anonymously published two pamphlets which led to him to be seen as a devoted defender of liberty of thought and action and an advocate of political changes.", "In December of the same year, he received an invitation to fill the position of extraordinary professor of philosophy at the University of Jena.", "He accepted and began his lectures in May 1794.With extraordinary zeal, he expounded his system of \"transcendental idealism\".", "His success was immediate.", "He excelled as a lecturer due to the earnestness and force of his personality.", "These lectures were later published under the title ''The Vocation of the Scholar'' (''Einige Vorlesungen über die Bestimmung des Gelehrten'').", "He gave himself up to intense production, and a succession of works soon appeared.===Atheism dispute===Fichte was dismissed from the University of Jena in 1799 for atheism.", "He had been accused of this in 1798 after publishing the essay \"Ueber den Grund unsers Glaubens an eine göttliche Weltregierung\" (\"On the Ground of Our Belief in a Divine World-Governance\"), written in response to Friedrich Karl Forberg's essay \"Development of the Concept of Religion\", in his ''Philosophical Journal''.", "For Fichte, God should be conceived primarily in moral terms: \"The living and efficaciously acting moral order is itself God.", "We require no other God, nor can we grasp any other\" (\"On the Ground of Our Belief in a Divine World-Governance\").", "Fichte's intemperate \"Appeal to the Public\" (\"Appellation an das Publikum\", 1799) provoked F. H. Jacobi to publish an open letter in which he equated philosophy in general and Fichte's transcendental philosophy in particular with nihilism.===Berlin===Since all the German states except Prussia had joined in the cry against Fichte, he was forced to go to Berlin.", "There he associated himself with Friedrich and August Wilhelm Schlegel, Schleiermacher, Schelling, and Tieck.", "In April 1800, through the introduction of Hungarian writer Ignaz Aurelius Fessler, he was initiated into Freemasonry in the Lodge Pythagoras of the Blazing Star, where he was elected minor warden.", "At first Fichte was a warm admirer of Fessler, and was disposed to aid him in his proposed Masonic reform.", "But later he became Fessler's bitter opponent.", "Their controversy attracted much attention among Freemasons.", "Fichte presented two lectures on the philosophy of Masonry during the same period as part of his work on the development of various higher degrees for the lodge in Berlin.", "Johann Karl Christian Fischer, a high official of the Grand Orient, published those lectures in 1802/03 in two volumes under the title ''Philosophy of Freemasonry: Letters to Konstant'' (''Philosophie der Maurerei.", "Briefe an Konstant''), where \"Konstant\" referred to a fictitious non-Mason.In November 1800, Fichte published ''The Closed Commercial State: A Philosophical Sketch as an Appendix to the Doctrine of Right and an Example of a Future Politics'' (''Der geschlossene Handelsstaat.", "Ein philosophischer Entwurf als Anhang zur Rechtslehre und Probe einer künftig zu liefernden Politik''), a philosophical statement of his property theory, a historical analysis of European economic relations, and a political proposal for reforming them.", "In 1805, he was appointed to a professorship at the University of Erlangen.", "The Battle of Jena-Auerstedt in 1806, in which Napoleon defeated the Prussian army, drove him to Königsberg for a time, but he returned to Berlin in 1807 and continued his literary activity.Fichte wrote ''On Machiavelli, as an Author, and Passages from His Writings'' in June 1807.", "(\"''Über Machiavell, als Schriftsteller, und Stellen aus seinen Schriften''\" ).", "Karl Clausewitz wrote a Letter to Fichte (1809) about his book on Machiavelli.After the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire, when German southern principalities resigned as member states and became part of a French protectorship, Fichte delivered the famous ''Addresses to the German Nation'' (''Reden an die deutsche Nation'', 1807-1808), which attempted to define the German Nation and guided the uprising against Napoleon.", "He became a professor at the new University of Berlin, founded in 1810.By the votes of his colleagues Fichte was unanimously elected its rector in the succeeding year.", "But, once more, his temperament led to friction, and he resigned in 1812.The campaign against Napoleon began, and the hospitals at Berlin were soon full of patients.", "Fichte's wife devoted herself to nursing and caught a virulent fever.", "Just as she was recovering, he became sick with typhus and died in 1814 at the age of 51.His son, Immanuel Hermann Fichte (18 July 1796 – 8 August 1879), also made contributions to philosophy." ], [ "Philosophical work", "Fichte's critics argued that his mimicry of Kant's difficult style produced works that were barely intelligible.", "On the other hand, Fichte acknowledged the difficulty, but argued that his works were clear and transparent to those who made the effort to think without preconceptions and prejudices.Fichte did not endorse Kant's argument for the existence of \"things in themselves\", the supra-sensible reality beyond direct human perception.", "Fichte saw the rigorous and systematic separation of \"things in themselves\" and things \"as they appear to us\" (phenomena) as an invitation to skepticism.", "Rather than invite skepticism, Fichte made the radical suggestion that we should throw out the notion of a world-in-itself and accept that consciousness does not have a grounding.", "In fact, Fichte achieved fame for originating the argument that consciousness is not grounded in outside of itself.", "The phenomenal world as such, arises from consciousness, the activity of the I, and moral awareness.", "===Central theory===In ''Foundations of Natural Right'' (1797), Fichte argued that self-consciousness is a social phenomenon.", "For Fichte, a necessary condition of every subject's self-awareness is the existence of other rational subjects.", "These others call or summon (''fordern auf'') the subject or self out of its unconsciousness and into an awareness of itself as a free individual.Fichte proceeds from the general principle that the I (''das Ich'') must posit itself as an individual in order to posit (''setzen'') itself at all, and that in order to posit itself as an individual, it must recognize itself to a calling or summons (''Aufforderung'') by other free individual(s) — called to limit its own freedom out of respect for the freedom of the others.", "The same condition applies to the others in development.", "Mutual recognition (''gegenseitig anerkennen'') of rational individuals is a condition necessary for the individual I.", "The argument for intersubjectivity is central to the conception of selfhood developed in the ''Foundations of the Science of Knowledge'' (''Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre'', 1794/1795).According to Fichte, consciousness of the self depends upon resistance or a check by something that is not self, yet is not immediately ascribable to a particular sensory perception.", "In his later 1796–99 lectures (his ''Nova methodo''), Fichte incorporated this into his revised presentation of the foundations of his system, where the summons takes its place alongside original feeling, which takes the place of the earlier ''Anstoss'' (see below) as a limit on the absolute freedom and a condition for the positing of the I.The I posits this situation for itself.", "To posit does not mean to 'create' the objects of consciousness.", "The principle in question simply states that the essence of an I lies in the assertion of self-identity; that is, consciousness presupposes self-consciousness.", "Such immediate self-identity cannot be understood as a psychological fact, or an act or accident of some previously existing substance or being.", "It is an action of the I, but one that is identical with the very existence of this same I.", "In Fichte's technical terminology, the original unity of self-consciousness is an action and the product of the same I, as a \"fact and/or act\" (''Thathandlung''; Modern German: ''Tathandlung''), a unity that is presupposed by and contained within every fact and every act of empirical consciousness, although it never appears as such.The I can posit itself only as limited.", "It cannot even posit its own limitations, in the sense of producing or creating these limits.", "The finite I cannot be the ground of its own passivity.", "Instead, for Fichte, if the I is to posit itself, it must simply discover itself to be limited, a discovery that Fichte characterizes as an \"impulse,\" \"repulse,\" or \"resistance\" (''Anstoss''; Modern German: ''Anstoß'') to the free practical activity of the I.", "Such an original limitation of the I is, however, a limit for the I only insofar as the I posits it as a limit.", "The I does this, according to Fichte's analysis, by positing its own limitation, first, as only a feeling, then as a sensation, next as an intuition of a thing, and finally as a summons of another person.The ''Anstoss'' thus provides the essential impetus that first posits in motion the entire complex train of activities that finally result in our conscious experience both of ourselves and others as empirical individuals and of the world around us.", "Although ''Anstoss'' plays a similar role as the thing in itself does in Kantian philosophy, unlike Kant, Fichte's ''Anstoss'' is not something foreign to the I.", "Instead, it denotes the original encounter of the I with its own finitude.", "Rather than claim that the not-I (''das Nicht-Ich'') is the cause or ground of the ''Anstoss'', Fichte argues that not-I is posited by the I in order to explain to itself the ''Anstoss'' in order to become conscious of ''Anstoss''.", "The ''Wissenschaftslehre'' demonstrates that ''Anstoss'' must occur if self-consciousness is to come about but is unable to explain the actual occurrence of ''Anstoss''.", "There are limits to what can be expected from an a priori deduction of experience, and this, for Fichte, equally applies to Kant's transcendental philosophy.", "According to Fichte, transcendental philosophy can explain that the world must have space, time, and causality, but it can never explain why objects have the particular sensible properties they happen to have or why I am this determinate individual rather than another.", "This is something that the I simply has to discover at the same time that it discovers its own freedom, and indeed, is a condition for the latter.Dieter Henrich (1966) proposed that Fichte was able to move beyond a \"reflective theory of consciousness\".", "According to Fichte, the self must already have some prior acquaintance with itself, independent of the act of reflection (\"no object comes to consciousness except under the condition that I am aware of myself, the conscious subject\").", "This idea is what Henrich called Fichte's original insight.===Nationalism===Between December 1807 and March 1808, Fichte gave a series of lectures concerning the \"German nation\" and its culture and language, projecting the kind of national education he hoped would raise it from the humiliation of its defeat at the hands of the French.", "Having been a supporter of Revolutionary France, Fichte became disenchanted by 1804 as Napoleon's armies advanced through Europe, occupying German territories, stripping them of their raw materials and subjugating them to foreign rule.", "He came to believe Germany would be responsible for carrying the virtues of the French Revolution into the future.", "Disappointed in the French, he turned to the German nation as the instrument of fulfilling it.These lectures, entitled the ''Addresses to the German Nation'', coincided with a period of reform in the Prussian government under the chancellorship of Baron vom Stein.", "The ''Addresses'' display Fichte's interest during that period in language and culture as vehicles of human spiritual development.", "Fichte built upon earlier ideas of Johann Gottfried Herder and attempted to unite them with his approach.", "The aim of the German nation, according to Fichte, was to \"found an empire of spirit and reason, and to annihilate completely the crude physical force that rules of the world.\"", "Like Herder's German nationalism, Fichte's was cultural, and grounded in aesthetic, literary, and moral principles.", "The nationalism propounded by Fichte in the ''Addresses'' would be used over a century later by the Nazi Party in Germany, which saw in Fichte a forerunner to its own nationalist ideology.", "As with Nietzsche, the association of Fichte with the Nazi regime came to color readings of Fichte in the post-war period.", "This reading of Fichte was often bolstered through reference to an unpublished letter from 1793, ''Contributions to the Correction of the Public's Judgment concerning the French Revolution'', in which Fichte expressed anti-Semitic sentiments, such as arguing against extending civil rights to Jews and calling them a \"state within a state\" that could \"undermine\" the German nation.However, attached to the letter is a footnote in which Fichte provides an impassioned plea for permitting Jews to practice their religion without hindrance.", "Furthermore, the final act of Fichte's academic career was to resign as rector of the University of Berlin in protest when his colleagues refused to punish the harassment of Jewish students.", "While recent scholarship has sought to dissociate Fichte's writings on nationalism with their adoption by the Nazi Party, the association continues to blight his legacy, although Fichte, as if to exclude all ground of doubt, clearly and distinctly prohibits, in his reworked version of ''The Science of Ethics as Based on the Science of Knowledge'' (see § Final period in Berlin) genocide and other crimes against humanity:: If you say that it is your conscience's command to exterminate peoples for their sins, ... we can confidently tell you that you are wrong; for such things can never be commanded against the free and moral force.===Economics===Fichte's 1800 economic treatise ''The Closed Commercial State'' had a profound influence on the economic theories of German Romanticism.", "In it, Fichte argues the need for the strictest, purely guild-like regulation of industry.The \"exemplary rational state\" (''Vernunftstaat''), Fichte argues, should not allow any of its \"subjects\" to engage in this or that production, failing to pass the preliminary test, not certifying government agents in their professional skills and agility.", "According to Vladimir Mikhailovich Shulyatikov, \"this kind of demand was typical of ''Mittelstund'', the German petty middle class, the class of artisans, hoping by creating artificial barriers to stop the victorious march of big capital and thus save themselves from inevitable death.", "The same demand was imposed on the state, as is evident from Fichte's treatise, by the German \"factory\" (''Fabrike''), more precisely, the manufacture of the early 19th century\".Fichte opposed free trade and unrestrained capitalist industrial growth, stating: \"There is an endless war of all against all ... And this war is becoming more fierce, unjust, more dangerous in its consequences, the more the world's population grows, the more acquisitions the trading state makes, the more production and art (industry) develops and, together with thus, the number of circulating goods increases, and with them the needs become more and more diversified.", "\"The only means that could save the modern world, which would destroy evil at the root, is, according to Fichte, to split the \"world state\" (the global market) into separate self-sufficient bodies.", "Each such body, each \"closed trading state\" will be able to regulate its internal economic relations.", "It will be able to both extract and process everything that is needed to meet the needs of its citizens.", "It will carry out the ideal organization of production.", "Fichte argued for government regulation of industrial growth, writing \"Only by limitation does a certain industry become the property of the class that deals with it\".===Women===Fichte believed that \"active citizenship, civic freedom and even property rights should be withheld from women, whose calling was to subject themselves utterly to the authority of their fathers and husbands.\"" ], [ "Final period in Berlin", "Dorotheenstaedtischer Friedhof (cemetery), BerlinFichte gave a wide range of public and private lectures in Berlin in the last decade of his life.", "These form some of his best-known work, and are the basis of a revived German-speaking scholarly interest in his work.The lectures include two works from 1806.In ''The Characteristics of the Present Age'' (''Die Grundzüge des gegenwärtigen Zeitalters''), Fichte outlines his theory of different historical and cultural epochs.", "His mystic work ''The Way Towards the Blessed Life'' (''Die Anweisung zum seligen Leben oder auch die Religionslehre'') gave his fullest thoughts on religion.", "In 1807-1808 he gave a series of speeches in French-occupied Berlin, ''Addresses to the German Nation''.In 1810, the new University of Berlin was established, designed along ideas put forward by Wilhelm von Humboldt.", "Fichte was made its rector and also the first Chair of Philosophy.", "This was in part because of educational themes in the ''Addresses'', and in part because of his earlier work at Jena University.Fichte lectured on further versions of his ''Wissenschaftslehre''.", "Of these, he only published a brief work from 1810, ''The Science of Knowledge in its General Outline'' (''Die Wissenschaftslehre, in ihrem allgemeinen Umrisse dargestellt''; also translated as ''Outline of the Doctrine of Knowledge'').", "His son published some of these thirty years after his death.", "Most only became public in the last decades of the twentieth century, in his collected works.", "This included reworked versions of the ''Doctrine of Science'' (''Wissenschaftslehre'', 1810–1813), ''The Science of Rights'' (''Das System der Rechtslehre'', 1812), and ''The Science of Ethics as Based on the Science of Knowledge'' (''Das System der Sittenlehre nach den Principien der Wissenschaftslehre'', 1812; 1st ed.", "1798)." ], [ "Bibliography", "===Selected works in German=======''Wissenschaftslehre''====* ''Ueber den Begriff der Wissenschaftslehre oder der sogenannten Philosophie'' (1794)* ''Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre'' (1794/1795)* ''Wissenschaftslehre nova methodo'' (1796–1799: \"Halle Nachschrift,\" 1796/1797 and \"Krause Nachschrift,\" 1798/1799)* ''Versuch einer neuen Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre'' (1797/1798)* ''Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre'' (1801)* ''Die Wissenschaftslehre'' (1804, 1812, 1813)* ''Die Wissenschaftslehre, in ihrem allgemeinen Umrisse dargestellt'' (1810)====Other works in German====* ''Versuch einer Critik aller Offenbarung'' (1792)* ''Beitrag zur Berichtigung der Urteile des Publikums über die französische Revolution'' (1793)* ''Einige Vorlesungen über die Bestimmung des Gelehrten'' (1794)* ''Grundlage des Naturrechts'' (1796)* ''Das System der Sittenlehre nach den Principien der Wissenschaftslehre'' (1798)* \"Ueber den Grund unsers Glaubens an eine göttliche Weltregierung\" (1798)* \"Appellation an das Publikum über die durch Churf.", "Sächs.", "Confiscationsrescript ihm beigemessenen atheistischen Aeußerungen.", "Eine Schrift, die man zu lesen bittet, ehe man sie confsicirt\" (1799)* ''Der geschlossene Handelsstaat.", "Ein philosophischer Entwurf als Anhang zur Rechtslehre und Probe einer künftig zu liefernden Politik'' (1800)* ''Die Bestimmung des Menschen'' (1800)* ''Friedrich Nicolais Leben und sonderbare Meinungen'' (1801)* ''Philosophie der Maurerei.", "Briefe an Konstant'' (1802/03)* ''Die Grundzüge des gegenwärtigen Zeitalters'' (1806)* ''Die Anweisung zum seligen Leben oder auch die Religionslehre'' (1806)* ''Reden an die deutsche Nation'' (1807/1808)* ''Das System der Rechtslehre'' (1812)====Correspondence====* ''Jacobi an Fichte'', German Text (1799/1816), with Introduction and Critical Apparatus by Marco Ivaldo and Ariberto Acerbi (Introduction, German Text, Italian Translation, 3 Appendices with ''Jacobi's and Fichte's complementary Texts'', Philological Notes, Commentary, Bibliography, Index): Istituto Italiano per gli Studi Filosofici Press, Naples 2011, .===Collected works in German===The new standard edition of Fichte's works in German, which supersedes all previous editions, is the ''Gesamtausgabe'' (\"Collected Works\" or \"Complete Edition\", commonly abbreviated as ''GA''), prepared by the Bavarian Academy of Sciences: ''Gesamtausgabe der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften'', 42 volumes, edited by , Hans Gliwitzky, Erich Fuchs and Peter Schneider, Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog, 1962–2012.It is organized into four parts:Part I: Published WorksPart II: Unpublished WritingsPart III: CorrespondencePart IV: Lecture TranscriptsFichte's works are quoted and cited from ''GA'', followed by a combination of Roman and Arabic numbers, indicating the series and volume, respectively, and the page number(s).Another edition is ''Johann Gottlieb Fichtes sämmtliche Werke'' (abbrev.", "''SW''), ed.", "I. H. Fichte.", "Berlin: de Gruyter, 1971.===Selected works in English===* ''Concerning the Conception of the Science of Knowledge Generally'' (''Ueber den Begriff der Wissenschaftslehre oder der sogenannten Philosophie'', 1794), translated by Adolph Ernst Kroeger.", "In ''The Science of Knowledge'', pp.", "331–336.Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1868.Rpt., London: Trübner & Co., 1889.", "* ''Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation''.", "Trans.", "Garrett Green.", "New York: Cambridge University Press, 1978.", "(Translation of ''Versuch einer Critik aller Offenbarung'', 1st ed.", "1792, 2nd ed.", "1793.", ")* ''Early Philosophical Writings''.", "Trans.", "and ed.", "Daniel Breazeale.", "Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988.", "(Contains Selections from Fichte's Writings and Correspondence from the Jena period, 1794–1799).", "* ''Foundations of the Entire Science of Knowledge''.", "Translation of: ''Grundlage der gesammten Wissenschaftslehre'' (1794/95, 2nd ed.", "1802), Fichte's first major exposition of the ''Wissenschaftlehre''.", "In: * ''Foundations of Natural Right''.", "Trans.", "Michael Baur.", "Ed.", "Frederick Neuhouser.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.", "(Translation of ''Grundlage des Naturrechts'', 1796/97.", ")* ''Foundations of Transcendental Philosophy (Wissenschaftslehre) Nova Methodo'' ''FTP''.", "Trans.", "and ed.", "Daniel Breazeale.", "Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992.", "(Translation of ''Wissenschaftslehre nova methodo'', 1796–1799.", ")* ''The System of Ethics according to the Principles of the Wissenschaftslehre'' (translation of Das System der Sittenlehre nach den Principien der Wissenschaftslehre, 1798).", "Ed.", "and trans.", "Daniel Breazeale and Günter Zöller.", "Cambridge University Press, 2005.", "* ''Introductions to the Wissenschaftslehre and Other Writings''.", "Trans.", "and ed.", "Daniel Breazeale.", "Indianapolis, and Cambridge: Hackett, 1994.", "(Contains mostly writings from the late Jena period, 1797–1799.", ")* ''The Vocation of Man'', 1848.Trans.", "Peter Preuss.", "Indianapolis.", "(Translation of ''Die Bestimmung des Menschen'', 1800.", ")* ''The Vocation of the Scholar'', 1847.", "(Translation of ''Einige Vorlesungen über die Bestimmung des Gelehrten'', 1794.", ")* * ''A Crystal Clear Report to the General Public Concerning the Actual Essence of the Newest Philosophy: An Attempt to Force the Reader to Understand''.", "Trans.", "John Botterman and William Rash.", "In: ''Philosophy of German Idealism'', pp. 39–115.", "(Translation of ''Sonnenklarer Bericht an das grössere Publikum über das Wesen der neuesten Philosophie'', 1801.", ")* * ''Outline of the Doctrine of Knowledge'', 1810 (Translation of ''Die Wissenschaftslehre, in ihrem allgemeinen Umrisse dargestellt'' published in ''From The Popular Works of Johann Gottlieb Fichte'', Trubner and Co., 1889; trans.", "William Smith.", ")* ''On the Nature of the Scholar'', 1845 (Translation of ''Ueber das Wesen des Gelehrten'', 1806.", ")* ''Characteristics of the Present Age'' (''Die Grundzüge des gegenwärtigen Zeitalters'', 1806).", "In: ''The Popular Works of Johann Gottlieb Fichte'', 2 vols., trans.", "and ed.", "William Smith.", "London: Chapman, 1848/49.Reprint, London: Thoemmes Press, 1999.", "* ''Addresses to the German Nation'' (''Reden an die deutsche Nation'', 1808), ed.", "and trans.", "Gregory Moore.", "Cambridge University Press, 2008.", "* ''The Philosophical Rupture Between Fichte and Schelling: Selected Texts and Correspondence (1800–1802)''.", "Trans.", "and eds.", "Michael G. Vater and David W. Wood.", "Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2012.Includes the following texts by Johann Gottlieb Fichte: Correspondence with F.W.J.", "Schelling (1800–1802); \"Announcement\" (1800); extract from \"New Version of the Wissenschaftslehre\" (1800); \"Commentaries on Schelling's System of Transcendental Idealism and Presentation of My System of Philosophy\" (1800–1801).===Works online in English===* J.G.", "Fichte.", "\"The Wissenschaftslehre is Mathematics\" (\"Announcement\", 1800/1801).", "* * ''Addresses to the German Nation'' (1922).", "(Trs.", "R. F. Jones and G. H.", "Turnbull.)", "IA (UToronto)* ''The Destination of Man'' (1846).", "Alternative translation of ''The Vocation of Man''.", "(Tr.", "Mrs. Percy Sinnett.)", "IA (UToronto)* ''Doctrine de la science'' (Paris, 1843).", "French translation of ''Foundations of the Entire Science of Knowledge''.", "Google (Harvard) Google (Oxford) Google (UMich) * ''Johann Gottlieb Fichte's Popular Works'' (1873).", "(Tr.", "William Smith.)", "IA (UToronto)* ''New Exposition of the Science of Knowledge'' (1869).", "Translation of ''Versuch einer neuen Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre''.", "(Tr.", "A. E.", "Kroeger.)", "Google (Harvard) Google (NYPL) IA (UToronto)* ''On the Nature of the Scholar'' (1845).", "Alternative translation of ''The Vocation of the Scholar''.", "(Tr.", "William Smith.)", "IA (UToronto)* ''The Popular Works of Johann Gottlieb Fichte'' (1848–49).", "(Tr.", "William Smith.", ") Volume 1, 1848.Google (Oxford) IA (UToronto) 4th ed., 1889.IA (UIllinois) IA (UToronto) Volume 2, 1849.IA (UToronto) 4th ed., 1889.Google (Stanford) IA (UIllinois) IA (UToronto)* ''The Science of Ethics as Based on the Science of Knowledge'' (1897).", "(Tr.", "A. E.", "Kroeger.)", "Google (UMich) IA (UToronto)* ''The Science of Knowledge'' (1889).", "Alternative translation of ''Foundations of the Entire Science of Knowledge''.", "(Tr.", "A. E.", "Kroeger.)", "IA (UToronto)* ''The Science of Rights'' (1889).", "(Tr.", "A. E.", "Kroeger.)", "IA (UCal)* (German) ''Versuch einer Critik aller Offenbarung'' (Königsberg, 1792; 2nd ed.", "1793).", "Gallica Google (Oxford) Google (Oxford)* ''The Vocation of Man'' (1848).", "(Tr.", "William Smith.)", "Google (Oxford) 1910.Google (UCal)* ''The Vocation of the Scholar'' (1847).", "(Tr.", "William Smith.)", "IA (UCal)* ''The Way Towards the Blessed Life'' (1849).", "(Tr.", "William Smith.)", "Google (Oxford)* \"On the Foundation of Our Belief in a Divine Government of the Universe\"; alternative translation of \"On the Ground of Our Belief in a Divine World-Governance\" (trans.", "anon.", "n.d.)." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Daniel Breazeale.", "\"Fichte's ''Aenesidemus'' Review and the Transformation of German Idealism\" ''The Review of Metaphysics'', 34 (1980–81): 545–68.", "* Daniel Breazeale and Tom Rockmore (eds.).", "''Fichte: Historical Contexts/Contemporary Controversies''.", "Atlantic Highlands: Humanities Press, 1994.", "* Daniel Breazeale and Tom Rockmore (eds.", "), ''Fichte, German Idealism, and Early Romanticism'', Rodopi, 2010.", "* Daniel Breazeale.", "''Thinking Through the Wissenschaftslehre: Themes from Fichte's Early Philosophy''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.", "* Ezequiel L. Posesorski.", "''Between Reinhold and Fichte: August Ludwig Hülsen's Contribution to the Emergence of German Idealism''.", "Karlsruhe: Karlsruher Institut Für Technologie, 2012.", "* Sally Sedgwick.", "''The Reception of Kant's Critical Philosophy: Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.", "* Violetta L. Waibel, Daniel Breazeale, Tom Rockmore (eds.", "), ''Fichte and the Phenomenological Tradition'', Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2010.", "* Günter Zöller.", "''Fichte's Transcendental Philosophy: The Original Duplicity of Intelligence and Will''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998." ], [ "External links", "* * * * Outlines of the Doctrine of Knowledge* * The North American Fichte Society: \"Fichte's Works in English Translation\"* Works by Fichte, original German texts* Internationale Johann-Gottlieb-Fichte-Gesellschaft* * KULTUR & KONGRESSWERK-fichte – Event-location in Magdeburg, named after Johann-Gottlieb Fichte* A Case Study in ''Ad Hominem'' Arguments: Fichte's ''Science of Knowledge''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Great Lakes" ], [ "Introduction", "Location of the Great Lakes in North AmericaThe '''Great Lakes''', also called the '''Great Lakes of North America''', are a series of large interconnected freshwater lakes in the east-central interior of North America that connect to the Atlantic Ocean via the Saint Lawrence River.", "The five lakes are Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario and are in general on or near the Canada–United States border.", "Hydrologically, Michigan and Huron are a single body of water joined at the Straits of Mackinac.", "The Great Lakes Waterway enables modern travel and shipping by water among the lakes.The Great Lakes are the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth by total area and are second-largest by total volume, containing 21% of the world's surface fresh water by volume.", "The total surface is , and the total volume (measured at the low water datum) is , slightly less than the volume of Lake Baikal (, 22–23% of the world's surface fresh water).", "Because of their sea-like characteristics, such as rolling waves, sustained winds, strong currents, great depths, and distant horizons, the five Great Lakes have long been called inland seas.", "Depending on how it is measured, by surface area, either Lake Superior or Lake Michigan–Huron is the second-largest lake in the world and the largest freshwater lake.", "Lake Michigan is the largest lake that is entirely within one country.The Great Lakes began to form at the end of the Last Glacial Period around 14,000 years ago, as retreating ice sheets exposed the basins they had carved into the land, which then filled with meltwater.", "The lakes have been a major source for transportation, migration, trade, and fishing, serving as a habitat to many aquatic species in a region with much biodiversity.", "The surrounding region is called the Great Lakes region, which includes the Great Lakes Megalopolis." ], [ "Geography", "A map of the Great Lakes Basin showing the five sub-basins.", "Left to right they are: Superior (magenta); Michigan (cyan); Huron (green); Erie (yellow); Ontario (red).Though the five lakes lie in separate basins, they form a single, naturally interconnected body of fresh water, within the Great Lakes Basin.", "As a chain of lakes and rivers, they connect the east-central interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean.", "From the interior to the outlet at the Saint Lawrence River, water flows from Superior to Huron and Michigan, southward to Erie, and finally northward to Lake Ontario.", "The lakes drain a large watershed via many rivers and contain approximately 35,000 islands.", "There are also several thousand smaller lakes, often called \"inland lakes\", within the basin.The surface area of the five primary lakes combined is roughly equal to the size of the United Kingdom, while the surface area of the entire basin (the lakes and the land they drain) is about the size of the UK and France combined.", "Lake Michigan is the only one of the Great Lakes that is entirely within the United States; the others form a water boundary between the United States and Canada.", "The lakes are divided among the jurisdictions of the Canadian province of Ontario and the U.S. states of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York.", "Both the province of Ontario and the state of Michigan include in their boundaries portions of four of the lakes: The province of Ontario does not border Lake Michigan, and the state of Michigan does not border Lake Ontario.", "New York and Wisconsin's jurisdictions extend into two lakes, and each of the remaining states into one of the lakes.===Bathymetry=== '''Relative elevations, average depths, maximum depths, and volumes of the Great Lakes.", "'''ImageSize = width:595 height:250PlotArea = width:525 height:200 left:50 bottom:15AlignBars = justifyPeriod = from:-1000 till:600TimeAxis = orientation:verticalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-1000ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-1000Colors = id:blue1 value:rgb(0.0,0.0,0.75) id:blue2 value:rgb(0.1,0.1,0.8) id:blue3 value:rgb(0.2,0.2,0.85) id:blue4 value:rgb(0.3,0.3,0.9) id:blue5 value:rgb(0.4,0.4,0.95) id:textinbar value:yelloworange id:textoutsidebar value:redorangeDefine $elevation = shift:(0,15) mark:(line,textoutsidebar) textcolor:textoutsidebarDefine $avgdepth = mark:(line,textinbar) textcolor:textinbarDefine $maxdepth = shift:(0,-11) mark:(line,textoutsidebar) textcolor:textoutsidebarPlotData= align:center bar:Superior from:-732 till:600 width:194 color:blue1 $elevation at:600 text:\"600 ft (183 m)\" $avgdepth at:117 shift:(0,1) text:\"483 ft (147 m)\" $maxdepth at:-732 text:\"1,332 ft (406 m)\" bar:Michigan from:-348 till:577 width:113 color:blue5 $elevation at:577 text:\"577 ft (176 m)\" $avgdepth at:298 shift:(0,2) text:\"279 ft (85 m)\" $maxdepth at:-348 text:\"925 ft (282 m)\" bar:Huron from:-173 till:577 width:101 color:blue3 $elevation at:577 text:\"577 ft (176 m)\" $avgdepth at:382 shift:(0,1) text:\"195 ft (59 m)\" $maxdepth at:-173 text:\"750 ft (229 m)\" bar:Erie from:359 till:569 width:49 color:blue2 $elevation at:569 text:\"569 ft (173 m)\" $avgdepth at:507 align:left shift:(30,2) text:\"62 ft (19 m)\" $maxdepth at:359 text:\"210 ft (64 m)\" bar:Ontario from:-559 till:243 width:44 color:blue4 $elevation at:243 text:\"243 ft (74 m)\" $avgdepth at:-40 shift:(0,2) text:\"283 ft (86 m)\" $maxdepth at:-559 text:\"802 ft (244 m)\" align:left shift:(35,0) textcolor:green at:243 text:\"surface~elevation\" at:-40 text:\"average~depth\" at:-559 text:\"maximum~depth\" Notes: The area of each rectangle is proportionate to the volume of each lake.", "All measurements at Low Water Datum.", "Source: United States Environmental Protection AgencyLake ErieLake HuronLake MichiganLake OntarioLake Superior Surface area Water volume Elevation Average depth Maximum depth Major settlements Buffalo, NYErie, PACleveland, OHDetroit, MILorain, OHToledo, OHSandusky, OH Alpena, MIBay City, MICollingwood, ONOwen Sound, ONPort Huron, MISarnia, ON Chicago, ILWaukegan, ILGary, INGreen Bay, WISheboygan, WIMilwaukee, WIKenosha, WIRacine, WIMuskegon, MITraverse City, MI Hamilton, ONKingston, ONMississauga, ONOshawa, ONRochester, NYToronto, ON Duluth, MNMarquette, MISault Ste.", "Marie, MISault Ste.", "Marie, ONSuperior, WIThunder Bay, ONSystem profile of the Great Lakes===Primary connecting waterways===Chicago on Lake Michigan is in the western part of the lakes megalopolis and the site of the waterway linking the lakes to the Mississippi River valleyDetroit on the Detroit River links the region's central metropolitan areas* The Chicago River and Calumet River systems connect the Great Lakes Basin to the Mississippi River System through human-made alterations and canals.", "* The St. Marys River, including the Soo Locks, connects Lake Superior to Lake Huron, via the North Channel.", "* The Straits of Mackinac connect Lake Michigan to Lake Huron (which are hydrologically one lake).", "* The St. Clair River connects Lake Huron to Lake St.", "Clair.", "* The Detroit River connects Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie.", "* The Niagara River, including Niagara Falls, connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario.", "* The Welland Canal, bypassing the Niagara River, connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario.", "* The Saint Lawrence River and the Saint Lawrence Seaway connect Lake Ontario to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, which connects to the Atlantic Ocean.===Lake Michigan–Huron===Lake Michigan–Huron with north oriented to the right; taken on April 14, 2022, during Expedition 67 of the International Space Station.", "is at the upper right and Saginaw Bay is on the left.Lakes Huron and Michigan are sometimes considered a single lake, called Lake Michigan–Huron, because they are one hydrological body of water connected by the Straits of Mackinac.", "The straits are wide and deep; the water levels rise and fall together, and the flow between Michigan and Huron frequently reverses direction.===Large bays and related significant bodies of water===* Lake Nipigon, connected to Lake Superior by the Nipigon River, is surrounded by sill-like formations of mafic and ultramafic igneous rock hundreds of meters high.", "The lake lies in the Nipigon Embayment, a failed arm of the triple junction (centered beneath Lake Superior) in the Midcontinent Rift System event, estimated at 1.1 billion years ago.", "* Green Bay is an arm of Lake Michigan along the south coast of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and the east coast of Wisconsin.", "It is separated from the rest of the lake by the Door Peninsula in Wisconsin, the Garden Peninsula in Michigan, and the chain of islands between them, all of which were formed by the Niagara Escarpment.", "* Lake Winnebago, connected to Green Bay by the Fox River, serves as part of the Fox–Wisconsin Waterway and is part of a larger system of lakes in Wisconsin known as the Winnebago Pool.", "* Grand Traverse Bay is an arm of Lake Michigan on Michigan's west coast and is one of the largest natural harbors in the Great Lakes.", "The bay is divided into east and west arms by the Old Mission Peninsula.", "The bay has one major island, Power Island.", "Its name is derived from Jacques Marquette's crossing of the bay from Norwood to Northport which he called ''La Grande Traversee''.", "* Georgian Bay is an arm of Lake Huron, extending northeast from the lake entirely within Ontario.", "The bay, along with its narrow westerly extensions of the North Channel and Mississagi Strait, is separated from the rest of the lake by the Bruce Peninsula, Manitoulin Island, and Cockburn Island, all of which were formed by the Niagara Escarpment.", "* Lake Nipissing, connected to Georgian Bay by the French River, contains two volcanic pipes, which are the Manitou Islands and Callander Bay.", "These pipes were formed by a violent, supersonic eruption of deep origin.", "The lake lies in the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben, a Mesozoic rift valley that formed 175 million years ago.", "* Lake Simcoe, connected to Georgian Bay by the Severn River, serves as part of the Trent–Severn Waterway, a canal route traversing Southern Ontario between Lakes Ontario and Huron.", "* Lake St. Clair, connected with Lake Huron to its north by the St. Clair River and with Lake Erie to its south by the Detroit River.", "Although it is 17 times smaller in area than Lake Ontario and only rarely included in the listings of the Great Lakes, proposals for its official recognition as a Great Lake are occasionally made, which would affect its inclusion in scientific research projects designated as related to \"The Great Lakes\".", "* Saginaw Bay, an extension of Lake Huron into the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, fed by the Saginaw and other rivers, has the largest contiguous freshwater wetland in the United States.===Islands===South Bass Island in Lake ErieDispersed throughout the Great Lakes are approximately 35,000 islands.", "The largest among them is Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron, the largest island in any inland body of water in the world.", "The second-largest island is Isle Royale in Lake Superior.", "Both of these islands are large enough to contain multiple lakes themselves—for instance, Manitoulin Island's Lake Manitou is the world's largest lake on a freshwater island.", "Some of these lakes even have their own islands, like Treasure Island in Lake Mindemoya in Manitoulin Island.===Peninsulas===Toronto on Lake Ontario is in the eastern section of the Great Lakes MegalopolisThe Great Lakes also have several peninsulas between them, including the Door Peninsula, the Peninsulas of Michigan, and the Ontario Peninsula.", "Some of these peninsulas even contain smaller peninsulas, such as the Bruce, Keweenaw, Leelanau, Niagara, and Thumb peninsulas.", "Population centers on the peninsulas include Grand Rapids, Flint, and Detroit in Michigan along with London, Hamilton, Brantford, and Toronto in Ontario.===Shipping connection to the ocean===Although the Saint Lawrence Seaway and Great Lakes Waterway make the Great Lakes accessible to ocean-going vessels, shifts in shipping to wider ocean-going container ships—which do not fit through the locks on these routes—have limited container shipping on the lakes.", "Most Great Lakes trade is of bulk material, and bulk freighters of Seawaymax-size or less can move throughout the entire lakes and out to the Atlantic.", "Larger ships are confined to working within the lakes.", "Only barges can access the Illinois Waterway system providing access to the Gulf of Mexico via the Mississippi River.", "Despite their vast size, large sections of the Great Lakes freeze over in winter, interrupting most shipping from January to March.", "Some icebreakers ply the lakes, keeping the shipping lanes open through other periods of ice on the lakes.The Great Lakes are connected by the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal to the Gulf of Mexico via the Illinois River (from the Chicago River) and the Mississippi River.", "An alternate track is via the Illinois River (from Chicago), to the Mississippi, up the Ohio, and then through the Tennessee–Tombigbee Waterway (a combination of a series of rivers and lakes and canals), to Mobile Bay and the Gulf of Mexico.", "Commercial tug-and-barge traffic on these waterways is heavy.Pleasure boats can enter or exit the Great Lakes by way of the Erie Canal and Hudson River in New York.", "The Erie Canal connects to the Great Lakes at the east end of Lake Erie (at Buffalo, New York) and at the south side of Lake Ontario (at Oswego, New York).===Water levels===The lakes were originally fed by both precipitation and meltwater from glaciers which are no longer present.", "In modern times, only about 1% of volume per year is \"new\" water, originating from rivers, precipitation, and groundwater springs.", "In the post-glacial period, evaporation, and drainage have generally been balanced, making the levels of the lakes relatively constant.Intensive human population growth began in the region in the 20th century and continues today.", "At least two human water use activities have been identified as having the potential to affect the lakes' levels: diversion (the transfer of water to other watersheds) and consumption (substantially done today by the use of lake water to power and cool electric generation plants, resulting in evaporation).", "Outflows through the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal is more than balanced by artificial inflows via the Ogoki River and Long Lake/Kenogami River diversions.", "Fluctuation of the water levels in the lakes has been observed since records began in 1918.The water level of Lake Michigan–Huron had remained fairly constant over the 20th century.", "Recent lake levels include record low levels in 2013 in Lakes Superior, Erie, and Michigan-Huron, followed by record high levels in 2020 in the same lakes.", "The water level in Lake Ontario has remained relatively constant in the same time period, hovering around the historical average level.Water levels of Lakes Michigan and Huron in the United States, 1918 to 2019.The lake levels are affected primarily by changes in regional meteorology and climatology.", "The outflows from Lakes Superior and Ontario are regulated, while the outflows of Michigan-Huron and Erie are not regulated at all.", "Ontario is the most tightly regulated, with its outflow controlled by the Moses-Saunders Power Dam, which explains its consistent historical levels." ], [ "Etymology", "1675 French map, published shortly before the voyage of ''Le Griffon''.", "Lake Michigan is named Lake Illinois (the name change is first recorded in 1681), and Lake Ontario is named Lake Frontenac, after the then-governor of New France.Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, and Erie, photographed from the Sentinel-3B satellite in June 2022, Lake Ontario is not visible in this image.", ";Lake Erie: From the Erie tribe, a shortened form of the Iroquoian word 'long tail'.", ";Lake Huron:Named for the inhabitants of the area, the Wyandot (or \"Hurons\"), by the first French explorers .", "The Wyandot originally referred to the lake by the name , a word which has been variously translated as \"Freshwater Sea\", \"Lake of the Hurons\", or simply \"lake\".", ";Lake Michigan: From the Ojibwe word \"great water\" or \"large lake\".", ";Lake Ontario: From the Wyandot word \"lake of shining waters\".", ";Lake Superior: English translation of the French term \"upper lake\", referring to its position north of Lake Huron.", "The indigenous Ojibwe call it (from Ojibwe \"big, large, great\"; \"water, lake, sea\").", "Popularized in French-influenced transliteration as ''Gitchigumi'' as in Gordon Lightfoot's 1976 story song \"The Wreck of the ''Edmund Fitzgerald''\", or ''Gitchee Gumee'' as in Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's 1855 epic poem, ''The Song of Hiawatha'')." ], [ "Statistics", "The Great Lakes contain 21% of the world's surface fresh water: , or 6.0×1015 U.S. gallons, that is 6 quadrillion U.S. gallons, (2.3×1016 liters).", "The lakes contain about 84% of the surface freshwater of North America; if the water were evenly distributed over the entire continent's land area, it would reach a depth of 5 feet (1.5 meters).", "This is enough water to cover the 48 contiguous U.S. states to a uniform depth of .", "Although the lakes contain a large percentage of the world's fresh water, the Great Lakes supply only a small portion of U.S. drinking water on a national basis.The total surface area of the lakes is approximately —nearly the same size as the United Kingdom, and larger than the U.S. states of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Vermont, and New Hampshire combined.", "The Great Lakes coast measures approximately ;, but the length of a coastline is impossible to measure exactly and is not a well-defined measure.", "Canada borders approximately of coastline, while the remaining are bordered by the United States.", "Michigan has the longest shoreline of the United States, bordering roughly of lakes, followed by Wisconsin (), New York (), and Ohio ().", "Traversing the shoreline of all the lakes would cover a distance roughly equivalent to travelling half-way around the world at the equator.A notable modern phenomenon is the formation of ice volcanoes over the lakes during wintertime.", "Storm-generated waves carve the lakes' ice sheet and create conical mounds through the eruption of water and slush.", "The process is only well-documented in the Great Lakes, and has been credited with sparing the southern shorelines from worse rocky erosion." ], [ "Geology", "A diagram of the formation of the Great LakesMap of Glacial Lake Algonquin and its Correlatives (USGS 1915)It has been estimated that the foundational geology that created the conditions shaping the present day upper Great Lakes was laid from 1.1 to 1.2 billion years ago, when two previously fused tectonic plates split apart and created the Midcontinent Rift, which crossed the Great Lakes Tectonic Zone.", "A valley was formed providing a basin that eventually became modern day Lake Superior.", "When a second fault line, the Saint Lawrence rift, formed approximately 570 million years ago, the basis for Lakes Ontario and Erie was created, along with what would become the Saint Lawrence River.The Great Lakes are estimated to have been formed at the end of the Last Glacial Period (the Wisconsin glaciation ended 10,000 to 12,000 years ago), when the Laurentide Ice Sheet receded.", "The retreat of the ice sheet left behind a large amount of meltwater (Lake Algonquin, Lake Chicago, Glacial Lake Iroquois, and Champlain Sea) that filled up the basins that the glaciers had carved, thus creating the Great Lakes as they are today.", "Because of the uneven nature of glacier erosion, some higher hills became Great Lakes islands.", "The Niagara Escarpment follows the contour of the Great Lakes between New York and Wisconsin.", "Land below the glaciers \"rebounded\" as it was uncovered.", "Since the glaciers covered some areas longer than others, this glacial rebound occurred at different rates." ], [ "Climate", "The Great Lakes have a humid continental climate,Köppen climate classification '''Dfa''' (in southern areas) and '''Dfb''' (in northern parts) with varying influences from air masses from other regions including dry, cold Arctic systems, mild Pacific air masses from the west, and warm, wet tropical systems from the south and the Gulf of Mexico.", "The lakes have a moderating effect on the climate; they can also increase precipitation totals and produce lake effect snowfall.===Lake effect===The location of common lake effect bands on the Great LakesThe Great Lakes can have an effect on regional weather called ''lake-effect snow'', which is sometimes very localized.", "Even late in winter, the lakes often have no icepack in the middle.", "The prevailing winds from the west pick up the air and moisture from the lake surface, which is slightly warmer in relation to the cold surface winds above.", "As the slightly warmer, moist air passes over the colder land surface, the moisture often produces concentrated, heavy snowfall that sets up in bands or \"streamers\".", "This is similar to the effect of warmer air dropping snow as it passes over mountain ranges.", "During freezing weather with high winds, the \"snowbelts\" receive regular snow fall from this localized weather pattern, especially along the eastern shores of the lakes.", "Snowbelts are found in Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, and Ontario.", "Related to the lake effect is the regular occurrence of fog, particularly along the shorelines of the lakes.", "This is most noticeable along Lake Superior's shores.The lakes tend to moderate seasonal temperatures to some degree but not with as large an influence as do large oceans; they absorb heat and cool the air in summer, then slowly radiate that heat in autumn.", "They protect against frost during transitional weather and keep the summertime temperatures cooler than further inland.", "This effect can be very localized and overridden by offshore wind patterns.", "This temperature buffering produces areas known as \"fruit belts\", where fruit can be produced that is typically grown much farther south.", "For instance, western Michigan has apple orchards, and cherry orchards are cultivated adjacent to the lake shore as far north as the Grand Traverse Bay.", "Near Collingwood, Ontario, commercial fruit orchards, including a few wineries, exist near the shoreline of southern Nottawasaga Bay.", "The eastern shore of Lake Michigan and the southern shore of Lake Erie have many successful wineries because of the lakes' moderating effects, as do the large commercial fruit and wine growing areas of the Niagara Peninsula located between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario.", "A similar phenomenon allows wineries to flourish in the Finger Lakes region of New York, as well as in Prince Edward County, Ontario, on Lake Ontario's northeast shore.The Great Lakes have been observed to help intensify storms, such as Hurricane Hazel in 1954, and the 2011 Goderich, Ontario tornado, which moved onshore as a tornadic waterspout.", "In 1996, a rare tropical or subtropical storm was observed forming in Lake Huron, dubbed the 1996 Lake Huron cyclone.", "Rather large severe thunderstorms covering wide areas are well known in the Great Lakes during mid-summer; these Mesoscale convective complexes or MCCs can cause damage to wide swaths of forest and shatter glass in city buildings.", "These storms mainly occur during the night, and the systems sometimes have small embedded tornadoes, but more often straight-line winds accompanied by intense lightning." ], [ "Ecology", "Historically, the Great Lakes, in addition to their lake ecology, were surrounded by various forest ecoregions (except in a relatively small area of southeast Lake Michigan where savanna or prairie occasionally intruded).", "Logging, urbanization, and agriculture uses have changed that relationship.", "In the early 21st century, Lake Superior's shores are 91% forested, Lake Huron 68%, Lake Ontario 49%, Lake Michigan 41%, and Lake Erie, where logging and urbanization has been most extensive, 21%.", "Some of these forests are second or third growth (i.e.", "they have been logged before, changing their composition).", "At least 13 wildlife species are documented as becoming extinct since the arrival of Europeans, and many more are threatened or endangered.", "Meanwhile, exotic and invasive species have also been introduced.===Fauna===Lake sturgeon, the largest native fish in the Great Lakes and the subject of extensive commercial fishing in the 19th and 20th centuries is listed as a threatened speciesWhile the organisms living on the bottom of shallow waters are similar to those found in smaller lakes, the deep waters contain organisms found only in deep, cold lakes of the northern latitudes.", "These include the delicate opossum shrimp (order mysida), the deepwater scud (a crustacean of the order amphipoda), two types of copepods, and the deepwater sculpin (a spiny, large-headed fish).The Great Lakes are an important source of fishing.", "Early European settlers were astounded by both the variety and quantity of fish; there were 150 different species in the Great Lakes.", "Throughout history, fish populations were the early indicator of the condition of the Lakes and have remained one of the key indicators even in the current era of sophisticated analyses and measuring instruments.", "According to the bi-national (U.S. and Canadian) resource book, ''The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book'': \"The largest Great Lakes fish harvests were recorded in 1889 and 1899 at some 147 million pounds.", "\"By 1801, the New York Legislature found it necessary to pass regulations curtailing obstructions to the natural migrations of Atlantic salmon from Lake Erie into their spawning channels.", "In the early 19th century, the government of Upper Canada found it necessary to introduce similar legislation prohibiting the use of weirs and nets at the mouths of Lake Ontario's tributaries.", "Other protective legislation was passed, but enforcement remained difficult.On both sides of the Canada–United States border, the proliferation of dams and impoundments have multiplied, necessitating more regulatory efforts.", "Concerns by the mid-19th century included obstructions in the rivers which prevented salmon and lake sturgeon from reaching their spawning grounds.", "The Wisconsin Fisheries Commission noted a reduction of roughly 25% in general fish harvests by 1875.The states have removed dams from rivers where necessary.Overfishing has been cited as a possible reason for a decrease in population of various whitefish, important because of their culinary desirability and, hence, economic consequence.", "Moreover, between 1879 and 1899, reported whitefish harvests declined from some 24.3 million pounds (11 million kg) to just over 9 million pounds (4 million kg).", "By 1900, commercial fishermen on Lake Michigan were hauling in an average of 41 million pounds of fish annually.", "By 1938, Wisconsin's commercial fishing operations were motorized and mechanized, generating jobs for more than 2,000 workers, and hauling 14 million pounds per year.", "The population of giant freshwater mussels was eliminated as the mussels were harvested for use as buttons by early Great Lakes entrepreneurs.", "''The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book'' (1972) notes: \"Only pockets remain of the once large commercial fishery.\"", "Water quality improvements realized during the 1970s and 1980s, combined with successful salmonid stocking programs, have enabled the growth of a large recreational fishery.", "The last commercial fisherman left Milwaukee in 2011 because of overfishing and anthropogenic changes to the biosphere.Cliffs at Palisade Head on Lake Superior in Minnesota near Silver Bay.=== Invasive species ===Since the 19th century, an estimated 160 new species have found their way into the Great Lakes ecosystem; many have become invasive; the overseas ship ballast and ship hull parasitism are causing severe economic and ecological impacts.", "According to the Inland Seas Education Association, on average a new species enters the Great Lakes every eight months.", "Introductions into the Great Lakes include the zebra mussel, which was first discovered in 1988, and quagga mussel in 1989.Since 2000, the invasive quagga mussel has smothered the bottom of Lake Michigan almost from shore to shore, and their numbers are estimated at 900 trillion.", "The mollusks are efficient filter feeders, competing with native mussels and reducing available food and spawning grounds for fish.", "In addition, the mussels may be a nuisance to industries by clogging pipes.", "The U.S.", "Fish and Wildlife Service estimated in 2007 that the economic impact of the zebra mussel could be about $5 billion over the next decade.A zebra mussel–encrusted vector-averaging current meter from Lake Michigan.The alewife first entered the system west of Lake Ontario via 19th-century canals.", "By the 1960s, the small silver fish had become a familiar nuisance to beach goers across Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Erie.", "Periodic mass die-offs result in vast numbers of the fish washing up on shore; estimates by various governments have placed the percentage of Lake Michigan's biomass which was made up of alewives in the early 1960s as high as 90%.", "In the late 1960s, the various state and federal governments began stocking several species of salmonids, including the native lake trout as well as non-native chinook and coho salmon; by the 1980s, alewife populations had dropped drastically.", "The ruffe, a small percid fish from Eurasia, became the most abundant fish species in Lake Superior's Saint Louis River within five years of its detection in 1986.Its range, which has expanded to Lake Huron, poses a significant threat to the lower lake fishery.", "Five years after first being observed in the St. Clair River, the round goby can now be found in all of the Great Lakes.", "The goby is considered undesirable for several reasons: it preys upon bottom-feeding fish, overruns optimal habitat, spawns multiple times a season, and can survive poor water quality conditions.The influx of parasitic lamprey populations after the development of the Erie Canal and the much later Welland Canal led to the two federal governments of the United States and Canada working on joint proposals to control it.", "By the mid-1950s, the lake trout populations of Lakes Michigan and Huron were reduced, with the lamprey deemed largely to blame.", "This led to the launch of the bi-national Great Lakes Fishery Commission.Several species of exotic water fleas have accidentally been introduced into the Great Lakes, such as the spiny waterflea, ''Bythotrephes longimanus'', and the fishhook waterflea, ''Cercopagis pengoi'', potentially having an effect on the zooplankton population.", "Several species of crayfish have also been introduced that may contend with native crayfish populations.", "More recently an electric fence has been set up across the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal in order to keep several species of invasive Asian carp out of the lakes.", "These fast-growing planktivorous fish have heavily colonized the Mississippi and Illinois river systems.", "Invasive species, particularly zebra and quagga mussels, may be at least partially responsible for the collapse of the deepwater demersal fish community in Lake Huron, as well as drastic unprecedented changes in the zooplankton community of the lake.===Microbiology===Scientists understand that the micro-aquatic life of the lakes is abundant but know very little about some of the most plentiful microbes and their environmental effects in the Great Lakes.", "Although a drop of lake water may contain 1 million bacteria cells and 10 million viruses, only since 2012 has there been a long-term study of the lakes' micro-organisms.", "Between 2012 and 2019 more than 160 new species have been discovered.===Flora===Native habitats and ecoregions in the Great Lakes region include:* Alvar* Boreal rich fen (such as in Door County)* Eastern forest-boreal transition* Eastern Great Lakes lowland forests* Southern Great Lakes forests* Central forest-grasslands transition* Upper Midwest forest-savanna transition* Western Great Lakes forests* Central Canadian Shield forests* Laurentian Mixed Forest Province* Beech-maple forest* Habitats of the Indiana DunesPlant lists include:* List of Michigan flowers* List of Minnesota wild flowers* List of Minnesota trees'''Logging'''Logging of the extensive forests in the Great Lakes region removed riparian and adjacent tree cover over rivers and streams, which provide shade, moderating water temperatures in fish spawning grounds.", "Removal of trees also destabilized the soil, with greater volumes washed into stream beds causing siltation of gravel beds, and more frequent flooding.Running cut logs down the tributary rivers into the Great Lakes also dislocated sediments.", "In 1884, the New York Fish Commission determined that the dumping of sawmill waste (chips and sawdust) had impacted fish populations.===Pollution===The first U.S. Clean Water Act, passed by a Congressional override after being vetoed by U.S. President Richard Nixon in 1972, was a key piece of legislation, along with the bi-national Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement signed by Canada and the U.S. A variety of steps taken to process industrial and municipal pollution discharges into the system greatly improved water quality by the 1980s, and Lake Erie in particular is significantly cleaner.", "Discharge of toxic substances has been sharply reduced.", "Federal and state regulations control substances like PCBs.", "The first of 43 \"Great Lakes Areas of Concern\" to be formally \"de-listed\" through successful cleanup was Ontario's Collingwood Harbour in 1994; Ontario's Severn Sound followed in 2003.Presque Isle Bay in Pennsylvania is formally listed as in recovery, as is Ontario's Spanish Harbour.", "Dozens of other Areas of Concern have received partial cleanups such as the Rouge River (Michigan) and Waukegan Harbor (Illinois).Phosphate detergents were historically a major source of nutrient to the Great Lakes algae blooms in particular in the warmer and shallower portions of the system such as Lake Erie, Saginaw Bay, Green Bay, and the southernmost portion of Lake Michigan.", "By the mid-1980s, most jurisdictions bordering the Great Lakes had controlled phosphate detergents.", "Blue-green algae, or cyanobacteria blooms, have been problematic on Lake Erie since 2011.", "\"Not enough is being done to stop fertilizer and phosphorus from getting into the lake and causing blooms,\" said Michael McKay, executive director of the Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research (GLIER) at the University of Windsor.", "The largest Lake Erie bloom to date occurred in 2015, exceeding the severity index at 10.5 and in 2011 at a 10.In early August 2019, satellite images depicted a bloom stretching up to 1,300 square kilometres on Lake Erie, with the heaviest concentration near Toledo, Ohio.", "A large bloom does not necessarily mean the cyanobacteria ... will produce toxins\", said Michael McKay, of the University of Windsor.", "Water quality testing was underway in August 2019.==== Mercury ====Until 1970, mercury was not listed as a harmful chemical, according to the United States Federal Water Quality Administration.", "In the 21st century, mercury has become more apparent in water tests.", "Mercury compounds have been used in paper mills to prevent slime from forming during their production, and chemical companies have used mercury to separate chlorine from brine solutions.", "Studies conducted by the Environmental Protection Agency have shown that when the mercury comes in contact with many of the bacteria and compounds in the fresh water, it forms the compound methyl mercury, which has a much greater impact on human health than elemental mercury due to a higher propensity for absorption.", "This form of mercury is not detrimental to a majority of fish types, but is very detrimental to people and other wildlife animals who consume the fish.", "Mercury has been known for health related problems such as birth defects in humans and animals, and the near extinction of eagles in the Great Lakes region.==== Sewage ====The amount of raw sewage dumped into the waters was the primary focus of both the first Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement and federal laws passed in both countries during the 1970s.", "Implementation of secondary treatment of municipal sewage by major cities greatly reduced the routine discharge of untreated sewage during the 1970s and 1980s.", "The International Joint Commission in 2009 summarized the change: \"Since the early 1970s, the level of treatment to reduce pollution from waste water discharges to the Great Lakes has improved considerably.", "This is a result of significant expenditures to date on both infrastructure and technology, and robust regulatory systems that have proven to be, on the whole, quite effective.\"", "The commission reported that all urban sewage treatment systems on the U.S. side of the lakes had implemented secondary treatment, as had all on the Canadian side except for five small systems.Though contrary to federal laws in both countries, those treatment system upgrades have not yet eliminated combined sewer overflow events.", "This describes when older sewerage systems, which combine storm water with sewage into single sewers heading to the treatment plant, are temporarily overwhelmed by heavy rainstorms.", "Local sewage treatment authorities then must release untreated effluent, a mix of rainwater and sewage, into local water bodies.", "While enormous public investments such as the Deep Tunnel projects in Chicago and Milwaukee have greatly reduced the frequency and volume of these events, they have not been eliminated.", "The number of such overflow events in Ontario, for example, is flat according to the International Joint Commission.", "Reports about this issue on the U.S. side highlight five large municipal systems (those of Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, Milwaukee and Gary) as being the largest current periodic sources of untreated discharges into the Great Lakes.Diatoms of different sizes seen through the microscope.", "These minuscule phytoplankton are encased within a silicate cell wall.The fish of the Great Lakes have anti-depressant drugs meant for humans in their brains, which has caused concerns.", "The number of American adults who take anti-depressant drugs rose from 7.7% of all American adults in 1999–2002 to 12.7% in 2011–2014.As the anti-depressant drugs pass out of human bodies and through sanitation systems into the Great Lakes, this has resulted in fish in the Great Lakes with twenty times the level of anti-depressants in their brains than what is in the water, leading to the fish being exceedingly happy and hence less risk-averse, to the extent of damaging the fish populations.==== Plastic ====Researchers have found that more than of plastic end up in the Great Lakes each year.", "Plastics in the water break up into very small particles known as microplastics.", "Microplastics can also come from synthetic clothing washed down our drains.", "Plastic waste found in the lakes include single-use plastics, plastics used in packaging, takeout containers as well as pre-production pellets produced by plastics industry.", "High concentrations of microplastics were discovered in 100 percent of the fish that were studied by researchers from the Rochman Lab.", "About of fish is harvested each year from Great Lakes which has raised concerns on how this might affect human health.", "Microscopic pieces of plastic have also been found in drinking water coming from Great Lakes.", "It is estimated that nearly 40 million people in the region rely on drinking water from the Great Lakes.A number of self operating floating devices called Seabin, were put in the Great Lakes to capture plastic trash as part of the Great Lakes Plastic Cleanup project.", "The project captured 74,000 pieces of trash using this technology between 2020 and 2021; however, it does not claim to catch up with of plastic that ends up in Great Lakes every year.", "The production, consumption, and throwing away of plastics seems to remain the core of Great Lakes trash problem.=== Impacts of climate change on algae ===Algae such as diatoms, along with other phytoplankton, are photosynthetic primary producers supporting the food web of the Great Lakes, and have been affected by global warming.", "The changes in the size or in the function of the primary producers may have a direct or an indirect impact on the food web.", "Photosynthesis carried out by diatoms constitutes about one fifth of the total photosynthesis.", "By taking out of the water to photosynthesize, diatoms help to stabilize the pH of the water, as would react with water to produce carbonic acid.", ":Diatoms acquire inorganic carbon through passive diffusion of and , and use carbonic anhydrase mediated active transport to speed up this process.", "Large diatoms require more carbon uptake than smaller diatoms.", "There is a positive correlation between the surface area and the chlorophyll concentration of diatom cells." ], [ "History", "A woodcut of ''Le Griffon''Several Native American populations (Paleo-indians) inhabited the region around 10,000 BC, after the end of the Wisconsin glaciation.", "The peoples of the Great Lakes traded from around 1000 AD, as copper nuggets have been extracted from the region and fashioned into ornaments and weapons in the mounds of Southern Ohio.The Rush–Bagot Treaty signed in 1818, after the War of 1812 and the later Treaty of Washington eventually led to a complete disarmament of naval vessels in the Great Lakes.", "Nonetheless, both nations maintained coast guard vessels in the Great Lakes.The brigantine , which was commissioned by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, was built at Cayuga Creek, near the southern end of the Niagara River, and became the first known sailing ship to travel the upper Great Lakes on August 7, 1679.During settlement, the Great Lakes and its rivers were the only practical means of moving people and freight.", "Barges from middle North America were able to reach the Atlantic Ocean from the Great Lakes when the Welland Canal opened in 1824 and the later Erie Canal opened in 1825.By 1848, with the opening of the Illinois and Michigan Canal at Chicago, direct access to the Mississippi River was possible from the lakes.", "With these two canals an all-inland water route was provided between New York City and New Orleans.The main business of many of the passenger lines in the 19th century was transporting immigrants.", "Many of the larger cities owe their existence to their position on the lakes as a freight destination as well as for being a magnet for immigrants.", "After railroads and surface roads developed, the freight and passenger businesses dwindled and, except for ferries and a few foreign cruise ships, have now vanished.The immigration routes still have an effect today.", "Immigrants often formed their own communities, and some areas have a pronounced ethnicity, such as Dutch, German, Polish, Finnish, and many others.", "Since many immigrants settled for a time in New England before moving westward, many areas on the U.S. side of the Great Lakes also have a New England feel, especially in home styles and accent.The passenger ship (foreground) leaving Chicago, c. 1909Since general freight these days is transported by railroads and trucks, domestic ships mostly move bulk cargoes, such as iron ore, coal and limestone for the steel industry.", "The domestic bulk freight developed because of the nearby mines.", "It was more economical to transport the ingredients for steel to centralized plants rather than to make steel on the spot.", "Grain exports are also a major cargo on the lakes.", "In the 19th and early 20th centuries, iron and other ores such as copper were shipped south on (downbound ships), and supplies, food, and coal were shipped north (upbound).", "Because of the location of the coal fields in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, and the general northeast track of the Appalachian Mountains, railroads naturally developed shipping routes that went due north to ports such as Erie, Pennsylvania and Ashtabula, Ohio.Because the lake maritime community largely developed independently, it has some distinctive vocabulary.", "Ships, no matter the size, are called \"boats\".", "When the sailing ships gave way to steamships, they were called \"steamboats\"—the same term used on the Mississippi.", "The ships also have a distinctive design; ships that primarily trade on the lakes are known as \"lakers\".", "Foreign boats are known as \"salties\".", "One of the more common sights on the lakes has been since about 1950 the , self-unloader.", "This is a laker with a conveyor belt system that can unload itself by swinging a crane over the side.", "Today, the Great Lakes fleet is much smaller in numbers than it once was because of the increased use of overland freight, and a few larger ships replacing many small ones.During World War II, the risk of submarine attacks against coastal training facilities motivated the United States Navy to operate two aircraft carriers on the Great Lakes, and .", "Both served as training ships to qualify naval aviators in carrier landing and takeoff.", "Lake Champlain briefly became the sixth Great Lake of the United States on March 6, 1998, when President Clinton signed Senate Bill 927.This bill, which reauthorized the National Sea Grant Program, contained a line declaring Lake Champlain to be a Great Lake.", "Not coincidentally, this status allows neighboring states to apply for additional federal research and education funds allocated to these national resources.", "Following a small uproar, the Senate voted to revoke the designation on March 24 (although New York and Vermont universities would continue to receive funds to monitor and study the lake).Alan B. McCullough has written that the fishing industry of the Great Lakes got its start \"on the American side of Lake Ontario in Chaumont Bay, near the Maumee River on Lake Erie, and on the Detroit River at about the time of the War of 1812\".", "Although the region was sparsely populated until the 1830s, so there was not much local demand and transporting fish was prohibitively costly, there were economic and infrastructure developments that were promising for the future of the fishing industry going into the 1830s.", "Particularly, the 1825 opening of the Erie Canal and the Welland Canal a few years later.", "The fishing industry expanded particularly in the waters associated with the fur trade that connect Lake Erie and Lake Huron.", "In fact, two major suppliers of fish in the 1830s were the fur trading companies Hudson's Bay Company and the American Fur Company.The catch from these waters was sent to the growing market for salted fish in Detroit, where merchants involved in the fur trade had already gained some experience handling salted fish.", "One such merchant was John P. Clark, a shipbuilder and merchant who began selling fish in the area of Manitowoc, Wisconsin where whitefish was abundant.", "Another operation cropped up in Georgian Bay, Canadian waters plentiful with trout as well as whitefish.", "In 1831, Alexander MacGregor from Goderich, Ontario found whitefish and herring in abundant supply around the Fishing Islands.", "A contemporary account by Methodist missionary John Evans describes the fish as resembling a \"bright cloud moving rapidly through the water\".From 1844 through 1857, palace steamers carried passengers and cargo around the Great Lakes.", "In the first half of the 20th century large luxurious passenger steamers sailed the lakes in opulence.", "The Detroit and Cleveland Navigation Company had several vessels at the time and hired workers from all walks of life to help operate these vessels.", "Several ferries currently operate on the Great Lakes to carry passengers to various islands.", "As of 2007, four car ferry services cross the Great Lakes, two on Lake Michigan: a steamer from Ludington, Michigan, to Manitowoc, Wisconsin, and a high speed catamaran from Milwaukee to Muskegon, Michigan, one on Lake Erie: a boat from Kingsville, Ontario, or Leamington, Ontario, to Pelee Island, Ontario, then onto Sandusky, Ohio, and one on Lake Huron: the MS ''Chi-Cheemaun'' runs between Tobermory and South Baymouth, Manitoulin Island, operated by the Owen Sound Transportation Company.", "An international ferry across Lake Ontario from Rochester, New York, to Toronto ran during 2004 and 2005 but is no longer in operation.=== Shipwrecks ===The large size of the Great Lakes increases the risk of water travel; storms and reefs are common threats.", "The lakes are prone to sudden and severe storms, in particular in the autumn, from late October until early December.", "Hundreds of ships have met their end on the lakes.", "The greatest concentration of shipwrecks lies near Thunder Bay (Michigan), beneath Lake Huron, near the point where eastbound and westbound shipping lanes converge.", "The Lake Superior shipwreck coast from Grand Marais, Michigan, to Whitefish Point became known as the \"Graveyard of the Great Lakes\".", "More vessels have been lost in the Whitefish Point area than any other part of Lake Superior.", "The Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve serves as an underwater museum to protect the many shipwrecks in this area.The first ship to sink in Lake Michigan was ''Le Griffon'', also the first ship to sail the Great Lakes.", "Caught in a 1679 storm while trading furs between Green Bay and Michilimacinac, she was lost with all hands aboard.", "Its wreck may have been found in 2004, but a wreck subsequently discovered in a different location was also claimed in 2014 to be ''Le Griffon''.", "The largest and last major freighter wrecked on the lakes was the , which sank on November 10, 1975, just over offshore from Whitefish Point on Lake Superior.", "The largest loss of life in a shipwreck out on the lakes may have been that of , wrecked in 1860 with the loss of around 400 lives on Lake Michigan.", "In an incident at a Chicago dock in 1915, the rolled over while loading passengers, killing 841.In 2007, the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society announced that it had found the wreckage of ''Cyprus'', a long, century-old ore carrier.", "''Cyprus'' sank during a Lake Superior storm on October 11, 1907, during its second voyage while hauling iron ore from Superior, Wisconsin, to Buffalo, New York.", "The entire crew of 23 drowned, except one, Charles Pitz, who floated on a life raft for almost seven hours.", "In 2008, deep sea divers in Lake Ontario found the wreck of the 1780 Royal Navy warship in what has been described as an \"archaeological miracle\".", "There are no plans to raise her as the site is being treated as a war grave.", "In 2010, ''L.R.", "Doty'' was found in Lake Michigan by an exploration diving team led by dive boat Captain Jitka Hanakova from her boat ''Molly V''.", "The ship sank in October 1898, probably attempting to rescue a small schooner, ''Olive Jeanette'', during a terrible storm.Still missing are the two last warships to sink in the Great Lakes, the French minesweepers ''Inkerman'' and ''Cerisoles'', which vanished in Lake Superior during a blizzard in 1918.78 people died making it the largest loss of life in Lake Superior and the greatest unexplained loss of life in the Great Lakes.The Wisconsin Shipwreck Coast National Marine Sanctuary was established in 2021 in the waters of Lake Michigan off Wisconsin.", "It is the site of a large number of historically significant shipwrecks." ], [ "Economy", "Photograph of, closest to farthest, Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron (North is to the right) plus the Finger Lakes of upstate New York, near Lake Ontario, June 14, 2012, taken aboard the International Space Station, with lake names added===Shipping===Except when the water is frozen during winter, more than 100 lake freighters operate continuously on the Great Lakes, which remain a major water transport corridor for bulk goods.", "The Great Lakes Waterway connects all the lakes; the shorter Saint Lawrence Seaway connects the lakes to the Atlantic Ocean.", "Some lake freighters are too large to use the Seaway and operate only on the Waterway and lakes.", "In 2002, 162 million net tons of dry bulk cargo were moved on the Lakes.", "This was, in order of volume: iron ore, grain and potash.", "The iron ore and much of the stone and coal are used in the steel industry.", "There is also some shipping of liquid and containerized cargo.", "Major ports on the Great Lakes include Duluth-Superior, Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Twin Harbors, Hamilton and Thunder Bay.===Recreation===Escanaba's Ludington Park in MichiganTourism and recreation are major industries on the Great Lakes.", "A few small cruise ships operate on the Great Lakes including some sailing ships.", "Sport fishing, commercial fishing, and Native American fishing represent a U.S.$4 billion a year industry with salmon, whitefish, smelt, lake trout, bass and walleye being major catches.", "Many other water sports are practiced on the lakes such as yachting, sea kayaking, diving, kitesurfing, powerboating, and lake surfing.", "The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River." ], [ "Legislation", "Various national, state, provincial, and municipal jurisdictions govern the Great LakesIn 1872, a treaty gave access to the St. Lawrence River to the United States and access to Lake Michigan to the Dominion of Canada.", "The International Joint Commission was established in 1909 to help prevent and resolve disputes relating to the use and quality of boundary waters, and to advise Canada and the United States on questions related to water resources.", "Concerns over diversion of Lake water are of concern to both Americans and Canadians.", "Some water is diverted through the Chicago River to operate the Illinois Waterway, but the flow is limited by treaty.", "Possible schemes for bottled water plants and diversion to dry regions of the continent raise concerns.", "Under the U.S. \"Water Resources Development Act\", diversion of water from the Great Lakes Basin requires the approval of all eight Great Lakes governors through the Great Lakes Commission, which rarely occurs.", "International treaties regulate large diversions.In 1998, the Canadian company Nova Group won approval from the Province of Ontario to withdraw of Lake Superior water annually to ship by tanker to Asian countries.", "Public outcry forced the company to abandon the plan before it began.", "Since that time, the eight Great Lakes Governors and the Premiers of Ontario and Quebec have negotiated the Great Lakes-Saint Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Agreement and the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River Basin Water Resources Compact that would prevent most future diversion proposals and all long-distance ones.", "The agreements strengthen protection against abusive water withdrawal practices within the Great Lakes basin.", "On December 13, 2005, the Governors and Premiers signed these two agreements, the first of which is between all ten jurisdictions.", "It is somewhat more detailed and protective, though its legal strength has not yet been tested in court.", "The second, the Great Lakes Compact, has been approved by the state legislatures of all eight states that border the Great Lakes as well as the U.S. Congress, and was signed into law by President George W. Bush on October 3, 2008.The Great Lakes Restoration Initiative, described as \"the largest investment in the Great Lakes in two decades\", was funded at $475 million in the U.S. federal government's Fiscal Year 2011 budget, and $300 million in the Fiscal Year 2012 budget.", "Through the program a coalition of federal agencies is making grants to local and state entities for toxics cleanups, wetlands and coastline restoration projects, and invasive species-related projects.", "The Great Lakes Restoration Initiative Act of 2019 passed as Public Law 116-294 on January 5, 2021." ], [ "See also", "* Alliance for the Great Lakes* Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909* Eastern Continental Divide* Great Lakes census statistical areas* Great Lakes Protection Fund* Great Lakes WATER Institute* Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal* List of municipalities on the Great Lakes* Michigan Islands National Wildlife Refuge* Wisconsin Shipwreck Coast National Marine Sanctuary* Populated islands of the Great Lakes* Sixty Years' War for control of the Great Lakes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Beltran, R. et al. ''", "The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book''.", "(United States Environmental Protection Agency and Government of Canada, 1995, ).", "* Coon, W.F.", "and R.A.", "Sheets. ''", "Estimate of Ground Water in Storage in the Great Lakes Basin'' Scientific Investigations Report 2006-5180.Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, 2006.", "* * * Riley, John L. (2013) ''The Once and Future Great Lakes Country: An Ecological History'' (McGill-Queen's University Press 516 pages; traces environmental change in the region since the last ice age.", "* Holling, Holling Clancy ''Paddle to the Sea'' (), an illustrated children's book about the Great Lakes and their environment." ], [ "External links", "* * * Great Lakes website of the Canadian Department of the Environment* Great Lakes website of the United States Environmental Protection Agency* Binational website of USEPA and Environment Canada for Great Lakes Water Quality* Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory website (an arm of the American National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)* Great Lakes Information Network, sponsored by the Great Lakes Commission, an official American interstate compact agency.", "* Great Lakes Echo, a publication covering Great Lakes environmental issues* ''Maritime History of the Great Lakes'', digital library covering Great Lakes history.===Dynamically updated data===* Surface temperatures* Water levels* Currents* Ship locations* Water levels since 1918" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "German" ], [ "Introduction", "'''German(s)''' may refer to:* Germany (of or related to)*Germania (historical use) Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality lawGermanic peoples (Roman times)* German language*any of the Germanic languages German cuisine, traditional foods of Germany" ], [ "People", "* German (given name)* German (surname)* Germán, a Spanish name" ], [ "Places", "* German (parish), Isle of Man* German, Albania, or Gërmej* German, Bulgaria* German, Iran* German, North Macedonia* German, New York, U.S.* Agios Germanos, Greece" ], [ "Other uses", "* German (mythology), a South Slavic mythological being* Germans (band), a Canadian rock band* \"German\" (song), a 2019 song by No Money Enterprise* ''The German'', a 2008 short film* \"The Germans\", an episode of ''Fawlty Towers''* ''The German'', a nickname for Congolese rebel André Kisase Ngandu" ], [ "See also", "* Germanic (disambiguation)* Germany (disambiguation)* Germanus (disambiguation)* Germen (disambiguation)* Germain (disambiguation)* Germaine (disambiguation)* Germantown (disambiguation)* Germen (disambiguation)* Germane, a simple chemical compound of germanium and hydrogen" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Girth (graph theory)" ], [ "Introduction", "In graph theory, the '''girth''' of an undirected graph is the length of a shortest cycle contained in the graph.", "If the graph does not contain any cycles (that is, it is a forest), its girth is defined to be infinity.For example, a 4-cycle (square) has girth 4.A grid has girth 4 as well, and a triangular mesh has girth 3.A graph with girth four or more is triangle-free." ], [ "Cages", "A cubic graph (all vertices have degree three) of girth that is as small as possible is known as a -cage (or as a -cage).", "The Petersen graph is the unique 5-cage (it is the smallest cubic graph of girth 5), the Heawood graph is the unique 6-cage, the McGee graph is the unique 7-cage and the Tutte eight cage is the unique 8-cage.", "There may exist multiple cages for a given girth.", "For instance there are three nonisomorphic 10-cages, each with 70 vertices: the Balaban 10-cage, the Harries graph and the Harries–Wong graph.Image:Petersen1 tiny.svg\|The Petersen graph has a girth of 5Image:Heawood_Graph.svg\|The Heawood graph has a girth of 6Image:McGee graph.svg\|The McGee graph has a girth of 7Image:Tutte eight cage.svg\|The Tutte–Coxeter graph (''Tutte eight cage'') has a girth of 8" ], [ "Girth and graph coloring", "For any positive integers and , there exists a graph with girth at least and chromatic number at least ; for instance, the Grötzsch graph is triangle-free and has chromatic number 4, and repeating the Mycielskian construction used to form the Grötzsch graph produces triangle-free graphs of arbitrarily large chromatic number.", "Paul Erdős was the first to prove the general result, using the probabilistic method.", "More precisely, he showed that a random graph on vertices, formed by choosing independently whether to include each edge with probability , has, with probability tending to 1 as goes to infinity, at most cycles of length or less, but has no independent set of size .", "Therefore, removing one vertex from each short cycle leaves a smaller graph with girth greater than , in which each color class of a coloring must be small and which therefore requires at least colors in any coloring.Explicit, though large, graphs with high girth and chromatic number can be constructed as certain Cayley graphs of linear groups over finite fields.", "These remarkable ''Ramanujan graphs'' also have large expansion coefficient." ], [ "Related concepts", "The '''odd girth''' and '''even girth''' of a graph are the lengths of a shortest odd cycle and shortest even cycle respectively.", "The '''''' of a graph is the length of the ''longest'' (simple) cycle, rather than the shortest.Thought of as the least length of a non-trivial cycle, the girth admits natural generalisations as the 1-systole or higher systoles in systolic geometry.Girth is the dual concept to edge connectivity, in the sense that the girth of a planar graph is the edge connectivity of its dual graph, and vice versa.", "These concepts are unified in matroid theory by the girth of a matroid, the size of the smallest dependent set in the matroid.", "For a graphic matroid, the matroid girth equals the girth of the underlying graph, while for a co-graphic matroid it equals the edge connectivity." ], [ "Computation", "The girth of an undirected graph can be computed by running a breadth-first search from each node, with complexity where is the number of vertices of the graph and is the number of edges.", "A practical optimization is to limit the depth of the BFS to a depth that depends on the length of the smallest cycle discovered so far.", "Better algorithms are known in the case where the girth is even and when the graph is planar.", "In terms of lower bounds, computing the girth of a graph is at least as hard as solving the triangle finding problem on the graph." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Gun safety" ], [ "Introduction", "A Glock 19 disarmed and secured for transport (or storage) with a cable lock through its receiver '''Gun safety''' is the study and practice of using, transporting, storing and disposing of firearms and ammunition, including the training of gun users, the design of weapons, and formal and informal regulation of gun production, distribution, and usage, for the purpose of avoiding unintentional injury, illness, or death.", "This includes mishaps like accidental discharge, negligent discharge, and firearm malfunctions, as well as secondary risks like hearing loss, lead poisoning from bullets, and pollution from other hazardous materials in propellants and cartridges.", "There were 47,000 unintentional firearm deaths worldwide in 2013." ], [ "History", "Accidental explosions of stored gunpowder date to the 13th century in Yangzhou, China.", "Early handheld muskets using matchlock or wheel lock mechanisms were limited by poor reliability and the risk of accidental discharge, which was improved somewhat by the introduction of the flintlock, though unintentional firing continued to be a serious drawback.", "Percussion caps, introduced in the 1820s, were more reliable, and by 1830 inventors added security pins to their designs to prevent accidental discharges.", "Trigger guards and grip safeties were further steps leading to the various safeties built into modern firearms." ], [ "Malfunctions" ], [ "Storage", "Gun safes for civilian firearms at a courthouse in Prague.", "It is forbidden to carry any weapons within a courthouse in the Czech Republic.", "Visitors can leave their firearms at gun safes upon entry, before undergoing airport-style security check.Visitor's unloaded pistol and a pepper spray within a courthouse gun safeProper storage prevents unauthorized use or theft of firearms and ammunition, or damage to them.", "A gun safe or gun cabinet is commonly used to physically prevent access to a firearm.", "Local laws may require particular standards for the lock, for the strength and burglar resistance of the cabinet, and may even require weapons and ammunition to be stored separately.", "Rifles or shotgun safes that are a lighter version of true safes are generally the norm for hunters or multiple firearm owners.", "Various safety standards like the RSC standard and CDOJ safety standard in US exists for the minimum requirement to qualify a container as firearm safety storage device.", "Similarly small handgun safes of different sizes and capacity are preferred for storing small number of handguns although most of them are found to be not very reliable by independent researchers and professional hackers.", "Locking mechanism plays important role in overall safety of the small safe.", "Generally simplex mechanical locks are found to be most secure and reliable.For ammunition some experts recommend storing in secure locations away from firearms.", "Ammunition should be kept in cool, dry conditions free from contaminating vapors to prevent deterioration of the propellant and cartridge.", "Handloaders must take special precautions for storing primers and loose gunpowder." ], [ "Training, habits and mindset", "Example of safe firearm handling.", "The firearm is pointed at the ground and the handler's finger is off the trigger.Gun safety training teaches a safety mindset, habits, and rules.", "The mindset is that firearms are inherently dangerous and must always be stored carefully and handled with care.", "Handlers are taught to treat firearms with respect for their destructive capabilities, and strongly discouraged from playing or toying with firearms, a common cause of accidents.", "The rules of gun safety follow from this mindset.In 1902, the English politician and game shooting enthusiast Mark Hanbury Beaufoy wrote some much-quoted verses on gun safety, meant to instill the safety mindset.", "Various similar sayings have since been popularized.", "Jeff Cooper, an influential figure in modern firearms training, formalized and popularized \"Four Rules\" of safe firearm handling.", "Prior lists of gun safety rules included as few as three basic safety rules or as many as ten rules including gun safety and sporting etiquette rules.", "In addition to Cooper, other influential teachers of gun safety include Massad Ayoob, Clint Smith, Chuck Taylor, Jim Crews, Bob Munden and Ignatius Piazza.", "Organisations such as The National Rifle Association of America provide similar sets of rules.===Disassembly===Access to a functioning firearm can be prevented by keeping the firearm disassembled and the parts stored at separate locations.", "Sometimes, this rule is codified in law.", "For example, Swedish law requires firearms owners to store the entire firearm in a safe, classified by the authorities, i.e.", "SS3492.The safe must also weigh more than 150 kilos empty.", "If it weighs less, it must be bolted to the floor and/or wall.", "Wall mounted, lockable gun racks are no longer permitted.===Locks===Trigger lock fitted to the trigger of a revolverThere are several types of locks that serve to make it difficult to discharge a firearm.", "Locks are considered less effective than keeping firearms stored in a lockable safe since locks are more easily defeated than approved safes.", "An unauthorized handler can bypass the locked firearm at their leisure.", "Some manufacturers, such as Taurus, build locks into the firearm itself.California effected regulations in 2000 that forced locks to be approved by a firearm safety device laboratory via California Penal Code Section 12088.All locks under this code must receive extensive tests including saw, pick, pull, and many other tests in order to be approved for the state of California.", "If a lock passes the requirements then it is said to be California Department of Justice (CADOJ) approved.===Trigger lock===Trigger locks prevent trigger manipulation, however they do not guarantee that the firearm absolutely cannot be discharged (see above).", "Some trigger locks are integrated into the design of the weapon, requiring no external parts besides the key.", "Generally, two pieces come together from either side behind the trigger and are locked in place, which can be unlocked with a key or combination.", "This physically prevents the trigger from being depressed to discharge the weapon.", "They may also form part of a larger padlock which locks the entire action.", "Other more commercially common types of trigger locks do not go behind the trigger, but encompass the full area within the trigger guard to making the trigger inaccessible to users.", "Advanced models may also feature anti-tamper alarms.", "A common critique of trigger locks is the time taken to unlock them, limiting their usefulness in a self-defense scenario.", "One potential solution to this is the use of biometric locks which can be removed by the owner near-instantaneously.There is controversy surrounding manufacturing standards, usage, and legislation of trigger locks.", "While supporters of trigger locks argue that they will save children by preventing accidents, critics point to demonstrations that some models can be removed by children with very little force and common household tools.", "Many firearms can discharge when dropped.", "Firearms that fully disengage the hammer when the safety is on pose less of a risk.", "Trigger locks are not designed for use on loaded firearms as the locking mechanism itself may be able manipulate the trigger if pressure is exerted on the lock or during installation/removal; critics argue that this may make the firearm more dangerous by creating the illusion of safety.", "A former senior product manager at Master Lock, a trigger lock manufacturer, was quoted as saying \"If it is a loaded gun, there isn't a lock out there that will keep it from being fired...", "If you put a trigger lock on any loaded gun, you are making the gun more dangerous.\"", "Critics also point out that a trigger lock will increase the time it takes an owner to respond to a self-defense emergency.", "In 2008, the U.S. Supreme Court overturned a Washington, D.C. law that required handguns to be locked or otherwise kept inoperative within the home, saying that this \"makes it impossible for citizens to use them for the core lawful purpose of self-defense\".Although there are no universal standards for the design or testing of trigger locks, some jurisdictions, such as the state of California, maintain a list of approved trigger lock devices.", "In Canada, a trigger lock is one of the methods prescribed by law to secure a firearm during transport or storage.===Chamber locks===Chamber locks aim to block ammunition from being chambered, since most firearms typically cannot be discharged unless the ammunition is in the correct position.", "They are used to prevent live ammunition from being loaded into a firearm by blocking the chamber with a dummy cartridge or a chamber plug, which is sometimes wedged into place with the use of a tool, in essence jamming the firearm.", "Another type is one in which a steel rod locked into the safety cartridge with a key.", "As long as the rod and safety cartridge are engaged, the dummy round cannot eject nor can live ammunition be loaded into the firearm.", "Chamber locks work with most firearm types including revolvers, pistols, rifles and shotguns.", "They are available in any caliber and length, and may include such features as unique keying, rapid removal, and rigorous testing and certification by major state departments such as the California Department of Justice.Some shooting ranges require the handler to insert a temporary chamber plug which often has a brightly colored external tag, to signal the chamber being devoid of ammunition and blocked, whenever the firearm is being unused.", "These are called empty chamber indicators, or chamber flags.===Cable locks===Free gun locks at a community eventCable locks are a popular type of lock that usually threads into the receiver through the ejection port of repeating firearms.", "These locks physically obstruct the movements of the bolt, thereby preventing the cycling of the action, and deny the return to \"battery\" and the closure of the breech.", "In many designs of pistol and rifle, they also thread through the magazine well of the firearm to prevent the proper insertion of a magazine.===Smart gun===Personalized firearms, or smart guns, are intended to prevent unauthorized use with built-in locks that are released by RFID chips or other proximity devices, fingerprint recognition, magnetic rings, or a microchip implant.===Safety flag===Green string safety flag on Steyr Evo 10For reason of safety and security a rule of use of the safety flag has been strictly mentioned by ISSF for the 10m air pistol and rifle shooting sports events.", "The same rule goes for the higher distance shooting guns with much higher caliber of 25m with 0.22cal, 50m with 0.22cal, rapid fire pistol by 0.32cal and many other such sports shooting.", "Safety flag is a non metallic string with an identical end with a flag shaped object on it which sets on the front of the barrel.", "The string and the flag should be in such a color so that it is identical from distance that the gun is in safe mode.", "Safety flag is inserted inside the hollow barrel so that the bullet or the pallet cannot be inserted on the barrel and make it ready for firing.", "The thickness of the safety flag is being made in such measurement so that when it in inside the barrel, it will be impossible to get insert the pallet or the bullet inside the barrel.", "the It is removed only during the time of target firing.", "Not using the safety flag during the gun shooting sports makes the contest participant shooter disqualified.===\"A Rule for Shooting\"===" ], [ "Secondary dangers", "While a firearm's primary danger lies in the discharge of ammunition, there are other ways a firearm may be detrimental to the health of the handler and bystanders.===Noise===When a firearm is discharged it emits a very loud noise, typically close to the handler's ears.", "This can cause temporary or permanent hearing damage such as tinnitus.", "Hearing protection such as earplugs, or earmuffs, or both, can reduce the risk of hearing damage.", "Some earmuffs or headphones made for shooting and similar loud situations use active noise control.", "Firearms may also have silencers which reduce the sound intensity from the barrel.===Hot gases and debris===A firearm emits hot gases, powder, and other debris when discharged.", "Some firearms, such as semi-automatic and fully automatic firearms, typically eject spent cartridge casings at high speed.", "Casings are also dangerously hot when ejected.", "Revolvers store spent casings in the chamber, but may emit a stream of hot gases and possible fine particulate debris laterally from the interface between the revolving chamber and the barrel.", "Any of these may hurt the handler or bystanders through burning or impact damage.", "Because eyes are particularly vulnerable to this type of damage, eye protection should be worn to reduce the risk of injury.", "Prescription lenses and various tints to suit different light conditions are available.", "Some eye protection products are rated to withstand impact from birdshot loads, which offers protection against irresponsible firearms use by other game bird shooters.===Toxins and pollutants===In recent years the toxic effects of ammunition and firearm cleaning agents have been highlighted.", "Lead ammunition left in nature may become mobilized by acid rain.", "Older ammunition may have mercury-based primers.", "Lead accumulates in shooting range backstops.Indoor ranges require good ventilation to remove pollutants such as powder, smoke, and lead dust from the air around the shooters.", "Indoor and outdoor ranges typically require extensive decontamination when they are decommissioned to remove all traces of lead, copper, and powder residues from the area.Lead, copper and other metals will also be released when a firearm is cleaned.", "Highly aggressive solvents and other agents used to remove lead and powder fouling may also present a hazard to health.", "Installing good ventilation, washing hands after handling firearms, and cleaning the space where the firearm was handled lessens the risk of unnecessary exposure." ], [ "Unsafe users", "===Impaired users===Firearms should never be handled by persons who are under the influence of alcohol or any drugs which may affect their judgment.", "Gun safety teachers advocate zero tolerance of their use.", "In the United States, this recommendation is codified in many states' penal codes as a crime of \"carrying under the influence\", with penalties similar to DWI/DUI.", "Other sources of temporary impairment include exhaustion, dehydration, and emotional stress.", "These can affect reaction time, cognitive processing, sensory perception, and judgment.Many jurisdictions prohibit the possession of firearms by people deemed generally incapable of using them safely, such as the mentally ill or convicted felons.=== Children ===An episode of ''About Safety'', a 1970s educational children's show, on the topic of gun safetyThe National Rifle Association of America's Eddie Eagle program for preschoolers through 6th graders is intended to teach children to avoid firearm accidents when they encounter guns that have not been securely stored out of their reach.Whether programs like Eddie Eagle are effective has not been conclusively determined.", "Some studies published in peer-reviewed journals have shown that it is very difficult for young children to control their curiosity even when they have been taught not to touch firearms.", "Gun access is also a major risk factor for youth suicide.", "The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) advises that keeping a gun in the home, especially a handgun, increases the risk of injury and death for children and youth in the home." ], [ "See also", " Safety area" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* A Review of Gun Safety Technologies—National Institute of Justice" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Go Down Moses" ], [ "Introduction", "\"'''Go Down Moses'''\" is an African American spiritual that describes the Hebrew exodus, specifically drawing from Exodus 5:1: \"And the LORD spoke unto Moses, Go unto Pharaoh, and say unto him, Thus saith the LORD, Let my people go, that they may serve me\", where God commands Moses to demand the release of the Israelites from bondage in Egypt.", "As is common in spirituals, the song discusses freedom, referring both to the freedom of the Israelites, and that of runaway enslaved people.", "As a result of these messages, this song was outlawed by many enslavers.", "The opening verse as published by the Jubilee Singers in 1872:Lyrically, the song discusses the liberation of the ancient Jewish people from Egyptian slavery.", "This story held a second meaning for enslaved African Americans, as they related their experiences under slavery to those of Moses and the Israelites who were enslaved by the pharaoh, and they resonated with the message that God will come to the aid of the persecuted.", "\"Go Down Moses\" also makes references to the Jordan River, commonly associated with reaching freedom in spirituals because such an act of running away often involved crossing one or more rivers.Since the Old Testament recognizes the Nile Valley as further south, and thus, lower than Jerusalem and the Promised Land, heading to Egypt means going \"down\" while going away from Egypt is \"up\".", "In the context of American slavery, this ancient sense of \"down\" converged with the concept of \"down the river\" (the Mississippi), where enslaved people's conditions were notoriously worse.", "Later verses also draw parallels between the Israelites' freedom from slavery and humanity's freedom won by Christ." ], [ "\"Oh! Let My People Go\"", "Although usually thought of as a spiritual, the earliest written record of the song was as a rallying anthem for the Contrabands at Fort Monroe sometime before July 1862.White people who reported on the song presumed it was composed by them.", "This became the first spiritual to be recorded in sheet music that is known of, by Reverend Lewis Lockwood.", "While visiting Fortress Monroe in 1861, he heard runaway enslaved people singing this song, transcribed what he heard, and eventually published it in the ''National Anti-Slavery Standard.''", "Sheet music was soon after published titled \"Oh!", "Let My People Go: The Song of the Contrabands\", arranged by Horace Waters.", "L.C.", "Lockwood, chaplain of the Contrabands, stated in the sheet music that the song was from Virginia, dating from about 1853.However, the song was not included in ''Slave Songs of the United States,'' despite its being a very prominent spiritual among enslaved people.", "Furthermore, the original version of the song sung by enslaved people almost definitely sounded very different from what Lockwood transcribed by ear, especially following an arrangement by a person who had never before heard the song as it was originally sung.", "The opening verse, as recorded by Lockwood, is:Sarah Bradford's authorized biography of Harriet Tubman, ''Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman'' (1869), quotes Tubman as saying she used \"Go Down Moses\" as one of two code songs used with fugitive enslaved people to communicate when fleeing Maryland.", "Tubman began her underground railroad work in 1850 and continued until the beginning of the Civil War, so it is possible Tubman's use of the song predates the origin claimed by Lockwood.", "Some people even hypothesize that she herself may have written the spiritual.", "Others claim that Nat Turner, who led one of the most well-known slave revolts in history, either wrote or was the inspiration for the song." ], [ "In popular culture", "===Films===* Al Jolson sings it in Alan Crosland' film ''Big Boy'' (1930).", "* Used briefly in ''Kid Millions'' (1934).", "* Uncredited sung by marching black soldiers off to fight the Yankees in film ''Gone with the Wind'' (1939).", "* Jess Lee Brooks sings it in Preston Sturges' film ''Sullivan's Travels'' (1941).", "* Gregory Miller (portrayed by Sidney Poitier) played the piano for a quintet singing the song in the film ''Blackboard Jungle'' (1955).", "* A reference is made to the song in the film ''Ferris Bueller's Day Off'' (1986), when a bedridden Cameron Frye sings, \"When Cameron was in Egypt's land, let my Cameron go\".", "* Sergei Bodrov Jr. and Oleg Menshikov, who play the two main characters in Sergei Bodrov's film ''Кавказский пленник'' (1996; ''Prisoner of the Mountains'') dance to the Louis Armstrong version.", "* The teen comedy film ''Easy A'' (2010) remixed this song with a fast guitar and beats.", "The song was originally published as ''Original Soundtrack'' and is listed in IMDb.===Literature===* William Faulkner titled his 1942 short-story collection ''Go Down, Moses'' after the song.", "* Djuna Barnes, in her 1936 novel ''Nightwood'', titled a chapter \"Go Down, Matthew\" as an allusion to the song's title.", "* In Margaret Mitchell's 1936 novel ''Gone with the Wind'', enslaved people from the Georgia plantation Tara are in Atlanta, to dig breastworks for the soldiers, and they sing \"Go Down, Moses\" as they march down a street.===Music===* The song was made famous by Paul Robeson whose deep voice was said by Robert O'Meally to have assumed \"the might and authority of God.", "\"* On February 7, 1958, the song was recorded in New York City and sung by Louis Armstrong with Sy Oliver's Orchestra.", "* It was recorded by Doris Akers and the Sky Pilot Choir.", "* The song has since become a jazz standard, having been recorded by Grant Green, Fats Waller, Archie Shepp, Hampton Hawes and many others.", "* It is one of the five spirituals included in the oratorio ''A Child of Our Time'', first performed in 1944, by the English classical composer Michael Tippett (190598).", "* It is included in some seders in the United States, and is printed in Meyer Levin's ''An Israel Haggadah for Passover.''", "* The song was recorded by Deep River Boys in Oslo on September 26, 1960.It was released on the extended play ''Negro Spirituals No.", "3'' (HMV 7EGN 39).", "* The song, or a modified version of it, has been used in the Roger Jones musical ''From Pharaoh to Freedom''* The French singer Claude Nougaro used its melody for his tribute to Louis Armstrong in French, under the name ''Armstrong'' (1965).", "* \"Go Down Moses\" has sometimes been called \"Let My People Go\" and performed by a variety of musical artists, including RebbeSoul* The song heavily influences \"Get Down Moses\", by Joe Strummer & the Mescaleros on their album ''Streetcore'' (2003).", "* The song has been performed by the Russian Interior Ministry (MVD) Choir.", "* Jazz singer Tony Vittia released a swing version under the name \"Own The Night\" (2013).", "* The phrase \"Go Down Moses\" is featured in the chorus of the John Craigie song, \"Will Not Fight\" (2009).", "* The phrase \"Go Down Moses\" is sung by Pops Staples with the Staple Singers in the song \"The Weight\" in ''The Last Waltz'' film by The Band (1976).", "The usual lyric is actually \"Go down Miss Moses\".", "* Avant-garde singer-songwriter and composer Diamanda Galás recorded a version for her fifth album, ''You Must Be Certain of the Devil'' (1988), the final part of a trilogy about the AIDS epidemic that features songs influenced by American gospel music and biblical themes, and later in ''Plague Mass'' (1991) and ''The Singer'' (1992).", "* Composer Nathaniel Dett used the text and melody of \"Go Down Moses\" throughout his oratorio, \"The Ordering of Moses\" (1937).", "In the first section, Dett sets the melody with added-note harmonies, quartal chords, modal harmonies, and chromaticism (especially French augmented sixth chords).", "Later in the oratorio, \"Go Down Moses\" is set as a fugue.===Television===* The NBC television comedy ''The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air'' twice used the song for comedic effect.", "In the first instance, Will Smith's character sings the song after he and his cousin Carlton Banks are thrown into prison (Smith sings the first two lines, Banks sullenly provides the refrain, then a prisoner sings the final four lines in an operatic voice.)", "In the second instance, Banks is preparing for an Easter service and attempts to show off his prowess by singing the last two lines of the chorus; Smith replies with his own version, in which he makes a joke about Carlton's height (\"...Let my cousin grow!\").", "In ''Dr.", "Katz, Professional Therapist'' is sung by Katz and Ben during the end credits of the episode \"Thanksgiving\" (Season 5, Episode 18).", " Della Reese sings it in Episode 424, \"Elijah\", of ''Touched by an Angel'', which Bruce Davison sings \"Eliyahu\".", "* In series 2 episode 3 of ''Life on Mars'', the lawyer sings for his client's release.", "* The song was an answer in an episode of ''Jeopardy!", "''* In season 6, episode 13, “Let’s Doo-Wap it Again”, of the TV series ''Psych'', the fictional musical group \"Blackapella\" performed the song in the opening scene." ], [ "Recordings", "The Tuskegee Institute Singers recorded the song for Victor in 1914.", " The Kelly Family recorded the song twice: live version is included on their album ''Live'' (1988) and a studio version on ''New World'' (1990).", "The latter also features on their compilation album ''The Very Best - Over 10 Years'' (1993).", "* The Golden Gate Quartet (Duration: 3:05; recorded in 1957 for their album ''Spirituals'').", "* \"Go Down Moses\" was recorded by the Robert Shaw Chorale on RCA Victor 33 record LM/LSC 2580, copyright 1964, first side, second band, lasting 4 minutes and 22 seconds.", "Liner notes by noted African-American author Langston Hughes." ], [ "See also", "Christian child's prayer § SpiritualsLet My People Go (disambiguation)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "''The Continental Monthly''.", "Vol.", "II (July–December 1862).", "New York.", "Lockwood, L.C.", "\"Oh!", "Let My People Go: The Song of the Contrabands\".", "New York: Horace Waters (1862)." ], [ "External links", "* Sweet Chariot: The Story of the Spirituals, particularly their section on \"Freedom\" (Web site maintained by The Spirituals Project at the University of Denver)*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "General relativity" ], [ "Introduction", "Slow motion computer simulation of the black hole binary system GW150914 as seen by a nearby observer, during 0.33 s of its final inspiral, merge, and ringdown.", "The star field behind the black holes is being heavily distorted and appears to rotate and move, due to extreme gravitational lensing, as spacetime itself is distorted and dragged around by the rotating black holes.", "'''General relativity''', also known as the '''general theory of relativity''' and '''Einstein's theory of gravity''', is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and is the current description of gravitation in modern physics.", "General relativity generalises special relativity and refines Newton's law of universal gravitation, providing a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time or four-dimensional spacetime.", "In particular, the '''' is directly related to the energy and momentum of whatever matter and radiation are present.", "The relation is specified by the Einstein field equations, a system of second order partial differential equations.Newton's law of universal gravitation, which describes classical gravity, can be seen as a prediction of general relativity for the almost flat spacetime geometry around stationary mass distributions.", "Some predictions of general relativity, however, are beyond Newton's law of universal gravitation in classical physics.", "These predictions concern the passage of time, the geometry of space, the motion of bodies in free fall, and the propagation of light, and include gravitational time dilation, gravitational lensing, the gravitational redshift of light, the Shapiro time delay and singularities/black holes.", "So far, all tests of general relativity have been shown to be in agreement with the theory.", "The time-dependent solutions of general relativity enable us to talk about the history of the universe and have provided the modern framework for cosmology, thus leading to the discovery of the Big Bang and cosmic microwave background radiation.", "Despite the introduction of a number of alternative theories, general relativity continues to be the simplest theory consistent with experimental data.Reconciliation of general relativity with the laws of quantum physics remains a problem, however, as there is a lack of a self-consistent theory of quantum gravity.", "It is not yet known how gravity can be unified with the three non-gravitational forces: strong, weak and electromagnetic.Einstein's theory has astrophysical implications, including the prediction of black holes—regions of space in which space and time are distorted in such a way that nothing, not even light, can escape from them.", "Black holes are the end-state for massive stars.", "Microquasars and active galactic nuclei are believed to be stellar black holes and supermassive black holes.", "It also predicts gravitational lensing, where the bending of light results in multiple images of the same distant astronomical phenomenon.", "Other predictions include the existence of gravitational waves, which have been observed directly by the physics collaboration LIGO and other observatories.", "In addition, general relativity has provided the base of cosmological models of an expanding universe.Widely acknowledged as a theory of extraordinary beauty, general relativity has often been described as the most beautiful of all existing physical theories." ], [ "History", "Henri Poincaré's 1905 theory of the dynamics of the electron was a relativistic theory which he applied to all forces, including gravity.", "While others thought that gravity was instantaneous or of electromagnetic origin, he suggested that relativity was \"something due to our methods of measurement\".", "In his theory, he showed that gravitational waves propagate at the speed of light.", "Soon afterwards, Einstein started thinking about how to incorporate gravity into his relativistic framework.", "In 1907, beginning with a simple thought experiment involving an observer in free fall (FFO), he embarked on what would be an eight-year search for a relativistic theory of gravity.", "After numerous detours and false starts, his work culminated in the presentation to the Prussian Academy of Science in November 1915 of what are now known as the Einstein field equations, which form the core of Einstein's general theory of relativity.", "These equations specify how the geometry of space and time is influenced by whatever matter and radiation are present.", "A version of non-Euclidean geometry, called Riemannian geometry, enabled Einstein to develop general relativity by providing the key mathematical framework on which he fit his physical ideas of gravity.", "This idea was pointed out by mathematician Marcel Grossmann and published by Grossmann and Einstein in 1913.The Einstein field equations are nonlinear and considered difficult to solve.", "Einstein used approximation methods in working out initial predictions of the theory.", "But in 1916, the astrophysicist Karl Schwarzschild found the first non-trivial exact solution to the Einstein field equations, the Schwarzschild metric.", "This solution laid the groundwork for the description of the final stages of gravitational collapse, and the objects known today as black holes.", "In the same year, the first steps towards generalizing Schwarzschild's solution to electrically charged objects were taken, eventually resulting in the Reissner–Nordström solution, which is now associated with electrically charged black holes.", "In 1917, Einstein applied his theory to the universe as a whole, initiating the field of relativistic cosmology.", "In line with contemporary thinking, he assumed a static universe, adding a new parameter to his original field equations—the cosmological constant—to match that observational presumption.", "By 1929, however, the work of Hubble and others had shown that our universe is expanding.", "This is readily described by the expanding cosmological solutions found by Friedmann in 1922, which do not require a cosmological constant.", "Lemaître used these solutions to formulate the earliest version of the Big Bang models, in which our universe has evolved from an extremely hot and dense earlier state.", "Einstein later declared the cosmological constant the biggest blunder of his life.During that period, general relativity remained something of a curiosity among physical theories.", "It was clearly superior to Newtonian gravity, being consistent with special relativity and accounting for several effects unexplained by the Newtonian theory.", "Einstein showed in 1915 how his theory explained the anomalous perihelion advance of the planet Mercury without any arbitrary parameters (\"fudge factors\"), and in 1919 an expedition led by Eddington confirmed general relativity's prediction for the deflection of starlight by the Sun during the total solar eclipse of 29 May 1919, instantly making Einstein famous.", "Yet the theory remained outside the mainstream of theoretical physics and astrophysics until developments between approximately 1960 and 1975, now known as the golden age of general relativity.", "Physicists began to understand the concept of a black hole, and to identify quasars as one of these objects' astrophysical manifestations.", "Ever more precise solar system tests confirmed the theory's predictive power, and relativistic cosmology also became amenable to direct observational tests.General relativity has acquired a reputation as a theory of extraordinary beauty.", "Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar has noted that at multiple levels, general relativity exhibits what Francis Bacon has termed a \"strangeness in the proportion\" (''i.e''.", "elements that excite wonderment and surprise).", "It juxtaposes fundamental concepts (space and time ''versus'' matter and motion) which had previously been considered as entirely independent.", "Chandrasekhar also noted that Einstein's only guides in his search for an exact theory were the principle of equivalence and his sense that a proper description of gravity should be geometrical at its basis, so that there was an \"element of revelation\" in the manner in which Einstein arrived at his theory.", "Other elements of beauty associated with the general theory of relativity are its simplicity and symmetry, the manner in which it incorporates invariance and unification, and its perfect logical consistency.In the preface to Relativity: The Special and the General Theory, Einstein said \"The present book is intended, as far as possible, to give an exact insight into the theory of Relativity to those readers who, from a general scientific and philosophical point of view, are interested in the theory, but who are not conversant with the mathematical apparatus of theoretical physics.", "The work presumes a standard of education corresponding to that of a university matriculation examination, and, despite the shortness of the book, a fair amount of patience and force of will on the part of the reader.", "The author has spared himself no pains in his endeavour to present the main ideas in the simplest and most intelligible form, and on the whole, in the sequence and connection in which they actually originated.\"" ], [ "From classical mechanics to general relativity", "General relativity can be understood by examining its similarities with and departures from classical physics.", "The first step is the realization that classical mechanics and Newton's law of gravity admit a geometric description.", "The combination of this description with the laws of special relativity results in a heuristic derivation of general relativity.=== Geometry of Newtonian gravity ===According to general relativity, objects in a gravitational field behave similarly to objects within an accelerating enclosure.", "For example, an observer will see a ball fall the same way in a rocket (left) as it does on Earth (right), provided that the acceleration of the rocket is equal to 9.8 m/s2 (the acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the Earth).At the base of classical mechanics is the notion that a body's motion can be described as a combination of free (or inertial) motion, and deviations from this free motion.", "Such deviations are caused by external forces acting on a body in accordance with Newton's second law of motion, which states that the net force acting on a body is equal to that body's (inertial) mass multiplied by its acceleration.", "The preferred inertial motions are related to the geometry of space and time: in the standard reference frames of classical mechanics, objects in free motion move along straight lines at constant speed.", "In modern parlance, their paths are geodesics, straight world lines in curved spacetime.Conversely, one might expect that inertial motions, once identified by observing the actual motions of bodies and making allowances for the external forces (such as electromagnetism or friction), can be used to define the geometry of space, as well as a time coordinate.", "However, there is an ambiguity once gravity comes into play.", "According to Newton's law of gravity, and independently verified by experiments such as that of Eötvös and its successors (see Eötvös experiment), there is a universality of free fall (also known as the weak equivalence principle, or the universal equality of inertial and passive-gravitational mass): the trajectory of a test body in free fall depends only on its position and initial speed, but not on any of its material properties.", "A simplified version of this is embodied in '''Einstein's elevator experiment''', illustrated in the figure on the right: for an observer in an enclosed room, it is impossible to decide, by mapping the trajectory of bodies such as a dropped ball, whether the room is stationary in a gravitational field and the ball accelerating, or in free space aboard a rocket that is accelerating at a rate equal to that of the gravitational field versus the ball which upon release has nil acceleration.Given the universality of free fall, there is no observable distinction between inertial motion and motion under the influence of the gravitational force.", "This suggests the definition of a new class of inertial motion, namely that of objects in free fall under the influence of gravity.", "This new class of preferred motions, too, defines a geometry of space and time—in mathematical terms, it is the geodesic motion associated with a specific connection which depends on the gradient of the gravitational potential.", "Space, in this construction, still has the ordinary Euclidean geometry.", "However, space''time'' as a whole is more complicated.", "As can be shown using simple thought experiments following the free-fall trajectories of different test particles, the result of transporting spacetime vectors that can denote a particle's velocity (time-like vectors) will vary with the particle's trajectory; mathematically speaking, the Newtonian connection is not integrable.", "From this, one can deduce that spacetime is curved.", "The resulting Newton–Cartan theory is a geometric formulation of Newtonian gravity using only covariant concepts, i.e.", "a description which is valid in any desired coordinate system.", "In this geometric description, tidal effects—the relative acceleration of bodies in free fall—are related to the derivative of the connection, showing how the modified geometry is caused by the presence of mass.=== Relativistic generalization ===Light coneAs intriguing as geometric Newtonian gravity may be, its basis, classical mechanics, is merely a limiting case of (special) relativistic mechanics.", "In the language of symmetry: where gravity can be neglected, physics is Lorentz invariant as in special relativity rather than Galilei invariant as in classical mechanics.", "(The defining symmetry of special relativity is the Poincaré group, which includes translations, rotations, boosts and reflections.)", "The differences between the two become significant when dealing with speeds approaching the speed of light, and with high-energy phenomena.With Lorentz symmetry, additional structures come into play.", "They are defined by the set of light cones (see image).", "The light-cones define a causal structure: for each event , there is a set of events that can, in principle, either influence or be influenced by via signals or interactions that do not need to travel faster than light (such as event in the image), and a set of events for which such an influence is impossible (such as event in the image).", "These sets are observer-independent.", "In conjunction with the world-lines of freely falling particles, the light-cones can be used to reconstruct the spacetime's semi-Riemannian metric, at least up to a positive scalar factor.", "In mathematical terms, this defines a conformal structure or conformal geometry.Special relativity is defined in the absence of gravity.", "For practical applications, it is a suitable model whenever gravity can be neglected.", "Bringing gravity into play, and assuming the universality of free fall motion, an analogous reasoning as in the previous section applies: there are no global inertial frames.", "Instead there are approximate inertial frames moving alongside freely falling particles.", "Translated into the language of spacetime: the straight time-like lines that define a gravity-free inertial frame are deformed to lines that are curved relative to each other, suggesting that the inclusion of gravity necessitates a change in spacetime geometry.A priori, it is not clear whether the new local frames in free fall coincide with the reference frames in which the laws of special relativity hold—that theory is based on the propagation of light, and thus on electromagnetism, which could have a different set of preferred frames.", "But using different assumptions about the special-relativistic frames (such as their being earth-fixed, or in free fall), one can derive different predictions for the gravitational redshift, that is, the way in which the frequency of light shifts as the light propagates through a gravitational field (cf.", "below).", "The actual measurements show that free-falling frames are the ones in which light propagates as it does in special relativity.", "The generalization of this statement, namely that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames, is known as the Einstein equivalence principle, a crucial guiding principle for generalizing special-relativistic physics to include gravity.The same experimental data shows that time as measured by clocks in a gravitational field—proper time, to give the technical term—does not follow the rules of special relativity.", "In the language of spacetime geometry, it is not measured by the Minkowski metric.", "As in the Newtonian case, this is suggestive of a more general geometry.", "At small scales, all reference frames that are in free fall are equivalent, and approximately Minkowskian.", "Consequently, we are now dealing with a curved generalization of Minkowski space.", "The metric tensor that defines the geometry—in particular, how lengths and angles are measured—is not the Minkowski metric of special relativity, it is a generalization known as a semi- or pseudo-Riemannian metric.", "Furthermore, each Riemannian metric is naturally associated with one particular kind of connection, the Levi-Civita connection, and this is, in fact, the connection that satisfies the equivalence principle and makes space locally Minkowskian (that is, in suitable locally inertial coordinates, the metric is Minkowskian, and its first partial derivatives and the connection coefficients vanish).=== Einstein's equations ===Having formulated the relativistic, geometric version of the effects of gravity, the question of gravity's source remains.", "In Newtonian gravity, the source is mass.", "In special relativity, mass turns out to be part of a more general quantity called the energy–momentum tensor, which includes both energy and momentum densities as well as stress: pressure and shear.", "Using the equivalence principle, this tensor is readily generalized to curved spacetime.", "Drawing further upon the analogy with geometric Newtonian gravity, it is natural to assume that the field equation for gravity relates this tensor and the Ricci tensor, which describes a particular class of tidal effects: the change in volume for a small cloud of test particles that are initially at rest, and then fall freely.", "In special relativity, conservation of energy–momentum corresponds to the statement that the energy–momentum tensor is divergence-free.", "This formula, too, is readily generalized to curved spacetime by replacing partial derivatives with their curved-manifold counterparts, covariant derivatives studied in differential geometry.", "With this additional condition—the covariant divergence of the energy–momentum tensor, and hence of whatever is on the other side of the equation, is zero—the simplest nontrivial set of equations are what are called Einstein's (field) equations:On the left-hand side is the Einstein tensor, , which is symmetric and a specific divergence-free combination of the Ricci tensor and the metric.", "In particular,: is the curvature scalar.", "The Ricci tensor itself is related to the more general Riemann curvature tensor as: On the right-hand side, is a constant and is the energy–momentum tensor.", "All tensors are written in abstract index notation.", "Matching the theory's prediction to observational results for planetary orbits or, equivalently, assuring that the weak-gravity, low-speed limit is Newtonian mechanics, the proportionality constant is found to be , where is the Newtonian constant of gravitation and the speed of light in vacuum.", "When there is no matter present, so that the energy–momentum tensor vanishes, the results are the vacuum Einstein equations,: In general relativity, the world line of a particle free from all external, non-gravitational force is a particular type of geodesic in curved spacetime.", "In other words, a freely moving or falling particle always moves along a geodesic.The geodesic equation is:: where is a scalar parameter of motion (e.g.", "the proper time), and are Christoffel symbols (sometimes called the affine connection coefficients or Levi-Civita connection coefficients) which is symmetric in the two lower indices.", "Greek indices may take the values: 0, 1, 2, 3 and the summation convention is used for repeated indices and .", "The quantity on the left-hand-side of this equation is the acceleration of a particle, and so this equation is analogous to Newton's laws of motion which likewise provide formulae for the acceleration of a particle.", "This equation of motion employs the Einstein notation, meaning that repeated indices are summed (i.e.", "from zero to three).", "The Christoffel symbols are functions of the four spacetime coordinates, and so are independent of the velocity or acceleration or other characteristics of a test particle whose motion is described by the geodesic equation.=== Total force in general relativity ===In general relativity, the effective gravitational potential energy of an object of mass ''m'' revolving around a massive central body ''M'' is given by:A conservative total force can then be obtained as:where ''L'' is the angular momentum.", "The first term represents the force of Newtonian gravity, which is described by the inverse-square law.", "The second term represents the centrifugal force in the circular motion.", "The third term represents the relativistic effect.=== Alternatives to general relativity ===There are alternatives to general relativity built upon the same premises, which include additional rules and/or constraints, leading to different field equations.", "Examples are Whitehead's theory, Brans–Dicke theory, teleparallelism, ''f''(''R'') gravity and Einstein–Cartan theory." ], [ "Definition and basic applications", "The derivation outlined in the previous section contains all the information needed to define general relativity, describe its key properties, and address a question of crucial importance in physics, namely how the theory can be used for model-building.=== Definition and basic properties ===General relativity is a metric theory of gravitation.", "At its core are Einstein's equations, which describe the relation between the geometry of a four-dimensional pseudo-Riemannian manifold representing spacetime, and the energy–momentum contained in that spacetime.", "Phenomena that in classical mechanics are ascribed to the action of the force of gravity (such as free-fall, orbital motion, and spacecraft trajectories), correspond to inertial motion within a curved geometry of spacetime in general relativity; there is no gravitational force deflecting objects from their natural, straight paths.", "Instead, gravity corresponds to changes in the properties of space and time, which in turn changes the straightest-possible paths that objects will naturally follow.", "The curvature is, in turn, caused by the energy–momentum of matter.", "Paraphrasing the relativist John Archibald Wheeler, spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve.While general relativity replaces the scalar gravitational potential of classical physics by a symmetric rank-two tensor, the latter reduces to the former in certain limiting cases.", "For weak gravitational fields and slow speed relative to the speed of light, the theory's predictions converge on those of Newton's law of universal gravitation.As it is constructed using tensors, general relativity exhibits general covariance: its laws—and further laws formulated within the general relativistic framework—take on the same form in all coordinate systems.", "Furthermore, the theory does not contain any invariant geometric background structures, i.e.", "it is background independent.", "It thus satisfies a more stringent general principle of relativity, namely that the laws of physics are the same for all observers.", "Locally, as expressed in the equivalence principle, spacetime is Minkowskian, and the laws of physics exhibit local Lorentz invariance.=== Model-building ===The core concept of general-relativistic model-building is that of a solution of Einstein's equations.", "Given both Einstein's equations and suitable equations for the properties of matter, such a solution consists of a specific semi-Riemannian manifold (usually defined by giving the metric in specific coordinates), and specific matter fields defined on that manifold.", "Matter and geometry must satisfy Einstein's equations, so in particular, the matter's energy–momentum tensor must be divergence-free.", "The matter must, of course, also satisfy whatever additional equations were imposed on its properties.", "In short, such a solution is a model universe that satisfies the laws of general relativity, and possibly additional laws governing whatever matter might be present.Einstein's equations are nonlinear partial differential equations and, as such, difficult to solve exactly.", "Nevertheless, a number of exact solutions are known, although only a few have direct physical applications.", "The best-known exact solutions, and also those most interesting from a physics point of view, are the Schwarzschild solution, the Reissner–Nordström solution and the Kerr metric, each corresponding to a certain type of black hole in an otherwise empty universe, and the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker and de Sitter universes, each describing an expanding cosmos.", "Exact solutions of great theoretical interest include the Gödel universe (which opens up the intriguing possibility of time travel in curved spacetimes), the Taub–NUT solution (a model universe that is homogeneous, but anisotropic), and anti-de Sitter space (which has recently come to prominence in the context of what is called the Maldacena conjecture).Given the difficulty of finding exact solutions, Einstein's field equations are also solved frequently by numerical integration on a computer, or by considering small perturbations of exact solutions.", "In the field of numerical relativity, powerful computers are employed to simulate the geometry of spacetime and to solve Einstein's equations for interesting situations such as two colliding black holes.", "In principle, such methods may be applied to any system, given sufficient computer resources, and may address fundamental questions such as naked singularities.", "Approximate solutions may also be found by perturbation theories such as linearized gravity and its generalization, the post-Newtonian expansion, both of which were developed by Einstein.", "The latter provides a systematic approach to solving for the geometry of a spacetime that contains a distribution of matter that moves slowly compared with the speed of light.", "The expansion involves a series of terms; the first terms represent Newtonian gravity, whereas the later terms represent ever smaller corrections to Newton's theory due to general relativity.", "An extension of this expansion is the parametrized post-Newtonian (PPN) formalism, which allows quantitative comparisons between the predictions of general relativity and alternative theories." ], [ "Consequences of Einstein's theory", "General relativity has a number of physical consequences.", "Some follow directly from the theory's axioms, whereas others have become clear only in the course of many years of research that followed Einstein's initial publication.=== Gravitational time dilation and frequency shift ===Schematic representation of the gravitational redshift of a light wave escaping from the surface of a massive bodyAssuming that the equivalence principle holds, gravity influences the passage of time.", "Light sent down into a gravity well is blueshifted, whereas light sent in the opposite direction (i.e., climbing out of the gravity well) is redshifted; collectively, these two effects are known as the gravitational frequency shift.", "More generally, processes close to a massive body run more slowly when compared with processes taking place farther away; this effect is known as gravitational time dilation.Gravitational redshift has been measured in the laboratory and using astronomical observations.", "Gravitational time dilation in the Earth's gravitational field has been measured numerous times using atomic clocks, while ongoing validation is provided as a side effect of the operation of the Global Positioning System (GPS).", "Tests in stronger gravitational fields are provided by the observation of binary pulsars.", "All results are in agreement with general relativity.", "However, at the current level of accuracy, these observations cannot distinguish between general relativity and other theories in which the equivalence principle is valid.=== Light deflection and gravitational time delay ===Deflection of light (sent out from the location shown in blue) near a compact body (shown in gray)General relativity predicts that the path of light will follow the curvature of spacetime as it passes near a star.", "This effect was initially confirmed by observing the light of stars or distant quasars being deflected as it passes the Sun.This and related predictions follow from the fact that light follows what is called a light-like or null geodesic—a generalization of the straight lines along which light travels in classical physics.", "Such geodesics are the generalization of the invariance of lightspeed in special relativity.", "As one examines suitable model spacetimes (either the exterior Schwarzschild solution or, for more than a single mass, the post-Newtonian expansion), several effects of gravity on light propagation emerge.", "Although the bending of light can also be derived by extending the universality of free fall to light, the angle of deflection resulting from such calculations is only half the value given by general relativity.Closely related to light deflection is the Shapiro Time Delay, the phenomenon that light signals take longer to move through a gravitational field than they would in the absence of that field.", "There have been numerous successful tests of this prediction.", "In the parameterized post-Newtonian formalism (PPN), measurements of both the deflection of light and the gravitational time delay determine a parameter called γ, which encodes the influence of gravity on the geometry of space.=== Gravitational waves ===Ring of test particles deformed by a passing (linearized, amplified for better visibility) gravitational wavePredicted in 1916 by Albert Einstein, there are gravitational waves: ripples in the metric of spacetime that propagate at the speed of light.", "These are one of several analogies between weak-field gravity and electromagnetism in that, they are analogous to electromagnetic waves.", "On 11 February 2016, the Advanced LIGO team announced that they had directly detected gravitational waves from a pair of black holes merging.The simplest type of such a wave can be visualized by its action on a ring of freely floating particles.", "A sine wave propagating through such a ring towards the reader distorts the ring in a characteristic, rhythmic fashion (animated image to the right).", "Since Einstein's equations are non-linear, arbitrarily strong gravitational waves do not obey linear superposition, making their description difficult.", "However, linear approximations of gravitational waves are sufficiently accurate to describe the exceedingly weak waves that are expected to arrive here on Earth from far-off cosmic events, which typically result in relative distances increasing and decreasing by or less.", "Data analysis methods routinely make use of the fact that these linearized waves can be Fourier decomposed.Some exact solutions describe gravitational waves without any approximation, e.g., a wave train traveling through empty space or Gowdy universes, varieties of an expanding cosmos filled with gravitational waves.", "But for gravitational waves produced in astrophysically relevant situations, such as the merger of two black holes, numerical methods are presently the only way to construct appropriate models.=== Orbital effects and the relativity of direction ===General relativity differs from classical mechanics in a number of predictions concerning orbiting bodies.", "It predicts an overall rotation (precession) of planetary orbits, as well as orbital decay caused by the emission of gravitational waves and effects related to the relativity of direction.==== Precession of apsides ====Newtonian (red) vs. Einsteinian orbit (blue) of a lone planet orbiting a star.", "The influence of other planets is ignored.In general relativity, the apsides of any orbit (the point of the orbiting body's closest approach to the system's center of mass) will precess; the orbit is not an ellipse, but akin to an ellipse that rotates on its focus, resulting in a rose curve-like shape (see image).", "Einstein first derived this result by using an approximate metric representing the Newtonian limit and treating the orbiting body as a test particle.", "For him, the fact that his theory gave a straightforward explanation of Mercury's anomalous perihelion shift, discovered earlier by Urbain Le Verrier in 1859, was important evidence that he had at last identified the correct form of the gravitational field equations.The effect can also be derived by using either the exact Schwarzschild metric (describing spacetime around a spherical mass) or the much more general post-Newtonian formalism.", "It is due to the influence of gravity on the geometry of space and to the contribution of self-energy to a body's gravity (encoded in the nonlinearity of Einstein's equations).", "Relativistic precession has been observed for all planets that allow for accurate precession measurements (Mercury, Venus, and Earth), as well as in binary pulsar systems, where it is larger by five orders of magnitude.In general relativity the perihelion shift , expressed in radians per revolution, is approximately given by:where:* is the semi-major axis* is the orbital period* is the speed of light in vacuum* is the orbital eccentricity==== Orbital decay ====s), tracked over 16 years (2021).According to general relativity, a binary system will emit gravitational waves, thereby losing energy.", "Due to this loss, the distance between the two orbiting bodies decreases, and so does their orbital period.", "Within the Solar System or for ordinary double stars, the effect is too small to be observable.", "This is not the case for a close binary pulsar, a system of two orbiting neutron stars, one of which is a pulsar: from the pulsar, observers on Earth receive a regular series of radio pulses that can serve as a highly accurate clock, which allows precise measurements of the orbital period.", "Because neutron stars are immensely compact, significant amounts of energy are emitted in the form of gravitational radiation.The first observation of a decrease in orbital period due to the emission of gravitational waves was made by Hulse and Taylor, using the binary pulsar PSR1913+16 they had discovered in 1974.This was the first detection of gravitational waves, albeit indirect, for which they were awarded the 1993 Nobel Prize in physics.", "Since then, several other binary pulsars have been found, in particular the double pulsar PSR J0737−3039, where both stars are pulsars and which was last reported to also be in agreement with general relativity in 2021 after 16 years of observations.==== Geodetic precession and frame-dragging ====Several relativistic effects are directly related to the relativity of direction.", "One is geodetic precession: the axis direction of a gyroscope in free fall in curved spacetime will change when compared, for instance, with the direction of light received from distant stars—even though such a gyroscope represents the way of keeping a direction as stable as possible (\"parallel transport\").", "For the Moon–Earth system, this effect has been measured with the help of lunar laser ranging.", "More recently, it has been measured for test masses aboard the satellite Gravity Probe B to a precision of better than 0.3%.Near a rotating mass, there are gravitomagnetic or frame-dragging effects.", "A distant observer will determine that objects close to the mass get \"dragged around\".", "This is most extreme for rotating black holes where, for any object entering a zone known as the ergosphere, rotation is inevitable.", "Such effects can again be tested through their influence on the orientation of gyroscopes in free fall.", "Somewhat controversial tests have been performed using the LAGEOS satellites, confirming the relativistic prediction.", "Also the Mars Global Surveyor probe around Mars has been used." ], [ "Interpretations", "=== Neo-Lorentzian Interpretation ===Examples of physicists who support neo-Lorentzian explanations of general relativity are Franco Selleri and Antony Valentini." ], [ "Astrophysical applications", "=== Gravitational lensing ===Einstein cross: four images of the same astronomical object, produced by a gravitational lensThe deflection of light by gravity is responsible for a new class of astronomical phenomena.", "If a massive object is situated between the astronomer and a distant target object with appropriate mass and relative distances, the astronomer will see multiple distorted images of the target.", "Such effects are known as gravitational lensing.", "Depending on the configuration, scale, and mass distribution, there can be two or more images, a bright ring known as an Einstein ring, or partial rings called arcs.The earliest example was discovered in 1979; since then, more than a hundred gravitational lenses have been observed.", "Even if the multiple images are too close to each other to be resolved, the effect can still be measured, e.g., as an overall brightening of the target object; a number of such \"microlensing events\" have been observed.Gravitational lensing has developed into a tool of observational astronomy.", "It is used to detect the presence and distribution of dark matter, provide a \"natural telescope\" for observing distant galaxies, and to obtain an independent estimate of the Hubble constant.", "Statistical evaluations of lensing data provide valuable insight into the structural evolution of galaxies.=== Gravitational-wave astronomy ===LISAObservations of binary pulsars provide strong indirect evidence for the existence of gravitational waves (see Orbital decay, above).", "Detection of these waves is a major goal of current relativity-related research.", "Several land-based gravitational wave detectors are currently in operation, most notably the interferometric detectors GEO 600, LIGO (two detectors), TAMA 300 and VIRGO.", "Various pulsar timing arrays are using millisecond pulsars to detect gravitational waves in the 10−9 to 10−6 hertz frequency range, which originate from binary supermassive blackholes.", "A European space-based detector, eLISA / NGO, is currently under development, with a precursor mission (LISA Pathfinder) having launched in December 2015.Observations of gravitational waves promise to complement observations in the electromagnetic spectrum.", "They are expected to yield information about black holes and other dense objects such as neutron stars and white dwarfs, about certain kinds of supernova implosions, and about processes in the very early universe, including the signature of certain types of hypothetical cosmic string.", "In February 2016, the Advanced LIGO team announced that they had detected gravitational waves from a black hole merger.=== Black holes and other compact objects ===Simulation based on the equations of general relativity: a star collapsing to form a black hole while emitting gravitational wavesWhenever the ratio of an object's mass to its radius becomes sufficiently large, general relativity predicts the formation of a black hole, a region of space from which nothing, not even light, can escape.", "In the currently accepted models of stellar evolution, neutron stars of around 1.4 solar masses, and stellar black holes with a few to a few dozen solar masses, are thought to be the final state for the evolution of massive stars.", "Usually a galaxy has one supermassive black hole with a few million to a few billion solar masses in its center, and its presence is thought to have played an important role in the formation of the galaxy and larger cosmic structures.Astronomically, the most important property of compact objects is that they provide a supremely efficient mechanism for converting gravitational energy into electromagnetic radiation.", "Accretion, the falling of dust or gaseous matter onto stellar or supermassive black holes, is thought to be responsible for some spectacularly luminous astronomical objects, notably diverse kinds of active galactic nuclei on galactic scales and stellar-size objects such as microquasars.", "In particular, accretion can lead to relativistic jets, focused beams of highly energetic particles that are being flung into space at almost light speed.General relativity plays a central role in modelling all these phenomena, and observations provide strong evidence for the existence of black holes with the properties predicted by the theory.Black holes are also sought-after targets in the search for gravitational waves (cf.", "Gravitational waves, above).", "Merging black hole binaries should lead to some of the strongest gravitational wave signals reaching detectors here on Earth, and the phase directly before the merger (\"chirp\") could be used as a \"standard candle\" to deduce the distance to the merger events–and hence serve as a probe of cosmic expansion at large distances.", "The gravitational waves produced as a stellar black hole plunges into a supermassive one should provide direct information about the supermassive black hole's geometry.=== Cosmology ===This blue horseshoe is a distant galaxy that has been magnified and warped into a nearly complete ring by the strong gravitational pull of the massive foreground luminous red galaxy.The current models of cosmology are based on Einstein's field equations, which include the cosmological constant since it has important influence on the large-scale dynamics of the cosmos,:where '''' is the spacetime metric.", "Isotropic and homogeneous solutions of these enhanced equations, the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker solutions, allow physicists to model a universe that has evolved over the past 14 billion years from a hot, early Big Bang phase.", "Once a small number of parameters (for example the universe's mean matter density) have been fixed by astronomical observation, further observational data can be used to put the models to the test.", "Predictions, all successful, include the initial abundance of chemical elements formed in a period of primordial nucleosynthesis, the large-scale structure of the universe, and the existence and properties of a \"thermal echo\" from the early cosmos, the cosmic background radiation.Astronomical observations of the cosmological expansion rate allow the total amount of matter in the universe to be estimated, although the nature of that matter remains mysterious in part.", "About 90% of all matter appears to be dark matter, which has mass (or, equivalently, gravitational influence), but does not interact electromagnetically and, hence, cannot be observed directly.", "There is no generally accepted description of this new kind of matter, within the framework of known particle physics or otherwise.", "Observational evidence from redshift surveys of distant supernovae and measurements of the cosmic background radiation also show that the evolution of our universe is significantly influenced by a cosmological constant resulting in an acceleration of cosmic expansion or, equivalently, by a form of energy with an unusual equation of state, known as dark energy, the nature of which remains unclear.An inflationary phase, an additional phase of strongly accelerated expansion at cosmic times of around 10−33 seconds, was hypothesized in 1980 to account for several puzzling observations that were unexplained by classical cosmological models, such as the nearly perfect homogeneity of the cosmic background radiation.", "Recent measurements of the cosmic background radiation have resulted in the first evidence for this scenario.", "However, there is a bewildering variety of possible inflationary scenarios, which cannot be restricted by current observations.", "An even larger question is the physics of the earliest universe, prior to the inflationary phase and close to where the classical models predict the big bang singularity.", "An authoritative answer would require a complete theory of quantum gravity, which has not yet been developed (cf.", "the section on quantum gravity, below).=== Exotic solutions: time travel, warp drives ===Kurt Gödel showed that solutions to Einstein's equations exist that contain closed timelike curves (CTCs), which allow for loops in time.", "The solutions require extreme physical conditions unlikely ever to occur in practice, and it remains an open question whether further laws of physics will eliminate them completely.", "Since then, other—similarly impractical—GR solutions containing CTCs have been found, such as the Tipler cylinder and traversable wormholes.", "Stephen Hawking introduced chronology protection conjecture, which is an assumption beyond those of standard general relativity to prevent time travel.Some exact solutions in general relativity such as Alcubierre drive present examples of warp drive but these solutions requires exotic matter distribution, and generally suffers from semiclassical instability." ], [ "Advanced concepts", "=== Asymptotic symmetries ===The spacetime symmetry group for special relativity is the Poincaré group, which is a ten-dimensional group of three Lorentz boosts, three rotations, and four spacetime translations.", "It is logical to ask what symmetries if any might apply in General Relativity.", "A tractable case might be to consider the symmetries of spacetime as seen by observers located far away from all sources of the gravitational field.", "The naive expectation for asymptotically flat spacetime symmetries might be simply to extend and reproduce the symmetries of flat spacetime of special relativity, ''viz.", "'', the Poincaré group.In 1962 Hermann Bondi, M. G. van der Burg, A. W. Metzner and Rainer K. Sachs addressed this asymptotic symmetry problem in order to investigate the flow of energy at infinity due to propagating gravitational waves.", "Their first step was to decide on some physically sensible boundary conditions to place on the gravitational field at light-like infinity to characterize what it means to say a metric is asymptotically flat, making no ''a priori'' assumptions about the nature of the asymptotic symmetry group—not even the assumption that such a group exists.", "Then after designing what they considered to be the most sensible boundary conditions, they investigated the nature of the resulting asymptotic symmetry transformations that leave invariant the form of the boundary conditions appropriate for asymptotically flat gravitational fields.", "What they found was that the asymptotic symmetry transformations actually do form a group and the structure of this group does not depend on the particular gravitational field that happens to be present.", "This means that, as expected, one can separate the kinematics of spacetime from the dynamics of the gravitational field at least at spatial infinity.", "The puzzling surprise in 1962 was their discovery of a rich infinite-dimensional group (the so-called BMS group) as the asymptotic symmetry group, instead of the finite-dimensional Poincaré group, which is a subgroup of the BMS group.", "Not only are the Lorentz transformations asymptotic symmetry transformations, there are also additional transformations that are not Lorentz transformations but are asymptotic symmetry transformations.", "In fact, they found an additional infinity of transformation generators known as ''supertranslations''.", "This implies the conclusion that General Relativity (GR) does ''not'' reduce to special relativity in the case of weak fields at long distances.", "It turns out that the BMS symmetry, suitably modified, could be seen as a restatement of the universal soft graviton theorem in quantum field theory (QFT), which relates universal infrared (soft) QFT with GR asymptotic spacetime symmetries.=== Causal structure and global geometry ===Minkowski universeIn general relativity, no material body can catch up with or overtake a light pulse.", "No influence from an event ''A'' can reach any other location ''X'' before light sent out at ''A'' to ''X''.", "In consequence, an exploration of all light worldlines (null geodesics) yields key information about the spacetime's causal structure.", "This structure can be displayed using Penrose–Carter diagrams in which infinitely large regions of space and infinite time intervals are shrunk (\"compactified\") so as to fit onto a finite map, while light still travels along diagonals as in standard spacetime diagrams.Aware of the importance of causal structure, Roger Penrose and others developed what is known as global geometry.", "In global geometry, the object of study is not one particular solution (or family of solutions) to Einstein's equations.", "Rather, relations that hold true for all geodesics, such as the Raychaudhuri equation, and additional non-specific assumptions about the nature of matter (usually in the form of energy conditions) are used to derive general results.=== Horizons ===Using global geometry, some spacetimes can be shown to contain boundaries called horizons, which demarcate one region from the rest of spacetime.", "The best-known examples are black holes: if mass is compressed into a sufficiently compact region of space (as specified in the hoop conjecture, the relevant length scale is the Schwarzschild radius), no light from inside can escape to the outside.", "Since no object can overtake a light pulse, all interior matter is imprisoned as well.", "Passage from the exterior to the interior is still possible, showing that the boundary, the black hole's ''horizon'', is not a physical barrier.The ergosphere of a rotating black hole, which plays a key role when it comes to extracting energy from such a black holeEarly studies of black holes relied on explicit solutions of Einstein's equations, notably the spherically symmetric Schwarzschild solution (used to describe a static black hole) and the axisymmetric Kerr solution (used to describe a rotating, stationary black hole, and introducing interesting features such as the ergosphere).", "Using global geometry, later studies have revealed more general properties of black holes.", "With time they become rather simple objects characterized by eleven parameters specifying: electric charge, mass–energy, linear momentum, angular momentum, and location at a specified time.", "This is stated by the black hole uniqueness theorem: \"black holes have no hair\", that is, no distinguishing marks like the hairstyles of humans.", "Irrespective of the complexity of a gravitating object collapsing to form a black hole, the object that results (having emitted gravitational waves) is very simple.Even more remarkably, there is a general set of laws known as black hole mechanics, which is analogous to the laws of thermodynamics.", "For instance, by the second law of black hole mechanics, the area of the event horizon of a general black hole will never decrease with time, analogous to the entropy of a thermodynamic system.", "This limits the energy that can be extracted by classical means from a rotating black hole (e.g.", "by the Penrose process).", "There is strong evidence that the laws of black hole mechanics are, in fact, a subset of the laws of thermodynamics, and that the black hole area is proportional to its entropy.", "This leads to a modification of the original laws of black hole mechanics: for instance, as the second law of black hole mechanics becomes part of the second law of thermodynamics, it is possible for the black hole area to decrease as long as other processes ensure that entropy increases overall.", "As thermodynamical objects with nonzero temperature, black holes should emit thermal radiation.", "Semiclassical calculations indicate that indeed they do, with the surface gravity playing the role of temperature in Planck's law.", "This radiation is known as Hawking radiation (cf.", "the quantum theory section, below).There are many other types of horizons.", "In an expanding universe, an observer may find that some regions of the past cannot be observed (\"particle horizon\"), and some regions of the future cannot be influenced (event horizon).", "Even in flat Minkowski space, when described by an accelerated observer (Rindler space), there will be horizons associated with a semiclassical radiation known as Unruh radiation.=== Singularities ===Another general feature of general relativity is the appearance of spacetime boundaries known as singularities.", "Spacetime can be explored by following up on timelike and lightlike geodesics—all possible ways that light and particles in free fall can travel.", "But some solutions of Einstein's equations have \"ragged edges\"—regions known as spacetime singularities, where the paths of light and falling particles come to an abrupt end, and geometry becomes ill-defined.", "In the more interesting cases, these are \"curvature singularities\", where geometrical quantities characterizing spacetime curvature, such as the Ricci scalar, take on infinite values.", "Well-known examples of spacetimes with future singularities—where worldlines end—are the Schwarzschild solution, which describes a singularity inside an eternal static black hole, or the Kerr solution with its ring-shaped singularity inside an eternal rotating black hole.", "The Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker solutions and other spacetimes describing universes have past singularities on which worldlines begin, namely Big Bang singularities, and some have future singularities (Big Crunch) as well.Given that these examples are all highly symmetric—and thus simplified—it is tempting to conclude that the occurrence of singularities is an artifact of idealization.", "The famous singularity theorems, proved using the methods of global geometry, say otherwise: singularities are a generic feature of general relativity, and unavoidable once the collapse of an object with realistic matter properties has proceeded beyond a certain stage and also at the beginning of a wide class of expanding universes.", "However, the theorems say little about the properties of singularities, and much of current research is devoted to characterizing these entities' generic structure (hypothesized e.g.", "by the BKL conjecture).", "The cosmic censorship hypothesis states that all realistic future singularities (no perfect symmetries, matter with realistic properties) are safely hidden away behind a horizon, and thus invisible to all distant observers.", "While no formal proof yet exists, numerical simulations offer supporting evidence of its validity.=== Evolution equations ===Each solution of Einstein's equation encompasses the whole history of a universe—it is not just some snapshot of how things are, but a whole, possibly matter-filled, spacetime.", "It describes the state of matter and geometry everywhere and at every moment in that particular universe.", "Due to its general covariance, Einstein's theory is not sufficient by itself to determine the time evolution of the metric tensor.", "It must be combined with a coordinate condition, which is analogous to gauge fixing in other field theories.To understand Einstein's equations as partial differential equations, it is helpful to formulate them in a way that describes the evolution of the universe over time.", "This is done in \"3+1\" formulations, where spacetime is split into three space dimensions and one time dimension.", "The best-known example is the ADM formalism.", "These decompositions show that the spacetime evolution equations of general relativity are well-behaved: solutions always exist, and are uniquely defined, once suitable initial conditions have been specified.", "Such formulations of Einstein's field equations are the basis of numerical relativity.=== Global and quasi-local quantities ===The notion of evolution equations is intimately tied in with another aspect of general relativistic physics.", "In Einstein's theory, it turns out to be impossible to find a general definition for a seemingly simple property such as a system's total mass (or energy).", "The main reason is that the gravitational field—like any physical field—must be ascribed a certain energy, but that it proves to be fundamentally impossible to localize that energy.Nevertheless, there are possibilities to define a system's total mass, either using a hypothetical \"infinitely distant observer\" (ADM mass) or suitable symmetries (Komar mass).", "If one excludes from the system's total mass the energy being carried away to infinity by gravitational waves, the result is the Bondi mass at null infinity.", "Just as in classical physics, it can be shown that these masses are positive.", "Corresponding global definitions exist for momentum and angular momentum.", "There have also been a number of attempts to define ''quasi-local'' quantities, such as the mass of an isolated system formulated using only quantities defined within a finite region of space containing that system.", "The hope is to obtain a quantity useful for general statements about isolated systems, such as a more precise formulation of the hoop conjecture." ], [ "Relationship with quantum theory", "If general relativity were considered to be one of the two pillars of modern physics, then quantum theory, the basis of understanding matter from elementary particles to solid-state physics, would be the other.", "However, how to reconcile quantum theory with general relativity is still an open question.=== Quantum field theory in curved spacetime ===Ordinary quantum field theories, which form the basis of modern elementary particle physics, are defined in flat Minkowski space, which is an excellent approximation when it comes to describing the behavior of microscopic particles in weak gravitational fields like those found on Earth.", "In order to describe situations in which gravity is strong enough to influence (quantum) matter, yet not strong enough to require quantization itself, physicists have formulated quantum field theories in curved spacetime.", "These theories rely on general relativity to describe a curved background spacetime, and define a generalized quantum field theory to describe the behavior of quantum matter within that spacetime.", "Using this formalism, it can be shown that black holes emit a blackbody spectrum of particles known as Hawking radiation leading to the possibility that they evaporate over time.", "As briefly mentioned above, this radiation plays an important role for the thermodynamics of black holes.=== Quantum gravity ===The demand for consistency between a quantum description of matter and a geometric description of spacetime, as well as the appearance of singularities (where curvature length scales become microscopic), indicate the need for a full theory of quantum gravity: for an adequate description of the interior of black holes, and of the very early universe, a theory is required in which gravity and the associated geometry of spacetime are described in the language of quantum physics.", "Despite major efforts, no complete and consistent theory of quantum gravity is currently known, even though a number of promising candidates exist.Projection of a Calabi–Yau manifold, one of the ways of compactifying the extra dimensions posited by string theoryAttempts to generalize ordinary quantum field theories, used in elementary particle physics to describe fundamental interactions, so as to include gravity have led to serious problems.", "Some have argued that at low energies, this approach proves successful, in that it results in an acceptable effective (quantum) field theory of gravity.", "At very high energies, however, the perturbative results are badly divergent and lead to models devoid of predictive power (\"perturbative non-renormalizability\").Simple spin network of the type used in loop quantum gravityOne attempt to overcome these limitations is string theory, a quantum theory not of point particles, but of minute one-dimensional extended objects.", "The theory promises to be a unified description of all particles and interactions, including gravity; the price to pay is unusual features such as six extra dimensions of space in addition to the usual three.", "In what is called the second superstring revolution, it was conjectured that both string theory and a unification of general relativity and supersymmetry known as supergravity form part of a hypothesized eleven-dimensional model known as M-theory, which would constitute a uniquely defined and consistent theory of quantum gravity.Another approach starts with the canonical quantization procedures of quantum theory.", "Using the initial-value-formulation of general relativity (cf.", "evolution equations above), the result is the Wheeler–deWitt equation (an analogue of the Schrödinger equation) which, regrettably, turns out to be ill-defined without a proper ultraviolet (lattice) cutoff.", "However, with the introduction of what are now known as Ashtekar variables, this leads to a promising model known as loop quantum gravity.", "Space is represented by a web-like structure called a spin network, evolving over time in discrete steps.Depending on which features of general relativity and quantum theory are accepted unchanged, and on what level changes are introduced, there are numerous other attempts to arrive at a viable theory of quantum gravity, some examples being the lattice theory of gravity based on the Feynman Path Integral approach and Regge calculus, dynamical triangulations, causal sets, twistor models or the path integral based models of quantum cosmology.Observation of gravitational waves from binary black hole merger GW150914All candidate theories still have major formal and conceptual problems to overcome.", "They also face the common problem that, as yet, there is no way to put quantum gravity predictions to experimental tests (and thus to decide between the candidates where their predictions vary), although there is hope for this to change as future data from cosmological observations and particle physics experiments becomes available." ], [ "Current status", "General relativity has emerged as a highly successful model of gravitation and cosmology, which has so far passed many unambiguous observational and experimental tests.", "However, there are strong indications that the theory is incomplete.", "The problem of quantum gravity and the question of the reality of spacetime singularities remain open.", "Observational data that is taken as evidence for dark energy and dark matter could indicate the need for new physics.Even taken as is, general relativity is rich with possibilities for further exploration.", "Mathematical relativists seek to understand the nature of singularities and the fundamental properties of Einstein's equations, while numerical relativists run increasingly powerful computer simulations (such as those describing merging black holes).", "In February 2016, it was announced that the existence of gravitational waves was directly detected by the Advanced LIGO team on 14 September 2015.A century after its introduction, general relativity remains a highly active area of research." ], [ "See also", "* (warp drive)* * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", " * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ; original paper in Russian: * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project* See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project* See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "=== Popular books === * * * ** * === Beginning undergraduate textbooks ====== Advanced undergraduate textbooks ===******=== Graduate textbooks ===***** * === Specialists' books ===*=== Journal articles === See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project****" ], [ "External links", " Einstein Online – Articles on a variety of aspects of relativistic physics for a general audience; hosted by the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics* GEO600 home page, the official website of the GEO600 project.", "* LIGO Laboratory* NCSA Spacetime Wrinkles – produced by the numerical relativity group at the NCSA, with an elementary introduction to general relativity''''''* (lecture by Leonard Susskind recorded 22 September 2008 at Stanford University).", "* Series of lectures on General Relativity given in 2006 at the Institut Henri Poincaré (introductory/advanced).", "* General Relativity Tutorials by John Baez.", "***** The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol.", "II Ch.", "42: Curved Space" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Genealogy" ], [ "Introduction", "The family tree of Louis III, Duke of Württemberg (ruled 1568–1593)The family tree of \"the Landas\", a 17th-century family'''Genealogy''' () is the study of families, family history, and the tracing of their lineages.", "Genealogists use oral interviews, historical records, genetic analysis, and other records to obtain information about a family and to demonstrate kinship and pedigrees of its members.", "The results are often displayed in charts or written as narratives.", "The field of family history is broader than genealogy, and covers not just lineage but also family and community history and biography.The record of genealogical work may be presented as a \"genealogy\", a \"family history\", or a \"family tree\".", "In the narrow sense, a \"genealogy\" or a \"family tree\" traces the descendants of one person, whereas a \"family history\" traces the ancestors of one person, but the terms are often used interchangeably.", "A family history may include additional biographical information, family traditions, and the like.The pursuit of family history and origins tends to be shaped by several motives, including the desire to carve out a place for one's family in the larger historical picture, a sense of responsibility to preserve the past for future generations, and self-satisfaction in accurate storytelling.", "Genealogy research is also performed for scholarly or forensic purposes, or to trace legal next of kin to inherit under intestacy laws." ], [ "Overview", "Twelve generations patrilineage of a Hindu Lingayat male from central Karnataka spanning over 275 years, depicted in descending orderAmateur genealogists typically pursue their own ancestry and that of their spouses.", "Professional genealogists may also conduct research for others, publish books on genealogical methods, teach, or produce their own databases.", "They may work for companies that provide software or produce materials of use to other professionals and to amateurs.", "Both try to understand not just where and when people lived but also their lifestyles, biographies, and motivations.", "This often requires—or leads to—knowledge of antiquated laws, old political boundaries, migration trends, and historical socioeconomic or religious conditions.Genealogists sometimes specialize in a particular group, e.g., a Scottish clan; a particular surname, such as in a one-name study; a small community, e.g., a single village or parish, such as in a one-place study; or a particular, often famous, person.", "Bloodlines of Salem is an example of a specialized family-history group.", "It welcomes members who can prove descent from a participant of the Salem Witch Trials or who simply choose to support the group.Genealogists and family historians often join family history societies, where novices can learn from more experienced researchers.", "Such societies generally serve a specific geographical area.", "Their members may also index records to make them more accessible or engage in advocacy and other efforts to preserve public records and cemeteries.", "Some schools engage students in such projects as a means to reinforce lessons regarding immigration and history.", "Other benefits include family medical histories for families with serious medical conditions that are hereditary.The terms \"genealogy\" and \"family history\" are often used synonymously, but some entities offer a slight difference in definition.", "The Society of Genealogists, while also using the terms interchangeably, describes genealogy as the \"establishment of a pedigree by extracting evidence, from valid sources, of how one generation is connected to the next\" and family history as \"a biographical study of a genealogically proven family and of the community and country in which they lived\"." ], [ "Motivation", "Individuals conduct genealogical research for a number of reasons.===Personal or medical interest===Private individuals research genealogy out of curiosity about their heritage.", "This curiosity can be particularly strong among those whose family histories were lost or unknown due to, for example, adoption or separation from family through divorce, death, or other situations.", "In addition to simply wanting to know more about who they are and where they came from, individuals may research their genealogy to learn about any hereditary diseases in their family history.There is a growing interest in family history in the media as a result of advertising and television shows sponsored by large genealogy companies, such as Ancestry.com.", "This, coupled with easier access to online records and the affordability of DNA tests, has both inspired curiosity and allowed those who are curious to easily start investigating their ancestry.===Community or religious obligation===In communitarian societies, one's identity is defined as much by one's kin network as by individual achievement, and the question \"Who are you?\"", "would be answered by a description of father, mother, and tribe.", "New Zealand Māori, for example, learn whakapapa (genealogies) to discover who they are.Family history plays a part in the practice of some religious belief systems.", "For example, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) has a doctrine of baptism for the dead, which necessitates that members of that faith engage in family history research.In East Asian countries that were historically shaped by Confucianism, many people follow a practice of ancestor worship as well as genealogical record-keeping.", "Ancestors' names are inscribed on tablets and placed in shrines, where rituals are performed.", "Genealogies are also recorded in genealogy books.", "This practice is rooted in the belief that respect for one's family is a foundation for a healthy society.===Establishing identity===Royal families, both historically and in modern times, keep records of their genealogies in order to establish their right to rule and determine who will be the next sovereign.", "For centuries in various cultures, one's genealogy has been a source of political and social status.Some countries and indigenous tribes allow individuals to obtain citizenship based on their genealogy.", "In Ireland and in Greece, for example, an individual can become a citizen if one of their grandparents was born in that country, regardless of their own or their parents' birthplace.", "In societies such as Australia or the United States, by the 20th century, there was growing pride in the pioneers and nation-builders.", "Establishing descent from these was, and is, important to lineage societies, such as the Daughters of the American Revolution and The General Society of Mayflower Descendants.", "Modern family history explores new sources of status, such as celebrating the resilience of families that survived generations of poverty or slavery, or the success of families in integrating across racial or national boundaries.", "Some family histories even emphasize links to celebrity criminals, such as the bushranger Ned Kelly in Australia.===Legal and forensic research===Lawyers involved in probate cases do genealogy to locate heirs of property.Detectives may perform genealogical research using DNA evidence to identify victims of homicides or perpetrators of crimes.===Scholarly research===Historians and geneticists may carry out genealogical research to gain a greater understanding of specific topics in their respective fields, and some may employ professional genealogists in connection with specific aspects of their research.", "They also publish their research in peer-reviewed journals.The introduction of postgraduate courses in genealogy in recent years has given genealogy more of an academic focus, with the emergence of peer-reviewed journals in this area.", "Scholarly genealogy is beginning to emerge as a discipline in its own right, with an increasing number of individuals who have obtained genealogical qualifications carrying out research on a diverse range of topics related to genealogy, both within academic institutions and independently.=== Discrimination and persecution ===In the US, the \"one-drop rule\" asserted that any person with even one ancestor of black ancestry (\"one drop\" of \"black blood\") was considered black.", "It was codified into the law of some States (e.g.", "the Racial Integrity Act of 1924) to reinforce racial segregation.", "Genealogy was also used in Nazi Germany to determine whether a person was considered a \"Jew\" or a \"Mischling\" (Mischling Test), and whether a person was considered as \"Aryan\" (Ahnenpass)." ], [ "History", "A Medieval genealogy traced from Adam and EveHistorically, in Western societies, the focus of genealogy was on the kinship and descent of rulers and nobles, often arguing or demonstrating the legitimacy of claims to wealth and power.", "The term often overlapped with heraldry, in which the ancestry of royalty was reflected in their coats of arms.", "Modern scholars consider many claimed noble ancestries to be fabrications, such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that traced the ancestry of several English kings to the god Woden.Some family trees have been maintained for considerable periods.", "The family tree of Confucius has been maintained for over 2,500 years and is listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the largest extant family tree.", "The fifth edition of the Confucius Genealogy was printed in 2009 by the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee (CGCC).===Modern times===In modern times, genealogy has become more widespread, with commoners as well as nobility researching and maintaining their family trees.", "Genealogy received a boost in the late 1970s with the television broadcast of ''Roots: The Saga of an American Family'' by Alex Haley.", "His account of his family's descent from the African tribesman Kunta Kinte inspired many others to study their own lines.With the advent of the Internet, the number of resources readily accessible to genealogists has vastly increased, resulting in an explosion of interest in the topic.", "Genealogy is one of the most popular topics on the Internet.", "The Internet has become a major source not only of data for genealogists but also of education and communication.===India===Some notable places where traditional genealogy records are kept include Hindu genealogy registers at Haridwar (Uttarakhand), Varanasi and Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh), Kurukshetra (Haryana), Trimbakeshwar (Maharashtra), and Chintpurni (Himachal Pradesh).===United States===Genealogical research in the United States was first systematized in the early 19th century, especially by John Farmer (1789–1838).", "Before Farmer's efforts, tracing one's genealogy was seen as an attempt by the American colonists to secure a measure of social standing, an aim that was counter to the new republic's egalitarian, future-oriented ideals (as outlined in the Constitution).", "As Fourth of July celebrations commemorating the Founding Fathers and the heroes of the Revolutionary War became increasingly popular, however, the pursuit of \"antiquarianism\", which focused on local history, became acceptable as a way to honor the achievements of early Americans.", "Farmer capitalized on the acceptability of antiquarianism to frame genealogy within the early republic's ideological framework of pride in one's American ancestors.", "He corresponded with other antiquarians in New England, where antiquarianism and genealogy were well established, and became a coordinator, booster, and contributor to the growing movement.", "In the 1820s, he and fellow antiquarians began to produce genealogical and antiquarian tracts in earnest, slowly gaining a devoted audience among the American people.", "Though Farmer died in 1839, his efforts led to the creation of the New England Historic Genealogical Society (NEHGS), one of New England's oldest and most prominent organizations dedicated to the preservation of public records.", "NEHGS publishes the ''New England Historical and Genealogical Register.", "''The Genealogical Society of Utah, founded in 1894, later became the Family History Department of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.", "The department's research facility, the Family History Library, which Utah.com states is \"the largest genealogical library in the world\", was established to assist in tracing family lineages for special religious ceremonies which Latter-day Saints believe will seal family units together for eternity.", "Latter-day Saints believe that this fulfilled a biblical prophecy stating that the prophet Elijah would return to \"turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers.\"", "There is a network of church-operated Family History Centers all over the country and around the world, where volunteers assist the public with tracing their ancestors.", "Brigham Young University offers bachelor's degree, minor, and concentration programs in Family History and is the only school in North America to offer this.The American Society of Genealogists is the scholarly honorary society of the U.S. genealogical field.", "Founded by John Insley Coddington, Arthur Adams, and Meredith B. Colket, Jr., in December 1940, its membership is limited to 50 living fellows.", "ASG has semi-annually published ''The Genealogist'', a scholarly journal of genealogical research, since 1980.Fellows of the American Society of Genealogists, who bear the post-nominal acronym FASG, have written some of the most notable genealogical materials of the last half-century.Some of the most notable scholarly American genealogical journals are ''The American Genealogist'', ''National Genealogical Society Quarterly'', ''The New England Historical and Genealogical Register'', ''The New York Genealogical and Biographical Record'', and ''The Genealogist''." ], [ "Research process", "30 years of image research arranged genealogically on a kitchen wall in Sweden 2019Genealogical research is a complex process that uses historical records and sometimes genetic analysis to demonstrate kinship.", "Reliable conclusions are based on the quality of sources (ideally, original records), the information within those sources, (ideally, primary or firsthand information), and the evidence that can be drawn (directly or indirectly), from that information.", "In many instances, genealogists must skillfully assemble indirect or circumstantial evidence to build a case for identity and kinship.", "All evidence and conclusions, together with the documentation that supports them, is then assembled to create a cohesive genealogy or family history.Genealogists begin their research by collecting family documents and stories.", "This creates a foundation for documentary research, which involves examining and evaluating historical records for evidence about ancestors and other relatives, their kinship ties, and the events that occurred in their lives.", "As a rule, genealogists begin with the present and work backwards in time.", "Historical, social, and family context is essential to achieving correct identification of individuals and relationships.", "Source citation is also important when conducting genealogical research.", "To keep track of collected material, family group sheets and pedigree charts are used.", "Formerly handwritten, these can now be generated by genealogical software.===Genetic analysis===Variations of VNTR allele lengths in six individualsBecause a person's DNA contains information that has been passed down relatively unchanged from early ancestors, analysis of DNA is sometimes used for genealogical research.", "Three DNA types are of particular interest.", "Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is contained in the mitochondria of the egg cell and is passed down from a mother to all of her children, both male and female; however, only females pass it on to their children.", "Y-DNA is present only in males and is passed down from a father to his sons (direct male line) with only minor mutations occurring over time.", "Autosomal DNA (atDNA), is found in the 22 non-sex chromosomes (autosomes) and is inherited from both parents; thus, it can uncover relatives from any branch of the family.", "A genealogical DNA test allows two individuals to find the probability that they are, or are not, related within an estimated number of generations.", "Individual genetic test results are collected in databases to match people descended from a relatively recent common ancestor.", "See, for example, the Molecular Genealogy Research Project.", "Some tests are limited to either the patrilineal or the matrilineal line.===Collaboration===Most genealogy software programs can export information about persons and their relationships in a standardized format called a GEDCOM.", "In that format, it can be shared with other genealogists, added to databases, or converted into family web sites.", "Social networking service (SNS) websites allow genealogists to share data and build their family trees online.", "Members can upload their family trees and contact other family historians to fill in gaps in their research.", "In addition to the (SNS) websites, there are other resources that encourage genealogists to connect and share information, such as rootsweb.ancestry.com and rsl.rootsweb.ancestry.com.===Volunteerism===Volunteer efforts figure prominently in genealogy.", "These range from the extremely informal to the highly organized.On the informal side are the many popular and useful message boards such as Rootschat and mailing lists on particular surnames, regions, and other topics.", "These forums can be used to try to find relatives, request record lookups, obtain research advice, and much more.", "Many genealogists participate in loosely organized projects, both online and off.", "These collaborations take numerous forms.", "Some projects prepare name indexes for records, such as probate cases, and publish the indexes, either online or off.", "These indexes can be used as finding aids to locate original records.", "Other projects transcribe or abstract records.", "Offering record lookups for particular geographic areas is another common service.", "Volunteers do record lookups or take photos in their home areas for researchers who are unable to travel.Those looking for a structured volunteer environment can join one of thousands of genealogical societies worldwide.", "Most societies have a unique area of focus, such as a particular surname, ethnicity, geographic area, or descendancy from participants in a given historical event.", "Genealogical societies are almost exclusively staffed by volunteers and may offer a broad range of services, including maintaining libraries for members' use, publishing newsletters, providing research assistance to the public, offering classes or seminars, and organizing record preservation or transcription projects.===Software===Gramps is an example of genealogy software.Genealogy software is used to collect, store, sort, and display genealogical data.", "At a minimum, genealogy software accommodates basic information about individuals, including births, marriages, and deaths.", "Many programs allow for additional biographical information, including occupation, residence, and notes, and most also offer a method for keeping track of the sources for each piece of evidence.Most programs can generate basic kinship charts and reports, allow for the import of digital photographs and the export of data in the GEDCOM format (short for GEnealogical Data COMmunication) so that data can be shared with those using other genealogy software.", "More advanced features include the ability to restrict the information that is shared, usually by removing information about living people out of privacy concerns; the import of sound files; the generation of family history books, web pages and other publications; the ability to handle same-sex marriages and children born out of wedlock; searching the Internet for data; and the provision of research guidance.", "Programs may be geared toward a specific religion, with fields relevant to that religion, or to specific nationalities or ethnic groups, with source types relevant for those groups.", "Online resources involve complex programming and large data bases, such as censuses." ], [ "Records and documentation", "antebellum era family BibleGenealogists use a wide variety of records in their research.", "To effectively conduct genealogical research, it is important to understand how the records were created, what information is included in them, and how and where to access them.===List of record types===Records that are used in genealogy research include:* Vital records Birth records Death records** Marriage and divorce records* Adoption records* Biographies and biographical profiles (e.g.", "''Who's Who'')* Cemetery lists* Census records* Church and Religious records Baptism or christening Brit milah or Baby naming certificates Confirmation Bar or bat mitzvah Marriage Funeral or death** Membership* City directories and telephone directories* Coroner's reports* Court records Criminal records Civil records* Diaries, personal letters and family Bibles* DNA tests* Emigration, immigration and naturalization records* Hereditary & lineage organization records, e.g.", "Daughters of the American Revolution records* Land and property records, deeds* Medical records* Military and conscription records* Newspaper articles* Obituaries* Occupational records* Oral histories* Passports* Photographs* Poorhouse, workhouse, almshouse, and asylum records* School and alumni association records* Ship passenger lists* Social Security (within the US) and pension records* Tax records* Tombstones, cemetery records, and funeral home records* Voter registration records* Wills and probate recordsTo keep track of their citizens, governments began keeping records of persons who were neither royalty nor nobility.", "In England and Germany, for example, such record keeping started with parish registers in the 16th century.", "As more of the population was recorded, there were sufficient records to follow a family.", "Major life events, such as births, marriages, and deaths, were often documented with a license, permit, or report.", "Genealogists locate these records in local, regional or national offices or archives and extract information about family relationships and recreate timelines of persons' lives.In China, India and other Asian countries, genealogy books are used to record the names, occupations, and other information about family members, with some books dating back hundreds or even thousands of years.", "In the eastern Indian state of Bihar, there is a written tradition of genealogical records among Maithil Brahmins and Karna Kayasthas called \"Panjis\", dating to the 12th century CE.", "Even today these records are consulted prior to marriages.In Ireland, genealogical records were recorded by professional families of ''senchaidh'' (historians) until as late as the mid-17th century.", "Perhaps the most outstanding example of this genre is Leabhar na nGenealach/The Great Book of Irish Genealogies, by Dubhaltach MacFhirbhisigh (d. 1671), published in 2004.===FamilySearch collections===The Family History Library, operated by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, is the world's largest library dedicated to genealogical research.The LDS Church has engaged in large-scale microfilming of records of genealogical value.", "Its Family History Library in Salt Lake City, Utah, houses over 2 million microfiche and microfilms of genealogically relevant material, which are also available for on-site research at over 4,500 Family History Centers worldwide.FamilySearch's website includes many resources for genealogists: a FamilyTree database, historical records, digitized family history books, resources and indexing for African American genealogy such as slave and bank records, and a Family History Research Wiki containing research guidance articles.=== Indexing ancestral information ===Indexing is the process of transcribing parish records, city vital records, and other reports, to a digital database for searching.", "Volunteers and professionals participate in the indexing process.", "Since 2006, the microfilm in the FamilySearch granite mountain vault is in the process of being digitally scanned, available online, and eventually indexed.For example, after the 72-year legal limit for releasing personal information for the United States Census was reached in 2012, genealogical groups cooperated to index the 132 million residents registered in the 1940 United States Census.Between 2006 and 2012, the FamilySearch indexing effort produced more than 1 billion searchable records.===Record loss and preservation===Sometimes genealogical records are destroyed, whether accidentally or on purpose.", "In order to do thorough research, genealogists keep track of which records have been destroyed so they know when information they need may be missing.", "Of particular note for North American genealogy is the 1890 United States Census, which was destroyed in a fire in 1921.Although fragments survive, most of the 1890 census no longer exists.", "Those looking for genealogical information for families that lived in the United States in 1890 must rely on other information to fill that gap.War is another cause of record destruction.", "During World War II, many European records were destroyed.", "Communists in China during the Cultural Revolution and in Korea during the Korean War destroyed genealogy books kept by families.Often records are destroyed due to accident or neglect.", "Since genealogical records are often kept on paper and stacked in high-density storage, they are prone to fire, mold, insect damage, and eventual disintegration.", "Sometimes records of genealogical value are deliberately destroyed by governments or organizations because the records are considered to be unimportant or a privacy risk.", "Because of this, genealogists often organize efforts to preserve records that are at risk of destruction.", "FamilySearch has an ongoing program that assesses what useful genealogical records have the most risk of being destroyed, and sends volunteers to digitize such records.", "In 2017, the government of Sierra Leone asked FamilySearch for help preserving their rapidly deteriorating vital records.", "FamilySearch has begun digitizing the records and making them available online.", "The Federation of Genealogical Societies also organized an effort to preserve and digitize United States War of 1812 pension records.", "In 2010, they began raising funds, which were contribute by genealogists around the United States and matched by Ancestry.com.", "Their goal was achieved and the process of digitization was able to begin.", "The digitized records are available for free online." ], [ "Types of information", "Genealogists who seek to reconstruct the lives of each ancestor consider all historical information to be \"genealogical\" information.", "Traditionally, the basic information needed to ensure correct identification of each person are place names, occupations, family names, first names, and dates.", "However, modern genealogists greatly expand this list, recognizing the need to place this information in its historical context in order to properly evaluate genealogical evidence and distinguish between same-name individuals.", "A great deal of information is available for British ancestry with growing resources for other ethnic groups.===Family names===Lineage of a family, Family names are simultaneously one of the most important pieces of genealogical information, and a source of significant confusion for researchers.In many cultures, the name of a person refers to the family to which they belongs.", "This is called the ''family name'', ''surname'', or ''last name''.", "Patronymics are names that identify an individual based on the father's name.", "For example, Marga Olafsdottir is Marga, daughter of Olaf, and Olaf Thorsson is Olaf, son of Thor.", "Many cultures used patronymics before surnames were adopted or came into use.", "The Dutch in New York, for example, used the patronymic system of names until 1687 when the advent of English rule mandated surname usage.", "In Iceland, patronymics are used by a majority of the population.", "In Denmark and Norway patronymics and farm names were generally in use through the 19th century and beyond, though surnames began to come into fashion toward the end of the 19th century in some parts of the country.", "Not until 1856 in Denmark and 1923 in Norway were there laws requiring surnames.The transmission of names across generations, marriages and other relationships, and immigration may cause difficulty in genealogical research.", "For instance, women in many cultures have routinely used their spouse's surnames.", "When a woman remarried, she may have changed her name and the names of her children; only her name; or changed no names.", "Her birth name (maiden name) may be reflected in her children's middle names; her own middle name; or dropped entirely.", "Children may sometimes assume stepparent, foster parent, or adoptive parent names.", "Because official records may reflect many kinds of surname change, without explaining the underlying reason for the change, the correct identification of a person recorded identified with more than one name is challenging.", "Immigrants to America often Americanized their names.Surname data may be found in trade directories, census returns, birth, death, and marriage records.===Given names===Genealogical data regarding given names (first names) is subject to many of the same problems as are family names and place names.", "Additionally, the use of nicknames is very common.", "For example, Beth, Lizzie or Betty are all common for Elizabeth, and Jack, John and Jonathan may be interchanged.Middle names provide additional information.", "Middle names may be inherited, follow naming customs, or be treated as part of the family name.", "For instance, in some Latin cultures, both the mother's family name and the father's family name are used by the children.Historically, naming traditions existed in some places and cultures.", "Even in areas that tended to use naming conventions, however, they were by no means universal.", "Families may have used them some of the time, among some of their children, or not at all.", "A pattern might also be broken to name a newborn after a recently deceased sibling, aunt or uncle.An example of a naming tradition from England, Scotland and Ireland: '''Child''' '''Namesake''' 1st son paternal grandfather 2nd son maternal grandfather 3rd son father 4th son father's oldest brother 1st daughter maternal grandmother 2nd daughter paternal grandmother 3rd daughter mother 4th daughter mother's oldest sisterAnother example is in some areas of Germany, where siblings were given the same first name, often of a favourite saint or local nobility, but different second names by which they were known (''Rufname'').", "If a child died, the next child of the same gender that was born may have been given the same name.", "It is not uncommon that a list of a particular couple's children will show one or two names repeated.Personal names have periods of popularity, so it is not uncommon to find many similarly named people in a generation, and even similarly named families; e.g., \"William and Mary and their children David, Mary, and John\".Many names may be identified strongly with a particular gender; e.g., William for boys, and Mary for girls.", "Others may be ambiguous, e.g., Lee, or have only slightly variant spellings based on gender, e.g., Frances (usually female) and Francis (usually male).===Place names===While the locations of ancestors' residences and life events are core elements of the genealogist's quest, they can often be confusing.", "Place names may be subject to variant spellings by partially literate scribes.", "Locations may have identical or very similar names.", "For example, the village name Brockton occurs six times in the border area between the English counties of Shropshire and Staffordshire.", "Shifts in political borders must also be understood.", "Parish, county, and national borders have frequently been modified.", "Old records may contain references to farms and villages that have ceased to exist.", "When working with older records from Poland, where borders and place names have changed frequently in past centuries, a source with maps and sample records such as ''A Translation Guide to 19th-Century Polish-Language Civil-Registration Documents'' can be invaluable.Available sources may include vital records (civil or church registration), censuses, and tax assessments.", "Oral tradition is also an important source, although it must be used with caution.", "When no source information is available for a location, circumstantial evidence may provide a probable answer based on a person's or a family's place of residence at the time of the event.Maps and gazetteers are important sources for understanding the places researched.", "They show the relationship of an area to neighboring communities and may be of help in understanding migration patterns.", "Family tree mapping using online mapping tools such as Google Earth (particularly when used with Historical Map overlays such as those from the David Rumsey Historical Map Collection) assist in the process of understanding the significance of geographical locations.===Dates===It is wise to exercise extreme caution with dates.", "Dates are more difficult to recall years after an event, and are more easily mistranscribed than other types of genealogical data.", "Therefore, one should determine whether the date was recorded at the time of the event or at a later date.", "Dates of birth in vital records or civil registrations and in church records at baptism are generally accurate because they were usually recorded near the time of the event.", "Family Bibles are often a source for dates, but can be written from memory long after the event.", "When the same ink and handwriting is used for all entries, the dates were probably written at the same time and therefore will be less reliable since the earlier dates were probably recorded well after the event.", "The publication date of the Bible also provides a clue about when the dates were recorded since they could not have been recorded at any earlier date.People sometimes reduce their age on marriage, and those under \"full age\" may increase their age in order to marry or to join the armed forces.", "Census returns are notoriously unreliable for ages or for assuming an approximate death date.", "Ages over 15 in the 1841 census in the UK are rounded down to the next lower multiple of five years.Although baptismal dates are often used to approximate birth dates, some families waited years before baptizing children, and adult baptisms are the norm in some religions.", "Both birth and marriage dates may have been adjusted to cover for pre-wedding pregnancies.Calendar changes must also be considered.", "In 1752, England and her American colonies changed from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar.", "In the same year, the date the new year began was changed.", "Prior to 1752 it was 25 March; this was changed to 1 January.", "Many other European countries had already made the calendar changes before England had, sometimes centuries earlier.", "By 1751 there was an 11-day discrepancy between the date in England and the date in other European countries.For further detail on the changes involved in moving from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar, see: Gregorian calendar.The French Republican Calendar or French Revolutionary Calendar was a calendar proposed during the French Revolution, and used by the French government for about 12 years from late 1793 to 1805, and for 18 days in 1871 in Paris.", "Dates in official records at this time use the revolutionary calendar and need \"translating\" into the Gregorian calendar for calculating ages etc.", "There are various websites which do this.===Occupations===Occupational information may be important to understanding an ancestor's life and for distinguishing two people with the same name.", "A person's occupation may have been related to his or her social status, political interest, and migration pattern.", "Since skilled trades are often passed from father to son, occupation may also be indirect evidence of a family relationship.It is important to remember that a person may change occupations, and that titles change over time as well.", "Some workers no longer fit for their primary trade often took less prestigious jobs later in life, while others moved upwards in prestige.", "Many unskilled ancestors had a variety of jobs depending on the season and local trade requirements.", "Census returns may contain some embellishment; e.g., from labourer to mason, or from journeyman to master craftsman.", "Names for old or unfamiliar local occupations may cause confusion if poorly legible.", "For example, an ostler (a keeper of horses) and a hostler (an innkeeper) could easily be confused for one another.", "Likewise, descriptions of such occupations may also be problematic.", "The perplexing description \"ironer of rabbit burrows\" may turn out to describe an ironer (profession) in the Bristol district named Rabbit Burrows.", "Several trades have regionally preferred terms.", "For example, \"shoemaker\" and \"cordwainer\" have the same meaning.", "Finally, many apparently obscure jobs are part of a larger trade community, such as watchmaking, framework knitting or gunmaking.Occupational data may be reported in occupational licences, tax assessments, membership records of professional organizations, trade directories, census returns, and vital records (civil registration).", "Occupational dictionaries are available to explain many obscure and archaic trades." ], [ "Reliability of sources", "Information found in historical or genealogical sources can be unreliable and it is good practice to evaluate all sources with a critical eye.", "Factors influencing the reliability of genealogical information include: the knowledge of the informant (or writer); the bias and mental state of the informant (or writer); the passage of time and the potential for copying and compiling errors.The quality of census data has been of special interest to historians, who have investigated reliability issues.===Knowledge of the informant===The informant is the individual who provided the recorded information.", "Genealogists must carefully consider who provided the information and what they knew.", "In many cases the informant is identified in the record itself.", "For example, a death certificate usually has two informants: a physician who provides information about the time and cause of death and a family member who provides the birth date, names of parents, etc.When the informant is not identified, one can sometimes deduce information about the identity of the person by careful examination of the source.", "One should first consider who was alive (and nearby) when the record was created.", "When the informant is also the person recording the information, the handwriting can be compared to other handwriting samples.When a source does not provide clues about the informant, genealogists should treat the source with caution.", "These sources can be useful if they can be compared with independent sources.", "For example, a census record by itself cannot be given much weight because the informant is unknown.", "However, when censuses for several years concur on a piece of information that would not likely be guessed by a neighbor, it is likely that the information in these censuses was provided by a family member or other informed person.", "On the other hand, information in a single census cannot be confirmed by information in an undocumented compiled genealogy since the genealogy may have used the census record as its source and might therefore be dependent on the same misinformed individual.===Motivation of the informant===Even individuals who had knowledge of the fact, sometimes intentionally or unintentionally provided false or misleading information.", "A person may have lied in order to obtain a government benefit (such as a military pension), avoid taxation, or cover up an embarrassing situation (such as the existence of a non-marital child).", "A person with a distressed state of mind may not be able to accurately recall information.", "Many genealogical records were recorded at the time of a loved one's death, and so genealogists should consider the effect that grief may have had on the informant of these records.===The effect of time===The passage of time often affects a person's ability to recall information.", "Therefore, as a general rule, data recorded soon after the event are usually more reliable than data recorded many years later.", "However, some types of data are more difficult to recall after many years than others.", "One type especially prone to recollection errors is dates.", "Also the ability to recall is affected by the significance that the event had to the individual.", "These values may have been affected by cultural or individual preferences.===Copying and compiling errors===Genealogists must consider the effects that copying and compiling errors may have had on the information in a source.", "For this reason, sources are generally categorized in two categories: original and derivative.", "An original source is one that is not based on another source.", "A derivative source is information taken from another source.", "This distinction is important because each time a source is copied, information about the record may be lost and errors may result from the copyist misreading, mistyping, or miswriting the information.", "Genealogists should consider the number of times information has been copied and the types of derivation a piece of information has undergone.", "The types of derivatives include: photocopies, transcriptions, abstracts, translations, extractions, and compilations.In addition to copying errors, compiled sources (such as published genealogies and online pedigree databases) are susceptible to misidentification errors and incorrect conclusions based on circumstantial evidence.", "Identity errors usually occur when two or more individuals are assumed to be the same person.", "Circumstantial or indirect evidence does not explicitly answer a genealogical question, but either may be used with other sources to answer the question, suggest a probable answer, or eliminate certain possibilities.", "Compilers sometimes draw hasty conclusions from circumstantial evidence without sufficiently examining all available sources, without properly understanding the evidence, and without appropriately indicating the level of uncertainty.===Primary and secondary sources===In genealogical research, information can be obtained from primary or secondary sources.", "Primary sources are records that were made at the time of the event, for example a death certificate would be a primary source for a person's death date and place.", "Secondary sources are records that are made days, weeks, months, or even years after an event." ], [ "Standards and ethics", "Organizations that educate and certify genealogists have established standards and ethical guidelines they instruct genealogists to follow.===Research standards===Genealogy research requires analyzing documents and drawing conclusions based on the evidence provided in the available documents.", "Genealogists need standards to determine whether or not their evaluation of the evidence is accurate.", "In the past, genealogists in the United States borrowed terms from judicial law to examine evidence found in documents and how they relate to the researcher's conclusions.", "However, the differences between the two disciplines created a need for genealogists to develop their own standards.", "In 2000, the Board for Certification of Genealogists published their first manual of standards.", "The Genealogical Proof Standard created by the Board for Certification of Genealogists is widely distributed in seminars, workshops, and educational materials for genealogists in the United States.", "Other genealogical organizations around the world have created similar standards they invite genealogists to follow.", "Such standards provide guidelines for genealogists to evaluate their own research as well as the research of others.Standards for genealogical research include:* Clearly document and organize findings.", "* Cite all sources in a specific manner so that others can locate them and properly evaluate them.", "* Locate all available sources that may contain information relevant to the research question.", "* Analyze findings thoroughly, without ignoring conflicts in records or negative evidence.", "* Rely on original, rather than derivative sources, wherever possible.", "* Use logical reasoning based on reliable sources to reach conclusions.", "* Acknowledge when a specific conclusion is only \"possible\" or \"probable\" rather than \"proven\".", "* Acknowledge that other records that have not yet been discovered may overturn a conclusion.===Ethical guidelines===Genealogists often handle sensitive information and share and publish such information.", "Because of this, there is a need for ethical standards and boundaries for when information is too sensitive to be published.", "Historically, some genealogists have fabricated information or have otherwise been untrustworthy.", "Genealogical organizations around the world have outlined ethical standards as an attempt to eliminate such problems.", "Ethical standards adopted by various genealogical organizations include:* Respect copyright laws* Acknowledge where one consulted another's work and do not plagiarize the work of other researchers.", "* Treat original records with respect and avoid causing damage to them or removing them from repositories.", "* Treat archives and archive staff with respect.", "* Protect the privacy of living individuals by not publishing or otherwise disclosing information about them without their permission.", "* Disclose any conflicts of interest to clients.", "* When doing paid research, be clear with the client about scope of research and fees involved.", "* Do not fabricate information or publish false or unproven information as proven.", "* Be sensitive about information found through genealogical research that may make the client or family members uncomfortable.In 2015, a committee presented standards for genetic genealogy at the Salt Lake Institute of Genealogy.", "The standards emphasize that genealogists and testing companies should respect the privacy of clients and recognize the limits of DNA tests.", "It also discusses how genealogists should thoroughly document conclusions made using DNA evidence.", "In 2019, the Board for the Certification of Genealogists officially updated their standards and code of ethics to include standards for genetic genealogy." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "'''General'''* * Hopwood, Nick, Rebecca Flemming, Lauren Kassell, eds.", "''Reproduction: Antiquity to the Present Day'' (Cambridge UP, 2018).", "Illustrations.", "xxxv + 730 pp.", "excerpt also online review 44 scholarly essays by historians.", "* * * * '''British Isles'''* * * * * Kriesberg, Adam.", "\"The future of access to public records?", "Public–private partnerships in US state and territorial archives.\"", "''Archival Science'' 17.1 (2017): 5–25.", "* '''China'''* * '''Continental Europe'''* * * * * Volkmar Weiss: '' German Genealogy in Its Social and Political Context.''", "KDP, 2020, .", "'''North America'''* * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Gabon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gabon''' ( ; ; ), officially the '''Gabonese Republic''' (), is a country on the Atlantic coast of Central Africa, on the equator, bordered by Equatorial Guinea to the northwest, Cameroon to the north, the Republic of the Congo on the east and south, and the Gulf of Guinea to the west.", "It has an area of and a population of million.", "There are coastal plains, mountains (the Cristal Mountains and the Chaillu Massif in the centre), and a savanna in the east.", "Libreville is the country's capital and the largest city.Gabon's original inhabitants were the pygmy peoples.", "Beginning in the 14th century, Bantu migrants began settling in the area as well.", "Since its independence from France in 1960, Gabon has had three presidents.", "In the 1990s, it introduced a multi-party system and a democratic constitution that aimed for a more transparent electoral process and reformed some governmental institutions.", "Despite this, the Gabonese Democratic Party (PDG) remains the dominant party.", "Gabon is a developing country, ranking 112th in the Human Development Index.", "It is one of the wealthiest countries in Africa in terms of per capita income; however, large parts of the population are very poor.", "Omar Bongo came to office in 1967 and created a dynasty, which stabilized its power through a clientist network, Françafrique.", "The official language of Gabon is French, and Bantu ethnic groups constitute around 95% of the country's population.", "Christianity is the nation's predominant religion, practiced by about 76% of the population.", "With petroleum and foreign private investment, it has the fourth highest HDI (after Mauritius, Seychelles and South Africa) and the fifth highest GDP per capita (PPP) (after Seychelles, Mauritius, Equatorial Guinea and Botswana) of any African nation.", "Gabon's nominal GDP per capita is $10,149 in 2023 according to OPEC." ], [ "History", "=== Pre-colonization ===Pygmy peoples in the area were largely replaced and absorbed by Bantu tribes as they migrated.", "By the 18th century, a Myeni-speaking kingdom known as the Kingdom of Orungu formed as a trading centre with the ability to purchase and sell slaves, and fell with the demise of the slave trade in the 1870s.=== French rule and independence ===Explorer Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza led his first mission to the Gabon-Congo area in 1875.He founded the town of Franceville and was later colonial governor.", "Some Bantu groups lived in the area when France officially occupied it in 1885.In 1910, Gabon became a territory of French Equatorial Africa, a federation that survived until 1958.In World War II, the Allies invaded Gabon in order to overthrow the pro-Vichy France colonial administration.", "On 28 November 1958, Gabon became an autonomous republic within the French Community, and on 17 August 1960, it became fully independent.==== Independence ========= M'ba rule =====The first president of Gabon, elected in 1961, was Léon M'ba, with Omar Bongo Ondimba as his vice president.", "After M'ba's accession to power, the press was suppressed, political demonstrations suppressed, freedom of expression curtailed, other political parties gradually excluded from power, and the Constitution changed along French lines to vest power in the Presidency, a post that M'ba assumed himself.", "When M'ba dissolved the National Assembly in January 1964 to institute one-party rule, an army coup sought to oust him from power and restore parliamentary democracy.", "French paratroopers flew in within 24 hours to restore M'ba to power.", "After days of fighting, the coup ended and the opposition was imprisoned, with protests and riots.===== Bongo rule and PDG =====When M'Ba died in 1967, Bongo replaced him as president.", "In March 1968, Bongo declared Gabon a 1-party state by dissolving BDG and establishing a new party – the Parti Démocratique Gabonais (PDG).", "He invited all Gabonese, regardless of previous political affiliation, to participate.", "Bongo sought to forge a single national movement in support of the government's development policies, using PDG as a tool to submerge the regional and tribal rivalries that had divided Gabonese politics in the past.", "Bongo was elected president in February 1975; in April 1975, the position of vice president was abolished and replaced by the position of prime minister, who had no right to automatic succession.", "Bongo was re-elected President in December 1979 and November 1986 to 7-year terms.A map of West Africa in 1670The Battle of Gabon resulted in the Free French Forces taking the colony of Gabon from Vichy French forces, 1940In 1990, economic discontent and a desire for political liberalization provoked demonstrations and strikes by students and workers.", "In response to grievances by workers, Bongo negotiated with them on a sector-by-sector basis, making wage concessions.", "He promised to open up PDG and to organize a national political conference in March–April 1990 to discuss Gabon's future political system.", "PDG and 74 political organizations attended the conference.", "Participants essentially divided into 2 \"loose\" coalitions, ruling PDG and its allies, and the United Front of Opposition Associations and Parties, consisting of the breakaway Morena Fundamental and the Gabonese Progress Party.===== Transitional government and RSDG =====The April 1990 conference approved political reforms, including creation of a national Senate, decentralization of the budgetary process, freedom of assembly and press, and cancellation of an exit visa requirement.", "In an attempt to guide the political system's transformation to multiparty democracy, Bongo resigned as PDG chairman and created a transitional government headed by a new Prime Minister, Casimir Oye-Mba.", "The Gabonese Social Democratic Grouping (RSDG), as the resulting government was called, was smaller than the previous government and included representatives from some opposition parties in its cabinet.", "RSDG drafted a provisional constitution in May 1990 that provided a basic bill of rights and an independent judiciary and retained \"strong\" executive powers for the president.", "After further review by a constitutional committee and the National Assembly, this document came into force in March 1991.Opposition to PDG continued after the April 1990 conference, and in September 1990, two coup d'état attempts were uncovered and aborted.", "With demonstrations after the death of an opposition leader, the first multiparty National Assembly elections in almost 30 years took place in September–October 1990, with PDG garnering a majority.===== Bongo's re-election and rule =====President George W. Bush welcomes President Omar Bongo to the Oval Office, May 2004Following President Omar Bongo's re-election in December 1993 with 51% of the vote, opposition candidates refused to validate the election results.", "Civil disturbances and violent repression led to an agreement between the government and opposition factions to work toward a political settlement.", "These talks led to the Paris Accords in November 1994, under which some opposition figures were included in a government of national unity.", "This arrangement broke down and the 1996 and 1997 legislative and municipal elections provided the background for renewed partisan politics.", "PDG won in the legislative election, and some cities, including Libreville, elected opposition mayors during the 1997 local election.====== Boycott of elections and crisis ======Facing a divided opposition, President Omar Bongo coasted to re-election in December 1998.While some of Bongo's opponents rejected the outcome as fraudulent, some international observers characterized the results as representative \"despite many perceived irregularities\".", "Legislative elections held in 2001–2002 were boycotted by a number of smaller opposition parties and were criticized for their administrative weaknesses, produced a National Assembly dominated by PDG and allied independents.", "In November 2005 President Omar Bongo was elected for his sixth term.", "He won re-election, and opponents claim that the balloting process was marred by irregularities.", "There were some instances of violence following the announcement of his win.", "National Assembly elections were held in December 2006.Some seats contested because of voting irregularities were overturned by the Constitutional Court, and the subsequent run-off elections in 2007 yielded a PDG-controlled National Assembly.===== Death of Bongo and succession =====Independence Day celebration in GabonOn 8 June 2009, President Omar Bongo died of cardiac arrest at a Spanish hospital in Barcelona.", "In accordance with the amended constitution, Rose Francine Rogombé, the President of the Senate, became Interim President on 10 June 2009.The first contested elections in Gabon's history that did not include Omar Bongo as a candidate were held on 30 August 2009, with 18 candidates for president.", "The lead-up to the elections saw some isolated protests.", "Omar Bongo's son, ruling party leader Ali Bongo, was formally declared the winner after a 3-week review by the Constitutional Court; his inauguration took place on 16 October 2009.The court's review had been prompted by claims of fraud by some opposition candidates, with the initial announcement of election results sparking violent protests in Port-Gentil.", "The citizens of Port-Gentil took to the streets, and some shops and residences were burned, including the French Consulate and a local prison.", "Officially, 4 deaths occurred during the riots.", "Gendarmes and the military were deployed to Port-Gentil to support the beleaguered police, and a curfew was in effect for more than 3 months.A partial legislative by-election was held in June 2010.A coalition of parties, the Union Nationale (UN), participated for the first time.", "UN is composed mostly of PDG defectors who left the party after Omar Bongo's death.", "Of the 5 contested seats, PDG won 3 and UN won 2; both sides claimed victory.In January 2019, there was an attempted coup d'état led by soldiers against the President Ali Bongo; the coup ultimately failed.In June 2021, Gabon became the first country to receive payments for reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation.", "In June 2022, Gabon and Togo joined the Commonwealth of Nations.==== 2023 coup d'état ====In August 2023, following the announcement that Ali Bongo had won a third term in the general election, military officers announced that they had taken power in a coup d'état and cancelled the election results.", "They also dissolved state institutions including the Judiciary, Parliament and the constitutional assembly.", "On 31 August 2023, army officers who seized power, ending the Bongo family's 55-year hold on power, named Gen Brice Oligui Nguema as the country's transitional leader.", "On 4 September 2023, General Nguema was sworn in as interim president of Gabon." ], [ "Politics", "The presidential republic form of government is stated under the 1961 constitution (revised in 1975, rewritten in 1991, and revised in 2003).", "The president is elected by universal suffrage for a seven-year term; a 2003 constitutional amendment removed presidential term limits.", "The president can appoint and dismiss the prime minister, the cabinet, and judges of the independent Supreme Court.", "The president has other powers such as authority to dissolve the National Assembly, declare a state of siege, delay legislation, and conduct referendums.", "Gabon has a bicameral legislature with a National Assembly and Senate.", "The National Assembly has 120 deputies who are popularly elected for a five-year term.", "The Senate is composed of 102 members who are elected by municipal councils and regional assemblies and serve for six years.", "The Senate was created in the 1990–1991 constitutional revision, and was not brought into being until after the 1997 local elections.", "The President of the Senate is next in succession to the President.In 1990, the government made changes to Gabon's political system.", "A transitional constitution was drafted in May 1990 as an outgrowth of the national political conference in March–April and later revised by a constitutional committee.", "Among its provisions were a Western-style bill of rights, creation of a National Council of Democracy to oversee the guarantee of those rights, a governmental advisory board on economic and social issues, and an independent judiciary.", "After approval by the National Assembly, PDG Central Committee, and the President, the Assembly unanimously adopted the constitution in March 1991.Multiparty legislative elections were held in 1990–1991 when opposition parties had not been declared formally legal.", "In January 1991, the Assembly passed by unanimous vote a law governing the legalization of opposition parties.After President Omar Bongo was re-elected in 1993, in a disputed election where only 51% of votes were cast, social and political disturbances led to the 1994 Paris Conference and Accords.", "These provided a framework for the next elections.", "Local and legislative elections were delayed until 1996–1997.In 1997, constitutional amendments put forward years earlier were adopted to create the Senate and the position of Vice President, and to extend the President's term to seven years.In October 2009, President Ali Bongo Ondimba began efforts to streamline the government.", "In an effort to reduce corruption and government bloat, he eliminated 17 minister-level positions, abolished the Vice Presidency and reorganized the portfolios of some ministries, bureaus and directorates.", "In November 2009, President Bongo Ondimba announced a new vision for the modernization of Gabon, called \"Gabon Emergent\".", "This program contains three pillars: Green Gabon, Service Gabon, and Industrial Gabon.", "The goals of Gabon Emergent are to diversify the economy so that Gabon becomes less reliant on petroleum, to eliminate corruption, and to modernize the workforce.", "Under this program, exports of raw timber have been banned, a government-wide census was held, the work day was changed to eliminate a long midday break, and a national oil company was created.On 25 January 2011, opposition leader André Mba Obame claimed the presidency, saying the country should be run by someone the people really wanted.", "He selected 19 ministers for his government, and the entire group, along with hundreds of others, spent the night at the United Nations headquarters.", "On January 26, the government dissolved Mba Obame's party.", "AU chairman Jean Ping said that Mba Obame's action \"hurts the integrity of legitimate institutions and also endangers the peace, the security and the stability of Gabon.\"", "Interior Minister Jean-François Ndongou accused Mba Obame and his supporters of treason.", "The UN Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon, said that he recognized Ondimba as the only official Gabonese president.The 2016 presidential election was disputed, with \"very close\" official results reported.", "Protests broke out in the capital and met a repression which culminated in the alleged bombing of opposition party headquarters by the presidential guard.", "Between 50 and 100 citizens were killed by security forces and 1,000 arrested.", "International observers criticized irregularities, including unnaturally high turnout reported for some districts.", "The country's supreme court threw out some suspect precincts, and the ballots have been destroyed.", "The election was declared in favor of the incumbent Ondimba.", "The European Parliament issued two resolutions denouncing the unclear results of the election and calling for an investigation on the human rights violations.A few days after the controversial presidential election in August 2023, a group of military officials declared a military coup and that they had overthrown the government and deposed Ali Bongo Ondimba.", "The announcement came hours after Ali Bongo was officially re-elected for a third term.", "General Brice Oligui Nguema was appointed as the transitional leader.", "This event marked the eighth instance of military intervention in the region since 2020, raising concerns about democratic stability.=== Foreign relations ===Prime Minister of Gabon Julien Nkoghe Bekale and Russian President Vladimir Putin at the Russia-Africa Summit in Sochi in Russia in October 2019Since independence, Gabon has followed a nonaligned policy, advocating dialogue in international affairs and recognizing each side of divided countries.", "In intra-African affairs, it espouses development by evolution rather than revolution and favors regulated private enterprise as the system most likely to promote rapid economic growth.", "It involved itself in mediation efforts in Chad, the Central African Republic, Angola, the Republic of the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (D.R.C.", "), and Burundi.", "In December 1999, through the mediation efforts of President Bongo, a peace accord was signed in the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville) between the government and most leaders of an armed rebellion.", "President Bongo was involved in the continuing D.R.C.", "peace process, and played a role in mediating the crisis in Ivory Coast.A U.S. Navy Captain greeted by the Gabonese ArmyGabon is a member of the United Nations (UN) and some of its specialized and related agencies, and of the World Bank; the IMF; the African Union (AU); the Central African Customs Union/Central African Economic and Monetary Community (UDEAC/CEMAC); EU/ACP association under the Lomé Convention; the Communaute Financiere Africaine (CFA); the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC); the Nonaligned Movement; and the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS/CEEAC).", "In 1995, Gabon withdrew from the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), rejoining in 2016.Gabon was elected to a non-permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council for January 2010 through December 2011 and held the rotating presidency in March 2010.In 2022, Gabon joined the Commonwealth of Nations.=== Military ===It has a professional military of about 5,000 personnel, divided into army, navy, air force, gendarmerie, and police force.", "A 1,800-member guard provides security for the president.=== Administrative divisions ===It is divided into 9 provinces which are subdivided into 50 departments.", "The president appoints the provincial governors, the prefects, and the subprefects.The provinces are (capitals in parentheses):#Estuaire (Libreville)#Haut-Ogooué (Franceville)#Moyen-Ogooué (Lambaréné)#Ngounié (Mouila)#Nyanga (Tchibanga)#Ogooué-Ivindo (Makokou)#Ogooué-Lolo (Koulamoutou)#Ogooué-Maritime (Port-Gentil)#Woleu-Ntem (Oyem)" ], [ "Geography", "Map of Köppen climate classificationShare of forest area in total land area, top countries (2021).", "Gabon has the fourth highest percentage of forest cover in the world.Gabon is located on the Atlantic coast of central Africa on the equator, between latitudes 3°N and 4°S, and longitudes 8° and 15°E.", "Gabon has an equatorial climate with a system of rainforests, with 89.3% of its land area forested.There are coastal plains (ranging between from the ocean's shore), the mountains (the Cristal Mountains to the northeast of Libreville, the Chaillu Massif in the centre), and the savanna in the east.", "The coastal plains form a section of the World Wildlife Fund's Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests ecoregion and contain patches of Central African mangroves including on the Muni River estuary on the border with Equatorial Guinea.Geologically, Gabon is primarily Archean and Paleoproterozoic igneous and metamorphic basement rock, belonging to the stable continental crust of the Congo Craton.", "Some formations are more than 2 billion years old.", "Some rock units are overlain by marine carbonate, lacustrine and continental sedimentary rocks, and unconsolidated sediments and soils that formed in the last 2.5 million years of the Quaternary.", "The rifting apart of the supercontinent Pangaea created rift basins that filled with sediments and formed the hydrocarbons.", "There are Oklo reactor zones, a natural nuclear fission reactor on Earth which was active 2 billion years ago.", "The site was discovered during uranium mining in the 1970s to supply the French nuclear power industry.Its largest river is the Ogooué which is long.", "It has 3 karst areas where there are hundreds of caves located in the dolomite and limestone rocks.", "A National Geographic Expedition visited some caves in the summer of 2008 to document them.In 2002, President Omar Bongo Ondimba designated roughly 10% of the nation's territory to be part of its national park system (with 13 parks in total).", "The National Agency for National Parks manages Gabon's national park system.", "Gabon had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.07/10, ranking it 9th globally out of 172 countries.===Wildlife===Gabon has a large number of protected animal and plant species.", "The country's biodiversity is one of the most varied on the planet.====Fauna of Gabon====Gabon is home of 604 species of birds, 98 species of amphibians, between 95 and 160 species of reptiles and 198 different species of mammals.", "In Gabon there are rare species, such as the Gabon pangolin and the grey-necked rockfowl, or endemics, such as the Gabon guenon.The country is one of the most varied and important fauna reserves in Africa: it is an important refuge for chimpanzees (whose number, in 2003, was estimated between 27,000 and 64,000) and gorillas (35,000 recorded in 1983).", "The \"Gorilla and Chimpanzee Study Station\" inside the Lopé National Park is dedicated to their study.It is also home to more than half the population of African forest elephants, mostly in Minkébé National Park.", "Gabon's national animal is the black panther.====Flora of Gabon====More than 10,000 species of plants, and 400 species of trees form the flora of Gabon.", "Gabon's rainforest is considered the densest and most virgin in Africa.", "However, the country's enormous population growth is causing heavy deforestation that threatens this valuable ecosystem.", "Likewise, poaching endangers wildlife.", "Gabon's national flower is Delonix Regia." ], [ "Economy", "A proportional representation of Gabon exports in 2019.Change in per capita GDP of Gabon, 1950–2018.Figures are inflation-adjusted to 2011 International dollars.Oil revenues constitute roughly 46% of the government's budget, 43% of the gross domestic product (GDP), and 81% of exports.", "Oil production declined from its higher point of 370,000 barrels per day in 1997.Some estimates suggest that Gabonese oil will be expended by 2025.Planning is beginning for an after-oil scenario.", "The Grondin Oil Field was discovered in water depths offshore, in 1971 and produces from the Batanga sandstones of Maastrichtian age forming an anticline salt structural trap which is about deep.As of 2023, Gabon produces about 200,000 barrels a day (bpd) of crude oil.", "\"Overspending\" on the Trans-Gabon Railway, the CFA franc devaluation of 1994, and periods of lower oil prices caused debt problems.Successive International Monetary Fund (IMF) missions have criticized the Gabonaise government for overspending on off-budget items (in good years and bad), over-borrowing from the central bank, and slipping on the schedule for privatization and administrative reform.", "In September 2005 Gabon successfully concluded a 15-month Stand-By Arrangement with the IMF.", "A three-year Stand-By Arrangement with IMF was approved in May 2007.Because of the financial crisis and social developments surrounding the death of President Omar Bongo and the elections, Gabon was unable to meet its economic goals under the Stand-By Arrangement in 2009.Gabon's oil revenues have given it a per capita GDP of $8,600.A \"skewed income distribution\" and \"poor social indicators\" are \"evident\".", "The richest 20% of the population earn over 90% of the income while about a third of the Gabonese population lives in poverty.The economy is dependent on extraction.", "Before the discovery of oil, logging was the \"pillar\" of the Gabonese economy.", "Then, logging and manganese mining are the \"next-most-important\" income generators.", "Some explorations suggest the presence of the world's largest unexploited iron ore deposit.", "For some who live in rural areas without access to employment opportunity in extractive industries, remittances from family members in urban areas or subsistence activities provide income.Foreign and local observers have lamented the lack of diversity in the Gabonese economy.", "Factors that have \"limited the development of new industries\" were listed as follows:* the market is \"small\", about a million* dependent on imports from France* unable to capitalize on regional markets* entrepreneurial zeal not always present among the Gabonese* a \"fairly regular\" stream of oil \"rent\", even if it is diminishingFurther investment in the agricultural or tourism sectors is \"complicated by poor infrastructure\".", "Some processing and service sectors are \"largely dominated by a few prominent local investors\".At World Bank and IMF insistence, the government embarked in the 1990s on a program of privatization of its state-owned companies and administrative reform, including reducing public sector employment and salary growth.", "A government has voiced a commitment to work toward an economic transformation of the country." ], [ "Energy" ], [ "Transport" ], [ "Demographics", "+Population in Gabon Year Million1950 0.52000 1.2 Crowd on beachIt has a population of approximately million.", "Historical and environmental factors caused its population to decline between 1900 and 1940.It has one of the lowest population densities of any country in Africa, and the fourth highest Human Development Index in Sub-Saharan Africa.=== Ethnic groups ===Gabon has at least 40 ethnic groups, including Fang, Myènè, Punu-Échira, Nzebi-Adouma, Teke-Mbete, Mèmbè, Kota, Akélé.", "There are indigenous Pygmy peoples: the Bongo, and Baka.", "The latter speak the only non-Bantu language in Gabon.", "More than 10,000 native French live in Gabon, including an estimated 2,000 dual nationals.Some ethnicities are spread throughout Gabon, leading to contact, interaction among the groups, and intermarriage.=== Population centres ===LibrevillePeople in Libreville+'''Cities of Gabon''' Rank City Population Province 2003 census 2013 census 1.Libreville 538,195 703,940 Estuaire 2.Port-Gentil 105,712 136,462 Ogooué-Maritime 3.Franceville 103,840 110,568 Haut-Ogooué 4.Owendo 51,661 79,300 Estuaire 5.Oyem 35,241 60,685 Woleu-Ntem 6.Moanda 42,703 59,154 Haut-Ogooué 7.Ntoum 12,711 51,954 Estuaire 8.Lambaréné 24,883 38,775 Moyen-Ogooué 9.Mouila 21,074 36,061 Ngounié 10.Akanda – 34,548 Estuaire=== Languages ===French is the sole official language.", "It is estimated that 80% of the population can speak French, and that 30% of Libreville residents are native speakers of the language.Nationally, a majority of the Gabonese people speak indigenous languages, according to their ethnic group, while this proportion is lower than in most other Sub-Saharan African countries.", "The 2013 census found that 63.7% of Gabon's population could speak a Gabonese language, broken down by 86.3% in rural areas and 60.5% in urban areas speaking at least one national language.=== Religion ===Religions practised in Gabon include Christianity (Roman Catholicism and Protestantism), Islam, and traditional indigenous religious beliefs.", "Some people practice elements of both Christianity and indigenous religious beliefs.", "Approximately 79% of the population (53% Catholic) practice one of the denominations of Christianity; 10% practice Islam (mainly Sunni); the remainder practice other religions.=== Health ===A private hospital was established in 1913 in Lambaréné by Albert Schweitzer.", "By 1985 there were 28 hospitals, 87 medical centers, and 312 infirmaries and dispensaries.", ", there were an estimated 29 physicians per 100,000 people, and \"approximately 90% of the population had access to health care services\".In 2000, 70% of the population had access to \"safe drinking water\" and 21% had \"adequate sanitation\".", "A government health program treats such diseases as leprosy, sleeping sickness, malaria, filariasis, intestinal worms, and tuberculosis.", "Rates for immunization of children under the age of 1 were 97% for tuberculosis and 65% for polio.", "Immunization rates for DPT and measles were 37% and 56% respectively.", "Gabon has a domestic supply of pharmaceuticals from a factory in Libreville.The total fertility rate has decreased from 5.8 in 1960 to 4.2 children per mother during childbearing years in 2000.10% of all births were \"low birth weight\".", "The maternal mortality rate was 520 per 100,000 live births as of 1998.In 2005, the infant mortality rate was 55.35 per 1,000 live births and life expectancy was 55.02 years.", "As of 2002, the overall mortality rate was estimated at 17.6 per 1,000 inhabitants.The HIV/AIDS prevalence is estimated to be 5.2% of the adult population (ages 15–49).", ", approximately 46,000 people were living with HIV/AIDS.", "There were an estimated 2,400 deaths from AIDS in 2009 – down from 3,000 deaths in 2003.=== Education ===Its education system is regulated by two ministries: the Ministry of Education, in charge of pre-kindergarten through the last high school grade, and the Ministry of Higher Education and Innovative Technologies, in charge of universities, higher education, and professional schools.Education is compulsory for children ages 6 to 16 under the Education Act.", "Some children in Gabon start their school lives by attending nurseries or \"Crèche\", then kindergarten known as \"Jardins d'Enfants\".", "At age 6, they are enrolled in primary school, \"École Primaire\" which is made up of 6 grades.", "The next level is \"École Secondaire\", which is made up of 7 grades.", "The planned graduation age is 19 years old.", "Those who graduate can apply for admission at institutions of higher learning, including engineering schools or business schools.", "As of 2012, the literacy rate of a population ages 15 and above was 82%.The government has used oil revenue for school construction, paying teachers' salaries, and promoting education, including in rural areas.", "Maintenance of school structures, and teachers' salaries, has been declining.", "In 2002 the gross primary enrollment rate was 132%, and in 2000 the net primary enrollment rate was 78%.", "Gross and net enrollment ratios are based on the number of students formally registered in primary school.", "As of 2001, 69% of children who started primary school were \"likely\" to reach grade 5.Problems in the education system include \"poor management and planning, lack of oversight, poorly qualified teachers\", and \"overcrowded classrooms\"." ], [ "Culture", "A Gabonese maskA country with a primarily oral tradition until the spread of literacy in the 21st century, it has folklore and mythology.", "\"Raconteurs\" are working to keep traditions alive such as the mvett among the Fangs and the ingwala among the Nzebis.It features internationally celebrated masks such as the n'goltang (Fang) and the reliquary figures of the Kota.", "Each group has its own set of masks used.", "They are used in ceremonies such as marriage, birth and funerals.", "Traditionalists work with \"rare local woods and other precious materials\".=== Music ===It has an array of folk styles.", "Imported rock and hip hop from the US and UK are in Gabon, as are rumba, makossa and soukous.", "Some folk instruments include the obala, the ngombi, the balafon and drums.=== Media ===Radio-Diffusion Télévision Gabonaise (RTG) which is owned and operated by the government broadcasts in French and indigenous languages.", "Color television broadcasts have been introduced in some cities.", "In 1981, a commercial radio station, Africa No.", "1, began operations.", "It has participation from the French and Gabonese governments and private European media.In 2004, the government operated 2 radio stations and another 7 were privately owned.", "There were 2 government television stations and 4 privately owned.", "In 2003, there were an estimated 488 radios and 308 television sets for every 1,000 people.", "About 11.5 of every 1,000 people were cable subscribers.", "In 2003, there were 22.4 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 26 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet.", "The national press service is the Gabonese Press Agency which publishes a daily paper, ''Gabon-Matin'' (circulation 18,000 as of 2002).", "''L'Union'' in Libreville, the government-controlled daily newspaper, had an average daily circulation of 40,000 in 2002.The weekly ''Gabon d'Aujourdhui'' is published by the Ministry of Communications.", "There are about 9 privately owned periodicals which are either independent or affiliated with political parties.", "These publish in certain numbers that have been delayed by financial constraints.", "The constitution of Gabon provides for free speech and a free press, and the government supports these rights.", "Some periodicals actively criticize the government and foreign publications are available.=== Cuisine ===Gabonese cuisine is influenced by French cuisine, and staple foods are available.===Sports=== The Gabon national football team has represented the nation since 1962.The Under-23 football team won the 2011 CAF U-23 Championship and qualified for the 2012 London Olympics.", "Gabon were joint hosts, along with Equatorial Guinea, of the 2012 Africa Cup of Nations, and the sole hosts of the competition's 2017 tournament.The Gabon national basketball team, nicknamed ''Les Panthères'', finished 8th at the AfroBasket 2015.Gabon has competed at most Summer Olympics since 1972.Its Olympic medallist Anthony Obame won a silver medal in taekwondo at the 2012 Olympics held in London.Gabon has recreational fishing and is considered the \"best place in the world\" to catch Atlantic tarpon." ], [ "See also", "* Index of Gabon-related articles* Outline of Gabon* Lambaréné* Hôpital Albert Schweitzer" ], [ "References", "https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/gabon/" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Bachmann, Olaf.", "\"Gabon: An Uneasy Civil‒Military Concord.\"", "''Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics'' (2020).", "* Gardinier, David E. \"France and Gabon since 1993: The reshaping of a neo-colonial relationship.\"", "''Journal of Contemporary African Studies'' 18.2 (2000): 225–242.online** Gray, Christopher J.", "\"Cultivating citizenship through xenophobia in Gabon, 1960-1995.\"", "''Africa today'' 45.3/4 (1998): 389-409 online* Gray, Christopher.", "\"Who Does Historical Research in Gabon?", "Obstacles to the Development of a Scholarly Tradition1.\"", "''History in Africa'' 21 (1994): 413–433.", "* Jean-Baptiste, Rachel.", "''Multiracial Identities in Colonial French Africa: Race, Childhood, and Citizenship'' (Cambridge University Press, 2023).", "* Ngolet, François.", "\"Ideological manipulations and political longevity: the power of Omar Bongo in Gabon since 1967.\"", "''African Studies Review'' 43.2 (2000): 55–71.online***** Yates, Douglas A.", "''Historical dictionary of Gabon'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2017) online* Yates, Douglas.", "\"The dynastic republic of Gabon.\"", "''Cahiers d’études africaines'' (2019): 483–513.online* Yates, Douglas A.", "\"The History of Gabon.\"", "''Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History'' (2020).", "* Yates, Douglas Andrew.", "''The rentier state in Africa: Oil rent dependency and neocolonialism in the Republic of Gabon'' (Africa World Press, 1996) online." ], [ "External links", " Gabon.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", " Gabon from the BBC News** Key Development Forecasts for Gabon from International Futures* 2009 report (PDF) from Direction générale de la statistique et des études économiques" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Gabon" ], [ "Introduction", "Little is known of the '''history of Gabon''' before European contact.", "Bantu migrants settled the area beginning in the 14th century.", "Portuguese explorers and traders arrived in the area in the late 15th century.", "The coast subsequently became a center of the transatlantic slave trade with European slave traders arriving to the region in the 16th century.", "In 1839 and 1841, France established a protectorate over the coast.", "In 1849, captives released from a captured slave ship founded Libreville.", "In 1862–1887, France expanded its control including the interior of the state, and took full sovereignty.", "In 1910 Gabon became part of French Equatorial Africa and in 1960, Gabon became independent.At the time of Gabon's independence, two principal political parties existed: the Gabonese Democratic Bloc (BDG), led by Léon M'Ba, and the Gabonese Democratic and Social Union (UDSG), led by Jean-Hilaire Aubame.", "In the first post-independence election, held under a parliamentary system, neither party was able to win a majority; the leaders subsequently agreed against a two-party system and ran with a single list of candidates.", "In the February 1961 election, held under the new presidential system, M'Ba became president and Aubame became foreign minister.", "The single-party solution disintegrated in 1963, and there was a single-day bloodless coup in 1964.In March 1967, Leon M'Ba and Omar Bongo were elected president and vice president.", "M'Ba died later that year.", "Bongo declared Gabon a one-party state, dissolved the BDG and established the Gabonese Democratic Party (PDG).", "Sweeping political reforms in 1990 led to a new constitution, and the PDG garnered a large majority in the country's first multi-party elections in 30 years.", "Despite discontent from opposition parties, Bongo remained president until his death in 2009." ], [ "Early history", "The societies of the indigenous Pygmies were largely displaced from about AD 1000 onwards by migrating Bantu peoples from the north, such as the Fang.", "Little is known of tribal life before European contact, but tribal art suggests a rich cultural heritage.Gabon's first confirmed European visitors were Portuguese explorers and traders who arrived in the late 15th century.", "At this time, the southern coast was controlled by the Kingdom of Loango.", "The Portuguese settled on the offshore islands of São Tomé, Príncipe, and Fernando Pó, but were regular visitors to the coast.They named the Gabon region after the Portuguese word ''gabão'' — a coat with sleeve and hood resembling the shape of the Komo River estuary.", "More European merchants came to the region in the 16th century, trading for slaves, ivory and tropical woods." ], [ "French colonial period", "\"''French Congo.", "Natives from Gabon''\": Colonial postcard c.1905In 1838 and 1841, France established a protectorate over the coastal regions of Gabon by treaties with Gabonese coastal chiefs.American missionaries from New England established a mission at the mouth of the Komo River in 1842.In 1849, the French authorities captured an illegal slave ship and freed the captives on board.", "The captives were released near the mission station, where they founded a settlement which was called Libreville (French for \"free town\")French explorers penetrated Gabon's dense jungles between 1862 and 1887.The most famous, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza, used Gabonese bearers and guides in his search for the headwaters of the Congo river.", "France occupied Gabon in 1885, but did not administer it until 1903.Gabon's first political party, the Jeunesse Gabonais, was founded around 1922.In 1910 Gabon became one of the four territories of French Equatorial Africa.", "On 15 July 1960 France agreed to Gabon becoming fully independent.", "On 17 August 1960 Gabon became an independent country." ], [ "Independence", "At the time of Gabon's independence in 1960, two principal political parties existed: the Gabonese Democratic Bloc (BDG), led by Léon M'Ba, and the Gabonese Democratic and Social Union (UDSG), led by Jean-Hilaire Aubame.", "In the first post-independence election, held under a parliamentary system, neither party was able to win a majority.", "The BDG obtained support from three of the four independent legislative deputies, and M'Ba was named Prime Minister.", "Soon after concluding that Gabon had an insufficient number of people for a two-party system, the two party leaders agreed on a single list of candidates.", "In the February 1961 election, held under the new presidential system, M'Ba became president and Aubame became foreign minister.This one-party system appeared to work until February 1963, when the larger BDG element forced the UDSG members to choose between a merger of the parties or resignation.", "The UDSG cabinet ministers resigned, and M'Ba called an election for February 1964 and a reduced number of National Assembly deputies (from 67 to 47).", "The UDSG failed to muster a list of candidates able to meet the requirements of the electoral decrees.", "When the BDG appeared likely to win the election by default, the Gabonese military toppled M'Ba in a bloodless coup on 18 February 1964.French troops re-established his government the next day.", "Elections were held in April 1964 with many opposition participants.", "BDG-supported candidates won 31 seats and the opposition 16.Late in 1966, the constitution was revised to provide for automatic succession of the vice president should the president die in office.", "In March 1967, Leon M'Ba and Omar Bongo (then known as Albert Bongo) were elected President and Vice President, with the BDG winning all 47 seats in the National Assembly.", "M'Ba died later that year, and Omar Bongo became president.In March 1968 Bongo declared Gabon a one-party state by dissolving the BDG and establishing a new party: the Gabonese Democratic Party ''(Parti Démocratique Gabonais)'' (PDG).", "He invited all Gabonese, regardless of previous political affiliation, to participate.", "Bongo was elected President in February 1973; in April 1975, the office of vice president was abolished and replaced by the office of prime minister, who had no right to automatic succession.", "Bongo was re-elected president in December 1979 and November 1986 to 7-year terms.", "Using the PDG as a tool to submerge the regional and tribal rivalries that divided Gabonese politics in the past, Bongo sought to forge a single national movement in support of the government's development policies.Economic discontent and a desire for political liberalization provoked violent demonstrations and strikes by students and workers in early 1990.In response to worker grievances, Bongo negotiated on a sector-by-sector basis, making significant wage concessions.", "In addition, he promised to open up the PDG and to organize a national political conference in March–April 1990 to discuss Gabon's future political system.", "The PDG and 74 political organizations attended the conference.", "Participants essentially divided into two loose coalitions, the ruling PDG and its allies, and the United Front of Opposition Associations and Parties, consisting of the breakaway Morena Fundamental and the Gabonese Progress Party.The April 1990 conference approved sweeping political reforms, including creation of a national Senate, decentralization of the budgetary process, freedom of assembly and press, and cancellation of the exit visa requirement.", "In an attempt to guide the political system's transformation to multiparty democracy, Bongo resigned as PDG chairman and created a transitional government headed by a new Prime Minister, Casimir Oyé-Mba.", "The Gabonese Social Democratic Grouping (RSDG), as the resulting government was called, was smaller than the previous government and included representatives from several opposition parties in its cabinet.", "The RSDG drafted a provisional constitution in May 1990 that provided a basic bill of rights and an independent judiciary but retained strong executive powers for the president.", "After further review by a constitutional committee and the National Assembly, this document came into force in March 1991.Under the 1991 constitution, in the event of the president's death, the Prime Minister, the National Assembly president, and the defense minister were to share power until a new election could be held.Opposition to the PDG continued, however, and in September 1990, two coup d'état attempts were uncovered and aborted.", "Despite anti-government demonstrations after the untimely death of an opposition leader, the first multiparty National Assembly elections in almost 30 years took place in September–October 1990, with the PDG garnering a large majority.Following President Bongo's re-election in December 1993 with 51% of the vote, opposition candidates refused to validate the election results.", "Serious civil disturbances led to an agreement between the government and opposition factions to work toward a political settlement.", "These talks led to the Paris Accords in November 1994, under which several opposition figures were included in a government of national unity, and constitutional reforms were approved in a referendum in 1995.This arrangement soon broke down, however, and the 1996 and 1997 legislative and municipal elections provided the background for renewed partisan politics.", "The PDG won a landslide victory in the legislative election, but several major cities, including Libreville, elected opposition mayors during the 1997 local election." ], [ "Modern times", "President Bongo coasted to easy re-elections in December 1998 and November 2005, with large majorities of the vote against a divided opposition.", "While Bongo's major opponents rejected the outcome as fraudulent, some international observers characterized the results as representative despite any perceived irregularities.", "Legislative elections held in 2001–2002, which were boycotted by a number of smaller opposition parties and were widely criticized for their administrative weaknesses, produced a National Assembly almost completely dominated by the PDG and allied independents.Omar Bongo died at a Spanish hospital on 8 June 2009.His son Ali Bongo Ondimba was elected president in the August 2009 presidential election.", "He was re-elected in August 2016, in elections marred by numerous irregularities, arrests, human rights violations and post-election violence.", "On 24 October 2018, Ali Bongo Ondimbao was hospitalized in Riyadh for an undisclosed illness.", "On 29 November 2018 Bongo was transferred to a military hospital in Rabat to continue recovery.", "On 9 December 2018 it was reported by Gabon's Vice President Moussavou that Bongo suffered a stroke in Riyadh and has since left the hospital in Rabat and is currently recovering at a private residence in Rabat.", "Since 24 October 2018 Bongo has not been seen in public and due to lack of evidence that he is either alive or dead many have speculated if he is truly alive or not.", "On 1 January 2019 Bongo gave his first public address via a video posted to social media since falling ill in October 2018 putting to rest any rumors he was dead.On 7 January 2019, soldiers in Gabon launched an unsuccessful coup d’etat attempt.On May 11, 2021, a Commonwealth delegation visited Gabon as Ali Bongo visited London to meet with the secretary general of the organization, which brings together 54 English-speaking countries.", "President Bongo expressed Gabon's willingness to join the Commonwealth.", "In June 2022, Gabon joined the Commonwealth as its 55th member.In August 2023, following the announcement that Ali Bongo had won a third term in the general election, military officers announced that they had taken power in a coup d'état and cancelled the election results.", "They also dissolved state institutions including the Judiciary, Parliament and the constitutional assembly.", "On 31 August 2023, army officers who seized power, ending the Bongo family's 55-year hold on power, named Gen Brice Oligui Nguema as the country's transitional leader.", "On 4 September 2023, General Nguema was sworn in as interim president of Gabon." ], [ "See also", "History of AfricaList of heads of government of GabonList of heads of state of GabonPolitics of Gabon* Libreville history and timeline" ], [ "References", "Petringa, Maria (2006), ''Brazza, A Life for Africa''.", "Schilling, Heinar (1937), ''Germanisches Leben'', Koehler and Amelang, Leipzig, Germany." ], [ "Bibliography", "* Chamberlin, Christopher.", "\"The migration of the Fang into Central Gabon during the nineteenth century: a new interpretation.\"", "''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 11.3 (1978): 429-456.online* Cinnamon, John M. \"Missionary expertise, social science, and the uses of ethnographic knowledge in colonial Gabon.\"", "''History in Africa'' 33 (2006): 413-432.online* Digombe, Lazare, et al.", "\"The development of an Early Iron Age prehistory in Gabon.\"", "''Current Anthropology'' 29.1 (1988): 179-184.", "* Gray, Christopher.", "\"Who Does Historical Research in Gabon?", "Obstacles to the Development of a Scholarly Tradition1.\"", "''History in Africa'' 21 (1994): 413-433.", "* Gray, Christopher John.", "''Colonial rule and crisis in Equatorial Africa: Southern Gabon, c. 1850-1940'' (University Rochester Press, 2002).", "online* Gray, Christopher J.", "\"Cultivating citizenship through xenophobia in Gabon, 1960-1995.\"", "''Africa today'' 45.3/4 (1998): 389-409 online* Matsuura, Naoki.", "\"Historical changes in land use and interethnic relations of the Babongo in southern Gabon.\"", "''African Study Monographs'' 32.4 (2011): 157-176.online* Ngolet, François.", "\"Ideological manipulations and political longevity: the power of Omar Bongo in Gabon since 1967.\"", "''African Studies Review'' 43.2 (2000): 55-71.online*** Yates, Douglas A.", "''Historical dictionary of Gabon'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2017) online* Yates, Douglas.", "\"The dynastic republic of Gabon.\"", "''Cahiers d’études africaines'' (2019): 483-513.online* Yates, Douglas A.", "\"The History of Gabon.\"", "''Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History'' (2020)." ], [ "External links", "* WWW-VL History Index of Gabon * A detailed history * Background Note: Gabon" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Gabon" ], [ "Introduction", "Gabon map of Köppen climate classification.", "'''Gabon''' is a country in Central Africa, lying along the Atlantic Ocean, just south of the Bight of Biafra." ], [ "Borders", "Gabon has a total of 3,261 km of international boundaries.", "It borders Equatorial Guinea (335 km) and Cameroon (349 km) to the north and the Republic of the Congo (2,567 km) to the east and south.", "Gabon lies on the equator.", "; Maritime claims::* Territorial sea: :* Contiguous zone: :* Exclusive economic zone:" ], [ "Terrain", " Land Use (2012)• Arable land1.26%• Permanent crops0.66%• Other 98.08%Share of forest area in total land area, top countries (2021).", "Gabon has the fourth highest percentage of forest cover in the world.Narrow coastal plain with patches of Central African mangroves; hilly interior; savanna in east and south.", "A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 420km² of tidal flats in Gabon, making it the 50th ranked country in terms of tidal flat area.", "Irrigated land: 44.5 km2 (2003)Total renewable water resources: 164 km3 (2011)" ], [ "Environment", "'''International agreements:''''''Party to:''' Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling" ], [ "Climate", "The equatorial location of Gabon means that it has a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen ''Am'') and a tropical savanna climate (Köppen ''Aw''), with the temperature being hot year-round and humid, although the Benguela Current can moderate temperatures." ], [ "Extreme points", "Northernmost point - unnamed location on the border with Cameroon on the Ntem River, Woleu-Ntem provinceEasternmost point - the unnamed location on the border with the Republic of Congo immediately south-west of the Congolese village of Mbeyi-Mbola, Haut-Ogooué provinceSouthernmost point - the point at which the border with the Republic of Congo enters the Atlantic Ocean, Nyanga ProvinceWesternmost point - the north-west point of Cape Lopez, Ogooué Maritime provinceTopography of GabonGabon's cities, towns and villages" ], [ "See also", "*Bam Bam Amphitheaters" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Gabon" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''Demographics of Gabon''' is the makeup of the population of Gabon.", "As of 2020, Gabon has a population of 2,225,287.Gabon's population is relatively young with 35.5% of its population under 15 years of age and only 4.3% of its population over 65 years old.", "Gabon has a nearly even split between males and females with 0.99 males for every female in the population.", "In the age range of 15–65, the ration is exactly 1 male to 1 female.", "The life expectancy of Gabon is lower than the world average.", "Gabon's population's life expectancy at birth is 53.11 years while the world average is 67.2 years as of 2010.Ethnically, the biggest group in Gabon are the Fang people with over 500,000 people, or about a third of Gabon's population, belonging to this ethnic group.", "The biggest religion in Gabon is Christianity, with between 55–75% of the population of Gabon being Christian." ], [ "Population", "Gabon population statistics (1950–2014)According to the total population was in , compared to only 469,000 in 1950.The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 35.5%, 60.2% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 4.3% was 65 years or older.Total populationPopulation aged 0–14 (%)Population aged 15–64 (%)Population aged 65+ (%) 1950 469 00028.464.37.3 1955 476 00029.463.57.1 1960 486 00030.362.67.1 1965 502 00031.961.17.1 1970 530 00033.059.97.1 1975 595 00035.258.06.8 1980 683 00037.755.96.4 1985 794 00040.054.06.0 1990 929 00041.453.05.6 19951 087 00042.052.85.1 20001 235 00041.054.34.8 20051 371 00038.657.04.4 20101 505 00035.560.24.3Structure of the population (DHS 2012; males 19,318, females 20,636, total 39,955):Age groupMale (%)Female (%)Total (%) 0–4 16.0 14.3 15.1 5–9 12.4 12.4 12.4 10–14 12.0 12.5 12.3 15–19 9.6 9.9 9.7 20–24 7.6 9.6 8.7 25–29 7.5 8.4 8.0 30–34 7.8 7.0 7.4 35–39 6.6 5.4 5.9 40–44 5.4 4.4 4.9 45–49 4.1 3.3 3.7 50–54 3.4 4.2 3.8 55–59 2.0 2.3 2.1 60–64 2.6 1.7 2.1 65–69 1.1 1.4 1.2 70–74 0.9 1.3 1.1 75–79 0.6 0.7 0.6 80+ 0.5 1.3 0.9Age group Male (%)Female (%)Total (%) 0–14 40.4 39.2 39.8 15–64 56.5 56.1 56.4 65+ 3.1 4.7 3.8" ], [ "Vital statistics", "Registration of vital events is in Gabon not complete.", "The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.", "Population estimates account for under numeration in population censuses.Mid-year population (thousands)Live births (thousands)Deaths (thousands)Natural change (thousands)Crude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Total fertility rate (TFR)Infant mortality (per 1000 live births)Life expectancy (in years)1950 473 14 11 330.224.16.03.95158.639.631951 476 14 11 330.123.86.33.95154.940.341952 479 14 11 330.123.56.63.97151.341.041953 482 15 11 330.123.07.13.99147.741.811954 486 15 11 430.222.87.44.03144.342.431955 489 15 11 430.322.38.04.07140.743.181956 494 15 11 430.522.08.54.12137.243.901957 498 15 11 530.721.69.14.17133.844.601958 503 16 11 531.121.39.84.25130.545.281959 508 16 11 531.521.010.54.34127.445.901960 513 16 11 631.920.611.34.42124.146.581961 519 17 11 632.320.311.94.50121.047.231962 526 17 11 732.620.012.64.59118.047.841963 533 18 10 732.919.713.24.65115.048.481964 540 18 10 733.119.313.84.71112.249.051965 548 18 10 833.518.914.54.79109.449.751966 556 19 10 833.818.615.24.86106.750.351967 564 19 10 934.118.315.84.92104.050.891968 574 20 10 934.418.016.44.98101.451.441969 585 20 10 1034.717.717.15.0598.851.961970 597 21 10 1135.117.317.85.1096.352.561971 610 22 10 1135.617.018.65.1693.953.071972 622 22 10 1236.016.619.45.2491.553.611973 635 23 10 1336.316.319.95.2989.254.061974 649 24 10 1336.516.020.55.3386.954.571975 663 24 10 1436.915.721.25.3984.655.041976 679 25 10 1537.315.322.05.4682.455.571977 695 26 10 1637.715.022.75.5280.356.091978 712 27 10 1738.014.623.45.5778.256.661979 730 28 10 1738.214.323.95.6176.157.051980 749 29 11 1838.514.024.55.6674.157.451981 769 30 11 1938.913.825.15.7372.257.821982 790 31 11 2038.913.525.45.7470.358.111983 811 32 11 2139.013.225.95.7668.658.601984 833 32 11 2238.912.926.05.7367.058.891985 856 33 11 2238.812.526.35.7165.559.311986 880 34 11 2338.712.326.45.6964.159.641987 905 35 11 2438.712.026.75.6762.959.891988 930 36 11 2538.511.826.65.6261.860.011989 957 36 11 2538.111.626.55.5560.860.271990 983 37 11 2637.611.426.25.4660.060.311991 1 010 38 11 2637.211.326.05.3759.360.401992 1 037 38 11 2736.811.125.85.2958.660.551993 1 065 39 12 2736.410.925.55.1958.160.721994 1 094 39 12 2735.610.824.85.0457.760.701995 1 122 39 12 2734.810.624.24.8857.360.701996 1 151 39 12 2734.210.523.74.7457.060.611997 1 180 40 12 2834.010.423.64.6656.660.661998 1 210 41 12 2833.810.323.54.5856.160.791999 1 241 42 13 2933.510.223.34.5055.460.852000 1 273 43 13 3033.510.023.54.4754.761.072001 1 307 43 13 3133.39.823.44.4253.861.272002 1 342 44 13 3133.19.823.34.3652.961.292003 1 378 45 13 3232.99.523.34.3051.861.672004 1 417 46 13 3332.89.423.44.2550.661.842005 1 458 48 14 3432.79.323.44.2149.461.962006 1 503 49 14 3532.79.123.64.1748.262.382007 1 550 50 14 3732.78.923.84.1446.862.622008 1 600 52 14 3832.78.724.04.1245.463.082009 1 654 54 14 4033.08.624.44.1443.963.302010 1 711 57 14 4233.28.324.94.1542.463.902011 1 773 59 14 4433.28.225.04.1541.064.052012 1 837 60 14 4532.77.924.84.0939.764.592013 1 902 61 15 4632.27.824.44.0238.464.782014 1 967 62 15 4731.67.724.03.9537.064.972015 2 029 63 15 4831.07.423.63.8935.665.462016 2 086 63 15 4830.47.223.13.8233.865.802017 2 140 64 15 4829.77.122.73.7532.666.192018 2 192 64 15 4829.07.022.03.6831.666.312019 2 243 64 15 4828.46.921.53.6230.966.602020 2 293 63 16 4827.76.920.83.5530.166.532021 2 341 64 17 4727.17.319.93.4929.265.82===Fertility and births===Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural) 2000 33.1 4.3 (3.5) 33.3 3.9 (3.2) 32.4 5.7 (4.7) 2012 33.3 4.1 (3.2) 33.2 3.9 (3.0) 33.4 6.1 (4.6) 2019-2021 31.3 3.9 (3.2) 31.6 3.8 (3.1) 28.9 5.4 (4.1)Fertility data as of 2012 (DHS Program): Province Total fertility rate Percentage of women age 15–49 currently pregnant Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 Libreville/Port-Gentil 3.5 9.3 4.4 Estuaire (except Libreville) 4.1 8.6 5.2 Haut-Ogooué 4.9 10.3 5.8 Moyen-Ogooué 4.9 8.9 5.4 Ngounié 5.7 10.9 6.0 Nyanga 5.7 10.7 6.2 Ogooué Maritime (except Port-Gentil) 4.8 9.8 4.6 Ogooué-Ivindo 6.7 14.0 6.6 Ogooué-Lolo 5.3 11.3 5.9 Woleu-N’tem 5.0 9.8 4.7=== Life expectancy ===PeriodLife expectancy in Years1950–195537.00 1955–1960 39.00 1960–1965 40.50 1965–1970 44.65 1970–1975 48.78 1975–1980 52.91 1980–1985 57.03 1985–1990 60.70 1990–1995 61.01 1995–2000 60.03 2000–2005 59.07 2005–2010 61.34 2010–2015 64.45" ], [ "Other demographics statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2019.", "One birth every 8 minutes\tOne death every 35 minutes\tOne net migrant every 360 minutes\tNet gain of one person every 10 minutesThe following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook.===Population===:2,340,613 (2022 est.", "):2,119,036 (July 2018 est.", ")===Religions===:Roman Catholic 43.5%, Protestant and other Christian 36%, Muslim 10%, animist 3.3%, other 6%, none 1.2% (2020 figures)===Age structure===Population pyramid of Gabon in 2020:''0-14 years:'' 36.45% (male 413,883/female 399,374):''15-24 years:'' 21.9% (male 254,749/female 233,770):''25-54 years:'' 32.48% (male 386,903/female 337,776):''55-64 years:'' 5.19% (male 58,861/female 56,843):''65 years and over:'' 3.98% (male 44,368/female 44,381) (2020 est.", "):''0-14 years:'' 37.45% (male 405,676 /female 387,900):''15-24 years:'' 22.08% (male 245,490 /female 222,343):''25-54 years:'' 31.6% (male 355,348 /female 314,344):''55-64 years:'' 4.96% (male 54,679 /female 50,356):''65 years and over:'' 3.91% (male 40,721 /female 42,179) (2018 est.", ")===Birth rate===:26.03 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 44th:26.5 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 46th===Death rate===:5.67 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 175th:6.2 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 157th===Total fertility rate===:3.31 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 43rd:3.52 children born/woman (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 42nd===Population growth rate===:2.4% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 28th:2.73% (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 15th===Median age===:total: 21 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 186th:male: 21.4 years:female: 20.6 years (2020 est.", "):total: 20.5 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 187th:male: 20.8 years :female: 20.2 years (2018 est.", ")===Mother's mean age at first birth===:19.6 years (2012 est.", "):note: median age at first birth among women 20-49===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:31.1% (2012)===Net migration rate===:3.67 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 31st:-2 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2017 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 161st===Dependency ratios===:total dependency ratio: 67.4 (2015 est.", "):youth dependency ratio: 59.9 (2015 est.", "):elderly dependency ratio: 7.6 (2015 est.", "):potential support ratio: 13.2 (2015 est.", ")===Urbanization===:urban population: 90.7% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 2.27% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.", "):urban population: 89.4% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: 2.61% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===:total population: 69.7 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 174th:male: 67.98 years:female: 71.48 years (2022 est.", "):total population: 68.1346 years (2018 est.", "):male: 66.3 years (2018 est.", "):female: 69.6 years (2018 est.", ")===Education expenditures===:2.8% of GDP (2019) Country comparison to the world: 160th===Literacy===definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2015 est.", "):total population: 84.7%:male: 85.9%:female: 83.4% (2018):total population: 83.2% (2015 est.", "):male: 85.3% (2015 est.", "):female: 81% (2015 est.", ")===Unemployment, youth ages 15-24===:total: 35.7% :male: 30.5% (2010 est.", "):female: 41.9% (2010 est.", ")===Major infectious diseases===:degree of risk: very high (2020):food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever:vectorborne diseases: malaria and dengue fever:water contact diseases: schistosomiasis:animal contact diseases: rabies" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "Broad ethnic groups in Gabon are:#Bantu groups including four major groupings (Fang, Eshira, Punu, Teke)# Other Africans, notably 'forest people' (pygmy, now sedentary) such as the Babongo tribe# Europeans, including 10,700 French and 11,000 persons of dual nationality700x700px=== 2012 Census === Groups Percentage'''Gabonese-born''' 80.1% Fang 23.2% Shira-Punu/Vili 18.9% Nzabi-Duma 11.3% Mbede-Teke 6.9% Myene 5% Kola-Kele 4.9% Okande-Tsogo 2.1% Pygmy 0.3% Other Gabonese Groups 7.5%'''Other''' 19.9% Cameroonian 4.6% Malian 2.4% Beninese 2.1% Acquired Gabonese Nationality 1.6% Togolese 1.6% Senegalese 1.1% Congolese (Brazzaville) 1%'''Other (Includes Congolese (Kinshasa), Equatorial Guinean, Nigerian )'''5.5%Source:" ], [ "Language and religion", "'''Religions''' include Roman Catholic 43.5%, Protestant and other Christian 36%, Muslim 10%, animist 3.3%, other 6%, and none 1.2% (2020 figures).", "'''Languages''' include French (official since colonial rule), Fang, Myene, the Teke group, Punu, and Njebi.", "''According to research conducted in 2011 at the University of Western Cape:''''\"It has been noted that French is increasingly be-coming the mother tongue and the initial language of the younger generations in urban Gabon (Pambou, 1998:147; Ndinga-Koumba-Binza, 2005a:72 & 2005b:141; Idiata, 2008:85; cf.", "Blanchon, 1994).", "In fact, studies by Ntong Amvame (1984), Bouché (1998), Mbondzi (1998), Ompoussa (1998), Itembo (1999) and Mouloungui Nguimbyt (2002) have shown that pupils of various ages and grades at schools learn French more efficiently than any other Gabonese language.", "Idiata (2008:200 & 2009:126) has also noted that some pupils do not speak any of the Gabonese native languages at all.", "One of the reasons for this phenomenon (i.e.", "French being the mother tongue of younger generations) is cross-ethnic marriages.", "''''\"In fact, many couples of mixed ethnicity prefer French rather than Gabonese native languages as the code for better communication within the family.", "Children from a family of this kind have no choice but to acquire French as their first language.", "The children learn the language at home from the parents before they even get to school, therefore lessening the chances of learning any of the Gabonese native languages.", "''''\"This urbanisation is also to be considered as a cause for French being the initial language of Gabonese younger generations.", "In fact, “in certain urban contexts there is a large degree of learning by contact at an early age” (Lafage, 1993:216).", "\"'''''Literacy''' rates are as follows:''definition:''age 15 and over can read and write''total population:''83.2%''male:''85.3%''female:''81% (2015 est.)" ], [ "References", "'''Attribution:'''*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Gabon" ], [ "Introduction", "The politics of Gabon takes place in a framework of a republic whereby the president of Gabon is head of state and in effect, also the head of government, since he appoints the prime minister and his cabinet.", "The government is divided into three branches: the executive headed by the prime minister (although previously grabbed by the president), the legislative that is formed by the two chambers of parliament, and the judicial branch.", "The judicial branch is technically independent and equal to the two other branches, although in practice, since its judges are appointed by the president, it is beholden to the same president.", "Since independence the party system is dominated by the conservative Gabonese Democratic Party.Former President Omar Bongo OndimbaIn March 1991 a new constitution was adopted.", "Among its provisions are a Western-style bill of rights, the creation of the National Council of Democracy that also oversees the guarantee of those rights and a governmental advisory board which deals with economic and social issues.", "Multi-party legislative elections were held in 1990-91 even though opposition parties had not been declared formally legal." ], [ "Political developments", "Under the 1961 constitution (revised in 1975 and rewritten in 1991), Gabon became a republic with a presidential form of government.", "The National Assembly of Gabon has 120 deputies elected for a five-year term.", "The president is elected by universal suffrage for a seven-year term.", "The president appoints the prime minister, the cabinet, and judges of the independent Supreme Court.", "The government in 1990 made major changes in the political system.", "A transitional constitution was drafted in May as an outgrowth of a national political conference in March–April and later revised by a constitutional committee.", "Among its provisions were a Western-style bill of rights; creation of a National Council of Democracy, which oversees the guarantee of those rights; a governmental advisory board on economic and social issues; and an independent judiciary.", "After approval by the National Assembly, the PDG Central Committee, and the president, the Assembly unanimously adopted the constitution in March 1991.Multi-party legislative elections were held in 1990-91 although opposition parties had not been declared formally legal.After a peaceful transition, the elections produced the first representative, multi-party, National Assembly.", "In January 1991, the Assembly passed by unanimous vote a law governing the legalization of opposition parties.", "The president was re-elected in a disputed election in 1993 with 51% of votes cast.", "Social and political disturbances led to the 1994 Paris Conference and Accords, which provided a framework for the next elections.", "Local and legislative elections were delayed until 1996–1997.In 1997, constitutional amendments were adopted to create an appointed Senate, the position of Vice President, and to extend the president's term to seven years.", "Facing a divided opposition, President Omar Bongo was re-elected in December 1998, with 66% of the votes cast.", "Although the main opposition parties claimed the elections had been manipulated, there was none of the civil disturbance that followed the 1993 election.", "The president retains strong powers, such as authority to dissolve the National Assembly, declare a state of siege, delay legislation, conduct referendums, and appoint and dismiss the prime minister and cabinet members.", "For administrative purposes, Gabon is divided into nine provinces, which are further divided into 36 prefectures and eight separate subprefectures.", "The president appoints the provincial governors, the prefects, and the subprefects." ], [ "Political conditions", "At the time of Gabon's independence in 1960, two principal political parties existed: the Bloc Democratique Gabonais (BDG), led by Leon M'Ba, and the Union Démocratique et Sociale Gabonaise (UDSG), led by Jean-Hilaire Aubame.", "In the first post-independence election, held under a parliamentary system, neither party was able to win a majority.", "The BDG obtained support from three of the four independent legislative deputies, and M'Ba was named prime minister.", "Soon after concluding that Gabon had an insufficient number of people for a two-party system, the two party leaders agreed on a single list of candidates.", "In the February 1961 election, held under the new presidential system, M'Ba became president and Aubame foreign minister.This coalition appeared to work until February 1963, when the larger BDG forced the UDSG members to choose between a merger of the parties or resignation.", "The UDSG cabinet ministers resigned, and M'Ba called an election for February 1964 and a reduced number of National Assembly deputies (from 67 to 47).", "The UDSG failed to muster a list of candidates able to meet the requirements of the electoral decrees.", "When the BDG appeared likely to win the election by default, the Gabonese military toppled M'Ba in a bloodless coup on February 18, 1964.French troops re-established his government the next day.", "Elections were held in April with many opposition participants.", "BDG-supported candidates won 31 seats and the opposition 16.Late in 1966, the constitution was revised to provide for automatic succession of the vice president should the president die in office.", "In March 1967, Leon M'Ba and Omar Bongo (then Albert Bongo) were elected president and vice president.", "M'Ba died later that year, and Omar Bongo became president.In March 1968, Bongo declared Gabon a one-party state by dissolving the BDG and establishing a new party—the Gabonese Democratic Party.", "He invited all Gabonese, regardless of previous political affiliation, to participate.", "Bongo was elected president in February 1975 and re-elected in December 1979 and November 1986 to seven-year terms.", "In April 1975, the office of vice president was abolished and replaced by the office of prime minister, who has no right to automatic succession.", "Under the 1991 constitution, in the event of the president's death, the prime minister, the National Assembly president, and the defense minister share power until a new election is held.", "Using the PDG as a tool to submerge the regional and tribal rivalries that have divided Gabonese politics in the past, Bongo sought to forge a single national movement in support of the government's development policies.Opposition to the PDG continued, however, and in September 1990, two coup attempts were uncovered and aborted.", "Economic discontent and a desire for political liberalization provoked violent demonstrations and strikes by students and workers in early 1990.In response to grievances by workers, Bongo negotiated with them on a sector-by-sector basis, making significant wage concessions.", "In addition, he promised to open up the PDG and to organize a national political conference in March–April 1990 to discuss Gabon's future political system.", "The PDG and 74 political organizations attended the conference.", "Participants essentially divided into two loose coalitions, the ruling PDG and its allies and the United Front of Opposition Associations and Parties, consisting of the breakaway Morena Fundamental and the Gabonese Progress Party.The April conference approved sweeping political reforms, including creation of a national senate, decentralization of the budgetary process, freedom of assembly and press, and cancellation of the exit visa requirement.", "In an attempt to guide the political system's transformation to multi-party democracy, Bongo resigned as PDG chairman and created a transitional government headed by a new Prime Minister, Casimir Oye-Mba.", "The Gabonese Social Democratic Grouping (RSDG), as the resulting government was called, was smaller than the previous government and included representatives from several opposition parties in its cabinet.", "The RSDG drafted a provisional constitution that provided a basic bill of rights and an independent judiciary but retained strong executive powers for the president.", "After further review by a constitutional committee and the National Assembly, this document came into force in March 1991.Despite further anti-government demonstrations after the untimely death of an opposition leader, the first multi-party National Assembly elections in almost 30 years took place in September–October 1990, with the PDG garnering a large majority.", "Following President Bongo's re-election in December 1993 with 51% of the vote, opposition candidates refused to validate the election results.", "Serious civil disturbances, which were heavily repressed by the presidential guard, led to an agreement between the government and opposition factions to work toward a political settlement.", "These talks led to the Paris Accords in November 1994 in which several opposition figures were included in a government of national unity.", "This arrangement soon broke down, and the 1996 and 1997 legislative and municipal elections provided the background for renewed partisan politics.", "The PDG won a landslide victory in the legislative election, but several major cities, including Libreville, elected opposition mayors during the 1997 local election.", "President Bongo coasted to an easy re-election in December 1998 with 66% of the vote against a divided opposition.", "While Bongo's major opponents rejected the outcome as fraudulent, international observers characterized the result as representative even if the election suffered from serious administrative problems.", "There was no serious civil disorder or protests following the election in contrast to the 1993 election.President Omar Ali Bongo narrowly beat rival Jean Ping in the official results of the presidential election in 2016.With results showing a trend of success for Ping, the final province's results were released after significant delays, showing a remarkable 99.5% support for President Bongo in Haut-Ogooue.", "This was conveniently just enough to push Ali Bongo into first place.", "An EU Election Observation Mission present in the country declared that observers had incurred problems accessing the process of vote counting.", "The right to demonstrate or express oneself was described by the mission as 'restrictive'.", "The electoral regulations benefitted President Bongo, according to the Mission's report.On 31 August 2023, army officers who seized power, ending the Bongo family's 55-year hold on power, named Gen Brice Oligui Nguema as the country's transitional leader.", "On 4 September 2023, General Nguema was sworn in as interim president of Gabon." ], [ "Executive branch", "\|Transitional PresidentIncumbentBrice Clotaire Oligui NguemaArmed Forces of Gabon30 August 2023Prime MinisterVacantThe president is elected by popular vote for a seven-year term.", "He appoints the prime minister.", "The Council of Ministers is appointed by the prime minister in consultation with the president.President El Hadj Omar Bongo Ondimba, in power since 1967 and the longest-serving African head of state, was re-elected to another seven-year term according to poll results returned from elections held on November 27, 2005.According to figures provided by Gabon's Interior Ministry, this was achieved with 79.1% of the votes cast.", "In 2003 the President amended the Constitution of Gabon to remove any restrictions on the number of terms a president is allowed to serve.", "The president retains strong powers, such as authority to dissolve the National Assembly, declare a state of siege, delay legislation, conduct referendums, and appoint and dismiss the prime minister and cabinet members.President of Gabon is Ali Ben Bongo Ondimba after taking over from his late father Omar, who ruled Gabon for 41 years until his death in 2009." ], [ "Legislative branch", "The Parliament (''Parlement'') has two chambers.", "The National Assembly (''Assemblée Nationale'') has 120 members, 111 members elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies and nine members appointed by a head of state - the president.", "The Senate (''Sénat'') has 91 members, elected for a six-year term in single-seat constituencies by local and departmental councillors." ], [ "Political parties and elections" ], [ "Judicial branch", "Gabon's Supreme Court or ''Cour Supreme'' consists of three chambers - Judicial, Administrative, and Accounts; Constitutional Court; Courts of Appeal; Court of State Security; County Courts" ], [ "Administrative divisions", "There are nine provincial administrations.", "These are headquartered in Estuaire, Haut-Ogooue, Moyen-Ogooue, Ngounie, Nyanga, Ogooué-Ivindo, Ogooué-Lolo, Ogooue-Maritime and Woleu-Ntem." ], [ "International organization participation", "ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, Commonwealth of Nations, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS (associate), ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, ITUC, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, OPEC Fund, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO" ], [ "References", "''Original text of this article from Central Intelligence Agency World Factbook at https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/gabon/''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Gabon" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Gabon''' is characterized by strong links with France, large foreign investments, dependence on skilled foreign labor, and decline of agriculture.", "Gabon on paper enjoys a per capita income four times that of most nations of Africa, but its reliance on resource extraction industry fail to release much of the population from extreme poverty, as much of 30% of the population lives under the poverty threshold (Many Foreign Guest Workers)." ], [ "Resources", "The country is rich in natural resources such as timber, manganese and oil.", "The country is the fifth largest oil producing nation in Africa, which has helped drive its strong growth in the later 20th century.The oil sector now accounts for 50% of GDP and 80% of exports.", "Although there have been recent offshore finds, oil production is now declining from its peak of in 1997, and periods of low oil prices have had a negative impact on government revenues and the economy.", "In 2012 there were six active oil rigs in Gabon.As of 2023, Gabon produces about 200,000 barrels a day (bpd) of crude oil.The government has plans to diversify its economy away from its dwindling oil reserves.", "The government announced in 2012 that it would reassess exactly how much iron ore the Belinga site contains before awarding the concession to a mining company, most likely to be China's CMEC, which temporarily secured the rights to the ore in 2007.Around 80% of Gabonese live in cities.", "The capital city, Libreville is home to 59% of the total population.", "The remainder of the country is still sparsely populated, as those areas remain densely forested." ], [ "Statistics", "'''GDP - composition by sector:'''''agriculture:''5.7%''industry:''57.2%''services:''37% (2008 est.", ")'''Population below poverty line:'''NA%'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''''lowest 10%:''NA%''highest 10%:''NA%'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''5% (2008 est.", ")'''Labour force:'''592,000 (2008 est.", ")'''Labour force - by occupation:'''agriculture 60%, services and government 25%, industry and commerce 15% (2000 est.", ")'''Unemployment rate:'''21% (2006 est.", ")'''Budget:'''''revenues:''$4.46 billion''expenditures:''$2.75 billion (2008 est.", ")'''Industries:'''food and beverage; textile; lumbering and plywood; cement; petroleum extraction and refining; manganese, uranium, and gold mining; chemical production; ship repair'''Industrial production growth rate:'''1.5% (2008)'''Oil - production''' (2007 est.", ")'''Oil - consumption''' (2007 est.", ")'''Oil - exports''' (2005 est.", ")'''Oil - imports''' (2005 est.", ")'''Oil - proven reserves''' (1 January 2008 est.", ")'''Natural gas - production'''100 million cu m (2006 est.", ")'''Natural gas - consumption'''100 million cu m (2006 est.", ")'''Natural gas - exports'''0 cu m (2007 est.", ")'''Natural gas - imports'''0 cu m (2007 est.", ")'''Natural gas - proven reserves'''28.32 billion cu m (1 January 2008 est.", ")'''Electricity - production:'''1.671 TWh (2006 est.", ")'''Electricity - production by source:'''''fossil fuel:''27.8%''hydro:''72.2%''nuclear:''0%''other:''0% (1998)'''Electricity - consumption:'''1.365 GWh (2006 est.", ")'''Electricity - exports:'''0 kWh (2006 est.", ")'''Electricity - imports:'''0 kWh (1998)'''Agriculture - products:'''cocoa, coffee, sugar, palm oil, rubber; cattle; okoume (a tropical hardwood); fish'''Current account - balance'''$591 million (2010 est.", ")'''Currency:'''1 Communauté financière africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes'''Exchange rates:'''Communauté financière africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 – 507.71 (2010), 472.19 (2009), 447.81 (2008), 481.83 (2007), 522.89 (2006), 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)''note:''since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro" ], [ "Statistics table", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.Year GDP(in bil.", "US$ PPP) GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in bil.", "US$ nominal) GDP growth(real) Inflation(in Percent) Government debt(Percentage of GDP) 1980 6.78 9,0564.56 ... 12.3% ... 1985 9.89 11,8533.74 5.8% 7.3% ... 1990 12.00 12,9036.34 5.1% 15.4% 90% 1995 15.76 14,7885.28 5.0% 9.6% 73% 2000 17.35 14,3955.40 −1.9% 0.5% 72% 2005 20.35 14,9239.47 −0.8% 1.2% 49% 2006 20.58 14,72010.16 −1.9% −1.4% 40% 2007 22.46 15,60112.46 6.3% −1.0% 39% 2008 23.30 15,59015.57 1.7% −5.3% 20% 2009 22.94 14,78912.19 −2.3% 1.9% 26% 2010 24.68 15,32614.38 6.3% 1.4% 21% 2011 26.97 16,13818.21 7.1% 1.3% 21% 2012 28.91 16,66517.18 5.3% 2.7% 21% 2013 31.00 17,19617.60 5.5% 0.5% 31% 2014 32.96 18,02018.21 4.4% 4.5% 34% 2015 34.61 18,65514.39 3.9% −0.1% 45% 2016 35.78 19,01714.02 2.1% 2.1% 64% 2017 36.73 19,25414.92 0.8% 3.0% 61% 2018 40.78 20,12316.83 0.4% 2.0% 62%" ], [ "See also", "Agriculture in GabonEconomy of AfricaForestry in GabonList of companies based in GabonMining in GabonTransport in GabonChronology of Gabon United Nations Economic Commission for Africa" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Gabon latest trade data on ITC Trade Map* MBendi Gabon overview* The Quicker Ticker- Gabon (in french)* Legabon.org* Gaboneco.com" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Gabon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in Gabon''' include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet." ], [ "Radio and television", "'''Radio stations:'''* state owns and operates 2 radio stations; a private radio station; transmissions of at least 2 international broadcasters are accessible (2007);* 6 AM, 7 FM, and 4 shortwave stations (2001).", "'''Radios:'''208,000 (1997).", "'''Television stations:'''* state owns and operates 2 TV stations; a private TV station; satellite service subscriptions are available (2007);* 4 stations plus 4 low-power repeaters (2001).", "'''Television sets:'''63,000 (1997).There are two main broadcasters in Gabon.", "The state broadcaster, Radiodiffusion Télévision Gabonaise (RTG), operates two main networks - a national network in French and a provincial network in French and vernacular languages.", "There is also a special programme on RTG's FM frequencies.Perhaps the most important station in Gabon and one that many shortwave radio listeners are familiar with is the privately owned Afrique Numero Un (Africa Number One) which operates on FM in the capital, Libreville, area and also broadcasts via shortwave.", "Afrique Numero Un also has relay stations in mostly French-speaking African countries.Radio France Internationale (RFI) has relay stations throughout Gabon.", "Other privately owned stations also operate in Gabon, though concentrated mostly in the Libreville area.Like many former French colonies, Gabon uses the SECAM-K television standard.", "Two television channels, 4 and 8, are found in the Libreville area.", "All other channels and repeaters relay channel 4.The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights, although the government has suspended newspapers and television stations for disrupting public order or libel." ], [ "Telephones", "'''Calling code:''' +241'''International call prefix:''' 00'''Main lines:'''* 17,000 lines in use, 194th in the world (2012);* 26,500 lines in use, 182nd in the world (2007); * 39,100 lines in use, 169th in the world (2005).", "'''Mobile cellular:'''* 2.9 million lines, 133rd in the world (2012); * 1.2 million lines, 129th in the world (2007);* 649,800 lines, 125th in the world (2005).", "'''Telephone system:''' adequate system of cable, microwave radio relay, tropospheric scatter, radiotelephone communication stations, and a domestic satellite system with 12 earth stations; a growing mobile-cellular network with multiple providers is making telephone service more widely available with mobile-cellular teledensity exceeding 100 per 100 persons.", "'''Satellite earth stations:''' 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011).", "'''Communications cables:''' South Atlantic 3/West Africa Submarine Cable (SAT-3/WASC) fiber-optic cable system provides connectivity to Europe and Asia; Africa Coast to Europe (ACE), cable system connecting countries along the west coast of Africa to each other and to Portugal and France." ], [ "Internet", "'''Top-level domain:''' .ga'''Internet users:''' * 138,584 users, 166th in the world; 8.6% of the population, 175th in the world (2012).", "* 98,800 users, 160th in the world (2009);* 67,000 users, 144th in the world (2005).", "'''Fixed broadband:'''In 2013, Government signs with the World Bank to develop the Central African Backbone.", "Over 1200 km of fiber optic is deployed around the country.", "In 2017, over 20 cities and villages are serviced by this new network operated by Axione (Bouygues French company).", "70% of the gabonese population can access mobile broadband services.5,147 subscriptions, 160th in the world; 0.3% of the population, 154th in the world (2012).", "'''Wireless broadband:'''Introducing 3G/4G licences in 2014Unknown (2012).", "'''Internet hosts:''' * 127 hosts, 205th in the world (2012);* 88 hosts, 192nd in the world (2008).", "'''IPv4:''' 169,472 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 105.4 addresses per 1000 people (2012).", "'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''Solsi Gabon, TLDC offer a WiMax network all over Libreville and Port-Gentil.=== ICTS IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AWARDS 2015===Through his leadership of the Gabonese Republic, President Ali Bongo Ondimba has led his nation to receive much international recognition for its commitment to progress in the field of ICT in the Central and Francophone Africa region as well as on the African continent.President Ali Bongo Ondimba has stressed the necessity of establishing infrastructure, access to ICTs, as well as ameliorating broadband connections in both the public and private sectors, especially within households.", "President Ondimba has affirmed his position on the importance of ICTs in the development of Gabon, stating during the 2011 Broadband Leadership Summit at ITU Telecom World in Geneva that he promised to make high-speed Internet access an irrevocable right for all Gabonese citizens.===Internet censorship and surveillance===There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without appropriate legal authority.The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights.", "Libel can be either a criminal offense or a civil matter.", "Editors and authors of libelous material may be jailed for two to six months and fined 500,000 to five million CFA francs ($1,008 to $10,080).", "Penalties for libel, disrupting public order, and other offenses also include a one- to three-month publishing suspension for a first offense and a three- to six-month suspension for repeat offenses.Although the constitution and law prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, the government does not always respect these prohibitions in practice.", "As part of criminal investigations, police request and easily obtain search warrants from judges, sometimes after the fact.", "Authorities reportedly monitor private telephone conversations, personal mail, and the movement of citizens." ], [ "See also", "* Gabon Telecom, largest telecommunications company in Gabon, jointly owned by the Gabon government (49%) and Maroc Telecom (51%) since 2007.", "* List of terrestrial fibre optic cable projects in Africa* Media of Gabon* Economy of Gabon* Gabon" ], [ "References", "* " ], [ "External links", " My GA, website of the ''Agence Nationale des Infrastructures Numériques et des Fréquences'' (ANINF, National Agency for Digital Infrastructure and Frequencies), the registrar for the .ga domain." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Gabon" ], [ "Introduction", "Modes of transport in Gabon include rail, road, water, and air.", "The one rail link, the Trans-Gabon Railway, connects the port of Owendo with the inland town of Franceville.", "While most of the country is connected by roads, not all areas are accessible.", "Much of the road network remains unpaved, and it primarily revolves around seven \"national routes\" labeled N1 through N7.The largest seaports are Port-Gentil and the newer Owendo, and 1,600 km of inland waterways are navigable.", "There are three international airports, eight other paved airports, and over 40 with unpaved runways.", "Nearly 300 km of pipelines carry petroleum products, mainly crude oil." ], [ "Rail transport", "thumbUntil the 1970s, Gabon had no permanent railroads, though temporary Decauville rail tracks were in use in the logging industry as early as 1913 (Gray and Ngolet, 1999, pp.102).", "In 2003, the railway began the process of installing a satellite based telecommunications system.", "As of 2004, Gabon State Railways totalled 814 km of standard-gauge track.", "''total:'' 814 km (Gabon State Railways or OCTRA)''standard gauge:'' 814 km 1.435-m gauge; single track (1994)=== Maps ===* UN Map - shows line to Franceville* UNHCR map - does not show line to Franceville* TravelPortal map - shows major rivers* UNJLC Rail map of Southern Africa - does not show line to Franceville=== Cities served by rail ===; Existing* Libreville - capital* Owendo - port* Sahoué - port* Franceville - railhead* Ndjolé* Lopé* Booué - likely junction for branchline to Makokou* Lastoursville* Moanda* Ntoum - proposed junction for iron ore traffic to Santa Clara* Kango* Four-Place* Mounana - ?", ";Proposed* Makokou - iron ore* Cape Santa Clara - proposed deep water port for Makokou iron ore.* Bélinga - possible iron ore mine.=== 2006 ===* China signs a deal for an iron ore mine with associated rail and port upgrades from Belinga to Santa Clara === 2007 ===* New rail line from Belinga will go 450 km all the way to the coast, rather than to be a branch off an existing line.", "* Pan-African issues" ], [ "Road transport", "''total:''7,670 km''paved:''629 km (including 30 km of expressways)''unpaved:''7,041 km (1996 est.", ")Roads in Gabon link most areas of the country, and many of the main roads are of a reasonable standard.", "However, remoter areas along the coast and in the east are often not connected to the road network.", "Major roads are denoted national routes and numbered, with a prefix \"N\" (sometimes \"RN\"):N1 road: Libreville – Kougouleu – Bifoun – Lambaréné – Mouila – Ndendé – Tchibanga - (Republic of Congo)N2 road: Bifoun – Alembe – Viate – Mitzic – Bibasse – Oyem – Bitam – Éboro – (Cameroon)N3 road: Alembe – Kazamabika – Lastoursville – Moanda – FrancevilleN4 road: Viate – Ekonlong – Makokou – MékamboN5 road: Kougouleu – BibasseN6 road: Mayumba – Tchibanga – Ndendé – Lébamba - Koulamoutou – LastoursvilleN7 road: Makokou – Bakwaka – Okondja – Lékori - Akiéni – Ngouoni – Franceville" ], [ "Water transport", "=== Merchant marine ===As of 2002, there was one merchant marine vessel, with a gross tonnage of 2,419/.===Waterways===Gabon has 1,600 km of perennially navigable waterways, including 310 km on the Ogooué River." ], [ "Air transport", "There are three international airports: Libreville, Port-Gentil, and Franceville.", "=== Airports - with paved runways ===''total:''11''over 3,047 m:''1''2,438 to 3,047 m:''1''1,524 to 2,437 m:''8''914 to 1,523 m:''1 (1999 est.", ")=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===''total:''45''1,524 to 2,437 m:''9''914 to 1,523 m:''16''under 914 m:''25 (1999 est.)" ], [ "Pipelines", "Crude oil 270 km; petroleum products 14 km" ], [ "See also", " COMILOG Cableway" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Armed Forces of Gabon" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Armed Forces of Gabon''' () or the '''Gabonese Defense and Security Forces''' () is the national professional military of the Republic of Gabon, divided into the Army, Air Force, Navy, and a National Gendarmerie, consisting of about 5,000 personnel.", "The armed forces includes a well-trained, well-equipped 1,800-member guard that provides security for the President of Gabon." ], [ "Organizational structure", "===Army===Personnel of the Armed Forces stand in formation during the opening day ceremony of the Central Accord Exercise in Libreville.The '''Gabonese Army''' () is the land component of the armed forces, specializing in infantry and mechanized reconnaissance.", "It was created on December 6, 1960 by decree of president Léon M'ba from non-commissioned officers who served in the French colonial army, mainly the 2nd company of the 21st BIMA.", "Following independence, Gabon signed defense agreements with France, mainly on technical assistance and training.", "Until June 1964, the title of Chief of Staff of the Gabonese Armed Forces was held by a senior French Army officer.", "In 1962 a detachment of the Auxiliary Women of the Gabonese Armed Forces (AFFAG), commanded by Lieutenant Ba Oumar at the military camp of Owendo, was created.", "President M'ba promoted the initiative following a visit to Tel Aviv, Israel, where he met female staff in its Defense Forces.====Order of battle====* Republican Guard Battalion (Libreville)* 1 Light Armoured recon unit 3 Infantry companies * 1 Artillery battery 1 Air Defence battery* Airborne Regiment 1 Command company 1 Recon & Support company** 3 Airborne companies* 1 Light Armoured Recon Battalion 2 Armoured squads 1 Command & Logistics company* Support Command Regiment 1 Artillery battery 1 Mortar battery 1 MRLS battery (8 Teruel MRL) 1 Engineer company** Logistic units* 7 Military Regions** 7 Motorised infantry battalions (1 battalion for each region)===Air Force=======Order of battle====* Fighter Squadron 1-02 Leyou at BA02 Franceville with: Mirage F-1AZ MB-326M Impala I* Heavy Transport Squadron at BA01 Libreville with: C-130 Hercules CN-235* Ministerial Air Liaison Group ( or GLAM) at BA01 Libreville with: 1 Falcon-900EX 1 Gulfstream-III====Facilities====* BA01 Libreville* BA02 Franceville* Tchibanga===Navy===The Gabonese Navy uses a P400-class patrol vessel similar to this oneThe '''Gabonese Navy''' () is the official maritime branch of the armed forces.", "It was created in December 1960 as part of the army, and only became an independent entity in 1983.The navy's core purpose is to monitor the country's coastal waters, including 800 km of coastline.", "* Headquarters Staff (Libreville)* Port-Gentil Naval Base* Mayumba Naval Base* Port-Gentil Aviation Base* Marine Rifle Battalion (since 1984)" ], [ "Other security forces", "===National Gendarmerie===The '''National Gendarmerie of Gabon''' (''Gendarmerie nationale gabonaise'') is the national police force of Gabon responsible for law enforcement in the country.", "It was formed on March 10, 1960 when Gabon, formerly French Equatorial Africa, gained its independence from France.", "It originated from Libreville Gendarmerie Detachment 1929, which was commanded by Governor General of French Equatorial Africa, Félix Eboue.", "The main tasks of the gendarmerie are to defend the country's borders, ensure public safety, and to enforce actions taken by judicial and government authorities.", "The National Gendarmerie is under the direct command of the President of Gabon.===Republican Guard===The Gendarmerie is also in charge of the Republican Guard ().", "It is viewed as the most powerful and sophisticated of the security forces.", "It is primarily tasked with protecting the president and ensures regime stability." ], [ "Equipment", "===Small arms===A FAMAS similar to this one is used by GabonNameOriginTypeVariantNotes M16 rifle United States Assault rifle FN FAL Belgium Battle rifle FN CAL Belgium Assault rifle FN MAG Belgium General-purpose machine gun AK-47 Soviet Union Assault rifle AKM Soviet Union Assault rifle RPD Soviet Union Light machine gun FAMAS France Assault rifle Bullpup design MILAN France Anti-tank guided missile M40 United States Recoilless rifle M40A1===Armour===Panhard AML-90NameOriginTypeIn Service Notes Armored fighting vehicles AML-60/AML-90 France Reconnaissance vehicle 24 EE-3 Jararaca Brazil Reconnaissance vehicle12 EE-9 Cascavel Brazil Reconnaissance vehicle 14 ERC-90F4 Sagaie France Reconnaissance vehicle 6 RAM MK3 Israel Reconnaissance vehicle 7 Véhicule Blindé Léger France Reconnaissance vehicle 14 EE-11 Urutu Brazil Infantry fighting vehicle 12 Armed with 20mm gun.", "VN-1 China Infantry fighting vehicle 5 Type 07P China Infantry fighting vehicle 14 V-150 Command United States Armoured personnel carrier 9 Bastion France Armoured personnel carrier 5 WZ-523 China Armoured personnel carrier 3 Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé France Armoured personnel carrier 5 VXB-170 France Armoured personnel carrier 12 Pandur I Austria Armoured personnel carrier 1 ZFB-05 China Armoured personnel carrier 3 Aravis France Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected 8 Matador South Africa Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected 24 Ashok Leyland MPV India Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected 34===Artillery===NameOriginTypeIn Service Notes M101 United States 105mm towed howitzer 4 Type 63 China 107mm multiple rocket launcher 16 Type 90 China 122mm multiple rocket launcher 4 Teruel Spain 140mm multiple rocket launcher 8 MO-120-RT France 120mm mortar 4===Air defense===NameOriginTypeIn Service Notes ERC-20 France 20mm self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon 4 ZPU-4 Soviet Union 14.5mm towed anti-aircraft gun Unknown ZU-23-2 Soviet Union 23mm towed anti-aircraft gun 24 M1939 Soviet Union 37mm towed anti-aircraft gun 10 L/70 Sweden 40mm towed anti-aircraft gun 3=== Current inventory ====== Retired aircraft ===Previous aircraft operated were the CM.170 Magister, Embraer EMB 110, Fokker F28, Aérospatiale N 262, Reims C.337, and the Alouette II helicopter.===Naval equipment===Vessel OriginTypeIn serviceNotes KershipFrance Offshore patrol 1 on order P400France Coastal patrol 3 BATRALFrance Landing craft 12 ordered, only one received" ], [ "Ceremonial traditions", "* In April 2001, then-Defense Minister Bongo visited China, during which he reviewed the PLA honor guard upon arrival, and proposed to his Chinese counterpart Chi Haotian that members of the battalion will go to Gabon to help set up and train professional ceremonial units in the Gabonese military.", "In March 2003, after just under three years, the Chinese Ministry of National Defense sent four officers led by Lieutenant Colonel Wang Yuanjing to Libreville by the end of November of that year, after which they stayed to train the Gabonese guard of honour for more than six months.", "*The Principal Music Band of the Gabonese Defense Forces was created in 2010.It brings together elements of the Band of the National Gendarmerie, the Armed Forces and the Prytanée militaire de Libreville.", "It has a staff of 50 professional currently directed by Captain Jean-Baptiste Rabimbinongo.", "Its conductor, Lieutenant Léa Nzoufa Nze, was the first woman to conduct a military band to the Saumur International Festival of Military Bands.", "It takes part in many official ceremonies such as National Flag Day and the military parade marking the country's independence." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Gabon" ], [ "Introduction", "Nations with which Gabon has diplomatic relations.Gabon has followed a non-aligned policy, advocating dialogue in international affairs and recognizing both parts of divided countries.", "Since 1973, the number of countries establishing diplomatic relations with Gabon has doubled.", "In inter-African affairs, Gabon espouses development by evolution rather than revolution and favors regulated free enterprise as the system most likely to promote rapid economic growth.", "Concerned about stability in Central Africa and the potential for intervention, Gabon has been directly involved with mediation efforts in Chad, Central African Republic, Republic of Congo, Angola, and former Zaire.", "In December 1999, through the mediation efforts of President Bongo, a peace accord was signed in the Republic of Congo between the government and most leaders of an armed rebellion.", "President Bongo has remained involved in the continuing Congolese peace process.", "Gabon has been a strong proponent of regional stability, and Gabonese armed forces played an important role in the UN Peacekeeping Mission to the Central African Republic (MINURCA).Gabon is a member of the UN and some of its specialized and related agencies, including the World Bank; Organisation of African Unity (OAU); Central African Customs Union (UDEAC/CEMAC); EC association under Lome Convention; Communaute Financiere Africaine (CFA); Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC); Non-Aligned Movement; Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).Gabon is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98)." ], [ "Bilateral relations", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes16 November 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 November 197411 April 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 April 197328 March 2006Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 March 200626 April 1979Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 April 1979 when Ambassador of Gabon to Angola Mr. Ignace Vane presented his credentials to President of Angola Dr. Agostinho Neto.Angola has an embassy in Libreville.", "* Gabon has an embassy in Luanda.22 January 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 January 19749 March 1994Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 March 199420 October 1984Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 October 1984 when Mr. A. R.Taylor, presented his letter of credence as non-resident Ambassador of Australia to Gabon.1 April 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 April 19701 October 1996Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 October 19961976Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1976.5 December 1996Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 December 1996.3 October 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 October 196129 October 1969Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 October 1969 when Gabon's new Ambassador to Dahomey (Benin), M. Marcel Sandoungout, has presented his credentials to President Zinsou.21 September 2011Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 September 201121 December 2006Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 December 200611 January 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 January 1974* Brazil has an embassy in Libreville.", "* Gabon has an embassy in Brasília.15 May 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 May 197611 November 1965Diplomatic relations were established on 11 November 1965.29 December 1969 first Ambassador of Gabon to Upper Volta Mr. Marcel Sandoungout has presented his letters of credence.26 February 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 February 1975February 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations in February 1962* Gabon has an embassy in Ottawa, and has sent ambassadors since 1971.", "* Canada is accredited to Gabon from its embassy in Yaoundé, Cameroon and maintains an honorary consulate in Libreville.7 December 2012Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 December 2012 when Ambassador of Gabon with residence in Dakar Doctor Guy B. Nambo-Wezet, has presented his credentials to President of Cape Verde Jorge Carlos Fonseca.29 September 1978Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 September 197820 April 1974See China-Gabon relationsOn 20 April 1974, China established diplomatic relations with Gabon.", "* China has an embassy in Libreville.", "* Gabon has an embassy in Beijing.14 July 1981Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 July 198128 January 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 January 197030 December 1966Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 December 1966 when Ambassador of Gabon to Ivory Coast Mr. Simon Edan, has presented his credentials.22 October 2001Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 October 200126 March 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 March 19744 October 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 October 197614 March 2023Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 March 202317 March 2021Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 March 202111 November 1980Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 November 19809 April 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 April 1973Gabon is involved in a maritime boundary dispute with Equatorial Guinea because of disputed sovereignty over islands in Corisco Bay.", "* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Libreville.", "* Gabon has an embassy in Malabo.13 July 2007Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 July 2007.20 May 1988Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 May 198818 August 1960See France-Gabon relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 18 August 1960Since independence, Gabon has been \"one of France's closest allies in Africa\".", "As of 2008, around 10,000 French nationals lived and worked in Gabon, while the 6th Marine Infantry Battalion of the French military is also stationed there.", "* France has an embassy in Libreville and a consulate-general in Port-Gentil.", "* Gabon has an embassy in Paris.1 September 2021Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 September 202119 September 2011Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 September 201117 August 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 August 1960April 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations in April 1974.31 December 2022Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 December 202214 October 1981See Haiti-Gabon relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 14 October 1981 when first ambassador of Haiti to Gabon with residence in Dakar Mr Victor Pierre Louis presented his credentials to President Bongo.Both countries have shared Franco-African relations24 October 1988Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 October 1988See Gabon–India relations* India has an honorary consulate in Libreville.", "* Gabon has an embassy in New Delhi.3 June 1982Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 June 198226 November 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 November 1974.15 December 2009Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 December 2009 when Ambassador of the Gabonese Republic Mr. Omer Piankali has presented his letters of credence to President of Ireland.15 November 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 November 1960 when was appointed first non-resident ambassador of Israel to Gabon Yerahmiel Ram Yaron.", "But Gabon broke diplomatic relations with Israel on 29 October 1973 and diplomatic relations were re-established on 29 September 19936 February 1963Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 February 1963.23 October 1995Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 October 199523 May 2009Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 May 2009.10 July 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 July 1976 when first Ambassador of Gabon to Kenya Mr. Pierre Mebaley presented his credentials to President Kenyatta.5 March 2014Both countries established diplomatic relations in March 2014.Gabon and Kosovo have close and friendly relations.27 October 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 October 197531 October 1996Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 October 1996.17 June 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 June 19751 November 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 November 1973.3 March 1994Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 March 19941 December 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 December 196120 March 2008Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 March 200810 March 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 March 1976* Gabon is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.", "* Mexico is accredited to Gabon from its embassy in Abuja, Nigeria.28 March 2011Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 March 201115 September 2014Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 September 201412 November 2012Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 November 201212 July 1972Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 July 19725 December 2012Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 December 2012 when Ambassador of the Gabonese Republic Mrs. Aichatou Sanni Aoudou presented his letters of credence to President of Mozambique Armando Emilio Guebuza.17 June 1985Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 June 198512 October 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 October 196114 June 2021Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 June 202122 April 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 April 1968 when Gabon's first Ambassador to Niger , M. Moktar Abdoulaye Mbingt , presented his credentials to President Diori.18 January 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 January 1973* Gabon has an embassy in Abuja.", "* Nigeria has an embassy in Libreville.29 January 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 January 1974.13 November 2000Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 November 2000.28 September 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 September 196530 March 1981Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 March 1981February 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations in February 19746 July 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 July 1976.16 October 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 October 197630 January 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 January 197525 November 1979Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 November 1979.21 September 1972Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 September 197215 October 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 October 1973.5 January 2018Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 January 2018January 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations in January 1974.4 October 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 October 197314 November 1996Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 November 1996 when has been accredited Ambassador of Gabon to Seychelles (resident in Pretoria) Mr. Paul Enembe Obame.6 February 2007Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 February 200715 October 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 October 1992* Gabon has an embassy in Pretoria.", "* South Africa has an embassy in Libreville.1 October 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 October 1962* Gabon has an embassy in Seoul.", "* South Korea has an embassy in Libreville.25 February 1964See Gabon–Spain relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 25 February 1964* Gabon has an embassy in Madrid.", "* Spain has an embassy in Libreville.19 March 2021Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 March 202111 February 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 February 1964 when appointed first Ambassador of Switzerland to Gabon (resident in Leopoldville) Mr. Arturo Marcionelli18 July 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 July 19751 April 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 April 197621 June 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 June 1968 when Ambassador of Gabon to Togo (resident in Abidjan) Mr. Abdoulaye M'Bingt presented his credentials.10 July 1971Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 July 1971 when the first Ambassador of Tunisia to Gabon M. Abdel Hamid Ammar, presented his letters of credentials to President Albert - Bernard Bongo.", "1 February 1963See Gabon–Turkey relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 February 1963 when accredited first Ambassador of Turkey to Gabon (resident in Lagos) Mr. Fehmi Nuza.", "* Gabon has an embassy in Ankara.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Libreville.", "* Trade volume between the two countries was US$38.9 million in 2018.24 June 2022Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 June 20224 July 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 July 1975 when the Gabonese Ambassador to Uganda, Mr. Pierre Nebale, has presented his credentials to President Amin.1 September 1993Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 September 199317 August 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 August 1960See Gabon-United States relationsEmbassy of Gabon in Washington, D.C.Relations between the United States and Gabon are excellent.", "In 1987, President Omar Bongo made an official visit to Washington, DC.", "In September 2002, Secretary of State Colin Powell made a brief but historic visit to Gabon to highlight environmental protection and conservation in the Central Africa region.", "This was followed by a visit to the White House by President Bongo in May 2004.The United States imports a considerable percentage of Gabonese crude oil and manganese, and exports heavy construction equipment, aircraft, and machinery to Gabon.", "Through a modest International Military Education and Training program, the United States provides military training to members of the Gabonese armed forces each year.", "Other bilateral assistance includes the funding of small grants for qualified democracy and human rights, self-help, and cultural preservation projects.", "U.S. private capital has been attracted to Gabon since before its independence.", "* Gabon has an embassy in Washington, D.C.* United States has an embassy on Libreville.11 November 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 November 197521 August 1985Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 August 198518 July 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 July 197527 August 1990Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 August 1990" ], [ "Notable" ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in Gabon* List of diplomatic missions of Gabon" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Gaza Strip" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Gaza Strip''' (; '''' ), or simply '''Gaza''', is a polity and the smaller of the two Palestinian territories (the other being the West Bank).", "On the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, Gaza is bordered by Egypt on the southwest and Israel on the east and north.The territory came into being when it was controlled by Egypt during the 1948 Arab–Israeli war, and became a refuge for Palestinians who fled or were expelled during the 1948 Palestine war.", "Later, during the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel captured and occupied the Gaza Strip, initiating its decades-long military occupation of the Palestinian territories.", "The mid-1990s Oslo Accords established the Palestinian Authority (PA) as a limited governing authority, initially led by the secular party Fatah until that party's electoral defeat in 2006 to the Sunni Islamic Hamas.", "Hamas would then take over the governance of Gaza in a battle the next year, subsequently warring with Israel.In 2005, Israel unilaterally withdrew its military forces from Gaza, dismantled its settlements, and implemented a temporary blockade of Gaza.", "The blockade became indefinite after the 2007 Hamas takeover, supported by Egypt through restrictions on its land border with Gaza.", "Despite the Israeli disengagement, the United Nations (UN), the International Committee of the Red Cross, and many human-rights organizations continue to consider Gaza to be held under Israeli military occupation, due to what they consider Israel's effective military control over the territory; Israel disputes that it occupies the territory.", "** The land, sea, and air blockade prevents people and goods from freely entering or leaving the territory, leading to Gaza often being called an \"open-air prison.\"", "The UN, as well as at least 19 human-rights organizations, have urged Israel to lift the blockade.", "Israel has justified its blockade on the strip with wanting to stop flow of arms, but Palestinians and rights groups say it amounts to collective punishment and exacerbates dire living conditions.The Gaza Strip is long, from wide, and has a total area of .", "With around 2 million Palestinians on approximately of land, Gaza has one of the world's highest population densities.", "More than 70% of Gaza's population are refugees or descendents of refugees, half of whom are under the age of 18.Sunni Muslims make up most of Gaza's population, with a Palestinian Christian minority.", "Gaza has an annual population growth rate of 1.99% (2023 est.", "), the 39th-highest in the world.", "Gaza's unemployment rate is among the highest in the world, with an overall unemployment rate of 46% and a youth unemployment rate of 70%.", "The population has one of the highest literacy rates in the world.", "Gaza has throughout the years been seen as a source of Palestinian nationalism and resistance." ], [ "History", "Historically part of the Palestine region, the area was controlled since the 16th century by the Ottoman Empire; in 1906 the Ottomans and the British Empire set the region's international border with Egypt.", "With the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I and the subsequent partition of the Ottoman Empire, the British deferred the governance of the Gaza Strip area to Egypt, which declined the responsibility.", "Britain itself kept and ruled the territory it occupied in 1917–18, from 1920 until 1948 under the internationally accepted frame of \"Mandatory Palestine\".===1948–1959: All-Palestine government===During the 1948 Palestine war and more specifically the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, tens of thousands of Palestinian refugees fled or were expelled to the Gaza Strip.", "By the end of the war, 25% of Mandatory Palestine's Arab population was in Gaza, though the Strip constituted only 1% of the land.", "The same year, the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) was established to administer various refugee programmes.On 22 September 1948 (near the end of the Arab–Israeli War), in the Egyptian-occupied Gaza City, the Arab League proclaimed the Government, partly to limit Transjordan's influence over Palestine.", "The All-Palestine Protectorate was quickly recognized by six of the Arab League's then-seven members (excluding Transjordan): Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen.", "It was not recognized by any other country.After the cessation of hostilities, the Israel–Egypt Armistice Agreement of 24 February 1949 established the line of separation between Egyptian and Israeli forces, as well as the modern boundary between Gaza and Israel, which both signatories declared not to be an international border.", "The southern border with Egypt was unchanged.Palestinians living in Gaza or Egypt were issued All-Palestine passports.", "Egypt did not offer them citizenship.", "From the end of 1949, they received aid directly from UNRWA.", "During the Suez Crisis (1956), Gaza and the Sinai Peninsula were occupied by Israeli troops, who withdrew under international pressure.", "The All-Palestine government was accused of being little more than a façade for Egyptian control, with negligible independent funding or influence.", "It subsequently moved to Cairo and dissolved in 1959 by decree of Egyptian President Gamal Abdul Nasser.===1956–1957: Israeli occupation===Palestinians in an outdoor market in the Gaza Strip in 1956During the 1956 Suez Crisis (the Second Arab–Israeli war), Israel invaded Gaza and the Sinai Peninsula.", "On 3 November, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) attacked Egyptian and Palestinian forces at Khan Yunis.", "The city of Khan Younis resisted being captured, and Israel responded with a heavy bombing campaign that inflicted heavy civilian casualties.", "After a fierce battle, the Israeli 37th Armored Brigade's Sherman tanks broke through the heavily fortified lines outside of Khan Yunis held by the 86th Palestinian Brigade.After some street-fighting with Egyptian soldiers and Palestinian fedayeen, Khan Yunis fell to the Israelis.", "Upon capturing Khan Yunis, the IDF committed an alleged massacre.", "Israeli troops started executing unarmed Palestinians, mostly civilians; in one instance men were lined up against walls in central square and executed with machine guns.", "The claims of a massacre were reported to the United Nations General Assembly on 15 December 1956 by UNRWA director Henry Labouisse, who reported from \"trustworthy sources\" that 275 people were killed in the massacre, of which 140 were refugees and 135 local residents.On 12 November, days after the hostilities had ended, Israel killed 111 people in the Rafah refugee camp during Israeli operations, provoking international criticism.Israel ended the occupation in March 1957, amid international pressure.", "During the 4-month Israeli occupation, 900–1,231 people were killed.", "According to French historian Jean-Pierre Filiu, 1% of the population of Gaza was killed, wounded, imprisoned or tortured during the occupation.===1959–1967: Egyptian occupation===Che Guevara visiting Gaza in 1959After the dissolution of the All-Palestine Government in 1959, under the excuse of pan-Arabism, Egypt continued to occupy Gaza until 1967.Egypt never annexed the Strip, but instead treated it as a controlled territory and administered it through a military governor.", "The influx of over 200,000 refugees from former Mandatory Palestine, roughly a quarter of those who fled or were expelled from their homes during, and in the aftermath of, the 1948 Arab–Israeli War into Gaza resulted in a dramatic decrease in the standard of living.", "Because the Egyptian government restricted movement to and from Gaza, its inhabitants could not look elsewhere for gainful employment.===1967: Israeli occupation===In June 1967, during the Six-Day War, IDF captured Gaza.", "Under the then head of Israel's Southern Command Ariel Sharon, dozens of Palestinians, suspected of being members of the resistance, were executed without trial.Between 1967 and 1968, Israel evicted approximately 75,000 residents of the Gaza Strip who Golda Meir described as a \"fifth column\".", "In addition, at least 25,000 Gazan residents were prevented from returning after the 1967 war.", "Ultimately, the Strip lost 25% (a conservative estimate) of its prewar population between 1967 and 1968.Between 1973 (after the Yom Kippur War) and 1987, official policy on economic development in the Gaza Strip remained the same as in 1969 with limited local investment and economic opportunity coming primarily from employment in Israel.Gaza City in 1967According to Tom Segev, moving the Palestinians out of the country had been a persistent element of Zionist thinking from early times.", "In December 1967, during a meeting at which the Security Cabinet brainstormed about what to do with the Arab population of the newly occupied territories, one of the suggestions Prime Minister Levi Eshkol proffered regarding Gaza was that the people might leave if Israel restricted their access to water supplies.", "A number of measures, including financial incentives, were taken shortly afterwards to begin to encourage Gazans to emigrate elsewhere.", "Following the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, \"various international agencies struggled to respond\" and American Near East Refugee Aid was founded to help victims of the conflict by providing immediate emergency relief.Israeli soldiers in Gaza in 1969Subsequent to this military victory, Israel created the first Israeli settlement bloc in the Strip, Gush Katif, in the southwest corner near Rafah and the Egyptian border on a spot where a small kibbutz had previously existed for 18 months between 1946 and 1948.The kibbutz community had been established as part of the Jewish Agency's \"11 points in the Negev\" plan, in which 11 Jewish villages were built across the Negev in a single night as a response to the Morrison-Grady Plan, which threatened to exclude the Negev from a future Jewish State.", "In total, between 1967 and 2005, Israel established 21 settlements in Gaza, comprising 20% of the total territory.The economic growth rate from 1967 to 1982 averaged roughly 9.7 percent per annum, due in good part to expanded income from work opportunities inside Israel, which had a major utility for the latter by supplying the country with a large unskilled and semi-skilled workforce.", "Gaza's agricultural sector was adversely affected as one-third of the Strip was appropriated by Israel, competition for scarce water resources stiffened, and the lucrative cultivation of citrus declined with the advent of Israeli policies, such as prohibitions on planting new trees and taxation that gave breaks to Israeli producers, factors which militated against growth.", "Gaza's direct exports of these products to Western markets, as opposed to Arab markets, was prohibited except through Israeli marketing vehicles, in order to assist Israeli citrus exports to the same markets.", "The overall result was that large numbers of farmers were forced out of the agricultural sector.", "Israel placed quotas on all goods exported from Gaza, while abolishing restrictions on the flow of Israeli goods into the Strip.", "Sara Roy characterised the pattern as one of structural de-development.On 26 March 1979, Israel and Egypt signed the Egypt–Israel peace treaty.", "Among other things, the treaty provided for the withdrawal by Israel of its armed forces and civilians from the Sinai Peninsula, which Israel had captured during the Six-Day War.", "The Egyptians agreed to keep the Sinai Peninsula demilitarized.", "The final status of the Gaza Strip, and other relations between Israel and Palestinians, was not dealt with in the treaty.", "Egypt renounced all territorial claims to territory north of the international border.", "The Gaza Strip remained under Israeli military administration.", "The Israeli military became responsible for the maintenance of civil facilities and services.After the 1979 Egypt–Israel peace treaty, a 100-meter-wide buffer zone between Gaza and Egypt known as the Philadelphi Route was established.", "The international border along the Philadelphi corridor between Egypt and Gaza is long.===1987: First Intifada===Israeli soldiers opposite Palestinian protesters in the strip during the First Intifada in 1987The First Intifada was a sustained series of protests and violent riots carried out by Palestinians in the Israeli-occupied Palestinian territories and Israel.", "It was motivated by collective Palestinian frustration over Israel's military occupation of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, as it approached a twenty-year mark, having begun after Israel's victory in the 1967 Arab–Israeli War.", "The uprising lasted from December 1987 until the Madrid Conference of 1991, though some date its conclusion to 1993, with the signing of the Oslo Accords.The intifada began on 9 December 1987, in the Jabalia refugee camp of the Gaza Strip after an Israeli army truck collided with a civilian car, killing four Palestinian workers.", "Palestinians charged that the collision was a deliberate response for the killing of an Israeli in Gaza days earlier.", "Israel denied that the crash, which came at time of heightened tensions, was intentional or coordinated.", "The Palestinian response was characterized by protests, civil disobedience, and violence.", "There was graffiti, barricading, and widespread throwing of stones and Molotov cocktails at the IDF and its infrastructure within the West Bank and Gaza Strip.", "These contrasted with civil efforts including general strikes, boycotts of Israeli Civil Administration institutions in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, an economic boycott consisting of refusal to work in Israeli settlements on Israeli products, refusal to pay taxes, and refusal to drive Palestinian cars with Israeli licenses.===1994: Gaza under Palestinian Authority===In May 1994, following the Palestinian-Israeli agreements known as the Oslo Accords, a phased transfer of governmental authority to the Palestinians took place.", "Much of the Strip came under Palestinian control, except for the settlement blocs and military areas.", "The Israeli forces left Gaza City and other urban areas, leaving the new Palestinian Authority to administer and police those areas.", "The Palestinian Authority, led by Yasser Arafat, chose Gaza City as its first provincial headquarters.", "In September 1995, Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) signed a second agreement, extending the Palestinian Authority to most West Bank towns.Between 1994 and 1996, Israel built the Gaza–Israel barrier to improve security in Israel.", "The barrier was largely torn down by Palestinians at the beginning of the Second Intifada in September 2000.===2000: Second Intifada===The image of Faris Odeh throwing a stone at an Israeli tank near the Gaza Strip during the Second Intifada assumed an iconic status among Palestinians as a symbol of resistance to the Israeli occupation; the boy was killed by the Israeli army 10 days later.", "The Second Intifada was a major Palestinian uprising in the Israeli-occupied Palestinian territories and Israel.", "The general triggers for the unrest are speculated to have been centred on the failure of the 2000 Camp David Summit, which was expected to reach a final agreement on the Israeli–Palestinian peace process in July 2000.Outbreaks of violence began in September 2000, after Ariel Sharon, then the Israeli opposition leader, made a provocative visit to the Al-Aqsa compound on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem; the visit itself was peaceful, but, as anticipated, sparked protests and riots that Israeli police put down with rubber bullets and tear gas.", "The Second Intifada also marked the beginning of rocket attacks and bombings of Israeli border localities by Palestinian guerrillas from the Gaza Strip, especially by the Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad movements.High numbers of casualties were caused among civilians as well as combatants.", "Israeli forces engaged in gunfire, targeted killings, and tank and aerial attacks, while Palestinians engaged in suicide bombings, gunfire, stone-throwing, and rocket attacks.", "Palestinian suicide bombings were a prominent feature of the fighting and mainly targeted Israeli civilians, contrasting with the relatively less violent nature of the First Intifada.", "With a combined casualty figure for combatants and civilians, the violence is estimated to have resulted in the deaths of approximately 3,000 Palestinians and 1,000 Israelis, as well as 64 foreigners.Between December 2000 and June 2001, the barrier between Gaza and Israel was reconstructed.", "A barrier on the Gaza Strip-Egypt border was constructed starting in 2004.The main crossing points are the northern Erez Crossing into Israel and the southern Rafah Crossing into Egypt.", "The eastern Karni Crossing used for cargo, closed down in 2011.Israel controls the Gaza Strip's northern borders, as well as its territorial waters and airspace.", "Egypt controls Gaza Strip's southern border, under an agreement between it and Israel.", "Neither Israel or Egypt permits free travel from Gaza as both borders are heavily militarily fortified.", "\"Egypt maintains a strict blockade on Gaza in order to isolate Hamas from Islamist insurgents in the Sinai.", "\"=== 2005: Israel's unilateral disengagement ===In 2005, Israel withdrew from the Gaza Strip and dismantled its settlements.", "Israel also withdrew from the Philadelphi Route, a narrow strip of land adjacent to the border with Egypt, after Egypt agreed to secure its side of the border after the Agreement on Movement and Access, known as the Rafah Agreement.Despite the 2005 Israeli disengagement from Gaza, the United Nations, international human rights organisations, and the majority of governments and legal commentators consider the territory to be still occupied by Israel, supported by additional restrictions placed on Gaza by Egypt.", "Israel maintains direct external control over Gaza and indirect control over life within Gaza: it controls Gaza's air and maritime space, as well as six of Gaza's seven land crossings.", "It reserves the right to enter Gaza at will with its military and maintains a no-go buffer zone within the Gaza territory.", "Gaza is dependent on Israel for water, electricity, telecommunications, and other utilities.", "The extensive Israeli buffer zone within the Strip renders much land off-limits to Gaza's inhabitants.", "The system of control imposed by Israel was described in the fall 2012 edition of ''International Security'' as an \"indirect occupation\".", "The European Union (EU) considers Gaza to be occupied.=== Post-2006: Hamas takeover ===In the Palestinian parliamentary elections held on 25 January 2006, Hamas won a plurality of 42.9% of the total vote and 74 out of 132 total seats (56%).", "When Hamas assumed power the next month, Israel, the United States, the EU, Russia and the UN demanded that Hamas accept all previous agreements, recognize Israel's right to exist, and renounce violence; when Hamas refused, they cut off direct aid to the Palestinian Authority, although some aid money was redirected to humanitarian organizations not affiliated with the government.", "The resulting political disorder and economic stagnation led to many Palestinians emigrating from the Gaza Strip.Gaza City skyline, 2007In January 2007, fighting erupted between Hamas and Fatah.", "The deadliest clashes occurred in the northern Gaza Strip.", "On 30 January 2007, a truce was negotiated between Fatah and Hamas.", "After a few days, new fighting broke out.", "On 1 February, Hamas killed 6 people in an ambush on a Gaza convoy which delivered equipment for Abbas' Palestinian Presidential Guard.", "Fatah fighters stormed a Hamas-affiliated university in the Gaza Strip.", "Officers from Abbas' presidential guard battled Hamas gunmen guarding the Hamas-led Interior Ministry.", "In May 2007, new fighting broke out between the factions.", "Interior Minister Hani Qawasmi, who had been considered a moderate civil servant acceptable to both factions, resigned due to what he termed harmful behavior by both sides.Fighting spread in the Gaza Strip, with both factions attacking vehicles and facilities of the other side.", "Following a breakdown in an Egyptian-brokered truce, Israel launched an air strike which destroyed a building used by Hamas.", "Ongoing violence prompted fear that it could bring the end of the Fatah-Hamas coalition government, and possibly the end of the Palestinian authority.", "Hamas spokesman Moussa Abu Marzouk blamed the conflict between Hamas and Fatah on Israel, stating that the constant pressure of economic sanctions resulted in the \"real explosion.\"", "From 2006 to 2007 more than 600 Palestinians were killed in fighting between Hamas and Fatah.", "349 Palestinians were killed in fighting between factions in 2007.160 Palestinians killed each other in June alone.===2007: Hamas takeover===Gaza City in 2007Following the victory of Hamas in the 2006 Palestinian legislative election, Hamas and Fatah formed the Palestinian authority national unity government headed by Ismail Haniya.", "Shortly after, Hamas took control of the Gaza Strip in the course of the Battle of Gaza (June 2007), seizing government institutions and replacing Fatah and other government officials with its own.", "By 14 June, Hamas fully controlled the Gaza Strip.", "Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas responded by declaring a state of emergency, dissolving the unity government and forming a new government without Hamas participation.", "PNA security forces in the West Bank arrested a number of Hamas members.In late June 2008, Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Jordan declared the West Bank-based cabinet formed by Abbas as \"the sole legitimate Palestinian government\".", "Egypt moved its embassy from Gaza to the West Bank.", "Saudi Arabia and Egypt supported reconciliation and a new unity government and pressed Abbas to start talks with Hamas.", "Abbas had always conditioned this on Hamas returning control of the Gaza Strip to the Palestinian Authority.", "After the takeover, Israel and Egypt closed their border crossings with Gaza.", "Palestinian sources reported that European Union monitors fled the Rafah Border Crossing, on the Gaza–Egypt border for fear of being kidnapped or harmed.", "Arab foreign ministers and Palestinian officials presented a united front against control of the border by Hamas.", "Meanwhile, Israeli and Egyptian security reports said that Hamas continued smuggling in large quantities of explosives and arms from Egypt through tunnels.", "Egyptian security forces uncovered 60 tunnels in 2007.====Egyptian border barrier breach====A view of Gaza in January 2009On 23 January 2008, after months of preparation during which the steel reinforcement of the border barrier was weakened, Hamas destroyed several parts of the wall dividing Gaza and Egypt in the town of Rafah.", "Hundreds of thousands of Gazans crossed the border into Egypt seeking food and supplies.", "Due to the crisis, Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak ordered his troops to allow the Palestinians in but to verify that they did not bring weapons back across the border.", "Egypt arrested and later released several armed Hamas militants in the Sinai who presumably wanted to infiltrate into Israel.", "At the same time, Israel increased its state of alert along the length of the Israel-Egypt Sinai border, and warned its citizens to leave Sinai \"without delay.", "\"In February 2008, 2008 Israel-Gaza conflict intensified, with rockets launched at Israeli cities.", "Aggression by Hamas led to Israeli military action on 1 March 2008, resulting in over 110 Palestinians being killed according to BBC News, as well as 2 Israeli soldiers.", "Israeli human rights group B'Tselem estimated that 45 of those killed were not involved in hostilities, and 15 were minors.===2008–2009: Gaza War===Buildings damaged during the 2008-2009 Gaza warOn 27 December 2008, Israeli F-16 fighters launched a series of air strikes against targets in Gaza following the breakdown of a temporary truce between Israel and Hamas.", "Israel began a ground invasion of the Gaza Strip on 3 January 2009.Various sites that Israel claimed were being used as weapons depots were struck from the air : police stations, schools, hospitals, UN warehouses, mosques, various Hamas government buildings and other buildings.Israel said that the attack was a response to Hamas rocket attacks on southern Israel, which totaled over 3,000 in 2008, and which intensified during the few weeks preceding the operation.", "Israel advised people near military targets to leave before the attacks.", "Israeli defense sources said that Defense Minister Ehud Barak instructed the IDF to prepare for the operation six months before it began, using long-term planning and intelligence-gathering.Gaza City in 2012A total of 1,100–1,400 Palestinians (295–926 civilians) and 13 Israelis were killed in the 22-day war.", "The conflict damaged or destroyed tens of thousands of homes, 15 of Gaza's 27 hospitals and 43 of its 110 primary health care facilities, 800 water wells, 186 greenhouses, and nearly all of its 10,000 family farms; leaving 50,000 homeless, 400,000–500,000 without running water, one million without electricity, and resulting in acute food shortages.", "The people of Gaza still suffer from the loss of these facilities and homes, especially since they have great challenges to rebuild them.===2014: Gaza War===On 5 June 2014, Fatah signed a unity agreement with the Hamas political party.The 2014 Gaza War, also known as Operation Protective Edge, was a military operation launched by Israel on 8 July 2014 in the Gaza Strip.", "Following the kidnapping and murder of three Israeli teenagers in the West Bank by Hamas-affiliated Palestinian militants, the IDF initiated ''Operation Brother's Keeper'', in which some 350 Palestinians, including nearly all of the active Hamas militants in the West Bank, were arrested.", "Hamas subsequently fired a greater number of rockets into Israel from Gaza, triggering a seven-week-long conflict between the two sides.", "It was one of the deadliest outbreaks of open conflict between Israel and the Palestinians in decades.", "The combination of Palestinian rocket attacks and Israeli airstrikes resulted in thousands of deaths, the vast majority of which were Gazan Palestinians.===2018–2019: Great March of Return===UN OCHA map of the Great March of Return protests, 31 May 2018In 2018–2019, a series of protests, also known as the Great March of Return, were held each Friday in the Gaza Strip near the Israel–Gaza barrier from 30 March 2018 until 27 December 2019, during which a total of 223 Palestinians were killed by Israeli forces.", "The demonstrators demanded that the Palestinian refugees must be allowed to return to lands they were displaced from in what is now Israel.", "They protested against Israel's land, air and sea blockade of the Gaza Strip and the United States recognition of Jerusalem as capital of Israel.", "\"The protests are an uprising for \"Jerusalem, Palestine, and the right of return\", he said, referring to the demand that Palestinian refugees and their descendants be allowed to return to their former homes in Israel.", "\"\"They are objecting to Israel's 11-year-old blockade of Gaza and seeking to revive international interest in Palestinian claims of a right of return to the lands they were displaced from in 1948.", "\"\"Masses of Palestinians are expected to come to the Gaza border on Friday and move into tents there for a planned six-week-long protest 'to demand the right of return to the homes and villages that they were expelled from in 1948'\", Ahmad Abu Ratima, an organizer of the protest, told ''The Jerusalem Post''\".Most of the demonstrators demonstrated peacefully far from the border fence.", "Peter Cammack, a fellow with the Middle East Program at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, argued that the march indicated a new trend in Palestinian society and Hamas, with a shift away from violence towards non-violent forms of protest.", "\"This is clearly a new trend in Palestinian society that attempts to expand the notions of resistance and nonviolent protests.\"", "Nevertheless, groups consisting mainly of young men approached the fence and committed acts of violence directed towards the Israeli border.", "Israeli officials said the demonstrations were used by Hamas as cover for launching attacks against Israel.2018 Gaza border protests, Bureij refugee camp in GazaIn late February 2019, a United Nations Human Rights Council's independent commission found that of the 489 cases of Palestinian deaths or injuries analyzed, only two were possibly justified as responses to danger by Israeli security forces.", "The commission deemed the rest of the cases illegal, and concluded with a recommendation calling on Israel to examine whether war crimes or crimes against humanity had been committed, and if so, to bring those responsible to trial.On 28 February 2019, the Commission said it had \"\"reasonable grounds\" to believe Israeli soldiers may have committed war crimes and shot at journalists, health workers and children during protests in Gaza in 2018.\"", "Israel refused to take part in the inquiry and rejected the report.===2021: Israel–Palestine crisis===Before the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis, Gaza had 48% unemployment and half of the population lived in poverty.", "During the crisis, 66 children died (551 children in the previous conflict).", "On 13 June 2021, a high level World Bank delegation visited Gaza to witness the damage.", "Mobilization with UN and EU partners is ongoing to finalize a needs assessment in support of Gaza's reconstruction and recovery.Another escalation between 5 and 8 August 2022 resulted in property damage and displacement of people as a result of airstrikes.===2023–2024: Israel–Hamas war===Israeli soldiers in the Gaza Strip on 31 October 2023On 7 October 2023, Hamas launched an attack into southwest Israel, targeting Israeli communities and military bases, killing at least 1,300 people and taking at least 236 hostages.", "On 9 October 2023, Israel declared war on Hamas and imposed a \"total blockade\" of the Gaza Strip, with Israeli Defense Minister Yoav Gallant declaring, \"There will be no electricity, no food, no fuel, everything is closed.", "We are fighting human animals and we are acting accordingly.\"", "As a result, Gaza is undergoing a severe humanitarian crisis.", "By 13 November 2023, one out of every 200 people in Gaza were killed, becoming one out of every 100 by January 2024., according to the Hamas-run Gaza Health Ministry, at least 20,000 Palestinians, including over 8,000 children, have been killed.", "More than 85% of Palestinians in Gaza, or around 1.9 million people, were internally displaced.", "As of January 2024, Israel's offensive has either damaged or destroyed 70–80% of all buildings in northern Gaza." ], [ "Geography", "Palestinians on the Gaza beach in 2006Gaza City in 2018The Gaza Strip is long, from wide, and has a total area of .", "It has a border with Israel, and an border with Egypt, near the city of Rafah.Khan Yunis is located northeast of Rafah, and several towns around Deir el-Balah are located along the coast between it and Gaza City.", "Beit Lahia and Beit Hanoun are located to the north and northeast of Gaza City, respectively.", "The Gush Katif bloc of Israeli settlements used to exist on the sand dunes adjacent to Rafah and Khan Yunis, along the southwestern edge of the Mediterranean coastline.", "Al Deira beach is a popular venue for surfers.The topography of the Gaza Strip is dominated by three ridges parallel to the coastline, which consist of Pleistocene-Holocene aged calcareous aeolian (wind deposited) sandstones, locally referred to as \"kurkar\", intercalated with red-coloured fine grained paleosols, referred to as \"hamra\".", "The three ridges are separated by wadis, which are filled with alluvial deposits.", "The terrain is flat or rolling, with dunes near the coast.", "The highest point is Abu 'Awdah (Joz Abu 'Auda), at above sea level.The major river in Gaza Strip is Wadi Gaza, around which the Wadi Gaza Nature Reserve was established, to protect the only coastal wetland in the Strip.===Climate===The Gaza Strip has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen ''BSh''), with warm winters during which practically all the annual rainfall occurs, and dry, hot summers.", "Despite the dryness, humidity is high throughout the year.", "Annual rainfall is higher than in any part of Egypt at between in the south and in the north, but almost all of this falls between November and February.", "Environmental problems include desertification; salination of fresh water; sewage treatment; water-borne diseases; soil degradation; and depletion and contamination of underground water resources." ], [ "Governance", "===Hamas government===Damaged UN school and remmants of the Ministry of Interior in Gaza City, December 2012Since its takeover of Gaza, Hamas has exercised executive authority over the Gaza Strip, and it governs the territory through its own ''ad hoc'' executive, legislative, and judicial bodies.", "The Hamas government of 2012 was the second Palestinian Hamas-dominated government, ruling over the Gaza Strip, since the split of the Palestinian National Authority in 2007.It was announced in early September 2012.The reshuffle of the previous government was approved by Gaza-based Hamas MPs from the Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC) or parliament.", "Since the Hamas takeover in 2007, the Gaza Strip has been described as a \"''de facto'' one-party state\", although it tolerates other political groups, including leftist ones such as the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP).The legal code Hamas applies in Gaza is based on Ottoman laws, the British Mandate's 1936 legal code, Palestinian Authority law, Sharia law, and Israeli military orders.", "Hamas maintains a judicial system with civilian and military courts and a public prosecution service.===Security===The Gaza Strip's security is mainly handled by Hamas through its military wing, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, internal security service, and civil police force.", "The Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades have an estimated 30,000 to 50,000 operatives.===Other groups and ideologies===A rally in support of Fatah in Gaza City in January 2013Other Palestinian militant factions operate in the Gaza Strip alongside, and sometimes opposed to Hamas.", "The Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine, also known as the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) is the second largest militant faction operating in the Gaza Strip.", "Its military wing, the Al-Quds Brigades, has an estimated 8,000 fighters.In June 2013, the Islamic Jihad broke ties with Hamas leaders after Hamas police fatally shot the commander of Islamic Jihad's military wing.", "The third largest faction is the Popular Resistance Committees.", "Its military wing is known as the Al-Nasser Salah al-Deen Brigades.Other factions include the Army of Islam (an Islamist faction of the Doghmush clan), the Nidal Al-Amoudi Battalion (an offshoot of the West Bank-based Fatah-linked al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades), the Abu Ali Mustapha Brigades (armed wing of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine), the Sheikh Omar Hadid Brigade (ISIL offshoot), Humat al-Aqsa, Jaysh al-Ummah, Katibat al-Sheikh al-Emireen, the Mujahideen Brigades, and the Abdul al-Qadir al-Husseini Brigades.Some Salafi-Jihadis operating in the Gaza Strip have been using as part of their name the term ''ʻArḍ al-Ribat'' \"Land of the Ribat\", as a name for Palestine, literally meaning \"the land of standing vigilant watch on the frontier\", but understood in the context of ''global'' jihad, which is fundamentally opposed to local, Palestinian nationalism.===Administrative divisions===The enclave is divided into five governorates: North Gaza Governorate, Gaza Governorate, Deir al-Balah Governorate, Khan Yunis Governorate and Rafah Governorate" ], [ "Status", "Due to both the Israeli blockade and Hamas's authoritarian policies and actions, U.S. political organization Freedom House ranks Gaza as \"not free\".===Legality of Hamas rule===After Hamas' June 2007 takeover, it ousted Fatah-linked officials from positions of power and authority (such as government positions, security services, universities, newspapers, etc.)", "and strove to enforce law by progressively removing guns from the hands of peripheral militias, clans, and criminal groups, and gaining control of supply tunnels.", "According to Amnesty International, under Hamas rule, newspapers were closed down and journalists were harassed.", "Fatah demonstrations were forbidden or suppressed, as in the case of a large demonstration on the anniversary of Yasser Arafat's death, which resulted in the deaths of seven people, after protesters hurled stones at Hamas security forces.Hamas and other militant groups continued to fire Qassam rockets across the border into Israel.", "According to Israel, between the Hamas takeover and the end of January 2008, 697 rockets and 822 mortar bombs were fired at Israeli towns.", "In response, Israel targeted Qassam launchers and military targets and declared the Gaza Strip a hostile entity.", "In January 2008, Israel curtailed travel from Gaza, the entry of goods, and cut fuel supplies, resulting in power shortages.", "This brought charges that Israel was inflicting collective punishment on the Gaza population, leading to international condemnation.", "Despite multiple reports from within the Strip that food and other essentials were in short supply, Israel said that Gaza had enough food and energy supplies for weeks.The Israeli government uses economic means to pressure Hamas.", "Among other things, it caused Israeli commercial enterprises like banks and fuel companies to stop doing business with the Gaza Strip.", "The role of private corporations in the relationship between Israel and the Gaza Strip is an issue that has not been extensively studied.Due to continued rocket attacks including 50 in one day, in March 2008, air strikes and ground incursions by the IDF led to the deaths of over 110 Palestinians and extensive damage to Jabalia.A watchtower on the border between Rafah and Egypt===Israeli occupation===The international community regards all of the Palestinian territories including Gaza as occupied.", "Human Rights Watch has declared at the UN Human Rights Council that it views Israel as a ''de facto'' occupying power in the Gaza Strip, even though Israel has no military or other presence, because the Oslo Accords authorize Israel to control the airspace and the territorial sea.In his statement on the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict, Richard Falk, United Nations Special Rapporteur wrote that international humanitarian law applied to Israel \"in regard to the obligations of an Occupying Power and in the requirements of the laws of war.\"", "Amnesty International, the World Health Organization, Oxfam, the International Committee of the Red Cross, the United Nations, the United Nations General Assembly, the UN Fact Finding Mission to Gaza, international human rights organizations, US government websites, the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office, and a significant number of legal commentators (Geoffrey Aronson, Meron Benvenisti, Claude Bruderlein, Sari Bashi, Kenneth Mann, Shane Darcy, John Reynolds, Yoram Dinstein, John Dugard, Marc S. Kaliser, Mustafa Mari, and Iain Scobbie) maintain that Israel's extensive direct external control over Gaza, and indirect control over the lives of its internal population mean that Gaza remained occupied.", "In spite of Israel's withdrawal from Gaza in 2005, the Hamas government in Gaza considers Gaza as occupied territory.Israel states that it does not exercise effective control or authority over any land or institutions in the Gaza Strip and thus the Gaza Strip is no longer subject to the former military occupation.", "Foreign Affairs Minister of Israel Tzipi Livni stated in January 2008: \"Israel got out of Gaza.", "It dismantled its settlements there.", "No Israeli soldiers were left there after the disengagement.\"", "On 30 January 2008, the Supreme Court of Israel ruled that the Gaza Strip was not occupied by Israel in a decision on a petition against Israeli restrictions against the Gaza Strip which argued that it remained occupied.", "The Supreme Court ruled that Israel has not exercised effective control over the Gaza Strip since 2005, and accordingly, it was no longer occupied.In a legal analysis Hanne Cuyckens agrees with the Israeli position that Gaza is no longer occupied - \"Gaza is not technically occupied, given that there is no longer any effective control in the sense of Article 42 of the Hague Regulations.", "...", "Even though the majority argues that the Gaza Strip is still occupied, the effective control test at the core of the law of occupation is no longer met and hence Gaza is no longer occupied.\"", "She disagrees that Israel cannot therefore be held responsible for the situation in Gaza because: \"Nonetheless, Israel continues to exercise an important level of control over the Gaza Strip and its population, making it difficult to accept that it would no longer have any obligations with regard to the Strip.", "... the absence of occupation does not mean the absence of accountability.", "This responsibility is however not founded on the law of occupation but on general international humanitarian law, potentially complemented by international human rights law\".", "Yuval Shany also argues that Israel is probably not an occupying power in Gaza under international law, writing that \"it is difficult to continue and regard Israel as the occupying power in Gaza under the traditional law of occupation\".Gaza Strip with Israeli-controlled borders and limited fishing zone, as of December 2012Avi Bell argues that the Gaza Strip is not occupied as the Israeli blockade does not constitute effective control, citing several international legal precedents that the occupier must be in direct control with forces on the ground and have direct control over the civilian population superior to that of the established government.", "He argues that Israeli control over Gaza does not meet these standards.", "Likewise, Alex Stein claimed in 2014 that Israel did not occupy Gaza and its only obligation was to minimize harm to the civilian population during military operations.====Characterization as open-air prison====Several rights groups have characterized the situation in Gaza as an \"open-air prison\", including the United Nations, Human Rights Watch, and the Norwegian Refugee Council.", "This characterization was often cited by a number of human rights activists, politicians, and media news outlets reporting on the Gaza-Israel conflict and the wider Palestinian-Israeli conflict.", "Former British Prime Minister David Cameron, US Senator Bernie Sanders, former Israeli diplomat Gideon Levy, and Israeli historian Ilan Pappe have endorsed this characterization as well.In 2022, Human Rights Watch issued a report on the situation in the Gaza Strip, which it called an \"open-air prison\" due to the blockade and held Israel responsible as the occupying power, and to a lesser degree Egypt, which has restricted movement of Palestinians through its border.", "The report highlighted how this blockade has led to humanitarian crises, namely shortages of essential supplies, limited access to healthcare, and high levels of poverty and unemployment among the Palestinian population in Gaza.", "It claimed that Israel has formed a formal policy of separation between Gaza and the West Bank, despite both forming parts of the Palestinian territories.", "The Israeli blockade on Gaza has restricted the freedom of movement of Gaza Palestinians to both the West Bank and the outside world; in particular, Palestinian professionals were most impacted by these restrictions, as applying for travel permit takes several weeks.The Norwegian Refugee Council report issued in 2018 called the territory \"the world's largest open-air prison\", highlighting in it several figures, including lack of access to clean water, to reliable electrical supply, to health care, food and employment opportunities.", "It lamented the fact that a majority of Palestinian children in Gaza suffer from psychological trauma, and a portion of which suffer from stunted growth.===Statehood===Some Israeli analysts have argued that the Gaza Strip can be considered a ''de facto'' state, even if not internationally recognized as such.", "Israeli Major General Giora Eiland, who headed Israel's National Security Council, has argued that after the disengagement and Hamas takeover, the Gaza Strip became a de facto state for all intents and purposes, writing that \"It has clear borders, an effective government, an independent foreign policy and an army.", "These are the exact characteristics of a state.", "\"Yagil Levy, a professor of Political Sociology and Public Policy at the Open University of Israel, wrote in a ''Haaretz'' column that \"Gaza is a state in every respect, at least as social scientists understand the term.", "It has a central government with an army that's subordinate to it and that protects a population living in a defined territory.", "Nevertheless, Gaza is a castrated state.", "Israel and Egypt control its borders.", "The Palestinian Authority pays for the salaries of some of its civil servants.", "And the army doesn't have a monopoly on armed force, because there are independent militias operating alongside it.", "\"Moshe Arens, a former Israeli diplomat who served as Foreign Minister and Defense Minister, likewise wrote that Gaza is a state as \"it has a government, an army, a police force and courts that dispense justice of sorts.\"", "In November 2018, Israeli Justice Minister Ayelet Shaked asserted that Gaza is an independent state, stating that Palestinians \"already have a state\" in Gaza.Geoffrey Aronson has likewise argued that the Gaza Strip can be considered a proto-state with some aspects of sovereignty, writing that \"a proto-state already exists in the Gaza Strip, with objective attributes of sovereignty the Ramallah-based Mahmoud Abbas can only dream about.", "Gaza is a single, contiguous territory with de facto borders, recognised, if not always respected, by friend and foe alike.", "There are no permanently stationed foreign occupiers and, most importantly, no civilian Israeli settlements.\"", "Writing in ''Newsweek'', journalist Marc Schulman referred to Gaza as \"an impoverished proto-state that lives off aid.", "\"===Control over airspace===Beit Hanoun region of Gaza in August 2014, after Israeli bombardmentsAs agreed between Israel and the Palestinian Authority in the Oslo Accords, Israel has exclusive control over the airspace.", "Contrarily to the Oslo Accords, however, Israel interferes with Gaza's radio and TV transmissions, and Israel prevents the Palestinians from operating a seaport or airport.", "The Accords permitted Palestinians to construct an airport, which was duly built and opened in 1998.Israel destroyed Gaza's only airport in 2001 and again in 2002, during the Second Intifada.The Israeli army makes use of drones, which can launch precise missiles.", "They are equipped with high-resolution cameras and other sensors.", "The missile fired from a drone has its own cameras that allow the operator to observe the target from the moment of firing.", "After a missile has been launched, the drone operator can remotely divert it elsewhere.", "Drone operators can view objects on the ground in detail during both day and night.", "Israeli drones routinely patrol over Gaza, and engage in missile strikes which reportedly kill more civilians than militants; the drones also produce a buzzing noise audible from the ground which Palestinians in Gaza refer to as ''zanana''.===Buffer zone===Part of the territory is depopulated because of the imposition of buffer zones on both the Israeli and Egyptian borders.Initially, Israel imposed a 50-meter buffer zone in Gaza.", "In 2000, it was expanded to 150 meters.", "Following the 2005 Israeli disengagement from Gaza, an undefined buffer zone was maintained, including a no-fishing zone along the coast.", "The ultimate effect of the enforcement of the no-fishing zone was that the fishing industry in Gaza \"virtually ceased.", "\"In 2009/2010, Israel expanded the buffer zone to 300 meters.", "The Israeli military stated that this buffer zone extended to 300 meters from the security fence, although UN bodies and other organizations operating in the region reported that the area extended at least a kilometer from the security fence before 2012.The buffer zone before the implementation of the ceasefire that followed the 2012 clashed accounted to 14% of the whole territory of the Strip and contained 30-55% of its total arable land.", "A 2012 UN report estimated that 75,000 metric tons of potential produce were lost per year as a result of the buffer zone, amounting to US$50.2 million per year.", "The IDMC estimated in 2014 that 12% of the population of Gaza was directly affected by the land and sea restrictions due to the buffer zone.On 25 February 2013, pursuant to a November 2012 ceasefire, Israel declared a buffer zone of 100 meters on land and 6 nautical miles offshore.", "In the following month, the zone was changed to 300 meters and 3 nautical miles.", "The 1994 Gaza Jericho Agreement allows 20 nautical miles, and the 2002 Bertini Commitment allows 12 nautical miles.In August 2015, the IDF confirmed a buffer zone of 300 meters for residents and 100 meters for farmers, but without explaining how to distinguish between the two.", ", on a third of Gaza's agricultural land, residents risk Israeli attacks.", "According to PCHR, Israeli attacks take place up to approximately from the border, making 17% of Gaza's total territory a risk zone.Israel says the buffer zone is needed to protect Israeli communities just over the border from sniper fire and rocket attacks.", "In the 18 months until November 2010, one Thai farm worker in Israel was killed by a rocket fired from Gaza.", "In 2010, according to IDF figures, 180 rockets and mortars had been fired into Israel by militants.", "In 6 months, 11 Palestinians civilians, including four children, had been killed by Israeli fire and at least 70 Palestinian civilians were injured in the same period, including at least 49 who were working collecting rubble and scrap metal.A buffer zone was also created on the Egyptian side of the Gaza–Egypt border.", "In 2014, scores of homes in Rafah were destroyed for the buffer zone.", "According to Amnesty International, more than 800 homes were destroyed and more than 1,000 families evicted.", "Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas agreed with the destruction of smuggling tunnels by flooding them, and then punishing the owners of the houses that contained entrances to the tunnels, including demolishing their houses, arguing that the tunnels had produced 1,800 millionaires, and were used for smuggling weapons, drugs, cash, and equipment for forging documents.===Gaza blockade===Israel and Egypt maintain a blockade of the Gaza Strip in response to security concerns, such as the smuggling of weapons into Gaza.", "Israel has also stated that the blockade serves as \"economic warfare\".", "The Israeli human rights organization Gisha reports that the blockade undermines basic living conditions and human rights in Gaza.", "The Red Cross has reported that the blockade harms the economy and causes a shortage of basic medicines and equipment such as painkillers and x-ray film.Israel describes the blockade as necessary to prevent the smuggling of weapons into Gaza.", "Israel maintains that the blockade is legal and necessary to limit Palestinian rocket attacks from the Gaza Strip on its cities and to prevent Hamas from obtaining other weapons, although the legality of the blockade has been challenged by multiple human rights organizations.According to director of the Shin Bet, Hamas and Islamic Jihad had smuggled in over \"5,000 rockets with ranges up to .\"", "Some of the rockets could reach as far as the Tel Aviv Metropolitan Area.Operation Cast Lead.Facing mounting international pressure, Egypt lessened the restrictions starting in June 2010, when the Rafah border crossing from Egypt to Gaza was partially opened by Egypt.", "Egypt's foreign ministry said that the crossing would remain open mainly for people, but not for supplies.Israel also eased restrictions in June 2010 as a result of international pressure following the Gaza flotilla raid after which food shortages decreased.", "The World Bank reported in 2012 that access to Gaza remained highly restricted and exports to the West Bank and Israel from Gaza are prohibited.", "This ban on exports was not lifted until 2014.In January and February 2011, the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) assessed measures taken to ease the blockade and concluded that they were helpful but not sufficient to improve the lives of the local inhabitants.", "UNOCHA called on Israel to reduce restrictions on exports and the import of construction materials, and to lift the general ban on movement between Gaza and the West Bank via Israel.", "According to The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, the blockade resulted in a loss of over $17 million in exports in 2006 from 2005 (roughly 3% of all Palestinian exports).", "After Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak resigned on 28 May 2011, Egypt permanently opened its border with Gaza to students, medical patients, and foreign passport holders.Following the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état, Egypt's military has destroyed most of the 1,200 tunnels which are used for smuggling food, weapons, and other goods to Gaza.", "After the August 2013 Rabaa Massacre in Egypt, the border crossing was closed 'indefinitely.", "'While the import of food is restricted through the Gaza blockade, the Israeli military destroys agricultural crops by spraying toxic chemicals over the Gazan lands, using aircraft flying over the border zone.", "According to the IDF, the spraying is intended \"to prevent the concealment of IED's Improvised Explosive Devices, and to disrupt and prevent the use of the area for destructive purposes.\"", "Gaza's agricultural research and development station was destroyed in 2014 and again in January 2016, while import of new equipment is obstructed.====Movement of people====Rafah Border Crossing in 2012Because of the Israeli–Egyptian blockade, the population is not free to leave or enter the Gaza Strip.", "Only in exceptional cases are people allowed to pass through the Erez Crossing or the Rafah Border Crossing.", "In 2015, a Gazan woman was not allowed to travel through Israel to Jordan on her way to her own wedding.", "The Israeli authorities found she did not meet the criteria for travel, namely only in exceptional humanitarian cases.Under the long-term blockade, the Gaza Strip is often described as a \"prison-camp or open air prison for its collective denizens\".", "The comparison is done by observers, ranging from Roger Cohen and Lawrence Weschler to NGOs, such as B'tselem, and politicians and diplomats, such as David Cameron, Noam Chomsky, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, David Shoebridge and Sir John Holmes.In 2014 French President François Hollande called for the demilitarization of Gaza and a lifting of the blockade, saying \"Gaza must neither be an open prison nor a military base.", "\"An anonymous Israeli analyst has called it \"Israel's Alcatraz\".", "While Lauren Booth, Philip Slater, Giorgio Agamben compare it to a \"concentration camp\".", "For Robert S. Wistrich, and Philip Mendes, such analogies are designed to offend Jews, while Philip Seib dismisses the comparison as absurd, and claims that it arises from sources like Al Jazeera and statements by Arab leaders.Israel restricts movement of Palestinian residents between the West Bank and Gaza.", "Israel has implemented a policy of allowing Palestinian movement from the West Bank to Gaza, but making it quite difficult for Gaza residents to move to the West Bank.", "Israel typically refuses to allow Gaza residents to leave for the West Bank, even when the Gaza resident is originally a West Bank resident.", "The Israeli human-rights organization Gisha has helped Gaza residents who had moved from the West Bank to Gaza return to the West Bank arguing that extremely pressing personal circumstances provide humanitarian grounds for relief." ], [ "Economy", "Backyard industryThe economy of the Gaza Strip is severely hampered by Egypt and Israel's almost total blockade, and has one of the world's highest population densities, limited land access, strict internal and external security controls, the effects of Israeli military operations, and restrictions on labor and trade access across the border.", "A 2015 UN report estimated that 72% of the population suffers from food insecurity.", "Per capita income (PPP) was estimated at US$3,100 in 2009, a position of 164th in the world.", "A UN report in 2022 estimated Gaza Strip's unemployment rate to be 45% and 65% of the population under poverty, living standards went down by 27% compared to 2006 and 80% of the population depends on international aid for survival.", "Gaza Strip industries are generally small family businesses that produce textiles, soap, olive-wood carvings, and mother-of-pearl souvenirs.The main agricultural products are olives, citrus, vegetables, Halal beef, and dairy products.", "Primary exports are citrus and cut flowers, while primary imports are food, consumer goods, and construction materials.", "The main trade partners of the Gaza Strip are Israel and Egypt.The EU described the Gaza economy in 2013 as follows: \"Since Hamas took control of Gaza in 2007 and following the closure imposed by Israel, the situation in the Strip has been one of chronic need, de-development and donor dependency, despite a temporary relaxation on restrictions in movement of people and goods following a flotilla raid in 2010.The closure has effectively cut off access for exports to traditional markets in Israel, transfers to the West Bank and has severely restricted imports.", "Exports are now down to 2% of 2007 levels.", "\"According to Sara Roy, one senior IDF officer told an UNWRA official in 2015 that Israel's policy towards the Gaza Strip consisted of: \"No development, no prosperity, no humanitarian crisis.", "\"===Natural resources===Natural resources of Gaza include arable land—about a third of the Strip is irrigated.", "Recently, natural gas was discovered.", "The Gaza Strip is largely dependent on water from Wadi Gaza, which also supplies Israel.", "Most of water comes from groundwater wells (90% in 2021).", "Its quality is low and most of it is unfit for human consumption.", "The remainder is produced by water desalination plants or bought from Israel's Mekorot (6% of all water in 2021).", "According to Human Rights Watch, international humanitarian law requires Israel, as the occupying power in Gaza, to ensure that the basic needs of the civilian population are provided for.Gaza's marine gas reserves extend 32 kilometres from the Gaza Strip's coastline and were calculated at 35 BCM." ], [ "Demographics", "Palestinian girls in JabaliaIn 2010, approximately 1.6 million people lived in the Gaza Strip, almost 1.0 million of them were UN-registered refugees.", "The majority descend from refugees who were driven from or left their homes during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.", "The Strip's population has continued to increase since that time, mainly due to a total fertility rate which peaked at 8.3 children per woman in 1991.This fell to 4.4 children per woman in 2013 which was still among the highest worldwide.In a ranking by total fertility rate, this places Gaza 34th of 224 regions.", "This leads to the Gaza Strip having an unusually high proportion of children in the population, with 43.5% of the population being 14 or younger and a median age in 2014 of 18, compared to a world average of 28, and 30 in Israel.", "The only countries with a lower median age are countries in Africa such as Uganda where it was 15.Sunni Muslims make up 99.8 percent of the population in the Gaza Strip, with an estimated 2,000 to 3,000 (0.2 percent) Arab Christians.===Religion===View of the Great Mosque of Gaza, the oldest mosque in Gaza dating to the 7th century CE, which was destroyed by Israeli airstrikes during the 2023 Hamas-Israel warFrom 1987 to 1991, during the First Intifada, Hamas campaigned for the wearing of the hijab head-cover.", "In the course of this campaign, women who chose not to wear the hijab were verbally and physically harassed by Hamas activists, leading to hijabs being worn \"just to avoid problems on the streets\".Since Hamas took over in 2007, attempts have been made by Islamist activists to impose \"Islamic dress\" and to require women to wear the hijab.", "The government's \"Islamic Endowment Ministry\" has deployed Virtue Committee members to warn citizens of the \"dangers of immodest dress, card playing and dating\".", "However, there are no government laws imposing dress and other moral standards, and the Hamas education ministry reversed one effort to impose Islamic dress on students.", "There has also been successful resistance to attempts by local Hamas officials to impose Islamic dress on women.According to Human Rights Watch, the Hamas-controlled government stepped up its efforts to \"Islamize\" Gaza in 2010, efforts it says included the \"repression of civil society\" and \"severe violations of personal freedom.", "\"Palestinian researcher Khaled Al-Hroub has criticized what he called the \"Taliban-like steps\" Hamas has taken: \"The Islamization that has been forced upon the Gaza Strip—the suppression of social, cultural, and press freedoms that do not suit Hamas's views—is an egregious deed that must be opposed.", "It is the reenactment, under a religious guise, of the experience of other totalitarian regimes and dictatorships.\"", "Hamas officials denied having any plans to impose Islamic law.", "One legislator stated that \"what you are seeing are incidents, not policy\" and that \"we believe in persuasion\".Violence against Christians has been recorded.", "The owner of a Christian bookshop was abducted and murdered and in February 2008, the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) library in Gaza City was bombed.", "At least eighteen people were killed when Israel bombed the Church of Saint Porphyrius, which is the oldest in Gaza, on 19 October 2023.In addition to Hamas, a Salafist movement began to appear about 2005 in Gaza, characterized by \"a strict lifestyle based on that of the earliest followers of Islam\".", ", there are estimated to be only \"hundreds or perhaps a few thousand\" Salafists in Gaza." ], [ "Education", "Schoolgirls in Gaza City lining up for class, 2009University College of Applied Sciences, the largest college in GazaIn 2010, illiteracy among Gazan youth was less than 1%.", "According to UNRWA figures, there are 640 schools in Gaza: 383 government schools, 221 UNRWA schools and 36 private schools, serving a total of 441,452 students.In 2010, Al Zahara, a private school in central Gaza introduced a special program for mental development based on math computations.", "The program was created in Malaysia in 1993, according to the school principal, Majed al-Bari.In June 2011, some Gazans, upset that UNRWA did not rebuild their homes that were lost in the Second Intifada, blocked UNRWA from performing its services and shut down UNRWA's summer camps.", "Gaza residents closed UNRWA's emergency department, social services office and ration stores.In 2012, there were five universities in the Gaza Strip and eight new schools were under construction.", "By 2018, nine universities were open.The Community College of Applied Science and Technology (CCAST) was established in 1998 in Gaza City.", "In 2003, the college moved into its new campus and established the Gaza Polytechnic Institute (GPI) in 2006 in southern Gaza.", "In 2007, the college received accreditation to award BA degrees as the University College of Applied Sciences (UCAS).", "In 2010, the college had a student population of 6,000, in eight departments offering over 40 majors." ], [ "Health", "The Turkish-Palestinian Friendship Hospital and the IUG Faculty of Medicine buildingsIn Gaza, there are hospitals and additional healthcare facilities.", "Because of the high number of young people the mortality rate is one of the lowest in the world, at 0.315% per year.", "The infant mortality rate is ranked 105th highest out of 224 countries and territories, at 16.55 deaths per 1,000 births.", "The Gaza Strip places 24th out of 135 countries according to Human Poverty Index.A study carried out by Johns Hopkins University (U.S.) and Al-Quds University (in Abu Dis) for CARE International in late 2002 revealed very high levels of dietary deficiency among the Palestinian population.", "The study found that 17.5% of children aged 6–59 months suffered from chronic malnutrition.", "53% of women of reproductive age and 44% of children were found to be anemic.", "Insecurity in obtaining sufficient food as of 2016 affects roughly 70% of Gaza households, as the number of people requiring assistance from UN agencies has risen from 72,000 in 2000, to 800,000 in 2014After the Hamas takeover of the Gaza Strip health conditions in Gaza Strip faced new challenges.", "World Health Organization (WHO) expressed its concerns about the consequences of the Palestinian internal political fragmentation; the socioeconomic decline; military actions; and the physical, psychological and economic isolation on the health of the population in Gaza.", "In a 2012 study of the occupied territories, the WHO reported that roughly 50% of the young children and infants under two years old and 39.1% of pregnant women receiving antenatal services care in Gaza suffer from iron-deficiency anemia.", "The organization also observed chronic malnutrition in children under five \"is not improving and may be deteriorating.", "\"According to Palestinian leaders in the Gaza Strip, the majority of medical aid delivered are \"past their expiration date.\"", "Mounir el-Barash, the director of donations in Gaza's health department, claims 30% of aid sent to Gaza is used.Gazans who desire medical care in Israeli hospitals must apply for a medical visa permit.", "In 2007, State of Israel granted 7,176 permits and denied 1,627.In 2012, two hospitals funded by Turkey and Saudi Arabia were under construction." ], [ "Culture and sports", "Gaza amusement park.Gaza Summer Games 2010, a children's event organized by the UN Agency for Palestinian Refugees UNRWA===Fine arts===The Gaza Strip has been home to a significant branch of the contemporary Palestinian art movement since the mid-20th century.", "Notable artists include painters Ismail Ashour, Shafiq Redwan, Bashir Senwar, Majed Shalla, Fayez Sersawi, Abdul Rahman al Muzayan and Ismail Shammout, and media artists Taysir Batniji (who lives in France) and Laila al Shawa (who lives in London).", "An emerging generation of artists is also active in nonprofit art organizations such as Windows From Gaza and Eltiqa Group, which regularly host exhibitions and events open to the public.=== Hikaye ===Hikaye is an important aspect of Palestinian women's oral culture and was inscribed by UNESCO to its list of intangible cultural heritage in 2008.In 1989 some written version of these stories were recorded from Gaza and published alongside many others, in the volume ''Speak Bird, Speak Again.", "''===Archaeology===The Gaza Museum of Archaeology was established by Jawdat N. Khoudary in 2008.The Al Qarara Cultural Museum in Khan Yunis was destroyed in an explosion as a result of an Israeli attack in October 2023.===Athletics===In 2010, Gaza inaugurated its first Olympic-size swimming pool at the As-Sadaka club.", "The opening ceremony was held by the Islamic Society.", "The swimming team of as-Sadaka holds several gold and silver medals from Palestinian swimming competitions." ], [ "Transport", "A damaged part of the Yasser Arafat International Airport, 2002From 1920 to 1948, the Gaza Strip hosted sections of the Palestine Railways, connecting the region with Egypt.Due to the on-going blockade of Gaza, any external travel from Gaza requires cooperation from either Egypt or Israel.Salah al-Din Road, also known as the Salah ad-Deen Highway, is the main highway of the Gaza Strip.", "It extends over , spanning the entire length of the territory from the Rafah Crossing in the south to the Erez Crossing in the north.", "The road is named after the 12th-century Ayyubid general Salah al-Din.The Port of Gaza has been an important and active port since antiquity.", "Despite plans under the Oslo Peace Accords to expand the port, it has been under a blockade since Hamas was elected as a majority party in the 2006 elections.", "Both the Israeli Navy and Egypt enforce the blockade, which limits many aspects of life in Gaza.", "According to Human Rights Watch, it particularly limits the movement of people and commerce, with exports being most affected.", "The improvement and rebuilding of infrastructure is also negatively impacted by these sanctions.", "Plans to expand the port were halted after the outbreak of the al-Aqsa Intifada.The Yasser Arafat International Airport opened in November 1998 after the signing of the Oslo II Accord and the Wye River Memorandum.", "It was forced to close after Israel deconstruction in October 2000.Its radar station and control tower were destroyed by Israel Defense Forces aircraft in 2001 during the al-Aqsa Intifada.", "Bulldozers razed the runway in January 2002.The only remaining runway in the Strip, at the Gush Katif Airport, fell into disuse following Israeli disengagement.", "The airspace over Gaza may be restricted by the Israeli Air Force as the Oslo Accords authorized.===Land border crossings===There are just a few land border crossings between the Strip on one side, and Israel and Egypt on the other, of which not all are open as of 2023.Land border crossings with Israel include: Kerem Shalom Crossing, Erez Crossing or Beit Hanoun Crossing, and the Nitzana Border Crossing.", "While the land border crossings with Egypt include: Rafah Crossing, and the Salah al-Din Gate." ], [ "Television and radio", "In 2004, most Gaza households had a radio and a TV (70%+), and approximately 20% had a personal computer.", "People living in Gaza have access to FTA satellite programs, broadcast TV from the Palestinian Broadcasting Corporation, the Israel Broadcasting Authority, and the Second Israeli Broadcasting Authority." ], [ "Archaeological sites and historical buildings", " Al-Shati refugee camp digs, including Graeco-Roman port city of Anthedon.", "Iron Age rampart, Persian (Achaemenid)-period houses, Hellenistic emporium, Byzantine cemetery.", "Bureij mosaic, Byzantine periodChurch of Saint Porphyrius, with Crusader-period elementsGaza synagogue (508 CE), at Maiuma.", "Mosaic of David playing the lyre now in Inn of the Good Samaritan Museum.", "Great Mosque of Gaza, Mamluk period with both older and more recent elementsMaiuma: Remains of Maiuma in Port of Gaza, Rimal district.", "See Gaza synagogue.", "Monastery of Seridus known from Byzantine-period sources.", "Proposed identification with remains in Deir e-Nuse(i)rat.", "Mukheitim site in Jabaliya: fifth-century Byzantine monastic church, mosaic floor restored in 2022Qasr al-Basha, Mamluk-period palaceSaint Hilarion Monastery: see Tell Umm el-'AmrTell el-Ajjul, Bronze Age tellTell es-Sakan, site of two Early Bronze Age settlements including a port on now silted-up arm of Wadi Ghazzeh.", "Bulldozed in 2017.", "Tell Umm el-'Amr, archaeological site in Nuseirat refugee camp.", "Byzantine-period monastic remains, including Saint Hilarion Monastery.===Archaeology collections===Al Mat'haf Museum in Al Mat'haf Hotel.", "Bronze Age to 20th-century artifacts." ], [ "See also", "* Palestinian territories* Israeli occupied territories* West Bank" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Bregman, Ahron (2002). ''", "Israel's Wars: A History Since 1947 ''.", "London: Routledge.", ".", "* * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Statistical Atlas of Palestine at the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (archived 24 April 2016)* * * Gaza Strip.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Palestinian Territories at the United States Department of State.", "* Gaza Strip at Google Maps" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Georgia (country)" ], [ "Introduction", "Georgia is a country in the Caucasus region, on the coast of the Black Sea.", "Sometimes considered a transcontinental country, it is located at the intersection of Eastern Europe and West Asia, and is today generally regarded as part of Europe.", "It is bordered to the north and northeast by Russia, to the south by Turkey and Armenia, and to the southeast by Azerbaijan." ], [ "Location", "Georgia is largely surrounded by the Greater Caucasus and Lesser Caucasus mountains, which form part of a natural boundary between Eastern Europe and West Asia.", "Because the Europe–Asia boundary is essentially a \"historical and cultural construct\", Georgia's continental placement has varied greatly.", "Anaximander placed the boundary between Europe and Asia along the Phasis River (the modern Rioni River), which effectively located northern parts of Georgia in Europe and the south in Asia, a convention also followed by Herodotus.", "According to one 18th century definition, which set the Kuma–Manych Depression as the continental boundary, Georgia and the entire Caucasus fell into Asia.", "However, yet another definition drew the line at Aras River, effectively placing all of Georgia in Europe.Notwithstanding variations in geographic placement, Georgia's proximity to the bulk of Europe, combined with various historical, cultural and political forces, has led increasingly to its inclusion in Europe.", "The country has joined European organizations, such as the Council of Europe and Eurocontrol, and has been deemed eligible to apply for membership of the European Union if it so wishes in the future." ], [ "Topography", "Topography of GeorgiaSatellite image of Georgia in late springDespite its small area, Georgia has one of the most varied topographies of the former Soviet republics.", "It is one of the most mountainous countries in Europe, lying mostly in the Caucasus Mountains, with its northern boundary partly defined by the Greater Caucasus range.", "The Lesser Caucasus range, which runs parallel to the Turkish and Armenian borders, and the Surami Range, which connects the Greater Caucasus and the Lesser Caucasus, create natural barriers that are partly responsible for cultural and linguistic differences among regions.", "Because of their elevation and a poorly developed transportation infrastructure, many mountain villages are virtually isolated from the outside world during the winter.", "Earthquakes and landslides in mountainous areas present a significant threat to life and property.", "Among the most recent natural disasters were massive rock- and mudslides in Ajaria in 1989 that displaced thousands in southwestern Georgia, and two earthquakes in 1991 that destroyed several villages in Racha, upper Imereti and the Tskhinvali Region (South Ossetia).Georgia has about 25,000 rivers, many of which power small hydroelectric stations.", "Drainage is into the Black Sea to the west and through Azerbaijan to the Caspian Sea to the east.", "The largest river is the Kura River, which flows 1,364 km from northeast Turkey across the plains of eastern Georgia, through the capital, Tbilisi, and into the Caspian Sea.", "The Rioni River, the largest river in western Georgia, rises in the Greater Caucasus and empties into the Black Sea at the port of Poti.", "Soviet engineers turned the river lowlands along the Black Sea coast into prime subtropical agricultural land, embanked and straightened many stretches of river, and built an extensive system of canals.", "Deep mountain gorges form topographical belts within the Greater Caucasus." ], [ "Coastline", "Svaneti region, northwestern GeorgiaBlack Sea coast of western Georgia, with the skyline of Batumi on the horizon.The coastline of Georgia about : of the coastline, is the coastline of Ajaria (Ajara) and is the coastline of Abkhazia.", "Georgia has an Exclusive Economic Zone of in the Black Sea." ], [ "Climate", "Köppen climate classification regions.Georgia's climate is affected by temperate humid influences from the west and continental influences from the east.", "The Greater Caucasus range moderates local climate by serving as a barrier against cold air from the north.", "Warm, moist air from the Black Sea moves easily into the coastal lowlands from the west.", "Climatic zones are determined by distance from the Black Sea and by altitude.", "Along the Black Sea coast, from Abkhazia to the Turkish border, and in the region known as the Colchis Lowland inland from the coast, the dominant subtropical climate features high humidity and heavy precipitation ( per year; the Black Sea port of Batumi receives per year).", "Several varieties of palm trees grow in these regions, where the midwinter average temperature is and the midsummer average is .The plains of eastern Georgia are shielded from the influence of the Black Sea by mountains that provide a more continental climate.", "Summer temperatures average to , winter temperatures to .", "Humidity is lower, and rainfall averages per year.", "Alpine and highland regions in the east and west, as well as a semi-arid region on the Iori Plateau to the southeast, have distinct microclimates.At higher elevations, precipitation is sometimes twice as heavy as in the eastern plains.", "In the west, the climate is subtropical to about ; above that altitude (and to the north and east) is a band of moist and moderately warm weather, then a band of cool and wet conditions.", "Alpine conditions begin at about , and above snow and ice are present year-round." ], [ "Environmental issues", "Beginning in the 1980s, Black Sea pollution has greatly harmed Georgia's tourist industry.", "Inadequate sewage treatment is the main cause of that condition.", "In Batumi, for example, only 18 percent of wastewater was treated before release into the sea as of the early 1990s.", "As of the early 1990s, an estimated 70 percent of surface water contained health-endangering bacteria to which Georgia's high rate of intestinal disease was attributed.The war in Abkhazia did substantial damage to the ecological habitats unique to that region.", "In other respects, experts considered Georgia's environmental problems less serious than those of more industrialized former Soviet republics.", "Solving Georgia's environmental problems was not a high priority of the national government in the post-Soviet years, however; in 1993 the minister for protection of the environment resigned to protest this inactivity.", "In January 1994, the Cabinet of Ministers announced a new, interdepartmental environmental monitoring system to centralize separate programs under the direction of the Ministry of Protection of the Environment.", "The system would include a central environmental and information and research agency.", "The Green Party used its small contingent in the parliament to press environmental issues in 1993.Georgia participates in a number of international environmental agreements.", "It is a party to: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, and Wetlands." ], [ "Extreme points", "* Northernmost point: (''de jure''): Abkhazia* Northernmost point (''de facto''): Mestia Municipality, Samegrelo-Zemo SvanetiSouthernmost point: Dedoplistsqaro Municipality, Kakheti Westernmost point (''de jure''): AbkhaziaWesternmost point (''de facto''): Adjara Easternmost point: Dedoplistsqaro Municipality, Kakheti (border with Azerbaijan)" ], [ "See also", "Glaciers of GeorgiaList of earthquakes in Georgia (country)" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Georgia (country)" ], [ "Introduction", "The demographic features of the population of Georgia include population growth, population density, ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects of the population." ], [ "Demographic trends", "The demographic situation in Georgia, like that of some other former Soviet republics (especially Estonia and Latvia), has been characterized by two prominent features since independence: decline in total population and significant \"Georgianization\" of the ethnic composition.", "The proportion of ethnic Georgians increased by full 10 percentage points between 1989 and 2002, rising from 73.7% to 83.7% of the population.", "This occurred due to two migratory movements: Georgians living and working in other Soviet republics returned to their homeland, while other nationalities left Georgia.", "While Georgia was part of the Soviet Union the population grew steadily, rising from less than 4 million in the 1950s to a peak of 5.5 million in 1992 million (including Abkhazia and Tskhinvali Region).", "From 1992 the population began to decline sharply due to civil war and economic crisis driven mass migration throughout the 1990s and into the early 2000s.", "By 2013, the population has stabilized around 3.7 million (excluding Abkhazia and Tskhinvali Region).", "The 2002 population census in Georgia revealed a net migration loss of more than one million persons, or 20% of the population, since the early 1990s, confirmed by other studies.", "Other factors of the population decline include net birth-death deficits in the period 1995-2010 and the exclusion of Abkhazia and Tskhinvali Region from the statistics since 1994, which population was estimated in 2005 at 178,000 and 49,200, respectively.", "Georgia was named among the highest-emigration countries in the world (relative to its population size) in a 2007 World Bank report.", "Russia received by far most migrants from Georgia.", "According to United Nations data this totalled to 625 thousand by 2000, which has declined to 450 thousand by 2019.Initially the out-migration was driven by non-Georgian ethnicities, but due to the war and crisis ridden 1990s, and the subsequent bad economic outlook, increasing numbers of Georgians emigrated as well.", "The 1989 census recorded 341,000 ethnic Russians, or 6.3 per cent of the population, which declined to 26,453 (0.7%) by 2014.The 2010 Russian census recorded about 158,000 ethnic Georgians living in Russia, The figure below shows the demographic trend in Georgia since 1950.Note: 1993–1994 drop is exclusion of Abkhazia and Tskhinvali Region from population statistics.===Data correction===The 2014 census, executed in collaboration with the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), found a population gap of approximately 700,000 compared to the 2014 data from the National Statistical Office of Georgia, Geostat, which was cumulatively built on the 2002 census.", "Consecutive research estimated the 2002 census to be inflated by 8 to 9 percent, which affected the annually updated population estimates in subsequent years.", "One explanation put forward by UNFPA is that families of emigrants continued to list them in 2002 as residents for fear of losing certain rights or benefits.", "Other factors that distorted the demographic data included a lack of quality in the registration system of migration, births, deaths and marriages.", "It was not until around 2010 that parts of the system became reliable again.", "With the support of the UNFPA, the demographic data of the period 1994–2014 has been retro-projected.", "The results of the project were presented and published in 2018.Based on this back-projection Geostat has corrected its data for these years, both in its annual publications starting from 2018, and its public access database." ], [ "Vital statistics", "Density of the population of Georgia by municipality (2018)Distribution of the population of Georgia by municipalitiesMunicipalities of Georgia by the population's predominant genderPercentage of ethnic Georgians by municipalityCities and towns in Georgia by population sizeEthnic composition of the regions of GeorgiaSources: ''United Nations'', ''Demoscope'', ''GeoStat''Total population from 1994: excluding Abkhazia and Tskhinvali Region.", "Corrected as per retro-projection and as published in public access database.===Births and deaths=======Total area====Population per 1 Jan. Live births1Deaths1Natural change1Crude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Fertility rates 1950 3,528,000 82,900 27,000 55,900 23.5 7.7 15.9 1951 3,585,000 86,800 26,900 59,900 24.2 7.5 16.7 1952 3,646,000 85,700 26,600 59,100 23.5 7.3 16.2 1953 3,710,000 87,200 26,300 60,900 23.5 7.1 16.4 1954 3,775,000 91,400 26,000 65,400 24.2 6.9 17.3 1955 3,839,000 92,500 25,700 66,800 24.1 6.7 17.4 1956 3,904,000 89,800 26,500 63,300 23.0 6.8 16.2 1957 3,967,000 89,700 27,000 62,700 22.6 6.8 15.8 1958 4,031,000 93,100 27,400 65,700 23.1 6.8 16.3 1959 4,044,000 98,300 27,400 70,900 24.0 6.7 17.3 1960 4,129,000 102,866 27,015 51,866 24.7 6.5 18.2 2.65 1961 4,190,000 104,429 27,621 53,429 24.7 6.5 18.2 2.65 1962 4,258,000 101,717 30,394 51,717 23.7 7.1 16.6 2.63 1963 4,325,000 100,326 29,620 51,326 23.0 6.8 16.2 2.62 1964 4,389,000 97,433 29,708 48,433 22.0 6.7 15.3 2.62 1965 4,450,000 94,987 31,291 46,987 21.2 7.0 14.2 2.60 1966 4,505,000 92,026 30,389 44,026 20.3 6.7 13.6 2.57 1967 4,556,000 89,302 32,904 42,302 19.5 7.2 12.3 2.53 1968 4,598,000 89,660 32,416 43,660 19.4 7.0 12.4 2.52 1969 4,640,000 87,069 35,169 41,069 18.7 7.5 11.2 2.45 1970 4,674,000 90,207 34,283 45,207 19.2 7.3 11.9 2.62 1971 4,729,000 90,396 35,325 45,396 19.0 7.4 11.6 2.61 1972 4,778,000 86,402 36,409 41,402 18.0 7.6 10.4 2.53 1973 4,818,000 88,577 35,911 44,577 18.3 7.4 10.9 2.58 1974 4,856,000 89,761 37,145 45,761 18.4 7.6 10.8 2.59 1975 4,895,000 89,712 39,292 45,712 18.3 8.0 10.3 2.52 1976 4,920,000 90,605 38,875 46,605 18.3 7.9 10.4 2.52 1977 4,960,000 89,028 40,139 45,028 17.9 8.1 9.8 2.33 1978 4,986,000 88,766 40,239 45,766 17.8 8.1 9.8 2.31 1979 4,993,000 89,803 41,907 47,896 17.8 8.4 9.5 2.34 1980 5,029,000 89,458 43,346 46,112 17.6 8.6 9.1 2.26 1981 5,071,000 92,501 43,961 48,540 18.1 8.6 9.5 2.29 1982 5,100,000 91,784 42,734 49,050 17.9 8.4 9.6 2.25 1983 5,134,000 92,660 43,301 49,359 18.0 8.4 9.6 2.20 1984 5,167,000 95,841 45,787 50,054 18.5 8.8 9.7 2.24 1985 5,230,000 97,739 46,153 51,586 18.7 8.8 9.9 2.27 1986 5,234,000 98,155 46,354 51,801 18.7 8.8 9.9 2.26 1987 5,266,000 94,595 46,332 48,263 17.8 8.7 9.1 2.19 1988 5,397,000 91,905 47,544 44,361 17.1 8.9 8.3 2.13 1989 5,401,000 91,138 47,077 44,061 16.8 8.7 8.1 2.15 1990 5,424,000 92,815 50,721 43,895 17.1 9.3 8.1 2.29 1991 5,453,000 89,091 52,416 36,675 16.3 9.6 6.7 2.07 1992 5,467,000 72,631 55,076 17,555 13.4 10.2 3.2 1.72 1993 5,346,000 55,594 56,270 −676 11.5 11.6 −0.1 1Births and deaths until 1959 are estimates.====Excluding Abkhazia and South Ossetia====Population per 1 Jan. Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Fertility rates 1994 4,922,900 57,311 50,326 6,985 11.8 10.4 1.4 1.53 1995 4,742,300 56,486 49,219 7,267 11.9 10.1 1.8 1.57 1996 4,573,200 55,153 48,251 6,902 11.6 10.2 1.4 1.60 1997 4,410,200 54,136 48,026 6,110 11.4 10.5 1.1 1.63 1998 4,289,600 51,491 47,907 3,584 11.0 10.5 0.5 1.60 1999 4,197,600 48,408 47,909 499 10.7 10.6 0.1 1.55 2000 4,116,800 48,167 48,250 −83 10.7 10.7 −0.0 1.59 2001 4,037,500 46,620 47,133 −513 10.5 10.6 −0.1 1.57 2002 3,991,300 45,127 47,514 −2,387 10.2 10.8 −0.6 1.53 2003 3,965,800 45,450 47,114 −1,664 10.3 10.7 −0.4 1.56 2004 3,937,700 45,751 49,746 −3,995 10.3 11.2 −0.9 1.58 2005 3,917,000 46,063 49,534 −3,471 10.4 11.1 −0.7 1.59 2006 3,888,000 46,845 50,014 −3,169 10.6 11.2 −0.6 1.62 2007 3,872,700 48,499 50,204 −1,705 11.1 11.4 −0.3 1.69 2008 3,847,600 52,442 50,490 1,952 13.6 13.1 0.5 1.84 2009 3,829,000 56,568 50,794 5,774 14.8 13.3 1.5 2.01 2010 3,799,800 55,230 51,066 4,164 14.6 13.5 1.1 2.00 2011 3,773,600 51,565 49,818 1,747 13.7 13.3 0.4 1.89 2012 3,739,300 49,969 49,347 622 13.4 13.2 0.2 1.85 2013 3,718,400 49,657 48,564 1,093 13.4 13.1 0.3 1.86 2014 3,716,900 60,635 49,087 11,548 16.3 13.2 3.1 2.31 2015 3,721,900 59,249 49,121 10,128 15.9 13.2 2.7 2.31 2016 3,728,600 56,569 50,771 5,798 15.2 13.7 1.5 2.24 2017 3,721,900 53,293 47,822 5,471 14.3 12.9 1.4 2.14 2018 3,729,600 51,138 46,524 4,614 13.7 12.5 1.2 2.12 2019 3,723,500 48,296 46,659 1,637 13.0 12.5 0.4 2.01 2020 3,716,900 46,520 50,537 −4,017 12.5 13.6 −1.1 1.97 2021 3,728,600 45,946 59,906 −13,960 12.3 16.1 −3.8 1.98 2022 3,688,647 42,319 49,118 -6,799 11.5 13.3 -1.8 1.82Source: Geostat public database, Geostat website, section Population and Demography.===Current vital statistics===Source: + Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''January – June 2022''' 20,195 26,681 -6,486 '''January – June 2023''' 19,431 21,944 -2,513 '''Difference''' -764 (-3.78%) -4,737 (-17.75%) +3,973=== Life expectancy ===Life expectancy in Georgia since 1950Life expectancy in Georgia since 1960 by genderPeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195560.651955–1960 62.651960–1965 64.651965–1970 66.651970–1975 68.151975–1980 69.641980–1985 69.631985–1990 70.451990–1995 70.111995–2000 71.092000–2005 72.602005–2010 72.652010–2015 72.742015–2020 73.522020–2025 74.24=== Structure of the population ===Structure of the population (01.01.2019) :Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 1 790 600 1 929 600 3 720 200 100 0–4 141 300 131 900 273 200 7,35 5–9 134 600 124 300 258 900 6,96 10–14 118 500 106 200 224 700 6,04 15–19 109 100 96 500 205 600 5,53 20–24 115 400 104 000 219 400 5,90 25–29 129 700 126 100 255 800 6,88 30–34 136 000 135 100 271 100 7,28 35–39 126 500 127 600 254 100 6,83 40–44 119 100 121 400 240 500 6,46 45–49 115 100 119 100 234 200 6,30 50–54 111 800 121 300 233 100 6,27 55–59 120 800 139 800 260 600 7,00 60–64 102 500 129 300 231 800 6,23 65–69 80 800 112 800 193 600 5,20 70–74 51 300 80 200 131 500 3,53 75–79 36 100 64 800 100 900 2,71 80–84 28 900 58 700 87 600 2,36 85+ 13 000 30 600 43 600 1,17Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 394 400 362 400 756 800 20,35 15–64 1 186 000 1 220 200 2 406 200 64,68 65+ 210 100 347 100 557 200 14,97" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "Georgians are the predominant ethnic group in Georgia, according to the 2014 census 86.83% of the population.", "The proportion in 2014 was much higher than in preceding censuses as in 2014 Abkhazia and Tskhinvali Region were not under government control and therefore not included.", "As a result of this the proportion of Ossetians and Abkhazians was very low (0.39% and 0.02%, respectively).+'''Population of Georgia according to ethnic group 1800–1897''' Ethnicgroup 18001 18322 18653 18864 18975 Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Georgians 622,600 79.4 677,100 75.9 950,600 73.8 1,188,100 72.4 1,331,300 69.4 Armenians 47,000 6.0 84,000 9.4 122,600 9.5 172,900 10.5 197,000 10.3 Russians – – – – 25,900 2.0 42,500 2.6 101,000 5.3 Ossetians 29,300 3.7 32,300 3.6 45,500 3.6 71,000 4.3 81,500 4.2 Transcaucasian Tatars 30,000 3.8 27,000 3.0 51,500 4.0 62,600 3.881,100 4.2 Abkhazians 52,000 6.6 56,600 6.3 60,000 4.6 38,000 2.3 42,600 2.2 Greeks 500 0.1 7,000 0.8 12,000 0.9 28,800 1.8 38,500 2.0 Jews 3,300 0.4 4,000 0.5 7,800 0.6 11,700 0.7 17,200 0.9 Germans – – – – 4,200 0.3 5,500 0.3 7,400 0.4 Others – – 4,100 0.5 9,100 0.7 20,800 1.3 21,800 1.1 Total 784,700 892,100 1,289,200 1,641,900 1,919,400 1 Source: 2 Source: 3 Source: 4 Source: 5 Source: +'''Population of Georgia according to ethnic group 1926–2014''' Ethnicgroup census 19261 census 19392 census 19593 census 19704 census 19795 census 19896 census 20026 census 20147 Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Georgians 1,788,186 66.8 2,173,922 61.4 2,600,588 64.3 3,130,741 66.8 3,433,011 68.8 3,787,393 70.1 3,661,173 83.8 3,224,564 86.8 Azerbaijanis 137,921 5.2 188,058 5.3 153,600 3.8 217,758 4.6 255,678 5.1 307,556 5.7 284,761 6.5 233,024 6.3 Armenians 307,018 11.5 415,013 11.7 442,916 11.0 452,309 9.7 448,000 9.0 437,211 8.1 248,929 5.7 168,102 4.5 Russians 96,085 3.6 308,684 8.7 407,886 10.1 396,694 8.5 371,608 7.4 341,172 6.3 67,671 1.5 26,453 0.7 Ossetians 113,298 4.2 147,677 4.2 141,178 3.5 150,185 3.2 160,497 3.2 164,055 3.0 38,028 0.9 14,385 0.4 Yazidis 2,262 0.1 12,915 0.4 16,212 0.4 20,690 0.4 25,688 0.5 33,331 0.6 18,329 0.4 12,174 0.3 Kurds 7,955 0.3 2,514 0.1 1,596 0.0 Ukrainians 14,356 0.5 45,595 1.3 52,236 1.3 49,622 1.1 45,036 0.9 52,443 1.0 7,039 0.2 6,034 0.2 Greeks 54,051 2.0 84,636 2.4 72,938 1.8 89,246 1.9 95,105 1.9 100,324 1.9 15,166 0.3 5,544 0.2 Assyrians 2,904 0.1 4,707 0.1 5,005 0.1 5,617 0.1 5,286 0.1 6,206 0.1 3,299 0.1 2,377 0.1 Jews 30,389 1.1 42,300 1.2 51,582 1.3 55,382 1.2 28,298 0.6 24,795 0.5 2,333 0.0 1,405 0.0 Abkhazians 56,847 2.1 57,805 1.6 62,878 1.5 79,449 1.7 85,285 1.7 95,853 1.8 3,527 0.1 864 0.0 Others 65,961 2.5 58,711 1.7 37,026 0.9 38,665 0.8 39,690 0.8 50,502 0.9 18,766 0.4 17,282 0.5 Total 2,677,233 3,540,023 4,044,045 4,686,358 4,993,182 5,400,841 4,371,535 3,713,804 1 Source: .", "2 Source: .", "3 Source: .", "4 Source: .", "5 Source: .", "6 Source: .", "7 Source: ." ], [ "Languages", "The most widespread language group is the Kartvelian family, which includes Georgian, Svan, Mingrelian and Laz.", "The official languages of Georgia are Georgian, with Abkhaz having official status within the autonomous region of Abkhazia.", "Georgian is the primary language of 87.7 percent of the population, followed by 6.2 percent speaking Azerbaijani, 3.9 percent Armenian, 1.2 percent Russian, and 1 percent other languages.", "+'''Population of Georgia by native language''' Language 2002 census 2014 census Number % Number % Georgian 3,677,995 84.14 3,254,852 87.64 Azerbaijani 283,632 6.49 231,436 6.23 Armenian 235,653\t 5.39 144,812 3.90 Russian 83,007\t 1.90 45,920 1.24 Ossetian 31,381 0.72 5,698 0.15 Other 59,867 1.36 31,014 0.84 Not stated – – 72 0.00 '''Total''' '''4,371,535''' '''3,713,804'''" ], [ "Religion", "Religion20022014 Number%Number%Christianity3,872,09988.583,240,72487.27–Georgian Orthodox Church3,679,23383.873,097,57383.41–Armenian Apostolic Church171,1393.92109,0412.94–Catholic Church34,7270.7919,1950.52–Jehovah's Witnesses––12,3950.33–Protestantism––2,5200.07Islam433,7849.92398,67710.73Yazidism––8,5910.23Judaism3,5410.081,4170.04Other religions62,1111.421,4290.04No religion––19,0800.51Refusal––9,6350.26Religion not stated––34,2510.92Total population4,371,535100.03,713,804100.0" ], [ "See also", "GeorgiaArmenians in GeorgiaAzerbaijanis in GeorgiaRussians in GeorgiaGreeks in GeorgiaCaucasus Greeks Poles in GeorgiaAssyrians in Georgia" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*Zhvania, Irakli: \"Housing in Georgia\" in the Caucasus Analytical Digest No.", "23" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Georgia (country)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Politics in Georgia''' involve a parliamentary representative democratic republic with a multi-party system.", "The President of Georgia is the ceremonial head of state and the Prime Minister of Georgia is the head of government.", "The Prime Minister and the Government wield executive power.", "Legislative power is vested in both the Government and the unicameral Parliament of Georgia.The Georgian state is highly centralized, except for the autonomous regions of Abkhazia and Adjara and the former autonomous region of South Ossetia.", "Abkhazia and South Ossetia, which had autonomy within the Georgian SSR during Soviet rule, unilaterally seceded from Georgia in the 1990s.", "While, , the Georgian government recognizes Abkhazia as autonomous within Georgia, it does not recognize South Ossetia as having any special status." ], [ "History, development and evolution", "=== Political systems under Georgian monarchies ===17th-century drawing showing a Georgian prince's emissary sent out to the King's court in Imereti.Tribal configurations were the dominant feature of early Georgian states, which resembled confederations of different clans more than centralized kingdoms.", "While in Western Georgia, various tribes came together to form proto-states like Diaokhi and Colchis, other parts of the country were ruled by individual clans led by a \"mamasakhlisi\" (მამასახლისი, \"head of household\") that controlled large swaths of land and set rules for the various families settled under his clan.", "The only known ''mamasakhlisi'' is Samara of Mtskheta in the 4th century BCE who was overthrown by Alexander the Great's occupation of Iberia but whose son Pharnavaz eventually created the Kingdom of Iberia.In the 3rd century BCE, Iberia emerged as the most powerful Georgian state, a centralized kingdom ruled by one king and divided into several provinces, each governed by an \"eristavi\" (ერისთავი, \"head of the people\") appointed by the king.", "However, centralization was challenged by powerful nobles who saw their influence decrease and forced through armed rebellions the recognition of their own land rights.", "These nobles would originally be known as \"aznauri\" (აზნაური), while centuries of power struggles between these nobles eventually gave rise to a higher class of nobles, the \"mtavari\" (მთავარი) or \"tavadi\" (თავადი), equivalent to the western European title of prince.", "Power-sharing between kings, eristavis, princes, and aznauris evolved but remained largely the same over the centuries and continued during the medieval Kingdom of Georgia, despite attempts by several monarchs to lower the influence of the noble class.In the late 11th century, King David IV engaged in a state reform that lowered the power of large nobles on the one hand, while creating a state council (the \"Darbazi\") to advise the king and made of both church and feudal representatives.", "Under Queen Tamar, a rebellion by the merchant class led to a large expansion of the Darbazi's powers.", "In 1490, it was the Darbazi that voted to formally abolish the Kingdom of Georgia after decades of civil wars, replacing it with three kingdoms and one principality (Kakheti, Kartli, Imereti, and Samtskhe).", "Besides the Darbazi, several court officials assisted the monarch in administering the kingdom's affairs, led by the \"mtsignobartukhutsesi\" (მწიგნობართუხუცესი), usually a Church figure acting as head of the king's government.Many of these institutions would be inherited by the various Georgian states that divided among themselves the kingdom at the end of the 15th century, although their powers were largely reduced as most decision-making powers were held by foreign invading powers (Ottoman Turkey or Safavid Persia), as well as powerful noble houses that at times were more powerful than the central government (Dadiani, Gurieli, Bagration-Mukhraneli, etc.", ").==== Regional differences ====In medieval Svaneti, while royal power was not fully implemented, the local political system was described as a \"military-democratic system\" stabilized by the Church.Though nominally, a central government controlled most Georgian territories throughout history, certain regions were largely autonomous, if not entirely independent, due to their geographic isolation.", "Notably, high-mountain regions like Svaneti, Khevsureti, and Tusheti developed independent political and judicial systems as their affairs were largely ignored by monarchs or foreign invaders.", "In Svaneti, long considered to be a refuge for national treasures in times of foreign invasions, small villages coalesced together into small clan-based organizations with no single ruler and cultivating independent legal systems carried out by elected representatives, as early as the late medieval period.", "Legal rulings were traditionally confirmed by oaths taken on icons, a system that continues to be observed to this day to arbitrate local conflicts.", "This system has been described by historian Brigitta Schrade as a \"military-democratic system\" stabilized by the Georgian Orthodox Church, itself represented locally in the town of Mestia, making the latter a ''de facto'' historical capital of Svaneti.", "Russian imperial administrators facing continuous insubordination from the region would label it \"Free Svaneti\".", "In 2022, President Salome Zourabichvili proposed to integrate traditional Svan arbitration systems into national judicial reform.In other mountainous provinces like Khevsureti, locals historically elected governors called ''Gagas'' (გაგა), also known as the \"masters and legislators of the people\".", "Gagas were regularly involved in arbitrating conflicts between various families based on ancient customs and was represented in small cases by local judges, while intra-family feuds were regulated by clan elders.", "In some parts of the country, gagas were called \"Makhvshi\" (მახვში).", "Though the historical origins of these ancient institutions are not well-known, it is believed these traditions were established in the late Bronze Age period and continued well into the 19th century.=== First Republic (1918–1921) ===In the 19th century, Georgian kingdoms and one principality were integrated into the Russian Empire.", "Following the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1918, South Caucasus nations declared their independence and formed the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic.", "A short-lived state, it brought together the Georgian, Armenian, and Azerbaijani nations under one government and one legislature, the Seim, empowered with directly negotiating with the Ottoman Empire in the last months of World War I to end hostilities on the Caucasus front.", "The state collapsed as the three nations differed on their foreign policy choices and by May 1918, the Democratic Republic of Georgia was proclaimed.The first government of the DRG was made of a left-wing coalition dominated by the Social-Democratic (Menshevik) Party and headed by Prime Minister Noe Ramishvili.", "In July, he would be replaced by Noe Zhordania, who carried out the first reforms to transition the previous imperial government into republican institutions.", "Local, municipal-level governments were established through direct elections, while imperial provinces and revolutionary councils established since the early 20th century were abolished.", "The role of DRG's legislative organ was first filled by a transitional National Council.", "The proportional elections in 1919 selected a Constituent Assembly made of 130 members with a goal of drafting the country's first-ever constitution.", "An overwhelming majority held by the Social-Democratic Party, while overall four parties were represented in the Constituent Assembly (including Georgian Socialist-Federalist Revolutionary Party, National Democratic Party and Socialist-Revolutionary Party of Georgia).", "The 1919 elections are the first nationwide, direct and universal elections in the history of Georgia and all citizens aged 20 and older were granted the right to vote, making Georgia one of the first countries in the world to grant women the right to vote and hold elected office.", "Various revolutionary, military, and imperial tribunals were replaced by district courts with judges elected by the Constituent Assembly.Cabinet members of the Democratic RepublicThe Social-Democratic Party was the most powerful political organization in Georgia.", "Its influence was also based on a large network of international partners within the global socialist movement, as shown in the 1920 visit to Georgia by the Second International, which declared Georgia a \"living incarnation of the socialist ideology\".", "The opposition Georgian Socialist-Federalist Revolutionary Party and Socialist-Revolutionary Party of Georgia were also left-wing and mostly more radical.", "The National-Democratic Party the only right-wing party to be represented in the Constituent Assembly.", "Historian Otar Janelidze has described the political pluralism in the DRG as \"peaceful rivalry\", expressed by competitive but compromising rhetoric.The Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Georgia was adopted on 21 February 1921 and embodied principles of social democracy.", "A radically parliamentarian document, it saw no need for the office of a President and instead envisioned a governing legislature adopting policies for a weak executive to implement, itself led by a President of the Government, also known as the Prime Minister.The Democratic Republic of Georgia saw many political turmoils as it was involved in numerous territorial conflicts such as Sochi conflict, the war against the South West Caucasian Republic, Georgian–Ossetian conflict and Armeno-Georgian War.", "Due to these tensions, the Constituent Assembly decided to grant disputed regions, such as Abkhazia, Saingilo and Adjara status of autonomy, which was enshrined in the Constitution of Georgia.Throughout its short-lived existence, the Menshevik government was embroiled in armed struggles against Georgian Bolsheviks, which were also backed by the Russian Bolshevik movement.", "Georgian Bolsheviks organized numerous peasants' and workers' rebellions in Racha-Lechkhumi, Samegrelo and Dusheti.", "In 1920, they staged a coup against the Menshevik government, which led to arrests of Bolshevik leaders.", "Consequently, the Red Army invaded Georgia from Azerbaijan to aid the rebellion, although they were driven off by the Georgian army.", "The agreement was signed between the Soviet Russia and Georgia, which led to Russian recognition of Georgia's independence with Georgia being obliged to legalize activities of the Communist Party of Georgia.", "However, a few months later, the Bolsheviks staged another rebellion against the Menshevik government and the Red Army invaded Georgia again to aid the rebellion, leading to toppling of the Menshevik government in Georgia.", "That government would continue to formally exercise powers until 1954 from France.=== Soviet Georgia ===In the early days of the invasion, a Revolutionary Committee (RevKom) was proclaimed by Georgian Bolshevik leaders which formally declared the Soviet Socialist Republic of Georgia and held both legislative and executive powers.", "A ''de jure'' independence of the Georgian SSR was temporarily recognized by the Worker-Peasant Union Agreement between Soviet Russia and Soviet Georgia of May 1921.However, the Georgian RevKom held its power from the Russia-appointed Caucasian Bureau of the Communist Party and the Revolutionary-Military Council of the 11th Red Army, while solidifying its hold over the country using armed factions like the Militia of Workers and Peasants and the Young Communist League.The Bolsheviks did not recognize the liberal democratic concept of separation of powers, arguing that all power in the soviet socialist republics should be held by the working class and exercised in a unified manner.", "The RevKom formally took over all legislative and executive powers through a 21 April 1921 decree about organization of the state power.", "Under the Bolshevik system, People's Commissariats by the members of RevKom of were formed as the executive branch of government and soon, the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs became the most powerful state institution, abolishing all local governments elected in 1919 and replacing them with revolutionary districts overseen by local Communist Party leaders.", "Its power was backed by the State Political Department (OGPU), the Special Committee (SakCheka), and later the Committee of State Security (KGB).", "''Mushglekhini'' (or Worker-Peasant Councils) were created as a form of inspectorate to oversee the activities of the Commissariats before legislative elections were held in 1922 to elect Workers', Peasants', and Military Soviets.", "Those elections, and all subsequent ones under the Soviet regime banned participation for clergymen, people employed in the private sector, and former public workers, while preventing the participation of all political parties other than the Communist Party.", "These elections elected a 380-member RevKom Congress, which in turn elected a 95-member All-Georgia Central Executive Committee, which held executive power.The Soviet-era Parliament building in Tbilisi features a communist red star to this daySoviet Georgia adopted its own constitution in 1922, although it was virtually the same as that of other Soviet republics.", "A new constitution adopted in March 1927 organized state powers between the Supreme Soviet (legislature) and the Soviet of People's Commissars (executive), while Georgia was entitled seats in the Central Executive Committee of the Congress of All-Russia Soviets.", "All officeholders were members of the Communist Party of Georgia and were appointed by the Caucasus Bureau of the Bolshevik Party, itself appointed by the Soviet Union.", "All other political parties were banned, although some underground dissident groups started to organize as parties in the late 1970s, including the Georgian Helsinki Union, the Republican Party, and the National Democratic Party.=== Development since 1991 ======= Independence and coup ====Political pluralism was reintroduced in Georgia after political reforms in the Soviet Union that followed the 9 April 1989 tragedy.", "Elections open to all parties were scheduled for 1990.Six parties and five blocs took part in the Supreme Soviet elections of October 1990, which saw the defeat of the Communist Party and the victory of the Round Table—Free Georgia coalition, a group of anti-Soviet parties led by dissident Zviad Gamsakhurdia.", "The latter was elected Chairman of the Supreme Soviet, which was renamed the Supreme Council and which took steps that eventually led to a declaration of independence on 9 April 1991.Though state authorities continued to operate under the 1976 Soviet Constitution, several changes were adopted following independence to create a French-style presidential republic.", "On 14 April, Zviad Gamsakhurdia was recognized as President of Georgia and presidential elections held on 26 May confirmed his status.", "The Supreme Council retained solely a legislative role, while the executive was controlled by a President and a Prime Minister appointed by him.", "The international civil society organization Helsinki Watch described the new presidential powers as \"sweeping\", granting the President the right to veto, to declare war and martial law, to appoint the Prime Minister, the Supreme Court chairperson, the State Prosecutor, and the Commander in Chief, immunity from criminal prosecution.", "The Supreme Council adopted reforms meant to consolidate President's power, including the power to appoint powerful prefects in regions answerable only to the President.View of a Tbilisi neighborhood during the 1991–92 coup.In August 1991, parts of the National Guard declared a rebellion under the leadership of former Prime Minister Tengiz Sigua and National Guard commander Tengiz Kitovani, and would soon be assisted by the Mkhedrioni, a paramilitary organization with the ties to the Georgian underworld.", "The conflict devolved into a civil war by the end of 1991 and Zviad Gamsakhurdia was forced to flee Georgia on 6 January 1992.He would never recognize his overthrow and many of his partisans, including members of the Supreme Council, continued to recognize him as legitimate President in exile, first in Grozny and then in the western Georgian region of Samegrelo, until his death in 1993.Coup leaders proclaimed a Military Council in January 1992 that abolished the Supreme Council and all state institutions.", "The Military Council was led by Tengiz Kitovani, Tengiz Sigua, and Mkhedrioni leader Jaba Ioseliani and combined both executive and legislative powers, although its full composition was never published.", "In March 1992, the Military Council disbanded itself to be replaced by an interim State Council chaired by Eduard Shevardnadze.", "The State Council held nationwide elections in October 1992 to elect a \"Head of State\" (Eduard Shevardnadze) and a Parliament composed of 20 parties and four blocs.", "In the three years of the State Council's existence, it went through a resolution of the conflict in South Ossetia, a war in Abkhazia, state reforms that abolished the Prime Minister's post, and the writing of a new Constitution.==== First Constitution ====Shortly after the coup, the Military Council passed a resolution which formally restored the 1921 Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Georgia.", "The State Council was organized under the State Power Act of November 1992, also known as the \"Small Constitution\".", "In March 1993, Parliament created a State Constitutional Commission chaired by Eduard Shevardnadze to author the new Constitution of Georgia.", "Parliament ratified the Constitution on 24 August 1995, after amending the original proposal to create a presidential system of governance instead of the previously envisioned semi-presidential republic.The adoption of the Constitution was followed by presidential and parliamentary elections in late 1995 that reelected Eduard Shevardnadze and his new presidential party, the Citizens Union of Georgia.", "The imposition of electoral thresholds led to a rapid decrease in multi-partisanship: the number of parties in Parliament decreased to 14 in 1995 and four in 1999.The Citizens Union actively recruited leading members of the opposition parties, including Zurab Zhvania of the Greens Party, who soon became a prominent leader of the Citizens Union.", "Its only strong opposition was the regional Democratic Revival Union of Adjara's strongman governor Aslan Abashidze.", "However, an internal divide within the Citizens' Union soon led to creation of the various factions which President Shevardnadze failed to unite.", "These factions turned out to be more effective in opposing President Shevardnadze than opposition parties.", "Most notably, the Reformers Faction pushed for anti-corruption reforms against a majority of the Shevardnadze government.==== Rose Revolution and Saakashvili presidency ====Downtown Tbilisi during the Rose Revolution.", "In 2001, former Minister of Justice Mikheil Saakashvili launched his own party, the New National Movement (later renamed as United National Movement).", "In 2002, Zurab Zhvania moved to create his own party Democrats.", "Pro-presidential faction, led by the influential governor Levan Mamaladze, managed to dismiss most of his supporters from leadership positions in parliamentary committees.", "Later Zhvania allied with Nino Burjanadze, which was a prominent member of the parliament at that time from Citizens Union.", "Georgian Labour Party, an opposition party which rose to prominence in recent years, positioned itself as an outsider in contrast to New National Movement and New Right politicians who were represented in top echelons of the legislature and executive.", "Following the disastrous 2002 local elections, Shevardnadze made a concerted attempt to rebuild a political coalition that could support him.", "The CUG was rebuilt before the 2003 parliamentary election, which was understood to be a key trial before the 2005 presidential election.", "However, President Shevardnadze's popularity rating had plummeted to around 5%, undermining any attempt to revive the CUG under his leadership.", "The new CUG further found itself divided over internal disputes, and lacking effective leadership to replace those that had defected.", "Despite the fact that opposition parties enjoyed large popularity, the 2003 parliamentary election saw the reelection of Shevardnadze's party, albeit the accusations of large-scale electoral fraud, leading to the Rose Revolution of November 2003.The Rose Revolution was a peaceful development – the first color revolution of the post-Soviet world – and resulted in Shevardnadze's resignation and the rise to power of a trio: Mikheil Saakashvili as president, Zurab Zhvania as Prime Minister, and Nino Burjanadze as Speaker of Parliament.", "The new Parliament ratified constitutional amendments in 2004 that increased the powers of the President and divided powers among the three trio leaders.The new Georgian government launched large reforms to curb the crumbling infrastructure and deep-seated corruption that had been inherited after a decade of civil conflicts.", "The radical reforms were enacted in the police, with the entire police force being dismissed in 2004 to root out corruption.", "The government introduced the liberal economic reforms aimed at attracting foreign investment and abolished several ministries and governmental departments.", "Large-scale privatization was implemented, labor legislation was liberalized, healthcare was privatized, import tariffs were lowered, a capital control was abolished, taxes were lowered, many governmental regulatory agencies were disbanded and a ban on foreign ownership of Georgian land was repealed.", "The reforms in education led to massive firings in the academic sector to remove Soviet era leadership.", "The local self-government was centralized, which led to the abolition of thousands of elected village councils.", "The legislation concerning thieves-in-law was tightened to reduce the influence of the underworld on the public life.", "This led to mass incarceration.", "In 2005, the Parliament passed the General Education Act, restricting the teaching of religion in schools and the use of religious symbols in the school space for devotional purposes.The post-revolution government enjoyed large popular support in the starting years, confirmed in the 2004 presidential election that gave Saakashvili 97% of the vote and in that same year's parliamentary election that gave the National Movement a clear majority in the legislature.", "The new government has achieved considerable progress in eradicating corruption.", "In 2008 Transparency International ranked Georgia 67th in its Corruption Perceptions Index, with a score of 3.9 points out of 10 possible.", "This represented the best result among the CIS countries and a dramatic improvement on Georgia's score since 2004, when the country was ranked 133rd with 2.0 points.", "The rates of crimes was also reduced and Georgia became one of the safest countries.", "The GDP increased significantly in the first four years, although the economic reforms failed to reduce poverty and substantially increase the standards of living.", "Scandals such as Sandro Girgvliani murder case eventually decreased the popularity of the government.The government removed provisions in the Criminal Code which criminalized libel, supposedly to protect freedom of speech of the media.", "However, the media pluralism remained low.", "The opposition TV channels faced significant difficulties in obtaining news broadcasting license from the Georgian National Communications Commission.", "During the 2007 Georgian demonstrations, thousands of Georgians dissatisfied with the Saakashvili's rule protested peacefully in the streets of Tbilisi and Batumi.", "The government responded by raiding the protests and shutting down the opposition channels such as TV Imedi and Kavkasia.", "These events led to the eventual departure of Nino Burjanadze from the ruling coalition in 2008.Along with the death of Zurab Zhvania in 2005, this allowed Saakashvili to concentrate all state powers, assisted by a few powerful officials (including Interior Minister Vano Merabishvili, Justice Minister Zurab Adeishvili, and Defense Minister Davit Kezerashvili).In 2010, Parliament ratified new constitutional amendments that transitioned Georgia into a semi-presidential republic, increasing the powers of the Prime Minister and making the President's role more ceremonial.", "Many observers believe those changes were adopted to guarantee Saakashvili's stay in power after being term limited as president, although the National Movement would be defeated in the 2012 parliamentary election by Georgian Dream party.==== Transition to Parliamentary Republic ====The Parliament session hall in Kutaisi in April 2013.Georgian Dream came to power in the 2012 parliamentary election as a coalition of several parties opposed to Mikheil Saakashvili's presidency.", "Its founder, Bidzina Ivanishvili, the wealthiest man in Georgia, became Prime Minister during the so-called \"Cohabitation Period\", Saakashvili remaining President of Georgia with limited powers.Saakashvili's terms as President ended in the late 2013.The latter would be replaced by Giorgi Margvelashvili, who became Georgia's fourth president from 2013 to 2018.Though Georgia was a semi-presidential republic up to 2018, most powers already relied in the hands of the Prime Minister's Office (Ivanishvili being followed by Irakli Gharibashvili in 2013, Giorgi Kvirikashvili in 2015, and Mamuka Bakhtadze in 2018).", "The 2017-2018 constitutional amendments finalized Georgia's transition to a parliamentary system of governance, removing the President's executive powers and making the presidency a largely ceremonial role.====Georgian Dream rule====The new government liberalized criminal policies, implementing a large-scale amnesty and abolishing consecutive sentencing.", "In 2013, the parliament passed a new Labour Code in line with International Labour Organization (ILO) standards and the government launched the Universal Healthcare Program (UHP) which made state-sponsored health insurance available on a massive scale.", "Several high-ranking government officials from United National Movement were arrested on charges of abuse of power.", "In November 2013, Bidzina announced his resignation from the post of Prime Minister.", "Ivanishvili stated that his intention was to return to civil sector and form a non-government organisation.", "Four days after his resignation as Prime Minister, he resigned as Chairman of Georgian Dream.", "Many observers, civil society organizations, and opposition groups have alleged that Bidzina Ivanishvili has remained the most powerful decision-maker in Georgia despite not holding any public office since 2013, mostly as the largest financial power behind Georgian Dream.Though Georgian Dream started as a bloc of several parties, most of them left the ruling coalition by 2016 (most notably, the Free Democrats in 2014, the Republican Party in 2015, and the National Forum in 2016).", "In the 2016 parliamentary election, Georgian Dream ran on its own and won a constitutional majority, consolidating all levers of power.", "The party rapidly entered into conflict with President Margvelashvili, and endorsed the candidacy of Salome Zourabichvili in 2018, which won the presidency in a run-off vote against the United National Movement nominee Grigol Vashadze.A major constitutional reform took place in 2017–2018 that made Georgia a parliamentary republic.", "The same amendments transitioned Georgia's parliamentary elections to a fully proportional system by 2024, abolished direct presidential elections, stipulated that Georgia should be a welfare state, removed a ban on progressive taxes, banned foreign ownership of agricultural land, defined marriage as a union of a woman and a man for the purpose of founding a family and made EU and NATO integration as the constitutionally-enshrined foreign policy objectives of Georgia.In foreign policy with Russia, the government sought to de-escalate conflict with Russia and normalize relations by promoting \"Peace Through Trade\" and diplomatic engagement.", "In November 2012, Prime Minister Ivanishvili appointed special envoy for relations with Russia, Zurab Abashidze (diplomatic relations between the countries remained formally broken).", "In December 2012, Georgian and Russian diplomats met in Prague to discuss problematic relations between the countries first time since the end of the 2008 war.", "This became known as \"Abashidze–Karasin Format\".", "In June 2013, Russia lifted the embargo on Georgian wine.", "Georgia resumed wine exports to Russia for the first time since 2006.The policy reduced the risks of military conflict, although tensions remained high as Georgia continued Euro-Atlantic integration and territorial disputes remained unresolved.", "In 2019, there was a wave of protests and demonstrations against the government caused by the visit of Russian communist MP Sergei Gavrilov to Georgia.", "The Russian delegation visited Georgia in the framework of the Interparliamentary Assembly on Orthodoxy session planned to be held in the Parliament of Georgia.", "Russia and Georgia, both Orthodox Christian nations, are part of the Assembly.", "During the session, Sergei Gavrilov, the President of the Assembly, sat in the chair reserved by protocol for the Head of Parliament and gave speech in Russian about Orthodox brotherhood of Georgia and Russia.", "Gavrilov had previously voted in favor of the independence of Abkhazia.", "The protest, which worsened after an attempt to storm the parliament building and violent dispersal by special forces, led to Georgian Dream pledging electoral reform and to hold the next year's parliamentary election under a fully proportional system.", "In November 2019, Parliament's failure to pass the promised constitutional amendments (caused by opposition to the amendments by some internal factions within Georgian Dream) led to a parliamentary boycott by the opposition and a political crisis.On 8 March 2020, Western ambassadors mediated an agreement between Georgian Dream and its opposition, although a refusal by President Zourabichvili to pardon Giorgi Rurua (an opposition leader arrested during the November 2019 protests) led to a collapse of the agreement, while the COVID-19 pandemic prevented a continuation of protests.View of the 2019 Georgian protestsThe 2020 parliamentary elections saw the reelection of Georgian Dream for a third term, although the opposition alleged that the elections were rigged and organized protests, boycotting the new Parliament and forcing a new political crisis.", "That crisis came to an end on 19 April 2021, when opposition parties and Georgian Dream signed a new agreement mediated by European Council President Charles Michel guaranteeing electoral and judicial reforms in exchange for the release of Nika Melia, UNM leader who had been arrested for organizing violence during the 2019 protests.", "That agreement was short-lived, as the largest opposition party, the United National Movement, refused to sign the agreement, and because of this the ruling Georgian Dream party withdrew its signature within a few months, saying that the agreement failed to reach its goals.By the end of 2021, the political crisis in Georgia had worsened following the arrest of former President Saakashvili for abuse of power, while attempts by President Zourabichvili to mediate eventually failed.", "Zourabichvili herself was targeted by a series of constitutional lawsuits filed by the government to challenge the use of her limited powers in diplomatic appointments.In June 2022, the European Council issued the \"12 Recommendations\", a series of reform proposals to be implemented by the Georgian authorities before it could be granted European Union membership candidacy status.", "While originally granted a deadline till the end of 2022 to implement the reforms, failure to reach compromises led to the European Commission agreeing to postpone the deadline till the fall of 2023.On December 14, 2023, the European Union granted Georgia candidate status, acknowledging the nation's ongoing efforts toward EU integration.", "The decision, announced by the European Council, came alongside the initiation of accession negotiations with Eastern Partnership members Ukraine and Moldova.", "Despite very limited progress on these recommendations, the EU's decision reflected an ongoing commitment to fostering diplomatic relations with Georgia and advancing the nation's EU integration aspirations." ], [ "Central government", "Georgia is a parliamentary unitary republic, in which the President (who serves as head of state), the Government, Parliament, and the judiciary share powers reserved to the national government, while the central government shares powers with two autonomous republics and 69 municipalities.The central government is divided into four branches, as specified by the Constitution of Georgia* The '''President of Georgia''' serves as head of state with limited executive and diplomatic powers and is currently elected by direct suffrage (a provision set to change in 2024).", "* The '''Executive branch''' is headed by the Prime Minister of Georgia, appointed by Parliament, and is composed of 11 ministries and one state ministry, each appointed by the Prime Minister.", "* The '''Parliament''' serves as the unicameral legislative body of Georgia (although the Constitution provides for a bicameral legislature once the country's territorial integrity is restored) and is elected in proportional elections by direct suffrage.", "* The '''Judiciary branch''' is composed of a Constitutional Court, a Supreme Court, and lower appellate and municipal courts that are appointed and regulated by the High Council of Justice.Georgia's liberal electoral laws have created a vibrant multi-partisan system, with 15 political parties currently serving in the Parliament of Georgia and another seven in local offices, although the existing system discourages the existence of non-partisan elected officials.=== Presidency ===Standard of the President of GeorgiaThe President of Georgia serves as head of state with very limited executive powers, which are regulated by Chapter Four of the Constitution of Georgia, but also by Articles 25, 37, 38, 44, 46, 48, 56, 57, 58, 60, 64, 66, 68, 71, 72, 73, and 77 of the Constitution.The Constitution defines the President as \"the guarantor of the country's unity and national independence\".", "As such, the officeholder also serves as Supreme Commander-in-chief of the Georgian Defense Forces and has the duty to \"represent Georgia in foreign relations.\"", "The latter power has been the subject of regular debates, as the Government has routinely relied on the Government Consent Clause of Article 52, which provides for government approvals for any of the President's diplomatic activities.The President has limited appointment and nomination powers.", "She can appoint one member to the High Council of Justice and had the power to nominate the chairperson and board members of the Central Election Commission, per recommendation of a Candidate Selection Commission, although that power was abolished in July 2023.She also makes the final confirmation for government nominations for Chief of the Defense Forces and several other national regulatory bodies.On a discretionary basis, the President has the power to issue pardons to convicts and to grant citizenship.", "In times of national emergencies, the Prime Minister entertains the right to advice the President to declare a State of Emergency (last declared in May 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic) which later requires the approval of the Parliament.", "During the state of emergency the President can dissolve any municipal government body but that also requires the advice of the Prime Minister and the consent of Parliament.", "The President has the power to veto legislation, although a veto can be overridden by a simple parliamentary majority, rendering the veto power in Georgia much less significant than in other Euro-Atlantic democracies.The current President is Salome Zourabichvili, elected during the 2018 presidential election and the last president to be elected via direct suffrage.", "Starting in 2024, the Constitution of Georgia provides for presidential election via an Electoral college made of legislative, autonomous republic, and municipal leaders.", "President Zourabichvili is also the first President to head the state under its fully-parliamentary system of government.=== Executive Government ===State Chancellery (Tbilisi), headquarters of the GovernmentThe Government of Georgia serves as the executive branch of Georgia's state institutions.", "It is headed by a Prime Minister, who is appointed by the Parliamentary Majority and confirmed in a vote of Parliament, and includes 10 ministries and one state ministry, as well as several executive agencies, commonly known as \"Services\" that are responsible directly to the Government (such as the Georgian Intelligence Service, the State Security Service, the State Data Protection Service, and the Special State Protection Service).", "Though Georgia is a parliamentary republic, its executive branch holds considerably large powers, including that of sponsoring legislation, issuing executive decrees, and holding exclusive powers to draft budgets.The term of the Government is exercised between two parliamentary elections and is formed by a simple majority of Parliament.", "The current Prime Minister is Irakli Gharibashvili of the ruling Georgian Dream party, who has held the post since 2021.While the Office of Prime Minister is constitutionally-prescribed, ministries can be created by simple parliamentary law.", "The Prime Minister's powers are considerably larger than that of President, including in foreign policy where the former is the sole authority with the power to conclude international treaties.Individual cabinet appointments do not require parliamentary approval and a Cabinet is approved in a single vote upon the designation of a new Prime Minister.", "Votes of confidence are required once a majority of Cabinet members are changed.", "The Prime Minister is allowed to designate Vice Prime Ministers.", "Currently, two cabinet members hold that title: Culture Minister Tea Tsulukiani and Economy Minister Levan Davitashvili.The Government is empowered with organizing the territorial administration of Georgia outside of its autonomous republics.", "Currently, there are nine regions administered directly by the central government (Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti, Racha-Lechkhumi-Kvemo Svaneti, Guria, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Imereti, Kvemo Kartli, Shida Kartli, Mtskheta-Mtianeti, and Kakheti), which is represented in those regions by a \"State Representative-Governors\" who are appointed by the Prime Minister.", "The capital Tbilisi enjoys a special status and is not included in any of those regions, although it does not enjoy any further autonomy than other administrative units.=== Legislative branch ===Logo of the Parliament of GeorgiaThe legislative branch of Georgia is currently unicameral and is made of the Parliament of Georgia, defined by the Constitution as \"the supreme representative body of the country that exercises legislative power, defines the main directions of the country's domestic and foreign policies, controls the activities of the Government...\"The Constitution provides for a theoretical bicameral legislation \"following the full restoration of Georgia's jurisdiction throughout the entire territory of Georgia\", ergo upon resolution of the status of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.", "The legislature would then be made of:* The '''Council of the Republic''', composed of members elected proportionally.", "* The '''Senate''', composed of members elected from the Autonomous Republics of Abkhazia, Adjara, and other territorial units of Georgia, and five members appointed by the President.As of now, Parliament is made of 150 members elected in a mixed electoral system, with 30 members elected from single-mandate majoritarian districts and 120 elected through a fully party-based proportional system with a natural electoral threshold.", "In 2024, the electoral system is set to become fully proportional, abolishing all majoritarian districts and setting an electoral threshold at 5%.Parliament is headed by a Chairperson (currently Shalva Papuashvili) and a First Deputy Chair, while the Parliamentary Opposition is allowed to select a deputy chair, nominated by the largest faction in the Opposition.", "The work of Parliament is divided into Committees, as well as several Special Commissions, Councils, and a Trust Group in charge of overseeing national security policy.", "Each MP is allowed to join only one Faction (composed of at least seven members) or Political Group (made of two to six members) and there are currently two Factions and six Political Groups.Each MP is entitled to ask questions to public agencies, which are mandated to provide answers.", "A Faction is entitled to summon a Cabinet member for hearing.Though Georgia is a parliamentary republic, Parliament's role in policy-making has been largely reduced over the years, with most powers concentrated in the Prime Minister's Office.", "Proposed reforms to ensure parliamentary oversight have included requiring parliamentary confirmations of cabinet and diplomatic appointments, removing the Government's power to sponsor legislation, and reducing the Government's discretionary powers.=== Judiciary ===President Zourabichvili attending the inauguration of Constitutional Court chairman Merab TuravaGeorgia has a centralized judiciary system, led by the Constitutional Court of Georgia, a body made of nine judges appointed for a term of 10 years with appointments scattered between the President, Parliament, and the Supreme Court.", "Its responsibility is to check the constitutionality of existing legislature, treaties, and executive decisions.", "The Court of Cassation of Georgia is the Supreme Court, made of 28 judges appointed for life terms by the High Council of Justice and confirmed by Parliament.", "Appellate and municipal courts form the common courts of Georgia and are regulated by the High Council of Justice.The High Council of Justice is an independent body constitutionally-prescribed to \"ensure the independence and efficiency of the common courts, to appoint and dismiss judges and to perform other tasks\".", "It is made of 15 members, including 14 appointed for a 4-year term and the Chair of the Supreme Court.", "Among the 14 appointees, the President is entitled to appoint one member, while the remaining are appointed by Parliament and \"the self-governing body of judges of the common courts\" (also called the Conference of Judges of Georgia, which consists of all acting judges at all levels).Article 65 of the Constitution provides for an independent Prosecutor's Office led by a General Prosecutor elected by Parliament upon nomination for a six-year term by the Prosecutorial Council.", "The latter is made of 15 members and exists to \"ensure the independence, transparency and efficiency of the Prosecutor's Office.", "\"Western-funded non-governmental organizations have accused the High Council of Justice of serving the interests of a \"Judicial Clan\" and of using its powers to promote or dismiss judges based on their court rulings.", "On 5 April 2023, the United States Department of State sanctioned four current and former members of the High Council of Justice for alleged corrupt practices.=== Checks and balances ===Formally, the constitutional framework guarantees checks and balances and institutional independence, with the President holding veto power and the right to nominate candidates for the High Council of Justice and the National Bank of Georgia, Parliament confirming those nominations and maintaining a veto override power, the Government enforcing legislative decisions and overseeing the President's activities, and a self-regulating Judiciary.", "However, some observers have opined that there is a lack of proper checks and balances in the Georgian politics.Most bills passed in the 10th Convocation of Parliament have been initiated by the Government, indicating a low level of legislative independence.", "The President's veto powers has been used twice since 2019, both times overridden by Parliament.", "The traditionally strong oversight powers held by individual MPs have been weakened in recent years, with up to 60% of parliamentary questions asked to public agencies left unanswered in 2023.Since the beginning of 2021, tensions between President Zourabichvili and the Government of Irakli Gharibashvili have led to institutional warfare between the President and the Government.", "In at least two occasions, the Government banned the President from traveling abroad, preventing her from visiting Ukraine, Poland, Germany, and France.", "In March 2023, the Government announced it would file two lawsuits with the Constitutional Court against the President over her decision to go on an unauthorized visit to Brussels and Paris and over her refusal to sign outright decrees appointing ambassador candidates nominated by the Government, before dismissing the lawsuits several months later.", "In June 2023, Parliament overrode a presidential veto over a bill that changes the composition of the National Bank and gave the Government more powers over the appointment of the bank's president.", "In December 2021, Parliament approved a Government-sponsored bill that abolished the State Inspector's Service after the latter issued several rulings critical of the Government." ], [ "Autonomous Republics", "Map of Georgia highlighting its two autonomous republicsAutonomous republics are entitled to their own executive and legislative structures, in the forms of a Government and a Supreme Council.", "The President of Georgia appoints the Chairman of the Government of autonomous republics upon \"consultations with political entities represented in the Supreme Council\", although the Consultation Clause of the autonomous republics' constitutions has been largely disregarded in modern practice, with the President automatically appointing the nominee of the Majority of the Supreme Councils.", "The current chairman of the Government of the Adjarian Autonomous Republic is Tornike Rizhvadze.Though Supreme Councils are elected via direct suffrage at the same time as nationwide parliamentary elections, the bodies of the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia enjoy a special status as its authority has been in exile since 1993.Per the State Power Act of 1995, the Supreme Council of Abkhazia is therefore made of those Supreme Council members who remained loyal to Georgia in 1991 and no election is scheduled as long as the conflict remains unresolved.", "The Supreme Council nonetheless elects a new Chairman of Government once every five years.", "The current chairman of the Abkhazian Government in exile is Ruslan Abashidze.Autonomous republics enjoy more responsibilities than regions and have their own independent agencies, including Supreme Election Commissions and Ministries.", "Their Supreme Councils have the right to sponsor legislation in the Parliament of Georgia and are entitled to seats in the Electoral College set to be inaugurated in 2024.They have their own Constitutions and are empowered with administering their territories to the extent set out by Georgian legislation.", "The Constitution of Georgia recognizes Abkhazian as the official language of Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia.In 2007, the Parliament of Georgia recognized the authority of the Provisional Administration of South Ossetia, an entity created under the leadership of South Ossetia's Dimitri Sanakoev to administer territories of South Ossetia under Georgian control in agreement with Georgian authorities.", "While the Provisional Administration continues to exist, Georgia has lost control of all of South Ossetia following the 2008 Russo-Georgian War.", "South Ossetia enjoyed status of autonomous oblast in the Soviet Georgian Constitution.", "In 1990, when South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast declared its independence from Georgia, the Supreme Council of Georgia voted to abolish its status to prevent separatism.", "Nowadays some have advocated for the constitutional recognition of a South Ossetian autonomy as a potential compromise settlement in the conflict." ], [ "Local governments", "=== Municipalities ===Map of Georgian population density with outlines of Georgia's regions and municipalities.Georgia is divided into 69 municipalities, although only 63 fall in the territory controlled by the Georgian Government, with the remaining six divided located in Abkhazia and South Ossetia.", "Municipalities are entitled their own self-government per Article 7 of the Constitution, which states that citizens \"shall regulate affairs of local importance through local self-government\".", "Municipalities and their boundaries are established by the Government and confirmed by Parliament.The municipalities are governed by a mayor and a municipal assembly locally known as \"Sakrebulo\" (საკრებულო).", "Both are elected by direct suffrage for a four-year term, with the Sakrebulo elected in a mixed majoritarian-proportional system.", "The number of Sakrebulo members varies in each municipality.", "Mayors are responsible for the implementation of ordinances adopted by the Sakrebulo, and though local budgets are established by the Mayor's Office, funding is provided exclusively by the central government.", "Local self-governments are entrusted with taking decisions in compliance with national legislation and on all matters that do not fall in the exclusive powers of the central government or autonomous republics.", "Starting in 2024, local self-government units will be entitled to representation in the Electoral College.The Constitution of Georgia also provides for the Anaklia Economic Zone, which shall operate under a \"special legal regime\" once established.", "It is the only constitutionally-prescribed special economic zone with a special legal regime, although similar ones can be created by the Parliament of Georgia.=== LEPLs ===Legal Entitles under Public Law (LEPLs) are autonomous organizations at the local, autonomous or central level created by legislation or executive decree to carry out political, educational, cultural or other activities under public control.", "They are similar to special districts in Western democracies, although Georgian LEPLs have no oversight boards, appointed leaderships, and are not financially autonomous.Virtually every ministry, state body, and municipality has established LEPLs.", "Some of the best-known LEPLs are public universities, government bureaus, and cultural institutions.Critics of LEPLs have argued that the lack of financial transparency have transformed them into a mechanism to distribute administrative resources during electoral campaigns." ], [ "Elections", "=== Historical development ===All elections since 1990 have been held under universal direct suffrage for all citizens 18 years old and over and have been free to participate in for all political parties registered by the Central Election Commission.", "The first multi-partisan elections in modern Georgia were held in 1990 to elect the 250-member Supreme Soviet of the Georgian SSR and led to a victory by the electoral alliance known as the Round Table – Free Georgia bloc, which spearheaded Georgia's declaration of independence from the USSR.", "Those elections were held in a mixed majoritarian-proportional system, with 125 members elected in single-mandate majoritarian districts and 125 elected proportionally from those parties that passed the 4% threshold.Though the Supreme Council was abolished following the 1991–92 coup d'état, new legislative elections were held in 1992 to elect a 225-member Parliament, including 75 elected in majoritarian districts and 150 in proportional elections.", "The proportional part of these elections were held under a natural threshold, meaning that any party winning at least 0.67% of the vote was entitled a seat in Parliament, leading to the most multi-partisan Parliament in Georgia's history, with 20 political parties and four electoral blocs winning seats.", "The only other parliamentary election held with a natural threshold (although for only 120 seats) was the 2020 election, which saw seven parties and two blocs win seats.All parliamentary elections from 1995 to 2016 have been held in a mixed majoritarian-proportional system, although changes have been introduced from election to election.", "Following the 1992 open elections, the 1995 Constitution of Georgia provided for an electoral threshold of 5%, which severely reduced the number of elected subjects to nine parties and two blocs.", "The threshold would be increased again in 1999 to 7% and remain at that level till the 2008 parliamentary election, when concerns about the democratic standard of such a high threshold made the authorities return to the 5% threshold.", "All elections have been held under the 5% threshold since then (except for the 2020 election).", "In all parliamentary elections between 1995 and 2008, there were 75 single-mandate majoritarian districts, though the occupation of the Kodori Valley and South Ossetia by Russian forces in 2008 led to the cancellation of two districts.As a result of the 2019 demonstrations, a constitutional amendment was proposed to abolish all single-mandate districts and hold fully proportional elections with no threshold.", "The amendment failed, causing a political crisis that would last until June 2020, when the ruling Georgian Dream party and opposition parties agreed to a compromise solution that reduced the number of majoritarian districts from 73 to 30 and increased proportional elected MPs from 77 to 120, with a natural threshold.", "This compromise was used only in the 2020 election and though majoritarian districts have been abolished, a 5% threshold is set to be restored in 2024.Georgia has held seven presidential elections since 1991, including two snap elections (in 2004 and 2008).", "Participation in presidential elections has also been opened to all political parties registered by the CEC.", "The 2018 election saw the highest number of presidential candidates (26) and was the first-ever election to go to a runoff.", "The highest electoral turnout in a presidential contest was seen in 2004 (88%) in the aftermath of the Rose Revolution, while the lowest was seen in 2013 (47%).", "The 2018 election was the last presidential election held via direct suffrage, as an Electoral College is set to elect the next president.In 1992, Georgia held an election of the Head of State (who was also Chairman of Parliament), a position briefly established after the 1991–92 coup to substitute the overthrown President Zviad Gamsakhurdia.", "Eduard Shevardnadze was elected and served in this position until the 1995 presidential election.Georgia's municipal election system has been irregular with constant changes as decentralization and the amount of public input in local governance have been the subject of debates in each national administration since independence.", "The first local elections in Georgia took place on 30 April 1991 and are considered to be the first democratic elections in post-independence Georgia, although its results would be cancelled a few months later by the Military Council, after which all local governments would be directly administered by the central government.", "In 1998, decentralization reforms allowed for local elections at the municipal and township levels and a total of 10,693 members were elected in 1,031 councils under a mixed electoral system (large towns and cities held proportional elections and smaller units held majoritarian elections).", "In 2002, the central government allowed for the first time direct mayoral elections across the country, except for Tbilisi and Poti whose mayors were appointed by the President of Georgia.", "But a 2005 local government reform abolished all local town councils and maintained only Municipal Assemblies (Sakrebulos).", "Direct elections for mayors in all municipalities were introduced in 2010.Electoral reforms that discouraged decentralization and encouraged multi-partisanship since 2010 have abolished elections for district prefects while reducing the number of majoritarian districts to increase the share of proportional elections in all municipalities.Georgia has held two referendums (the Independence Referendum of 1991 and a 2003 vote on reducing the number of MPs from 235 to 150) and two plebiscites (both in 2008; one on supporting NATO membership and one on scheduling early parliamentary elections for the spring of that year) in recent history.", "According to the Georgian legislation, the referendums, unlike plebiscites, have a binding force.", "The highest voter turnout in any Georgian election in history was recorded during the 1991 referendum (91%).=== Current procedures ===Vote count underway in Tbilisi during the 2018 presidential electionThe electoral procedures for Parliament are set out by Article 37 of the Constitution of Georgia, which outline 150 elected members of Parliament in a single multi-mandate electoral district for a 4-year term through proportional, universal, and direct suffrage.", "Parties that cross the 5% electoral threshold shall be entitled seats in Parliament.", "There is no petitioning or financial requirements for political parties to gain ballot access, though all parties are required to meet a gender-based quota by having at least one woman for every four names in their electoral lists (this provision will be in force until 2032).", "The 2024 parliamentary elections are the first to be held under a fully-proportional system.The last presidential election held under direct suffrage took place in 2018.Starting in 2024, presidential elections will be held once every four years and the President will be elected by an Electoral College made of 300 members, including all members of Parliament, all members of the Supreme Councils of Abkhazia and Adjara, and partisan representatives of municipal governments selected based on proportional geographical representation and partisan support.The next municipal elections are scheduled for 2025 and electoral procedures vary based on municipalities, though all will continue to have a combination of proportional and majoritarian seats in their Sakrebulos.", "Reforms implemented in 2021 increased the share of proportional seats, while lowering the electoral threshold from 4 to 2.5% in Tbilisi and 3% in the rest of Georgia.", "In Tbilisi, Batumi, Kutaisi, Rustavi, and Poti, there is a 4–1 ratio in favor of proportional seats, while other municipalities have a 2–1 ratio.", "Since the 2021 elections, majoritarian districts require a runoff if no candidate gains more than 40% of the vote in the first round.All electoral procedures are regulated and administered by the Central Election Commission, whose chairperson and two board members are selected by a Candidate Selection Commission, nominated by the Chairman of Parliament, and confirmed by a majority of Parliament for a 5-year term.", "The current chairman of the CEC is Giorgi Kalandarishvili, who serves in an interim basis as Parliament has refused to confirm appointments made by President Salome Zourabichvili since 2022.Out of 17 CEC board members, 15 are appointed by political parties represented in Parliament.", "At the local level, the CEC administers District Election Commissions and Precinct Election Commissions, which are also made of 17 members (8 appointed by the CEC and 8 by political parties).According to the V-Dem Democracy indices Georgia was 2023 the 6th most electoral democratic country in Asia." ], [ "Political parties, blocs, and factions", "=== Political parties ===A United National Movement sign in TbilisiGeorgia is a multi-partisan republic where political parties have played a major role in the country's political development throughout its republican history.", "The first parties date back to the late 19th century when groups of intellectuals formed advocacy groups in then-Russian Georgia (Ilia Chavchavadze's classical liberal and nationalist Pirveli Dasi and Giorgi Tsereteli's center-left Meore Dasi for example).", "In 1892, intelligentsia leaders Egnate Ninoshvili and Mikhail Tskhakaya founded Georgia's first official political party – Mesame Dasi, a social-democratic party that advocated for a socialist revolution.", "The Social Democratic Party of Georgia would be founded a year later as a split party but would soon become Georgia's most influential political organization, eventually leading the independence movement and winning a ruling majority during the Democratic Republic of Georgia.Georgian Dream electoral billboard, Tbilisi, August 2016 In Soviet Georgia, all political parties were banned and the Communist Party became the only legal political organization that controlled all branches of government.", "However, dissident movements started coalescing into underground parties in the 1970s, with the Helsinki Union created by Zviad Gamsakhurdia in 1976, the Republican Party in 1978, and the National Democratic Party in 1988.Dozens of parties would be created in 1990 by various anti-Soviet dissidents ahead of the 1990 legislative elections, in which 14 parties won seats to the Supreme Council.After the 1990 legislative elections, the formerly ruling Communist Party lost its power, and in 1991, the Supreme Council of Georgia under the leadership of Zviad Gamsakhurdia banned it for allegedly supporting the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt.", "The decision was later reaffirmed by the Supreme Court of Georgia.", "In 1992, 27 parties would be elected to the State Council of Georgia in a legislative election that saw a low electoral threshold and that followed the 1991–1992 coup d'état.", "Many of these parties would progressively disappear after the Eduard Shevardnadze government imposed a 5% electoral threshold (12 parties won seats in the 1995 elections, nine in 1999 and seven in 2003).", "Following the Rose Revolution, most political parties that operated in the 1990s were disbanded, including the ruling Citizens Union of Georgia of Shevardnadze and the opposition Democratic Revival of Aslan Abashidze, while most political operatives coalesced around the United National Movement of Mikheil Saakashvili, which controlled the Georgian government from 2004 to 2012.Under Saakashvili's presidency, parliamentary opposition parties remained considerably weak, with only four parties winning seats in the 2004 parliamentary elections.", "By 2008, the only opposition party that remained in Parliament was the Christian-Democratic Movement.", "However, the extraparliamentary opposition was considerably active and several parties, centered around various political well-known figures, successively took leadership of the opposition.", "The Way of Georgia, created in 2006 by dismissed Foreign Minister Salome Zourabichvili, was the first major anti-government movement under Saakashvili's presidency.", "It would soon join forces with a dozen other parties to create the United Opposition that backed the presidential candidacy of Levan Gachechiladze in 2008.By 2010, the Free Democrats of former UN Ambassador Irakli Alasania played a considerable role as well.Most of these parties either disappeared or were absorbed by Georgian Dream when that party was created in 2012 by Bidzina Ivanishvili.", "The ruling coalition that came to power at the time was made of various former opposition parties, including the Free Democrats, National Forum, and the Republican Party, although they would each join the opposition to the new government by 2016.Many of Georgia's oldest political parties have disappeared after years of poor electoral results, including the Ilia Chavchavadze Society and the Industry Will Save Georgia party.", "In the 2020 parliamentary election, 14 parties won seats in the legislature, although the two largest parties remain Georgian Dream and the United National Movement.", "Both have suffered from several splits since 2012: For Justice (2019), Solidarity Alliance (2020), For Georgia (2021), and People's Power (2022) were formed by Georgian Dream members, while Girchi (2015), European Georgia (2017) and Strategy Aghmashenebeli (2020) were launched by UNM members.", "Some of these split parties have themselves experienced their own splits (Girchi – More Freedom was created by Girchi members in 2020, Droa was created by European Georgia members in 2021).Domestic and international observers have noted the lack of clearly-defined ideologies among Georgian political parties.", "Instead, parties mostly evolve around individual leaders and rarely survive their founders.", "Low electoral thresholds, a lack of political culture, and the proportional electoral system have contributed to the lack of non-partisan politicians, which in turn has encouraged individual leaders to form their own parties when failing to find common ground with existing parties.", "Publicly stated position statements almost never differentiate between parties and correspond to existing political developments in the country.", "For example, most parties in the 1990s called for a peaceful settlement of the Georgian-Abkhazian conflict, while virtually every party since the Rose Revolution has publicly backed Georgia's integration into the European Union and liberal economic reforms.Political party representatives briefing European colleagues ahead of the 2020 parliamentary election.Unlike many other European democracies, political parties in Georgia are defined by the Constitution, Article 3 of which states that, \"Political parties shall participate in the formation and exercise of the political will of the people.\"", "The Political Associations Act of 1997 regulates the creation and activities of parties and require all new parties to be created by a founding assembly of at least 300 members.", "Parties are free to regulate their own membership procedures, although the law requires parties to maintain an executive board of at least three members.", "For most parties, these boards are appointed by party leadership, although intra-party democracy has slowly developed in recent years: in 2013, the United National Movement became the first party to hold a presidential primary, Girchi would become the first party to hold primaries to decide the makeup of its electoral list in the 2020 parliamentary election, while UNM would become the first party to hold elections for its executive board in 2023.Despite the large amount of active political parties in Georgia, the Georgian Constitution provides for the prohibition of parties based on certain criteria.", "Parties that advocate for the overthrow of the government, the violation of Georgia's territorial integrity, civil strife or violence based on ethnicity, geography, or social classes are banned.", "Under the current Constitution, only the Constitutional Court has a right to review the constitutionality and ban a political party.", "The request to ban a political party can be submitted to the court by the President, the Government, or by at least one fifth of the Members of Parliament.", "As of 2023, two parties have been banned under this rule, the Communist Party in 1991 and the Centrists Party in 2016.There have been several legislative initiatives to ban the United National Movement, mostly proposed by the Alliance of Patriots.", "Several several civil society organizations and parliamentary deputies have suggested to ban the Conservative Movement party.Political parties in Georgia have historically formed alliances to create electoral blocs.", "The first such bloc dates back to the 1990 legislative election when seven anti-Soviet parties formed the Round Table – Free Georgia alliance to defeat the Communist Party in the country's first free elections and bring Zviad Gamsakhurdia to power.", "A total of five blocs took part in that year's elections.", "Since then, blocs have mostly been used by opposition parties as a way to join forces to defeat an incumbent government: the National Democrats-UNM-Republican Party alliance of 2003 against Shevardnadze's government, the United Opposition of 2008 against Mikheil Saakashvili, the Georgian Dream coalition of 2012, and Strength is in Unity currently bringing together three parties against Georgian Dream.", "Blocs have been criticized for encouraging political polarization and discouraging issues-based debates.", "Election reform in 2021 banned electoral blocs in all future elections, which in turn has encouraged small parties to integrate with each other ahead of the 2024 election.=== Factions and Political Groups ===Members of Parliament are entitled to join factions, or groups of at least seven MPs elected from the same party or electoral bloc.", "Factions are formal, publicly funded and regulated parliamentary bodies entitled to several rights, such as committee and delegation quotas, summoning ministers for special hearings, nominating candidates for Parliamentary Chair and deputy chair, and be represented in the Parliamentary Bureau that sets the legislative agenda.", "There are currently two factions in Parliament: Georgian Dream and Strength is in Unity.Parliamentary Opposition sitting in the Main Hall of Parliament.In 2021, Parliament adopted a controversial amendment to parliamentary regulations allowing any two MPs elected from the same party to create a \"Political Group\" in Parliament with effectively the same powers as factions, with questions raised about its constitutionality.", "Four political groups were created under that umbrella: Lelo, Girchi, Group of Reforms, and the European Socialists.", "In June 2023, Parliament adopted further regulatory changes allowing MPs to create Political Groups even if elected under another party banner, allowing the creation of the People's Power and Euro-Optimists groups.", "Large opposition parties have criticized these measures as creative incentives for the dissolution of large opposition parties, especially as Political Groups are entitled to public funding.The large powers granted to Factions and Political Groups have in turn lowered the influence of independent MPs.", "Starting with the 2024 parliamentary election, the abolition of majoritarian districts will ban the electoral participation of non-partisan candidates, while those MPs that leave political parties and refuse to join a faction or group receive less office funding, less rights in Parliament, and are not entitled to travel reimbursements.=== Public funding ===The large majority of political party budgets comes from public funding, as prescribed by the 1997 Political Associations Act and amendments to the law adopted in 2020.Any political party that receives at least 1% in the previous parliamentary election is entitled to public funding based on its results: 15,000 GEL per vote for the first 50,000 votes and 5 GEL for each subsequent vote.", "A party loses its public funding if it loses at least half of its seats within one parliamentary convocation or if at least half of the MPs fail to attend a majority of parliamentary sessions.The parliamentary boycott by opposition parties that followed the 2020 election led to a controversial proposal on abolishing public funding for boycotting parties, a proposal that was criticized by the European Union and eventually scrapped." ], [ "Separatism", "In the first half of the 1990s, Georgia suffered from a series of separatist conflicts, which led to ''de facto'' independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.", "Both of these regions enjoyed autonomous status within the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic and wanted to remain within renewed Soviet Union as Georgia pushed for independence.", "Eventually, the conflicts developed into full-scale wars which left thousands of people dead.", "During the War in Abkhazia (1992–1993), roughly 230,000 to 250,000 Georgians were expelled from Abkhazia by Abkhaz separatists and North Caucasian volunteers (including Chechens).", "Around 23,000 Georgians fled South Ossetia as well.Since the 1990s, the territorial problems have been one of the most important problems in Georgian politics.", "Under President Eduard Shevardnadze, several efforts were made to defuse the tensions and reintegrate these breakaway republics through diplomatic means.", "In 1996, the Ergneti market was opened and soon became the place where Georgians and South Ossetians traded.", "In 1996, Lyudvig Chibirov won the presidential elections in South Ossetia.", "A memorandum on \"Measures for providing security and confidence building\" was signed in Moscow on 16 May 1996, which was regarded as the first step towards a rapprochement between Georgia and the separatists of South Ossetia.", "This was followed up by several meetings between the President of Georgia, Eduard Shevardnadze, and the ''de facto'' President of South Ossetia, Lyudvig Chibirov.", "They met in Vladikavkaz in 1996, in Java in 1997, and in Borjomi in 1998.These resulted in some positive developments as the talks about IDP return, economic development, a political solution to the issues, and the protection of the population in the conflict zone.In April–May 1998, the conflict between Georgia and Abkhaz separatists escalated once again in the Gali District when several hundred Abkhaz forces entered the villages still populated by Georgians to support the separatist-held parliamentary elections.", "Despite criticism from the opposition, Eduard Shevardnadze, President of Georgia, refused to deploy troops against Abkhazia.", "The conflict developed into six-day war between Abkhaz separatists and local Georgian guerillas.", "Georgia's opposition blamed President Eduard Shevardnadze for losing the war by not supporting the guerillas with the Georgian Military.", "Shevardnadze declared that one of the reasons he had not sent in the military was it was not combat-ready.", "A ceasefire was negotiated on May 20.The hostilities resulted in hundreds of casualties from both sides and an additional 20,000 Georgian refugees.In September 2001, around 400 Chechen fighters and 80 Georgian guerrillas appeared in the Kodori Valley.", "The Chechen-Georgian paramilitaries advanced as far as Sukhumi, but finally were repelled by the Abkhazian forces and Gudauta-based Russian peacekeepers.", "Intense fighting took place between Georgian forces and the South Ossetians between 8 and 19 August.", "This was the first military confrontation for twelve years.", "At a high-level meeting between Georgian Prime Minister Zurab Zhvania and South Ossetian leader Eduard Kokoity on 5 November in Sochi, Russia, an agreement on demilitarization of the conflict zone was reached.", "Some exchange of fire continued in the zone of conflict after the ceasefire, apparently primarily initiated by the Ossetian side.The Rose Revolution in 2003 resulted in a severe deterioration of relations with Russia, fuelled also by Russia's open assistance and support to the two secessionist areas.", "Despite these increasingly difficult relations, in May 2005 Georgia and Russia reached a bilateral agreement by which Russian military bases (dating back to the Soviet era) in Batumi and Akhalkalaki were withdrawn.", "Russia withdrew all personnel and equipment from these sites by December 2007 while failing to withdraw from the Gudauta base in Abkhazia, which it was required to vacate after the adoption of the Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty during the 1999 Istanbul summit.There was a Russo-Georgian diplomatic crisis in April 2008.A bomb explosion on 1 August 2008 targeted a car transporting Georgian peacekeepers.", "South Ossetians were responsible for instigating this incident, which marked the opening of hostilities and injured five Georgian servicemen, then several South Ossetian militiamen were killed by snipers.", "South Ossetian separatists began shelling Georgian villages on 1 August.", "These artillery bombardments caused Georgian servicemen to return fire periodically.On 7 August 2008, the Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili announced a unilateral ceasefire and called for peace talks.", "More attacks on Georgian villages (located in the South Ossetian conflict zone) were soon matched with gunfire from Georgian troops, who then proceeded to move in the direction of the capital of the self-proclaimed Republic of South Ossetia (Tskhinvali) on the night of 8 August, reaching its centre in the morning of 8 August.", "According to Russian military expert Pavel Felgenhauer, the Ossetian provocation was aimed at triggering Georgian retaliation, which was needed as a pretext for a Russian military invasion.", "According to Georgian intelligence and several Russian media reports, parts of the regular (non-peacekeeping) Russian Army had already moved to South Ossetian territory through the Roki Tunnel before the Georgian military action.Russia accused Georgia of \"aggression against South Ossetia\" and began a big land, air and sea invasion of Georgia under the pretext of a \"peace enforcement\" operation on 8 August 2008.Abkhaz forces opened a second front on 9 August with the Battle of the Kodori Valley, an attack on the Kodori Gorge, held by Georgia.", "Tskhinvali was seized by the Russian military by 10 August.", "Russian forces occupied Georgian cities beyond the disputed territories.During the conflict, there was a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Georgians in South Ossetia, including destruction of Georgian settlements after the war had ended.", "The war displaced 192,000 people and while many were able to return to their homes after the war, a year later around 30,000 ethnic Georgians remained displaced.", "In an interview published in ''Kommersant'', South Ossetian leader Eduard Kokoity said he would not allow Georgians to return.The President of France, Nicolas Sarkozy, negotiated a ceasefire agreement on 12 August 2008.Russia recognized Abkhazia and South Ossetia as separate republics on 26 August.", "The Georgian government severed diplomatic relations with Russia.", "Russian forces left the buffer areas bordering Abkhazia and South Ossetia on 8 October and the European Union Monitoring Mission in Georgia was dispatched to the buffer areas.", "Since the war, Georgia has maintained that Abkhazia and South Ossetia are occupied Georgian territories." ], [ "Role of the Georgian Orthodox Church", "Prime Minister Mamuka Bakhtadze, Tbilisi Mayor Kakha Kaladze, and President Zourabichvili attending a mass in 2019.The Constitution of Georgia guarantees the special status of the Georgian Orthodox Church.", "The Constitution recognizes the special role of the Georgian Orthodox Church in Georgian history and nation-building.", "The relations between the Georgian government and the Georgian Orthodox Church were outlined in the 2002 Constitutional Agreement between the two entities, also known as the Concordat, which grants the Church special privileges, including ownership of all churches and monasteries in Georgia, allows Church involvement in state education matters, and exempts it from taxation.", "The Government of Georgia provides an annual 25 million GEL in direct funding to the Georgian Orthodox Church for as a compensation for persecution during the Soviet Union, a figure that does not include various other grants, tax benefits, and property transfers.Additionally, the Georgian Orthodox Church is considered the most influential and trusted institution in the public sphere.", "According to a 2013 survey, 95% respondents had a favorable opinion of its work.", "84% of the population in Georgia practices Orthodox Christianity, primarily the Georgian Orthodox Church.", "In public polls, the Church is regularly named as the most trusted institution in Georgia.", "Catholicos-Patriarch Ilia II is shown as the most trusted public figure in Georgia by various polls.", "Accordingly, the Church plays a significant role in the political life of Georgia.===Church as a mediator===The Church often takes the role of a mediator between the rivaling political forces, helping to defuse the tensions.", "In early October 1991, the Church served as a mediator between the government of President Zviad Gamsakhurdia and rebel factions of the opposition during the political crisis in Georgia.", "During the dispute which followed the 2008 presidential elections, Patriarch Illia II served as intermediary between the government and the opposition.", "The Church also often served as mediator between Georgian Dream and United National Movement.", "In the words of one of the priests, \"The administrative leadership of the church was trying to reconcile conflicting parties and to declare, that it is a mother for everyone, this side or either that side and this is the right thing.", "This is right in one condition, for example, United National Movement and also Georgian Dream representatives were coming to me.", "The \"daughter-in-law and mother-in-law\" come to me and I am trying to consolidate them, all the sides are coming.", "This is the right position, because the church cannot be a church for one side, if you are not trying to obviously give preference to one side\".Additionally, the Church often served as de facto diplomatic go-between between Georgia and other countries.", "In 2013, when Georgia and Russia were trying to normalize relations, Patriarch Illia II met Russian President Vladimir Putin and Russian Patriarch Kirill in Moscow and served as de facto diplomatic go-between between Georgia and Russia.", "During the meetings, the parties discussed the strained relations between the countries and said that \"we should spare no efforts in order to bring these relations out of the deadlock\".===Cultural politics===The Church plays a significant role in the politics as a major conservative actor in favor of Georgia's traditional values.", "The relations between the Church and the state have evolved drastically since the Rose Revolution.", "While the Saakashvili administration sought to push for liberal reforms until 2012, which also created an environment that allowed for public criticism of certain Church activities, the Georgian Dream government has heavily relied on its ties to the Orthodox leadership.", "Prior to the 2018 presidential election, the Georgian government abandoned a plan to legalize cultivation and selling of the marijuana in Georgia due to opposition from the Georgian Orthodox Church.", "It was alleged that the plan was designed to allow Bidzina Ivanishvili to start business project relating to cultivation and selling of the marijuana.", "Even though the authorities backed down from endorsing a proposed drug reform, the Georgian Constitutional Court still legalized consumption of marijuana, which also caused backlash and a protest movement from the Georgian Orthodox Church.It has been largely assumed that the Church played a major role in the Batumi local government banning the construction of a second mosque in the municipality and in the ban by Rustavi city officials on the Catholic Church to build a local chapel.Georgian Orthodox Church has been campaigning against the LGBT movement in Georgia.", "Georgian population maintains negative views about homosexuality.", "Georgian Patriarch Ilia II described homosexuality as a disease and immoral.", "The view is shared by the Georgian population, which considers homosexuality to be unacceptable.", "According to the Georgian Orthodox Church, the promotion of LGBT movement is depravity and unacceptable to Georgian morals and traditions.", "It violates the rights of majority by forcing immorality onto the traditional and Christian Georgian population.", "In 2013, the Georgian Orthodox Church urged the Georgian authorities to stop LGBT rally planned for Tbilisi on 17 May to mark International Day Against Homophobia, stating that the rally was a violation of the majority's rights and an insult to the Georgian traditions.", "Following his comments, thousands of Georgians, led by Georgian Orthodox priests, took to the streets of Tbilisi to protest the LGBT rally.", "In 2014, the Georgian Orthodox Church declared May 17 \"a day of family sanctity\" and promised to protect family values.", "Since then, the Day of the Holiness of the Family is celebrated every year with rallies in Tbilisi and other cities.", "Many priests took part in protests against Tbilisi Pride in 2021 and 2023 as well.In his sermons Ilia II has condemned homosexuality, abortion, and demanded television be censored to remove sexual content, has denounced school textbooks for insufficient patriotism, lectured against extreme liberalism and warned against pseudo-culture from abroad.", "He has opposed attempts to give other confessions equal status under Georgian law and has condemned international educational exchanges and working abroad as unpatriotic.In 2014, the Georgian Parliament adopted the ''Law of Georgia on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination''.", "It was recommended by the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) Country Progress Report 2013 for Georgia as a prerequisite for finalizing the Visa Liberalization Action Plan between Georgian and the European Union.", "Article 1 of the law prohibited \"discrimination\" against LGBT.", "The Georgian Orthodox Church urged the Parliament to suspend discussions of the bill, saying that \"making illegality a law is a huge sin\" and that \"law will not be accepted by the believers\".", "According to the Church, the law imposes immorality on the vast majority of Georgian population against their will.", "The critics have alleged that the law violates the right of association and freedom of religion." ], [ "Ongoing debates", "=== Electoral system ===Electoral reform has been one of the most recurring debates in Georgian political history, with dissatisfaction being one of the most important sources of criticisms for successive administrations.", "The most contentious debates surround the electoral system and the electoral thershold.", "The electoral system was much-debated topic during the 2010 and 2017-2018 constitutional reforms.", "Following the 2016 parliamentary elections, the opposition proposed a change from the existing semi-proportional system to a fully proportional one for 2020, while the ruling party wanted to postpone the electoral transition to 2024.At that time, the 150-seat Georgian parliament was elected through a mixed system of 77 seats by proportional representation (5% threshold) and 73 single-seat majoritarian constituencies.", "This remained a divisive issue in the following years.", "During the summer 2019 protests, the opposition demanded once more a change to a fully proportional system for the 2020 Georgian parliamentary election which secured a promise from Georgian Dream party leader Bidzina Ivanishvili to do so.", "In November 2019, however, individual members of parliament voted against a bill to change the electoral system, sparking renewed protests.", "majoritarian members of parliament (MPs elected from particular constituencies) from Georgian Dream blocked the electoral reform, instead they proposed a bicameral legislature with a majoritarian Senate and a proportional Parliament.", "Similar compromise solution was made by President Salome Zourabichvili in 2020.This eventually led to a political crisis in which EU and U.S. mediated.", "Ultimately, the election code was changed for the 2020 elections to a mixed system of 120 proportional (1% threshold, lowered from a one-off 3%) and 30 single-seat majoritarian constituencies.", "It also barred any party to claim a majority of seats in the Parliament if they receive less than 40% of votes.The proponents of the proportional electoral system claim that the majoritarian system disproportionately benefits the ruling party and does not reflects reality accurately, allowing the ruling party to win most of the seats in the local constituencies and receive many more seats than it received votes.", "They also argue that the system increases the chances getting a one-party or two-party parliament.", "The proponents of the semi-proportional or fully majoritarian systems argue that such system provides the direct link between local areas and their directly elected representatives, promotes accountability of members of Parliament and weakens the party's vertical power.", "While proponents of the proportional system claim that these benefits the advantages of a majoritarian system practically do not work because of the weak democratic institutions since the majortarian MPs lobby for their own interests, their opponents call for the introduction of recall elections to solve these problems.Another contentious debate surrounds the system of the electoral threshold, with opposition political parties calling for a cancellation of the 5% electoral threshold to guarantee more pluralistic representation.", "In 2022, the ruling Georgian Dream party pledged to lower the threshold from 5 to 3% if the European Council granted Georgia membership candidacy status, which has not happened yet.", "Out of 15 political parties currently represented in Parliament and elected through a no-threshold election in 2020, only two (Georgian Dream and Strength is in Unity) received more than 5% of the vote.=== Oligarchy ===The influence of businessmen in Georgian politics has been one of the most contentious topics of public debates in recent years.", "After serving a year as Prime Minister, Bidzina Ivanishvili, who is the wealthiest man in Georgia, resigned upon the presidential election of Giorgi Margvelashvili in October 2013 and claimed to have left politics altogether.", "Many observers and opposition groups accused Ivanishvili of remaining the most influential decision-maker in the ruling Georgian Dream party since then, even though he held no public post.In 2018, Ivanishvili formally returned in politics and took over as chairman of Georgian Dream shortly before the presidential election of that year, leading the party's endorsement of presidential candidate Salome Zourabichvili.", "As President, Zourabichvili would later confirm coordinating many of her decisions with Ivanishvili, including discussing her pardoning of anti-government activists arrested in 2019.Though Ivanishvili once again announced his departure from politics in early 2021, Zourabichvili would say as recently as 2022 that Ivanishvili maintained a \"considerable influence\" in the government's activities.According to the 2020 Transparency International report, Bidzina Ivanishvili's influence has grown over the years (and \"exponentially since 2016\") despite his alleged separation from politics and that he held considerable control over the Government, law enforcement agencies, the judiciary, parliamentary institutions, and the media, while maintaining power through the use of fabricated criminal cases to sway election results, electoral fraud, persecution and blackamail of political opponents, maintaining powerful decision-makers out of public office, engaging in hostile takeover practices to control the private sector, cracking down on protests.", "Several high-level government officials in office since 2012 held positions in Ivanishvili's various companies before joining the public service, including: Prime Ministers Giorgi Kvirikashvili and Irakli Gharibashvili (Cartu Bank), Interior Minister Vakhtang Gomelauri (personal bodyguard of Ivanishvili before 2012), former General Prosecutor Shalva Tadumadze (his personal lawyer before 2012), State Security Service head Grigol Liluashvili (Cartu Bank), former Infrastructure Ministers Maia Tskitishvili and Nodar Javakhishvili (Cartu Bank), former Health Ministers Ekaterine Tikaradze and Davit Sergeenko (former directors of a private clinic owned by Ivanishvili), former Economy Minister Dimitri Kumsishvili (Cartu Bank), and Special State Protection Service head Anzor Chubinidze (former head of his personal bodyguard service).Former Parliamentary chairman Davit Usupashvili, who himself served under Ivanishvili's Georgian Dream, admitted that both the administrations of Prime Ministers of Irakli Gharibashvili and Giorgi Kvirikashvili were \"not entirely free in their staff appointment policies, including in the appointment of the Cabinet of Ministers and the offices where the appointment procedure is determined by law.", "\"Though Ivanishvili formally departed from politics in January 2021, civil society and media organizations have alleged that he continues to maintain a stronghold over power.", "He has made no public appearance, though he has issued a handful of addresses to the public, including one calling former Prime Minister Giorgi Gakharia a \"traitor\" after the latter resigned to join the opposition and one confirming an alleged meeting with U.S.", "Ambassador Kelly C. Degnan shortly after the Russian invasion of Ukraine.", "In September 2021, a massive leak of domestic intelligence files in the State Security Service revealed a series of briefs on opposition, journalist, civil society, and diplomat activities provided by the SSS to Ivanishvili personally.There has been significant controversy about involvement of Georgian businessman and former defence minister Davit Kezerashvili in the Georgian politics.", "Kezerashvili served on several high-ranking positions during the Saakashvili's presidency, culminating in his appointment as a defence minister in 2006.He served as a defence minister during the Russo-Georgian war and resigned shortly after following the widespread criticism.", "During these time, the claims surfaced about Kezerashvili's wealth, some alleging that Kezerashvili was involved in political corruption while being a defence minister.", "According to the Swiss outlet Tribune de Genève, Kezerashvili's trustees registered three offshore shell companies into which he moved millions of dollars two days after his resignation from the post of defence minister of Georgia.", "He also left the country afterwards.", "The investigation was started in 2012 and in 2021, the Supreme Court of Georgia found that Kezerashvili was guilty of embezzling over €5 million during his time as defence minister under the auspices of a combat training project, later transferring this money abroad.", "The court sentenced Kezerashvili to ten years in prison due to these corrupt practices.", "Kezerashvili, living in the United Kingdom, managed to avoid imprisonment.In 2023, the BBC published a journalistic investigation titled \"On the hunt for the businessmen behind a billion-dollar scam\", alleging that Kezerashvili is in charge of a global network of fraudulent and unregulated investment brands which scam vulnerable people out of their savings on the pretext of making investments (so-called fraudulent \"call centre\" scheme).", "In the documentary, it is revealed that Kezerashvili is known \"Mr. Offshore\" and has amassed millions through these fraudulent practices.", "The global scamming network primarily targets European pensioners through a swindling scam.", "Currently, Europol, Eurojust and several national governments (including Georgian and German authorities) are cooperating to uncover these crimes and bring criminals to responsibility.It is alleged that Kezerashvili invests large amount of money in Georgian political parties, civil society organizations and media outlets.", "In 2019, Kezerashvili bought the a controlling stake in Formula TV, a Georgian pro-opposition TV channel.", "Kezerashvili is considered to be a major financial donor to several Georgian opposition parties, including the United National Movement, Strategy Aghmashenebeli, European Georgia, Girchi — More Freedom and Droa.", "He has provided funds for Girchi TV, operated by the opposition Girchi — More Freedom party.In early 2023, Kezerashvili was accused of interfering the intra-party elections in United National Movement to elect executive board.", "Nika Melia, chairman of United National Movement, accused Kezerashvili of plotting against him to gain \"informal influence\" over the party.", "Melia described him as \"oligarch\" and accused him of trying to replace him with Levan Khabeishvili, who allegedly has close ties to Kezerashvili.", "As a result, Khabeishvili was elected as a new chairman of United National Movement.", "It has been alleged that Kezerashvili played significant role in the election of Khabeishvili.On 17 June 2022, the European Commission recommended that Georgia not receive the EU membership candidacy status before fulfilling 12 reform priorities.", "The fifth point is the implementation of the \"commitment to 'de-oligarchization' by eliminating the excessive influence of vested interests in economic, political, and public life.\"", "In response, Georgian Dream introduced a bill similar to Ukrainian anti-oligarch law that would have targeted business leaders with significant involvement in politics, media, and non-governmental sector, although critics alleged that the bill would not be effective.=== Gender and political representation ===Nino Burjanadze, first woman to serve as (interim) President of Georgia (2003–2004, 2007–2008).The issue of gender representation in Georgian politics has long been a topic of debate.", "In 2011, Parliament passed a bill that created an incentive program for parties to include more women in their electoral lists by increasing by 10% public funding for parties running at least 20% of women in their candidate slates.There have been several controversial proposals in recent years to regarding the gender representation, such as imposing a gender-based quota in Parliament.", "Such attempts failed several times in 2017 and 2018, before being passed as part of the June 2019 constitutional amendments.", "Current legislation requires all political parties to include at least one woman every four candidates in their electoral lists, a number set to increase to one out of three in 2028, before the quota is set to expire in 2032.Libertarian and conservative organizations have advocated against gender-based quotas in parliamentary elections.", "In 2020, the political party Girchi and journalist Tamar Chergoleishvili filed two Constitutional Court lawsuits against the quotas, one arguing against the legitimacy of imposing standards on political parties and the other opposed to the ''de facto'' ban the quotas imposed on a theoretical \"all-female party\".", "They claimed that the gender-based quotas violated numerous rights, such as right to equality, as well as passive and active voting rights of party supporters and partners to fill the party list in accordance with their free will.The Constitutional Court found the relevant legislative norms constitutional.", "It claimed that the quotas were meant to ensure equality and that the state has positive obligations to promote opportunities for the women to be represented in politics by introducing measures against \"hindering artificial barriers\" and \"factual inequalities\", which the Court blamed for low representation of women in politics.", "The court also upheld that these were \"provisional measures\" and, due to its purpose to promote women's representation, argued that the law did not mandate the male quota, thus greenlighting the women-only party lists.", "The court decision proved to be controversial, with the Girchi party unsuccessfully filling another lawsuit to challenge the norms.", "Parties which challenge the gender-based quotas as undemocratic or unconstitutional include Lelo, European Georgia, the Labor Party, Girchi and Conservative Movement.", "Certain political leaders have also questioned the role of women in politics: Labor Party leader Shalva Natelashvili spoke out against gender-based quotas and gender-based violence legislation in 2020, Girchi leader Iago Khvichia claimed that \"men are more courageous and biologically determined to hold power\".Based on the 2016 Global Gender Gap report published by the World Economic Forum, Georgia ranked 114th out of 144 countries in women's participation in politics.", "Salome Zourabichvili became the first woman elected President of Georgia in 2018, although Nino Burjanadze served as interim President twice in 2003–2004 and 2007–2008.Sexual harassment and threats have regularly been used as an attack method against female politicians, such as MP Tinatin Bokuchava and Eka Beselia, the latter being a victim of a series of sex tape leaks in 2016.Other quotas have been proposed, especially for a diaspora representation in electoral lists proposed by President Zourabichvili in 2021.The United National Movement has advocated for the launch of electronic voting in future parliamentary elections as a tool to guarantee more diaspora involvement in Georgian politics.=== Decentralization ===There have been proposal to increase decentralization of Georgian political management at the local and international levels.", "A 2020 report by Freedom House gave Georgia a 2.75/7 score on local government empowerment, indicating a strongly centralized system, while the European Parliament's 2022 report on the implementation of the Georgia-EU Association Agreement criticized the lack of decentralization.", "Civil Georgia has described the issue as \"something that the Georgian democracy has failed to come to grips with since its independence.", "\"Inheriting a centralized system of governance under the Soviet Union, Georgia's first attempts at decentralization came with the Local Self-Governance Act of 1996 that created elected assemblies at the town-level, even though most powers remained at the time in the hands of district governors (\"Gambgebeli\") appointed by the President.", "In 2001, the American International Institute drafted a bill sponsored by civil society organizations that envisioned direct elections at the local and district levels, while dividing Tbilisi into historical districts with their own independent elected boards, but Parliament instead passed a bill sponsored by President Shevardnadze that only allowed for the direct elections of municipal mayors, except in Tbilisi and Poti.Following the Rose Revolution, several decentralization reforms were proposed, including handing over control of public schools to local governments and decentralizing the Ministry of Internal Affairs by creating the position of district-level elected sheriffs subordinate to local governments.", "However, most of these reforms were eventually abandoned by the Saakashvili administration.", "Instead, the latter implemented a major USAID and UNDP-backed reform in 2006 that abolished all town-level assemblies, maintaining only district-level elected boards, while partially decentralizing public property ownership.", "Removing the country's political center from Tbilisi was promoted by Mikheil Saakashvili, leading to the move of the Constitutional Court to Batumi in 2005 and the Parliament to Kutaisi in 2012–2018.A major decentralization reform proposal in 2014 that would have granted large powers to local governments and created elected regional governor positions failed after receiving major opposition from the Georgian Orthodox Church, while Prime Minister Bidzina Ivanishvili talked of slowing down decentralization reforms at the time.", "The Government adopted a Decentralization Strategy for 2020–2025 that envisioned fiscal decentralization, although to this day, the only step taken toward this goal has been to grant local governments the power to create LEPLs.During the 2020 parliamentary election, most major opposition parties backed proposals to decentralize law enforcement and the judiciary system by implementing elections for municipal judges and sheriffs.The local elections system has also been the subject of debates.", "Some groups advocating for decentralization have called for the election of regional governors, currently appointed by the Prime Minister.", "Others have also argued for the election of town-level assemblies, which were abolished in 2005.=== Polarization ===Public discussion in Kutaisi held under the National Accord Process in 2022.Political polarization has been identified as a major challenge to democratic development in Georgia by both domestic and international observes, including civil society organizations, diplomats, and political figures.", "Analyses of recent trends have shown that a major wave of polarization between supporters of the ruling Georgian Dream party and their opposition picked up following the 2018 presidential election.", "President Salome Zourabichvili, herself elected in that election, has cited \"depolarization\" as a priority of her presidency, calling it a \"cancer of society\" in a speech in front of the European Parliament in 2020.A March 2023 poll by the International Republican Institute revealed that political polarization was considered the largest national challenge for 5% of Georgians, in par with \"ethnic and religious internal conflicts\" and above healthcare and public safety.", "Polarization was described as a national security threat in a 2019 report by the State Security Service, while \"fomenting extreme political polarization\" was citing as a \"major national shortcoming\" by the Public Defender's Office that same year.A considerable rise in polarization has been noted since the 2018 presidential election and the 2019 Tbilisi protests.", "These were followed by a string of various political crises, culminating with allegations of massive voter fraud during the 2020 parliamentary election and a refusal to recognize its results by opposition parties.", "During the subsequent negotiations mediated by EU Council President Charles Michel, the latter stated that, \"political polarization must stop\".", "Prime Minister Giorgi Gakharia named \"polarization and confrontation\" among the reasons for his abrupt resignation in February 2021, naming them as risks to the \"country's future and economic development\".While there is no analytical consensus on the roots of polarization in Georgia, President Zourabichvili has long associated it with \"part of the Georgian nature\", identifying divisions as far back as the anti-Soviet dissident movement.", "Some have blamed the widespread use of unregulated social networks, tensions against modernization, and increasingly radical electoral choices as contributing factors to polarization, while others, including Zourabichvili, have laid accused Russia's 'soft power' that \"accentuates the divide through fake news\".During the 2020–2021 Georgian political crisis, the President Salome Zourabichvili announced a process to \"find ways to reach a common understanding of the recent history, to help heal the wounds of the past and to move forward\".", "This process, which she named the National Accord Process, received the blessing of the Georgian Orthodox Church and was inaugurated on 16 December 2021 during a reception of political parties held at the Orbeliani Palace.", "In the event, she condemned national division, the \"severe polarization on every issue\" that she cited as a cause for the wave of emigration, and the lack of national unity in the face of separatist conflicts.", "At the same time, the President publicly refused to pardon Saakashvili, to respect Sandro Girgvliani's mother Irina Enukidze's memory, as well as that of those who died during his presidency due to government actions.", "The President described the process as a \"Georgian project\" without the intervention of foreign help, in a sharp contrast to previous Western attempts to negotiate an end to the political crisis.", "She's also attempted to frame a new analysis of Georgia's post-Soviet history as part of the process.", "The National Accord Process has been described as \"unstructured\", while the President stated that the first stage of the process would be one of listening: she met dozens of political figures representing various political parties and civil society leaders in the first weeks of the process, including a meeting with religious leaders from more than a dozen confessions.", "The first hearing of the NAP was held on 17 February 2022 at the Orbeliani Palace.UNM's Nika Melia refused to take part in the 16 December reception but backed the process on 21 December in a speech announcing a hunger strike to call for Saakashvili's release.", "The latter also applauded the initiative but called nonetheless for massive anti-governmental demonstrations.", "GD Chairman Irakli Kobakhidze talked of \"justice\" as the foundation for any attempt of reconciliation between political forces.While Zourabichvili remained opposed to pardoning Saakashvili, she used in December 2021 her predecessor Giorgi Margvelashvili as a mediator with Saakashvili, although she's rejected a proposal by Saakashvili to hold a \"three-presidents summit\".The National Accord Process launched in December 2021, aiming to launch non-partisan public policy discussions, as a tool against polarization, collapsed within a few months.European Council President Charles Michel and President Zourabichvili mediated the 19 April Agreement between political parties in 2021, before the latter collapsed.Among the 12 reform priorities identified in June 2022 by the European Commission for Georgia to fulfill before being granted membership candidacy status, the first recommendation is \"addressing political polarization\".", "Several steps have been proposed by various opposition and civil society groups, including power-sharing agreements within Parliament, an end to inflammatory rhetoric, a decrease in the cases of assaults against political opponents, ending the use of Strategic Communication Departments to spread information against opposition groups, and allowing more debates in Parliament.", "Several political parties, notably Girchi and Citizens, have called for abolishing the 5% electoral threshold to promote smaller parties and reduce polarization.The ruling Georgian Dream party suggested to unite around common goals to overcome the polarization, such as securing the EU candidate status for Georgia.Some analysts have argued that polarization in itself was not a problem, but rather a consequence of the democratic backsliding in Georgia.", "The public polling organization CRRC Georgia has disagreed with the interpretation that polarization was widespread in Georgia, given that a large majority of voters were self-described non-partisan.=== Electoral concerns ===Georgia has struggled with instituting a free and fair electoral environment since its independence, with major controversies and accusations of voter fraud directed at the administrations of Eduard Shevardnadze (1992–2003) and Mikheil Saakashvili (2004–2012), and the Georgian Dream government (since 2012).A 2000 report by the U.S. Congress's Helsinki Commission noted an overreaching \"influence over election commissions countrywide\" already during the 1999 parliamentary elections, which helped Shevardnadze's Citizens Union party secure overwhelming victories that year and in the 2000 presidential election.", "Cases of ballot stuffing, protocol tampering, and a lack of transparency in the vote counting process were criticized throughout the Shevardnadze era by OSCE/ODIHR observation missions.Large-scale voter fraud led to the Rose Revolution in November 2003, while presidential and parliamentary elections held subsequently in 2004 remain known as the most free polls in Georgian history, with an OSCE report noting that they \"demonstrated commendable progress in relation to previous elections\".", "However, the Saakashvili administration was also plagued with accusations of voter manipulation during the 2008 presidential elections, the results of which would not be recognized by the opposition (leading to a permanent political crisis with opposition parties continuously calling for his resignation until the end of his term).", "The 2012 parliamentary elections were characterized by several instances of political parties (namely the then-ruling United National Movement and its opponent Georgian Dream) engaging in voter-bribing activities.The State Security Service has been accused of election interference.The 2020 Georgian parliamentary elections were a point of contention between the opposition and the ruling party, with the former claiming that the election results were rigged.", "They have alleged large-scale interference by the State Security Service (SSS) to influence elections results during 2020 elections and previously the 2018 presidential elections.", "The ruling party dismissed such accusations, pointing out that the opposition and NGOs failed to provide any relevant evidence of the electoral fraud.", "The 2020 elections were recognized as free and fair by the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly and other international organizations, although noting some flaws.", "The United States embassy in Georgia, commenting on the OSCE statement, said: \"We call on all parties to address these deficiencies in advance of the second round and in future elections.", "These efforts to corrupt the electoral process through voter intimidation, vote buying, interfering with ballot secrecy, blurring of party and official activities, and violence against election observers and journalists, while not sufficient to invalidate the results, continue to mar Georgia's electoral process and are unacceptable.\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Mataradze, Teona; Mühlfried, Florian: \"Leaving and Being Left Behind: Labor Migration in Georgia\" in the Caucasus Analytical Digeast No.", "4* Organized Crime and Illegal Trafficking in the Caucasus.", "Articles in the Caucasus Analytical Digest No.", "9* Cooley, Alexander; Mitchell, Lincoln: \"Georgia: The Interconnections between Democracy and Security\" in the Caucasus Analytical Digest No.", "17* Anti-Corruption Reforms in Georgia.", "Articles in the Caucasus Analytical Digest No.", "26" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Georgia (country)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Georgia''' is an emerging free market economy.", "Its gross domestic product fell sharply following the dissolution of the Soviet Union but recovered in the mid-2000s, growing in double digits thanks to the economic and democratic reforms brought by the peaceful Rose Revolution.", "Georgia continued its economic progress since, \"moving from a near-failed state in 2003 to a relatively well-functioning market economy in 2014\".", "In 2007, the World Bank named Georgia the World's number one economic reformer, and has consistently ranked the country at the top of its ease of doing business index.Georgia's economy is supported by a relatively free and transparent atmosphere in the country.", "According to Transparency International's 2018 report, Georgia is the least corrupt nation in the Black Sea region, outperforming all of its immediate neighbors, as well as nearby European Union states.", "With a mixed news media environment, Georgia is also the only country in its immediate neighborhood where the press is not deemed unfree.Since 2014, Georgia is part of the European Union's Free Trade Area, with the EU continuing to be the country's largest trading partner, accounting for over a quarter of Georgia's total trade turnover.", "Following the EU trade pact, 2015 was marked by further increase in bilateral trade, whereas trade with the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) decreased precipitously." ], [ "History", "Before the 20th century Georgia had a largely agrarian economy.Georgia's modern economy has traditionally revolved around Black Sea tourism, cultivation of citrus fruits, tea and grapes; mining of manganese and copper; and the output of a large industrial sector producing wine, metals, machinery, chemicals, and textiles.Like many post-Soviet countries, Georgia went through a period of sharp economic decline during the 1990s, partially due to persistent tax evasion.", "\"During that period, international financial institutions played a critical role in Georgia's budgetary calculations.", "Multilateral and bilateral grants and loans totaled 116.4 million lari in 1997; they totaled 182.8 million lari in 1998.", "\"Economic recovery had been hampered by the separatist disputes in Abkhazia and South Ossetia, resistance to reform on the part of some corrupt and reactionary factions,and the Asian financial crisis of 1997.Under the leadership of President Shevardnadze (in office 1995–2003), the government nonetheless made some progress on basic market reforms: it liberalized all prices and most trade, introduced a stable national currency (the lari), and massively downsized government.During the late 1990s more than 10,500 small enterprises had been privatized, and although privatization of medium- and large-sized firms had been slow, more than 1,200 medium – and large-sized companies had been set up as joint stock companies.", "A law and a decree establishing the legal basis and procedures for state property privatization reduced the number of companies controlled by the state.The United States began assisting Georgia in the process of reform soon after the country gained independence from the Soviet Union.", "Gradually, the focus shifted from humanitarian to technical and institution-building programs.", "Provision of legal and technical advisors was complemented by training opportunities for parliamentarians, law enforcement officials, and economic advisers." ], [ "Recent macroeconomic performance", "Over the last few years Georgian economy has been one of the fastest in the FSU.", "Since 2003's Rose Revolution, the new Government of Georgia implemented broad and comprehensive reforms, that touched every aspect of the country's life.", "Economic reforms were addressed to liberalization of the economy and provision of sustainable economic growth, based on the private sector development.", "Establishment of an attractive business environment led to significant inflow of Foreign Direct Investment in the country, facilitating high economic growth rates.In 2013, Georgia ranked in the top ten countries in the Emerging Market Energy Security Growth Prosperity Index, according to an article published by ''CISTRAN Finance'' news.", "The index identifies emerging nations that have strong growth potential based on energy reserves and GDP.Following reforms, Georgia's economy successfully diversified and began showing rapid upward growth, averaging over 10% annual real GDP growth from 2004–2007, peaking at 12.3 percent in 2007.Overall, from 2004-2007, the economy of Georgia expanded by 35%.Georgia's economic liberalization policy demonstrated some resilience to external shocks – war with Russia in 2008 and the global financial crisis.", "Despite this, in 2008 Georgia economy grew by 2.3%.", "After contracting in 2009 (−3.8%), the economy recovered soon after, growing 6.3% in 2010 and 7.0% in 2011.The unemployment rate shrunk from 16.9% to 16.3% between 2009 and 2010.In 2013 the annual inflation rate in Georgia equaled 2.4%.", "It has been decreased significantly after 11.2% in 2010.Growth of inflation rate was the result of increasing food prices in the world and essential share of the inflation fluctuations came on variability of food prices, as far as the share of food is relatively high in consumer basket of Georgia.In 2011, IMF estimated current account balance of Georgia was −1.489 BN USD.", "Georgia has moderate deficits among the European and Transcaucasian Post-Soviet states.", "The trade with Georgia's major partners continued growing.", "As an example, in 2016, Georgia exported $87,263.53 worth of products to Armenia, and imported $144,931.92 worth of products from Armenia.", "Deficits in current account have been more than offset by strong foreign capital inflows, allowing the Georgian currency to appreciate.Evolution of alt= Rank Country Current account balance as a percentage of GDP (2010) 2011 IMF estimates 27.662 22.664 4.807 5.518 −2.091 −3.893 −13.873 −11.697 −15.522 −13.442 1.835 −1.860 −8.300 −9.897 3.565 2.424 −9.618 −11.700 −22.938 −8.320The government has managed to preserve financial stability thanks to the considerable aid provided by the US and international institutions.", "EBRD analysts believe that substantial international financial support and remittances from workers living abroad will cover the current account deficit in the medium term.", "IMF positively evaluated government's economic policy.", "2015 2016 2017 2018 2019* 2020 2021 2022 GDP at current prices, billion GEL 33.9 35.8 40.8 44.6 50.0 49.4 60.0 GDP at constant 2015 prices, billion GEL 33.9 34.9 36.6 38.4 40.4 37.8 41.5 GDP real growth, percent 3.0 2.9 4.8 4.8 5.1 -6.2 10.5 10.8 GDP deflator, percent 5.8 2.6 8.5 4.4 6.6 6.9 10.3 GDP per capita (at current prices), GEL 9 109.4 9 613.9 10 933.9 11 968.0 13 428.9 13 292.7 16 179.5 GDP per capita (at current prices), USD 4 012.6 4 062.1 4 358.5 4 722.0 4 763.5 4 274.6 5 023.2 GDP at current prices, billion USD 14.9 15.1 16.2 17.6 17.7 15.9 18.6" ], [ "Foreign direct investment in Georgia", "Large inflows of Foreign direct investment (FDI) have been a driving factor behind a rapid economic growth in Georgia since 2003.An attractive and liberal investment environment and equal approach to local and foreign investors makes the country an attractive destination for FDI.Stable economic development, liberal and free market oriented economic policy, 6 taxes only and reduced tax rates, reduced number of licenses and permissions, dramatically simplified administrative procedures, preferential trade regimes with foreign countries, advantageous geographic location, well developed, integrated and multimodal transport infrastructure, educated, skilled and competitive workforce presents a solid ground for successful business in Georgia.", "In addition to other advantages, Georgia has Free Industrial Zones, where companies are exempt from all the corporate taxes.From 2003 to 2011, FDI in Georgia amounted to US$8511.5 million.", "The highest volume of FDI – 2,015.0 million USD was reached in 2007, with 69.3% yearly growth.", "High rate of investment was maintained until 2008.In 2007, the EC27 accounted for over 56% of FDI inflows and in 2008 the EC, UAE, and Turkey accounted for nearly 60%.", "In 2009, FDI inflows were characterized by decreasing trend.", "The main reasons of decreasing were external shocks – Russian-Georgian war and the influences of global financial crisis.In the first half of 2017, Armenian Investments to Georgia nearly doubled year-on-year to $5.6 million, while investments from Azerbaijan dropped by 20.3% year-on-year to the overall $224.18 million.• In 2009–2011 the largest share of FDI felt on Industry sector (31.2) amounted to US$765 million, real estate sector (15.8%) amounting to US$389 million.The table below shows FDI stock as a percentage of GDP in selected FSU countries.", "For statistical purposes, FDI is defined as a foreign company owning 10% or more of the ordinary shares of an incorporated firm or its equivalent for an unincorporated firm.", "Rank Country FDI stock as a percentage of GDP (2010) 85,6 67,1 61,1 42,5 28,7 18,5 18,3Foreign direct investment in the country of Georgia by year.", "Year Amount (mln USD) 2000 131.2 2001 109.8 2002 167.3 2003 340 2004 499.1 2005 449.7 2006 1100 2007 2010 2008 1500 2009 658.4 2010 814 2011 1111 2012 865 2013 914 2014 1750 2015 1564 2016 1565.9 2017 751 (January–June)" ], [ "Trade", "Since 2014, Georgia is part of the European Union's Free Trade Area, with the EU continuing to be the country's largest trading partner, accounting for over a quarter of Georgia's total trade turnover.", "Following the EU trade pact, 2015 was marked by further increase in bilateral trade, whereas trade with the Russian-led Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) decreased by 22%.As of 2015, in the order of magnitude, Georgia's main exports were: copper ores and concentrates, ferroalloys, hazelnut, medications, nitrogen fertilizers, wine, crude oil, mineral water, non-denatured ethanol and spirits.In 2015, Georgia's main imports, in the order of magnitude, were: oil products, vehicles, hydrocarbons, copper ores and concentrates, mobile phones and other wireless phones, wheat, cigarettes, iron tubes and pipes, structures and parts of structures of iron.In 2019, Georgian exports to Armenia grew by 2% compared to previous year, while imports decreased by 7%.", "Georgia exported 98.3 million $ worth of products to Armenia (4% of total exports), and imported 46.9 million $ (1% of total imports) in 2019." ], [ "International money transfers", "Money transferred from abroad to Georgia in 2019 amounted to USD 1.73 billion, according to figures released by Georgia's central bank.", "Money transfers from Russia, which has been the largest source of remittances for Georgia for many years already, stood at USD 428.89 million in 2019.Among other largest sources of remittances for Georgia are: Greece with USD 192.56 million in 2019, Italy – USD 239.17 million; the United States – USD 178.41 million; Ukraine – USD 47.3 million; Spain – USD 30.9 million; Turkey – USD 94.85 million; Kazakhstan – USD 26.63 million; the UK – USD 16.89 million; Israel – USD 162.55 million; Azerbaijan – USD 22.17 million; Germany – USD 49.81 million; France – USD 26.37 million; Canada – USD 14.21 million." ], [ "Institutional reforms", "Under the Saakashvili administration, Georgia undertook a number of profound institutional reforms aimed at modernizing the economy and improving business climate.", "Kakha Bendukidze (1956–2014) was one of the most notable team members during his governance, coordinating the Ministry of Economical Reforms of Georgia.", "Implemented institutional reforms created an effective, professional and transparent public sector, motivated to protect the principles of democracy.", "Due to the economic deregulation policy, number of state regulated spheres sharply decreased, as well as regulation procedures were simplified.Georgia succeeded in fighting against corruption, that was one of the main obstacles for development.", "Success of Georgia is recognized by different rating agencies.", "According to the Transparency International, Georgia is the top country in the post-Soviet region in terms of fighting corruption.", "According to the Corruption Perception Index published by Transparency International, Georgia ranked 50th in 2014 (up from 113rd in 2004).", "\"Global Corruption Barometer 2010\" ranks Georgia the first among world countries in the term of decrease corruption level.", "According to International Finance Corporation Business Perception Survey 2012 only 0.11% of surveyed (1 respondent out of 920) named corruption as a problem in relations with public organizations.Georgia has the most liberal tax jurisdiction in Europe.", "The number of taxes is decreased from 21 to only 6, tax rates were reduced also.", "In addition, significant procedural and institutional reforms was implemented – simplified system of tax disputes was established, tax administration system was streamlined and most of taxes currently are paid on-line.Due to the customs reform customs procedures were dramatically simplified.", "Customs tariffs reform significantly simplified and sharply reduced the costs connected to the foreign trade.", "Number of import tariffs was abolished on approximately 90% of products and only 3 tariff rates exist instead of previous 16.Currently 86% of tariff lines are duty-free compared to 26% in 2005.Modern Customs Clearance Zones were established and customs clearness procedures could be made starting from 15 minutes only.Modernization of system of licenses and permits resulted in decrease of number of licenses and permits and simplification of related administrative procedures.Privatization of state property – Starting from 2004, provision of transparent privatization policy was one of the important reforms of the Government of Georgia, that was addressed to denationalization of the remained state property in order to attract foreign investments, increase and develop the private sector and effective use of country's resources.Liberal labour legislation simplified the relations between employers and employees.", "As a result of the reform, ”Heritage Foundation” and other analytical centers named Georgian Labour Code as one of the most liberal in the world, because it significantly reduced hiring and firing expenses.Georgia offers the most simplified procedures for registration of business, property, for getting different documentations via “One-Stop-Shops”, where the most procedures could be done on-line.", "Doing Business 2012 report (WB) places Georgia 16th in terms of Ease of Doing Business index (up from 112 in 2006), naming Georgia as the top reformer amongst the 174 countries over the last 5 years.", "Georgia is amongst the leaders in other ratings, namely, registering property – first place; Dealing Construction Permits – 4th place, Starting a Business – 7th place; Getting Credits – 8th place.===Licensing regulation===Due to the reform of the system of licenses and permits, the number licenses and permits was reduced by 90%.", "Currently, licenses and permits are only used in the production of highly risky goods and services; also usage of natural resources and specific activities.", "The procedures of issuing licenses and permits were significantly simplified, the “One-Stop Shop” and “Silence is Consent” principles were introduced which implies that if person is not notified with argumentation rejection about issuance of license in limited framework, the license is considered as issued from the relevant body.The procedures for getting a construction permits was dramatically simplified and it requires just 3 procedures.", "The time for getting the construction permits was sharply reduced.", "According to Doing Business 2012 (WB) Georgia is the best performer in the Eastern Europe and Central Asia (ECA) region and places on 4-th position in the world.", "The number of procedures and days, the cost (% of income per capita) is much more lower, than in ECA region and OECD countries.Things have changed after new Law on Issuance of Licenses and Permits was introduced in 2005.The approval process for building a warehouse in Georgia is now more efficient than in all EU countries except Denmark.===Tax collection===Since January, 2011 the new Tax Code came into force.", "It unifies the old Tax and Customs Codes.", "The new Tax Code increased confidence towards the Georgian tax system and enhanced trust in the Georgian tax authorities, by improving communication between taxpayers and the tax authorities, by protecting the taxpayers’ rights, by making administration more efficient, and by harmonizing the Georgian laws with the best international tax practices and EU directives.Only 6 taxes exist in Georgia with law tax rates: Income Tax (personal income tax) 20%; Profit Tax (corporate tax) – 15%; Value Added Tax – 18%; Excise – varies; Property Tax up to 1% of the self-assessed value of property; Customs Tax – 0%; 5%; 12%.", "In addition, significant procedural and institutional reforms were performed, simplified tax dispute settlement, streamlined tax administration decreased the time and cost of paying taxes.", "Georgia made paying taxes easier for firms by simplifying the reporting for value added tax and introducing electronic filling and payment of taxes.Number of import tariffs was abolished on approximately 90% of products and only 3 tariff rates (0%, 5%, 12%) exist instead of previous 16.Georgia sets Import Taxes on only several kinds of agricultural and manufactured goods .", "In addition, there are no quantitative restrictions (quotas) on imports and exports.===Labour regulation===With unemployment around 16% and many jobs in the informal sector, Georgia undertook a far-reaching reform of labour regulation.", "The new Labour Code was adopted on 17 December 2010.The new law eases restrictions on the duration of term contracts and the number of overtime hours and discards the premium required for overtime work.", "It also eliminates the requirement to notify and get permission from the labour union to fire a redundant worker.", "The new law provides for 1 month's severance pay at least, replacing complex rules under which required notice periods depended on seniority and the manager had to write long explanations to labor unions and the relevant ministry.", "In general, new regulation makes Georgian labor market much more flexible.Coupled with the fact that Georgia also reduced the social security contributions paid on wages by businesses from 31% to 20% in 2005, and abolished them entirely starting January 2008, these changes make Georgia the sixth easiest place to employ workers globally.=== Judicial procedure ===Reducing corruption in courts was one of the chief priorities of the new government.", "Since 2004, when the Saakashvili administration came in, seven judges have been detained for taking bribes and 15 brought before the criminal courts.", "In 2005 alone the judicial disciplinary council reviewed cases against 99 judges, about 40% of the judiciary, and 12 judges were dismissed.", "At the same time judges’ salaries were increased fourfold, to reduce dependence on bribe money.According to Global Property Guide index, Georgia currently holds 40 points out of 100.That stands for \"The court system is highly inefficient, and delays are so long that they deter the use of the court system.", "Corruption is present, and the judiciary is influenced by other branches of government.", "Expropriation is possible.", "\"Some unsatisfied responses concerning the judiciary system may be found among Georgian websites, though its genuineness is controversial." ], [ "Unemployment", "Unemployment has been a persistent problem in Georgia ever since the country gained independence in 1991.According to National Statistics Office (Georgia) unemployment rate stood at 16.9% in 2013 and it has been decreased at 11.6% in 2019.Nearly a half of Georgia's population lives in rural areas, where low-intensity self-sufficient farming provides the principal source of livelihood.", "Georgian statistics service puts individual persons into the category of self-employed workers.", "As of 2007 416,900 persons were listed as self-employed in agriculture.", "For large families, heads of households are typically described as \"individual entrepreneurs\", members of the family that help to cultivate land are classified as \"unpaid family business workers\".", "The use of this methodology produces relatively low unemployment rates for rural areas rather in urban areas and in Tbilisi.Neighbouring countries show somewhat similar results.", "For example, Armenia in 2015 had 18.26% unemployment rate, which is 532.644 people.", "2014201520162017201820192020 Active population (labour force), thousand persons 1 6291 675.61 653.81 641.41 605.21 572.81 523.7 Employed, thousand persons 1 2551 308.51 294.51 286.91 296.21 295.91 241.8 Unemployed, thousand persons 374367.2359.2354.5309.0276.9281.9 Unemployment rate, percentage 23.021.921.721.619.217.618.5" ], [ "Structure of the economy", "=== Energy ===Enguri hydropower plant, completed in 1987In recent years Georgia has fully deregulated its electricity sector, and now there is free and open access to the market.Georgia has a sizable hydroelectric capacity, a factor that has become an increasingly important component of its energy supplies and policies.", "The country's topography and abundance of hydro resources give it serious potential to dominate hydroelectric markets in the Caucasus region.", "The Georgian Ministry of Energy estimates that there are around 26,000 rivers within Georgian territory, with approximately 300 of those rivers being significant in terms of energy production.", "The Ministry also claims that current projects for hydroelectric power plants total around US$2.4 billion.", "Alexander Khetaguri, the former Georgian Minister of Energy, proposed new hydroelectric projects worth well over 22,000 megawatts of capacity, which would cost over US$40 billion and would be privately funded.", "These projects alone would transform Georgia into the world's second-largest hydropower producer.In 2007, Georgia generated 8.34 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity while consuming 8.15 billion kWh.", "Most of Georgia's electricity generation comes from hydroelectric facilities.", "In 2005, the country generated 6.17 billion kWh of hydropower, or 86% of total electricity generation.", "In 2006 rapid growth in hydroelectricity output (by 27%) was matched by equally strong growth in thermal electricity (by 28%).", "Since then the share of hydropower has grown even bigger, when Inguri power plant reached full capacity in November 2007.In addition to state-owned Inguri, which has an installed capacity of 1,300 megawatts, Georgia's hydroelectric infrastructure consists of many small private plants.In recent years, Georgia became a major exporter of electricity in the region, exporting 1.3 billion KWh in 2010.Hydropower stations of Georgia produce 80-85% of the electricity utilized within the country, the remaining 15-20% is produced by thermal power stations.", "According to Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, so far Georgia has been exploiting only 18% of its hydro resource potential.Georgia's reliance on hydropower leaves the country vulnerable to climatic fluctuations, which requires imports to meet seasonal shortages, but also opens the possibility of exports during wetter conditions.", "Georgia still has the potential to increase hydro-generated power, through refurbishing existing facilities, as well as constructing new hydropower plants.One of the more difficult realities facing many of the former Soviet republics was the loss of Soviet-subsidized fuel and utility transfers.", "Prior to 2004, Georgia's transmission network was in critical condition, with electricity blackouts being common throughout the country.", "In response to mounting pressures, the Georgian government initiated a series of legislative reforms in 1998 and 1999 to begin to develop the power sector and electricity markets.", "While measures were taken to unbundle and liberalize the energy sector, a new law was drafted and Georgia's independent regulatory authority, the Georgian National Energy Regulatory Commission (GNERC), was formed.", "In addition to providing government subsidies, the GNERC was able to increase the prices of electricity and natural gas in Georgia to buffer the costs of recovery from the state's reform process.", "Following these reforms, distribution has been increasingly more reliable, approaching consistent 24-hour-a-day services.", "Investments in infrastructure have been made as well.Currently, a privately owned Energo-Pro Georgia controls 62.5% of the electricity distribution market.Georgia has transmission lines that connect its power grid to Russia, Turkey, Armenia and Azerbaijan.", "In July 2008 Georgia began exporting electricity to Russia through the Kavkasioni power line.", "Later in 2009, Georgian Energy Minister Alexander Khetaguri incited scandal for a business deal struck with the Russian energy company, Inter RAO, to jointly manage the Georgian Inguri hydropower plant for 10 years.", "Khetaguri's proposal would entail a cash flow of around US$9 million into Georgia for use of the plant.", "Tensions ran high, however, as the Inguri hydropower plant provides nearly 40 to 50 percent of the country's electricity and is located at the administrative border of the secessionist Abkhazia region.Georgian Natural gas consumption stood at 1.8 billion cubic meters in 2007.Natural gas used to be supplied to Georgia by Russia.", "In recent years, however, Georgia has been able to eliminate its dependency on imports from Russia, thanks to increased hydroelectricity production, and the availability of natural gas sources from Azerbaijan.", "In addition, all Russian gas exports to Armenia pass through the Georgian pipeline system.", "Georgia takes 10% of that gas as a transit fee.Georgia is a partner country of the EU INOGATE energy programme, which has four key topics: enhancing energy security,convergence of member state energy markets on the basis of EU internal energy market principles,supporting sustainable energy development, and attracting investment for energy projects of common and regional interest.=== Agriculture ===Currently, about 55% of the total labor force is employed in agriculture, though much of this is subsistence farming.Georgian agricultural production is beginning to recover following the devastation caused by the civil unrest and the necessary restructuring following the breakup of the Soviet Union.", "Livestock production is beginning to rebound, although it continues to be confronted by minor and sporadic disease outbreaks.", "Domestic grain production is increasing, and government invests in improvement of infrastructure improvements to ensure appropriate distribution and revenues to farmers.", "Tea, hazelnut and citrus production have suffered greatly as a result of the conflict in Abkhazia, a crucial area for planting the latter crops.Approximately 7% of the Georgian GDP (2011) is generated by the agrarian sector.Viticulture and winemaking are the most important fields of Georgia's agriculture.", "Over 450 species of local vine are bred in Georgia, and the country is considered as one of the oldest places of producing top-quality wines in the world.", "Russia was traditionally the biggest export market for Georgian wine.", "This, however, changed in 2006, when Russia banned imports of wine and mineral water from Georgia, preceded by statements of Georgian governmental officials about low quality requirements of the Russian market.", "Since then Georgian wine producers have struggled to maintain output and break into new markets.In 2011 Georgia sold wine in total amount of 54 mln USD in 48 countries and alcoholic beverages in total amount of 68 mln USD in 32 countries.", "Vines and alcoholic beverages are in the top 10 export commodity's list with 2,5% and 3.1% share respectively.According to National Wine Agency of Georgia export of Georgian wine is increasing.", "2011 wine export is 109% higher than 2007 exports.", "According to 2012 information, Georgia trades wine with 43 countries, selling over 23 million bottles.", "Biggest export partners for Georgia in wine industry are Ukraine (47.3% of wine export), Kazakhstan (18.9%) and Belarus (6.9%).In 2011 export of vines, mineral waters and alcoholic beverages exceeded export of all years after 2006.Georgia is rich with spring waters and production of mineral waters is one of the main spheres of industry.", "Export of mineral waters in 2011 amounted to 48 mln USD in 35 countries.", "Share of mineral water in total export is 2.1%.Food processing industry is developing align with the primary agricultural production and export of processed products is increasing year by year.", "Export of nuts constituted about 6% of Georgian export (2011) and is among 10 top export commodity list with total amount of 130 mln USD.", "Nuts was exported in 53 countries.Rural population as a percentage of total population in Georgia was 48.2% in 2011 and decreased to 46.3% in 2014.In 2018, in addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, Georgia had produced:* 259 thousand tons of grape;* 237 thousand tons of potato;* 194 thousand tons of maize;* 107 thousand tons of wheat;* 82 thousand tons of apple;* 62 thousand tons of tangerine;* 57 thousand tons of barley;* 57 thousand tons of watermelon;* 51 thousand tons of tomato;* 33 thousand tons of cucumber;* 27 thousand tons of peach.=== Tourism ===Tourism in Georgia is one of the fastest growing sectors of the local economy, which has high potential for further development.", "During recent years the number of visitors to Georgia increased significantly contributing to the growth of other tourism related sectors.", "In 2011, more, about 3 million visitors visited Georgia 40 percent more, than in 2010.To foster the development of the tourism sector the Government of Georgia invests heavily in the development of the transportation and basic infrastructure, renovation and development of tourism destinations, which is a stimulus for the private investment generation.", "In 2011, total output of tourism related services production increased by 77% compared to 2006 and constituted 7.1% of total output of economy.", "In 2018 tourism generated 3.4 billion dollars in tax revenue for Georgia.The following table shows the monthly average for incoming tourists in Georgia by citizenship and number of visits (in thousands).", "Country 2015 2016 2017 2018 Change 2015–2018 Azerbaijan 96,3 89,7 108,5 118,7 23,2% Armenia 99,3 96,0 107,3 105,7 6,5% Iran 1,8 10,8 23,5 24,3 1221,9% Israel 4,6 7,1 9,6 13,1 183,1% Russia 63,6 70,8 94,6 117,1 84,1% Turkey 89,5 82,4 83,9 91,5 2,3% Ukraine 10,6 12,6 14,2 14,8 39,0% European Union 17,8 19,1 23,6 32,1 80,4% Other countries 17,6 25,1 37,1 43,3 146,0% Total 438,0 449,4 540,2 600,3 37,1%According to data from Georgia's National Tourism Administration, TASS reported that Armenia is third on the list of countries with the most visits from citizens in 2021.Turkey leads the pack in terms of trips made by visitors to Georgia last year, with 326 thousand, 2.7% fewer than in the previous year.", "With more than 212 thousand tourist visitors, 2.1% more than in 2020, Russia comes in second.", "Georgia received over 1.8 million international visits in total in 2021, an increase of 7.7% from the previous year.=== Logistics ===Georgia is one of the key members in international TRACECA programme due to its important geographical and political location.", "Since it is situated right in between of Europe and Asia, the country is supposed to become a busy transitional hub of a modern Silk Road in the near future.", "On March 11 of 2015, Georgian media declared that the Chinese and Georgian companies have reached an agreement in Beijing concerning the developing of the deep-water port at Anaklia, which existence is crucial for the TRACECA route.", "The port will be constructed on a plot of over 1,000 hectares and have access to a deep sea canyon.", "US-Based SSA Marine was later finally chosen to Invest in and Operate Container Terminal of Anaklia Deep Sea Port in Georgia by signing an agreement with Anaklia Development Consortium on 1 August 2017.First train containing 82 containers and 41 platforms came from China to Baku, Azerbaijan on July 28.It is planned to launch a first carriage using this way through Georgia to Istanbul in September 2015.Baku–Tbilisi–Kars railway became operational on October 30, 2017.Re-exportation of vehicles which is one of the income sources for Georgia has lowered much during 2014–2015 stagnation, most noticeably to Azerbaijan: it became 5.1 times less (on 10 337 cars) comparing to the previous year.=== Finance ===Like most other post-soviet countries, Georgia's finance sector is dominated by banks.", "As of 2015, there were 21 commercial banks, of which 5 large banks controlled most of financial assets.", "There are some major challenges facing the banking sector.", "For instance, banks play a limited role in financing the real economy and in investing in activities that are required to stabilize the country's persistent trade.=== Companies ===In 2022, the sector with the highest number of companies registered in Georgia is Manufacturing with 3,905 companies followed by Services and Wholesale Trade with 2,934 and 1,036 companies respectively." ], [ "Human Development Index of Georgia", "Human Development Index is a composite statistic of life expectancy, education, and income indices used to rank countries into four tiers of human development.Georgia's HDI value for 2017 is 0.780— in the high human development category—positioning it at 70 out of 189 countries and territories.", "The rank is shared with Antigua and Barbuda.", "Between 2000 and 2017, Georgia's HDI value increased from 0.673 to 0.780, an increase of 15.9 percent or average annual increase of about 0.9 percent.", "Between 1990 and 2017, Georgia's life expectancy at birth increased by 3.1 years, mean years of schooling increased by 1.1 years and expected years of schooling increased by 2.6 years, also Georgia's GNI per capita increased by about 21.0%.", "However, it is misleading to compare values and rankings with those of previously published reports, because the underlying data and methods have changed over time.", "Year Life expectancy at birth Expected years of schooling Mean years of schooling GNI per capita (2011 PPP$) HDI value 1990 70.3 12.4 N/A 7589 N/A 1995 70.5 10.9 N/A 2273 N/A 2000 71.9 11.7 11.7 3404 0.673 2005 72.7 12.6 12.1 4983 0.712 2010 72.6 13.3 12.2 6517 0.735 2015 73.1 14.7 12.7 8766 0.771 2016 73.3 15.0 12.8 8785 0.776 2017 73.4 15.0 12.8 9186 0.780" ], [ "See also", "* List of Georgian companies* List of countries by received FDI* Kulevi Oil Terminal" ], [ "Further reading", "* Gugushvili, Alexi: \"Understanding Poverty in Georgia\" in the Caucasus Analytical Digerst No.34" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Government press release on unemployment in 2007* How to register company in Georgia?" ], [ "External links", "* Official site of American Chamber of Commerce in Georgia* ''Sakartvelos Ekonomika'' , an online monthly on Georgia's economy.", "* online English language business magazine in Georgia" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Georgia (country)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in Georgia''' include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet." ], [ "Radio and television", "* Radio broadcast stations: AM 7, FM 12, shortwave 4 (1998).", "There are 35 FM stations in the country, as of 2021.", "* Radios: 3.02 million (1997).", "* Television broadcast stations: 25 (plus repeaters) (2011).", "* Televisions: 2.57 million (1997)." ], [ "Cellular Networks", "* Calling code: +995* Mobile Phone subscribers: 4,955,272 million lines (April 2021)There are three cellular telephone networks: MagtiCom LTD, Silknet JSC, and Cellfie Mobile (Formerly known as Beeline).", "The cellular network market counts more than 4,955,272 active customers in total.Coverage extends to over 98% of the populated territory as of 2010; In urban areas there are 20 telephones per 100 people and in rural areas 4 telephones per 100 people.In 2020, the Georgian National Communications Commission announced its plans to introduce Mobile virtual network operators in 2021.The first MVNO in the country, Hallo, launched in Q4 of 2022 and it is based on Silknet's infrastructure.", "Tele 1 (also marketed as Tele One) is going to launch soon.", "It is not yet clear which operator's infrastructure the company will use.", "Tele 1 has already started operating in the country partially, but its services (video and audio calling) are available only through their apps as of now (VoIP).", "The Georgian National Communications Commission has announced an auction for the 5G spectrum.", "It will be held in August 2023 and most of the lots come with a requirement for MNOs to start talks with MVNOs, which means they will not be able to keep their infrastructure closed off if they want to buy licenses for specific 5G frequencies." ], [ "Fixed Telephony, Internet and IP Television", "Internet Service Providers: at least 10 ISPs.", "Fixed Internet Subscribers: 977,6 thousand lines (April 2021)Internet Protocol television Subscribers: 551 thousand lines (April 2021)Fixed Phone Subscribers: 830,222 lines in use (2009), 366,250 lines in use (April 2021)Top-level domain: .geThe fixed telephony, internet and IP television in Georgia is mainly operated by MAGTICOM, Silknet and New Net, all of which controlled 90% of the market in 2018.By the end of 2008, there were 618,000 fixed telephone users in Georgia.", "In urban areas there are 20 telephones per 100 people, and in rural areas there are four telephones per 100 people.Additionally, Datahouse Global LLC, Geonet LLC, Inexphone LLC, and Myphone LLC are providing VoIP-based fixed telephony services over the country.Fiber-optic lines connect the major cities and Georgia and Bulgaria are connected with fiber-optic line between Poti and Varna (Bulgaria).", "The home internet provider industry in Georgia is heavily monopolized by 2 major competitors: Silknet and MAGTICOM.", "There are other smaller, more obscure providers as well, but these two are the most popular and have the biggest nationwide coverage.", "Both companies offer TV and mobile packages that can be combined with home internet as well.===Internet censorship and surveillance===Listed as engaged in selective Internet filtering in the political and conflict/security areas and as no evidence of filtering in the social and Internet tools areas by the OpenNet Initiative (ONI) in November 2010.Access to Internet content in Georgia is largely unrestricted as the legal constitutional framework, developed after the 2003 Rose Revolution, established a series of provisions that should, in theory, curtail any attempts by the state to censor the Internet.", "At the same time, these legal instruments have not been sufficient to prevent limited filtering on corporate and educational networks.", "Georgia's dependence on international connectivity makes it vulnerable to upstream filtering, evident in the March 2008 blocking of YouTube by Türk Telekom.On March 14, 2016, access to YouTube was restricted nationwide.", "This restriction of access was to presumably prevent Georgian citizens from accessing a video which threatened a number of journalists and opposition figures with the exposure of covertly recorded video tapes of sex acts.", "YouTube access went down throughout Georgia until the threatening video was removed from the internet." ], [ "See also", " Georgian National Communications Commission" ], [ "References", "" ], [ "External links", " Georgian National Communications Commission, website.", "* Sidorenko, Alexey, \"Internet, Society and Democracy in Georgia\", in '' Caucasus Analytical Digest No.", "15''.", "* Robakidze, Nino, \"Georgia: Immature Media\", in '' Caucasus Analytical Digest No.", "25''." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Georgia (country)" ], [ "Introduction", "For Soviet transportation, see Transport in the Soviet Union." ], [ "Railways", "Georgian Railway NetworkStadler KISS GRS «Eurasia» passenger train''total:''1,683 km in common carrier service; does not include industrial lines''broad gauge:''1,583 km of gauge (1993)''narrow gauge:''100 km of gauge.City with metro system: Tbilisi (see Tbilisi Metro).", "* In April 2005, an agreement was signed to build a railway from Turkey through Georgia to Azerbaijan (see Kars Baku Tbilisi railway line).", "The line under construction is using Standard gauge until Akhalkalaki.", "There will be axle change station for wagons to proceed with broad gauge to Baku.", "* In August 2007, Georgia handed over the management rights of the state-owned Georgian Railway company to the U.K.-based company Parkfield Investment for 89 years.===Railway links with adjacent countries===* Russia - yes - - via the breakaway Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia - closed for political reasons.", "* Azerbaijan - yes - .", "* Armenia - yes * Turkey - yes - break-of-gauge with through (Standard Gauge).===2007===* February 7 - agreement signed for Kars-Tbilisi-Baku railway===Towns served by rail===* Poti - port* Batumi - port* Kutaisi* Akhaltsike" ], [ "Highways", "The total length of the road network is approximately kilometers (2020), divided over roughly of international trunk roads, of domestic main roads and some local roads.", "Only a limited number of kilometers are express roads or motorways which are in good condition.", "The quality of the other roads varies greatly.National roads of GeorgiaS1 Highway+'''Main roads''' Number E Route name Length (km) Noteslink=S1 highway (Georgia) link=European route E60 link=European route E97 link=European route E117 Tbilisi - Senaki - Leselidze544link=S2 highway (Georgia) link=European route E60 link=European route E70 Senaki - Poti - Sarpi119link=S3 highway (Georgia) link=European route E117 Mtskheta - Stepantsminda - Larsi139link=S4 highway (Georgia) link=European route E60 link=European route E117 Tbilisi - Red Bridge57link=S5 highway (Georgia) Tbilisi – Bakurtsikhe – Lagodekhi160link=S6 highway (Georgia) link=European route E117 Ponichala – Marneuli – Guguti98link=S7 highway (Georgia) link=European route E001 Marneuli – Sadakhlo34link=S8 highway (Georgia) link=European route E691 Khashuri – Akhaltsikhe – Vale97link=S9 highway (Georgia) link=European route E60 link=European route E117 Tbilisi Bypass49link=S10 highway (Georgia) Gori – Tskhinvali – Gupta – Java – Roki92,5link=S11 highway (Georgia) link=European route E691 Akhaltsikhe – Ninotsminda112link=S12 highway (Georgia) link=European route E692 Samtredia - Lanchkhuti - Grigoleti57link=S13 highway (Georgia) Akhalkalaki - Kartsakhi36,5 This table is based on the 2017 list of roads of the Government of Georgia.===Motorways===Georgia has a limited multilane expressroad/motorway system, that is under development.", "In 2021 these sections are: * S1 highway Mukhatgverdi (Tbilisi West) - Surami * S1 highway Argveta - Samtredia * S4 highway Ponichala (Tbilisi) - Rustavi * S12 highway Japana - Lanchkhuti Additionally, the S2 highway has limited access two-lane freeway (Kobuleti Bypass)." ], [ "Pipelines", "Crude oil 370 km; refined products 300 km; natural gas 440 km (1992)" ], [ "Black Sea Ports and harbors", "Batumi, Poti, Sokhumi, Kulevi Oil Terminal" ], [ "Merchant marine", "''total:''17 ships (with a volume of or over) totaling /''ships by type:''cargo ship 10, chemical tanker 1, petroleum tanker 6 (1999 est.)" ], [ "Airports", "Shota Rustaveli AirportAlexander Kartveli Airport28 (1994 est.", ")In February 2007 a brand new, modern and fully equipped international Airport was inaugurated in Tbilisi.", "Tbilisi - Shota Rustaveli AirportBatumi - Alexander Kartveli AirportKutaisi - David The Builder AirportMestia - Queen Tamar AirportAmbrolauri - Ambrolauri AirportPoti - Poti International Airport===Airports - with paved runways===''total:''14''over 3,047 m:''1''2,438 to 3,047 m:''7''1,524 to 2,437 m:''4''914 to 1,523 m:''1''under 914 m:''1 (1994 est.", ")===Airports - with unpaved runways===''total:''14''over 3,047 m:''1''2,438 to 3,047 m:''1''1,524 to 2,437 m:''1''914 to 1,523 m:''5''under 914 m:''6 (1994 est.)" ], [ "See also", "* Georgia* List of Tbilisi metro stations" ], [ "External links", "* Roads Department of Georgia (ENG)* United Transport Administration (ENG)" ], [ "Notes" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Defence Forces of Georgia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Defence Forces of Georgia''' (), or '''Georgian Defence Forces''' ('''GDF'''), are the combined military forces of Georgia, tasked with the defence of the nation's independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity.", "They consist of the Land Force, Air Force, National Guard, and Special Operations Forces.", "The Defence Forces are under overall leadership of the Minister of Defence of Georgia and directly headed by the Chief of Defence Forces.The first regular military was established in the first Georgian Republic in 1918 and was in existence until after the republic's overthrow by the invading Soviet Russian forces in 1921.The modern Georgian military were founded in accordance with the government decree of 24 April 1991.30 April, the day when the first conscripts were called up for military service in 1991, has been celebrated as the day of the Georgian military forces.The Georgian military have fought in the civil war and separatist conflicts in the 1990s and the Russo-Georgian War of 2008 as well as major international military missions such as in Iraq and Afghanistan.", "Georgia was one of the first former Soviet republics to join the NATO Partnership for Peace program in 1994 and Individual Partnership Action Plan (IPAP) in 2004 and has sought to bring its military in line with the NATO standards." ], [ "History of the Defence Forces", "=== Establishment and early years ===On 20 December 1990, President Zviad Gamsakhurdia ordered the creation of what is now the Defence Forces.", "In January 1991, Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev and Supreme Soviet Chairman Anatoly Lukyanov, demanded that Gamsakhurdia to stop the creation of the National Guard.", "The first military parade of the National Guard was held at Boris Paichadze Stadium on 30 April 1991, where for the first time in 70 years, Georgians swore allegiance to the Georgian people.", "This day is today commemorated as Defence Forces Day.The new military was mainly manned by volunteers as well as ethnically Georgian officers who were serving in Soviet Army at the time.", "The transfer of former Transcaucasian Military District facilities, weapons and formations located in Georgia, which began in early 1992, lasted until 1997.On 30 April 1992, an agreement was signed on the transfer of military units and facilities by the heads of the defence ministries of the Russian Federation and Georgia.", "According to it, Georgia received the following formations:* 10th Armoured Division (without 403rd Motorized Rifle Regiment) - Akhaltsikhe* 6th Fortified Area - Akhaltsikhe* 8th Fortified Area During the Georgian Civil War, units waged war with supporters of the ousted Gamsakhurdia.", "The Georgian Armed Forces also took part in the 1991–1992 South Ossetia War and the War in Abkhazia (1992–1993), losing both, after which Georgia lost control over most of the territory of these republics.=== 21st century ===The Georgia Train and Equip Program (GTEP) training was conducted using U.S. Special Operations Forces and U.S. Marine Corps forces from May 2002 to May 2004.During this time approximately 2,600 Georgian soldiers, including a headquarters staff element and 5 tactical units, received training.", "Another assistance program, the Georgia Security and Stability Operations Program (Georgia SSOP), was launched in January 2005 as a continuation of the (GTEP) of 2002–2004.Georgian contingents were involved in the Kosovo Force and continue to participate in the operations in Iraq and Afghanistan.The DFG have been extensively reformed in the recent years to meet Georgia's aspirations to join NATO and for better response to the existing challenges such as the ongoing tensions in the unresolved separatist conflict areas in Abkhazia and South Ossetia as well as to the threats of global terrorism.", "Georgia also views a large-scale foreign invasion and the spillover of conflicts from Russia's North Caucasus as the worst potential near- and long-term scenarios, respectively.On 8 August 2008 the Georgian military conducted an operation in Georgia's breakaway region South Ossetia (see 2008 South Ossetia War) in response to separatist attacks.", "The operation led to an armed conflict with forces from the Russian Federation and resulted in the defeat and expulsion of Georgian forces from South Ossetia and Abkhazia.", "Following the military operations, Russia recognized independence of the regions.The military budget of Georgia increased more than 50 times over the period from 2002 (US$18 mln.)", "to 2007 (US$780 mln.", "), reaching over 7% of Georgia's GDP.", "Currently the budget is 504mln USD (1.3 Billion GEL).=== Russo-Georgian War ===In August 2008, following a series of fierce clashes in South Ossetia, Georgia attempted to re-take the separatist territory by force.", "In the resulting military conflict with Russia, Georgia was driven out of South Ossetia and Abkhazia, and lost parts of its military capabilities.", "Russian forces sank four Georgian naval vessels in the port of Poti and hauled away nine rigid-hull inflatable boats.", "Georgia Land Forces lost approximately 30 T-72's, 6 BMP's, 2 BTR's and around 10 artillery pieces of all types in combat.", "The Russians also captured 5 intact BMP's, approximately 5 artillery pieces, BUK SAM system and OSA SAM system.", "The Georgian Air Force lost three AN-2's, 2 Mi-24's and 1 Mi-14 on the ground.", "Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia lost 2 Hermes 450 reconnaissance drones and 1 Otokar Cobra APC.", "The Russian military lost more military equipment in combat than Georgia.=== Reconstruction ===Georgia immediately began a process of re-armament after the war.", "The conflict was immediately followed by a replenishment program of the gaps in the single GAF arms components with an additional massive re-equipment and modernization program.", "Two Georgian naval vessels sunk in Poti were raised and returned to service.", "The Georgian Navy's remaining operational units were merged into the Coast Guard, which received training in search and seizure tactics from the United States.", "Ukraine supplied Georgia with 30 BTR-70 armored personnel carriers, 2 BUK SAM system batteries and 6 OSA mobile SAM systems.", "Israel supplied Georgia with 13 Wolf APC's and SPYDER-SR SAM systems and many types of firearms.", "The U.S. supplied Georgia with many types of infantry equipment to Georgia such as infantry personal protection equipment, firearms, APC's and anti tank missiles.", "Georgia has also received MANPADs and radars from France.", "NATO militaries also often train with Georgian military and have annual military drills in Georgia.", "Georgia also rebuilt its damaged military bases and constructed more military barracks.", "By late 2010 the Georgian military had reached a strength greater than pre-war levels and, after completing the reforms, decisively reduced military spending.", "Beginning in 2010, Georgia started to produce its own line of APC's, IFV's, infantry personal protection equipment, small arms and mortars." ], [ "Structure", "The Defence Forces of Georgia consist of four branches: Land Forces, Air Force, National Guard, and Special Operations Forces.The overall command is exercised by the Chief of Defence Forces, who is aided by the General Staff of the Defence Forces.", "The Defence Forces are further organized into several structural units: * Eastern Command* Western Command * Air and Air Defence Command* Special Operations Forces * Military Training and Education Command* Army Logistics Command* National Guard* Military Police* Department of Military IntelligenceIn wartime, several other bodies fall under the control of the Defence Forces additionally.", "These are: * Border Police of Georgia, a subordinate agency of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia* Department of Special Operations - Public Security Forces, a subunit of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia* Department for Protection of Strategic Pipelines, a subunit of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia* Department for Protection of Strategic Infrastructure, a subunit of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia* National Defence Academy of Georgia, a legal entity under the Ministry of Defence* Military Hospital of the Ministry of Defence* Cybersecurity Bureau, a legal entity under the Ministry of Defence* Data Exchange Agency, a legal entity under the Ministry of Justice of Georgia.The Eastern Command and its Western counterpart are two main regional operational groupings, respectively, for eastern and western Georgia.", "They were created in the 2010s in order to have two autonomous territorial commands, with their own military staffs, logistical and administrative resources.=== Branches ===The Land Forces form the largest component of the DFG responsible for providing land defence against any threat to the nation's sovereignty and territorial integrity, supporting Border Police in border protection and civil authorities in counter-terrorist operations as well as providing units for NATO-led and coalition operations abroad.", "They are organized into infantry brigades, artillery and other supporting capacities operating at a battalion level.The Special Operations Forces are responsible for conducting special reconnaissance, unconventional warfare and counter-terrorism operations.", "The Georgian National Guard organizes and trains reservists in the peacetime and mobilizes them during a crisis or wartime.==== Ground arms ====The structure of the Georgian Land Forces is based on brigade and battalion-sized military units.", "The main force consists of four infantry, one special operations, two artillery, one air defence brigades and several independent battalions.", "Georgian brigades have a total manpower of 3,000 each excluding non-combat personnel.", "The overall strength of the land forces in 2013 was 37,825 (excluding active reserve), from which 21 were high-ranking officers, 6,166 officers and sergeants, 28,477 corporals and privates, 125 cadets and 388 civilians.", "Accordingly, to reach NATO structures and higher standards the brigades were downsized to optimal as well as the 5th brigade disbanded, also to increase the percentage of spending on arms acquirement, which was previously 2%, to 6% of the military budget.", "The goal is to reach at least 15% until 2020.The ground forces are equipped with a variety of weapons and vehicles.", "Special forces operate independently under MOD direction.The Georgian Land Force consists of following primary combat formations (incomplete):==== Force composition ====Georgian soldiers, 44th Armored Battalion, drive a T-72 tank into a fighting position during a combined training exercise, Vaziani, Republic of Georgia, Aug. 6, 2017.Soldiers of the 32nd Battalion conducting pre-deployment training, 2012Georgian soldiers of 33rd Battalion and US Marines board a MV-22B Osprey during the Georgian lead operation Northern Lion II, 2013Soldiers from the 43rd Mechanized Battalion during exercises, 2015Georgian army soldier takes down grid coordinates during Defence Readiness Program-Training, 2018* '''HQ, Land Forces Command (Tbilisi)'''** Central Command Point22px '''Operational Command East''''''1st Infantry Brigade (Tbilisi)'''11th Light Infantry Battalion 12th Light Infantry Battalion - NRF13th Light Infantry Battalion 14th Mixed Armored BattalionArtillery BattalionLogistics BattalionReconnaissance CompanyEngineer CompanySignal Company'''4th Mechanized Infantry Brigade (Vaziani)'''*41st Mechanized Infantry Battalion43rd Mechanized Infantry Battalion42nd Mixed Armored Battalion44th Artillery BattalionLogistics BattalionReconnaissance CompanyEngineer CompanySignal Company'''5th Artillery Brigade (Vaziani)'''51st Artillery Battalion52nd Artillery Battalion53rd Security BattalionAir Defence Company* '''Special Operations Battalion''' '''Ranger Battalion''' '''Combat Engineer Battalion'''22px '''Operational Command West'''* '''2nd Infantry Brigade (Senaki)'''*21st Light Infantry Battalion22nd Light Infantry Battalion23rd Light Infantry Battalion21st Mixed Armored BattalionArtillery BattalionLogistics BattalionReconnaissance CompanyEngineer CompanySignal Company'''3rd Infantry Brigade (''The Mamelukes'') (Kutaisi)'''*31st Light Infantry Battalion32nd Light Infantry Battalion33rd Mixed Armored Battalion34th Artillery BattalionLogistics BattalionReconnaissance CompanyEngineer CompanySignal Company* '''6th Artillery Brigade (Khoni)'''*61st Artillery Battalion62nd Artillery Battalion63rd Security BattalionAir Defence Company* '''Naval Special Operations Company''' '''Combat Engineer Battalion''' '''Medical Company'''** '''Separate Communications Company'''====Separate Elements====22px '''Aviation and Air-Defence Command'''22px '''Army Logistics Command'''22px '''Training and Education Command''' '''Engineer Brigade'''* Separate Reconnaissance Battalion (Kobuleti)* Separate Medical Battalion (Saguramo)* Separate Signal Battalion* Separate Logistics BattalionIn 2011 the Georgian high command decided to divide its military forces into two main operational units; the Eastern and Western Operational Groups.", "The aim was to create two independently acting military districts which would consist of forces in accordance to the strategic value of their deployment areas yet being balanced in their type of equipment.", "In case of war each group will be able to coordinate its operations independently from high command, having its own logistical and administrative reserves.===Special Operations Forces===The Special Operations Forces of the Defence Forces of Georgia were established to conduct unconventional warfare and the full spectrum of special operation missions.", "They also serve in supporting capacity for regular military forces, primarily in the areas of education and training.Georgian special forces became first active in 1999 as part of KFOR.", "Georgian commandos participated in the Iraq War from 2003 until the complete withdrawal of the Georgian contingent in 2008 due to an escalation of hostilities in South Ossetia.", "According to independent accounts, a number of Georgian operatives were also deployed prior in Afghanistan to aide US Special Forces in hunting down Taliban leaders.", "Georgian officials have stated that a group of servicemen were deployed in Afghanistan for medical purposes.=== Air Force ===Su-25KM ground attack aircraft\|leftMi-24 attack helicopter The '''Georgian Air Force''' (Georgian: საქართველოს საჰაერო ძალები, ''sak'art'velos sahaero dzalebi'') is the air force of the Defence Forces of Georgia.", "It was established as part of the Georgian Armed Forces in 1992 and merged into Army Air Section in 2010.As part of reforms in the Georgian military, the Air Force was reestablished as a separate branch of the Defence Forces in 2016.Under the leadership of Georgian Minister of Defence Irakli Garibashvili the Air Force was re-prioritized and aircraft owned by the Georgian Air Force are being modernized and re-serviced after they were left abandoned for 4 years.", "The Minister of Defence also announced plans to acquire strike drones to increase Georgia's combat readiness.=== Georgian Coast Guard (Former Naval Force) ===The Georgian Navy was abolished in 2009 and was incorporated into the Coast Guard, which is not structurally part of the Defence Forces, but rather it is a subunit of the Border Guard of Georgia, which is under the control of Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia.", "The Coast Guard of Georgia is responsible for maintenance of the sovereignty of the country and for protection of internal territorial waters and economic zones.", "The headquarters and a principal Coast Guard base are located at the Black Sea port of Poti.Coast Guard vesselsThe other, smaller Coast Guard base is in Batumi.", "Besides the naval force, the navy also includes a Special Counter-terrorist Detachment force.", "Georgia is also one of the founding members and a participant of the Black Sea Naval Co-operation Task Group.", "Before the war with Russia, the Georgian navy had 19 naval vessels.", "Four of them were sunk during the conflict, and nine rigid-hull inflatables were captured by Russia.", "The Georgians raised and returned to service two of the sunken vessels, and partially replaced their losses with Turkish-built patrol/fast attack boats.=== National Guard of Georgia ===The National Guard of Georgia was established on 20 December 1990 and was manned mainly by volunteers.", "It represents the first Georgian armed formation, which became the base of the foundation for modern Defence Forces of Georgia.", "The Guard actively participated in the conflicts that occurred in Georgian territory (Samachablo, Abkhazia).The National Guard used to consist of 20,554 personnel, but has now been reduced to 550.#Support civil government in crisis situations (natural, technological, ecological);#Register mobilization resources, study and deliver;#Convene, select and man of citizens on the basis of the agreement, for the units, subunits and bases of the Defence Forces;#Provide ceremonial activity support;#Assisting in training the Reserve Forces.=== Army Reserve and Territorial Defence Forces ===The Army Reserve is a professional reserve force consisting of former regular army personnel only.", "Due to the amount of experience, the Reserve personnel would be drawn from to replace losses in the ranks of regular formations, but will if needed operate in the vanguard of a combined mechanized group or an infantry assault.The Territorial Defence Forces were established for immediate readiness of the population in crisis events, such as war.", "Its main goals would be the fortification and defence of all populated and strategically important areas as well as providing quick aid or security for evacuation operations in case of natural catastrophes.Other than the active army reserve which consists of only ex military personnel, the Territorial Defence Forces are rather sparsely prepared for complex military operations.", "It instead provides more comfort for the regular forces in case of war, by acting as an additional logistical arm and leaving the actual combat to the regular forces.", "With the land forces and reserve army engaged in direct action, the Defence Force's most important task would be to construct trenches, bunkers and obstacles around strategically important areas and position themselves on systematically formed defensive lines.", "Mobilization capacity is around 140,000 troops and is reasonably large.The TDF reservist is comparably poorly equipped for modern warfare.", "It is rumored that Georgia possess thousands of firearms of all types and infantry personal protection equipment inherited from the Soviet Union which could be used by reservists.", "Georgia also possess few dozen T-55 tanks that are in storage that could be used by the reservist forces.=== Commissioned officers ===" ], [ "International cooperation", "MEDEVAC training with the US Army UH-60L helicopter during exercise Noble Partner 20.A Bradley IFV from US Army Armored Regiment (Iron Knights) maneuvers across Vaziani Military Base for Noble Partner 17.The Georgian Defence Forces frequently have large scale military drills involving heavy armor and parachute units with their NATO counterparts on Georgian soil to increase interoperability.=== Peacekeeping missions ===About 200 Georgian troops were deployed in the Kosovo (KFOR) in 1999–2008, 70 were deployed in Iraq (OIF) in 2003 and 50 in Afghanistan in 2004 (ISAF).", "From 2004 in Iraq were 300 Georgian troops.", "From 2005 approximately 850 troops were serving under Coalition Command (OIF and UNAMI).", "In July 2007 Georgia sent an extra 1,400 troops to Iraq; that brought the total number of troops in Iraq to 2,000.About 300 of these troops were assigned to Taskforce Petro and stationed at COP Cleary outside the town of Wahida near Salman Pak, Iraq.", "On 8 August 2008 Georgia announced it will withdraw 1,000 troops from Iraq due to rising hostilities with Russia.", "Their preparedness and training skills are evaluated on highest level by international experts.", "The entire Iraq contingent has been airlifted back to Georgia.Hence, owing to participation in international peacekeeping missions the military members are able to obtain practical experience and to show readiness to cooperate with NATO and with other partner countries' forces.Currently there are more than 1,570 Georgian combat troops deployed in Helmand, Afghanistan where Georgia has thus far suffered 22 deaths and over a hundred injuries.", "In September 2012, Georgia stated that it would continue its contributions in Afghanistan following the 2014 NATO withdrawal.In November 2012, Georgia had doubled the number of troops deployed to fight with Nato-led forces in Afghanistan to over 1,500.Georgia has 1,570 troops serving there, making the small Caucasus country of 4.5 million people the largest non-Nato contributor to the Afghanistan mission.Since 2014 Georgia has contributed 140 troops to the EUFOR RCA peacekeeping mission in the Central African Republic, Georgia also contributes its military units to Resolute Support Mission in Afghanistan.358x358px254x254px238x238px" ], [ "Commanders", "The Chief of General Staff is the highest-ranking officer in the military, heading the General Staff and being the ex officio Deputy Chief of the Defence Forces, who is the commander of the Defence Forces, being appointed by the Minister of Defence.", "The senior enlisted advisor of the Georigan military is the Sergeant Major of the Georgian Defence Forces (), currently Sergeant Major Koba Tsirekidze (appointed on 11 April 2016)." ], [ "Military industry", "Modernized BRDM-2 of Georgian Land ForcesGeorgia has a long history of weapon production tracing back to ancient times.", "The modern arms industry began during the Soviet era.", "In 1941 Georgia became one of the most important Soviet weapon manufacturing states during the Second World War.", "It was responsible for providing the Soviet Army with all types of aircraft and ammunition.", "Tbilisi Aircraft Manufacturing's role didn't change after the war.", "Up until 1990 Georgia was producing various types of fighter aircraft, most notably the Su-25 since it was produced almost exclusively in Georgia, unmanned areal vehicles, missiles, satellite components and orbital satellites.", "The company lost most of its functionality and production capability when the Soviet Union dissolved, yet was not abandoned.", "In the late 1990s Georgia's JSC RMP and later the newly established Ministry of Defence section \"Delta\" started to work on the development of ballistic equipment using their own ingredients.", "The advanced research unit had successfully developed a variety of personal protection gear, such as bomb disposal suits and level I-IV body armour using classified mixtures of domestic resource.", "These projects never went beyond some prototypes, mainly due to poor attention and financing from the government.With foreign support primarily from the United States since 2005, Georgia became able to start building a solid industrial base for the military.", "From 2001 to 2007, Delta experimented with unmanned aerial vehicles and modified parts for helicopters and Su-25 aircraft until it got involved in the modification of Georgia's T-72 tank fleet.", "In 2009–10, with enough experience and expertise and the assistance of designer Zviad Tsikolia, Delta created its first prototype of an armored personnel carrier, the Didgori.", "Early tests were highly successful so that its first production line started already in 2011.Two versions would initially serve in the armed forces in 2012, followed by different modifications from 2013 on.", "The Lazika is Delta's attempt to manufacture a suitable modular infantry fighting vehicle created for multiple tasks.", "Delta considers the Lazika as one of the best vehicles of its class bearing armour technology similar to that of Israel.", "The remotely operated systems are locally produced as well.", "Due to \"misdirected financing\" and heavy interfering of former government officials, project Lazika was temporarily cancelled in late 2012, also due to \"sabotage\" and shortcomings in its armour research, but then later continued in early 2013 when a newly elected government took charge.As of 2007 Georgia has been domestically producing uniforms for its military personnel.", "Other main production lines include various types of artillery systems such as MLRS, mortars and corresponding ammunition, anti-tank weapons and devices, full uniform sets for ceremonies and for all service branches, including boots, hats, assault vests, pouches, and backpacks.", "New kind of ballistic vests and helmets have been developed and produced for military service since 2013.The Georgian production uses techniques based on know-how from aerospace research whose methods differ slightly yet significantly from foreign ones.", "In 2018 plans were announced for decisive expansions in manufacturing capabilities.", "With assistance from the United States and Israel, a weapon manufacturing plant was established for the development and production of AR-15 based firearms.Lazika IFVGeorgian made Didgori-2Georgian made Didgori Medevac" ], [ "Bases", "NameLocationMinistry of Defence HeadquartersTbilisiVaziani Military Basenear TbilisiKrtsanisi Military Basenear TbilisiAkhalkalaki Military BaseAkhalkalakiAlekseevka Airbasenear TbilisiMarneuli AirbaseMarneuliBolnisi Airbasenear TbilisiGori Military BaseGoriSenaki Military BaseSenakiPoti naval basePotiMukhrovani Military BaseMukhrovaniKutaisi Military BaseKutaisiKhelvachauri Military BaseKhelvachauriKhoni Military BaseKhoniBatumi naval baseBatumi" ], [ "See also", "Georgia and NATOList of equipment of the Defence Forces of Georgia" ], [ "References", " 2005" ], [ "Further reading", "Denise Hammick, Country Briefing: Georgia On the Cusp, Jane's Defence Weekly, 2 January 2008" ], [ "External links", " geo-army.ge, an information website* Ministry of Defence of Georgia: The Strategic Defence Review 2007.''mod.gov.ge''.", "Accessed on 7 May 2008.", "* GlobalSecurity.org on Georgia's military* Ministry of the defence of Georgia: Armed Forces of Georgia.", "Accessed on 6 March 2009.", "* Military Heraldry of Georgian Armed Forces." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Georgia" ], [ "Introduction", "Georgia's location, nestled between the Black Sea, Russia, and Turkey, renders it strategically important.", "It is developing as the gateway from the Black Sea to the Caucasus and the larger Caspian region, but also serves as a buffer between Russia and Turkey.", "Georgia has a long and tumultuous relationship with Russia, but it is reaching out to its other neighbours and looking to the West in search of alternatives and opportunities.", "It signed a partnership and cooperation agreement with the European Union, participates in the Partnership for Peace, and encourages foreign investment.", "France, Germany, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States all have embassies in Tbilisi.", "Georgia in 2004-2008 sought to become a member of NATO, but did not succeed in the face of strong Russian opposition.Georgia is a member of the United Nations, the Council of Europe, and the OSCE.Because of its strategic location, Georgia is in both the Russian and American spheres of influence, however Georgia's relationship with Russia is at its lowest point since 1921 due to controversies regarding espionage and the Russo-Georgian War.", "As a result, Georgia broke off diplomatic relations with Russia and has left the Commonwealth of Independent States." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Georgia maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate1234567—89101112131415—16171819202122232425262728293031— (broken)323334353637383940414243444546474849505152535455565758596061626364656667686970717273— (broken)7475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105—106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164Before 2012165166167168169170171172173174175176177178179180181182183184185186" ], [ "Relations by country", "===Multilateral=== Organization Formal Relations BeganNotesSee Georgia–European Union relations and Accession of Georgia to the European Union See Georgia–NATO relations===Africa=== Country Formal Relations Began NotesSee Algeria–Georgia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 27 May 1993.", "Algeria is represented in Georgia through its embassy in Ankara, Turkey.", "Georgia is represented in Algeria through its embassy in Madrid, Spain.", "See Egypt–Georgia relations Egypt is represented in Georgia through its embassy in Yerevan (Armenia).", "* Georgia has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Egypt* Georgian foreign minister visits EgyptSee Georgia–South Africa relations* South Africa is represented in Georgia through its embassy in Kyiv (Ukraine).", "* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with South Africa* South African Department of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Georgia===Americas=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotesApril 1993See Brazil–Georgia relations* Brazil has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* Georgia has an embassy in Brasília.", "23 July 1992See Canada–Georgia relations* Canada is accredited to Georgia from its embassy in Ankara, Turkey.", "* Georgia has an embassy in Ottawa.", "See Georgia–Mexico relations* Georgia has an embassy in Mexico City.", "* Mexico is accredited to Georgia from its embassy in Ankara, Turkey and maintains an honorary consulate in Tbilisi.", "— See Georgia–Nicaragua relations Nicaraguan-Georgian diplomatic relations established on 19 September 1994 and ended on 29 November 2008.The Georgian Foreign Ministry said that it had cut diplomatic ties with Nicaragua in a response to the latter's recognition of independence of breakaway South Ossetia and Abkhazia.See Georgia–United States relationsOn 9 January 2009, the U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and Georgian Foreign Minister Grigol Vashadze signed a Charter on Strategic Partnership, a nonbinding document outlining areas of cooperation and reiterating the U.S. support for Georgia's territorial integrity and to Georgia's NATO membership.", "===Asia=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes See Armenia–Georgia relations* There are nearly 250,000 Armenians in Georgia, among them 115,000 living in Samtskhe-Javakheti and 83,000 in Tbilisi.", "The Georgian minority in Armenia is less sizable.", "* Armenia and Georgia have a long history of cultural and political relations.", "The interaction peaked in the Middle Ages when both nations engaged in prolific cultural dialogue and allied themselves against the neighboring Muslim empires.", "There were frequent intermarriages between Armenian and Georgian the royal and noble families and both ethnicities intermingled in several border areas.", "* Armenia has an embassy in Tbilisi and a general consulate in Batumi.", "* Georgia has an embassy in Yerevan.", "* Both countries are full members of the Euronest Parliamentary Assembly and the EU's Eastern Partnership.See Azerbaijan–Georgia relations* There are 284,761 Azeris in Georgia.", "They are the largest minority of Georgia and comprise 6.5% of Georgia's population mostly in Kvemo Kartli, Kakheti, Shida Kartli and Mtskheta-Mtianeti.", "There is also a large Azeri community in the capital city of Tbilisi.", "The Georgian minority in Azerbaijan is less sizable.", "They are known as Ingiloy and are mostly concentrated in northwestern Azerbaijan.", "* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Tbilisi and a general consulate in Batumi.", "* Georgia has an embassy in Baku and a general consulate in Ganja.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC).", "See China–Georgia relationsChina recognized the independence of Georgia on 27 December 1991.", "China has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "Georgia has an embassy in Beijing.", " Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Georgia* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with ChinaGeorgia is represented in Timor by its embassy in Jakarta.", "See Georgia–Hong Kong relationsSee Georgia–India relations* Georgia has an embassy in New Delhi.", "* India is represented in Georgia through its embassy in Yerevan (Armenia) and an honorary consulate in Tbilisi.", "* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with India See Persia-Georgia relations, Georgia–Iran relationsPersia and Georgia have had relations for thousands of years.", "See Georgia–Iraq relationsSee Georgia–Israel relations Georgia has an embassy in Tel Aviv.", "* Israel has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* There are 13,000 Georgian Jews living in Georgia.See Georgia–Japan relations* Since November 2006, Georgia has maintained an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Japan* Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Georgia See Georgia–Kazakhstan relationsGeorgia has an embassy in Nur-Sultan and an honorary consulate in Almaty.", "Kazakhstan has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.", " Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Kazakhstan* Kazakh Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Georgia * Georgia has an embassy in Kuwait City.", "* Kuwait is accredited to Georgia from its embassy in Yerevan, Armenia.See Georgia–Kyrgyzstan relations Georgia is represented in Kyrgyzstan by its embassy in Nur-Sultan.", "Kyrgyzstan is represented in Georgia by its embassy in Baku.", "Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.", "See Georgia–Malaysia relationsGeorgia has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.", "Malaysia is represented in Georgia through its embassy in Kyiv, (Ukraine).", " Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with MalaysiaSee Georgia–Myanmar relations See Georgia–Saudi Arabia relations * Georgia has an embassy in Riyadh.", "* Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "See Georgia–South Korea relationsThe establishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Korea and Georgia began on 14 December 1992.", "* Georgian embassy in Seoul.", "* South Korean embassy in Tbilisi.", "* Bilateral Trade in 2014 Exports 143 million US dollars Imports 19 million US dollars* The number of the South Koreans living in Georgia in 2014 was about 50.", "* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with the Republic of Korea — See Georgia–Syria relations Georgia began the procedure of terminating diplomatic relations with Syria due to Damascus' recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.noneRepublic of China passports are not valid for entry in Georgia, while the Taiwanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs declared Georgia as a \"non-friendly country\" to Taiwan.See Georgia–Tajikistan relationsGeorgia is represented in Tajikistan by its embassy in Tashkent.", "Tajikistan is represented in Georgia by its embassy in BakuBoth countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.", "See Georgia–Turkey relations Georgia has an embassy in Ankara.", "and two consulates–general in Istanbul.", "and Trabzon.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "and a consulate–general in Batumi.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Black Sea Naval Co-operation Task Group (BLACKSEAFOR), the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) and the World Trade Organization (WTO).", "Turkey is also a member of NATO while Georgia is a candidate.", "* Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Georgia ===Europe=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotesSee Albania–Georgia relations* Albania is represented in Georgia through a non resident ambassador based in Ankara, (Turkey).", "* Georgia is represented in Albania through a non resident ambassador based in Ankara, (Turkey).", "See Austria–Georgia relations * Austria is represented in Georgia through a non resident ambassador based in Vienna, and through an honorary consulate in Tbilisi.", "* Georgia has an embassy in Vienna and an honorary consulate in Graz.", "* Austrian Foreign Ministry: list of bilateral treaties with Georgia (in German only)* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Austria * Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.See Belarus–Georgia relations* Belarus has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* Georgia has an embassy in Minsk.", "See Bulgaria–Georgia relations* Bulgaria recognized the independence of Georgia on 15 January 1992.", "* Bulgaria has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* Georgia has an embassy in Sofia.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.", "* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Bulgaria See Croatia–Georgia relationsSee Cyprus–Georgia relations * Cyprus is represented in Georgia through a non resident ambassador based in Athens, (Greece).", "* Georgia has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.See Denmark–Georgia relations See Estonia–Georgia relationsSee Finland–Georgia relationsSee France–Georgia relations* France has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* Georgia has an embassy in Paris.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.See Georgia–Germany relations* Germany recognized the independence of Georgia on 22 March 1992.", "* Georgia has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Germany* German Federal Foreign Office about relations with GeorgiaSee Georgia–Greece relations* Georgia has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.", "* Georgia Ministry of Foreign Affaires about the relation with Greece* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affaires about the relation with Georgia See Georgia–Hungary relations* Georgia has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy and an honorary consulate in Tbilisi.", "* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with HungarySee Georgia–Iceland relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 21 September 1992.See Georgia–Italy relations* Georgia has an embassy in Rome.", "* Italy has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.See Georgia–Latvia relations* Georgia has an embassy in Riga.", "* Latvia has an embassy and an honorary consulate in Tbilisi.", "* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Latvia* Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Georgia See Georgia–Liechtenstein relationsSee Georgia–Lithuania relations* Georgia has an embassy in Vilnius.", "* Lithuania has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Lithuania* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Poland (in Lithuanian only) See Georgia–Luxembourg relationsSee Georgia–Malta relationsSee Georgia–Moldova relations* Georgia is represented in Moldova through its embassy in Bucharest (Romania).", "* Moldova is represented in Georgia through its embassy in Baku (Azerbaijan).", "* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Moldova See Georgia–Monaco relations See Georgia–Montenegro relationsSee Georgia–Netherlands relations* Embassy of Georgia to the Kingdom of the Netherlands opened in The Hague in 2007.", "* Netherlands has an embassy in Tbilisi since 2001.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.", "See Georgia–Norway relationsSee Georgia–Poland relations* Georgia has an embassy in Warsaw.", "* Poland has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.See Georgia–Portugal relations * Georgia has an embassy in Lisbon.", "* Portugal is accredited to Georgia from its embassy in Ankara, Turkey.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.See Georgia–Romania relations* Georgia has an embassy in Bucharest and Romania has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* Both countries are full members of the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, the Black Sea Forum for Partnership and Dialogue, and the Community of Democratic Choice.", "* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Romania—See Georgia–Russia relationsOn 29 August 2008, in the aftermath of the 2008 South Ossetia war, Deputy Foreign Minister Grigol Vashadze announced that Georgia had broken diplomatic relations with Russia.", "He also said that Russian diplomats must leave Georgia, and that no Georgian diplomat would remain in Russia, while only consular relations would be maintained.", "Russian foreign ministry spokesman Andrei Nesterenko said that Russia regretted this step.", "See Georgia–Serbia relations* Georgia is represented in Serbia through its embassy in Athens, (Greece).", "* Serbia is represented in Georgia through its embassy in Moscow (Russia).", "* Georgia recognizes Serbia on the issue of Kosovo* Serbia recognizes Georgia's territorial integrity regarding South Ossetia and Abkhazia* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Serbia 13 January 1993 See Georgia–Slovenia relationsSee Georgia–Spain relations* Georgia has an embassy in Madrid.", "* Spain is accredited to Georgia from its embassy in Ankara, Turkey.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.See Georgia–Sweden relations* Georgia has an embassy in Stockholm.", "* Sweden has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* After the war, when Abkhazia and South Ossetia broke away from Georgia, Georgia and Sweden both did not recognize the independence of both states.", "There were protests near the Russian embassy in Stockholm, as the war was going on 12 August 2008.The protests was held by a group of Georgians and Swedes.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.See Georgia–Switzerland relations* Switzerland maintained a consulate in Tbilisi between 1883 and 1922.", "* Switzerland recognized Georgia as an independent state on 23 December 1991.", "* In 1996, Switzerland opened a cooperation office in Tbilisi.", "Since June 2001, Switzerland has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* In 1997, Georgia's Permanent Mission to the international organizations in Geneva was also accredited in Bern.", "* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Switzerland* Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs about the relations with GeorgiaSee Georgia–Ukraine relationsRelations between Georgia and Ukraine and between the Georgian and Ukrainian people in particular last from the Middle Ages.See Georgia–United Kingdom relations* The United Kingdom has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* Georgia has an embassy in London.", "* British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about the relations with Georgia* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with the United KingdomSee Georgia–Holy See relations* Georgia has an Embassy in Rome.", "* Vatican has an Apostolic Nunciature in Tbilisi.===Oceania=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotesSee Australia–Georgia relations * Australia is accredited to Georgia from its embassy in Ankara, Turkey.", "* Georgia has an embassy in Canberra.See Fiji–Georgia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 29 March 2010.", "Fiji is represented in Georgia by its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "Georgia is represented in Fiji by its embassy in Canberra, Australia.", "While their ties have been limited, Kiribati's President Anote Tong met with Georgian Foreign Affairs Minister Maia Panjikidze in September 2013 on the sidelines of the UN General Assembly.Kiribati has been a steadfast supporter of Georgia's territorial integrity since then, despite Russia's attempts to lobby Pacific states like Nauru, Tuvalu and Vanuatu to recognize the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.", "In 2018, Kiribati was one of the nations to vote in favor of the Georgia-sponsored UN resolutions calling for the return of internally displaced persons from Abkhazia and South Ossetia.Georgia is represented in Kiribati via its embassy in Canberra, Australia.—On 16 February 2012 Georgia issued a presidential order ending diplomatic relations with Tuvalu.", "This comes in response to a visit by the Prime Minister of Tuvalu, Willy Telavi, to Abkhazia and South Ossetia in September 2011, where he announced that the Pacific nation would recognise the two states.", "However, the Prime Minister of Tuvalu, Enele Sopoaga retracted the recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia on 31 March 2014 when Tuvalu's Foreign Minister Taukelina Finikaso signed an agreement to establish diplomatic relations with Georgia.", "Tuvalu's Foreign Minister said that his country supports Georgia's territorial integrity in its international recognized borders." ], [ "Overview", "Georgia has established relations with 185 countries and the Order of Malta.", "Georgia has terminated its diplomatic relations with Russia, Nicaragua and Syria.Georgia has not yet established diplomatic relations with:Venezuela, NauruBhutan, Cook Islands, NiueSahrawi Arab Democratic Republic and the rest of states with limited recognition." ], [ "See also", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs of GeorgiaList of diplomatic missions in GeorgiaList of diplomatic missions of Georgia Accession of Georgia to the European UnionGeorgia–European Union relations Georgia–NATO relations* EU Neighbourhood Info Centre: Country profile of Georgia" ], [ "Further reading", "* NATO and the South Caucasus.", "Analyses, Chronicles, Opinion Polls in the ''Caucasus Analytical Digest No.", "5''* Edilashvili, Maia: \"Foreign Direct Investment Declines in Georgia\" in the ''Caucasus Analytical Digest No.", "28''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* MFA of Georgia - Bilateral relations* Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia* The Permanent Mission of Georgia to the United Nations* United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia* Georgia v. Russia Provisional Measures Order and President Rosalyn Higgins concurring and Joint Dissenting Opinion and ASIL" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ghana" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ghana''' ( ; , , Dagbani: Gana), officially the '''Republic of Ghana''', is a country in West Africa.", "It abuts the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, sharing borders with Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, and Togo in the east.", "Ghana covers an area of , spanning diverse biomes that range from coastal savannas to tropical rainforests.", "With over 32 million inhabitants, Ghana is the second-most populous country in West Africa.", "The capital and largest city is Accra; other cities are Kumasi, Tamale, and Sekondi-Takoradi.The earliest kingdoms to emerge in Ghana were the Kingdom of Dagbon in the north and the Bono state in the south, with the Bono state existing in the area during the 11th century.", "The Ashanti Empire and other Akan kingdoms in the south emerged over the centuries.", "Beginning in the 15th century, the Portuguese Empire, followed by other European powers, contested the area for trading rights, until the British ultimately established control of the coast by the 19th century.", "Following over a century of colonial resistance, the current borders of the country took shape, encompassing four separate British colonial territories: Gold Coast, Ashanti, the Northern Territories, and British Togoland.", "These were unified as an independent dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations.", "On 6 March 1957, Ghana became the first country in Sub-Saharan Africa to achieve sovereignty.", "Ghana subsequently became influential in decolonisation efforts and the Pan-African movement.Ghana is a multi-ethnic country with linguistic and religious groups; while the Akan are the largest ethnic group, they constitute a plurality.", "Most Ghanaians are Christians (71.3%); almost a fifth are Muslims; a tenth practise traditional faiths or report no religion.", "Ghana is a unitary constitutional democracy led by a president who is head of state and head of government.", "For political stability in Africa, Ghana ranked seventh in the 2012 Ibrahim Index of African Governance and fifth in the 2012 Fragile States Index.", "It has maintained since 1993 one of the freest and most stable governments on the continent, and it performs relatively well in healthcare, economic growth, and human development,so that it has a significant influence in West Africa and Africa as a whole.", "Ghana is highly integrated in international affairs, being a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement, African Union and a member of the Economic Community of West African States, Group of 24 and Commonwealth of Nations." ], [ "History", "===Medieval kingdoms===Akan Kingdom of Ashanti within the Guinea region and surrounding regions in West Africa18th-century Ashanti brass ''kuduo''.", "Gold dust and nuggets were kept in ''kuduo'', as were other items of personal value and significance.", "As receptacles for their owners' ''kra'', or life force, ''kuduo'' were prominent features of ceremonies designed to honour and protect that individual.The earliest recorded kingdoms to emerge in modern Ghana were the Mole-Dagbon states.", "Before the unification of Dagbon, societies were decentralised, and headed by the Tindaamba (singular: tindana).", "These decentralised states were unified by King Gbewaa, who lived a long life, and formed a stable, peaceful society.", "Dagbon extended beyond the boundaries of present-day Ghana.", "Kingdoms that emerged from Dagbon include the Mossi Kingdoms of Burkina Faso, and Bouna Kingdom of Ivory Coast.", "The kingdom enjoyed great prosperity establishing Ghana's earliest educational systems, and using a writing script prior to European invasion.", "Female chiefs who rule over male subjects are present in the kingdom, and inheritance is both patrilineal and matrilineal.", "The Yaa Naa is the King of Dagbon and the Gundo Naa is the Queen.", "The kingdom remained uncolonised.", "In 1896, Germany invaded Eastern Dagbon (Naya) and burnt down its capital, Yendi, during the Battle of Adibo.The Akan-speaking peoples began to move into what later became Ghana toward the 15th century.", "By the 16th century, the Akans were established in the Akan state called Bonoman, for which the Brong-Ahafo region was named.", "From the 17th century, Akans emerged from what is believed to have been the Bonoman area, to create Akan states, mainly based on gold trading.", "These states included Bonoman (Brong-Ahafo region), Ashanti (Ashanti Region), Denkyira (Western North region), Mankessim Kingdom (Central region), and Akwamu (Eastern region).", "By the 19th century, the territory of the southern part of Ghana was included in the Kingdom of Ashanti.", "The government of the Ashanti Empire operated first as a loose network and eventually as a centralised kingdom with a specialised bureaucracy centred in the capital city of Kumasi.", "Prior to Akan contact with Europeans, the Akan people created an economy based on principally gold and gold bar commodities, which were traded with other states in Africa.The Ga-Dangme and Ewe migrated westward from south-western Nigeria.", "The Ewe migrated from Oyo area with their Gbe-speaking kinsmen (Adja, Fon, Phla/Phera and Ogun/Gun)and in transition, settled in Ketou in Benin Republic, Tado in Togo and with Nortsie ( a walled town in present-day Togo)as their final dispersal point.", "Their dispersal from Nortsie was necessitated by the high-handed rule of King Agorkorli (Agor Akorlie).", "The Ga- Dangme occupy the Greater Accra Region and parts of the Eastern Region, while the Ewe are found in the Volta Region as well as the neighbouring Togo, Benin Republic and Nigeria ( around Badagry area).===European contact and colonialism===Portuguese established the Portuguese Gold Coast with the construction of Elmina Castle (''Castelo da Mina'') by Diogo de Azambuja in 1482, making it the oldest European building in sub-Saharan Africa.Akan trade with European states began after contact with the Portuguese in the 15th century.", "European contact was by the Portuguese people, who came to the Gold Coast region in the 15th century to trade.", "The Portuguese then established the Portuguese Gold Coast (Costa do Ouro), focused on the availability of gold.", "The Portuguese built a trading lodge at a coastal settlement called Anomansah (the perpetual drink) which they renamed São Jorge da Mina.", "In 1481, King John II of Portugal commissioned Diogo de Azambuja to build the Elmina Castle, which was completed in 3 years.", "By 1598, the Dutch had joined the Portuguese in the gold trade, establishing the Dutch Gold Coast (''Nederlandse Bezittingen ter Kuste van Guinea'' - 'Dutch properties at the Guinea coast') and building forts at Fort Komenda and Kormantsi.", "In 1617, the Dutch captured the Elmina Castle from the Portuguese and Axim in 1642 (Fort St Anthony).European traders had joined in gold trading by the 17th century, including the Swedes, establishing the Swedish Gold Coast (''Svenska Guldkusten''), and Denmark–Norway, establishing the Danish Gold Coast (''Danske Guldkyst'' or ''Dansk Guinea'').", "European traders participated in the Atlantic slave trade in this area.", "More than 30 forts and castles were built by the merchants.", "The Germans established the Brandenburger Gold Coast or Groß Friedrichsburg).", "In 1874, Great Britain established control over some parts of the country, assigning these areas the status of the British Gold Coast.", "Military engagements occurred between British colonial powers and Akan nation-states.", "The Kingdom of Ashanti defeated the British some times in the 100-year-long Anglo-Ashanti wars and eventually lost with the War of the Golden Stool in 1900.===Transition to independence===In 1947, the newly formed United Gold Coast Convention led by \"The Big Six\" called for \"self-government within the shortest possible time\" following the 1946 Gold Coast legislative election.", "Kwame Nkrumah, a Ghanaian nationalist who led Ghana from 1957 to 1966 as the country's first prime minister and president, formed the Convention People's Party in 1949 with the motto \"self-government now\".", "The party initiated a \"positive action\" campaign involving non-violent protests, strikes and non-cooperation with the British authorities.", "Nkrumah was arrested and sentenced to one year imprisonment during this time.", "In the Gold Coast's 1951 general election, he was elected to Parliament and was released from prison.", "He became prime minister in 1952 and began a policy of Africanization.On 6 March 1957 at midnight, the Gold Coast, Ashanti, the Northern Territories, and British Togoland were unified as one single independent dominion within the British Commonwealth under the name Ghana.", "This was done under the Ghana Independence Act 1957.The current flag of Ghana, consisting of the colours red, gold, green, and a black star, dates back to this unification.", "On 1 July 1960, following the Ghanaian constitutional referendum and Ghanaian presidential election, Nkrumah declared Ghana a republic and assumed the presidency.", "6 March is the nation's Independence Day, and 1 July is celebrated as Republic Day.Nkrumah led an authoritarian regime in Ghana, as he repressed political opposition and conducted elections that were not free and fair.", "In 1964, a constitutional amendment made Ghana a one-party state, with Nkrumah as president for life of both the nation and its party.", "Nkrumah was the first African head of state to promote the concept of Pan-Africanism, which he had been introduced to during his studies at Lincoln University, Pennsylvania in the United States, at the time when Marcus Garvey was known for his \"Back to Africa Movement\".", "He merged the teachings of Garvey, Martin Luther King Jr. and the naturalised Ghanaian scholar W. E. B.", "Du Bois into the formation of 1960s Ghana.", "Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, as he became known, played an instrumental part in the founding of the Non-Aligned Movement, and in establishing the Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute to teach his ideologies of communism and socialism.", "His life achievements were recognised by Ghanaians during his centenary birthday celebration, and the day was instituted as a public holiday in Ghana (Founders' Day).===Operation Cold Chop and aftermath===The government of Nkrumah was subsequently overthrown in a coup by the Ghana Armed Forces, codenamed \"Operation Cold Chop\".", "This occurred while Nkrumah was abroad with Zhou Enlai in the People's Republic of China, on a fruitless mission to Hanoi, Vietnam, to help end the Vietnam War.", "The coup took place on 24 February 1966, led by Colonel Emmanuel Kwasi Kotoka and Brigadier Akwasi Afrifa.", "The National Liberation Council was formed, chaired by Lieutenant General Joseph A. Ankrah.A series of alternating military and civilian governments, often affected by economic instabilities, ruled Ghana from 1966, ending with the ascent to power of Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings of the Provisional National Defence Council in 1981.These changes resulted in the suspension of the constitution in 1981 and the banning of political parties.", "The economy soon declined, so Rawlings negotiated a structural adjustment plan, changing many old economic policies, and growth recovered during the mid-1980s.", "A new constitution restoring multi-party system politics was promulgated in the presidential election of 1992, in which Rawlings was elected, and again in the general election of 1996.In a tribal war in Northern Ghana in 1994, between the Konkomba and other ethnic groups, including the Nanumba, Dagomba and Gonja, between 1,000 and 2,000 people were killed and 150,000 people were displaced.chiefs in 2015After the 2000 general election, John Kufuor of the New Patriotic Party became president of Ghana on 7 January 2001 and was re-elected in 2004, thus also serving two terms (the term limit) as president of Ghana and marking the first time under the fourth republic that power was transferred from one legitimately elected head of state and head of government to another.Nana Akufo-Addo, the ruling party candidate, was defeated in a very close 2008 general election by John Atta Mills of the National Democratic Congress.", "Mills died of natural causes and was succeeded by Vice President John Mahama on 24 July 2012.Following the 2012 general election, Mahama became president in his own right, and Ghana was described as a \"stable democracy\".", "As a result of the 2016 general election, Nana Akufo-Addo became president on 7 January 2017.He was re-elected after a tightly contested election in 2020.To combat deforestation, on 11 June 2021 Ghana inaugurated Green Ghana Day, with the aim of planting five million trees in a concentrated effort to preserve the country's rainforest cover." ], [ "Geography", "Ghana is located on the Gulf of Guinea, a few degrees north of the Equator.", "It spans an area of and has an Atlantic coastline that stretches on the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean to its south.", "Dodi Island and Bobowasi Island are near the south coast.", "It lies between latitudes 4°45'N and 11°N, and longitudes 1°15'E and 3°15'W.", "The prime meridian passes through Ghana, specifically through Tema.", "Ghana is geographically closer to the intersection of the Prime Meridian and the Equator than any other country, since this point, (0°, 0°), is located in the Atlantic Ocean approximately 614 km (382 mi) off the south-east coast of Ghana.Grasslands mixed with south coastal shrublands and forests dominate Ghana, with forest extending northward from the coast and eastward for a maximum of about with locations for mining of industrial minerals and timber.", "Ghana is home to 5 terrestrial ecoregions: Eastern Guinean forests, Guinean forest–savanna mosaic, West Sudanian savanna, Central African mangroves, and Guinean mangroves.", "It had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.53/10, ranking it 112th globally out of 172 countries.The White Volta River and its tributary Black Volta, flow south through Ghana to Lake Volta, the world's third-largest reservoir by volume and largest by surface area, formed by the hydroelectric Akosombo Dam, completed in 1965.The Volta flows out of Lake Volta into the Gulf of Guinea.", "The northernmost part of Ghana is Pulmakong and the southernmost part of Ghana is Cape Three Points.", "Landmarks, borders, and regionsCoastal Plain Accra, Apam, Cape Coast, Elmina, Kakum National Park, Kokrobite, Nzulezo, Sekondi-Takoradi, Ada Foah The Gulf of Guinea coastal plain with the seat of government and capital city, castles and forts and rainforestAshanti-Kwahu Koforidua, Kumasi, Obuasi, Sunyani Forested hills and the Kingdom of AshantiVolta Basin Tamale Lake Volta, the river system that feeds it and Ghana eastern border crossingNorthern Plains Wa, Bolgatanga, Mole National Park Savanna plains and north Ghana trade route and border crossing'''Settlements'''Accra Seat of Government and Capital city.Bolgatanga Paga Crocodile Pond location.Cape CoastCape Coast Castle is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.Elmina Coastal town with Elmina Castle.KoforiduaAburi Botanical Gardens location.KumasiTraditional centre of the Kingdom of Ashanti.ObuasiWorld's 9th largest gold mine location; and Mining town.Sekondi-TakoradiSurfing beaches such as Busua Beach, and UNESCO World Heritage Sites.TamaleLargest settlement in the Kingdom of Dagbon and gateway to Mole National Park.YendiTraditional Capital of the Kingdom of Dagbon and seat of Yaa Naa.The climate of Ghana is tropical, and there is wet season and dry season.", "Ghana sits at the intersection of 3 hydro-climatic zones.", "Changes in rainfall, weather conditions and sea-level rise affect the salinity of coastal waters.", "This is expected to negatively affect both farming and fisheries.In 2015, the government produced a document titled \"Ghana's Intended Nationally Determined Contribution.\"", "Following that, Ghana signed the Paris Climate Agreement in 2016." ], [ "Politics", " Parliament House of Ghana, the Supreme Court of Ghana and Judiciary of Ghana buildings and Jubilee House is the presidential palace.Nkrumah and the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th presidents of the 4th Republic of Ghana Rawlings; Kufuor; Mills and Mahama.Ghana is a unitary presidential constitutional democracy with a parliamentary multi-party system that is dominated by two parties—the National Democratic Congress (NDC) and the New Patriotic Party (NPP).", "Ghana alternated between civilian and military governments until January 1993, when the military government gave way to the Fourth Republic of Ghana after presidential and parliamentary elections in late 1992.The 1992 constitution of Ghana divides powers among a commander-in-chief of the Ghana Armed Forces (President of Ghana), parliament (Parliament of Ghana), cabinet (Cabinet of Ghana), council of state (Ghanaian Council of State), and an independent judiciary (Judiciary of Ghana).", "The government is elected by universal suffrage after every four years.Nana Akufo-Addo won the presidency in the general election in 2016, defeating incumbent John Mahama.", "He also won the 2020 election after the presidential election results were challenged at the Supreme Court by flagbearer of the NDC, John Mahama.", "Presidents are limited to two four-year terms in office.", "The president can serve a second term only upon re-election.The 2012 Fragile States Index indicated that Ghana is ranked the 67th-least fragile state in the world and the fifth-least fragile state in Africa.", "Ghana ranked 112th out of 177 countries on the index.", "Ghana ranked as the 64th-least corrupt and politically corrupt country in the world out of all 174 countries ranked and ranked as the fifth-least corrupt and politically corrupt country in Africa out of 53 countries in the 2012 Transparency International Corruption Perception Index.", "Ghana was ranked 7th in Africa out of 53 countries in the 2012 Ibrahim Index of African Governance.", "The Ibrahim Index is a comprehensive measure of African government, based on variables which reflect the success with which governments deliver essential political goods to its citizens.", "According to 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices Ghana is ranked 67th electoral democracy worldwide and 10th electoral democracy in Africa.===Foreign relations===Kofi Annan, Ghanaian diplomat and United Nations Secretary-General 1997–2006Since independence, Ghana has been devoted to ideals of nonalignment and is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement.", "Ghana favours international and regional political and economic co-operation, and is an active member of the United Nations and the African Union.Ghana has a strong relationship with the United States.", "Three recent U.S. presidents—Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama and a Vice President — Kamala Harris have made diplomatic trips to Ghana.", "Many Ghanaian diplomats and politicians hold positions in international organisations, including Ghanaian diplomat and former Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan, International Criminal Court Judge Akua Kuenyehia, as well as former President Jerry John Rawlings and former President John Agyekum Kufuor, who both served as diplomats of the United Nations.In September 2010, President John Atta Mills visited China on an official visit.", "Mills and China's former President Hu Jintao marked the 50th anniversary of diplomatic ties between the two nations, at the Great Hall of the People.", "China reciprocated with an official visit in November 2011, by the vice-chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of China, Zhou Tienong who visited Ghana and met with Ghana's President John Mahama.", "Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad met with Mahama in 2013 to hold discussions on strengthening the Non-Aligned Movement and also co–chair a bilateral meeting between Ghana and Iran at the Ghanaian presidential palace Flagstaff House.The Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) were integrated into Ghana's development agenda and the budget.", "According to reports, the SDGs were implemented through a decentralized planning approach.", "This allows for stakeholders' participation, such as in UN agencies, traditional leaders, civil society organizations, academia, and others.", "The 17 SDGs are a global call to action to end poverty among others, and the UN and its partners in the country are working towards achieving them.", "According to the President Nana Akufo-Addo, Ghana was \"the first sub-Saharan African country to achieve the goal of halving poverty, as contained in Goal 1 of the Millennium Development Goals\"===Military===Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan inspects Honour Guards mounted by the Ghana Air Force at the Jubilee House, the Presidential Palace of Ghana in Greater Accra on 1 March 2016.In 1957, the Ghana Armed Forces (GAF) consisted of its headquarters, support services, three battalions of infantry and a reconnaissance squadron with armoured vehicles.", "President Nkrumah aimed at rapidly expanding the GAF to support the United States of Africa ambitions.", "Thus, in 1961, 4th and 5th Battalions were established, and in 1964 6th Battalion was established, from a parachute airborne unit originally raised in 1963.Today, Ghana is a regional power and regional hegemon.", "In his book ''Shake Hands with the Devil'', Canadian Forces commander Roméo Dallaire highly rated the GAF soldiers and military personnel.The military operations and military doctrine of the GAF are conceptualised in the constitution, Ghana's Law on Armed Force Military Strategy, and Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre agreements to which GAF is attestator.", "GAF military operations are executed under the auspices and imperium of the Ministry of Defence.", "Although Ghana is relatively peaceful and is often considered being one of the least violent countries in the region, Ghana has experienced political violence in the past and 2017 has thus far seen an upward trend in incidents motivated by political grievances.===Law enforcement===Militarized police Unit of the Ghana Police ServiceThe Ghana Police Service and the Criminal Investigation Department are the main law enforcement agencies, responsible for the detection of crime, maintenance of law and order and the maintenance of internal peace and security.", "The Ghana Police Service has eleven specialised police units, including a Militarized police Rapid deployment force and Marine Police Unit.", "The Ghana Police Service operates in 12 divisions: ten covering the regions of Ghana, one assigned specifically to the seaport and industrial hub of Tema, and the twelfth being the Railways, Ports and Harbours Division.", "The Ghana Police Service's Marine Police Unit and Division handles issues that arise from the country's offshore oil and gas industry.The Ghana Prisons Service and the sub-division Borstal Institute for Juveniles administers incarceration.", "Ghana retains and exercises the death penalty for treason, corruption, robbery, piracy, drug trafficking, rape, and homicide.", "The new sustainable development goals adopted by the United Nations call for the international community to come together to promote the rule of law; support equal access to justice for all; reduce corruption; and develop effective, accountable, and transparent institutions at all levels.Ghana is among the sovereign states of West Africa used by drug cartels and drug traffickers (shown in orange).Ghana is used as a key narcotics industry transshipment point by traffickers, usually from South America as well as some from other African nations.", "In 2013, the UN chief of the Office on Drugs and Crime stated that \"West Africa is completely weak in terms of border control and the big drug cartels from Colombia and Latin America have chosen Africa as a way to reach Europe.\"", "There is not a wide or popular knowledge about the narcotics industry and intercepted narcotics within Ghana, since it is an underground economy.", "The social context within which narcotic trafficking, storage, transportation, and repacking systems exist in Ghana and the state's location along the Gulf of Guinea makes Ghana an attractive country for the narcotics business.", "The Narcotics Control Board has impounded container ships at the Sekondi Naval Base in the Takoradi Harbour.", "These ships were carrying thousands of kilograms of cocaine, with a street value running into billions of Ghana cedis.", "However, drug seizures saw a decline in 2011.Drug cartels are using new methods in narcotics production and narcotics exportation, to avoid Ghanaian security agencies.", "Underdeveloped institutions, porous open borders, and the existence of established smuggling organisations contribute to Ghana's position in the narcotics industry.", "President Mills initiated ongoing efforts to reduce the role of airports in Ghana's drug trade.=== Human rights ===Homosexual acts are prohibited by law in Ghana.", "According to a 2013 survey by the Pew Research Center, 96% of Ghanaians believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.", "Sometimes elderly women in Ghana are accused of witchcraft, particularly in rural Ghana.", "Issues of witchcraft mainly remain as speculations based on superstitions within families.", "In some parts of northern Ghana, there exist what are called witch camps.", "These are said to house a total of around 1,000 people accused of witchcraft.", "The Ghanaian government has announced that it intends to close the camps." ], [ "Economy", "Change in per capita GDP, 1870–2018.Figures are inflation-adjusted to 2011 International dollarsA proportional representation of exports, 2019commodities; exports in percentageGhana possesses industrial minerals, hydrocarbons and precious metals.", "It is an emerging designated digital economy with mixed economy hybridisation and an emerging market.", "It has an economic plan target known as the \"Ghana Vision 2020\".", "This plan envisions Ghana as the first African country to become a developed country between 2020 and 2029 and a newly industrialised country between 2030 and 2039.This excludes fellow Group of 24 member and Sub-Saharan African country South Africa, which is a newly industrialised country.Ghana's economy has ties to the Chinese yuan renminbi along with Ghana's vast gold reserves.", "In 2013, the Bank of Ghana began circulating the renminbi throughout Ghanaian state-owned banks and to the Ghana public as hard currency along with the national Ghanaian cedi for second national trade currency.Between 2012 and 2013, 38% of rural dwellers were experiencing poverty whereas only 11% of urban dwellers were.", "Urban areas hold greater opportunity for employment, particularly in informal trade, while nearly all (94 percent) of \"rural poor households\" participate in the agricultural sector.The Volta River Authority and the Ghana National Petroleum Corporation, both state-owned, are the two major electricity producers.", "The Akosombo Dam, built on the Volta River in 1965, along with the Bui Dam, the Kpong Dam and several other hydroelectric dams, provide hydropower.", "In addition, the government sought to build the second nuclear power plant in Africa.The Ghana Stock Exchange is the 5th largest on continental Africa and 3rd largest in sub-saharan Africa with a market capitalisation of GH¢ 57.2 billion or CN¥180.4 billion in 2012 with the South Africa JSE Limited as first.", "The Ghana Stock Exchange was the 2nd best performing stock exchange in sub-saharan Africa in 2013.Ghana produces high-quality cocoa.", "It is the 2nd largest producer of cocoa globally.", "Ghana is classified as a middle income country.", "Services account for 50% of GDP, followed by manufacturing (24.1%), extractive industries (5%), and taxes (20.9%).", "Ghana has an increasing primary manufacturing economy and export of digital technology goods along with assembling and exporting automobiles and ships, diverse resource rich exportation of industrial minerals, agricultural products primarily cocoa, petroleum and natural gas, and industries such as information and communications technology primarily via Ghana's state digital technology corporation Rlg Communications which manufactures tablet computers with smartphones and various consumer electronics.", "Urban electric cars have been manufactured in Ghana since 2014.It announced plans to issue government debt by way of social and green bonds in Autumn 2021, making it the first African country to do so.", "The country, which was planning to borrow up to $5 billion in international markets, would use the proceeds from these sustainable bonds to refinance debt used for social and environmental projects and pay for educational or health.", "Only a few other nations have sold them so far, including Chile and Ecuador.", "The country will use the proceeds to forge ahead with a free secondary-school initiative started in 2017 among other programs, despite having recorded its lowest economic growth rate in 37 years in 2020.Jubilee oil field of the Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC) and National Petroleum Authority located off the coast of the Western Region in the South Atlantic OceanIt produces and exports hydrocarbons such as sweet crude oil and natural gas.", "The 100%-state-owned filling station company, Ghana Oil Company, is the number 1 petroleum and gas filling station, and the 100%-state-owned state oil company Ghana National Petroleum Corporation oversees hydrocarbon exploration and production of petroleum and natural gas reserves.", "Ghana aims to further increase the output of oil to per day and gas to per day.", "The Jubilee Oil Field, which contains up to of sweet crude oil, was discovered in 2007.Ghana is believed to have up to to of petroleum in reserves, which is the fifth-largest in Africa and the 21st-to-25th-largest proven reserves in the world.", "It also has up to of natural gas in reserves.", "The government has drawn up plans to nationalise petroleum and natural gas reserves to increase government revenue.As of 2019, Ghana was the 7th largest producer of gold in the world, producing ~140 tonnes that year.", "This record saw Ghana surpass South Africa in output for the first time, making Ghana the largest gold producer in Africa.", "In addition to gold, Ghana exports silver, timber, diamonds, bauxite, and manganese, and has other mineral deposits.", "Ghana ranks 9th in the world in diamond export and reserve size.", "The government has drawn up plans to nationalize mining industry to increase government revenue.", "\"Shortages\" of electricity in 2015 & 2016 led to dumsor (\"persistent, irregular and unpredictable\" electric power outages), increasing the interest in renewables.", "As of 2019, there is a surplus of electricity.The judicial system of Ghana deals with corruption, economic malpractice and lack of economic transparency.", "According to Transparency International's Corruption Perception Index of 2018, out of 180 countries, Ghana was ranked 78th, with a score of 41 on a scale where a 0–9 score means highly corrupt, and a 90–100 score means very clean.", "This was based on perceived levels of public sector corruption.===Science and technology===Ghana launched a cellular mobile network in 1992.It was later connected to the Internet and introduced ADSL broadband services.", "It was ranked 99th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.The Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre (GSSTC) and Ghana Space Agency (GhsA) oversee space exploration and space programmes.", "GSSTC and GhsA worked to have a national security observational satellite launched into orbit in 2015.Ghana's annual space exploration expenditure has been 1% of its GDP, to support research in science and technology.", "In 2012, Ghana was elected to chair the Commission on Science and Technology for Sustainable Development in the South (Comsats); Ghana has a joint effort in space exploration with the South African National Space Agency.===Tourism===Surfers surfing and big wave surfing at Busua Beach in Western regionIn 2011, 1,087,000 tourists visited Ghana.", "Tourist arrivals include South Americans, Asians, Europeans, and North Americans.", "The attractions and tourist destinations include waterfalls such as Kintampo waterfalls and the largest waterfall in west Africa, Wli waterfalls, the coastal palm-lined sandy beaches, caves, mountains, rivers, and reservoirs and lakes such as Lake Bosumtwi and the largest human-made lake in the world by surface area, Lake Volta, dozens of forts and castles, World Heritage Sites, nature reserves and national parks.", "Some castles are Cape Coast Castle and the Elmina Castle.", "Castles mark where blood was shed in the slave trade and preserve and promote the African heritage stolen and destroyed through the slave trade.", "As a result of this, the World Heritage Convention of UNESCO named Ghana's castles and forts as World Heritage Monuments.The World Economic Forum statistics in 2010 showed that out of the world's favourite tourist destinations, Ghana was ranked 108th out of 139 countries.", "The country had moved two places up from the 2009 rankings.", "In 2011, ''Forbes'' magazine published that Ghana was ranked the eleventh most friendly country in the world.", "The assertion was based on a survey in 2010 of a cross-section of travellers.", "Of all the African countries that were included in the survey, Ghana ranked highest.", "Tourism is the fourth highest earner of foreign exchange for the country.", "In 2017, Ghana ranked as the 43rd–most peaceful country in the world.Up and down the coastline, surfing spots have been identified and cultivated by locals and internationals.", "Surfers have made trips to the country to sample the waves.", "Surfers carried their boards amid traditional fishing vessels.According to Destination Pride–a data-driven search platform used to visualize the world's LGBTQ+ laws, rights and social sentiment–Ghana's Pride score is 22 (out of 100)." ], [ "Demographics", "As of 2019, Ghana has a population of 30,083,000.Around 29% of the population is under the age of 15, while persons aged 15–64 make up 57.8 percent of the population.", "The 2010 census reported that the largest ethnic groups are the Akan (47.3%), the Mole-Dagbani (16.6%), the Ewe (13.9%), the Ga-Dangme (7.4%), the Gurma (5.7%) and the Guan (3.7%).The median age of Ghanaian citizens is 30 years old and the average household size is 3.6 persons.With recent legal immigration of skilled workers who possess Ghana Cards, there is a small population of Chinese, Malaysian, Indian, Middle Eastern and European nationals.", "In 2010, the Ghana Immigration Service reported many economic migrants and Illegal immigrants inhabiting Ghana: 14.6% (or 3.1 million) of Ghana's 2010 population (predominantly Nigerians, Burkinabe citizens, Togolese citizens, and Malian citizens).", "In 1969, under the \"Ghana Aliens Compliance Order\" enacted by Prime Minister Kofi Abrefa Busia, the Border Guard Unit deported over 3,000,000 aliens and illegal immigrants in three months as they made up 20% of the population at the time.", "In 2013, there was a mass deportation of illegal miners, more than 4,000 of them Chinese nationals.===Languages===A map of Ghana's ethno-linguistic areas.English is the official language of Ghana.", "Additionally, there are eleven languages that have the status of government-sponsored languages:Akan languages (Asante Twi, Akuapem Twi, Fante which have a high degree of mutual intelligibility, and Nzema, which is less intelligible with the above)DangmeEweGaGuanKasemMole-Dagbani languages (Dagaare and Dagbanli)Of these, Asante Twi is the most widely spoken.Because Ghana is surrounded by French-speaking countries, French is widely taught in schools and used for commercial and international economic exchanges.", "Since 2006, Ghana has been an associate member of the , the global organisation that unites French-speaking countries (84 nations on six continents).", "In 2005, more than 350,000 Ghanaian children studied French in schools.", "Since then, its status has been progressively updated to a mandatory language in every junior high school, and it is in the process of becoming an official language.Ghanaian Pidgin English, also known as Kru English (or in Akan, ''kroo brofo''), is a variety of West African Pidgin English spoken in Accra and in the southern towns.", "It can be divided into two varieties, referred to as \"uneducated\" or \"non-institutionalized\" pidgin and \"educated\" or \"institutionalized\" pidgin, the former associated with uneducated or illiterate people and the latter acquired and used in institutions such as universities.===Religion===Christianity is the largest religion in Ghana, with 71.3% of the population being members of various Christian denominations as of the 2021 census.", "Islam is practised by 20% of the total population.", "According to a 2012 report by Pew Research, 51% of Muslims are followers of Sunni Islam, while approximately 16% belong to the Ahmadiyya movement and around 8% identify with Shia Islam, while the remainder are non-denominational Muslims.", "There is \"no significant link between ethnicity and religion in Ghana\".=== Universal health care and life expectancy ===Development of life expectancy, 1921 to 2019Ghana has a universal health care system strictly designated for Ghanaian nationals, National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS), is designated for Ghanaian nationals.", "Health care is variable throughout Ghana and in 2012, over 12 million Ghanaian nationals were covered by the NHIS.", "Urban centres are well served and contain most of the hospitals, clinics, and pharmacies.", "There are over 200 hospitals, and Ghana is a destination for medical tourism.", "In 2010, there were 0.1 physicians per 1,000 people and , 0.9 hospital beds per 1,000 people.", "5.2% of Ghana's GDP was spent on health in 2010.In 2020, the WHO announced Ghana became the second country in the WHO African Region to attain regulatory system \"maturity level 3\", the second-highest in the four-tiered WHO classification of National medicines regulatory systems.Life expectancy at birth in 2020 was 71 for a female and 65 for a male.", "In 2013, infant mortality was to 39 per 1,000 live births.", "Sources vary on life expectancy at birth; the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated 62 years for men and 64 years for women born in 2016.The fertility rate declined from 3.99 (2000) to 3.28 (2010) with 2.78 in urban region and 3.94 in rural region.", "The United Nations reports a fertility decline from 6.95 (1970) to 4.82 (2000) to 3.93 live births per woman in 2017., the HIV/AIDS prevalence was estimated at 1.40% among adults aged 15–49.===Education===Education system's implementation of information and communications technology at the University of GhanaThe education system is divided into 3 parts: basic education, secondary cycle, and tertiary education.", "\"Basic education\" lasts 11 years (ages 4‒15).", "It is divided into kindergarten (2 years), primary school (2 modules of 3 years) and junior high (3 years).", "Junior high school ends with the Basic Education Certificate Examination.", "Once certified, the pupil can proceed to the secondary cycle.", "Hence, the pupil has the choice between general education (offered by the senior high school) and vocational education (offered by the technical senior high school or the technical and vocational institutes).", "Senior high school lasts 3 years and leads to the West African Senior School Certificate Examination, which is a prerequisite for enrollment in a university bachelor's degree programme.", "Polytechnics are open to vocational students.A bachelor's degree requires 4 years of study.", "It can be followed by a 1- or 2-year master's degree programme, which can be followed by a PhD programme of at least 3 years.", "A polytechnic programme lasts 2 or 3 years.", "Ghana possesses colleges of education.", "Some of the universities are the University of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, and University of Cape Coast.There are over 95% of children in school.", "The female and male ages 15–24 years literacy rate was 81% in 2010, with males at 82%, and females at 80%.", "A education system annually attracts foreign students particularly in the university sector.Ghana has a free education 6-year primary school education system beginning at age 6.The government largely funds basic education comprising public primary schools and public junior high schools.", "Senior high schools were subsidised by the government until September 2017/2018 academic year that senior high education became free.", "At the higher education level, the government funds more than 80% of resources provided to public universities, polytechnics and teacher training colleges.", "As part of the Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education, Fcube, the government supplies all basic education schools with all their textbooks and other educational supplies, like exercise books.", "Senior high schools are provided with all their textbook requirements by the government.", "Private schools acquire their educational material from private suppliers." ], [ "Culture", "Hogbetsotso festival in the Volta region===Food and drink===Ghanaian cuisine includes an assortment of soups and stews with varied seafoods; most Ghanaian soups are prepared with vegetables, meat, poultry or fish.", "Fish is important in the diet with tilapia, roasted and fried whitebait, smoked fish and crayfish, all being common components of Ghanaian dishes.", "Banku (akple) is a common starchy food made from ground corn (maize), and cornmeal based staples kɔmi (kenkey) and banku (akple) are usually accompanied by some form of fried fish (chinam) or grilled tilapia and a very spicy condiment made from raw red and green chillies, onions and tomatoes (pepper sauce).", "Banku and tilapia is a combo served in most restaurants.", "Fufu is the most common exported Ghanaian dish and is a delicacy across the African diaspora.", "Rice is an established staple meal across the country, with various rice based dishes serving as breakfast, lunch and dinner, the main variants are waakye, plain rice and stew (eight kontomire or tomato gravy), fried rice and jollof rice.===Literature====== Clothing ===Adinkra symbols by Robert Sutherland RattrayDuring the 13th century, Ghanaians developed their unique art of ''adinkra'' printing.", "Hand-printed and hand-embroidered adinkra clothes were made and used exclusively by royalty for devotional ceremonies.", "Each of the motifs that make up the corpus of adinkra symbolism has a name and meaning derived from a proverb, a historical event, human attitude, ethology, plant life-form, or shapes of inanimate and man-made objects.", "The meanings of the motifs may be categorised into aesthetics, ethics, human relations, and concepts.", "The Adinkra symbols have a decorative function as tattoos but also represent objects that encapsulate evocative messages that convey traditional wisdom, aspects of life, or the environment.", "There are many symbols with distinct meanings, often linked with proverbs.", "In the words of Anthony Appiah, they were one of the means in a pre-literate society for \"supporting the transmission of a complex and nuanced body of practice and belief\".Akan, the Ga, and the Ewe.Along with the ''adinkra cloth,'' Ghanaians use many cloth fabrics for their traditional attire.", "The different ethnic groups have their own individual cloth.", "The most well known is the Kente cloth Kente is a very important national costume and clothing, and these clothes are used to make traditional and modern Kente attire.", "Different symbols and different colours mean different things.", "Kente is the most famous of all the Ghanaian clothes.", "Kente is a ceremonial cloth hand-woven on a horizontal treadle loom and strips measuring about 4 inches wide are sewn together into larger pieces of cloths.", "Cloths come in various colours, sizes and designs and are worn during very important social and religious occasions.", "In a cultural context, kente is more important than just a cloth as it is a visual representation of history and also a form of written language through weaving.", "The term kente has its roots in the Akan word ''kɛntɛn'' which means a basket and the first kente weavers used raffia fibres to weave cloths that looked like kenten (a basket); and thus were referred to as ''kenten ntoma''; meaning basket cloth.", "The original Akan name of the cloth was ''nsaduaso'' or ''nwontoma'', meaning \"a cloth hand-woven on a loom\"; however, \"kente\" is the most frequently used term today.Kente is also woven by the Ewe people (Ewe Kente) in the Volta Region.", "The main weaving centers are Agortime area and Agbozume.", "Agbozume has a vibrant kente market attracting patrons from all over west Africa and the diaspora.Contemporary Ghanaian fashion includes traditional and modern styles and fabrics and has made its way into the African and global fashion scene.", "The cloth known as African print fabric was created out of Dutch wax textiles.", "It is believed that in the late 19th century, Dutch ships on their way to Asia stocked with machine-made textiles that mimicked Indonesian batik stopped at many West African ports on the way.", "The fabrics did not do well in Asia.", "However, in West Africa—mainly Ghana where there was an already established market for cloths and textiles—the client base grew and it was changed to include local and traditional designs, colours and patterns to cater to the taste of the new consumers.", "Today outside of Africa it is called \"Ankara,\" and it has a client base well beyond Ghana and Africa as a whole.", "It is popular among Caribbean peoples and African Americans; celebrities such as Solange Knowles and her sister Beyoncé have been seen wearing African print attire.", "Many designers from countries in North America and Europe are now using African prints, and they have gained a global interest.", "British luxury fashion house Burberry created a collection around Ghanaian styles.", "American musician Gwen Stefani has repeatedly incorporated African prints into her clothing line and can often be seen wearing it.", "Internationally acclaimed Ghanaian-British designer Ozwald Boateng introduced African print suits in his 2012 collection.===Music and dance===Adowa dance form and music performance.Music incorporates types of musical instruments such as the talking drum ensembles, Akan Drum, goje fiddle and koloko lute, court music, including the Akan Seperewa, the Akan atumpan, the Ga kpanlogo styles, and log xylophones used in asonko music.", "African jazz was created by Kofi Ghanaba.", "A form of secular music is highlife.", "Highlife originated in the 19th and 20th centuries and spread throughout West Africa.In the 1990s, a genre of music was created incorporating the influences of highlife, Afro-reggae, dancehall and hip hop.", "This hybrid was called hiplife.There are dances for occasions.", "Dances for celebrations include the Adowa, Kpanlogo, Azonto, Klama, Agbadza, Borborbor and Bamaya.", "The Nana Otafrija Pallbearing Services, also known as the Dancing Pallbearers, come from the coastal town of Prampram.", "The group was featured in a BBC feature story in 2017, and footage from the story became part of an Internet meme in the wake of the COVID-19 world pandemic.===Media===Mass media, news and information provided by television.Chapter 12 of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana guarantees freedom of the press and independence of the media, while Chapter 2 prohibits censorship.", "Post-independence, private outlets closed during the military governments, and media laws prevented criticism of government.", "Press freedoms were restored in 1992, and after the election in 2000 of Kufuor, the tensions between the private media and government decreased.", "Kufuor supported press freedom and repealed a libel law, and maintained that the media had to act responsibly.", "The media have been described as \"one of the most unfettered\" in Africa.In 1948, the Gold Coast Film Unit was set up in the Information Services Department.===Architecture===High-rise buildings in Accra, the capitalThere are 2 types of construction: the series of adjacent buildings in an enclosure around a common, and the round huts with grass roof.", "The round huts with grass roof architecture are situated in the northern regions, while the series of adjacent buildings are in the southern regions.", "Postmodern architecture and high-tech architecture buildings are in the southern regions, while heritage sites are evident in the more than 30 forts and castles in the country, such as Fort William and Fort Amsterdam.", "Ghana has museums that are situated inside castles, and 2 are situated inside a fort.", "The Military Museum and the National Museum organise temporary exhibitions.Ghana has museums that show an in-depth look at specific regions.", "There are a number of museums that provide insight into the traditions and history of the geographical areas.", "The Cape Coast Castle Museum and St. Georges Castle (Elmina Castle) Museum offer guided tours.", "The Museum of Science and Technology provides its visitors with a look into the domain of scientific development, through exhibits of objects of scientific and technological interest.===Sports===Ghanaian winter sports Olympic team at the opening ceremony of the 2010 Winter OlympicsAssociation football is the top spectator sport in Ghana.", "Ghana has won the Africa Cup of Nations four times, the FIFA U-20 World Cup once, and has participated in three consecutive FIFA World Cups in 2006, 2010, and 2014.The International Federation of Football History and Statistics crowned Asante Kotoko SC as the African club of the 20th century.Ghana competes in the Commonwealth Games, sending athletes in every edition since 1954 (except for the 1986 games).", "Ghana has won 57 medals at the Commonwealth Games, including 15 gold, with all but one of their medals coming in athletics and boxing.", "The country has also produced a number of boxers, including Azumah Nelson a three-time world champion, Nana Yaw Konadu also a three-time world champion, Ike Quartey, and Joshua Clottey." ], [ "See also", "Index of Ghana-related articlesOutline of Ghana" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "Arhin, Kwame, ''The Life and Work of Kwame Nkrumah'' (Africa Research & Publications, 1995)Babatope, Ebenezer, ''The Ghana Revolution: From Nkrumah to Jerry Rawlings'' (Fourth Dimension Publishing, 1982)Birmingham, David, ''Kwame Nkrumah: Father Of African Nationalism'' (Ohio University Press, 1998)Boafo-Arthur, Kwame, ''Ghana: One Decade of the Liberal State'' (Zed Books, 2007)Briggs, Philip, ''Ghana (Bradt Travel Guide)'' (Bradt Travel Guides, 2010)Clark, Gracia, ''African Market Women: Seven Life Stories from Ghana'' (Indiana University Press, 2010)Davidson, Basil, ''Black Star: A View of the Life and Times of Kwame Nkrumah'' (James Currey, 2007)Falola, Toyin, and Salm, Stephen J, ''Culture and Customs of Ghana'' (Greenwood, 2002)Grant, Richard, ''Globalizing City: The Urban and Economic Transformation of Accra, Ghana'' (Syracuse University Press, 2008)Hadjor, Kofi Buenor, ''Nkrumah and Ghana'' (Africa Research & Publications, 2003)Hasty, Jennifer, ''The Press and Political Culture in Ghana'' (Indiana University Press, 2005)James, C.L.R., ''Kwame Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution'' (Allison & Busby, 1977)Kuada, John, and Chachah Yao, ''Ghana.", "Understanding the People and their Culture'' (Woeli Publishing Services, 1999)Miescher, Stephan F, ''Making Men in Ghana'' (Indiana University Press, 2005)Milne, June, ''Kwame Nkrumah, A Biography'' (Panaf Books, 2006)Nkrumah, Kwame, ''Ghana: The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah'' (International Publishers, 1971)Utley, Ian, ''Ghana – Culture Smart!", ": the essential guide to customs & culture'' (Kuperard, 2009)Various, ''Ghana: An African Portrait Revisited'' (Peter E. Randall Publisher, 2007)Younge, Paschal Yao, ''Music and Dance Traditions of Ghana: History, Performance and Teaching'' (Mcfarland & Co Inc., 2011)" ], [ "External links", "===Government=== Ghana site* The Parliament of Ghana site* National Commission on Culture site===General information===* Country Profile from BBC News* Ghana from ''Encyclopædia Britannica''* Ghana from UCB Libraries GovPubs* Ghana.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Ghana profile from Africa.com**The African Activist Archive Project website has photographs of the All Africa People's Conference held in Accra, Ghana, 5–13 December 1958 including Kwame Nkrumah, Prime Minister of Ghana, addressing the conference, the American Committee on Africa delegation meeting with Nkrumah, and of Patrick Duncan and Alfred Hutchinson of South Africa at the conference.", " Key Development Forecasts for Ghana from International Futures===Trade===* Ghana 2012 Summary Trade Statistics" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Ghana" ], [ "Introduction", "Ghana is a West African country in Africa, along the Gulf of Guinea.Ghana encompasses plains, low hills, rivers, Lake Volta, the world's largest artificial lake, Dodi Island and Bobowasi Island on the south Atlantic Ocean coast of Ghana.", "Ghana can be divided into four different geographical ecoregions.", "The coastline is mostly a low, sandy shore backed by plains and scrub and intersected by several rivers and streams.", "The northern part of Ghana features high plains.", "South-west and south-central Ghana is made up of a forested plateau region consisting of the Ashanti uplands and the Kwahu Plateau.", "The hilly Akwapim-Togo ranges are found along Ghana's eastern international border.The Volta Basin takes up most of south-central Ghana and Ghana's highest point is Mount Afadja which is and is found in the Akwapim-Togo ranges.", "The climate is tropical and the eastern coastal belt is warm and comparatively dry, the south-west corner of Ghana is hot and humid, and the north of Ghana is warm and wet.", "Lake Volta, the world's largest artificial lake, extends through small portions of south-eastern Ghana and many tributary rivers such as the Oti and Afram rivers flow into it.The northernmost part of Ghana is Pulmakom and the southernmost part of Ghana is Cape three points near Axim.", "Ghana lies between latitudes 4° and 12°N.", "South Ghana contains evergreen and semi-deciduous forests consisting of trees such as mahogany, odum, ebony and it also contains much of Ghana's oil palms and mangroves with shea trees, baobabs and acacias found in the northern part of Ghana." ], [ "Location and Density", "Ghana, which lies in the centre of the Gulf of Guinea coast, 2,420 km of land borders with three countries: Burkina Faso (602 km) to the north, Ivory Coast (720 km) to the west, and Togo (1,098 km) to the east.", "To the south are the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean.Its southernmost coast at Cape Three Points is 4° 30' north of the equator.", "From here, the country extends inland for some to about 11° north.", "The distance across the widest part, between longitude 1° 12' east and longitude 3° 15' west, measures about .The Greenwich Meridian, which passes through London, also traverses the eastern part of Ghana at Tema.With a total area of ," ], [ "Terrain of Ghana", "The terrain consists of desert mountains with the Kwahu Plateau in the south-central area.", "Half of Ghana lies less than above sea level, and the highest point is .", "The coastline is mostly a low, sandy shore backed by plains and scrub and intersected by several rivers and streams, most of which are navigable only by canoe.A tropical rain forest belt, broken by heavily forested hills and many streams and rivers, extends northward from the shore, near the Ivory Coast frontier.", "This area, known as the \"Ashanti,\" produces most of Ghana's cocoa, minerals, and timber.", "North of this belt, the elevation varies from above sea level and is covered by low bushes, park-like savanna, and grassy plains.", "'''Irrigated land:''' (2003)'''Total renewable water resources:''' (2011)" ], [ "Geographical regions", "A Köppen climate classification map of Ghana.Ghana's topography.Ghana is characterized in general by low physical relief.", "The Precambrian rock system that underlies most of the nation has been worn down by erosion almost to a plain.", "The highest elevation in Ghana, Mount Afadja in the Akwapim-Togo Ranges, rises above sea level.There are four distinct geographical regions.", "Low plains stretch across the southern part of Ghana.", "To their north lie three regions—the Ashanti Uplands, the Akwapim-Togo Ranges, and the Volta Basin.", "The fourth region, the high plains, occupies the northern and northwestern sector of Ghana.", "Like most West African countries, Ghana has no natural harbours.", "Because strong surf pounds the shoreline, two artificial harbours were built at Takoradi and Tema (the latter completed in 1961) to accommodate Ghana's shipping needs.===Low plains===The Akwapim-Togo Ranges.The low plains comprise the four subregions of the coastal savanna, the Volta Delta, the Accra Plains, and the Akan lowlands or peneplains.", "A narrow strip of grassy and scrubby coast runs from a point near Takoradi in the west to the Togo border in the east.", "This coastal savanna, only about in width at its western end, stretches eastward through the Accra Plains, where it widens to more than , and terminates at the southeastern corner of the country at the lower end of the Akwapim-Togo Ranges.Almost flat and featureless, the Accra Plains descend gradually to the gulf from a height of about .", "The topography east of the city of Accra is marked by a succession of ridges and spoonshaped valleys.", "The hills and slopes in this area are the favoured lands for cultivation.", "Shifting cultivation is the usual agricultural practice because of the swampy nature of the very lowlying areas during the rainy seasons and the periodic blocking of the rivers at the coast by sandbars that form lagoons.", "A plan to irrigate the Accra Plains was announced in 1984.Should this plan come to reality, much of the area could be opened to large-scale cultivation.To the west of Accra, the low plains contain wider valleys and rounded low hills, with occasional rocky headlands.", "In general, however, the land is flat and covered with grass and scrub.", "Dense groves of coconut palms front the coastline.", "Several commercial centres, including Winneba, Saltpond, and Cape Coast are located here.", "Winneba has a small livestock industry and palm tree cultivation is expanding in the area away from the coast, with the predominant occupation of the coastal inhabitants being fishing via dug-out canoe.The Volta Delta, which forms a distinct subregion of the low plains, extends into the Gulf of Guinea in the extreme southeast.", "The delta's rock formation—consisting of thick layers of sandstone, some limestone, and silt deposits—is flat, featureless, and relatively young.", "As the delta grew outward over the centuries, sandbars developed across the mouths of the Volta and smaller rivers that empty into the gulf in the same area, forming numerous lagoons, some quite large, making road construction difficult.To avoid the lowest-lying areas the road between Accra and Keta makes a detour inland just before reaching Ada, and approaches Keta from the east along the narrow spit on which the town stands.", "Road links with Keta continue to be a problem.", "By 1989 it was estimated that more than 3,000 houses in the town had been swallowed by flooding from the lagoon.", "About 1,500 other houses were destroyed by erosion caused by the powerful waves of the sea.This flat, silt-composed delta region with its abundance of water supports shallot, corn, and cassava cultivation in the region.", "The sandy soil of the delta gave rise to the copra industry.", "Salt-making, from the plentiful supply in the dried beds of the lagoons, provides additional employment.", "The main occupation of the delta people is fishing, an industry that supplies dried and salted fish to other parts of the country.The largest part of the low plains is the Akan Lowlands.", "Some experts prefer to classify this region as a subdivision of the Ashanti Uplands because of the many characteristics they share.", "Unlike the uplands, the height of the Akan Lowlands is generally between sea level and .", "Some ranges and hills rise to about , but few exceed .", "The lowlands that lie to the south of the Ashanti Uplands receive the many rivers that make their way to the sea.The Akan Lowlands contain the basins of the Densu River, the Pra River, the Ankobra River, and the Tano River, all of which play important roles in the economy of Ghana.", "The Densu River Basin, location of the important urban centres of Koforidua and Nsawam in the eastern lowlands, has an undulating topography.", "Many of the hills here have craggy summits, which give a striking appearance to the landscape.", "The upper section of the Pra River Basin, to the west of the Densu, is relatively flat.", "The topography of its lower reaches resembles that of the Densu Basin and is a rich cocoa and food-producing region.", "The valley of the Birim River, one of the main tributaries of the Pra, is Ghana's most important diamond-producing area.The Ankobra River Basin and the middle and lower basins of the Tano River to the west of the lowlands form the largest subdivision of the Akan Lowlands.", "Here annual rainfall between helps assure a dense forest cover.", "In addition to timber, the area is rich in minerals.", "The Tarkwa goldfield, the diamond operations of the Bonsa Valley, and high-grade manganese deposits are all found in this area.", "The middle and lower Tano basins have been intensely explored for oil and natural gas since the mid-1980s.", "The lower basins of the Pra, Birim, Densu, and Ankobra rivers are also sites for palm tree cultivation.Comprising the Southern Ashanti Uplands and the Kwahu Plateau, the Ashanti Uplands lie just north of the Akan Lowlands and stretch from the Ivory Coast border in the west to the elevated edge of the Volta Basin in the east.", "Stretching in a northwest-to-southeast direction, the Kwahu Plateau extends between Koforidua in the east and Wenchi in the northwest.", "The average elevation of the plateau is about , rising to a maximum of .", "The relatively cool temperatures of the plateau were attractive to Europeans, particularly missionaries, who founded many well-known schools and colleges in this region.The plateau forms one of the important physical divides in Ghana.", "From its northeastern slopes, the Afram and Pru Rivers flow into the Volta River, while from the opposite side, the Pra, Birim, Ofin, Tano, and other rivers flow south toward the sea.", "The plateau also marks the northernmost limit of the forest zone.", "Although large areas of the forest cover have been destroyed through farming, enough deciduous forest remains to shade the head waters of the rivers that flow from the plateau.The Southern Ashanti Uplands, extending from the foot of the Kwahu Plateau in the north to the lowlands in the south, slope gently from an elevation of about in the north to about in the south.", "The region contains several hills and ranges as well as several towns of historical and economic importance, including Kumasi, Ghana's second largest city and former capital of the Asante.", "Obuasi and Konongo, two of the country's gold-mining centres, are also located here.", "The region is Ghana's chief producer of cocoa, and its tropical forests continue to be a vital source of timber for the lumber industry.===Volta Basin===Taking the central part of Ghana, the Volta Basin covers about 45 percent of the nation's total land surface.", "Its northern section, which lies above the upper part of Lake Volta, rises to a height of above sea level.", "Elevations of the Konkori Scarp to the west and the Gambaga Scarp to the north reach from .", "To the south and the southwest, the basin is less than .", "The Kwahu Plateau marks the southern end of the basin, and forms a natural part of the Ashanti Uplands.The basin is characterized by poor soil, generally of Voltaian sandstone.", "Annual rainfall averages between .", "The most widespread vegetation type is savanna, the woodlands of which, depending on local soil and climatic conditions, may contain such trees as red ironwood and shea.The basin's population, principally farmers, is low in density, especially in the central and northwestern areas of the basin, where tsetse flies are common.", "Archeological finds indicate that the region was once more heavily populated.", "Periodic burning occurred over extensive areas for perhaps more than a millennium, exposing the soil to excessive drying and erosion, rendering the area less attractive to cultivators.In contrast with the rest of the region are the Afram Plains, located in the southeastern corner of the basin.", "Here the terrain is low, averaging in elevation, and annual rainfall is between and about .", "Near the Afram River, much of the surrounding countryside is flooded or swampy during the rainy seasons.", "With the creation of Lake Volta ( in area) in the mid-1960s, much of the Afram Plains was submerged.", "Despite the construction of roads to connect communities displaced by the lake, road transportation in the region remains poor.", "Renewed efforts to improve communications, to enhance agricultural production, and to improve standards of living began in earnest in the mid-1980s.===High plains===The general terrain in the northern and northwestern part of Ghana outside the Volta Basin consists of a dissected plateau, which averages between in elevation and, in some places, is even higher.", "Rainfall averages between annually, although in the northwest it is closer to .", "Soils in the high plains are more arable than those in the Volta Basin, and the population density is considerably higher.", "Grain and cattle production are the major economic activities in the high plains of the northern region.Since the mid-1980s, when former United States President Jimmy Carter's Global 2000 program adopted Ghana as one of a select number of African countries whose local farmers were to be educated and financially supported to improve agricultural production, there has been a dramatic increase in grain production in northern Ghana.", "The virtual absence of tsetse flies in the region has led to increased livestock raising as a major occupation in the north.", "The region is Ghana's largest producer of cattle." ], [ "Rivers and lakes", "Lake VoltaLake BosumtwiGhana is drained by a large number of streams and rivers.", "In addition, there are a number of coastal lagoons, the huge man-made Lake Volta, and Lake Bosumtwi, southeast of Kumasi, which has no outlet to the sea.", "In the wetter south and southwest areas of Ghana, the river and stream pattern is denser, but in the area north of the Kwahu Plateau, the pattern is much more open, making access to water more difficult.", "Several streams and rivers also dry up or experience reduced flow during the dry seasons of the year, while flooding during the rainy seasons is common.The major drainage divide runs from the southwest part of the Akwapim-Togo Ranges northwest through the Kwahu Plateau and then irregularly westward to the Ivory Coast border.", "Almost all the rivers and streams north of this divide form part of the Volta system.", "Extending about in length and draining an area of about , of which about lie within Ghana, the Volta and its tributaries, such as the Afram River and the Oti River, drain more than two thirds of Ghana.", "To the south of the divide are several smaller, independent rivers.", "The most important of these are the Pra River, the Tano River, the Ankobra River, the Birim River, and the Densu River.", "With the exception of smaller streams that dry up in the dry seasons or rivers that empty into inland lakes, all the major rivers in Ghana flow into the Gulf of Guinea directly or as tributaries to other major rivers.", "The Ankobra and Tano are navigable for considerable distances in their lower reaches.Lake Volta is the world's largest artificially created lake.Navigation on the Volta River has changed significantly since 1964.Construction of the dam at Akosombo, about upstream from the coast, created the vast Lake Volta and the associated hydroelectric project.", "Arms of the lake extended into the lower-lying areas, forcing the relocation of 78,000 people to newly created townships on the lake's higher banks.", "The Black Volta River and the White Volta River flow separately into the lake.", "Before their confluence was submerged, the rivers came together in the middle of Ghana to form the main Volta River.The Oti River and the Daka River, the principal tributaries of the Volta in the eastern part of Ghana, and the Pru River, the Sene River, and the Afram River, major tributaries to the north of the Kawhu Plateau, also empty into flooded extensions of the lake in their river valleys.", "Lake Volta is a rich source of fish, and its potential as a source for irrigation is reflected in an agricultural mechanization agreement signed in the late 1980s to irrigate the Afram Plains.", "The lake is navigable from Akosombo through Yeji in the middle of Ghana.", "A pontoon was commissioned in 1989 to link the Afram Plains to the west of the lake with the lower Volta region to the east.", "Hydroelectricity generated from Akosombo supplies Ghana, Togo, and Benin.On the other side of the Kwahu Plateau from Lake Volta are several river systems, including the Pra, Ankobra, Tano and Densu.", "The Pra is the easternmost and the largest of the three principal rivers that drain the area south of the Volta divide.", "Rising south of the Kwahu Plateau and flowing southward, the Pra enters the Gulf of Guinea east of Takoradi.", "In the early part of the twentieth century, the Pra was used extensively to float timber to the coast for export.", "This trade is now carried by road and rail transportation.The Ankobra, which flows to the west of the Pra, has a relatively small drainage basin.", "It rises in the hilly region of Bibiani and flows in a southerly direction to enter the gulf just west of Axim.", "Small craft can navigate approximately inland from its mouth.", "At one time, the Ankobra helped transport machinery to the gold-mining areas in the vicinity of Tarkwa.", "The Tano, which is the westernmost of the three rivers, rises near Techiman in the centre of the country.", "It also flows in a southerly direction, and it empties into a lagoon in the southeast corner of Ivory Coast.", "Navigation by steam launch is possible on the southern sector of the Tano for about .A number of rivers are found to the east of the Pra.", "The two most important are the Densu and Ayensu, both of which rise in the Atewa Range, and which are important as sources of water for Accra and Winneba respectively.", "The country has one large natural lake, Lake Bosumtwi, located about southeast of Kumasi.", "It occupies the steep-sided meteoric crater and has an area of about .", "A number of small streams flow into Lake Bosumtwi, but there is no drainage from it.", "Apart from providing an opportunity for fishing for local inhabitants, the lake serves as a tourist attraction." ], [ "Climate", "The country's warm, humid climate has an annual mean temperature between .", "Variations in the principal elements of temperature, rainfall, and humidity that govern the climate are influenced by the movement and interaction of the dry tropical continental air mass, or the harmattan, which blows from the northeast across the Sahara, and the opposing tropical maritime or moist equatorial system.", "The cycle of the seasons follows the apparent movement of the sun back and forth across the equator.Part of Accra was flooded during rainy seasonMost part of Accra mostly flooded during rainy season causing environmental crisis in GhanaDuring summer in the northern hemisphere, a warm and moist maritime air mass intensifies and pushes northward across the country.", "A low-pressure belt, or intertropical front, in the airmass brings warm air, rain, and prevailing winds from the southwest.", "As the sun returns south across the equator, the dry, dusty, tropical continental front, or harmattan, prevails.", "Climatic conditions across the country are hardly uniform.", "The Kwahu Plateau, which marks the northernmost extent of the forest area, also serves as an important climatic divide.", "To its north, two distinct seasons occur.", "The harmattan season, with its dry, hot days and relatively cool nights from November to late March or April, is followed by a wet period that reaches its peak in late August or September.", "To the south and southwest of the Kwahu Plateau, where the annual mean rainfall from north to south ranges from , four separate seasons occur.", "Heavy rains fall from about April through late June.", "After a relatively short dry period in August, another rainy season begins in September and lasts through November, before the longer harmattan season sets in to complete the cycle.The extent of drought and rainfall varies across the country.", "To the south of the Kwahu Plateau, the heaviest rains occur in the Axim area in the southwest corner of Ghana.", "Farther to the north, Kumasi receives an average annual rainfall of about , while Tamale in the drier northern savanna receives rainfall of per year.", "From Takoradi eastward to the Accra Plains, including the lower Volta region, rainfall averages only a year.Temperatures are usually high at all times of the year throughout the country.", "At higher elevations, temperatures are more comfortable.", "In the far north, temperature highs of are common.", "The southern part of the country is characterized by generally humid conditions.", "This is particularly so during the night, when 95 to 100 percent humidity is possible.", "Humid conditions also prevail in the northern section of the country during the rainy season.", "During the harmattan season, however, humidity drops as low as 25 percent in the north." ], [ "Natural hazards", "Dry, dusty, harmattan winds occur from January to March.", "Ghana is also prone to droughts, and was severely affected by floods in 2007 and 2009." ], [ "Environmental issues", "Erosion taken over Kasoa highway after downpour in GhanaEnvironmental issues include recurrent drought in the north, severely affecting agricultural activities, deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, poaching and habitat destruction threatens wildlife populations, water pollution, and inadequate supplies of potable water'''International agreements (ratified):'''Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands.'''", "International agreements (signed, but not ratified)'''Marine Life Conservation." ], [ "Other", "Volta Lake, the largest artificial lake in the world, extends from the Akosombo Dam in southeastern Ghana to the town of Yapei, to the north.", "The lake generates electricity, provides inland transportation, and is a potentially valuable resource for irrigation and fish farming.Ghana has a large and well-preserved national park system that includes Kakum National Park in the Central Region, Mole National Park in the Northern Region, Digya National Park along the western bank of the Volta Lake." ], [ "Extreme points", "This is a list of the extreme points of Ghana, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.", "* Northernmost point – the point at which the border with Burkina Faso enters the Morbira river immediately south of the Burkinabè village of Kanhiré, Upper East Region* Easternmost point – the southernmost section of the border with Togo, Volta Region** Southernmost point – Cape Three Points, Western Region* Westernmost point - the point where the border with Ivory Coast enters the Manzan river, Western Region** ''Note: Ghana does not have an easternmost point, the border at this section being defined along the line of longitude at 1°12'05.73\"E''" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Tropical Luxury Resort, Coast of Ghana.jpg\|Tropical climate in the Greater Accra regionFile:Savanna, North Ghana.jpg\|Semi-arid climate of the Upper West region and Upper East regionFile:Busua - Seashore, Western region, Ghana.jpg\|Seashores and lagoons of the Western regionFile:Savanna landscape, Northern region, Ghana.jpg\|Tropical savanna climate and safaris of the Northern RegionFile:Resort, Ghana Coastline.jpg\|Reefs and resorts in the Greater Accra region Capital of GhanaFile:Kintampo waterfalls.jpg\|Kintampo Waterfalls of the Brong-Ahafo regionFile:Mountains of Volta region.jpg\|Humid subtropical climate and mountains of the Volta regionFile:Wli Lower Fall-4.jpg\|Springs and waterfalls in the Volta regionFile:Forests and Woodlands, Ashanti region, South Ghana.jpg\|Tropical rainforest climate; forests and woodlands in the Ashanti regionFile:Wetland and Western Reef Heron, Greater Accra region, Ghana.jpg\|Wetlands and western reef herons in the Greater Accra regionFile:Sea Coastline and Beach, Central region, South Ghana.jpg\|Tropical monsoon climate; coastlines and beaches of the Central regionFile:Untouched pool in Ankasa - Ghana 14 IMG 0830 (16010557179).jpg\|Tropical evergreen rainforest at Ankasa, Western Region, Ghana" ], [ "See also", "* Geology of Ghana" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Ghana" ], [ "Introduction", "Demographic features of the population of Ghana include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, religious affiliations, and other aspects.Ghana's population is 30,832,019 (2021 census)." ], [ "Languages", "A map of Ghana's ethno-linguistic areas.Ghana is a multilingual country in which about 80 languages are spoken.", "English is the official language and lingua franca.", "Of the languages indigenous to Ghana, Akan is the most widely spoken.Ghana has more than seventy ethnic groups, each with its own distinct language.", "Languages that belong to the same ethnic group are usually mutually intelligible.Eleven languages have the status of government-sponsored languages: four Akan ethnic languages (Akuapem Twi, Asante Twi, Fante and Nzema) and two Mole-Dagbani ethnic languages (Dagaare and Dagbanli).", "The rest are Ewe, Dangme, Ga, Gonja, and Kasem, Hausa." ], [ "Ethnic groups", "Ghana has more than seventy ethnic groups.", "Major ethnic groups in Ghana include the Akan at 45.7% of the population, the Mole-Dagbon at 18.5%, the Ewe at 13.9%, the Ga-Dangme at 7.1%, the Gurma at 6.4%, the Guan at 3.2%, the Grusi at 2.7%, Mande at 2% and others at 1.6%.", "Some 20 thousands of White Europeans live in Ghana." ], [ "Education", "Primary and junior secondary school education is tuition-free and mandatory.", "Since 1987, the Government of Ghana has increased its education budget by 700%.", "Basic education's share has grown from 45% to 60% of that total.Students begin their six-year primary education at the age of six.", "They pass into a junior secondary school system for 3 years of academic training combined with technical and vocational training.", "Those continuing move into the three-year senior secondary school program.", "Entrance to one of the best Ghanaian universities is by examination following completion of senior secondary school with a pass mark." ], [ "Demographic trends", "Ghana's first post independence population census in 1961 counted about 6.7 million inhabitants.", "Between 1965 and 1989, a constant 45 percent of Ghana total female population was of childbearing age.The crude death rate of 18 per 1,000 population in 1965 fell to 13 per 1,000 population in 1992.Life expectancy rose from a 1992 average of 42 years for men and 45 years for women to 52 and 56 years in 2002.The fertility rate averaged two children per adult female in 2013.Population by Sex and Age Group (Census 26.IX.2010): Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 12 024 845 12 633 978 24 658 823 100 0–4 1 731 787 1 673 619 3 405 406 13.81 5–9 1 589 632 1 539 320 3 128 952 12.69 10–14 1 477 525 1 438 515 2 916 040 11.83 15–19 1 311 112 1 298 877 2 609 989 10.58 20–24 1 100 727 1 222 764 2 323 491 9.42 25–29 943 213 1 106 898 2 050 111 8.31 30–34 790 301 888 508 1 678 809 6.81 35–39 676 768 744 635 1 421 403 5.76 40–44 572 620 613 730 1 186 350 4.81 45–49 452 975 485 123 938 098 3.80 50–54 394 600 438 498 833 098 3.38 55–59 258 582 265 113 523 695 2.12 60–64 227 050 248 799 475 849 1.93 65-69 136 244 157 627 293 871 1.19 70-74 149 512 201 818 351 330 1.42 75-79 89 149 116 804 205 953 0.84 80-84 62 357 96 727 159 084 0.65 85-89 32 937 50 133 83 070 0.34 90-94 19 004 32 077 51 081 0.21 95+ 8 750 14 393 23 143 0.09Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 4 798 944 4 651 454 9 450 398 38.32 15–64 6 727 948 7 312 945 14 040 893 56.94 65+ 497 953 669 579 1 167 532 4.73Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2015) (Data based on the 2010 Population Census.", "):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 13 562 093 14 108 081 27 670 174 100 0–4 2 020 776 1 978 634 3 999 410 14.45 5–9 1 688 452 1 624 426 3 312 878 11.97 10–14 1 567 043 1 530 309 3 097 352 11.19 15–19 1 414 987 1 410 591 2 825 578 10.21 20–24 1 251 759 1 286 040 2 537 799 9.17 25–29 1 083 877 1 168 616 2 252 493 8.14 30–34 935 947 1 031 219 1 967 166 7.11 35–39 785 200 880 037 1 665 237 6.02 40–44 661 789 742 520 1 404 309 5.08 45–49 546 030 599 902 1 145 932 4.14 50–54 445 531 487 737 933 268 3.37 55–59 348 118 379 884 728 002 2.63 60–64 270 642 299 974 570 616 2.06 65–69 196 219 223 282 419 501 1.52 70–74 142 378 170 878 313 256 1.13 75–79 96 514 126 573 223 087 0.81 80+ 106 831 167 459 274 290 0.99Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 5 276 271 5 133 369 10 409 640 37.62 15–64 7 743 880 8 286 520 16 030 400 57.93 65+ 541 942 688 192 1 230 134 4.45=== Births and deaths based on UNDESA ===In July 2022, the United Nations published its 2022 World Population Prospects, a biennially-updated database where key demographic indicators are estimated and projected worldwide down to the country level.", "They prepared the following estimates of demographic indicators in Ghana for every year from 1950 to 2021, as well as projections for future decades.Mid-year population Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Total fertility rate (TFR)Infant mortality (per 1000 live births)Life expectancy (in years)19505 078 000 237 000 114 000 123 00046.822.624.26.59149.243.111951 5 220 000 250 000 116 000 135 00048.022.225.86.64145.543.651952 5 373 000 263 000 117 000 145 00049.021.927.16.68142.244.071953 5 535 000 276 000 119 000 157 00049.821.528.36.73139.044.591954 5 706 000 287 000 121 000 167 00050.321.129.26.75136.145.081955 5 887 000 298 000 122 000 176 00050.720.829.96.77133.245.501956 6 077 000 309 000 124 000 185 00050.920.430.56.80130.645.901957 6 276 000 319 000 126 000 193 00050.820.030.86.81128.346.261958 6 479 000 328 000 128 000 201 00050.719.731.06.82126.246.501959 6 690 000 337 000 129 000 207 00050.419.331.06.83124.646.871960 6 912 000 344 000 131 000 213 00049.819.030.86.85123.147.101961 7 109 000 352 000 133 000 219 00049.318.730.76.89122.047.331962 7 281 000 359 000 137 000 222 00049.218.730.46.95121.247.411963 7 458 000 367 000 140 000 226 00049.018.730.36.98120.647.581964 7 640 000 371 000 143 000 228 00048.418.729.76.93120.147.721965 7 828 000 376 000 146 000 230 00047.918.629.36.89120.047.781966 8 020 000 381 000 150 000 231 00047.418.628.76.88120.047.731967 8 216 000 389 000 153 000 236 00047.218.628.66.91120.247.681968 8 418 000 398 000 157 000 241 00047.218.728.56.91120.347.571969 8 630 000 409 000 161 000 248 00047.318.628.76.96120.347.571970 8 862 000 418 000 163 000 255 00047.218.428.86.95120.147.811971 9 109 000 428 000 166 000 261 00046.918.328.76.94119.747.801972 9 366 000 436 000 166 000 270 00046.517.828.86.91118.448.031973 9 637 000 446 000 167 000 279 00046.217.328.96.87116.748.401974 9 919 000 455 000 168 000 287 00045.816.929.06.83114.548.781975 10 210 000 464 000 168 000 296 00045.416.429.06.77112.049.251976 10 509 000 473 000 168 000 305 00045.015.929.06.72109.149.761977 10 825 000 484 000 169 000 315 00044.715.629.16.68106.650.091978 11 163 000 498 000 171 000 327 00044.715.329.36.61104.450.571979 11 516 000 514 000 175 000 339 00044.715.229.56.56102.850.931980 11 865 000 532 000 179 000 353 00044.815.129.76.52101.651.121981 12 213 000 549 000 181 000 368 00045.014.830.16.47100.851.271982 12 585 000 563 000 183 000 380 00044.814.630.26.38100.251.381983 12 984 000 582 000 187 000 395 00044.814.430.46.3198.951.621984 13 342 000 602 000 190 000 412 00044.914.230.86.2497.152.051985 13 651 000 608 000 189 000 418 00044.313.830.56.1994.952.421986 13 972 000 613 000 186 000 427 00043.813.330.56.1592.253.131987 14 311 000 618 000 184 000 434 00043.012.830.26.0989.153.821988 14 672 000 618 000 181 000 437 00042.012.329.75.9685.854.511989 15 052 000 620 000 178 000 441 00041.111.829.35.8382.755.191990 15 447 000 625 000 178 000 447 00040.411.528.95.7179.855.621991 15 843 000 629 000 178 000 451 00039.611.228.45.5977.656.011992 16 242 000 630 000 179 000 451 00038.711.027.75.4775.756.231993 16 644 000 632 000 181 000 451 00037.910.927.05.3674.356.421994 17 041 000 627 000 187 000 441 00036.810.925.85.1973.756.111995 17 439 000 632 000 186 000 445 00036.210.725.55.0772.656.571996 17 844 000 633 000 188 000 445 00035.410.524.94.9371.456.821997 18 268 000 644 000 189 000 456 00035.310.324.94.8770.257.201998 18 715 000 660 000 190 000 471 00035.310.125.14.8468.657.601999 19 177 000 680 000 191 000 489 00035.410.025.54.8466.658.032000 19 666 000 706 000 195 000 510 00035.99.925.94.8564.358.202001 20 196 000 719 000 201 000 518 00035.610.025.74.7962.158.112002 20 758 000 733 000 202 000 531 00035.39.725.64.7259.958.612003 21 330 000 745 000 203 000 542 00034.99.525.44.6358.059.112004 21 906 000 756 000 207 000 549 00034.59.525.14.5356.359.192005 22 497 000 785 000 208 000 577 00034.99.225.64.5454.959.762006 23 099 000 788 000 211 000 577 00034.19.125.04.4153.559.992007 23 708 000 795 000 214 000 581 00033.69.024.54.3152.060.222008 24 326 000 807 000 217 000 591 00033.28.924.34.2550.560.492009 24 951 000 823 000 217 000 606 00033.08.724.34.2148.860.952010 25 575 000 844 000 221 000 624 00033.08.624.44.2147.061.162011 26 206 000 864 000 221 000 643 00033.08.424.54.1945.261.652012 26 859 000 883 000 221 000 662 00032.98.224.64.1843.462.082013 27 526 000 896 000 223 000 673 00032.58.124.44.1441.762.422014 28 196 000 898 000 220 000 677 00031.87.824.04.0540.263.052015 28 871 000 916 000 225 000 691 00031.77.823.94.0538.763.182016 29 554 000 902 000 220 000 682 00030.57.523.13.9137.463.892017 30 222 000 876 000 223 000 652 00029.07.421.63.7136.264.012018 30 871 000 897 000 228 000 669 00029.07.421.73.7335.164.122019 31 522 000 901 000 225 000 676 00028.67.121.43.6834.064.742020 32 180 000 902 000 240 000 663 00028.07.420.63.6233.064.112021 32 833 000 905 000 250 000 654 00027.57.619.93.5632.163.80===Fertility and births based on Demographics Health Survey===Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR) Demographics Health Survey: Year CBR (Total) TFR (WFR) (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (WFR) (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (WFR) (Rural) 1993 38.0 5.5 (4.2) 32.9 3.99 (2.9) 40.2 6.36 (4.9) 1998 32.7 4.55 (3.7) 25.4 2.96 (2.4) 36.0 5.41 (4.3) 2003 32.6 4.4 (3.7) 26.6 3.1 (2.6) 36.7 5.6 (4.6) 2007 33.3 4.6 28.4 3.4 36.3 5.5 2008 30.8 4.0 (3.5) 27.1 3.1 (2.7) 33.6 4.9 (4.2) 2014 30.6 4.2 (3.6) 27.9 3.4 (3.1) 33.5 5.2 (4.3) 2017 30.0 3.9 28.3 3.3 31.7 4.7 2022 27.9 3.9 (3.4) 25.1 3.2 (2.8) 30.9 4.8 (4.2)===Fertility and births (Census 2000 and 2010)===Total Fertility Rate (TFR) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural) 2000 31.1 3.99 26.7 3.0 33.8 4.9 2010 25.3 3.28 23.0 2.78 26.9 3.94'''Births and deaths'''YearPopulationLive birthsDeathsNatural increaseCrude birth rateCrude death rateRate of natural increaseTFR 2010 24,200,000 623,700 163,534 460,166 25.3 6.6 18.7 3.28Fertility data as of 2014 (DHS Program): Region Total fertility rate Percentage of women aged 15–49 currently pregnant Mean number of children ever born to women aged 40–49Western 3.6 6.9 4.8Central 4.7 7.8 5.2Greater Accra 2.8 6.9 3.4Volta 4.3 6.1 4.8Eastern 4.2 7.9 4.9Ashanti 4.2 5.8 4.8Brong Ahafo 4.8 7.6 5.1Northern 6.6 8.9 6.4Upper East 4.9 7.9 5.7Upper West 5.2 6.8 6.4" ], [ "Other demographic statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.", "One birth every 35 seconds\tOne death every 2 minutes\tOne net migrant every 53 minutes\tNet gain of one person every 48 secondsThe following demographics are from the independent Ghana Statistical Service and from the CIA World Factbook unless otherwise indicated.===Population===:33,107,275 (2022 est.", "):30,802,793 (Feb 2020 ):25,009,153 (December 2013 est.)", "Females- 50.5% Male- 49.5%===Religions===Christian 71.3% (Pentecostal/Charismatic 31.6%, Protestant 17.4%, Catholic 10%, other 12.3%), Muslim 19.9%, traditionalist 3.2%, 2.1% Hindu, other 1.3%, none 1.1% (2021 est.", ")===Age structure===Population pyramid of Ghana in 2020:''0-14 years:'' 37.44% (male 5,524,932/female 5,460,943):''15-24 years:'' 18.64% (male 2,717,481/female 2,752,601):''25-54 years:'' 34.27% (male 4,875,985/female 5,177,959):''55-64 years:'' 5.21% (male 743,757/female 784,517):''65 years and over:'' 4.44% (male 598,387/female 703,686) (2020 est.", "):''0–14 years:'' 37.83% (male 5,344,146 /female 5,286,383):''15–24 years:'' 18.61% (male 2,600,390 /female 2,629,660):''25–54 years:'' 34.21% (male 4,663,234 /female 4,950,888):''55–64 years:'' 5.05% (male 690,327 /female 727,957):''65 years and over:'' 4.3% (male 557,155 /female 652,331) (2018 est.", ")===Population growth rate===:2.23% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 35th:2.16% (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 40th===Birth rate===:28.55 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 34th:30.2 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 35th:16.03 births/1,000 population (2013 est.", ")===Death rate===:6.14 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 150th:6.8 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 134th:7.53 deaths/1,000 population (2013 est.", ")===Total fertility rate===:3.66 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 33rd:3.96 children born/woman (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 34th:Fertility rate declined from 3.99 (2000) to 3.28 (2010) with 2.78 in Urban region and 3.94 in rural region.===Median age===:total: 21.4 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 184th:male: 21 years:female: 21.9 years (2020 est.", "):total: 21.2 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 185th:male: 20.7 years :female: 21.7 years (2018 est.", ")===Mother's mean age at first birth===:22.3 years (2017 est.", "):note: median age at first birth among women 25–29===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:27.2% (2017/18)===Net migration rate===:-0.16 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 107th:-1.8 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2017 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 154th:-1.85 migrant(s)/1,020 population (2013 est.", ")===Infant mortality rate===:39.01 deaths/1,000 live births (2013 est.", ")===Dependency ratios===:total dependency ratio: 73 (2015 est.", "):youth dependency ratio: 67.1 (2015 est.", "):elderly dependency ratio: 5.9 (2015 est.", "):potential support ratio: 17.1 (2015 est.", ")===Urbanization===:urban population: 58.6% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 3.06% annual rate of change (2020–25 est.", "):urban population: 56.1% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: 3.34% annual rate of change (2015–20 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===:total population: 69.37 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 178th:male: 67.7 years:female: 71.09 years (2022 est.", "):total population: 67.4 years (2018 est.", "):male: 64.9 years (2018 est.", "):female: 70 years (2018 est.", "):''total population:'' 65.46 years (2013 est.", "); 66 years:''male:'' 64.48 years (2013 est.", "); 66 years:''female:'' 66.48 years (2013 est.", "); 67 years (2013 est.", ")===Nationality===''noun:''Ghanaian''adjective:''Ghanaian===Citizenship===Ghanaian citizens (20,000,000 million): Ghanaian people===Languages===:Asante 16%, Ewe 14%, Fante 11.6%, Bono (Brong) 4.9%, Dagomba 4.4%, Dangme 4.2%, Dagarte (Dagaba) 3.9%, Likpakpaanl a.k.a.", "Konkomba language 3.5%, Akyem 3.2%, Ga 3.1%, Other 31.2%===Literacy===Definition: aged 15 and over can read and write:total population: 79%:male: 83.5%:female: 74.5% (2018):total population: 76.6% (2015 est.", "):male: 82% (2015 est.", "):female: 71.4% (2015 est.", ")===School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)===:total: 12 years:male: 12 years:female: 12 years (2020):''total population:'' 71.5%:''male:'' 78.3%:''female:'' 65.3% (2010 census)===Major infectious diseases===:degree of risk: very high (2020):food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever:vectorborne diseases: malaria, dengue fever, and yellow fever:water contact diseases: schistosomiasis:animal contact diseases: rabies:respiratory diseases: meningococcal meningitis:note: since October 2021, there has been a yellow fever outbreak in Ghana with numerous cases, including some deaths, in the following regions: Savannah, Upper West, Bono, and Oti; the CDC recommends travelers going to Ghana should receive vaccination against yellow fever at least 10 days before travel and should take steps to prevent mosquito bites while there; those never vaccinated against yellow fever should avoid travel to Nigeria during the outbreak; there are no medications to treat or cure yellow fever===Unemployment, youth ages 15–24===:total: 9.1%:male: 9.4%:female: 8.7% (2017 est.)" ], [ "Demographic history", "===Historical population===+Ghana's Population in Census Years'''Year''''''Total recorded population'''Pre-independence 1891764,61319011,549,66119111,503,91119212,296,40019313,160,38619484,118,459Post-independence19606,726,81519708,559,313198412,296,081200018,912,079201024,658,823202130,832,019===Population distribution===Population density in Western AfricaPopulation density increased steadily from 36 per square kilometer in 1970 to 52 per square kilometer in 1984.In 1990 63 persons per square kilometer was the estimate for Ghana's overall population density.", "These averages did not reflect variations in population distribution.", "For example, while the Northern Region, one of ten administrative regions, showed a density of seventeen persons per square kilometer in 1984, in the same year Greater Accra Region recorded nine times the national average of 52 per square kilometer.As was the case in the 1960 and 1970 figures, the greatest concentration of population in 1984 was to the south of the Kwahu Plateau.", "The highest concentration of habitation continued to be within the Accra-Kumasi-Takoradi triangle, largely because of the economic productivity of the region.", "All of Ghana's mining centres, timber-producing deciduous forests, and cocoa-growing lands lie to the south of the Kwahu Plateau.", "The Accra-Kumasi-Takoradi triangle is linked to the coast by rail and road systems—making this area an important magnet for investment and labor.A large part of the Volta Basin is sparsely populated.", "The far north is heavily populated.", "The population density of the Upper East Region is well above the national average.", "This may be explained in part by the better soil found in some areas.===Urban–rural disparities===Localities of 5,000 persons and above have been classified as urban since 1960.The 1960 urban population totalled 1,551,174 persons, or 23.1 percent of total population.", "By 1970 the urban percentage had increased to 28 percent.", "That percentage rose to 32 in 1984 and was estimated at 33 percent for 1992.Urban areas in Ghana have customarily been supplied with more amenities than rural locations.", "Consequently, Kumasi, Accra, and many settlements within the southern economic belt attracted more people than the savanna regions of the north; only Tamale in the north has been an exception.", "The linkage of the national electricity grid to the northern areas of the country in the late 1980s may help to stabilize the north-to-south flow of internal migration.Ghana has a hugely rural population that is dependent on subsistence agriculture.", "Ghana has continued to be a nation of rural communities.", "Rural residency was estimated to be 67 percent of the population in 1992.In the 1970s, 72 percent of Ghana's population lived in rural areas.", "The \"Rural Manifesto,\" which assessed the causes of rural underdevelopment, was introduced in April 1984.Development strategies were evaluated, and some were implemented to make rural residency more attractive.", "The Bank of Ghana established more than 120 rural banks to support rural entrepreneurs, and the rural electrification program was intensified in the late 1980s.", "The government presented its plans for district assemblies as a component of its strategy for rural improvement through decentralized administration." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " Azunre, Gideon Abagna, Richard Azerigyik, and Pearl Puwurayire.", "\"Deciphering the drivers of informal urbanization by Ghana's urban poor through the lens of the push-pull theory.\"", "''InPlaning Forum'' Vol.", "18.(2021).", "online" ], [ "External links", "* Ghana Statistical Service" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Ghana" ], [ "Introduction", "}The '''economy of Ghana''' has a diverse and rich resource base, including the manufacturing and exportation of digital technology goods, automotive and ship construction and exportation, and the exportation of diverse and rich resources such as hydrocarbons and industrial minerals.The Ghanaian domestic economy in 2012 revolved around services, which accounted for 50% of GDP and employed 28% of the work force.", "Besides the industrialization associated with minerals and oil, industrial development in Ghana remains basic, often associated with plastics (such as chairs, plastic bags, razors, and pens).", "53.6% of Ghana's workforce were employed in agriculture in 2013.Ghana embarked on a currency re-denomination exercise, from the Cedi (₵) to the new currency, the Ghana Cedi (GH₵) in July 2007.The transfer rate is 1 Ghana Cedi for every 10,000 Cedis.Ghana is Africa's largest gold producer, after overtaking South Africa in 2019, and the second-largest cocoa producer (after Ivory Coast).", "It is also rich in diamonds, manganese or manganese ore, bauxite, and oil.", "Most of its debt was canceled in 2005, but government spending was later allowed to balloon.", "Coupled with a plunge in oil prices, this led to an economic crisis that forced the government to negotiate a $920 million extended credit facility from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in April 2015." ], [ "Taxation", "Value-added tax is a consumption tax administered in Ghana.", "The tax regime that started in 1998 had a single rate but since September 2007 entered into a multiple rate regime.", "In 1998, the rate of tax was 10% and amended in 2000 to 12.5%.", "The top income tax and corporate tax rates are 25%.", "Other taxes included with value-added tax (VAT), are the national health insurance levy, and a capital gains tax.", "The overall tax burden was 12.1% of Ghana's total domestic income in 2013.Ghana's national budget was the equivalent of 39.8% of GDP in 2013.Ghana is implementing the rent tax in 2021." ], [ "Manufacturing", "Ghana's industrial base is relatively advanced.", "Import-substitution industries include electronics manufacturing.", "Rlg Communications is the first indigenous African company to assemble laptops, desktops, and mobile phones, and is West Africa's biggest information and communications technology (ICT) and mobile phone manufacturing company.Ghana began its automotive industry with the construction of a prototype robust SUV, named the SMATI Turtle 1, intended for use in the rough African terrain.", "It was designed and manufactured by the Artisans of Suame Magazine Industrial Development Organization.", "Urban electric cars have been manufactured in Ghana since 2014.As of 2012 there were four major companies in the textiles sector: Akosombo Textiles Limited, Tex Style Ghana Limited, Printex Ghana, and Ghana Textile Manufacturing Company.Ghana National Petroleum Corporation and Ghana Oil Company deal with crude oil and gas exploration, exploitation, and refining." ], [ "Telecommunications", "At the end of January 2022, total number of voice subscription in Ghana stood at 41,380,751.This represents a percentage increase of 1.28% over December 2019 figures of 40,857,007.The total penetration rate stands at 136.79%.Competition among mobile-phone companies in Ghana is an important part of the telecommunications industry growth, Current market leader MTN with voice subscription of 23,150,485 representing 55.95% of the market is followed by Vodafone with voice subscription of 9,075,795 representing 21.93% market share, AirtelTigo voice subscription stands at 8,428,322 representing 20.69%, Glo's current voice subscription stands at 726,149 which represent a market share of 1.75%.The mass media of Ghana is among the most liberal in Africa, with Ghana ranking as the third-freest in Africa and 30th-most free in the world on the worldwide press freedom index.", "Chapter 12 of the Constitution of Ghana guarantees freedom of the Ghanaian press and the independence of the mass media, and Chapter 2 prohibits censorship.", "Ghanaian press freedom was restored in 1992.Ghana was one of the first countries in Africa to achieve the connection to the World Wide Web.", "In 2010, there were 165 licensed internet service providers in Ghana and they were running 29 of the fiber optic, and authorized networks VSAT operators were 176, of which 57 functioned, and 99 internet operators were authorized to the public, and private data and packet-switched network operators were 25." ], [ "Data", "Change in per capita GDP of Ghana, 1870–2018.Figures are inflation-adjusted to 2011 International dollarsShare of population in extreme poverty over time, 1981 to 2019The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.Inflation below 5% is in green.YearGDP(in bil.", "US$ PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in bil.", "US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Percent)Government debt(in % of GDP)19809.897437.40.4%50.0%n/a198110.397860.7−3.5%116.5%n/a198210.291870.4−6.9%22.5%n/a198310.186247.3−4.8%122.2%n/a198411.492517.19.0%40.0%n/a198512.397815.35.1%10.3%n/a198613.21,02314.15.2%24.5%n/a198714.21,07111.84.8%39.8%n/a198815.51,14212.55.6%31.4%n/a198917.01,21712.75.1%25.2%n/a199018.21,27214.73.3%37.2%28.3%199119.81,35016.55.3%18.1%27.4%199221.01,39916.33.9%10.0%34.1%199322.31,44813.33.7%24.9%51.0%199423.61,49412.33.6%24.9%76.6%199525.21,55114.64.2%59.3%67.8%199626.81,61115.54.6%44.5%60.5%199728.61,67615.84.8%24.8%65.7%199830.31,73017.24.7%19.2%57.2%199932.11,78717.84.4%12.5%78.8%200034.01,84711.53.7%25.1%119.1%200136.21,91812.24.2%32.9%87.2%200238.51,98614.24.5%14.8%81.9%200341.22,07617.55.2%26.6%74.2%200444.72,19520.35.6%12.7%57.6%200548.82,33724.65.9%15.1%47.7%200653.42,49428.96.3%11.7%26.2%200757.22,60534.04.3%10.7%31.0%200863.72,82738.79.2%16.5%33.6%200967.32,91234.64.8%13.1%36.1%201073.53,10043.37.9%6.7%46.3%201185.53,51953.814.0%7.7%42.6%201295.33,82256.99.3%7.1%47.9%2013104.04,06963.77.3%11.7%57.2%2014110.24,20454.34.0%15.5%70.2%2015115.74,30249.43.8%17.2%72.2%2016121.34,39956.13.7%17.5%73.4%2017134.04,74060.48.4%12.4%71.8%" ], [ "Imports and Exports", "Ghana's top export products in 2016 were crude petroleum ($2.66B), gold ($2.39B), cocoa beans ($2.27B), cocoa paste ($382M) and cocoa butter ($252M).", "Ghana's top export destinations in 2016 were Switzerland ($1.73B), China ($1.06B), France ($939M), India ($789M) and the Netherlands ($778M).Ghana's top import categories in 2016 were refined petroleum ($2.18B), crude petroleum ($546M), gold ($428M), rice ($328M) and packaged medicaments ($297M).", "The nations with the highest value of imports to Ghana in 2016 were China ($4.1B), the Netherlands ($1.58B), the United States ($1.1B), Nigeria ($920M) and India ($668M)." ], [ "Private banking", "The financial services in Ghana have seen a lot of reforms in the past years.", "The Banking (Amendment) Act 2007 included the awarding of a general banking license to qualified banks, which allows only indigenous Ghana offshore banks to operate in country Ghana.", "Indigenous Ghana private bank Capital Bank was the first to be awarded the general banking license in Ghana as well as indigenous Ghana private banks UniBank, National Investment Bank and Prudential Bank Limited.", "It has therefore become possible for Ghanaian non-resident individuals or residents and foreign companies or indigenous Ghana companies to open indigenous Ghana offshore bank accounts in Ghana.", "Indigenous Ghana retail and savings banks include Agricultural Development Bank of Ghana, CAL Bank, GCB Bank Ltd, Home Finance Company and UT Bank as well as indigenous Ghana savings and loan institutions ABii National and Savings and Loans Company.=== Stock exchange ===The Stock Exchange of Ghana is one of the largest in Africa, with a market capitalization of GH¢57.2 billion or CN¥180.4 billion in 2012.South Africa's JSE Limited is the largest." ], [ "Energy", "Ghana hydropower and solar energy electricity generation industries, and the oil and gas industryAs of 2018, Ghana consumed some 10 MMtoe of primary energy, made mostly of biomass (40%), oil and diesel (40%), followed by hydropower (10%) and natural gas (10%).=== Oil & Gas ===Ghana discovered significant reserves of oil and natural gas offshore throughout the 2000s and 2010s.", "The country officially became an oil & gas producer in 2010 with the commissioning of the Jubilee field by Tullow Oil and currently produces from three major offshore hubs: Jubilee, TEN, and OCTP.", "In 2021, its production stood at some 150,000 barrels of oil per day (bopd).", "Since production began in 2010 Ghana has rose to be the 34th largest national producer of oil.In 2021 Ghana exported more than 71mil barrels of oil.", "China was the largest importer of Ghana oil, receiving over 41% of exports with South Africa, the second largest importer, taking 13.9%.=== Solar energy ===Ghana has aggressively begun the construction of solar plants across its sun-rich land in an aim to become the first country to get 6% of its energy from solar energy generation.", "Since construction began in the early 2010s electricity generation from solar has gone from zero KWh in 2014 to over 60 GWh in 2020, accounting for .46% of Ghana's electricity consumption.=== Wind energy ===Wind turbines on a wind farmGhana has Class 4–6 wind resources and high-wind locations, such as Nkwanta, the Accra Plains, and Kwahu and Gambaga mountains.", "The maximum energy that could be tapped from Ghana's available wind resource for electricity is estimated to be about 500–600 GWh/year.", "To give perspective: in 2011, per the same Energy Commission, the largest Akosombo hydroelectric dam in Ghana alone produced 6,495 GWh of electric power and, counting all Ghana's geothermal energy production in addition, the total energy generated was 11,200 GWh in that year.", "These assessments do not take into consideration further limiting factors such as land-use restrictions, the existing grid (or how far the wind resource may be from the grid) and accessibility.=== Bio-energy ===Hybrid sorghum plantation fieldGhana has put in place mechanisms to attract investments into its biomass and bio-energy sectors to stimulate rural development, create jobs and save foreign exchange.", "Main investments in the bio-energy subsector existed in the areas of production, are transportation, storage, distribution, sale, marketing and exportation.The goal of Ghana regarding bio-energy, as articulated by its energy sector policy, is to modernize and examine the benefits of bio-energy on a sustainable basis.", "Biomass is Ghana's dominant energy resource in terms of endowment and consumption, with the two primary bio-fuels consumed being ethanol and biodiesel.", "To that effect, the Ghana ministry of Energy in 2010 developed its energy sector strategy and development plan.", "Highlights of the strategy include sustaining the supply and efficient use of wood fuels while ensuring that their utilization does not lead to deforestation.The plan would support private sector investments in the cultivation of bio-fuel feedstock, the extraction of bio-oil, and refining it into secondary products, thereby creating financial and tax incentives.", "The Ghana Renewal Energy Act provides the necessary fiscal incentives for renewable energy development by the private sector, and also details the control and management of bio-fuel and wood fuel projects in Ghana.", "The Ghana National Petroleum Authority (NPA) was tasked by the Renewable Energy Act 2011 to price Ghana's bio-fuel blend in accordance with the prescribed petroleum pricing formula.The combined effects of climate change and global economic turbulence had triggered a sense of urgency among Ghanaian policymakers, industry and development practitioners to find sustainable and viable solutions in the area of bio-fuels.Brazil, which makes ethanol from maize and sugarcane, is currently the world's largest bio-fuel market.=== Energy consumption ===Electricity generation is one of the key factors in achieving the development of the Ghanaian national economy, with aggressive and rapid industrialization; Ghana's national electric energy consumption was 265 kilowatts per capita in 2009.Shortages of electricity have led to dumsor (blackouts), increasing the interest in renewables." ], [ "Hydrocarbon and mining", "Ghana's increasing oil exports as a percentage of all exports.Ghana has to of petroleum in reserves.", "A large oilfield which contains up to of sweet crude oil was discovered in 2007.Since these discoveries Ghana increased production steadily, the nations current peak is 200,000 barrels per day in 2019.Current production in 2021 stands at 179,900 barrels per day.Ghana has vast natural gas reserves, which is used by many foreign multinational companies operating in Ghana.", "The hydrocarbon industry has had major implications for regional and urban development in Ghana and these are likely to substantially increase in the years to comeMining has gained importance in the Ghanaian economy since the turn of the 21st century, with a growth of around 30% in 2007.The main mining extractions are bauxite, gold (Ghana is one of the largest gold producers in the world), and the phosphates." ], [ "Tourism", "The Ministry of Tourism has placed great emphasis upon further tourism support and development.", "Tourism contributed to 4.9% of GDP in 2009, attracting around 500,000 visitors.", "Tourist destinations include Ghana's many castles and forts, national parks, beaches, nature reserves, landscapes and World Heritage buildings and sites.In 2011, ''Forbes'' magazine ranked Ghana eleventh-friendliest country in the world.", "The assertion was based on a survey of a cross-section of travelers in 2010.Of all the countries on the African continent that were included in the survey, Ghana ranked highest.To enter Ghana, it is necessary to have a visa authorized by the Government of Ghana, except for certain entrepreneurs on business trips." ], [ "Agriculture", "In 2013 agriculture employed 53.6% of Ghana's total labor force.", "Agribusiness accounts for a small fraction of the gross domestic product.", "The main harvested crops are corn, plantain, rice, millet, sorghum, cassava and yam.", "Unlike the agricultural livestock, forestry and fishing sectors, the crop sector is key to the Ghanaian agricultural industry.Ghana produced in 2018:* 20.8 million tons of cassava (4th largest producer in the world, second only to Nigeria, Thailand and Congo);* 7.8 million tonnes of yam (2nd largest producer in the world, second only to Nigeria);* 4.1 million tons of plantain (2nd largest producer in the world, just behind Congo);* 2.6 million tons of palm oil (8th largest producer in the world);* 2.3 million tons of maize;* 1.4 million tons of taro (4th largest producer in the world, second only to Nigeria, China and Cameroon);* 947 thousand tons of cocoa (2nd largest producer in the world, second only to Ivory Coast);* 769 thousand tons of rice;* 753 thousand tons of orange (19th largest producer in the world);* 713 thousand tons of pineapple (11th largest producer in the world);* 521 thousand tons of peanut;In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, like sweet potato (151 thousand tons), natural rubber (23 thousand tons) and tobacco (2.3 thousand tons)." ], [ "Ghana: Vision 2020 and industrialization", "With the economic program \"Ghana: Vision 2020\", Ghana intends to achieve its goals of accelerated economic growth and improved quality of life for all its citizens, by reducing poverty through private investment, rapid and aggressive industrialization, and direct and aggressive poverty-alleviation efforts.", "These plans were released in the 1995 government report, Ghana: Vision 2020.Nationalization of state-owned enterprises continues, with about two thirds of 300 parastatal enterprises owned by the government of Ghana.", "Other reforms adopted under the government's structural adjustment program include increasing exchange rate controls and increasing autarky and increasing restrictions on imports.The Ghana: Vision 2020 forecast assumes political stability; successful economic stabilization; the implementation of Ghana: Vision 2020 policy agenda on private sector growth; and aggressive public spending on social services, infrastructure and industrialization.", "It projection states that Ghana's goals of reaching high-income economy status and newly industrialized country status will be easily realized between 2020 and 2039.2013 exports to2013 imports from Country Percentage Country PercentageSunyani Cocoa House and Theobroma cacao; Ghana is projected to become the largest producer of cocoa in the world.Ghana gold bars; Ghana is the 7th-largest producer of gold in the world. ''''''", "46.89%'''''' 12.46%'''''' 12.32%'''''' 11.76%'''''' 5.49%'''''' 8.86%'''''' 3.57%'''''' 5.15%'''''' 3.32%'''''' 4.35%'''''' 2.76%'''''' 3.93%'''Others'''25.65%'''Others'''53.49%" ], [ "Economic transparency", "The distribution of wealth ownership in Ghanaian society in 2013.A majority of wealth is held by 20% of the population.The judicial system of Ghana deals with corruption, economic malpractice and lack of economic transparency.", "Despite significant economic progress, obstacles do remain.", "Particular institutions need reform, and property rights need improvement.", "The overall investment regime lacks market transparency.", "Tackling these issues will be necessary if Ghana's rapid economic growth is to be maintained.According to Transparency International's 2022 Corruption Perception Index, Ghana was ranked 72nd out of 180 countries, with a score of 43 on a scale where a 0–9 score means highly corrupt, and a 90–100 score means very clean.", "This was based on perceived levels of public sector corruption.", "John Addo Kufuor, son of former President John Agyekum Kufuor and Kojo Annan, son of former Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan, have been named in association with the Panama Papers.=== Health and biotechnology ===The Centre for Scientific Research into Plant Medicine is an agency of the Ministry of Health that was set up in the 1970s for research and development and as a practical resource (product production & distribution/provision) primarily in areas of biotechnology related to medicinal plants.", "This includes both herbal medicine and work on more advanced applications.", "It also has a secondary role as an educational resource for foreign students in health, biotechnology and related fields.=== Cybernetics and cyberwarfare ===The use of computer technology for teaching and learning began to receive government of Ghana's attention from the late 1990s.", "The information and communications technology in education policy of Ghana requires the use of information and communications technology for teaching and learning at all levels of education.", "The Ministry of Education supports institutions in teaching of information and communications technology literacy.", "The majority of secondary, and some basic schools of Ghana have computer laboratories.Ghana's intention to become the information technology hub of West Africa has led the government of Ghana to enact cyber crime legislation and enhance cyber security practices.", "Acting on that goal, in 2008 Ghana passed the ''Electronic Communications Act'' and the ''Electronic Transactions Act'', which established the legal framework for governing information technology.", "In November 2011, the Deputy Minister for Communications and Technology announced the development of a national cyber security strategy, aimed at combating cyber crime and securing critical infrastructure.In June 2012, the National Information Technology Agency announced a national computer emergency response team \"strategy\" designed to co-ordinate government response to cyber-attacks, both internal and external.", "The agency also established computer emergency response teams for each municipal, metropolitan, and district assembly to improve co-ordination and information-sharing on cyberspace threats.", "Ghana is ranked 2nd in Africa and 7th globally in cyber warfare, cyber-terrorism, cyber crime, and internet crime.", "In 2018, the National Cyber Security Centre was founded.", "It is the national agency responsible for cybersecurity.", "In November 2020, Parliament passed the Cybersecurity Act 2020.The Minister for Communications, Ursula Owusu-Ekuful, indicated that, \"a successful economy is hinged on a secured, safe and resilient national digital ecosystem.", "Cyber-security is, therefore, very critical to the economic development of the country and essential to the protection of the rights of individuals within the national digital ecosystem\".=== Real estate ===A villa in East RidgeThe real estate and housing market has become an important and strategic economic sector, particularly in the urban centres of south Ghana such as Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi-Takoradi and Tema.", "However, many of its citizens particularly those in Accra cannot afford the housing prices which is a trait of most major cities globally particularly in the West.", "Kumasi is growing at a faster rate than Accra, and there is less competition in its real estate market.", "The gross rental income tax of Ghana is withheld at 10%, capital gains are taxed at 15% with a 5% gift tax imposed on the transfer of properties and Ghana's real estate market is divided into 3 areas: public sector real estate development, emerging private sector real estate development, and private individuals.", "The activities of these 3 groups are facilitated by the Ghanaian banks and the primary mortgage market which has demonstrated enormous growth potential.", "Recent developments have given birth to a boom in the construction sector, including the housing and public housing sector generating and injecting billions of dollars annually into the Ghanaian economy.", "The real estate market investment perspective and attraction comes from Ghana's tropical location and robust political stability.", "An increasing number of the Ghanaian populace are investing in properties, and the Ghana government is empowering the private sector in the real estate direction.=== Trade and exports ===In July 2013, International Enterprise Singapore a global office in Accra to develop trade and investment on logistics, oil and gas, aviation, transportation and consumer sectors.", "Singapore and Ghana also signed four bilateral agreements to promote public sector and private sector collaboration, as Ghana aims to predominantly shift its economic trade partnership to East Asia and Southeast Asia.", "The economic centre is IE Singapore's second office in Africa.", "Ghana's labour force in 2008 totalled 11.5 million Ghanaian citizens.", "Tema Harbour is Africa's largest manmade harbour, and Takoradi Harbour along with Tema harbour handle goods and exports.", "They are also traffic junctions where goods are transhipped; the Tema harbour handles the majority of the nation's export cargo and most of the country's chief exports is shipped from Takoradi harbour.", "The Takoradi harbour and Tema harbour are operated by the state-owned Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority." ], [ "Challenges", "Bank of GhanaOver the years, the country has encountered various economic challenges especially in its bid to become financially sustainable.", "One of the most prominent has been high public debt.", "In January 2023, the Bank of Ghana reported that the country's level of debt was up to the tune of GH¢575.7 billion at the end of November 2022." ], [ "Child labor" ], [ "See also", "* Economic history of Ghana* United Nations Economic Commission for Africa* List of countries by gold production" ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Google Earth Map of the oil and gas infrastructure in Ghana* World Bank Trade Summary Statistics Ghana" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Ghana" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in Ghana''' include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.Telecommunications is the main economic sector of Ghana according to the statistics of the World Bank due to the Ghana liberal policy around Information and communications technology (ICT).", "Among the main sectors of investments, 65% is for ICT, 8% for communications and 27% is divided for public administration." ], [ "Freedom of the press", "After the overthrow of the elected government by Jerry Rawlings in December 1981 the Provisional National Defence Council repealed the liberal media reforms of previous governments, abolished the Third Constitution and the Press Commission, and passed laws that prevented criticism of the government or its policies, dismissed editors critical of Rawlings or the provisional council, the Preventive Custody and Newspaper Licensing Law which allowed indefinite detention of journalists without trial, and the Newspaper Licensing Law which stifled private media development.", "Ghanaian press freedom was restored with the promulgation of a new constitution in 1992, presidential and parliamentary elections in November and December 1992, and a return to multiparty democratic rule on 7 January 1993.The mass media of Ghana is \"among the most liberal in Africa\", with Ghana ranking as the third freest in Africa and 30th in the world on the ''2013 World Press Freedom Index'' from Reporters Without Borders.", "Article 21 of the Constitution of Ghana guarantees freedom of the press and other media, freedom of speech and expression, thought, and information." ], [ "Internet", "Fiber optics, used for high-speed Internet access and telecommunications.The top-level domain of Ghana is .gh.Ghana was one of the first countries in Africa to connect to the Internet.", "With an average household download speed of 5.8 Mbit/s Ghana had the third fastest speed on the African continent and the 110th fastest out of 188 countries worldwide in February 2014.In 2009 the number of Internet users stood at 1.3 million, 93rd in the world.", "In 2012 the number of Internet users reached 4.2 million (69th in the world) or 17.1% of the population (149th in the world).In 2012 there were 62,124 fixed (109th in the world; 0.3% of the population, 156th in the world) and 8.2 million wireless (27th in the world; 33.3% of the population, 49th in the world) broadband subscriptions.In 2012 there were 59,086 Internet hosts operating in Ghana, 93rd in the world, and Ghana had been allocated 332,544 IPv4 addresses, 102nd in the world, with less than 0.05% of the world total, and 13.2 addresses per 1000 people.In 2010 there were 165 authorised Internet service providers of which 30 were operating.===Internet censorship and surveillance===There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight.", "Individuals and groups engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail.While the constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and press, the government sometimes restricts those rights.", "The police arbitrarily arrest and detain journalists.", "Some journalists practice self-censorship.", "The constitution prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government respects these prohibitions in practice.In 2002 the government of Ghana censored Internet media coverage of tribal violence in Northern Ghana." ], [ "Radio and television", "Mass communications and Mass media corporate headquarters.\|thumbIn 2007 Ghana was served by one state-owned TV station, two state-owned radio networks; privately owned TV stations and a number of privately owned radio stations.", "International broadcasters and cable and satellite TV subscription services were available.", "In 2010, there were 140 authorised radio stations with 84 in operation and 32 authorised television stations with approximately 26 in operation.", "Television broadcasters include First Digital TV (ATV, BTA, FAITH TV, CHANNEL D, STAR TV, FTV, SPORTS 24, CINIMAX, PLANET KIDZ) TV Africa, Metro TV, TV3, GTV, GH One TV and Viasat 1.The Ghana Broadcasting Corporation (GBC) founded by decree in 1968 is the state agency that provides civilian radio and television services.", "It was created for the development of the education and entertainment sectors and to enhance the knowledge of the people of Ghana.The television industry has increased over this period in the country.", "There have been a lot of television stations established within the country and whether we like it or not, it has shaped the societies in many ways.", "The Top 5 TV stations in Ghana according to Green Views Residential Projects are GTV (Ghana Television), Citi TV, UTV (United Television), TV3, and GH One TV(Ghana One Television)." ], [ "Telephones", "The prefix code of Ghana for international calls is +233.As of 2012 there were 285,000 fixed telephone lines in use, 120th in the world, and 25.6 million mobile cellular lines, 42nd in the world.The telephone system has a fixed-line infrastructure concentrated in Accra and some wireless local loop installed, domestic trunks primarily use microwave radio relay.", "There are 4 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) satellite earth stations.", "Microwave radio relay links Ghana to its neighbours (2009).The SAT-3/WASC, Main One, GLO-1, and ACE international optical fibre submarine cables provide links to countries along the west coast of Africa and on to Europe and Asia.In 2010 two fixed line and six mobile phone companies were authorised to operate in Ghana of which 5 were operating, 13 satellite providers were authorised of which 8 were operating, 176 VSAT providers were authorised of which 57 were operating, and 99 public and private network operators were authorised of which 25 were operating.", "Authorized telecommunications companies include Mobile Telecommunications Networks (MTN), Vodafone Ghana which purchased Telecom Ghana, Tigo which replaced Mobitel (Millicom International Cellular), Bharti Airtel and Zain which acquired Western Telesystems Ltd (Westel), Glo Mobile Ghana Limited, and Expresso Telecom which acquired Kasapa Telecom.", "In 2017, Tigo Ghana and Airtel Ghana merged to form AirtelTigo.Competition among mobile-cellular providers has spurred growth, with a mobile phone teledensity in 2009 of more than 80 per 100 persons and rising.", "The cost of mobile phones is increased by taxes of around 38%.The Ghana's telecom market has undergone several changes in recent years, following the privatisation of the incumbent telco Ghana Telecom and its rebranding as Vodafone Ghana.", "Two of the key players merged to form AirtelTigo in 2017, though in mid-2020 the parent companies of the operator decided to exit the market.", "The sale and transfer of AirtelTigo to the state was completed in November 2021.According to the Ghana Telecom Services Market Reports, the telecom services market size in Ghana was valued at $1.9 billion in 2022.The market is expected to grow at a CAGR of 3.1% during the forecast period, 2022–2027.Initiatives such as Rural Telephony and Digital Inclusion Projects and Smart City Project will be driving the telecom sector in the country.", "The reports shows the leading telecom Companies in Ghana; MTN Ghana, Vodafone Ghana, AirtelTigo Ghana and Glo Ghana.As the telecommunication giant in the county, MTN Ghana is on course to expand and improve its network by 2025 with $1 billion investment.", "This will go a long way to improve the telecommunication services in the country." ], [ "Covid-19 Impact", "COVID-19 pandemic had a negligible impact on the Ghana telecom industry that brought about change in the industry.", "In March 2020, business hours broadband consumption has increased, as the country adjusted to life with COVID-19.The telecom sector witnessed growth in weekday viewership, movie rentals and purchases.", "Live viewing is increased by 15% and free video-on-demand is increased by 25% during the week as more people were in lock-down staying at home.Ghana Telecom Market has witnessed strong growth in recent years and is expected to have continued growth over the forecast period to 2025.The growth in the industry is mainly due to increasing urban population with rising adoption of the mobile phones that supports 3G, 4G and 5G services across the country.", "Telecom sector is further expected to have strong growth over the forecast period with rising adoption of Internet of Things (IoT) in the sector that connects with wired and wireless broadband." ], [ "See also", "* Ghana Internet Exchange (GIX)* New media in Ghana* Media in Ghana* Internet in Ghana* Africa Digital Awards" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "References", " " ], [ "External links", " Ghana Internet Exchange (GIX), website.", "* Ghana Internet Service Providers Association (GISPA), website.", "* National Communications Authority (NCA), website." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Ghana" ], [ "Introduction", "A collage of the Transport in Ghana and public transport systems in Ghana: Airbus A320 of a Ghana Regional Airline in Ghana, Taxicab system in Ghana, Bus Rapid Transit of Metro mass Transit L.T.D in Ghana, Railway Station and Kumasi Railway Station in Ghana, and Ferryboat transportation in Ghana.", "'''Transport in Ghana''' is accomplished by road, rail, air and water.", "Ghana's transportation and communications networks are centered in the southern regions, especially the areas in which gold, cocoa, and timber are produced.", "The northern and central areas are connected through a major road system.Increased transport investment helped to increase the number of new vehicle registrations and transportation alternatives include rail, road, ferry, marine and air." ], [ "Railways", "Ghana's railway network.The railway system in Ghana has historically been confined to the plains south of the barrier range on mountains north of the city of Kumasi.", "However, the narrow gauge railway, totalling , is presently undergoing major rehabilitation and inroads to the interior are now being made.", "In Ghana, most of the lines are single tracked, and in 1997, it was estimated that were double tracked.Railway Station in Kumasi, March 2002=== Rail expansion ===In 2005, the Minister of Ports, Harbours and Railways announced plans to extend the railway system to facilitate economic development.", "To begin, $5 million was invested for feasibility studies.", "Possible projects at the time included extending a line from Ejisu to Nkoranza and Techiman; a line from Tamale to Bolgatanga and Paga to Burkina Faso; a line from Wenchi, Bole to Wa and Hamile and also to Burkina Faso, and a line to Yendi where there are iron ore deposits.Over the next two years, there were various studies and in 2007, work began.Ghana Railways Engine No.", "1670 in Kumasi, June 2005In March 2007, a Private Public Partnership was proposed to rehabilitate the Eastern Railway from Accra to Ejisu and Kumasi, with an extension from Ejisu via Mampong, Nkoranza, Tamale, Bolgatanga and Paga, with a branch from Tamale to Yendi and Sheini.", "The extension starts at Kumasi and will cost $1.6b.There was another proposal in September 2007 to extend the Western Railway from Awaso via Techiman, Bole, Sawla, Wa to Hamile.In February 2008, the ''Ghana General News'' reported that the Ministry of Harbours and Railways and the Ghana Railway Corporation (GRC) expected to complete a new commuter line linking Accra and Tema by June 2008.The formation was complete from Sakumono to the SSNIT flats near Tema.", "Diesel multiple-unit trainsets will be imported for use on the line.", "Construction of sleeper plant for the far north line was also initiated in 2008.===Rail transport===A railway map of Ghana showing dates of construction.The Ghana railway network occupies a total rail route length and rail track length of 947 km and 1300 km, comprising national rail lines that do not go outside of Ghana and the Ghana national border.", "Ghana railway network is limited to south Ghana and the southern part of Ghana within the Greater Accra region, Central region, Western region, Eastern region and Ashanti region of south Ghana.There are plans underway that revamp the operations of the Ghana Railway Corporation and Ghana Railway Company to make it more viable, and to attract private sector participation.", "Concession agreements have been signed by the Ghana Railway Corporation for the development and extension of the Ghana Eastern Rail Line and the rehabilitation of the Ghana Western Rail Line.", "* The major rail routes in Ghana are the Ghana Eastern Rail Line that connects Kumasi to Koforidua, and the Ghana Western Rail Line that connects Kumasi to Sekondi-Takoradi, Sunyani and Cape Coast.", "In 2010, Ghana Railway Corporation began a GH₵12.9 billion (US$6 billion) rail project at the construction of the Ghana rail infrastructure to Ghana High-Speed Rail (''abbreviated'' GHSR or HSR) and to upgrade all of Ghana's railway line network has been planned and to be completed at the end of 2014 with construction managed by the China Railway High-Speed (CHR) and the Chinese National Machinery Import and Export Corporation (CMC).=== Service pending ===These towns are proposed to be served by rail:* Ejisu* Kintampo* Paga - near Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast borders.Train at Accra Railway Station* Hamile - far northwest corner (Contracts were made for railway extensions in July 2007.)", "Boankra Inland Port (under construction)=== Gauge conversion ===Korean engineers studying the building of new lines in February 2007 were also to consider conversion to ." ], [ "Highways", "The Adome Bridge crosses the Volta River.Road transport is by far the dominant carrier of freight and passengers in Ghana's land transport system.", "It carries over 95% of all passenger and freight traffic and reaches most communities, and is classified under three categories of trunk roads, urban roads, and feeder roads.", "The Ghana Highway Authority, established in 1974 is tasked with developing and maintaining the country's trunk road network totaling 13,367 km, which makes up 33% of Ghana's total road network of 40,186 km.Trunk roads in Ghana are classified as National roads, Regional roads, and Inter-regional roads, all of which form the Ghana road network.", "National roads, designated with the letter '''N''', link all the major population centers in Ghana.", "Regional roads, designated with the letter '''R''', are a mix of primary and secondary routes, which serve as feeder roads to National roads; while Inter-Regional roads, designated with the prefix '''IR''', connect major settlements across regional borders.With respect to this mode of transport, many people prefer to use the public means.", "Many of the town and cities in the country can be reached by the use of urban buses known as \"trotro\" or taxis.", "For inter-regional transport bigger buses are normally used.The Ghana road network is 64,323 km and road transportation is the most dominant choice of transportation in Ghana.", "Road transport infrastructure in Ghana can be used throughout to facilitate the exchange of commodities and enable regular school attendance and fast access to health facilities in Ghana.", "There has been an increased investment and expansion in the road transportation of Ghana, GH₵1 billion (US$500 million) in 2012.There is a Ghanaian Bus Rapid Transit, known as Metro mass Transit L.T.D, and a Taxicab system connecting the Ghanaian big cities among themselves, and a Minibuses system, known as Tro Tros, connecting big cities with the country's rural areas and small towns.", "The Ghana Police Service's Motor Transport and Traffic Unit (MTTU) and the Ghana Highways Authority is responsible for the maintenance of the Road Traffic Control of Ghana and the Ghana Road Network (Ghana national highways and motorways).Tamale bus rapid transit system===International highways===The Trans–West African Coastal Highway, part of the Trans-African Highway network crosses Ghana along the '''N1''', connecting it to Abidjan, (Ivory Coast), Lomé, (Togo) and to Benin and Nigeria.", "Eventually the highway will connect to another seven Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) nations to the west.", "The '''N2''', which connects Tema in the Greater Accra Region to Kulungugu in the Upper East Region; the '''N10''', which connects Yamoransa in the Central Region to Paga in the Upper East Region; and the '''N12''', which connects Elubo in the Western Region to Hamile in the Upper West Region; all connect Ghana to landlocked Burkina Faso, where it joins another highway in the Trans-African network, the Trans-Sahelian Highway." ], [ "Ferries and waterways", "The Volta River is the largest artificial lake in the world by surface area.The Volta, Ankobra, and Tano rivers provide 168 km of perennial navigation for launches and lighters; Lake Volta provides 1,125 kilometres of arterial and feeder waterway.There are ferries on Lake Volta at Yeji and Kwadjokrom." ], [ "Marine transport", "=== Seaports and harbours ===Container ships and Merchant ships being loaded and unloaded at the Intermodal freight transport of Tema Port.There are ports on the Atlantic Ocean at Takoradi and Tema.", "Tema Port in South Ghana, officially opened in 1962, is the bigger of the two seaports in Ghana, and is Africa's largest harbour.", "It has a water-enclosed area of and a total land area of .", "Apart from handling goods for Ghana, it is also a traffic junction, where goods are transhipped, and transit cargo destined for the landlocked countries to the north of Ghana.The port of Tema handles the majority of the nation's import and export cargo and most of the country's chief exports is shipped from Sekondi-Takoradi and Tema.", "The port of Tema has of breakwaters, 12 deepwater berths, an outsize oil tanker berth, a dockyard, warehouses, and transit sheds.", "The port has open and covered areas for the storage of cargo, including a 77,200-m² (7.72-hectare) paved area for the storage of containers, steel products and other conventional cargo.", "The port's container yard is capable of holding over 8,000 TEUs at any given time.", "The closed storage area, which is about 25,049 m² (2.51 hectares) in area, consists of six sheds with a total storage capacity of 50,000 tonnes of cargo.", "The port also includes a 100,000 dwt dry dock and slipway facility.", "The Tema and Takoradi harbours in South Ghana are operated by the Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority.=== Merchant marine ===There are six ships (with a volume of or over) totaling /.", "This includes two petroleum tankers and four refrigerated cargo vessels (1999 estimates).Ghana's Volta River, Ankobra River, and Tano River provide 168 km of perennial navigation for launches and lighters, and Volta Lake provides 1,125 kilometres of arterial and feeder waterway.", "There are two main seaports in Ghana which are located in the southern coastal cities of Sekondi-Takoradi and Tema (Takoradi Harbour and Tema Harbour).", "The strategic geographical location of Ghana to the Volta Lake and the many rivers of Ghana that provide inland transport make Ghana a very transited sovereign state for freighters.Inland water transport in Ghana includes the movement of passengers by ferry or water taxis and cargo on rivers, lakes and other water bodies in Ghana and Ghana has a ferry transportation system on Volta Lake at Yeji and Kwadjokrom.", "The Volta Lake is the major inland water transport facility that is efficiently regulated to transport passengers and cargo.", "The main transport service provider on the Volta Lake is the Volta Lake Transport Company Limited (VLTC).", "The Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority and Ghana Railway Corporation and the Volta River Authority collectively have oversight responsibility over the Volta Lake and the Volta Lake Transport Company Limited (VLTC)." ], [ "Aviation", "Kotoka International Airport in Accra, Kumasi International Airport in Kumasi, and Sekondi-Takoradi Airport in Sekondi-Takoradi.On July 4, 1958, the Ghanaian government established Ghana Airways connecting Ghana with other countries.", "By the mid-1990s, Ghana Airways operated international scheduled passenger and cargo service to numerous European, Middle Eastern, and African destinations, including London, Düsseldorf, Rome, Abidjan, Dakar, Lagos, Lomé, and Johannesburg.", "As a result of persistent management and financial problems, Ghana Airways ceased all operations and entered into liquidation in 2004.Ghana has twelve airports, six with hard surfaced runways.", "The most important are Kotoka International Airport at Accra and airports at Sekondi-Takoradi, Kumasi, and Tamale that serve domestic air traffic.", "In 1990, the government spent US$12 million to improve Accra's facilities.", "Workmen resurfaced the runway, upgraded the lighting system and built a new freight terminal.", "Construction crews also extended and upgraded the terminal building at Kumasi.", "In early 1991, the government announced further plans to improve Accra's international airport.", "The main runway was upgraded, improvements were made in freight landing and infrastructure, and the terminal building and the airport's navigational aids were upgraded.McDonnell Douglas DC-10 of Ghana AirwaysThe first Ghanaian flag carrier was the Ghana Airways which commenced operations in 1958; then ceased operations in 2005 and was succeeded by the Ghana International Airlines in 2005.Ghana has a vibrant airline industry and there are five main airports in Ghana: Kotoka International Airport in Greater Accra, Kumasi Airport in Kumasi, Sekondi-Takoradi Airport in Western Ghana, Sunyani Airport in Sunyani, and Tamale Airport in Tamale.", "In addition, Ghana has a total of 8 airports, of which the most transited is the Kotoka International Airport located in Accra, with a transit in 2009 of 1.2 million passengers.In 2005, Ghana International Airlines (GIA) began services as the new national airline of Ghana.", "GIA operated Boeing 757 and Boeing 767 aircraft under wet lease arrangements with other airlines, and connected Kotoka International Airport in Accra with London Gatwick and Düsseldorf.", "After several years GIA also ceased operations.", "After the cessation of operations of Ghana International Airlines in 2010, major airlines of Ghana are Africa World Airlines, Antrak Air, CTK – CiTylinK and Starbow Airlines which fly to domestic destinations in Ghana, around the world and to main flight points of the Africa continent.", "There are also some commercial airlines running domestic flights between the major cities in Ghana.", "In 2010, Ghana planned for the revival of Ghana Airways to commence commercial aviation.", "At present there exists no Ghanaian airline providing long-haul international services.Between 2009 and 2013, the number of air passengers in Ghana more than quadrupled.=== Airports - with paved runways ===Kotoka International Airport''total:''6''2,438 to 3,047 m:''1''1,524 to 2,437 m:''3''914 to 1,523 m:''2 (1999 est.", ")=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===''total:''6''1,524 to 2,437 m:''not true1''914 to 1,523 m:''3''under 914 m:''2" ], [ "See also", " Ghana* List of airports in Ghana" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Railway News - Ghana" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ghana Armed Forces" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Ghana Armed Forces''' ('''GAF''') is the unified armed force of Ghana, consisting of the Army (GA), Navy (GN), and Ghana Air Force.The Commander-in-Chief of the Ghana Armed Forces is the president of Ghana, who is also the supreme military commander of the Border Guard Unit (BGU).", "The armed forces are managed by the Minister of Defence and the Chief of Defence Staff." ], [ "History", "In 1879, the Gold Coast Constabulary was established by personnel of the Hausa Constabulary of Southern Nigeria, to perform internal security and police duties in the British colony of the Gold Coast.", "In this guise, the regiment earned its first battle honour as part of the Ashanti campaign.War Flag of the Ghana Regiment during the Burma Campaign in the South-East Asian Theatre of World War II.The Gold Coast Constabulary was renamed in 1901 as the Gold Coast Regiment, following the foundation of the West African Frontier Force, under the direction of the Colonial Office of the British Government.", "The regiment raised a total of five battalions for service during the First World War, all of which served during the East Africa campaign.", "During the Second World War, the regiment raised nine battalions, and saw action in Kenya's Northern Frontier District, Italian Somaliland, Abyssinia and Burma as part of the 2nd (West Africa) Infantry Brigade.", "Gold Coast soldiers returning from the Far East carried different perspectives from when they had departed.===Internal operations===The Ghana Armed Forces were formed in 1957.Major General Stephen Otu was appointed Chief of Defence Staff in September 1961.From 1966, the Armed Forces were extensively involved in politics, mounting several coups.", "Kwame Nkrumah had become Ghana's first prime minister when the country became independent in 1957.As Nkrumah's rule wore on, he began to take actions which disquieted the leadership of the armed forces, including the creation and expansion of the President's Own Guard Regiment (POGR).As a result, on February 24, 1966, a small number of Army personnel and senior police officials, led by Colonel Emmanuel Kotoka, commander of the Second Brigade at Kumasi, Major Akwasi Afrifa, (staff officer in charge of army training and operations), Lieutenant General (retired) Joseph Ankrah, and J.W.K.", "Harlley, (the police inspector general), successfully launched \"Operation Cold Chop\", the 1966 Ghanaian coup d'état, against the Nkrumah regime.", "The group formed the National Liberation Council, which ruled Ghana from 1966 to 1969.The Armed Forces seized power again in January 1972, after the reinstated civilian government cut military privileges and started changing the leadership of the army's combat units.", "Lieutenant Colonel Ignatius Kutu Acheampong (temporary commander of the First Brigade around Accra) led the bloodless 1972 Ghanaian coup d'état that ended the Second Republic.", "Thus the National Redemption Council was formed.", "Acheampong became head of state, and the NRC ruled from 1972 to 1975.On October 9, 1975, the NRC was replaced by the Supreme Military Council (SMC).", "Council members were Colonel Acheampong, (chairman, who was also promoted straight from Colonel to General), Lt. Gen. Fred Akuffo, (the Chief of Defence Staff), and the army, navy, air force and Border Guard Unit commanders.In July 1978, in a sudden move, the other SMC officers forced Acheampong to resign, replacing him with Lt. Gen. Akuffo.", "The SMC apparently acted in response to continuing pressure to find a solution to the country's economic dilemma; inflation was estimated to be as high as 300% that year.", "The council was also motivated by Acheampong's failure to dampen rising political pressure for changes.", "Akuffo, the new SMC chairman, promised publicly to hand over political power to a new government to be elected by July 1, 1979.The decree lifting the ban on party politics went into effect on January 1, 1979, as planned.", "However, in June, just before the scheduled resumption of civilian rule, a group of young armed forces officers, led by Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings, mounted the 1979 Ghanaian coup d'état.", "They put in place the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council, which governed until September 1979.However, in 1981, Rawlings deposed the new civilian government again, in the 1981 Ghanaian coup d'état.", "This time Rawlings established the Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC).", "The PNDC remained in government until January 7, 1993.In the last years of the PNDC, Jerry Rawlings assumed civilian status; he was elected as a civilian President in 1993 and continued as president until 2001.File:Ghana Armed Forces – Military Sergeant Soldier.jpg\|A female sergeant from the Ghana Army on a military exercise.File:Ghanain Army 2005-095.jpg\|Ghana Army soldiers during a simulated amphibious landing in Southwest Ghana.File:USMC-110309-M-DF801-045.jpg\|Posed photograph from a U.S. Marine Corps -Ghana jungle warfare training exercise.File:Members of the Ghana Army 2nd Engineer Battalion prepare to practice riot control techniques during a nonlethal training demonstration June 26, 2013, in Accra, Ghana, as part of exercise Western Accord 2013 130626-A-ZZ999-023.jpg\|2nd Engineer Battalion Snatch Squad engaged in flying wedge and riot control.File:Members of the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Center honor guard stand in formation during a welcoming ceremony for Ivory Coast Gen. Soumaila Bakayoko, the Economic Community of West African 130626-A-ZZ999-016.jpg\|Honour guards from Ghana Air Force during a welcoming ceremony for Ivory Coast Gen. Soumaila Bakayoko, the ECOWAS chair of chiefs of defence staff, during Exercise Western Accord 13.===External operations===Ghana Army soldiers boarding a Lockheed C-130 Hercules at Kotoka International Airport to take part in an Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group mission in Liberia.The Armed Forces' first external operation was the United Nations Operation in the Congo in the early 1960s.", "The GAF operated in the Balkans, including with UNMIK.", "Ghanaian operations within Africa included the UNAMIR deployment which became entangled in the Rwandan genocide.", "In his book ''Shake Hands with the Devil'', Canadian Forces commander Romeo Dallaire gave the Ghanaian soldiers high praise for their work during that deployment.", "During the Liberian Civil War, Ghanaian activities helped pave the way for the Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement, among others.", "Additional operations in Asia have included Iran and Iraq in the Iran–Iraq War, Kuwait and Lebanon civil war among others.A total of 3,359 Ghana Army soldiers and 283 Ghana Military Police operated as part of UNTAC in Cambodia.", "The UNTAC operation lasted two years, 1992−1993.After the long running Cambodia civil war ignited by external interventions, a resolution was accepted by the four warring factional parties.", "Operation UNTAC was the largest Ghanaian external operation since Ghana's first external military operation, ONUC in the Congo in the 1960s.", "Operation UNTAC and its contingent UNAMIC had a combined budget of more than $1.6 billion.In 2012, closer military cooperation was agreed with the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation.", "In 2013, the Armed Forces agreed closer military cooperation with the China People's Liberation Army, and with the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran.Ghanaian Female Peacekeepers going back home after serving with United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon ( UNIFIL )" ], [ "Ghana Army", "The Ghana Army is structured as follows:The Ghana Armed Forces Central Band* The Northern Command with headquarters in Tamale, Central Command with headquarters in Kumasi and the Southern Command with headquarters in Accra.", "In March 2000 Northern and Southern Commands were formed after the two infantry brigades were upgraded in status.", "Previously there were three brigades: 1st Infantry Brigade (HQ in Teshie), 2nd Infantry Brigade (HQ in Kumasi) and Support Services Brigade (HQ in Burma Camp).", "* 6 Infantry Battalions of the Ghana Regiment.", "3rd Battalion of Infantry, 4th Battalion of Infantry and 6th Battalion of Infantry in the Northern Command, 1st Battalion of Infantry, 2nd Battalion of Infantry and 5th Battalion of Infantry in the Southern Command.", "* two Airborne companies attached to Northern Command; Airborne Force* 64 Infantry Regiment, a presidential guard force (formerly known as President's Own Guard Regiment)* 1 Training Battalion* One Staff College* Reconnaissance Armoured Regiment (two armoured reconnaissance squadrons)* Defence Signal Regiment (Ghana)* Two Engineer Regiments (48 Engineer Regiment and 49 Engineer Regiment)* 66 Artillery RegimentIn 1996, the Support Services Brigade was reorganized and transferred from the Army to be responsible to the Armed Forces GHQ.", "From that point its units included 49 Engineer Regiment, the Ghana Military Police, Defence Signal Regiment (Ghana), FRO, Forces Pay Office, 37 Military Hospital, Defence Mechanical Transport Battalion (Def MT Bn), Base Ordnance Depot, Base Ammunition Depot, Base Supply Depot, Base Workshop, Armed Forces Printing Press (AFPP), Armed Forces Fire Service (AFFS), the Ghana Armed Forces Central Band, Ghana Armed Forces Institution (GAFI), 1 Forces Movement Unit (Tema Port), 5 Forces Movement Unit, Base Engineer Technical Services (BETS), 5 Garrison Education Centre (5 GEC), the Armed Forces Museum, Army Signals Training School, and the Armed Forces Secondary Technical School (AFSTS).", "By 2016 the Forces Pay Office had been upgraded to the Forces Pay Regiment.The Armed Forces uses imported weaponry and locally manufactured secondary equipment.", "M16 rifles, AK-47s, Type 56 assault rifles, ballistic vests and personal armor are standard issue, while much of the secondary equipment used by the Army and Air Force are manufactured internally by the Defence Industries Holding Company (DIHOC).", "External suppliers include Russia, Iran, and China.===Peacekeeping Operations===Peacekeepers from Ghana Army (GA) in Kigali, Rwanda in a Volkswagen Iltis.The Armed Forces are heavily committed to international peacekeeping operations.", "Ghana prefers to send its troops to operations in Africa.", "However the United Nations has used Ghanaian forces in countries as diverse as Afghanistan, Iraq, Kosovo, Georgia, Nepal, Cambodia and Lebanon.", "Currently, Ghanaian armed forces are posted to United Nations peacekeeping missions in:* MONUC (Democratic Republic of Congo) − 464* UNMIL (Liberia) − 852 (disestablished 2018)* UNAMSIL (Sierra Leone) − 782* UNIFIL (Lebanon) − 651Ghana armed forces provided the first Force Commander of the Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group (ECOMOG), Lieutenant General Arnold Quainoo.", "Quainoo led the force from July 1990 to September 1990.Ghana Armed Forces peacekeepers have many roles: patrolling, as military police, electoral observers, de-miners (bomb disposal units and clearance divers), ceasefire monitors, humanitarian aid workers, and even special forces or frogmen against insurgents.=== Niger Coup ===An group of opposition political parties and civil society organizations, comprising the National Democratic Congress (NDC) and Ghana Union Movement (GUM), has jointly urged the Akufo-Addo administration to refrain from deploying the Ghana Armed Forces to restore the democratically elected president of Niger, Mohamed Bazoum, who was ousted from power by General Abdourahamane Tchiani.However, Hon.", "Kennedy Ohene Agyapong, the Chairperson of the Interior and Defense Committee in Parliament, has expressed his endorsement of the nation's deployment of troops to Niger." ], [ "Ghana Air Force", "The Ghana Air Force is headquartered in Burma Camp in Accra, and operates from bases in Accra (main transport base), Tamale (combat and training base)and Sekondi-Takoradi (training base).", "The GHF military doctrine and stated mission is to perform counterinsurgency operations within Ghana or externally and to provide logistical support to the Ghana Army." ], [ "Ghana Navy", "The Ghana Navy's mission is to provide defence of Ghana and its territorial waters, fishery protection, exclusive economic zone, and internal security on Lake Volta.", "It is also tasked with resupplying GA (Ghana Army) peacekeepers in Africa, fighting maritime criminal activities such as Piracy, disaster and humanitarian relief operations, and evacuation of Ghanaian citizens and other nationals from troubled spots.", "In 1994 the Navy was re-organized into an Eastern command, with headquarters at Tema, and a Western command, with headquarters at Sekondi-Takoradi." ], [ "GAF Business", "===GAF Military private bank===Sergeant Major) of the Ghana Armed Forces CWO (Chief Warrant Officer) Dickson Owusu.The Ghana Armed Forces, in addition to owning its own arms industry weapons and military technology and equipment manufacturer (DIHOC − Defence Industries Holding Company), operates its own private bank.", "The military private bank is sited at Burma Camp and serves Ghanaian military personnel and their civilian counterparts.===Military hospitals===The GAF has two hospitals, the 37 Military Hospital in Accra and the Kumasi Military Hospital in the north.", "The 37 Military Hospital has recently undergone expansion and its facilities include a twenty-four-hour Emergency Department (ED).The GAF main military hospital has been organized into departments and divisions, which created structure within the establishment.", "The Divisions and Departments (the units) are developed and joined according to medical, paramedical and administrative lines and each of these units has its own departmental head.", "The GAF military hospital is staffed by GAF military personnel and also houses a medical education training facility.", "37 Military Hospital is also accredited for post-graduate medical education teaching.", "Vyacheslav Lebedev, Chairman of the Supreme Court of Russia, expressed gratitude following his emergency treatment at the hospital." ], [ "Cadets and schools", "Cadets from the Achimota Senior High School Army Cadet CorpsThe Ghana Army operates a Cadet Corps for GAF Cadets whom go on to Military Education and Training and Recruit Training graduation from the GAF Military Academy for Army Recruit and Seaman Recruit prior to enlistment into the Army, Navy or Air Force.Training institutions include the Ghana Military Academy and the Ghana Army-sponsored Cadet Corps.", "Also located in Accra is the internationally funded Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre, which is not part of the Armed Forces but provides a wide-ranging of peace operations training, including to GAF personnel.=== Ghana Armed Forces Command and Staff College ===The Ghana Armed Forces Command and Staff College (GAFCSC) dates back to 1963.It was to provide training for Ghana Armed Forces (GAF) officers and affiliated officers from Africa, focusing on command and staff duties.", "Throughout its history, it has hosted and educated individuals from neighboring African states.", "It focuses on military and defense courses, culminating in the issuance of the Pass Staff College (PSC) certificate.The range of programs expanded, driven by the demands of the global environment.", "The Ghana Armed Forces have been engaged in peacekeeping operations since 1960.This meant broadening the array of courses provided by GAFCSC.", "Consequently, the college aimed to establish partnerships with the University of Ghana and GIMPA to offer diverse peacekeeping and other courses.", "With the attainment of Institutional Accreditation, the college is now prepared to conduct its own courses, while still maintaining its collaborative association with the University of Ghana and GIMPA." ], [ "Defence budget", "Ghana Military–industrial complex and Defence industry budgetary history 400px 400px Ghana Armed Forces Defence budget percentage growth rate Ghana Armed Forces Defence budget percentage=== Salary Structure ===The Single Spine Salary Structure (SSSS) is the payment made to the Ghana Arm Forces.", "The salary structure started in 2010 has increased the income of the military.", "Payment structure with the Single Spine differs from each officer depending on their ranking." ], [ "Military clothing and prohibition of photography", "Ghanaian statutory law officially prohibits civilians and foreign nationals from wearing military apparel such as camouflage clothing, or clothing which resembles military dress.", "Officially, fines and/or short prison sentences can be passed against civilians seen in military dress in public.", "In addition, Ghanaian law prohibits the photographing of Ghana Armed Forces (GAF) Ghana Military Police (GMP) police or GAF military personnel and vehicles while on duty, strategic sites such as Kotoka International Airport when in use, and the seat of the Ghanaian government, Jubilee House." ], [ "See also", "* List of wars involving Ghana" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* General History of the Ghana Armed Forces – a Reference Volume, (Professor) Stephen Addae, Ministry of Defence of Ghana Armed Forces, Accra, 2005, .", "Nearly 700 pages but quite readable.", "Very poor bibliography." ], [ "External links", "* Ghana Armed Forces, Ghana armed forces official website * How to join the Ghana Armed Forces ." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Ghana" ], [ "Introduction", "Nations with which Ghana has diplomatic relations.The '''foreign relations of Ghana''' are controlled by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ghana.", "Ghana is active in the United Nations and many of its specialised agencies, the World Trade Organization, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), the African Union (AU) and the Economic Community of West African States.", "Ghana generally follows the consensus of the Non-aligned Movement and the OAU on economic and political issues not directly affecting its own interests.", "Ghana has been extremely active in international peacekeeping activities under UN auspices in Lebanon, Afghanistan, Rwanda, and the Balkans, in addition to an eight-year sub-regional initiative with its ECOWAS partners to develop and then enforce a cease-fire in Liberia.", "Ghana is also a member of the International Criminal Court." ], [ "Guiding principles and objectives", "Ghana's foreign policy since independence has been characterised by a commitment to the principles and ideals of non-alignment and Pan-Africanism as first enunciated by Kwame Nkrumah in the early 1960s.", "For Nkrumah, non-alignment meant complete independence from the policies and alliances of both East and West and support for a worldwide union of so-called non-aligned nations as a counter to both East and West power blocs.", "Pan-Africanism, by contrast, was a specifically African policy that envisioned the independence of Africa from Western colonialism and the eventual economic and political unity of the African continent.1The PNDC, like most of its predecessors, made serious and consistent attempts at the practical application of these ideals and principles, and its successor, the NDC government, promises to follow in the PNDC's footsteps.", "Under the NDC, Ghana remains committed to the principle of non-alignment in world politics.", "Ghana is also opposed to interference in the internal affairs of both small and large countries.", "This is a departure from Nkrumah's foreign policy approach; Nkrumah was frequently accused of subverting African regimes, such as Togo and Ivory Coast, which he considered ideologically conservative.", "The NDC government, like the PNDC before it, believes in the principle of self-determination, including the right to political independence and the right of people to pursue their economic and social development free from external interference.", "Another feature of NDC rule carried over from the PNDC era is faithfulness to what a leading scholar of Africa has called \"one of the most successful neoclassical economic reform efforts supported by the IMF and the World Bank.", "\"Kwame Nkrumah and his family meeting Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser during the 1965 OAU Summit in Accra.The broad objectives of Ghana's foreign policy thus include maintaining friendly relations and cooperation with all countries that desire such cooperation, irrespective of ideological considerations, on the basis of mutual respect and non-interference in each other's internal affairs.", "Africa and its liberation and unity are naturally the cornerstones of Ghana's foreign policy.", "As a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), NDC policy is to adhere faithfully to the OAU Charter.Another important principle of Ghana's foreign policy involves the closest possible cooperation with neighbouring countries with which the people of Ghana share cultural history, ties of blood, and economics.", "The results have included various bilateral trade and economic agreements and permanent joint commissions involving Ghana and its immediate neighbours, sometimes in the face of latent ideological and political differences and mutual suspicion, as well as numerous reciprocal state visits by high-ranking officials.", "These measures have contributed significantly to subregional cooperation, development, and the reduction of tension.Diplomatic missions of Ghana As an example of Ghana's interest in regional cooperation, the country enthusiastically endorsed formation of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) in 1975.This organisation was created specifically to foster inter-regional economic and political cooperation.", "It has served as a useful vehicle for contacts with neighbouring West African governments and for channelling increased Ghanaian exports to regional markets.", "Since 1990 ECOWAS has been engaged in a peacekeeping mission in Liberia to which Ghana has contributed a large contingent of troops.", "Ghana has participated in other international peacekeeping efforts as well, sending soldiers to operations of the United Nations (UN) in Cambodia in 1992-93 and Rwanda in 1993-94.In August 1994, Rawlings became ECOWAS chairman, a post that had eluded him since the PNDC came to power.", "He immediately undertook several initiatives to reduce tensions and conflict in West Africa.", "Notable among them was the Akosombo Accord of September 12, designed to end civil war in Liberia." ], [ "Bilateral relations", "===Africa=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes1962* Algeria has an embassy in Accra.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Algiers.8 October 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 October 1976.", "* Angola has an embassy in Accra.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Luanda.20 June 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 June 196221 May 1979Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 May 1979 when Ghanaian High Commissioner to Botswana, Mr. A. K. Afful has presented his credentials to President Khama.1961See Burkina Faso–Ghana relationsWith the coming to power of Thomas Sankara in Burkina Faso in 1983, relations between Ghana and Burkina became both warm and close.", "Indeed, Rawlings and Sankara began discussions about uniting Ghana and Burkina in the manner of the defunct Ghana-Guinea-Mali Union, which Nkrumah had sought unsuccessfully to promote as a foundation for his dream of unified continental government.", "Political and economic ties between Ghana and Burkina, a poorer country, were strengthened through joint commissions of cooperation and through border demarcation committee meetings.", "Frequent high-level consultations and joint military exercises, meant to discourage potential dissidents and to protect young \"revolutions\" in each country, were fairly regular features of Ghana-Burkina relations.", "* Burkina Faso has an embassy in Accra.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Ouagadougou.", "20 August 1963Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 August 196324 July 1967Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 July 1967 when first Ghanaian Ambassador to Chad , with residence in Kinshasa , M. John Quashie has presented his credentials to President Tombalbaye5 July 2015Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 July 2015 when first Ambassador of Ghana (resident in Pretoria) M. Kwesi Ahwoi, has presented his credentials to the President of Comoros, Dr. Ikililou Dhoinine.8 February 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 February 1964 when Mr. John Hector Williams has presented his credentials as Ghana's first ambassador to the Brazzaville Congo7 November 1957* Egypt has an embassy in Accra.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Cairo.26 August 2004Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 August 2004 when Ambassador of Eritrea to Ghana (resident in Abuja) Mr. Daniel Yohannes, presented his credentials to President John Agyekum Kufuor.1958* Ethiopia has an embassy in Accra.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Addis Ababa.1958* Guinea has an embassy in Accra, which was opened in 1958.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Conakry which is also accredited to Guinea-Bissau.15 March 1961See Ivory Coast–Ghana relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 15 March 1961.Ghana-Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire) relations suffered from the same ups and downs that characterised Ghana-Togo relations.", "In early 1984, the PNDC government complained that Ivory Coast was allowing Ghanaian dissidents to use its territory as a base from which to carry out acts of sabotage against Ghana.", "Ghana also accused Ivory Coast of granting asylum to political agitators wanted for crimes in Ghana.", "Relations between Ghana and Ivory Coast improved significantly, however, after 1988.In 1989, after fifteen years of no progress, the Ghana-Ivory Coast border re-demarcation commission finally agreed on the definition of the 640-kilometer border between the two countries.", "The PNDC thereafter worked to improve the transportation and communication links with both Ivory Coast and Togo, despite problems with both countries.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Abidjan.", "* Ivory Coast has an embassy in Accra.16 December 1963See Ghana–Kenya relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 16 December 1963* Ghana has a high commission in Nairobi.", "* Kenya has a high commission in Accra.24 November 1966Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 November 1966June 1957Both countries established diplomatic relations in June 1957 when M. Abraham Benjamin Bah Kofi, Ghanian Charge d'Affaires to Liberia presented his credentials to President Tubman.27 June 1978Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 June 1978 when Ambassador of Ghana Maj. Gen. Joshua M. Hamidou has presented his credentials to President of Mozambique Samora Moises Machel.21 March 1990* Ghana has a high commission in Windhoek.", "* Namibia has a high commission in Accra.24 August 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 August 1961 when has been appointed first Ambassador of Niger to Ghana M. Tanimoune Ary.1 October 1960See Ghana–Nigeria relationsGhana set up a commission in 1959 when Nigeria was still a dependent territory.", "This was elevated to High Commission status on the attainment of Nigeria's independence on 1 October 1960Despite close cultural ties, diplomatic relations between the two countries have in many instances been volatile.", "After the takeover in November 1993 by General Sani Abacha as the new Nigerian head of state, Ghana and Nigeria continued to consult on economic, political, and security issues affecting the two countries and West Africa as a whole.", "Between early August 1994 when Rawlings became ECOWAS chairman and the end of the following October, the Ghanaian president visited Nigeria three times to discuss the peace process in Liberia and measures to restore democracy in that country.", "* Ghana has a high commission in Abuja and a consulate-general in Lagos.", "* Nigeria has a high commission in Accra.1961* Ghana has an embassy in Dakar.", "* Senegal has an embassy in Accra.10 October 1988Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 October 198827 April 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 April 1961 when Ghana commission who was opened here in 1960, was raised to the status of High Commission6 May 1994See Ghana–South Africa relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 6 May 1994High Commission of Ghana in Pretoria* Ghana has a high commission in Pretoria.", "* South Africa has a high commission in Accra.20 September 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 September 1959 when has been accredited Ambassador of Ghana to Sudan Mr. Carl Senage Dey.21 January 1963See Ghana–Togo relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 21 January 1963.The strains in Ghana-Togo relations stretch back to pre-independence days.", "After 1918, following the defeat of Germany, the League of Nations divided the German colony of Togoland from north to south, a decision that divided the Ewe people among the Gold Coast, British Togoland, and French Togoland.", "After 1945, the United Nations took over the Togoland mandates.", "During the 1950s, when the independence of Ghana was in sight, demands grew for a separate Ewe state, an idea that Kwame Nkrumah, leader of the Gold Coast independence movement, opposed.", "Following a UN plebiscite in May 1956, in which a majority of the Ewe voted for union with Ghana, British Togoland became part of the Gold Coast.", "After Togolese independence in 1960, relations between Togo and Ghana deteriorated, aggravated by political differences and incidents such as smuggling across their common border.", "At times, relations have verged on open aggression.", "The result of the transfer of Togoland to Ghana has meant that many Togolese keep one foot on either side of the border, living in Ghana by night and working in the markets of the capital, Lomé, by day.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Lomé.", "* Togo has an embassy in Accra.30 November 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 November 1964 when first Zambian High Commissioner to Ghana , Mr. M. Ngalande , presented his letters of credence===Americas=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes28 March 1961 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 March 1961* Argentina is accredited to Ghana from its embassy in Abuja, Nigeria.", "* Ghana is accredited to Argentina from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.August 1994* Barbados has a high commission in Accra.", "* Ghana is accredited to Barbados from its embassy in Havana, Cuba.September 1981Both countries established diplomatic relations in September, 1981.3 December 1987Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 December 1987.2 January 1961President of Ghana John Kufuor with President of Brazil Lula da Silva* Brazil has an embassy in Accra.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Brasília.17 May 1957* Canada has a High Commission in Accra.", "* Ghana has a High Commission in Ottawa.6 October 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 October 1961* Chile has an embassy in Accra.", "* Ghana is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.23 June 1988Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 June 1988Ghana and Colombia's diplomatic relations dated back to 1988 but it remained dormant until July 2013 when Colombia opened its embassy in Accra.", "Colombia helps Ghana by providing assistance on building capacity of the Ghana Police Service, Immigration Service and the Narcotics Control Board on cybersecurity and drug trafficking.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Accra.", "* Ghana is accredited to Colombia from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.23 December 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 December 1959* Cuba has an embassy in Accra.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Havana.18 January 2018Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 January 201823 September 2019Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 September 201918 September 2023Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 September 2023.29 August 2011Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 August 2011 when ambassador of Ghana Mr. Daniel Ohene Agyekum presented his credentials to President of Honduras Porfirio Lobo Sosa.8 May 1968See Ghana–Jamaica relations* Ghana is accredited to Jamaica from its embassy in Havana, Cuba.", "* Jamaica is accredited to Ghana from its high commission in Abuja, Nigeria.8 August 1961See Ghana–Mexico relationsGhana and Mexico established diplomatic relations on 8 August 1961.Soon afterwards, both nations opened embassies in each other's capitals, respectively.", "In 1972, Ghana closed its embassy in Mexico City.", "Mexico closed its embassy in Accra in 1980.Mexico re-opened its embassy in Ghana in 2013.", "* Ghana is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.", "* Mexico has an embassy in Accra.17 June 2021Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 June 202123 June 1987Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 June 1987* Ghana is accredited to Peru from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.", "* Peru has an embassy in Accra.1 April 1977 See: Ghana-Suriname relations* Accra currently hosts the only Surinamese embassy in Africa.6 March 1957See Ghana–United States relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 6 March 1957The United States is among Ghana's trading partners.", "The Office of the President of Ghana worked closely with the U.S. Embassy in Accra to establish an American Chamber of Commerce to continue to develop closer economic ties in the private sector.", "Major U.S. companies operating in the country include ACS, CMS Energy, Coca-Cola, S.C. Johnson, Ralston Purina, Star-Kist, A.H. Robins, Sterling, Pfizer, IBM, 3M, Motorola, Stewart & Stevenson, PriceWaterhouseCoopers, and National Cash Register (NCR).", "Several U.S. firms recently made or are considering investments in Ghana, primarily in gold mining, wood products, and petroleum.", "U.S. mining giant Newmont entered Ghana's mining sector in 2004 and intends to invest up to $1 billion.", "In late 1997, Nuevo Petroleum concluded an oil exploration agreement accounting for one of Ghana's offshore mineral rights zones.", "Several other U.S. oil companies also are engaged in offshore exploration.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and a consulate-general in New York City.", "* United States has an embassy in Accra.===Asia=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes2 August 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 August 196129 May 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 May 1992.11 September 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 September 199219 July 1974See Bangladesh–Ghana relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 19 July 1974 when Bangladesh High Commissioner to Ghana presented his credentials to the Head of State Colonel I. K.", "Acheampong.", "* Bangladesh is accredited to Ghana from its high commission in Abuja, Nigeria.", "* Ghana is accredited to Bangladesh from its high commission in New Delhi, India.10 December 1991Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 December 19915 July 1960See China–Ghana relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 5 July 1960.Ghana's relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC) date back to 1960 when President Nkrumah became one of Africa's first leaders to recognise the country.", "Ghana and the PRC have had close and relatively good relations in that time despite a short period of relatively cold relations after Nkrumah was deposed in 1966.", "* China has an embassy in Accra.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Beijing.", "4 December 1992See Ghana–Georgia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 4 December 19926 March 1957See Ghana–India relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 6 March 1957.", "* Ghana has a high commission in New Delhi.", "* India has a high commission in Accra.1959* Ghana is accredited to Indonesia from its high commission in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.", "* Indonesia is accredited to Ghana from its embassy in Abuja, Nigeria.June 1974* Ghana has an embassy in Tehran.", "* Iran has an embassy in Accra.6 March 1957, severed 28 October 1973, restored 9 August 1994See Ghana–Israel relations* Ghana has an embassy in Tel Aviv.", "* Israel has an embassy in Accra.12 March 1959* Ghana has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan has an embassy in Accra.5 June 2007Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 June 2007 when Ambassador of Ghana to Jordan Mr. Rashid Bawa, has presented his credentials to King Abdullah.30 March 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 March 1959.5 December 1966See Ghana–Malaysia relations* Ghana has a high commission in Kuala Lumpur.", "* Malaysia has a high commission in Accra.10 August 1989Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 August 198925 September 2019Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 September 20198 March 1989Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 March 19891958Pakistan and Ghana enjoy amicable and cordial relations.", "There has been historical support extended by Pakistan to the African states particularly OIC member states in which Ghana has significant importance.", "Despite this, there has been a low level of bilateral trade between the two countries.", "The volume of bilateral trade during 2011 was just $19 million.", "* Ghana is accredited to Pakistan from its embassy in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.", "* Pakistan has a high commission in Accra.15 August 1981Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 August 19811 April 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 April 1960* Ghana has an embassy in Riyadh.", "* Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Accra.11 October 1989Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 October 1989* Ghana is accredited to Singapore from its high commission in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.", "* Singapore is accredited to Ghana from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs based in Singapore.14 November 1977Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 November 1977* Ghana has an embassy in Seoul.", "* South Korea has an embassy in Accra.25 October 1985Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 October 1985* Ghana is accredited to Thailand from its high commission in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.", "* Thailand is accredited to Ghana from its embassy in Abuja, Nigeria.1958See Ghana–Turkey relations* Ghana has an embassy in Ankara.", "Turkey has an embassy in Accra.", "Trade volume between the two countries was 353.3 million USD in 2018.25 August 1981Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 August 198125 March 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 March 1965* Ghana is accredited to Vietnam from its high commission in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.", "* Vietnam is accredited to Ghana from its embassy in Abuja, Nigeria.30 November 1995Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 November 1995===Europe=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes 1964See Austria–Ghana relations2 October 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 October 1959 when has been accredited Mr. G. Walravens as Ambassador of Belgium to Ghana.13 February 2013Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 February 201328 September 1961See Denmark–Ghana relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 28 September 1961 when was accredited first Ambassador of Denmark to Ghana Mr. Hans Adolf BieringDenmark has historic relations with Ghana from once possessing Danish Gold Coast.", "* Denmark has an embassy in Accra.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Copenhagen.1957* France has an embassy in Accra.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Paris.24 June 1957See Germany–Ghana relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 24 June 1957* Germany has an embassy in Accra.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Ghana has an embassy in Rome.", "* Italy has an embassy in Accra.19 December 2019Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 December 201927 February 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 February 1974* Ghana has a high commission in Valletta.", "* Malta has a high commission in Accra.26 September 2019Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 September 201920 September 2012Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 September 201231 December 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 December 1959* Ghana is accredited to Poland from its embassy in Berlin, Germany.", "* Poland is accredited to Ghana from its embassy in Abuja, Nigeria.14 January 1958See Ghana–Russia relations* Ghana has an embassy in Moscow.", "* Russia has an embassy in Accra.", "13 January 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 January 195910 November 1967See Ghana–Spain relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 10 November 1967* Ghana has an embassy in Madrid.", "* Spain has an embassy in Accra.19 July 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 July 19606 March 1957See Ghana–United Kingdom relations* Ghana has a high commission in London.", "* United Kingdom has a high commission in Accra.===Oceania=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes21 February 1958Both countries established diplomatic relations on * Australia has a high commission in Accra.", "* Ghana has a high commission in Canberra.8 November 2023Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 November 2023.1 March 2001Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 March 2001.", "* Ghana is accredited to New Zealand from its high commission in Canberra, Australia.", "* New Zealand is accredited to Ghana from its embassy in Addis, Ababa, Ethiopia.20 December 2019Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 December 2019" ], [ "Ghana and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]", "Recipient of the 2008 Chatham House Prize and 10th President of Ghana John Kufuor with Prince Philip, the Husband of the Head of the Commonwealth and Queen of the United Kingdom, Elizabeth II.Ghana has been a member state of the Commonwealth since independence in 1957, firstly as a Dominion, then as a republic in the Commonwealth of Nations." ], [ "See also", "* Visa policy of Ghana* Minister for Foreign Affairs (Ghana)* List of diplomatic missions in Ghana* List of diplomatic missions of Ghana* List of ambassadors and high commissioners of Ghana* Ghana and the Non-Aligned Movement" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Timeline of the history of Gibraltar" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of Gibraltar''' portrays how The Rock gained an importance and a reputation far exceeding its size, influencing and shaping the people who came to reside here over the centuries." ], [ "Prehistoric", "The Gibraltar 1 skull, discovered in 1848 in Forbes' Quarry, was only the second Neanderthal skull and the first adult Neanderthal skull ever foundEvidence of hominid inhabitation of the Rock dates back to the Neanderthals.", "A Neanderthal skull was discovered in Forbes' Quarry in 1848, prior to the \"original\" discovery in the Neander Valley.", "In 1926, the skull of a Neanderthal child was found in Devil's Tower.Mousterian deposits found at Gorham's Cave, which are associated with Neanderthals in Europe, have been dated to as recently as 28,000 to 24,000 BP, leading to suggestions that Gibraltar was one of the last places of Neanderthal habitation.", "Modern humans apparently visited the Gibraltar area in prehistoric times after the Neanderthal occupancy.While the rest of Europe was cooling, the area around Gibraltar back then resembled a European Serengeti.", "Leopards, hyenas, lynxes, wolves and bears lived among wild cattle, horses, deer, ibexes, oryxes and rhinos – all surrounded by olive trees and stone pines, with partridges and ducks overhead, tortoises in the underbrush and mussels, limpets and other shellfish in the waters.", "Clive Finlayson, evolutionary biologist at the Gibraltar Museum said \"this natural richness of wildlife and plants in the nearby sandy plains, woodlands, shrublands, wetlands, cliffs and coastline probably helped the Neanderthals to persist.\"", "Evidence at the cave shows the Neanderthals of Gibraltar likely used it as a shelter \"for 100,000 years.\"", "Cro-Magnon man took over Gibraltar around 24,000 BCE." ], [ "Ancient", "The Pillars of Hercules depicted erroneously as an island on the ''Tabula Peutingeriana'', an ancient Roman mapThe Phoenicians are known to have visited the Rock circa 950 BC and named the Rock ''\"Calpe\"''.", "The Carthaginians also visited.", "However, neither group appears to have settled permanently.", "Plato refers to Gibraltar as one of the Pillars of Hercules along with Jebel Musa or Monte Hacho on the other side of the Strait.The Romans visited Gibraltar, but no permanent settlement was established.", "Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Gibraltar was occupied by the Vandals and later the Goths kingdoms.", "The Vandals did not remain for long although the Visigoths remained on the Iberian peninsula from 414 to 711.The Gibraltar area and the rest of the South Iberian Peninsula was part of the Byzantine Empire during the second part of the 6th century, later reverting to the Visigoth Kingdom." ], [ "Muslim rule", "'''711''' 30 April – The Umayyad general Tariq ibn Ziyad, leading a Berber-dominated army, sailed across the Strait from Ceuta.", "He first attempted to land on Algeciras but failed.", "Upon his failure, he landed undetected at the southern point of the Rock from present-day Morocco in his quest for Spain.", "It was here that Gibraltar was named.", "Coming from the Arabian words Gabal-Al-Tariq (the mountain of Tariq).", "Little was built during the first four centuries of Moorish control (see Reconquista).", "'''1160''' – The Almohad Sultan Abd al-Mu'min ordered that a permanent settlement, including a castle, be built.", "It received the name of ''Medinat al-Fath'' (City of the Victory).", "On completion of the works in the town, the Sultan crossed the Strait to inspect the works and stayed in Gibraltar for two months.", "The Tower of Homage of the castle remains standing today (Moorish Castle).", "'''1231''' – After the collapse of the Almohad Empire, Gibraltar was taken by Ibn Hud, Taifa emir of Murcia.", "'''1237''' – Following the death of Ibn Hud, his domains were handed over to Muhammad ibn al-Ahmar, the founder of the Nasrid Emirate of Granada.", "Therefore, Gibraltar changed hands again.", "'''1274''' – The second Nasrid king, Muhammed II al-Faqih, gave Gibraltar over to the Marinids, as payment for their help against the Christian kingdoms.", "'''1309''' – While the King Ferdinand IV of Castile laid siege on Algeciras, Alonso Pérez de Guzmán (known to the Spanish records as ''Guzmán el Bueno'') was sent to capture the town.", "This was the First Siege of Gibraltar.", "The Castilians took the Upper Rock from where the town was bombarded.", "The garrison surrendered after one month.", "Gibraltar then had about 1,500 inhabitants.", "'''1310''' 31 January – Gibraltar was granted its first Charter by the king Ferdinand IV of Castile.", "Being considered a high risk town, the charter included incentives to settle there such as the offering of freedom from justice to anyone who lived in Gibraltar for one year and one day.", ":This fact marked the establishment of the Gibraltar council.", "'''1316''' – Gibraltar was unsuccessfully besieged by the Azafid caid Yahya ibn Abi Talib (Second Siege of Gibraltar), an ally of the Emirate of Granada.", "'''1333''' June – A Marinid army, led by Abd al-Malik, the son of Abul Hassan, the Marinid sultan, recovered Gibraltar, after a five-month siege (Third Siege of Gibraltar).", ":King Alfonso XI of Castile attempted to retake Gibraltar aided by the fleet of the Castilian Admiral Alonso Jofre Tenorio.", "Even a ditch was dug across the isthmus.", "While laying the siege, the king was attacked by a Nasrid army from Granada.", "Therefore, the siege ended in a truce, allowing the Marinids to keep Gibraltar (Fourth Siege of Gibraltar).", "'''1344''' March – After the two-year Siege of Algeciras (1342-1344), Algeciras was taken over by the Castilian forces.", "Therefore, Gibraltar became the main Marinid port in the Iberian Peninsula.", "During the siege, Gibraltar played a key role as the supply base of the besieged.", "'''1349''' – Gibraltar was unsuccessfully besieged by the Castilian forces led by the king Alfonso XI.", "'''1350''' – The siege was resumed by Alfonso XI.", "It was again unsuccessful, mainly due to the arrival of the Black Death, which decimated the besiegers, causing the death of the king (Fifth Siege of Gibraltar).", "'''1369''' – As the Civil War in Castile came to an end, with the murder of king Peter I by the pretender Henry (to be known as Henry II), the Nasrid king of Granada, Muhammad V, former ally of Peter, took over Algeciras after the 3-day Siege of Algeciras (1369).", "Ten years later the city was razed out to the ground, and its harbour made unusable.", "This fact increased again the importance of Gibraltar, yet in Marinid hands, in the strait trade.", "A subsequent truce was signed between Muhammad and Henry, preventing the Christian kings from attempting to recover the city.", "'''1374''' – Following a period of internal instability in the Marinid Sultanate of Fez, Abu al-Abbas Ahmad of Fez, ask for Muhammad V of Granada help.", "Possibly as a condition of the alliance or as reward for Muhammad's successful expedition to Africa, Gibraltar was handed over to the Nasrids of Granada.", "'''1410''' – The garrison in Gibraltar mutinied against the king of Granada and declared for the king of Fez, Fayd.", "Fayd sent his brother Abu Said over to Gibraltar to take possession of the city.", "He also took over other Nasrid ports such as Marbella and Estepona.", "'''1411''' – The son of Yusuf III of Granada, Ahmad, recovered Marbella and Estepona.", "Next, it laid siege to Gibraltar (Sixth Siege of Gibraltar) and recovered the city for the kingdom of Granada.", "'''1436''' – Enrique de Guzmán, second Count of Niebla, with large estates in Southern Andalusia, assaulted Gibraltar.", "However, his attack was repelled and Castilian forces suffer heavy losses (Seventh Siege of Gibraltar)." ], [ "Castilian/Spanish rule", "'''1462''' 20 August – Castilian forces captured Gibraltar (Eighth Siege of Gibraltar).", "(See Reconquista).", "An immediate dispute broke out between the House of Medina Sidonia (the Guzmán family) and the House of Arcos (the Ponce de León family) about the possession of the town.", "Finally, the initiative of Juan Alonso de Guzmán, 1st Duke of Medina Sidonia, succeeded and he took possession of the town as personal property.", "However, the King of Castile, Henry IV, declared Gibraltar to be Crown property and not the personal property of the Guzman family.", "Henry IV restored the charter granted to Gibraltar in 1310 and took two additional measures: the lands previously belonging to Algeciras (destroyed in 1369) were granted to Gibraltar; and the status of collegiate church was solicited from the pope Pius II and granted to the parish church of Saint Mary the Crowned (), now the Cathedral of St. Mary the Crowned, on the site of the old main Moorish Mosque.", "St. Bernard of Clairvaux, whose feast falls on 20 August, became the patron saint of Gibraltar.", "'''1463''' – In a tour through Andalusia, Henry IV was the first Christian monarch to visit Gibraltar.", "'''1467''' July – In the midst of a nobility revolt against the King, the forces of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, after a 16-month siege, took Gibraltar.", "Alfonso of Castile, half-brother of Henry IV and puppet pretender handled by the nobility, granted him the Lordship of Gibraltar (Ninth Siege of Gibraltar).", "'''1469''' 3 June – After the death of Alfonso de Castilla and the 1st Duke of Medina Sidonia, his son and heir Enrique de Guzman, 2nd Duke of Medina Sidonia changed side and in reward, saw the status of Gibraltar, as part of the domains of the Duke, confirmed by the Queen Isabella I of Castile.", "'''1470''' 20 December – A new charter was granted to the town of Gibraltar, now a nobiliary town, based in the Antequera charter.", "'''1478''' 30 September – The Catholic Monarchs granted the title of Marquis of Gibraltar to the Duke of Medina Sidonia.", "'''1479''' 20 January – Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon – the Catholic Monarchs, jointly rule the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, including Gibraltar.", "'''1492''' 31 March – After conquering Granada, the Catholic Monarchs sign the Alhambra Decree ordering the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, to take effect from 31 July 1492.Many passed through Gibraltar on their way into exile in North Africa.", "1492 Summer – After the death of the former Duke, his son and heir, Juan Alfonso Perez de Guzman, 3rd Duke of Medina Sidonia saw his lordship over Gibraltar reluctantly renewed by the Catholic Monarchs.", "'''1497''' – Gibraltar became the main base in the conquest of Melilla by the troops of the Duke of Medina Sidonia.", "'''1501''' 2 December – Acknowledging the importance of the town, the Catholic Monarchs asked the Duke of Medina Sidonia for the return of Gibraltar to the domains of the crown.", "The Duke accepted the Royal request and ceded the town to the monarchs.", "'''1502''' 2 January – Garcilaso de la Vega took possession of the town on behalf of the Queen Isabella I of Castile.arms granted to the city of Gibraltar by a Royal Warrant passed in Toledo on 10 July 1502 by Isabella I of Castile1502 10 July – By a Royal Warrant passed in Toledo by Isabella I of Castile, Gibraltar was granted its coat of arms: \"An escutcheon on which the upper two thirds shall be a white field and on the said field set a red castle, and below the said castle, on the other third of the escutcheon, which must be a red field in which there must be a white line between the castle and the said red field, there shall be a golden key which hangs by a chain from the said castle, as are here figured\".", "The Castle and Key remain the Arms of Gibraltar to this day.", "'''1506''' – Alleging a false donation by the king Philip I of Castile, the Duke of Medina Sidonia attempted to recover Gibraltar by besieging the town.", "The siege was unsuccessful and the Duke was admonished by the Regency and forced to pay a fee to the town.", "The town received the title of \"Most Loyal City\" (Tenth Siege of Gibraltar).", "The Duke died in 1507.", "1516 14 March – Spain becomes a united kingdom under Charles I.", "'''1540''' 8 September – Corsairs from the Barbary Coast (ruled by Barbarossa) landed at Gibraltar in sixteen galleys, looting the town and taking away many captives.", "'''1552''' – After the requests from the inhabitants of the town, Charles I of Spain (the Emperor Charles V) sent the Italian engineer Giovanni Battista Calvi to strengthen the defences of the town.", "A wall was built (nowadays known as Charles V Wall); also a ditch by the wall of the town and a drawbridge at the Landport (''Puerta de Tierra'').The Battle of Gibraltar, by Hendrick Cornelisz Vroom.", "Oil on canvas.", "Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam'''1567''' – Juan Mateos turned his large house in the Upper Town into a hospital.", "It was Gibraltar's first hospital, and remained on the same site serving the people of Gibraltar for almost four and a half centuries.", "'''1606''' – The Moriscos (the descendants of the Muslim inhabitants in Spain) were expelled from Spain by King Philip III.", "Many passed through Gibraltar on their way into exile in North Africa.", "'''1607''' 25 April – During the Eighty Years' War between the United Provinces and the King of Spain, a Dutch fleet surprised and engaged a Spanish fleet anchored at the Bay of Gibraltar (Battle of Gibraltar).", "'''1621''' – Second battle of Gibraltar on which a Spanish squadron crushed the VOC at the strait of Gibraltar – Battle of Gibraltar (1621)'''1649''' – Typhoid epidemic in the town.", "'''1656''' – In a letter to Councillor General Montagu (afterwards Earl of Sandwich), General-at-sea and one of the Protector's personal friends, Cromwell mentioned the necessity of securing a permanent base at the entry of the Mediterranean, preferably Gibraltar (the first suggestion for the occupation of Gibraltar as a naval base had been made at an English Council of War held at sea on 20 October 1625)." ], [ "The War of the Spanish Succession", "'''1700''' 1 November – King Charles II of Spain died leaving no descendants.", "In the autumn he had made a will bequeathing the whole of the Spanish possessions to Prince Philip of Bourbon, a grandson of Louis XIV backed by France.", "The other pretender, an Austrian Habsburg, Archduke Charles, supported by the Holy Roman Empire, England and the Netherlands did not accept Charles II's testament.", "'''1701''' September – England, the Netherlands and Austria signed the Treaty of The Hague.", "By this treaty, they accepted Philippe of Anjou as King of Spain, but allotted Austria the Spanish territories in Italy and the Spanish Netherlands.", "England and the Netherlands, meanwhile, were to retain their commercial rights in Spain.", "Later (in 1703), Portugal, Savoy and some German states joined the alliance.", "'''1702''' May – Formal beginning of the War of the Spanish Succession.", "'''1703''' 12 February – The Archduke Charles was proclaimed king of Castile and Aragon in Vienna.", "He took the name of Charles III===The Gibraltar capture===''(There is a common discrepancy in the chronology between Spanish and British sources, the reason being that England still used the Julian calendar.", "By 1704 the Julian calendar was eleven days behind the Gregorian, and the siege thus began on 21 July according to the Julian.", ")''George Rooke, the commander of the Anglo-Dutch fleet that conquered Gibraltar on behalf of the Archduke Charles'''1704''' 1 August(NS): (21 July(OS)) – During the War of the Spanish Succession, and when returning from a failed expedition to Barcelona, an Anglo-Dutch fleet, under the command of Sir George Rooke, chief commander of the Alliance Navy, began a new siege (the eleventh siege of the town).", "They demanded its unconditional surrender and an oath of loyalty to the Habsburg pretender to the Spanish throne, the Archduke Charles.", "The Governor of Gibraltar, Diego de Salinas, refused the ultimatum.", "A brigade of Dutch Royal Marines and Royal Marines, 1,800 strong, under the command of Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt, chief commander of the Alliance Army in Spain, began to besiege Gibraltar, in the name of the Archduke Charles.", "A small group of Spaniards, mainly Catalans, were integrated in the troops of the Prince of Hesse.", "1704 night of 3–4 August – Heavy shelling targeted the castle and the town.", "1704 4 August – The Governor Diego de Salinas surrendered the town to Prince George of Hesse, who took it in the name of Archduke, as Charles III, king of Castile and Aragon.", "This was the end of the Eleventh Siege of Gibraltar (a map on the situation of attacking forces can be seen in): The exact beginning of the English/British control of Gibraltar is hard to determine.", "From the eighteenth century, Spanish sources reported that immediately after the takeover of the city, Sir George Rooke, the British admiral, on his own initiative caused the British flag to be hoisted, and took possession of the Rock in name of Anne, Queen of Great Britain, whose government ratified the occupation.", "On the other hand, even the British or the Gibraltarians sometimes date the beginning of British sovereignty in 1704 (for instance, in its speech at the United Nations in 1994, the Gibraltar Chief Minister at the time, Joe Bossano, stated that ''Gibraltar has been a British colony ever since it was taken by Britain in 1704'').", "Also, some British sources have accounted the flag story (''He Rooke had the Spanish flag hauled down and the English flag hoisted in its stead''; ''Rooke's men quickly raised the British flag ... and Rooke claimed the Rock in the name of Queen Anne''; or ''Sir George Rooke, the British admiral, on his own responsibility caused the British flag to be hoisted, and took possession in name of Queen Anne, whose government ratified the occupation'').Gibraltar antique engraving by Gabriel Bodenehr, c.1704.From his rare \"Curioses Staats- und Kriegs-Theatrum\".", ": However, it is claimed by present-day historians, both Spanish and British, that this version is apocryphal since no contemporary source accounts it.", "Isidro Sepúlveda, William Jackson and George Hills explicitly refute it (Sepúlveda points out that if such a fact had actually happened, it would have caused a big crisis in the Alliance supporting the Archduke Charles; George Hills explains that the story was first accounted by the Marquis of San Felipe, who wrote his book \"Comentarios de la guerra de España e historia de su rey Phelipe V el animoso\" in 1725, more than twenty years after the fact; the marquis was not an eye-witness and cannot be considered as a reliable source for the events that took place in Gibraltar in 1704.As Hills concludes: \"''The flag myth ... may perhaps be allowed now to disappear from Anglo-Spanish polemics.", "On the one side it has been used to support a claim to the Rock 'by right of conquest'; on the other to ... pour on Britain obloquy for perfidy''\").", ":What does seem nowadays proved is that the British troops who had landed on the South Mole area raised their flag to signal their presence to the ships, and avoid being fired upon by their own side.", ":However, whatever the exact events of the time, Gibraltar ceased being under the rule of Philip V of Spain in 1704.A statue to Sir George Rooke was erected in 2004 as part of the tercentenary celebrations.", "'''1704''' 4–7 August.", "Orders were issued to respect civilians as the Grand Alliance hoped to win over the population to their cause.", "Officers tried to maintain control but (as had happened two years previously in the raid on Cádiz) discipline broke down and the men ran amok.", "There were numerous incidents of rape, all Catholic churches but one (the Parish Church of St. Mary the Crowned, now the Cathedral) were desecrated or converted into military storehouses, and religious symbols such as the statue of Our Lady of Europe were damaged and destroyed.", "Angry Spanish inhabitants took violent reprisals against the occupiers.", "English and Dutch soldiers and sailors were attacked and killed, and their bodies were thrown into wells and cesspits.", "After order was restored, despite the surrender agreement promising property and religious rights, most of the population left with the garrison on 7 August citing loyalty to Philip.", "Several factors influenced the decision including the expectation of a counter attack and the violence during the capture, which ultimately proved disastrous for the Habsburg cause.", "The subsequent siege failed to dislodge the Habsburg forces and the refugees settled around Algeciras and the hermitage of San Roque.", "The Alliance's conduct aroused anger in Spain against the 'heretics', and once again the chance of winning over Andalusians to the Imperial cause was lost.", "Prince George was the first to complain, which was resented by Byng who had led the fighting and who in turn blamed the Prince and his few Spanish or Catalan supporters.", "Rooke complained in a letter home that the Spaniards were so exasperated against the Alliance that ‘they use the prisoners they take as barbarously as the Moors’.", "Spain attempted to retake Gibraltar in 1727 and most notably in 1779, when it entered the American Revolutionary War on the American side as an ally of France.", "1704 7 August.", "A dejected procession, numbering some 4,000 according to most of the sources, such as Hills or Jackson filed out of the Land Port with Queen Isabella's banner at their head, and led by the Spanish Governor, Diego de Salinas, the Spanish garrison, with their three brass cannon, the religious orders, the city council and all those inhabitants who did not wish to take the oath of allegiance to Charles III as asked by the terms of surrender.", "They took with them the symbols and objects of Spanish Gibraltar's history: the council and ecclesiastical records, including the historical documents signed by the Spanish Catholic Monarchs in 1502, granting Gibraltar's coat of arms, and the statue of the Saint Mary the Crowned.", "Most of them took refuge in the proximity of the nearby Chapel of San Roque, possibly hoping for a rapid reconquest of Gibraltar, which never materialised.", "There, a new settlement was formed, being granted a council two years later (1706), with the name of San Roque, and being considered by the Spanish Crown as the heir to the lost town of Gibraltar (historical objects and records predating 1704 were subsequently taken to San Roque where they remain to this day.)", "King Philip V of Spain dubbed San Roque as ''My city of Gibraltar resident in its Campo''.", "Others settled down in what today is Los Barrios or even further away, in the ruins of the abandoned city of Algeciras.", "Only about seventy people remained in the town, most of them religious, people without family or belonging to the Genoese trader colony (see list in).", "1704 24 August – The Alliance fleet, under the command of Rooke, set sail from Gibraltar and intercepted a joint Spanish-French fleet that attempted to recover Gibraltar by the coast of Málaga (Battle of Vélez-Málaga).", "The result was uncertain, with heavy losses on both sides, but the Spanish-French fleet was stopped and prevented from arriving at Gibraltar.===The first Spanish siege (Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar)==='''1704''' 5 September – Troops of France and Spain under the marquis of Villadarias, General Captain of Andalusia, started to besiege Gibraltar to try to recover it (this one would be the Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar).", "In the town, the Marine brigade, still under the command of the British admiral Sir John Leake, and the governor, Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt (who had commanded the land forces in August), and reinforced shortly before by a further 400 Royal Marines, held the fortress against repeated attacks.", "1704 11 November – A notable incident during the siege: 500 Spanish volunteer grenadiers tried to surprise the garrison after being led up a concealed path to the top of The Rock by a Spanish goatherd from Gibraltar, Simón Susarte.", "Captain Fisher of the Marines with 17 of his men successfully defended the Round Tower against their assault.", "A contemporary report of this noted defence says, \"Encouraged by the Prince of Hesse, the garrison did more than could humanly be expected, and the English Marines gained an immortal glory\".", "'''1705''' January – Philip V replaced Villadarias with the Marshal of France de Tessé.", "1705 7 February – The last assault before the arrival of de Tessé was executed.", "The Gibraltar wall was damaged, but French troops refused to go on until the arrival of de Tessé (who arrived the day after).", "The assault becomes unsuccessful.", "1705 31 March – The Count de Tessé gave up the siege and retired.===During the rest of the war===Although nominally in the hands of the Archduke Charles, and garrisoned with both English and Dutch regiments, Britain began to monopolize the rule of the town.", "Even if the formal transfer of sovereignty would not take place until the signature of the Treaty of Utrecht, the British Governor and garrison become the ''de facto'' rulers of the town.", "'''1705''' 2 August – The Archduke Charles stopped over in Gibraltar on his way to the territories of the Crown of Aragon.", "The Prince of Hesse joined him, thus leaving the town (he would die one month later in the siege of Barcelona).", "The English Major General John Shrimpton was left as governor (appointed by the Archduke Charles on the recommendation of Queen Anne).", "'''1706''' 17 February – Queen Anne though not yet the legal ruler of the territory, declared Gibraltar a free port (upon request of the Sultan of Morocco, who wanted Gibraltar being given this status in return for supplying the town)'''1707''' 24 December – The first British Governor directly appointed by Queen Anne, Roger Elliott, took up residence in the Convent of the Franciscan friars.", "'''1711''' – The British government, then in the hands of the Tories, covertly ordered the British Gibraltar governor, Thomas Stanwix, to expel any foreign (not British) troops (to foster Great Britain's sole right to Gibraltar in the negotiations running up between Britain and France).", "Although he answered positively, he allowed a Dutch regiment to stay.", "It remained there until March 1713." ], [ "British rule", "===Treaty of Utrecht===Allegory of the Peace of 171411 April 1713 – The territory was subsequently ceded to the Crown of Great Britain in perpetuity by Spain under article X of the Treaties of Utrecht.", "Despite some military attempts by the Spanish to retake it in the 18th century, most notably in the Great Siege of 1779–1783, the Rock has remained under British control ever since.", ":In that treaty, Spain ceded Great Britain \"''the full and entire propriety of the town and castle of Gibraltar, together with the port, fortifications, and forts thereunto belonging ... for ever, without any exception or impediment whatsoever.", "''\":The Treaty stipulated that no overland trade between Gibraltar and Spain was to take place, except for emergency provisions in the case that Gibraltar is unable to be supplied by sea.", "Another condition of the cession was that \"''no leave shall be given under any pretence whatsoever, either to Jews or Moors, to reside or have their dwellings in the said town of Gibraltar.''\"", "This was not respected for long and Gibraltar has had for many years an established Jewish community, along with Muslims from North Africa.", ":Finally, under the Treaty, should the British crown wish to dispose of Gibraltar, that of Spain should be offered the territory first.===Until the Peninsular Wars===Topographic map of Gibraltar and the Bay of Gibraltar, circa 1750Between 1713 and 1728, there were seven occasions when British ministers was prepared to bargain Gibraltar away as part of his foreign policy.", "However, the Parliament frustrated always such attempts, echoing the public opinion in Britain.", "'''1721''' March – Philip V of Spain requested the restitution of Gibraltar to proceed to the renewal of the trade licences of Great Britain with the Spanish possessions in America.", "1721 1 June – George I sent a letter to Philip V promising \"''to make use of the first favourable Opportunity to regulate this Article (the Demand touching the Restitution of Gibraltar), with the Consent of my Parliament''\".", "However, the British Parliament never endorsed such promise.", "'''1727''' February–June – Second of the sieges by Spain tried to recapture Gibraltar ('''Thirteenth Siege of Gibraltar''').", "Depending on the sources, Spanish troops were between 12,000 and 25,000.British defenders were 1,500 at the beginning of the siege, increasing up to about 5,000.After a five-month siege with several unsuccessful and costly attempts, Spanish troops gave up and retired.", "'''1729''' – At the end of the Anglo-Spanish War of 1727–1729, the Treaty of Seville confirming all previous treaties (including the Treaty of Utrecht) allowed Great Britain to keep Menorca and Gibraltar.", "'''1730''' – A Belgian Engineer, the Marquis of Verboom, Chief Engineer of the Spanish Royal Engineer Corps, who had taken part in the 1727 siege, arrived in San Roque commissioned by the Spanish government to design a line of fortifications across the isthmus.", "Fort San Felipe and Fort Santa Barbara were built.", "The fortifications, known to the British as the Spanish Lines, and to Spain as ''La Línea de Contravalación'' were the origin of modern-day town of La Línea de la Concepción.", " '''1749–1754''' – Lieutenant General Humphrey Bland is the Governor of Gibraltar.", "He compiles the twelve \"Articles\" or regulations that ruled the administration of Gibraltar for over sixty years.", "First article, dealing with property, establishes that only Protestants may own property.", "In 1754 the population settled at around 6,000 people, with the garrison and their dependants constituting about three-quarters of it.", "The civilian population comprised mainly Genoese and Jews.", "* '''1776''' 23 February – One of the heaviest storms ever recorded in Gibraltar.", "The lower part of the town was flooded.", "Linewall was breached along 100 m.'''1779''' June – In the midst of the American Revolutionary War, Spain declared war against Great Britain (as France had done the year before)The Defeat of the Floating Batteries at Gibraltar'', 13 September 1782.By John Singleton Copley (1738–1815)1779 July – Start of the '''Great Siege of Gibraltar''' (fourteenth and most recent military siege).", "This was an action by French and Spanish forces to wrest control of Gibraltar from the established British Garrison.", "The garrison, led by George Augustus Eliott, later 1st Baron Heathfield of Gibraltar, survived all attacks and a blockade of supplies.", "'''1782''' 13 September – Start of an assault involving 100,000 men, 48 ships and 450 cannon.", "The British garrison survived.", "'''1783''' February.", "By now the siege was over, and George Augustus Eliott was awarded the Knight of the Bath and was created 1st Baron Heathfield of Gibraltar.", "The Treaties of Versailles which ceded Menorca and Florida to Spain, reaffirmed previous treaties in the rest of issues, thus not affecting to Gibraltar.", ":In 1782, work on the Great Siege Tunnels started.", "The tunnels became a great and complex system of underground fortifications which nowadays criss-crosses the inside of the Rock.", "Once the Siege was over, the fortifications were rebuilt and, in the following century, the walls were lined with Portland limestone.", "Such stone gave the walls their present white appearance.", ":The successful resistance in the Great Siege is attributed to several factors: the improvement in fortifications by Colonel (later General Sir) William Green in 1769; the British naval supremacy, which translated into support of the Navy; the competent command by General George Augustus Elliot; and an appropriately sized garrison.", "As in the early years of the British period, during the Siege the British Government considered to exchange Gibraltar for some Spanish possession.", "However, by the end of the Siege ''the fortress and its heroic response to the siege was now acquiring a sort of cult status amongst the population in Britain and no exchange however attractive, was likely to be acceptable''.", "* '''1800''' – Malta is taken over by Great Britain.", "The possession of Malta (confirmed by the Treaty of Paris in 1814, increased the attractiveness of Gibraltar since controlling both Gibraltar and Malta meant the effective mastery of the Mediterranean Sea by the Royal Navy.", "* '''1802''' – Several mutinies among some regiments garrisoned in Gibraltar.", "* 1802 – The first merchant token to bear the name Gibraltar (albeit spelt Gibralter) was issued by Robert Keeling in order to alleviate a shortage of copper.", "* '''1803''' June – Admiral Nelson arrived in Gibraltar as Commander-in-Chief Mediterranean.", "* '''1804''' – Great epidemic of \"Malignant Fever\" broke out.", "Although traditionally labelled as \"Yellow Fever\" now it is thought to have been typhus.", "Nearly 5,000 people died.", "* '''1805''' January – The great epidemic ended.", "Over a third of the civilian population (5,946 people) died.", "* 1805 21 October – Battle of Trafalgar.", "* 1805 28 October – was towed into Gibraltar bringing Nelson's body aboard.", "The Trafalgar Cemetery still exists today in Gibraltar.", "'''1806''' – Gibraltar was made a Catholic Apostolic Vicariate (until then Gibraltar belonged to the See of Cadiz).", "Since 1840 the vicar has always been the Bishop of Gibraltar.", "'''1810''' – Britain and Spain became allies against Napoleon.", "1810 February – The Governor of Gibraltar removed the Spanish forts of San Felipe and Santa Barbara, located on the northern boundary of the neutral ground.", "Fearing that the forts might fall into French hands, Lieutenant General Sir Colin Campbell instructed Royal Engineers to blow the forts up.", "Such a task was carried out on 14 February together with the demolition of the rest of the fortifications of the Spanish Lines.", ":(According to George Hills, there are no primary sources that could explain whether such a demolition was requested or authorized by any Spanish or British authority.", "According to him, over time, three different theories have emerged: (a) Campbell ordered the demolition on his own authority (b) under instructions from the British Government (c) upon request of Spanish General Castaños, who was at the time in Cádiz.", "Spanish authors from 1840 have usually favoured theory (b) while British ones have supported (c).", "As long as there is no contemporary source or dispatch on the topic, Hills does not personally discard (a) considering it the most likely possibility).", " During the Peninsular War, contingents from the Gibraltar Garrison were sent to aid Spanish resistance to the French at Cádiz and Tarifa.", "As William Jackson describes, ''Gradually Gibraltar changed from being the objective of the San Roque garrison into the supply base and refuge in time of trouble for the Spanish forces operating in Southern Andalusia''.===Until the Second World War===Characters of Gibraltar (R.P.", "Napper, 1863; private collection)'''1814''' – Outbreak of malignant fever.", "'''1815''' – The civilian population of Gibraltar was about 10,000 people (two and a half times the size of the garrison).", "Genoese constituted about one-third of the civilian population (a large number of immigrants had arrived from Genoa at the beginning of the century).", "The rest were mainly Spaniards and Portuguese fled from the war, and Jews from Morocco.", "'''1817''' – The first civil judge was established.", "'''1830''' – The British government changes the status of Gibraltar from ''The town and garrison of Gibraltar'' to the ''Crown Colony of Gibraltar''.", "Thus, the responsibility for its administration is transferred from the War Office to the new Colonial Office.", ":Legal institutions and the Gibraltar Police Force were established.", "'''1832''' – The Church of the Holy Trinity, built for the needs of Anglican worshippers among Gibraltar's civil population, is completed.", "(Ten years later it will become the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity).", "'''1842''' 21 August – The Church of England Diocese of Gibraltar was founded by Letters Patent and took over the pastoral care of the chaplaincies and congregations from Portugal to the Caspian Sea.", "George Tomlinson is enthroned as the first Bishop of Gibraltar.", "The Church of the Holy Trinity, Gibraltar becomes Cathedral for the Diocese.", "1842 – Official Coins of the Realm were struck for Gibraltar by the Royal Mint.", "Coins were issued in ½, 1 and 2 Quart denominations.", "1842 Half Quart coin issue by the Royal Mint'''1869''' – The Suez Canal was opened.", "It heavily increased the strategic value of the Rock in the route from the United Kingdom to India.", "Gibraltar economy, mainly based on commercial shipping and import-export trade, takes a new income source with the opening of a coaling station for the new steam ships.", "'''1891''' 17 March – America-bound steamer ''Utopia'' slammed in heavy weather into the iron-plated British battleship HMS ''Anson'' and sank in the Bay of Gibraltar; 576 people died.", "'''1894''' – The construction of the dockyards started.", "'''1908''' 5 August – The British Ambassador in Madrid informed the Spanish Minister of State 'as an act of courtesy', of the British Government's intention to build a fence along the line of British sentries on the isthmus ''to prevent smuggling and reduce sentry duty''.", "According to the British government, the fence was erected 1 metre inside British territory.", "Spain currently does not recognize the fence as the valid border, since it claims the fence was built on Spanish soil.", "Even though Spain, the United Kingdom and Gibraltar are all part of the European Union, the border fence is still relevant today since Gibraltar is outside the customs union.", "The border crossing is open 24-hours a day as required by EU law.", "'''1921''' – Gibraltar was granted a City Council status in recognition for its contribution to the British war efforts in World War I.", "The council had a small minority of elected persons.", "First elections held in Gibraltar.", "'''1936'''–'''1939''' – After the United Kingdom recognised the Franco's regime in 1938, Gibraltar had two Spanish Consulates, a Republican one and a Nationalistic one.", "Several incidents took place during the Spanish Civil War which affected Gibraltar.", "In May 1937, HMS ''Arethusa'' had to tow HMS ''Hunter'' into port after ''Hunter'' hit a mine off Almeria that killed and wounded several British sailors.", "In June 1937, the German pocket battleship ''Deutschland'' arrived in Gibraltar with dead and wounded after Republican planes bombed it in Ibiza in retaliation for the Condor Legion's bombing of Guernica.", "In August 1938, the Republican destroyer ''Jose Luis Diez'' took refuge in Gibraltar after taking casualties from the guns of the National cruiser ''Canarias''.", "The one incident that resulted in the death of Gibraltarians occurred on 31 January 1938 when the insurgent submarine ''General Sanjurjo'' sank the SS ''Endymion'', a small Gibraltar-registered freighter taking a cargo of coal to Cartagena, which was chartered by the Republican government.", "Eleven members of her crew were killed.===Second World War and after===The closed Spanish gate at the border between Gibraltar and Spain, 1977The history of Gibraltar from the Second World War is characterized by two main elements: the increasing autonomy and self-government achieved by Gibraltarians and the re-emergence of the Spanish claim, especially during the years of the Francoist dictatorship.During World War II (1939–1945) the Rock was again turned into a fortress and the civilian residents of Gibraltar were evacuated.", "Initially, in May 1940, 16,700 people went to French Morocco.", "However, after the French-German Armistice and the subsequent destruction of the French fleet at Mers-el-Kebir, Algeria by the British Navy in July 1940, the French-Moroccan authorities asked all Gibraltarian evacuees to be removed.", "12,000 went to Britain, while about 3,000 went to Madeira or Jamaica, with the rest moving to Spain or Tanger.", "Control of Gibraltar gave the Allied Powers control of the entry to the Mediterranean Sea (the other side of the Strait being Spanish territory, and thus non-belligerent).", "The Rock was a key part of the Allied supply lines to Malta and North Africa and base of the British Navy Force H, and prior to the war the racecourse on the isthmus was converted into an airbase and a concrete runway constructed (1938).", "The repatriation of the civilians started in 1944 and proceeded until 1951, causing considerable suffering and frustration.", "However, most of the population had returned by 1946.", "'''1940''' 4 July – French bombers, based in French Morocco, carried out a retaliatory air raid over Gibraltar as a reprisal for the destruction of the French fleet at Mers-el-Kebir, Algeria, by the Force H (about 1,300 French sailors were killed and about 350 were wounded in the action against the French fleet).", "'''1941''' – Germany planned to occupy Gibraltar (and presumably hand it over to Spain) in \"Operation Felix\" which was due to start on 10 January 1941.It was cancelled because the Spanish government were reluctant to let the Wehrmacht enter Spain and then attack against the Rock, its civilians or the British Army from Spanish soil, because Franco feared that it may have been impossible to remove the Wehrmacht afterwards.", "In any case, Hitler was too busy elsewhere in Europe to give this much priority.", "'''1940–1943''' – Gibraltar harbour was attacked many times by Italian commando frogmen operating from Algeciras.", "Underwater warfare and countermeasures were developed by Lionel Crabb.", "'''1942''' September – A small group of Gibraltarians, who remained in the town serving in the British Army, joined a mechanic official, Albert Risso, to create 'The Gibraltarians Association', the starting point of what became the Association for the Advancement of Civil Rights (officially established in December that year), the first political party in Gibraltar.", "Joshua Hassan (a young lawyer then, later Sir and Chief Minister) was among the leading members of the association.", "The AACR was the dominant party in Gibraltar politics for the last third of the 20th century.", "1942 8 November – Operation Torch launched with support from Gibraltar.", "'''1944''' April – The situation in Gibraltar is considered safe and the first of the evacuees return to Gibraltar.", "'''1946''' – The United Kingdom inscribed Gibraltar in the list of non-self-governing territories kept by the UN Special Committee on Decolonization.", "'''1950''' – Gibraltar's first Legislative Council was opened.", "'''1951''' – The return process of the evacuees finishes.", "It was delayed due to an initial shortage of shipping and then of housing.", "The evacuation was a key element in the creation of the national conscience of Gibraltarians.", "The experience of evacuation ''had bonded the Gibraltarian together as a nation''.", "1951 27 April – The RFA Bedenham explodes while docked in Gibraltar, killing 13, damaging many buildings in the town and delaying the housing program essential for repatriation.", "'''1954''' – This was the 250th anniversary of its capture.", "Queen Elizabeth II visited Gibraltar, which angered General Franco, who renewed its claim to sovereignty, which had not been actively pursued for over 150 years.", "This led to the closure of the Spanish consulate and to the imposition of restrictions on freedom of movement between Gibraltar and Spain.", "By the 1960s, motor vehicles were being restricted or banned from crossing the border, while only Spanish nationals employed on the Rock being allowed to enter Gibraltar.", "'''1955''' – At the United Nations, Spain, which had just been admitted to membership, initiated a claim to the territory, arguing that the principle of territorial integrity, not self-determination, applied in the case of the decolonization of Gibraltar, and that the United Kingdom should cede sovereignty of the Rock to Spain.", "Madrid gained diplomatic support from countries in Latin America, with the UN General Assembly passing resolutions (2231 (XXI), \"Question of Gibraltar\" and 2353 (XXII), \"Question of Gibraltar\").", "1965 April – The British Government published a White Paper dealing with the question of Gibraltar and the Treaty of Utrecht.", "'''1966''' – In response, the Spanish Foreign Office Minister Fernando Castiella, published and presented to the Spanish Courts the \"Spanish Red Book\" (named so because of its cover; its reference is \"Negociaciones sobre Gibraltar.", "Documentos presentados a las Cortes Españolas por el Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores\", Madrid, 1967)'''1967''' – The first sovereignty referendum was held on 10 September, in which Gibraltar's voters were asked whether they wished to either pass under Spanish sovereignty, or remain under British sovereignty, with institutions of self-government.", "Over 99% voted in favour of remaining British.", "'''1968''' A group of six Gibraltarian lawyers and businessmen, calling themselves the ''palomos'' or 'doves', advocated a political settlement with Spain in a letter published in the ''Gibraltar Chronicle'', and met with Spanish Foreign Office officials (a meeting was even held with the Spanish Foreign Office Minister) to try and bring this about.", "This provoked widespread public hostility in Gibraltar (with attacks on their homes and properties and civil unrest).", "Things quickly calmed down, although today the term retains a negative meaning in Gibraltar politics.", "'''1969''' 30 May – A new constitution for Gibraltar was introduced by the United Kingdom Parliament, under the initiative of the British Government (Gibraltar Constitution Order 1969).", "Under it, Gibraltar attained full internal self-government, with an elected House of Assembly.", "The City Council and the Legislative Council disappeared.", "The preamble to the Constitution stated that:::''\"Her Majesty's Government will never enter into arrangements under which the people of Gibraltar would pass under the sovereignty of another state against their freely and democratically expressed wishes.", "\"''1969 8 June – In response, Spain closed the border with Gibraltar, and severed all communication links.", "For about 13 years, the land border was closed from the Spanish side, to try to isolate the territory.", "The closure affected both sides of the border.", "Gibraltarians with families in Spain had to go by ferry to Tangier, Morocco, and from there to the Spanish port of Algeciras, while many Spanish workers (by then about 4,800; sixteen years before, about 12,500 Spanish workmen entered Gibraltar every day) lost their jobs in Gibraltar.", "1969 – Major Robert (later Sir Robert) Peliza of the Integration with Britain Party (IWBP) was elected Chief Minister in alliance with the independent group led by Peter Isola.", "'''1971''' – The United Kingdom Government led by Heath considered the possibility of exchanging sovereignty for a 999-year lease on Gibraltar, as it was felt it had ceased to be of any military or economic value.", "The proposals remained secret until 2002.", "'''1972''' – Joshua Hassan of the Association for the Advancement of Civil Rights (AACR) was returned to power.", "AACR rebrands as GLP/AACR (Gibraltar Labour Party / AACR) in an attempt to develop a more clearly working class image.", "1972 – Gibraltar TGWU hold a 6-day General Strike, pressing the Ministry of Defence, Gibraltar's largest employer, for better pay and conditions for workers.", "The strike ends successfully with a £1.85 increase in basic pay rates, and is seen as a catalyst for increased working class solidarity in the pursuit of social, economic and political change.", "TGWU claims a rise of overall union density within the labour market to around 55% following the strike.", "'''1973''' – Gibraltar joined the European Economic Community alongside the United Kingdom.", "'''1975''' – The British Foreign Office Minister Roy Hattersley ruled out integration with the UK, and stated that any constitutional change would have to involve a 'Spanish dimension'.", "This position was reaffirmed the following year when the British government rejected the House of Assembly's proposals for constitutional reform (Hattersley Memorandum).", "The IWBP broke up and was succeeded by the Democratic Party of British Gibraltar (DPBG), led first by Maurice Xiberras, formerly of the IWBP, and subsequently by Peter Isola.", " 1975 – Spanish dictator General Francisco Franco died, but nothing changed in relation to Gibraltar.", "* '''1980''' 10 April – The British and Spanish ministers of Foreign Affairs, Lord Carrington and Marcelino Oreja, signs the Lisbon Agreement regarding 'The Gibraltar Problem' stating that the communications between Gibraltar and Spain would be re-established, and restating both Governments positions.", "The measures agreed were not implemented.", "* 1980 July – The Anglican Diocese of Gibraltar is amalgamated with the Jurisdiction of North and Central Europe to become the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe.", "The Cathedral of the Holy Trinity, Gibraltar remains Anglican Cathedral for the Diocese.", "* '''1981''' – The British Nationality Act 1981 effectively made Gibraltar a ''Dependent Territory'' and removed the right of entry into the UK of British Dependent Territory Citizens.", "After a short campaign Gibraltarians were offered full British citizenship (History of nationality in Gibraltar).", "The act was ratified in 1983.Gibraltarians entering Spain after the land border between Spain and Gibraltar was opened on 15 December 1982.", "* '''1982''' 15 December – The re-opening of the border was initially delayed due to the war between the United Kingdom and Argentina over the Falkland Islands.", "Upon the change in the Spanish government, with the Socialist Party in power, the border was partially re-opened (only pedestrians, resident in Gibraltar or Spanish nationals were allowed to cross the border by Spain; only one crossing each way per day was allowed).", "Restrictions on the land border continued until 2006, although there are still occasionally issues related to the crossing.", "'''1984''' – Spain applied to join the European Community, succeeding in 1986.Under the Brussels Agreement (27 November 1984) signed between the governments of the United Kingdom and Spain, the former agreed to enter into discussions with Spain over Gibraltar, including by first time the \"issues\" of sovereignty.", "The border was fully reopened.", "'''1987''' 2 December – A proposal for joint control of Gibraltar Airport with Spain met with widespread local opposition which was expressed in a protest march to The Convent.", "Chief Minister Sir Joshua Hassan resigned at the end of the year and was succeeded by Adolfo Canepa.", "'''1988''' – Gibraltar Socialist Labour Party (GSLP) leader Joe Bossano was elected as Chief Minister, and firmly ruled out any discussions with Spain over sovereignty and shared use of the airport.", "1988 7 March – The Special Air Service of the British Army shot dead three unarmed members of the Provisional IRA walking towards the frontier, claiming they were making \"suspicious movements\" (Operation Flavius).", "A subsequent search led to the discovery of a car containing a large amount of Semtex explosive in Spain, which they had planned to use to bomb the Changing of the Guard ceremony a few days later .", "'''1991''' – The British Army effectively withdrew from Gibraltar, leaving only the locally recruited Royal Gibraltar Regiment, although the Royal Air Force and Royal Navy remain.", "Spain made various proposals involving the sovereignty of Gibraltar, which were rejected by all parties in the Gibraltar House of Assembly.", "1991 – The Spanish Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) government of Felipe González proposed joint sovereignty over Gibraltar with the United Kingdom.", "A similar proposal was advocated by Peter Cumming, formerly of the Gibraltar Social-Democrats (GSD), in which the Rock would become a self-governing condominium (or \"Royal City\"), with the British and Spanish monarchs as joint heads of state.", "'''1995''' – GSLP government lost popular support as a result of tobacco smuggling activity.", "To prevent this activity the fast launches were made illegal and confiscated.", "This resulted in a riot in July 1995.", "'''1996''' – In a general election, Joe Bossano was replaced by Peter Caruana of the GSD, who while favouring dialogue with Spain, also ruled out any deals on sovereignty.", "'''1997''' – The Partido Popular Spanish Foreign Minister, Abel Matutes made proposals under which Gibraltar would be under joint sovereignty for fifty years, before being fully incorporated into Spain, as an autonomous region, similar to Catalonia or the Basque Country, but these were rejected by the British Government.", "'''2000''' — An agreement was reached between the UK and Spain over recognition of 'competent authorities' in Gibraltar.", "Spain had a policy of non-recognition of the Government of Gibraltar as a 'competent authority', therefore refusing to recognise Gibraltar's courts, police and government departments, driving licences, and identity cards.", "Under the agreement, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in London would act as a 'post box', through which Gibraltar's police and other government departments could communicate with their counterparts in Spain.", "In addition, identity documents issued by the Government of Gibraltar now featured the words 'United Kingdom'.", "2000 May – 2001 May – Following an incident at sea the nuclear submarine HMS Tireless (S88) was repaired in Gibraltar causing diplomatic tension with Spain.", "Before consenting to the repair, the Government of Gibraltar insisted on a full safety assessment.===Twenty-first century==='''2001''' — The UK Government announced plans to reach a final agreement with Spain over the future of Gibraltar, which would involve shared sovereignty; however agreement was not reached due to the opposition of the Gibraltarians.", "'''2002''' — On 12 July the Foreign Secretary, Jack Straw, in a formal statement in the House of Commons, said that after twelve months of negotiation the British Government and Spain are in broad agreement on many of the principles that should underpin a lasting settlement of Spain's sovereignty claim, which included the principle that Britain and Spain should share sovereignty over Gibraltar.", "Political commentators saw this as an attempt by Britain to get Spain to help counterbalance France and Germany's domination of the European Union.", "Straw visited Gibraltar to explain his ideas and was left in no doubt they had no support.", "2002 – In November the Government of Gibraltar called Gibraltar's second sovereignty referendum on the proposal, it achieved a turnout of 88% of which 98.97% of the electorate did not support the position taken by Mr Straw.", ":The actual voting was as follows: 18,176 voted representing 87.9% of the electorate.", "There were 89 papers spoilt of which 72 were blank 18,087 of which 187 Voted YES, and 17,900 voted NO.", ":The Referendum was supervised by a team of international observers headed by the Labour MP Gerald Kaufman, who certified that it had been held fairly, freely and democratically.", "2002 – The British Overseas Territories Act 2002 made provision for the renaming of British Dependent Territories as British Overseas Territories, which changed the status of Gibraltar to an Overseas Territory.", "This act granted full British citizenship to British Overseas Territories, which was already available to Gibraltarians since 1983.Tercentenary celebrations in Gibraltar, flags fly everywhere.", "'''2004''' August – Gibraltar celebrated 300 years of British rule.", "Spanish officials labelled this as the celebration of 300 years of British occupation.", ":Despite this, Gibraltar celebrated its tercentenary, with a number of events on 4 August, including the population encircling the rock holding hands, and granting the Freedom of the City to the Royal Navy.", "'''2004''' 18 November – A joint commission (''Comisión mixta de Cooperación y Colaboración'') was established between the ''Mancomunidad de Municipios de la Comarca del Campo de Gibraltar'' (the Council Association of the Campo de Gibraltar, the historic Spanish county that surrounds Gibraltar) and the Government of Gibraltar.", "2004 28 October – The governments of the United Kingdom and Spain agreed to allow the Government of Gibraltar equal representation in a new open agenda discussion forum (so called Tripartite Talks).", "'''2005''' July – First Tripartite Talks took place in Faro, Portugal.", "'''2006''' August – The following was announced:2006 18 September Córdoba agreement – The British and Spanish foreign ministers and the Chief Minister of Gibraltar met at the Palacio de Viana, Córdoba and announced the following::1.Spain agrees to recognise Gibraltar's international dialling code (350) and allow mobile roaming.", ":2.Spanish restrictions on civil flights at the airport will be removed.", "A new terminal building will also be constructed, allowing a direct passage to/from the north side of the fence/frontier (in order to overcome problems of terminology relating to references to the words “frontier” or “fence”, the phrase “fence/frontier” is used in the documents).", ":3.There will be normality of traffic flow at the fence/frontier.", ":4.Britain agrees to pay uprated pensions to those Spanish citizens who lost their livelihoods when the border was unilaterally closed by Francisco Franco in 1969.:5.A branch of the Instituto Cervantes will be opened in Gibraltar.", ":This agreement is seen as a major milestone in Gibraltar's history.", "2006 November – The new constitution was drafted and later approved by the people of Gibraltar in a referendum.", "It was described as non-colonial in nature by Britain and Gibraltar.", "However, UK Europe Minister Jim Murphy, told the Foreign Affairs Committee of the House of Commons said that new Constitution but he stated that \"he has never described it as an end to the colonial relationship.\"", "Although others have.", "2006 16 December – The first passenger carrying Iberia aircraft landed in Gibraltar flying directly from Madrid, and a daily scheduled service started.", "The service was later reduced in frequency and terminated in September 2008.", "'''2007''' 10 February — Spain lifted restrictions on Gibraltar's ability to expand and modernise its telecommunications infrastructure.", "These included a refusal to recognise International Direct Dialling (IDD) code which restricted the expansion of Gibraltar's telephone numbering plan, and the prevention of roaming arrangements for Gibraltar's GSM mobile phones in Spain.", "2007 1 May GB Airways began scheduled flights between Madrid and Gibraltar which were later withdrawn in September.", "2007 29 June – With a unanimous vote in the Gibraltar Parliament, local MPs approved new legislation that removes the phrases 'the Colony' and 'UK possession' from Gibraltar's laws.", "2007 11 October The Gibraltar Social Democrats were returned to Government for a fourth term after a General Election.", "'''2008''' 18 June – In the annual UN Special Committee on Decolonization meeting on the Gibraltar question, Peter Caruana, Chief Minister of Gibraltar stated that he would not attend future meetings as the Gibraltar Government is of the opinion that \"there is no longer any need for us to look to the Committee to help us bring about our decolonisation\".", "The Committee agreed that the Question of Gibraltar would be discussed again next year.", "2008 22 September – It was announced that the remaining Iberia flights to Madrid would cease operation at the end of September 2008 due to \"economic reasons\", namely, lack of demand.", "2008 10 October – The bulk carrier MV Fedra ran aground on rocks at Europa Point, and broke in two.", "The crew were safely rescued, but some of the fuel oil escaped in the very bad weather.", "The Captain was later arrested.", "* '''2009''' – in May there were a number of Spanish incursions into British Waters around Gibraltar leading to intervention by the police and a diplomatic protest by the UK.", "* 2009 – 7 December four armed Civil Guard officers are detained after three landed in Gibraltar in pursuit of two suspected smugglers, who were themselves arrested.", "The Spanish Interior Minister Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba personally telephoned Chief Minister Peter Caruana to apologise, stating that there were \"no political intentions\" behind the incident.", "The Chief Minister was prepared to accept it had not been a political act.", "Spanish officers were released by the Police the following day, who said that \"Enquiries established that the Guardia Civil mistakenly entered Gibraltar Territorial Waters in hot pursuit and have since apologised for their actions\"* 2009 12 December Miss Gibraltar Kaiane Aldorino wins the title Miss World in Johannesburg.", "Her homecoming five days later is a major public event in Gibraltar.", "* 2009 17 December A ferry service restarts between Gibraltar and Algeciras after a gap of 40 years.", "* '''2010''' In order to overcome budget problems which follow the departure and arrest of the previous mayor, the mayor of La Linea de la Conception proposes to charge a toll for entry to Gibraltar and to tax telephone lines to Gibraltar.", "The proposals are opposed by the Spanish Government and the Gibraltar government has dismissed concerns.", "* '''2011''' GSLP / Liberal Alliance returned to power in the 2011 General Election, bringing to an end 15 years of GSD Government.", "Fabian Picardo becomes Chief Minister.", "* '''2016''' About 80 of the Gibraltar electorate favour remaining in EU * '''2020''' British exit from the EU renders Gibraltar foreign territory, but Spain retains the 'status quo', pending further negotiations, A preliminary agreement avoids a hard border between Gibraltar and Spain" ], [ "See also", "* History of Spain* History of the United Kingdom" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * Chapter 2, \"La lucha por Gibraltar\" (The Struggle for Gibraltar) is available online (PDF)" ], [ "External links", " A Timeline of Gibraltar's History in ''Gibraltar for kids''* History of Gibraltar (detailed) in discoverGibraltar.com* Government of Gibraltar website: History of Gibraltar* Writing the Rock of Gibraltar by M. G. Sanchez.", "An online anthology of historical texts dealing with Gibraltar from 1720 to 1890.", "* A history of the political evolution of Gibraltar from the 19th century to 2000.", "* 'The mongrel race called rock scorpions': the negation of Gibraltarian identity and the politics of contempt.", "An essay by Dr. M. G. Sanchez* 'Gibraltar Waters a Special Conservation' euroweeklynews.com – English Language Newspaper in Spain" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Gibraltar" ], [ "Introduction", "Demographic features of the population of Gibraltar include ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects." ], [ "Ethnic origins", "One of the main features of Gibraltar's population is the diversity of their ethnic origins.", "The demographics of Gibraltar reflects Gibraltarians' racial and cultural fusion of the many European and non-European immigrants who came to the Rock over three hundred years.", "They are the descendants of economic migrants that came to Gibraltar after the majority of the Spanish population left in 1704.===Spanish===The majority of the Spanish population in Gibraltar (about 5000), with few exceptions, left Gibraltar when the Dutch and English took the city in 1704.The few Spaniards who remained in Gibraltar in August 1704 were augmented by others who arrived in the fleet with Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt, possibly some two hundred in all, mostly Catalans.Menorcans began migrating to Gibraltar at the beginning of the common British rule in 1713, thanks to the links between both British possessions during the 18th century.", "Initially, Menorcans came to Gibraltar looking for work in several trades, especially when Gibraltar was rebuilt after the 1783 Grand Siege.", "Immigration continued even after Menorca (the original English name was \"Minorca\") was returned to Spain in 1802 by the Treaty of Amiens.Immigration from Spain (like the exiles from the Spanish Civil War) and intermarriage with Spaniards from the surrounding Spanish towns was a constant feature of Gibraltar's history until the then Spanish dictator, General Francisco Franco, closed the border with Gibraltar in 1969, cutting off many Gibraltarians from their relatives on the Spanish side of the frontier.Together, Gibraltarians of Spanish origin are one of the bigger groups (more than 24% according to last names, even more taking into account the fact that many Spanish women married native Gibraltarians).===British===Britons have come and settled or gone since the first days of the conquest.", "One group of Britons have had temporary residence in Gibraltar (to work in the administration and the garrison).", "This group, who represented a larger proportion in the beginning of the British period, are nowadays only about 3% of the total population (around 1,000 persons).A larger group is formed by the Britons who moved to Gibraltar and settled down.", "Some of them, since the beginning, moved to Gibraltar to earn a living as traders and workers.", "Others moved to Gibraltar on a temporary assignment and then married local women.", "Major construction projects, such as the dockyard in the late 1890s and early 20th century brought large numbers of workers from Great Britain.13% of Gibraltarian residents are from the United Kingdom proper and the electoral roll shows that 27% of Gibraltar's population has British surnames.===Genoese and other Italians===Genoese came during the 18th and 19th centuries, especially from the poorer parts of Liguria, some of them annually following fishing shoals, as repairmen for the British navy, or as successful traders and merchants; many others came during the Napoleonic period to avoid obligatory conscription to the French Army.", "Genoese formed the larger group of the new population in the 18th century and middle 19th century.", "Other Italians came from islands like Sardinia and Sicily.", "Nowadays, people with Genoese/Italian last names represent about 20% of the population.===Portuguese===Portuguese were one of the earliest groups to move to Gibraltar, especially from the Algarve region in the far south of Portugal.", "Most of them went to work as labourers and some as traders.", "Their number increased significantly during the 18th century.", "Interestingly, in 1814 out of 49 lightermen, 43 were from Portugal and they were part of a community comprising around 650 working men aged 17 and above.", "A notable example of the Portuguese presence in Gibraltair is the existence, in the territory, of an example of calçada portuguesa.A further increase in the community occurred when many Spaniards left their jobs in Gibraltar after General Franco closed the border in 1969.In the 1970s and 1980s many Portuguese worked in Gibraltar, especially in construction.", "Even today many Portuguese still live in the territory and many are still working in the construction sector, both working inbuilding sites and importing material from Portugal.", "As of 2023, for instance, a Portuguese company was in charge of building the tallest building in Gibraltar.About 10% of last names in Gibraltar have Portuguese origin; the Portuguese are part of a wider Portuguese-speaking community comprising also Luso-Indians and Brazilians.", "Moreover, today there are around 500 Portuguese who live in La Línea de la Concepción and commute to Gibraltar for work every day.", "A notable Luso-Gibraltarian is football player Bernardo Lopes.===Moroccans===Moroccans have always had a significant presence in Gibraltar.", "However, the modern community has more recent origins.", "Moroccans began arriving in Gibraltar soon after the Spanish government imposed the first restrictions on Spanish workers in Gibraltar in 1964.By the end of 1968 there were at least 1,300 Moroccan workers resident in Gibraltar and this more than doubled following the final closure of the frontier with Spain in June 1969.There is also a significant number of Moroccan Jews in Gibraltar, representing Jews of both Sephardic origin and Arabic speaking Jews of Morocco (although almost no Gibraltarian Jews today speak Arabic as a first language).", "Most notably the Hassan family which runs Gibraltar's largest law firm Hassans International Law Firm and the late Sir Joshua Hassan who served four terms as Chief Minister for a total of 20 years.===Other groups===Other groups include:Malta was in the same imperial route to the east as Gibraltar.", "Maltese people came to Gibraltar when jobs were scarce at home, or to escape the law in Malta.", "Jews, most of them of Sephardi origin, were able to re-establish their rites, forbidden in Catholic Spain, right after the British occupation in 1704.Also a significant number of Jews from London settled in Gibraltar, especially since the Great Siege.", "Indians, came as merchants after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1870; many others migrated as workers after the closure of the frontier with Spain in 1969 to replace Spanish ones.", "French, many of whom came after the French Revolution in 1789, set up trade and commerce." ], [ "National censuses", "=== 2012 census ===The composition of the population by nationality at the 2012 census was as follows: Nationality Number Percentage Gibraltarian 25,444 79.03% Other British 4,249 13.20% Moroccan 522 1.62% Spanish 675 2.10% Other EU 785 2.44% Other 519 1.61% Total 32,194 100%===2001 census===The composition of the population by nationality at the 2001 census was as follows: Nationality Number Percentage Gibraltarian 22,882 83.22% Other British 2,627 9.55% Moroccan 961 3.50% Spanish 326 1.19% Other EU 275 1.00% Other 424 1.54% Total 27,495 100%" ], [ "Population overview", "Civilian population in Gibraltar according to the censuses from 1725 to 2001The population of Gibraltar was 29,752 in 2011.===Vital statistics===Average populationLive birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000) 1934 17,000 448 279 169 26.4 16.4 9.9 1935 18,000 457 338 119 25.4 18.8 6.6 1936 18,000 476 355 121 26.4 19.7 6.7 1937 19,000 491 366 125 25.8 19.3 6.6 1938 19,000 488 335 153 25.7 17.6 8.1 1939 19,000 508 345 163 26.7 18.2 8.6 19401 14,000 241 326 -85 17.2 23.3 -6.1 19411 10,000 4 94 -90 0.4 9.4 -9.0 19421 10,000 1 145 -144 0.1 14.5 -14.4 19431 10,000 3 130 -127 0.3 13.0 -12.7 19441 15,000 50 126 -76 3.3 8.4 -5.1 1945 20,000 614 192 422 30.7 9.6 21.1 1946 21,000 449 206 224 21.4 9.8 10.7 1947 22,000 471 184 246 21.4 8.4 11.2 1948 23,000 491 211 280 21.3 9.2 12.2 1949 23,000 525 215 310 22.8 9.3 13.5 1950 23,000 459 207 252 20.0 9.0 11.0 1951 23,000 544 285 259 23.7 12.4 11.3 1952 23,000 551 226 325 24.0 9.8 14.1 1953 23,000 525 228 297 22.8 9.9 12.9 1954 24,000 566 235 331 23.6 9.8 13.8 1955 24,000 561 224 337 23.4 9.3 14.0 1956 24,000 571 227 344 23.8 9.5 14.3 1957 24,000 550 250 300 22.9 10.4 12.5 1958 24,000 600 219 381 25.0 9.1 15.9 1959 24,000 550 231 319 22.9 9.6 13.3 1960 24,000 616 221 395 25.7 9.2 16.5 1961 23,900 560 241 319 23.4 10.1 13.3 1962 24,100 561 212 349 23.3 8.8 14.5 1963 24,300 642 182 460 26.4 7.5 18.9 1964 24,500 629 222 407 25.7 9.1 16.6 1965 25,300 679 243 436 26.8 9.6 17.2 1966 25,400 597 204 393 23.5 8.0 15.5 1967 25,700 535 244 291 20.8 9.5 11.3 1968 25,900 542 216 326 20.9 8.3 12.6 1969 26,200 557 246 311 21.3 9.4 11.9 1970 26,500 573 268 305 21.6 10.1 11.5 1971 28,000 594 238 356 21.2 8.5 12.7 1972 29,000 581 244 337 20.0 8.4 11.6 1973 29,600 536 244 292 18.1 8.2 9.9 1974 29,000 575 204 371 19.8 7.0 12.8 1975 29,700 525 231 294 17.7 7.8 9.9 1976 30,000 510 253 247 17.0 8.8 8.2 1977 30,100 506 248 258 16.8 8.2 8.6 1978 29,400 520 253 267 17.7 8.6 9.1 1979 29,700 472 257 215 15.9 8.7 7.2 1980 29,700 550 282 268 18.5 9.5 9.0 1981 29,700 511 231 280 17.2 7.8 9.4 1982 29,500 566 223 343 19.2 7.6 11.6 1983 29,100 510 252 258 17.5 8.7 8.9 1984 28,800 506 265 241 17.6 9.2 8.4 1985 28,600 498 276 222 17.4 9.7 7.8 1986 29,000 507 290 217 17.5 10.0 7.5 1987 29,500 531 217 314 18.0 7.4 10.6 1988 30,100 523 293 230 17.4 9.7 7.6 1989 30,700 530 219 311 17.3 7.1 10.1 1990 30,900 531 279 252 17.2 9.0 8.2 1991 30,000 567 255 312 18.9 8.5 10.4 1992 28,800 569 205 364 19.7 7.1 12.6 1993 28,100 518 275 243 18.5 9.8 8.7 1994 27,100 509 261 248 18.8 9.6 9.1 1995 27,200 435 205 230 16.0 7.5 8.5 1996 27,100 445 221 224 16.4 8.2 8.3 1997 27,200 427 263 164 15.7 9.7 6.0 1998 27,000 411 267 144 15.2 9.9 5.3 1999 27,200 381 277 104 14.0 10.2 3.8 2000 27,000 408 262 146 15.1 9.7 5.4 2001 28,200 374 249 125 13.2 8.8 4.4 2002 28,500 371 242 129 13.0 8.5 4.5 2003 28,600 372 234 138 13.0 8.2 4.8 2004 28,800 421 242 179 14.6 8.4 6.2 2005 28,800 418 249 169 14.5 8.7 5.9 2006 28,900 373 230 143 12.9 8.0 5.0 2007 29,300 400 202 198 13.7 6.9 6.8 2008 29,300 400 227 173 13.7 7.8 5.9 2009 29,400 417 234 183 14.2 8.0 6.2 2010 29,441 493 231 262 16.7 7.8 8.9 2011 29,752 442 241 201 14.9 8.1 6.8 2012 461 264 197 15.4 8.8 6.6 2013 426 230 196 13.0 7.0 6.0 2015 492 235 257 14.7 7.0 7.7 2016 424 249 175 12.5 7.3 5.2 2017 286 2018 315 2019 268 2020 270 1During World War II a large part of the civilian population (including most women) were evacuated.===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 16 061 16 133 32 194 100 0–4 982 970 1 952 6.06 5–9 967 927 1 894 5.88 10–14 1 050 937 1 987 6.17 15–19 1 038 959 1 997 6.20 20–24 1 042 986 2 028 6.30 25–29 999 986 1 985 6.17 30–34 1 107 1 047 2 154 6.69 35–39 1 080 1 137 2 217 6.89 40–44 1 076 1 122 2 198 6.83 45–49 1 203 1 181 2 384 7.41 50–54 1 072 1 086 2 158 6.70 55–59 1 054 987 2 041 6.34 60–64 1 034 920 1 954 6.07 65-69 853 802 1 655 5.14 70-74 563 613 1 176 3.65 75-79 456 565 1 021 3.17 80-84 297 435 732 2.27 85-89 141 296 437 1.36 90-94 37 143 180 0.56 95-99 10 29 39 0.12 100+ 0 5 5 0.02Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 2 999 2 834 5 833 18.12 15–64 10 705 10 411 21 116 65.59 65+ 2 357 2 888 5 245 16.29" ], [ "CIA World Factbook demographic statistics", "The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.===Population age===''0-14 years:''17.2% (male 2,460; female 2,343)''15-64 years:''66.3% (male 9,470; female 9,070)''65 years and over:''16.5% (male 2,090; female 2,534) (2007 est.", ")===Sex ratio===''At birth:''1.06 males/female''0-14 years:''1.05 males/female''15-64 years:''1.044 males/female''65 years and over:''0.825 males/female''total population:''1.005 males/female (2007 est.", ")The median age is: total: 40.3 yearsmale: 39.8 yearsfemale: 40.7 years (2008 est.", ")===Life expectancy===''total population:''79.93 years''male:''77.05 years''female:''82.96 years (2007 est.", ")===Fertility===1.95 children born/woman (2007 est.", ")===Infant mortality===''total:''4.98 deaths/1,000 live births''male:''5.54 deaths/1,000 live births ''female:''4.39 deaths/1,000 live births (2007 est.", ")===Nationality===''noun:''Gibraltarian(s)''adjective:''Gibraltar===Religions===Roman Catholic 74.32%, Church of England 4.98%, Other Christian 1.21%, Muslim 2.01%, Jewish 2.12%, Hindu 4.76%, other or unspecified 0.94%, none 2.86% (2001 census)===Languages===English (used in schools and for official purposes), Spanish.", "Most Gibraltarians converse in ''Llanito'', an Andalusian Spanish based vernacular.", "It consists of an eclectic mix of Andalusian Spanish and British English as well as languages such as Maltese, Portuguese, Italian of the Genoese variety and Haketia.", "Among more educated Gibraltarians, it also typically involves code-switching to English.", "Arabic is spoken by the Moroccan community, just like Hindi and Sindhi is spoken by the Indian community of Gibraltar.", "Maltese is still spoken by some families of Maltese descent.===Literacy===''definition:''NA''total population:''above 80%''male:''NA%''female:''NA%" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Government of Gibraltar website" ], [ "See also" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Gibraltar" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of Gibraltar''' takes place within a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic British Overseas Territory, whereby the Monarch of the United Kingdom is the constitutional head of state represented by the Governor of Gibraltar.", "The Chief Minister of Gibraltar is the head of Government.", "As a British Overseas Territory, the Government of Gibraltar is not subordinate to the Government of the United Kingdom.", "The British Government, however, is responsible for defence and external affairs but Gibraltar has full internal self-government under its 2006 Constitution.The government of Spain continues with an irredentist territorial claim to Gibraltar, which was ceded in perpetuity to the British Crown in 1713 by Article X of the Treaty of Utrecht.", "In a referendum held in 2002, a proposal for shared sovereignty was overwhelmingly rejected by the Gibraltar electorate with 98.97% voting against.", "The sovereignty issue remains an important factor in local politics.Gibraltar has a number of political parties which have developed to address local issues.", "The preamble to the 2006 Constitution repeated from the 1969 Constitution states that ''\"Her Majesty's Government will never enter into arrangements under which the people of Gibraltar would pass under the sovereignty of another state against their freely and democratically expressed wishes.\"''" ], [ "Executive branch", "The Head of state, King Charles III.As an overseas territory of Britain, the head of state is King Charles III, who is represented by the Governor of Gibraltar.", "Britain retains responsibility for defence, foreign relations, internal security and financial stability.MonarchKing Charles III''N/A''8 September 2022GovernorSir David Steel''N/A''11 June 2020Chief MinisterFabian Picardo''GSLP/Liberals Alliance''9 December 2011Government of Gibraltar headquarters at No.", "6 Convent Place with The Convent in the background." ], [ "Government", "The Government of Gibraltar is elected for a term of four years.", "The head of government is the chief minister, currently the Hon.", "Fabian Picardo of the Gibraltar Socialist Labour Party (GSLP), who has been in office since 9 December 2011, in alliance with the Liberal Party of Gibraltar (Liberals), following the 2011 General Election.", "The Leader of the Opposition is the Hon.", "Daniel Feetham of the Gibraltar Social Democrats (GSD) since 2013.The composition of the Government of Gibraltar is the following:'''Picture''''''Name''''''Party''''''Ministerial Role''''''Responsibilities'''Fabian PicardoThe Hon.Fabian Picardo, MPGSLPChief MinisterThe economy & financeGibraltar 2025IT, e-Government and e-CommercePersonal status & including immigration, residence & adoptionEU and international treaties (including transposition of directives)ElectionsIndustrial relationsBroadcasting & the MediaThe Civil service and public sector as a wholeCustomsThe Control of Drugs (including Substance Abuse Rehabilitation including responsibility for Bruce's Farm)The administration of Government Departments charged with the aforesaidOverall responsibility for and supervision of Government departments and public administrationJoseph GarciaThe Hon.Dr.", "Joseph Garcia, MPLPGDeputy Chief MinisterAssisting the Chief Minister in his exercise of overall responsibility for and supervision of government departments and public administrationMinisterial Co-ordination & Manifesto ImplementationInternational political lobbying (including responsibility for the Gibraltar Office in London and other representative offices)European Affairs and political lobbying (including Gibraltar office in Brussels)The promotion of the right to Self-Determination and liaison with the United NationsGovernment Projects, Lands and Urban RenewalPolitical, democratic and civic reformCivil aviationInformationThe administration of Government Departments charged with the aforesaidJohn CortesThe Hon.John Cortes, MPGSLPMinister for Health, the Environment, and Climate ChangeHealthThe ElderlyEnvironment and green areasClimate ChangeThe Upper RockPublic healthEnvironmental healthUrban Renewal SchemesUtilities including Refuse Collection and DisposalThe administration of Government Departments charged with the aforesaidJoseph GarciaThe Hon.Samantha Sacramento, MPGSLPMinister for Tourism, Social Services, Equality, and HousingHousing, including the Housing and Works AgencyEquality, Minorities and the Disabled and Social ServicesTourism (including tourist entry points for Gibraltar)The administration of Government Departments charged with the aforesaidGilbert LicudiThe Hon.Gilbert Licudi, MPGSLPMinister for Education and Justice, & International Exchange of InformationCoordination of International Exchange of InformationJustice including:# The legal system# Probation Service# Tribunals# Community Service Scheme# Access to justice/legal aid assistance# Assistance# Law reform# Publication of laws# Police issues/crime/law & order# The prison# International Legal Assistance# Law drafting# Civil Contingencies# Gibraltar Fire & Rescue Services# Airport Fire and Rescue ServicesEducationThe administration of Government Departments charged with the aforesaid Government Departments charged with the aforesaidJoe BossanoThe Hon.Joe Bossano, MPGSLPMinister for Economic Development, Telecommunications, and the GSBEconomic Development & Inward InvestmentInternational TradeTelecommunicationsEnterpriseThe Gibraltar Savings Bank (GSB)The administration of Government Departments charged with the aforesaidNeil CostaThe Hon.Neil Costa, MPLPGMinister for Business and EmploymentEmployment and LabourSocial SecurityIndustrial Tribunal (including reform)Health and SafetyConsumer AffairsCommercial AffairsPostal ServicesSkills & TrainingThe administration of Government Departments charged with the aforesaidThe Hon.Paul Balban, MPGSLPMinister for Transport, Traffic, and Technical ServicesPlanning and Technical servicesThe PortPublic Service VehiclesPublic TransportTrafficParkingRoadsLicensing and VehiclesImplementation of Sustainable Traffic and Transport Plan (STTP)Assisting the Chief Minister in the implementation of the Smart ID card projectThe administration of Government Departments charged with the aforesaidSteven LinaresThe Hon.Steven Linares, MPLPGMinister for Sports, Culture, Heritage, and YouthSports & leisureCultureHeritageYouthCivic rights (including citizens advice, ombudsman, consumer protection, data protection)The administration of Government Departments charged with the aforesaidAlbert IsolaThe Hon.Albert Isola, MPGSLPMinister for Financial Services and GamingFinancial ServicesGamingMaritime services including ship and yacht registrationThe administration of Government Departments charged with the aforesaid" ], [ "Legislature", "The Gibraltar Parliament Building at ''John Mackintosh Square''.The Gibraltar Parliament (previously the House of Assembly) consists of seventeen elected members, and the Speaker.", "Under the electoral system of partial bloc voting used since 1969, voters (since 2007) could choose up to ten candidates, who do not necessarily need to be from the same party (but usually are).", "The winning candidates are then chosen by simple plurality; consequently, a party seeking to form a government stands ten candidates, and the party that forms the government is usually successful in having all ten of its candidates elected; the remaining seats are usually won by the 'best loser' which then forms the opposition.", "The last election was held on 17 October 2019.The next election is scheduled to be held on 12 October 2023." ], [ "Governor", "King Charles III is represented by the governor and commander-in-chief, presently Vice Admiral Sir David Steel (sworn in June 2020).", "After an election, the governor appoints the leader of the largest party in the unicameral parliament, as chief minister.", "The governor is not involved in the day-to-day administration of Gibraltar, and his role is largely as a ceremonial head of state.", "The governor is responsible for matters of defence and security only." ], [ "Political parties and general elections", "There are four political parties currently represented in the Gibraltar Parliament: Gibraltar Social Democrats; Gibraltar Socialist Labour Party; Liberal Party of Gibraltar and Together Gibraltar.", "All parties support Gibraltar's right to self-determination, and reject any concessions on the issue of sovereignty." ], [ "European Parliament elections", "Until the United Kingdom’s withdrawal from the European Union in January 2020, Gibraltar was part of the EU under the British Treaty of accession, but had not voted in elections for the European Parliament although its membership of the European Union meant it was affected by European Union law.", "A ten-year campaign to acquire the vote culminated in the case of Matthews v. United Kingdom.", "Denise Matthews, a British Citizen resident in Gibraltar, claimed that the exclusion of the Gibraltar electorate from enfranchisement in the European Parliamentary elections was a breach of human rights.", "The European Court of Human Rights decided in her favour, ruling that the European Parliament formed a part of Gibraltar's legislature and held that the UK was bound by its conventions to secure the right for the people of Gibraltar to elect the European Parliament.", "The UK Government passed the European Parliament (Representation) Act in 2003 in order to comply with the ruling.", "Gibraltar was included in the South West England Region for the purposes of European Parliament elections, and first voted in the 2004 election.The 2004 European Election was the first UK election in which Gibraltar participated.", "The Conservative Party took 69.52% of the vote, which has generally been interpreted as a protest against the handling of Gibraltar by the Labour Party.", "The Conservatives also campaigned strongly, with the support of the Gibraltar branch of the party and a visit from the party leader Michael Howard.In 2009, the Conservatives again topped the poll with 54% but in contrast to 2004 the turnout at 35% was much lower, being comparable to other EU states.In 2014 the Liberal Democrat Party topped the poll, but the votes cast in South West England resulted in the none of the Liberal Democrat candidates becoming MEPs.", "Six MEPs were returned, two UKIP, two Conservative, one Labour and one Green." ], [ "Constitutional reform", "===Select Committee proposals===In 1999, the Government of Gibraltar established a Select Committee on Constitutional Reform, to consider how the 1969 Constitution should be reformed.In March 2006, British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw announced in the British House of Commons that the details of a new constitution had been agreed.", "There were some differences between the draft constitution and the one to which the UK agreed, namely that the Governor's title would remain unchanged, and that the Police Authority would remain independent of the Government of Gibraltar.===2006 Constitution===In December 2006 Gibraltar was granted a new constitution, providing a modern constitutional relationship between Gibraltar and the United Kingdom, not based on colonialism.", "The constitution does not in any way diminish British sovereignty of Gibraltar, and the United Kingdom retains its full internal responsibility for Gibraltar, including Gibraltar's external relations and defence, and the Member State responsible for Gibraltar in the European Union.Writing to the Spanish Foreign Minister, Jack Straw stated:: \"My own view is that the label \"colonial\" is misleading and anachronistic in this context; regardless of the United Nations dimension.", "As Peter Caruana and I said in our joint statement on Monday, the new Constitution provides for \"a modern and mature\" relationship between the UK and Gibraltar.", "I do not think that this description would apply to any relationship based on colonialism.", "\"After several months of political wrangling, the Gibraltar Government published the draft Constitution Order, which includes the existing preamble promising that there would be no transfer of sovereignty against the wishes of the Gibraltarians and a new addition explaining the status.", ": ''\"Whereas Gibraltar is part of Her Majesty’s dominions and Her Majesty’s Government have given assurances to the people of Gibraltar that Gibraltar will remain part of Her Majesty’s dominions unless and until an Act of Parliament otherwise provides, and furthermore that Her Majesty’s Government will never enter into arrangements under which the people of Gibraltar would pass under the sovereignty of another state against their freely and democratically expressed wishes:: ''\"And whereas the people of Gibraltar have in a referendum held on date freely approved and accepted the Constitution annexed to this Order which gives the people of Gibraltar that degree of self-government which is compatible with British Sovereignty of Gibraltar and with the fact that the UK remains fully responsible for Gibraltar’s external relations.The proposal was put to the people in a referendum and approved.", "The constitution took effect in 2007 and 29 January declared a public holiday in celebration.===Integration with the UK===Various groups in Gibraltar have campaigned in favour of a far closer relationship with Britain, in the form of devolved integration or incorporation into Britain itself.", "This is similar to the offer made to Malta in 1955, under which Malta would be represented in the British House of Commons and be placed under the Home Office, while retaining internal self-government.", "This would be a similar status to France's overseas departments and to Spain's North African enclaves, Ceuta and Melilla, claimed by Morocco.", "One of Spain's arguments in rejecting comparisons between Gibraltar and these territories is that they are part of Spain, whereas Gibraltar is a British overseas territory and not part of the UK.However, the British Foreign Office rejected the idea in 1976, along with independence, on the grounds that any further constitutional reform or decolonisation would have to take into account the so-called \"Spanish dimension\".", "Similarly, this has also been opposed by governments in Gibraltar itself; in its election manifesto in 2003, the Gibraltar Social Democrats argued that integration would \"necessarily involve the loss of a significant degree of this vital self-government\" and \"would simply hand power over our vital affairs (and therefore our ability to survive) to people in London.", "\"While there is still attachment to the idea of Gibraltar being British, some, like leader of the Liberal Party, Joseph Garcia, see the Rock's future as being within a larger 'Europe of the Regions', rather than as part of one nation state or another.===Condominium===The idea of a condominium, with sovereignty over Gibraltar shared between the UK and Spain, has been proposed.", "In 1985, during talks with British Foreign Secretary Geoffrey Howe, Spanish Foreign Minister Fernando Morán proposed a condominium or leaseback period of between 15 and 20 years, before Spain regained full sovereignty, but this received no reply from the British government.In 1991, the Spanish Prime Minister, Felipe Gonzalez, was reported to have proposed a plan for joint sovereignty, under which Gibraltar would become effectively autonomous, with the British and Spanish monarchs as joint heads of state, but this was rejected by the Government of Gibraltar in July of that year.In 1997, the then Spanish Foreign Minister Abel Matutes put forward a proposal for joint sovereignty over Gibraltar, which also entailed full Spanish sovereignty after a transitional period, but his British counterpart, Robin Cook, stated that there was \"no question of compromise on sovereignty\".Although the co-principality of Andorra, in which the president of France and the bishop of Urgell are joint heads of state, has been suggested as a model for Gibraltar, in 2010, its then chief minister, Peter Caruana, argued that this was not a case of joint sovereignty between Spain and France, as under Andorra's 1993 Constitution, neither country exercised sovereignty over the Principality." ], [ "United Nations", "Gibraltar was caught unaware when the whole issue of the relationship between the territory and the UK, as well as the question of Spain was brought before the United Nations Committee on Decolonization, otherwise known as the ''Committee of 24'', in 1963.Resolution 2231 (XXI), which formed part of the Spanish claim, stated that \"any colonial situation which partially or completely destroys the national unity and territorial integrity of a country is incompatible with the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations.", "\"Resolution 2353 (XXII) also urged the United Kingdom and Spain to overcome their differences, respecting the \"interests\" of the people of Gibraltar and declared the 1967 referendum to be a \"contravention of the provisions of Resolution 2231.It was supported by 73 countries (mainly Latin American, Arab, African and Eastern European countries), rejected by 19 (United Kingdom and the countries of the Commonwealth of Nations), while 27 countries abstained (Western Europe and the United States).Since then and up to the present time, representatives of Gibraltar have regularly petitioned the ''UNC24'' and the ''UNC4'', although no progress has been achieved.", "The Committees regularly roll out their 'consensus resolution' which:''(a) Urges both Governments, while listening to the interests and aspirations of Gibraltar, to reach, in the spirit of the statement of 27 November 1984, a definitive solution to the question of Gibraltar, in the light of relevant resolutions of the General Assembly and applicable principles, and in the spirit of the Charter of the United Nations;''''(b) Welcomes the ongoing successful implementation of the first package of measures concluded at the Tripartite Forum for Dialogue on Gibraltar.", "''The commitment of the British Government is not to hold the talks envisaged by the above resolution without the consent of the Gibraltarians.", ":''The British Government will never – \"never\" is a seldom-used word in politics – enter into an agreement on sovereignty without the agreement of the Government of Gibraltar and their people.", "In fact, we will never even enter into a process without that agreement.", "The word \"never\" sends a substantial and clear commitment and has been used for a purpose.", "We have delivered that message with confidence to the peoples and the Governments of Gibraltar and Spain.", "It is a sign of the maturity of our relationship now that that is accepted as Britain's position.", "''The effective stalemate has led Peter Caruana to conclude that attending future meetings of the Committee of 24 is a pointless exercise." ], [ "Relations with Spain", "In a referendum on 10 September 1967, the people of Gibraltar voted by 12,138 to 44 to reject the transfer of sovereignty to Spain and to remain under British sovereignty.", "This day is now celebrated as Gibraltar's National Day.", "In a referendum organised by the Government of Gibraltar on 7 November 2002, voters overwhelmingly rejected the principle that Spain and the United Kingdom should share sovereignty over Gibraltar, by 17,900 votes to 187 on a turnout of almost 88%.Unlike most other British territories, Gibraltar has not been offered independence by the UK.", "It has been suggested that this is on the grounds that the Treaty of Utrecht, under which Spain ceded the territory to the British Crown, states that, if the British Crown should ever wish to dispose of Gibraltar, it must first be offered to Spain.", "However, the Government of Gibraltar has pointed out at the UN that Article 103 of the UN Charter overrules and annuls this \"reversionary clause\".Neither the United Kingdom nor Spain seem keen to test the legal status of Article X of the Treaty of Utrecht in court.", "The remaining parts of the treaty that regulated such things as the slave trade, and the transfer of Menorca to the British, have become obsolete.Spain argues that Gibraltar's status is an anachronism, and that it should become an autonomous community of Spain, similar to Catalonia or the Basque Country.", "It also argues that the principle of territorial integrity, not self-determination applies, drawing parallels with the British handover of Hong Kong to the People's Republic of China in 1997.At the same time, the British government continues to state that there can be no change in the status of Gibraltar without their democratic consent .The Gibraltarian government has asked the UN Committee of 24 to refer the issues to the International Court of Justice for an advisory opinion, but Spain has lobbied against this.", "The government of Gibraltar has also invited the Committee to visit the territory, but so far, despite no objection from the United Kingdom, they have not done so.The 2006 constitution further increases the level of self-government in the territory, and the colonial status of Gibraltar is now considered to be over.", "In a letter to the United Nations describing this, the British Foreign Secretary stated that \"''I do not think that this description would apply to any relationship based on colonialism.''\"" ], [ "Pressure groups", "In addition to the parties there are a number of pressure groups active in Gibraltar, not aligned to any political party.===Gibraltar Women's Association===The Gibraltar Women's Association was founded on 16 February 1966, by Mrs Angela Smith.It was originally known as the Gibraltar Housewives Association, and subsequently, in the early eighties it was changed to the Gibraltar Women's Association keeping in with more modern times that not all women were solely housewives.===Equality Rights Group GGR===Launched in September 2000 by Felix Alvarez, initially named GGR (Gib Gay Rights) now has a wider human rights platform in Gibraltar and is known as Equality Rights Group GGR .Although it still defends sexual minorities it has also been active on issues regarding the disabled, and issues regarding the protection of children against sex abuse.===Environmental Safety Group===The Environmental Safety Group (ESG) is a non-governmental organisation that was formed in 2000.It is a registered charity and works to promote environmental issues within the community.", "Concerns of: air and water quality, pollution, preservation of our green areas, traffic, need for renewable energy, litter/recycling and climate change have been the focus of many ESG campaigns.", "The group is apolitical and enjoys widespread support from the community.", "Its membership runs into several hundred and many others are regularly invited to support or participate in local and global environmental campaigns.===Gibraltar Local Disability Movement===The Gibraltar Local Disability Movement (GLDM) was established in 1985 to improve the lives of disabled people in Gibraltar, promote equal opportunities and tackle discrimination.", "The movement ceased to be active for several years during the 1990s and early 2000s, but was reactivated in 2005 to address the situation for disabled people in Gibraltar, which did not see great improvement for several years.", "Although the 2006 Equal Opportunities Act protects disabled people in Gibraltar from discrimination, Gibraltar remains behind the UK and other countries on issues such as disability allowances and wheelchair access to both private and government buildings.", "www.disability.gi===Voice of Gibraltar Group===The 2002 Referendum CampaignThe Voice of Gibraltar Group was founded in 1996.In 1997 it organised a march attended by 10,000 people campaigning for Spanish recognition of Gibraltarians' rights within the EU for the support of the new British Labour Government in this matter.", "In 2001 it drew criticism from the Government of Gibraltar for pressuring the Select Committee of the House of Assembly to accelerate completion of its work and for introducing what the Government claimed were partisan politics into the matter of Gibraltar remaining British.", "The same year, in concert with the Self-Determination for Gibraltar Group, the VOGG organised a demonstration attended by an estimated 10,000 people.", "Joining a Government-sponsored initiative led by local musicians under the auspices of Rock on the Rock Club, a non-political organisation, the VOGG mounted protest in Neath, the constituency of Peter Hain the UK Minister for Europe.It campaigned, with others, for a \"no\" vote in the 2002 referendum It has been described as \"Gibraltar's most-hardline protest group\".===Integration With Britain Movement===The Integration With Britain Movement (IWBM) is a pressure group advocating further integration with the United Kingdom.", "They aim for Gibraltar to attain a state of devolved integration similar to that pertaining in Scotland, Wales & Northern Ireland.", "They are led by Joe Caruana and are successors to the defunct Integration With Britain Party (IWBP)." ], [ "See also", " Judiciary of Gibraltar" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Gibraltar Government website* The Gibraltar Social Democrats* The Gibraltar Socialist Labour party* The Progressive Democrats* CityMayors article* The Conservative Party branch in Gibraltar* Friends of the Earth, Gibraltar* The Gibraltar Local Disability Movement* Environmental Safety Group* Equality Rights - GGR" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Gibraltar" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Gibraltar''' consists largely of the services sector.", "While part of the European Union until Brexit, the British overseas territory of Gibraltar has a separate legal jurisdiction from the United Kingdom and a different tax system.The role of the UK Ministry of Defence, which at one time was Gibraltar's main source of income, has declined, with today's economy mainly based on shipping, tourism, financial services, and the Internet (mostly gambling).As of 2020, Brexit represents a major uncertainty for the Gibraltar economy." ], [ "Shipping", "; BunkeringGibraltar is one of the largest bunkering ports in the Mediterranean Sea, with 4.3 million tonnes of bunkers delivered in 2021 to over 5,500 ships.", "This has become the main activity within the Port of Gibraltar.", "Increased competition from Algeciras in 2022 resulted in a fall to around 3.4m tonnes." ], [ "Finance", "Until Brexit Gibraltar was a constituent part of the European Union as a Special Member State territory, having joined the European Economic Community with the United Kingdom in 1973, under the provisions of the Treaty of Rome relating to European dependent territories.", "However, it is exempt from the Common external tariff, the Common Agricultural Policy and the requirement to levy Value added tax.Financial institutions operating in Gibraltar are regulated by the Gibraltar Financial Services Commission.Gibraltar has had a stock exchange since 2014, the Gibraltar Stock Exchange.Subject to notifying the EU Commissioner, who must be satisfied that they meet certain criteria in accordance with the relevant EU Directive, Gibraltar-licensed or -authorised financial institutions can provide services throughout the EU and European Economic Area without having to seek separate licences or authorisation in the host Member State.", "This is known as the ''passporting'' of financial services.In December 2008 in a landmark decision the European Court of Justice ruled that:This allowed the implementation of a new low tax system which took full effect in 2010.Referred to as an International Finance Centre, Gibraltar was among 35 jurisdictions identified by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) as a tax haven in June 2000.However, the list's disclaimer states:As a result of having made a commitment in accordance with the OECD's 2001 Progress Report on the OECD's Project on Harmful Tax Practices, Gibraltar is not included in the OECD's list of uncooperative tax havens.", "It has also never been listed on the FATF Blacklist of uncooperative countries in the fight against money laundering.", "It may also be referred to as an offshore financial centre, by international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF).However, in its April 2009 progress report, the OECD listed Gibraltar in the list of jurisdictions which, although committed, had not \"substantially implemented\" yet the internationally agreed tax standard.", "Following Gibraltar's signing of 12 additional Tax Information Exchange Agreements (TIEAs), as of October 2009, with jurisdictions including the UK, US and Germany, to sum 13, Gibraltar is currently listed in the OECD \"white list\", and is considered a jurisdiction that has substantially implemented the tax standard.", "It therefore shares the same status as OECD member states such as the UK, the US, Spain or Germany.Fiscal advantages, including no tax on capital income, are offered to a maximum of 8,464 offshore qualified companies incorporated in Gibraltar.", "After an agreement with the European Union in 2005, this tax exempt regime is due to disappear on 31 December 2010.A 2007 IMF report on the regulatory environment and anti-money laundering has once again endorsed Gibraltar's robust regulatory environment.According to the report:In 2008 Gibraltar was listed for the first time in the Global Financial Centres Index published by the City of London Corporation.", "The Rock was ranked 26th in a list of 69 leading finance centres around the world based on an online survey of 1,236 business professionals, who provided a total of 18,878 assessments.", "In the most recent GFCI report of 2011, Gibraltar was ranked 63rd in the world, and 8th of the leading offshore financial centres (OFCs).The Tax Justice Network ranked Gibraltar at #43 out of 71 jurisdictions on its 2011 Financial Secrecy Index.", "Gibraltar's \"secrecy score\" was 78, equating to Switzerland in that category.Gibraltar was also ranked in the top 20 centres for e-readiness, coming 20th after major capitals and leading offshore centres." ], [ "Tourism" ], [ "Manufacturing", "The territory also has a small manufacturing sector, with one company (Bassadone Automotive Group) supplying ambulances and other project vehicles converted locally from SUV vehicles to the United Nations and other agencies, employing some 320 staff across its range of activities." ], [ "Internet business", "Gibraltar offers a favourable tax system, good internet connectivity along with a well-developed regulatory system.", "All gambling operations in Gibraltar require licensing under the Gambling Act 2005.The Gibraltar Regulatory Authority is the Gambling Commissioner under the Gambling Act 2005, and therefore the regulatory body.", "Good regulation, and being part of the EU is seen as a strong advantage by large legitimate operators.", "The UK has published plans to protect online gamblers from crime and exploitation by banning gambling adverts from poorly regulated countries which specifically mention Gibraltar as an approved location." ], [ "Defence spending", "The UK's Ministry of Defence was originally the mainstay of Gibraltar's economy but this has greatly reduced to around 6% of the gross domestic product.", "In 2006 the Ministry of Defence announced that the provision of services to the military base would be contracted to make further cost savings.", "This was finalised in January 2007." ], [ "Economy in detail", "Gibraltar benefits from an extensive shipping trade, a well regulated international finance center, tourism, and has become a global leader in the virtual gaming industry.Self-sufficient Gibraltar benefits from an extensive shipping trade, offshore banking, and its position as an international conference center.", "The British military presence has been sharply reduced and now contributes about 7% to the local economy, compared with 60% in 1984.The financial sector, tourism (almost 5 million visitors in 1998), shipping services fees, and duties on consumer goods also generate revenue.", "The financial sector, the shipping sector, and tourism each contribute 25%-30% of GDP.", "Telecommunications accounts for another 10%.", "In recent years, Gibraltar has seen major structural change from a public to a private sector economy, but changes in government spending still have a major impact on the level of employment.Figures from the CIA World Factbook show the main export markets in 2006 were United Kingdom 30.8%, Spain 22.7%, Germany 13.7%, Turkmenistan 10.4%, Switzerland 8.3%, Italy 6.7% while the corresponding figures for imports are Spain 23.4%, Russia 12.3%, Italy 12%, UK 9%, France 8.9%, Netherlands 6.8% and United States 4.7%.The Gibraltar Government state that economy grew in 2004/2005 by 7% to a GDP of £599,180,000.Based on statistics in the 2006 surveys, the Government statisticians estimate it has grown by 8.5% in 2005/6 and by 10.8% in 2006/7 and that the GDP is probably now around 730 million.", "Inflation was running at 2.6% in 2006 and predicted to be 2% to 3% in 2007.Speaking at the 2007 budget session, Peter Caruana, the Chief Minister said \"The scale of Gibraltar's economic success makes it one of the most affluent communities in the entire world.", "\"'''Labour force:'''12,690 (including non-Gibraltar labourers) (2001)'''Labour force - by occupation:'''services 60%, industry 40%, agriculture NEGL%'''Unemployment rate'''2% (2001)'''Budget'''revenues: $455.1 millionexpenditures: $423.6 million (2005 est.", ")'''Public debt'''15.7% of GDP (2005 est.", ")'''Industries'''tourism, banking and finance, ship repairing, tobacco'''Industrial production growth rate'''NA%'''Electricity - production'''142 million kWh (2006 est.", ")'''Electricity - production by source''''''fossil fuel'''100%'''hydro'''0%'''nuclear'''0%'''other'''0%'''Electricity - consumption'''142 million kWh (2006 est.", ")'''Electricity - exports'''0 kWh (1998)'''Electricity - imports'''0 kWh (1998)'''Oil - production''' (2001 est.", ")'''Oil - consumption''' 2001'''Oil - exports'''NA (2001)'''Oil - imports'''NA (2001)'''Agriculture - products'''none'''Exports'''$271 million (2004 est.", ")'''Exports - commodities'''(principally reexports) petroleum 51%, manufactured goods 41%, other 8%'''Exports - partners'''UK, Morocco, Portugal, Netherlands, Spain, US, Germany'''Imports'''$2.967 billion (2004 est.", ")'''Imports - commodities'''Fuels, manufactured goods, and foodstuffs'''Imports - partners'''UK, Spain, Japan, NetherlandsFiscal year1 July - 30 JuneThe above figures taken from the '''CIA World Factbook''' September 2009 edition." ], [ "Interaction with the nearby area", "In September 2009 the Gibraltar Chamber of Commerce released an Economic impact study and analysis of the economies of Gibraltar and the Campo de Gibraltar produced by Professor John Fletcher of Bournemouth University.", "The report aimed at clarifying the effects of Gibraltar's economy on the Campo area.", "It demonstrated that Gibraltar's economy has a significant and very positive economic impact on the Campo de Gibraltar.", "It also noted that the Campo region played a \"significant role .. in Gibraltar's economic development as well\", concluding that \"both economies and societies would be the poorer without the other...\"Its conclusions were:" ], [ "Taxation", "In 2019, ''the International Agreement on Taxation and Protection of Financial Interests between Spain and the United Kingdom on Gibraltar'' was signed by all three countries.", "This agreement covers such issues as tax co-operation between the authorities in Gibraltar and Spain, the criteria for tax residence of individuals and companies and procedures for administrative cooperation." ], [ "Various economic indicators by national origin", "The average annual earnings of Indo-Gibraltarians is nearly twice that of the rest of Gibraltarian people and approximately 1.5 times that of immigrants in the UK, thus making people of Indian descent by far the most economically affluent ethnic group in Gibraltar.", "Rank National Origin Average annualearnings 1 Indian £32,585 2 UK British £22,011 3 Other EU £20,613 4 All other nationals £20,414 5 National average £19,383 6 Gibraltarian £18,934 7 Spanish £13,359 8 Moroccan £12,933 Rank Origin Hourly pay 1 Indian £14.73 2 UK British £11.30 3 Other EU £10.58 4 All other nationals £10.48 5 National average £10.03 6 Gibraltarian £9.46 7 Spanish £6.86 8 Moroccan £6.64 Rank Origin Unemploymentrate 1 Moroccan 7.3% 2 Spanish 2.8% 3 National average 2% 4 Gibraltarian 2% 5 UK British 1.4% 6 Other EU 1.4% 7 All other nationals 0.7% 8 Indian 0.4% Rank Origin Average monthlyearnings 1 Indian £2,455.61 2 UK British £1,818.57 3 Other EU £1,715.89 4 All other nationals £1,628.83 5 National average £1,627.49 6 Gibraltarian £1,625.49 7 Spanish £1,171.22 8 Moroccan £1,148.04 Rank Origin % in higher managerialand professional occupations 1 Indian 20.3% 2 UK British 12.6% 3 Other EU 11.8% 4 All other nationals 9.5% 5 National average 9.0% 6 Gibraltarian 8.4% 7 Spanish 5.9% 8 Moroccan 4.4%" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Gibraltar Government website* The Financial Services Commission* The Gibraltar regulatory authority* Government revenue and expenditure 2006 - pdf" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Communications in Gibraltar" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Communications in Gibraltar''' comprise a wide range of telephony systems (both fixed-line and mobile), Internet access, broadcasting (radio and television) and satellite control.", "There is also printed and online media.", "Regulation of telecommunications and broadcasting are the responsibility of the Gibraltar Regulatory Authority (GRA), established by means of the Gibraltar Regulatory Authority Act in 2000." ], [ "Telecommunications", "===History===Site of the first telephone exchange in City Mill Lane.The first submarine telegraph cable started its operation in Gibraltar in 1870.Gibraltar was a landing point of the long-range submarine cable that from Porthcurno, in the United Kingdom ran to Lisbon, Gibraltar, Malta, Alexandria, Suez, Aden, Bombay, over land to the east coast of India, then on to Penang, Malacca, Singapore, Batavia (current Jakarta), to finally reach Darwin, Australia.", "It was the first direct link between Australia and Great Britain.", "The company that laid the first part of the cable took the name of Falmouth, Gibraltar and Malta Telegraph Company and had been founded in 1869.This company later operated as the Eastern Telegraph Company from Mount Pleasant in Gibraltar and eventually became Cable & Wireless.The first telephones were introduced to Gibraltar in 1886 by a private company which was later taken over by the colonial authorities.", "The first wireless message was transmitted to Gibraltar in 1903.Since 1926, the telephone service was operated by the City Council.", "An automatic exchange was installed in the last floor of the City Hall.", "On 4 April 1927, following an agreement signed between the Compañía Telefónica Nacional de España, the Spanish incumbent telecommunications operator, and the Gibraltar City Council, direct communications between Spain and Gibraltar were established.Upon the approval of the 1969 Constitution and the dissolution of the City Council, the telephone service was transferred to the newly formed Government of Gibraltar.", "In the 1970s there were three generations of automatic telephone exchange equipment in use with four and five digit numbers.", "The volume of calls grew and a System X digital exchange was installed.Until 1990, all telephone services were operated by the Gibraltar Government Telephone Department.", "International circuits were provided by Cable & Wireless, present in Gibraltar since 1870 as the Falmouth, Malta, Gibraltar Telegraph Company.", "However, Cable & Wireless left Gibraltar in 1987.On 1 January 1988, British Telecom (BT) and the Government of Gibraltar formed a joint venture company called Gibraltar Telecommunications International Ltd (known by its commercial brand Gibtel) to operate Gibraltar's international telecommunications services.", "Gibtel was subsequently granted a licence to offer mobile telephony introducing a GSM900 network.In 1990, the Government decided to privatise its Telephone Department and therefore entered into a joint venture with Nynex of the United States.", "Gibraltar Nynex Communications Ltd (GNC) became responsible for fixed-line telephony.", "GNC was the first acquisition of Nynex outside the Americas.", "In 1997, GNC, through its wholly owned subsidiary, GNC Networks, commenced Internet services.", "GNC Networks was later renamed GibConnect.", "ADSL services were introduced in 2002.In 2001, BT sold its 50% stake in Gibtel to GNC.", "Both companies subsequently merged to form Gibtelecom, a joint venture between the Government of Gibraltar and Nynex's successor company, Verizon.", "The name Gibtelecom begun to be used in July 2002, and as of 1 October 2003 this name was formally adopted by the company (which up until then was still Gibraltar Nynex Communications).", "In April 2007, Verizon sold its shares to Telekom Slovenije which is the incumbent telecommunications operator in Slovenia and is quoted on the Ljubljana Stock Exchange.===Infrastructure==='''Telephones – Numbers in use:''' 25,000 (2006)'''Telephones – mobile cellular:'''15,000 (2006)The telecommunications infrastructure in Gibraltar is modelled on that of the UK; for example; the ringing tone of fixed telephone lines is identical to that of the UK, although that of mobile phones may resemble that of mainland Europe, with long tones.", "Telephone jacks are also British Standard BS 6312, as opposed to the RJ11 versions found in other parts of Europe and the world.===Numbering plan==='''Calling code:''' +350=== Telecom dispute ===Telecommunication services in Gibraltar were subject to Spanish restrictions until 10 February 2007.Subsequent to the resolution of the dispute, the Gibraltar telephone numbering plan has been increased to eight digits for land lines, adding a prefix of 200 to the existing Gibtelecom five digit numbers which is required to be dialled from October 2008.Gibtelecom was also prevented from having roaming agreements with Spanish GSM networks so its mobile phones did not operate in Spain.", "Gibtelecom had roaming arrangements with local GSM networks in most other countries.", "After the Córdoba Agreement, Gibtel (Gibtelecom's mobile service) could roam on Spanish network Movistar (Telefónica).", "As of recent customers can now roam on Vodafone and Yoigo.", "Orange still (September 2008) identifies as AMENA and does not allow Gibraltar phones to register." ], [ "Fixed line services", "In the 1980s there was a shortage of local line capacity on the existing crossbar exchange, which itself had replaced the relay and Strowger switch exchanges and a modern digital System/X switch was installed.Cable and Wireless, who provided international circuits installed a satellite earth station which made International Subscriber Dialling possible.When the frontier with Spain was re-opened, telephone and telex circuits cut by General Franco were re-established.", "Subsequently, fibre links into the FLAG cable system (which had a landing point in Estepona, about 50 km from Gibraltar) were established and along with microwave links to Morocco giving Gibraltar a resilient communications infrastructure.", "Gibtelecom is also a partner in the EIG cable system, which will have a landing point in Gibraltar.Provision for Local Loop Unbundling was introduced in Gibraltar, under the 2006 Communications Act, similar to the UK's 2003 Communications Act.", "Earlier in December 2005, the European Commission initiated the second stage of infringement proceedings against the British Government relating to Gibraltar's failure to transpose five European Union directives on electronic communications, but these were closed after the relevant legislation was passed into law by the then House of Assembly in June 2006.Fixed line numbers are now eight digits, with Gibtelecom numbers being prefixed with '''200'''.", "A second operator, CTS Gibraltar Limited, provided fixed line services beginning with the prefix '''216''', but closed down in early 2013." ], [ "Mobile network", "'''GSM Network Identifiers :''' GIBTELGibraltar Telecommunications International Limited (Gibtel) (now '''Gibtelecom''') introduced mobile phones in Gibraltar using a GSM900 network.", "The new GPRS network installed by the Scandinavian company allows faster and permanent connectivity for all mobile users, as well as providing high-speed picture and video messaging for owners of the new range of multi-purpose hand-sets.Gibtelecom operates 3G & 4G networks.CTS ceased providing 3G services in early 2013.A new provider, Shine Mobile, launched on 23 September 2013.On 12 May 2016 the Company posted a notice on its website www.shinemobile.gi saying that \"As from 18/05/2016, our services are going to be SUSPENDED; therefore your Shine line will NOT be operational.\"", "It was said that was to facilitate working on upgrading infrastructure, but as of 29 May 2016 the service is still down.", "Suspending service with less than a week's notice, suggests this may not have just been related to upgrading infrastructure which presumably would have been in the planning stage for more than six days.", "Shine Mobile will not be back." ], [ "Broadcasting", "===Television==='''Television stations:'''1 (plus three low-power repeaters) (2002)'''Television licences:'''7,452 (2002)Requirement abolished (2007).", "'''GBC Television''' is operated by the Gibraltar Broadcasting Corporation (GBC) is transmitted on VHF Channel 12 with UHF repeaters on 56 and 53.Until 1999, GBC retransmitted BBC Prime, but was relaunched as a community-based service focusing on local news and other items of local interest.", "GBC programming starts at around 19:30 and finishes before midnight with the most popular programme being the local news bulletin, News Watch at 20:30.During the day fillers and the sound of GBC radio are transmitted.", "The station was funded by a mix of advertising, government funding, and an annual television licence fee.", "In June 2006, the licence was abolished by the Government.", "A new general manager was appointed in 2010 with a mandate to develop the station to meet future requirements of the community.The majority of homes also have access to satellite television with mostly United Kingdom channels.", "Gibraltar also receives Spanish national digital television and radio stations, as well as Spanish digital regional (from Andalusia) and local stations (from the Campo de Gibraltar area).===Radio==='''Radio stations:'''AM 1, FM 4, DAB+, Internet 2 (2019)'''Radios:'''37,000 (1997) – Radio licences now discontinuedThe Gibraltar Broadcasting Corporation (GBC) operates Radio Gibraltar on both FM and AM, broadcasting a mix of local programming in English and Spanish, and retransmissions of the BBC World Service.", "In December 2005, GBC started internet streaming of its radio service, and in 2009 the daily Newswatch programme became available as video on demand.", "These services along with an up-to-date programme guide for GBC television and radio, can be found on the website.The British Forces Broadcasting Service (BFBS) operates two radio stations on FM, BFBS1 and BFBS2 and a private cable television network.", "BFBS1 and 2 are also available on the Internet streamed from the UK.On 1 October 2018, Rock Radio – Gibraltar's Hit Music Station was launched.", "Rock Radio is Gibraltar's first and only independent commercial radio station, the first to launch in over 50 years.", "The station transmits live from the top of the Rock on 99.2 FM, DAB+ and online.===Amateur radio==='''Callsigns:'''ZB0x (VHF only), ZB2xx (Full), ZB3x (novice) + special event stationsAmateur radio started in Gibraltar shortly after the Second World War.", "The Gibraltar Amateur Radio Society (GARS) is a small but active society representing the interests of Amateur Radio both locally and internationally as a full International Amateur Radio Union (IARU) member society.Each year for Gibraltar National Week amateur radio operators can use the ZG prefix instead of ZB.", "Special event stations are licensed by the GRA for example the Lighthouse Activity Weekend uses ZB2LGT." ], [ "Internet", "'''Country code (top-level domain):''' .gi'''Internet service providers (ISPs):''' 4'''Gibnet Limited''', a private company, began Internet services in January 1996, with a 64 kbit/s circuit to Spain.", "In 2005 it merged with Broadband Gibraltar Limited to form Sapphire Networks Limited.", "Sapphire have their own redundant fibre and microwave infrastructure into and around Gibraltar.Sapphire is currently a self-sufficient, 100% optic-fibre provider, and sells high-bandwidth Internet services and Internet connectivity, competing directly with Gibtelecom.", "'''GNC Networks''', a wholly owned subsidiary of Gibraltar Nynex Communications, commenced services in 1997.GNC Networks was renamed Gibconnect and the parent company became Gibraltar Telecommunications International Limited, which is referred to as Gibtelecom, in 2002.ADSL services were introduced in 2002, by 2005, there were several thousand users.", "The company is co-owned by the Government of Gibraltar and Slovenia Telecom.In 2000, the Gibraltar Regulatory Authority issued Ladbrokes, who then operated Gibraltar's biggest call centre, with a licence to establish their own internet services.", "Under this Advanced Business Communications (Europe) began operating on the rock.", "The company applied for a licence in their own right.", "The GRA eventually denied ABC (Europe) a licence.", "Ladbrokes scaled down their Gibraltar operations and their 'Internet permit' was not renewed.", "ABC ceased their Gibraltar operations in early 2002.", "'''CTS Gibraltar Limited''' launched a WiMax service in 2008, competing against the established ADSL providers.", "It then expanded into ADSL for nearby housing estates, and set up a rival UTMS service.", "CTS was closed down in early 2013 due to significant debts owed to government authorities and other creditors.", "'''Shine Mobile''', launched in September 2013, has obtained a licence for broadband services, which it planned to introduce, but the company closed down.In 2013, '''GibFibreSpeed Ltd''', trading under '''A.J.", "Sheriff Electrical Ltd''', obtained a broadband licence.", "GibFibreSpeed is Gibraltar's first communications provider to offer Fibre to the Home (FTTH) broadband services.", "Since 2013, GibFibreSpeed has been upgrading its own independent all-fibre network and preparing for the launch of broadband services, it has since opened its stores and has planned to begin offering broadband in early 2015." ], [ "Printed media", "The ''Gibraltar Chronicle'' is the world's second oldest English language newspaper to have been in print continuously.===Newspapers===The largest and most frequently published newspaper is the ''Gibraltar Chronicle'', Gibraltar's oldest established daily newspaper and the world's second oldest English language newspaper to have been in print continuously with daily editions six days a week.", "''Panorama'' is published on weekdays, and ''7 Days'', ''The New People'', and ''Gibsport'' are weekly.", "Other newspapers such as the weekly ''El Faro de Gibraltar'', are published in Spanish.Defunct newspapers include ''El Calpense'', a Spanish-language newspaper that was published in Gibraltar between 1868 and 1982.In the 1960s it became a weekly newspaper.", "When the border between Spain and Gibraltar was eventually closed by the Spanish dictator in 1969, the newspaper changed its ownership and begun to be published in English.", "It later closed in 1982.Also, ''El Anunciador'' was a Spanish-language newspaper that was published between 1885 and 1940.===Magazines===Gibraltar has two prominent monthly magazines; ''Gibraltar Insight'' and the ''Gibraltar Magazine''.EuropeAxess Media, in liaison with the Roman Catholic Diocese of Gibraltar, also publishes a monthly magazine: ''Upon This Rock''''Globe'' magazine also appears monthly, having first started as a bi-lingual publication which produced two versions of each of its articles – one in English and the other in Spanish.", "Over time, ''Globe'' phased out the Spanish language element and is now an English language monthly aimed at Gibraltar and the Campo de Gibraltar.", "''B'' magazine is Gibraltar's first locally produced magazine aimed at women.", "It appears monthly and its contents include fashion, advice, health, weddings and similar features geared at young women.", "The publication also features a Social spotlight section composed of photos depicting events and fundraisers.===Online Media===Various online news outlets covering general news exist such as online editions of the Gibraltar Broadcasting Corporation, and the Gibraltar Chronicle.", "Independent online media include Your Gibraltar TV and sports news outlets such as GibFootballTalk." ], [ "See also", "* Telecom dispute between Gibraltar and Spain" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Gibraltar Broadcasting Corporation (Internet-streamed radio)* BFBS Radio in Gibraltar* Gibraltar Regulatory Authority* Gibtelecom* Sapphire Networks* Amateur Radio in Gibraltar" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Gibraltar" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gibraltar''' has a limited public transport system, due to the compact size of the territory." ], [ "Road", "===Private transport===drives on the rightGibraltar's country identifier is '''GBZ'''Gibraltar rear number plate featuring the country identifier GBZGibraltar has of highways, all of which are paved.", "It has one of the highest levels of per capita car ownership in the world, with as many motor vehicles as people.", "Unlike the United Kingdom, along with the British Overseas Territories, traffic in Gibraltar drives on the right, as it shares a land border with Spain.", "Traffic formerly drove on the left; the change to driving on the right was made at 5.00 a.m. on 16 June 1929.Older roads in Gibraltar, primarily in the city centre, are fairly narrow with a typical speed limit of .", "Gibraltar has ten fuelling stations, and fuel prices are lower than in neighbouring Spain.", "Some people from Spain even enter Gibraltar for the sole purpose of filling their cars' fuel tanks.Gibraltar's international vehicle registration is GBZ, and vehicle registration plates of Gibraltar consist of the letter 'G' followed by up to five digits (1-99999) or four digits (1000-9999) and a single letter.", "These are as standard, the same shape, type face and colours as those in the UK, however non-standard number plates have been permitted.", "The Chief Minister's official car has the registration number ''G1'', while the Governor's car, following tradition, has a crown, in place of a number.The two highways in Spain leading in the vicinity are the A-383 which ends in La Linea, and the CA-34, which leads to the border.The traditional sole road into Spain, Winston Churchill Avenue, intersected with the airport's runway requiring movable barricades to close when aircraft landed or departed resulting in congestion.", "A new tunnel was constructed to solve this problem although delays pushed back its official opening until 31 March 2023.The new road and tunnel is named Kingsway with the approval of Charles III and passes under the terminal and the eastern edge of the runway before connecting with Devil's Tower Road.", "Runway access is now closed to everyday road traffic but is still available for exceptional, specific, or emergency use as well as pedestrians, cyclists and mobility scooters although an alternative subway is provided.===Public transport===Gibraltar Bus Company Dennis Dart on route 4 at the Both Worlds bus terminus, Sandy Bay.Calypso Transport open top bus on discontinued route 10There are a total of eight different bus routes in Gibraltar.", "There are two companies who provide stage-carriage bus services in Gibraltar: Gibraltar Bus Company and Calypso Transport.The Government of Gibraltar owned Gibraltar Bus Company operates routes 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8 and 9 with a fleet of 21 buses, 18 of which are Dennis Dart low-floor midibus with Caetano Nimbus bodies and featuring 28 seats and three Mercedes-Benz Sprinter minibuses with Unvi bodies and catering for 15 seated passengers.", "The Darts entered service the day the company was officially formed, Saturday 10 April 2004, when it took over the operation of private company Rock City Services, who had been unwilling to invest in its fleet.", "The trio of Sprinters entered service during November 2010 and operate Service 1 to the Moorish Castle Estate in the Upper Town area of the city.", "This route is well worth travelling in order to see how narrow and winding the roads are in this part of town.", "The latest timetable is dated 1 September 2012.Calypso Transport operates route 5 between the Frontier (the land border with Spain), the airport and the city centre and tickets between this route and those operated by the Gibraltar Bus Company are not inter-changeable.", "An adult single fare on either operators' services currently costs £1.00 and an all-day Hoppa ticket costs £1.50.A year-long trial period where free travel was permitted aboard the buses of the Gibraltar Bus Company ended in May 2012 and only qualifying residents, commuters and military personnel now qualify for free travel in the territory.====Bus Fares - Both Operators' Services====Timetable on a bus shelter Single All Day Pass.", "Adult £1.80£2.50 Pensioner £1.00£1.50 Child £1.50£2.00Calypso Transport uses a fleet of red double-decker buses.Gibraltar Bus Company bus routes (''right-click to enlarge'').Route 5 buses operate every 15 minutes Monday to Saturdays, and every 20 minutes on Sundays, this is a shuttle between Reclamation Road (British Steps) near John Macintosh Square and the Frontier/Airport terminus via the Market Place bus station Grand Casemates Square.Gibraltar Bus Company increased the bus fares for all routes in Gibraltar in May 2013.===Taxis===Taxis are available from a number of taxi ranks around the Rock.", "Many taxis cater specifically for tours of the Upper Rock Nature Reserve and these can be picked up from the frontier or the city centre, however, taxi drivers are also obliged to take standard fares as well as tours." ], [ "Rail", "===Historical===There are no extant railways in Gibraltar.", "There was formerly an extensive railway within the Gibraltar Dockyard, and neighbouring works and storage facilities.", "It included tunnels, one of which went through the Rock of Gibraltar, and is still in use today as a road tunnel.", "At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries there was also a temporary industrial railway in Gibraltar.", "At the period when both railways were operational, it was possible to travel right round the entire coastline of Gibraltar by train.", "The dockyard railway had a roster of 17 locomotives, distinguished by numbers, but four of which also carried names: ''Gibraltar'', ''Catalan'', ''Rosia'', and ''Calpe''.===Access to the rail system in Spain===Whilst railway track extends to the outskirts of La Linea from the aborted San Roque-La Línea railway line expansion project in the 1970s, the nearest actual railway station (in Spain) is ''\"San Roque - La Línea\"'' station on the ADIF Algeciras-Bobadilla railway line Junction via Ronda.", "In 2021, after details emerged about a possible accession agreement of Gibraltar into the Schengen Area, the Chief Minister Fabian Picardo commented on the potential of railway development upwards towards Europe.Until 1969 a ferry from Gibraltar provided convenient access to Algeciras station, which along with the railway line to Ronda was built by a British company known as the Algeciras Gibraltar Railway Company.===Access to the rail system in Morocco===Ferries by ''FRS'' running twice a week from Gibraltar to Tanger-Med port provide access to the Moroccan railway system." ], [ "Sea", "Royal Navy Base berthed adjacent to the Gibraltar Cruise Terminal at the Western Arm of the North MoleBeing a peninsula, the sea has long been vital to Gibraltar's transport links.", "The Royal Navy Dockyard was formerly Gibraltar's major employer.", "There is still a harbour on the west side of the territory.", "The Gibraltar-registered merchant marine consists of 26 ships of 1000 tonnes and above.", "There is an irregular direct regular fast ferry service to Tanger-Med port, Morocco but many passengers now travel from Algeciras or Tarifa due to a more regular service being present at those ports.The ferry between Gibraltar and Algeciras, which existed until 1969, when communications with Spain were severed by the Spanish dictator Francisco Franco, was reopened on 16 December 2009, served by the Spanish company Transcoma, which used a catamaran, ''Punta Europa Segundo'' in memory of the original ferry that served the cross-Bay route in the 1960s.", "The maritime operations of Transcoma were taken over by Grupo Medex on 10 November 2010, which announced a higher-capacity new ship for 2011.Freight ferries between Gibraltar and Algeciras for shipments of food goods were started after the UK's withdrawal from the EU.Various cruise liners visit the Port of Gibraltar throughout the year, and dock at the Gibraltar Cruise Terminal on the Western Arm of the North Mole.", "This provides the means of transport for a significant proportion of day-tripper tourists arriving in the territory." ], [ "Air", "During World War 1, the Royal Naval Air Service brought one of the first seaplanes to come to Gibraltar, a Wight Seaplane, to search for submarines.In 1931 the seaplane Saro Windhover Captained by Edgar Percival for GB Airways was the first of regular passenger flights from Gibraltar to Morocco.", "If there was a levant wind, then the seaplane would land on an aerodrome in Morocco instead of Tangier harbour.Gibraltar Airport and border area.", "Showing runway (Gibraltar) and pier behind (Spain).", "Officially, any exact line is still disputedWork began in 1939 to build what is today Gibraltar Airport and is the territory's only airport.", "It is situated very close to the border with Spain.", "Winston Churchill Avenue the road which runs from the Gibraltar–Spain border, crosses the runway, requiring the road to be closed each time an aircraft lands or takes off.", "Scheduled civilian passenger flights are operated by EasyJet, British Airways and Royal Air Maroc.Following an agreement signed in Córdoba between the Governments of the United Kingdom, Spain and Gibraltar in September 2006, the use of Gibraltar Airport by both Gibraltarian and Spanish services was agreed.", "Gibraltar Airport will be adapted to have an entrance from Spain (as well as Gibraltar), in a similar manner to Basel and Geneva airports (which are also adjacent to borders).Iberia commenced direct flights between Madrid and Gibraltar on 16 December 2006 with GB Airways following on 1 May 2007.However, GB Airways discontinued its Madrid service on 30 September 2007 and Iberia subsequently considered using smaller aircraft, possibly from its Air Nostrum regional partner – indicating that neither operator may have been able to fill their planes with passengers.", "Iberia eventually withdrew its service in September 2008.In 2009 Ándalus Líneas Aéreas started flights between Gibraltar and Madrid.", "However, on 13 August 2010, the airline ceased operations because the Spanish aviation authorities withdrew their licence.Following the takeover by EasyJet, GB Airways dropped its direct Gibraltar–London Heathrow service on 28 October 2006 despite apparently remaining popular.", "The reason cited by GB Airways was the \"convenience of\" concentrating all its London services onto a single hub at Gatwick.", "Later, a sale of several of GB Airways' Heathrow slots is believed to have netted GB Airways with up to £80m.", "In late 2007 GB Airways was bought by EasyJet (and thus ceased to be a British Airways franchise partner); all flights were rebranded as EasyJet in 2008.Flights are available from Gibraltar to London Heathrow, London Gatwick, Luton, Bristol, Casablanca, Tangier and Manchester airports.", "During 2012 bmibaby offered a service to East Midlands Airport, but the airline ceased operations in September 2012." ], [ "Cable car", "Gibraltar Cable CarA cable car runs from just south of the city centre to the Ape's Den and the Top of the Rock, which despite its name is actually the second highest peak of the Rock." ], [ "Proposed tunnel", "In January 2021, it was reported that the United Kingdom and Morocco would discuss building a Strait of Gibraltar crossing between Gibraltar and Tangiers." ], [ "Dispute with Spain", "The road crossing into Spain was closed by the Spanish authorities in 1969 and only reopened for pedestrians in 1982 and for vehicles in 1985.A ferry operated between Algeciras and Gibraltar until 1969.For a few months in 2004 Spain banned cruise ships which had visited Gibraltar from going to Spanish ports on the same journey.", "In 2003, the land frontier was closed for a day by Spain on the grounds that a visiting cruise liner, the MV ''Aurora'', was affected by contagious food poisoning.", "No cases in Gibraltar were reported.The airport is built on the isthmus which the Spanish Government claim not to have been ceded in the Treaty of Utrecht, thus the integration of Gibraltar Airport in the Single European Sky system has been blocked by Spain.", "The 1987 agreement for joint control of the airport with Spain was rejected by the then Government of Gibraltar.", "All successive Governments of Gibraltar have rejected it, although welcoming joint use of the airport (which being next to the border could operate in a similar manner to Geneva Airport or EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg).", "Following the ''Cordoba Agreement'' (between the UK, Spain and Gibraltar) in 2006, the joint use of the airport was finally agreed.The road crossing from Gibraltar into Spain can often be subject to long delays.", "A loop road is located next to the border to hold cars waiting in the queue to cross into Spain.", "Motorists (and sometimes pedestrians) crossing the border are randomly subjected to long delays and searches by the Spanish authorities." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Glorioso Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Glorieuses''' or '''Glorioso Islands''' ( or officially also ) are a group of French islands and rocks totaling .", "They are controlled by France as part of the Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean in the French Southern and Antarctic Lands, a French overseas territory, but are also claimed by Comoros, Madagascar and formerly by Seychelles.", "They are geographically part of the Comoro Islands between the French overseas region of Mayotte and the nation of Madagascar." ], [ "Archipelago", "DMA, 1985)The archipelago consists of two islands, Grande Glorieuse () and Île du Lys, as well as eight rock islets (''Roches Vertes''): Wreck Rock (), South Rock () and Verte Rocks () and three other rocks that are unnamed.", "They form part of a coral reef and lagoon.", "Grande Glorieuses is roughly circular and measures about across.", "It is thickly vegetated, mainly by the remains of a coconut plantation and casuarina trees.Île du Lys, located at about northeast of Grande Glorieuses, is about long and consists of sand dunes and scrub with some mangroves.", "It was formerly quarried for phosphate (guano).The Glorieuses have an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of .", "There are anchorages offshore, and Grande Glorieuse has a long airstrip." ], [ "Climate", "The climate is tropical and the terrain is low and flat, varying in height from sea level to .", "Île de Lys in particular is a nesting ground for migratory seabirds, and turtles lay eggs on the beaches.", "In the ocean, migratory species such as humpback whales and whale sharks may appear." ], [ "History", "While probably earlier known to Arab (perhaps especially Yemeni) navigators, the Glorieuses were named and settled in 1880 by a Frenchman, Hippolyte Caltaux, who established a coconut plantation on Grande Glorieuse.", "The archipelago became a French possession in 1892 when Captain Richard of the ''Primauget'' made a formal claim.", "In 1895, the Glorioso Island became a part of the colony of Mayotte and dependencies.From 1914 to 1958, concessions to exploit the islands were given to Seychelles companies.", "The islands are today nature reserves with a meteorological station garrisoned by the French Foreign Legion.", "Despite the Glorioso Islands never having been a part of the Malagasy Protectorate but a part of the colony of Mayotte and dependencies, then a part of French Comoros, Madagascar has claimed sovereignty over the islands since 1972.The Comoros claims Mayotte and Glorioso Islands.", "The Seychelles claimed the islands too before the France–Seychelles Maritime Boundary Agreement in 2001.In 2012, France founded Glorioso Islands Marine Natural Park, a marine protected area, to preserve the endangered flora and fauna of the islands." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Iles glorieuses 76.jpg\|MapFile:Iles glorieuses.jpg\|Island overview" ], [ "See also", "France–Seychelles Maritime Boundary AgreementMoheli Marine Park*Glorioso Islands Marine Natural Park" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Gulf of Finland" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Gulf of Finland''' (; ; ; ) is the easternmost arm of the Baltic Sea.", "It extends between Finland to the north and Estonia to the south, to Saint Petersburg in Russia to the east, where the river Neva drains into it.", "Other major cities around the gulf include Helsinki and Tallinn.", "The eastern parts of the Gulf of Finland belong to Russia, and some of Russia's most important oil harbors are located farthest in, near Saint Petersburg (including Primorsk).", "As the seaway to Saint Petersburg, the Gulf of Finland has been and continues to be of considerable strategic importance to Russia.", "Some of the environmental problems affecting the Baltic Sea are at their most pronounced in the shallow gulf.", "Proposals for a tunnel through the gulf have been made." ], [ "Geography", "300pxSatellite image showing the gulf entirely frozen over in January 2003The gulf has an area of .", "The length (from the Hanko Peninsula to Saint Petersburg) is and the width varies from near the entrance to on the meridian of Moshchny Island; in the Neva Bay, it decreases to .", "The gulf is relatively shallow, with the depth decreasing from the entrance to the gulf to the continent.", "The sharpest change occurs near Narva-Jõesuu, which is why this place is called the Narva wall.", "The average depth is with the maximum of .", "The depth of the Neva Bay is less than ; therefore, in March 2019, a channel was dug at the bottom for safe navigation.", "Because of the large influx of fresh water from rivers, especially from the Neva River (two-thirds of the total runoff), the gulf water has very low salinity – between 0.2 and 0.3 ‰ at the surface and 0.3–0.5 ‰ near the bottom.", "The average water temperature is close to in winter; in summer, it is at the surface and at the bottom.", "Parts of the gulf can freeze from late November to late April; the freezing starts in the east and gradually proceeds to the west.", "Complete freezing usually occurs by late January, and it may not occur in mild winters.Frequent strong western winds cause waves, surges of water and floods.The northern coast of the gulf is high and winding, with abundant small bays and skerries, but only a few large bays (Vyborg) and peninsulas (Hanko and Porkkalanniemi).", "The coast is mostly sloping; there are abundant sandy dunes, with occasional pine trees.", "The southern shores are smooth and shallow, but along the entire coast runs a limestone escarpment, the Baltic Klint, with a height up to .", "In the east, the gulf ends with Neva Bay; in the west it merges with the Baltic Sea.The gulf contains numerous banks, skerries and islands.", "The largest include Kotlin Island with the city of Kronstadt (population 42,800), Beryozovye Islands, Lisiy Island, Maly Vysotsky Island with the nearby city of Vysotsk (population 1706), Gogland (Suursaari), Moshtchny (Lavansaari), Bolshoy Tyuters (Tytärsaari), Sommers, Naissaar, Kimitoön, Kökar, Seskar (Seiskari), Pakri Islands and others.Starting in 1700, Russia constructed nineteen artificial islands with fortresses in the gulf.", "They aimed to defend Russia from maritime attacks, especially in the context of the Great Northern War of 1700–1721.Such fortresses include Fort Alexander, Krasnaya Gorka, Ino, Totleben and .The largest rivers flowing into the gulf are the Neva (from the east), the Narva (from the south), and the Kymi (from the north).", "Keila, Pirita, Jägala, Kunda, Luga, Sista and Kovashi flow into the gulf from the south.", "From the north flow the Sestra River, Porvoo, Vantaa and several other small rivers.", "The Saimaa Canal connects the gulf with the Saimaa lake.===Extent===The International Hydrographic Organization defines the western limit of the Gulf of Finland as a line running from Spithami (59°13'N), in Estonia, through the Estonian island of Osmussaar from SE to NW and on to the SW extremity of Hanko Peninsula (22°54'E) in Finland." ], [ "Geological history", "The modern depression can be traced to the incision of large rivers during the Cenozoic prior to the Quaternary glaciation.", "These rivers eroded the sedimentary strata above the Fennoscandian Shield.", "In particular the eroded material was made up of Ediacaran (Vendian) and Cambrian-aged claystone and sandstone.", "As erosion progressed, the rivers encountered harder layers of Ordovician-aged limestone, leading to the formation of the cliffs of Baltic Klint in northern Estonia and Ingria.", "Subsequently, the depression was somewhat reshaped by glacier activities.", "Its retreat formed the Littorina Sea, whose water level was some 7–9 metres higher than the present level of the Baltic Sea.", "Some 4,000 years ago the sea receded and shoals in the gulf have become its islands.", "Later uplifting of the Baltic Shield skewed the surface of the gulf; for this reason, its ancient northern shores are significantly higher than the southern ones.+190px205px190px215px215pxGulf Coast near KomarovoIslands near HelsinkiView on the bay from the St. Olaf's Church, TallinnFishermen on the Gulf of FinlandSunset in the Gulf of Finland210px290px310px310px310pxKronstadt in winterPanorama of Neva River from the GulfView on the island of Hogland by KotkaIce off the coast at sunset.", "Komarovo CoastWinter evening in the northern coast of the Neva Bay" ], [ "Flora and fauna", "Malusi islands in Estonia are one of the main habitats of grey seals in the Gulf of Finland.The climate in the area is humid continental climate, characterized by temperate to hot summers and cold, occasionally severe winters with regular precipitation.", "The vegetation is dominated by a mixture of coniferous and deciduous forests and treeless coastal meadows and cliffs.", "The major forest trees are pine, spruce, birch, willows, rowan, aspen, common and gray alder.", "In the far eastern part of the gulf vegetation of the marshy areas consists mainly of bulrush and reeds, as well as fully aquatic plants, such as white and yellow waterlilies and acute sedge.", "Aquatic plants in the shallow waters of the gulf include ''Ruppia'' and spiny naiad.Fish species of the gulf include Atlantic salmon, viviparous eelpout, gobies, belica, loach, European chub, common minnow, silver bream, common dace, ruffe, Crucian carp, stickleback, European smelt, common rudd, brown trout, tench, pipefish, burbot, perch, gudgeon, lumpsucker, roach, lamprey, vendace, garfish, common whitefish, common bream, zander, orfe, northern pike, spined loach, sprat, Baltic herring, sabre carp, common bleak, European eel and Atlantic cod.", "Commercial fishing is carried out in spring and autumn.", "Grey seal and ringed seal are met in the gulf, but the latter is very rare." ], [ "History", "===Before 1700===Many ancient sites were discovered on the shores of the gulf dated to up to 9000 years old.", "Humans began to inhabit these places soon after the ice age glaciers retreated and the water level of the Littorina Sea lowered to reveal the land.", "Remains of about 11 Neolithic settlements were found since 1905 in the mouth of the river Sestra River (Leningrad Oblast).", "They contain arrow tips and scrapers made of quartz, numerous food utensils and traces of fire camps – all indicative of hunting rather than agricultural or animal husbandry activities.", "''Overseas Guests'' by Nicholas Roerich, 1899The gulf coast was later populated by Finnic peoples.", "Estonians inhabited the region of the modern Estonia, Votes were living on the south of the gulf and Izhorians to the south of Neva River.", "Korela tribes settled to the west of Lake Ladoga.", "They were engaged in slash-and-burn agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting and fishing.", "From the 8th to the 13th century, the Gulf of Finland and Neva were parts of the waterway from Scandinavia to the Byzantine Empire.From the 9th century, the eastern coast of the gulf was controlled by Veliky Novgorod and was called ''Vodskaya Pyatina''.", "As a result of the 1219, crusade and the Battle of Lindanise, northern Estonia became part of Denmark (Danish Estonia).", "In the 13th century, the city of Reval (Tallinn) () was established on the site of modern Tallinn, capital of Estonia.", "As a result of the Estonian uprising in 1343, northern Estonia was taken over by the Teutonic Order and sold by Denmark in 1346.In 1559, during the Livonian War, the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek in Old Livonia sold his lands to King Frederick II of Denmark.", "The Danish king gave the territory to his younger brother Magnus who landed on Saaremaa with an army in 1560.The whole of Saaremaa became a Danish possession in 1573, and remained so until it was transferred to Sweden in 1645.In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Finnish tribes on the north of the gulf were conquered by the Swedes who then proceeded to the Slavs.", "The first encounter is attributed to 1142 when 60 Swedish ships attacked 3 Russian merchant vessels.", "After a Swedish attack in 1256, the Russian army of Alexander Nevsky crossed the frozen gulf and raided the Swedish territories in the modern Finland.", "In 1293, the Vyborg Castle and city of Vyborg was founded by the Swedish marshal Torkel Knutsson.", "The castle was fought over for decades between Sweden and the Novgorod Republic.", "By the Treaty of Nöteborg in 1323, Vyborg was finally recognized as a part of Sweden.", "It withstood a prolonged siege by Daniil Shchenya during the Russo-Swedish War of 1496–1499.The town's trade privileges were chartered by King Eric of Pomerania in 1403.Vyborg remained in Swedish hands until its capture by Peter the Great in the Great Northern War (1710).In 1323, the Treaty of Nöteborg set the border between Sweden and Russia along the river Sestra.", "In the 15th century, the Izhorian lands of the Novgorod Republic were attached to the Grand Duchy of Moscow.", "In 1550, Gustav I of Sweden founded a city on the site of modern Helsinki.", "As a result of the Russian defeat in the Ingrian War (1610–1617) and the Treaty of Stolbovo (1617) the lands on the Gulf of Finland and Neva River became part of the Swedish Ingria.", "Its capital Nyen was located in the delta of Neva River.===History since 1700===Russia reclaimed the eastern part of the gulf as a result of the victory in the Great Northern War (1700–1721).", "On 16 May 1703, Saint Petersburg was founded in the mouth of Neva River, not far from Nyen, and in 1712 it became the capital city of Russia.", "To protect the city from the Swedish fleet, the Kronshlot fortress was built on an artificial island near the Kotlin Island in May 1704.By 1705, five more such forts were built nearby composing the city Kronstadt.", "These fortifications, nicknamed by the contemporaries \"the Russian Dardanelles\", were designed to control the Gulf waterway.In 1710, the cities of Peterhof and Oranienbaum were founded on the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland.", "On 27 July 1714, near the Hanko Peninsula, the Russian Navy won the Battle of Gangut – a decisive victory over the Imperial Swedish Navy.", "The Russo-Swedish war ended in 1721 by the Treaty of Nystad, by which Russia received all the lands along the Neva and the Gulf of Finland, as well as Estland, Swedish Livonia and western part of the Karelian Isthmus, including Vyborg.", "However, Finland was returned to Sweden.", "The war resumed in (1788–1790), and the Battle of Hogland occurred on 6 July 1788 near the island Gogland.", "Both the battle and the war were relatively minor and indecisive, with the outcome of Russia retaining its territories.The next Russo-Swedish war was fought in (1808–1809).", "It ended with the Treaty of Fredrikshamn giving the Russia rights on the territory of Finland and Åland.", "The newly established in 1809 Grand Duchy of Finland received broad autonomy within the Russian Empire and Western Karelia was returned to Finland.", "On 6 December 1917, the Parliament of Finland promulgated the Finnish Declaration of Independence.", "Western Karelia was annexed by the Soviet Union after the Winter War.Estonia declared independence in 1918, and in 1918-1920 fought a successful war of independence against Soviet Russia.", "Estonia declared neutrality at the outbreak of World War II, however the country was repeatedly contested, invaded and occupied, first by the Soviet Union in 1940, then by Nazi Germany in 1941, and was ultimately reoccupied in 1944 by, and annexed into, the USSR as an administrative subunit (Estonian SSR).", "Estonia regained independence in 1991.+220px220px200pxBattle of GangutBattle of Hogland''Sea battle at Vyborg(1790)'' Ivan Aivazovsky, 1846In March 1921, the Kronstadt rebellion by sailors was put down by the Red Army.", "The Gulf of Finland had several major naval operations during World War II.", "In August 1941, during the evacuation of the Baltic Fleet from Tallinn to Kronstadt, German forces sank 15 Russian military vessels, (5 destroyers, 2 submarines, 3 guard ships, 2 minesweepers, 2 gunboats and 1 Motor Torpedo Boat) as well as 43 transport and support ships.", "Several ships still remain on the gulf bottom near Cape Juminda, and a monument was raised there in memory of those lost in the events.In 1978, construction was started on the Saint Petersburg Dam aiming to protect Saint Petersburg from the frequent floods.", "The work was halted at 60% completion in the late 1980s, due to the financial problems related to the breakup of the Soviet Union; it was resumed in 2001 and is – as of August 2011 – complete." ], [ "Economy", "The southern coast of the gulf contains the Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant and a network of ports and unique natural and historical places.", "Navigation has long been the dominant activity in the gulf.", "The major port cities and their functions are, in Russia: Saint Petersburg (all kinds of goods), Kronstadt (container shipping),Lomonosov (general cargo, containers, metals), Vyborg (general cargo), Primorsk (oil and petroleum products), Vysotsk (oil and coal), Ust-Luga (oil, coal, timber, containers); in Finland: Helsinki (containers), Kotka (containers, timber, agricultural products; it is the main transhipment cargo port for Russia), Hanko (containers, vehicles), Turku (containers, rail ferry), Kilpilahti/Sköldvik harbour (oil refinery); in Estonia: Tallinn (grains, refrigerators, oil), Paldiski, Sillamäe.", "Gulf of Finland is also part of the Volga–Baltic Waterway and White Sea–Baltic Canal.", "Important goods include apatite from the Kola Peninsula, Karelian granite and greenstone, timber from Arkhangelsk Oblast and Vologda, ferrous metals from Cherepovets, coal from Donbas and the Kuznetsk Basin, pyrite from Ural, potassium chloride from Solikamsk, oil from Volga region, and grains from many regions of Russia.Passenger transport on the gulf includes a number of ferry lines which connect the following ports: Helsinki and Hanko (Finland), Mariehamn (Åland), Stockholm and Kapellskär (Sweden), Tallinn and Paldiski (Estonia), Rostock (Germany), Saint Petersburg and Kaliningrad (Russia), as well as many other cities.Another major and historical activity in the gulf is fishing, especially on the northern coast near Vyborg, Primorsk and on the southern coast near Ust-Luga.", "Commercial fish species are herring, sprats, European smelt, whitefishes, carp bream, roaches, perch, European eel, lamprey and others.", "In 2005, the catchment was 2000 tons by the ships of Saint Petersburg and Leningrad Oblast alone.In September 2005 the agreement was signed on the construction of the Nord Stream 1 offshore gas pipeline on the Baltic Sea, from Vyborg to the German city of Greifswald.", "The first line was expected become operational in 2011.Afterwards, the first line of Nord Stream was laid by May 2011 and was inaugurated on 8 November 2011; the second line was inaugurated on 8 October 2012, and was completed in September 2021, but has not entered service yet, as its approval got halted in February 2022.+210px210px210pxSaint Petersburg, RussiaTallinn, EstoniaHelsinki, Finland" ], [ "Archaeology", "Shipwreck of ''Kazanets'' near Osmussaar, in EstoniaThe bottom of the gulf is one of the world's largest ship cemeteries.", "Because of the low salinity and cold waters, and no shipworms, the ships are relatively well preserved.", "Since the 6th century, major waterways were running through the gulf, and from the 8th to the 10th century, about 3,000 tonnes of silver was transported there.", "Later, the gulf was actively used by Sweden and Russia for transport of goods.", "Every year saw dozens of lost ships.", "In the fall of 1743, 17 Russian warships returning from Finland sank in just 7 hours, and in the summer of 1747, 26 merchant vessels sank within 4 hours near Narva.", "A record was set in 1721 when during the evacuation of Russian troops from Finland, more than 100 vessels were lost within 3 months, including 64 in a single night.By the end of 1996, about 5,000 submerged objects were identified in the Russian part of the gulf, including 2,500 ships, 1,500 airplanes, and small items such as boats, anchors, tanks, tractors, cars, cannons, and even naval mines, aerial bombs, torpedoes, and other ammunition.", "The ships belonged to Russia (25%), Germany (19%), United Kingdom (17%), Sweden (15%), Netherlands (8%), and Finland (7%).", "The remaining 9% are from Norway, Denmark, France, United States, Italy, Estonia, and Latvia.", "These objects present potential hazards to navigation, fishery, coastal construction, laying of submarine pipelines and cables, and the environment.", "Mines were laid in the gulf during World War I (38,932 units), the Russian Civil War, and the Winter War (1939–1940), with an estimated total number of 60,000; 85,000 more mines were set during World War II, and only a fraction of all those were eliminated after the wars." ], [ "Pollution", "Ust-Luga Multimodal Complex on the Soikinsky Peninsula in the Kingiseppsky District of northwestern RussiaThe ecological condition of the Gulf of Finland, Neva Bay and Neva River is unsatisfactory.", "There is significant contamination by ions of mercury and copper, organochlorine pesticides, phenols, petroleum products and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.", "Cleaning of waste water in Saint Petersburg was started in 1979 and by 1997 about 74% of wastewater was purified.", "This number rose to 85% in 2005, to 91.7% by 2008, and as of 2009 was expected to reach 100% by 2011 with the completion of the expansion of the main sewerage plant.", "Nevertheless, in 2008, the Federal Service of Saint Petersburg announced that no beach of Saint Petersburg is fit for swimming.Fish catchment decreased 10 times between 1989 and 2005.Apart from pollution, another reason for that is hydraulic and engineering works.", "For example, construction of new ports in Ust-Luga and Vysotsk and on Vasilyevsky Island adversely affected the spawning of fish.", "Extraction of sand and gravel in the Neva Bay for the land reclamation destroy spawning sites of European smelt.Construction of the Saint Petersburg Dam reduced water exchange of the Neva Bay with the eastern part of the gulf by 10–20% that increased the contamination level of Neva Bay.", "The largest changes occur within from the dam.", "Some shallow areas between Saint Petersburg and the dam are turning into swamps.", "Waterlogging and the associated rotting of plants may eventually lead to eutrophication of the area.", "Also worrying is expansion of oil ports in the gulf and the construction of a treatment center for spent fuel from the Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant.The port of Kronstadt is currently serving as a transit point for the import in Russia of radioactive waste through the Baltic Sea.", "The waste, mostly depleted uranium hexafluoride, is further transported through Saint Petersburg to Novouralsk, Angarsk and other cities of eastern Russia.", "This transit point will be moved from Saint Petersburg to the port Ust-Luga, which is about west of Saint Petersburg, and within the Border Security Zone of Russia, as decided by the Russian government in 2003 (Order No.", "1491-r of 14 October 2003).", "It is expected that after this completes it should reduce the ecological risks for Saint Petersburg.", "Ust-Luga is envisioned to be the largest transportation and logistics hub in northwestern Russia.", "However, in 2015 it was reported that some construction plans in Ust-Luga were frozen, and the construction of Ust-Luga Multimodal Complex, supposed to be the transit point for radioactive waste, never started." ], [ "Major cities", "* Espoo* Hamina* Hanko* '''Helsinki'''* Kirkkonummi* Kotka* Kronstadt* Kunda* Loksa* Lomonosov* Loviisa* Maardu* Narva-Jõesuu* Paldiski* Peterhof* Porvoo* Primorsk* '''Saint Petersburg'''* Sestroretsk* Sillamäe* Sosnovy Bor* '''Tallinn'''* Vyborg* Zelenogorsk" ], [ "See also", "* Kven Sea* Peter the Great's Naval Fortress" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ESA satellite photograph of the Gulf of Finland (archived 7 July 2004)* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Gdańsk" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gdańsk''' ( , ; ; ; or ; , , ) is a city on the Baltic coast of northern Poland.", "With a population of 486,492, Gdańsk is the capital and largest city of the Pomeranian Voivodeship.", "It is Poland's principal seaport and the country's fourth-largest metropolitan area.The city lies at the southern edge of Gdańsk Bay, close to the city of Gdynia and resort town of Sopot; these form a metropolitan area called the Tricity (''Trójmiasto''), with a metropolitan (including rural localities) population of approximately 1.5 million.", "Gdańsk lies at the mouth of the Motława River, connected to the Leniwka, a branch in the delta of the Vistula River, which connects Gdańsk with the Polish capital Warsaw.The city has a complex history, having had periods of Polish, German and self rule.", "An important shipbuilding and trade port since the Middle Ages, in 1361 it became a member of the Hanseatic League which influenced its economic, demographic and urban landscape.", "It also served as Poland's principal seaport, and was the largest city of Poland in the 15th-17th centuries.", "In 1793, within the Partitions of Poland, the city became part of Prussia, and thus a part of the German Empire from 1871 after the unification of Germany.", "Following World War One and the Treaty of Versailles, it was a Free City under the protection of the League of Nations from 1920 to 1939.On 1 September 1939 it was the scene of the first clash of World War II at Westerplatte.", "The contemporary city was shaped by extensive border changes, expulsions and new settlement after 1945.In the 1980s, Gdańsk was the birthplace of the Solidarity movement, which helped precipitate the collapse of the Eastern Bloc, the fall of the Berlin Wall and the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact.Gdańsk is home to the University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk University of Technology, the National Museum, the Gdańsk Shakespeare Theatre, the Museum of the Second World War, the Polish Baltic Philharmonic, the Polish Space Agency and the European Solidarity Centre.", "Among Gdańsk's most notable historical landmarks are the Town Hall, the Green Gate, Artus Court, Neptune's Fountain, and St. Mary's Church, one of the largest brick churches in the world.", "The city is served by Gdańsk Lech Wałęsa Airport, the country's third busiest airport and the most important international airport in northern Poland.Gdańsk is among the most visited cities in Poland, having received 3.4 million tourists according to data collected in 2019.The city also hosts St. Dominic's Fair, which dates back to 1260, and is regarded as one of the biggest trade and cultural events in Europe.", "Gdańsk has also topped rankings for the quality of life, safety and living standards worldwide, and its historic city center has been listed as one of Poland's national monuments." ], [ "Names", "=== Origin===A manuscript fragment featuring ''gyddanyzc''The name of the city was most likely derived from ''Gdania'', a river presently known as Motława on which the city is situated.", "Linguists argue that the name stems from the Proto-Slavic adjective/prefix ''gъd-'', which meant wet or moist with the addition of the morpheme ''ń''/''ni'' and the suffix ''-sk''.=== History===The name of the settlement was recorded after St. Adalbert's death in 997 CE as ''urbs Gyddanyzc'' and it was later written as ''Kdanzk'' in 1148, ''Gdanzc'' in 1188, ''Danceke'' in 1228, ''Gdańsk'' in 1236, ''Danzc'' in 1263, ''Danczk'' in 1311, ''Danczik'' in 1399, ''Danczig'' in 1414, and ''Gdąnsk'' in 1656.In Polish documents, the form Gdańsk was always used.", "The German form Danzig developed later, simplifying the consonant clusters to something easier for German speakers to pronounce.", "The cluster \"gd\" became \"d\" (''Danzc'' from 1263), the combination \"ns\" became \"nts\" (''Danczk'' from 1311)., and finally an epenthetical \"i\" broke up the final cluster (''Danczik'' from 1399).In Polish, the modern name of the city is pronounced .", "In English (where the diacritic over the \"n\" is frequently omitted) the usual pronunciation is or .", "The German name, ''Danzig'', is usually pronounced , or alternatively in more Southern German-speaking areas.", "The city's Latin name may be given as either ''Gedania'', ''Gedanum'', or ''Dantiscum''; the variety of Latin names reflects the mixed influence of the city's Polish, German and Kashubian heritage.", "Other former spellings of the name include ''Dantzig'', ''Dantsic'', and ''Dantzic''.===Ceremonial names===On special occasions, the city is also referred to as \"The Royal Polish City of Gdańsk\" (Polish: ''Królewskie Polskie Miasto Gdańsk'', Latin: ''Regia Civitas Polonica Gedanensis'', Kashubian: ''Królewsczi Pòlsczi Gard Gduńsk'').", "In the Kashubian language the city is called .", "Although some Kashubians may also use the name \"Our Capital City Gduńsk\" (''Nasz Stoleczny Gard Gduńsk'') or \"The Kashubian Capital City Gduńsk\" (''Stoleczny Kaszëbsczi Gard Gduńsk''), the cultural and historical connections between the city and the region of Kashubia are debatable and use of such names rises controversy among Kashubians." ], [ "History", "===Ancient history===The oldest evidence found for the existence of a settlement on the lands of what is now Gdańsk comes from the Bronze Age (which is estimated to be from 2500–1700 BCE).", "The settlement that is now known as Gdańsk began in the 9th century, being mostly an agriculture and fishing-dependent village.", "In the beginning of the 10th century, it began becoming an important centre for trade (especially between the Pomeranians) until its annexation in 975 by Mieszko I.===Early Poland===The largest medieval port crane in Europe, situated over the river Motława.The first written record thought to refer to Gdańsk is the ''vita'' of Saint Adalbert.", "Written in 999, it describes how in 997 Saint Adalbert of Prague baptised the inhabitants of ''urbs Gyddannyzc'', \"which separated the great realm of the duke i.e., Bolesław the Brave of Poland from the sea.\"", "No further written sources exist for the 10th and 11th centuries.", "Based on the date in Adalbert's ''vita'', the city celebrated its millennial anniversary in 1997.Archaeological evidence for the origins of the town was retrieved mostly after World War II had laid 90percent of the city centre in ruins, enabling excavations.", "The oldest seventeen settlement levels were dated to between 980 and 1308.Mieszko I of Poland erected a stronghold on the site in the 980s, thereby connecting the Polish state ruled by the Piast dynasty with the trade routes of the Baltic Sea.", "Traces of buildings and housing from the 10th century have been found in archaeological excavations of the city.===Pomeranian Poland===Excavated remains of 12th-century buildings in GdańskThe site was ruled as a duchy of Poland by the Samborides.", "It consisted of a settlement at the modern Long Market, settlements of craftsmen along the ''Old Ditch'', German merchant settlements around ''St Nicholas's'' church and the old Piast stronghold.", "In 1186, a Cistercian monastery was set up in nearby Oliwa, which is now within the city limits.", "In 1215, the ducal stronghold became the centre of a Pomerelian splinter duchy.", "At that time the area of the later city included various villages.In 1224/25, merchants from Lübeck were invited as ''hospites'' (immigrants with specific privileges) but were soon (in 1238) forced to leave by Swietopelk II of the Samborides during a war between Swietopelk and the Teutonic Knights, during which Lübeck supported the latter.", "Migration of merchants to the town resumed in 1257.Significant German influence did not reappear until the 14th century, after the takeover of the city by the Teutonic Knights.At latest in 1263 Pomerelian duke, Swietopelk II granted city rights under Lübeck law to the emerging market settlement.", "It was an autonomy charter similar to that of Lübeck, which was also the primary origin of many settlers.", "In a document of 1271 the Pomerelian duke Mestwin II addressed the Lübeck merchants settled in the city as his loyal citizens from Germany.In 1300, the town had an estimated population of 2,000.While overall the town was far from an important trade centre at that time, it had some relevance in the trade with Eastern Europe.", "Low on funds, the Samborides lent the settlement to Brandenburg, although they planned to take the city back and give it to Poland.", "Poland threatened to intervene, and the Brandenburgians left the town.", "Subsequently, the city was taken by Danish princes in 1301.===Teutonic Knights===Monument to defenders of Polish Gdańsk also commemorates the victims of the 1308 massacre carried out by the Teutonic Knights.In 1308, the town was taken by Brandenburg and the Teutonic Knights restored order.", "Subsequently, the Knights took over control of the town.", "Primary sources record a massacre carried out by the Teutonic Knights against the local population, of 10,000 people, but the exact number killed is subject of dispute in modern scholarship.", "Multiple authors accept the number given in the original sources, while others consider 10,000 to have been a medieval exaggeration, although scholarly consensus is that a massacre of some magnitude did take place.", "The events were used by the Polish crown to condemn the Teutonic Knights in a subsequent papal lawsuit.The knights colonized the area, replacing local Kashubians and Poles with German settlers.", "In 1308, they founded ''Osiek Hakelwerk'' near the town, initially as a Slavic fishing settlement.", "In 1340, the Teutonic Knights constructed a large fortress, which became the seat of the knights' Komtur.", "In 1346 they changed the Town Law of the city, which then consisted only of the ''Rechtstadt'', to Kulm law.", "In 1358, Danzig joined the Hanseatic League, and became an active member in 1361.It maintained relations with the trade centres Bruges, Novgorod, Lisboa, and Sevilla.", "Around 1377, the Old Town was equipped with city rights as well.", "In 1380, the ''New Town'' was founded as the third, independent settlement.After a series of Polish-Teutonic Wars, in the Treaty of Kalisz (1343) the Order had to acknowledge that it would hold Pomerelia as a fief from the Polish Crown.", "Although it left the legal basis of the Order's possession of the province in some doubt, the city thrived as a result of increased exports of grain (especially wheat), timber, potash, tar, and other goods of forestry from Prussia and Poland via the Vistula River trading routes, although after its capture, the Teutonic Knights tried to actively reduce the economic significance of the town.", "While under the control of the Teutonic Order German migration increased.", "The Order's religious networks helped to develop Danzig's literary culture.", "A new war broke out in 1409, culminating in the Battle of Grunwald (1410), and the city came under the control of the Kingdom of Poland.", "A year later, with the First Peace of Thorn, it returned to the Teutonic Order.===Kingdom of Poland===''Apotheosis of Gdańsk'' by Izaak van den Blocke.", "The Vistula-borne trade of goods in Poland was the main source of prosperity during the city's Golden Age.In 1440, the city participated in the foundation of the Prussian Confederation which was an organisation opposed to the rule of the Teutonic Knights.", "The organisation in its complaint of 1453 mentioned repeated cases in which the Teutonic Knights imprisoned or murdered local patricians and mayors without a court verdict.", "On the request of the organisation King Casimir IV of Poland reincorporated the territory to the Kingdom of Poland in 1454.This led to the Thirteen Years' War between Poland and the State of the Teutonic Order (1454–1466).", "Since 1454, the city was authorized by the King to mint Polish coins.", "The local mayor pledged allegiance to the King during the incorporation in March 1454 in Kraków, and the city again solemnly pledged allegiance to the King in June 1454 in Elbląg, recognizing the prior Teutonic annexation and rule as unlawful.", "On 25 May 1457 the city gained its rights as an autonomous city.On 15 May 1457, Casimir IV of Poland granted the town the ''Great Privilege'', after he had been invited by the town's council and had already stayed in town for five weeks.", "With the ''Great Privilege'', the town was granted full autonomy and protection by the King of Poland.", "The privilege removed tariffs and taxes on trade within Poland, Lithuania, and Ruthenia (present day Belarus and Ukraine), and conferred on the town independent jurisdiction, legislation and administration of her territory, as well as the right to mint its own coin.", "Furthermore, the privilege united ''Old Town'', ''Osiek'', and ''Main Town'', and legalised the demolition of ''New Town'', which had sided with the Teutonic Knights.", "By 1457, ''New Town'' was demolished completely, no buildings remained.Gaining free and privileged access to Polish markets, the seaport prospered while simultaneously trading with the other Hanseatic cities.", "After the Second Peace of Thorn (1466) between Poland and the Teutonic Order the warfare ended permanently; Gdańsk became part of the Polish province of Royal Prussia, and later also of the Greater Poland Province.", "The city was visited by Nicolaus Copernicus in 1504 and 1526, and ''Narratio Prima'', the first printed abstract of his heliocentric theory, was published there in 1540.After the Union of Lublin between Poland and Lithuania in 1569 the city continued to enjoy a large degree of internal autonomy (cf.", "Danzig law).", "Being the largest and one of the most influential cities of Poland, it enjoyed voting rights during the royal election period in Poland.In the 1560s and 1570s, a large Mennonite community started growing in the city, gaining significant popularity.", "In the 1575 election to the Polish throne, Danzig supported Maximilian II in his struggle against Stephen Báthory.", "It was the latter who eventually became monarch but the city, encouraged by the secret support of Denmark and Emperor Maximilian, shut its gates against Stephen.", "After the Siege of Danzig, lasting six months, the city's army of 5,000 mercenaries was utterly defeated in a field battle on 16 December 1577.However, since Stephen's armies were unable to take the city by force, a compromise was reached: Stephen Báthory confirmed the city's special status and her Danzig law privileges granted by earlier Polish kings.", "The city recognised him as ruler of Poland and paid the enormous sum of 200,000 guldens in gold as payoff (\"apology\").During the Polish–Swedish War of 1626–1629, in 1627, the naval Battle of Oliwa was fought near the city, and it is one of the greatest victories in the history of the Polish Navy.", "During the Swedish invasion of Poland of 1655–1660, commonly known as the Deluge, the city was unsuccessfully besieged by Sweden.", "In 1660, the war was ended with the Treaty of Oliwa, signed in the present-day district of Oliwa.", "In 1677, a Polish-Swedish alliance was signed in the city.Around 1640, Johannes Hevelius established his astronomical observatory in the Old Town.", "Polish King John III Sobieski regularly visited Hevelius numerous times.Beside a majority of German-speakers, whose elites sometimes distinguished their German dialect as Pomerelian, the city was home to a large number of Polish-speaking Poles, Jewish Poles, Latvian-speaking Kursenieki, Flemings, and Dutch.", "In addition, a number of Scots took refuge or migrated to and received citizenship in the city.", "During the Protestant Reformation, most German-speaking inhabitants adopted Lutheranism.", "Due to the special status of the city and significance within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the city inhabitants largely became bi-cultural sharing both Polish and German culture and were strongly attached to the traditions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.The city suffered a last great plague and a slow economic decline due to the wars of the 18th century.", "As a stronghold of Stanisław Leszczyński's supporters during the War of the Polish Succession, it was taken by the Russians after the Siege of Danzig in 1734.However, by the end of the 18th century, Gdańsk was still one of the most economically integrated cities in Poland.", "It was well-connected and traded actively with German cities, while other Polish cities became less well-integrated towards the end of the century, mostly due to greater risks for long-distance trade, given the number of violent conflicts along the trade routes.", "The Danzig Research Society, which became defunct in 1936, was founded in 1743.In 1772 the First Partition of Poland took place and Prussia annexed almost all of the former Royal Prussia, which became the Province of West Prussia.", "However, Gdańsk remained a part of Poland as an exclave separated from the rest of the country.===Prussia and Germany===Danzig was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1793, in the Second Partition of Poland.", "Both the Polish and the German-speaking population largely opposed the Prussian annexation and wished the city to remain part of Poland.", "The mayor of the city stepped down from his office due to the annexation.", "The notable city councilor Jan (Johann) Uphagen, historian and art collector, also resigned as a sign of protest against the annexation.", "His house exemplifies Baroque in Poland and is now a museum, known as Uphagen's House.", "An attempted student uprising against Prussia led by Gottfried Benjamin Bartholdi was crushed quickly by the authorities in 1797.The Prussian king cut off Danzig with a military controlled barrier, also blocking shipping links to foreign ports, on the pretense that a cattle plague may otherwise break out.", "Danzig declined in its economic significance.", "After peace was restored in 1721, Danzig experienced steady economic recovery.", "In the 1740s and 1750s Danzig was restored and Danzig port was again the most significant grain exporting in the Baltic region.During the Napoleonic Wars, in 1807, the city was besieged and captured by a coalition of French, Polish, Italian, Saxon, and Baden forces.", "Afterwards, it was a free city from 1807 to 1814, when it was captured by combined Prussian-Russian forces.Colorized photo, 1900, showing prewar roof of the ''Krantor'' crane (''Brama Żuraw'').In 1815, after France's defeat in the Napoleonic Wars, it again became part of Prussia and became the capital of within the province of West Prussia.", "Since the 1820s, the Wisłoujście Fortress served as a prison, mainly for Polish political prisoners, including resistance members, protesters, insurgents of the November and January uprisings and refugees from the Russian Partition of Poland fleeing conscription into the Russian Army, and insurgents of the November Uprising were also imprisoned in Biskupia Górka (''Bischofsberg'').", "In May–June 1832 and November 1833, more than 1,000 Polish insurgents departed partitioned Poland through the city's port, boarding ships bound for France, the United Kingdom and the United States (see ''Great Emigration'').The city's longest serving mayor was Robert von Blumenthal, who held office from 1841, through the revolutions of 1848, until 1863.With the unification of Germany in 1871 under Prussian hegemony, the city became part of the German Empire and remained so until 1919, after Germany's defeat in World War I.", "Starting from the 1850s, long-established Danzig families often felt marginalized by the new town elite originating from mainland Germany.", "This situation caused the Polish to allege that the Danzig people were oppressed by German rule and for this reason allegedly failed to articulate their natural desire for strong ties with Poland.===Free City of Danzig and World War II===When Poland regained its independence after World War I with access to the sea as promised by the Allies on the basis of Woodrow Wilson's \"Fourteen Points\" (point 13 called for \"an independent Polish state\", \"which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea\"), the Poles hoped the city's harbour would also become part of Poland.However, in the end – since Germans formed a majority in the city, with Poles being a minority (in the 1923 census 7,896 people out of 335,921 gave Polish, Kashubian, or Masurian as their native language) – the city was not placed under Polish sovereignty.", "Instead, in accordance with the terms of the Versailles Treaty, it became the Free City of Danzig, an independent quasi-state under the auspices of the League of Nations with its external affairs largely under Polish control.Poland's rights also included free use of the harbour, a Polish post office, a Polish garrison in Westerplatte district, and customs union with Poland.", "The Free City had its own constitution, national anthem, parliament, and government ().", "It issued its own stamps as well as its currency, the Danzig gulden.An aerial view of the historic city centre around 1920A 1920s map of the cityWith the growth of Nazism among Germans, anti-Polish sentiment increased and both Germanisation and segregation policies intensified, in the 1930s the rights of local Poles were commonly violated and limited by the local administration.", "Polish children were refused admission to public Polish-language schools, premises were not allowed to be rented to Polish schools and preschools.", "Due to such policies, only 8 Polish-language public schools existed in the city, and Poles managed to organize 7 more private Polish schools.In 1937, Poles who sent their children to private Polish schools were required to transfer children to German schools, under threat of police intervention, and attacks were carried out on Polish schools and Polish youth.", "German militias carried out numerous beatings of Polish activists, scouts and even postal workers, as \"punishment\" for distributing the Polish press.", "German students attacked and expelled Polish students from the technical university.", "Dozens of Polish surnames were forcibly Germanized, while Polish symbols that reminded that for centuries Gdańsk was part of Poland were removed from the city's landmarks, such as the Artus Court and the Neptune's Fountain.From 1937, the employment of Poles by German companies was prohibited, and already employed Poles were fired, the use of Polish in public places was banned and Poles were not allowed to enter several restaurants, in particular those owned by Germans.", "In 1939, before the German invasion of Poland and outbreak of World War II, local Polish railwaymen were victims of beatings, and after the invasion, they were also imprisoned and murdered in concentration camps.In the early 1930s, the local Nazi Party capitalised on pro-German sentiments and in 1933 garnered 50% of vote in the parliament.", "Thereafter, the Nazis under Gauleiter Albert Forster achieved dominance in the city government, which was still nominally overseen by the League of Nations' High Commissioner.", "The German government officially demanded the return of Danzig to Germany along with an extraterritorial (meaning under German jurisdiction) highway through the area of the Polish Corridor for land-based access from the rest of Germany.", "Hitler used the issue of the status of the city as a pretext for attacking Poland and in May 1939, during a high-level meeting of German military officials explained to them: \"It is not Danzig that is at stake.", "For us it is a matter of expanding our Lebensraum in the east\", adding that there will be no repeat of the Czech situation, and Germany will attack Poland at first opportunity, after isolating the country from its Western Allies.After the German proposals to solve the three main issues peacefully were refused, German-Polish relations rapidly deteriorated.", "Germany attacked Poland on 1 September after having signed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union.The German battleship firing at the Polish Military Transit Depot during the Battle of Westerplatte in September 1939The German attack began in Danzig, with a bombardment of Polish positions at Westerplatte by the German battleship , and the landing of German infantry on the peninsula.", "Outnumbered Polish defenders at Westerplatte resisted for seven days before running out of ammunition.", "Meanwhile, after a fierce day-long fight (1 September 1939), defenders of the Polish Post office were tried and executed then buried on the spot in the Danzig quarter of Zaspa in October 1939.In 1998 a German court overturned their conviction and sentence.Polish defenders of the Polish Post Office in Danzig shortly before their trial and execution by the Wehrmacht.The city was officially annexed by Nazi Germany and incorporated into the Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia.", "About 50 percent of members of the Jewish community had left the city within a year after a pogrom in October 1937, after the Kristallnacht riots in November 1938, the community decided to organize its emigration and in March 1939 a first transport to Palestine started.", "By September 1939 barely 1,700 mostly elderly Jews remained.", "In early 1941, just 600 Jews were still living in Danzig, most of whom were later murdered in the Holocaust.Out of the 2,938 Jewish community in the city 1,227 were able to escape from the Nazis before the outbreak of war.", "Nazi secret police had been observing Polish minority communities in the city since 1936, compiling information, which in 1939 served to prepare lists of Poles to be captured in Operation Tannenberg.", "On the first day of the war, approximately 1,500 ethnic Poles were arrested, some because of their participation in social and economic life, others because they were activists and members of various Polish organisations.", "On 2 September 1939, 150 of them were deported to the Sicherheitsdienst camp Stutthof some from Danzig, and murdered.", "Many Poles living in Danzig were deported to Stutthof or executed in the Piaśnica forest.During the war, the Germans operated a Nazi prison in the city, an ''Einsatzgruppen''-operated penal camp, a camp for Romani people, two subcamps of the Stalag XX-B prisoner-of-war camp for Allied POWs, and several subcamps of the Stutthof concentration camp within the present-day city limits.In 1941, Hitler ordered the invasion of the Soviet Union, eventually causing the fortunes of war to turn against Germany.", "As the Soviet Army advanced in 1944, German populations in Central and Eastern Europe took flight, resulting in the beginning of a great population shift.", "After the final Soviet offensives began in January 1945, hundreds of thousands of German refugees converged on Danzig, many of whom had fled on foot from East Prussia, some tried to escape through the city's port in a large-scale evacuation involving hundreds of German cargo and passenger ships.", "Some of the ships were sunk by the Soviets, including the after an evacuation was attempted at neighbouring Gdynia.", "In the process, tens of thousands of refugees were killed.The city also endured heavy Allied and Soviet air raids.", "Those who survived and could not escape had to face the Soviet Army, which captured the heavily damaged city on 30 March 1945, followed by large-scale rape and looting.", "In line with the decisions made by the Allies at the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, the city was annexed by Poland, although with a Soviet-installed communist regime, which stayed in power until the Fall of Communism in the 1980s.", "The remaining German residents of the city who had survived the war fled or were expelled to postwar Germany.", "The city was repopulated by ethnic Poles; up to 18 percent (1948) of them had been deported by the Soviets in two major waves from pre-war eastern Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union.===Post World War II (1945-1989)===Dutch-style buildings rebuilt after the war: The Old Arsenal by Anthony van Obberghen, Jan Strakowski and Abraham van den Blocke, 1602–1605.In 1946, the communists executed 17-year-old Danuta Siedzikówna and 42-year-old Feliks Selmanowicz, Polish resistance members, in the local prison.The port of Gdańsk was one of the three Polish ports through which Greeks and Macedonians, refugees of the Greek Civil War, reached Poland.", "In 1949, four transports of Greek and Macedonian refugees arrived at the port of Gdańsk, from where they were transported to new homes in Poland.Parts of the historic old city of Gdańsk, which had suffered large-scale destruction during the war, were rebuilt during the 1950s and 1960s.", "The reconstruction sought to dilute the \"German character\" of the city, and set it back to how it supposedly looked like before the annexation to Prussia in 1793.Nineteenth-century transformations were ignored as \"ideologically malignant\" by post-war administrations, or regarded as \"Prussian barbarism\" worthy of demolition, while Flemish/Dutch, Italian and French influences were emphasized in order to \"neutralize\" the German influx on the general outlook of the city.The Gdańsk Shipyard strike in 1980Boosted by heavy investment in the development of its port and three major shipyards for Soviet ambitions in the Baltic region, Gdańsk became the major shipping and industrial centre of the People's Republic of Poland.", "In December 1970, Gdańsk was the scene of anti-regime demonstrations, which led to the downfall of Poland's communist leader Władysław Gomułka.", "During the demonstrations in Gdańsk and Gdynia, military as well as the police opened fire on the demonstrators causing several dozen deaths.", "Ten years later, in August 1980, Gdańsk Shipyard was the birthplace of the Solidarity trade union movement.In September 1981, to deter Solidarity, Soviet Union launched Exercise Zapad-81, the largest military exercise in history, during which amphibious landings were conducted near Gdańsk.", "Meanwhile, the Solidarity held its first national congress in Hala Olivia, Gdańsk when more than 800 deputies participated.", "Its opposition to the Communist regime led to the end of Communist Party rule in 1989, and sparked a series of protests that overthrew the Communist regimes of the former Eastern Bloc.===Contemporary history (1990-present)===Solidarity's leader, Lech Wałęsa, became President of Poland in 1990.In 2014 the European Solidarity Centre, a museum and library devoted to the history of the movement, opened in Gdańsk.On 9 July 2001, the city was flooded, with 200 million zł being estimated in damage, 4 people killed, and 304 evacuated.", "As a result, the city has built 50 reservoirs, the number of which is rising.UEFA Euro 2012 in GdańskGdańsk native Donald Tusk is Prime Minister of Poland from 2007 to 2014 and again from 2023 to present and was President of the European Council from 2014 to 2019.In 2014, the remains of Danuta Siedzikówna and Feliks Selmanowicz were found at the local Garrison Cemetery, and then their state burial was held in Gdańsk in 2016, with the participation of thousands of people from all over Poland and the highest Polish authorities.In January 2019, the Mayor of Gdańsk, Paweł Adamowicz, was assassinated by a man who had just been released from prison for violent crimes.", "After stabbing the mayor in the abdomen near the heart, the man claimed that the mayor's political party had been responsible for imprisoning him.", "Though Adamowicz underwent a multi-hour surgery, he died the next day.In October 2019, the City of Gdańsk was awarded the Princess of Asturias Award in the Concord category as a recognition of the fact that \"the past and present in Gdańsk are sensitive to solidarity, the defense of freedom and human rights, as well as to the preservation of peace\".In a 2023 Report on the Quality of Life in European Cities compiled by the European Commission, Gdańsk was named as the fourth best city to live in Europe alongside Leipzig, Stockholm and Geneva." ], [ "Geography", "Gdańsk lies at the mouth of the Motława river to the Martwa Wisła, a branch of the Vistula.", "It is located on the border between different physiographic regions: Vistula Spit (waterside part of the city), Vistula Fens (eastern part of the city), Kashubian Coastland (north-western part of the city) and Kashubian Lake District (western part of the city).===Climate===Gdańsk has a climate with both oceanic and continental influences.", "According to some categorizations, it has an oceanic climate (Cfb), while others classify it as belonging to the continental climate zone (Dfb).", "It actually depends on whether the mean reference temperature for the coldest winter month is set at or .", "Gdańsk's dry winters and the precipitation maximum in summer are indicators of continentality.", "However seasonal extremes are less pronounced than those in inland Poland.The city has moderately cold and cloudy winters with mean temperature in January and February near or below and mild summers with frequent showers and thunderstorms.", "Average temperatures range from and average monthly rainfall varies per month with a rather low annual total of .", "In general, the weather is damp, variable, and mild.The seasons are clearly differentiated.", "Spring starts in March and is initially cold and windy, later becoming pleasantly warm and often increasingly sunny.", "Summer, which begins in June, is predominantly warm but hot at times with temperature reaching as high as at least couple times a year with plenty of sunshine interspersed with heavy rain.", "Gdańsk averages 1,700 hours of sunshine per year.", "July and August are the warmest months.", "Autumn comes in September and is at first warm and usually sunny, turning cold, damp, and foggy in November.", "Winter lasts from December to March and includes periods of snow.", "January and February are the coldest months with the temperature sometimes dropping as low as ." ], [ "Economy", "Gdańsk Shipyard in 2009The industrial sections of the city are dominated by shipbuilding, petrochemical, and chemical industries, as well as food processing.", "The share of high-tech sectors such as electronics, telecommunications, IT engineering, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals is on the rise.", "Amber processing is also an important part of the local economy, as the majority of the world's amber deposits lie along the Baltic coast.", "The Pomeranian Voivodeship, including Gdańsk, is also a major tourist destination in the summer, as millions of Poles and other European tourists flock to the beaches of the Baltic coastline.Major companies based in Gdańsk include Remontowa, the Gdańsk Shipyard, Elektrociepłownie Wybrzeże, Polnord Energobudowa, Ziaja, and BreakThru Films.", "The city also served as a major base for Grupa Lotos, with the Gdańsk Refinery having being the second-largest in Poland with a capacity of ." ], [ "Main sights", "===Architecture===The city has some buildings surviving from the time of the Hanseatic League.", "Most tourist attractions are located in the area of the Main City of Gdańsk, along or near Ulica Długa (''Long Street'') and Długi Targ (''Long Market''), a pedestrian thoroughfare surrounded by buildings reconstructed in historical (primarily during the 17th century) style and flanked at both ends by elaborate city gates.", "This part of the city is sometimes referred to as the Royal Route, since it was once the path of processions for visiting Kings of Poland.Walking from end to end, sites encountered on or near the Royal Route include:Highland Gate (''Brama Wyżynna''), which marks the beginning of the Royal RouteTorture House (''Katownia'') and Prison Tower (''Wieża więzienna''), now housing the Amber Museum (''Muzeum Bursztynu'')Mansion of the Society of Saint George (''Dwór Bractwa św.", "Jerzego'')Golden Gate (''Złota Brama'')''Ulica Długa'' (\"Long Lane\"), filled with picturesque tenementsUphagen's House (''Dom Uphagena''), branch of the Museum of GdańskLion's Castle (''Lwi Zamek'')Main Town Hall (''Ratusz Głównego Miasta'', built 1378–1492)''Długi Targ'' (\"Long Market\")Artus' Court (''Dwór Artusa'')Neptune's Fountain (''Fontanna Neptuna''), a masterpiece by architect Abraham van den Blocke, 1617.It is the oldest working fountain in Poland.", "New Jury House (''Nowy Dom Ławy''), in which the seemingly 17th-century ''Maiden in the Window'' appears every day during the tourist season, referring to a popular novel ''Panienka z okienka'' (\"Maiden in the Window\") by Jadwiga Łuszczewska, set in 17th-century GdańskGolden House (''Złota Kamienica''), a distinctive Renaissance townhouse from the early 17th century, decorated with numerous reliefs and sculpturesGreen Gate (''Zielona Brama''), a Mannerist gate, built as a formal residence of Polish kings, now housing a branch of the National Museum in GdańskOlivia Business Centre, a district made up of six buildings*Olivia Star is the tallest building in North Poland.", "It was finished in 2018 and measures at 512 Feet.Royal Chapel of the Polish King – John III Sobieski was built in baroque style between 1678 and 1681 by Tylman van Gameren.St.", "Mary's Church – the largest brick church in the worldPolish Post Office, site of the 1939 battleGdańsk has a number of historical churches, including St. Catherine's Church and St. Mary's Church (''Bazylika Mariacka'').", "This latter is a municipal church built during the 15th century, and is the largest brick church in the world.The city's 17th-century fortifications represent one of Poland's official national Historic Monuments (''Pomnik historii''), as designated on 16 September 1994 and tracked by the National Heritage Board of Poland.Other main sights in the historical city centre include:Royal Chapel of the Polish King John III Sobieski''Żuraw'' – medieval port craneGradowa HillGranaries on the Ołowianka and Granary IslandsGreat ArmouryJohn III Sobieski MonumentOld Town HallJan Heweliusz MonumentGreat Mill (1350)Small Mill Mariacka StreetHouse of Research SocietyPolish Post Office, site of the 1939 battlebrick gothic town gates, i.e., Mariacka Gate, Straganiarska Gate, Cow GateMain sights outside the historical city centre include:Abbot's Palace in the Oliwa ParkLighthouse in Nowy PortOliwa CathedralPachołek Hill – an observation point in OliwaPier in BrzeźnoMedieval city wallsWesterplatteWisłoujście FortressGdańsk Zoo===Museums===Abbot's Palace in OliwaArcheological Museum and Mariacka GateMuseum of the Second World War, opened in 2017National Museum (''Muzeum Narodowe'')Department of Ancient Art – contains a number of important artworks, including Hans Memling's ''Last Judgement''Green GateDepartment of Modern Art – in the Abbot's Palace in OliwaEthnography Department – in the Abbot's Granary in OliwaGdańsk Photography GalleryHistorical Museum (''Muzeum Historyczne Miasta Gdańska''):Main Town HallArtus' CourtUphagen's HouseAmber Museum (''Muzeum Bursztynu'')Museum of the Polish Post (''Muzeum Poczty Polskiej'')''Wartownia nr 1 na Westerplatte''Museum of Tower Clocks (''Muzeum Zegarów Wieżowych'')Wisłoujście FortressNational Maritime Museum, Gdańsk (''Narodowe Muzeum Morskie''):Żuraw CraneGranaries in Ołowiankamuseum ship ''SS Sołdek'' is anchored on the Motława River and was the first ship built in post-war Poland.", "European Solidarity Centre.", "Museum and library dedicated to the history of the Solidarity movement.", "Archeological Museum (''Muzeum Archeologiczne'')Gdańsk Nowy Port Lighthouse (''Latarnia Morska Gdańsk Nowy Port'')''Izba Pamięci Wincentego Pola w Gdańsku-Sobieszewie''Archdiocese Museum (''Muzeum Archidiecezjalne'')Museum of the Second World War===Entertainment===Polish Baltic PhilharmonicBaltic Opera''Teatr Wybrzeże''Gdańsk Shakespeare Theatre is a Shakespearean theatre built on the historical site of a 17th-century playhouse where English travelling players came to perform.", "The new theatre, completed in 2014, hosts the annual Gdańsk Shakespeare Festival." ], [ "Transport", "Pesa Atribo of the Szybka Kolej Miejska in GdańskGdańsk Lech Wałęsa Airport (2012, before the 2022 expansion)Maersk container ship in the Port of GdańskGdańsk Główny railway stationGdańsk Lech Wałęsa Airport – an international airport located in Gdańsk;The Szybka Kolej Miejska, (SKM) the ''Fast Urban Railway'', functions as a Metro system for the Tricity area including Gdańsk, Sopot and Gdynia, operating frequent trains to 27 stations covering the Tricity.", "The service is operated by electric multiple unit trains at a varying frequency.", "Railways: The principal station in Gdańsk is Gdańsk Główny railway station, served by both SKM local trains and PKP long-distance trains.", "In addition, long-distance trains also stop at Gdańsk Oliwa railway station, Gdańsk Wrzeszcz railway station, Sopot, and Gdynia.", "Gdańsk also has nine other railway stations, served by local SKM trains;Long-distance trains are operated by PKP Intercity which provides connections with all major Polish cities, including Warsaw, Kraków, Łódź, Poznań, Katowice, Szczecin, and Częstochowa, and with the neighbouring Kashubian Lakes region.In 2011–2015 the Warsaw-Gdańsk-Gdynia railway route underwent a major upgrading costing $3 billion, partly funded by the European Investment Bank, including track replacement, realignment of curves and relocation of sections of track to allow speeds up to , modernization of stations, and installation of the most modern ETCS signalling system, which was completed in June 2015.In December 2014 new Alstom Pendolino high-speed trains were put into service between Gdańsk, Warsaw and Kraków reducing the rail travel time from Gdańsk to Warsaw to 2 hours 58 minutes, further reduced in December 2015 to 2 hours 39 minutes.", "A new railway, Pomorska Kolej Metropolitalna (PKM, the 'Pomeranian Metropolitan Railway'), commenced service on 1 September 2015, connecting Gdańsk Lech Wałęsa Airport with Wrzeszcz and downtown Gdańsk.", "It connects to the Szybka Kolej Miejska (Tricity) (SKM) which provides further connections to the entire area served by SKM.", "City buses and trams are operated by ZTM Gdańsk (Zarząd Transportu Miejskiego w Gdańsku).", "From 1 October 2018 selected circuits of line 31 from PKT Gdynia go to bus stop Sopot Ergo Arena without trolley pole.", "Small part of this rote passes through Gdańsk.", "Port of Gdańsk – a seaport located on the southern coast of Gdańsk Bay within the city;Obwodnica Trojmiejska – part of expressway S6 that bypasses the cities of Gdańsk, Sopot and Gdynia.", "The A1 motorway connects the port and city of Gdańsk with the southern border of the country.", ", some fragments of the A1 motorway are still incomplete.Gdańsk is the starting point of the EuroVelo 9 cycling route which continues southward through Poland, then into the Czech Republic, Austria and Slovenia before ending at the Adriatic Sea in Pula, Croatia.Additionally, Gdańsk is part of the Rail-2-Sea project.", "This project's objective is to connect the city with the Romanian Black Sea port of Constanța with a long railway line passing through Poland, Slovakia, Hungary and Romania." ], [ "Sport", "Stadion MiejskiErgo ArenaThere are many popular professional sports teams in the Gdańsk and Tricity area.", "Amateur sports are played by thousands of Gdańsk citizens and also in schools of all levels (elementary, secondary, university).The city's professional football club is Lechia Gdańsk.", "Founded in 1945, they play in the , Poland's top division.", "Their home stadium, Stadion Miejski, was one of the four Polish stadiums to host the UEFA Euro 2012 competition, as well as the host of the 2021 UEFA Europa League Final.", "Other notable football clubs are Gedania 1922 Gdańsk and SKS Stoczniowiec Gdańsk, which both played in the second tier in the past.Other notable clubs include:Speedway club Wybrzeże Gdańsk, which competes in the second tier as of 2020, but for decades competed in Poland's top division, most recently in 2014, where it finished 2nd in 1967, 1978 and 1985;Rugby club Lechia Gdańsk, which competes in Poland's top division, 13 times Polish champions, most recently in 2014;Handball club GKS Wybrzeże Gdańsk, which plays in the Poland's top division, 10 times Polish champions, most recently in 2001, two times European Cup runners up;Ice hockey club Stoczniowiec Gdańsk, which competes in Poland's top division, finishing 3rd in 2003;Volleyball club Trefl Gdańsk, which competes in Poland's top division, and finished 2nd in 2015.The city's Hala Olivia was a venue for the official 2009 EuroBasket, and the Ergo Arena was one of the 2013 Men's European Volleyball Championship, 2014 FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship and 2016 European Men's Handball Championship venues." ], [ "Politics and local government", "Pomeranian Voivodeship Office in GdańskContemporary Gdańsk is one of the major centres of economic and administrative life in Poland.", "It has been the seat of a Polish central institution, the Polish Space Agency, several supra-regional branches of further central institutions such as the Energy Regulatory Office, the Office of Electronic Communications, the Civil Aviation Authority, the Office of Rail Transport and the Office of Competition and Consumer Protection, as well as the supra-regional (appellate-level) institutions of justice: the Court of Appeals, the Regional Public Prosecutor's Office, and the branch of the Institute of National Remembrance.", "As the capital of the Pomeranian Voivodeship it has been the seat of the Pomeranian Voivodeship Office, the Sejmik, and the Marshall's Office of the Pomeranian Voivodeship and other voivodeship-level institutions.===Regional centre===Gdańsk Voivodeship was extended in 1999 to include most of former Słupsk Voivodeship, the western part of Elbląg Voivodeship and Chojnice County from Bydgoszcz Voivodeship to form the new Pomeranian Voivodeship.The area of the region was thus extended from and the population rose from 1,333,800 (1980) to 2,198,000 (2000).", "By 1998, Tricity constituted an absolute majority of the population; almost half of the inhabitants of the new region live in the centre.===Municipal government===Gdańsk New Town Hall, seat of the city councilLegislative power in Gdańsk is vested in a unicameral Gdańsk City council (Rada Miasta), which comprises 34 members.", "Council members are elected directly every four years.", "Like most legislative bodies, the City Council divides itself into committees which have the oversight of various functions of the city government.", "; City Council in 2002–2006:Civic Platform – 15 seatsDemocratic Left Alliance – Labour Union – 6 seatsLaw and Justice – 6 seatsLeague of Polish Families – 5 seatsSelf-Defence of the Republic of Poland – 1 seatBogdan Borusewicz – 1 seat; City Council in 2006–2010:Civic Platform – 21 seatsLaw and Justice – 13 seats; City Council in 2010–2014:Civic Platform – 26 seatsLaw and Justice – 7 seatsDemocratic Left Alliance – 1 seatGdańsk City Council composition from 2018; City Council in 2014–2018:Civic Platform – 22 seatsLaw and Justice – 12 seats; City Council in 2018–2023:Civic Coalition – 15 seatsLaw and Justice – 12 seatsAll for Gdańsk – 7 seats===Districts===Gdańsk is divided into 34 administrative divisions: 6 and 28 .", "Gdańsk include Chełm, Piecki-Migowo, Przymorze Wielkie, Śródmieście, Wrzeszcz Dolny, Wrzeszcz Górny.", "are Aniołki, Brętowo, Brzeźno, Jasień, Kokoszki, Krakowiec-Górki Zachodnie, Letnica, Matarnia, Młyniska, Nowy Port, Oliwa, Olszynka, Orunia-Św.", "Wojciech-Lipce, Osowa, Przeróbka, Przymorze Małe, Rudniki, Siedlce, Sobieszewo Island, Stogi, Strzyża, Suchanino, Ujeścisko-Łostowice, VII Dwór, Wzgórze Mickiewicza, Zaspa-Młyniec, Zaspa-Rozstaje, Żabianka-Wejhera-Jelitkowo-Tysiąclecia." ], [ "Education and science", "Gdańsk University of TechnologyPolish Baltic Philharmonic on the Motława river There are 15 higher schools including three universities.", "In 2001 there were 60,436 students, including 10,439 graduates.", "University of Gdańsk (''Uniwersytet Gdański'')Gdańsk University of Technology (''Politechnika Gdańska'')Gdańsk Medical University (''Gdański Uniwersytet Medyczny'')Arts Academy (''Akademia Sztuk Pięknych'')''Institute of Fluid Flow Machinery of the Polish Academy of Sciences – Instytut Maszyn Przepływowych im.", "Roberta Szewalskiego PAN''WSB Merito Universities – WSB Merito University in Gdańsk===Scientific and regional organizations===Gdańsk Scientific SocietyBaltic Institute (Instytut Bałtycki), established 1925 in Toruń, since 1946 (?)", "in GdańskIBNGR – Instytut Badań nad Gospodarką Rynkową (The Gdańsk Institute for Market Economics)" ], [ "International relations", "===Twin towns – sister cities===Gdańsk is twinned with: Helsingør, Denmark* Bremen, Germany* Cleveland, United States* Kalmar, Sweden* Nice, France* Astana, Kazakhstan* Rotterdam, Netherlands* Sefton, United Kingdom* Turku, Finland* Vilnius, Lithuania* Komádi, Hungary* Soroksár, Hungary===Former twin towns===* Kaliningrad, Russia* Saint Petersburg, RussiaOn 3 March 2022, Gdańsk City Council passed a unanimous resolution to terminate the cooperation with the Russian cities of Kaliningrad and Saint Petersburg as a response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.===Partnerships and cooperation===Gdańsk also cooperates with:* Ghent, Belgium* Le Havre, France* Marseille, France* Odesa, Ukraine===World Scout Jamboree===The city was chosen as the location for the 26th World Scout Jamboree set to take place July 27, 2027 – August 6, 2027." ], [ "Demographics", "Gdańsk population pyramid in 2021The 1923 census conducted in the Free City of Danzig indicated that of all inhabitants, 95% were German, and 3% were Polish and Kashubian.", "The end of World War II is a significant break in continuity with regard to the inhabitants of Gdańsk.German citizens began to flee en masse as the Soviet Red Army advanced, composed of both spontaneous flights driven by rumors of Soviet atrocities, and organised evacuation starting in the summer of 1944 which continued into the spring of 1945.Approximately 1% (100,000) of the German civilian population residing east of the Oder–Neisse line perished in the fighting prior to the surrender in May 1945.German civilians were also sent as \"reparations labour\" to the Soviet Union.Poles from other parts of Poland replaced the former German-speaking population, with the first settlers arriving in March 1945.On 30 March 1945, the Gdańsk Voivodeship was established as the first administrative Polish unit in the Recovered Territories.", "As of 1 November 1945, around 93,029 Germans remained within the city limits.", "The locals of German descent who declared Polish nationality were permitted to remain, as of 1 January 1949 13,424 persons who had received Polish citizenship in a post-war \"ethnic vetting\" process lived in Gdańsk.The settlers can be grouped according to their background:Poles that had been freed from forced labor in Nazi GermanyRepatriates: Poles expelled from the areas east of the new Polish-Soviet border.", "This included assimilated minorities such as the Polish-Armenian communityPoles incl.", "Kashubians relocating from nearby villages and small townsSettlers from central Poland migrating voluntarilyNon-Poles forcibly resettled during Operation Vistula in 1947.Large numbers of Ukrainians were forced to move from south-eastern Poland under a 1947 Polish government operation aimed at dispersing, and therefore assimilating, those Ukrainians who had not been expelled eastward already, throughout the newly acquired territories.", "Belarusians living around the area around Białystok were also pressured into relocating to the formerly German areas for the same reasons.", "This scattering of members of non-Polish ethnic groups throughout the country was an attempt by the Polish authorities to dissolve the unique ethnic identity of groups like the Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Lemkos, and broke the proximity and communication necessary for strong communities to form.", "Jewish Holocaust survivors, most of them Polish repatriates from the Eastern Borderlands.", "Greeks and Slav Macedonians, refugees of the Greek Civil War." ], [ "People" ], [ "See also", "Tourism in PolandList of honorary citizens of Gdańsk764 Gedania – a minor planet orbiting the SunDanzig HighflyerFather Eugeniusz Dutkiewicz SAC HospiceKashubiansList of neighbourhoods of GdańskSt. Mary's Church, GdańskLaznia Centre for Contemporary ArtRonald Reagan Park''Live in Gdańsk''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*****" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Graviton" ], [ "Introduction", "In theories of quantum gravity, the '''graviton''' is the hypothetical quantum of gravity, an elementary particle that mediates the force of gravitational interaction.", "There is no complete quantum field theory of gravitons due to an outstanding mathematical problem with renormalization in general relativity.", "In string theory, believed by some to be a consistent theory of quantum gravity, the graviton is a massless state of a fundamental string.If it exists, the graviton is expected to be massless because the gravitational force has a very long range, and appears to propagate at the speed of light.", "The graviton must be a spin-2 boson because the source of gravitation is the stress–energy tensor, a second-order tensor (compared with electromagnetism's spin-1 photon, the source of which is the four-current, a first-order tensor).", "Additionally, it can be shown that any massless spin-2 field would give rise to a force indistinguishable from gravitation, because a massless spin-2 field would couple to the stress–energy tensor in the same way gravitational interactions do.", "This result suggests that, if a massless spin-2 particle is discovered, it must be the graviton." ], [ "Theory", "It is hypothesized that gravitational interactions are mediated by an as yet undiscovered elementary particle, dubbed the ''graviton''.", "The three other known forces of nature are mediated by elementary particles: electromagnetism by the photon, the strong interaction by gluons, and the weak interaction by the W and Z bosons.", "All three of these forces appear to be accurately described by the Standard Model of particle physics.", "In the classical limit, a successful theory of gravitons would reduce to general relativity, which itself reduces to Newton's law of gravitation in the weak-field limit." ], [ "History", "General relativity models gravity as a curvature of spacetime akin to that of a two-dimensional plane, however lacks a basis for any form of quantum gravityThe term graviton was originally coined in 1934 by Soviet physicists and F. M. Gal'perin.", "Paul Dirac reintroduced the term in a number of lectures in 1959, noting that the energy of the gravitational field should come in quanta, which Dirac referred to as “gravitons”, in a reintroduction terminology manner.", "A mediation of the gravitational interaction by particles was anticipated by Pierre-Simon Laplace.", "Just like Newton's anticipation of photons, Laplace's anticipated \"gravitons\" had a greater speed than ''c'' (the speed of light), the speed of gravitons expected in modern theories, and were not connected to quantum mechanics or special relativity, since these theories didn't yet exist during Laplace's lifetime.=== Gravitons and renormalization ===When describing graviton interactions, the classical theory of Feynman diagrams and semiclassical corrections such as one-loop diagrams behave normally.", "However, Feynman diagrams with at least two loops lead to ultraviolet divergences.", "These infinite results cannot be removed because quantized general relativity is not perturbatively renormalizable, unlike quantum electrodynamics and models such as the Yang–Mills theory.", "Therefore, incalculable answers are found from the perturbation method by which physicists calculate the probability of a particle to emit or absorb gravitons, and the theory loses predictive veracity.", "Those problems and the complementary approximation framework are grounds to show that a theory more unified than quantized general relativity is required to describe the behavior near the Planck scale.=== Comparison with other forces ===Like the force carriers of the other forces (see photon, gluon, W and Z bosons), the graviton plays a role in general relativity, in defining the spacetime in which events take place.", "In some descriptions energy modifies the \"shape\" of spacetime itself, and gravity is a result of this shape, an idea which at first glance may appear hard to match with the idea of a force acting between particles.", "Because the diffeomorphism invariance of the theory does not allow any particular space-time background to be singled out as the \"true\" space-time background, general relativity is said to be background-independent.", "In contrast, the Standard Model is ''not'' background-independent, with Minkowski space enjoying a special status as the fixed background space-time.", "A theory of quantum gravity is needed in order to reconcile these differences.", "Whether this theory should be background-independent is an open question.", "The answer to this question will determine the understanding of what specific role gravitation plays in the fate of the universe.=== Gravitons in speculative theories ===String theory predicts the existence of gravitons and their well-defined interactions.", "A graviton in perturbative string theory is a closed string in a very particular low-energy vibrational state.", "The scattering of gravitons in string theory can also be computed from the correlation functions in conformal field theory, as dictated by the AdS/CFT correspondence, or from matrix theory.A feature of gravitons in string theory is that, as closed strings without endpoints, they would not be bound to branes and could move freely between them.", "If we live on a brane (as hypothesized by brane theories), this \"leakage\" of gravitons from the brane into higher-dimensional space could explain why gravitation is such a weak force, and gravitons from other branes adjacent to our own could provide a potential explanation for dark matter.", "However, if gravitons were to move completely freely between branes, this would dilute gravity too much, causing a violation of Newton's inverse-square law.", "To combat this, Lisa Randall found that a three-brane (such as ours) would have a gravitational pull of its own, preventing gravitons from drifting freely, possibly resulting in the diluted gravity we observe, while roughly maintaining Newton's inverse square law.", "See brane cosmology.A theory by Ahmed Farag Ali and Saurya Das adds quantum mechanical corrections (using Bohm trajectories) to general relativistic geodesics.", "If gravitons are given a small but non-zero mass, it could explain the cosmological constant without need for dark energy and solve the smallness problem.", "The theory received an Honorable Mention in the 2014 Essay Competition of the Gravity Research Foundation for explaining the smallness of the cosmological constant.", "Also the theory received an Honorable Mention in the 2015 Essay Competition of the Gravity Research Foundation for naturally explaining the observed large-scale homogeneity and isotropy of the universe due to the proposed quantum corrections.Matthew R. Edwards suggest that the gravito-optical medium is composed of gravitons and may in turn connect with the polarizable vacuum approach." ], [ "Energy and wavelength", "While gravitons are presumed to be massless, they would still carry energy, as does any other quantum particle.", "Photon energy and gluon energy are also carried by massless particles.", "It is unclear which variables might determine graviton energy, the amount of energy carried by a single graviton.Alternatively, if gravitons are massive at all, the analysis of gravitational waves yielded a new upper bound on the mass of gravitons.", "The graviton's Compton wavelength is at least , or about 1.6 light-years, corresponding to a graviton mass of no more than .", "This relation between wavelength and mass-energy is calculated with the Planck–Einstein relation, the same formula that relates electromagnetic wavelength to photon energy." ], [ "Experimental observation", "Unambiguous detection of individual gravitons, though not prohibited by any fundamental law, is impossible with any physically reasonable detector.", "The reason is the extremely low cross section for the interaction of gravitons with matter.", "For example, a detector with the mass of Jupiter and 100% efficiency, placed in close orbit around a neutron star, would only be expected to observe one graviton every 10 years, even under the most favorable conditions.", "It would be impossible to discriminate these events from the background of neutrinos, since the dimensions of the required neutrino shield would ensure collapse into a black hole.LIGO and Virgo collaborations' observations have directly detected gravitational waves.", "Others have postulated that graviton scattering yields gravitational waves as particle interactions yield coherent states.", "Although these experiments cannot detect individual gravitons, they might provide information about certain properties of the graviton.", "For example, if gravitational waves were observed to propagate slower than ''c'' (the speed of light in vacuum), that would imply that the graviton has mass (however, gravitational waves must propagate slower than ''c'' in a region with non-zero mass density if they are to be detectable).", "Recent observations of gravitational waves have put an upper bound of on the graviton's mass.", "Astronomical observations of the kinematics of galaxies, especially the galaxy rotation problem and modified Newtonian dynamics, might point toward gravitons having non-zero mass." ], [ "Difficulties and outstanding issues", "Most theories containing gravitons suffer from severe problems.", "Attempts to extend the Standard Model or other quantum field theories by adding gravitons run into serious theoretical difficulties at energies close to or above the Planck scale.", "This is because of infinities arising due to quantum effects; technically, gravitation is not renormalizable.", "Since classical general relativity and quantum mechanics seem to be incompatible at such energies, from a theoretical point of view, this situation is not tenable.", "One possible solution is to replace particles with strings.", "String theories are quantum theories of gravity in the sense that they reduce to classical general relativity plus field theory at low energies, but are fully quantum mechanical, contain a graviton, and are thought to be mathematically consistent." ], [ "See also", "* Gravitino* Dual graviton* Gravitoelectromagnetism* Planck mass* Static forces and virtual-particle exchange* Soft graviton theorem* Polarizable vacuum" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Göta Canal" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''Göta Canal''' () is a Swedish canal constructed in the early 19th century.", "The canal is long, of which were dug or blasted, with a width varying between and a maximum depth of about .", "The speed is limited to 5 knots in the canal.The Göta Canal is a part of a waterway long, linking a number of lakes and rivers to provide a route from Gothenburg (Göteborg) on the west coast to Söderköping on the Baltic Sea via the Trollhätte kanal and Göta älv river, through the large lakes Vänern and Vättern.This waterway was dubbed as Sweden's Blue Ribbon ().Contrary to the popular belief it is not correct to consider this waterway as a sort of ''greater'' Göta Canal: the Trollhätte Canal and the Göta Canal are completely separate entities." ], [ "History", "The opening of the Göta Canal at Mem in 1832, , 1855Locks at Berg, near Linköping, canal cruise ship M/S Juno descending to Lake RoxenShare of the Göta Canal, issued 28 May 1810The idea of a canal across southern Sweden was first put forward as early as 1516, by Hans Brask, the bishop of Linköping.", "However, it was not until the start of the 19th century that Brask's proposals were put into action by Baltzar von Platen, a German-born former officer in the Swedish Navy.", "He organised the project and obtained the necessary financial and political backing.", "His plans attracted the enthusiastic backing of the government and the new king, Charles XIII, who saw the canal as a way of kick-starting the modernisation of Sweden.", "Von Platen himself extolled the modernising virtues of the canal in 1806, claiming that mining, agriculture and other industries would benefit from \"a navigation way through the country.", "\"The project was inaugurated on 11 April 1810 with a budget of 24 million Swedish riksdalers.", "It was by far the greatest civil engineering project ever undertaken in Sweden up to that time, taking 22 years of effort by more than 58,000 workers.", "Much of the expertise and equipment had to be acquired from abroad, notably from Britain, whose canal system was the most advanced in the world at that time.", "The Scottish civil engineer Thomas Telford, renowned for his design of the Caledonian Canal in Scotland, developed the initial plans for the canal and travelled to Sweden in 1810 to oversee some of the early work on the route.", "Many other British engineers and craftsmen were imported to assist with the project, along with significant quantities of equipment - even apparently mundane items such as pickaxes, spades and wheelbarrows.The Göta Canal was officially opened on 26 September 1832.Von Platen himself did not live to see the completion of the canal, having died shortly before its opening.", "However, the return on investment for the canal didn't live up to the hopes of the government.", "Bishop Hans Brask's original justifications for the canal's construction were the onerous Sound Dues imposed by Denmark–Norway on all vessels passing through the narrow Øresund channel between Sweden and Denmark and the trouble with the Hanseatic League.", "The canal enabled vessels travelling to or from the Baltic Sea to bypass the Øresund and so evade the Danish toll.", "In 1851, the tycoon André Oscar Wallenberg founded the Company for Swedish Canal Steamboat Transit Traffic to carry goods from England to Russia via the canal.", "However, it only ran two trips between St Petersburg and Hull via Motala before the Crimean War halted Anglo-Russian trade.", "After the war ended, the great powers pressured Denmark into ending the four-hundred-year-old tradition of the Sound Dues, thus eliminating at a stroke the canal's usefulness as an alternative to the Øresund.", "Lock at Lilla Edet, built in 1916, and the last lock on a westward journey.", "The original lock was opened in 1607 and was the first lock in Sweden.The arrival of the railways in 1855 quickly made the canal redundant, as trains could carry passengers and goods far more rapidly and did not have to shut down with the arrival of winter, which made the canal impassable for five months of the year.", "By the 1870s, the canal's goods traffic had dwindled to just three major types of bulk goods - forest products, coal and ore, none of which required rapid transportation.", "Traffic volumes stagnated after that and never recovered.The canal had one major industrial legacy in the shape of Motala Verkstad - a factory established in Motala to produce the machines such as cranes and steam dredgers that were needed to build the canal.", "This facility has sometimes been referred to as the \"cradle of the Swedish engineering industry\".", "After the canal was opened, Motala Verkstad focused on producing equipment, locomotives and rolling stock for the newly constructed railways, beginning a tradition of railway engineering that continues to this day in the form of AB Svenska Järnvägsverkstädernas Aeroplanavdelning (ASJA) that was bought by the aeroplane manufacturer SAAB in Linköping." ], [ "Description", "These days the canal is primarily used as a tourist and recreational attraction.", "Around two million people visit the canal each year on pleasure cruises - either on their own boats or on one of the many cruise ships - and related activities.", "The canal sometimes is ironically called the \"divorce ditch\" () because of the troubles that inexperienced couples have to endure while trying to navigate the narrow canal and the many locks by themselves.The route of the Göta Canal (in blue)===Locks===The canal has 58 locks and can accommodate vessels up to long, wide and in draft.From the east-coast of Sweden to Lake Vänern the locks are as follows (with meters of height difference per lock):Mem, 3Tegelbruket, 2.3Söderköping, 2.4Duvkullen nedre, 2.3Duvkullen övre, 2.4Mariehov nedre, 2.1Mariehov övre, 2.6Carlsborg nedre, 5.1Carlsborg övre, 4.7Klämman, openHulta, 3.2Bråttom, 2.3Norsholm, 0.8Carl Johans slussar (seven locks), 18.8Oskars slussar, 4.8Karl Ludvig Eugéns slussar, 5.5Brunnby, 5.3Heda, 5.2Borensberg, 0.2Borenshult, 15.3Motala, 0.1''Lake Vättern'' (88 m above sea level)Forsvik, 3.5''Lake Viken'' (92 m above sea level – canal's highest point)Tåtorp, 0.2Hajstorp övre, 5.0Hajstorp nedre, 5.1Riksberg, 7.5Godhögen, 5.1Norrkvarn övre, 2.9Norrkvarn nedre, 2.9Sjötorp 7-8, 4.6Sjötorp 6, 2.4Sjötorp 4-5, 4.8Sjötorp 2-3, 4.8Sjötorp 1, 2.9After Lake Vänern (44 m above sea level) Trollhätte kanal to Gothenburg and the west-coast of Sweden." ], [ "See also", "Caledonian Canal - Sister canal in ScotlandKiel CanalØresundList of government enterprises of Sweden" ], [ "Bibliography and references", "Eric de Maré, ''Swedish Cross Cut'', Sweden, 1965.", "(In English)" ], [ "External links", " Göta Canal - Official site" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "General Motors" ], [ "Introduction", "'''General Motors Company''' ('''GM''') is an American multinational automotive manufacturing company headquartered in Detroit, Michigan, United States.", "The company is most known for owning and manufacturing four automobile brands, Chevrolet, GMC, Cadillac and Buick.", "By sales, it was the largest automaker in the United States in 2022, and was the largest in the world for 77 years before losing the top spot to Toyota in 2008.General Motors operates manufacturing plants in eight countries.", "In addition to its four core brands, GM also holds interests in Chinese brands Baojun and Wuling via SAIC-GM-Wuling Automobile.", "GM further owns the BrightDrop delivery vehicle manufacturer, a namesake defense vehicles division which produces military vehicles for the United States government and military, the vehicle safety, security, and information services provider OnStar, the auto parts company ACDelco, a namesake financial lending service, and majority ownership in the self-driving cars enterprise Cruise LLC.The company originated as a holding company for Buick established on September 16, 1908, by William C. Durant, the largest seller of horse-drawn vehicles at the time.", "The first half of the 20th century saw the company grow into an automotive behemoth through acquisitions; going into the second half, the company pursued innovation and new offerings to consumers as well as collaborations with NASA to develop the earliest electric vehicles.", "The current entity was established in 2009 after the General Motors Chapter 11 reorganization., General Motors ranks 25th by total revenue out of all American companies on the ''Fortune 500'' and 50th on the ''Fortune Global 500''.", "In 2021, GM announced its intent to end production of vehicles using internal combustion engines by 2035, as part of its plan to achieve carbon neutrality by 2040." ], [ "History", "=== Founding and consolidation ===By 1900, William C. Durant's Durant-Dort Carriage Company of Flint, Michigan had become the largest manufacturer of horse-drawn vehicles in the United States.", "Durant was averse to automobiles, but fellow Flint businessman James H. Whiting, owner of Flint Wagon Works, sold him the Buick Motor Company in 1904.Durant formed the General Motors Company in 1908 as a holding company, with partner Charles Stewart Mott, borrowing a naming convention from General Electric.", "GM's first acquisition was Buick, which Durant already owned, then Olds Motor Works on November 12, 1908.Under Durant, GM went on to acquire Cadillac, Elmore, Welch, Cartercar, Oakland (the predecessor of Pontiac), the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company of Pontiac, Michigan, and the Reliance Motor Car Company of Detroit, Michigan (predecessors of GMC) in 1909.Durant, with the board's approval, also tried acquiring Ford Motor Company, but needed an additional $2 million.", "Durant over-leveraged GM in making acquisitions, and was removed by the board of directors in 1910 at the order of the bankers who backed the loans to keep GM in business.", "The action of the bankers was partially influenced by the Panic of 1910–1911 that followed the earlier enforcement of the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890.In 1911, Charles F. Kettering of Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company (DELCO) and Henry M. Leland invented and patented the first electric starter in America.", "In November 1911, Durant co-founded Chevrolet with race car driver Louis Chevrolet, who left the company in 1915 after a disagreement with Durant.General Motors Company share certificate issued October 13, 1916GM was reincorporated in Detroit in 1916 as General Motors Corporation and became a public company via an initial public offering.", "By 1917, Chevrolet had become successful enough that Durant, with the backing of Samuel McLaughlin and Pierre S. du Pont, reacquired a controlling interest in GM.", "The same year, GM acquired Samson Tractor.", "Chevrolet Motor Company was consolidated into GM on May 2, 1918, and the same year GM acquired United Motors, a parts supplier founded by Durant and headed by Alfred P. Sloan for $45 million, and the McLaughlin Motor Car Company, founded by R. S. McLaughlin, became General Motors of Canada Limited.", "In 1919, GM acquired Guardian Frigerator Company, part-owned by Durant, which was renamed Frigidaire.", "Also in 1919, the General Motors Acceptance Corporation (GMAC), which provides financing to automotive customers, was formed.In 1920, du Pont orchestrated the removal of Durant once again and replaced him with Alfred P. Sloan.", "At a time when GM was competing heavily with Ford Motor Company, Sloan established annual model changes, making previous years' models \"dated\" and created a market for used cars.", "He also implemented the pricing strategy used by car companies today.", "The pricing strategy had Chevrolet, Pontiac, Oldsmobile, Buick, and Cadillac priced from least expensive to most, respectively.In 1921, Thomas Midgley Jr., an engineer for GM, discovered tetraethyllead (leaded gasoline) as an antiknock agent, and GM patented the compound because ethanol could not be patented.", "This led to the development of higher compression engines resulting in more power and efficiency.", "The public later realized that lead contained in the gasoline was harmful to various biological organisms including humans.", "Evidence shows that corporate executives understood the health implications of tetraethyllead from the beginning.", "As an engineer for GM, Midgley also developed chlorofluorocarbons, which have now been banned due to their contribution to climate change.Under the encouragement of GM President Alfred P. Sloan Jr., GM acquired Vauxhall Motors for $2.5 million in 1925.The company also acquired an interest in the Yellow Cab Manufacturing Company the same year, and its president, John D. Hertz, joined the board of directors of GM; it acquired the remainder of the company in 1943.=== Growth and acquisitions ===In 1926, the company introduced the Pontiac brand and established the General Motors Group Insurance Program to provide life insurance to its employees.", "The following year, after the success of the 1927 model of the Cadillac LaSalle designed by Harley Earl, Sloan created the \"Art and Color Section\" of GM and named Earl as its first director.", "Earl was the first design executive to be appointed to leadership at a major American corporation.", "Earl created a system of automobile design that is still practiced today.", "At the age of 24, Bill Mitchell was recruited by Harley Earl to the design team at GM, and he was later appointed as Chief Designer of Cadillac.", "After Earl retired in December 1958, Mitchell took over automotive design for GM.", "Also in 1926 the company acquired Fisher Body, its supplier of automobile bodies.GM acquired Allison Engine Company and began developing a 1,000 horsepower liquid-cooled aircraft engine in 1929.The same year, GM acquired 80% of Opel, which at that time had a 37.5% market share in Europe, for $26 million.", "It acquired the remaining 20% in 1931.In the late-1920s, Charles Kettering embarked on a program to develop a lightweight two-stroke diesel engine for possible usage in automobiles.", "Soon after, GM acquired Electro-Motive Company and the Winton Engine Co., and in 1941, it expanded EMC's realm to locomotive engine manufacturing.In 1932, GM acquired Packard Electric (not the Packard car company, which merged with Studebaker years later).", "The following year, GM acquired a controlling interest in North American Aviation and merged it with the General Aviation Manufacturing Corporation.The GM labor force participated in the formation of the United Auto Workers labor union in 1935, and in 1936 the UAW organized the Flint Sit-Down Strike, which initially idled two key plants in Flint, Michigan, and later spread to 6 other plants including those in Janesville, Wisconsin and Fort Wayne, Indiana.", "In Flint, police attempted to enter the plant to arrest strikers, leading to violence; in other cities, the plants were shuttered peacefully.", "The strike was resolved on February 11, 1937, when GM recognized the UAW as the exclusive bargaining representative for its workers and gave workers a 5% raise and permission to speak in the lunchroom.Walter E. Jominy and A.L.", "Boegehold of GM invented the Jominy end-quench test for hardenability of carbon steel in 1937, a breakthrough in heat treating still in use today as ASTM A255.GM established Detroit Diesel the next year.In 1939, the company founded Motors Insurance Corporation and entered the vehicle insurance market.", "The same year, GM introduced the Hydramatic, the first affordable and successful automatic transmission, for the 1940 Oldsmobile.During World War II, GM produced vast quantities of armaments, vehicles, and aircraft for the Allies of World War II.", "In 1940, GM's William S. Knudsen served as head of U.S. wartime production for President Franklin Roosevelt, and by 1942, all of GM's production was to support the war.", "GM's Vauxhall Motors manufactured the Churchill tank series for the Allies, instrumental in the North African campaign.", "However, its Opel division, based in Germany, supplied the Nazi Party with vehicles.", "Sloan, head of GM at the time, was an ardent opponent of the New Deal, which bolstered labor unions and public transport, and Sloan admired and supported Adolf Hitler.", "Nazi armaments chief Albert Speer allegedly said in 1977 that Hitler \"would never have considered invading Poland\" without synthetic fuel technology provided by General Motors.", "GM was compensated $32 million by the U.S. government because its German factories were bombed by U.S. forces during the war.Effective January 28, 1953, Charles Erwin Wilson, then GM president, was named by Dwight D. Eisenhower as United States Secretary of Defense.In December 1953, GM acquired Euclid Trucks, a manufacturer of heavy equipment for earthmoving, including dump trucks, loaders and wheel tractor-scrapers, which later spawned the Terex brand.=== Periods of innovation ===Alfred P. Sloan retired as chairman and was succeeded by Albert Bradley in April 1956.In 1962, GM introduced the first turbo charged engine in the world for a car in the Oldsmobile Cutlass Turbo-Jetfire.", "Two years later, the company introduced its \"Mark of Excellence\" logo and trademark at the 1964 New York World's Fair.", "The company used the mark as their main corporate identifier until 2021.GM released the Electrovan in 1966, the first hydrogen fuel cell car ever produced.", "Though fuel cells have existed since the early 1800s, General Motors was the first to use a fuel cell, supplied by Union Carbide, to power the wheels of a vehicle with a budget of \"millions of dollars\".Chevrolet Nova using the advertising slogan ''\"Putting you first, keeps us first\"''In the 1960s, GM was the first to use turbochargers and was an early proponent of V6 engines, but quickly lost interest as the popularity of muscle cars increased.", "GM demonstrated gas turbine vehicles powered by kerosene, an area of interest throughout the industry, but abandoned the alternative engine configuration due to the 1973 oil crisis.In partnership with Boeing, GM's Delco Defense Electronics Division designed the Lunar Roving Vehicle, which traversed the surface of the Moon, in 1971.The following year, GM produced the first rear wheel anti-lock braking system for two models: the Toronado and Eldorado.In 1973, the Oldsmobile Toronado was the first retail car sold with a passenger airbag.Thomas Murphy became CEO of the company, succeeding Richard C. Gerstenberg in November 1974.GM installed its first catalytic converters in its 1975 models.From 1978 to 1985, GM pushed the benefits of diesel engines and cylinder deactivation technologies.", "However, it had disastrous results due to poor durability in the Oldsmobile diesels and drivability issues in the Cadillac V8-6-4 variable-cylinder engines.GM sold Frigidaire in 1979.Although Frigidaire had between $450 million and $500 million in annual revenues, it was losing money.General Motors headquarters building, 1981Robert Lee of GM invented the neodymium magnet, which was fabricated by rapid solidification, in 1984.This magnet is commonly used in products like a computer hard disk.", "The same year, GM acquired Electronic Data Systems for $2.5 billion from Ross Perot as part of a strategy by CEO Roger Smith to derive at least 10% of its annual worldwide revenue from non-automotive sources.", "GM also intended to have EDS handle its bookkeeping, help computerize factories, and integrate GM's computer systems.", "The transaction made Ross Perot the largest shareholder of GM; however, disagreements with Roger Smith led the company to buy all shares held by Ross Perot for $750 million in 1986.In a continuation of its diversification plans, GMAC formed GMAC Mortgage and acquired Colonial Mortgage as well as the servicing arm of Norwest Mortgage in 1985.This acquisition included an $11 billion mortgage portfolio.", "The same year, GM acquired the Hughes Aircraft Company for $5 billion in cash and stock and merged it into Delco Electronics.", "The following year, GM acquired 59.7% of Lotus Cars, a British producer of high-performance sports cars.In 1987, in conjunction with AeroVironment, GM built the Sunraycer, which won the inaugural World Solar Challenge and was a showcase of advanced technology.", "Much of the technology from Sunraycer found its way into the Impact prototype electric vehicle (also built by Aerovironment) and was the predecessor to the General Motors EV1.In 1988, GM acquired a 15% stake in AeroVironment.In 1989, GM acquired half of Saab Automobile's car operations for $600 million.=== Sales of assets ===In August 1990, Robert Stempel became CEO of the company, succeeding Roger Smith.", "GM cut output significantly and suffered losses that year due to the early 1990s recession.In 1990, GM debuted the General Motors EV1 (Impact) concept, a battery electric vehicle, at the LA Auto Show.", "It was the first car with zero emissions marketed in the US in over three decades.", "The Impact was produced as the EV1 for the 1996 model year and was available only via lease from certain dealers in California and Arizona.", "In 1999–2002, GM ceased production of the vehicles and started to not renew the leases, disappointing many people, allegedly because the program would not be profitable and would cannibalize its existing business.", "All of the EV1s were eventually returned to General Motors, and except for around 40 which were donated to museums with their electric powertrains deactivated, all were destroyed.", "The documentary film ''Who Killed the Electric Car?''", "covered the EV1 story.In November 1992, John F. Smith Jr. became CEO of the company.In 1993, GM sold Lotus Cars to Bugatti.In 1996, in a return to its automotive basics, GM completed the corporate spin-off of Electronic Data Systems.In 1997, GM sold the military businesses of Hughes Aircraft Company to Raytheon Company for $9.5 billion in stock and the assumption of debt.In February 2000, Rick Wagoner was named CEO, succeeding John F. Smith Jr.", "The next month, GM gave 5.1% of its common stock, worth $2.4 billion, to acquire a 20% share of Fiat.In December 2000, GM announced that it would begin phasing out Oldsmobile.", "The brand was eventually discontinued in 2004, seven years after it had become the first American car brand to turn 100.In May 2004, GM delivered the first full-sized pickup truck hybrid vehicles, the 1/2-ton Chevrolet Silverado/GMC Sierra trucks.", "These mild hybrids did not use electrical energy for propulsion, like GM's later designs.", "Later, the company debuted another hybrid technology, co-developed with DaimlerChrysler and BMW, in diesel-electric hybrid powertrain manufactured by Allison Transmission for transit buses.", "Continuing to target the diesel-hybrid market, the Opel Astra diesel engine hybrid concept vehicle was rolled out in January 2005.Later that year, GM sold its Electro-Motive Diesel locomotive division to private equity firms Berkshire Partners and Greenbriar Equity Group.GM paid $2 billion to sever its ties with Fiat in 2005, severing ties with the company due to an increasingly contentious dispute.GM began adding its \"Mark of Excellence\" emblem on all new vehicles produced and sold in North America in mid-2005.However, after the reorganization in 2009, the company no longer added the logo, saying that emphasis on its four core divisions would downplay the GM logo.In 2005, Edward T. Welburn was promoted to the newly created position of vice president, GM Global Design, making him the first African American to lead a global automotive design organization and the highest-ranking African American in the US motor industry at that time.", "On July 1, 2016, he retired from General Motors after 44 years.", "He was replaced by Michael Simcoe.In 2006, GM introduced a bright yellow fuel cap on its vehicles to remind drivers that cars can operate using E85 ethanol fuel.", "They also introduced another hybrid vehicle that year, the Saturn Vue Green Line.In 2008, General Motors committed to engineering half of its manufacturing plants to be landfill-free by recycling or reusing waste in the manufacturing process.", "Continuing their environmental-conscious development, GM started to offer the 2-mode hybrid system in the Chevrolet Tahoe, GMC Yukon, Cadillac Escalade, and pickup trucks.In late 2008, the world's largest rooftop solar power installation was installed at GM's manufacturing plant in Zaragoza.", "The Zaragoza solar installation has about of roof at the plant and contains about 85,000 solar panels.", "The installation was created, owned and operated by Veolia Environment and Clairvoyant Energy, which leases the rooftop area from GM.===Chapter 11 bankruptcy and bailout===In March 2009, after the company had received $17.4 billion in bailouts but was not effective in a turnaround, President Barack Obama forced the resignation of CEO Rick Wagoner.General Motors filed for a government-backed Chapter 11 reorganization on June 8, 2009.On July 10, 2009, the original General Motors sold assets and some subsidiaries to an entirely new company, including the trademark \"General Motors\".", "Liabilities were left with the original GM, renamed Motors Liquidation Company, freeing the companies of many liabilities and resulting in a new GM.Through the Troubled Asset Relief Program, the United States Department of the Treasury invested $49.5 billion in General Motors and recovered $39 billion when it sold its shares on December 9, 2013, resulting in a loss of $10.3 billion.", "The Treasury invested an additional $17.2 billion into GM's former financing company, GMAC (now Ally Financial).", "The shares in Ally were sold on December 18, 2014, for $19.6 billion netting the government $2.4 billion in profit, including dividends.", "A study by the Center for Automotive Research found that the GM bailout saved 1.2 million jobs and preserved $34.9 billion in tax revenue.General Motors Canada was not part of the General Motors Chapter 11 bankruptcy.===Post-reorganization===In June 2009, at the request of Steven Rattner, lead adviser to President Barack Obama on the Presidential Task Force on the Auto Industry, Edward Whitacre Jr., who had led a restructuring of AT&T, was appointed as chairman of General Motors.", "Whitacre was tasked with overseeing GM's emergence from bankruptcy and downsizing its sizable number of brand marques, many of which had produced chronic losses even before the recession began.", "In July 2009, after 40 days of bankruptcy protection, the company emerged from the government-backed General Motors Chapter 11 reorganization.As mandated by its bailout agreement, GM began the process of shedding its poorest-performing brands in June 2009: Hummer, Saab, Saturn, and Pontiac.", "An October 2009 agreement to sell the Hummer brand to China-based Sichuan Tengzhong Heavy Industrial Machinery Company Ltd. and a group of private investors fell through three months later, resulting in GM seeking a new suitor.", "American company Raser Technologies, along with several others, expressed interest in buying the company, but none of the proposed acquisitions came to fruition, and in April 2010 GM said it was officially shutting down the Hummer brand.", "Similarly, GM's efforts to sell its Saturn division yielded an early suitor.", "In June 2009, GM announced that the Saturn brand would be sold to the Penske Automotive Group.", "The deal fell through, however, and GM declared the brand defunct in October 2010.While GM agreed to shed its underperforming Pontiac brand as part of its bailout agreement, the company explicitly opted not to sell it to another company.", "The last Pontiac was built in January 2010.GM was more successful in its attempts to sell Saab Automobile: the company closed a sale to Dutch automaker Spyker Cars in February 2010.Saab continued to perform poorly under Spyker's management, however, and in 2012 the Saab division declared bankruptcy.In December 2009, the \"new\" GM's board of directors asked CEO Fritz Henderson to resign, and its chairman, Ed Whitacre, was named interim CEO.", "GM opted to appoint Whitacre as its permanent CEO the following month, though Whitacre ultimately stepped down as CEO in September 2010, relinquishing the position to fellow GM board member Daniel Akerson but agreeing to continue on as GM chairman until the end of the year.", "Akerson replaced him as chairman, while continuing as CEO, in January 2011.In 2010, GM introduced the Chevrolet Volt as an extended-range electric vehicle (EREV), an electric vehicle with backup generators powered by gasoline, or series plug-in hybrid.", "GM delivered the first Volt in December 2010.The Chevrolet Volt was a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle with back-up generators powered by gasoline (range-extended electric vehicle).", "GM built a prototype two-seat electric vehicle with Segway Inc. An early prototype of the Personal Urban Mobility and Accessibility vehicle—dubbed Project P.U.M.A.", "– was presented in New York at the 2009 New York International Auto Show.On January 15, 2014, Mary Barra was named chief executive officer, succeeding Daniel Akerson.", "Barra also joined the GM board.", "Only three weeks later, the company announced its 2014 General Motors recall, which was due to faulty ignition switches, and was linked to at least 124 deaths.", "The resulting settlements with family members of those killed were estimated to cost the company $1.5 billion.", "Under Barra, GM began a multi-year abandonment of many markets, choosing to focus on higher-profit markets like North America and China.On January 4, 2016, in its first investment in a ridesharing company, GM invested $500 million in Lyft.", "The company does not directly supply Lyft drivers with vehicles, however – and has no plans to do so in the future – and Lyft ultimately partnered with Motional for production of its autonomous vehicles.In March 2016, GM acquired Cruise, a San Francisco self-driving vehicle start-up, to develop self-driving cars that could be used in ride-sharing fleets.", "In June 2022, Cruise received California's first Driverless Deployment Permit, allowing it to both charge fees for its service as well as offer fully autonomous rides in a major public city.", "''The Verge'' reported that the company lost $561 million in Q1 2023, but said it remains on the path to reach $1 billion in revenue by 2025 and $50 billion by 2030.In October 2016, GM began production of the Chevrolet Bolt EV, the first-ever mass market all-electric car with a range of more than .", "The battery pack and most drivetrain components were built by LG Corporation and assembled in GM's plant in Lake Orion, Michigan.", "On January 8, 2021, GM introduced a new logo alongside the tagline \"EVerybody in\", with the capitalized \"EV\" as a nod to the company's commitment to electric vehicles.", "GM's new logo used negative space to create the idea of an electric plug in the \"M\" of the logo.At the January 2021 Consumer Electronics Show, GM launched BrightDrop, its brand for all-electric commercial vehicles.On January 28, 2021, GM announced that it will end production and sales of fossil-fuel vehicles (including hybrids and plug-in hybrids) by 2035 as part of its plan to reach carbon neutrality by 2040.In 2021, GM announced plans to establish an automotive battery and battery pack laboratory in Michigan.", "GM will be responsible for battery management systems and power electronics, thermal management, as well as the pack assembly.", "An existing GM facility at Brownstown Township was chosen to be upgraded as a battery pack plant.", "LG Chem's U.S. subsidiary, Compact Power of Troy, Michigan, has been building the prototype packs for the development vehicles and will continue to provide integration support and acting as a liaison for the program.In mid-2023, GM abandoned its goal of North American electric vehicle deliveries of 400,000 units from 2022 by mid-2024.It had previously set the timeline of by end of 2023.CEO Mary Barra pointed to failures in the scaling of battery module production while simultaneously blaming lack of consumer demand.In January 2024, GM announced it would once again manufacture a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) while it aims to balance supply of battery electric vehicles with demand.===Motorsports history===Chevrolet Corvette C8.R in the IMSA SportsCar ChampionshipGM participated in the World Touring Car Championship (WTCC) from 2004 to 2012, and has also participated in other motorsport championships, including 24 Hours of Le Mans, NASCAR, SCCA and Supercars Championship.GM's engines were successful in the Indy Racing League (IRL) throughout the 1990s, winning many races in the small V8 class.", "GM has also done much work in the development of electronics for GM auto racing.", "An unmodified Aurora V8 in the Aerotech captured 47 world records, including the record for speed endurance in the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America.", "Recently, the Cadillac V-Series has entered motorsports racing.GM has also designed cars specifically for use in NASCAR auto racing.", "The Chevrolet Camaro ZL1 is the only entry in the series.", "In the past, the Pontiac Grand Prix, Buick Regal, Oldsmobile Cutlass, Chevrolet Lumina, Chevrolet Malibu, Chevrolet Monte Carlo, Chevrolet Impala, and the Chevrolet SS were also used.", "GM has won many NASCAR Cup Series manufacturer's championships, including 40 with Chevrolet, the most of any make in NASCAR history, 3 with Oldsmobile, 2 with Buick, and 1 with Pontiac.", "In 2021, Chevrolet became the first brand to reach 800 wins.In Australia, Holden cars based on the Monaro, Torana and Commodore platforms raced in the Australian Touring Car Championship until 2022.Holden won the Bathurst 1000, a record 36 times between 1968 and 2022 and the Australian Touring Car Championship 23 times.", "From 2023, the Chevrolet Camaro will be raced.=== Logo evolution ===Evolution of the GM logo through the years:File:Gm logo 1938.png\|1938–1964File:General Motors logo.svg\|Mark of Excellence (1964–2021)File:Logo of General Motors.svg\|2001–2021File:GM-actualizado.svg\|2010–2021File:General Motors 2021 gloss.svg\|2021 (gradient)File:General Motors (2021).svg\|2021 (flat)File:General motors logo with wordmark.svg\|2022 (wordmark)" ], [ "Brands", "=== Current === Origin Brand Founded Began manufacturing vehicles Joined GMMarkets served today Buick 1899 1903 1908 China, North America Cadillac 1902 1902 1909 North America, Middle East, China, Japan, South Korea, Europe, Kazakhstan Chevrolet 1911 1911 1918 Americas, China, Middle East, CIS, South Korea, Philippines, Japan, Europe, Australasia.", "GMC 1912 1912 1919 North America, Middle East, South Korea Baojun 2010 2010 2010 China Wuling 2002 2002 2002 China, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand=== Former === Origin Brand Founded Began manufacturing vehicles Joined GM Fate Defunct / Sold Notes Acadian 1962 1962 1962 Discontinued 1971 Canadian Chevy with Pontiac design accents Alpheon 2010 2010 2010 Discontinued 2015 The only available model was based on the Buick LaCrosse Asüna 1992 1992 1992 Discontinued 1994 Composed of Suzuki, Isuzu and Toyota models.", "Beaumont 1966 1966 1966 Discontinued 1969 Canadian Chevy with Pontiac design accents Bedford 1931 1931 1931 Discontinued 1991 Cartercar 1905 1905 1909 Discontinued 1915 Daewoo 1972 1972 1999 Discontinued 2011 Succeeded by GM Korea Elmore 1893 1900 1912 Discontinued 1916 Envoy 1959 1959 1959 Discontinued 1970 Imported Vauxhall and Bedford vehicles sold at Canadian Chevrolet and Oldsmobile dealerships Epic 1964 1964 1964 Discontinued 1970 Imported Vauxhall models sold at Canadian Pontiac, Buick and GMC dealerships Geo 1989 1989 1989 Discontinued 1997 Composed of Suzuki, Isuzu and Toyota models.", "Sold through Chevrolet dealerships.", "Holden 1856 1908 1926 Discontinued 2020 Hummer 1992 1992 1998 Discontinued 2010 Parent company AM General, formerly owned by AMC.", "Became independent after AMC and Renault merged in 1978.Name revived in 2021 for GMC Hummer EV LaSalle 1927 1927 1927 Discontinued 1940 Companion brand for Cadillac Lotus 1948 1948 1986 Sold to Romano Artioli 1993 Currently owned by Geely Marquette 1909 1909 1909 Discontinued 1931 formerly Peninsular Motor Company; Became a companion brand for Buick in 1928.Mason Motors 1898 1900 1918 Discontinued 1918 Absorbed as sister division of The Chevrolet Motor Company in 1915.McLaughlin 1907 1907 1918 Discontinued 1942 Oakland 1907 1907 1909 Discontinued 1931 Dropped in favor of Pontiac Oldsmobile 1897 1897 1908 Discontinued 2004 Opel 1899 1899 1931 Sold to PSA Group 2017 Currently owned by Stellantis Passport 1987 1987 1987 Discontinued 1991 Composed of Suzuki, Isuzu and Toyota models Pontiac 1926 1926 1926 Discontinued 2010 Started as companion brand for Oakland Rainier 1905 1905 1909 Discontinued 1911 Restructured after its 1909 acquisition, as Marquette Motor Company.", "Produced 'Rainier' cars until 1911 Reliance 1903 1903 1911 Discontinued 1912 Consolidated into what would become GMC Ranger 1968 1968 1968 Discontinued 1978 Rapid 1902 1902 1909 Discontinued 1912 Consolidated into what would become GMC Saab 1945 1949 1990 Sold to Spyker N.V. 2010 Company defunct in 2016 Saturn 1985 1990 1985 Discontinued 2010 Scripps-Booth 1913 1913 1916 Discontinued 1923 Sheridan 1920 1920 1920 Discontinued 1921 Was the technically the first car developed by General Motors Statesman 1971 1971 1971 Discontinued 1984 Vauxhall 1903 1903 1925 Sold to PSA Group 2017 Currently owned by Stellantis Viking 1929 1929 1929 Discontinued 1930 Started as companion brand for Oldsmobile Welch 1901 1901 1910 Discontinued 1911 Yellow Cab 1920 1920 1925 Discontinued 1943 Absorbed into GMC Yellow Coach 1923 1923 1925 Discontinued 1943 Absorbed into GMC" ], [ "Financial results", "===Vehicle sales===General Motors was the largest global automaker by annual vehicle sales for 77 consecutive years, from 1931, when it overtook Ford Motor Company, until 2008 when it was overtaken by Toyota.", "This reign was longer than any other automaker, and GM is still among the world's largest automakers by vehicle unit sales.In 2008, the third-largest individual country by sales was Brazil, with some 550,000 GM vehicles sold.", "In that year, Argentina, Colombia, and Venezuela sold another 300,000 GM vehicles, suggesting that the total GM sales in South America (including sales in other South American countries such as Chile, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, etc.)", "in that year were at a similar level to sales in China.In 2009, General Motors sold 6.5 million cars and trucks globally; in 2010, it sold 8.39 million.", "Sales in China rose 66.9% in 2009 to 1,830,000 vehicles and accounting for 13.4% of the market.In 2010, General Motors ranked second worldwide with 8.5 million vehicles produced.", "In 2011, GM returned to the first place with 9.025 million units sold worldwide, corresponding to 11.9% market share of the global motor vehicle industry.", "In 2010, vehicle sales in China by GM rose 28.8% to a record 2,351,610 units.", "The top two markets in 2011 were China, with 2,547,203 units, and the United States, with 2,503,820 vehicles sold.", "The Chevrolet brand was the main contributor to GM performance, with 4.76 million vehicles sold around the world in 2011, a global sales record.Based on global sales in 2012, General Motors was ranked among the world's largest automakers.In May 2012, GM recorded an 18.4% market share in the U.S. with stock imported.Annual worldwide sales volume reached 10 million vehicles in 2016.Sales in India for April 2016 – March 2017 declined to 25,823 units from 32,540 the previous year and market share contracted from 1.17% to 0.85% for the same period.", "However, exports surged 89% during the same period to 70,969 units.", "GMTC-I, GM's technical center in Bangalore, India continued in operation.", "Weak product line-up and below par service quality were the reasons for the poor showing by GM in India that year.Global Volt/Ampera family sales totalled about 177,000 units from its inception in December 2010 through 2018.including over 10,000 Opel/Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe up to December 2015.The Volt family of vehicles ranked as the world's all-time top-selling plug-in hybrid , and it is also the third best selling plug-in electric car in history after the Nissan Leaf (375,000) and the Tesla Model S (253,000), .", "The Chevrolet Volt is also the U.S. all-time top-selling plug-in electric car with 148,556 units delivered through October 2018.+ GM worldwide 2008 vehicle sales(thousands) Rankin GM Location Vehiclesales Marketshare (%)1 2,981 22.1%2 1,095 12.0%3 549 19.5%4 384 15.4%5 359 21.4%6 338 11.1%7 300 8.8%8 212 19.8%9 133 13.1%10 117 9.7%11 114 4.4%12 107 7.8%13 95 15.5%14 91 33.3%15 80 36.3%16 66 3.3% Year U.S. sales(vehicles) Chg/yr.", "1998 4,603,991 1999 5,017,150 9.0% 2000 4,953,163 1.3% 2001 4,904,015 1.0% 2002 4,858,705 0.9% 2003 4,756,403 2.1% 2004 4,707,416 1.0% 2005 4,517,730 4.0% 2006 4,124,645 8.7% 2007 3,866,620 6.3% 2008 2,980,688 22.9% 2009 2,084,492 30.1% 2010 2,215,227 6.3% 2011 2,503,820 13.7% 2012 2,595,717 3.7% 2013 2,786,078 7.3% 2014 2,935,008 5.3% 2015 3,082,366 5.0% 2016 3,042,7731.3% 2017 3,002,2411.3% 2018 2,954,0371.5% 2019 2,887,0462.3% 2020 2,547,33911.8% 2021 2,218,22812.9% 2022 2,274,0882.5% 2023 2,594,69814.1%+ GM worldwide 2019 vehicle sales Location Total sales Year-On-Yearchange Year-On-Yearchange (%) GM North America 3,367,374 (122,740)(3.5) GM Europe 3,590 (266)(6.9) GM South America668,842(21,355)(3.1) GM International584,52028,0335.0 China3,093,604(551,440)(15.1) Total 7,717,930(667,768)(8.0)" ], [ "Management", "===Current board of directors===Notable members of the board of directors of the company are as follows:===Chairmen of the Board of General Motors===Thomas Neal—November 19, 1912 – November 16, 1915Pierre S. du Pont—November 16, 1915 – February 7, 1929Lammot du Pont II—February 7, 1929 – May 3, 1937Alfred P. Sloan Jr.—May 3, 1937 – April 2, 1956Albert Bradley—April 2, 1956 – August 31, 1958Frederic G. Donner—September 1, 1958 – October 31, 1967James M. Roche—November 1, 1967 – December 31, 1971Richard C. Gerstenberg—January 1, 1972 – November 30, 1974Thomas A. Murphy—December 1, 1974 – December 31, 1980Roger B. Smith—January 1, 1981 – July 31, 1990Robert C. Stempel—August 1, 1990 – November 1, 1992John G. Smale—November 2, 1992 – December 31, 1995John F. Smith Jr.—January 1, 1996 – April 30, 2003Rick Wagoner—May 1, 2003 – March 30, 2009Kent Kresa—March 30, 2009 – July 10, 2009Edward Whitacre Jr.—July 10, 2009 – December 31, 2010Daniel Akerson—December 31, 2010 – January 15, 2014Tim Solso—January 15, 2014 – January 4, 2016Mary Barra—January 4, 2016 – Present===Chief Executive Officers of General Motors===Chief Executive Officers of General MotorsAlfred P. Sloan Jr.—May 10, 1923 – June 3, 1946Charles Erwin Wilson—June 3, 1946 – January 26, 1953Harlow H. Curtice—February 2, 1953 – August 31, 1958James M. Roche—November 1, 1967 – December 31, 1971Richard C. Gerstenberg—January 1, 1972 – November 30, 1974Thomas A. Murphy—December 1, 1974 – December 31, 1980Roger B. Smith—January 1, 1981 – July 31, 1990Robert C. Stempel—August 1, 1990 – November 1, 1992John F. Smith Jr.—November 2, 1992 – May 31, 2000Rick Wagoner—June 1, 2000 – March 30, 2009Frederick Henderson—March 30, 2009 – December 1, 2009Edward Whitacre Jr.—December 1, 2009 – September 1, 2010Daniel Akerson—September 1, 2010 – January 15, 2014 Mary Barra—January 15, 2014 – Present" ], [ "Philanthropy", "GM publishes an annual Social Impact Report detailing its contributions to charity; in 2020 it provided nearly $35 million in funding to 357 U.S.-based non-profits as well as in-kind assets (primarily donations of vehicles) to non-profits valued at more than $9.8 million.", "From 1976 until 2017, philanthropic activity was carried out via the General Motors Foundation, a 501(c)(3) foundation.General Motors has a close relationship with the Nature Conservancy and has fundraised for and donated cash and vehicles to the charity.In 1996, GM commissioned five designer-original vehicles, sold in a silent auction for Concept: Cure, to benefit the Nina Hyde Center for breast cancer research, founded by Ralph Lauren.", "The program involved five designers, each lending their artistic talents to customize five different vehicles.", "Nicole Miller, Richard Tyler, Anna Sui, Todd Oldham, and Mark Eisen were tasked with transforming a Cadillac STS, Buick Riviera, GMC Yukon, Oldsmobile Bravada and Chevrolet Camaro Z28, respectively.", "The cars were then auctioned with the proceeds presented to the Nina Hyde Center at the Greater LA Auto Show in 1997.Since 1997, GM has been a source of funding for Safe Kids Worldwide's \"Safe Kids Buckle Up\" program, an initiative to ensure child automobile safety through education and inspection." ], [ "Labor conflicts", "General Motors' American workers are unionized generally under the United Auto Workers (UAW), which is the primary auto workers union in the United States.===Flint sit-down strike===Young striker off sentry duty sleeping on the assembly line of auto seatsThe 1936–1937 Flint sit-down strike against General Motors changed the UAW from a collection of isolated local unions on the fringes of the industry into a major labor union and led to the unionization of the domestic United States automobile industry.After the first convention of UAW in 1936, the union decided that it could not survive by piecemeal organizing campaigns at smaller plants, as it had in the past, but that it could organize the automobile industry only by going after its biggest and most powerful employer, General Motors, focusing on GM's production complex in Flint, Michigan.Organizing in Flint was a difficult and dangerous plan.", "GM controlled city politics in Flint and kept a close eye on outsiders.", "According to Wyndham Mortimer, the UAW officer put in charge of the organizing campaign in Flint, he received a death threat by an anonymous caller when he visited Flint in 1936.GM also maintained an extensive network of spies throughout its plants.", "This forced UAW members to keep the names of new members secret and meeting workers at their homes.As the UAW studied its target, it discovered that GM had only two factories that produced the dies from which car body components were stamped: one in Flint that produced the parts for Buicks, Pontiacs, and Oldsmobiles, and another in Cleveland that produced Chevrolet parts.National Guardsmen with machine guns overlooking Chevrolet factories number nine and number fourWhile the UAW called for a sit-down strike in Flint, the police, armed with guns and tear gas, attempted to enter the Fisher Body 2 plant on January 11, 1937.The strikers inside the plant pelted them with hinges, bottles, and bolts.", "At the time, Vice President John Nance Garner supported federal intervention to break up the Flint Strike, but this idea was rejected by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.", "The president urged GM to distinguish a union so the plants could re-open.", "The strike ended after 44 days.That development forced GM to bargain with the union.", "John L. Lewis, President of the United Mine Workers and founder and leader of the Congress of Industrial Organizations, spoke for the UAW in those negotiations; UAW President Homer Martin was sent on a speaking tour to keep him out of the way.", "GM's representatives refused to be in the same room as the UAW, so Governor Frank Murphy acted as a courier and intermediary between the two groups.", "Governor Murphy sent in the U.S. National Guard not to evict the strikers but rather to protect them from the police and corporate strike-breakers.", "The two parties finally reached an agreement on February 11, 1937, on a one-page agreement that recognized the UAW as the exclusive bargaining representative for GM's employees, who were union members for the next six months.===Tool and die strike of 1939===The tool and die strike of 1939, also known as the \"strategy strike\", was an ultimately successful attempt by the UAW to be recognized as the sole representative for General Motors workers.", "In addition to representation rights, the UAW, working jointly with the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), sought to resolve existing grievances of skilled workers.=== United Auto Workers (UAW) strike of 1945–1946 ===From November 21, 1945, until March 13, 1946, (113 days) the UAW organized \"320,000 hourly workers\" to form a US-wide strike against the General Motors Corporation, workers used the tactic of the sit down strike.", "It was \"the longest strike against a major manufacturer\" that the UAW had yet seen, and it was also \"the longest national GM strike in its history\".", "As director of the UAW's General Motors Department (coordinator of union relations with GM), Walter Reuther suggested to his colleagues the idea of striking the GM manufacturing plants with a 'one-at-a-time' strategy, which was \"intended to maximize pressure on the target company\".", "Reuther also put forth the demands of the strikers: a 30 percent increase in wages and a hold on product prices.", "However, the strike ended with the dissatisfaction of Walter Reuther and the UAW, and the workers received only a 17.5-percent increase in wages.===2007 General Motors strike===The 2007 General Motors strike was a strike from September 24 to 26, 2007, by the UAW against General Motors.On September 24, 2007, General Motors workers represented by the UAW union went on strike against the company.", "The first US-wide strike against GM since 1970 was expected to idle 59 plants and facilities for an indefinite period of time.", "Talks broke down after more than 20 straight days of bargaining failed to produce a new contract.", "Major issues that proved to be stumbling blocks for an agreement included wages, benefits, job security and investments in US facilities.Two car assembly plants in Oshawa, Ontario and a transmission facility in Windsor closed on September 25.However, on September 26, a tentative agreement was reached, and the strike's end was announced by UAW officials in a news conference at 4 a.m. By the following day, all GM workers in both countries were back to work.=== 2019 General Motors strike ===On the morning of September 15, 2019, after talks broke down to renew their contract, which expired earlier that day, the UAW announced that GM employees would begin striking at 11:59 pm.", "This strike shut down operations in nine states, including 33 manufacturing plants and 22 parts distribution warehouses.", "After 40 days, on October 25, 2019, the \"longest strike by autoworkers in a decade\" and the longest against GM since 1970 came to an end when United Auto Workers members voted to approve a new contract with GM.", "Striking labor union members received a $275 a week strike pay salary for the duration of the strike.", "The strike cost GM more than $2 billion.=== 2023 United Auto Workers strike ===The ongoing strike launched by the UAW is the first strike against all three major American automakers in history.", "Then-recently elected UAW president Shawn Fain stated that he was \"fed up\" with the current situation between workers and automakers; Fain specifically blasted the tiered workers system at automakers, failure for automakers to keep wages up with inflation, pensions, as well as the introduction of a four-day workweek as opposed to the five-day workweek.", "GM CEO Mary Barra protested that her company offered an \"unprecedented deal\" which gave workers 20% raises as well as \"world-class\" healthcare.", "Barra further stated that meeting all 1,000 plus demands would bankrupt the company and cost over $100 billion." ], [ "Controversies", "===Streetcar conspiracy===Between 1938 and 1950, GM allegedly deliberately monopolized the sale of buses and supplies to National City Lines (NCL) and its subsidiaries, in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, intending to dismantle streetcar systems in many cities in the United States and make buses, sold by GM, the dominant form of public transport.===Ralph Nader and the Corvair===1961–63 Corvair swing-axle rear suspension''Unsafe at Any Speed: The Designed-In Dangers of the American Automobile'' by Ralph Nader, published in 1965, is a book accusing car manufacturers of being slow to introduce safety features and reluctant to spend money on improving safety.", "It relates to the first models of the Chevrolet Corvair (1960–1964) that had a swing axle suspension design that was prone to 'tuck under' in certain circumstances.", "To compensate for the removal of a front stabilizer bar (anti-roll bar) as a cost-cutting measure, Corvairs required tire pressures that were outside of the tire manufacturer's recommended tolerances.", "The Corvair relied on an unusually high front to rear pressure differential (15 psi front, 26 psi rear, when cold; 18 psi and 30 psi hot), and if one inflated the tires equally, as was standard practice for all other cars at the time, the result was dangerous over-steer.In early March 1966, several media outlets, including ''The New Republic'' and ''The New York Times'', alleged that GM had tried to discredit Ralph Nader, hiring private detectives to tap his phones and investigate his past, and hiring prostitutes to trap him in compromising situations.", "Nader sued the company for invasion of privacy and settled the case for $425,000.Nader's lawsuit against GM was ultimately decided by the New York Court of Appeals, whose opinion in the case expanded tort law to cover \"overzealous surveillance\".", "Nader used the proceeds from the lawsuit to start the pro-consumer Center for Study of Responsive Law.A 1972 safety commission report conducted by Texas A&M University concluded that the 1960–1963 Corvair possessed no greater potential for loss of control than its contemporary competitors in extreme situations.", "The United States Department of Transportation (DOT) issued a press release in 1972 describing the findings of NHTSA testing from the previous year.", "NHTSA conducted a series of comparative tests in 1971 studying the handling of the 1963 Corvair and four contemporary cars — a Ford Falcon, Plymouth Valiant, Volkswagen Beetle, and Renault Dauphine — along with a second-generation Corvair (with its completely redesigned, independent rear suspension).", "The 143-page report reviewed NHTSA's extreme-condition handling tests, national crash-involvement data for the cars in the test as well as General Motors' internal documentation regarding the Corvair's handling.", "NHTSA went on to contract an independent advisory panel of engineers to review the tests.", "This review panel concluded that 'the 1960–63 Corvair compares favorably with contemporary vehicles used in the tests ... the handling and stability performance of the 1960–63 Corvair does not result in an abnormal potential for loss of control or rollover, and it is at least as good as the performance of some contemporary vehicles both foreign and domestic'.In 1980, former GM executive John DeLorean wrote in his book ''On a Clear Day You Can See General Motors'' that Nader's criticisms were valid.Journalist David E. Davis said that despite Nader's claim that swing-axle rear suspension were dangerous, Porsche, Mercedes-Benz, and Volkswagen all used similar swing-axle concepts during that era.===Apartheid===In 2002, GM (along with other multinational corporations) was sued by a group of South Africans represented by the Khulumani Support Group.", "The plaintiffs alleged that the company provided vehicles to the South African security forces during the Apartheid.", "The company settled with the plaintiffs in 2012, agreeing to pay a sum of up to $1.5 million.===Ignition switch recall===In May 2014, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration fined the company $35 million for failing to recall cars with faulty ignition switches for a decade, despite knowing there was a problem with the switches.", "General Motors paid compensation for 124 deaths linked to the faulty switches.", "The $35 million fine was the maximum the regulator could impose.", "The total cost of the recall was estimated to be $1.5 billion.", "As well as the Cobalts, the switches of concern had been installed in many other cars, such as the Pontiac G5, the Saturn Ion, the Chevrolet HHR, the Saturn Sky, and Pontiac Solstice.", "The recall involved about 2.6 million GM cars worldwide.=== Xinjiang region ===In 2020, the Australian Strategic Policy Institute accused at least 82 major brands, including General Motors, of being connected to forced Uyghur labor in Xinjiang." ], [ "See also", " Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers* ASOTRECOL* Crucible Industries* EcoCAR* General Motors Hy-wire* General Motors proving grounds* General Motors Technical Center* GM people* GM vehicles by brand* List of automobile manufacturers of the United States* List of GM engines* List of General Motors factories* List of General Motors platforms* List of GM transmissions* United States Council for Automotive Research* VIA Motors* Freon* Global Climate Coalition* Ethyl Corporation* Durant Motors" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Golden Gate Bridge" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Golden Gate Bridge''' is a suspension bridge spanning the Golden Gate, the strait connecting San Francisco Bay and the Pacific Ocean.", "The structure links the U.S. city of San Francisco, California—the northern tip of the San Francisco Peninsula—to Marin County, carrying both U.S. Route 101 and California State Route 1 across the strait.", "It also carries pedestrian and bicycle traffic, and is designated as part of U.S.", "Bicycle Route 95.Recognized by the American Society of Civil Engineers as one of the Wonders of the Modern World, the bridge is one of the most internationally recognized symbols of San Francisco and California.The idea of a fixed link between San Francisco and Marin had gained increasing popularity during the late 19th century, but it was not until the early 20th century that such a link became feasible.", "Joseph Strauss served as chief engineer for the project, with Leon Moisseiff, Irving Morrow and Charles Ellis making significant contributions to its design.", "The bridge opened to the public in 1937 and has undergone various retrofits and other improvement projects in the decades since.The Golden Gate Bridge is described in Frommer's travel guide as \"possibly the most beautiful, certainly the most photographed, bridge in the world.\"", "At the time of its opening in 1937, it was both the longest and the tallest suspension bridge in the world, titles it held until 1964 and 1998 respectively.", "Its main span is and its total height is ." ], [ "History", "===Ferry service===Before the bridge was built, the only practical short route between San Francisco and what is now Marin County was by boat across a section of San Francisco Bay.", "A ferry service began as early as 1820, with a regularly scheduled service beginning in the 1840s for the purpose of transporting water to San Francisco.In 1867, the Sausalito Land and Ferry Company opened.", "In 1920, the service was taken over by the Golden Gate Ferry Company, which merged in 1929 with the ferry system of the Southern Pacific Railroad, becoming the Southern Pacific-Golden Gate Ferries, Ltd., the largest ferry operation in the world.", "Once for railroad passengers and customers only, Southern Pacific's automobile ferries became very profitable and important to the regional economy.", "The ferry crossing between the Hyde Street Pier in San Francisco and Sausalito Ferry Terminal in Marin County took approximately 20 minutes and cost $1.00 per vehicle prior to 1937, when the price was reduced to compete with the new bridge.", "The trip from the San Francisco Ferry Building took 27 minutes.Many wanted to build a bridge to connect San Francisco to Marin County.", "San Francisco was the largest American city still served primarily by ferry boats.", "Because it did not have a permanent link with communities around the bay, the city's growth rate was below the national average.", "Many experts said that a bridge could not be built across the strait, which had strong, swirling tides and currents, with water deep at the center of the channel, and frequent strong winds.", "Experts said that ferocious winds and blinding fogs would prevent construction and operation.==== Conception ====Fort Point in foreground, Although the idea of a bridge spanning the Golden Gate was not new, the proposal that eventually took hold was made in a 1916 ''San Francisco Bulletin'' article by former engineering student James Wilkins.", "San Francisco's City Engineer estimated the cost at $100 million (equivalent to $ billion in ), and impractical for the time.", "He asked bridge engineers whether it could be built for less.", "One who responded, Joseph Strauss, was an ambitious engineer and poet who had, for his graduate thesis, designed a railroad bridge across the Bering Strait.", "At the time, Strauss had completed some 400 drawbridges—most of which were inland—and nothing on the scale of the new project.", "Strauss's initial drawings were for a massive cantilever on each side of the strait, connected by a central suspension segment, which Strauss promised could be built for $17 million (equivalent to $ million in ).A suspension-bridge design was chosen, using recent advances in bridge design and metallurgy.Strauss spent more than a decade drumming up support in Northern California.", "The bridge faced opposition, including litigation, from many sources.", "The Department of War was concerned that the bridge would interfere with ship traffic.", "The US Navy feared that a ship collision or sabotage to the bridge could block the entrance to one of its main harbors.", "Unions demanded guarantees that local workers would be favored for construction jobs.", "Southern Pacific Railroad, one of the most powerful business interests in California, opposed the bridge as competition to its ferry fleet and filed a lawsuit against the project, leading to a mass boycott of the ferry service.In May 1924, Colonel Herbert Deakyne held the second hearing on the Bridge on behalf of the Secretary of War in a request to use federal land for construction.", "Deakyne, on behalf of the Secretary of War, approved the transfer of land needed for the bridge structure and leading roads to the \"Bridging the Golden Gate Association\" and both San Francisco County and Marin County, pending further bridge plans by Strauss.", "Another ally was the fledgling automobile industry, which supported the development of roads and bridges to increase demand for automobiles.The bridge's name was first used when the project was initially discussed in 1917 by M.M.", "O'Shaughnessy, city engineer of San Francisco, and Strauss.", "The name became official with the passage of the Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District Act by the state legislature in 1923, creating a special district to design, build and finance the bridge.", "San Francisco and most of the counties along the North Coast of California joined the Golden Gate Bridge District, with the exception being Humboldt County, whose residents opposed the bridge's construction and the traffic it would generate.===Design===South tower seen from walkway, with Art Deco elementsStrauss was the chief engineer in charge of the overall design and construction of the bridge project.", "However, because he had little understanding or experience with cable-suspension designs, responsibility for much of the engineering and architecture fell on other experts.", "Strauss's initial design proposal (two double cantilever spans linked by a central suspension segment) was unacceptable from a visual standpoint.", "The final suspension design was conceived and championed by Leon Moisseiff, the engineer of the Manhattan Bridge in New York City.Irving Morrow, a relatively unknown residential architect, designed the overall shape of the bridge towers, the lighting scheme, and Art Deco elements, such as the tower decorations, streetlights, railing, and walkways.", "The famous International Orange color was Morrow's personal selection, winning out over other possibilities, including the US Navy's suggestion that it be painted with black and yellow stripes to ensure visibility by passing ships.Senior engineer Charles Alton Ellis, collaborating remotely with Moisseiff, was the principal engineer of the project.", "Moisseiff produced the basic structural design, introducing his \"deflection theory\" by which a thin, flexible roadway would flex in the wind, greatly reducing stress by transmitting forces via suspension cables to the bridge towers.", "Although the Golden Gate Bridge design has proved sound, a later Moisseiff design, the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge, collapsed in a strong windstorm soon after it was completed, because of an unexpected aeroelastic flutter.", "Ellis was also tasked with designing a \"bridge within a bridge\" in the southern abutment, to avoid the need to demolish Fort Point, a pre–Civil War masonry fortification viewed, even then, as worthy of historic preservation.", "He penned a graceful steel arch spanning the fort and carrying the roadway to the bridge's southern anchorage.Below Golden Gate BridgeEllis was a Greek scholar and mathematician who at one time was a University of Illinois professor of engineering despite having no engineering degree.", "He eventually earned a degree in civil engineering from the University of Illinois prior to designing the Golden Gate Bridge and spent the last twelve years of his career as a professor at Purdue University.", "He became an expert in structural design, writing the standard textbook of the time.", "Ellis did much of the technical and theoretical work that built the bridge, but he received none of the credit in his lifetime.", "In November 1931, Strauss fired Ellis and replaced him with a former subordinate, Clifford Paine, ostensibly for wasting too much money sending telegrams back and forth to Moisseiff.", "Ellis, obsessed with the project and unable to find work elsewhere during the Depression, continued working 70 hours per week on an unpaid basis, eventually turning in ten volumes of hand calculations.With an eye toward self-promotion and posterity, Strauss downplayed the contributions of his collaborators who, despite receiving little recognition or compensation, are largely responsible for the final form of the bridge.", "He succeeded in having himself credited as the person most responsible for the design and vision of the bridge.", "Only much later were the contributions of the others on the design team properly appreciated.", "In May 2007, the Golden Gate Bridge District issued a formal report on 70 years of stewardship of the famous bridge and decided to give Ellis major credit for the design of the bridge.===Finance===The Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District, authorized by an act of the California Legislature, was incorporated in 1928 as the official entity to design, construct, and finance the Golden Gate Bridge.", "However, after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the District was unable to raise the construction funds, so it lobbied for a $30 million bond measure (equivalent to $ million today).", "The bonds were approved in November 1930, by votes in the counties affected by the bridge.", "The construction budget at the time of approval was $27 million ($ million today).", "However, the District was unable to sell the bonds until 1932, when Amadeo Giannini, the founder of San Francisco–based Bank of America, agreed on behalf of his bank to buy the entire issue in order to help the local economy.===Construction===Construction began on January 5, 1933.The project cost more than $35 million ($ in dollars), and was completed ahead of schedule and $1.3 million under budget (equivalent to $ million today).The Golden Gate Bridge construction project was carried out by the McClintic-Marshall Construction Co., a subsidiary of Bethlehem Steel Corporation founded by Howard H. McClintic and Charles D. Marshall, both of Lehigh University.An original rivet replaced during the seismic retrofit after the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake.", "A total of 1.2 million steel rivets hold the bridge's two towers together.Strauss remained head of the project, overseeing day-to-day construction and making some groundbreaking contributions.", "A graduate of the University of Cincinnati, he placed a brick from his alma mater's demolished McMicken Hall in the south anchorage before the concrete was poured.Strauss also innovated the use of movable safety netting beneath the men working, which saved many lives.", "Nineteen men saved by the nets over the course of the project formed the Half Way to Hell Club.", "Nonetheless, eleven men were killed in falls, ten on February 17, 1937, when a scaffold (secured by undersized bolts) with twelve men on it fell into and broke through the safety net; two of the twelve survived the fall into the water.The bridge opened May 27, 1937.The Round House Café diner was then included in the southeastern end of the Golden Gate Bridge, adjacent to the tourist plaza which was renovated in 2012.The Round House Café, an Art Deco design by Alfred Finnila completed in 1938, has been popular throughout the years as a starting point for various commercial tours of the bridge and an unofficial gift shop.", "The diner was renovated in 2012 and the gift shop was then removed as a new, official gift shop has been included in the adjacent plaza.During the bridge work, the Assistant Civil Engineer of California Alfred Finnila had overseen the entire iron work of the bridge as well as half of the bridge's road work.==== Contributors ====Plaque of the major contributors to the Golden Gate Bridge lists contractors, engineering-staff, directors and officers: '''Contractors'''* Foundations - Pacific Bridge Company* Anchorages - Barrett & Hilp* Structural steel - Main span - Bethlehem Steel Company Incorporated* Approach steel - J.H.", "Pomeroy & Company Incorporated - Raymond Concrete Pile Company* Cables - John A. Roebling's Sons Company* Electrical work - Alta Electric and Mechanical Company Incorporated* Bridge deck - Pacific Bridge Company* Presidio Approach Roads and Viaducts - Easton & Smith* Toll Plaza - Barrett & Hilp'''Engineering staff'''* Chief engineer - Joseph B. Strauss* Principal assistant engineer - Clifford E. Paine* Resident engineer - Russell Cone* Assistant engineer - Charles Clarahan Jr., Dwight N. Wetherell* Consulting engineer - O.H.", "Ammann, Charles Derleth Jr., Leon S. Moisseiff* Consulting traffic engineer - Sydney W. Taylor Jr.* Consulting architect - Irving F. Morrow* Consulting geologist - Andrew C. Lawson, Allan E. Sedgwick'''Directors'''* San Francisco - William P. Filmer, Richard J. Welch, Warren Shannon, Hugo D. Newhouse, Arthur M. Brown Jr., John P. McLaughlin, William D. Hadeler, C.A.", "Henry, Francis V. Keesling, William P. Stanton, George T. Cameron* Marin County - Robert H. Trumbull, Harry Lutgens* Napa County - Thomas Maxwell* Sonoma County - Frank P. Doyle, Joseph A. McMinn* Mendocino County - A. R. O'Brien* Del Norte County - Henry Westbrook Jr., Milton M. McVay'''Officers'''* President - William P. Filmer* Vice President - Robert H. Trumbull* General manager - James Reed, Alan McDonald* Chief engineer - Joseph B. Strauss* Secretary - W. W. Felt Jr.* Auditor - Roy S. West, John R. Ruckstell* Attorney - George H. Harlan===Torsional bracing retrofit===On December 1, 1951, a windstorm revealed swaying and rolling instabilities of the bridge, resulting in its closure.", "In 1953 and 1954, the bridge was retrofitted with lateral and diagonal bracing that connected the lower chords of the two side trusses.", "This bracing stiffened the bridge deck in torsion so that it would better resist the types of twisting that had destroyed the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940.===Bridge deck replacement (1982–1986)===The original bridge used a concrete deck.", "Salt carried by fog or mist reached the rebar, causing corrosion and concrete spalling.", "From 1982 to 1986, the original bridge deck, in 747 sections, was systematically replaced with a 40% lighter, and stronger, steel orthotropic deck panels, over 401 nights without closing the roadway completely to traffic.", "The roadway was also widened by two feet, resulting in outside curb lane width of 11 feet, instead of 10 feet for the inside lanes.", "This deck replacement was the bridge's greatest engineering project since it was built and cost over $68 million.===Opening festivities, and 50th and 75th anniversaries===A plaque on the south tower commemorating the 25th anniversary of the bridgeFort PointThe bridge-opening celebration in 1937 began on May 27 and lasted for one week.", "The day before vehicle traffic was allowed, 200,000 people crossed either on foot or on roller skates.", "On opening day, Mayor Angelo Rossi and other officials rode the ferry to Marin, then crossed the bridge in a motorcade past three ceremonial \"barriers,\" the last a blockade of beauty queens who required Joseph Strauss to present the bridge to the Highway District before allowing him to pass.", "An official song, \"There's a Silver Moon on the Golden Gate,\" was chosen to commemorate the event.", "Strauss wrote a poem that is now on the Golden Gate Bridge entitled \"The Mighty Task is Done.\"", "The next day, President Franklin D. Roosevelt pushed a button in Washington, D.C. signaling the official start of vehicle traffic over the Bridge at noon.", "Weeks of civil and cultural activities called \"the Fiesta\" followed.", "A statue of Strauss was moved in 1955 to a site near the bridge.As part of the fiftieth anniversary celebration in 1987, the Golden Gate Bridge district again closed the bridge to automobile traffic and allowed pedestrians to cross it on May 24.This Sunday morning celebration attracted 750,000 to 1,000,000 people, and ineffective crowd control meant the bridge became congested with roughly 300,000 people, causing the center span of the bridge to flatten out under the weight.", "Although the bridge is designed to flex in that way under heavy loads, and was estimated not to have exceeded 40% of the yielding stress of the suspension cables, bridge officials stated that uncontrolled pedestrian access was not being considered as part of the 75th anniversary on Sunday, May 27, 2012, because of the additional law enforcement costs required \"since 9/11.", "\"File:GoldenGateBridge openingday.jpg\|A pedestrian poses at the old railing on opening day, 1937.File:Golden Gate Bridge Opening - (1936).ogg\|Opening of the Golden Gate BridgeFile:Invitation to Golden Gate Bridge opening, 1937.jpg\|Official invitation to the opening of the bridge.", "This copy was sent to the City of Seattle.=== ''Commemorative Bricks'' ==={ \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\", \"features\": { \"type\": \"Feature\", \"properties\": {}, \"geometry\": { \"type\": \"Point\", \"coordinates\": -122.475366, 37.807886 } } }On the 50th anniversary of the Golden Gate Bridge in 1987, individuals and organizations were invited to buy a commemorative brick to fund the 50th anniversary celebration.", "Those bricks were installed on the ground creating a brick promenade.", "Its location is shown on the map.More than 7,500 donors responded, personalizing their brick with inscriptions and tributes.Unfortunately, 25 years later, for the upcoming 75th of the Golden Gate Bridge, the need for a DDA compliant area, as the slope was too steep, implied remodeling the whole promenade.", "Doing so, and contractors being unable to properly take bricks out one by one, the brick promenade was demolished and the contributors were unable to get their bricks back.350x350pxHowever, to honor and respect their contributions, all the donors' names and the inscriptions they had chosen for their bricks have been preserved and written on panels.The panels are located inside the \"Equator Coffees\", on its rounded walls.", "The names and inscriptions are listed in the alphabetical order, to make them easier to read and find.This website has been keeping a maps view of the original brick promenade and the database of all donors' names and inscriptions, to help find and locate them on the original layout.", "As of October 2022, the website is currently down." ], [ "Structural specifications", "On the south side of the bridge a cross-section of the cable, containing 27,572 wires, is on display.Until 1964, the Golden Gate Bridge had the longest suspension bridge main span in the world, at .", "Since 1964 its main span length has been surpassed by seventeen bridges; it now has the second-longest main span in the Americas, after the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge in New York City.", "The total length of the Golden Gate Bridge from abutment to abutment is .The Golden Gate Bridge's clearance above high water averages while its towers, at above the water, were the world's tallest on a suspension bridge until 1993 when it was surpassed by the Mezcala Bridge, in Mexico.The weight of the roadway is hung from 250 pairs of vertical suspender ropes, which are attached to two main cables.", "The main cables pass over the two main towers and are fixed in concrete at each end.", "Each cable is made of 27,572 strands of wire.", "The total length of galvanized steel wire used to fabricate both main cables is estimated to be .", "Each of the bridge's two towers has approximately 600,000 rivets.In the 1960s, when the Bay Area Rapid Transit system (BART) was being planned, the engineering community had conflicting opinions about the feasibility of running train tracks north to Marin County over the bridge.", "In June 1961, consultants hired by BART completed a study that determined the bridge's suspension section was capable of supporting service on a new lower deck.", "In July 1961, one of the bridge's consulting engineers, Clifford Paine, disagreed with their conclusion.", "In January 1962, due to more conflicting reports on feasibility, the bridge's board of directors appointed an engineering review board to analyze all the reports.", "The review board's report, released in April 1962, concluded that running BART on the bridge was not advisable." ], [ "Aesthetics", "Aesthetics was the foremost reason why the first design of Joseph Strauss was rejected.", "Upon re-submission of his bridge construction plan, he added details, such as lighting, to outline the bridge's cables and towers.", "In 1999, it was ranked fifth on the ''List of America's Favorite Architecture'' by the American Institute of Architects.The color of the bridge is officially an orange vermilion called ''international orange''.", "The color was selected by consulting architect Irving Morrow because it complements the natural surroundings and enhances the bridge's visibility in fog.The bridge was originally painted with red lead primer and a lead-based topcoat, which was touched up as required.", "In the mid-1960s, a program was started to improve corrosion protection by stripping the original paint and repainting the bridge with zinc silicate primer and vinyl topcoats.", "Since 1990, acrylic topcoats have been used instead for air-quality reasons.", "The program was completed in 1995 and it is now maintained by 38 painters who touch up the paintwork where it becomes seriously corroded.The ongoing maintenance task of painting the bridge is continuous.File:The Bridge (August 2013).jpg\|A view of the Golden Gate Bridge from the Marin Headlands on a foggy morning at sunriseFile:Golden Gate Bridge tower views 01.jpg\|View of Marin from the south towerFile:Golden Gate Bridge tower views 18.jpg\|Top of the south tower" ], [ "Traffic", "Installation of the movable median barrier system in January 2015Testing the newly installed movable barrierMost maps and signage mark the bridge as part of the concurrency between U.S. Route 101 and California State Route 1.Although part of the National Highway System, the bridge is not officially part of California's Highway System.", "For example, under the California Streets and Highways Code § 401, Route 101 ends at \"the approach to the Golden Gate Bridge\" and then resumes at \"a point in Marin County opposite San Francisco\".", "The Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District has jurisdiction over the segment of highway that crosses the bridge instead of the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans).The movable median barrier between the lanes is moved several times daily to conform to traffic patterns.", "On weekday mornings, traffic flows mostly southbound into the city, so four of the six lanes run southbound.", "Conversely, on weekday afternoons, four lanes run northbound.", "During off-peak periods and weekends, traffic is split with three lanes in each direction.From 1968 to 2015, opposing traffic was separated by small, plastic pylons; during that time, there were 16 fatalities resulting from 128 head-on collisions.", "To improve safety, the speed limit on the Golden Gate Bridge was reduced from on October 1, 1983.Although there had been discussion concerning the installation of a movable barrier since the 1980s, only in March 2005 did the Bridge Board of Directors commit to finding funding to complete the $2 million study required prior to the installation of a movable median barrier.", "Installation of the resulting barrier was completed on January 11, 2015, following a closure of 45.5 hours to private vehicle traffic, the longest in the bridge's history.", "The new barrier system, including the zipper trucks, cost approximately $30.3 million to purchase and install.The bridge carries about 112,000 vehicles per day according to the Golden Gate Bridge Highway and Transportation District.===Usage and tourism===Looking north with traffic and current flow into the bay with sailboatsThe bridge is popular with pedestrians and bicyclists, and was built with walkways on either side of the six vehicle traffic lanes.", "Initially, they were separated from the traffic lanes by only a metal curb, but railings between the walkways and the traffic lanes were added in 2003, primarily as a measure to prevent bicyclists from falling into the roadway.", "The bridge was designated as part of U.S.", "Bicycle Route 95 in 2021.The main walkway is on the eastern side, and is open for use by both pedestrians and bicycles in the morning to mid-afternoon during weekdays (5:00 a.m. to 3:30 p.m.), and to pedestrians only for the remaining daylight hours (until 6:00 p.m., or 9:00 p.m. during DST).", "The eastern walkway is reserved for pedestrians on weekends (5:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m., or 9:00 p.m. during DST), and is open exclusively to bicyclists in the evening and overnight, when it is closed to pedestrians.", "The western walkway is open only for bicyclists and only during the hours when they are not allowed on the eastern walkway.Bus service across the bridge is provided by two public transportation agencies: San Francisco Muni and Golden Gate Transit.", "Muni offers Saturday and Sunday service on the Marin Headlands Express bus line, and Golden Gate Transit runs numerous bus lines throughout the week.", "The southern end of the bridge, near the toll plaza and parking lot, is also accessible daily from 5:30 a.m. to midnight by Muni line 28.The Marin Airporter, a private company, also offers service across the bridge between Marin County and San Francisco International Airport.A visitor center and gift shop, originally called the \"Bridge Pavilion\" (since renamed the \"Golden Gate Bridge Welcome Center\"), is located on the San Francisco side of the bridge, adjacent to the southeast parking lot.", "It opened in 2012, in time for the bridge's 75th-anniversary celebration.", "A cafe, outdoor exhibits, and restroom facilities are located nearby.", "On the Marin side of the bridge, only accessible from the northbound lanes, is the H. Dana Bower Rest Area and Vista Point, named after the first landscape architect for the California Division of Highways.Lands and waters under and around the bridge are homes to varieties of wildlife such as bobcats, harbor seals, and sea lions.", "Three species of cetaceans (whales) that had been absent in the area for many years have shown recent recoveries/(re)colonizations in the vicinity of the bridge; researchers studying them have encouraged stronger protections and recommended that the public watch them from the bridge or from land, or use a local whale watching operator.=== Tolls =======Current toll rates====Tolls are only collected from southbound traffic at the toll plaza on the San Francisco side of the bridge.", "All-electronic tolling has been in effect since 2013, and drivers may either pay using the FasTrak electronic toll collection device, using the license plate tolling program, or via a one time payment online.", "Effective , the regular toll rate for passenger cars is $9, with FasTrak users paying a discounted toll of $8.75.During peak traffic hours, carpool vehicles carrying three or more people, or motorcycles may pay a discounted toll of $6.75 if they have FasTrak and use the designated carpool lane.", "Drivers must pay within 48 hours after crossing the bridge or they will be sent a toll violation invoice.", "The toll violation penalty is $9.75, and additional fees will be added if it is not paid within 21 days.====Historical toll rates====Golden Gate Bridge at sunsetWhen the Golden Gate Bridge opened in 1937, the toll was 50cents per car (equivalent to $ in ), collected in each direction.", "In 1950 it was reduced to 40cents each way ($ in ), then lowered to 25cents in 1955 ($ in ).", "In 1968, the bridge was converted to only collect tolls from southbound traffic, with the toll amount reset back to 50cents ($ in ).The last of the construction bonds were retired in 1971, with $35 million (equivalent to $M in ) in principal and nearly $39 million ($M in ) in interest raised entirely from bridge tolls.", "Tolls continued to be collected and subsequently incrementally raised; in 1991, the toll was raised a dollar to $3.00 (equivalent to $ in ).The bridge began accepting tolls via the FasTrak electronic toll collection system in 2002, with $4 tolls for FasTrak users and $5 for those paying cash (equivalent to $ and $ respectively in ).", "In November 2006, the Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District recommended a corporate sponsorship program for the bridge to address its operating deficit, projected at $80 million over five years.", "The District promised that the proposal, which it called a \"partnership program\", would not include changing the name of the bridge or placing advertising on the bridge itself.", "In October 2007, the Board unanimously voted to discontinue the proposal and seek additional revenue through other means, most likely a toll increase.", "The District later increased the toll amounts in 2008 to $5 for FasTrak users and $6 to those paying cash (equivalent to $ and $ respectively in ).In an effort to save $19.2 million over the following 10 years, the Golden Gate District voted in January 2011 to eliminate all toll takers by 2012 and use only open road tolling.", "Subsequently, this was delayed and toll taker elimination occurred in March 2013.The cost savings have been revised to $19 million over an eight-year period.", "In addition to FasTrak, the Golden Gate Transportation District implemented the use of license plate tolling (branded as \"Pay-by-Plate\"), and also a one-time payment system for drivers to pay before or after their trip on the bridge.", "Twenty-eight positions were eliminated as part of this plan.On April 7, 2014, the toll for users of FasTrak was increased from $5 to $6 (equivalent to $ in ), while the toll for drivers using either the license plate tolling or the one time payment system was raised from $6 to $7 (equivalent to $ in ).", "Bicycle, pedestrian, and northbound motor vehicle traffic remain toll free.", "For vehicles with more than two axles, the toll rate was $7 per axle for those using license plate tolling or the one time payment system, and $6 per axle for FasTrak users.", "During peak traffic hours, carpool vehicles carrying two or more people and motorcycles paid a discounted toll of $4 (equivalent to $ in ); drivers must have had Fastrak to take advantage of this carpool rate.", "The Golden Gate Transportation District then increased the tolls by 25cents in July 2015, and then by another 25cents each of the next three years.In March 2019, the Golden Gate Transportation District approved a plan to implement 35-cent annual toll increases through 2023, except for the toll-by-plate program which will increase by 20cents per year.+ Golden Gate Bridge toll increases (2014–23) Effective date FasTrak Toll-by-plate Toll invoice Carpool Multi-axle vehicle April 7, 2014 $6.00 $7.00 $4.00 $7.00 per axle July 1, 2015 $6.25 $7.25 $4.25 $7.25 per axle July 1, 2016 $6.50 $7.50 $4.50 $7.50 per axle July 1, 2017 $6.75 $7.75 $4.75 $7.75 per axle July 1, 2018 $7.00 $8.00 $5.00 $8.00 per axle July 1, 2019 $7.35 $8.20 $8.35 $5.35 $8.35 per axle July 1, 2020 $7.70 $8.40 $8.70 $5.70 $8.70 per axle July 1, 2021 $8.05 $8.60 $9.05 $6.05 $9.05 per axle July 1, 2022 $8.40 $8.80 $9.40 $6.40 $9.40 per axle July 1, 2023 $8.75 $9.00 $9.75 $6.75 $9.75 per axle===Congestion pricing===Looking southIn March 2008, the Golden Gate Bridge District board approved a resolution to start congestion pricing at the Golden Gate Bridge, charging higher tolls during the peak hours, but rising and falling depending on traffic levels.", "This decision allowed the Bay Area to meet the federal requirement to receive $158 million in federal transportation funds from USDOT Urban Partnership grant.", "As a condition of the grant, the congestion toll was to be in place by September 2009.In August 2008, transportation officials ended the congestion pricing program in favor of varying rates for metered parking along the route to the bridge including on Lombard Street and Van Ness Avenue." ], [ "Issues", "===Suicides===The Golden Gate Bridge is the most used suicide site in the world.", "The deck is about above the water.", "After a fall of four seconds, jumpers hit the water at around .", "Most die from impact trauma.", "About 5% survive the initial impact but generally drown or die of hypothermia in the cold water.Suicide nets on the Pacific side of the Golden Gate Bridge in December 2022After years of debate and an estimated more than 1,500 deaths, suicide barriers, consisting of a stainless steel net extending 20 feet from the bridge and supported by structural steel 20 feet under the walkway, began to be installed in April 2017.Construction was first estimated to take approximately four years at a cost of over $200 million.", "Installation of the nets was completed in January 2024.The metal nets are visible from the pedestrian walkways and are expected to be painful to land on.===Wind===The Golden Gate Bridge was designed to safely withstand winds of up to .", "Until 2008, the bridge was closed because of weather conditions only three times: on December 1, 1951, because of gusts of ; on December 23, 1982, because of winds of ; and on December 3, 1983, because of wind gusts of .", "An anemometer placed midway between the two towers on the west side of the bridge has been used to measure wind speeds.", "Another anemometer was placed on one of the towers.As part of the retrofitting of the bridge and installation of the suicide barrier, starting in 2019 the railings on the west side of the pedestrian walkway were replaced with thinner, more flexible slats in order to improve the bridge's aerodynamic tolerance of high wind to .", "Starting in June 2020, reports were received of a loud hum, heard across San Francisco and Marin County, produced by the new railing slats when a strong west wind was blowing.", "The sound had been predicted from wind tunnel tests, but not included in the environmental impact report; ways of ameliorating it are being considered.", "An independent engineering analysis of a 2020 sound recording of the tones concludes that the singing noise comprises a variety of Aeolian tones (the sound produced by air flowing past a sharp edge), arising in this case from the ambient wind blowing across metal slats of the newly installed sidewalk railings.", "The tones observed were frequencies of 354, 398, 439 and 481 Hz, corresponding to the musical notes F4, G4, A4, and B4; these notes form an F Lydian Tetrachord.===Seismic vulnerability and improvements===seismic isolators (short black cylinders) added as part of the Seismic Retrofit Construction ProjectModern knowledge of the effect of earthquakes on structures led to a program to retrofit the Golden Gate to better resist seismic events.", "The proximity of the bridge to the San Andreas Fault places it at risk for a significant earthquake.", "Once thought to have been able to withstand any magnitude of foreseeable earthquake, the bridge was actually vulnerable to complete structural failure (i.e., collapse) triggered by the failure of supports on the arch over Fort Point.", "A $392 million program was initiated to improve the structure's ability to withstand such an event with only minimal (repairable) damage.", "A custom-built electro-hydraulic synchronous lift system for construction of temporary support towers and a series of intricate lifts, transferring the loads from the existing bridge onto the temporary supports, were completed with engineers from Balfour Beatty and Enerpac, without disrupting day-to-day commuter traffic.", "Although the retrofit was initially planned to be completed in 2012, it was expected to take several more years.The former elevated approach to the Golden Gate Bridge through the San Francisco Presidio, known as Doyle Drive, dated to 1933 and was named after Frank P. Doyle.", "Doyle, the president of the Exchange Bank in Santa Rosa and son of the bank's founder, was the man who, more than any other person, made it possible to build the Golden Gate Bridge.", "The highway carried about 91,000 vehicles each weekday between downtown San Francisco and the North Bay and points north.", "The road was deemed \"vulnerable to earthquake damage\", had a problematic 4-lane design, and lacked shoulders; a San Francisco County Transportation Authority study recommended that it be replaced.", "Construction on the $1 billion replacement, temporarily known as the Presidio Parkway, began in December 2009.The elevated Doyle Drive was demolished on the weekend of April 27–30, 2012, and traffic used a part of the partially completed Presidio Parkway, until it was switched onto the finished Presidio Parkway on the weekend of July 9–12, 2015., an official at Caltrans said there is no plan to permanently rename the portion known as Doyle Drive." ], [ "Gallery", " Golden Gate Bridge in 1998" ], [ "See also", "* 25 de Abril Bridge, a bridge with a similar design in Portugal* ''The Bridge'', a 2006 documentary on suicides from the Bridge* Golden Gate Bridge in popular culture* List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in California* List of Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks* List of longest suspension bridge spans* List of San Francisco Designated Landmarks* List of tallest bridges* San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge* Suicide bridge* Suspension bridge" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * Bay Area FasTrak – includes toll information on this and the other Bay Area toll facilities* * * * (A documentary film about the construction of the Golden Gate Bridge.", ")* * (Educational poster.", ")*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Guglielmo Marconi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Guglielmo Giovanni Maria Marconi, 1st Marquis of Marconi''' (; 25 April 187420 July 1937) was an Italian inventor and electrical engineer, known for his creation of a practical radio wave–based wireless telegraph system.", "This led to Marconi being credited as the inventor of radio, and he shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Karl Ferdinand Braun \"in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy\".Marconi was also an entrepreneur, businessman, and founder of The Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company in the United Kingdom in 1897 (which became the Marconi Company).", "In 1929, Marconi was ennobled as a ''Marchese'' (marquis) by King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, and, in 1931, he set up Vatican Radio for Pope Pius XI." ], [ "Biography", "===Early years===Marconi was born into the Italian nobility as '''Guglielmo Giovanni Maria Marconi''' in Palazzo Marescalchi in Bologna on 25 April 1874, the second son of Giuseppe Marconi (an Italian aristocratic landowner from Porretta Terme) and his Irish wife Annie Jameson (daughter of Andrew Jameson of Daphne Castle in County Wexford, Ireland, and granddaughter of John Jameson, founder of whiskey distillers Jameson & Sons).", "Marconi had a brother, Alfonso, and a stepbrother, Luigi.", "Between the ages of two and six, Marconi and his older brother Alfonso lived with their mother in the English town of Bedford.===Education===Marconi did not attend school as a child and did not go on to formal higher education.", "Instead, he learned chemistry, mathematics, and physics at home from a series of private tutors hired by his parents.", "His family hired additional tutors for Marconi in the winter when they would leave Bologna for the warmer climate of Tuscany or Florence.", "Marconi noted an important mentor was professor Vincenzo Rosa, a high school physics teacher in Livorno.", "Rosa taught the 17-year-old Marconi the basics of physical phenomena as well as new theories on electricity.", "At the age of 18 and back in Bologna, Marconi became acquainted with University of Bologna physicist Augusto Righi, who had done research on Heinrich Hertz's work.", "Righi permitted Marconi to attend lectures at the university and also to use the university's laboratory and library.===Radio work===From youth, Marconi was interested in science and electricity.", "In the early 1890s, he began working on the idea of \"wireless telegraphy\" – i.e., the transmission of telegraph messages without connecting wires as used by the electric telegraph.", "This was not a new idea; numerous investigators and inventors had been exploring wireless telegraph technologies and even building systems using electric conduction, electromagnetic induction and optical (light) signalling for over 50 years, but none had proved technically and commercially successful.", "A relatively new development came from Heinrich Hertz, who, in 1888, demonstrated that one could produce and detect electromagnetic radiation, based on the work of James Clerk Maxwell.", "At the time, this radiation was commonly called \"Hertzian\" waves, and is now generally referred to as radio waves.There was a great deal of interest in radio waves in the physics community, but this interest was in the scientific phenomenon, not in its potential as a communication method.", "Physicists generally looked on radio waves as an invisible form of light that could only travel along a line of sight path, limiting its range to the visual horizon like existing forms of visual signaling.", "Hertz's death in 1894 brought published reviews of his earlier discoveries including a demonstration on the transmission and detection of radio waves by the British physicist Oliver Lodge and an article about Hertz's work by Augusto Righi.", "Righi's article renewed Marconi's interest in developing a wireless telegraphy system based on radio waves, a line of inquiry that Marconi noted other inventors did not seem to be pursuing.====Developing radio telegraphy==== File:Marconi's first radio transmitter.jpg\|thumb\|Marconi's first transmitter incorporating a monopole antenna.", "It consisted of an elevated copper sheet ''(top)'' connected to a Righi spark gap ''(left)'' powered by an induction coil ''(center)'' with a telegraph key ''(right)'' to switch it on and off to spell out text messages in Morse code.", "At the age of 20, Marconi began to conduct experiments in radio waves, building much of his own equipment in the attic of his home at the Villa Griffone in Pontecchio (now an administrative subdivision of Sasso Marconi), Italy, with the help of his butler, Mignani.", "Marconi built on Hertz's original experiments and, at the suggestion of Righi, began using a coherer, an early detector based on the 1890 findings of French physicist Édouard Branly and used in Lodge's experiments, that changed resistance when exposed to radio waves.", "In the summer of 1894, he built a storm alarm made up of a battery, a coherer, and an electric bell, which went off when it picked up the radio waves generated by lightning.Late one night, in December 1894, Marconi demonstrated a radio transmitter and receiver to his mother, a set-up that made a bell ring on the other side of the room by pushing a telegraphic button on a bench.", "Supported by his father, Marconi continued to read through the literature and picked up on the ideas of physicists who were experimenting with radio waves.", "He developed devices, such as portable transmitters and receiver systems, that could work over long distances, turning what was essentially a laboratory experiment into a useful communication system.", "Marconi came up with a functional system with many components:* A relatively simple oscillator or spark-producing radio transmitter;* A wire or metal sheet capacity area suspended at a height above the ground;* A coherer receiver, which was a modification of Édouard Branly's original device with refinements to increase sensitivity and reliability;* A telegraph key to operate the transmitter to send short and long pulses, corresponding to the dots-and-dashes of Morse code; and* A telegraph register activated by the coherer which recorded the received Morse code dots and dashes onto a roll of paper tape.In the summer of 1895, Marconi moved his experiments outdoors on his father's estate in Bologna.", "He tried different arrangements and shapes of antenna but even with improvements he was able to transmit signals only up to one half-mile, a distance Oliver Lodge had predicted in 1894 as the maximum transmission distance for radio waves.====Transmission breakthrough====A breakthrough came in the summer of 1895, when Marconi found that much greater range could be achieved after he raised the height of his antenna and, borrowing from a technique used in wired telegraphy, grounded his transmitter and receiver.", "With these improvements, the system was capable of transmitting signals up to and over hills.", "The monopole antenna reduced the frequency of the waves compared to the dipole antennas used by Hertz, and radiated vertically polarized radio waves which could travel longer distances.", "By this point, he concluded that a device could become capable of spanning greater distances, with additional funding and research, and would prove valuable both commercially and militarily.", "Marconi's experimental apparatus proved to be the first engineering-complete, commercially successful radio transmission system.Marconi applied to the Ministry of Post and Telegraphs, then under the direction of Maggiorino Ferraris, explaining his wireless telegraph machine and asking for funding, but never received a response.", "An apocryphal tale claims that the minister (incorrectly named first as Emilio Sineo, later as Pietro Lacava) wrote \"to the Longara\" on the document, referring to the insane asylum on Via della Lungara in Rome, but the letter was never found.In 1896, Marconi spoke with his family friend Carlo Gardini, Honorary Consul at the United States Consulate in Bologna, about leaving Italy to go to Great Britain.", "Gardini wrote a letter of introduction to the Ambassador of Italy in London, Annibale Ferrero, explaining who Marconi was and about his extraordinary discoveries.", "In his response, Ambassador Ferrero advised them not to reveal Marconi's results until after a patent was obtained.", "He also encouraged Marconi to come to Britain, where he believed it would be easier to find the necessary funds to convert his experiments into practical use.Finding little interest or appreciation for his work in Italy, Marconi travelled to London in early 1896 at the age of 21, accompanied by his mother, to seek support for his work.", "(He spoke fluent English in addition to Italian.)", "Marconi arrived at Dover, and the Customs officer opened his case to find various apparatus.", "The customs officer immediately contacted the Admiralty in London.", "While there, Marconi gained the interest and support of William Preece, the Chief Electrical Engineer of the General Post Office (the GPO).", "During this time Marconi decided he should patent his system, which he applied for on 2 June 1896, British Patent number 12039 titled \"Improvements in Transmitting Electrical impulses and Signals, and in Apparatus therefor\", which became the first patent for a communication system based on radio waves.====Demonstrations and achievements====British Post Office engineers inspect Marconi's radio equipment during a demonstration on Flat Holm Island, 13 May 1897.The transmitter is at centre, the coherer receiver below it, and the pole supporting the wire antenna is visible at top.Marconi made the first demonstration of his system for the British government in July 1896.A further series of demonstrations for the British followed, and, by March 1897, Marconi had transmitted Morse code signals over a distance of about across Salisbury Plain.", "On 13 May 1897, Marconi sent the first ever wireless communication over open sea – a message was transmitted over the Bristol Channel from Flat Holm Island to Lavernock Point near Cardiff, a distance of .", "The message read \"Are you ready\".", "The transmitting equipment was almost immediately relocated to Brean Down Fort on the Somerset coast, stretching the range to .Plaque on the outside of the BT Centre commemorates Marconi's first public transmission of wireless signals.Impressed by these and other demonstrations, Preece introduced Marconi's ongoing work to the general public at two important London lectures: \"Telegraphy without Wires\", at the Toynbee Hall on 11 December 1896; and \"Signalling through Space without Wires\", given to the Royal Institution on 4 June 1897.Numerous additional demonstrations followed, and Marconi began to receive international attention.", "In July 1897, he carried out a series of tests at La Spezia, in his home country, for the Italian government.", "A test for Lloyd's between The Marine Hotel in Ballycastle and Rathlin Island, both in County Antrim in Ulster, Ireland, was conducted on 6 July 1898 by George Kemp and Edward Edwin Glanville.", "A transmission across the English channel was accomplished on 27 March 1899, from Wimereux, France to South Foreland Lighthouse, England.", "Marconi set up an experimental base at the Haven Hotel, Sandbanks, Poole Harbour, Dorset, where he erected a 100-foot high mast.", "He became friends with the van Raaltes, the owners of Brownsea Island in Poole Harbour, and his steam yacht, the ''Elettra'', was often moored on Brownsea or at The Haven Hotel.", "Marconi purchased the vessel after the Great War and converted it to a seaborne laboratory from where he conducted many of his experiments.", "Among the ''Elettra''s crew was Adelmo Landini, his personal radio operator, who was also an inventor.In December 1898, the British lightship service authorised the establishment of wireless communication between the South Foreland lighthouse at Dover and the East Goodwin lightship, twelve miles distant.", "On 17 March 1899, the East Goodwin lightship sent the first wireless distress signal, a signal on behalf of the merchant vessel ''Elbe'' which had run aground on Goodwin Sands.", "The message was received by the radio operator of the South Foreland lighthouse, who summoned the aid of the Ramsgate lifeboat.SS ''Ponce'' entering New York Harbor 1899, by Milton J. BurnsIn the autumn of 1899, his first demonstration in the United States took place.", "Marconi had sailed to the U.S. at the invitation of ''The New York Herald'' newspaper to cover the America's Cup international yacht races off Sandy Hook, New Jersey.", "The transmission was done aboard the SS ''Ponce'', a passenger ship of the Porto Rico Line.", "Marconi left for England on 8 November 1899 on the American Line's , and he and his assistants installed wireless equipment aboard during the voyage.", "Before this voyage the Second Boer War had begun, and Marconi's wireless was to bring news of the conflict to passengers at the request of \"some of the officials of the American line.\"", "On 15 November the ''SS Saint Paul'' became the first ocean liner to report her imminent return to Great Britain by wireless when Marconi's Royal Needles Hotel radio station contacted her 66 nautical miles off the English coast.", "The first ''Transatlantic Times'', a newspaper containing wireless transmission news from the Needles Station at the Isle of Wight, was published on board the SS ''Saint Paul'' before its arrival.====Transatlantic transmissions====Marconi watching associates raising the kite (a \"Levitor\" by Baden Baden-Powell) used to lift the antenna at St. John's, Newfoundland, December 1901Magnetic detector by Marconi used during the experimental campaign aboard a ship in summer 1902, exhibited at the Museo Nazionale Scienza e Tecnologia Leonardo da Vinci of Milan.At the turn of the 20th century, Marconi began investigating a means to signal across the Atlantic to compete with the transatlantic telegraph cables.", "Marconi established a wireless transmitting station at Marconi House, Rosslare Strand, County Wexford, in 1901 to act as a link between Poldhu in Cornwall, England, and Clifden in Connemara, County Galway, Ireland.", "He soon made the announcement that the message was received at Signal Hill in St. John's, Newfoundland (now part of Canada), on 12 December 1901, using a kite-supported antenna for reception – signals transmitted by the company's new high-power station at Poldhu, Cornwall.", "The distance between the two points was about .", "It was heralded as a great scientific advance, yet there also was – and continues to be – considerable scepticism about this claim.", "The exact wavelength used is not known, but it is fairly reliably determined to have been in the neighbourhood of 350 metres (frequency ≈ 850 kHz).", "The tests took place at a time of day during which the entire transatlantic path was in daylight.", "It is now known (although Marconi did not know then) that this was the worst possible choice.", "At this medium wavelength, long-distance transmission in the daytime is not possible because of heavy absorption of the skywave in the ionosphere.", "It was not a blind test; Marconi knew in advance to listen for a repetitive signal of three clicks, signifying the Morse code letter ''S''.", "The clicks were reported to have been heard faintly and sporadically.", "There was no independent confirmation of the reported reception, and the transmissions were difficult to distinguish from atmospheric noise.", "A detailed technical review of Marconi's early transatlantic work appears in John S. Belrose's work of 1995.The Poldhu transmitter was a two-stage circuit.Marconi demonstrating apparatus he used in his first long-distance radio transmissions in the 1890s.", "The transmitter is at right, the receiver with paper tape recorder at left.Marconi caricatured by Leslie Ward for ''Vanity Fair'' magazine, 1905Feeling challenged by sceptics, Marconi prepared a better organised and documented test.", "In February 1902, the SS ''Philadelphia'' sailed west from Great Britain with Marconi aboard, carefully recording signals sent daily from the Poldhu station.", "The test results produced coherer-tape reception up to , and audio reception up to .", "The maximum distances were achieved at night, and these tests were the first to show that radio signals for medium wave and longwave transmissions travel much farther at night than in the day.", "During the daytime, signals had been received up to only about , less than half of the distance claimed earlier at Newfoundland, where the transmissions had also taken place during the day.", "Because of this, Marconi had not fully confirmed the Newfoundland claims, although he did prove that radio signals could be sent for hundreds of kilometres (miles), despite some scientists' belief that they were limited essentially to line-of-sight distances.On 17 December 1902, a transmission from the Marconi station in Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, Canada, became the world's first radio message to cross the Atlantic from North America.", "In 1901, Marconi built a station near South Wellfleet, Massachusetts, that sent a message of greetings on 18 January 1903 from United States President Theodore Roosevelt to King Edward VII of the United Kingdom.", "However, consistent transatlantic signalling was difficult to establish.Marconi began to build high-powered stations on both sides of the Atlantic to communicate with ships at sea, in competition with other inventors.", "In 1904, he established a commercial service to transmit nightly news summaries to subscribing ships, which could incorporate them into their on-board newspapers.", "A regular transatlantic radio-telegraph service was finally begun on 17 October 1907 between Clifden, Ireland, and Glace Bay, but even after this the company struggled for many years to provide reliable communication to others.====''Titanic''====The role played by Marconi Co. wireless in maritime rescues raised public awareness of the value of radio and brought fame to Marconi, particularly the sinking of RMS ''Titanic'' on 15 April 1912 and RMS ''Lusitania'' on 7 May 1915.RMS ''Titanic'' radio operators Jack Phillips and Harold Bride were not employed by the White Star Line but by the Marconi International Marine Communication Company.", "After the sinking of the ocean liner, survivors were rescued by the RMS ''Carpathia'' of the Cunard Line.", "''Carpathia'' took a total of 17 minutes to both receive and decode the SOS signal sent by ''Titanic''.", "There was a distance of 58 miles between the two ships.", "When ''Carpathia'' docked in New York, Marconi went aboard with a reporter from ''The New York Times'' to talk with Bride, the surviving operator.", "After this incident, Marconi gained popularity and became more recognised for his contributions to the field of radio and wireless technology.On 18 June 1912, Marconi gave evidence to the Court of Inquiry into the loss of ''Titanic'' regarding the marine telegraphy's functions and the procedures for emergencies at sea.", "Britain's Postmaster-General summed up, referring to the ''Titanic'' disaster: \"Those who have been saved, have been saved through one man, Mr. Marconi ... and his marvellous invention.\"", "Marconi was offered free passage on ''Titanic'' before she sank, but had taken ''Lusitania'' three days earlier.", "As his daughter Degna later explained, he had paperwork to do and preferred the public stenographer aboard that vessel.====Continuing work====Share of the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America, issued 20 August 1913Over the years, the Marconi companies gained a reputation for being technically conservative, in particular by continuing to use inefficient spark-transmitter technology, which could be used only for radio-telegraph operations, long after it was apparent that the future of radio communication lay with continuous-wave transmissions which were more efficient and could be used for audio transmissions.", "Somewhat belatedly, the company did begin significant work with continuous-wave equipment beginning in 1915, after the introduction of the oscillating vacuum tube (valve).", "The New Street Works factory in Chelmsford was the location for the first entertainment radio broadcasts in the United Kingdom in 1920, employing a vacuum tube transmitter and featuring Dame Nellie Melba.", "In 1922, regular entertainment broadcasts commenced from the Marconi Research Centre at Great Baddow, forming the prelude to the BBC, and he spoke of the close association of aviation and wireless telephony in that same year at a private gathering with Florence Tyzack Parbury, and even spoke of interplanetary wireless communication.", "In 1924, the Marconi Company co-established the Unione Radiofonica Italiana (now RAI).===Later years===In 1914, Marconi was made a Senator in the Senate of the Kingdom of Italy and appointed Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order in the UK.", "During World War I, Italy joined the Allied side of the conflict, and Marconi was placed in charge of the Italian military's radio service.", "He attained the rank of lieutenant in the Italian Royal Army and of commander in the ''Regia Marina''.", "In 1929, he was made a marquess by King Victor Emmanuel III.Villa Marconi, with Marconi's tomb in foreground.While helping to develop microwave technology, the ''Marchese'' Marconi suffered nine heart attacks in the span of three years preceding his death.", "Marconi died in Rome on 20 July 1937 at age 63, following the ninth, fatal, heart attack, and Italy held a state funeral for him.", "As a tribute, shops on the street where he lived were \"Closed for national mourning\".", "In addition, at 6 pm the next day, the time designated for the funeral, transmitters around the world observed two minutes of silence in his honour.", "The British Post Office also sent a message requesting that all broadcasting ships honour Marconi with two minutes of broadcasting silence.", "His remains are housed in the Mausoleum of Guglielmo Marconi in the grounds of Villa Griffone at Sasso Marconi, Emilia-Romagna, which assumed that name in his honour in 1938.In 1943, Marconi's elegant sailing yacht, the ''Elettra'', was commandeered and refitted as a warship by the German Navy.", "She was sunk by the RAF on 22 January 1944.After the war, the Italian Government tried to retrieve the wreckage, to rebuild the boat, and the wreckage was removed to Italy.", "Eventually, the idea was abandoned, and the wreckage was cut into pieces which were distributed amongst Italian museums.In 1943, the Supreme Court of the United States handed down a decision on Marconi's radio patents restoring some of the prior patents of Oliver Lodge, John Stone Stone, and Nikola Tesla.", "The decision was not about Marconi's original radio patents and the court declared that their decision had no bearing on Marconi's claim as the first to achieve radio transmission, just that since Marconi's claim to certain patents was questionable, he could not claim infringement on those same patents.", "There are claims the high court was trying to nullify a World War I claim against the United States government by the Marconi Company via simply restoring the non-Marconi prior patent." ], [ "Personal life", "American electrical engineer Alfred Norton Goldsmith and Marconi on 26 June 1922.Marconi was a friend of Charles van Raalte and his wife Florence, the owners of Brownsea Island; and of Margherita, their daughter, and in 1904 he met her Irish friend, The Hon.", "Beatrice O'Brien (1882–1976), a daughter of The 14th Baron Inchiquin.", "On 16 March 1905, Beatrice O'Brien and Marconi were married, and spent their honeymoon on Brownsea Island.", "They had three daughters, Lucia (born and died 1906), Degna (1908–1998), and Gioia (1916–1996), and a son, Giulio, 2nd ''Marchese'' Marconi (1910–1971).", "In 1913, the Marconi family returned to Italy and became part of Rome society.", "Beatrice served as a lady-in-waiting to Queen Elena.", "At Marconi's request, his marriage to Beatrice was annulled on 27 April 1927, so he could remarry.", "Marconi and Beatrice had divorced on 12 February 1924 in the free city of Fiume (Rijeka).Guglielmo and Beatrice Marconi c. 1910Marconi went on to marry (2 April 1900 – 15 July 1994), the only daughter of Francesco, Count Bezzi-Scali.", "To do this he had to be confirmed in the Catholic faith and became a devout member of the Church.", "He was baptised Catholic but had been brought up as a member of the Anglican Church.", "On 12 June 1927, Marconi married Maria Cristina in a civil service, with a religious ceremony performed on 15 June.", "Marconi was 53 years old and Maria Cristina was 26.They had one daughter, Maria Elettra Elena Anna (born 1930), who married Prince Carlo Giovannelli (1942–2016) in 1966; they later divorced.", "For unexplained reasons, Marconi left his entire fortune to his second wife and their only child, and nothing to the children of his first marriage.Marconi wanted to personally introduce in 1931 the first radio broadcast of a Pope, Pius XI, and did announce at the microphone: \"With the help of God, who places so many mysterious forces of nature at man's disposal, I have been able to prepare this instrument which will give to the faithful of the entire world the joy of listening to the voice of the Holy Father\".===Fascism===Marconi joined the National Fascist Party in 1923.In 1930, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini appointed him President of the Royal Academy of Italy, which made Marconi a member of the Fascist Grand Council.", "Marconi was an apologist for fascist ideology and actions such as the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in the Second Italo-Abyssinian War.In his lecture he stated: \"I reclaim the honour of being the first fascist in the field of radiotelegraphy, the first who acknowledged the utility of joining the electric rays in a bundle, as Mussolini was the first in the political field who acknowledged the necessity of merging all the healthy energies of the country into a bundle, for the greater greatness of Italy\".In 2002 researcher Annalisa Capristo found documents in the archives of Rome which showed that during his time as the President of the Royal Academy of Italy, Marconi had marked by hand Jewish applicants' records with an \"E\", where in the Italian language word for Jew is \"Ebreo\".", "Not one Jew was allowed to join during Marconi's tenure as president from 1930, three years before Adolf Hitler took power in Germany and eight years before Benito Mussolini's race laws brought his regime's antisemitism into the open.", "Following publication of Capristo's article \"The Exclusion of Jews From the Academy of Italy\" published in the Israel Monthly Review, historians were divided over whether the discrimination was the personal initiative of a scientist who considered Jews inferior or whether it was the action of a man too weak to oppose the regime's edicts." ], [ "Legacy and honours", "===Archives===* A large collection of Marconi artefacts was held by The General Electric Company, plc (GEC) of the United Kingdom which later renamed itself Marconi plc and Marconi Corporation plc.", "In December 2004 the extensive Marconi Collection, held at the former Marconi Research Centre at Great Baddow, Chelmsford, Essex UK was donated to the nation by the Company via the University of Oxford.", "This consisted of the BAFTA award-winning MarconiCalling website, some 250+ physical artefacts and the massive ephemera collection of papers, books, patents and many other items.", "The artefacts are now held by The Museum of the History of Science and the ephemera Archives by the nearby Bodleian Library.", "Following three years' work at the Bodleian, an Online Catalogue to the Marconi Archives was released in November 2008.Italian lira banknote, 1990 issue===Orders and decorations===;ItalianKnight of the Order of Merit for Labour (26 October 1902)Knight of the Civil Order of Savoy (1 June 1905)Grand Cordon of the Order of the Crown of Italy (7 April 1913; Grand Officer: 30 October 1902; Officer: 6 January 1898)Grand Cordon of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (14 January 1932; Grand Officer: 30 May 1912; Commander: 12 January 1902)Marquis of Marconi (17 July 1929);OthersGrand Cross of the Order of Saint Anna of the Russia Empire (1902)Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order of the United Kingdom (GCVO, 1914)Grand Cross of the Civil Order of Alfonso XII of SpainGrand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun of Japan (1933)===Honours and awards===Memorial plaque in the Basilica Santa Croce, Florence.", "Italy In 1901, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society.", "In 1903, Marconi also received the freedom of the City of Rome.", "In 1909, Marconi shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Karl Ferdinand Braun for their \"contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy\" (radio communications).", "In 1914, Marconi was named senator by the king of Italy Vittorio Emanuele IIIIn 1918, he was awarded the Franklin Institute's Franklin Medal.", "* In 1920, he was awarded the IRE Medal of Honor, now the IEEE Medal of Honor.", "* In 1931, he was awarded the John Scott Medal by the Franklin Institute and the City Council of Philadelphia.", "* In 1934, he was awarded the Wilhelm Exner Medal.", "In 1974, Italy marked the birth centennial of Marconi with a circulating commemorative Lire 100 coin.", " In 1975, Marconi was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.", "* In 1978, Marconi was inducted into the NAB Broadcasting Hall of Fame.", "* In 1988, the Radio Hall of Fame (Museum of Broadcast Communications, Chicago) inducted Marconi as a Pioneer (soon after the inception of its awards).", "* In 1990, the Bank of Italy issued a Lire 2,000 banknote featuring his portrait on the front and on the back his accomplishments.", "* In 2001, Great Britain released a commemorative £2 coin celebrating the 100th anniversary of Marconi's first wireless communication.", "* Marconi's early experiments in wireless telegraphy were the subject of two IEEE Milestones; one in Switzerland in 2003 and most recently in Italy in 2011.", "* In 2009, Italy issued a commemorative silver 10 Euro coin honouring the centennial of Marconi's Nobel Prize.", "* In 2009, he was inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame.", "* The Dutch radio academy bestows the annually for outstanding radio programmes, presenters and stations.", "* The National Association of Broadcasters (US) bestows the annual NAB Marconi Radio Awards also for outstanding radio programmes and stations.===Tributes===Guglielmo Marconi Memorial'' in Washington, D.C.", "Bronze statue of Guglielmo Marconi, sculpted by Saleppichi Giancarlo erected 1975 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania * A funerary monument to the effigy of Marconi can be seen in the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence, but his remains are in the Mausoleum of Guglielmo Marconi in Sasso Marconi, Italy.", "His former villa, adjacent to the mausoleum is the Marconi Museum (Italy) with much of his equipment.", "* A ''Guglielmo Marconi'' sculpture by Attilio Piccirilli stands in Washington, D.C.* A granite obelisk stands on the cliff top near the site of Marconi's Marconi's Poldhu Wireless Station in Cornwall, commemorating the first transatlantic transmission.", "* Marconi Plaza Park, an urban park square named after the inventor in 1937, is located Philadelphia, Pennsylvania at Oregon Ave and South Broad Street.", "It includes a later 1975 bronze statue of Marconi erected on the east side.===Places and organisations named after Marconi=======Outer space====The asteroid 1332 Marconia is named in his honour.", "A large crater on the far side of the Moon is also named after him.====Europe====100 lire coin from 1974 commemorating the centenary of Marconi's birth.", "'''Italy'''* Bologna Guglielmo Marconi Airport (IATA: BLQ – ICAO: LIPE), of Bologna, is named after Marconi, its native son.", "* Guglielmo Marconi University, a private, non-profit university in Rome.", "* Ponte Guglielmo Marconi, bridge that connects Piazza Augusto Righi with Piazza Tommaso Edison, in Rome.====Oceania===='''Australia'''* Australian football (soccer) and social club Marconi Stallions.====North America===='''Canada'''* The Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company of Canada (now CMC Electronics and Ultra Electronics), of Montreal, Quebec, Canada, was created in 1903 by Guglielmo Marconi.", "In 1925 the company was renamed to the 'Canadian Marconi Company', which was acquired by English Electric in 1953.The company name changed again to CMC Electronics Inc. (French: CMC Électronique) in 2001.In 2002, the company historical radio business was sold to Ultra Electronics to become Ultra Electronics TCS Inc., now doing business as Ultra Communications.", "Both CMC Electronics and Ultra Communications are still located in Montreal.", "* The Marconi National Historic Sites of Canada was created by Parks Canada as a tribute to Marconi's vision in the development of radio telecommunications.", "The first official wireless message was sent from this location by the Atlantic Ocean to England in 1902.The museum site is located in Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, at Table Head on Timmerman Street.====United States=========California=====* Marconi Conference Center and State Historic Park, site of the transoceanic Marshall Receiving Station, Marshall.=====Hawaii=====* Marconi Wireless Telegraphy Station on Oʻahu's North Shore, briefly the world's most powerful telegraph station.=====Massachusetts=====* Marconi Beach in Wellfleet, Massachusetts, part of the Cape Cod National Seashore, located near the site of his first transatlantic wireless signal from the United States to Britain.", "There are still remnants of the wireless tower at this beach and at Forest Road Beach in Chatham, Massachusetts.=====New Jersey=====* New Brunswick Marconi Station, now the ''Guglielmo Marconi Memorial Plaza'' in Somerset, NJ.", "President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points speech was transmitted from the site in 1918.", "* Belmar Marconi Station, now the InfoAge Science History Center in Wall Township, NJ.The Marconi Wireless Company of America, the world's first radio company, was incorporated in Roselle Park New Jersey, on West Westfield Avenue, on November 22, 1899.=====New York=====* La Scuola d'Italia Guglielmo Marconi on New York City's Upper East Side.=====Pennsylvania=====* Marconi Plaza, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.", "Roman terrace-styled plaza originally designed by the architects Olmsted Brothers in 1914–1916, built as the grand entrance for the 1926 Sesquicentennial Exposition and renamed to honour Marconi." ], [ "Patents", "===British patents===* British patent No.", "12,039 (1897) \"''Improvements in Transmitting Electrical impulses and Signals, and in Apparatus therefor''\".", "Date of Application 2 June 1896; Complete Specification Left, 2 March 1897; Accepted, 2 July 1897 (later claimed by Oliver Lodge to contain his own ideas which he failed to patent).", "* British patent No.", "7,777 (1900) \"''Improvements in Apparatus for Wireless Telegraphy''\".", "Date of Application 26 April 1900; Complete Specification Left, 25 February 1901; Accepted, 13 April 1901.", "* British patent No.", "10245 (1902)* British patent No.", "5113 (1904) \"''Improvements in Transmitters suitable for Wireless Telegraphy''\".", "Date of Application 1 March 1904; Complete Specification Left, 30 November 1904; Accepted, 19 January August 1905.", "* British patent No.", "21640 (1904) \"''Improvements in Apparatus for Wireless Telegraphy''\".", "Date of Application 8 October 1904; Complete Specification Left, 6 July 1905; Accepted, 10 August 1905.", "* British patent No.", "14788 (1904) \"''Improvements in or relating to Wireless Telegraphy''\".", "Date of Application 18 July 1905; Complete Specification Left, 23 January 1906; Accepted, 10 May 1906.===US patents===* \"''Transmitting electrical signals''\", (using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code key) filed December 1896, patented July 1897* \"''Apparatus employed in wireless telegraphy''\".", "* \"''Apparatus employed in wireless telegraphy''\".", "* \"''Apparatus employed in wireless telegraphy''\".", "* \"''Apparatus employed in wireless telegraphy''\".", "* \"''Apparatus employed in wireless telegraphy''\".", "* \"''Apparatus employed in wireless telegraphy''\".", "* \"''Apparatus employed in wireless telegraphy''\".", "* \"''Receiver for electrical oscillations''\".", "* \"''Apparatus for wireless telegraphy''\" (later practical version of system)* \"''Wireless telegraphy system''\".", "Filed 19 November 1901; Issued 19 April 1904.", "* \"''Wireless signaling system''\".", "Filed 10 September 1903; Issued 24 May 1904.", "* \"''Apparatus for wireless telegraphy''\" (Four tuned system; this innovation was predated by N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and J. S. Stone)* \"''Wireless telegraphy''\".", "Filed 13 October 1903* \"''Wireless telegraphy''\".", "Filed 13 October 1903; Issued 13 June 1905.", "* \"''Wireless telegraphy''\".", "Filed 28 November 1902; Issued 14 April 1908.", "* \"''Wireless telegraphy''\".", "* \"''Detecting electrical oscillations''\".", "Filed 2 February 1903; Issued 14 April 1908.", "* \"''Wireless telegraphy''\".", "Filed 2 February 1903; Issued 14 April 1908.", "* \"''Wireless signaling system''\".", "Filed 9 August 1906; Issued 8 June 1909.", "* \"''Transmitting apparatus for wireless telegraphy''\".", "Filed 10 April 1908; Issued 28 September 1909.", "* \"''Apparatus for wireless telegraphy''\".", "* \"''Apparatus for wireless telegraphy''\".", "Filed 10 April 1908; Issued 28 September 1909.", "* \"''Apparatus for wireless telegraphy''\".", "Filed 31 March 1909; Issued 12 April 1910.", "* \"''Transmitting apparatus for wireless telegraphy''\".", "Filed 15 July 1910; Issued 11 July 1911.", "* \"''Means for generating alternating electric currents''\".", "Filed 27 January 1914; Issued 7 July 1914.", "* \"''Transmitting apparatus for use in wireless telegraphy and telephony''\".", "Filed 31 December 1913; Issued 15 May 1917.", "* \"''Wireless telegraph transmitter''\".", "* \"''Electric accumulator''\".", "Filed 9 March 1918* \"''Transmitter for wireless telegraphy''\".", "Filed 20 July 1908; Issued 3 August 1915.", "* \"''Thermionic valve''\".", "Filed 14 October 1926; Issued 20 November 1934.===Reissued (US)===* \"''Transmitting electrical impulses and signals and in apparatus, there-for''\".", "Filed 1 April 1901; Issued 4 June 1901." ], [ "See also", "* History of radio* Jagadish Chandra Bose* List of people on stamps of Ireland* List of covers of ''Time'' magazine during the 1920s – 6 December 1926* Marconi's law" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "" ], [ "Further reading", ";Relatives and company publications Bussey, Gordon, ''Marconi's Atlantic Leap'', Marconi Communications, 2000.", "* Isted, G.A., ''Guglielmo Marconi and the History of Radio – Part I'', General Electric Company, p.l.c., ''GEC Review'', Volume 7, No.", "1, p45, 1991, * Isted, G.A., ''Guglielmo Marconi and the History of Radio – Part II'', General Electric Company, p.l.c., ''GEC Review'', Volume 7, No.", "2, p110, 1991, * Marconi, Degna, ''My Father, Marconi'', James Lorimer & Co, 1982.", "(Italian version): ''Marconi, mio padre'', Di Renzo Editore, 2008, * Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company, ''Year book of wireless telegraphy and telephony'', London: Published for the Marconi Press Agency Ltd., by the St. Catherine Press / Wireless Press.", "LCCN 14017875 sn 86035439* Simons, R.W., ''Guglielmo Marconi and Early Systems of Wireless Communication'', General Electric Company, p.l.c., ''GEC Review'', Volume 11, No.", "1, p37, 1996, ;Scholarly studies* Ahern, Steve (ed), ''Making Radio'' (2nd Edition) Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2006 .", "* Aitken, Hugh G. J., ''Syntony and Spark: The Origins of Radio'', New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1976.", "* Aitken, Hugh G. J., ''The Continuous Wave: Technology and American Radio, 1900–1932'', Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1985..* Anderson, Leland I., Priority in the Invention of Radio – Tesla vs. Marconi* Baker, W. J., ''A History of the Marconi Company'', 1970.", "* Brodsky, Ira.", "''The History of Wireless: How Creative Minds Produced Technology for the Masses'' (Telescope Books, 2008)* Cheney, Margaret, ''Tesla: Man Out of Time'' Laurel Publishing, 1981.Chapter 7, esp pp 69, re: published lectures of Tesla in 1893, copied by Marconi.", "* Clark, Paddy, \"Marconi's Irish Connections Recalled,\" published in ''100 Years of Radio'', IEE Conference Publication 411, 1995.", "* Coe, Douglas and Kreigh Collins (ills), ''Marconi, pioneer of radio'', New York, J. Messner, Inc., 1943.LCCN 43010048* Garratt, G. R. M., ''The early history of radio: from Faraday to Marconi'', London, Institution of Electrical Engineers in association with the Science Museum, History of technology series, 1994.LCCN gb 94011611* Geddes, Keith, ''Guglielmo Marconi, 1874–1937'', London : H.M.S.O., A Science Museum booklet, 1974.LCCN 75329825 (''ed''.", "Obtainable in the United States.", "from Pendragon House Inc., Palo Alto, California.", ")* Hancock, Harry Edgar, ''Wireless at sea; the first fifty years: A history of the progress and development of marine wireless communications written to commemorate the jubilee of the Marconi International Marine Communication Company, Limited'', Chelmsford, Eng., Marconi International Marine Communication Co., 1950.LCCN 51040529 /L* Homer, Peter and O'Connor, Finbar, ''Marconi Wireless Radio Station: Malin Head from 1902,'' 2014.", "* Hughes, Michael and Bosworth, Katherine, '' Titanic Calling : Wireless Communications During the Great Disaster'', Oxford, WorldCat.org, 2012, * Janniello, Maria Grace, Monteleone, Franco and Paoloni, Giovanni (eds) (1996), ''One hundred years of radio: From Marconi to the future of the telecommunications''.", "Catalogue of the extension, Venice: Marsilio.", "* Jolly, W. P., ''Marconi'', 1972.", "* Larson, Erik, ''Thunderstruck'', New York: Crown Publishers, 2006.A comparison of the lives of Hawley Harvey Crippen and Marconi.", "Crippen was a murderer whose Transatlantic escape was foiled by the new invention of shipboard radio.", "* MacLeod, Mary K., ''Marconi: The Canada Years – 1902–1946'', Halifax, Nova Scotia: Nimbus Publishing Limited, 1992, * Masini, Giancarlo, ''Guglielmo Marconi'', Turin: Turinese typographical-publishing union, 1975.LCCN 77472455 (''ed''.", "Contains 32 tables outside of the text)* Mason, H. B.", "(1908).", "''Encyclopaedia of ships and shipping'', Wireless Telegraphy.", "London: Shipping Encyclopaedia.", "1908.", "Paul M. Hawkins - \"Point to Point - A History of International Telecommunications During the Radio Years\" ISBN 978-178719-6278 pub.", "by New Generation Publishing.", "Paul M. Hawkins & Paul G. Reyland - \"Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Stations in Essex - The Centenary of Brentwood and Ongar Radio Stations\" ISBN 978-180369-3828 by - pub.2022 by New Generation Publishing.", "* * Raboy, Marc.", "''Marconi: The Man Who Networked the World'' (Oxford University Press, 2016) 872 pp.", "online review* Stone, Ellery W., '' Elements of Radiotelegraphy''* Weightman, Gavin, ''Signor Marconi's magic box: the most remarkable invention of the 19th century & the amateur inventor whose genius sparked a revolution'', 1st Da Capo Press ed., Cambridge, MA : Da Capo Press, 2003.", "* Winkler, Jonathan Reed.", "''Nexus: Strategic Communications and American Security in World War I''.", "(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008).", "Account of rivalry between Marconi's firm and the United States government during World War I." ], [ "External links", "* ;General achievements* including the Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1909 ''Wireless Telegraphic Communication''* Marconi il 5 marzo 1896, presenta a Londra la prima richiesta provvisoria di brevetto, col numero 5028 e col titolo \"Miglioramenti nella telegrafia e relativi apparati\" (Great Britain and France between 1896 and 1924)* List of British and French patents (1896–1924) The first patent application number 5028 of 5 March 1896 (Provisional deprivation); Foundations and academics* University of Oxford Introduction to the Online Catalogue of the Marconi Collection* University of Oxford Online Catalogue of the Marconi Archives* Guglielmo Marconi Foundation, Pontecchio Marconi, Bologna, Italy* Galileo Legacy Foundation: pictures of the Dedication of the Guglielmo Marconi Square, Johnston RI United States Dedication Photos* History of Marconi House, Marconi House, Strand / Aldwych, London.", "; Multimedia and books* MarconiCalling – The Life, Science and Achievements of Guglielmo Marconi, part of the Marconi Collection at the University of Oxford* ''Canadian Heritage Minute'' featuring Marconi* Guglielmo Marconi documentary , narrated by Walter Cronkite* Review of ''Signor Marconi's Magic Box'' * ; Transatlantic \"signals\" and radio* Robert (Bob) White, Guglielmo Marconi – Aerial Assistance with a Kite.", "Bridging the Atlantic By Wireless Signal – 12 December 1901.Kiting, ''The Journal of the American Kitefliers Association''.", "Vol.", "23, Issue 5 – Winter 2002.November 2001* ''Faking the Waves'', 1901* Marconi and \"wireless telegraphy\" using kites; Keys and \"signals\"* Sparks Telegraph Key Review An exhaustive listing of wireless telegraph key manufacturers including photos of most Marconi keys* United States Senate Inquiry into the ''Titanic'' disaster – Testimony of Guglielmo Marconi; Priority of invention''vs Tesla''* PBS: Marconi and Tesla: Who invented radio?", "* United States Supreme Court, '' Marconi Wireless Telegraph co. of America v. United States''.", "320 U.S. 1.Nos.", "369, 373.Argued 9–12 April 1943.Decided 21 June 1943.", "* 21st Century Books: Priority in the Invention of Radio – Tesla vs. Marconi; Personal* Information about Marconi and his yacht Elettra* I diari di laboratorio di Guglielmo Marconi (The diaries of laboratory Guglielmo Marconi.", ")* Comitato Guglielmo Marconi International, Bologna, Italy (Marconi's voice)* August 1914 photo article on Marconi Belmar station in Wall, NJ, InfoAge.", "(See also, Marconi Period of Significance Historic Buildings.", ")* Marconi, Guglielmo: Statue north of Meridian Hill Park in Washington , D.C. by Attilio Piccirilli; Other* Guglielmo Marconi, 2000 Italian Lire (1990)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Gulf (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''gulf''' is a large inlet from the ocean into a landmass.", "'''Gulf''' or '''the gulf''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* Gulf Country, a region in Australia* Gulf Freeway, a highway in Texas, United States* Gulf, North Carolina, a census-designated place in the United States* Gulf of Mexico, Atlantic Ocean basin extending into southern North America* Gulf Province, Papua New Guinea* Persian Gulf, arm of the Indian Ocean in Western Asia** Arab states of the Persian Gulf, group of Arab states which border the Persian Gulf" ], [ "Arts and media", "* ''Gulf'' (film), 2017 Indian Telugu-language film* ''Gulf'' (novella), by Robert A. Heinlein (1949)* ''The Gulf'' (play), by Audrey Cefaly* ''The Gulf: The Making of an American Sea'', book by Jack E. Davis* ''The Gulf'' (TV series), New Zealand-set crime drama series" ], [ "Businesses and organizations", "* Global University Leaders Forum, an organization within World Economic Forum* Gulf Air, the principal flag carrier of the Kingdom of Bahrain* Gulf and Western Industries, an American conglomerate* Gulf Cartel, a criminal organisation in Mexico * Gulf FM (disambiguation), various radio stations* Gulf High School, a four-year public high school in New Port Richey, Florida* ''Gulf News'', a daily English language newspaper published from Dubai* Gulf Oil, a major oil company from 1901 to 1985Gulf Canada, a major Canadian oil company since 1906, a subsidiary of Gulf Oil JWA Gulf, a Gulf Oil-sponsored motor racing team of John Wyer in the 1960s and 1970s* Gulf Power Company, an American investor-owned electric utility" ], [ "Other uses", "* Gulf house, a type of farmhouse that emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries in North Germany* Gulf of evaluation, the degree to which a computer system provides representations that can be directly perceived and interpreted in terms of the expectations and intentions of the user* Gulf of execution, a term usually used in human computer interaction to describe the gap between a user's goal for action and the means to execute that goal" ], [ "See also", "* * * Arabian Gulf (disambiguation)* Gulf breeze (disambiguation)* Gulf Coast (disambiguation)* Grand Gulf (disambiguation)* Gulf Building (disambiguation)* Gulf Cup (disambiguation)* Gulf states (disambiguation)* Gulf University (disambiguation)* Golf (disambiguation)* Gulf Stream, a maritime current* Gulf War, 1990–91 war waged by coalition forces led by the United States against Iraq* Gulf Coast of the United States, the coastline along the Southern United States and the Gulf of Mexico* List of gulfs, a list of large bays and gulfs" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Göta älv" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''''' (; \"River of (the) Geats\") is a river that drains lake Vänern into the Kattegat, at the city of Gothenburg, on the western coast of Sweden.", "It was formed at the end of the last glaciation, as an outflow channel from the Baltic Ice Lake to the Atlantic Ocean and nowadays it has the largest drainage basin in Scandinavia.The is located in Götaland, with the river itself being a site of early Geatish settlement.", "Its length is .", "The Bohus Fortress is located by the river at Kungälv.", "There the river splits into two, with the northern part being the '''Nordre älv''' and the southern part keeping the name ; the two arms of the river enclose the island of Hisingen.At Trollhättan there is a dam, canal locks and a hydropower station in the river.", "The locks make the river navigable, even for large cargo vessels ( long).", "The artificial parts are called Trollhätte Canal.", "The river and the canal is part of a mostly inland waterway, Göta Canal, which spans the width of Sweden to the Baltic Sea south of Stockholm.The power station supplied electric power to the heavy steel industry concentrated around Trollhättan Falls, contributing to its industrial revolution.", "In the summer months the spillway of the dam is opened for a few minutes daily and tourists gather to see the water rushing down the river (picture).There are concerns about whether the maximum permitted discharge of is enough in a scenario where heavy rain floods the lake Vänern, causing considerable damage.", "Previously this was thought not to be possible in reality, but in 2001 the lake was flooded almost above maximum level (and some upstream lakes like Glafsfjorden flooded ).", "In this situation, was allowed a discharge of for months causing a big risk of landslides.", "Now a water tunnel between Vänersborg and Uddevalla is considered as a rescue solution.There is a large risk of landslides along the river and historical records of 15 landslides exist.", "The largest occurred in the years 1150, 1648, 1950, 1957 and 1977 (Tuve landslide)." ], [ "Name in other languages", "In Old Norse the river was called the ''Gautelfr''; in Icelandic it is ''Gautelfur''; and in Norwegian it is sometimes rendered as ''Gøtelv''." ], [ "See also", "* Name of the Goths" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Greece" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Greece''', officially the '''Hellenic Republic''', is a country in Southeast Europe, located on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula.", "Greece shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east.", "The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, and the Sea of Crete and the Mediterranean Sea to the south.", "Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin, featuring thousands of islands.", "It has a population of nearly 10.3 million (as of 2024).", "Athens is the nation's capital and the largest city, followed by Thessaloniki and Patras.Greece is considered the cradle of Western civilization, being the birthplace of democracy, Western philosophy, Western literature, historiography, political science, major scientific and mathematical principles, theatre, and the Olympic Games.", "From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as ''poleis'' (singular ''polis''), which spanned the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.", "Philip II of Macedon united most of present-day Greece in the fourth century BC, with his son Alexander the Great rapidly conquering much of the known ancient world, from the eastern Mediterranean to northwestern India.", "The subsequent Hellenistic period saw the height of Greek culture and influence in antiquity.", "Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming an integral part of the Roman Empire and its continuation, the Byzantine Empire, which was predominantly Greek in culture and language.", "The Greek Orthodox Church, which emerged in the first century AD, helped shape modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox world.", "After the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Latin possessions were established in parts of the Greek peninsula, but most of the area fell under Ottoman rule in the mid-15th century.", "Greece emerged as a modern nation state in 1830, following a war of independence.Over the first hundred years, the Kingdom of Greece sought territorial expansion, which was mainly achieved in the early 20th century, during the Balkan Wars and up until its Asia Minor Campaign ended with a catastrophic defeat in 1922.The short-lived republic that followed was beset by the ramifications of civil strife and the challenge of resettling refugees from Turkey.", "In 1936 a royalist dictatorship was established in which Greece fought during WW2 and after that her history was marked by military occupation during the war, a civil war, and military dictatorship.", "Greece achieved record economic growth from 1950 through the 1970s, allowing it to join the ranks of developed countries.", "After the Military Regime's fall, democracy was restored in 1974–75, and Greece has since been a parliamentary republic.Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, the second largest in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor.", "A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the tenth member to join the European Communities (precursor to the European Union) and has been part of the eurozone since 2001.It is also a member of numerous other international institutions, including the Council of Europe, NATO, the OECD, the WTO, and the OSCE.", "Greece has a unique cultural heritage, large tourism industry, and prominent shipping sector.", "The country's rich historical legacy is reflected in part by its 19 UNESCO World Heritage Sites." ], [ "Name", "The native name of the country in Modern Greek is ('''', pronounced ).", "The corresponding form in Ancient Greek and conservative formal Modern Greek (Katharevousa) is (, classical: , modern: ).", "This is the source of the English alternative name ''Hellas'', which is mostly found in archaic or poetic contexts today.", "The Greek adjectival form (, ) is sometimes also translated as ''Hellenic'' and is often rendered in this way in the formal names of Greek institutions, as in the official name of the Greek state, the ''Hellenic Republic'' (, ).The English names ''Greece'' and ''Greek'' are derived, via the Latin '''' and '''', from the name of the Graeci (, ; singular , ), who were among the first ancient Greek tribes to settle Magna Graecia in southern Italy.", "The term is possibly derived from the Proto-Indo-European root '''', \"to grow old\", more specifically from Graea (ancient city), said by Aristotle to be the oldest in Greece, and the source of colonists for the Naples area." ], [ "History", "=== Prehistory and early history ===The entrance of the Treasury of Atreus (13th century BC) in Mycenae\|leftThe Apidima Cave in Mani, in southern Greece, has been suggested to contain the oldest remains of anatomically modern humans outside of Africa, dated to 210,000 years ago.", "However, this has been contested, with other authors suggesting the remains represent archaic humans.", "All three stages of the Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic) are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave.", "Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries, as Greece lies on the route via which farming spread from the Near East to Europe.Greece is home to the first advanced civilizations in Europe and is considered the birthplace of Western civilisation, beginning with the Cycladic civilization on the islands of the Aegean Sea at around 3200 BC, the Minoan civilization in Crete (2700–1500 BC), and then the Mycenaean civilization on the mainland (1600–1100 BC).", "These civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans using an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans writing the earliest attested form of Greek in Linear B.", "The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC, along with other civilizations, during the regional event known as the Late Bronze Age collapse.", "Though the unearthed Linear B texts are too fragmentary for the reconstruction of the political landscape and can't support the existence of a larger state, contemporary Hittite and Egyptian records suggest the presence of a single state under a \"Great King\" based in mainland Greece.===Ancient Greece===Greek territories and colonies during the Archaic period (750–550 BC)The collapse of the Mycenean civilization ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent.", "The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the year of the first Olympic Games.", "The ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC.", "With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, which spread to the shores of the Black Sea, Southern Italy (the so-called \"Magna Graecia\") and Asia Minor.", "These states and their colonies reached great levels of prosperity that resulted in an unprecedented cultural boom, that of classical Greece, expressed in architecture, drama, science, mathematics and philosophy.", "In 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the world's first democratic system of government in Athens.The Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens, icon of classical GreeceBy 500 BC, the Persian Empire controlled the Greek city states in Asia Minor and Macedonia.", "Attempts by some of the Greek city-states of Asia Minor to overthrow Persian rule failed, and Persia invaded the states of mainland Greece in 492 BC, but was forced to withdraw after a defeat at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC.", "In response, the Greek city-states formed the Hellenic League in 481 BC, led by Sparta, which was the first historically recorded union of Greek states since the mythical union of the Trojan War.", "A second invasion by the Persians followed in 480 BC.", "Following decisive Greek victories in 480 and 479 BC at Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale, the Persians were forced to withdraw for a second time, marking their eventual withdrawal from all of their European territories.", "Led by Athens and Sparta, the Greek victories in the Greco-Persian Wars are considered a pivotal moment in world history, as the 50 years of peace that followed are known as the Golden Age of Athens, the seminal period of ancient Greek development that laid many of the foundations of Western civilization.Lack of political unity within Greece resulted in frequent conflict between Greek states.", "The most devastating intra-Greek war was the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), won by Sparta and marking the demise of the Athenian Empire as the leading power in ancient Greece.", "Both Athens and Sparta were later overshadowed by Thebes and eventually Macedon, with the latter uniting most of the city-states of the Greek hinterland in the League of Corinth (also known as the ''Hellenic League'' or ''Greek League'') under the control of Philip II.", "Despite this development, the Greek world remained largely fragmented and would not be united under a single power until the Roman years.After Philip's assassination in 336 BC, his son and king of Macedon, Alexander, set himself the leader of a Panhellenic campaign against the Persian Empire and abolished it.", "Undefeated in battle, he marched, until his untimely death in 323 BC, to the banks of the Indus, in the process creating one of the largest empires in history.", "Alexander's empire fragmented after his death, inaugurating the Hellenistic period.", "After fierce conflict among them, the generals that succeeded Alexander and their successors founded large personal kingdoms in the areas he had conquered, such as that of the Ptolemies in Egypt, the Seleucids in Syria, Mesopotamia and Iran, the Greco-Bactrians in central Asia, and the Indo-Greek kingdom.", "Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria, Antioch, Seleucia, and the many other new Hellenistic cities in Asia and Africa.", "As a result of the settlement of Greeks in newly founded ''poleis'' of these kingdoms as members of a ruling minority, during the centuries that followed a vernacular form of Greek, known as ''koine'', and Greek culture was spread, while the Greeks adopted Eastern deities and cults.", "Greek science, technology, and mathematics are generally considered to have reached their peak during the Hellenistic period.", "After a period of confusion following Alexander's death, the Antigonid dynasty, descended from one of Alexander's generals, established its control over Macedon and most of the Greek city-states by 276 BC.", "Aspiring to maintain their autonomy and independence from the Antigonid kings of the Macedonians, who sought to control them, many of the ''poleis'' of Greece united in ''koina'' or ''sympoliteiai'' (i.e.", "federations), while after the establishment of economic relations with the East, a stratum of wealthy ''euergetai'' dominated their internal life.=== Roman province (146 BC – 4th century AD) ===The Antikythera mechanism (c. 100 BC) is considered to be the first known mechanical analog computer (National Archaeological Museum, Athens).From about 200 BC the Roman Republic became increasingly involved in Greek affairs and engaged in a series of wars with Macedon.", "Macedon's defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC signalled the end of Antigonid power in Greece.", "In 146 BC, Macedonia was annexed as a province by Rome, and the rest of Greece became a Roman protectorate.The process was completed in 27 BC when the Roman emperor Augustus annexed the rest of Greece and constituted it as the senatorial province of Achaea.", "Despite their military superiority, the Romans admired and became heavily influenced by the achievements of Greek culture, hence Horace's famous statement: ''Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit'' (\"Greece, although captured, took its wild conqueror captive\").", "The epics of Homer inspired the Aeneid of Virgil, and authors such as Seneca the Younger wrote using Greek styles.", "Roman heroes such as Scipio Africanus, tended to study philosophy and regarded Greek culture and science as an example to be followed.", "Similarly, most Roman emperors maintained an admiration for things Greek in nature.", "The Roman emperor Nero visited Greece in AD 66, and performed at the Ancient Olympic Games, despite the rules against non-Greek participation.", "Hadrian was also particularly fond of the Greeks.", "Before becoming emperor, he served as an eponymous archon of Athens.The Odeon of Herodes Atticus in Athens, built in 161 ADGreek-speaking communities of the Hellenised East were instrumental in the spread of early Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, and Christianity's early leaders and writers (notably St. Paul) were mostly Greek-speaking, though generally not from Greece itself.", "The New Testament was written in Greek, and some of its sections (Corinthians, Thessalonians, Philippians, Revelation of St. John of Patmos) attest to the importance of churches in Greece in early Christianity.", "Nevertheless, much of Greece clung tenaciously to paganism, and ancient Greek religious practices were still in vogue in the late 4th century AD, when they were outlawed by the Roman emperor Theodosius I in 391–392.The last recorded Olympic games were held in 393, and many temples were destroyed or damaged in the century that followed.", "In Athens and rural areas, paganism is attested well into the sixth century AD and even later.", "The closure of the Neoplatonic Academy of Athens by the Emperor Justinian in 529 is considered by many to mark the end of antiquity, although there is evidence that the academy continued its activities for some time after that.", "Some remote areas such as the southeastern Peloponnese remained pagan until well into the 10th century AD.=== Medieval period (4th–15th century) ===Dome of Hagia Sophia, Thessaloniki (8th century), one of the 15 UNESCO's Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of the city\|leftThe Roman Empire in the east, following the fall of the Empire in the west in the 5th century, is conventionally known as the Byzantine Empire (but was simply called \"Kingdom of the Romans\" in its own time) and lasted until 1453.With its capital in Constantinople, its language and culture were Greek and its religion was predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christian.From the 4th century the Empire's Balkan territories, including Greece, suffered from the dislocation of barbarian invasions.", "The raids and devastation of the Goths and Huns in the 4th and 5th centuries and the Slavic invasion of Greece in the 7th century resulted in a dramatic collapse in imperial authority in the Greek peninsula.", "Following the Slavic invasion, the imperial government retained formal control of only the islands and coastal areas, particularly the densely populated walled cities such as Athens, Corinth and Thessalonica, while some mountainous areas in the interior held out on their own and continued to recognise imperial authority.", "Outside of these areas, a limited amount of Slavic settlement is generally thought to have occurred, although on a much smaller scale than previously thought.", "However, the view that Greece in late antiquity underwent a crisis of decline, fragmentation and depopulation is now considered outdated, as Greek cities show a high degree of institutional continuity and prosperity between the 4th and 6th centuries AD (and possibly later as well).", "In the early 6th century, Greece had approximately 80 cities according to the Synecdemus chronicle, and the period from the 4th to the 7th century AD is considered one of high prosperity not just in Greece but in the entire Eastern Mediterranean.The Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire after the death of Basil II in 1025Until the 8th century almost all of modern Greece was under the jurisdiction of the Holy See of Rome according to the system of Pentarchy.", "Byzantine Emperor Leo III moved the border of the Patriarchate of Constantinople westward and northward in the 8th century.The Byzantine recovery of lost provinces during the Arab–Byzantine wars began toward the end of the 8th century and most of the Greek peninsula came under imperial control again, in stages, during the 9th century.", "This process was facilitated by a large influx of Greeks from Sicily and Asia Minor to the Greek peninsula, while at the same time many Slavs were captured and re-settled in Asia Minor and the few that remained were assimilated.", "During the 11th and 12th centuries the return of stability resulted in the Greek peninsula benefiting from strong economic growth – much stronger than that of the Anatolian territories of the Empire.", "During that time, the Greek Orthodox Church was also instrumental in the spread of Greek ideas to the wider Orthodox world.The Palace of the Grand Master of the Knights of Rhodes, originally built in the late 7th century as a Byzantine citadel and beginning from 1309 used by the Knights Hospitaller as an administrative centreFollowing the Fourth Crusade and the fall of Constantinople to the \"Latins\" in 1204, mainland Greece was split between the Greek Despotate of Epirus (a Byzantine successor state) and French rule (known as the ''Frankokratia''), while some islands came under Venetian rule.", "The re-establishment of the Byzantine imperial capital in Constantinople in 1261 was accompanied by the empire's recovery of much of the Greek peninsula, although the Frankish Principality of Achaea in the Peloponnese and the rival Greek Despotate of Epirus in the north both remained important regional powers into the 14th century, while the islands remained largely under Genoese and Venetian control.", "During the Paleologi dynasty (1261–1453) a new era of Greek patriotism emerged accompanied by a turning back to ancient Greece.As such prominent personalities at the time also proposed changing the imperial title to \"Emperor of the Hellenes\", and, in late fourteenth century, the emperor was frequently referred to as the \"Emperor of the Hellenes\".", "Similarly, in several international treaties of that time the Byzantine emperor is styled as \"Imperator Graecorum\".In the 14th century much of the Greek peninsula was lost by the Byzantine Empire at first to the Serbs and then to the Ottomans.", "By the beginning of the 15th century, the Ottoman advance meant that Byzantine territory in Greece was limited mainly to its then-largest city, Thessaloniki, and the Peloponnese (Despotate of the Morea).", "After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, the Morea was one of the last remnants of the Byzantine Empire to hold out against the Ottomans.", "However, this, too, fell to the Ottomans in 1460, completing the Ottoman conquest of mainland Greece.", "With the Turkish conquest, many Byzantine Greek scholars, who up until then were largely responsible for preserving Classical Greek knowledge, fled to the West, taking with them a large body of literature and thereby significantly contributing to the Renaissance.=== Venetian possessions and Ottoman rule (15th century – 1821) ===Byzantine castle of Angelokastro successfully repulsed the Ottomans during the first great siege of Corfu in 1537, the siege of 1571, and the second great siege of Corfu in 1716, causing them to abandon their plans to conquer Corfu.While most of mainland Greece and the Aegean islands was under Ottoman control by the end of the 15th century, Cyprus and Crete remained Venetian territory and did not fall to the Ottomans until 1571 and 1670 respectively.", "The only part of the Greek-speaking world that escaped long-term Ottoman rule was the Ionian Islands, which remained Venetian until their capture by the First French Republic in 1797, then passed to the United Kingdom in 1809 until their unification with Greece in 1864.While some Greeks in the Ionian Islands and Constantinople lived in prosperity, and Greeks of Constantinople (Phanariotes) achieved positions of power within the Ottoman administration, much of the population of mainland Greece suffered the economic consequences of the Ottoman conquest.", "Heavy taxes were enforced, and in later years the Ottoman Empire enacted a policy of creation of hereditary estates, effectively turning the rural Greek populations into serfs.The Greek Orthodox Church and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople were considered by the Ottoman governments as the ruling authorities of the entire Orthodox Christian population of the Ottoman Empire, whether ethnically Greek or not.", "Although the Ottoman state did not force non-Muslims to convert to Islam, Christians faced several types of discrimination intended to highlight their inferior status in the Ottoman Empire.", "Discrimination against Christians, particularly when combined with harsh treatment by local Ottoman authorities, led to conversions to Islam, if only superficially.", "In the 19th century, many \"crypto-Christians\" returned to their old religious allegiance.The White Tower of Thessaloniki, one of the best-known Ottoman structures remaining in GreeceThe nature of Ottoman administration of Greece varied, though it was invariably arbitrary and often harsh.", "Some cities had governors appointed by the Sultan, while others (like Athens) were self-governed municipalities.", "Mountainous regions in the interior and many islands remained effectively autonomous from the central Ottoman state for many centuries.Prior to the Greek Revolution of 1821, there had been a number of wars which saw Greeks fight against the Ottomans, such as the Greek participation in the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, the Epirus peasants' revolts of 1600–1601 (led by the Orthodox bishop Dionysios Skylosophos), the Morean War of 1684–1699, and the Russian-instigated Orlov Revolt in 1770, which aimed at breaking up the Ottoman Empire in favour of Russian interests.", "These uprisings were put down by the Ottomans with great bloodshed.", "On the other side, many Greeks were conscripted as Ottoman citizens to serve in the Ottoman army (and especially the Ottoman navy), while also the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, responsible for the Orthodox, remained in general loyal to the empire.The 16th and 17th centuries are regarded as something of a \"dark age\" in Greek history, with the prospect of overthrowing Ottoman rule appearing remote with only the Ionian islands remaining free of Turkish domination.", "Corfu withstood three major sieges in 1537, 1571 and 1716 all of which resulted in the repulsion of the Ottomans.", "However, in the 18th century, due to their mastery of shipping and commerce, a wealthy and dispersed Greek merchant class arose.", "These merchants came to dominate trade within the Ottoman Empire, establishing communities throughout the Mediterranean, the Balkans, and Western Europe.", "Though the Ottoman conquest had cut Greece off from significant European intellectual movements such as the Reformation and the Enlightenment, these ideas together with the ideals of the French Revolution and romantic nationalism began to penetrate the Greek world via the mercantile diaspora.", "In the late 18th century, Rigas Feraios, the first revolutionary to envision an independent Greek state, published a series of documents relating to Greek independence, including but not limited to a national anthem and the first detailed map of Greece, in Vienna.", "Feraios was murdered by Ottoman agents in 1798.===Modern nation-state======= Greek War of Independence (1821–1832) ====''The sortie (exodus) of Messolonghi'', depicting the third siege of Missolonghi, painted by Theodoros VryzakisThe Battle of Navarino in 1827 secured Greek independence.In the late eighteenth century, an increase in secular learning during the Modern Greek Enlightenment led to the emergence among Westernized Greek-speaking elites of the diaspora of the notion of a Greek nation tracing its existence to ancient Greece, distinct from the other Orthodox peoples, and having a right to political autonomy.", "One of the organizations formed in this intellectual milieu was the Filiki Eteria, a secret organization formed by merchants in Odessa (Odesa) in 1814.Appropriating a long-standing tradition of Orthodox messianic prophecy aspiring to the resurrection of the eastern Roman empire and creating the impression they had the backing of Tsarist Russia, they managed amidst a crisis of Ottoman trade, from 1815 onwards, to engage traditional strata of the Greek Orthodox world in their liberal nationalist cause.", "The Filiki Eteria planned to launch revolution in the Peloponnese, the Danubian Principalities and Constantinople.", "The first of these revolts began on 6 March 1821 in the Danubian Principalities under the leadership of Alexandros Ypsilantis, but it was soon put down by the Ottomans.", "The events in the north spurred the Greeks of the Peloponnese into action and on 17 March 1821 the Maniots declared war on the Ottomans.By the end of the month, the Peloponnese was in open revolt against the Ottomans and by October 1821 the Greeks under Theodoros Kolokotronis had captured Tripolitsa.", "The Peloponnesian revolt was quickly followed by revolts in Crete, Macedonia and Central Greece, which would soon be suppressed.", "Meanwhile, the makeshift Greek navy was achieving success against the Ottoman navy in the Aegean Sea and prevented Ottoman reinforcements from arriving by sea.", "In 1822 and 1824 the Turks and Egyptians ravaged the islands, including Chios and Psara, committing wholesale massacres of the population.", "Approximately three-quarters of the Chios' Greek population of 120,000 were killed, enslaved or died of disease.", "This had the effect of galvanizing public opinion in western Europe in favour of the Greek rebels.Tensions soon developed among different Greek factions, leading to two consecutive civil wars.", "Meanwhile, the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II negotiated with Mehmet Ali of Egypt, who agreed to send his son Ibrahim Pasha to Greece with an army to suppress the revolt in return for territorial gain.", "Ibrahim landed in the Peloponnese in February 1825 and had immediate success: by the end of 1825, most of the Peloponnese was under Egyptian control, and the city of Missolonghi—put under siege by the Turks since April 1825—fell in April 1826.Although Ibrahim was defeated in Mani, he had succeeded in suppressing most of the revolt in the Peloponnese, and Athens had been retaken.After years of negotiation, three great powers, France, Russian Empire, and the United Kingdom, decided to intervene in the conflict and each nation sent a navy to Greece.", "Following news that combined Ottoman–Egyptian fleets were going to attack the Greek island of Hydra, the allied fleet intercepted the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet at Navarino.", "A week-long standoff ended with the Battle of Navarino (20 October 1827) which resulted in the destruction of the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet.", "A French expeditionary force was dispatched to supervise the evacuation of the Egyptian army from the Peloponnese, while the Greeks proceeded to the captured part of Central Greece by 1828.As a result of years of negotiation, the nascent Greek state was finally recognised under the London Protocol in 1830.====Kingdom of Greece====King Otto in Athens'', painted by Peter von Hess in 1839In 1827, Ioannis Kapodistrias, from Corfu, was chosen by the Third National Assembly at Troezen as the first governor of the First Hellenic Republic.", "Kapodistrias established a series of state, economic and military institutions.", "Soon tensions appeared between him and local interests.", "Following his assassination in 1831 and the subsequent London conference a year later, the Great Powers of Britain, France and Russia installed Bavarian Prince Otto von Wittelsbach as monarch.", "Otto's reign was despotic, and in its first 11 years of independence Greece was ruled by a Bavarian oligarchy led by Joseph Ludwig von Armansperg as Prime Minister and, later, by Otto himself, who held the title of both King and Premier.", "Throughout this period Greece remained under the influence of its three protecting great powers, France, Russia, and the United Kingdom, as well as Bavaria.", "In 1843 an uprising forced Otto to grant a constitution and a representative assembly.Despite the absolutism of Otto's reign, the early years proved instrumental in creating institutions (improving those established by Ioannis Kapodisrias) which are still the bedrock of Greek administration and education.", "Important steps were taken in areas including the education system, maritime and postal communications, effective civil administration and, most importantly, the legal code.", "Historical revisionism took the form of de-Byzantinification and de-Ottomanisation, in favour of promoting the country's Ancient Greek heritage.", "In this spirit, the national capital was moved from Nafplio, where it had been since 1829, to Athens, which was at the time a smaller town.", "Religious reform also took place, and the Church of Greece was established as Greece's national church, although Otto remained a Catholic.", "25 March, the day of Annunciation, was chosen as the anniversary of the Greek War of Independence to reinforce the link between Greek identity and Orthodoxy.", "Pavlos Karolidis called the Bavarian efforts to create a modern state in Greece as \"not only appropriate for the peoples' needs, but also based on excellent administrative principles of the era\".Otto was deposed in the 23 October 1862 Revolution.", "Multiple causes led to his deposition and exile, including the Bavarian-dominated government, heavy taxation, and a failed attempt to annex Crete from the Ottoman Empire.", "The catalyst for the revolt was Otto's dismissal of Konstantinos Kanaris from the Premiership.", "A year later, he was replaced by Prince Wilhelm (William) of Denmark, who took the name George I and brought with him the Ionian Islands as a coronation gift from Britain.", "A new Constitution in 1864 changed Greece's form of government from constitutional monarchy to the more democratic crowned republic.", "In 1875 the concept of parliamentary majority as a requirement for the formation of a government was introduced by Charilaos Trikoupis, curbing the power of the monarchy to appoint minority governments of its preference.The territorial evolution of the Kingdom of Greece from 1832 to 1947Corruption, coupled with Trikoupis' increased spending to fund infrastructure projects like the Corinth Canal, overtaxed the weak Greek economy and forced the declaration of public insolvency in 1893.Greece also accepted the imposition of an International Financial Commission to enforce the repayment of the country's debtors.All Greeks were united, however, in their determination to liberate the Hellenic lands under Ottoman rule.", "Especially in Crete, a prolonged revolt in 1866–1869 had raised nationalist fervour.", "When war broke out between Russia and the Ottomans in 1877, Greek popular sentiment rallied to Russia's side, but Greece was too poor and too concerned about British intervention, to officially enter the war.", "Nevertheless, in 1881, Thessaly and small parts of Epirus were ceded to Greece as part of the Treaty of Berlin, while frustrating Greek hopes of receiving Crete.Greeks in Crete continued to stage regular revolts, and in 1897, the Greek government under Theodoros Deligiannis, bowing to popular pressure, declared war on the Ottomans.", "In the ensuing Greco-Turkish War of 1897, the badly trained and equipped Greek army was defeated by the Ottomans.", "Through the intervention of the Great Powers, however, Greece lost only a little territory along the border to Turkey, while Crete was established as an autonomous state under Prince George of Greece.", "With state coffers empty, fiscal policy came under International Financial Control.", "Alarmed by the abortive Ilinden uprising of the autonomist Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) in 1903, the Greek government, aiming to quell Komitadjis (IMRO bands) and detach the Slavophone peasants of the region from Bulgarian influence, sponsored a guerrilla campaign in Ottoman-ruled Macedonia, led by Greek officers and known as the Macedonian Struggle, which ended with the Young Turk Revolution in 1908.==== Expansion, disaster, and reconstruction ====Hellenic Army formation in the World War I Victory Parade in Arc de Triomphe, Paris, July 1919Amidst general dissatisfaction with the seeming inertia and unattainability of national aspirations under the premiership of the cautious reformist Theotokis, a group of military officers organised a coup in August 1909 and shortly thereafter called to Athens Cretan politician Eleftherios Venizelos, who conveyed a vision of national regeneration.", "After winning two elections and becoming Prime Minister in 1910, Venizelos initiated wide-ranging fiscal, social, and constitutional reforms, reorganised the military, made Greece a member of the Balkan League, and led the country through the Balkan Wars.", "By 1913, Greece's territory and population had almost doubled, annexing Crete, Epirus, and Macedonia.", "In the following years, the struggle between King Constantine I and charismatic Venizelos over the country's foreign policy on the eve of First World War dominated the country's political scene and divided the country into two opposing groups.", "During parts of WW1, Greece had two governments: A royalist pro-German one in Athens and a Venizelist pro-Entente one in Thessaloniki.", "The two governments were united in 1917, when Greece officially entered the war on the side of the Entente.Map of Greater Greece after the Treaty of Sèvres, when the ''Megali Idea'' seemed close to fulfillment, featuring Eleftherios Venizelos as its supervising geniusIn the aftermath of World War I, Greece attempted further expansion into Asia Minor, a region with a large native Greek population at the time, but was defeated in the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, contributing to a massive flight of Asia Minor Greeks.", "These events overlapped, with both happening during the Greek genocide (1914–1922), a period during which, according to various sources, Ottoman and Turkish officials contributed to the death of several hundred thousand Asia Minor Greeks, along with similar numbers of Assyrians and a rather larger number of Armenians.", "The resultant Greek exodus from Asia Minor was made permanent, and expanded, in an official Population exchange between Greece and Turkey.", "The exchange was part of the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne which ended the war.The following era was marked by instability, as over 1.5 million propertyless Greek refugees from Turkey had to be integrated into Greek society.", "Cappadocian Greeks, Pontian Greeks, and non-Greek followers of Greek Orthodoxy were all subject to the exchange as well.", "Some of the refugees could not speak the language and were from what had been unfamiliar environments to mainland Greeks, such as in the case of the Cappadocians and non-Greeks.", "The refugees also made a dramatic post-war population boost, as the number of refugees was more than a quarter of Greece's prior population.Following the catastrophic events in Asia Minor, the monarchy was abolished via a referendum in 1924 and the Second Hellenic Republic was declared.", "In 1935, a royalist general-turned-politician Georgios Kondylis took power after a coup d'état and abolished the republic, holding a rigged referendum, after which King George II returned to Greece and was restored to the throne.==== Dictatorship, World War II, and reconstruction ====An agreement between Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas and the head of state George II followed in 1936, which installed Metaxas as the head of a dictatorial regime known as the 4th of August Regime, inaugurating a period of authoritarian rule that would last, with short breaks, until 1974.Although a dictatorship, Greece remained on good terms with Britain and was not allied with the Axis.The Axis occupation of Greece.", "On 28 October 1940, Fascist Italy demanded the surrender of Greece, but the Greek administration refused, and, in the following Greco-Italian War, Greece repelled Italian forces into Albania, giving the Allies their first victory over Axis forces on land.", "The Greek struggle and victory against the Italians received exuberant praise at the time.", "French general Charles de Gaulle was among those who praised the fierceness of the Greek resistance.", "In an official notice released to coincide with the Greek national celebration of the Day of Independence, De Gaulle expressed his admiration for the Greek resistance:In the name of the captured yet still alive French people, France wants to send her greetings to the Greek people who are fighting for their freedom.", "The 25 March 1941 finds Greece in the peak of their heroic struggle and in the top of their glory.", "Since the Battle of Salamis, Greece had not achieved the greatness and the glory which today holds.", "The country would eventually fall to urgently dispatched German forces during the Battle of Greece, despite the fierce Greek resistance, particularly in the Battle of the Metaxas Line.People in Athens celebrate the liberation from the Axis powers, October 1944.Postwar Greece would soon experience a civil war and political polarization.The Nazis proceeded to administer Athens and Thessaloniki, while other regions of the country were given to Nazi Germany's partners, Fascist Italy and Bulgaria.", "The occupation brought about terrible hardships for the Greek civilian population.", "Over 100,000 civilians died of starvation during the winter of 1941–1942, tens of thousands more died because of reprisals by Nazis and collaborators, the country's economy was ruined, and the great majority of Greek Jews (tens of thousands) were deported and murdered in Nazi concentration camps.", "The Greek Resistance, one of the most effective resistance movements in Europe, fought vehemently against the Nazis and their collaborators.", "The German occupiers committed numerous atrocities, mass executions, and wholesale slaughter of civilians and destruction of towns and villages in reprisals.", "In the course of the concerted anti-guerrilla campaign, hundreds of villages were systematically torched and almost 1 million Greeks left homeless.", "In total, the Germans executed around 21,000 Greeks, the Bulgarians executed 40,000, and the Italians executed 9,000.Following liberation and the Allied victory over the Axis, Greece annexed the Dodecanese Islands from Italy and regained Western Thrace from Bulgaria.", "The country almost immediately descended into a bloody civil war between communist forces and the anti-communist Greek government, which lasted until 1949 with the latter's victory.", "The conflict, considered one of the earliest struggles of the Cold War, resulted in further economic devastation, mass population displacement and severe political polarisation for the next thirty years.Although the post-war decades were characterised by social strife and widespread marginalisation of the left in political and social spheres, Greece nonetheless experienced rapid economic growth and recovery, propelled in part by the U.S.-administered Marshall Plan.", "In 1952, Greece joined NATO, reinforcing its membership in the Western Bloc of the Cold War.King Constantine II's dismissal of George Papandreou's centrist government in July 1965 prompted a prolonged period of political turbulence, which culminated in a coup d'état on 21 April 1967 by the Regime of the Colonels.", "Under the junta, civil rights were suspended, political repression was intensified, and human rights abuses, including state-sanctioned torture, were rampant.", "Economic growth remained rapid before plateauing in 1972.The brutal suppression of the Athens Polytechnic uprising on 17 November 1973 set in motion the events that caused the fall of the Papadopoulos regime, resulting in a counter-coup which overthrew Georgios Papadopoulos and established brigadier Dimitrios Ioannidis as the new junta strongman.", "On 20 July 1974, Turkey invaded the island of Cyprus in response to a Greek-backed Cypriot coup, triggering a political crisis in Greece that led to the regime's collapse and the restoration of democracy through Metapolitefsi.==== Third Hellenic Republic ====Signing at Zappeion by Constantine Karamanlis of the documents for the accession of Greece to the European Communities in 1979The former prime minister Konstantinos Karamanlis was invited back from Paris where he had lived in self-exile since 1963, marking the beginning of the Metapolitefsi era.", "The first multiparty elections since 1964 were held on the first anniversary of the Polytechnic uprising.", "A democratic and republican constitution was promulgated on 11 June 1975 following a referendum which chose to not restore the monarchy.Meanwhile, Andreas Papandreou, George Papandreou's son, founded the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) in response to Karamanlis's conservative New Democracy party, with the two political formations dominating in government over the next four decades.", "Greece rejoined NATO in 1980.Greece became the tenth member of the European Communities (subsequently subsumed by the European Union) on 1 January 1981, ushering in a period of sustained growth.", "Widespread investments in industrial enterprises and heavy infrastructure, as well as funds from the European Union and growing revenues from tourism, shipping, and a fast-growing service sector raised the country's standard of living to unprecedented levels.", "In 1981, the election of Andreas Papandreou resulted in significant reforms during the entire 1980s.", "Among others, he recognised the national resistance during WW2, the civil marriage, the dowry was abolished, while education system and foreign policy doctrines changed as well.", "However, Papandreou's tenure has been associated as well with corruption, double digit inflation, stagnation, budget deficits that caused problems in the Greek economy later on.In the nineties, as well the 2000s, Greek influence in the Balkan countries was on its apogee.", "The country adopted the euro in 2001 and successfully hosted the 2004 Summer Olympic Games in Athens.Beginning in 2010, Greece suffered substantially from the Great Recession and the related European sovereign debt crisis.", "Due to the adoption of the euro, when Greece experienced a financial crisis, it could no longer devalue its currency to regain competitiveness.", "Youth unemployment was especially high during this period.", "In the two elections of May and June 2012, there was a major change in the political landscape of Greece, with new parties emerging out of the collapse of popularity of the two main parties of the past, PASOK and New Democracy.", "In January 2015, Alexis Tsipras was elected as prime minister, being the first prime minister of Greece outside the two political parties.", "This Greek government-debt crisis, and subsequent austerity policies, resulted in protests and social strife.", "The crisis is generally considered to have ended around 2018, with the end of the bailout mechanisms and the return of economic growth.Simultaneously, in June 2018, the leaders of Greece, Alexis Tsipras, and North Macedonia, Zoran Zaev, signed the Prespa Agreement, solving the naming dispute that strained the relations of the two countries and eased the latter's way to become a member of the EU and NATO.In July 2019, Kyriakos Mitsotakis became Greece's new prime minister, after his centre-right New Democracy party had won the election over ruling leftist Syriza.", "In March 2020, Greece's parliament elected a non-partisan candidate, Katerina Sakellaropoulou, as the first female President of Greece.", "During the 2020s, the Greek economy continues to rebound, as a result of post-COVID economic recovery, robust investments, and an increase in tourist revenues and consumer spending.On February 15, 2024 Greece becomes the first Christian Orthodox country to recognise same-sex marriage and adoption by same-sex couples." ], [ "Geography", "Topographic map of Greece.Navagio (''shipwreck'') bay, Zakynthos islandLocated in Southern and Southeast Europe, Greece consists of a mountainous, peninsular mainland jutting out into the sea at the southern end of the Balkans, ending at the Peloponnese peninsula (separated from the mainland by the canal of the Isthmus of Corinth) and strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa.", "Due to its highly indented coastline and numerous islands, Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world with ; its land boundary is .", "The country lies approximately between latitudes 34° and 42° N, and longitudes 19° and 30° E, with the extreme points being:North: Ormenio villageSouth: Gavdos islandEast: Strongyli (Kastelorizo, Megisti) islandWest: Othonoi islandEighty percent of Greece consists of mountains or hills, making the country one of the most mountainous in Europe.", "Mount Olympus, the mythical abode of the Greek Gods, culminates at Mytikas peak , the highest in the country.", "Western Greece contains a number of lakes and wetlands and is dominated by the Pindus mountain range.", "The Pindus, a continuation of the Dinaric Alps, reaches a maximum elevation of at Mt.", "Smolikas (the second-highest in Greece) and historically has been a significant barrier to east–west travel.The Pindus range continues through the central Peloponnese, crosses the islands of Kythera and Antikythera and finds its way into southwestern Aegean, in the island of Crete where it eventually ends.", "The islands of the Aegean are peaks of underwater mountains that once constituted an extension of the mainland.", "Pindus is characterised by its high, steep peaks, often dissected by numerous canyons and a variety of other karstic landscapes.", "The spectacular Vikos Gorge, part of the Vikos-Aoos National Park in the Pindus range, is listed by the Guinness book of World Records as the deepest gorge in the world.", "Another notable formation are the Meteora rock pillars, atop which have been built medieval Greek Orthodox monasteries.Northeastern Greece features another high-altitude mountain range, the Rhodope range, spreading across the region of East Macedonia and Thrace; this area is covered with vast, thick, ancient forests, including the famous Dadia Forest in the Evros regional unit, in the far northeast of the country.Extensive plains are primarily located in the regions of Thessaly, Central Macedonia and Thrace.", "They constitute key economic regions as they are among the few arable places in the country.", "Rare marine species such as the pinniped seals and the loggerhead sea turtle live in the seas surrounding mainland Greece, while its dense forests are home to the endangered brown bear, the Eurasian lynx, the roe deer and the wild goat.=== Islands ===The Greek mainland and several small islands seen from Nydri, LefkadaGreece features a vast number of islands—between 1,200 and 6,000, depending on the definition, 227 of which are inhabited—and is considered a non-contiguous transcontinental country.", "Crete is the largest and most populous island; Euboea, separated from the mainland by the 60 m-wide Euripus Strait, is the second largest, followed by Lesbos and Rhodes.The Greek islands are traditionally grouped into the following clusters: the Argo-Saronic Islands in the Saronic gulf near Athens; the Cyclades, a large but dense collection occupying the central part of the Aegean Sea; the North Aegean islands, a loose grouping off the west coast of Turkey; the Dodecanese, another loose collection in the southeast between Crete and Turkey; the Sporades, a small tight group off the coast of northeast Euboea; and the Ionian Islands, located to the west of the mainland in the Ionian Sea.=== Climate ===Greece's Köppen Climate TypesThe climate of Greece is primarily Mediterranean (Köppen: ''Csa''), featuring mild to cool, wet winters and hot, dry summers.", "This climate occurs at most of the coastal locations, including Athens, the Cyclades, the Dodecanese, Crete, the Peloponnese, the Ionian Islands and parts of mainland Greece.", "The Pindus mountain range strongly affects the climate of the country, as areas to the west of the range are considerably wetter on average (due to greater exposure to south-westerly systems bringing in moisture) than the areas lying to the east of the range (due to a rain shadow effect), resulting to some coastal areas in the south falling to the hot semi-arid climate (Köppen: ''BSh'') category, such as parts of the Athens Riviera and some of the Cyclades, as well as some areas in the north featuring a cold equivalent climate (Köppen: ''BSk''), such as the cities of Thessaloniki and Larissa.The mountainous areas and the higher elevations of northwestern Greece (parts of Epirus, Central Greece, Thessaly, Western Macedonia) as well as in the mountainous central parts of Peloponnese – including parts of the regional units of Achaea, Arcadia and Laconia – feature an Alpine climate (Köppen: ''D'', ''E'') with heavy snowfalls during the winter.", "Most of the inland parts of northern Greece, in Central Macedonia, the lower elevations of Western Macedonia and East Macedonia and Thrace feature a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: ''Cfa'') with cold, damp winters and hot, moderately dry summers with occasional thunderstorms.", "Snowfalls occur every year in the mountains and northern areas, and brief periods of snowy weather are possible even in low-lying southern areas, such as Athens.=== Biodiversity ===Mount Olympus is the highest mountain in Greece and mythical abode of the Gods of Olympus.Phytogeographically, Greece belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the East Mediterranean province of the Mediterranean Region and the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region.", "According to the World Wide Fund for Nature and the European Environment Agency, the territory of Greece can be subdivided into six ecoregions: the Illyrian deciduous forests, Pindus Mountains mixed forests, Balkan mixed forests, Rhodope montane mixed forests, Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests, and Crete Mediterranean forests.", "It had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.6/10, ranking it 70th globally out of 172 countries." ], [ "Politics", "The building of the Hellenic Parliament (Old Royal Palace) in central AthensCount Ioannis Kapodistrias, first governor, founder of the modern Greek State, and distinguished European diplomatGreece is a unitary parliamentary republic.", "The current Constitution was drawn up and adopted by the Fifth Revisionary Parliament of the Hellenes and entered into force in 1975 after the fall of the military junta of 1967–1974.It has been revised four times since: in 1986, 2001, 2008 and 2019.The Constitution, which consists of 120 articles, provides for a separation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches, and grants extensive specific guarantees (further reinforced in 2001) of civil liberties and social rights.", "Women's suffrage was guaranteed with an amendment to the 1952 Constitution.The nominal head of state is the President of the Republic, who is elected by the Parliament for a five-year term.", "According to the Constitution, executive power is exercised by the President and the Government.", "However, the Constitutional amendment of 1986 curtailed the President's duties and powers to a significant extent, rendering the position largely ceremonial; most political power is thus vested in the Prime Minister, Greece's head of government.", "The position is filled by the current leader of the political party that can obtain a vote of confidence by the Parliament.", "The president of the republic formally appoints the prime minister and, on their recommendation, appoints and dismisses the other members of the Cabinet.Legislative powers are exercised by a 300-member elective unicameral Parliament.", "Statutes passed by the Parliament are promulgated by the President of the Republic.", "Parliamentary elections are held every four years, but the President of the Republic is obliged to dissolve the Parliament earlier on the proposal of the Cabinet, in view of dealing with a national issue of exceptional importance.", "The President is also obliged to dissolve the Parliament earlier if the opposition manages to pass a motion of no confidence.", "The voting age is 17.According to a 2016 report by the OECD, Greeks display a moderate level of civic participation compared to most other developed countries; voter turnout was 64 percent during recent elections, lower than the OECD average of 69 percent.=== Political parties ===Since the restoration of democracy, the Greek party system was dominated by the liberal-conservative New Democracy (ND) and the social-democratic Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK).", "Other parties represented in the Hellenic Parliament include the Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA), the Communist Party of Greece (KKE), Greek Solution and MeRA25.PASOK and New Democracy largely alternated in power until the outbreak of the government-debt crisis in 2009.From that time, the two major parties, New Democracy and PASOK, experienced a sharp decline in popularity.", "In November 2011, the two major parties joined the smaller Popular Orthodox Rally in a grand coalition, pledging their parliamentary support for a government of national unity headed by former European Central Bank vice-president Lucas Papademos.", "Panos Kammenos voted against this government and he split off from ND forming the right-wing populist Independent Greeks.The coalition government led the country to the parliamentary elections of May 2012.The power of the traditional Greek political parties, PASOK and New Democracy, declined from 43% to 13% and from 33% to 18%, respectively.", "The left-wing SYRIZA became the second major party with an increase from 4% to 16%.", "No party could form a sustainable government, which led to the parliamentary elections of June 2012.The result of the second elections was the formation of a coalition government composed of New Democracy (29%), PASOK (12%) and Democratic Left (6%) parties.SYRIZA has since overtaken PASOK as the main party of the centre-left .", "Alexis Tsipras led SYRIZA to victory in the general election held on 25 January 2015, falling short of an outright majority in Parliament by just two seats.", "The following morning, Tsipras reached an agreement with Independent Greeks party to form a coalition and was sworn in as Prime Minister of Greece.", "Tsipras called snap elections in August 2015 after resigning from his post, which led to a month-long caretaker administration headed by judge Vassiliki Thanou-Christophilou, Greece's first female prime minister.", "In the September 2015 general election, Alexis Tsipras led SYRIZA to another victory, winning 145 out of 300 seats and re-forming the coalition with the Independent Greeks.", "However, he was defeated in the July 2019 general election by Kyriakos Mitsotakis who leads New Democracy.", "On 7 July 2019, Kyriakos Mitsotakis was sworn in as the new Prime Minister of Greece.", "He formed a centre-right government after the landslide victory of his New Democracy party.=== Foreign relations ===Representation through: embassy embassy in another country general consulate no representation GreeceGreece's foreign policy is conducted through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and its head, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, currently Nikos Dendias.", "Officially, the main aims of the Ministry are to represent Greece before other states and international organizations; safeguard the interests of the Greek state and of its citizens abroad; promote Greek culture; foster closer relations with the Greek diaspora; and encourage international cooperation.", "Greece is described as having a special relationship with Cyprus, Italy, France, Armenia, Australia, the State of Israel, the United States and the United Kingdom.Following the resolution of the Macedonia naming dispute with the Prespa agreement in 2018, the Ministry identifies two remaining issues of particular importance to the Greek state: Turkish challenges to Greek sovereignty rights in the Aegean Sea and corresponding airspace and the Cyprus dispute involving the Turkish occupation of Northern Cyprus.There is a long-standing conflict between Turkey and Greece over natural resources in the eastern Mediterranean.", "Turkey does not recognize a legal continental shelf and exclusive economic zone around the Greek islands.Additionally, due to its political and geographical proximity to Europe, Asia, the Middle East and Africa, Greece is a country of significant geostrategic importance, which it has leveraged to develop a regional policy to help promote peace and stability in the Balkans, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East.", "This has accorded the country middle power status in global affairs.Greece is a member of numerous international organizations, including the Council of Europe, the European Union, the Union for the Mediterranean, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the and the United Nations, of which it is a founding member.=== Military ===The Hellenic Armed Forces are overseen by the Hellenic National Defense General Staff (Greek: Γενικό Επιτελείο Εθνικής Άμυνας – ΓΕΕΘΑ), with civilian authority vested in the Ministry of National Defence.", "It consists of three branches:* Hellenic Army (Ellinikos Stratos, ES)* Hellenic Navy (Elliniko Polemiko Navtiko, EPN)* Hellenic Air Force (Elliniki Polemiki Aeroporia, EPA)Moreover, Greece maintains the Hellenic Coast Guard for law enforcement at sea, search and rescue, and port operations.", "Though it can support the navy during wartime, it resides under the authority of the Ministry of Shipping.Greek military personnel total 364,050, of whom 142,700 are active and 221,350 are reserve.", "Greece ranks 28th in the world in the number of citizens serving in the armed forces.", "Mandatory military service is generally one year for 19 to 45 year olds.", "Additionally, Greek males between the ages of 18 and 60 who live in strategically sensitive areas may be required to serve part-time in the National Guard.As a member of NATO, the Greek military participates in exercises and deployments under the auspices of the alliance, although its involvement in NATO missions is minimal.", "Greece spends over US$7 billion annually on its military, or 2.3 percent of GDP, the 24th-highest in the world in absolute terms, the seventh-highest on a per capita basis, and the second-highest in NATO after the United States.", "Moreover, Greece is one of only five NATO countries to meet or surpass the minimum defence spending target of 2 percent of GDP.=== Law and justice ===The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature and comprises three Supreme Courts: the Court of Cassation (Άρειος Πάγος), the Council of State (Συμβούλιο της Επικρατείας) and the Court of Auditors (Ελεγκτικό Συνέδριο).", "The Judiciary system is also composed of civil courts, which judge civil and penal cases and administrative courts, which judge disputes between the citizens and the Greek administrative authorities.The Hellenic Police () is the national police force of Greece.", "It is a very large agency with its responsibilities ranging from road traffic control to counter-terrorism.", "It was established in 1984 under Law 1481/1-10-1984 (Government Gazette 152 A) as the result of the fusion of the Gendarmerie (Χωροφυλακή, ''Chorofylaki'') and the Cities Police (Αστυνομία Πόλεων, ''Astynomia Poleon'') forces.=== Administrative divisions ===Since the Kallikratis programme reform entered into effect on 1 January 2011, Greece has consisted of 13 regions subdivided into a total of 325, from 2019 332 (Kleisthenis I Programme), municipalities.", "The 54 old prefectures and prefecture-level administrations have been largely retained as ''sub-units'' of the regions.", "Seven decentralised administrations group one to three regions for administrative purposes on a regional basis.", "There is also one autonomous area, Mount Athos (, \"Holy Mountain\"), which borders the region of Central Macedonia.Map No.", "Region Capital Area (km2) Area (sq mi)Population GDP (bn)center 1 Attica Athens 3,808.101,470.323,814,064 €83.469 2 Central Greece Lamia 15,549.316,003.62508,254 €7.926 3 Central Macedonia Thessaloniki 18,810.527,262.781,795,669 €23.850 4 Crete Heraklion 8,2593,189624,408 €8.654 5 East Macedonia and Thrace Komotini 14,157.765,466.34562,201 €6.709 6 Epirus Ioannina 9,203.223,553.38319,991 €3.843 7 Ionian Islands Corfu 2,306.94890.71204,532 €3.064 8 North Aegean Mytilene 3,835.911,481.05194,943 €2.412 9 Peloponnese Tripoli 15,489.965,980.71539,535 €7.683 10 South Aegean Ermoupoli 5,285.992,040.93327,820 €5.888 11 Thessaly Larissa 14,036.645,419.58688,255 €9.006 12 West Greece Patras 11,350.184,382.33648,220 €7.847 13 West Macedonia Kozani 9,4513,649254,595 €3.849 (14) Mount Athos Karyes 3901511,746" ], [ "Economy", "=== Introduction ===GDP per capita developmentA proportional representation of Greek exports, 2019According to World Bank statistics for the year 2013, the economy of Greece is the 43rd largest by nominal gross domestic product at $242 billion and 53rd largest by purchasing power parity (PPP) at $284 billion.", "Additionally, Greece is the 15th largest economy in the 27-member European Union.", "In terms of per capita income, Greece is ranked 41st or 47th in the world at $18,168 and $29,045 for nominal GDP and PPP respectively.", "The Greek economy is classified as advanced and high-income.Greece is a developed country with a high standard of living and a high ranking in the Human Development Index.", "Its economy mainly comprises the service sector (85.0%) and industry (12.0%), while agriculture makes up 3.0% of the national economic output.", "Important Greek industries include tourism (with 14.9 million international tourists in 2009, it is ranked as the 7th most visited country in the European Union and 16th in the world by the United Nations World Tourism Organization) and merchant shipping (at 16.2% of the world's total capacity, the Greek merchant marine is the largest in the world), while the country is also a considerable agricultural producer (including fisheries) within the union.In October 2021 unemployment stood at 12.9% and youth unemployment at 33.2%, compared with respectively 7% and 15.9% in the EU and in the Euro zone.Greece has the largest economy in the Balkans, and an important regional investor.", "Greece is the number-two foreign investor of capital in Albania, the number-three foreign investor in Bulgaria, at the top-three of foreign investors in Romania and Serbia and the most important trading partner and largest foreign investor of North Macedonia.", "Greek banks open a new branch somewhere in the Balkans on an almost weekly basis.", "The Greek telecommunications company OTE has become a strong investor in other Balkan countries.Greece was a founding member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC).", "In 1979 the accession of the country in the European Communities and the single market was signed, and the process was completed in 1982.Greece was accepted into the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union on 19 June 2000, and in January 2001 adopted the euro as its currency, replacing the Greek drachma at an exchange rate of 340.75 drachma to the Euro.", "Greece is also a member of the International Monetary Fund and the World Trade Organization, and is ranked 24th on the KOF Globalization Index for 2013.=== Debt crisis (2010–2018) ===Greece's debt percentage since 1977, compared to the average of the eurozoneThe Greek economy had fared well for much of the 20th century, with high growth rates and low public debt.", "Even until the eve of the financial crisis of 2007–2008, it featured high rates of growth, which, however, were coupled with high structural deficits, thus maintaining a (roughly unchanged throughout this period) public debt to GDP ratio of just over 100%.", "In 2009, after an election and change in government, it was revealed that Greece's budget deficit had for years been considerably higher than the officially reported figures.", "In the years before the crisis, Goldman Sachs, JPMorgan Chase and numerous other banks had developed financial products which enabled the governments of Greece, Italy, and many other European countries to hide their levels of borrowing.", "Dozens of similar agreements were concluded across Europe whereby banks supplied cash in advance in exchange for future payments by the governments involved; in turn, the liabilities of the involved countries were \"kept off the books\".", "These conditions had enabled Greece as well as other European governments to spend beyond their means, while still technically meeting the deficit targets set out in the Maastricht Treaty.The Greek crisis was triggered by the turmoil of the 2007–2009 Great Recession, which caused Greece's GDP to contract by around 2.5% in 2009.Simultaneously, the higher-than-believed budget deficits in the preceding years were revealed to have been allowed to reach 10.2% and 15.1% of GDP in 2008 and 2009, respectively.", "This caused Greece's debt to GDP ratio (which had been high but stable at just over 100% until 2007, as calculated after all corrections) to spike to 127%.", "In addition, being a member of the eurozone, the country had essentially no autonomous monetary policy flexibility.", "Consequently, Greece was \"punished\" by the markets which increased borrowing rates, making it impossible for the country to finance its debt since early 2010.In May 2010, the Greece's deficit was again revised and estimated to be 13.6% the second highest in the world relative to GDP.", "Public debt was forecast to reach up to 120% of GDP in the same year, causing a crisis of confidence in Greece's ability pay back loans.To avert a sovereign default, Greece, the other eurozone members, and the International Monetary Fund agreed on a rescue package which involved giving Greece an immediate € in loans, with additional funds to follow, totaling €.", "To secure the funding, Greece was required to adopt harsh austerity measures to bring its deficit under control.", "A second bail-out amounting to € ($) was agreed in 2012, subject to strict conditions, including financial reforms and further austerity measures.", "A debt haircut was also agreed as part of the deal.", "Greece achieved a primary government budget surplus in 2013, while in April 2014, it returned to the global bond market.", "Greece returned to growth after six years of economic decline in the second quarter of 2014, and was the eurozone's fastest-growing economy in the third quarter.", "A third bailout was agreed in July 2015, after a confrontation with the newly elected government of Alexis Tsipras.Partly due to the imposed austerity measures, Greece experienced a 25% drop GDP between 2009 and 2015.This had a critical effect: the debt-to-GDP ratio, a key factor defining the severity of the crisis, would jump from its 2009 level of 127% to about 170%, solely due to the shrinking economy.", "In a 2013 report, the IMF admitted that it had underestimated the effects of so extensive tax hikes and budget cuts on the country's GDP and issued an informal apology.", "The Greek programmes imposed a very rapid improvement in structural primary balance (at least two times faster than for other eurozone bailed-out countries).", "The policies have been blamed for worsening the crisis, while Greece's president, Prokopis Pavlopoulos, stressed the creditors' share in responsibility for the depth of the crisis.", "Greek Prime Minister, Alexis Tsipras, asserted that errors in the design of the first two programmes which led to a loss of 25% of the Greek economy due to the harsh imposition of excessive austerity.Between 2009 and 2017 the Greek government debt rose from €300 bn to €318 bn, i.e.", "by only about 6% (thanks, in part, to the 2012 debt restructuring); however, during the same period, the critical debt-to-GDP ratio shot up from 127% to 179% basically due to the severe GDP drop during the handling of the crisis.Greece's bailouts successfully ended (as declared) on 20 August 2018.=== Agriculture ===Sun-drying of Zante currant on ZakynthosIn 2010, Greece was the European Union's largest producer of cotton (183,800 tons) and pistachios (8,000 tons) and ranked second in the production of rice (229,500 tons) and olives (147,500 tons), third in the production of figs (11,000 tons), almonds (44,000 tons), tomatoes (1,400,000 tons), and watermelons (578,400 tons) and fourth in the production of tobacco (22,000 tons).", "Agriculture contributes 3.8% of the country's GDP and employs 12.4% of the country's labor force.Greece is a major beneficiary of the EU's Common Agricultural Policy.", "As a result of the country's entry to the European Community, much of its agricultural infrastructure has been upgraded and agricultural output increased.", "Between 2000 and 2007, organic farming in Greece increased by 885%, the highest change percentage in the EU.=== Energy ===Solar-power generation potential in GreeceElectricity production in Greece is dominated by the state-owned Public Power Corporation (known mostly by its acronym ΔΕΗ, transliterated as DEI).", "In 2009 DEI supplied for 85.6% of all electric energy demand in Greece, while the number fell to 77.3% in 2010.Almost half (48%) of DEI's power output is generated using lignite, a drop from the 51.6% in 2009.Twelve percent of Greece's electricity comes from hydroelectric power plants and another 20% from natural gas.", "Between 2009 and 2010, independent companies' energy production increased by 56%, from 2,709 gigawatt hour in 2009 to 4,232 GWh in 2010.In 2012, renewable energy accounted for 13.8% of the country's total energy consumption, a rise from the 10.6% it accounted for in 2011, a figure almost equal to the EU average of 14.1% in 2012.10% of the country's renewable energy comes from solar power, while most comes from biomass and waste recycling.", "In line with the European Commission's Directive on Renewable Energy, Greece aims to get 18% of its energy from renewable sources by 2020.In 2013, according to the independent power transmission operator in Greece (ΑΔΜΗΕ) more than 20% of the electricity in Greece has been produced from renewable energy sources and hydroelectric powerplants.", "This percentage in April reached 42%.", "Greece currently does not have any nuclear power plants in operation; however, in 2009 the Academy of Athens suggested that research in the possibility of Greek nuclear power plants begin.=== Maritime industry ===Greek companies control 21% of the world's total merchant fleet making it the largest in the world.", "They are ranked in the top 5 for all kinds of ships, including first for tankers and bulk carriers.The shipping industry has been a key element of Greek economic activity since ancient times.", "Shipping remains one of the country's most important industries, accounting for 4.5 percent of GDP, employing about 160,000 people (4 percent of the workforce), and representing a third of the trade deficit.According to a 2011 report by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, the Greek Merchant Navy is the largest in the world at 16.2 percent of total global capacity, up from 15.96 percent in 2010 but below the peak of 18.2 percent in 2006.The country's merchant fleet ranks first in total tonnage (202 million dwt), fourth in total number of ships (at 3,150), first in both tankers and dry bulk carriers, fourth in the number of containers, and fifth in other ships.", "However, today's fleet roster is smaller than an all-time high of 5,000 ships in the late 1970s.", "Additionally, the total number of ships flying a Greek flag (includes non-Greek fleets) is 1,517, or 5.3 percent of the world's dwt (ranked fifth globally).During the 1960s, the size of the Greek fleet nearly doubled, primarily through the investment undertaken by the shipping magnates, Aristotle Onassis and Stavros Niarchos.", "The basis of the modern Greek maritime industry was formed after World War II when Greek shipping businessmen were able to amass surplus ships sold to them by the U.S. government through the Ship Sales Act of the 1940s.Greece has a significant shipbuilding and ship maintenance industry.", "The six shipyards around the port of Piraeus are among the largest in Europe.", "In recent years, Greece has also become a leader in the construction and maintenance of luxury yachts.=== Tourism ===Santorini, a popular tourist destination, is ranked as the world's top island in many travel magazines and sites.Tourism has been a key element of the economic activity in the country and one of the country's most important sectors, contributing 20.6% of the gross domestic product as of 2018.Greece was the 9th most visited country in the world in 2022, hosting 27.8 million visitors.", "Greece welcomed over 31.3 million visitors in 2019, and around 28 million in 2016, which is an increase from the 26.5 million tourists it welcomed in 2015 and the 19.5 million in 2009, and the 17.7 million tourists in 2007, making Greece one of the most visited countries in Europe in the recent years.The vast majority of visitors in Greece in 2007 came from the European continent, numbering 12.7 million, while the most visitors from a single nationality were those from the United Kingdom, (2.6 million), followed closely by those from Germany (2.3 million).", "In 2010, the most visited region of Greece was that of Central Macedonia, with 18% of the country's total tourist flow (amounting to 3.6 million tourists), followed by Attica with 2.6 million and the Peloponnese with 1.8 million.", "Northern Greece is the country's most-visited geographical region, with 6.5 million tourists, while Central Greece is second with 6.3 million.In 2010, Lonely Planet ranked Greece's northern and second-largest city of Thessaloniki as the world's fifth-best party town worldwide, comparable with cities such as Dubai and Montreal.", "In 2011, Santorini was voted as \"The World's Best Island\" in ''Travel + Leisure''.", "Its neighboring island Mykonos, came in fifth in the European category.", "There are 19 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Greece, and Greece is ranked 17th in the world in terms of total sites.", "Thirteen further sites are on the tentative list, awaiting nomination.=== Transport ===The Rio–Antirrio bridge connects mainland Greece to the Peloponnese.Map of Greece's motorway network as of 2022.", "'''Black'''=Completed routes, '''Blue'''=Under Construction, '''Grey'''=Planned routesSince the 1980s, the road and rail network of Greece has been significantly modernised.", "With a total length of about 2320 km as of 2020, Greece's motorway network is the most extensive in Southeastern Europe and one of the most advanced in Europe.", "Important works include the A2 (Egnatia Odos) east-west motorway, that connects northwestern Greece (Igoumenitsa) with northern Greece (Thessaloniki) and northeastern Greece (Kipoi); the Rio–Antirrio bridge, the longest suspension cable bridge in Europe ( long), connecting the Peloponnese (Rio, from Patras) with Aetolia-Akarnania (Antirrio) in western Greece; and the Aktio-Preveza Undersea Tunnel that passes under the mouth of Ambracian Gulf.Also completed are the A5 (Ionia Odos) motorway that connects northwestern Greece (Ioannina) with western Greece (Antirrio); the last sections of the A1 motorway, connecting Athens to Thessaloniki and Evzonoi in northern Greece; the A8 motorway (part of the Olympia Odos) in the Peloponnese, connecting Athens to Patras; and the A7 motorway connecting Corinth to Kalamata and Sparta.", "The remaining section of Olympia Odos, connecting Patras with Pyrgos, is under planning.Other important projects that are currently underway, include the construction of the Thessaloniki Metro, and the Northern Crete Motorway.The Athens Metropolitan Area in particular is served by some of the most modern and efficient transport infrastructure in Europe, such as the Athens International Airport, the privately run A6 (Attiki Odos) motorway network and the expanded Athens Metro system.Most of the Greek islands and many main cities of Greece are connected by air mainly from the two major Greek airlines, Olympic Air and Aegean Airlines.", "Maritime connections have been improved with modern high-speed craft, including hydrofoils and catamarans.Railway connections play a somewhat lesser role in Greece than in many other European countries, but they too have also been expanded, with new suburban/commuter rail connections, serviced by Proastiakos around Athens, towards its airport, Kiato and Chalkida; around Thessaloniki, towards the cities of Larissa and Edessa; and around Patras.", "A modern intercity rail connection between Athens and Thessaloniki has also been established, while an upgrade to double lines in many parts of the network is underway; along with a new double track, standard gauge railway between Athens and Patras (replacing the old metre-gauge Piraeus–Patras railway) which is currently under construction and opening in stages.", "International railway lines connect Greek cities with the rest of Europe, the Balkans and Turkey.Given Greece's long coastline and large number of islands, maritime transport is particularly important in Greece.", "All major islands are served by ferries to the mainland.", "Piraeus, the port of Athens, was the third busiest passenger port in Europe as of 2021.In total, 37 million passengers traveled by boat in Greece in 2019, the second-highest number in Europe.Greece has 39 active airports, 15 of which serve international destinations.", "Athens International Airport served 25 million passengers in 2019.Most major islands are served by airports, with direct connections to other airports in Europe.=== Telecommunications ===Modern digital information and communication networks reach all areas.", "There are over of fiber optics and an extensive open-wire network.", "Broadband internet availability is widespread in Greece: there were a total of 2,252,653 broadband connections , translating to 20% broadband penetration.", "According to 2017 data, around 82% of the general population used the internet regularly.Internet cafés that provide net access, office applications and multiplayer gaming are also a common sight in the country, while mobile internet on 3G and 4G- LTE cellphone networks and Wi-Fi connections can be found almost everywhere.", "3G/4G mobile internet usage has been on a sharp increase in recent years.", "Based on 2016 data 70% of Greek internet users have access via 3G/4G mobile.", "As of July 2022, 5G service is accessible in most of major Greek cities.", "The United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks Greece among the top 30 countries with a highly developed information and communications infrastructure.=== Science and technology ===Thessaloniki Science Center and Technology MuseumThe General Secretariat for Research and Technology of the Ministry of Development and Competitiveness is responsible for designing, implementing and supervising national research and technological policy.", "In 2017, spending on research and development (R&D) reached an all-time high of €2 billion, equal to 1.14 percent of GDP.Georgios Papanikolaou, a pioneer in cytopathology and early cancer detectionAlthough lower than the EU average of 1.93 percent, between 1990 and 1998, total R&D expenditure in Greece enjoyed the third-highest increase in Europe, after Finland and Ireland.", "Greece was ranked 42nd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.Greece has several major technology parks with incubator facilities and has been a member of the European Space Agency (ESA) since 2005.Cooperation between ESA and the Hellenic National Space Committee began in 1994 with the signing of the first cooperation agreement.", "After applying for full membership in 2003, Greece became the ESA's sixteenth member on 16 March 2005.The country participates in the ESA's telecommunication and technology activities and the Global Monitoring for Environment and Security Initiative.The National Centre of Scientific Research \"Demokritos\" was founded in 1959 and it is the largest multidisciplinary research center in Greece.", "Today, its activities cover several fields of science and engineering.Greece has one of the highest rates of tertiary enrollment in the world, while Greeks are well represented in academia worldwide; numerous leading Western universities employ a disproportionately high number of Greek faculty.", "Greek scientific publications have grown significantly in terms of research impact, surpassing both the EU and global average from 2012 to 2016.Notable Greek scientists of modern times include Georgios Papanikolaou (inventor of the Pap test), mathematician Constantin Carathéodory (known for the Carathéodory theorems and Carathéodory conjecture), astronomer E. M. Antoniadi, archaeologists Ioannis Svoronos, Valerios Stais, Spyridon Marinatos, Manolis Andronikos (discovered the tomb of Philip II of Macedon in Vergina), Indologist Dimitrios Galanos, botanist Theodoros G. Orphanides, and scientists such as Michael Dertouzos, Nicholas Negroponte, John Argyris, John Iliopoulos (2007 Dirac Prize for his contributions on the physics of the charm quark), Joseph Sifakis (2007 Turing Award, the \"Nobel Prize\" of Computer Science), Christos Papadimitriou (2002 Knuth Prize, 2012 Gödel Prize), Mihalis Yannakakis (2005 Knuth Prize) and physicist Dimitri Nanopoulos." ], [ "Demographics", "According to the official statistical body of Greece, the Hellenic Statistical Authority (ELSTAT), the country's total population in 2021 was 10,482,487.Eurostat places the current population at 10.6 million in 2022.Greece population density, 2000Greek society has changed rapidly over the last several decades, coinciding with the wider European trend of declining fertility and rapid aging.", "The birth rate in 2003 stood at 9.5 per 1,000 inhabitants, significantly lower than the rate of 14.5 per 1,000 in 1981.At the same time, the mortality rate increased slightly from 8.9 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1981 to 9.6 per 1,000 inhabitants in 2003.Estimates from 2016 show the birth rate decreasing further still to 8.5 per 1,000 and mortality climbing to 11.2 per 1,000.The fertility rate of 1.41 children per woman is well below the replacement rate of 2.1, and is one of the lowest in the world, considerably below the high of 5.47 children born per woman in 1900.Subsequently, Greece's median age is 44.2 years, the seventh-highest in the world.", "In 2001, 16.71 percent of the population were 65 years old and older, 68.12 percent between the ages of 15 and 64 years old, and 15.18 percent were 14 years old and younger.", "By 2016, the proportion of the population age 65 and older had risen to 20.68 percent, while the proportion of those aged 14 and younger declined to slightly below 14 percent.Marriage rates began declining from almost 71 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1981 until 2002, only to increase slightly in 2003 to 61 per 1,000 and then fall again to 51 in 2004.Divorce rates have seen an increase from 191.2 per 1,000 marriages in 1991 to 239.5 per 1,000 marriages in 2004.As a result of these trends, the average Greek household is smaller and older than in previous generations.", "The economic crisis has exacerbated this development, with 350,000–450,000 Greeks, predominantly young adults, emigrating since 2010.=== Cities ===Almost two-thirds of the Greek people live in urban areas.", "Greece's largest and most influential metropolitan centres are those of Athens (population 3,744,059 according to 2021 census) and Thessaloniki (population 1,092,919 in 2021) that latter commonly referred to as the (, ).", "Other prominent cities with urban populations above 100,000 inhabitants include Patras, Heraklion, Larissa, Volos, Rhodes, Ioannina, Agrinio, Chania, and Chalcis.The table below lists the largest cities in Greece, by population contained in their respective contiguous built up urban areas, which are either made up of many municipalities, evident in the cases of Athens and Thessaloniki, or are contained within a larger single municipality, case evident in most of the smaller cities of the country.", "The results come from the preliminary figures of the population census that took place in Greece in May 2011.=== Religion ===The Greek Constitution recognises Eastern Orthodoxy as the 'prevailing' faith of the country, while guaranteeing freedom of religious belief for all.", "The Greek government does not keep statistics on religious groups and censuses do not ask for religious affiliation.", "According to the U.S. State Department, an estimated 97% of Greek citizens identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox, belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church, which uses the Byzantine rite and the Greek language, the original language of the New Testament.", "The administration of the Greek territory is shared between the Church of Greece and the Patriarchate of Constantinople.In a 2010 Eurostat–Eurobarometer poll, 79% of Greek citizens responded that they \"believe there is a God\".", "According to other sources, 15.8% of Greeks describe themselves as \"very religious\", which is the highest among all European countries.", "The survey also found that just 3.5% never attend a church, compared to 4.9% in Poland and 59.1% in the Czech Republic.Meteora, complex of giant rock pillars with Eastern Orthodox monasteries made on the picks of the sandstone cliffs.Estimates of the recognised Greek Muslim minority, which is mostly located in Thrace, range around 100,000, (about 1% of the population).", "Some of the Albanian immigrants to Greece come from a nominally Muslim background, although most are secular in orientation.", "Following the 1919–1922 Greco-Turkish War and the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, Greece and Turkey agreed to a population transfer based on cultural and religious identity.", "About 500,000 Muslims from Greece, predominantly those defined as Turks, but also Greek Muslims like the Vallahades of western Macedonia, were exchanged with approximately 1.5 million Greeks from Turkey.", "However, many refugees who settled in former Ottoman Muslim villages in Central Macedonia, and were defined as Christian Orthodox Caucasus Greeks, arrived from the former Russian Transcaucasus province of Kars Oblast, after it had been retroceded to Turkey prior to the official population exchange.Judaism has been present in Greece for more than 2,000 years.The ancient community of Greek Jews is called Romaniotes, while the Sephardi Jews were once a prominent community in the city of Thessaloniki, numbering some 80,000, or more than half of the population, by 1900.However, after the German occupation of Greece and the Holocaust during World War II, it is estimated to number around 5,500 people.The Roman Catholic community is estimated to be around 250,000 of which 50,000 are Greek citizens.", "Their community is nominally separate from the smaller Greek Byzantine Catholic Church, which recognises the primacy of the Pope but maintains the liturgy of the Byzantine Rite.", "Old Calendarists account for 500,000 followers.", "Protestants, including the Greek Evangelical Church and Free Evangelical Churches, stand at about 30,000.Other Christian minorities, such as Assemblies of God, International Church of the Foursquare Gospel and various Pentecostal churches of the Greek Synod of Apostolic Church total about 12,000 members.", "The independent Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost is the biggest Protestant denomination in Greece with 120 churches.", "There are no official statistics about Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost, but the Orthodox Church estimates the followers as 20,000.The Jehovah's Witnesses report having 28,874 active members.Since 2017, Hellenic Polytheism, or Hellenism has been legally recognised as an actively practised religion in Greece, with estimates of 2,000 active practitioners and an additional 100,000 \"sympathisers\".", "Hellenism refers to various religious movements that continue, revive, or reconstruct ancient Greek religious practices.=== Languages ===Regions with a traditional presence of languages other than Greek.", "Today, Greek is the dominant language throughout the country.Greece is today relatively homogeneous in linguistic terms, with a large majority of the native population using Greek as their first or only language.", "Among the Greek-speaking population, speakers of the distinctive Pontic dialect came to Greece from Asia Minor after the Greek genocide and constitute a sizable group.", "The Cappadocian dialect came to Greece due to the genocide as well, but is endangered and is barely spoken now.", "Indigenous Greek dialects include the archaic Greek spoken by the Sarakatsani, traditionally transhument mountain shepherds of Greek Macedonia and other parts of Northern Greece.", "The Tsakonian language, a distinct Greek language deriving from Doric Greek instead of Koine Greek, is still spoken in some villages in the southeastern Peloponnese.The Muslim minority in Thrace, which amounts to approximately 0.95% of the total population, consists of speakers of Turkish, Bulgarian (Pomaks) and Romani.", "Romani is also spoken by Christian Roma in other parts of the country.", "Further minority languages have traditionally been spoken by regional population groups in various parts of the country.", "Their use has decreased radically in the course of the 20th century through assimilation with the Greek-speaking majority.", "Today they are only maintained by the older generations and are on the verge of extinction.", "The same goes for the Arvanites, an Albanian-speaking group mostly located in the rural areas around the capital Athens, and for the Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians, also known as \"Vlachs\", whose language is closely related to Romanian and who used to live scattered across several areas of mountainous central Greece.", "Members of these groups usually identify ethnically as Greek and are today all at least bilingual in Greek.Near the northern Greek borders there are also some Slavic–speaking groups, locally known as ''Slavomacedonian''-speaking, most of whose members identify ethnically as Greeks.", "It is estimated that after the population exchanges of 1923, Macedonia had 200,000 to 400,000 Slavic speakers.", "The Jewish community in Greece traditionally spoke Ladino (Judeo-Spanish), today maintained only by a few thousand speakers.", "Other notable minority languages include Armenian, Georgian, and the Greco-Turkic dialect spoken by the Urums, a community of Caucasus Greeks from the Tsalka region of central Georgia and ethnic Greeks from southeastern Ukraine who arrived in mainly Northern Greece as economic migrants in the 1990s.=== Migration ===A map of the fifty countries with the largest Greek diaspora communitiesThroughout the 20th century, millions of Greeks migrated to the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and Germany, creating a large Greek diaspora.", "Net migration started to show positive numbers from the 1970s, but until the beginning of the 1990s, the main influx was that of returning Greek migrants or of Pontic Greeks and others from Russia, Georgia, Turkey the Czech Republic, and elsewhere in the former Soviet Bloc.A study from the Mediterranean Migration Observatory maintains that the 2001 census recorded 762,191 persons residing in Greece without Greek citizenship, constituting around 7% of the total population.", "Of the non-citizen residents, 48,560 were EU or European Free Trade Association nationals and 17,426 were Cypriots with privileged status.", "The majority come from Eastern European countries: Albania (56%), Bulgaria (5%) and Romania (3%), while migrants from the former Soviet Union (Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, etc.)", "comprise 10% of the total.", "Some of the immigrants from Albania are from the Greek minority in Albania centred on the region of Northern Epirus.", "In addition, the total Albanian national population which includes temporary migrants and undocumented persons is around 600,000.The 2011 census recorded 9,903,268 Greek citizens (91.56%), 480,824 Albanian citizens (4.44%), 75,915 Bulgarian citizens (0.7%), 46,523 Romanian citizenship (0.43%), 34,177 Pakistani citizens (0.32%), 27,400 Georgian citizens (0.25%) and 247,090 people had other or unidentified citizenship (2.3%).", "189,000 people of the total population of Albanian citizens were reported in 2008 as ethnic Greeks from Southern Albania, in the historical region of Northern Epirus.The greatest cluster of non-EU immigrant population are the larger urban centers, especially the Municipality of Athens, with 132,000 immigrants comprising 17% of the local population, and then Thessaloniki, with 27,000 immigrants reaching 7% of the local population.", "There is also a considerable number of co-ethnics that came from the Greek communities of Albania and the former Soviet Union.Greece, together with Italy and Spain, is a major entry point for illegal immigrants trying to enter the EU.", "Illegal immigrants entering Greece mostly do so from the border with Turkey at the Evros River and the islands of the eastern Aegean across from Turkey (mainly Lesbos, Chios, Kos, and Samos).", "In 2012, the majority of illegal immigrants entering Greece came from Afghanistan, followed by Pakistanis and Bangladeshis.", "In 2015, arrivals of refugees by sea had increased dramatically mainly due to the ongoing Syrian civil war.", "There were 856,723 arrivals by sea in Greece, an almost fivefold increase to the same period of 2014, of which the Syrians represent almost 45%.", "The majority of refugees and migrants use Greece as a transit country, while their intended destinations are northern European Nations such as Austria, Germany and Sweden.=== Education ===Academy of Athens is Greece's national academy and the highest research establishment in the country.The Ionian Academy in Corfu, the first academic institution of modern GreeceStavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Centre.Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing in ''paideia'' (education), which was upheld as one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world.", "The first European institution described as a university was founded in fifth-century Constantinople and continued operating in various incarnations until the city's fall to the Ottomans in 1453.The University of Constantinople was Christian Europe's first secular institution of higher learning, and by some measures was the world's first university.Compulsory education in Greece comprises primary schools (Δημοτικό Σχολείο, ''Dimotikó Scholeio'') and gymnasium (Γυμνάσιο).", "Nursery schools (Παιδικός σταθμός, ''Paidikós Stathmós'') are popular but not compulsory.", "Kindergartens (Νηπιαγωγείο, ''Nipiagogeío'') are now compulsory for any child above four years of age.", "Children start primary school aged six and remain there for six years.", "Attendance at gymnasia starts at age 12 and lasts for three years.Greece's post-compulsory secondary education consists of two school types: unified upper secondary schools (Γενικό Λύκειο, ''Genikό Lykeiό'') and technical–vocational educational schools (Τεχνικά και Επαγγελματικά Εκπαιδευτήρια, \"TEE\").", "Post-compulsory secondary education also includes vocational training institutes (Ινστιτούτα Επαγγελματικής Κατάρτισης, \"IEK\") which provide a formal but unclassified level of education.", "As they can accept both ''Gymnasio'' (lower secondary school) and ''Lykeio'' (upper secondary school) graduates, these institutes are not classified as offering a particular level of education.According to the Framework Law (3549/2007), Public higher education \"Highest Educational Institutions\" (Ανώτατα Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα, ''Anótata Ekpaideytiká Idrýmata'', \"ΑΕΙ\") consists of two parallel sectors:the university sector (Universities, Polytechnics, Fine Arts Schools, the Open University) and the Technological sector (Technological Education Institutions (TEI) and the School of Pedagogic and Technological Education).", "There are also State Non-University Tertiary Institutes offering vocationally oriented courses of shorter duration (2 to 3 years) which operate under the authority of other Ministries.", "Students are admitted to these Institutes according to their performance at national level examinations taking place after completion of the third grade of ''Lykeio''.", "Additionally, students over twenty-two years old may be admitted to the Hellenic Open University through a form of lottery.", "The Capodistrian University of Athens is the oldest university in the eastern Mediterranean.The Greek education system also provides special kindergartens, primary, and secondary schools for people with special needs or difficulties in learning.", "There are also specialist gymnasia and high schools offering musical, theological, and physical education.Seventy-two percent of Greek adults aged 25–64 have completed upper secondary education, which is slightly less than the OECD average of 74 percent.", "The average Greek pupil scored 458 in reading literacy, maths and science in the OECD's 2015 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA).", "This score is lower than the OECD average of 486.On average, girls outperformed boys by 15 points, much more than the average OECD gap of two points.=== Healthcare system ===Greece has universal health care.", "The system is mixed, combining a national health service with social health insurance (SHI).", "Per a 2000 World Health Organization report, its health care system ranked 14th in overall performance of 191 countries surveyed.", "In a 2013 Save the Children report, Greece was ranked the 19th out of 176 countries for the state of mothers and newborn babies.", "In 2010, there were 138 hospitals with 31,000 beds, but in 2011, the Ministry of Health announced plans to decrease the number to 77 hospitals with 36,035 beds to reduce expenses and further enhance healthcare standards.", "However, as of 2014, there were 124 public hospitals, of which 106 were general hospitals and 18 specialised hospitals, with a total capacity of about 30,000 beds.Greece's healthcare expenditures as a percentage of GDP were 9.6% in 2007, just above the OECD average of 9.5%.", "By 2015, spending declined to 8.4% of GDP (compared with the EU average of 9.5%), a decline of one-fifth since 2010.Nevertheless, the country maintains the highest doctor-to-population ratio of any OECD country and the highest doctor-to-patient ratio in the EU.Life expectancy in Greece is among the highest in the world; a 2011 OECD report placed it at 80.3 years, above the OECD average of 79.5, while a more recent 2017 study found life expectancy in 2015 to be 81.1 years, slightly above the EU average of 80.6.The island of Icaria has the highest percentage of nonagenarians in the world; approximately 33% of islanders are 90 or older.", "Icaria is subsequently classified as a \"Blue Zone\", a region where people allegedly live longer than average and have lower rates of cancer, heart disease, or other chronic illnesses.The 2011 OECD report showed that Greece had the largest percentage of adult daily smokers of any of the 34 OECD members.", "The country's obesity rate is 18.1%, which is above the OECD average of 15.1%, but considerably lower than the American rate of 27.7%.", "In 2008, Greece had the highest rate of perceived good health in the OECD, at 98.5%.", "Infant mortality, with a rate of 3.6 deaths per 1,000 live births, was below the 2007 OECD average of 4.9." ], [ "Culture", "The Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus, still used for theatrical playsThe culture of Greece has evolved over thousands of years, beginning in Mycenaean Greece and continuing most notably into Classical Greece, through the influence of the Roman Empire and its Greek Eastern continuation, the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire.", "Other cultures and nations, such as the Latin and Frankish states, the Ottoman Empire, the Venetian Republic, the Genoese Republic, and the British Empire have also left their influence on modern Greek culture, although historians credit the Greek War of Independence with revitalising Greece and giving birth to a single, cohesive entity of its multi-faceted culture.In ancient times, Greece was the birthplace of Western culture.", "Modern democracies owe a debt to Greek beliefs in government by the people, trial by jury, and equality under the law.", "The ancient Greeks pioneered in many fields that rely on systematic thought, including logic, biology, geometry, government, geography, medicine, history, philosophy, physics, and mathematics.", "They introduced such important literary forms as epic and lyrical poetry, history, tragedy, comedy and drama.", "In their pursuit of order and proportion, the Greeks created an ideal of beauty that strongly influenced Western art.=== Visual arts ===Close-up of the ''Charioteer of Delphi'', a celebrated statue from the 5th century BCArtistic production in Greece began in the prehistoric pre-Greek Cycladic and the Minoan civilizations, both of which were influenced by local traditions and the art of ancient Egypt.There were several interconnected traditions of painting in ancient Greece.", "Due to their technical differences, they underwent somewhat differentiated developments.", "Not all painting techniques are equally well represented in the archaeological record.", "The most respected form of art, according to authors like Pliny or Pausanias, were individual, mobile paintings on wooden boards, technically described as panel paintings.", "Also, the tradition of wall painting in Greece goes back at least to the Minoan and Mycenaean Bronze Age, with the lavish fresco decoration of sites like Knossos, Tiryns and Mycenae.", "Much of the figural or architectural sculpture of ancient Greece was painted colourfully.", "This aspect of Greek stonework is described as polychrome.Ancient Greek sculpture was composed almost entirely of marble or bronze; with cast bronze becoming the favoured medium for major works by the early 5th century.", "Both marble and bronze are easy to form and very durable.", "Chryselephantine sculptures, used for temple cult images and luxury works, used gold, most often in leaf form and ivory for all or parts (faces and hands) of the figure, and probably gems and other materials, but were much less common, and only fragments have survived.", "By the early 19th century, the systematic excavation of ancient Greek sites had brought forth a plethora of sculptures with traces of notably multicolored surfaces.", "It was not until published findings by German archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann in the late 20th century, that the painting of ancient Greek sculptures became an established fact.The art production continued also during the Byzantine era.", "The most salient feature of this new aesthetic was its \"abstract\", or anti-naturalistic character.", "If classical art was marked by the attempt to create representations that mimicked reality as closely as possible, Byzantine art seems to have abandoned this attempt in favour of a more symbolic approach.", "The Byzantine painting concentrated mainly on icons and hagiographies.", "The Macedonian art (Byzantine) was the artistic expression of Macedonian Renaissance, a label sometimes used to describe the period of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire (867–1056), especially the 10th century, which some scholars have seen as a time of increased interest in classical scholarship and the assimilation of classical motifs into Christian artwork.Post Byzantine art schools include the Cretan School and Heptanese School.", "The first artistic movement in the Greek Kingdom can be considered the Greek academic art of the 19th century (''Munich School'').", "Notable modern Greek painters include Nikolaos Gyzis, Georgios Jakobides, Theodoros Vryzakis, Nikiforos Lytras, Konstantinos Volanakis, Nikos Engonopoulos and Yannis Tsarouchis, while some notable sculptors are Pavlos Prosalentis, Ioannis Kossos, Leonidas Drosis, Georgios Bonanos and Yannoulis Chalepas.=== Architecture ===Towerhouses of Vatheia in Mani peninsulaThe architecture of ancient Greece was produced by the ancient Greeks (''Hellenes''), whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland, the Aegean Islands and their colonies, for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD, with the earliest remaining architectural works dating from around 600 BC.", "The formal vocabulary of ancient Greek architecture, in particular the division of architectural style into three defined orders: the Doric Order, the Ionic Order and the Corinthian Order, was to have profound effect on Western architecture of later periods.Byzantine architecture is the architecture promoted by the Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, which dominated Greece and the Greek speaking world during the Middle Ages.", "The empire endured for more than a millennium, dramatically influencing Medieval architecture throughout Europe and the Near East, and becoming the primary progenitor of the Renaissance and Ottoman architectural traditions that followed its collapse.After the Greek Independence, the modern Greek architects tried to combine traditional Greek and Byzantine elements and motives with the western European movements and styles.", "Patras was the first city of the modern Greek state to develop a city plan.", "In January 1829, Stamatis Voulgaris, a Greek engineer of the French army, presented the plan of the new city to the Governor Kapodistrias, who approved it.", "Voulgaris applied the orthogonal rule in the urban complex of Patras.Two special genres can be considered the Cycladic architecture, featuring white-coloured houses, in the Cyclades and the Epirotic architecture in the region of Epirus.", "Important is also the influence of the Venetian style in the Ionian islands and the \"Mediterranean style\" of Florestano Di Fausto (during the years of the fascist regime) in the Dodecanese islands.After the establishment of the Greek Kingdom, the architecture of Athens and other cities was mostly influenced by the Neoclassical architecture.", "For Athens, the first King of Greece, Otto of Greece, commissioned the architects Stamatios Kleanthis and Eduard Schaubert to design a modern city plan fit for the capital of a state.", "As for Thessaloniki, after the fire of 1917, the government ordered for a new city plan under the supervision of Ernest Hébrard.", "Other modern Greek architects include Anastasios Metaxas, Lysandros Kaftanzoglou, Panagis Kalkos, Ernst Ziller, Xenophon Paionidis, Dimitris Pikionis and Georges Candilis.There is an emerging need to secure the long-term preservation of the archaeological sites and monuments of Greece against the growing threats of climate change.=== Theatre ===Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù, the first theatre and opera house of modern GreeceTheatre in its western form was born in Greece.", "The city-state of Classical Athens, which became a significant cultural, political, and military power during this period, was its centre, where it was institutionalised as part of a festival called the Dionysia, which honoured the god Dionysus.", "Tragedy (late 6th century BC), comedy (486 BC), and the satyr play were the three dramatic genres to emerge there.During the Byzantine period, theatrical art heavily declined.", "According to Marios Ploritis, the only form that survived was folk theatre (''Mimos'' and ''Pantomimos''), despite the hostility of the state.", "Later, during the Ottoman period, the main theatrical folk art was the ''Karagiozis''.", "The renaissance which led to the modern Greek theatre, took place in the Venetian Crete.", "Significal dramatists include Vitsentzos Kornaros and Georgios Chortatzis.Modern Greek theatre was born after the Greek War of Independence, in the early 19th century, and initially was influenced by Heptanesean theatre and melodrama, such as the Italian opera.", "The Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù was the first theatre and opera house of modern Greece and the place where the first Greek opera, Spyridon Xyndas' ''The Parliamentary Candidate'' (based on an exclusively Greek libretto) was performed.", "During the late 19th and early 20th century, the Athenian theatre scene was dominated by revues, musical comedies, operettas and nocturnes and notable playwrights included Spyridon Samaras, Dionysios Lavrangas, Theophrastos Sakellaridis and others.The National Theatre of Greece was opened in 1900 as ''Royal Theatre''.", "Notable playwrights of the modern Greek theatre include Gregorios Xenopoulos, Nikos Kazantzakis, Pantelis Horn, Alekos Sakellarios and Iakovos Kambanelis, while notable actors include Cybele Andrianou, Marika Kotopouli, Aimilios Veakis, Orestis Makris, Katina Paxinou, Manos Katrakis and Dimitris Horn.", "Significant directors include Dimitris Rontiris, Alexis Minotis and Karolos Koun.=== Literature ===''Parnassos Literary Society'', painted by Georgios Roilos (Kostis Palamas is at the center)Greek literature can be divided into three main categories: Ancient, Byzantine and modern Greek literature.Athens is considered the birthplace of Western literature.", "At the beginning of Greek literature stand the two monumental works of Homer: the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey''.", "Though dates of composition vary, these works were fixed around 800 BC or after.", "In the classical period many of the genres of western literature became more prominent.", "Lyrical poetry, odes, pastorals, elegies, epigrams; dramatic presentations of comedy and tragedy; historiography, rhetorical treatises, philosophical dialectics, and philosophical treatises all arose in this period.", "The two major lyrical poets were Sappho and Pindar.", "The Classical era also saw the dawn of drama.Of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of plays by three authors have survived: those of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.", "The surviving plays by Aristophanes are also a treasure trove of comic presentation, while Herodotus and Thucydides are two of the most influential historians in this period.", "The greatest prose achievement of the 4th century was in philosophy with the works of the three great philosophers.Byzantine literature refers to literature of the Byzantine Empire written in Atticizing, Medieval and early Modern Greek, and it is the expression of the intellectual life of the Byzantine Greeks during the Christian Middle Ages.", "Although ''popular'' Byzantine literature and early Modern Greek literature both began in the 11th century, the two are indistinguishable.Modern Greek literature refers to literature written in common Modern Greek, emerging from late Byzantine times in the 11th century.", "The Cretan Renaissance poem ''Erotokritos'' is considered the masterpiece of this period of Greek literature.", "It is a verse romance written around 1600 by Vitsentzos Kornaros (1553–1613).", "Later, during the period of Greek enlightenment (Diafotismos), writers such as Adamantios Korais and Rigas Feraios prepared with their works the Greek Revolution (1821–1830).Leading figures of modern Greek literature include Dionysios Solomos, Andreas Kalvos, Angelos Sikelianos, Emmanuel Rhoides, Demetrius Vikelas, Kostis Palamas, Penelope Delta, Yannis Ritsos, Alexandros Papadiamantis, Nikos Kazantzakis, Andreas Embeirikos, Kostas Karyotakis, Gregorios Xenopoulos, Constantine P. Cavafy, Nikos Kavvadias, Kostas Varnalis and Kiki Dimoula.", "Two Greek authors have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature: George Seferis in 1963 and Odysseas Elytis in 1979.=== Philosophy ===A statue of Plato in AthensMost western philosophical traditions began in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BC.", "The first philosophers are called \"Presocratics\", which designates that they came before Socrates, whose contributions mark a turning point in western thought.", "The Presocratics were from the western or the eastern colonies of Greece and only fragments of their original writings survive, in some cases merely a single sentence.A new period of philosophy started with Socrates.", "Like the Sophists, he rejected entirely the physical speculations in which his predecessors had indulged, and made the thoughts and opinions of people his starting-point.", "Aspects of Socrates were first united from Plato, who also combined with them many of the principles established by earlier philosophers, and developed the whole of this material into the unity of a comprehensive system.Aristotle of Stagira, the most important disciple of Plato, shared with his teacher the title of the greatest philosopher of antiquity.", "But while Plato had sought to elucidate and explain things from the supra-sensual standpoint of the forms, his pupil preferred to start from the facts given to us by experience.", "Except from these three most significant Greek philosophers other known schools of Greek philosophy from other founders during ancient times were Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism and Neoplatonism.Byzantine philosophy refers to the distinctive philosophical ideas of the philosophers and scholars of the Byzantine Empire, especially between the 8th and 15th centuries.", "It was characterised by a Christian world-view, but one which could draw ideas directly from the Greek texts of Plato, Aristotle, and the Neoplatonists.On the eve of the Fall of Constantinople, Gemistus Pletho tried to restore the use of the term \"Hellene\" and advocated the return to the Olympian Gods of the ancient world.", "After 1453 a number of Greek Byzantine scholars who fled to western Europe contributed to the Renaissance.In modern period, Diafotismos (Greek: Διαφωτισμός, \"enlightenment\", \"illumination\") was the Greek expression of the Age of Enlightenment and its philosophical and political ideas.", "Some notable representatives were Adamantios Korais, Rigas Feraios and Theophilos Kairis.Other modern era Greek philosophers or political scientists include Cornelius Castoriadis, Nicos Poulantzas and Christos Yannaras.=== Music and dances ===Cretan dancers of traditional folk musicRebetes in Karaiskaki, Piraeus (1933).", "Left Markos Vamvakaris with bouzouki.Greek vocal music extends far back into ancient times where mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration and spiritual reasons.", "Instruments during that period included the double-reed aulos and the plucked string instrument, the lyre, especially the special kind called a kithara.", "Music played an important role in the education system during ancient times.", "Boys were taught music from the age of six.", "Later influences from the Roman Empire, Middle East, and the Byzantine Empire also had effect on Greek music.While the new technique of polyphony was developing in the West, the Eastern Orthodox Church resisted any type of change.", "Therefore, Byzantine music remained monophonic and without any form of instrumental accompaniment.", "As a result, and despite certain attempts by certain Greek chanters (such as Manouel Gazis, Ioannis Plousiadinos or the Cypriot Ieronimos o Tragoudistis), Byzantine music was deprived of elements of which in the West encouraged an unimpeded development of art.", "However, this method which kept music away from polyphony, along with centuries of continuous culture, enabled monophonic music to develop to the greatest heights of perfection.", "Byzantium presented the monophonic Byzantine chant; a melodic treasury of inestimable value for its rhythmical variety and expressive power.Along with the Byzantine (Church) chant and music, the Greek people also cultivated the Greek folk song (''Demotiko'') which is divided into two cycles, the akritic and klephtic.", "The akritic was created between the 9th and 10th centuries and expressed the life and struggles of the akrites (frontier guards) of the Byzantine empire, the most well known being the stories associated with Digenes Akritas.", "The klephtic cycle came into being between the late Byzantine period and the start of the Greek War of Independence.", "The klephtic cycle, together with historical songs, ''paraloghes'' (narrative song or ballad), love songs, mantinades, wedding songs, songs of exile and dirges express the life of the Greeks.", "There is a unity between the Greek people's struggles for freedom, their joys and sorrow and attitudes towards love and death.Mikis Theodorakis was one of the most popular and significant Greek composers.The Heptanesean kantádhes (καντάδες 'serenades'; sing.", ": καντάδα) became the forerunners of the Greek modern urban popular song, influencing its development to a considerable degree.", "For the first part of the next century, several Greek composers continued to borrow elements from the Heptanesean style.", "The most successful songs during the period 1870–1930 were the so-called Athenian serenades, and the songs performed on stage (επιθεωρησιακά τραγούδια 'theatrical revue songs') in revues, operettas and nocturnes that were dominating Athens' theater scene.Rebetiko, initially a music associated with the lower classes, later (and especially after the population exchange between Greece and Turkey) reached greater general acceptance as the rough edges of its overt subcultural character were softened and polished, sometimes to the point of unrecognizability.", "It was the base of the later laïkó (song of the people).", "The leading performers of the genre include Vassilis Tsitsanis, Grigoris Bithikotsis, Stelios Kazantzidis, George Dalaras, Haris Alexiou and Glykeria.Regarding the classical music, it was through the Ionian islands (which were under western rule and influence) that all the major advances of the western European classical music were introduced to mainland Greeks.", "The region is notable for the birth of the first school of modern Greek classical music (Heptanesean or Ionian School, Greek: ''Επτανησιακή Σχολή''), established in 1815.Prominent representatives of this genre include Nikolaos Mantzaros, Spyridon Xyndas, Spyridon Samaras and Pavlos Carrer.", "Manolis Kalomiris is considered the founder of the Greek National School of Music.In the 20th century, Greek composers have had a significant impact on the development of avant garde and modern classical music, with figures such as Iannis Xenakis, Nikos Skalkottas, and Dimitri Mitropoulos achieving international prominence.", "At the same time, composers and musicians such as Mikis Theodorakis, Manos Hatzidakis, Eleni Karaindrou, Vangelis and Demis Roussos garnered an international following for their music, which include famous film scores such as Zorba the Greek, Serpico, Never on Sunday, America America, Eternity and a Day, Chariots of Fire, Blade Runner, among others.", "Greek American composers known for their film scores include also Yanni and Basil Poledouris.", "Notable Greek opera singers and classical musicians of the 20th and 21st century include Maria Callas, Nana Mouskouri, Mario Frangoulis, Leonidas Kavakos, Dimitris Sgouros and others.During the dictatorship of the Colonels, the music of Mikis Theodorakis was banned by the junta and the composer was jailed, internally exiled, and put in a concentration camp, before finally being allowed to leave Greece due to international reaction to his detention.", "Released during the junta years, ''Anthrope Agapa, ti Fotia Stamata'' (Make Love, Stop the Gunfire), by the pop group Poll is considered the first anti-war protest song in the history of Greek rock.", "The song was echoing the hippie slogan \"make love, not war\" and was inspired directly by the Vietnam War, becoming a \"smash hit\" in Greece.Greece participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 35 times after its debut at the 1974 Contest.", "In 2005, Greece won with the song \"My Number One\", performed by Greek-Swedish singer Elena Paparizou.", "The song received 230 points with 10 sets of 12 points from Belgium, Bulgaria, Hungary, the United Kingdom, Turkey, Albania, Cyprus, Serbia & Montenegro, Sweden and Germany and also became a smash hit in different countries and especially in Greece.", "The 51st Eurovision Song Contest was held in Athens at the Olympic Indoor Hall of the Athens Olympic Sports Complex in Maroussi, and hosted by Maria Menounos and Sakis Rouvas.=== Cuisine ===A Greek salad, with feta and olivesGreek cuisine is characteristic of the Mediterranean diet, which is epitomised by dishes of Crete.", "Greek cuisine incorporates fresh ingredients into a variety of local dishes such as moussaka, pastitsio, classic Greek salad, fasolada, spanakopita and souvlaki.", "Some dishes can be traced back to ancient Greece like skordalia (a thick purée of walnuts, almonds, crushed garlic and olive oil), lentil soup, retsina (white or rosé wine sealed with pine resin) and pasteli (candy bar with sesame seeds baked with honey).", "Throughout Greece people often enjoy eating from small dishes such as meze with various dips such as tzatziki, grilled octopus and small fish, feta cheese, dolmades (rice, currants and pine kernels wrapped in vine leaves), various pulses, olives and cheese.", "Olive oil is also an incredibly widespread addition.Some sweet desserts include melomakarona, diples and galaktoboureko, and drinks such as ouzo, metaxa and a variety of wines including retsina.", "Greek cuisine differs widely from different parts of the mainland and from island to island.", "It uses some flavorings more often than other Mediterranean cuisines: oregano, mint, garlic, onion, dill and bay laurel leaves.", "Other common herbs and spices include basil, thyme and fennel seed.", "Many Greek recipes, especially in the northern parts of the country, use \"sweet\" spices in combination with meat, for example cinnamon and cloves in stews.Koutoukia are an underground restaurant common in Greece.=== Cinema ===Cinema first appeared in Greece in 1896, but the first actual cine-theatre was opened in 1907 in Athens.", "In 1914, the ''Asty Films Company'' was founded and the production of long films began.", "''Golfo'' (Γκόλφω), a well known traditional love story, is considered the first Greek feature film, although there were several minor productions such as newscasts before this.", "In 1931, Orestis Laskos directed ''Daphnis and Chloe'' (''Δάφνις και Χλόη''), containing one of the first nude scene in the history of European cinema; it was also the first Greek movie which was played abroad.", "In 1944, Katina Paxinou was honoured with the Best Supporting Actress Academy Award for ''For Whom the Bell Tolls''.Theodoros Angelopoulos, winner of the in 1998, notable director in the history of the European cinemaThe 1950s and early 1960s are considered by many to be a \"golden age\" of Greek cinema.", "Directors and actors of this era were recognised as important figures in Greece and some gained international acclaim: George Tzavellas, Irene Papas, Melina Mercouri, Michael Cacoyannis, Alekos Sakellarios, Nikos Tsiforos, Iakovos Kambanelis, Katina Paxinou, Nikos Koundouros, Ellie Lambeti and others.", "More than sixty films per year were made, with the majority having film noir elements.", "Some notable films include ''The Drunkard'' (1950, directed by George Tzavellas), ''The Counterfeit Coin'' (1955, by Giorgos Tzavellas), ''Πικρό Ψωμί'' (1951, by Grigoris Grigoriou), ''O Drakos'' (1956, by Nikos Koundouros), ''Stella'' (1955, directed by Cacoyannis and written by Kampanellis), ''Woe to the Young'' (1961, by Alekos Sakellarios), ''Glory Sky'' (1962, by Takis Kanellopoulos) and ''The Red Lanterns'' (1963, by Vasilis Georgiadis)Cacoyannis also directed ''Zorba the Greek'' with Anthony Quinn which received Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film nominations.", "Finos Film also contributed in this period with movies such as ''Λατέρνα, Φτώχεια και Φιλότιμο'', ''Madalena'', ''I theia ap' to Chicago'', ''Το ξύλο βγήκε από τον Παράδεισο'' and many more.During the 1970s and 1980s, Theo Angelopoulos directed a series of notable and appreciated movies.", "His film ''Eternity and a Day'' won the and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival.There are also internationally renowned filmmakers in the Greek diaspora, such as the Greek-French Costa-Gavras and the Greek-Americans Elia Kazan, John Cassavetes and Alexander Payne.More recently Yorgos Lanthimos (film and stage director, producer, and screenwriter) has received four Academy Award nominations for his work, including Best Foreign Language Film for ''Dogtooth'' (2009), Best Original Screenplay for ''The Lobster'' (2015), and Best Picture and Best Director for ''The Favourite'' (2018).=== Sports ===Spyridon Louis entering the Panathenaic Stadium at the end of the marathon; 1896 Summer OlympicsAngelos Charisteas scoring Greece's winning goal in the UEFA Euro 2004 FinalGreece is the birthplace of the ancient Olympic Games, first recorded in 776 BC in Olympia, and hosted the modern Olympic Games twice, the inaugural 1896 Summer Olympics and the 2004 Summer Olympics.", "During the parade of nations, Greece is always called first, as the founding nation of the ancient precursor of modern Olympics.", "The nation has competed at every Summer Olympic Games, one of only four countries to have done so.", "Having won a total of 110 medals (30 gold, 42 silver and 38 bronze), Greece is ranked 32nd by gold medals in the all-time Summer Olympic medal count.", "Their best ever performance was in the 1896 Summer Olympics, when Greece finished second in the medal table with 10 gold medals.The Greece national football team, ranking 12th in the world in 2014 (and having reached a high of 8th in the world in 2008 and 2011), were crowned European Champions in Euro 2004 in one of the biggest upsets in the history of the sport.", "The Greek Super League is the highest professional football league in the country, comprising fourteen teams.", "The most successful are Olympiacos, Panathinaikos, and AEK Athens.The Greek national basketball team has a decades-long tradition of excellence in the sport, being considered among the world's top basketball powers.", ", it ranked 4th in the world and 2nd in Europe.", "They have won the European Championship twice in 1987 and 2005, and have reached the final four in two of the last four FIBA World Championships, taking the second place in the world in 2006 FIBA World Championship, after a 101–95 win against Team US in the tournament's semi-final.", "The domestic top basketball league, A1 Ethniki, is composed of fourteen teams.", "The most successful Greek teams are Panathinaikos, Olympiacos, Aris Thessaloniki, AEK Athens and P.A.O.K.", "Greek basketball teams are the most successful in European basketball the last 25 years, having won 9 Euroleagues since the establishment of the modern era Euroleague Final Four format in 1988, while no other nation has won more than 4 Euroleague championships in this period.", "Besides the 9 Euroleagues, Greek basketball teams (Panathinaikos, Olympiacos, Aris Thessaloniki, AEK Athens, P.A.O.K, Maroussi) have won 3 Triple Crowns, 5 Saporta Cups, 2 Korać Cups and 1 FIBA Europe Champions Cup.", "After the 2005 European Championship triumph of the Greek national basketball team, Greece became the reigning European Champion in both football and basketball.The Greek national basketball team in 2008.Twice European champions (1987 and 2005) and second in the world in 2006.The Greece women's national water polo team have emerged as one of the leading powers in the world, becoming World Champions after their gold medal win against the hosts China at the 2011 World Championship.", "They also won the silver medal at the 2004 Summer Olympics, the gold medal at the 2005 World League and the silver medals at the 2010 and 2012 European Championships.", "The Greece men's national water polo team became the third best water polo team in the world in 2005, after their win against Croatia in the bronze medal game at the 2005 World Aquatics Championships in Canada.", "The domestic top water polo leagues, Greek Men's Water Polo League and Greek Women's Water Polo League are considered amongst the top national leagues in European water polo, as its clubs have made significant success in European competitions.", "In men's European competitions, Olympiacos has won the Champions League, the European Super Cup and the Triple Crown in 2002 becoming the first club in water polo history to win every title in which it has competed within a single year (National championship, National cup, Champions League and European Super Cup), while NC Vouliagmeni has won the LEN Cup Winners' Cup in 1997.In women's European competitions, Greek water polo teams (NC Vouliagmeni, Glyfada NSC, Olympiacos, Ethnikos Piraeus) are amongst the most successful in European water polο, having won 4 LEN Champions Cups, 3 LEN Trophies and 2 European Supercups.The Greek men's national volleyball team has won two bronze medals, one in the European Volleyball Championship and another one in the Men's European Volleyball League, a 5th place in the Olympic Games and a 6th place in the FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship.", "The Greek league, the A1 Ethniki, is considered one of the top volleyball leagues in Europe and the Greek clubs have had significant success in European competitions.", "Olympiacos is the most successful volleyball club in the country having won the most domestic titles and being the only Greek club to have won European titles; they have won two CEV Cups, they have been CEV Champions League runners-up twice and they have played in 12 Final Fours in the European competitions, making them one of the most traditional volleyball clubs in Europe.", "Iraklis have also seen significant success in European competitions, having been three times runners-up of the CEV Champions League.In handball, AC Diomidis Argous is the only Greek club to have won a European Cup.Apart from these, cricket is relatively popular in Corfu.=== Mythology ===The numerous gods of the ancient Greek religion as well as the mythical heroes and events of the ancient Greek epics (''The Odyssey'' and ''The Iliad'') and other pieces of art and literature from the time make up what is nowadays colloquially referred to as Greek mythology.", "Apart from serving a religious function, the mythology of the ancient Greek world also served a cosmological role as it was meant to try to explain how the world was formed and operated.The principal gods of the ancient Greek religion were the Dodekatheon, or the ''Twelve Gods'', who lived on the top of Mount Olympus.", "The most important of all ancient Greek gods was Zeus, the king of the gods, who was married to his sister, Hera.", "The other Greek gods that made up the Twelve Olympians were Ares, Poseidon, Athena, Demeter, Dionysus, Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite, Hephaestus, and Hermes.", "Despite her humble status within the hierarchy of the Olympians, Hestia, the goddess of the hearth and sacred flame, was likely the most prayed to of all gods.", "It is believed that essentially all home offering ceremonies and most public festival offerings began and ended with an invocation and offering to Hestia.", "Apart from these 13 gods, the Greek pantheon was filled with dozens of other gods, demigods, and mortal and immortal beings which varied by local and over the evolution of Greek culture.", "A variety of other mystical beliefs and nature spirits such as nymphs and other magical creatures were foundational to the ancient Greek understanding of the world around them.=== Public holidays and festivals ===Virgin Mary (15 August)According to Greek law, every Sunday of the year is a public holiday.", "Since the late '70s, Saturday also is a non-school and not working day.", "In addition, there are four mandatory official public holidays: 25 March (''Greek Independence Day''), Easter Monday, 15 August (''Assumption or Dormition of the Holy Virgin''), and 25 December (''Christmas'').", "1 May (''Labour Day'') and 28 October (''Ohi Day'') are regulated by law as being optional but it is customary for employees to be given the day off.", "There are, however, more public holidays celebrated in Greece than are announced by the Ministry of Labour each year as either obligatory or optional.", "The list of these non-fixed national holidays rarely changes and has not changed in recent decades, giving a total of eleven national holidays each year.In addition to the national holidays, there are public holidays that are not celebrated nationwide, but only by a specific professional group or a local community.", "For example, many municipalities have a \"Patron Saint\" parallel to \"Name Days\", or a \"Liberation Day\".", "On such days it is customary for schools to take the day off.Notable festivals, beyond the religious fests, include Patras Carnival, Athens Festival and various local wine festivals.", "The city of Thessaloniki is also home of a number of festivals and events.", "The Thessaloniki International Film Festival is one of the most important film festivals in Southern Europe." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of Greece** Outline of ancient Greece* Index of Greece-related articles" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* \"Minorities in Greece – Historical Issues and New Perspectives\".", "''History and Culture of South Eastern Europe''.", "An Annual Journal.", "München (Slavica) 2003.", "*, 257 pp..", ", 376 pp.", " , 219 pp.", "The impact of European Union membership on Greek politics, economics, and society.*******..", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Greece" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Demographics of Greece''' refer to the demography of the population that inhabits the Greek peninsula.", "The population of Greece was estimated by the United Nations to be in (including displaced refugees)." ], [ "Historical overview", "Greece was inhabited as early as the Paleolithic period.", "Prior to the 2nd millennium BC, the Greek peninsula was inhabited by various pre-Hellenic peoples, the most notable of which were the Pelasgians.", "The Greek language ultimately dominated the peninsula and Greece's mosaic of small city-states became culturally similar.", "The population estimates on the Greeks during the 4th century BC, is approximately 3.5 million on the Greek peninsula and 4 to 6.5 million in the rest of the entire Mediterranean Basin, including all colonies such as those in Magna Graecia, Asia Minor and the shores of the Black Sea.During the history of the Byzantine Empire, the Greek peninsula was occasionally invaded by the foreign peoples like Goths, Avars, Slavs, Normans, Franks and other Romance-speaking peoples who had betrayed the Crusades.", "The only group, however, that planned to establish permanent settlements in the region were the Slavs.", "They settled in isolated valleys of the Peloponnese and Thessaly, establishing segregated communities that were referred by the Byzantines as Sclaveni.", "Traces of Slavic culture in Greece are very rare and by the 9th century, the Sclaveni in Greece were largely assimilated.", "However, some Slavic communities managed to survive in rural Macedonia.", "At the same time a large Sephardi Jewish emigrant community from the Iberian peninsula established itself in Thessaloniki, while there were population movements of Arvanites and \"Vlachs\" (Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians), who established communities in several parts of the Greek peninsula.", "The Byzantine Empire ultimately fell to Ottoman Turks in the 15th century and as a result Ottoman colonies were established in the Balkans, notably in Macedonia, the Peloponnese and Crete.", "Many Greeks either fled to other European nations or to geographically isolated areas (i.e.", "mountains and heavily forested territories) to escape foreign rule.", "For those reasons, the population decreased in the plains, while increasing on the mountains.", "The population transfers with Bulgaria and Turkey that took place in the early 20th century, added in total some two million Greeks to the demography of the Greek Kingdom.During the next decades, the population of Greece continued to increase, except during a large part of 1940s due to World War II and subsequent events.", "After 1940s the population of Greece continued to grow, though on a decreased pace after 1960s, due to a gradual decrease in fertility and emigration to various countries, such as West Germany, Australia, United Kingdom and many others.", "The birth rate decreased significantly in 1980s, while in 1987 the Greek population surpassed 10 million.", "At this time Greece had started to appear a positive migration rate, due to the return of Greek Civil War refugees and international immigration.", "During the nineties the population increased by close a million, as the collapse of the communist governments in Eastern Europe and the economic downturn resulted in a significant influx of Eastern European immigrants in Greece and especially from the Balkans, including many Greeks living in these countries.", "In 2000s the population continued to increase reaching 11 million, thanks to an increased birth rate, a stable influx of migrants from other countries and the return of Greeks from United States, Germany, Australia and other countries.", "In the 2010s, in the wake of the Greek financial crisis, the population started to decrease and birthrates plummeted, while death rates increased due to an aging population.", "Many Greeks emigrated abroad, while more recently the population decrease has been largely stabilized due to foreign immigration." ], [ "Population", "Population of Greece since 1961.According to the 2001 census the population of Greece was 10,964,020.Eurostat estimations as of January 2008 gave the number of 11,214,992 inhabitants in the Greek peninsula.", "According to the official 2011 census, which used sophisticated methodology, the population of Greece was 10,816,286.", "'''Census''' '''Population''' '''Change''' '''1971''' 8,768,372 – '''1981''' 9,739,589 11.1% '''1991''' 10,259,900 5.3% '''2001''' 10,964,020 6.9% '''2011''' 10,816,286 -0.88%'''2021'''10,482,487 -3.1%===By region===Greece is divided into nine geographic regions.", "The population of each region according to the 2001, 2011 and 2021 censuses is represented in the graph below, comparing the change in population over a 20 year period.", "RegionPopulation (1971)Population (1981)Population (1991) Population (2001)Population (2011)Population (2021) Aegean Islands417,813 428,030 456,555 508,807 508,246 522,763 Central Greece3,532,248 4,125,463 4,366,900 4,591,568 4,586,626 4,514,663 Crete456,642 501.909 536,433 601,131 623,065 624,408 Epirus310,334 323.871 327,176 353,822 336,856 319,991 Ionian Islands184,443 182.327 189,338 212,984 207,855 204,532 Macedonia1,890,684 2,116,361 2,225,690 2,424,765 2,402,771 2,266,206 Peloponnese986,912 1,014,485 1,045,020 1,155,019 1,046,897 995,410 Thessaly659,913 695,724 729,268 753,888 732,762 688,255 Thrace329,582 341,180 340,755 362,038 371,208 346,259 Total8,768,372 9,729,350 10,223,392 10,964,020 10,816,286 10,482,487 / = change since previous census===Fertility rate===}The total fertility rate is the number of children born per woman.", "It is based on fairly good data for the entire period.", "Sources: Our World In Data and Gapminder Foundation.", "Years 18501851185218531854185518561857185818591860Total fertility rate in Greece6.035.81 5.595.365.144.924.74.474.254.033.81 Years 1861186218631864186518661867186818691870Total fertility rate in Greece3.953.87 3.783.943.734.033.833.853.863.77 Years 1871187218731874187518761877187818791880Total fertility rate in Greece3.813.83 3.73.913.783.973.823.643.323.27 Years 1881188218831884188518861887188818891890Total fertility rate in Greece3.283.38 3.353.833.824.014.194.384.574.73 Years 1891189218931894189518961897189818991900Total fertility rate in Greece4.84.88 4.955.035.15.185.255.325.45.47 Years 1901190219031904190519061907190819091910Total fertility rate in Greece5.355.22 5.14.974.854.724.64.474.354.22 Years 1911191219131914191519161917191819191920Total fertility rate in Greece4.093.97 3.843.723.593.473.343.223.092.97===Life expectancy===Life expectancy in Greece since 1877Life expectancy in Greece since 1960 by genderPeriodLife expectancy inYearsPeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195565.81985–199075.61955–196067.21990–199577.41960–196569.31995–200078.11965–197070.12000–200579.11970–197571.82005–201080.01975–198072.82010–201580.61980–198574.52015–202081.2Source: ''UN World Population Prospects''===Age structure===Being part of the phenomenon of the aging of Europe, the Greek population shows a rapid increase of the percentage of the elderly people.", "Greece's population census of 1961 found that 10.9% of the total population was above the age of 65, while the percentage of this group age increased to 19.0% in 2011.In contrast, the percentage of the population of the ages 0–14 had a total decrease of 10.2% between 1961 and 2011.Age group19711981199120012011Population%Population%Population%Population%Population% '''0–14''' 2,223,904''25.4'' 2,307,297''23.7'' 1,974,867''19.2'' 1,664,085''15.2'' 1,576,500''14.4'' '''15–64''' 5,587,352''63.7'' 6,192,751''63.6'' 6,880,681''67.1'' 7,468,395''68.1'' 7,122,830''66.6'' '''65+''' 957,116''10.9'' 1,239,541''12.7'' 1,404,352''13.7'' 1,831,540''16.7'' 2,108,807''19.0'' Total8,768,3729,739,58910,259,90010,964,02010,816,286" ], [ "Vital statistics from 1921", "Source: Hellenic Statistical Authority and World Bank.Notable events in Greek demography:* 1923 – Population exchange between Greece and Turkey* 1946-1949 - Refugees of the Greek Civil War* 1967-1974 – Greek junta YearAverage population (January 1 2001 onwards)Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)crude migration change(per 1000)Total Fertility Rates 1921 5,050,000 107,000 69,000 38,000 21.2 13.7 7.5 1.82.84 1922 5,097,000 110,000 82,000 18,000 21.6 16.1 5.5 173.62.88 1923 6,010,000 113,926 102,042 11,884 19.0 17.0 2.0 -3.72.55 1924 6,000,000 117,014 93,320 23,694 19.5 15.6 3.9 -10.92.61 1925 5,958,000 156,367 88,633 67,734 26.2 14.9 11.4 2.73.52 1926 6,042,000 181,278 84,136 97,142 30.0 13.9 16.1 -2.04.02 1927 6,127,000 176,527 100,020 76,507 28.8 16.3 12.5 1.03.86 1928 6,210,000 189,250 105,665 83,585 30.5 17.0 13.5 -1.34.09 1929 6,286,000 181,870 115,561 66,309 28.9 18.4 10.5 2.43.87 1930 6,367,000 199,565 103,811 95,75431.3 16.3 15.0 0.14.19 1931 6,463,000 199,243 114,369 84,874 30.8 17.7 13.1 -0.63.83 1932 6,544,000 185,523 117,593 67,930 28.4 18.0 10.4 2.03.8 1933 6,625,000 189,583 111,447 78,136 28.6 16.8 11.8 3.63.84 1934 6,727,000 208,929 100,651 108,278 31.1 15.0 16.1 0.34.16 1935 6,837,000 192,511 101,416 91,095 28.2 14.8 13.3 1.23.77 1936 6,936,000 193,343 105,005 88,338 27.9 15.1 12.7 0.73.68 1937 7,029,000 183,878 105,674 78,204 26.2 15.0 11.1 2.13.51 1938 7,122,000 184,509 93,766 90,743 25.9 13.2 12.7 1.33.47 1939 7,222,000 178,852 100,459 78,393 24.8 13.9 10.9 2.53.32 1940 7,319,000 179,500 93,830 85,670 24.5 12.8 11.7 -4.73.29 1941 7,370,000 134,760 125,710 9,050 18.3 17.1 1.2 -3.93.19 1942 7,350,000 132,640 191,030 -58,390 18.026.0 -7.9 -1.63.08 1943 7,280,000 122,170 111,320 10,850 16.8 15.3 1.5 1.22.98 1944 7,300,000 145,530 110,810 34,720 19.9 15.2 4.8 -3.42.88 1945 7,310,000 183,470 85,540 97,930 25.1 11.7 13.4 3.02.78 1946 7,430,000 209,360 73,500 135,860 28.2 9.918.3 -6.22.68 1947 7,520,000 206,400 70,340 136,060 27.4 9.4 18.1 -20.82.58 1948 7,500,000210,000 96,000 114,000 28.0 12.8 15.2 -17.82.48 1949 7,480,000 139,108 59,450 79,658 18.6 7.9 10.6 -0.72.37 1950 7,554,000 151,314 53,755 97,559 20.0 7.1 12.9 -0.72.47 1951 7,646,000 155,422 57,508 97,914 20.3 7.5 12.8 -1.42.47 1952 7,733,000 149,637 53,377 96,260 19.4 6.9 12.4 -1.52.48 1953 7,817,000 143,765 56,680 87,085 18.4 7.3 11.1 -1.42.49 1954 7,893,000 151,892 55,625 96,267 19.2 7.0 12.2 -3.02.48 1955 7,966,000 154,263 54,781 99,482 19.4 6.9 12.5 -4.32.47 1956 8,031,000 158,203 59,460 96,727 19.4 7.4 12.0 -3.92.44 1957 8,096,000 155,940 61,664 93,528 19.2 7.6 11.6 -2.12.42 1958 8,173,000 155,359 58,160 97,199 19.0 7.1 11.9 -1.52.38 1959 8,258,000 160,199 60,852 99,347 19.4 7.4 12.0 -2.82.36 1960 8,304,698 157,239 60,563 96,676 18.9 7.3 11.6 -3.9 2.33 1961 8,363,490 150,716 63,955 86,761 17.9 7.6 10.3 -4.3 2.32 1962 8,433,124 152,158 66,554 85,604 18.0 7.9 10.1 -6.3 2.32 1963 8,463,290 148,249 66,813 81,436 17.5 7.9 9.6 -6.1 2.34 1964 8,495,610 153,109 69,429 83,680 18.0 8.1 9.8 -5.0 2.37 1965 8,525,408 151,448 67,269 84,179 17.7 7.8 9.8 -2.4 2.41 1966 8,575,653 154,613 67,912 86,701 17.9 7.9 10.1 -1.7 2.46 1967 8,651,739 162,839 71,975 90,864 18.7 8.3 10.5 -4.2 2.51 1968 8,716,502 160,338 73,309 87,029 18.3 8.4 10.0 -6.3 2.54 1969 8,765,894 154,077 71,825 82,252 17.6 8.2 9.4 -7.1 2.56 1970 8,780,549 144,928 74,009 70,919 16.5 8.4 8.1 -3.8 2.57 1971 8,805,194 141,126 73,819 67,307 16.0 8.4 7.6 -1.0 2.57 1972 8,857,439 140,891 76,859 64,032 15.9 8.6 7.2 -2.7 2.55 1973 8,920,359 137,526 77,648 59,878 15.4 8.7 6.7 -3.0 2.54 1974 8,937,982 144,069 76,303 67,766 16.1 8.5 7.6 1.9 2.52 1975 8,986,203 142,273 80,077 62,196 15.7 8.9 6.9 6.4 2.33 1976 9,106,985 146,566 81,818 64,748 16.0 8.9 7.1 4.0 2.35 1977 9,269,459 143,739 83,750 59,989 15.4 9.0 6.5 7.1 2.28 1978 9,347,618 146,588 81,615 64,973 15.5 8.7 6.9 7.9 2.29 1979 9,512,347 147,965 82,338 65,627 15.5 8.6 6.9 4.5 2.26 1980 9,584,298 148,134 87,282 60,852 15.4 9.1 6.3 2.6 2.23 1981 9,700,893 140,953 86,261 54,692 14.5 8.9 5.6 0.7 2.10 1982 9,757,944 137,275 86,345 50,930 14.0 8.8 5.2 0.6 2.03 1983 9,821,279 132,608 90,586 42,022 13.5 9.2 4.3 0.7 1.94 1984 9,872,195 125,724 88,397 37,327 12.7 8.9 3.8 0 1.82 1985 9,919,539 116,481 92,886 23,595 11.7 9.4 2.4 0.9 1.68 1986 9,949,185 112,810 91,469 20,781 11.3 9.2 2.1 1.3 1.60 1987 9,985,374 106,392 95,232 10,667 10.6 9.5 1.1 2.5 1.50 1988 10,015,957 107,505 93,031 14,637 10.7 9.3 1.4 3.9 1.50 1989 10,058,127 101,657 92,717 8,432 10.0 9.2 0.9 6.1 1.40 1990 10,120,984 102,229 94,152 8,077 10.1 9.3 0.8 8.6 1.39 1991 10,272,768 102,620 95,498 7,122 10.0 9.3 0.7 10.3 1.37 1992 10,367,276 104,081 98,231 5,850 10.0 9.5 0.6 8.7 1.36 1993 10,431,200 101,799 97,419 4,380 9.7 9.3 0.4 7.9 1.32 1994 10,489,958 103,763 97,807 5,956 9.8 9.3 0.6 7.2 1.33 1995 10,536,004 101,495 100,158 1,337 9.5 9.4 0.1 7.0 1.28 1996 10,588,378 100,718 100,740 -22 9.4 9.4 -0.0 6.3 1.26 1997 10,629,378 102,038 99,738 2,300 9.5 9.3 0.2 5.2 1.27 1998 10,693,340 100,894 102,668 -1,774 9.3 9.5 -0.2 4.6 1.24 1999 10,747,879 100,643 103,304 -2,661 9.2 9.5 -0.3 3.5 1.23 2000 10,775,693 103,274 105,219 -1,952 9.5 9.6 -0.1 -7.4 1.25 2001 10,836,578 102,282 102,559 -277 9.4 9.4 0.0 4.8 1.25 2002 10,888,357 103,569 103,915 -346 9.5 9.5 0.0 2.5 1.28 2003 10,915,874 104,420 105,529 -1,109 9.6 9.7 -0.1 2.4 1.29 2004 10,940,437 105,655 104,942 713 9.6 9.6 0.1 2.6 1.31 2005 10,969,984 107,545 105,091 2,454 9.8 9.6 0.2 3.0 1.34 2006 11,004,784 112,042 105,476 6,566 10.2 9.6 0.6 2.2 1.40 2007 11,036,789 111,926 109,895 2,031 10.1 9.9 0.2 2.1 1.41 2008 11,060,985 118,302 107,979 10,323 10.7 9.7 0.9 2.2 1.50 2009 11,094,768 117,933 108,316 9,617 10.6 9.8 0.9 1.3 1.50 2010 11,119,102 114,766 109,084 5,682 10.3 9.8 0.5 -0.1 1.48 201111,123,400 106,428 111,099 -4,671 9.6 10.0 -0.4 -2.9 1.40 2012 11,086,459 100,371 116,668 -16,297 9.1 10.6 -1.5 -6.0 1.34 2013 11,003,687 94,134 111,794 -17,660 8.6 10.2 -1.6 -5.4 1.29 2014 10,926,859 92,149 113,740 -21,591 8.5 10.4 -2.0 4.3 1.30 2015 10,858,498 91,847 121,183 -29,336 8.5 11.2 -2.7 -4.2 1.33 2016 10,783,729 92,898 118,788 -25,890 8.6 11.0 -2.4 1.0 1.38 2017 10,768,290 88,553 124,495 -35,942 8.2 11.6 -3.3 0.81.35 2018 10,741,244 86,440 120,291 -33,851 8.1 11.2 -3.2 1.71.35 201910,726,598 83,756 124,954 -41,198 7.8 11.7 -3.8 3.21.32 202010,718,565 84,764 131,064 -46,300 7.9 12.3 -4.3 4.91.37 202110,664,972 85,346 143,919 -58,573 8.2 13.8 -5.6 -1.51.38 202210,590,317 76,541 140,801 -64,260 7.2 13.2 -6.01.33 2023p10,413,982 72,244 129,587 -57,343 6.9 12.4 -5.5=== Current vital statistics ===+ Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''January 2023''' 6,434 13,780 -7,346 '''January 2024''' 6,694 13,525 -6,831 '''Difference''' +260 (+4.04%) -255 (-1.85%) +515===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 5 303 223 5 513 063 10 816 286 100 0–4 274 788 262 455 537 243 4.97 5–9 262 432 250 164 512 596 4.74 10–14 265 787 253 642 519 429 4.80 15–19 286 386 266 890 553 276 5.12 20–24 325 127 301 970 627 097 5.80 25–29 371 617 352 154 723 771 6.69 30–34 417 861 404 614 822 475 7.60 35–39 409 681 403 148 812 829 7.51 40–44 414 026 418 640 832 666 7.70 45–49 367 086 381 343 748 429 6.92 50–54 355 552 375 934 731 486 6.76 55–59 321 466 338 902 660 368 6.11 60–64 301 589 324 180 625 769 5.79 65-69 241 832 266 444 508 276 4.70 70-74 246 264 295 901 542 165 5.01 75-79 209 983 265 094 475 077 4.39 80-84 146 455 205 918 352 373 3.26 85-89 60 933 98 908 159 841 1.48 90-94 18 760 34 685 53 445 0.49 95-99 4 948 10 239 15 187 0.14 100+ 650 1 838 2 488 0.02Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 803 007 766 261 1 569 268 14.51 15–64 3 570 391 3 567 775 7 138 166 65.99 65+ 929 825 1 179 027 2 108 852 19.50Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 5 196 048 5 482 584 10 678 632 100 0–4 232 962 221 004 453 966 4.25 5–9 256 724 242 916 499 640 4.68 10–14 286 211 270 919 557 130 5.22 15–19 286 473 261 827 548 300 5.13 20–24 295 675 267 375 563 050 5.27 25–29 289 021 268 852 557 873 5.22 30–34 292 391 293 623 586 014 5.49 35–39 351 172 348 759 699 931 6.55 40–44 397 038 400 046 797 084 7.46 45–49 388 226 404 647 792 873 7.42 50–54 388 838 418 213 807 051 7.56 55–59 340 585 379 684 720 269 6.74 60–64 320 930 366 665 687 595 6.44 65-69 288 274 327 034 615 308 5.76 70-74 261 202 309 037 570 239 5.34 75-79 200 470 246 135 446 605 4.18 80-84 161 684 227 332 389 016 3.64 85-89 98 597 148 795 247 392 2.32 90-94 41 160 58 052 99 212 0.93 95-99 12 188 14 445 26 633 0.25 100-104 4 334 4 190 8 524 0.08 105-109 1 370 2 047 3 417 0.03 110+ 523 987 1 510 0.01Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 775 897 734 839 1 510 736 14.15 15–64 3 350 349 3 409 691 6 760 040 63.30 65+ 1 069 802 1 338 054 2 407 856 22.55" ], [ "Other demographic statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2019.", "One birth every 6 minutes\tOne death every 4 minutesNet loss of one person every 21 minutes\tOne net migrant every 53 minutes\t\tPopulation pyramid of Greece in 1928Demographic statistics according to the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.Population pyramid of Greece in 2017;Population:10,413,982 (Jan 2023 est.)", ":10,718,565 (Jan 2020 est.", "):10,761,523 (July 2018 est.", "):10,768,477 (July 2017 est.", "):10,768,193 (Jan 2017 est.", ");Age structure::''0-14 years:'' 14.53% (male 794,918/female 745,909):''15-24 years:'' 10.34% (male 577,134/female 519,819):''25-54 years:'' 39.6% (male 2,080,443/female 2,119,995):''55-64 years:'' 13.1% (male 656,404/female 732,936):''65 years and over:'' 22.43% (male 1,057,317/female 1,322,176) (2020 est.", "):''0-14 years:'' 13.83% (male 767,245/female 722,313):''15-24 years:'' 9.67% (male 532,179/female 509,487):''25-54 years:'' 42.45% (male 2,275,984/female 2,295,082):''55-64 years:'' 13.13% (male 692,420/female 721,641):''65 years and over:'' 20.91% (male 986,816/female 1,265,310) (2017 est.", "):0–14 years: 14.2% (male 787,143/female 741,356):15–64 years: 66.2% (male 3,555,447/female 3,567,383):65 years and over: 19.6% (male 923,177/female 1,185,630) (2011 est.", ");Median age::total: 45.3 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 9th:male: 43.7 years:female: 46.8 years (2020 est.", "):total: 44.5 years:male: 43.5 years:female: 45.6 years (2017 est.", "):total: 42.5 years:male: 41.4 years:female: 43.6 years (2011 est.", ");Mother's mean age at first birth::29.9 years (2017 est.", ");Total fertility rate::1.39 children born/woman (2021 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 225th;Population growth rate::-0.34% (2021 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 221st;Birth rate::7.72 births/1,000 population (2021 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 222nd:8.4 births/1,000 population (2017 est.", ");Death rate::12.05 deaths/1,000 population (2021 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 14th;Net migration rate::0.97 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2021 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 62nd;Life expectancy at birth::total population: 81.28 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 41st:male: 78.73 years:female: 84 years (2021 est.", ");Infant mortality rate::total: 3.61 deaths/1,000 live births.", "Country comparison to the world: 204th:male: 4 deaths/1,000 live births:female: 3.19 deaths/1,000 live births (2021 est.", ");Ethnic groups:population: Greek 91.6%, Albanian 4.4%, other 4% (2011)Note: data represent citizenship, since Greece does not collect data on ethnicity;Dependency ratios::total dependency ratio: 56.1:youth dependency ratio: 21.3:elderly dependency ratio: 34.8:potential support ratio: 2.9 (2020 est.", ");Religions:Greek Orthodox (official) 81–90%, Muslim 2%, other 3%, none 4–15%, unspecified 1% (2015 est.", ");Urbanization::urban population: 79.7% of total population (2020):rate of urbanization: 0.22% annual rate of change (2015–20 est.", ");Unemployment, youth ages 15–24::total: 39.9%.", "Country comparison to the world: 11th:male: 36.4%:female: 43.9% (2018 est.", ");School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)::total: 20 years:male: 20 years:female: 20 years (2018)" ], [ "Immigration", "Foreign citizens in Greece in 1998 by country of citizenship.Greece has received a large number of immigrants since the early 1990s.", "The majority of them come from the neighbouring countries.", "As of 2011, the number of foreigners in an enumerated total of 10,815,197 people was 911,299.Foreign-born by country (Eurostat):Country201020142020 2020 EU2021384,600337,719346,918374,92645,70040,91472,77735,44420,10018,04019,16735,30932,40027,19144,60028,25062,60045,06123,05026,08314,2008,36217,18913,30010,66218,05616,40815,4575,20010,73614,75213,51755,70042,95914,77213,41510,2009,81311,65212,45313,25912,38510,20010,88113,85012,3627,5008,30610,78510,69610,58510,80016,63513,5608,940 29,30025,72210,3368,300 19,8147,2409,50012,4693,5005,603others117,100102,00665,483736,470127,287Total828,400727,477524,813906,345761,855+Nationality of Greece over timeNationality195119611971198119912001201120212021censusNumber%Number%Number%Number%Number%Number%Number%Number%Number% Greeks7,602,23099.60%8,333,81799.35%8,675,80498.94%9,568,01798.24%10,092,62498.37%10,166,92792.73%9,903,26891.57%9,777,43991.34%9,716,88992.70%Foreigners30,5710.40%54,7360.65%92,5681.06%171,4241.76%167,2761.63%797,0937.27%911,9298.43%921,4858.61%761,8557.27% EU-27––––––––––––199,1011.84%168,5501.57%116,6691.11%Non-EU752,9007.1%641,9216.12%Total7,632,8018,388,5538,768,3729,739,44110,259,90010,964,02010,815,19710,698,83710,482,487===Illegal immigration===Greece has received many illegal immigrants beginning in the 1990s and continuing during the 2000s and 2010s.", "Migrants make use of the many islands in the Aegean Sea, directly west of Turkey.", "A spokesman for the European Union's border control agency said that the Greek-Albanian border is \"one of Europe's worst-affected external land borders.\"", "Migrants across the Evros region bordering Turkey face land-mines.", "Principal illegal immigrants include Albanians, Indians, Kurds, Afghans, Iraqis and Somalis." ], [ "Ethnic groups, languages and religion", "The population of northern Greece has primarily been ethnically, religiously and linguistically diverse.The Muslim minority of Greece is the only explicitly recognized minority in Greece by the government.", "The officials define it as a group of Greek Muslims numbering 98,000 people, consisting of Turks (50%), Pomaks (35%) and Romani (15%).", "No other minorities are officially acknowledged by the government.", "There is no official information for the size of the ethnic, linguistic and religious minorities because asking the population questions pertaining to the topic have been abolished since 1951.Map showing the distribution of major Modern Greek dialect areasNote: Greek is the dominant language throughout Greece; inclusion in a non-Greek language zone does not necessarily imply that the relevant minority language is still spoken there, or that its speakers consider themselves an ethnic minority.Minorities in Greece according to Minority Rights Group International:Roma: 160,000–250,000Vlachs (Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians): 200,000Macedonian Slavs: 200,000Arvanites: 95,000Turks: 90,000Pomaks: 35,000The official language of Greece is Greek, spoken by almost all as a second language at least.", "Additionally, there are a number of linguistic minority groups that are bilingual in a variety of non-Greek languages, and parts of these groups identify ethnically as Greeks.+'''Estimated historical population and census figures'''1: Language (and religion) census 1879 estimate 1913 census 1928 census 1940 census 1951 census 1986 Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Greek 5,759,523 92.8 6,902,339 92.5 7,297,878 95.6 Turkish (altogether) 191,254 3.1 229,075 3.8 179,895 2.4 Turkish (and Orthodox Christian) 103,642 1.7 Turkish (and Muslim) 86,506 1.4 Slavic3 300,000- 500,000 6.3- 10.6 81,9842 1.3 86,086 1.2 41,017 0.5 180,180 Bulgarian (and Muslim) 16,775 0.3 Pomak 18,086 0.2 18,671 0.2 \"Koutsovlach\" 19,703 0.3 53,997 0.7 39,855 0.5 Albanian 49,632 0.7 22,7364 0.3 Albanian/Arvanitika 225,000 Albanian (and Muslim) 18,598 0.3 Armenian 33,634 0.5 26,827 0.4 8,990 0.1 Roma 4,998 0.1 8,141 0.1 7,429 0.1 Russian 3,295 0.1 8,126 0.1 3,815 0.1 French 4,518 0.1 2,101 0.0 Romanian 2,901 0.0 2,082 0.0 English 2,098 0.0 3,529 0.0 1,456 0.0 Spanish 63,200 1.0 53,125 0.7 1,339 0.0 German 3,401 0.0 1,301 0.0 Italian 3,199 0.1 4,426 0.1 894 0.0 Hebrew or Yiddish 34 0.0 853 0.0 Others 6,248 0.1 5,694 0.1 2,489 0.1 Total '''1,679,775''' '''4,734,990''' '''6,204,684''' '''7,344,860''' '''7,632,801''' Notes: 1 Census figures are considered \"unreliable\".2The 1928 census figure (81,984) of the Slavic speakers does not reflect their actual strength due to either an official policy or reluctance of the concerned, and perhaps represents a number of speakers, who are lacking Greek national consciousness, while contemporary Greek reports estimate at least 200,000 Bulgarian-speaking inhabitants in the country.3 The Slavic figure in the 1928, 1940 and 1951 census is referred to as a Macedonian Bulgarian dialect or Macedonian Slavic.4 The Albanian figure (22,746) in the 1951 census is considered \"certainly too small\" and a research in the 1970s indicated a figure of at least 30,000 in Attica and Biotia alone.Languages spoken in Greece:LanguageClassificationSpeaking populationSpoken byEthnic populationRegionNotesGreek classification Cappadocian IE, Greek, Attic 2,800 (2015 M. Janse) Cappadocians Mandra, Neo Agioneri and Xirochori More distinct from standard Greek than Pontic Greek Cretan 600,000 Cretans Crete Greek IE, Greek, Attic 10,700,000 (2012 European Commission ) national scattered Lexical similarity: 84%–93% with Greek in Cyprus Greek, Ancient IE, Greek, Attic no known L1 speakers scattered religious language Pontic IE, Greek, Attic 200,000 (2001 Johnstone and Mandryk)- 400,000 (2009 Z. Diakonikolaou) Pontians Macedonia and Epirus(Kilkis, Pella, and Serres; Thessaloniki, Drama and Imathia) Greek and Pontic speakers reportedly do not understand each other and Pontians do not speak standard Greek Romano-Greek mixed Greek-Romani 30 (2000) Romani Thessaly, Central GreeceStructured on Greek with heavy Romani lexicon Sarakatsani IE, Greek, Doric 80,000 Sarakatsani Central Greece, Thessaly, Epirus Tsakonian IE, Greek, Doric 200 (2007 Salminen)-1,500 (2010 M. Kisilier) Tsakonians Agios Andreas, Leonidio, Prastos, Kastanitsa, Melana, Pramatefti, Sapounakeika, Sitena, and Tyros Not inherently intelligible with modern Greek.", "Lexical similarity with standard Greek: 70% or less.Other languages Albanian, Arvanitika IE, Albanian, Tosk50,000 (1993 Lunden, 2007 Salminen) Arvanites150,000 southern Euboea, Salamis, Boeotia, Attica, Peloponnese, Western Greece and the Ionian Islands, Thessaly and Central Greece, Thrace Heavily influenced by Greek.", "Christian Albanian, Tosk IE, Albanian, Tosk 10,000 (2002) Tosk Albanians Epirus and Western Macedonia(Central Florina, into Kastoria, Lehovo) Cham Tosk Arabic Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South 28,000 Arabs Assyrian Neo-Aramaic Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, Aramaic, Eastern, Central, Northeastern 2,000 Assyrians Armenian, Western IE, Armenian 20,000 (2007) Armenians scattered, Attica, Thessaly and Central Greece Aromanian IE, Italic, Romance, Eastern 50,000 (1999 Salminen)- 200,000 (1995 Greek Monitor of Human and Minority Rights) Aromanians 700,000 (Trâ Armânami Association of French Aromanians) Pindus Mountains, around Trikala, Epirus, Thessaly, Macedonia Christian Bulgarian IE, Balto-Slavic, Slavic, South, Eastern 56,200 (2014), 10–40,000 (Trudgill) Pomaks, Bulgarians Macedonia and Thrace Pomak, Muslim English IE, Germanic, West 8,000 German IE, Germanic, West L1 users: 10,800 (2011 census), L2 users: 541,000 (2012 European Commission) L1 users based on nationality Greek sign language Sign language 5,000 (2014 EUD)- 62,500 (2014 IMB) national scattered Judeo-Italian IE, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Italo-Dalmatian 50 (2007 Salminen) Jews Peloponnese, Western Greece and the Ionian Islands Kurdish, Northern IE, Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Iranian, Western, Northwestern, Kurdish 22,500 Kurds Ladino IE, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Ibero-Romance, West Iberian, Castilian 2,000 Jews Megleno-Romanian IE, Italic, Romance, Eastern 3,000 (2002)- 12,000 (1995) Megleno-Romanians Moglena Romani, Balkan IE, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Romani 40,000 (1996 B. Igla) Romani Attica; Macedonia, Peloponnese, Western Greece and the Ionian Islands, Epirus Christian, Muslim Romani, Vlax IE, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Intermediate Divisions, Western, Romani 1,000 Romani Attica, Thessaly, Central Greece, Epirus, Western Macedonia Christian Russian IE, Balto-Slavic, Slavic, East Russians Serbian IE, Balto-Slavic, Slavic, South, Western Serbs Slavic IE, Balto-Slavic, Slavic, South, Eastern 60–90,000 (Trudgill), 250,000 (2007 Boskov) Slavic-speakers of Greek Macedonia Macedonia (mainly Florina, Pella and Thessaloniki; Kastoria, Kozani, Kilkis, Imathia, Serres), Epirus (Ioannina) Christian Turkish Turkic, Southern 40,000 (L1: 9,700, L2: 30,300, 2014) Turks, Karamanlides, Pomaks Macedonia and Thrace, Aegean Muslim, Christian Turkish, Balkan Gagauz Turkic, Southern Gagauzes Urum Turkic Urums + Religious population in Greece at the 1951 Census '''Orthodox''' 7,472,559 (97.9%) '''Muslim''' 112,665 (1.4%) '''Catholic''' 28,430 (0.4%) '''Protestant and other Christian''' 12,677 (0.2%) '''Jewish''' 6,325 (0.1%) Total '''7,632,801'''According to the Greek constitution, Eastern Orthodox Christianity is recognized as the \"prevailing religion\" in Greece.", "During the centuries that Greece was part of the Ottoman Empire, besides its spiritual mandate, the Orthodox Church, based in Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), also functioned as an official representative of the Christian population of the empire.", "The Church is often credited with the preservation of the Greek language, values, and national identity during Ottoman times.", "The Church was also an important rallying point in the war for independence against the Ottoman Empire, although the official Church in Constantinople initially condemned the breakout of the armed struggle in fear of retaliation from the Ottoman side.", "The Church of Greece was established shortly after the formation of a Greek national state.", "Its authority to this day extends only to the areas included in the independent Greek state before the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913.There is a Muslim minority concentrated in Thrace and officially protected by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923).", "Besides Pomaks (Muslim Bulgarian speakers) and Roma, it consists mainly of ethnic Turks, who speak Turkish and receive instruction in Turkish at special government-funded schools.", "There are also a number of Jews in Greece, most of whom live in Thessaloniki.", "There are also some Greeks who adhere to a reconstruction of the ancient Greek religion.", "A place of worship has been recognized as such by court." ], [ "Education", "Greek education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 5 and 15.English study is compulsory from first grade through high school.", "University education, including books, is also free, contingent upon the student's ability to meet stiff entrance requirements.", "A high percentage of the student population seeks higher education.", "More than 100,000 students are registered at Greek universities, and 15% of the population currently holds a university degree.", "Admission in a university is determined by state-administered exams, the candidate's grade-point average from high school, and his/her priority choices of major.", "About one in four candidates gains admission to Greek universities.Greek law does not currently offer official recognition to the graduates of private universities that operate in the country, except for those that offer a degree valid in another European Union country, which is automatically recognized by reciprocity.", "As a result, a large and growing number of students are pursuing higher education abroad.", "The Greek Government decides through an evaluation procedure whether to recognize degrees from specific foreign universities as qualification for public sector hiring.", "Other students attend private, post-secondary educational institutions in Greece that are not recognized by the Greek Government.", "At the moment extensive public talk is made for the reform of the Constitution to recognize private higher education in Greece as equal with public and to place common regulations for both.The number of Greek students studying at European institutions is increasing along with EU support for educational exchange.", "In addition, nearly 5,000 Greeks are studying in the United States, about half of whom are in graduate school.", "Greek per capita student representation in the US (one every 2,200) is among the highest in Europe." ], [ "See also", "Demographic history of GreeceTurks of Western Thrace Immigration to GreeceMinorities in GreeceAging of EuropeAlbanian immigrants in Greece" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* General Secretariat of National Statistical Service of Greece * The World Factbook" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Greece" ], [ "Introduction", "Greece is a parliamentary representative democratic republic, where the President of Greece is the head of state and the Prime Minister of Greece is the head of government within a multi-party system.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Hellenic Parliament.", "Between the restoration of democracy in 1974 and the Greek government-debt crisis, the party system was dominated by the liberal-conservative New Democracy and the social-democratic PASOK.", "Since 2012, the anti-austerity, democratic socialist party Syriza has taken the place of PASOK as the largest left wing party, with their first election victory in January 2015.The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.The Constitution of Greece, which describes Greece as a \"presidential parliamentary republic\", includes extensive specific guarantees of civil liberties and vests the powers of the head of state in a president elected by parliament.", "The Greek governmental structure is similar to that found in many other Western democracies, and has been described as a compromise between the French and German models.", "The prime minister and cabinet play the central role in the political process, while the president performs some executive and legislative functions in addition to ceremonial duties.", "Voting in Greece is officially compulsory, but this is not enforced." ], [ "Executive branch", "The Cabinet of Greece, which is the main organ of the government, includes the heads of all executive ministries, appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister.=== President ===The President of the Republic is elected by the Parliament for a five-year term (election last held 22 January 2020), and a maximum of two terms in office.", "When a presidential term expires, Parliament votes to elect the new president.", "In the first two votes, a majority (200 votes) is necessary.", "The third and final vote requires a (180 votes) majority.If the third vote is fruitless, Parliament is dissolved and elections are proclaimed by the outgoing President within the next 30 days.", "In the new Parliament, the election for president is repeated immediately with a majority required for the initial vote, an absolute majority for the second one (151 votes) and a simple majority for the third and final one.", "The system is so designed as to promote consensus presidential candidates among the main political parties.The president has the power to declare war, to grant pardon (forgiveness) and to conclude agreements of peace, alliance, and participation in international organizations; upon the request of the government a simple parliamentary majority is required to confirm such actions, agreements, or treaties.", "An absolute or a three-fifths majority is required in exceptional cases (for example, the accession into the EU needed a majority).The president can also exercise certain emergency powers, which must be countersigned by the appropriate cabinet minister.", "The president may not dissolve parliament, dismiss the government, suspend certain articles of the constitution, issue a proclamation or declare a state of siege without countersigning by the prime minister or the appropriate cabinet minister.", "To call a referendum, they must obtain approval from parliament.", "They can appoint ministers after they are recommended by the Prime Minister.", "Although not official, the president of Greece is usually from the main opposition party so that the government and opposition can agree and not host elections.", "Sometimes they are chosen from outside the political ranks.", "Currently, the president of Greece is Katerina Sakellaropoulou, the eighth and first female President of Greece since the restoration of democracy in 1974.=== Prime minister ===The prime minister is elected by the Parliament and is usually the leader of the party controlling the absolute majority of MPs.", "According to the Constitution, the prime minister safeguards the unity of the government and directs its activities.", "Although officially holding the second highest rank as head of the Hellenic government and not the Republic, they are the most powerful person of the Greek political system and recommends ministers to the President for appointment or dismissal.", "Although officially just head of Government, not of state, they conduct professional business and the President is just the Supreme Executive.=== Maintaining the support of parliament ===Greek parliamentary politics hinge upon the principle of the \"\" (pronounced \"dhedhilom'''e'''ni\"), the \"declared confidence\" of Parliament to the Prime Minister and his/her administration.", "This means that the president of the Republic is bound to appoint, as prime minister, a person who will be approved by a majority of the Parliament's members (i.e.", "151 votes).", "With the current electoral system, it is the leader of the party gaining a plurality of the votes in the Parliamentary elections who is appointed prime minister.An administration may at any time seek a \"vote of confidence\".", "Conversely a number of members of parliament may ask that a \"vote of reproach\" be taken.", "Both are rare occurrences with usually predictable outcomes as voting outside the party line happens very seldom." ], [ "Legislative branch", "The Greek Parliament building, which was the Old Royal PalaceGreece elects a legislature by universal suffrage of all citizens over the age of 17 (changed in 2018).", "The Greek Parliament (Βουλή των Ελλήνων) has 300 members, elected for a four-year term by a system of reinforced proportional representation in 48 multi-seat constituencies, 8 single-seat constituencies and a single nationwide list.", "288 of the 300 seats are determined by constituency voting, and voters may select the candidate or candidates of their choice by marking their name on the party ballot.", "The remaining 12 seats are filled from nationwide party lists on a top-down basis and based on the proportion of the total vote each party received.Greece uses a complex reinforced proportional representation electoral system which discourages splinter parties and makes a parliamentary majority possible even if the leading party falls short of a majority of the popular vote.", "Under the current electoral law, any single party must receive at least a 3% nationwide vote tally to elect members of parliament (the so-called \"3% threshold\").", "The largest party gets a 50-seat bonus (out of 300 seats) ostensibly to ensure elections return viable governing majorities.", "Various times throughout the years, the system has been changed, and parties often fall short of the 151 seats required to have a majority, so they create coalition.", "The law in its current form favors the first past the post party to achieve an absolute (151 parliamentary seats) majority, provided it receives a 41%+ nationwide vote.", "This is touted to enhance governmental stability.", "These electoral laws can be changed by simple parliamentary majority, but a law so changed will not come into effect for two election cycles unless passed by a majority in the Hellenic Parliament." ], [ "Judicial branch", "Council of State is seatedIn Greece the judicial branch is divided into civil, and administrative courts.", "Civil courts judge civil and penal cases, whereas administrative courts judge administrative cases, namely disputes between the citizens and the State.The judicial system of Greece comprises three Supreme Courts: the Court of Cassation (Άρειος Πάγος), the Council of State (Συμβούλιο της Επικρατείας) and the Chamber of Accounts (Ελεγκτικό Συνέδριο).", "These high courts are composed of professional judges, graduates of the National School of Judges.", "The way the judges are gradually promoted, until they become members of the Supreme Courts, is defined by the Constitution and the existing laws.", "The presidents and the vice-presidents of the three Supreme Courts are chosen by the Cabinet of Greece among the serving members of each of the Supreme Courts.The Court of Cassation is the supreme civil and penal court, whereas the Council of State is the supreme administrative court.", "The Chamber of Accounts has an exclusive jurisdiction over certain administrative areas (for example it judges disputes arising from the legislation regulating the pensions of civil servants) and its decisions are irrevocable.", "This means that they are not judged at second instance by the Council of State.Sometimes, the Supreme Courts take contradictory decisions or they judge differently the constitutionality of a legal provision.", "These disputes are resolved by the Supreme Special Court, whose composition and jurisdiction is regulated by the Constitution (article 100).", "As its name reveals, this court is not permanent and it sits when a special case belonging to its jurisdiction arises.", "When the Supreme Special Court sits, it comprises eleven members: the presidents of the three Supreme Courts, four members of the Court of Cassation and four members of the Council of State.When it judges the constitutionality of a law or resolves the disputes between Supreme Courts, its composition comprises two more members: two professors of the Law Schools of Greece.", "The Supreme Special Court is the only court which can declare an unconstitutional legal provision as \"powerless\" (something like \"null and void\"), while the three Supreme Courts can only declare an unconstitutional legal provision as \"inapplicable\" to that particular case.", "The Supreme Special Court is also the Supreme Electoral Court, judging pleas against the legality of the legislative elections." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "The administrative divisions of Greece, showing administrative regions and regional unitsGreece is divided into 13 administrative regions which are further divided into 74 regional units.", "The 13 administrative regions (Περιφέρειες, Periféries) are each headed by a popularly elected governor (Περιφερειάρχης, Periferiárhis) and presided over by the popularly elected regional council (Περιφερειακό Συμβούλιο, Periferiakó Simvoúlio).", "Each of the 74 regional units (Περιφερειακές Ενότητες, Periferiakés Enóti̱tes) are headed by a vice governor (Αντιπεριφερειάρχης, Antiperiferiárhis), who is taken from the same political party as the elected governor.", "The 13 regions are mostly political and geographically.", "Greece is home to nine regions: Thrace, with the capital Alexandroupolis, Macedonia, with the capital of Thessaloniki; Epirus; Central Greece; Peloponnese; the Ionian Islands; the Aegean islands; Crete; and Athens.Greece's 74 regional units are divided into 325 municipalities (Δήμοι, Dhími) which are led by a popularly elected mayor (Δήμαρχος, Dhímarhos) and municipal council (Δημοτικό Συμβούλιο, Dhimotikó Simvoúlio).", "Each municipality is divided into small municipal units (Δημοτικές Ενότητες, Dhimotikés Enótites) which in turn contain municipal communities (relatively urban communities) and local communities (relatively rural communities).", "Municipal councils select community members to serve on more local town hall councils which focus on local needs in the municipality's communities and give local feedback to the municipal government.Although municipalities and villages have elected officials, they often do not have an adequate independent revenue base and must depend on the central government budget for a large part of their financial needs.", "Consequently, they are subject to numerous central government controls.", "This also leads to extremely low municipal taxes (usually around 0.2% or less).Greece also includes one autonomous region, the monastic community of the Holy Mountain, Mount Athos." ], [ "Foreign relations", "As one of the first Euro-Atlantic member states in the region of Southeast Europe, Greece enjoys a prominent geopolitical role, due to its political and geographical proximity to Europe, Asia, the Middle East, and Africa.", "Its main allies are France, United Kingdom, Italy, Bulgaria, United States, the other NATO countries and the European Union.Greece also maintains strong diplomatic relations with Cyprus, Albania, Russia, Serbia, Armenia and Israel, while at the same time focuses at improving further the good relations with Egypt and the Arab World, Caucasus, India and China.", "As member of both the EU and the Union for the Mediterranean, Greece is a key player in the eastern Mediterranean region and has encouraged the collaboration between neighbors, as well as promoting the Energy Triangle, for gas exports to Europe.", "Greece also has the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor.Prominent issues in Hellenic foreign policy include the claims in the Aegean Sea and Eastern Mediterranean by Turkey and the Turkish occupation of Cyprus." ], [ "Notable politicians of Greece", "===Former===* Evangelos Averoff* Georgios Christakis-Zografos* Epameinondas Deligiorgis* Theodoros Deligiannis* Ion Dragoumis* Stephanos Dragoumis* Dimitrios Gounaris* Ilias Iliou* Dimitrios Kallergis* Konstantinos Kanaris* Panagiotis Kanellopoulos* Ioannis Kapodistrias* Konstantinos Karamanlis* Ioannis Kolettis* Alexandros Koumoundouros* Leonidas Kyrkos* Grigoris Lambrakis* Spyros Markezinis* Alexandros Mavrokordatos* Andreas Metaxas* Ioannis Metaxas* Konstantinos Mitsotakis* Alexandros Panagoulis* Alexandros Papagos* Alexandros Papanastasiou* Andreas Papandreou* Georgios Papandreou* Nikolaos Plastiras* Georgios Rallis* Alexandros Rizos Rangavis* Ioannis Sfakianakis* Themistoklis Sofoulis* Konstantinos Stephanopoulos* Georgios Theotokis* Charilaos Trikoupis* Spyridon Trikoupis* Eleftherios Venizelos* Sofoklis Venizelos* Nikos Zachariadis* Alexandros Zaimis===Current===* Dimitris Avramopoulos (former Mayor of Athens)* Dora Bakoyannis (former Mayor of Athens)* Kostas Bakoyannis (Mayor of Athens since 2019)* Stavros Dimas (former European Commissioner for the Environment and Secretary of the State)* Maria Damanaki (former Leader of SYN)* Nikos Dendias (Secretary of the State)* Anna Diamantopoulou (former Secretary of Education, Lifelong Learning and Religious Affairs)* Pavlos Geroulanos (former Secretary of Culture and Tourism)* Kostis Hatzidakis (Secretary of the Labor and Social Affairs)* Kostas Karamanlis (former prime minister)* Nikos Kotzias (former Secretary of the State)* Dimitris Koutsoumpas (General Secretary of Communist Party of Greece)* Fotis Kouvelis (former Leader of DIMAR)* Stefanos Manos (former Secretary of the Treasury)* Kyriakos Mitsotakis (Prime Minister)* Dimitrios Papadimoulis (Vice-President of the European Parliament)* George Papandreou (former prime minister and Leader of Socialist International)* Giannis Ragousis (Former Secretary of the Interior)* Katerina Sakellaropoulou (President of the Hellenic Republic)* Antonis Samaras (former prime minister)* Alexis Tsipras (former prime minister)* Euclid Tsakalotos (former Secretary of the Treasury)* Stavros Theodorakis (former Leader of To Potami)* Yanis Varoufakis (Former Secretary of the Treasury)* Kyriakos Velopoulos (leader of Greek Solution)* Evangelos Venizelos (former Secretary of National Defense)" ], [ "Political issues", "=== Education ===A working class political protest in Athens, Greece calling for the boycott of a local bookshop after, allegedly, an employee was fired for her political activismUnder the Greek constitution, education is the responsibility of the state.", "Most Greeks attend public primary and secondary schools.", "There are a few private schools, which must meet the standard curriculum of and are supervised by the Ministry of Education.", "The Ministry of Education oversees and directs every aspect of the public education process at all levels, including hiring all teachers and professors and producing all required textbooks.====Non-state owned universities====A recent issue concerning education in Greece is the institutionalisation of private universities.", "According to the constitution only state-run universities operate on the land.", "However, in recent years many foreign private universities have established branches in Greece, offering bachelor's level degrees, thus creating a legal contradiction between the Greek constitution and the EU laws allowing foreign companies to operate anywhere in the Union.", "At the outset of 2006, prime minister Kostas Karamanlis announced the initiative of his government for a new amendment of the Constitution.", "According to his assertion one of the main issues of this amendment (the second within less than 10 years) is going to be the creation of \"non-state owned\" universities.=== Illegal immigration ===Greece has problems with illegal immigration, especially from or via Turkey.", "Greek authorities believe that 90% of illegal immigrants in the EU enter through Greece, many fleeing because of unrest and poverty in the Middle East and Africa.Several European courts have held that Greece is not complying with minimum standards of treatment for asylum seekers, so that illegal migrants who reach other countries cannot be sent back to Greece.Numerous solutions have been proposed by the Greek government such as building a fence on the Turkish border and setting up detention camps.=== Judicial system ===One of the main problems of the system is the long-time process needed, even for a simple case, something that negatively impacts investment, entrepreneurship, social relations, corporate governance, and public governance.", "Also corruption cases have appeared during the last years, such as the ''Paradikastiko'' organization scandal.Manipulation of the judicial system and its decisions by each government, is another common phenomenon which violates the independency of the system.====Prisons====There are three prison types in Greece: general, special, and therapeutic prisons.", "General prisons include three different types of inmates: type A, type B, and type C. Special prisons include rural units, juvenile institutions, and semi-liberty centers.", "One example of a special prison would be an agricultural prison.", "The last type is a therapeutic prison, which includes hospitals and rehab centers for inmates.Within these centers the percentage of female prisoners is 5.5%, which amounts to around 538 prisoners.", "The percentage of juveniles in Greek prison is 2.9%.", "Greece's occupancy rate in prisons is 99%, which means that its prisons are near full capacity.", "With some exceptions occupancy exceeds 100%, and in some establishments, it reaches, or surpasses, 300%.", "Because of this the Greek Justice Ministry and the European Council want to improve Greek prison conditions.", "These improvements include training for guards, improving of medical facilities, and better treatment of prisoners.", "These selected improvements are three human rights that the Greek correctional system would like to tackle.=== Media ===The Greek media, collectively, is a very influential institution – usually aggressive, sensationalist.", "As with many countries, most of the media are owned by businesses with commercial interests in other sectors of the economy.", "There are often accusations of newspapers, magazines, and radio and television channels being used to promote their commercial enterprises as well as to seek political influence.In 1994, the Ministry of Press and Media was established to deal with media and communication issues.", "ERT S.A., a public corporation supervised by the Minister of Press, operates three national television channels and five national radio channels.", "The Minister of Press also serves as the primary government spokesperson.The Secretary General of Press and Information prepares the semi-official Athens News Agency (ANA) Bulletin.", "Along with AP and Reuters, this is a primary source of information for the Greek press.", "The Ministry of Press and Information also issues the semi-official Macedonian News Agency (MPE) Bulletin, which is distributed throughout the Balkan region.", "For international news, CNN is a particular influence in the Greek market; the major television channels often use it as a source.", "State and private television stations also use Eurovision and Visnews as sources.", "While few papers and stations have overseas correspondents, those few correspondents abroad can be very influential.In 1988, a new law provided the legal framework for the establishment of private radio stations and, in 1989, private television stations.", "According to the law, supervision of radio and television is exercised by the National Radio and Television Council.", "In practice, however, official licensing has been delayed for many years.", "Because of this, there has been a proliferation of private radio and television stations, as well as European satellite channels, including Euronews.", "More than 1,000 radio stations were operating before March 2002, when the government implemented plans to reallocate television frequencies and issue licenses as authorized by the 1993 Media Law, effectively reducing this number.====Media freedom====In 2011, the government proposed new measures that will restrict the freedom of speech in the internet.", "According to some proposals, every individual who would like to use free platforms, such like Blogspot or WordPress.com will be forced to get officially registered in the courts, as due to tough austerity measures web sites that criticize the government and the political system in general have been multiplied.Press freedom sharply eroded in Greece during the economic and financial crisis of 2008 – 2019, passing from the 35th place in 2009 in Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index to the 99th place in 2014, well below all Western Balkans countries as well as states with repressive media policies such as Gabon, Kuwait or Liberia.", "Greece is today the EU member state \"where journalism and the media face their most acute crisis\".", "In 2022, Greece ranked 27th in the EU and 108 out of 180 countries according to Reporters Without Borders.", "=====Petsas's List=====Cabinet of Kyriakos Mitsotakis allocated €19,832,132.94 to media and press.", "After pressure from the opposition, Stylianos Petsas, then government representative, published the list.", "Less than 1% of the 20 million euros of the campaign was given to the opposition press.", "According to OGG 475BB/27-10-2020, a Second \"Petsas's List\" was announced, this time exclusively on nationwide free-to-air stations.", "This was followed by the vaccination campaign, amounting to 18,500,000 euros and the Plevris List with total amounts of 4,960,000 euros.", "=== Military service ===Twelve months for all males of 18 years of age; Compulsory with fines and imprisonment if denied, but neither fine nor imprisonment has been imposed since 1994, where the last warrant against a draft-dodger was issued.", "Members of families with three children serve a reduced time of six months.", "Military service can also be substituted with a longer public service, which by the standards of Amnesty International, ought to be considered punitive as it is twice as long as the regular tour of duty.Limited steps have been taken to turn the Greek military into a semi-professional army in the last years, leading to the gradual reduction of the service from 18 to 12 to 9 months and the inclusion of a greater number of professional military personnel in most vertices of the force.", "Recent developments, though, within the anti-conscription movement in Greece, such as the high death rate from suicides during service and work-related accidents, such as the Manitsa incident, combined with a high rate of draft-dodging, have advanced the idea that mandatory conscription should be abolished and an all-professional/all-volunteer army should be put in place.==== Military spending ====Greece directs approximately 1.7% of its GDP to military expenditures, the 7th highest percentage in Europe.", "In absolute numbers the Greek military budget ranked 28th in the world in 2005.By the same measure, Greek military budget ranked 6th in the Mediterranean basin (behind France, Italy, Turkey, Israel and Spain) and 2nd (behind Turkey) in its immediate vicinity, the Balkans.", "Greek arms purchasing is among the highest in the world: Greece ranked 3rd in the world in 2004.These figures are explained in the light of the arms race between Greece and Turkey with key issues being the Cyprus dispute and disagreement over sovereignty of certain islets of the Aegean.", "For more information see Greco-Turkish relations.", "Conversely, the foreign relations of Greece as well as many internal policy decisions are largely affected by its arms purchases.", "The United States, being the major arms seller to Greece has been known to actively intervene in military spending decisions made by the Greek government.", "The US has at times actively stepped in to help avoid large scale crisis, as in the case of the Imia-Kardak crisis.The reduction of military spending has long been an issue in Greek politics.", "The former prime minister, Kostas Karamanlis had proposed a reduction to military spending through a \"Defence Eurozone\", referring to the European Security and Defence Policy.", "The previous PASOK administration, also planned on reducing military spending prior to its failure to be re-elected in 2004, while PASOK politicians usually refer to money saved from reducing military spending as a \"peace dividend\" (\"μέρισμα ειρήνης\").Some of the parties on the left, such as the Communist Party of Greece and Synaspismos, have been vocal in condemning military spending.", "Regarding the purchase of 30 F-16 and 333 Leopard tanks in 2005, both parties criticized the New Democracy administration for spending money on weapons while doing nothing to relieve the lower classes and said that high military spending \"does not correspond to the real needs of the country but is carried out according to NATO planning and to serve weapon manufacturers and the countries that host them\".=== Church-state relations ===The Greek Orthodox Church is under the protection of the State, which pays the clergy's salaries, and Orthodox Christianity is the \"'prevailing\" religion of Greece according to the Constitution.", "The Greek Orthodox Church is self-governing but under the spiritual guidance of the Ecumenical Patriarch in Constantinople.", "Freedom of religious beliefs is guaranteed by the Constitution, but \"proselytism\" is officially illegal.", "According to the most recent Eurostat \"Eurobarometer\" poll, in 2005, 81% of Greek citizens responded that \"they believe there is a God\", whereas 16% answered that \"they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force\" and only 3% that \"they do not believe there is a God, spirit, nor life force\".", "This would make Greece one of the most religious countries in the European Union of 25 members, after Malta and Cyprus.The Muslim minority, concentrated in Thrace, was given legal status by provisions of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) and is Greece's only officially recognized religious minority.", "There are small Roman Catholic communities on some of the Cyclades and the Ionian Islands, remnants of the long Venetian rule over the islands.", "The recent influx of (mostly illegal) immigrants from Eastern Europe and the Third World has an expectedly varied multi-religious profile (Roman Catholic, Muslim, Hindu etc.", ").During the 2001 constitutional amendment, complete separation of church and state was proposed, but the two major parties, ND and PASOK, decided not to open this controversial matter, which clashes with both the population and the clergy.", "For example, numerous protests occurred over the removal of the Religious Denomination entry from the National ID card in 2000." ], [ "Since 2015", "More left-wing Syriza overtook PASOK as the main party of the centre-left.Alexis Tsipras led Syriza to victory in the general election held on 25 January 2015, falling short of an outright majority in Parliament by just two seats.", "Syriza gained support by opposing the austerity policy that had affected Greeks since the beginning of the Greek government-debt crisis.", "The following morning, Tsipras reached an agreement with Independent Greeks party to form a coalition, and he was sworn in as Prime Minister of Greece.", "Tsipras called snap elections in August 2015, resigning from his post, which led to a month-long caretaker administration headed by judge Vassiliki Thanou-Christophilou, Greece's first female prime minister.", "In the September 2015 general election, Alexis Tsipras led Syriza to another victory, winning 145 out of 300 seats and re-forming the coalition with the Independent Greeks.", "However, he was defeated in the July 2019 general election by Kyriakos Mitsotakis who leads New Democracy.", "On 7 July 2019, Kyriakos Mitsotakis was sworn in as the new Prime Minister of Greece.", "He formed a centre-right government after the landslide victory of his New Democracy party.In March 2020, Greece's parliament elected a non-partisan candidate, Ekaterini Sakellaropoulou, as the first female President of Greece.", "In June 2023, conservative New Democracy party won the legislative election, meaning another four-year term as prime minister for Kyriakos Mitsotakis.According to the V-Dem Democracy indices Greece was 2023 the 37th most electoral democratic country in the world.In february 7, Members of the European Parliament approved a critical resolution about the \"worrying\" decline of the rule of law in Greece, pointing the finger at Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis.", "The non-binding text details a string of concerns about the current state of Greek democracy, including harassment of journalists, privacy violations, wiretapping of political opponents, excessive use of police force, conflicts of interests, alleged corruption, smear campaigns against civil society and the \"systematic\" pushbacks of migrants.", "Thus, Greece is the lowest-ranking EU country in the World Press Freedom Index curated by Reporters Without Borders (RSF), with an abysmal score of 55.2 points, considerably worse than Hungary (62.96), Bulgaria (62.98) and Poland (67.66).", "One of the reasons behind the ranking is the 2022 scandal known as Predatorgate, where cabinet members, political opponents and journalists were subject to prolonged surveillance.", "The scandal exposed Mitsotakis, who personally controls the Greek National Intelligence Service, to international censure but failed to dampen his electoral standing." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Greek Politics Specialist Group (GPSG) of the UK's Political Studies Association* Official election results, via the Greek Ministry of Internal Affairs* ekloges.gr, Greek elections* Official website of the Prime Minister of Greece* Greece the first country in the globe in terms of student export* Greek politics community forums* Greece and eurozone in crisis, dossier by Radio France Internationale in English June 2010" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Greece" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Greece''' is the 53rd largest in the world, with a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of $242.385 billion per annum.", "In terms of purchasing power parity, Greece is the world's 54th largest economy, at $416.969 billion per annum.", "As of 2022, Greece is the sixteenth-largest economy in the European Union.", "According to the International Monetary Fund's figures for 2023, Greece's GDP per capita is $23,173 at nominal value and $39,864 at purchasing power parity.Greece is a developed country with an economy based on the service (80%) and industrial sectors (16%), with the agricultural sector contributing an estimated 4% of national economic output in 2017.Important Greek industries include tourism and shipping.", "With 31.3 million international tourists in 2019, Greece was the 7th most visited country in the European Union and 13th in the world.", "marking a steady increase from 18 million tourists in 2013.The Greek Merchant Navy is the largest in the world, with Greek-owned vessels accounting for 21% of global deadweight tonnage as of 2021; The total capacity of the Greek-owned fleet has increased by 45.8% compared to 2014.The increased demand for international maritime transportation between Greece and Asia has resulted in unprecedented investment in the shipping industry.The country is a significant agricultural producer within the EU.", "Greece has the largest economy in the Balkans and is an important regional investor.", "Greece was the largest foreign investor in Albania in 2013, the third in Bulgaria, in the top-three in Romania and Serbia and the most important trading partner and largest foreign investor in North Macedonia.", "The Greek telecommunications company OTE has become a strong investor in certain former Yugoslav and other Balkan countries.Greece is classified as an advanced, high-income economy, and was a founding member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and of the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC).", "The country joined what is now the European Union in 1981.In 2001 Greece adopted the euro as its currency, replacing the Greek drachma at an exchange rate of 340.75 drachmae per euro.", "Greece is a member of the International Monetary Fund and of the World Trade Organization, and ranked 34th on Ernst & Young's Globalization Index 2011.World War II (1939–1945) devastated the country's economy, but the high levels of economic growth that followed from 1950 to 1980 have been called the Greek economic miracle.", "From 2000 Greece saw high levels of GDP growth above the Eurozone average, peaking at 5.8% in 2003 and 5.7% in 2006.The subsequent Great Recession and Greek government-debt crisis, a central focus of the wider European debt crisis, plunged the economy into a sharp downturn, with real GDP growth rates of −0.3% in 2008, −4.3% in 2009, −5.5% in 2010, −10.1% in 2011, −7.1% in 2012 and −2.5% in 2013.In 2011, the country's public debt reached €356 billion (172% of nominal GDP).", "After negotiating the biggest debt restructuring in history with the private sector, which sustained losses in the order of €100 billion for private bond investors, Greece reduced its sovereign debt burden to €280 billion (137% of GDP) in the first quarter of 2012.Greece achieved a real GDP growth rate of 0.5% in 2014—after 6 years of economic decline—but contracted by 0.2% in 2015 and by 0.5% in 2016.The country returned to modest growth rates of 1.1% in 2017, 1.7% in 2018 and 1.9% in 2019.GDP contracted by 9% in 2020 during the global recession caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.", "However, the economy rebounded by 8.4% in 2021 and 5.9% in 2022.On 20 August 2022, Greece formally exited the EU's \"enhanced surveillance framework\", which had been in place since the conclusion of the third bailout programme exactly four years earlier.", "According to Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis, the event heralded \"greater national leeway in our economic choices\" and marked the end of a \"12-year cycle that brought pain to citizens\".", "On 2 December 2022, Berlin-based credit rating agency Scope assigned a positive outlook to Greece's BB+ rating, presaging the country's return to investment grade.", "On 31 July 2023, Greece's investment-grade status was restored by Japanese credit rating agency R&I.", "Scope, DBRS, S&P and Fitch followed suit on 4 August, 8 September, 20 October and 1 December respectively.", "''The Economist'' ranked Greece the world's top economic performer for 2022 and 2023, citing significant improvements in five key economic and financial indicators.", "Tourism reached an all-time record in 2023, with approximately 32 million tourists making Greece one of the most visited countries in the world." ], [ "History", "Export of raisin from the port of Patras, late 19th centuryHistorical GDP per capita developmentThe evolution of the Greek economy during the 19th century (a period that transformed a large part of the world because of the Industrial Revolution) has been little researched.", "Recent research from 2006 examines the gradual development of industry and further development of shipping in a predominantly agricultural economy, calculating an average rate of per capita GDP growth between 1833 and 1911 that was only slightly lower than that of the other Western European nations.", "Industrial activity, (including heavy industry like shipbuilding) was evident, mainly in Ermoupolis and Piraeus.", "Nonetheless, Greece faced economic hardships and defaulted on its external loans in 1843, 1860 and 1893.Other studies support the above view on the general trends in the economy, providing comparative measures of standard of living.", "The per capita income (in purchasing power terms) of Greece was 65% that of France in 1850, 56% in 1890, 62% in 1938, 75% in 1980, 90% in 2007, 96.4% in 2008 and 97.9% in 2009.The country's post-World War II development has largely been connected with the Greek economic miracle.", "During that period, Greece saw growth rates second only to those of Japan, while ranking first in Europe in terms of GDP growth.", "It is indicative that between 1960 and 1973 the Greek economy grew by an average of 7.7%, in contrast to 4.7% for the EU15 and 4.9% for the OECD.", "Also during that period, exports grew by an average annual rate of 12.6%.=== Strengths and weaknesses ===Greece enjoys a high standard of living and very high Human Development Index, being ranked 32nd in the world in 2019.However, the severe recession of recent years saw GDP per capita fall from 94% of the EU average in 2009 to 67% between 2017 and 2019.During the same period, Actual Individual Consumption (AIC) per capita fell from 104% to 78% of the EU average.Greece's main industries are tourism, shipping, industrial products, food and tobacco processing, textiles, chemicals, metal products, mining and petroleum.", "Greece's GDP growth has also, as an average, since the early 1990s been higher than the EU average.", "However, the Greek economy continues to face significant problems, including high unemployment levels, inefficient public sector bureaucracy, tax evasion, corruption and low global competitiveness.Greece is ranked 51st in the world, and 21st among EU member states alongside Cyprus, on the Corruption Perceptions Index.", "Thus, it has roughly returned to its ranking prior to the 2010–2018 debt crisis.", "However, Greece still has the EU's lowest Index of Economic Freedom and second lowest Global Competitiveness Index, ranking 107th and 59th in the world respectively.GDP growth rates of the Greek economy between 1961 and 2010After fourteen consecutive years of economic growth, Greece went into recession in 2008.By the end of 2009, the Greek economy faced the highest budget deficit and government debt-to-GDP ratio in the EU.", "After several upward revisions, the 2009 budget deficit is now estimated at 15.7% of GDP.", "This, combined with rapidly rising debt levels (127.9% of GDP in 2009) led to a precipitous increase in borrowing costs, effectively shutting Greece out of the global financial markets and resulting in a severe economic crisis.Greece was accused of trying to cover up the extent of its massive budget deficit in the wake of the global financial crisis.", "The allegation was prompted by the massive revision of the 2009 budget deficit forecast by the new PASOK government elected in October 2009, from \"6–8%\" (estimated by the previous New Democracy government) to 12.7% (later revised to 15.7%).", "However, the accuracy of the revised figures has also been questioned, and in February 2012 the Hellenic Parliament voted in favor of an official investigation following accusations by a former member of the Hellenic Statistical Authority that the deficit had been artificially inflated in order to justify harsher austerity measures.Average GDP growth by era 1961–1970 8.44%1971–1980 4.70%1981–1990 0.70%1991–20002.36%2001–2007 4.11%2008–2011−4.8%2012–2015−2.52%2016-20191.05%2020-20221.78%The Greek labor force, which amount around workers, average 2,032 hours of work per worker annually in 2011, is ranked fourth among OECD countries, after Mexico, South Korea and Chile.", "The Groningen Growth & Development Centre has published a poll revealing that between 1995 and 2005, Greece was the country whose workers have the most hours/year work among European nations; Greeks worked an average of 1,900 hours per year, followed by Spaniards (average of 1,800 hours/year).As a result of the ongoing economic crisis, industrial production in the country went down by 8% between March 2010 and March 2011, The volume of building activity saw a reduction of 73% in 2010.Additionally, the turnover in retail sales saw a decline of 9% between February 2010 and February 2011.Between 2008 and 2013 unemployment skyrocketed, from a generational low of 7.2% in the second and third quarters of 2008 to a high of 27.9% in June 2013, leaving over a million jobless.", "Youth unemployment peaked at 64.9% in May 2013.Unemployment figures have steadily improved in recent years, with the overall rate falling to 9.2% and youth unemployment dropping to 22.3% in December 2023.===Eurozone entry===+ Average Public Debt-to-GDP(1909–2008) Country Average PublicDebt-to-GDP (% of GDP) United Kingdom 104.7 Belgium86.0 Italy76.0 Canada71.0 France 62.6 Greece 60.2 United States 47.1 Germany 32.1Greece entered the Eurozone in 2001Greece was accepted into the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union by the European Council on 19 June 2000, based on a number of criteria (inflation rate, budget deficit, public debt, long-term interest rates, exchange rate) using 1999 as the reference year.", "After an audit commissioned by the incoming New Democracy government in 2004, Eurostat revealed that the statistics for the budget deficit had been under-reported.", "However, even after all corrections that followed, the reference year budget deficit did not exceed the allowable upper limit (3%) according to the Eurostat accounting method in force at the time of application, and thus Greece had still met all critiera for Eurozone entry (details given below).Most of the differences in the revised budget deficit numbers were due to a temporary change of accounting practices by the new government, i.e., recording expenses when military material was ordered rather than received.", "However, it was the retroactive application of ESA95 methodology (applied since 2000) by Eurostat, that finally raised the reference year (1999) budget deficit to 3.38% of GDP, thus exceeding the 3% limit.", "This led to claims that Greece (similar claims have been made about other European countries like Italy)had not actually met all five accession criteria, and the common perception that Greece entered the Eurozone through \"falsified\" deficit numbers.In the 2005 OECD report for Greece, it was clearly stated that \"the impact of new accounting rules on the fiscal figures for the years 1997 to 1999 ranged from 0.7 to 1 percentage point of GDP; this retroactive change of methodology was responsible for the revised deficit exceeding 3% in 1999, the year of Greece's EMU membership qualification\".", "The above led the Greek minister of finance to clarify that the 1999 budget deficit was below the prescribed 3% limit when calculated with the ESA79 methodology in force at the time of Greece's application, and thus the criteria had been met.The original accounting practice for military expenses was later restored in line with Eurostat recommendations, theoretically lowering even the ESA95-calculated 1999 Greek budget deficit to below 3% (an official Eurostat calculation is still pending for 1999).An error sometimes made is the confusion of discussion regarding Greece's Eurozone entry with the controversy regarding usage of derivatives' deals with U.S. Banks by Greece and other Eurozone countries to artificially reduce their reported budget deficits.", "A currency swap arranged with Goldman Sachs allowed Greece to \"hide\" 2.8 billion Euros of debt, however, this affected deficit values after 2001 (when Greece had already been admitted into the Eurozone) and is not related to Greece's Eurozone entry.A study of the period 1999–2009 by forensic accountants has found that data submitted to Eurostat by Greece, among other countries, had a statistical distribution indicative of manipulation; \"Greece with a mean value of 17.74, shows the largest deviation from Benford's law among the members of the eurozone, followed by Belgium with a value of 17.21 and Austria with a value of 15.25\".", "=== 2010–2018 government debt crisis ===Greece's debt percentage since 1977, compared to the average of the Eurozone==== Historical Debt ====Greece, like other European nations, had faced debt crises in the 19th century, as well as a similar crisis in 1932 during the Great Depression.", "In general, however, during the 20th century it enjoyed one of the highest GDP growth rates on the planet (for a quarter century from the early 1950s to mid 1970s, second in the world after Japan).", "Average Greek government debt-to-GDP for the entire century before the crisis (1909-2008) was lower than that for the UK, Canada, or France, while for the 30-year period (1952-1981) until entrance into the European Economic Community, the Greek government debt-to-GDP ratio averaged only 19.8%.Between 1981 and 1993 Greece's government debt-to-GDP ratio steadily rose, surpassing the average of what is today the Eurozone in the mid-1980s (see chart right).For the next 15 years, from 1993 to 2007 (i.e., before the Financial crisis of 2007–2008), Greece's government debt-to-GDP ratio remained roughly unchanged (the value was not affected by the 2004 Athens Olympics), averaging 102% - a value lower than that for Italy (107%) and Belgium (110%) during the same 15-year period, and comparable to that for the U.S. or the OECD average in 2017.During the latter period, the country's annual budget deficit usually exceeded 3% of GDP, but its effect on the debt-to-GDP ratio was counterbalanced by high GDP growth rates.", "The debt-to-GDP values for 2006 and 2007 (about 105%) were established after audits resulted in corrections according to Eurostat methodology, of up to 10 percentage points for the particular years (as well as similar corrections for the years 2008 and 2009).", "These corrections, although altering the debt level by a maximum of about 10%, resulted in a popular notion that \"Greece was previously hiding its debt\".==== Evolution of the debt crisis ====The Greek crisis was triggered by the turmoil of the Great Recession, which led the budget deficits of several Western nations to reach or exceed 10% of GDP.", "In Greece's case, the high budget deficit (which, after several corrections, was revealed that it had been allowed to reach 10.2% and 15.1% of GDP in 2008 and 2009, respectively) was coupled with a high public debt to GDP ratio (which, until then, was relatively stable for several years, at just above 100% of GDP - as calculated after all corrections).", "Thus, the country appeared to lose control of its public debt to GDP ratio, which already reached 127% of GDP in 2009.In addition, being a member of the Eurozone, the country had essentially no autonomous monetary policy flexibility.", "Finally, there was an effect of controversies about Greek statistics (due the aforementioned drastic budget deficit revisions which lead to an increase in the calculated value of the Greek public debt by about 10%, i.e., a public debt to GDP of about 100% until 2007), while there have been arguments about a possible effect of media reports.", "Consequently, Greece was \"punished\" by the markets which increased borrowing rates, making impossible for the country to finance its debt since early 2010.Thus, the Greek economy faced its most-severe crisis since the restoration of democracy in 1974 as the Greek government revised its deficit forecasts from 3.7% in early 2009 and 6% in September 2009, to 12.7% of gross domestic product (GDP) in October 2009.The aforementioned budget deficit and debt revisions were connected with findings that, through the assistance of Goldman Sachs, JPMorgan Chase and numerous other banks, financial products were developed which enabled the governments of Greece, Italy and many other European countries to hide parts of their borrowing.", "Dozens of similar agreements were concluded across Europe whereby banks supplied cash in advance in exchange for future payments by the governments involved; in turn, the liabilities of the involved countries were \"kept off the books\".According to ''Der Spiegel'', credits given to European governments were disguised as \"swaps\" and consequently did not get registered as debt because Eurostat at the time ignored statistics involving financial derivatives.", "A German derivatives dealer had commented to ''Der Spiegel'' that \"The Maastricht rules can be circumvented quite legally through swaps,\" and \"In previous years, Italy used a similar trick to mask its true debt with the help of a different US bank.\"", "These conditions had enabled Greek as well as many other European governments to spend beyond their means, while meeting the deficit targets of the European Union and the monetary union guidelines.", "In May 2010, the Greek government deficit was again revised and estimated to be 13.6% which was among the highest relative to GDP, with Iceland in first place at 15.7% and the United Kingdom third with 12.6%.", "Public debt was forecast, according to some estimates, to hit 120% of GDP during 2010.Greek bondsAs a consequence, there was a crisis in international confidence in Greece's ability to repay its sovereign debt, as reflected by the rise of the country's borrowing rates (although their slow rise – the 10-year government bond yield only exceeded 7% in April 2010 – coinciding with a large number of negative articles, has led to arguments about the role of international news media in the evolution of the crisis).", "In order to avert a default (as high borrowing rates effectively prohibited access to the markets), in May 2010 the other Eurozone countries, and the IMF, agreed to a \"rescue package\" which involved giving Greece an immediate € in bail-out loans, with more funds to follow, totaling €.", "In order to secure the funding, Greece was required to adopt harsh austerity measures to bring its deficit under control.", "Their implementation was to be monitored and evaluated by the European Commission, the European Central Bank and the IMF.The financial crisis – particularly the austerity package put forth by the EU and the IMF – has been met with anger by the Greek public, leading to riots and social unrest, while there have been theories about the effect of international media.", "Despite - others say because of - the long range of austerity measures, the government deficit has not been reduced accordingly, mainly, according to many economists, because of the subsequent recession.Public sector workers have come out on strike in order to resist job cuts and reductions to salaries as the government promises that a large scale privatisation programme will be accelerated.", "Immigrants are sometimes treated as scapegoats for economic problems by far-right extremists.In 2013, Greece became the first developed market to be reclassified as an emerging market by different financial rating companies.By July 2014 there were still anger and protests about the austerity measures, with a 24-hour strike among government workers timed to coincide with an audit by inspectors from the International Monetary Fund, the European Union and European Central Bank in advance of a decision on a second bailout of one billion euros ($1.36 billion), due in late July.Greece exited its six-year recession in the second quarter of 2014, but the challenges of securing political stability and debt sustainability remained.A third bailout was agreed in July 2015, after a confrontation with the newly elected leftist government of Alexis Tsipras.", "In June 2017, news reports indicated that the \"crushing debt burden\" had not been alleviated and that Greece was at the risk of defaulting on some payments.", "The International Monetary Fund stated that the country should be able to borrow again \"in due course\".", "At the time, the Euro zone gave Greece another credit of $9.5-billion, $8.5 billion of loans and brief details of a possible debt relief with the assistance of the IMF.", "On 13 July, the Greek government sent a letter of intent to the IMF with 21 commitments it promised to meet by June 2018.They included changes in labour laws, a plan to cap public sector work contracts, to transform temporary contracts into permanent agreements and to recalculate pension payments to reduce spending on social security.Greece's bailouts successfully ended (as declared) on 20 August 2018.==== Effects of the bailout programmes on the debt crisis ====There was a 25% drop in Greece's GDP, connected with the bailout programmes.", "This had a critical effect: the Debt-to-GDP ratio, the key factor defining the severity of the crisis, would jump from its 2009 level of 127% to about 170%, solely due to the GDP drop (i.e., for the same Debt).", "Such a level is considered unsustainable.In a 2013 report, the IMF admitted that it had underestimated the effects of so extensive tax hikes and budget cuts on the country's GDP and issued an informal apology.===COVID-19 recession===The COVID-19 pandemic significantly impacted all sectors of the Greek economy, and tourism in particular.", "As a result, GDP shrank by 9% in 2020, but rebounded by 8.4% in 2021 and 5.9% in 2022.In June 2021, the European Commission agreed to disburse approximately 30 billion Euros in COVID-19 related economic aid (12 billion in loans and 18 billion in grants)." ], [ "Data", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2020 (with IMF staff estimates in 2021–2026).", "Inflation below 5% is in green.YearGDP(in Bil.", "US$PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in Bil.", "US$nominal)GDP per capita(in US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Percent)Unemployment(in Percent)Government debt(in % of GDP)198084.28,790.056.55,898.20.7%24.7%2.7%22.7%198190.89,358.052.25,377.0-1.6%24.4%4.0%26.9%198295.39,766.554.45,576.5-1.1%21.4%5.8%29.6%198398.09,974.849.25,008.0-1.1%19.9%7.9%33.9%1984103.510,487.847.94,854.22.0%18.4%8.1%40.4%1985109.511,038.447.54,791.82.5%19.5%7.8%47.0%1986112.311,284.955.95,623.20.5%23.1%7.4%47.5%1987112.511,262.165.16,522.4-2.3%16.4%7.4%52.9%1988121.412,122.175.87,568.34.3%13.5%7.7%57.6%1989131.013,021.178.67,812.83.8%13.7%7.5%60.3%1990135.913,424.697.19,597.70.0%20.3%7.0%73.8%1991144.814,097.7104.710,196.23.1%19.5%7.7%75.3%1992149.214,387.2115.511,139.40.7%15.9%8.7%80.6%1993150.214,404.0108.110,363.6-1.6%14.4%9.7%101.1%1994156.514,921.6115.711,029.12.0%10.9%9.6%99.1%1995163.215,486.3135.812,887.92.1%8.8%10.0%99.8%1996170.916,141.0144.613,660.52.9%7.9%10.3%102.2%1997181.617,089.5142.113,370.34.5%5.4%10.3%100.3%1998190.817,847.6143.413,412.63.9%4.5%11.2%98.3%1999199.518,560.4148.213,784.43.1%2.1%12.1%99.7%2000212.019,674.1131.112,164.73.9%2.9%11.4%105.8%2001225.720,831.6135.212,473.34.1%3.6%10.8%108.0%2002238.221,880.8153.214,065.83.9%3.9%10.4%105.8%2003257.023,546.0200.618,378.35.8%3.5%9.8%102.3%2004277.325,344.7238.821,829.55.1%3.0%10.6%103.7%2005287.726,225.3245.922,417.60.6%3.5%10.0%108.3%2006313.328,472.1271.324,648.95.7%3.3%9.0%104.5%2007332.330,113.4316.328,656.23.3%3.0%8.4%104.0%2008337.630,519.1352.931,902.0-0.3%4.2%7.8%110.3%2009325.129,304.2328.229,577.6-4.3%1.3%9.6%127.8%2010310.827,953.6297.426,743.4-5.5%4.7%12.7%147.5%2011285.125,628.8282.925,437.0-10.1%3.1%17.9%183.9%2012275.224,819.2242.221,846.0-7.1%1.0%24.4%162.0%2013284.525,857.3238.621,679.7-2.7%-0.9%27.5%179.0%2014290.226,558.2235.721,568.00.7%-1.4%26.5%181.5%2015289.226,636.8195.417,997.4-0.4%-1.1%24.9%179.0%2016296.027,448.7192.817,879.7-0.5%0.0%23.6%183.4%2017307.528,558.3200.118,578.31.3%1.1%21.5%182.4%2018319.829,771.1212.319,769.31.6%0.8%19.3%189.9%2019331.530,914.0205.319,147.51.9%0.5%17.3%184.9%2020307.928,722.3189.317,657.1-9.0%-1.3%16.4%211.2%2021339.731,820.6211.619,827.28.3%-0.1%15.8%206.7%2022365.134,343.9224.921,155.35.9%0.4%14.6%199.4%2023383.636,236.3236.222,314.02.6%1.1%13.1%192.4%2024399.337,876.8246.623,393.11.8%1.6%11.9%188.2%2025414.239,449.0257.224,491.91.5%1.9%11.6%184.0%2026428.140,939.3267.025,534.61.3%1.9%11.7%179.6%" ], [ "Primary sector", "=== Agriculture and fishery ===Vineyard in Naoussa, Central Macedonia, Greece.jpg\|A vineyard in Naoussa, central MacedoniaFava (3711746562).jpg\|Sacks with Fava SantorinisMastiha.jpg\|Traditional collecting of mastic (plant resin) in ChiosOlive 60 C 0801.JPG\|Olive oil productionIn 2010, Greece was the European Union's largest producer of cotton (183,800 tons) and pistachios (8,000 tons) and ranked second in the production of rice (229,500 tons) and olives (147,500 tons), third in the production of figs (11,000 tons) and almonds (44,000 tons), tomatoes (1,400,000 tons) and watermelons (578,400 tons) and fourth in the production of tobacco (22,000 tons).", "Agriculture contributes 3.8% of the country's GDP and employs 12.4% of the country's labor force.Greece is a major beneficiary of the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union.", "As a result of the country's entry to the European Community, much of its agricultural infrastructure has been upgraded and agricultural output increased.", "Between 2000 and 2007 organic farming in Greece increased by 885%, the highest change percentage in the EU.In 2007, Greece accounted for 19% of the EU's fishing haul in the Mediterranean Sea, ranked third with 85,493 tons, and ranked first in the number of fishing vessels in the Mediterranean between European Union members.", "Additionally, the country ranked 11th in the EU in total quantity of fish caught, with 87,461 tons." ], [ "Secondary sector", "=== Industry ===Karelia Tobacco Company factory in KalamataBetween 2005 and 2011, Greece has had the highest percentage increase in industrial output compared to 2005 levels out of all European Union members, with an increase of 6%.", "Eurostat statistics show that the industrial sector was hit by the Greek financial crisis throughout 2009 and 2010, with domestic output decreasing by 5.8% and industrial production in general by 13.4%.", "Currently, Greece is ranked third in the European Union in the production of marble (over 920,000 tons), after Italy and Spain.Between 1999 and 2008, the volume of retail trade in Greece increased by an average of 4.4% per year (a total increase of 44%), while it decreased by 11.3% in 2009.The only sector that did not see negative growth in 2009 was administration and services, with a marginal growth of 2.0%.In 2009, Greece's labor productivity was 98% that of the EU average, but its productivity-per-hour-worked was 74% that the Eurozone average.", "The largest industrial employer in the country (in 2007) was the manufacturing industry (407,000 people), followed by the construction industry (305,000) and mining (14,000).Greece has a significant shipbuilding and ship maintenance industry.", "The six shipyards around the port of Piraeus are among the largest in Europe.", "In recent years, Greece has become a leader in the construction and maintenance of luxury yachts.Polemistis (P 61).jpg\|HSY-55-class gunboat ''Polemistis'', built by Hellenic Shipyards Co. for the Hellenic NavyDassault nEUROn.jpg\|The fuselage for the Dassault nEUROn stealth jet is produced in Greece by the Hellenic Aerospace Industry+'''Industrial production (manufacturing) in Greece (2009)'''Rank Production Rank Production Industry Value Industry Value 1 Portland cement €897,378,450 6 Cigarettes €480,399,323 2 Pharmaceuticals €621,788,464 7 Beer €432,559,943 3 Ready-mix concrete €523,821,763 8 Dairy €418,527,007 4 Beverages (non-alcoholic) €519,888,468 9 Aluminium slabs €391,393,930 5 Rebars €499,789,102 10 Coca-Cola products €388,752,443 – Total production value: €20,310,940,279+'''Industrial production (manufacturing) in Greece (2010; provisional data)'''Rank Production Rank Production Industry Value (€) Industry Value (€) 1 Portland cement 699,174,850 6 Ready-mixed concrete 438,489,443 2 Pharmaceuticals (medicaments of mixed or unmixed products (other), p.r.s., n.e.c) 670,923,632 7 Beer made from malt (excluding non-alcoholic beer, beer containing ≤ 0.5% by volume of alcohol, alcohol duty) 405,990,419 3 Waters, with added sugar, other sweetening matter or flavoured, i.e.", "soft drinks (including mineral and aerated) 561,611,081 8 Milk and cream of a fat content by weight of > 1% but ≤ 6%, not concentrated nor containing added sugar or other sweetening matter, in immediate packings of a net content ≤ 2L 373,780,989 4 Hot rolled concrete reinforcing bars 540,919,270 9 Cigarettes containing tobacco or mixtures of tobacco and tobacco substitutes (excluding tobacco duty) 350,420,600 5 Grated, powdered, blue-veined and other non-processed cheese (excluding fresh cheese, whey cheese and curd) 511,528,250 10 Cheese fondues and other food preparations, n.e.c.", "300,883,207 – Total production value: €17,489,538,838 – '''p.r.s.", "''': packed for retail sale; '''n.e.c.", "''': non-elsewhere classifiable=== Mining ===Aluminium de Grece.jpg\|Aluminium of Greece facilitiesGR Thasos 81 Grube E1 01.jpg\|Gold mine in ThasosYerakini Mine Pits.png\|Gerakini mineSkouries July 2013.JPG\|Skouries mineQuarry on Sifnos.JPG\|Marble quarry in SifnosKalk-kefalonia.jpg\|Calcium carbonate loaded at the port of Argostoli" ], [ "Tertiary sector", "=== Maritime industry ===The Port of ThessalonikiNeorion shipyard, located in Ermoupolis23.2% of the world's total merchant fleet is owned by Greek companies, making it the largest in the world.", "They are ranked in the top 5 for all kinds of ships, including first for tankers and bulk carriers.Shipping has traditionally been a key sector in the Greek economy since ancient times.", "In 1813, the Greek merchant navy was made up of 615 ships.", "Its total tonnage was 153,580 tons and was manned with 37,526 crewmembers and 5,878 cannons.", "In 1914 the figures stood at 449,430 tons and 1,322 ships (of which 287 were steam boats).During the 1960s, the size of the Greek fleet nearly doubled, primarily through the investment undertaken by the shipping magnates Onassis, Vardinoyannis, Livanos and Niarchos.", "The basis of the modern Greek maritime industry was formed after World War II when Greek shipping businessmen were able to amass surplus ships sold to them by the United States Government through the Ship Sales Act of the 1940s.Greece has the largest merchant navy in the world, accounting for more than 15% of the world's total deadweight tonnage (dwt) according to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.", "The Greek merchant navy's total dwt of nearly 245 million is comparable only to Japan's, which is ranked second with almost 224 million.", "Additionally, Greece represents 39.52% of all of the European Union's dwt.", "However, today's fleet roster is smaller than an all-time high of 5,000 ships in the late 1970s.Greece is ranked third in the world by number of ships, with 4,709, behind Japan, with 5,974, and China, which leads with 7,114 owned vessels.", "A European Community Shipowners' Associations report for 2011–2012 reveals that the Greek flag is the seventh-most-used internationally for shipping, while it ranks second in the EU.In terms of ship categories, Greek companies have 22.6% of the world's tankers and 16.1% of the world's bulk carriers (in dwt).", "An additional equivalent of 27.45% of the world's tanker dwt is on order, with another 12.7% of bulk carriers also on order.", "Shipping accounts for an estimated 6% of Greek GDP, employs about 160,000 people (4% of the workforce), and represents 1/3 of the country's trade deficit.", "Earnings from shipping amounted to €14.1 billion in 2011, while between 2000 and 2010 Greek shipping contributed a total of €140 billion (half of the country's public debt in 2009 and 3.5 times the receipts from the European Union in the period 2000–2013).", "The 2011 ECSA report showed that there are approximately 750 Greek shipping companies in operation.The latest available data from the Union of Greek Shipowners show that \"the Greek-owned ocean-going fleet consists of 3,428 ships, totaling 245 million deadweight tonnes in capacity.", "This equals 15.6 percent of the carrying capacity of the entire global fleet, including 23.6 percent of the world tanker fleet and 17.2 percent of dry bulk\".Counting shipping as quasi-exports and in terms of monetary value, Greece ranked 4th globally in 2011 having exported shipping services worth 17,704.132 million $; only Denmark, Germany and South Korea ranked higher during that year.", "Similarly counting shipping services provided to Greece by other countries as quasi-imports and the difference between exports and imports as a trade balance, Greece in 2011 ranked in the latter second behind Germany, having imported shipping services worth 7,076.605 million US$ and having run a trade surplus of 10,712.342 million US$.", "In 2022, Greek used vessel sales were second only to China's.+ '''Greece, shipping services'''Year2000200120022003200420052006–2008200920102011Exports:Global ranking5th5th5th4th3rdValue (US$ million)7,558.9957,560.5597,527.17510,114.73615,402.209Value (€ million)8,172.5598,432.6707,957.6548,934.66012,382.636Value (%GDP)5.935.765.085.186.686.71n/a5.296.296.10Imports:Global ranking14th13thValue (US$ million)3,314.7183,873.791Value (€ million)3,583.7744,320.633Value (%GDP)2.602.952.54n/a2.422.41n/a2.062.662.44Trade balance:Global ranking1st2nd1st1ste1stValue (US$ million)4,244.2773,686.7683,770.17510,114.736e9,832.06410,712.342Value (€ million)4,588.7854,112.0373,985.7918,934.660e7,904.508Value (%GDP)3.332.812.545.18e4.274.30n/a3.223.633.66GDP (€ million)137,930.1146,427.6156,614.3172,431.8185,265.7193,049.7bn/a231,081.2p222,151.5p208,531.7p'''b''' source reports break in time series; '''p''' source characterises data as provisional; '''e''' reported data may be erroneous because of relevant break in \"Imports\" time series=== Telecommunications ===OTE headquarters in AthensBetween 1949 and the 1980s, telephone communications in Greece were a state monopoly by the Hellenic Telecommunications Organization, better known by its acronym, OTE.", "Despite the liberalization of telephone communications in the country in the 1980s, OTE still dominates the Greek market in its field and has emerged as one of the largest telecommunications companies in Southeast Europe.", "Since 2011, the company's major shareholder is Deutsche Telekom with a 40% stake, while the Greek state continues to own 10% of the company's shares.", "OTE owns several subsidiaries across the Balkans, including Cosmote, Greece's top mobile telecommunications provider, Cosmote Romania and Albanian Mobile Communications.Other mobile telecommunications companies active in Greece are Wind Hellas and Vodafone Greece.", "The total number of active cellular phone accounts in the country in 2009 based on statistics from the country's mobile phone providers was over 20 million, a penetration of 180%.", "Additionally, there are 5.745 million active landlines in the country.Greece has tended to lag behind its European Union partners in terms of Internet use, with the gap closing rapidly in recent years.", "The percentage of households with Internet access more than doubled between 2006 and 2013, from 23% to 56% respectively (compared with an EU average of 49% and 79%).", "At the same time, there was a massive increase in the proportion of households with a broadband connection, from 4% in 2006 to 55% in 2013 (compared with an EU average of 30% and 76%).", "By 2023, the percentage of Greek households with Internet access had reached 86.9%.=== Tourism ===Porto Carras resort, ChalkidikiThe island of Santorini, popular tourist destination.Tourism in the modern sense only started to flourish in Greece in the years post-1950, although tourism in ancient times is also documented in relation to religious or sports festivals such as the Olympic Games.", "Since the 1950s, the tourism sector saw an unprecedented boost as arrivals went from 33,000 in 1950 to 11.4 million in 1994.Greece attracts more than 16 million tourists each year, thus contributing 18.2% to the nation's GDP in 2008 according to an OECD report.", "The same survey showed that the average tourist expenditure while in Greece was $1,073, ranking Greece 10th in the world.", "The number of jobs directly or indirectly related to the tourism sector were 840,000 in 2008 and represented 19% of the country's total labor force.", "In 2009, Greece welcomed over 19.3 million tourists, a major increase from the 17.7 million tourists the country welcomed in 2008.Among the member states of the European Union, Greece was the most popular destination for residents of Cyprus and Sweden in 2011.The ministry responsible for tourism is the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, while Greece also owns the Greek National Tourism Organization which aims in promoting tourism in Greece.In recent years a number of well-known tourism-related organizations have placed Greek destinations in the top of their lists.", "In 2009 Lonely Planet ranked Thessaloniki, the country's second-largest city, the world's fifth best \"Ultimate Party Town\", alongside cities such as Montreal and Dubai, while in 2011 the island of Santorini was voted as the best island in the world by Travel + Leisure.", "The neighbouring island of Mykonos was ranked as the 5th best island Europe.", "Thessaloniki was the European Youth Capital in 2014." ], [ "Trade and investment", "The Bank of Greece/National Bank of Greece and former Ionian Bank (today Alpha Bank) buildings in Thessaloniki=== Foreign investment ===Since the fall of communism, Greece has invested heavily in neighbouring Balkan countries.", "Between 1997 and 2009, 12.11% of foreign direct investment capital in North Macedonia was Greek, ranking fourth.", "In 2009 alone, Greeks invested €380 million in the country, with companies such as Hellenic Petroleum having made important strategic investments.Greece invested €1.38 billion in Bulgaria between 2005 and 2007 and many important companies (including Bulgarian Postbank, United Bulgarian Bank Coca-Cola Bulgaria) are owned by Greek financial groups.", "In Serbia, 250 Greek companies are active with a total investment of over €2 billion.", "Romanian statistics from 2016 show that Greek investment in the country exceeded €4 billion, ranking Greece fifth or sixth among foreign investors.", "Greece has been the largest investor in Albania since the fall of communism with 25% of foreign investments in 2016 coming from Greece, in addition business relations between both are extremely strong and continuously rising.=== Trade ===During the debt crisis and subsequent COVID-19 recession, Greece's negative balance of trade decreased significantly–from €44.3 billion in 2008 to €18.15 billion in 2020–due to a substantial drop in imports.", "However, the trade boom of recent years has seen the balance approach pre-crisis levels.", "Exports increased by 30.9% in 2021 and 38.3% in 2022, while imports rose by 34.6% and 43.6% during the same period.", "In 2023, exports and imports decreased by 8.7% and 13.3% respectively.+'''Imports and exports in 2008; values in millions'''Rank Imports Rank Exports Origin Value Destination Value 1 €7,238.2 1 €2,001.9 2 €6,918.5 2 €1,821.3 3 €4,454.0 3 €1,237.0 4 €3,347.1 4 €1,103.0 5 €3,098.0 5 €885.4 – €33,330.5 – €11,102.0 – Total €60,669.9 – Total €17,334.1+'''Imports and exports in 2011; values in millions'''Rank Imports Rank Exports – €22,688.5 – €11,377.7 – Total €42,045.4 – Total €22,451.1Greece is also the largest import partner of Cyprus (18.0%) and the largest export partner of Palau (82.4%).+'''Imports and exports in 2012''' Imports ExportsRank OriginValue(€ mil)Value(% of total)RankDestinationValue(€ mil)Value(% of total)0a-10a0-115,967.2013212.612,940.2520310.824,381.926569.222,033.774137.533,668.886227.731,687.039476.242,674.005875.641,493.753555.552,278.038834.851,319.285984.862,198.571264.661,024.736863.871,978.484604.27822.740773#αOECD23,849.9465050.2#αOECD13,276.4810748.8#βG711,933.7541725.1#βG76,380.8670523.4#γBRICS8,682.1026518.3#εBRICS1,014.171463.7#δBRIC8,636.0294618.2#ζBRIC977.760163.6#εOPEC8,090.7697217#γOPEC2,158.604207.9#ζNAFTA751.806081.6#δNAFTA1,215.702574.5#a 2721,164.8931444.5#a 2711,512.3199042.3#b 1517,794.1934437.4#b 157,234.8359526.6#3Africa2,787.395025.9#3Africa1,999.465347.3#4America1,451.151363.1#4America1,384.040685.1#2Asia14,378.0270530.2#2Asia6,933.5120025.5#1Europe28,708.3814860.4#1Europe14,797.2064154.4#5Oceania71.706030.2#5Oceania169.240850.6#World47,537.63847100#World27,211.0636210024z100000000000000000010124z1000000000000000000101the International Organisations or Country Groups list and ranking presented above (i.e.", "''#greek_letters'' and/or ''#latin_letters''), is not indicative of the whole picture of Greece's trade;this is instead only an incomplete selection of some major and well known such Organisations and Groups;rounding errors possibly present" ], [ "Transport", "Egnatia Odos, part of European route E90.Corinth CanalOSE HQsAs of 2012, Greece had a total of 82 airports, of which 67 were paved and six had runways longer than 3,047 meters.", "Of these airports, two are classified as \"international\" by the Hellenic Civil Aviation Authority, but 15 offer international services.", "Additionally Greece has 9 heliports.", "Greece does not have a flag carrier, but the country's airline industry is dominated by Aegean Airlines and its subsidiary Olympic Air.Between 1975 and 2009, Olympic Airways (known after 2003 as Olympic Airlines) was the country's state-owned flag carrier, but financial problems led to its privatization and relaunch as Olympic Air in 2009.Both Aegean Airlines and Olympic Air have won awards for their services; in 2009 and 2011, Aegean Airlines was awarded the \"Best regional airline in Europe\" award by Skytrax, and also has two gold and one silver awards by the ERA, while Olympic Air holds one silver ERA award for \"Airline of the Year\" as well as a ''\"Condé Nast Traveller 2011 Readers Choice Awards: Top Domestic Airline\"'' award.The Greek road network is made up of 116,986 km of roads, of which 1863 km are highways, ranking 24th worldwide, as of 2016.Since the entry of Greece to the European Community (now the European Union), a number of important projects (such as the Egnatia Odos and the Attiki Odos) have been co-funded by the organization, helping to upgrade the country's road network.", "In 2007, Greece ranked 8th in the European Union in goods transported by road at almost 500 million tons.Greece's rail network is estimated to be at 2,548 km.", "Rail transport in Greece is operated by TrainOSE, a current subsidiary of the Ferrovie dello Stato Italiane after the Hellenic Railways Organisation had sold its 100% stake on the operator.", "Most of the country's network is standard gauge (1,565 km), while the country also has 983 km of narrow gauge.", "A total of 764 km of rail are electrified.", "Greece has rail connections with Bulgaria, North Macedonia and Turkey.", "A total of three suburban railway systems (Proastiakos) are in operation (in Athens, Thessaloniki and Patras), while one metro system, the Athens Metro, is operational in Athens with another, the Thessaloniki Metro, under construction.According to Eurostat, Greece's largest port by tons of goods transported in 2010 is the port of Aghioi Theodoroi, with 17.38 million tons.", "The Port of Thessaloniki comes second with 15.8 million tons, followed by the Port of Piraeus, with 13.2 million tons, and the port of Eleusis, with 12.37 million tons.", "The total number of goods transported through Greece in 2010 amounted to 124.38 million tons, a considerable drop from the 164.3 million tons transported through the country in 2007.Since then, Piraeus has grown to become the Mediterranean's third-largest port thanks to heavy investment by Chinese logistics giant COSCO.", "In 2013, Piraeus was declared the fastest-growing port in the world.In 2010 Piraeus handled 513,319 TEUs, followed by Thessaloniki, which handled 273,282 TEUs.", "In the same year, 83.9 million people passed through Greece's ports, 12.7 million through the port of Paloukia in Salamis, another 12.7 through the port of Perama, 9.5 million through Piraeus and 2.7 million through Igoumenitsa.", "In 2013, Piraeus handled a record 3.16 million TEUs, the third-largest figure in the Mediterranean, of which 2.52 million were transported through Pier II, owned by COSCO and 644,000 were transported through Pier I, owned by the Greek state." ], [ "Energy", "Solar-power generation potential in GreeceEnergy production in Greece is dominated by the Public Power Corporation (known mostly by its acronym ΔΕΗ, or in English DEI).", "In 2009 DEI supplied for 85.6% of all energy demand in Greece, while the number fell to 77.3% in 2010.Almost half (48%) of DEI's power output is generated using lignite, a drop from the 51.6% in 2009.Another 12% comes from Hydroelectric power plants and another 20% from natural gas.", "Between 2009 and 2010, independent companies' energy production increased by 56%, from 2,709 Gigawatt hour in 2009 to 4,232 GWh in 2010.In 2008 renewable energy accounted for 8% of the country's total energy consumption, a rise from the 7.2% it accounted for in 2006, but still below the EU average of 10% in 2008.10% of the country's renewable energy comes from solar power, while most comes from biomass and waste recycling.", "In line with the European Commission's Directive on Renewable Energy, Greece aims to get 18% of its energy from renewable sources by 2020.In 2013 and for several months, Greece produced more than 20% of its electricity from renewable energy sources and hydroelectric power plants.", "Greece currently does not have any nuclear power plants in operation, however in 2009 the Academy of Athens suggested that research in the possibility of Greek nuclear power plants begin.Greece had 10 million barrels of proven oil reserves as of 1 January 2012.Hellenic Petroleum is the country's largest oil company, followed by Motor Oil Hellas.", "Greece's oil production stands at 1,751 barrels per day (bbl/d), ranked 95th worldwide, while it exports 19,960 bbl/d, ranked 53rd, and imports 355,600 bbl/d, ranked 25th.In 2011 the Greek government approved the start of oil exploration and drilling in three locations within Greece, with an estimated output of 250 to 300 million barrels over the next 15 to 20 years.", "The estimated output in euros of the three deposits is €25 billion over a 15-year period, of which €13–€14 billion will enter state coffers.", "Greece's dispute with Turkey over the Aegean poses substantial obstacles to oil exploration in the Aegean Sea.In addition to the above, Greece is also to start oil and gas exploration in other locations in the Ionian Sea, as well as the Libyan Sea, within the Greek exclusive economic zone, south of Crete.", "The Ministry of the Environment, Energy and Climate Change announced that there was interest from various countries (including Norway and the United States) in exploration, and the first results regarding the amount of oil and gas in these locations were expected in the summer of 2012.In November 2012, a report published by Deutsche Bank estimated the value of natural gas reserves south of Crete at €427 billion.A number of oil and gas pipelines are currently under construction or under planning in the country.", "Such projects include the ''Interconnector Turkey-Greece-Italy'' (ITGI) and ''South Stream'' gas pipelines.EuroAsia Interconnector will electrically connect Attica and Crete in Greece with Cyprus and Israel with 2000 MW HVDC undersea power cable.", "EuroAsia Interconnector is specially important for isolated systems, like Cyprus and Crete.", "Crete is energetically isolated from mainland Greece and Hellenic Republic covers for Crete electricity costs difference of around €300 million per year.Amyndeo, Florina prefecture, Greece - Lignite power station and lignite mines - 01 cropped.jpg\|Amyntaio Power PlantAHS AgDimitrios2.JPG\|Agios Dimitrios Power PlantΘέα προς ΒΑ από την κορυφή του Παναχαϊκού... - panoramio.jpg\|View of a wind farm, Panachaiko mountainKavala-oil.jpg\|Prinos oil field near KavalaPlastira dam DJI 0043v.jpg\|Plastiras Hydroelectric Dam" ], [ "Taxation and tax evasion", "Revenues of Greece between 1999 and 2010 as a percentage of GDP, compared to the EU average.Greece has a tiered tax system based on progressive taxation.", "Greek law recognizes six categories of taxable income: immovable property, movable property (investment), income from agriculture, business, employment, and income from professional activities.", "Greece's personal income tax rate, until recently, ranged from 0% for annual incomes below €12,000 to 45% for annual incomes over €100,000.Under the new 2010 tax reform, tax exemptions have been abolished.Also under the new austerity measures and among other changes, the personal income tax-free ceiling has been reduced to €5,000 per annum while further future changes, for example abolition of this ceiling, are already being planned.Greece's corporate tax dropped from 40% in 2000 to 20% in 2010.For 2011 only, corporate tax will be at 24%.", "Value added tax (VAT) has gone up in 2010 compared to 2009: 23% as opposed to 19%.The lowest VAT possible is 6.5% (previously 4.5%) for newspapers, periodicals and cultural event tickets, while a tax rate of 13% (from 9%) applies to certain service sector professions.", "Additionally, both employers and employees have to pay social contribution taxes, which apply at a rate of 16% for white collar jobs and 19.5% for blue collar jobs, and are used for social insurance.", "In 2017 the VAT tax rate was 24% with minor exceptions, 13% reduced for some basic foodstuffs which will be soon abolished and everything, as it seems, will soon go to 24% in order to fight the phantom of tax evasion.The Ministry of Finance expected tax revenues for 2012 to be €52.7 billion (€23.6 billion in direct taxes and €29.1 billion in indirect taxes), an increase of 5.8% from 2011.In 2012, the government was expected to have considerably higher tax revenues than in 2011 on a number of sectors, primarily housing (an increase of 217.5% from 2011).=== Tax evasion ===Greece suffers from very high levels of tax evasion.", "In the last quarter of 2005, tax evasion reached 49%, while in January 2006 it fell to 41.6%.", "It is worth noting that the newspaper Ethnos which published these figures went bankrupt; it is no longer published and some sources suggest that the information it had published was highly debatable.", "A study by researchers from the University of Chicago concluded that tax evasion in 2009 by self-employed professionals alone in Greece (accountants, dentists, lawyers, doctors, personal tutors and independent financial advisers) was €28 billion or 31% of the budget deficit that year.Greece's \"shadow economy\" was estimated at 24.3% of GDP in 2012, compared with 28.6% for Estonia, 26.5% for Latvia, 21.6% for Italy, 17.1% for Belgium, 14.7% for Sweden, 13.7% for Finland, and 13.5% for Germany, and is certainly related to the fact that the percentage of Greeks that are self-employed is more than double the EU average (2013 est.", ").The Tax Justice Network estimated in 2011 that there were over 20 billion euros in Swiss bank accounts held by Greeks.", "The former Finance Minister of Greece, Evangelos Venizelos, was quoted as saying, \"Around 15,000 individuals and companies owe the taxman 37 billion euros\".", "Additionally, the TJN put the number of Greek-owned off-shore companies at over 10,000.In 2012, Swiss estimates suggested that Greeks had some 20 billion euros in Switzerland of which only one percent had been declared as taxable in Greece.", "Estimates in 2015 were even more dramatic.", "They indicated that the amount due to the government of Greece from Greeks' accounts in Swiss banks totaled around 80 billion euros.A mid-2017 report indicated Greeks have been \"taxed to the hilt\" and many believed that the risk of penalties for tax evasion were less serious than the risk of bankruptcy.", "One method of evasion is the so-called black market, grey economy or shadow economy: work is done for cash payment which is not declared as income; as well, VAT is not collected and remitted.", "A January 2017 report by the DiaNEOsis think-tank indicated that unpaid taxes in Greece at the time totaled approximately 95 billion euros, up from 76 billion euros in 2015, much of it was expected to be uncollectable.", "Another early 2017 study estimated that the loss to the government as a result of tax evasion was between 6% and 9% of the country's GDP, or roughly between 11 billion and 16 billion euros per annum.The shortfall in the collection of VAT (sales tax) is also significant.", "In 2014, the government collected 28% less than was owed to it; this shortfall was about double the average for the EU.", "The uncollected amount that year was about 4.9 billion euros.", "The DiaNEOsis study estimated that 3.5% of GDP is lost due to VAT fraud, while losses due to smuggling of alcohol, tobacco and petrol amounted to approximately another 0.5% of the country's GDP.==== Planned solutions ====Following similar actions by the United Kingdom and Germany, the Greek government was in talks with Switzerland in 2011, attempting to force Swiss banks to reveal information on the back accounts of Greek citizens.", "The Ministry of Finance stated that Greeks with Swiss bank accounts would either be required to pay a tax or reveal information such as the identity of the bank account holder to the Greek internal revenue services.", "The Greek and Swiss governments were to reach a deal on the matter by the end of 2011.The solution demanded by Greece still had not been effected as of 2015.That year, estimates indicated that the amount of evaded taxes stored in Swiss banks was around 80 billion euros.", "By then, however, a tax treaty to address this issue was under serious negotiation between the Greek and Swiss governments.", "An agreement was finally ratified by Switzerland on 1 March 2016 creating a new tax transparency law that would allow for a more effective battle against tax evasion.", "Starting in 2018, banks in both Greece and Switzerland will exchange information about the bank accounts of citizens of the other country to minimize the possibility of hiding untaxed income.In 2016 and 2017, the government was encouraging the use of credit cards or debit cards to pay for goods and services in order to reduce cash only payments.", "By January 2017, taxpayers were only granted tax-allowances or deductions when payments were made electronically, with a \"paper trail\" of the transactions that the government could easily audit.", "This was expected to reduce the problem of businesses taking payments but not issuing an invoice; that tactic had been used by various companies to avoid payment of VAT (sales) tax as well as income tax.By 28 July 2017, numerous businesses were required by law to install a point of sale device to enable them to accept payment by credit or debit card.", "Failure to comply with the electronic payment facility can lead to fines of up to 1,500 euros.", "The requirement applied to around 400,000 firms or individuals in 85 professions.", "The greater use of cards was one of the factors that had already achieved significant increases in VAT collection in 2016." ], [ "Wealth and standards of living", "=== National and regional GDP ===regions of Greece in 2008.The country's two largest metropolitan areas account for almost 62% of the national economy.Greece's most economically important regions are Attica, which contributed €87.378 billion to the economy in 2018, and Central Macedonia, which contributed €25.558 billion.", "The smallest regional economies were those of the North Aegean (€2.549 billion) and Ionian Islands (€3.257 billion).In terms of GDP per capita, Attica (€23,300) far outranks any other Greek region.", "The poorest regions in 2018 were the North Aegean (€11,800), Eastern Macedonia and Thrace (€11,900) and Epirus (€12,200).", "At the national level, GDP per capita in 2018 was €17,200.+'''Regional GDP, 2018'''RankRegionGDP(€, billions)Share in EU-27/national GDP(%)GDPper capita(€)GDPper capita(PPS)GDPper capita(€, EU27=100)GDPper capita(PPS, EU27=100)GDPper person employed(PPS, EU27=100)0a0000000 1 Attica 87.378 47.3 23,300 28,000 77 93 99 2 Central Macedonia 25.558 13.8 13,600 16,400 45 54 69 3 Thessaly 9.658 5.2 13,400 16,100 44 53 65 4 Crete 9.386 5.1 14,800 17,800 49 59 68 5 Central Greece 8.767 4.7 15,800 18,900 52 63 81 6 Western Greece 8.322 4.5 12,700 15,200 42 50 65 7 Peloponnese 8.245 4.5 14,300 17,200 48 57 68 8 Eastern Macedonia and Thrace 7.166 3.9 11,900 14,300 40 48 61 9 South Aegean 6.387 3.5 18,700 22,400 62 74 79 10 Epirus 4.077 2.2 12,200 14,700 40 49 63 11 Western Macedonia 3.963 2.1 14,800 17,700 49 59 79 12 Ionian Islands 3.257 1.8 16,000 19,100 53 63 71 13 North Aegean 2.549 1.4 11,800 14,200 39 47 67 – Greece 184.714 1 17,200 20,700 57 69 81 – EU27 13,483.857 100 30,200 30,200 100 100 100100z1000000000000000100010010000000001000=== Welfare state ===Greece is a welfare state which provides a number of social services such as quasi-universal health care and pensions.", "In the 2012 budget, expenses for the welfare state (excluding education) stand at an estimated €22.487 billion (€6.577 billion for pensions and €15.910 billion for social security and health care expenses), or 31.9% of the all state expenses." ], [ "Largest companies by revenue 2018", "According to the 2018 Forbes Global 2000 index, Greece's largest publicly traded companies are:+'''Forbes Global 2000''' Rank Company Revenues(€ billion) Profit(€ billion) Assets(€ billion) Market value(€ billion) 1 Piraeus Bank3.3−0.281.01.7 2 National Bank of Greece 2.4−0.277.83.4 3 Alpha Bank3.50.173.04.1 4 Eurobank Ergasias 2.20.172.12.6 5 Hellenic Petroleum9.00.58.62.9 6 Bank of Greece1.71.1−0.4" ], [ "Labour force", "=== Working hours ===In 2011, 53.3 percent of employed persons worked more than 40 to 49 hours a week and 24.8 percent worked more than 50 hours a week, totaling up to 78.1 percent of employed persons working 40 or more hours a week.", "When accounting for varying age groups, the percentage of employees working 40 to 49 hours a week peaked in the 25 to 29 age range.", "As workers got older, they gradually decreased in percentage working 40 to 49 hours, but increased in working 50+ hours, suggesting a correlation that as employees grow older, they work more hours.", "Of different occupation groups, skilled agricultural, forestry, and fishery workers and managers were the most likely to work 50+ hours; however, they do not take up a significant portion of the labor force, only 14.3 percent.", "In 2014, the average number of working hours for Greek employees was 2124 hours, ranking as the third highest among OECD countries and the highest in the Eurozone.Recent trends in employment indicate that the number of working hours will decrease in the future due to the rise of part-time work.", "Since 2011, average working hours have decreased.", "In 1998, Greece passed legislation introducing part-time employment in public services with the goal of reducing unemployment, increasing the total, but decreasing the average number of hours worked per employee.", "Whether the legislation was successful in increasing public-sector part-time work, labor market trends show that part-time employment has increased from 7.7 percent in 2007 to 11 percent in 2016 of total employment.", "Both men and women have had the part-time share of employment increase over this period.", "While women still constitute a majority of part-time workers, recently men have been taking a larger share of part-time employment." ], [ "Currency", "Between 1832 and 2002 the currency of Greece was the drachma.", "After signing the Maastricht Treaty, Greece applied to join the eurozone.", "The two main convergence criteria were a maximum budget deficit of 3% of GDP and a declining public debt if it stood above 60% of GDP.", "Greece met the criteria as shown in its 1999 annual public account.", "On 1 January 2001, Greece joined the eurozone, with the adoption of the euro at the fixed exchange rate ₯340.75 to €1.However, in 2001 the euro only existed electronically, so the physical exchange from drachma to euro only took place on 1 January 2002.This was followed by a ten-year period for eligible exchange of drachma to euro, which ended on 1 March 2012.Prior to the adoption of the euro, 64% of Greek citizens viewed the new currency positively, but in February 2005 this figure fell to 26% and by June 2005 it fell further to 20%.", "Since 2010 the figure has risen again, and a survey in September 2011 showed that 63% of Greek citizens viewed of the euro positively." ], [ "Charts gallery", "Greece, UK, Germany, Italy and Spain social protection expenditures 1998-2009.png\|Greek social expenditures as a percentage of GDP (1998–2009)Distribution Of Income In Greece.png\|Distribution of income in Greece over the yearsDistributionOfTotalNationalIncomeInGreece.png\|Distribution of total income in Greece over the yearsEmploymentAndUnemploymentInGreece.png\|Employment and unemployment in Greece since 2004HellenicOeconomy(inCurrentEuros).png\|Greek GDP, Debt (various) and Budget Deficit over the yearsHellenicOeconomy.jpg\|Greek GDP, Debt and Deficit (Int.", "1990 Geary-Khamis dollars)DepositsAndReposOfPrivateSectorNon-MFIsInMFIsInGreeceByResidentsOfGreece.png\|Greek bank deposits (including repos) since 1998Domestic bank deposits of Greek households in Greece (by type of bank account).png\|Domestic bank deposits of Greek households by type of accountDomestic Bank lending-credit in Greece since 1980.png\|Domestic lending by domestic banks in Greece since 1980Dwelling Price Index, Greece.png\|House Price Index, Greece (including flats)" ], [ "Poverty rate", "As a result of the recession sparked by the public debt crisis, poverty has increased.", "The rate of people at risk of poverty or social exclusion reached a high of 36% in 2014, before subsiding over the following years to 26.3% in 2022.The rate of extreme poverty rose to 15% in 2015, up from 8.9% in 2011 and a huge increase from 2009 when it was not more than 2.2%.", "The rate among children 0-17 is 17.6% and for young people 18-29 the rate is 24.4%.", "With unemployment on the rise, those without jobs are at the highest risk of poverty (70–75%), up from less than 50% in 2011.Those out of work lose their health insurance after two years, further exacerbating the poverty rate.", "Younger unemployed people tend to rely on the older generations of their families for financial support.", "However, long-term unemployment has depleted pension funds due to fewer workers making social security contributions, resulting in higher poverty rates in intergenerational households reliant on the reduced pensions received by their retired members.", "Over the course of the economic crisis, Greeks have endured significant job losses and wage cuts, as well as deep cuts to workers' compensation and welfare benefits.", "From 2008 to 2013, Greeks became 40% poorer on average, and in 2014 saw their disposable household income drop below 2003 levels." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Pasiouras, Fotios.", "''Greek Banking: From the Pre-Euro Reforms to the Financial Crisis and Beyond'' (Palgrave Macmillan; 2012) 217 pages; covers the mid-1990s to 2011.", "" ], [ "External links", " Economy of Greece Ten Years After the Financial Crisis – Macro Affairs* Nick Malkoutzis Greece – A Year in Crisis – Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, June 2011* The Greek Economy: Which Way Forward?, from the Center for Economic and Policy Research, January 2015* The Greek Economy – a bi-monthly publication by the Hellenic Statistical Authority on the state of the economy* The Greek Exports – Database of Greek Exporters* Greek Banks Digest – (in English)* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Greece* New study on the \"Economic, Social and Territorial Situation of Greece\" – European Parliament, Committee on Regional Development's delegation to Greece, 13 – 15 July 2011* OECD data for Greece* Federal Reserve Economic Data for Greece" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Greece" ], [ "Introduction", "The telecommunications and postal services market in Greece is regulated by the Hellenic Telecommunications and Post Commission (EETT)." ], [ "Landline telephone", "OTE headquarters in Athens.COSMOTE, the former state monopoly, is the main player in fixed-line telephony.", "Since the liberalization of the telecommunications market, COSMOTE (OTE) has been slowly losing market share to \"alternative\", competing telecom operators, such as Vodafone, Nova (Wind).", "As of 2005, COSMOTE's share on the market hovered around 76%.Telephones – main lines in use: 6,348,800 (2004).Telephone system:modern networks reach all areas; microwave radio relay carries most traffic; 35,000 kilometers of optical fibers and extensive open-wire network; submarine cables to off-shore islands.", "domestic: 100% digital; microwave radio relay, open wire, and submarine cable.", "international: 100% digital; tropospheric scatter; 8 submarine cables; satellite earth stations – 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Eutelsat, and 1 Inmarsat (Indian Ocean region)." ], [ "Cellular network", "Greece has three mobile telecom companies; Cosmote, Vodafone and NOVA.Number of active lines: 20,285,000 (September 2009), which means 180% penetration." ], [ "Satellite", "Greece owns one telecommunications satellite, named Hellas Sat, which provides telecommunication services in a major part of Eastern Europe and Western Asia." ], [ "Internet", "4,893,840 IP addresses, 1.6638e+30 IPv6 addresses, 5,920,000 Internet Users,2,396,700 broadband connections,23 Internet Service Providers." ], [ "Mass media", "Radio broadcast stations:The state radio and television broadcasting agency is ERT (Elliniki Radiofonia kai Tileorasi – Greek Radio & Television).", "The station owns 3 national television stations, ERT1, ERT2 and ERT3 which is based out of Thessaloniki.", "In January 2006, ERT launched digital terrestrial television with 3 channels.", "By March 2006, at least 65% of the Greek population was able to view Digital TV for free with the use of set-top boxes.", "ERT also operates 7 national radio stations, including the Voice of Greece, which broadcasts internationally via shortwave.", "ERT is based in Athens.The first non-pirate private radio station to broadcast in Greece was Athens 98.4 FM, in 1987.Private television began in November 1989, when Mega Channel began operating.", "Today, over 1,000 radio stations and approximately 150 television stations broadcast in Greece.", "Digital satellite broadcasting began in 1999 by the South-African conglomerate Naspers which uses the trademark Nova.The Broadcasting Media in Greece is considerably free and fair.", "Established state-run and commercial TV networks broadcast nationally and compete actively against each other, and hundreds of thousands of viewers subscribe to satellite pay-TV services.", "Domestically made variety programmes, comedies and game shows dominate the peak-time TV schedules and are highly popular and widely shown in Greece.===Main television stations in Greece===Private: Mega Channel, ANT1, Star Channel, Alpha TV, Open TV, Makedonia TV, Skai TV and several other regional and local stations.Public: ΕΡΤ1, ΕΡΤ2 and ΕΡΤ3 (Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation).===Further Information===Radios: 5.02 million (1997)Television broadcast stations: 64 (plus about 1,000 low-power repeaters); also two stations in the US Armed Forces Network (1999)Televisions: 2.54 million (1997)" ], [ "Mail", "Hellenic Post is the state-owned postal service provider of Greece.", "A number of private courier services, such as DHL, ACS, United Parcel Service and FedEx (Speedex), also operate in Greece." ], [ "See also", "Economy of GreeceOTEHellenic Telecommunications and Post Commission" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Greece" ], [ "Introduction", "Metro Line 1, the oldest Metro line of Athens Urban area'''Transport in Greece''' has undergone significant changes in the past two decades, vastly modernizing the country's infrastructure and transportation.", "Although ferry transport between islands remains the prominent method of transport between the nation's islands, improvements to the road infrastructure, rail, urban transport, and airports have all led to a vast improvement in transportation.", "These upgrades have played a key role in supporting Greece's economy, which in the past decade has come to rely heavily on the construction industry." ], [ "Cable transport", "Lycabettus railway carCable car of SantoriniLycabettus FunicularParnitha FunitelSantorini cable car" ], [ "Rail transport", "===Railways===total: , ( are, or will be, electrified) standard gauge: gauge narrow gauge: gauge; gauge dual gauge: combined and gauges (three rail system) (2004)The state-owned company that owns and maintains Greece's railway network is OSE, while Hellenic Train is the company responsible for operating all passenger trains and the most freight trains.===Metro===Athens Metro Train (1st Generation)Cities with a rapid transit railway network:Athens Metro (3 lines) (another one under construction)Thessaloniki Metro (2 lines) ('' both under construction'')===Commuter rail===Proastiakos commuter railCities with a commuter rail network (Proastiakos):Athens (5 lines)Thessaloniki (2 lines)Patras (2 lines)===Tram===Athens TramAthens TramList of town tramway systems in Greece" ], [ "Road transport", "===Highways===As of 2017, Greece has 2500 km of motorways.Roads:total: 117,000 kmpaved: 107,406 kmunpaved: 9,594 km (1996 est.", ")over 2500 tunnels (est.", ")===Bus transport=======Urban bus transport====Preserved vintage trolleybus of O.SY., Piraeus-Kastella lineOSY subsidiary of Transport for Athens (OASA) organizes mass bus (Busses and trolleybuses) transit in Athens.", "OASTH organizes mass bus transit in Thessaloniki.", "Companies named ''Astiko KTEL'' provide mass bus transit in many of the other cities of Greece.====Intercity and regional bus transport====KTEL is the common name for every company which is responsible for intercity and regional bus transit.", "Most of the regional units, though, have their own regional network of buses, and have their regional unit names labeled on KTEL vehicles that operate there.", "(e.g.", "KTEL Argolidas).There are 4 major bus terminals in Greece, the biggest is in Thessaloniki (Macedonia Inter city bus terminal) which serves all of Greece while Athens has 2 separate bus terminals serving different parts of Greece (Kifissos bus terminal and Liossion bus terminal).", "A new Athens bus terminal in Elaionas will replace the two separate terminals and serve all of Greece with completion by 2025.A new bus terminal in Patras which will replace the old one is currently under construction in Agios Dionyssios just 200m from the current one and it will open in early 2023 after many delays due to COVID-19 pandemic and the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine." ], [ "Water transport", "===Waterways===View of the port of PatrasThe 80 km system consists of three coastal canals including the Corinth Canal (6 km) and three unconnected rivers.The Corinth Canal crosses the Isthmus of Corinth, connecting the Gulf of Corinth with the Saronic Gulf; and shortens the sea voyage from the Adriatic to Piraeus by 325 km.===Ports and harbours===AlexandroupoliArgostoliElefsinaErmoupolisHeraklion, CreteKalamataKavalaKerkyraKosChalkisIgoumenitsaLavrioPatrasPiraeusPort of ThessalonikiVolosKatakoloMykonosMytileneRhodes (city)SoudaSyros===Merchant marine===total: 3,338 ships (with a volume of or over) totaling /ships by type (1999 est.", "):bulk carrier: 273:cargo ship: 60:chemical tanker: 22:combination bulk: 5:combination ore/oil: 8:container ship: 43:Liquified Gas Carrier: 5:multi-functional large load carrier: 1:passenger ship: 12:passenger/cargo: 2:petroleum tanker: 245:refrigerated cargo: 3:roll-on/roll-off ship: 19:short-sea passenger: 75:specialized tanker: 4:vehicle carrier: 2" ], [ "Airports", "Thessaloniki International Airporttotal: 82 (2005)With paved runways: 67:over 3,047 m: 5 :2,438–3,047 m: 16 :1,524–2,437 m: 19 :914–1,523 m: 17 :under 914 m: 10 (2005)With unpaved runways: 15:914 to 1,523 m: 3:under 914 m: 12 (2005)heliports: 8 (2005)" ], [ "Pipelines", "crude oil: 26 kmpetroleum products: 547 km" ], [ "Major construction projects", "===Completed projects=======Motorways====Central Greece MotorwayEgnatia Odos ''670 km (420 mi)''Motorway 25 Motorway 29 ''77 km (48 mi)''Ionia Odos \"196 km (122 mi)\"Motorway 1 (ATHE) ''550 km (340 mi)''Attiki Odos ''69.7 km (43.3 mi)''Moreas Motorway ''205 km (127 mi)''Olympia Odos ''210 km (130 mi)''Rio–Antirrio bridge ''2,880 metre long (9,449 ft) (2nd longest cable bridge in Europe''====Railways====Athens Airport–Patras railway (completed until Aigio)Thessaloniki–Alexandroupoli railwayAthens Metro:Line 1:Line 2:Line 3Athens Tram====Ports and harbours====Pireaus PortRafina PortLavrion Port====Airports====Athens International AirportThessaloniki Airport - \"Makedonia\"===Projects under construction===North Road Axis of CreteBranches of Egnatia Odos:Motorway 21:Motorway 27:*Motorway 71====Railways====Construction and electrification of extension to Patras of Athens Airport–Patras railwayLine 3 (Athens Metro) extension to Dimotiko TheatroLine 4 (Athens Metro)Thessaloniki MetroAthens Tram extension to Piraeus====Ports and harbours========Airports====New Heraklion Airport in Kasteli===Future projects=======Motorways====Larisa–Kozane Motorway====Railways====Line 4Igoumenitsa–Ioannina–Kalampaka lineKalampaka–Kastoria lineFlorina–Pogradec lineKalamaka–Kozani–Thessaloniki–Kavala–Toxotes lineIoannina–Rio lineThessaloniki–Chalkidiki lineThessaloniki–Giannitsa–Skydra lineChania–Rethymnon–Herakleion lineThessaloniki TramHeraklion TramPatras TramLarisa TramIoannina TramVolos Tram====Airports====" ], [ "See also", "Rapid transit in GreeceGreek shipping Plug-in electric vehicles in Greece" ], [ "References", "" ], [ "External links", " www.Greek-Motorway.Net* The Hellenic Merchant Maritime Sector: A Historical and Business Overview (Balkanalysis.com)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hellenic Armed Forces" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Hellenic Armed Forces''' () are the military forces of Greece.", "They consist of the Hellenic Army, the Hellenic Navy, and the Hellenic Air Force.The civilian authority overseeing the Hellenic Armed Forces is the Ministry of National Defense." ], [ "History", "===Conscription===Greece currently has universal compulsory military service for males from and over 18 years of age.", "Under Greek law, all men over 18 years of age must serve in the Armed Forces for a period of 9-12 months.", "Women can serve in the Greek military on a voluntary basis, but cannot be conscripted.===Budget===According to NATO sources in 2008, Greece spent 2.8% of GDP on its military, which translated to about €6.9 billion (US$9.3 billion).", "In 2008, Greece was the largest importer of conventional weapons in Europe and its military spending was the highest in the European Union relative to the country's GDP, reaching twice the European average.Data for the 2017 fiscal year showed an estimated expense of €4.3 billion in constant 2010 prices, or €4.2 billion in current prices, equivalent to 2.38% of GDP (+0.01 change since 2016).", "For the 2018 fiscal year, the expenditure was estimated at €4.3 billion in constant 2010 prices or €4.1 billion in current prices, equivalent to 2.27% of GDP (-0.11% change since 2017).===Military personnel===Military personnel was estimated at approximately 106,000 for year 2017 and 105,000 for year 2018.===International operations===Greece is an EU and NATO member and currently participates primarily in peacekeeping operations.", "Such operations are ISAF in Afghanistan, EUFOR in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Chad, and KFOR in Kosovo.", "Greece also maintains a small force in Cyprus." ], [ "Component forces and their organization", "=== Hellenic National Defense General Staff ===The Hellenic National Defense General Staff has the operational command of the Joint Armed Forces Headquarters and the units that operate under them.", "It is also responsible for organising and implementing routine operations and exercises of the Joint Armed Forces, coordinating and implementing operations during the management of wartime and peacetime crises and overseeing operations of the Hellenic Armed Forces outside Greek national territory.===Hellenic Army===The basic components of the Hellenic Army are Arms and Corps.", "The former is responsible for combat missions and the latter for logistical support.", "It is organized in Commands, Formations, and Units with the main being brigade, division and corps.", "Its main mission is to guarantee the territorial integrity and independence of the country.===Hellenic Navy===The Hellenic Navy incorporates a modern fleet consisting of strike units, such as frigates, gunboats, submarines and fast attack guided missile vessels and multiple types of support vessels, in order to be able to conduct naval operations that protect Greek national interests and guarantee the integrity of Greek territorial waters, the mainland and the islands.===Hellenic Air Force===The Hellenic Air Force incorporates a modern aircraft fleet and congruent structure, combined with a comprehensive air defense system that consists of a widespread network of anti-aircraft weapons.", "The structure, which is overseen by the Air Force General Staff, includes the Tactical Air Force Command, the Air Force Support Command, the Air Force Training Command and a number of other independent defense units and services.", "Its main mission is to defend Greek airspace and to provide combat support to the Hellenic Army and the Hellenic Navy.==See also== * Conscription in Greece* Hellenic army* Greek military ranks* Hellenic Republic / Ministry of National Defense* List of Greek military bases* Military history of Greece* Military history of Greece during World War II* Athens War Museum* War Museum of Thessaloniki" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Hellenic Ministry of Defense – official website* Hellenic National Defense General Staff – official website* Hellenic Army General Staff – official website* Hellenic Navy General Staff – official website* Hellenic Air Force General Staff – official website* Defense expenditures of NATO countries" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Greece" ], [ "Introduction", "Nations with which Greece has diplomatic relations.As one of the oldest Euro-Atlantic member states in the region of Southeast Europe, Greece enjoys a prominent geopolitical role as a middle power, due to its political and geographical proximity to Europe, Asia, the Middle East and Africa.", "Its main allies are the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Cyprus and the rest of the European Union and NATO.Greece also maintains strong diplomatic relations with Armenia, Albania, Egypt, Lebanon, the United Arab Emirates, North Macedonia, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Switzerland while at the same time focuses at improving further the good relations with the Arab World, Caucasus, China, India, South Korea, Japan, Mongolia, Vietnam, The Philippines, South Africa, and the rest of the African Union, Arab League, BRICS, CELAC and Nordic Council.", "As member of the European Union, the Union for the Mediterranean, and the Council of Europe, Greece is a key player in the eastern Mediterranean region and has encouraged the collaboration between neighbors, as well as promoting the Energy Triangle, for gas exports to Europe.", "Greece also has the second largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor.Prominent issues in Hellenic foreign policy include the claims in the Aegean Sea and Eastern Mediterranean by Turkey and the Turkish occupation of Cyprus." ], [ "Overview", "Greece has diplomatic relations with almost all the countries in the world, as shown in the map below.border" ], [ "Disputes", "Following the resolution of the Macedonia naming dispute with North Macedonia due to the Prespa agreement in 2018, the Ministry identifies two remaining issues of particular importance to the Greek state: Turkish challenges to Greek sovereignty rights in the Aegean Sea and corresponding airspace and the Cyprus dispute involving the Turkish occupation of Northern Cyprus.=== Cyprus dispute ===A map of divided Cyprus.Embassy of Greece in Nicosia, CyprusAs the island of Cyprus was heading towards independence from the United Kingdom the Greek (82%) and Turkish (18%) communities became embroiled in bitter inter-communal fighting, partly sponsored by the two \"motherlands\".", "EOKA-B and the Turkish Resistance Organization (TMT) were responsible for many atrocities which resulted in cementing tensions and led to total isolation of the communities with Turkish Cypriots withdrawn into enclaves.In 1974, the US-backed Greek junta –took power during the November of 1973 by overthrowing the previous junta - partly in a move to draw attention away from internal turmoil and partly unsatisfied with Makarios' policy in Cyprus, on 15 July attempted a coup to replace him with Nikos Sampson and declare union with Greece.", "Seven days later, Turkey launched an invasion of Cyprus allegedly to reinstate the constitution but which resulted in blooded conflict, partition of the island and mass ethnic cleansing.", "The overwhelming Turkish land, naval and air superiority against island's weak defenses led to the bringing of 37% of the land under Turkish control.170,000 Greek Cypriots were evicted from their homes in the north with 50,000 Turks following the opposite path concluding the de facto division of Cyprus.", "In 1983 Turkish Cypriots proclaimed independence unilaterally with only Turkey recognizing them.", "As of today the north is under an embargo as a measure against the illegal partition of the island.Ever since both countries along with the two communities of the island are engages into a vicious cycle of negotiations which led to little.", "In 2004 the Annan Plan for Cyprus was put to vote but whilst it was accepted by the north, it was rejected by the Greek-Cypriots as it meant in their eyes, endorsing a confederal state with a weak central government and considerable local autonomy.", "The Republic of Cyprus is a constitutional democracy which has reached great levels of prosperity, with a booming economy and good infrastructures, part of the United Nations, European Union and several others organizations by whom it is recognized as the sole legitimate government of the whole island.Greece calls for the removal of Turkish troops from Cyprus and the restoration of a unified state.", "The Republic of Cyprus is receiving strong support from Greece in international forums with the latter maintaining a military contingent on the island, and Greek officers filling key positions in the Cypriot National Guard.=== Aegean claims by Turkey ===Other issues dividing Greece and Turkey involve the delimitation of the continental shelf in the Aegean Sea, territorial waters and airspace.", "In March 1987 a dispute concerning oil drilling rights, almost led to war between the countries with Greece advocating the dispute to be decided by the International Court of Justice.", "In early 1988, the Turkish and Greek Prime Ministers met at Davos, Switzerland, and later in Brussels.", "They agreed on various measures to reduce bilateral tensions and to encourage cooperation.Tensions over the Aegean Sea surfaced again in November 1994, when Greece claimed under the Law of the Sea Treaty, which Turkey has not signed, that it reserved the right to declare an expansion of its continental shelf from around its Aegean islands.", "Turkey which has itself expanded its continental shelf in the Black Sea shore, stated that it would consider any such action a cause for war.", "New technical-level bilateral discussions began in 1994 but soon fizzled-out.In January 1996, Greece and Turkey came close to an armed confrontation over the question of which country had sovereignty over an islet in the Aegean.", "In July 1997, on the sidelines of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) summit in Madrid, Greek and Turkish leaders reached agreement on six principles to govern their bilateral relations.", "Within a few months, however, the two countries were again at odds over Aegean airspace and sovereignty issues.", "Tensions remained high for months, although various confidence-building measures were discussed to reduce the risk of military accidents or conflict in the Aegean, under the auspices of the NATO Secretary General.=== Turkey and the EU ===Greece has come out in support of Turkey's bid for European Union membership, and supports its full integration to the union when conditions for its acceptance are met.", "On 6 May 2004, Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan became the first Turkish leader to visit Greece in fifty years.", "On 24 January 2008, Greece's premier Costas Karamanlis visited Turkey a full 48 years after the last Greek premier and uncle of his Constantine Karamanlis had visited the neighboring country.=== Turkish government arson admission ===On Monday 23 December 2011, in an interview on Turkish newspaper ''BirGün'' discussing secret budgets, former Turkish Prime Minister Mesut Yılmaz admitted that Turkish secret agents intentionally started forest fires in Greece between 1995 and 1997 during the Prime Ministership of Tansu Çiller as part of state-sponsored sabotage, resulting in huge damage caused by major forest fires on the islands of the eastern Aegean and in Macedonia.", "Mesut Yılmaz's admission sparked political outrage in Greece on Monday, causing Greece's Foreign Ministry spokesman Grigoris Delavekouras to say that the claims were \"serious and must be investigated,\" adding that Athens was awaiting a briefing from Ankara.", "Conservative New Democracy's shadow foreign minister Panos Panayiotopoulos said the revelations \"cast heavy shadows over Greek-Turkish relations\" and called on Turkey recompense Greece for losses incurred.Following an official complaint from Greece on 24 December seeking clarification over comments by former Prime Minister Mesut Yılmaz relating to forest fires in Greece in the mid-1990s, the Greek and Turkish foreign ministers, Stavros Dimas and Ahmet Davutoğlu, spoke on Wednesday 28 December.", "Dimas stressed how important it was that Ankara investigate the claims that in the past Turkey's intelligence services paid arsonists to set fire to forests in Greece.", "In addition to Greek Foreign Ministry meetings with Turkish officials, Greece's Supreme Court prosecutor Yiannis Tentes launched an emergency inquiry on 27 December, ordering the investigations into the mid-1990s wildfires blamed on arson to be reopened with regard to the initial claims reportedly made by Yılmaz.Former head of Greek intelligence service Leonidas Vasilikopoulos said they had received information from their agents in Turkey that Turkish agents or others were involved in the forest fires on Greek islands.", "After making the comments in Turkish daily newspaper ''BirGün'', Yilmaz said that his words had been distorted and that he was referring to Greek agents causing fires in Turkey.", "However, on Thursday 29, Turkish daily ''Milliyet'' published an article referring to a secret report that seemed to support claims made in the interview by Mesut Yılmaz that secret agents had caused forest fires in Greece in the 1990s.", "According to ''Milliyet'', an associate of Yılmaz's, Kutlu Savas, compiled a 12-page report that detailed the actions of Turkish agents in Greece.", "It described how the National Intelligence Organization of Turkey (MIT) had formed two teams: one which carried out bombings at tourist sites on Crete and other parts of Greece and another which was responsible for starting the wildfires.", "An attack on an army camp in Lamia, central Greece, is also mentioned." ], [ "Bilateral relations", "=== Africa ===Greece enjoys close historic relations with many members of the African Union, such as South Africa, Sudan, and Ethiopia.", "Country Formal relations beganNotes See Algeria–Greece relations* Relations between the two countries have been traditionally friendly since Algeria's first years of independence.", "* Greece maintains an embassy in Algiers* Algeria is represented in Greece by its embassy in Athens.", "* Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean.30 August 1980Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 August 1980 10 April 1978Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 April 1978Greece is represented in Botswana through its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa, and Botswana is represented in Greece through its Permanent Representation to the United Nation Office in Geneva, Switzerland.28 April 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 April 1973 when the first Greek Ambassador to the Cameroon, Mr. Sathis Mitsopoulos, presented his credentials to President Ahidjo.26 April 1986Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 April 198610 September 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 September 1965 when appointed first Ambassador of Central African Republic to Greece Mr. Maurice Dejean13 September 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 September 1975 when first Ambassador of Greece to Chad, Mr. Statis Mitsopoulos presented his credentials to General Félix Malloum, Chadian Head of State 15 June 1966See Democratic Republic of the Congo – Greece relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 15 June 1966 when Ambassador of Democratic Republic of Congo to Greece M. Joseph Kahamba , presented his credentials to King Constantin.", "* Greece has an embassy in Kinshasa and two honorary consulates in Kisangani and Lubumbashi.", "* The Democratic Republic of the Congo has an embassy in Athens.", "Both countries are full members of Francophonie.", "* Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Democratic Republic of Congo 9 April 1983Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 April 1983 when Ambassador of Greece to Congo presented his credentials to President Denis Sassou Nguesso.17 December 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 December 1970 See Egypt–Greece relationsBoth countries share relations since the years BC with the creation of Alexandria by Alexander the Great.", "Egypt has had a sizable Greek community which is mostly centered around Alexandria, Egypt's second largest city and the seat of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria.", "In the modern era, both countries enjoy very good and warm diplomatic relations since 1833 and especially after the Greek War of Independence, and both countries have signed several defense cooperation agreements, with the heads of states visiting each other in a regular basis.", "* Egypt is represented in Greece by its embassy in Athens and general consulate in Thessalonica.", "* Greece is represented in Egypt by its embassy in Cairo and general consulate in Alexandria.", "* Sizable communities of Greeks live in Egypt (Alexandria) and Egyptians in Greece (Patras, Athens).", "* Greece and Egypt signed bilateral agreements for trade, tourism and defense cooperations.", "* Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean.9 June 1995Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 June 1995 when Ambassador of Greece to Eritrea Mr. Vassilios Vassolos, presented his credentials to President Isaias Afwerki.", "Greece is accredited to Eswatini from its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.", "Eswatini is accredited to Greece from its embassy in London, UK.See Ethiopia–Greece relations* Ethiopia is accredited to Greece from its embassy in Rome, Italy.", "* Greece has an embassy in Addis Ababa.April 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations in April 1974.31 July 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 July 1973 8 December 1966See Greece–Kenya relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 8 December 1966 when accredited first ambassador of Greece to Kenya with residence in Nairobi Mr. George C.", "Papadopoulos.", "* Greece has an embassy in Nairobi.", "* Kenya is accredited to Greece from its embassy in Rome, Italy.", "31 January 1977Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 January 1977Greece is represented in Lesotho through its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.", "Lesotho is represented in Greece via parallel accreditation of its embassy in Rome, Italy.29 May 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 May 1974 1952See Greece–Libya relations* Diplomatic relations between the two countries date back since 1952, when Libya's independence was formally recognized by the UN.", "* Relations between the two countries have been traditionally friendly.", "* Due to the Libyan Civil War, Greece has closed its embassy in Tripoli.", "* Libya is represented in Greece through its embassy in Athens.", "* A Greek Consulate General was reopened in Benghazi in April 2021.", "* Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Libya * Greece is represented in Madagascar through its embassy in Nairobi, Kenya.", "* Madagascar is represented in Greece through its embassy in Rome, Italy.", "30 April 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 April 1970.", "Greece is represented in Malawi by its embassy in Harare, Zimbabwe.", "Malawi is represented in Greece by its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.3 October 1972Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 October 1972 when M. Georges J. Gavas , Ambassador of Greece to Mauritania , presented his letters of credentials.", "23 February 1981Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 February 1981* Greece is represented in Mauritius through its embassy in Nairobi, Kenya.", "* Mauritius is represented in Greece through its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* Bilateral relations between Greece and Morocco have traditionally been very good.", "* Greece has an embassy in Rabat, and a consular office in Casablanca.", "* Morocco is represented in Greece by its embassy to Athens.", "* Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean and the Francophonie.", "* Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Morocco30 December 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 December 1976 9 August 1990Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 August 1990Greece is represented in Namibia through its embassy in Nairobi, Kenya.", "Namibia is represented in Greece through its embassy in London, England and an honorary consulate in Athens.", "See Greece–Nigeria relationsNigeria has an embassy in Athens.", "Greece established a diplomatic mission in Nigeria in 1970, and today has an embassy in Abuja and a consulate in Lagos.", "Trade between the two countries is imbalanced, with imports from Greece to Nigeria exceeding exports.", "Greek-owned tankers have an important role in shipping Nigerian oil and natural gas, its main exports.", "Recently a Greek tanker was involved a dispute over crude oil smuggling.", "Greek-controlled companies have invested US$5 billion in the Nigerian economy.", "There is a small Greek business community in Lagos.24 April 1986Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 April 1986 * Greece has an embassy in Dakar.", "* Senegal is accredited to Greece from its embassy in Rome, Italy.", "16 July 1980Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 July 1980* Greece is represented in Seychelles through its embassy in Nairobi, Kenya.", "* Seychelles is represented in Greece through its embassy in Paris, France.15 May 1979Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 May 1979 15 December 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 December 1973* Greece represented in Somalia via parallel accreditation of its embassy in Khartoum, Sudan.", "2 September 1941See Greece–South Africa relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 2 September 1941 when has been appointed first Greek Minister to South Africa Mr. Theologus Nicoloudis.", "* The presence of a large Greek Diaspora in South Africa led to the establishment of diplomatic relations as far back as the early 20th century.", "* Greece has an embassy in Pretoria, a general consulate in Johannesburg and 2 consulates in Cape Town and Durban.", "* South Africa has an embassy in Athens and a consulate-general in Thessaloniki.", "* Relations are cordial, and got stronger since World War II.", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affaires about relations with South Africa * South African Department of Foreign Affaires about relations with Greece 28 January 1956Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 January 1956 when has been accredited Charge d'Affaires of Legation of the Greece to Sudan Mr. P. Calogeras.Greece and Sudan have long enjoyed a very cordial and friendly relationship spanning decades.", "The two countries enjoy strong and productive relations in the areas of diplomacy, economic reciprocity, and also there are large concentrations of Sudanese (both students and immigrants) in Greece, and numerous Greek nationals who have resided in Sudan since the early 20th century.", "The two countries are on very good terms with each other, notwithstanding Sudan's close ties with Greece's historical rival, Turkey.", "Greece has an embassy in Khartoum, whilst Sudan is represented in Greece through the parallel accreditation of its embassy in Athens.", "The Hellenic country also deeply supports peaceful stability in Sudan's western region, Darfur.", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Sudan See Greece–Tunisia relationsGreece has an embassy in Tunis.", "Tunisia has an embassy in Athens.12 October 1971Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 October 1971Greece is represented in Zambia by its embassy in Harare, Zimbabwe and an honorary consulate in Lusaka.", " Zambia is represented in Greece by its embassy in London, United Kingdom.", "13 August 1980 See Greece–Zimbabwe relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 13 August 1980Greece has an embassy in Harare.", "Due to the economic situation, Zimbabwe has neither an embassy nor an honorary consulate in Greece.=== The Americas === Country Formal relations beganNotes 14 October 1920 see Argentina–Greece relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 14 October 1920 when has been accredited first Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Greece to Argentina (resident in Brazil) Mr. Stamati Ghiouzes Pezas.Both countries are represented by an embassy in the other one's capital.", "At least 30,000 persons of Greek descent live in Argentina with about 5,000 with Greek passports.", "The majority of Greeks live in Buenos Aires.", "* Argentina has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Buenos Aires.23 March 1987Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 March 1987 4 September 1986Both countries have established diplomatic relations on 4 September 1986.", "Belize's embassy in Mexico has parallel accreditation for Greece.", "Belize has an honorary consulate in Athens since 1992.", "Greece does not have any representation in Belize, its embassy in Mexico is also accredited to Belize.", "See Greece–Brazil relations In addition to its embassy in Brasília, Greece has two general consulates in (São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro) and four honorary consulates.", "* Brazil has an embassy in Athens.", "5 November 1942See Canada–Greece relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 5 November 1942* The nations first exchanged ambassadors in 1942.", "* Both countries are members of the United Nations, the Human Security Network, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, and NATO.", "* Greece has an embassy in Ottawa, as well as a consulate-general in Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver.", "* Canada has an embassy with a consular office in Athens and an honorary consulate in Thessaloniki.", "* Canadian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Greece* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Canada * Greek embassy in Ottawa* Canadian embassy in Athens see Chile–Greece relations* Chile has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Santiago.", "1 January 1942Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 January 1942.", "Colombia is represented in Greece through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and counts with an honorary consulate in Thessaloniki (Greece).", "Greece is represented in Colombia through its embassy in Caracas (Venezuela) and counts with an honorary consulate in Bogotá (Colombia).", "Greece is the 13th largest trade partner of Colombia in the European Union.2 July 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 July 1965 17 July 1946See Cuba–Greece relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 17 July 1946.", " Cuba has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Havana.15 November Diplomatic relations were established on 15 November 2005.Greece is represented in Dominica via parallel accreditation of its embassy in Caracas.", "Dominica has appointed an ambassador accredited to Greece, based in Roseau, Dominica.16 October 1956Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 October 1956 when has been appointed Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Dominican Republic to Greece Dr. Pedro Troncoso Sanchez.5 July 1966Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 July 1966.2 July 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 July 196520 July 1982Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 July 19822 July 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 July 196514 May 1979Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 May 1979.", "Greece is represented in Guyana by its embassy in Caracas, Venezuela.", "Greece has provided Guyana with development aid in the past.2 July 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 July 196515 May 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 May 1975.See Greece–Mexico relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 17 May 1938.", " Greece has an embassy in Mexico City, along with honorary consulates in Mérida and Monterrey.", "* Mexico has an embassy in Athens and honorary consulates in Piraeus and Thessaloniki.", "Greek immigration to Mexico History of diplomatic relations between Mexico and Greece (Spanish only)* Bilateral relations between Greece and Mexico (in English and Greek only)2 July 1965 see Greece–Nicaragua relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 2 July 1965.Greece–Nicaragua relations are foreign relations between Greece and Nicaragua.", "Greece is represented in Nicaragua through its embassy in Mexico City.", "Nicaragua is represented in Greece through its embassy in Rome.", "7 May 1956Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 May 1956.3 December 1965See Greece–Peru relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 3 December 1965 In 1992, Greece opened an embassy in Lima.", "* Peru has an embassy in Athens.9 July 2004Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 July 200418 November 1980Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 November 198013 August 1997Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 August 19971 December 1978Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 December 197810 October 1980Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 October 1980 16 June 1868 see Greece–United States relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 16 June 1868The United States and Greece have long-standing historical, political, and cultural ties based on the shared democratic values, history of Greek immigration to the States and participation as Allies during World War II, the Korean War, and the Cold War.", "Previously, the US helped the reconstruction of post-war Greece through the Marshall plan and various other aids culminating at about $11.1 billion in economic and security assistance since 1946.The current mutual defense cooperation agreement (MDCA) provides for continued U.S. military assistance to Greece and the operation by the U.S. of a military facility at Souda Bay, Crete.About three million Americans are of Greek ancestry.", "Greek-Americans are an established, well-organized community in the U.S. (several notable politicians, including former Vice-president Spiro Agnew, and Senators Olympia Snowe and Paul Sarbanes are of Greek ancestry), and they help cultivate close political and cultural ties with Greece.", "Greece has the seventh-largest population of U.S. Social Security beneficiaries in the world.", "1928See Greece–Uruguay relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations in 1928.", "* Greece has an embassy in Montevideo.", "* Uruguay has an embassy in Athens.See Greece–Venezuela relations* Greece has an embassy in Caracas.", "* Venezuela has an embassy in Athens.=== Asia ===Greece has a special interest in Middle East and North Africa because of its geographic position and its economic and historic ties to the area.", "The country cooperated with allied forces during the 1990–1991 Gulf War.", "Since 1994, Greece has signed defense cooperation agreements with Israel and Egypt and in recent years, Greek leaders have made numerous trips to the region to strengthen bilateral ties and encourage the Middle East Peace Process.", "In July 1997, December 1997, and July 1998 Greece hosted meetings of Israeli and Palestinian politicians to contribute to the peace process.", "Greece also maintains diplomatic relations with the General Palestinian Delegation while enjoying cordial relations with Syria.", "Country Formal relations beganNotesGreece-Afghanistan relations 2004See Afghanistan–Greece relations* Diplomatic relations were established in 2004.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece is represented in Afghanistan through its embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan.", "20 January 1992 see Armenia–Greece relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 20 January 1992Greece was one of the first countries to recognize Armenia's independence on 21 September 1991 and one of those that have officially recognized the Armenian genocide.", "Since the independence of Armenia the two countries have been partners within the framework of international organizations (United Nations, OSCE, Council of Europe, BSEC), whilst Greece firmly supports the community programs aimed at further developing relations between the EU and Armenia.Continuous visits of the highest level have shown that both countries want to continue to improve the levels of friendship and cooperation (Visit by the President of Armenia Levon Ter-Petrossian to Greece in 1996, visit by the President of the Hellenic Republic Costis Stephanopoulos in 1999, visit by the President of Armenia Robert Kocharyan to Greece in 2000 and 2005 and visit by Greek president Karolos Papoulias to Armenia in June 2007).Greece is, after Russia, the major military partner of Armenia.", "Armenian officers are trained in Greek military academies, and various technical assistance is supplied by Greece.", "Since 2003, an Armenian platoon has been deployed in Kosovo as part of KFOR, where they operate as a part of the Greek battalion of KFOR.", "* Armenia has and embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has and embassy in Yerevan.", "* Greece has recognized the Armenian genocide in 1996.2 April 1992 see Azerbaijan–Greece relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 2 April 1992Azerbaijan-Greece relations today are friendly.", "Each state maintains a full embassy, Azerbaijan in Athens and Greece in Baku.", "Recently in February 2009, Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev visited Greece to boost bilateral relations.", "The leader met with Greek President Karolos Papoulias, as well as the Greek Prime Minister Costas Karamanlis.", "At the meeting between the officials, the two nations agreed that they must work more closely to get Azeri gas into Greece to help ease recent security issues.In the past the two nations have made many deals related to the oil industry.", "In 2007 Greek Development Minister Dimitris Sioufas signed a \"memorandum of cooperation\" in the sectors of natural gas and oil while in Baku.", "Sioufas referred to this memorandum as a \"new page in economic and energy relations of the two countries.\"", "Greece supports Azerbaijan's bid to join to European Union and is the first EU member that wanted directly gas important from Azerbaijan.", "Both countries are also full members of the Council of Europe, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC).", "Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 August 1973* Bahrain does not have any representation in Greece.", "* Greece has an honorary consulates in Manama.", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs: direction of the Greek honorary consulate in Manama * The Cambodian embassy in Belgium is also accredited to Greece* The Greek embassy in Bangkok (Thailand) is also accredited to Cambodia.", "* Both countries are full members of the Francophonie.", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Cambodia 5 June 1972 see China–Greece relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 5 June 1972* China has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Beijing.See Georgia–Greece relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 20 April 1992* Georgia has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* Georgia Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Greece* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Georgia 14 May 1956 see Greece-India relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 14 May 1956* Greece has an embassy in New Delhi.", "* India has an embassy in Athens.", "23 February 1958Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 February 1958* The embassy of Indonesia in Athens was opened in 1994 and was followed by the establishment of the embassy of Greece in Jakarta in 1997.", "* Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Indonesia * Greek embassy in Jakarta* Indonesian embassy in Athens 19 November 1902See Greece–Iran relations Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 November 1902 when has been appointed first Persian Ambassador to Greece.Cartoon on the establishment of diplomatic relations between Greece and the then-ruling Qajar dynasty of Persia in 1902* Relations between the two people date back from the antiquity and before Persian invasion of Greece.", "There is also the report of Strabo of an Athenian delegation to Persia in 432 BC.", "The relations have evolved from sworn rivalry during the Greco-Persian wars to strong cordiality.", "Alexander the Great defeated the Persian empire and the country was put under Greek rule for approx.", "70 years until they were defeated by Parthians (another group of Iranian people) and pushed backed from Persia to their homeland.", "* Greece has an embassy in Tehran* Iran is represented by its embassy in Athens.", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affaires about relations with Iran * Greece and the United States embassy have conversed regarding the combined military attitude towards the country.", "Read about it in this Wikileaks article 27 November 1947 see Greece-Iraq relations, Greece–Kurdistan Region relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 27 November 1947 when has been accredited Charge d'Affaires of Greece to Iraq (resident in Beirut) Mr. Nadji Vassiliou.Relations of the Greek and Iraqi peoples are deeply rooted in history, both have developed cultures that have influenced the course of humanity.", "They date as far back as when Alexander the Great ruled Mesopotamia (which name is of Greek origin, meaning \"land between rivers\") and eventually died in Babylon, Iraq.", "Greece firmly and consistently supports the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of Iraq.", "Greece traditionally maintained good and friendly relations with Iraq due to strong historical and cultural bonds, dating back to ancient times.Greece has an embassy in Baghdad, and Iraq is represented by her embassy in Athens.", "21 May 1990 see Greece–Israel relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 21 May 1990.", "* Since 1990, diplomatic relations between the two countries were upgraded from diplomatic pepresentation to embassy-level.", "* Greece is represented in Israel through its embassy in Tel Aviv, its consulate general in Jerusalem, and an honorary consulate in Haifa.", "* Israel is represented in Greece through its embassy in Athens.", "1 June 1899 see Greece–Japan relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 June 1899.", "* There has been a Greek embassy in Tokyo since 1960* The Japanese Embassy in Athens opened in 1960, when it was decided to upgrade the Japanese Consulate which had opened in 1956.", "* Since then the two countries have enjoyed excellent relations in all fields, and cooperate closely.1947Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1947.See Greece–Kazakhstan relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 October 1992.", "* Greece opened an embassy in Almaty in February 1997.", "* Kazakhstan opened an embassy in Athens in 2005.Kazakhstan has an honorary consulate in Athens since 1998.", "* Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev visited Greece in July 2001 and Greek President Konstantinos Stephanopoulos visited Kazakhstan in June 2002.The Kazakh leader also attended the 2004 Summer Olympics opening ceremony.", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Kazakhstan * Kazakh Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Greece3 January 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 January 1965 see Greece-Kyrgyzstan relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations in 1992.Greece is represented in Kyrgyzstan through its embassy in Almaty (Kazakhstan).", "Kyrgyzstan is represented in Greece through a non-resident ambassador based in Bishkek (in the Foreign Ministry).", "Kyrgyz consular representation in Greece is made by the Kazakh consulate in Athens.", "On 1 November 2004, Kyrgyz President Askar Akayev made an official visit to Greece.", "A Foreign Ministry delegation from Greece visited Dushanbe for talks, and had meetings with Tajikistan's Foreign Minister Zarifi and First Deputy Foreign Minister Youldashev in 2008.Foreign Minister Dora Bakoyannis met with Tajikistan's Foreign Minister Zarifi during the 1st EU-Central Asia Forum on security issues in Paris in September 2008.", "There are between 650 and 700 people of Greek descent living in Kyrgyzstan.", "However, the data of the General Secretariat For Greeks Abroad give an even lower number (50 people).", "In 2004 Greece and Kyrgyzstan signed a bilateral agreement for air transports, tourism and diplomacy during Kyrgyz president Askar Akayev's visit to Greece.", "17 June 1947 see Greece–Lebanon relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 17 June 1947, when first Minister of Greece to Lebanon with residence in Cairo M. Georges Triantaphyllidis presented his credentialsThe relation between both people dates back to early antiquity, with the early trading activities between the ancient Greeks and the Phoenicians.", "In modern times, Greek-Lebanese bilateral relations are very good at all levels.", "Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean and the Francophonie.", "* Greece has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Athens.", "16 November 1959 see Greece–Malaysia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 16 November 1959.", "* The Greek embassy in Jakarta, Indonesia, is also accredited to Malaysia.", "There is an Honorary Greek Consulate in Kuala Lumpur.", "* In the opposite way, the Malaysian embassy in Berlin is at the same time accredited to Greece.", "There is a Malaysian honorary consulate in Athens.", "* The former Yang di-Pertuan Agong (the head of state of Malaysia) and current Raja of Perlis, Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin visited Greece in August 2004 to attend the Athens Olympics.", "* Greece exports specialised machinery, non-ferrous metals, tobacco, metal goods, medical products, minerals and fruit, and imports industrial equipment, oil, footwear, paper, rubber, vehicles and telecommunications equipment from Malaysia.", "Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 September 1983.", "Greece is represented in Sri Lanka by its embassy in New Delhi, India.", "Maldives have an honorary consulate in Athens.", "3 March 1967Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 March 1967.", " Greece is represented in Mongolia through its embassy in Beijing (China).", "* Mongolia is represented in Greece through its embassy in Sofia (Bulgaria) and an honorary consulate in Athens.", "* Mongolian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Greece (in Mongolian only) 20 March 1958Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 March 1958.", "* Greece is represented in Burma through its embassy in Bangkok (Thailand).", "* Greek interests in Burma are represented by the Italian embassy in Yangon.", "* Burma is represented in Greece through its embassy in Rome (Italy).", "* Burmese Ministry of Foreign Affairs* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Burma 2 February 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 February 1960 1 October 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 October 1973See Greece–Pakistan relationsIn modern times, Pakistan's first embassy in Athens was opened in 1975.Greece established an embassy in Islamabad in 1987.There are around 32,500 Pakistani people living and working in Greece.", "However, Islamabad has stated it will not accept Greek sovereignty over Cyprus and it should withdraw its bulk of armed forces from the southern part of the island to restore the independence of the Cypriots, which it continues to have diplomatic relations with Nicosia.", "See Greece–Palestine relationsDiplomatic relations were founded with the PLO in 1981.", "Palestine has a representative office in Athens and Greece's consulate general in Jerusalem is accredited to Palestine.", "In December 2015, the Hellenic parliament voted unanimously in the presence of President Mahmoud Abbas to recommend to the government the full recognition of the state of Palestine on 4 June 1967 borders with East Jerusalem as its capital.", " There is a Philippine embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Manila and an honorary consulate general.", "* There are around 40,000 Filipinos living and working in Greece, making them one of the largest foreign communities in Greece.", "(see Filipinos in Greece).", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs – Diplomatic relations with the Philippines 1973 see Greece–Qatar relations* Greece has an embassy in Doha which opened in 2007.", "* Qatar has an embassy in Athens which opened in 2008.See Greece–Saudi Arabia relations* Greece has an embassy in Riyadh.", "Greece has also a consulate general in Jeddah.", "* Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Athens.", "* See also Greeks in Saudi Arabia* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Saudi Arabia 21 October 1966Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 October 1966.", "* The Greek embassy in Bangkok, Thailand, is also accredited to Singapore.", "* Singapore's embassy in Berlin, Germany, is also accredited to Greece.", "Singapore has an honorary consulate in Athens.", "* In consular affairs Greek interests are represented by the French Embassy in Singapore.", "There is also a special Port Consular Office in Singapore, which looks after the interests of Greek shipping companies, as well as an honorary consulate.", "* Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Singapore 5 April 1961 See Greece–South Korea relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on * Greece and South Korea have good relations.", "* Greece sent an expeditionary force as part of the United Nations Command to help the South Koreans (ROK) against the North Koreans (DPRK) during the Korean War.", " Greek embassy in Seoul.", " Korean embassy in Athens.", "* South Korean Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Greece Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1957Greece is represented in Sri Lanka by its embassy in New Delhi, India.", "Sri Lanka is represented in Greece by its embassy in Rome, Italy.", "24 June 1947 See Greece–Syria relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 24 June 1947 when has been accredited Envoy Extraordinary and minister Plenipotentiary of Greece to Syria with residence in Cairo Mr. Georges Triandafyllides.", " Greece has an embassy in Damascus and three honorary consulates (in Latakia, Tartus and Aleppo).", "* Syria has an embassy in Athens.", "* Both countries are charter members of the Union of the Mediterranean.", "* On May 8, 2020, the Greek Foreign Ministry Nikos Dendias announced a restoration of relations between Greece and Syria and assigned former ambassador to Syria and Russia, Tasia Athanassiou, as a Special Envoy of Greece's Foreign Ministry for Syria.", "* Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Syria Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 May 1958* The Greek Embassy in Bangkok was opened in November 1989.", "* Thailand has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Thailand* Thai embassy in Athens* Thai deputy premier, UN sec.", "gen. candidate, meets with premier Karamanlis 24 August 1833 see above, and see Greece–Turkey relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 24 August 1833 when has been appointed first Ambassador of Greece to Turkey Konstantinos Zografos.He presented his credentials on 30 July 1834.After more than a century of strained relations and intermittent fighting, Greece and Turkey agreed under the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) to a population exchange as an attempt to reduce tensions between the two countries in the future.", "A significant 300,000 strong Greek community in Istanbul and a 100,000 Turk one in Western Thrace were excluded from the transfer, with each one supposed to be working as counter-weights to any anti-minority policy that either Turkey or Greece may sought to apply in the future, however that counter-weight came to an end before the Cyprus dispute because of the Varlik Vergisi and Istanbul pogrom.In 1942 a wealth tax called the Varlık Vergisi was imposed on non-Muslims including Greeks, this resulted in financial ruin for many Greeks and another exodus of Greeks from Anatolia once World War II had come to an end.", "Again in 1955 an anti-Greek Istanbul pogrom was initiated by Turkish mobs against the Greek community of Istanbul, which led to the final gradual extinction of the Greek community in Anatolia.", "These two events were a major factor when the Cyprus problem surfaced as Greece and Turkey nearly came to a full-out war after Turkey's invasion of Cyprus.", "Similar disputes occurred for the islands of Imbros and Tenedos.", "Up to late 1990s strained relations almost led to an open war in 1974, 1987 and 1996.Since the earthquake diplomacy in 1999 relations have once again begun improving.", "* Greece has an embassy in Ankara and a consulates-general in Istanbul and İzmir and consulate in Edirne.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Athens and consulates-general in Piraeus, Rhodes and Thessaloniki.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and of NATO.", "* Greece opposes Turkey's EU membership.", "1971See Greece–United Arab Emirates relations* Greece opened an embassy in Abu Dhabi in 1989.Greece also has a commercial section in Dubai.", "* United Arab Emirates has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with the United Arab Emirates In November 2020, Greece and the United Arab Emirates signed a foreign policy and defence agreement, as both shared mutual tensions with Turkey.", "See Greece–Vietnam relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 15 April 1975.", " Since May 2007, Greece has had an embassy in Hanoi, it was inaugurated by prime minister Kostas Karamanlis.", "* Vietnam has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Vietnam * Vietnamese Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Greece* Details about bilateral relations from the Vietnamese Foreign Affairs Ministry=== Europe === Country Formal relations beganNotes 1912, 1971 see Albania–Greece relationsGreece and Albania – even though diplomatic relations were restored in 1971 – normalized relations only in 1987 as until then both countries were officially – in a cease-fire – but nevertheless under the state of war since Albania and Italy had declared war on Greece on 28 October 1940.During rule of dictator Enver Hoxha relations were strained because of the part that Albania played during World War II against Greece and also because of the material help that they provided to Greek communists during the Greek civil war.", "In addition there was controversy about the treatment of the Greek minority in southern Albania, the historic region of Northern Epirus and the Cham issue.Following the collapse of communism in Albania, relations between the two countries improved with periods of destabilisation due to accusations of mistreatments of minorities in each country.", "Illegal immigration from Albania and complaints of the Greek minority in Albania regarding treatment by state authorities led to issues at the socio-political level.", "Greece, which didn't experience high levels of immigration at the time, faced increased criminality by illegal immigrants and ethnic Albanians faced police brutality.", "According to official Greek data, 450,000 Albanians, including Greeks from Albania, migrated to Greece.", "The number almost doubles if illegal migrants are included.", "Despite shared cultural relations as two neighbours, the influx of immigrants to Greece, and Albanian immigration for the first time since the end of the isolationist communist regime led to some tensions.Today, relations between the two countries are very close and are regarded as excellent, and, at the Albanian Government's request, about 250 Greek military personnel are stationed in Albania to assist with the training and restructuring the Albanian Armed Forces.", "Albania's economy is overdependent to the money immigrants from Greece sent back home, while Greece is the second larger trading partner, with more than US$400 million worth of investments.", "Moreover, Greek products account for 21% of Albania's imports, with Greece absorbing 12% of its neighboring country's exports.", "At the same time, low cost labor from Albania propelled the growth of the Greek economy, especially in the construction and agriculture sectors.", "Albania is home to an approximate 200,000 Greek community.", "while between 400,000 and 600,000 Albanians live and work in Greece, the vast majority of them post-1991 economic migrants.", "There are also 189,000 Albanian nations in Greece recognised as part of the Greek minority of Albania.", "Albanians in Greece form the largest ethnic and foreign community, and many are now naturalised Greek citizens.", "Albanians have also generally integrated well and some have assimilated completely in Greek society.", "As a result of interaction, integration and subsequent mass migration to Greece by other ethnic groups, the position of Albanians in the country has improved.", "Albania is home to a considerable Greek community, both migrants and indigenous minority – number varies from 300 to 500,000 with 650,000 in total including North Epirus Greeks in Greece, USA and Australia.", "Greece is home to just under a million Albanians (some sources say 600,000, whilst other Greek organisations claim 900,000 with illegal migrants and overstayers).", "In addition to the Albanian immigrants, there are the Arvanites, a population group that today self-identifies as Greek who have traditionally spoken an Albanian dialect (Arvanitika).", "Arvanitika is today an endangered language, as its speakers have been shifting to the use of Greek and most younger members of the community no longer speak it.", "Greece is Albania's most important European Union ally and partner.", "Relations since the election victory of Edi Rama in 2013 have seen massive improvement and warming of relations between the two nations.", "The Archbishop of Albania is GreekThere are many cultural, political, historical and biological similarities and shared kinship between the Albanian and Greek peoples.", "Greek is the second most spoken language in Albania, with a considerable size having knowledge of it.", "Albanian is the most common foreign/migrant language in Greece, although most Greeks do not have clear knowledge of it.", "Many organisations both political and societal exist in Albania and Greece promoting relations between the two nations.", "Albania is home to the largest number of Greek diaspora political and cultural organisations; there are 5 political parties and over a dozen organisations.", "As of 2014 both nations have described their relations as 'excellent' and Albania considered Greece one of its 'strongest and most important allies', both NATO nations have close relations nowadays.", "25 August 1834See Austria–Greece relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 25 August 1834 when has been appointed Anton Prokesch von Osten as the first Ambassador of Austria to Greece.Both countries have had diplomatic relation since the 19th century, after Greece's independence.", "Greece has an embassy in Vienna and an honorary consulate in Salzburg.", "Austria has an embassy in Athens and six honorary consulates (in Heraklion, Hermoupolis, Korfu, Patras, Rhodes and Thessaloniki).", "Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "There is also a Greek community living in Austria.", "* List of bilateral treaties between both countries: Austria Ministry of Foreign Affairs (in German only)* Austrian embassy in Athens (in German and Greek only)* Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Austria * Greek embassy in Vienna (in Greek and German only) 5 March 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 March 1992.", "* Belarus is represented in Greece through its embassy in Sofia (Bulgaria).", "* Until 2003, Greece had an embassy in Minsk, today it is represented through its embassy in Moscow (Russia).", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Belarus 30 November 1838See Belgium–Greece relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 30 November 1838 when has been accredited Charge d'Affaires of Belgium to Greece M. Benjamin Mary.", "* Belgium has an embassy in Athens and seven honorary consulates in Corfu, Iraklion, Mytilini, Patras, Piraeus, Rhodes and Thessaloniki.", "* Since 1945, Greece has an embassy in Brussels.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO, of the European Union.", "* There are between 15,000 and 26,000 Greeks who live in Belgium.", "* Belgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Cooperation for Development about relations with Greece (in French only)* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Belgium Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 November 1995* Greece recognized Bosnia and Herzegovina's independence in 1992.", "* Since 1998, Bosnia and Herzegovina has an embassy in Athens.", "* Since 1996, Greece has an embassy in Sarajevo.", "* Greece provided 80.4% of the funding for the reconstruction of the Greece–Bosnia and Herzegovina Friendship Building.", "The building houses the Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "* Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean, of the Southeast European Cooperation Process, of the Southeast European Cooperative Initiative, of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and of the Council of Europe.", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Bosnia and Herzegovina 1908 See Bulgaria–Greece relationsSince the Second World War, relations between Greece and Bulgaria have been flourishing, and as the Greek President Konstantinos Tsatsos said during the Bulgarian leader Todor Zhivkov's visit to Athens in April 1976, ''\"the old controversies have been forgotten and the hatchet buried forever\"''.", "Greece became a firm supporter of Bulgaria's European Union membership and was the fifth EU member state and the first old member state to ratify the Accession Treaty.", "Since Bulgaria joined NATO in May 2004, Greek-Bulgarian relations have been developing on all fronts, and the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs describes relations between Greece and Bulgaria as \"excellent\".", "* Bulgaria has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Sofia.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "20 July 1992 see Croatia–Greece relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 20 July 1992.", "* Croatia has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Zagreb.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "see Cyprus–Greece relations* Greece and Cyprus enjoy a special relationship.", "Relations are excellent, due to the shared national, historical and cultural heritage of both countries and common interests.", "* Cyprus has an embassy in Athens and a consulate-general in Thessaloniki.", "* Greece has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and of the European Union.", "* Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Greece* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Cyprus 25 May 1920 see Czech Republic–Greece relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 20 May 1920.", "* Diplomatic relations between Greece and former Czechoslovakia were established in 1920 – after Czechoslovakia's foundation.", "* The Czech Republic and Greece established diplomatic relations on 1 January 1993.", "* Each country has an embassy in the other one capital.", "* See also Greeks in the Czech Republic* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "8 November 1918 see Denmark–Greece relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 8 November 1918 when has been accredited first Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Greece to Denmark Mr. S. A.", "Argyropoulo.", "* Denmark has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Estonia–Greece relations* Estonia has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Finland–Greece relations* Finland has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "7 February 1833 see France–Greece relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 7 February 1833 when Michael Soutzos has been appointed as the first Ambassador of Greece in France.", "* Greece and France enjoy a special relationship.", "Relations are excellent, due to the shared cultural and historical bonds between the two countries and common interests.", "* The two countries share membership of the European Union and NATO and maintain embassy-level relations since 1833 (only three years after the Greek independence).", "* They were allies during both World Wars, Korean War and have never been adversaries of each other.", "* See also Greeks in France See Germany–Greece relations* Germany has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "1980 see Greece–Holy See relations* The Holy See immediately set up its Apostolic Nunciature to Greece in Athens in 1980.", "* The Greek ambassador to the Holy See resided at first in Paris, where he was concurrently accredited to France; but in 1988 a separate Greek embassy to the Holy See, situated in Rome, was set up.", "See Greece–Hungary relations* Ambassadorial representation started on 24 August 1964.", "* Both countries are members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Hungary* Greek embassy in Budapest* Hungarian embassy in Athens* See also Greeks in Hungary 6 June 1958 see Greece–Iceland relations* Greece is represented in Iceland through its embassy in Oslo (Norway) and through an honorary consulate in Reykjavík.", "* Iceland is represented in Greece through its embassy in Oslo (Norway) and through an honorary consulate in Athens.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and NATO.", "22 January 1975 see Greece–Ireland relations* Since 1977, Greece has an embassy in Dublin.", "* Since 1978, Ireland has an embassy in Athens.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and of the European Union.", "16 June 1861 see Greece–Italy relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 16 June 1861 when has been appointed first Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Italy to Greece Terenzio Mamiani della Rovere.", "* Greece and Italy have a special relationship.", "Relations are excellent, due to the shared cultural and historical heritage of both countries and common interests in the region.", "* Greece has an embassy in Rome, two general consulates in Milan and Naples, a consulate in Venice, and eleven honorary consulates in Trieste (General), Turin (General), Ancona, Catania, Livorno, Bari, Bologna, Brindisi, Florence, Palermo, Perugia, and a Port Consulate in Genoa.", "* Italy has an embassy in Athens, and fifteen honorary consulates in Alexandroupoli, Kefalonia, Chania, Chios, Corfu, Corinth, Ioannina, Heraklion, Kavala, Larissa, Patras, Rhodes, Thessaloniki, Santorini, and Volos.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and of the European Union and NATO.", "* There are around 180,000 Greek Orthodox or people of Greek descent living in Italy, of which the majority lives in southern Italy and Sicily.", "* An approximation of 200,000 Roman Catholic Italians or people of Italian descent are living in Greece with the majority of them in the Ionian Islands, western Greece and the capital Athens.", "See Greece–Latvia relations* Greece recognized the State of Latvia on 23 May 1922, and diplomatic relations between the two countries were restored on 2 September 1991.Greece has never officially recognized the annexation of the Baltic states by the USSR.", "* The Latvian embassy in Athens was established in 1998.Latvia also has two honorary consuls in Greece (one in Athens and one in Thessaloniki).", "* The Greek embassy in Riga was opened in January 2005.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and the European Union.", "* Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Latvia * Latvia Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Greece See Greece–Lithuania relations* Full diplomatic relations were re-established on 7 January 1992.", "* Lithuania has maintained an embassy in Athens since 1997 along with an honorary consulate in Thessaloniki.", "* Greece has had an embassy in Vilnius since 2 January 2005.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and the European Union.", "* The ambassador to Greece has been Artūras Žurauskas since 2006.", "* The ambassador to the Republic of Lithuania is Konstantinos Katsabis.", "* Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Lithuania * Lithuanian Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Greece* Lithuanian Foreign Affairs Ministry: list of bilateral treaties with Greece * Greece has an embassy in Luxembourg.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Athens and three honorary consulates in Athens, Patras and Thessaloniki.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Luxembourg * Luxembourg's Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Greece (in French only) 30 April 1966See Greece–Malta relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 30 April 1966.", "* The two countries share membership of the European Union.", "* Since 2004, Greece has an embassy in Valletta and accredited its first ambassador to Malta.", "Before that date the Greek embassy in Rome was accredited for Malta.", "* Malta has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Malta See Greece–Montenegro relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 18 December 2006* Greece recognized the Republic of Montenegro 13 June 2006.", "* Greece has an embassy in Podgorica.", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Montenegro * Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and NATO.", "* Greece is an EU member and Montenegro is an EU candidate.", "see Greece–Moldova relations* Diplomatic relations between Greece and Moldova were established 27 March 1992.", "* Greece is represented in Moldova through its honorary consulate in Chișinău and its embassy in Kyiv.", "* Moldova is represented in Greece through its embassy in Athens, opened in 2003.", "* See also Embassy of Moldova, Athens see Greece–Netherlands relations* Greece has an embassy in The Hague.", "* the Netherlands has an embassy in Athens.", "* Both nations are members of the European Union, NATO and of the Council of Europe.", "13 September 1995See Greece–North Macedonia relationsGreece imposed a trade embargo on North Macedonia between 1994 and 1995.", "Formal relations between the two countries began when Greece recognized the then Republic of Macedonia as the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) on 13 September 1995.", "Greece is represented in the Republic of North Macedonia through its Embassy in Skopje and its Consulate General in Bitola.", "The Republic of North Macedonia is represented in Greece through its Embassy in Athens and its Consulate General in Thessaloniki.", "The two countries were involved in a naming dispute (see above until the Prespa Agreement was signed in 2018 and ratified by both countries in 2019).", " Greece fully supports North Macedonia's candidacy for membership in the EU.see Greece–Norway relations* Greece has an embassy in Oslo (since 1980) and an honorary consulate in Bergen.", "* Norway has an embassy in Athens, and six honorary consulates in Piraeus, Patras, Corfu, Crete, Rhodes and Thessaloniki.", "* Both countries are members of Council of Europe and NATO.", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Norway 13 March 1919 see Greece–Poland relations* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 March 1919* Greece has an embassy in Warsaw.", "* Poland has an embassy in Athens.", "* Today both countries are members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Poland 13 June 1837See Greece–Portugal relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 13 June 1837 when Greek Ambassador in Madrid Andreas Metaxas is also appointed Ambassador in Portugal.", "* Both countries have a resident embassy in the other's capital.", "* Today both country are members of the European Union and NATO.", "Greece is pushing for Portugal to be admitted in the Mediterranean Games.", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Portugal 9 January 1880 see Greece–Romania relationsDiplomatic relations were established on 9 January 1880 at the legation level and were raised to embassy-level on 1 January 1939.There has been a Greek presence in Romania for at least 27 centuries.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, of the European Union and NATO.", "1828 see Greece–Russia relationsDiplomatic relations were established in 1828.Greece has an embassy in Moscow, and two general consulates (Saint Petersburg and Novorossiysk).", "Russia has an embassy in Athens, a general consulate in Thessaloniki and in 2012 announced to open honorary consulate in Alexandroupolis.", "Greece also opened another consulate general in Yekaterinburg.", "Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.Despite historical sentiments of cultural and religious affinity between the two peoples, the countries′ official relationship has largely been adverse.", "Russia and Greece share stance on the Kosovo Declaration of Independence.", "Relations deteriorated drastically in the summer of 2018.In July 2023, The face of devastating wildfires, a former Greek defense minister urged the government to seek help from Russia, specifically requesting assistance from the Russian Be-200 amphibious aircraft, which has proven effective in extinguishing flames during previous Greek fire seasons.", "Thousands of tourists, including 10,000 Britons, were evacuated from Greece and its islands, while Rhodes and Corfu experienced large-scale evacuations due to the fires.", "18 January 1879 see Greece–Serbia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 18 January 1879.The two nations are traditionally, historically, religiously and culturally close and their friendly relations are confirmed by a regular political dialogue.", "Greece is supporting quick implementation of the Stabilisation and Association Agreement (SAA) between the EU and Serbia and easing visa regime EU towards Serbia.", "Greece is among the states that have not recognized the Kosovo Unilateral Declaration of Independence.", "Greece recognizes Kosovo as a part of Serbia.Greece is one of the most important economic investors in Serbia, mainly in financial, telecommunication, energy and construction sector.", "Greece will participate in financing construction of the Corridor 10 highway in Serbia with 100 mil.", "EUR in total which is a part of its Hellenic Plan for the Economic Reconstruction of the Balkans.", "* Greece is an EU member and Serbia is an EU candidate.", "Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 January 1993.", "* Greece opened its embassy in Bratislava in September 1996.", "* Slovakia also has an embassy in Athens.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Slovakia * Slovakian Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Greece 21 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 July 1992.", "* Greece opened its embassy in Ljubljana in 1995.", "* Slovenia also has an embassy in Athens.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Slovenia 3 August 1834See Greece–Spain relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 3 August 1834.", "* There is embassy-level representation in Athens and Madrid.", "* Greece also has a general consulate in Barcelona, and Spain an honorary consulate in Thessaloniki.", "* Today both country are members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Both Queen Sophia of Spain and Domenikos Theotokopoulos are of Greek descent.", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Spain 24 January 1833See Greece–Sweden relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 24 January 1833 when Carl Peter von Heidenstam (until then Consul General) has been appointed as Chargé d’Affaires of the Kingdom of Sweden and Norway in Greece.", "* The first contact between the two countries can be traced back to the 11th century.", "* Both countries are members of the European Union.", "* Sweden has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassies in Stockholm and maintains two Honorary General Consulates in Sweden, in the cities of Malmö and Gothenburg.", "* Sweden has eight honorary consulate in Greece (Thessaloniki, Rhodes, Piraeus, Patras, Kos, Corfu, Heraklion, Chania).", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Sweden8 October 1917Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 October 1917 when has been accredited first Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Greece to Switzerland Mr. Ap.", "Alexandris.", "15 January 1992See Greece–Ukraine relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 15 January 1992* Following the setting up of the Greek Embassy in Kyiv in 1993, general-consulates were set up in Mariupol and Odesa.", "* Ukraine has opened an embassy in Athens and a consulate-general in Thessaloniki.", "* See also Greeks in Ukraine 1 January 1833 see Greece–United Kingdom relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 January 1833 when has been appointed first Minister Plenipotentiary of United Kingdom to Greece Edward-James Dawkins.", "* Greece has an embassy in London and honorary consulates in Belfast, Birmingham, Edinburgh, Gibraltar, Glasgow and Leeds.", "* The United Kingdom has an embassy in Athens and a Honorary Vice Consulate in Patras.", "The United Kingdom also has honorary consulates in Crete, Corfu, Rhodes, Thessaloniki and Zakynthos.", "* The Duke of Edinburgh, Prince Philip was of Greek royalty.", "* The two countries collaborate closely within the framework of NATO and across the range of their bilateral relations, with frequent exchanges of high-level visits, as well as consultations on the Ministerial level.The UK and Greece were also allies during both World Wars and the Korean War, and they continue to maintain a warm relationship to the present day, having never been adversaries of each other.=== Australia and Oceania === Country Formal relations beganNotes 30 March 1953See Australia–Greece relationsRelations between the two states are close: both country were allies during both World Wars, there are a large Greek community in Australia (dating back from the 1950s and 1960s).", "Both countries have an embassy in the each other's capital.", "Greece also has consulates general in Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide, as well as a consulate in Perth, honorary consulates general in Brisbane and Darwin, and honorary consulates in Newcastle and Hobart.", "* Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade about relations with Greece* Australia embassy in Athens* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Australia * Greek embassy in Canberra 24 February 1978* Diplomatic relations were established on 24 February 1978* Fiji is represented in Greece through its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* Greece is represented in Fiji through its embassy in Wellington, New Zealand and an honorary consulate in Suva.1984Both countries established diplomatic relations in 198414 February 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 February 199230 April 1996Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 April 1996 1 October 1984Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1984.22 September 1955 see Greece–New Zealand relationsIn 1999, Greece opened an embassy in Wellington; however, it has since closed and Greece is accredited to New Zealand from its embassy in Canberra, Australia.", "There is a Greek Honorary Consulate in Auckland.As part of an effort to redeploy resources in Europe, New Zealand closed its embassy in Athens in 1991, since when it has been represented in Greece through its embassy in Rome, Italy which is accredited accordingly.", "It does still retain an honorary consulate general in Athens.On the level of political cooperation, the two countries have a like-minded approach to international crises and current issues of international interest.", "There is particularly close cooperation in offering mutual support within international organizations, such as the Human Rights Commission, the Universal Postal Union, etc.", "New Zealand also supported Greece's candidacy for a seat on the UN Security Council.The prevailing climate in political relations between Greece and New Zealand was demonstrated in 2002 by the visit of the President of the Hellenic Republic to Wellington, which confirmed the excellent state of relations between the two countries.2 June 2004Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 June 2004January 1977Both countries established diplomatic relations in January 1977 3 April 1981Both countries established diplomatic relations on April 3, 1981.28 August 1987Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 August 1987Greece is represented in the Solomon Islands via parallel accreditation of its embassy in Canberra, Australia.4 April 2003Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 April 2003 5 July 1985* Diplomatic relations were established on 5 July 1985* Greece is represented in Tonga through its embassy in Wellington, New Zealand.1984Both countries established diplomatic relations in 19841 June 1984Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 June 1984" ], [ "Terms", "=== North Macedonia ===Greece rejected the use of the term Macedonia or \"Republic of Macedonia\" to refer to its northern neighbour after its independence from the former Yugoslavia in 1991.The Greek government opposed the use of the name without any qualification such as 'Republic of Northern Macedonia' to the post-1991 constitutional name of its northern neighbour, citing historical and territorial concerns resulting from the ambiguity between the terms Republic of Macedonia, the Greek region of Macedonia and the ancient kingdom of Macedon, which falls within Greek Macedonia.Greece also objected to the use of the terms \"Macedonian\" to denote ethnic Macedonians and the Macedonian language, as these terms have a different meaning in Greece (inhabitants of the Greek region of Macedonia and the Macedonian dialect of Greek).", "The dispute has escalated to the highest level of international mediation, involving numerous attempts to achieve a resolution, notably by the United Nations.The provisional reference ''the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia'' (FYROM) was used in relations involving states which do not recognise the constitutional name, Republic of Macedonia.", "Nevertheless, all the United Nations member-states have agreed to accept any final agreement resulting from negotiations between the two countries.", "The dispute has not prevented the two countries from enjoying close trade links and investment levels (especially from Greece), but it has generated a great deal of political and academic debate on both sides.On 13 September 1995 the two countries signed the Interim Accord, whereby Greece recognized the Republic of Macedonia under its provisional reference.", "As of August 2011 negotiations aimed at resolving the dispute are ongoing.", "Under Greek pressure, the European Union and NATO agreed that for the Republic of Macedonia to receive an invitation to join these institutions the name dispute must be resolved first.", "This resulted in a case at the International Court of Justice against Greece for violation of the Interim Accord.", "The Court deemed Greece was wrong to block its neighbour's bid to join NATO.", "No penalties were imposed but the result made it politically more difficult for Greece to object to any of its neighbour's future applications to either NATO or the EU.On 12 June 2018 the Prespes agreement was signed between the two countries which changed the constitutional name of \"Macedonia\" to Republic of North Macedonia.", "Opposition arose in both countries but in the end the agreement was mutually ratified.", "The Prespes agreement went into force 12 February 2019.Greece officially endorsed North Macedonia's accession to NATO on 15 February 2019, being the first country in the defense alliance to do so.=== Northern Epirus ===A map of the traditional Greek presence in Northern Epirus (in blue).Northern Epirus is the name used generally by Greeks to refer to the southern part of Albania, home to a Greek minority which after 1989 keeps reducing due to immigration to Greece.", "The Greek minority was subject to oppression and harassment during Enver Hoxha's communist rule and along with the rest of Albanians was hit hardly by the isolation that the regime imposed and from the economic hardship that followed the fall of communism as well.", "The treatment of the minority by the Albanian government is strongly linked with the status of Greco-Albanian relations.The Greek minority is organized under the Unity for Human Rights Party which is the continuation of the former banned party called \"Omonoia\" (Unity in Greek) and has since 1997 joined the Socialist coalition.", "At the 1996 Albanian election the Greek minority party received 4.1% of the vote and two seats in parliament.", "The party leader is Vangjel Dule, while party member Vasilis Bolanos is former mayor of the town of Himara.", "The party is represented in the ELDR group in the Council of Europe.", "Strong Greek presence exists in Gjirokastër, Korçë, Sarandë, Himara and the nearby areas.", "The former CIA director George J. Tenet, Pyrros Dimas, Sotiris Ninis and former Greek president Kostis Stefanopoulos have ancestral links to the Greek minority.The situation of the Greeks in Albania is closely tied to the socio-political ties of the two countries.", "At times differences between Athens and Tirana regarding the rights and position of the minority has led to tense relations.", "The community, alongside the Albanian communities in Greece are hailed as a bridge of friendship between the two countries.", "=== Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople ===Patriarchal Cathedral of St. George in the Phanar district.The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, protected under the treaty of Lausanne is a point of controversy between Greece and Turkey as the latter refuses to recognize the Ecumenical character of the Patriarchate thus requiring the Patriarch himself to be a Turkish citizen.", "Moreover, the biggest part of the Patriarchate's property – known as Vakoufia – had been confiscated by Turkish authorities and the Theological school of Halki, the traditional school out of which the Eastern Orthodox Church draws its clergy, has been closed since 1971.To no avail numerous Greek, European Union and USA officials have criticized Turkey's attitude and even president Bill Clinton during his visit in Greece asked for the theological school to open.", "During Greek prime-minister's Kostas Karamanlis historic visit to Turkey in 2007, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan promised to reconsider his country's stance on the matter.=== Black Sea ===The Black Sea is a region heavily colonized by Greeks throughout history.", "It used to have a significant presence of Greeks up until the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923.Nowadays there remains Greek presence on the shores of Black Sea mainly in Mariupol (Ukraine), Crimea, Russia and Georgia despite emigration to Greece during and after the dissolution of Soviet Union.", "Today Greeks in the region are estimated to be around 215,000 according to official Greek diaspora figures.", "Greece is a founding member of the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation." ], [ "International organization participation", "Greece is a major participant in most large-scale international bodies, with the geographic significance of the region proving advantageous for diplomatic, trade and political crossroads.In 1967, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and the Netherlands brought the Greek Case against the Greek junta regime for human rights violations.", "As a result, Greece left the Council of Europe in 1969, returning in 1976.It was the only country to have left the Council of Europe up until 2022 when Russia also left.BIS, BSEC, CCC, CE, EAPC, EBRD, ECA (associate), ECE, ECLAC, EIB, EMU, EU, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, International Maritime Organization, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, NATO, OECD, OSCE, UN, UN Security Council, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, WEU, WHO, WIPO, Craiova Group WMO.Greece was elected by the United Nations General Assembly to the United Nations Security Council, on 15 October 2004, as a non-permanent member for 2005 and 2006." ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in Greece* List of diplomatic missions of Greece* List of ministries of Greece* Foreign relations of the European Union" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", " Greece's foreign policy , via the Greek Ministry of Foreign affairs* Ethnic groups in Albania, via CIA – The World Factbook* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Greenland" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Greenland''' (, ; , ) is a North American autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark.", "It is the larger of two autonomous territories within the Kingdom, the other being the Faroe Islands; the citizens of both territories are full citizens of Denmark.", "As Greenland is one of the Overseas Countries and Territories of the European Union, citizens of Greenland are European Union citizens.", "The capital and largest city of Greenland is Nuuk.", "Greenland lies between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.", "It is the world's largest island, and is the location of the northernmost area of the worldKaffeklubben Island off the northern coast is the world's northernmost undisputed point of land, and Cape Morris Jesup on the mainland was thought to be so until the 1960s.Though a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe (specifically Norway and Denmark, the colonial powers) for more than a millennium, beginning in 986.Greenland has been inhabited at intervals over at least the last 4,500 years by circumpolar peoples whose forebears migrated there from what is now Canada.", "Norsemen settled the uninhabited southern part of Greenland beginning in the 10th century, having previously settled Iceland and the 13th century saw the arrival of Inuit.", "Though under continuous influence of Norway and Norwegians, Greenland was not formally under the Norwegian crown until 1261.The Norse colonies disappeared in the late 15th century, after Norway was hit by the Black Death and entered a severe decline.In the early 17th century, Dano-Norwegian explorers reached Greenland again.", "When Denmark and Norway separated in 1814, Greenland was transferred to the Danish crown, and was fully integrated in the Danish state in 1953 under the Constitution of Denmark, which made the people in Greenland citizens of Denmark.", "In the 1979 Greenlandic home rule referendum, Denmark granted home rule to Greenland; in the 2008 Greenlandic self-government referendum, Greenlanders voted for the Self-Government Act, which transferred more power from the Danish government to the local Naalakkersuisut (Greenlandic government).", "Under this structure, Greenland gradually assumed responsibility for a number of governmental services and areas of competence.", "The Danish government retains control of citizenship, monetary policy, and foreign affairs, including defence.", "Most residents of Greenland are Inuit.", "The population is concentrated mainly on the southwest coast, and the rest of the island is sparsely populated.", "Three-quarters of Greenland is covered by the only permanent ice sheet outside Antarctica.", "With a population of 56,583 (2022), Greenland is the least densely populated region in the world.", "67% of its electricity production comes from renewable energy, mostly from hydropower." ], [ "Etymology", "Arctic sea ice is not shown.The early Norse settlers named the island ''Greenland''.", "In the Icelandic sagas, the Norwegian Erik the Red was exiled from Iceland with his father, Thorvald, who had committed manslaughter.", "With his extended family and his thralls , he set out in ships to explore an icy land known to lie to the northwest.", "After finding a habitable area and settling there, he named it (translated as \"Greenland\"), supposedly in the hope that the pleasant name would attract settlers.", "The ''Saga of Erik the Red'' states: \"In the summer, Erik left to settle in the country he had found, which he called Greenland, as he said people would be attracted there if it had a favorable name.", "\"The name of the territory in the Greenlandic language is .", "The Kalaallit are the Greenlandic Inuit who inhabit the territory's western region.In World War II, the United States military used as a code name for Greenland, where they kept several bases named \"Bluie (East or West) (sequential numeral)\"." ], [ "History", "===Early Paleo-Inuit cultures===Areas of Independence I and Independence II cultures around Independence FjordIn prehistoric times, Greenland was home to several successive Paleo-Inuit cultures known today primarily through archaeological finds.", "The earliest entry of the Paleo-Inuit into Greenland is thought to have occurred about 2500 BC.", "From about 2500 BC to 800 BC, southern and western Greenland was inhabited by the Saqqaq culture.", "Most finds of remains from that period have been around Disko Bay, including the site of Saqqaq, for which the culture is named.From 2400 BC to 1300 BC, the Independence I culture existed in northern Greenland.", "It was a part of the Arctic small-tool tradition.", "Towns, including Deltaterrasserne, appeared.", "About 800 BC, the Saqqaq culture disappeared and the Early Dorset culture emerged in western Greenland and the Independence II culture in northern Greenland.", "The Dorset culture was the first culture to extend throughout the Greenlandic coastal areas, in the west and the east.", "It lasted until the total onset of the Thule culture, in AD 1500.The people of the Dorset culture lived mainly by hunting whales and reindeer.===Norse settlement===The Kingittorsuaq Runestone from Kingittorsuaq Island (Middle Ages)From 986, the west coast was settled by Icelanders and Norwegians, through a contingent of 14 boats led by Erik the Red.", "They formed three settlements—the Eastern Settlement, the Western Settlement, and the Middle Settlement—on fjords near the southwestern tip of the island.", "They shared the island with the late Dorset culture inhabitants, who occupied the northern and western parts, and later with those of the Thule culture, who entered from the north.", "Norse Greenlanders submitted to Norwegian rule in 1261 under the Kingdom of Norway.", "The Kingdom of Norway entered a personal union with Denmark in 1380, and from 1397 was a part of the Kalmar Union.The Norse settlements, such as Brattahlíð, thrived for centuries, before disappearing in the 15th century, perhaps at the onset of the Little Ice Age.", "Except some runic inscriptions, the only contemporary records or historiography that survives from the Norse settlements is of their contact with Iceland or Norway.", "Medieval Norwegian sagas and historical works mention Greenland's economy, the bishops of Gardar, and the collection of tithes.", "A chapter in the ''Konungs skuggsjá'' (''The King's Mirror'') describes Norse Greenland's exports, imports, and grain cultivation.Norse Greenlanders records a marriage that took place in 1408 in the church of Hvalsey, now the best-preserved Nordic ruins in Greenland.", "The married couple then travelled to Iceland, which is why the account has been preserved.Icelandic saga accounts of life in Greenland were composed in the 13th century and later, and are not primary sources for the history of early Norse Greenland.", "Those accounts are closer to primary for more contemporaneous accounts of late Norse Greenland.", "Modern understanding therefore mostly depends on the physical data from archeological sites.", "Interpretation of ice-core and clam-shell data suggests that between AD 800 and 1300 the regions around the fjords of southern Greenland had a relatively mild climate, several degrees Celsius warmer than usual in the North Atlantic with trees and herbaceous plants growing and livestock being farmed.", "Barley was grown as a crop up to the 70th parallel.", "The ice cores show that Greenland has had dramatic temperature shifts many times in the past 100,000 years.", "Similarly the Icelandic Book of Settlements records famines during the winters, in which \"the old and helpless were killed and thrown over cliffs\".These Norse settlements vanished during the 14th and early 15th centuries.", "The demise of the Western Settlement coincides with a decrease in summer and winter temperatures.", "A study of North Atlantic seasonal temperature variability during the Little Ice Age showed a significant decrease in maximum summer temperatures beginning about the turn of the 14th century—as much as lower than modern summer temperatures.", "The study also found that the lowest winter temperatures of the last 2,000 years occurred in the late 14th century and early 15th century.", "The Eastern Settlement was probably abandoned in the early to mid-15th century, during this cold period.Extent of the Dano-Norwegian possessions (1536–1814)Dorset, Thule, and Norse cultures.Theories drawn from archeological excavations at Herjolfsnes in the 1920s suggest that the condition of human bones from this period indicates that the Norse population was malnourished, possibly because of soil erosion resulting from the Norsemen's destruction of natural vegetation in the course of farming, turf-cutting, and wood-cutting.", "Malnutrition may also have resulted from widespread deaths from pandemic plague; the decline in temperatures during the Little Ice Age; and armed conflicts with the ''Skrælings'' (Norse word for Inuit, meaning \"wretches\").", "Recent archeological studies somewhat challenge the general assumption that the Norse colonization had a dramatic negative environmental effect on the vegetation.", "Data support traces of a possible Norse soil amendment strategy.", "More recent evidence suggests that the Norse, who never numbered more than about 2,500, gradually abandoned the Greenland settlements over the 15th century as walrus ivory, the most valuable export from Greenland, decreased in price because of competition with other sources of higher-quality ivory, and that there was actually little evidence of starvation or difficulties.Other explanations of the disappearance of the Norse settlements have been proposed:# Lack of support from the homeland.# Ship-borne marauders (such as Basque, English, or German pirates) rather than ''Skrælings'', could have plundered and displaced the Greenlanders.# They were \"the victims of hidebound thinking and of a hierarchical society dominated by the Church and the biggest land owners.", "In their reluctance to see themselves as anything but Europeans, the Greenlanders failed to adopt the kind of apparel that the Inuit employed as protection against the cold and damp or to borrow any of the Inuit hunting gear.", "\"# That portion of the Greenlander population willing to adopt Inuit ways and means intermarried with and assimilated into the Inuit community.", "Much of the Greenland population today is mixed Inuit and European ancestry.", "It was impossible in 1938 when Stefansson wrote his book to distinguish between intermarriage before the European loss of contact and after the contact was restored.# \"Norse society's structure created a conflict between the short-term interests of those in power, and the long-term interests of the society as a whole.", "\"===Thule culture (1300–present)===Pictures of Greenland, The Thule people are the ancestors of the current Greenlandic population.", "No genes from the Paleo-Inuit have been found in the present population of Greenland.", "The Thule culture migrated eastward from what is now known as Alaska around 1000 AD, reaching Greenland around 1300.The Thule culture was the first to introduce to Greenland such technological innovations as dog sleds and toggling harpoons.There is an account of contact and conflict with the Norse population, as told by the Inuit.", "It is republished in ''The Norse Atlantic Sagas'', by Gwyn Jones.", "Jones reports that there is also an account of perhaps the same incident, of more doubtful provenance, told by the Norse side.===1500–1814===In 1500 King Manuel I of Portugal sent Gaspar Corte-Real to Greenland in search of a Northwest Passage to Asia which, according to the Treaty of Tordesillas, was part of Portugal's sphere of influence.", "In 1501 Corte-Real returned with his brother, Miguel Corte-Real.", "Finding the sea frozen, they headed south and arrived in Labrador and Newfoundland.", "Upon the brothers' return to Portugal, the cartographic information supplied by Corte-Real was incorporated into a new map of the world which was presented to Ercole I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, by Alberto Cantino in 1502.The ''Cantino'' planisphere, made in Lisbon, accurately depicts the southern coastline of Greenland.An English map of 1747, based on Hans Egede's descriptions and misconceptions, by Emanuel BowenIn 1605–1607 King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway sent a series of expeditions to Greenland and Arctic waterways to locate the lost eastern Norse settlement and assert Danish-Norwegian sovereignty over Greenland.", "The expeditions were mostly unsuccessful, partly due to leaders who lacked experience with the difficult Arctic ice and weather conditions, and partly because the expedition leaders were given instructions to search for the Eastern Settlement on the east coast of Greenland just north of Cape Farewell, which is almost inaccessible due to southward drifting ice.", "The pilot on all three trips was English explorer James Hall.Godthåb in Greenland, After the Norse settlements died off, Greenland came under the de facto control of various Inuit groups, but the Dano-Norwegian government never forgot or relinquished the claims to Greenland that it had inherited from the Norse.", "When it re-established contact with Greenland in the early 17th century, Denmark-Norway asserted its sovereignty over the island.", "In 1721 a joint mercantile and clerical expedition led by Dano-Norwegian missionary Hans Egede was sent to Greenland, not knowing whether a Norse civilization remained there.", "This expedition is part of the Dano-Norwegian colonization of the Americas.", "After 15 years in Greenland, Hans Egede left his son Paul Egede in charge of the mission there and returned to Denmark, where he established a Greenland Seminary.", "This new colony was centred at Godthåb (\"Good Hope\") on the southwest coast.", "Gradually, Greenland was opened up to Danish merchants, but closed to those from other countries.===Treaty of Kiel to World War II (1814–1945)===1869 photograph of Greenlandic InuitWhen the union between the crowns of Denmark and Norway was dissolved in 1814, the Treaty of Kiel severed Norway's former colonies and left them under the control of the Danish monarch.", "Norway occupied then-uninhabited eastern Greenland as Erik the Red's Land in July 1931, claiming that it constituted ''terra nullius''.", "Norway and Denmark agreed to submit the matter in 1933 to the Permanent Court of International Justice, which decided against Norway.Greenland's connection to Denmark was severed on 9 April 1940, early in World War II, after Denmark was occupied by Nazi Germany.", "On 8 April 1941, the United States occupied Greenland to defend it against a possible invasion by Germany.", "The United States' occupation of Greenland continued until 1945.Greenland was able to buy goods from the United States and Canada by selling cryolite from the mine at Ivittuut.", "The major air bases were Bluie West-1 at Narsarsuaq and Bluie West-8 at Søndre Strømfjord (Kangerlussuaq), both of which are still used as Greenland's major international airports.Map of Eirik Raudes LandDuring this war, the system of government changed: Governor Eske Brun ruled the island under a law of 1925 that allowed governors to take control under extreme circumstances; Governor Aksel Svane was transferred to the United States to lead the commission to supply Greenland.", "The Danish Sirius Patrol guarded the northeastern shores of Greenland in 1942 using dog sleds.", "They detected several German weather stations and alerted American troops, who destroyed the facilities.", "After the collapse of the Third Reich, Albert Speer briefly considered escaping in a small aeroplane to hide out in Greenland, but changed his mind and decided to surrender to the United States Armed Forces.Greenland had been a protected and very isolated society until 1940.The Danish government had maintained a strict monopoly of Greenlandic trade, allowing no more than small scale barter trading with British whalers.", "In wartime Greenland developed a sense of self-reliance through self-government and independent communication with the outside world.", "Despite this change, in 1946 a commission including the highest Greenlandic council, the ''Landsrådene'', recommended patience and no radical reform of the system.", "Two years later, the first step towards a change of government was initiated when a grand commission was established.", "A final report (G-50) was presented in 1950, which recommended the introduction of a modern welfare state with Denmark's development as sponsor and model.", "In 1953, Greenland was made an equal part of the Danish Kingdom.", "Home rule was granted in 1979.===Home rule and self-rule===The orthography and vocabulary of the Greenlandic language is governed by , the Greenlandic language secretariat, located in the ''Ilimmarfik'' University of Greenland, Nuuk.In 1867, United States Secretary of State William H. Seward worked with former senator Robert J. Walker to explore the possibility of buying Greenland and, perhaps, Iceland.", "Opposition in Congress ended this project.", "Following World War II, the United States developed a geopolitical interest in Greenland, and in 1946 the United States offered to buy the island from Denmark for $100,000,000.Denmark refused to sell it.", "In the 21st century, the United States remains interested in investing in the resource base of Greenland and in tapping hydrocarbons off the Greenlandic coast.", "In August 2019, the US again proposed to buy the country, prompting premier Kim Kielsen to issue the statement, \"Greenland is not for sale and cannot be sold, but Greenland is open for trade and cooperation with other countries—including the United States.", "\"The United States has operated Thule Air Base, now Pituffik Space Base, since the 1950s.In 1950, Denmark agreed to allow the US to regain the use of Thule Air Base; it was greatly expanded between 1951 and 1953 as part of a unified NATO Cold War defence strategy.", "The local population of three nearby villages was moved more than away in the winter.", "The United States tried to construct a subterranean network of secret nuclear missile launch sites in the Greenlandic ice cap, named Project Iceworm.", "According to documents declassified in 1996, this project was managed from Camp Century from 1960 to 1966 before abandonment as unworkable.", "The missiles were never fielded, and necessary consent from the Danish Government to do so was never sought.", "The Danish government did not become aware of the programme's mission until 1997, when they discovered it while looking, in the declassified documents, for records related to the crash of a nuclear equipped B-52 bomber at Thule in 1968.With the 1953 Danish constitution, Greenland's colonial status ended as the island was incorporated into the Danish realm as an amt (county).", "Danish citizenship was extended to Greenlanders.", "Danish policies toward Greenland consisted of a strategy of cultural assimilation — or de-Greenlandification.", "During this period, the Danish government promoted the exclusive use of the Danish language in official matters, and required Greenlanders to go to Denmark for their post-secondary education.", "Many Greenlandic children grew up in boarding schools in southern Denmark, and a number lost their cultural ties to Greenland.", "While the policies \"succeeded\" in the sense of shifting Greenlanders from being primarily subsistence hunters into being urbanized wage earners, the Greenlandic elite began to reassert a Greenlandic cultural identity.", "A movement developed in favour of independence, reaching its peak in the 1970s.", "As a consequence of political complications in relation to Denmark's entry into the European Common Market in 1972, Denmark began to seek a different status for Greenland, resulting in the Home Rule Act of 1979.Sermiligaaq.", "Greenland has more than 60 settlements.This gave Greenland limited autonomy with its own legislature taking control of some internal policies, while the Parliament of Denmark maintained full control of external policies, security, and natural resources.", "The law came into effect on 1 May 1979.The King of Denmark, Frederik X, remains Greenland's head of state.", "In 1985, Greenland left the European Economic Community (EEC) upon achieving self-rule, as it did not agree with the EEC's commercial fishing regulations and an EEC ban on seal skin products.", "Greenland voters approved a referendum on greater autonomy on 25 November 2008.According to one study, the 2008 vote created what \"can be seen as a system between home rule and full independence\".On 21 June 2009, Greenland gained self-rule with provisions for assuming responsibility for self-government of judicial affairs, policing, and natural resources.", "Also, Greenlanders were recognized as a separate people under international law.", "Denmark maintains control of foreign affairs and defence matters.", "Denmark upholds the annual block grant of 3.2 billion Danish kroner, but as Greenland begins to collect revenues of its natural resources, the grant will gradually be diminished.", "This is generally considered to be a step toward eventual full independence from Denmark.", "Greenlandic was declared the sole official language of Greenland at the historic ceremony." ], [ "Tourism", "Tourism increased significantly between 2015 and 2019, with the number of visitors increasing from 77,000 per year to 105,000.One source estimated that in 2019 the revenue from this aspect of the economy was about 450 million kroner (US$67 million).", "Like many aspects of the economy, this slowed dramatically in 2020 and into 2021, due to restrictions required as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic; one source describes it as being the \"biggest economic victim of the coronavirus\" (the overall economy did not suffer too severely as of mid-2020, thanks to the fisheries \"and a hefty subsidy from Copenhagen\").", "Greenland's goal for returning tourism is to develop it \"right\" and to \"build a more sustainable tourism for the long run\"." ], [ "Geography and climate", "Map of GreenlandGreenland is the world's largest non-continental island and the third largest area in North America after Canada and the United States.", "It is between latitudes 59° and 83°N, and longitudes 11° and 74°W.", "Greenland is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Greenland Sea to the east, the North Atlantic Ocean to the southeast, the Davis Strait to the southwest, Baffin Bay to the west, the Nares Strait and Lincoln Sea to the northwest.", "The nearest countries to Greenland are Canada, with which it shares a maritime border, to the west and southwest across Nares Strait and Baffin Bay, as well as a shared land border on Hans Island; and Iceland, southeast of Greenland in the Atlantic Ocean.", "Greenland also contains the world's largest national park, and it is the largest dependent territory by area in the world, as well as the fourth largest country subdivision in the world, after Sakha Republic in Russia, Australia's state of Western Australia, and Russia's Krasnoyarsk Krai, and the largest in North America.The lowest temperature ever recorded in the Northern Hemisphere was recorded in Greenland, near the topographic summit of the Greenland Ice Sheet, on 22 December 1991, when the temperature reached .", "In Nuuk, the average daily temperature varies over the seasons from .", "The total area of Greenland is (including other offshore minor islands), of which the Greenland ice sheet covers (81%) and has a volume of approximately .", "The highest point on Greenland is Gunnbjørn Fjeld at of the Watkins Range (East Greenland mountain range).", "The majority of Greenland, however, is less than in elevation.Greenland bedrock, at current elevation above sea levelThe weight of the ice sheet has depressed the central land area to form a basin lying more than below sea level, while elevations rise suddenly and steeply near the coast.The ice flows generally to the coast from the centre of the island.", "A survey led by French scientist Paul-Emile Victor in 1951 concluded that, under the ice sheet, Greenland is composed of three large islands.", "This is disputed, but if it is so, they would be separated by narrow straits, reaching the sea at Ilulissat Icefjord, at Greenland's Grand Canyon and south of Nordostrundingen.All towns and settlements of Greenland are situated along the ice-free coast, with the population being concentrated along the west coast.", "The northeastern part of Greenland is not part of any municipality, but it is the site of the world's largest national park, Northeast Greenland National Park.At least four scientific expedition stations and camps had been established on the ice sheet in the ice-covered central part of Greenland (indicated as pale blue in the adjacent map): Eismitte, North Ice, North GRIP Camp and The Raven Skiway.", "There is a year-round station Summit Camp on the ice sheet, established in 1989.The radio station Jørgen Brønlund Fjord was, until 1950, the northernmost permanent outpost in the world.The extreme north of Greenland, Peary Land, is not covered by an ice sheet, because the air there is too dry to produce snow, which is essential in the production and maintenance of an ice sheet.", "If the Greenland ice sheet were to melt away completely, the world's sea level would rise by more than .In 2003, a small island, in length and width, was discovered by arctic explorer Dennis Schmitt and his team at the coordinates of 83-42.Whether this island is permanent is not yet confirmed.", "If it is, it is the northernmost permanent known land on Earth.In 2007, the existence of a new island was announced.", "Named \"Uunartoq Qeqertaq\" (English: ''Warming Island''), this island has always been present off the coast of Greenland, but was covered by a glacier.", "This glacier was discovered in 2002 to be shrinking rapidly, and by 2007 had completely melted away, leaving the exposed island.", "The island was named Place of the Year by the Oxford Atlas of the World in 2007.Ben Keene, the atlas's editor, commented: Some controversy surrounds the history of the island, specifically over whether the island might have been revealed during a brief warm period in Greenland during the mid-20th century.=== Climate change ===Between 1989 and 1993, U.S. and European climate researchers drilled into the summit of Greenland's ice sheet, obtaining a pair of long ice cores.", "Analysis of the layering and chemical composition of the cores has provided a revolutionary new record of climate change in the Northern Hemisphere going back about 100,000 years and illustrated that the world's weather and temperature have often shifted rapidly from one seemingly stable state to another, with worldwide consequences.", "The glaciers of Greenland are also contributing to a rise in the global sea level faster than was previously believed.", "Between 1991 and 2004, monitoring of the weather at one location (Swiss Camp) showed that the average winter temperature had risen almost .", "Other research has shown that higher snowfalls from the North Atlantic oscillation caused the interior of the ice cap to thicken by an average of each year between 1994 and 2005.In July 2021, Greenland banned all new oil and gas exploration in its territory, with government officials stating that the environmental \"price of oil extraction is too high\".In August 2021, rain fell on the summit of Greenland's ice cap for the first time in recorded history, which scientists attributed to the effects of climate change.=== Geology ===The island was part of the very ancient Precambrian continent of Laurentia, the eastern core of which forms the Greenland Shield, while the less exposed coastal strips become a plateau.", "On these ice-free coastal strips are sediments formed in the Precambrian, overprinted by metamorphism and now formed by glaciers, which continue into the Cenozoic and Mesozoic in parts of the island.In the east and west of Greenland there are remnants of flood basalts and igneous intrusions, such as the Skaergaard intrusion.", "Notable rock provinces (metamorphic igneous rocks, ultramafics, and anorthosites) are found on the southwest coast at Qeqertarsuatsiaat.", "East of Nuuk, the banded iron ore region of Isukasia, over three billion years old, contains the world's oldest rocks, such as greenlandite (a rock composed predominantly of hornblende and hyperthene), formed 3.8 billion years ago, and nuummite.", "In southern Greenland, the Illimaussaq alkaline complex consists of pegmatites such as nepheline, syenites (especially kakortokite or naujaite) and sodalite (sodalite-foya).", "In Ivittuut, where cryolite was formerly mined, there are fluoride-bearing pegmatites.", "To the north of Igaliku, there are the Gardar alkaline pegmatitic intrusions of augite syenite, gabbro, etc.To the west and southwest are Palaeozoic carbonatite complexes at Kangerlussuaq (Gardiner complex) and Safartoq, and basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks at Uiffaq on Disko Island, where there are masses of heavy native iron up to in the basalts.The paleontology of East Greenland is specially rich, with some of the early tetrapods such as the Devonian Acanthostega and Ichthyostega, and unique triassic animals such as the phytosaur Mystriosuchus alleroq and the dinosaurs Issi saaneq and tracks." ], [ "Biodiversity", "Muskoxen in GreenlandGreenland is home to two ecoregions: Kalaallit Nunaat high arctic tundra and Kalaallit Nunaat low arctic tundra.", "There are approximately 700 known species of insects in Greenland, which is low compared with other countries (over one million species have been described worldwide).", "The sea is rich in fish and invertebrates, especially in the milder West Greenland Current; a large part of the Greenland fauna is associated with marine-based food chains, including large colonies of seabirds.", "The few native land mammals in Greenland include the polar bear, reindeer (introduced by Europeans), arctic fox, arctic hare, musk ox, collared lemming, ermine, and arctic wolf.", "The last four are found naturally only in East Greenland, having immigrated from Ellesmere Island.", "There are dozens of species of seals and whales along the coast.", "Land fauna consists predominantly of animals which have spread from North America or, in the case of many birds and insects, from Europe.", "There are no native or free-living reptiles or amphibians on the island.Phytogeographically, Greenland belongs to the Arctic province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom.", "The island is sparsely populated in vegetation; plant life consists mainly of grassland and small shrubs, which are regularly grazed by livestock.", "The most common tree native to Greenland is the European white birch (''Betula pubescens'') along with gray-leaf willow (''Salix glauca''), rowan (''Sorbus aucuparia''), common juniper (''Juniperus communis'') and other smaller trees, mainly willows.Greenland's flora consists of about 500 species of \"higher\" plants, i.e.", "flowering plants, ferns, horsetails and lycopodiophyta.", "Of the other groups, the lichens are the most diverse, with about 950 species; there are 600–700 species of fungi; mosses and bryophytes are also found.", "Most of Greenland's higher plants have circumpolar or circumboreal distributions; only a dozen species of saxifrage and hawkweed are endemic.", "A few plant species were introduced by the Norsemen, such as cow vetch.The Greenland Dog was brought from Siberia 1,000 years ago.The terrestrial vertebrates of Greenland include the Greenland dog, which was introduced by the Inuit, as well as European-introduced species such as Greenlandic sheep, goats, cattle, reindeer, horse, chicken and sheepdog, all descendants of animals imported by Europeans.", "Marine mammals include the hooded seal (''Cystophora cristata'') as well as the grey seal (''Halichoerus grypus'').", "Whales frequently pass very close to Greenland's shores in the late summer and early autumn.", "Whale species include the beluga whale, blue whale, Greenland whale, fin whale, humpback whale, minke whale, narwhal, pilot whale, sperm whale.Humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae, in Disko Bay near IlulissatAs of 2009, 269 species of fish from over 80 different families are known from the waters surrounding Greenland.", "Almost all are marine species with only a few in freshwater, notably Atlantic salmon and charr.", "The fishing industry is the primary industry of Greenland's economy, accounting for the majority of territory's total exports.Birds, particularly seabirds, are an important part of Greenland's animal life; they consist of both Palearctic and Nearctic species, breeding populations of auks, puffins, skuas, and kittiwakes are found on steep mountainsides.", "Greenland's ducks and geese include common eider, long-tailed duck, king eider, white-fronted goose, pink-footed goose and barnacle goose.", "Breeding migratory birds include the snow bunting, lapland bunting, ringed plover, red-throated loon and red-necked phalarope.", "Non-migratory land birds include the arctic redpoll, ptarmigan, short-eared owl, snowy owl, gyrfalcon and white-tailed eagle." ], [ "Politics", "special territories of the European Union (pre 31 January 2020)Nuuk is Greenland's capital and the seat of the government.The Greenlandic government holds executive power in local government affairs.", "The head of the government is called ''Naalakkersuisut Siulittaasuat'' (\"Premier\") and serves as head of Greenlandic Government.", "Any other member of the cabinet is called a ''Naalakkersuisoq'' (\"Minister\").", "The Greenlandic parliament is called ''Inatsisartut'' (\"Legislators\").", "The parliament currently has 31 members.In contemporary times, elections are held at municipal, national (''Inatsisartut''), and kingdom (''Folketing'') levels.Greenland is a self-governing entity within the constitutional monarchy of the Kingdom of Denmark, in which King Frederik X is the head of state.", "The monarch officially retains executive power and presides over the Council of State (privy council).", "However, following the introduction of a parliamentary system of government, the duties of the monarch have since become strictly representative and ceremonial, such as the formal appointment and dismissal of the prime minister and other ministers in the executive government.", "The monarch is not answerable for his or her actions, and the monarch's person is sacrosanct.===Political system===The party system was dominated by the social-democratic Forward Party, and the democratic socialist Inuit Community Party, both of which broadly argue for greater independence from Denmark.", "While the 2009 election saw the unionist Democrat Party (two MPs) decline greatly, the 2013 election consolidated the power of the two main parties at the expense of the smaller groups, and saw the eco-socialist Inuit Party elected to the Parliament for the first time.", "The dominance of the Forward and Inuit Community parties began to wane after the snap 2014 and 2018 elections.The non-binding 2008 referendum on self-governance favouring increased self-governance and autonomy was passed winning 76.22% of the vote.In 1985, Greenland left the European Economic Community (EEC), unlike Denmark, which remains a member.", "The EEC later became the European Union (EU, renamed and expanded in scope in 1992).", "Greenland retains some ties through its associated relationship with the EU.", "However, EU law largely does not apply to Greenland except in the area of trade.", "Greenland is designated as a member of the Overseas Countries and Territories (OCT) and is thus officially not a part of the European Union, though Greenland can and does receive support from the European Development Fund, Multiannual Financial Framework, European Investment Bank and EU Programmes.===Government===Municipalities of GreenlandGreenland's head of state is King Frederik X.", "The King's government in Denmark appoints a high commissioner (''Rigsombudsmand'') to represent it on the island.", "The commissioner is Julie Præst Wilche.The Greenland constituency elect two MP representatives to the Kingdom Parliament (''Folketinget'') in Denmark, out of a total of 179.The current representatives are Aki-Matilda Høegh-Dam of the Siumut Party and Aaja Chemnitz Larsen of the Inuit Community Party.Greenland has national Parliament that consists of 31 representatives.", "The government is the Naalakkersuisut whose members are appointed by the premier.", "The head of government is the premier, usually the leader of the majority party in Parliament.", "The premier is Múte Bourup Egede of the Inuit Ataqatigiit party.===Military===Several American and Danish military bases are located in Greenland, including Pituffik Space Base (previously Thule Air Base), which is home to the United States Space Force's global network of sensors providing missile warning, space surveillance and space control to North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD).", "Elements of the sensor systems are commanded and controlled variously by Space Delta's 2, 4, and 6.In 1995, a political scandal in Denmark occurred after a report revealed the government had given tacit permission for nuclear weapons to be located in Greenland, in contravention of Denmark's 1957 nuclear-free zone policy.", "The United States built a secret nuclear powered base, called Camp Century, in the Greenland ice sheet.", "On 21 January 1968, a B-52G, with four nuclear bombs aboard as part of Operation Chrome Dome, crashed on the ice of the North Star Bay while attempting an emergency landing at Thule Air Base.", "The resulting fire caused extensive radioactive contamination.", "One of the H-bombs remains lost.===Administrative divisions===Formerly consisting of three counties comprising a total of 18 municipalities, Greenland abolished these in 2009 and has since been divided into large territories known as \"municipalities\" (, ): ''Sermersooq'' (\"Much Ice\") around the capital Nuuk and also including all East Coast communities; ''Kujalleq'' (\"South\") around Cape Farewell; ''Qeqqata'' (\"Centre\") north of the capital along the Davis Strait; ''Qeqertalik'' (\"The one with islands\") surrounding Disko Bay; and ''Avannaata'' (\"Northern\") in the northwest; the latter two having come into being as a result of the Qaasuitsup municipality, one of the original four, being partitioned in 2018.The northeast of the island composes the unincorporated Northeast Greenland National Park.", "Pituffik Space Base is also unincorporated, an enclave within Avannaata municipality administered by the United States Space Force.", "During its construction, there were as many as 12,000 American residents but in recent years the number has been below 1,000." ], [ "Economy", "The Greenlandic economy is highly dependent on fishing.", "Fishing accounts for more than 90% of Greenland's exports.", "The shrimp and fish industry is by far the largest income earner.Greenland is abundant in minerals.", "Mining of ruby deposits began in 2007.Other mineral prospects are improving as prices are increasing.", "These include iron, uranium, aluminium, nickel, platinum, tungsten, titanium, and copper.", "Despite resumption of several hydrocarbon and mineral exploration activities, it will take several years before hydrocarbon production can materialize.", "The state oil company Nunaoil was created to help develop the hydrocarbon industry in Greenland.", "The state company Nunamineral has been launched on the Copenhagen Stock Exchange to raise more capital to increase the production of gold, started in 2007.Electricity has traditionally been generated by oil or diesel power plants, even if there is a large surplus of potential hydropower.", "There is a programme to build hydropower plants.", "The first, and still the largest, is Buksefjord hydroelectric power plant.There are also plans to build a large aluminium smelter, using hydropower to create an exportable product.", "It is expected that much of the labour needed will be imported.The European Union has urged Greenland to restrict development by the People's Republic of China of rare-earth mineral projects, as China accounts for 95% of the world's current supply.", "However, in early 2013 the government of Greenland said that it had no plans to impose such restrictions.The public sector, including publicly owned enterprises and the municipalities, plays a dominant role in Greenland's economy.", "About half the government revenues come from grants from the Danish government, an important supplement to the gross domestic product (GDP).", "Gross domestic product per capita is equivalent to that of the average economies of Europe.Greenland suffered an economic contraction in the early 1990s.", "But, since 1993, the economy has improved.", "The Greenland Home Rule Government (GHRG) has pursued a tight fiscal policy since the late 1980s, which has helped create surpluses in the public budget and low inflation.", "Since 1990, Greenland has registered a foreign-trade deficit following the closure of the last remaining lead and zinc mine that year.", "In 2017, new sources of ruby in Greenland have been discovered, promising to bring new industry and a new export from the territory (see Gemstone industry in Greenland).===Transport===There is air transport both within Greenland and between the island and other nations.", "There is also scheduled boat traffic, but the long distances lead to long travel times and low frequency.", "There are virtually no roads between cities because the coast has many fjords that would require ferry service to connect a road network.", "The only exception is a gravel road of length between Kangilinnguit and the now abandoned former cryolite mining town of Ivittuut.", "In addition, the lack of agriculture, forestry and similar countryside activities has meant that very few country roads have been built.", "Greenland has no passenger railways.A 1-lane dirt road designed primarily for all-terrain vehicles (secondarily for bicycles and hiking), is under construction between Kangerlussuaq Airport and the town of Sisimiut.", "As of June 2023, the road was scheduled for completion in 2024.A news report in Sermitsiaq declared the road itself to be completed already in September 2021, but maintenance work and mud problems have caused delays.", "There are plans to extend the road to a 2-lane gravel road, but a date for its construction start has not been announced.Kangerlussuaq Airport (SFJ) is the largest airport and the main aviation hub for international passenger transport.", "It serves international and domestic airline operated flight.", "SFJ is far from the vicinity of the larger metropolitan capital areas, to the capital Nuuk, and airline passenger services are available.Nuuk Airport (GOH) is the second-largest airport, located just from the centre of the capital.", "GOH serves general aviation traffic and has daily or regular domestic flights within Greenland.", "GOH also serves international flights to Iceland, business, and private airplanes.Ilulissat Airport (JAV) is a domestic airport that also serves international flights to Iceland.There are a total of 13 registered civil airports and 47 helipads in Greenland; most of them are unpaved and located in rural areas.", "The second-longest runway is at Narsarsuaq Airport, a domestic airport with limited international service in south Greenland.", "All civil aviation matters are handled by the Danish Transport Authority.", "Most airports, including Nuuk Airport, have short runways and can only be served by special fairly small aircraft on fairly short flights.", "Kangerlussuaq Airport, which is around inland from the west coast, is the major airport of Greenland and the hub for domestic flights.", "Intercontinental flights connect mainly to Copenhagen.", "Travel between international destinations (except Iceland) and any city in Greenland requires a plane change.Icelandair operates flights from Reykjavík to a number of airports in Greenland, and the company promotes the service as a day-trip option from Iceland for tourists.There are no direct flights to the United States or Canada, although there have been flights Kangerlussuaq – Baltimore, and Nuuk – Iqaluit, which were cancelled because of too few passengers and financial losses.", "An alternative between Greenland and the United States/Canada is Icelandair with a plane change in Iceland.Sea passenger transport is served by several coastal ferries.", "Arctic Umiaq Line makes a single round trip per week, taking 80 hours each direction.Cargo freight by sea is handled by the shipping company Royal Arctic Line from, to and across Greenland.", "It provides trade and transport opportunities between Greenland, Europe and North America." ], [ "Population", "===Demographics===Tunumiit Inuit couple from KulusukAs of 2021, Greenland has a population of 56,421.That same year, 18,800 people resided in the capital city Nuuk.", "Nearly all Greenlanders live along the fjords in the south-west of the main island, which has a relatively mild climate, especially considering the high latitude upon which it lies.", "Whereas the majority of the population lives north of 64°N in colder coastal climates, Greenland's warmest climates such as the vegetated area around Narsarsuaq are sparsely populated.The majority of the population is Lutheran.", "The historically important Moravian Brothers (''Herrnhuters'') were a congregation of faith, in a Danish context based in Christiansfeld in South Jutland, and partially of German origin, but their name does not signify they were ethnic Moravians (Czechs).In terms of country of birth, the population is estimated to be of 89.7% Greenlandic multiethnic European-Inuit origin, 7.8% Danish, 1.1% other Nordic and 1.4% other.", "The multi-ethnic population of European-Inuit represent people of Danish, Norwegian and to a lesser degree of Faroese, Icelandic, Dutch (whalers), German and American descent.A 2015 wide genetic study of Greenlanders found modern-day Inuit in Greenland are direct descendants of the first Inuit pioneers of the Thule culture who arrived in the 13th century, with approximately 25% admixture of the European colonizers from the 16th century.", "Despite previous speculations, no evidence of Viking settlers predecessors has been found.Greenland is the only territory in the Americas where natives make up a majority of the population.===Languages===A bilingual sign in Nuuk, displaying the Danish and Kalaallisut for \"Parking forbidden for all vehicles\"Greenlandic (effectively West Greenlandic), spoken by nearly 50,000 people, became the official sole language in 2009.The majority of the population speak both Danish and West Greenlandic Kalaallisut (the most populous Eskaleut language).", "They have been used in public affairs since the establishment of home rule in 1979.In practice, Danish is still widely used in administration, academics, and skilled trades and other professions.", "The orthography of Greenlandic, established in 1851, was revised in 1973.The literacy rate is 100%.A majority of the Greenland population speak West Greenlandic (Kalaallisut) bi- and some tri-lingually which is more than all other languages combined.", "About 12% of the population speak Danish as a first or sole language.", "These primarily are Danish immigrants, many of whom remain the first and only language for those in Nuuk and other larger towns.", "Debate about the roles of Greenlandic and Danish in the country's future is evolving.", "While Greenlandic was dominant in all smaller settlements, most of the multi ethnic Inuit ancestors spoke Danish as a second language.", "In larger towns, especially Nuuk, this Danish group was more important for social matters.", "English is another important language for Greenland now taught from the first school year.West Greenland has long been the most populous area of the island and home to its de facto status as the official Greenlandic language.", "Although around 3,000 people speak East Greenlandic (Tunumiisut) and nearly 1,000 around northern Qaanaaq speak Inuktun.", "North Greenlandic is closer to the Inuit languages of Canada than it is to other Greenlandic.", "Each of these varieties is nearly unintelligible to the speakers of the others and some linguists consider Tunumiit to be a separate language all together.", "A UNESCO report labelled the other varieties as endangered, and measures are now considered to protect the East Greenlandic dialect.===Education===Education is organized in a similar way to Denmark.", "There is ten year mandatory primary school.", "There is also a secondary school, with either work education or preparatory for university education.", "There is one university, the University of Greenland () in Nuuk.", "Many Greenlanders attend universities in Denmark or elsewhere.The public school system in Greenland is, as in Denmark, under the jurisdiction of the municipalities: they are therefore municipal schools.", "The legislature specifies the standards allowed for the content in schools, but the municipal governments decide how the schools under their responsibility are run.", "Education is free and compulsory for children aged seven to 16.The financial effort devoted to education is now very important (11.3% of GDP).", "Section 1 of the Government Ordinance on Public Schools (as amended on 6 June 1997) requires Greenlandic as the language of instruction.Education is governed by Regulation No.", "10 of 25 October 1990 on primary and lower secondary education.", "This regulation was amended by Regulation No.", "8 of 13 May 1993 and Regulation No.", "1 of 1 March 1994.Under Regulation No.", "10 of 25 October 1990, linguistic integration in primary and lower secondary schools became compulsory for all students.", "The aim is to place Greenlandic-speaking and Danish-speaking pupils in the same classes, whereas previously they were placed in separate classes according to their mother tongue.", "At the same time, the government guarantees that Danish speakers can learn Greenlandic.", "In this way, the Greenlandic government wants to give the same linguistic, cultural and social education to all students, both those of Greenlandic and Danish origin.", "A study, which was carried out during a three-year trial period, concluded that this policy had achieved positive results.", "This bilingualism policy has been in force since 1994.Ilimmarfik'' university Campus in NuukAbout 100 schools have been established.", "Greenlandic and Danish are taught there.", "Normally, Greenlandic is taught from kindergarten to the end of secondary school, but Danish is compulsory from the first cycle of primary school as a second language.", "As in Denmark with Danish, the school system provides for \"Greenlandic 1\" and \"Greenlandic 2\" courses.", "Language tests allow students to move from one level to the other.", "Based on the teachers' evaluation of their students, a third level of courses has been added: \"Greenlandic 3\".", "Secondary education in Greenland is generally vocational and technical.", "The system is governed by Regulation No.", "16 of 28 October 1993 on Vocational and Technical Education, Scholarships and Career Guidance.", "Danish remains the main language of instruction.", "The capital, Nuuk, has a (bilingual) teacher training college and a (bilingual) university.", "At the end of their studies, all students must pass a test in the Greenlandic language.Higher education is offered in Greenland: \"university education\" (regulation no.", "3 of 9 May 1989); training of journalists, training of primary and lower secondary school teachers, training of social workers, training of social educators (regulation no.", "1 of 16 May 1989); and training of nurses and nursing assistants (regulation no.", "9 of 13 May 1990).", "Greenlandic students can continue their education in Denmark, if they wish and have the financial means to do so.", "For admission to Danish educational institutions, Greenlandic applicants are placed on an equal footing with Danish applicants.", "Scholarships are granted to Greenlandic students who are admitted to Danish educational institutions.", "To be eligible for these scholarships, the applicant must be a Danish citizen and have had permanent residence in Greenland for at least five years.", "The total period of residence outside Greenland may not exceed three years.===Religion===Most Greenlandic villages, including Nanortalik, have their own church.The nomadic Inuit were traditionally shamanistic, with a well-developed religion primarily concerned with appeasing a vengeful and fingerless sea goddess called Sedna who controlled the success of the seal and whale hunts.The first Norse colonists worshipped the Norse gods, but Erik the Red's son Leif was converted to Christianity by King Olaf Trygvesson on a trip to Norway in 999 and sent missionaries back to Greenland.", "These swiftly established sixteen parishes, some monasteries, and a bishopric at Garðar.Rediscovering these colonists and spreading ideas of the Protestant Reformation among them was one of the primary reasons for the Danish recolonization in the 18th century.", "Under the patronage of the Royal Mission College in Copenhagen, Norwegian and Danish Lutherans and German Moravian missionaries searched for the missing Norse settlements, but no Norse were found, and instead they began preaching to the Inuit.", "The principal figures in the Christianization of Greenland were Hans and Poul Egede and Matthias Stach.", "The New Testament was translated piecemeal from the time of the very first settlement on Kangeq Island, but the first translation of the whole Bible was not completed until 1900.An improved translation using the modern orthography was completed in 2000.Today, the major religion is Protestant Christianity, represented mainly by the Church of Denmark, which is Lutheran in orientation.", "While there are no official census data on religion in Greenland, the Bishop of Greenland Sofie Petersen estimates that 85% of the Greenlandic population are members of her congregation.", "The Church of Denmark is the established church through the Constitution of Denmark.The Roman Catholic minority is pastorally served by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Copenhagen.", "There are still Christian missionaries on the island, but mainly from charismatic movements proselytizing fellow Christians.", "According to Operation World, just 4.7% of Greenlanders are Evangelical Christian, although the Evangelical population is growing at an annual rate of 8.4%.===Social issues===The rate of suicide in Greenland is very high.", "According to a 2010 census, Greenland holds the highest suicide rate in the world.", "Another significant social issue faced by Greenland is a high rate of alcoholism.", "Alcohol consumption rates in Greenland reached their height in the 1980s, when it was twice as high as in Denmark, and had by 2010 fallen slightly below the average level of consumption in Denmark (which at the time were 12th highest in the world, but has since fallen).", "However, at the same time, alcohol prices are far higher, meaning that consumption has a large social impact.", "Prevalence of HIV/AIDS used to be high in Greenland and peaked in the 1990s when the fatality rate also was relatively high.", "Through a number of initiatives the prevalence (along with the fatality rate through efficient treatment) has fallen and is now low, 0.13%, below most other countries.", "In recent decades, the unemployment rates have generally been somewhat above those in Denmark; in 2017, the rate was 6.8% in Greenland, compared to 5.6% in Denmark.==== Fertility control====In the 1960s and 1970s, at a time when the population was increasing, 4,500 Greenland Inuit women and girls (roughly half of all fertile females) were fitted with intrauterine devices (IUDs) by Danish doctors.", "Sometimes girls (as young as 12) were taken directly from school to have these devices inserted, without parents' permission being sought.", "The procedure was also carried out on some Inuit girls at boarding schools in Denmark.", "On 30 September 2022, the Danish Health Minister, Magnus Heunicke, confirmed that a two-year investigation would try to find out what decisions led to the practice and how it was carried out." ], [ "Culture", "Nive Nielsen, Greenlandic singer and songwriterPanel discussion with Greenlandic movie maker Inuk Silis Høegh at the launch of his movie about groundbreaking Greenlandic band SuméToday Greenlandic culture is a blending of traditional Inuit (Kalaallit, Tunumiit, Inughuit) and Scandinavian culture.", "Inuit, or Kalaallit, culture has a strong artistic tradition, dating back thousands of years.", "The Kalaallit are known for an art form of figures called ''tupilak'' or a \"spirit object\".", "Traditional art-making practices thrive in the ''Ammassalik''.", "Sperm whale ivory remains a valued medium for carving.=== Music ===Greenland also has a successful, albeit small, music culture.", "Some popular Greenlandic bands and artists include Sumé (classic rock), Chilly Friday (rock), Nanook (rock), Siissisoq (rock), Nuuk Posse (hip hop) and Rasmus Lyberth (folk), who performed in the Danish national final for the 1979 Eurovision Song Contest, performing in Greenlandic.", "The singer-songwriter Simon Lynge is the first musical artist from Greenland to have an album released across the United Kingdom, and to perform at the UK's Glastonbury Festival.", "The music culture of Greenland also includes traditional Inuit music, largely revolving around singing and drums.The drum is the traditional Greenlandic instrument.", "It was used to perform traditional drum dances.", "For this purpose, a round drum (qilaat) in the form of a frame made of driftwood or walrus ribs covered with a polar bear bladder, polar bear stomach or walrus stomach was used.", "The drumming was not done on the membrane, but with a stick from underneath the frame.", "Simple melodies were sung for this purpose.The drum dance used to serve two functions: On the one hand, the drum was used to drive away fear on long, dark winter nights.", "To do this, the drum dancer would make faces and try to make others laugh until all fear was forgotten.Disputes were also settled with the drum.", "If someone had misbehaved, he was challenged with the drum.", "People would gather at certain powerful places and take turns beating the drum and singing to it.", "They tried to ridicule the other person as much as possible.", "The spectators expressed with their laughter who was the winner and who was therefore the guilty one.The drum could also be used by shamans for ritual conjurations of spirits.After the arrival of missionaries in the 18th century, the drum dance (still popular among Canadian Inuit today) was banned as pagan and shamanistic and replaced by polyphonic singing of secular and church songs.", "This choral singing is known today for its special sound.", "Church hymns are partly of German origin due to the influence of the Herrnhuter Brüdergemeinde.", "Scandinavian, German and Scottish whalers brought the fiddle, accordion and polka (kalattuut) to Greenland, where they are now played in intricate dance steps.===Sport===Sport is an important part of Greenlandic culture, as the population is generally quite active.", "Popular sports include association football, track and field, handball and skiing.", "Handball is often referred to as the national sport, and the men's national team was ranked among the top 20 in the world in 2001.Greenland has excellent conditions for skiing, fishing, snowboarding, ice climbing and rock climbing, although mountain climbing and hiking are preferred by the general public.", "Although the environment is generally ill-suited for golf, there is a golf course in Nuuk.=== Cuisine ===Pilersuisoq Supermarket in KangerlussuaqThe national dish of Greenland is suaasat, a soup made from seal meat.", "Meat from marine mammals, game, birds, and fish play a large role in the Greenlandic diet.", "Due to the glacial landscape, most ingredients come from the ocean.", "Spices are seldom used besides salt and pepper.", "Greenlandic coffee is a \"flaming\" dessert coffee (set alight before serving) made with coffee, whiskey, Kahlúa, Grand Marnier, and whipped cream.", "It is stronger than the familiar Irish dessert coffee.=== Media ===Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa (KNR) is the public broadcasting company of Greenland.", "It is an associate member of Eurovision and an associate member of the Nordvision network.", "Nearly one hundred people are directly employed by this company, which is one of the largest in the territory.", "The city of Nuuk also has its own radio and television station.", "The city of Nuuk also has a local television channel, Nanoq Media, which was created on 1 August 2002.It is the largest local television station in Greenland, reaching more than 4,000 households as receiving members, which corresponds to about 75% of all households in the capital.Today only two newspapers are published in Greenland, both of which are distributed nationally.", "The Greenlandic weekly ''Sermitsiaq'' is published every Friday, while the online version is updated several times a day.", "It was distributed only in Nuuk until the 1980s.", "It is named after the mountain Sermitsiaq, located about northeast of Nuuk.", "The bi-weekly ''Atuagagdliutit''/''Grønlandsposten'' (AG) is the other newspaper in Greenland, published every Tuesday and Thursday in Greenlandic as ''Atuagagdliutit'' and in Danish as ''Grønlandsposten''.", "The articles are all published in both languages.=== Fine arts ===The Inuit have their own arts and crafts tradition; for example, they carve tupilaks, sculptures of figures of avenging monsters practiced within shaman traditions.", "This Kalaallisut word means soul or spirit of a deceased person and today describes an artistic figure, usually no more than tall, carved mainly from walrus ivory, with a variety of unusual shapes.", "This sculpture actually represents a mythical or spiritual being; usually, however, it has become a mere collector's item because of its grotesque appearance for Western visual habits.", "Modern artisans still use indigenous materials such as musk ox and sheep wool, seal fur, shells, soapstone, reindeer antlers or gemstones.The history of Greenlandic painting began with Aron von Kangeq, who depicted the old Greenlandic sagas and myths in his drawings and watercolours in the mid-19th century.", "In the 20th century, landscape and animal painting developed, as well as printmaking and book illustrations with sometimes expressive colouring.", "It was mainly through their landscape paintings that Kiistat Lund and Buuti Pedersen became known abroad.", "Anne-Birthe Hove chose themes from Greenlandic social life.", "There is a museum of fine arts in Nuuk, the Nuuk Art Museum." ], [ "See also", "* Index of Greenland-related articles* Outline of Greenland=== Other similar territories ===* Åland (Finland)* Svalbard (Norway)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* Oldendow, Knud.(1958).", "\"Printing in Greenland\".", "''Libri: International Journal of Libraries & Information Services'' 8 (3/4): 223–62.", " * ===Works cited===* Bardarson, I.", "(ed.", "Jónsson, F.) \"Det gamle Grønlands beskrivelse af Ívar Bárðarson (Ivar Bårdssön)\", (Copenhagen, 1930) .", "* CIA World Factbook, 2000.", "* Conkling, P. W. ''et al.''", "2011.The Fate of Greenland: Lessons from Abrupt Climate Change, co-authored with Richard Alley, Wallace Broecker and George Denton, with photographs by Gary Comer, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.", "* * * Steffen, Konrad, N. Cullen, and R. Huff (2005).", "\"Climate variability and trends along the western slope of the Greenland Ice Sheet during 1991–2004\", ''Proceedings of the 85th American Meteorological Society Annual Meeting'' (San Diego).", "* * Sowa, F.", "2013.", "''Relations of Power & Domination in a World Polity: The Politics of Indigeneity & National Identity in Greenland.''", "In: Heininen, L. ''Arctic Yearbook 2013.The Arctic of regions vs. the globalized Arctic.''", "Akureyri: Northern Research Forum, pp.", "184–198.www.arcticyearbook.com/ay2013* Sowa, F.", "2014.''Greenland.''", "in: Hund, A.", "''Antarctica and the Arctic Circle: A Geographic Encyclopedia of the Earth's Polar Regions.''", "Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, pp.", "312–316." ], [ "External links", "* * * Greenland entry at ''Denmark.dk''.", "* * The Government of Greenland Offices official website * Visit Greenland – the official Greenlandic Tourist Board* Inuit Circumpolar Council Greenland" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Greenland" ], [ "Introduction", "Greenland is located between the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Canada and northwest of Iceland.", "The territory comprises the island of Greenland—the largest island in the world—and more than a hundred other smaller islands (see alphabetic list).", "Greenland has a border with Canada on Hans Island.", "A sparse population is confined to small settlements along certain sectors of the coast.", "Greenland possesses the world's second-largest ice sheet.Greenland sits atop the Greenland plate, a subplate of the North American plate.", "The Greenland craton is made up of some of the oldest rocks on the face of the earth.", "The Isua greenstone belt in southwestern Greenland contains the oldest known rocks on Earth, dated at 3.7–3.8 billion years old.The vegetation is generally sparse, with the only patch of forested land being found in Nanortalik Municipality in the extreme south near Cape Farewell.The climate is arctic to subarctic, with cool summers and cold winters.", "The terrain is mostly a flat but gradually sloping icecap that covers all land except for a narrow, mountainous, barren, rocky coast.", "The lowest elevation is sea level and the highest elevation is the summit of Gunnbjørn Fjeld, the highest point in the Arctic at .", "The northernmost point of the island of Greenland is Cape Morris Jesup, discovered by Admiral Robert Peary in 1900.Natural resources include zinc, lead, iron ore, coal, molybdenum, gold, platinum, uranium, hydropower and fish." ], [ "Area", "''Total area:''2,166,086 km2''Land area:''2,166,086 km2 (410,449 km2 ice-free, 1,755,637 km2 ice-covered)'''Maritime claims:'''''Territorial sea:''''Exclusive fishing zone:''" ], [ "Land use", "''Arable land:''approximately 6%; some land is used to grow silage.", "''Permanent crops:''Approximately 0%''Other:''100% (2012 est.", ")The total population comprises around 56,000 inhabitants, of whom approximately 18,000 live in the capital, Nuuk." ], [ "Natural hazards", "Continuous ice sheet covers 84% of the country; the rest is permafrost." ], [ "Environment – current issues", "Protection of the Arctic environment, climate change, pollution of the food chain, excessive hunting of endangered species (walrus, polar bears, narwhal, beluga whale and several sea birds)." ], [ "Climate", "Greenland map of Köppen climate classificationRetreat of the Helheim Glacier, GreenlandMap of Greenland's rate of change in ice sheet heightMap of Greenland bedrockGreenland's climate is a tundra climate on and near the coasts and an ice cap climate in inland areas.", "It typically has short, cool summers and long, moderately cold winters.Due to Gulf Stream influences, Greenland's winter temperatures are very mild for its latitude.", "In Nuuk, the capital, average winter temperatures are only .", "In comparison, the average winter temperatures for Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada, are around .", "Conversely, summer temperatures are very low, with an average high around .", "This is too low to sustain trees, and the land is treeless tundra.On the Greenland ice sheet, the temperature is far below freezing throughout the year, and record high temperatures have peaked only slightly above freezing.", "The record high temperature at Summit Camp is .In the far south of Greenland, there is a very small forest in the Qinngua Valley, due to summer temperatures being barely high enough to sustain trees.", "There are mountains over high surrounding the valley, which protect it from cold, fast winds travelling across the ice sheet.", "It is the only natural forest in Greenland, but is only long.=== Climate change ===The Greenland ice sheet is thick and broad enough to blanket an area the size of Mexico.", "The ice is so massive that its weight presses the bedrock of Greenland below sea level and is so all-concealing that not until recently did scientists discover Greenland's Grand Canyon or the possibility that Greenland might actually be three islands.If the ice melted, the interior bedrock below sea level would be covered by water.", "It is not clear whether this water would be at sea level or a lake above sea level.", "If it would be at sea level it could connect to the sea at Ilulissat Icefjord, in Baffin Bay and near Nordostrundingen, creating three large islands.", "But it is most likely that it would be a lake with one drain.It is thought that before the last Ice Age, Greenland had mountainous edges and a lowland (and probably very dry) center which drained to the sea via one big river flowing out westwards, past where Disko Island is now.There is concern about sea level rise caused by ice loss (melt and glaciers falling into the sea) on Greenland.", "Between 1997 and 2003 ice loss was , compared to about for 1993/4–1998/9.Half of the increase was from higher summer melting, with the rest caused by the movements of some glaciers exceeding the speeds needed to balance upstream snow accumulation.", "A complete loss of ice on Greenland would cause a sea level rise of as much as .Researchers at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the University of Kansas reported in February 2006 that the glaciers are melting twice as fast as they were five years ago.", "By 2005, Greenland was beginning to lose more ice volume than anyone expected – an annual loss of up to per year, according to more recent satellite gravity measurements released by JPL.", "The increased ice loss may be partially offset by increased snow accumulation due to increased precipitation.Between 1991 and 2006, monitoring of the weather at one location (Swiss Camp) found that the average winter temperature had risen almost .Recently, Greenland's three largest outlet glaciers have started moving faster, satellite data show.", "These are the Jakobshavn Isbræ at Ilulissat on the western edge of Greenland, and the Kangerdlugssuaq and Helheim glaciers on the eastern edge of Greenland.", "The two latter accelerated greatly during the years 2004–2005, but returned to pre-2004 velocities in 2006.The accelerating ice flow has been accompanied by a dramatic increase in seismic activity.", "In March 2006, researchers at Harvard University and the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University reported that the glaciers now generate swarms of earthquakes up to magnitude 5.0.The retreat of Greenland's ice is revealing islands that were thought to be part of the mainland.", "In September 2005 Dennis Schmitt discovered an island north of the Arctic Circle in eastern Greenland which he named Uunartoq Qeqertaq, Inuit for \"warming island\".=== Future projections ===In the Arctic, temperatures are rising faster than anywhere else in the world.", "Greenland is losing 200 billion tonnes of ice per year.", "Research suggests that this could increase the sea levels' rise by 30 centimeters by the end of the century.", "These projections have the possibility of changing as satellite data only dates back to 40 years ago.", "This means that researchers must view old photographs of glaciers and compare them to ones taken today to determine the future of Greenland's ice.=== Temperature extremes ======= Highest temperatures ==== Month Temperature Date Location January 29 January 2003 Nuuk, Sermersooq February 20 February 2005 Nanortailak, Kujalleq March 31 March 1975 Narsarsuaq, Kujalleq April 26 April 2016 Narsarsuaq, Kujalleq May 29 May 2012 Narsarsuaq, Kujalleq June 23 June 1915 Ivittuut, Sermersooq July 6 July 2008 Nuuk, Sermersooq August 3 August 1899 Tasillaq, Sermersooq September 2 September 2010 Nuuk, Sermersooq October 5 October 2016 Tasillaq, Sermersooq November 21 November 2015 Tasillaq, Sermersooq December 21 December 2001 Narsarsuaq, Kujalleq==== Lowest temperatures ==== Month Temperature Date Location January 9 January 1954 North Ice, Northeast Greenland February 21 February 2002 Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland March 20 March 1931 Eismitte, Northeast Greenland April 21 April 2011 Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland May 9 May 2018 Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland June 1 June 2011 Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland July 4 July 2017 Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland August 29 August 2004 Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland September 24 September 2009 Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland October 26 October 2018 Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland November 26 November 2001 Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland December 22 December 1991 Klinck Station, Northeast Greenland" ], [ "Topography", "The ice sheet covering Greenland varies significantly in elevation across the landmass, rising dramatically between the coastline at sea level and the East-Central interior, where elevations reach .", "The coastlines are rocky and predominantly barren with fjords.", "Numerous small islands spread from the Central to Southern coastlines.Greenland's mountain ranges are partially or completely buried by ice.", "The highest mountains are in the Watkins Range, which runs along the eastern coast.", "Greenland's highest mountain is Gunnbjorn Fjeld with a height of .Scientists discovered an asteroid impact crater in the northwestern region of Greenland, buried underneath the ice sheet.", "At a size larger than Washington, D.C., it is the first impact crater found beneath one of Earth's ice sheets." ], [ "Extreme points", "This is a list of the extreme points of Greenland, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.===Territory of Greenland===* Northernmost point — Kaffeklubben Island (83°40'N) – the northernmost permanent land in the world.", "There are also some shifting gravel bars that lie north of Kaffeklubben, the most northerly ever found being 83-42.", "* Southernmost point — unnamed islet 2.3 km south of Cape Farewell, Egger Island (59°44'N)* Westernmost point — Nordvestø, Carey Islands (73°10'W)* Easternmost point — Nordostrundingen, Greenland (11°19'W)* Highest point — Gunnbjørn Fjeld, ===Mainland Greenland===* Northernmost point — Cape Morris Jesup (83°39'N)* Southernmost point — Peninsula near Tasiusaq, Kujalleq (59°58'26.4\"N)* Westernmost point — Cape Alexander (73°08'W)* Easternmost point — Nordostrundingen, Greenland (11°19'W)* Highest point — Gunnbjørn Fjeld, ." ], [ "Towns", "Greenland has 17 towns – settlements with more than 500 inhabitants.", "Nuuk is the largest town – and the capital – with roughly one third of the country's urban population.", "Sisimiut with approximately 5,500 inhabitants is the second largest town, while Ilulissat is number three with around 5,000 inhabitants.", "* Aasiaat* Ilulissat* Ittoqqortoormiit* Kangaatsiaq* Maniitsoq* Nanortalik* Narsaq* Nuuk* Paamiut* Qaanaaq* Qaqortoq* Qasigiannguit* Qeqertarsuaq* Sisimiut* Tasiilaq* Upernavik* Uummannaq" ], [ "History of exploration" ], [ "Gallery" ], [ "See also", "List of mountain peaks of GreenlandList of mountain ranges of GreenlandGreenland's Grand CanyonClimate change adaptation in Greenland" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* www.geus.dk Geological map of Greenland from the Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS).", "* \"Times Atlas reviews Greenland map accuracy after climate change row\" – ''The Guardian'', 22 September 2011" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Greenland" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a demography of the population of Greenland including population density, ethnicity, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population." ], [ "Populations", " the resident population of Greenland was estimated at 56,609, an increase of 47 (0.08%) compared to the corresponding figure the previous year.+ Population by municipalityon 1 January 2022 Municipality Population % of total Annual change Kommuneqarfik Sermersooq 24,148 42.66% +287 (+1.2%)Avannaata Kommunia 10,920 19.30% +12 (+0.1%)Qeqqata Kommunia 9,257 16.24% −66 (−0.7%)Kommune Kujalleq 6,205 10.96% −87 (−1.4%)Kommune Qeqertalik 6,082 10.74% −98 (−1.6%)Values do not sum to 100% because there were 63 inhabitants not in any of the five municipalities.", "Nuuk is the most populous locality in Greenland with 19,604 inhabitants, which is nearly 35% of Greenland's total population." ], [ "Vital statistics", "YearAverage populationLive birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Total fertility rateInfant mortality rate 1900 12,000 416 306 11035.626.29.4 1901 12,000 461 301 16038.725.313.4 1902 12,000 426 259 16735.521.613.9 1903 12,000 428 327 10135.126.88.3 1904 12,000 535 283 25243.523.020.5 1905 13,000 487 292 19539.023.415.6 1906 13,000 493 366 12739.129.010.1 1907 13,000 476 362 11437.228.38.9 1908 13,000 543 378 16542.129.312.8 1909 13,000 564 448 11643.134.28.9 1910 13,000 443 354 8933.626.86.7 1911 13,000 577 562 1543.141.91.1 1912 14,000 482 389 9335.728.86.9 1913 14,000 592 390 20243.528.714.9 1914 14,000 531 458 7338.833.45.3 1915 14,000 545 428 11739.831.28.5 1916 14,000 545 447 9839.532.47.1 1917 14,000 547 312 23539.422.416.9 1918 14,000 550 328 22239.323.415.9 1919 14,000 510 614−10436.243.5−7.4 1920 14,000 569 429 14040.130.29.9 1921 14,000 610 565 4542.739.53.1 1922 15,000 545 396 14937.327.110.2 1923 15,000 563 326 23738.022.016.0 1924 15,000 580 426 15438.428.210.2 1925 15,000 660 582 7842.937.85.1 1926 16,000 619 340 27939.721.817.9 1927 16,000 615 322 29338.720.318.4 1928 16,000 680 366 31442.022.619.4 1929 17,000 743 353 39045.021.423.6 1930 17,000 768 383 38545.722.822.9 1931 17,000 779 431 34846.125.520.6 1932 17,000 728 625 10343.337.16.2 1933 17,000 776 370 40645.621.823.8 1934 17,000 807 503 30446.428.917.5 1935 18,000 813 835−2246.547.7−1.3 1936 18,000 740 811−7142.046.1−4.0 1937 18,000 767 474 29343.126.616.5 1938 18,000 731 375 35640.420.719.7 1939 18,000 762 680 8241.637.24.5 1940 19,000 873 356 51746.919.127.8 1941 19,000 815 364 45142.719.123.6 1942 20,000 904 448 45646.122.923.3 1943 20,000 796 429 36739.821.518.4 1944 20,000 911 491 42044.724.120.6 1945 21,000 818 408 41039.519.719.8 1946 21,000 920 416 50443.619.723.9 1947 22,000 953 490 46344.122.721.4 1948 22,000 883 499 38440.522.917.65.695 1949 22,000 989 898 9144.740.64.16.045 1950 23,0001,129 539 59050.023.826.16.930 1951 23,000 999 550 44942.923.619.35.770 1952 24,0001,034 475 55943.119.823.35.960 1953 25,0001,109 398 71144.916.128.86.150 1954 26,0001,136 388 74844.415.229.26.310 1955 27,0001,234 375 85946.414.132.36.605 1956 27,0001,293 351 94247.212.834.46.670 1957 29,0001,361 3371,02447.611.835.86.925 1958 30,0001,410 2901,12047.29.737.56.815 1959 31,0001,491 2851,20647.69.138.57.145 1960 33,0001,586 2561,33048.67.840.77.245 1961 34,0001,644 2921,35248.88.740.17.310 1962 35,0001,610 3611,24946.110.335.87.085 1963 36,0001,671 2791,39246.27.738.57.035 1964 38,0001,797 3291,46847.48.738.77.270 1965 39,0001,738 3371,40144.38.635.76.960 1966 41,0001,781 3291,45243.58.035.56.995 1967 43,0001,685 3141,37139.37.332.06.395 1968 45,0001,576 3331,24335.37.427.85.845 1969 46,0001,310 311 99928.56.821.74.580 1970 46,0001,144 283 86124.76.118.63.900 1971 47,0001,028 289 73921.86.115.73.245 1972 48,000 948 295 65319.66.113.52.770 1973 49,000 940 339 60119.26.912.32.69036.2 1974 50,000 866 332 53417.56.710.82.30028.9 1975 50,000 815 313 50217.56.311.22.34536.8 1976 50,000 859 348 51117.37.010.32.25532.6 1977 49,000 918 373 54518.67.211.42.34942.5 1978 49,000 870 309 56117.76.411.32.19726.4 1979 50,000 900 393 50718.28.110.02.18737.8 1980 50,0001,034 380 65420.57.612.82.43531.9 1981 51,0001,056 381 67520.67.513.12.33231.3 1982 52,0001,052 408 64420.68.212.42.23637.1 1983 52,000 994 433 56118.98.310.62.05437.2 1984 53,0001,054 439 61520.08.311.72.10728.5 1985 53,0001,152 435 71721.48.213.22.24124.3 1986 54,0001,055 445 61019.78.311.42.04422.7 1987 54,0001,104 445 65920.48.212.22.08326.3 1988 55,0001,213 432 78122.17.914.32.31716.5 1989 55,0001,210 455 75521.98.213.72.29921.5 1990 56,0001,258 467 79122.68.414.22.44432.6 1991 56,0001,192 458 73421.58.313.22.42134.4 1992 55,0001,237 441 79622.48.014.42.60712.9 1993 55,0001,180 432 74821.37.813.52.57826.3 1994 56,0001,139 445 69420.58.012.52.52722.8 1995 56,0001,101 480 62119.78.611.12.51220.9 1996 56,0001,051 444 60718.88.010.92.49322.8 1997 56,0001,095 492 60319.68.810.82.69018.3 1998 56,000 980 457 52317.58.19.32.45720.4 1999 56,000 945 479 46616.88.58.32.41516.9 2000 56,000 879 450 42915.78.07.72.32918.2 2001 56,000 942 466 47616.88.38.52.51010.6 2002 57,000 954 446 50816.97.89.12.56613.6 2003 57,000 879 411 46815.47.28.22.3728.0 2004 57,000 892 479 41315.68.47.22.41513.5 2005 57,000 886 465 42115.58.17.42.3777.9 2006 57,000 842 440 40214.87.77.12.25616.6 2007 57,000 853 452 40115.17.97.22.29910.6 2008 56,000 834 428 40614.97.67.32.2479.6 2009 56,000 895 437 45816.07.88.22.3594.5 2010 56,000 869 504 36515.59.06.52.1958.1 2011 57,000 821 476 34514.48.36.12.11711.0 2012 57,000 786 459 32713.88.05.82.0198.9 2013 56,000 820 444 37614.67.96.72.0778.5 2014 56,000 805 461 34414.48.26.22.0377.5 2015 56,000 854 472 38215.28.46.82.13210.5 2016 56,000 830 487 34314.88.76.12.0637.2 2017 56,000 853 499 35415.28.96.32.1277.0 2018 56,000 819 487 33214.68.75.92.0257.3 2019 56,000 849 548 30115.29.85.42.11711.8 2020 56,000 835 520 31514.99.35.62.1158.4 2021 56,000 761 531 23013.49.34.11.82014.5 2022 57,000 748 52522313.29.33.91.81512.1 2023 57,000 716 53418212.79.43.3===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 29 867 26 616 56 483 100 0–4 2 142 1 930 4 072 7.21 5–9 2 004 1 942 3 946 6.99 10–14 2 088 2 022 4 110 7.28 15–19 2 130 2 111 4 241 7.51 20–24 2 350 2 283 4 633 8.20 25–29 2 159 2 081 4 240 7.51 30–34 1 954 1 864 3 818 6.76 35–39 1 730 1 440 3 170 5.61 40–44 2 008 1 690 3 698 6.55 45–49 2 980 2 537 5 517 9.77 50–54 2 599 2 123 4 722 8.36 55–59 2 092 1 546 3 638 6.44 60–64 1 425 1 036 2 461 4.36 65–69 1 071 731 1 802 3.19 70–74 629 594 1 223 2.17 75–79 319 365 684 1.21 80–84 143 229 372 0.66 85–89 39 80 119 0.21 90–94 4 10 14 0.02 95–99 1 2 3 ''male:''68.6 years''female:''74.04 years (2012 est.)" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "'''Significant minority groups''' NationalityPopulation (2020)37320812874 (migrant workers, mainly businessmen)64615350473920The population of Greenland consists of Greenlandic Inuit (including mixed-race persons), Danish Greenlanders and other Europeans and North Americans.", "The Inuit population makes up approximately 85–90% of the total (2009 est.).", "6,792 people from Denmark live in Greenland, which is 12% of its total population.In recent years, Greenland experienced a significant increase in immigration from Asia, especially from the Philippines, Thailand, and China." ], [ "Languages", "The only official language of Greenland is Greenlandic.", "The number of speakers of Greenlandic is estimated at 50,000 (85–90% of the total population), divided in three main dialects, Kalaallisut (West-Greenlandic, 44,000 speakers and the dialect that is used as official language), Tunumiit (East-Greenlandic, 3,000 speakers) and Inuktun (North-Greenlandic, 800 speakers).", "The remainder of the population mainly speaks Danish; Inuit Sign Language is the language of the deaf community." ], [ "Religion", "Most Greenlandic villages, including Nanortalik, have their own church.The nomadic Inuit were traditionally shamanistic, with a well-developed mythology primarily concerned with propitiating a vengeful and fingerless sea Goddess who controlled the success of the seal and whale hunts.The first Norse colonists were pagan, but Erik the Red's son Leif was converted to Catholic Christianity by King Olaf Trygvesson on a trip to Norway in 990 and sent missionaries back to Greenland.", "These swiftly established sixteen parishes, some monasteries, and a bishopric at Garðar.Rediscovering these colonists and spreading the Protestant Reformation among them was one of the primary reasons for the Danish recolonization in the 18th century.", "Under the patronage of the Royal Mission College in Copenhagen, Norwegian and Danish Lutherans and German Moravian missionaries searched for the missing Norse settlements and began converting the Inuit.", "The principal figures in the Christianization of Greenland were Hans and Poul Egede and Matthias Stach.", "The New Testament was translated piecemeal from the time of the very first settlement on Kangeq Island, but the first translation of the whole Bible was not completed until 1900.An improved translation using the modern orthography was completed in 2000.Today, the major religion is Protestant Christianity, mostly members of the Lutheran Church of Denmark.", "While there is no official census data on religion in Greenland, the Lutheran Bishop of Greenland Sofie Petersen estimated that 85% of the Greenlandic population were members of its congregation in 2009.Estimates in 2022 put the figure at 93%." ], [ "Spiral Case", "In the 1960's and 70's, Greenland was subject to one of the most impactful eugenics programs ever implemented.", "At least 4,500 Inuit women were involuntarily implanted with IUD's without their knowledge or consent - about half the fertile population at the time.", "Within a generation, the birthrate declined by 50%, which led to multigenerational demographic effects.", "Public officials at the time blamed the decline in birthrate on poverty and cultural trends, but the extent of the involuntary program became public only in 2022 in an investigation known as the spiral case." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Greenland" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of Greenland''', an autonomous country (, ) within the Kingdom of Denmark, function in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic dependency, whereby the prime minister is the head of government, and of a multi-party system.", "Executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament ''Inatsisartut''.", "The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.", "Greenland has full autonomy on most matters, except on policies and decisions affecting the region including negotiations with the devolved legislatures and the Folketing ()." ], [ "Executive powers", "KingFrederik X 14 January 2024High CommissionerMikaela Engell1 April 2011Prime MinisterMúte Bourup EgedeInuit Ataqatigiit23 April 2021Executive power rests with a high commissioner, and a prime minister heads the Cabinet.", "The high commissioner of Greenland is appointed by the monarch, and the prime minister is elected indirectly by parliament elections results for four-year terms.The High Commissioner has a seat in the Inatsisartut.", "The high commissioner is allowed to speak in the Inatsisartut regarding common Danish/Greenlandic affairs, but is not allowed to vote.", "Following legislative elections, the leader of the party that wins the most seats is usually given the initiative to establish a new coalition by the Greenlandic Parliament, unless the current Naalakkersuisut Siulittaasuat (''Prime Minister'' in English) is still in power.", "However, if he/she fails, the Chairman of the parliament asks all chairmen of the parties elected to the parliament, and asks them to point to another chairman who they feel can rightly form a new coalition.", "The chairman with the most votes is then handed the initiative.", "After forming the coalition, the Naalakkersuisut Siulittaasuat leads the Naalakkersuisut.", "The Naalakkersuisut will often consist of around 9 members.", "The coalition parties divide the various ministries among themselves and after this, the parties elect their representative to these ministries.", "Any other member of the cabinet is called a ''Naalakkersuisoq''." ], [ "Legislative branch", "Legislative power is shared by the government and the legislature.", "The legislature '''Greenlandic Parliament''' () is made up of 31 members elected by direct, popular vote to serve four-year terms by proportional representation.", "Election of 2 seats to the Danish Parliament () was last held on June 5, 2019.The current composition is shown below." ], [ "Judicial branch", "Greenland's judicial system is based on the Danish civil law system, operates independently of the legislature and the executive.", "It has two court of first instance: the District Courts and the Court of Greenland depending on the type of case, whereas the High Court of Greenland hears cases as the second instance.", "Decisions made by the High Court of Greenland may be brought before the Supreme Court subject to the permission of the Appeals Permission Board.", "Appeals may be submitted to the Østre Landsret and the Supreme Court of Denmark (Højesteret)." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "Greenland has a multi-party system (disputing independence versus unionism as well as left versus right).", "Governments are usually coalition governments.", "The Greenlandic Parliament (Inatsisartut) has 31 seats.", "Members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "The island is administratively divided into 5 municipalities with about 72 cities and villages." ], [ "International affairs", "Along with diplomatic missions to the European Union and the United States, Greenland participates in the Nordic Council, Arctic Council, International Whaling Commission ( Complete list of participation of Greenland in international organisations).With Denmark having responsibility for Greenland's international affairs, other countries do not have direct diplomatic representation in Greenland — their embassies or consulates in Copenhagen are responsible for their relations with Greenland and their citizens staying or living there.Greenland is represented internationally by the embassies and consulates of Denmark, although Greenland has an independent Representation to the European Union in Brussels since 1992 and in the United States in Washington D.C since 2014.Greenland maintains economic and cultural relations with Taiwan via Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Canada.===International organization participation===Arctic CouncilCouncil of EuropeInuit Circumpolar ConferenceNATONordic CouncilNordic Investment BankWest Nordic Council" ], [ "See also", "Arctic cooperation and politicsArctic policy of DenmarkPolitics of DenmarkList of Danish High Commissioners in GreenlandForeign relations of GreenlandGreenland–European Union relations" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Prime Minister’s Office* Government of Greenland ''official government website'' (in English)* Greenland.com from the Greenland Tourism & Business Council* Statistics Greenland" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Greenland" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''economy of Greenland''' is characterized as small, mixed and vulnerable.", "Greenland's economy consists of a large public sector and comprehensive foreign trade.", "This has resulted in an economy with periods of strong growth, considerable inflation, unemployment problems and extreme dependence on capital inflow from the Kingdom Government.GDP per capita is close to the average for European economies, but the economy is critically dependent upon substantial support from the Danish government, which supplies about half the revenues of the Self-rule Government, which in turn employs 10,307 Greenlanders out of 25,620 currently in employment (2015).", "Unemployment nonetheless remains high, with the rest of the economy dependent upon demand for exports of shrimp and fish." ], [ "Historical development", "Except for an abortive royal colony established under Major Claus Paarss between 1728 and 1730, colonial Greenland was administered by companies under royal charter until 1908.Hans Egede's Hope Colony was organized under the auspices of the Bergen Greenland Company prior to its bankruptcy in 1727; it was succeeded by the merchant Jacob Severin (1733–1749), the General Trade Company (''Det almindelige Handelskompagni''; 1749–1774), and finally the Royal Greenland Trading Department (KGH; 1776–1908).Early hopes of mineral or agricultural wealth were dashed, and open trade proved a failure owing to other nations' better quality, lower priced goods and hostility.", "Kale, lettuce, and other vegetables were successfully introduced, but repeated attempts to cultivate wheat or clover failed throughout Greenland, limiting the ability to raise European livestock.", "After government-funded whaling failed, the KGH eventually settled on maintaining the native Greenlanders in their traditional pursuits of hunting and whaling and enforced a monopoly on trade between them and Europe.", "Repeated attempts to open trade were opposed on both commercial and humanitarian grounds, although minor reforms in the 1850s and 60s lowered the prices charged to the natives for \"luxuries\" like sugar and coffee; transferred more of the KGH's profits to local communities; and granted the important Ivigtut cryolite concession to a separate company.During the years before World War I, the KGH's independence was curtailed and the company folded into the Ministry of the Interior.", "Climate change, apparent since the 1920s, disrupted traditional Kalaallit life as the milder weather reduced the island's seal populations but filled the waters offshore with cod.", "After World War II, reforms were finally enacted by the Danish Greenland Commission composed of Greenland Provincial Council members and Danish economists.", "The report outlined a program to end the KGH model and establish a modern welfare state on the Danish model and supported by the Kingdom Government.", "The KGH monopolies were ended in 1950; Greenland was made an equal part of the Kingdom of Denmark in 1953 and Home Rule granted in 1979.The KGH had long opposed urbanization of the Kalaallit Greenlanders, but during the 1950s and 1960s the Danish government introduced an urbanization and modernization program aimed at consolidating existing settlements.", "The program was intended to reduce costs, improve access to education and health care, and provide workers for modernized cod fisheries, which were growing rapidly at the time.", "The program faced a number of problems including the collapse of the fisheries and the shoddy construction of many of the buildings, particularly the infamous Blok P, and produced a number of problems of its own, including continuing unemployment and alcoholism.Greenland left the European Economic Community in February 1985, principally due to EEC policies on fishing and sealskin.", "Most EU laws do not apply to Greenland; however, owing to its connection with Denmark, Greenland continues to enjoy preferential access to EU markets.", "In the same year, Greenland exercised its new control over the Royal Greenland Trading Company to reestablish it as KNI.", "Over the next few decades, divisions of the conglomerate were slowly spun off and competition within the Greenlandic economy somewhat increased.Following the closure of the Maarmorilik lead and zinc mine in 1990 and the collapse of the cod fisheries amid colder ocean currents, Greenland faced foreign trade deficits and a shrinking economy, but it has been growing since 1993." ], [ "Sectors of the economy", "The Greenland economy is extremely dependent on exports of fish and on support from the Danish Government, which supplies about half of government revenues.", "The public sector, including publicly owned enterprises and the municipalities, plays the dominant role in the economy.===Governance===The largest employers in Greenland are the various levels of administration, including the central Kingdom Government in Denmark, the Local Greenland Self-Rule Government, and the municipalities.", "Most of these positions are in the capital Nuuk.", "In addition to this direct employment, the government heavily subsidizes other major employers in other areas of the economy, including Great Greenland's sealskin purchases, Pilersuisoq's rural stores, and some of Air Greenland and Royal Arctic's regional routes.===Fishing industry===The second-largest sector by employment is Greenland's fishing industry.", "The commercial fishing fleet consists of approximately 5,000 dinghies, 300 cutters, and 25 trawlers.", "While cod was formerly the main catch, today the industry centers on cold-water shrimp and Greenland halibut.The fish processing industry is almost entirely centered on Royal Greenland, the world's largest retailer of cold-water shrimp.===Hunting and whaling===Whaling and seal hunting were once traditional mainstays of Greenland's economy.", "Greenlanders still kill an estimated 170,000 seals a year and 175 whales a year, ranking them second and third in the world respectively.", "Both whaling and sealing have become controversial, limiting the potential market for their products.", "As such, the only seal tannery in the country Great Greenland in Qaqortoq is heavily subsidized by the government to maintain the livelihood of smaller communities which are economically dependent on the hunt.Reindeer or caribou are found in the northwest of the island, while muskoxen are found in the northeast and at Kangerlussuaq.", "Because the muskoxen's natural range favors the protected Northeast Greenland National Park, it is a less common object of hunting than in the past.", "Polar bear and reindeer hunting in Greenland still occur but are regulated to avoid endangering the populations.===Retail===Approximately half of total sales are conducted by KNI, the state-owned successor to the Royal Greenland Trade Department; its rural sales division Pilersuisoq; or its daughter company which has been purchased by the Danish Dagrofa Pisiffik.", "The third major chain is the Brugsen association of cooperatives.===Mining===Ivigtut used to be the world's premier source of natural cryolite, an important mineral in aluminum extraction, but the commercially viable reserves were depleted in the 1980s.", "Similarly, deposits of coal, diamonds, and many metals including silver, nickel, platinum, copper, molybdenum, iron, niobium, tantalum, uranium, and rare earths are known to exist, but not yet in commercially viable deposits.", "Greenland's Bureau of Minerals and Petroleum is working to promote Greenland as an attractive destination for prospectors.", "Improvements in technology and increases in mineral prices have led to some mines being reopened, such as the lead and zinc mine at Maarmorilik and the gold mine at Nalunaq.Greenland is expected to be one of the world's next great mining frontiers as global warming starts to uncover precious metals from the frozen surroundings.", "Substantial volumes of minerals are now within reach of geological land mapping technologies, according to research conducted by GlobalData, a natural resources business intelligence provider.===Energy===400pxAt 70%, Greenland has one of the highest shares of renewable energy in the world, mostly coming from hydropower.While the Greenland Home Rule Government has primary sovereignty over mineral deposits on the mainland, oil resources are within the domain of the Danish exclusive economic zone.", "Nonetheless, prospecting takes place under the auspices of NUNAOIL, a partnership between the two governments.", "Some geologists believe Greenland has some of the world's largest remaining oil resources: in 2001, the U.S. Geological Survey found that the waters off north-eastern Greenland (north and south of the Arctic Circle) could contain up to of oil, and in 2010 the British petrochemical company Cairns Oil reported \"the first firm indications\" of commercially viable oil deposits.", "Nonetheless, all six wells drilled since the 1970s have been dry.Greenland has offered eight license blocks for tender along its west coast by Baffin Bay.", "Seven of those blocks have been bid for by a combination of multinational oil companies and NUNAOIL.", "Companies that have participated successfully in the previous license rounds and have formed a partnership for the licenses with NUNAOIL are DONG Energy, Chevron, ExxonMobil, Husky Energy, and Cairn Energy.", "The area available known as the West Disko licensing round is of interest due to its relative accessibility compared to other Arctic basins, as the area remains largely free of ice and contains a number of promising geological leads and prospects from the Paleocene era.Coal used to be mined at Qullissat but this has been suspended.Electricity generation is controlled by the state-owned Nukissiorfiit.", "It is distributed at 220 V and 50 Hz and sockets of Danish type K are used.", "Electricity has historically been generated by oil or diesel power plants, even though there is a large surplus of potential hydropower.", "Because of rising oil prices, there is a program to build hydro power plants.", "Since the success of the 1993 Buksefjord dam, whose distribution path to Nuuk includes the Ameralik Span the long-term policy of the Greenland government is to produce the island's electricity from renewable domestic sources.", "A third turbine at Buksefjord brought its capacity up to 45 MW in 2008; in 2007, a second, 7.2 MW dam was constructed at Qorlortorsuaq; and in 2010, a third, 15 MW dam was constructed at Sisimiut.", "There is a plan for an Aluminium smelter plant, which requires multiple large (total 600-750 MW) hydropower plants.", "Domestic heating is provided by electricity at locations where there is a hydro power plant.===Tourism===Tourism is limited by the short summers and high costs.", "Access is almost exclusively by air, mainly from Scandinavia and Iceland.", "Some tourists arrive by cruise ship (but they don't spend much locally, since the ship provides accommodation and meals).", "There have been tests with direct flights from the US East Coast from 2007 to 2008, but these were discontinued.The state-owned tourism agency Visit Greenland has the web address Greenland.com.Tourism increased significantly between 2015 and 2019, with the number of visitors increasing from 77,000 per year to 105,000.One source estimated that in 2019 the revenue from this aspect of the economy was about 450 million kroner (US$67 million).", "Like many aspects of the economy, this slowed dramatically in 2020, and into 2021, due to restrictions required as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic; one source describes it as being the \"biggest economic victim of the coronavirus\".", "(The overall economy did not suffer too severely as of mid 2020, thanks to the fisheries.)", "Visitors will begin arriving again in late 2020 or early 2021.Greenland's goal is to develop it \"right\" and to \"build a more sustainable tourism for the long run\".===Agriculture and forestry===Agriculture is of little importance in the economy but due to climate change in southern Greenland, the growing season averages about three weeks longer than a decade ago which has enabled expanded production of existing crops.", "At present, local production accounts for 10% of potatoes consumption in Greenland, but that is projected to grow to 15% by 2020.Similarly, it has enabled new crops like apples, strawberries, broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, and carrots to be grown and for the cultivated areas of the country to be extended although even now only about 1% of Greenland is considered arable.", "Expanded production is subsidized by the government through purchase guarantees by the state-owned Neqi A/S grocery store chain.The only forest in Greenland is in the Qinngua Valley near Nanortalik.", "It is protected and not used for timber production.===Animal husbandry===Animal husbandry consists mainly of sheep farming, with free-grazing flocks.", "Modern sheep farming methods were introduced in the early 20th century, with the first farm built in 1906.The farms provide meat for local consumption and wool mainly for export.", "Some 20,000 lambs are slaughtered annually in Narsaq by the state-owned Neqi A/S.", "The lack of private land ownership rights on Greenland forces farmers to jointly agree to terms of land usage.", "In the south, there is also a small cattle farm.Reindeer herding has been introduced to Greenland in waves since 1952.Supervision by Scandinavian Sami ended in 1978 and subsequent results were dismal.", "Repeated attempts in mid-west Greenland in the 1980s and the 1990s failed due to the immobility of the herds, which destroyed their forage.", "In 1998, the remaining herd was sold to the Nuuk municipality and removed through hunting.", "At that point, only one Greenlander was still a deerherd; the rest about 20 people were still hired Norwegian Sami.", "Although the conclusion was drawn that reindeer herding was incompatible with the local culture, the southern herds continue to prosper.", "In 2008, there was still a strong herd at the Isortoq Reindeer Station maintained by the Icelander Stefán Magnússon and Norwegian Ole Kristiansen." ], [ "See also", "* Greenland krone* Bank of Greenland" ], [ "Further reading", "* Laust Høgedahl (ed.).", "2021.''", "Greenland's Economy and Labour Markets''.", "Routledge." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* \" Setting up a Business in Greenland\", from the Greenland Home Rule Government" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Greenland" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in Greenland''' include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.Greenland has, by law, only one service provider for telecommunications and the Internet, TELE Greenland, which is fully owned by the Greenlandic Home Rule government.", "TELE Greenland provides switched telephone and data, land mobile communications, and VHF and MF shore-to-ship communication.", "This type of monopoly is not uncommon in Greenland." ], [ "Radio and television", "KNR Headquarters in NuukTelevision in Greenland began in the 1960s.Privately owned transmitters were created to receive TV from Canada, Iceland, and mainland Denmark.", "This can date as far back when television was introduced to Greenland in the 1960s.", "It was possible to receive TV from Canada with a normal household TV antenna, but color transmissions were NTSC and signals were in very bad quality and however in some circumstances, television transmissions were not available at all due to factors such as weather conditions or time of day, even for the people who owned private transmitters.", "Greenland did not have any local TV service until 1982.The state broadcaster is Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa (KNR, Greenlandic Broadcasting Corporation), which provides one television and one radio service nationwide.", "Both broadcast in Greenlandic and Danish.", "Administered as an independent public corporation by the Greenlandic government, KNR has a seven-person board and management committee.", "They employ 100 people and are funded publicly and by advertising.A few private local TV and radio stations are also available as Danish public radio rebroadcasts.", "An umbrella organization in Greenland, known as the STTK, operates local radio and TV stations throughout the country.", "There are also American Forces Network stations, operated by the United States Air Force.Greenlanders owned an estimated 30,000 radios and 30,000 television sets, as of 2002." ], [ "Telephones", "* Calling code: +299* International call prefix: 00* Fixed telephone lines: 7,259 lines in use, 197th in the world (2019).", "* Mobile telephone connections: 66,009, 202nd in the world (2019).All telephone numbers have 6 digits.There are adequate domestic and international telephone services, provided by cables and microwave radio relay.", "The system was totally digitized in 1995.The Greenland Connect submarine cable provides connectivity to Europe via Iceland and to North America via Newfoundland.", "TELE Greenland first used satellite communication in 1978 and currently uses 15 satellite earth stations (12 Intelsat, 1 Eutelsat, and 2 Americom GE-2), all over the Atlantic Ocean.===Mobile===As of 2019 there were 66,009 active mobile telephony subscriptions in use in Greenland.", "In 2007, all NMT (1G) networks were shut down.", "4G launched in 2014.Mobile coverage extends to nearly all inhabited areas in Greenland except some remote areas.In Greenland, VHF radio-telephone is also used.", "Users make calls over a radio instead of a phone.", "Outside of Greenland, VHF phones are mainly used on ships, but in Greenland they can also be used as regular phones.", "In 2001, 42% of Greenlanders owned a portable VHF phone.On September 30, 2022, Tele Greenland has collaborated with Swedish Telecommunications provider Ericsson in building a 5G network in Greenland." ], [ "Internet", "* Greenland has only one major Internet Service Provider (ISP): Tele Greenland (Tele Post Greenland A/S).", "* Greenland has only one major data center: Owned by Tele Greenland in Nuuk.", "* The country code for top-level domains is .gl * 40,084 people or 64.48% of Greenland's population were able to use the Internet in 2019, placing Greenland 201st in the world.", "* There were 13,192 fixed broadband subscriptions placing Greenland 164th in the world with a 23% penetration rate (2019).", "* Greenland has been allocated 16,384 IPv4 addresses, less than 0.05% of the world's total or 284 addresses per 1000 people (2012).", "* Internet and telephone services rely on the Greenland Connect submarine communications cables for external traffic.===Internet censorship and surveillance===As a territory of the Kingdom of Denmark, Greenland has a democratically elected home-rule government whose powers may encompass all matters except foreign and national security affairs, police services, and monetary matters.", "Greenlanders have the same rights throughout the kingdom as other citizens.The Danish government places no restrictions on access to the Internet and there are no credible reports that e-mail or Internet chat rooms are monitored without appropriate legal authority.", "Authorities continue to employ an Internet filter designed to block child pornography.", "In no known cases did the filter affect legitimate sites.", "The Danish Constitution provides for freedom of speech and press with some limitations such as cases involving child pornography, libel, blasphemy, hate speech, and racism, and the government generally respects these rights in practice.In April 2013, the registrar for the .gl domain unilaterally voluntarily suspended resolution of thepiratebay.gl, intended to be a new primary Domain Name for the famous Bittorrent search engine The Pirate Bay." ], [ "See also", "* Internet censorship in Greenland (Kingdom of Denmark)" ], [ "References", "* " ], [ "External links", " TELE Greenland* KNR, Greenlandic Broadcasting Corporation.", "* Greenland Television* STTK" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Greenland" ], [ "Introduction", "Nuuk AirportThe port of UummannaqNuup Bussii A/S in downtown NuukKangerlussuaq AirportThe '''transportation system in Greenland''' is very unusual in that Greenland has no railways, no inland waterways, and virtually no roads between towns.", "Historically the major means of transportation has been by boat around the coast in summer and by dog sled in winter, particularly in the north and east.", "Nowadays air travel, by helicopter or other aircraft, is the main way of travel." ], [ "Air transport", "While Germany occupied Denmark during World War II, the United States controlled Greenland and built bases and airports.", "The airports were codenamed as Bluie West One through to Bluie West Eight on the west of the island and Bluie East One to Bluie East Four on the eastern side (some had only sea plane access, some no air access).", "The largest of those airports, Bluie West Eight, now renamed Kangerlussuaq Airport, remains the international hub for travel to Greenland, as it is the only airport that has a long enough runway to service large jets (not counting Thule Airbase).", "American authorities at one time entertained the idea of building a road from Kangerlussuaq to the second-largest airport, in Narsarsuaq, several hundred kilometres to the south.", "The idea was abandoned after feasibility studies failed to prove it was possible.", "These airbases are generally not located near settlements, so travellers need an air transfer by helicopter (small plane from Kangerlussuaq) to reach settlements.", "All civil aviation matters are handled by the Civil Aviation Administration Denmark or the Greenland Airport Authority.Greenland now has 18 airstrips, 14 of which are paved.", "Some are based on US airbases, but most are built by the Greenlandic government.", "All domestic flights are operated by Air Greenland.", "The name was anglicized in 2002 from the Danish Grønlandsfly (Greenlandair in English).", "International flights are limited to four weekly flights from Copenhagen to Kangerlussuaq, and to Reykjavík, Iceland.Icelandair flies from Reykjavík to Narsarsuaq.", "It offers also \"day trips to the wilderness\" from Reykjavík to Kulusuk on the east coast.", "Icelandair flies to Ittoqqortoormiit over Kulusuk once or twice a week throughout the year.", "Flights from Reykjavik are operated throughout the year.", "Also, year-round flights from Reykjavik to Ilulissat will be offered after April 2011.From 2012 Air Greenland operates a route from Iqaluit in Canada to Nuuk during summer.Air cargo is very important for Greenland.", "Most perishable foodstuff is imported from Denmark by air.", "It uses the Air Greenland Copenhagen–Kangerlussuaq passenger aircraft, and this is a reason why such a large aircraft is used.", "The air containers are then transported to the other airports by small planes that can use the small runways.", "Some air cargo is transported by boat from Kangerlussuaq, but not in the winter when the Kangerlussuaq Fjord freezes (one of the reasons to build the Sisimiut–Kangerlussuaq road).A state-owned firm called Kalaallit Airports is since 2017 tasked with operating and updating the airports in Nuuk and Ilulissat.", "This process has been contentious as Chinese firms bid for the contract, with one Danish PM stating \"We don't want a communist dictatorship in our backyard.\"" ], [ "Roads", "There are no roads between settlements, only within them and around them.There are 150 km (90 mi) of roads in the whole country; 60 km (40 mi) of the roads are paved.", "The roads are primary or local roads, there are no highways in Greenland.There is a 4.5 km long asphalt road between the towns of Ivittuut and Kangilinnguit.Speed limit ranges from for local roads to on primary roads.Some farms in the south have fairly extensive very simple roads for all-terrain vehicles (not included in the above figures), used for sheep farming and hay collection.", "There are some other short simple gravel roads, such as that leading from the shore to hydropower plants.A road between Sisimiut and Kangerlussuaq was discussed for several years.", "In 2015 the cost of it (500 million Danish krone) caused it to be replanned as a much less costly one-lane road for off-road vehicles.", "It was built in 2021 and 2022, at a cost of 25 million DKK (€3).", "This road or wheel-track is of low quality and not included in the length of the road network." ], [ "Water transport", "There are ports at Ilulissat, Kangerlussuaq (also known by its Danish name Søndre Strømfjord), Qaqortoq, Narsaq, Nuuk (Godthåb), Aasiaat and Sisimiut.", "Several other towns have also small ports.", "The main users of the harbors are Royal Arctic Line and Arctic Umiaq Line.", "Royal Arctic Line organises freight ships, for example container ships, with regular sailings from Denmark.", "Arctic Umiaq Line runs a passenger ship which also carries freight.", "The distance from Denmark to Nuuk by ship is 3,800 kilometres (2,400 mi/2,000 nmi/4 days at 20 knots), so more perishable foodstuff is imported by air.There are no car ferries in or to Greenland.", "It is possible to transport cars as container freight with Royal Arctic Line (both domestic and from Denmark).", "Passengers must travel by another method.", "This is done mostly when moving or buying a car, not normally when travelling, as there is no large road network anywhere.Many of the tourists to Greenland arrive by cruise ship." ], [ "Railways", "Historically, special-purpose narrow gauge railways have operated, for purposes such as fish and mining.", "* The Qoornoq X-press in the village of Qoornoq in the Nuuk fjord, .", "The Qoornoq X-press was used for transporting fish from the harbour to scaffolds for drying.", "The railway cars were only flatbed wagon cars with no locomotives to move them.", "Built in 1955, the railway was abandoned shortly before the village around 1971.", "* Malmbjerg* Mestersvig – likely for the local mines that existed in the 1950s and 1960s* Julianehaab* Ivigtut – likely for the local mine that once operated in the community* Disko Island near Qutdligssat* Maamorilik" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Military of Greenland" ], [ "Introduction", "Danish flag on a map of GreenlandThe defence of Greenland is the responsibility of the Kingdom of Denmark; the government of Greenland does not have control of '''Greenland's military''' or foreign affairs.", "In the history of Greenland there have been many changes of presence regarding who is in charge of the security of Greenlandic people and its land.The most important part of Greenland's defensive territory remains the 12 maritime zones.", "In the 21st century there has been a significant increase in challenges." ], [ "History", "Danish military history on Greenland has its origins in the early 18th century.", "In 1721 Hans Egede, a Danish-Norwegian missionary first colonised the region.", "Soldiers were stationed on Greenland to protect the Danish colony from looting, especially against foreign whalers.", "Denmark and Norway split a century later in 1814, leaving Greenland under complete Danish rule.In 1932, the Navy Flyvevæsen (Naval Air Force) made its first appearance.", "The Air Force contributed aerial photography to the Geodætisk Institute, a cartographic institute under the Ministry of Defence.", "All military work was carried out during the summer months, from May to September, after which the ships were transferred to Iceland or Denmark during the winter months.The Danish Navy was actively involved in exploring Greenland through expeditions until the beginning of the Second World War.", "The armed forces were also responsible for surveying and cartography.", "Greenland took its first step towards independence in 1953 when representation in the Danish Parliament was gained.", "''\"The Folketing shall consist of one assembly of not more than one hundred and seventy-nine Members of whom two Members shall be elected in the Faroe Islands and two Members in Greenland.''\"" ], [ "Second World War", "Following the Nazi German occupation of Denmark (operation Weserübung) on 9 April 1940, Denmark signed an agreement with the United States to keep control of the Greenlandic territory in allied hands.", "The Thulesag 1 agreement, signed on 9 April 1941, gave the US military authority over the defence of Greenland.", "The US-built airfields, harbors, anti-aircraft fortifications, radio, and meteorological sites.", "The allies feared that Germany could use Greenland as a base of operations to conduct offensive attacks on Washington, D.C. via bombing and submarine attacks.", "The United States' entry into the war meant that Greenland would become much more valuable to the Allied war efforts as airfields and harbors in Greenland were used for important transatlantic links.", "Under the Thulesag 1 agreement these facilities fell entirely under US jurisdiction, while Danish sovereignty over Greenland was maintained.The treaty was to remain in force until \"existing threats to the peace and security of the American continent no longer exist\" (Article 10).", "This prompted the United States to build a number of military bases during the Second World War, including Thule Air Base, airfields, and a military hospital.", "The agreement was finally ratified by the Danish Parliament after the end of the war on 16 May 1945.By the end of World War II, the U.S. had built or expanded 17 facilities, including air bases including Narsarsuaq and Kangerlussuaq.As a countermeasure against the Germans, a permanent patrol service with sledge dogs was established with the Sirius Patrol, which still exists today.", "The first offensive against the Germans took place on 13 May 1943, when the German weather patrol was encountered by members of the Sledge Patrol; a Danish corporal was killed during the battle.", "A second battle took place on 22 April 1944.The Sledge Patrol of Greenland was defunct after the end of the war.", "In 1953, a new dog unit was named as Sirius Patrol, after Sirius, the bright \"dog-star\" in the Canis Major constellation.", "Prince Frederik of Denmark took part in a Sirius expedition from 11 February to 31 May 2000." ], [ "Postwar period", "Following the Second World War, the sovereignty and defence of Greenland once again returned to Denmark.", "The United States continued to be interested in a permanent military presence due to the increasing tensions of the Cold War; however, Greenland was expected to remain under sole Danish control by the public.", "A US proposal to buy Greenland was rejected by the Danish government, with regard to the Soviet Union." ], [ "Cold War", "Since overseas territories, such as Greenland, could hardly be protected by a Scandinavian Defence Alliance, Denmark's integration into NATO was likely to happen.", "In 1949, new opportunities for both countries opened up as the Danish membership into the military alliance was in place.", "The USA hoped to solve the question of a navy presence through multilateral negotiations.", "However, Denmark saw itself in a position to circumvent agreements with the American superpower, which was based solely on bilateral negotiations, and to guarantee Greenland's sovereignty for the future.", "On 27 April 1951, Thulesag 2 was signed.", "This meant that the United States would assist Denmark in necessary defence of Greenland within the framework of the North Atlantic Treaty.", "For this purpose, more American military bases were to be established.", "Article 5, paragraph 3, guaranteed the US and its troops unrestricted freedom of operation between these bases, on land, air, and sea, throughout the entire national territory.", "Article 6 obliged the US \"to show due respect for all regulations and customs affecting the population and the administration of Greenland\".", "The military airbase in Narsarsuaq was developed into a joint base of Danish and American troops.At the end of 1953, the secret of a weather station from the army base in Kangerlussuaq came to light.", "The station had been built by US forces without the knowledge of the Danish government.Nevertheless, on 15 March 1954, the expansion of Thule Air Base was set into motion.", "This included the installation of a new generation air defense system that was equipped with nuclear weapons.", "The expansion also involved the forced resettlement of local Inuit inhabitants." ], [ "Changes from 2008 / 2009", "A referendum on the law on self-government was held in Greenland on 25 November 2008.A large majority of 75.5% voted in favour of extended self-government.", "The law is to be seen as a step towards independence from Denmark.", "On 21 June 2009, an extended agreement on autonomy came into force.", "Only foreign and defence policy remained in Danish responsibility.", "The Greenlandic government took over responsibilities for the police, justice, and coastal protection.", "Those that affect Navy provision include:* Greenland's government will be given significant autonomy in determining foreign affairs.", "* Many aspects of foreign affairs policy will no longer be linked to Danish policy.", "* Control of the militarised Greenlandic Coast Guard will be transferred to the Government of Greenland.", "* The Greenlandic government will take control of policing, including the police motor launches currently trained to assist the military in the Island Command Greenland." ], [ "Recent challenges", "There are many new challenges that Greenland has to face today.", "New sea routes lead past Greenland that require special protection.", "Ice cap melting may increase the availability of raw materials that must be protected.", "The likelihood of military conflict in Greenland is unlikely; however, a relevant defence in the Arctic region is at the core of Danish defence priorities.", "The country's naval presence and activities are based on close relationships with the local populations and authorities of both Greenland and the Faroe Islands.", "It is in no doubt important to the Danish armed forces' future presence in the Arctic to continue to strengthen and develop this relationship.", "The consequences of climate change will likely not only bring better maritime accessibility but also an increased interest in the extraction of natural resources, as well as intensified scientific and commercial activity.", "There is also a significant increase in military activity in the region.", "Accordingly, the geopolitical importance of the Arctic will become increasingly significant in the years to come.Military efforts in the Arctic are strengthened by: * The Arctic Agreement of December 2016, which augments surveillance, command, control, communication, and operational efforts in the Arctic Region, is continued.", "New operational initiatives can be re-prioritised within the framework of the Agreement.", "An annually allocated sum of 120 million DKK for initiatives, with a total sum of 720 million DKK after six years.", "Furthermore, a total of 235 million DKK will be allocated through the Defence Agreement to the following additional initiatives.", "* Equipment to prevent pollution in the waters around Greenland.", "* An increased focus on different education methods.", "The important issues are now civil preparedness and contingency education, as well as other projects such as the Greenland Guard.", "* Initial conscription enrolment assessments to be carried out in Greenland for volunteers who want to sign up for national service.", "* Subsidised travel schemes for Greenlandic conscripts to travel home.", "* More apprentice positions for secondary school students to be established in connection to Armed Forces units.", "* A contribution to the mapping of the ice chart north of 62°N and to the new land mapping of Greenland.", "* The Ministry of Defence will finance the operational costs of the radio room at the maritime emergency radio in Greenland.New naval ships solve environmental protection and pollution control tasks.", "The Parties note that the tender for new pollution control ships will be reconsidered in order to further examine a solution where new military vessels, in addition to their operational military tasks, when necessary, can also solve environmental protection and pollution control tasks.", "Denmark does not have a specific coast guard entity, as the Royal Danish Navy (Søværnet) is responsible for providing the services that would normally fall to a coast guard.", "The Navy is thus used by various agencies to carry out search and rescue, navigation assistance, environmental protection, and fisheries inspections, in addition to sovereignty and maritime surveillance.", "Today, the Danish Navy is divided into the First and Second Squadrons.", "While the Second Squadron is focused on foreign operations, the first squadron has responsibility for internal affairs, which includes the northern Atlantic (Greenland) and the North Sea (Faroe Islands).", "Responsibility for coast guard tasks, therefore, falls under the first squadron headquarters in Frederikshavn, as well as the newly established Joint Arctic Command in Nuuk, Greenland (Danish Ministry of Defence 2011).", "The Joint Arctic Command is responsible for overseeing all maritime activity in the waters around Greenland and the Faroe Islands so that the Danish Navy and the local authorities are in close coordination in crisis situations in the High North." ], [ "Tasked forces", "The 1st Squadron of the Royal Danish Navy is primarily focused on national operations in and around the Faroe Islands and Greenland.", "As of 2023, the 1st Squadron is composed of: * Four s; * Three s; and,* The royal yacht (having a secondary surveillance and sea-rescue role)After 2025 the ''Thetis''-class vessels are to be replaced by the planned MPV80-class vessels, built by Odense Maritime Technology and SH Defence.", "The new vessels will incorporate a modular concept enabling packages of different systems (for minehunting or minelaying for example) to be fitted to individual ships as may be required.The Joint Arctic Command of the Danish Armed Forces and the Greenland police are jointly responsible for search and rescue in Greenland.", "In addition to naval units, Greenland's Joint Rescue Coordination Centre (JRCC) is able to call on C-130J and Challenger 604 aircraft of the Royal Danish Air Force if available.", "The C-130J is specifically tasked with the re-supply of Danish forces in Greenland.", "The Challenger 604 is also tasked with assisting in surveillance missions in the Arctic area and since 2021 one aircraft has been permanently stationed in Kangerlussuaq." ], [ "See also", "* Joint Arctic Command* Military of Denmark" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Archer, Clive.", "\"Greenland, US bases and missile defence: new two-level negotiations?", "* NASA, T. Greicius; \"Greenland's Rapid Melt Will Mean More Flooding\"; (2019)* O'connor Tom, Newsweek; \"Russia says Donald Trump has the right to try to buy Greenland\" (2019)* Policy and Politics.", "Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2020.439-452* Pompeo, Michael R. \"Looking North: Sharpening America's Arctic Focus.\"", "US Department of State 6 (2019)* Rahbek-Clemmensen, Jon.", "\"The Arctic turn: How did the High North become a foreign and security policy priority for Denmark?\"", "Greenland and the International Politics of a Changing* Rottem Svein Vigeland.", "\"The Arctic Council: Between environmental protection and geopolitics.\"", "The Arctic Council.", "Palgrave Pivot, Singapore, 2020.91-95* Slim Allagui, PHYSORG, \"Greenland becomes new promised land for oil firms\"; (2011)* Sørensen, Camilla Tenna Nørup, and Mikkel Runge Olesen.", "\"Stormagtsspillet i Arktis udfordrer småstaterne.", "Erfaringer fra Finland, Norge og Island.\"", "(2019)* The Guardian.", "\"Independent Greenland 'could not afford' to sign up to Paris climate deal\" (2016)* Vidal, John.", "\"Time to listen to the ice scientists about the arctic death spiral.\"", "The Guardian 18 (2016)* Wang Nils, and Damien Degeorges.", "\"Greenland and the New Arctic: Political and security implications of a statebuilding project.\"", "(2014)* Wiseman, Matthew S. \"The Future of the Arctic Council.\"", "The Palgrave Handbook of Arctic" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Greenland" ], [ "Introduction", "Being part of the Kingdom of Denmark, the '''foreign relations of Greenland''' are handled in cooperation with the Danish government and the Government of Greenland.Unlike Denmark, Greenland is no longer part of the European Union.", "The country changed its status to an OCT associated to the EU, a dependent territory that has a special relationship with a member state of the EU.", "However, Greenland remains a full member of the Council of Europe and NATO." ], [ "General aspects of diplomatic relations", "With the Kingdom of Denmark having the responsibility for Greenland's international affairs, other countries often do not have direct diplomatic representation in Greenland—their embassies or consulates in Denmark are responsible for their relations with Greenland and their citizens in Greenland.", "Greenland is represented internationally by both the Greenland Representations and the embassies and consulates of Denmark.", "Further Greenland participates in the parliamentary Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers, and organisations as the West Nordic Council and the EU-based Overseas Countries and Territories Association, the latter being former colonies of the EU (dependent countries/territories).", "The United States reopened its consulate in Nuuk, closed in 1953, in June 2020.=== Consulates General ===Nuuk, Greenland * (Consulate General)** (Consulate General)=== Honorary Consuls ===Nuuk, Greenland * (Honorary Consul) (Honorary Consul) (Honorary Consul) (Honorary Consul) (Honorary Consul) (Honorary Consul) (Honorary Consul) (Honorary Consul) (Honorary Consul) (Honorary Consul) (Honorary Consul)** (Honorary Consul)Tasiilaq, Greenland* (Honorary Consul)Qaqortoq, Greenland* (Honorary Consul)" ], [ "Diplomatic representations", "Greenland has representative offices in several countries and otherwise is represented by Embassies of Denmark worldwide.", "The Self-Government Act of 2009 allows the Government of Greenland to open diplomatic offices, mainly within areas of full jurisdiction of Greenland, this being foreign trade, industry, fisheries, education, science, mining etc.", "Further greenlandic diplomates, representing the Government of Greenland, participates in areas of shared responsibilities between Denmark and Greenland, this mainly being observed in the defence cooperation between the Kingdom of Denmark and the United States.", "=== Current representations ===Representative Office of Greenland in Copenhagen* Brussels (Representative Office)Beijing (Representative Office) Copenhagen (Representative Office)* Reykjavík (Representative Office)* Washington, D.C. (Representative Office)=== Planned representations ===* New York City (Representative Office)" ], [ "Disputes – ''international''", "* Qaanaaq (formerly Thule) is a sensitive area, due to the forced removal of the local population when establishing the base, handling of removal, compensation of the locals, later incidents aggravated the case." ], [ "See also", "* Greenland – European Union relations* Proposals for the United States to purchase Greenland* List of diplomatic missions in Greenland* Politics of Greenland" ], [ "External links", "* Official website of the Department of Foreign Affairs of Greenland – Naalakkersuisut" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Grenada" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of Grenada''' in the Caribbean, part of the Lesser Antilles group of islands, covers a period from the earliest human settlements to the establishment of the contemporary nationstate of Grenada.", "First settled by indigenous peoples, Grenada by the time of European contact was inhabited by the Caribs.", "French colonists killed most of the Caribs on the island and established plantations on the island, eventually importing African slaves to work on the sugar plantations.Control of the island was disputed by Great Britain and France in the 18th century, with the British ultimately prevailing.", "In 1795, Fédon's Rebellion, inspired by the Haitian Revolution, very nearly succeeded, taking significant military intervention to quell.", "Slavery was abolished in 1833, and in 1885, the island's capital, St. George's, became the capital of the British Windward Islands.Grenada achieved independence from Britain in 1974.Following a coup by the Marxist New Jewel Movement in 1979, the island was invaded by United States troops and the government overthrown.", "The island's major crop, nutmeg, was significantly damaged by Hurricane Ivan in 2004." ], [ "Early history", "Spanish ships and Carib boats in Granada, in a report by Nicolás de Cardona, 1632.Approximately 2 million years ago, Grenada was formed by volcanic activity, which then resulted in land formation.The earliest potential evidence for human presence on Grenada comes from the increase of charcoal particulates and the decline of arboreal pollen from the original climax forests, around 3760–3525 BC, during the Archaic Age.", "This evidence remains controversial, as it could be natural (for example, lightning fires, volcanic eruptions, etc.).", "Several shell fragments from archaeological sites have been dated 1700–1380 BC, but are from mixed, insecure contexts.", "More secure are the shell middens at Point Salines, dated between 765 and 535 BC.", "None of these dates are associated with definitively human artifacts, however.", "The earliest human-made artifacts that have been scientifically dated are from Early Ceramic Age settlements at Beausejour (260–410 AD) and Pearls (370–645 AD).", "Only one other known site (Grand Marquis) may have been occupied during this time as well.Beginning around AD 750, the Amerindian population began to rise, probably as a result of continued migration from the South American mainland.", "Most of the 87 pre-Columbian sites identified in Grenada have a component during this period (AD 750–1200), marking the height Grenada's indigenous population.", "This period also represents major cultural and environmental changes throughout the Caribbean.", "Several waves of groups arrived in prehistory, often associated with Arawakan or Cariban languages, but linguistic reconstruction has shown the Cariban dialect to be fragmentary (as a trade language), the primary language family being Arawakan.Christopher Columbus reportedly sighted the island on his third voyage in 1498, but he did not land and the name he gave (\"La Concepcion\") was never used.", "By the 1520s, the island was known as \"La Granada\", after the recently conquered city in Granada (and thus the Grenadines were \"Los Granadillos\"—or \"little Granadas\").", "By the beginning of the 18th century, the name \"la Grenade\" in French was in common use, eventually Anglicized to \"Grenada\".Partly because of indigenous resistance, Grenada (and much of the Windwards) remained uncolonized for nearly 150 years after Columbus passed by.", "When the French finally settled Grenada in 1649 (see below), there were at least two, separate indigenous groups: \"Caraibe\" (Caribs) in the north and \"Galibis\" in the south-east.", "Evidence suggests the \"Galibis\" were more recent arrivals from the mainland (arriving around AD 1250), whereas the group the French called \"Caraibe\" were living in villages that had been (in some cases) continuously occupied for over millennium, per archaeological evidence.", "That is, the indigenous names were somewhat reversed in Grenada: the people the French called \"Caribs\" were likely descendants of the earliest peoples on Grenada, whereas the Galibis appear to have been more recent arrivals from the mainland (and thus, closer to the Carib stereotype)." ], [ "17th century", "=== English attempted settlement ===In April 1609 three English ships with 208 colonists landed in what was possibly the harbor of Saint Georges or somewhere nearby.", "After some months the three ships left to engage in illicit trade in Trinidad.", "On hearing that the colony was in distress they returned to Grenada in September.", "The survivors were taken on board and reached England in December.", "The original sources are poor and we do know what caused the colony to fail or how many settlers died.", "Suggestions are tropical diseases, native hostility, poor planning, inexperienced colonists, spoiled food and lack of time to harvest a food crop.", "This was two years after the settlement of Jamestown and the backers of both colonies seem to have been in contact.=== French settlement and conquest ===On 17 March 1649, a French expedition of 203 men from Martinique, led by Jacques Dyel du Parquet who had been the Governor of Martinique on behalf of the Compagnie des Iles de l'Amerique (Company of the Isles of America) since 1637, landed at St. Georges Harbour and constructed a fortified settlement, which they named Fort Annunciation.", "A treaty was swiftly agreed between du Parquet and the indigenous Chief Kairouane to peacefully partition the island between the two communities.", "Du Parquet returned to Martinique leaving his cousin Jean Le Comte as Governor of Grenada.", "Conflict broke out between the French and the indigenous islanders in November 1649 and fighting lasted for five years until 1654, when the last opposition to the French on Grenada was crushed.", "Rather than surrender, Kairouane and his followers chose to throw themselves off a cliff, a fact celebrated in the poetry of Jan Carew.", "The island continued for some time after to suffer raids by war canoe parties from St. Vincent, whose inhabitants had aided the local Grenadian islanders in their struggle and continued to oppose the French.=== French administration ===On 27 September 1650, du Parquet bought Grenada, Martinique, and St. Lucia from the Compagnie des Iles de l'Amerique, which was dissolved, for the equivalent of £1160.In 1657, du Parquet sold Grenada to Jean de Faudoas, Comte de Sérillac for the equivalent of £1890.In 1664, King Louis XIV bought out the independent island owners and established the French West India Company.", "In 1674 the French West India Company was dissolved.", "Proprietary rule ended in Grenada, which became a French colony as a dependency of Martinique.In 1675, Dutch privateers captured Grenada, but a French man-of-war arrived unexpectedly and recaptured the island." ], [ "18th century", "=== French colony ===In 1700, Grenada had a population of 257 whites, 53 coloureds, and 525 slaves.", "There were three sugar estates, 52 indigo plantations, 64 horses, and 569 head of cattle.", "Between 1705 and 1710 the French built Fort Royal at St. George's which is now known as Fort George.", "The collapse of the sugar estates and the introduction of cocoa and coffee in 1714 encouraged the development of smaller land holdings, and the island developed a land-owning yeoman farmer class.", "In 1738, the first hospital was constructed.=== British colony ===Grenada was captured by the British during the Seven Years' War on 4 March 1762 by Commodore Swanton without a shot being fired.", "Grenada was formally ceded to Britain by the Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1763.In 1766, the island was rocked by a severe earthquake.", "In 1767, a slave uprising was put down.", "In 1771 and again in 1775, the town of St. George, which was constructed solely of wood, was burnt to the ground – after which it was sensibly rebuilt using stone and brick.", "Under British administration many French properties were bought out by Britons and restrictions were placed on the Catholic church.", "This caused trouble since most people continued to speak French.", "France recaptured Grenada between 2–4 July 1779 during the American War of Independence, after Comte d'Estaing stormed Hospital Hill.", "A British relief force was defeated in the naval Battle of Grenada on 6 July 1779.However, the island was restored to Britain with the Treaty of Versailles four years later on 3 September 1783.In 1784 the first newspaper, the ''Grenada Chronicle'', began publication.=== Fédon's Rebellion ===Julien Fédon, a mixed-race owner of the Belvedere estate in the St. John Parish, launched a rebellion against British rule on the night of 2 March 1795, with coordinated attacks on the towns of La Baye and Gouyave.", "Fédon was clearly influenced by the ideas emerging from the French Revolution and was initially supported by French Revolutionary advisors.", "Between March 1795 and June 1796, Fédon and his troops controlled all of Grenada except the parish of St George, the seat of government.", "During those insurgent months, thousands of enslaved joined the revolutionary forces, with some 7,000 perishing in the final assault against the mountain stronghold in June 1796, today known as Fedon's Camp.", "In the aftermath, hundreds of \"brigands\" were later pursued and executed publicly, but Fédon himself was never caught and his fate remains unknown." ], [ "19th century", "=== Early 19th century ===In 1833, Grenada became part of the British Windward Islands Administration and remained so until 1958.British operated slavery was abolished in 1834, but the last enslaved African descendants were eventually freed in 1838.Nutmeg was introduced in 1843, when a merchant ship called in on its way to England from the East Indies.=== Late 19th century ===In 1857, the first East Indian immigrants arrived.", "In 1871 Grenada was connected to the telegraph.", "In 1872 the first secondary school was built.", "On 3 December 1877 the pure Crown colony model replaced Grenada's old representative system of government.", "On 3 December 1882, the largest wooden jetty ever built in Grenada was opened in Gouyave.", "In 1885, after Barbados left the British Windward Islands, the capital of the colonial confederation was moved from Bridgetown to St. George on Grenada.", "From 1889 to 1894 the 340 foot Sendall Tunnel was built for horse carriages." ], [ "Last colonial years: 1900–1974", "=== Early 20th century ===The 1901 census showed that the population of the colony was 63,438.In 1917, T.A.", "Marryshow founded the Representative Government Association (RGA) to agitate for a new and participative constitutional dispensation for the Grenadian people.", "Partly as a result of Marryshow's lobbying the Wood Commission of 1921–1922 concluded that Grenada was ready for constitutional reform in the form of a 'modified' Crown Colony government.", "This modification granted Grenadians from 1925 the right to elect 5 of the 15 members of the Legislative Council, on a restricted property franchise enabling the wealthiest 4 per cent of Grenadian adults to vote.", "In 1928 electricity was installed in St. George's.", "In 1943 Pearls Airport was opened.", "On 5 August 1944, the ''Island Queen'' schooner disappeared with the loss of all 56 passengers and 11 crew.=== Towards independence: 1950–1974 ===In 1950, Grenada had its constitution amended to increase the number of elected seats on the Legislative Council from 5 to 8, to be elected by full adult franchise at the 1951 election.", "In 1950 Eric Gairy founded the Grenada United Labour Party, initially as a trade union, which led the 1951 general strike for better working conditions.", "This sparked great unrest – so many buildings were set ablaze that the disturbances became known as the \"red sky\" days – and the British authorities had to call in military reinforcements to help regain control of the situation.", "On 10 October 1951, Grenada held its first general elections on the basis of universal adult suffrage.", "United Labour won six of the eight elected seats on the Legislative Council in both the 1951 and 1954 elections.", "However, the Legislative Council had few powers at this time, with government remaining fully in the hands of the colonial authorities.On 22 September 1955, Hurricane Janet hit Grenada, killing 500 people and destroying 75 per cent of the nutmeg trees.", "A new political party, the Grenada National Party led by Herbert Blaize, contested the 1957 general election and with the cooperation of elected independent members took control of the Legislative Council from the Grenada United Labour Party.", "In 1958, the Windward Islands Administration was dissolved, and Grenada joined the Federation of the West Indies.In 1960, another constitutional evolution established the post of Chief Minister, making the leader of the majority party in the Legislative Council, which at that time was Herbert Blaize, effective head of government.", "In March 1961, the Grenada United Labour Party won the general election and George E. D. Clyne became chief minister until Eric Gairy was elected in a by-election and took the role in August 1961.Also in 1961 the cruise ship the Bianca C caught fire in the St Georges harbour.", "All on board were rescued except for the engineer who was fatally burnt.", "In April 1962 Grenada's Administrator, the Queen's representative on the island, James Lloyd, suspended the constitution, dissolved the Legislative Council, and removed Gairy as Chief Minister, following allegations concerning the Gairy's financial impropriety.", "At the 1962 general election, the Grenada National Party won a majority and Herbert Blaize became Chief Minister for the second time.After the Federation of the West Indies collapsed in 1962, the British government tried to form a small federation out of its remaining dependencies in the Eastern Caribbean.", "Following the failure of this second effort, the British and the islanders developed the concept of \"associated statehood\".", "Under the West Indies Act on 3 March 1967 (also known as the Associated Statehood Act) Grenada was granted full autonomy over its internal affairs.", "Herbert Blaize was the first Premier of the Associated State of Grenada from March to August 1967.Eric Gairy served as premier from August 1967 until February 1974, as the Grenada United Labour Party won majorities in both the 1967 and 1972 general elections." ], [ "Independence, revolution and US invasion: 1974–1983", "Prime Minister, Eric Gairy=== Independence ===On 7 February 1974, Grenada became a fully independent state.", "Grenada continued to practise a modified Westminster parliamentary system based on the British model with a governor general appointed by and representing the British monarch (head of state) and a prime minister who is both leader of the majority party and the head of government.", "Eric Gairy was independent Grenada's first prime minister serving from 1974 until his overthrow in 1979.Gairy won re-election in Grenada's first general election as an independent state in 1976; however, the opposition New Jewel Movement refused to recognize the result, claiming the poll was fraudulent, and so began working towards the overthrow of the Gairy regime by revolutionary means.", "In 1976 St. George's University was established.=== The 1979 coup and revolutionary government ===Maurice Bishop visiting Germany, 1982.On March 13, 1979, the New Jewel Movement launched an armed revolution that removed Gairy, suspended the constitution, and established a People's Revolutionary Government (PRG), headed by Maurice Bishop who declared himself prime minister.", "His Marxist-Leninist government established close ties with Cuba, Nicaragua, and other communist bloc countries.", "All political parties except for the New Jewel Movement were banned and no elections were held during the four years of PRG rule.=== The 1983 coups ===On 14 October 1983, a power struggle within Bishop's ruling party ended with his house arrest.", "His erstwhile friend and rival, Deputy Prime Minister, Bernard Coard, briefly became Head of Government.", "This coup precipitated demonstrations in various parts of the island which eventually led to Bishop being freed from arrest by an impassioned crowd of his loyal supporters on 19 October 1983.Bishop was soon recaptured by Grenadian soldiers loyal to the Coard faction and executed along with seven others, including three members of the cabinet.That same day the Grenadian military under Gen. Hudson Austin took power in a second coup and formed a military government to run the country.", "A four-day total curfew was declared under which any civilian outside their home was subject to summary execution.=== Invasion ===US Army Rangers parachute into Grenada during Operation Urgent FuryA U.S.–Caribbean force invaded Grenada on 25 October 1983, in an action called Operation Urgent Fury, and swiftly defeated the Grenadian forces and their Cuban allies.", "During the fighting 45 Grenadians, 25 Cubans, and 19 Americans were killed.", "This action was taken in response to an appeal obtained from the governor general and to a request for assistance from the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States, without consulting the island's head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, Commonwealth institutions or other usual diplomatic channels (as had been done in Anguilla).", "Furthermore, United States government military strategists feared that Soviet use of the island would enable the Soviet Union to project tactical power over the entire Caribbean region.", "U.S. citizens were evacuated, and constitutional government was resumed.", "The United States gave $48.4 million in economic assistance to Grenada in 1984.In 1986, members of the PRG and the PRA were criminally tried for civilian killings associated with the October 19 coup.", "Fourteen, including Coard and his wife, Phyllis, were sentenced to death for actions related to the murder of 11 people, including Maurice Bishop.", "Three other defendants, all PRA soldiers, were convicted of the lesser charge of manslaughter and sentenced to 30 or more years.", "The convicted prisoners came to be known as the Grenada 17, and the subject of an ongoing international campaign for their release.", "In 1991, all the murder sentences were commuted to life imprisonment.", "In October 2003 Amnesty International issued a report which stated that their trial had been \"gross violation of international standards governing the fairness of trials.\"", "In 2009, the last seven prisoners were released after serving 26 years." ], [ "Democracy restored: 1983 to present day", "=== Post invasion politics ===When US troops withdrew from Grenada in December 1983, Nicholas Braithwaite was appointed Prime Minister of an interim administration by the Governor General Sir Paul Scoon until elections could be organized.On 28 October 1984, the new Point Salines International Airport was opened, which enabled Grenada to receive large commercial jets for the first time.The first democratic elections since 1976 were held in December 1984 and were won by the Grenada National Party under Herbert Blaize who won 14 out of 15 seats in elections and served as prime minister until his death in December 1989.The NNP continued in power until 1989 but with a reduced majority.", "Five NNP parliamentary members, including two cabinet ministers, left the party in 1986–87 and formed the National Democratic Congress (NDC) which became the official opposition.", "In August 1989, Prime Minister Blaize broke with the GNP to form another new party, The National Party (TNP), from the ranks of the NNP.", "This split in the NNP resulted in the formation of a minority government until constitutionally scheduled elections in March 1990.Prime Minister Blaize died in December 1989 and was succeeded as prime minister by Ben Jones until after the 1990 elections.The National Democratic Congress emerged from the 1990 elections as the strongest party, winning 7 of the fifteen available seats.", "Nicholas Brathwaite added 2 TNP members and 1 member of the Grenada United Labor Party (GULP) to create a 10-seat majority coalition.", "The governor general appointed him to be prime minister for a second time.", "Braithwaite resigned in Feb 1995 and was succeeded as prime minister by George Brizan who served until the Jun 1995 election.In parliamentary elections on 20 June 1995, the NNP won 8 of the 15 seats and formed a government headed by Keith Mitchell.", "The NNP maintained and affirmed its hold on power when it took all 15 parliamentary seats in the January 1999 elections.", "Mitchell went on to win the 2003 elections with a reduced majority of eight of the 15 seats, and served as prime minister for a record 13 years until his defeat in 2008.The 2001 census showed that the population of Grenada was 100,895.The 2008 election was won by the National Democratic Congress under Tillman Thomas with 11 of the 15 seats.In 2009, Point Salines International Airport was renamed Maurice Bishop International Airport in tribute to the former prime minister.==== Since 2013 ====In February 2013, the governing National Democratic Congress (NDC) lost the election.", "The opposition New National Party (NNP) won all 15 seats in the general election.", "Keith Mitchell, leader of NNP, who had served three terms as prime minister between 1995 and 2008, returned to power.In December 2014, Grenada joined Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America (ALBA) as a full member.", "Prime minister Mitchell said that the membership was a natural extension of the co-operation Grenada have had over the years with both Cuba and Venezuela.Mitchell has led NNP to win all 15 seats in the House of Representatives on 3 separate occasions.", "In November 2021, Prime Minister Keith Mitchell said that the upcoming general elections which are constitutionally due no later than June 2023, will be the last one for him.In June 2022, the opposition National Democratic Congress (NDC) won the snap election.", "The NDC won nine of the 15 parliamentary seats.The leader of NDC, Dickon Mitchell, became the new prime minister, meaning Keith Mitchell, Grenada's longest-serving prime minister, lost his post.=== Truth and reconciliation commission ===In 2000–02, much of the controversy of the late 1970s and early 1980s was once again brought into the public consciousness with the opening of the truth and reconciliation commission.", "The commission was chaired by a Catholic priest, Father Mark Haynes, and was tasked with uncovering injustices arising from the PRA, Bishop's regime, and before.", "It held a number of hearings around the country.", "The commission was formed because of a school project.", "Brother Robert Fanovich, head of Presentation Brothers' College (PBC) in St. George's tasked some of his senior students with conducting a research project into the era and specifically into the fact that Maurice Bishop's body was never discovered.", "Their project attracted a great deal of attention, including from the ''Miami Herald'' and the final report was published in a book written by the boys called ''Big Sky, Little Bullet''.", "It also uncovered that there was still a lot of resentment in Grenadian society resulting from the era, and a feeling that there were many injustices still unaddressed.", "The commission began shortly after the boys concluded their project.=== Hurricane Ivan ===On 7 September 2004, Grenada was hit directly by category four Hurricane Ivan.", "The hurricane destroyed about 85 per cent of the structures on the island, including the prison and the prime minister's residence, killed thirty-nine people, and destroyed most of the nutmeg crop, Grenada's economic mainstay.", "Grenada's economy was set back several years by Hurricane Ivan's impact.", "Hurricane Emily ravaged the island's north end in June 2005." ], [ "See also", "British colonization of the AmericasFrench colonization of the AmericasHistory of North AmericaHistory of the AmericasHistory of the British West IndiesHistory of the CaribbeanList of governors of the Windward IslandsList of heads of government of GrenadaPolitics of GrenadaSpanish colonization of the AmericasWest Indies Federation" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " Grenade, Wendy C.", "(ed.). ''", "The Grenada Revolution: Reflections and Lessons'' (University Press of Mississippi; 2015).", "320 pages; $political history of the 1970s and 1980s* Kurlansky, Mark.", "1992.", "''A Continent of Islands: Searching for the Caribbean Destiny''.", "Addison-Wesley Publishing.", ".", "Martin, John Angus, Island Caribs and French Selttlers in Grenada, 2013 link needs fix 17dec23Puri, Shalini: The Grenada Revolution in the Caribbean Present - Operation Urgent Memory Palgrave Macmillan US, 2014 ." ], [ "External links", " Background Note: Grenada* History of the Invasion of Grenada from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Grenada" ], [ "Introduction", "Grenada is an island country located between the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, north of Trinidad and Tobago.", "It is located at .", "There are no large inland bodies of water on the island, which consists entirely of the state of Grenada.", "The coastline is 121 km long.", "The island has 15 constituencies and speaks English and Grenadian Creole.", "It is volcanic in origin and its topography is mountainous.Natural resources include timber, tropical fruit and deepwater harbours.Grenada and its largely uninhabited outlying territories are the most southerly of the Windward Islands.", "The Grenadine Islands chain consists of some 600 islets; those south of the Martinique Channel belong to Grenada, while those north of the channel are part of the nation of St. Vincent and the Grenadines.", "Located about 160 kilometers north of Venezuela, at approximately 12° north latitude and 61° west longitude, Grenada and its territories occupy a small area of 433 square kilometers.", "Grenada, known as the Spice Isle because of its production of nutmeg and mace, is the largest at 310 square kilometers, or about the size of the city of Detroit.", "The island is oval shaped and framed by a jagged southern coastline; its maximum width is thirty-four kilometers, and its maximum length is nineteen kilometers.", "St. George's, the capital and the nation's most important harbour, is favorably situated near a lagoon on the southwestern coast.", "Of all the islands belonging to Grenada, only two are of consequence: Carriacou, with a population of a few thousand, and its neighbour Petit Martinique, roughly 40 kilometers northeast of Grenada and populated by some 700 inhabitants." ], [ "Terrain", "Grenada - NASA NLT Landsat 7 (Visible Colour) Satellite ImagePart of the volcanic chain in the Lesser Antilles arc, Grenada and its possessions generally vary in elevation from under 300 meters to over 600 meters above sea level.", "Grenada is more rugged and densely foliated than its outlying possessions, but other geographical conditions are more similar.", "Grenada's landmass rises from a narrow, coastal plain in a generally north–south trending axis of ridges and narrow valleys.", "Mount St. Catherine is the highest peak at 840 meters.Although many of the rocks and soils are of volcanic origin, the volcanic cones dotting Grenada are long dormant.", "The only known active volcano in the area is Kick 'em Jenny, just north between Grenada and Carriacou.", "Some of the drainage features on Grenada remain from its volcanic past.", "There are a few crater lakes, the largest of which is Grand Etang.", "The swift upper reaches of rivers, which occasionally overflow and cause flooding and landslides, generally cut deeply into the conic slopes.", "By contrast, many of the water courses in the lowlands tend to be sluggish and meandering." ], [ "Table of Islands", " NrIsland Capital Other Cities Area (km2) Population1 Calivigny Island 0.28 202 Grenadines (Southern) Hillsborough Grand Bay 37.77 8150 2.1 Carriacou Hillsborough Lauriston, Grand Bay, 34 7200 2.2 Frigate Island 0.39 0 2.3 Large Island 0.5 0 2.4 Petit Martinique North beach Piton hill, southwest beach 2.37 950 2.5 Saline Island John Family mansion 0.28 0 2.6 White Island Limekiln Bay 0.05 0 2.7 More Islands Petit Dominica Mabouya, Sandy, little Tobago 0.18 0 4 Glover Island 0.06 0 3 Grenada Island St. George's St. David's, Grenville, Sauteurs, Victoria, Gouyave,306.00 100930 5 Saint Patrick Parish Islands Sugarloaf IslandRonde Island 4.28 2 5.1 Bird Island 0.03 0 5.2 Caille Island West beach Whale bay0.70 0 5.3 Diamond Island southwest point 0.22 0 5.4 Green Island 0.14 0 5.5 Les Tantes Grand Tantes Petit Tantes0.3 0 5.6 Ronde Island South dock Corn Store Bay 2.70 0 5.7 Sandy Island west beach 0.11 0 5.8 Sugarloaf Island Southwest point mansion 0.08 2 6 OtherHog IslandHog Island 0.35 0 Grenada and the GrenadinesSt.", "George's St. David's, Grenville, Sauteurs, Gouyave, Hillsborough, 348.5109102 == Climate == The Grenadian climate is tropical, tempered by northeast trade winds.", "The abundance of water is primarily caused by the tropical, wet climate.", "Yearly precipitation, largely generated by the warm and moisture-laden northeasterly trade winds, varies from more than on the windward mountainsides to less than in the lowlands.", "The greatest monthly totals are recorded throughout Grenada from June through November, the months when tropical storms and hurricanes are most likely to occur.", "Rainfall is less pronounced from December through May, when the equatorial low-pressure system moves south.", "Similarly, the highest humidities, usually close to 80 percent, are recorded during the rainy months, and values from 68 to 78 percent are registered during the drier period.", "Temperatures averaging are constant throughout the year, however, with slightly higher readings in the lowlands.", "Nevertheless, diurnal ranges within a 24-hour period are appreciable: between during the day and between at night." ], [ "Statistics", "An enlargeable, detailed map of Grenada; Area::* Total: 348.5 km²:* Land: 344 km²; Maritime claims::* Territorial sea: :* Exclusive economic zone: and ; Land use::* Arable land: 8.82%:* Permanent crops: 20.59%:* Other: 70.59% (2012 est.", "); Irrigated land:: 2.19 km² (2003); Natural hazards:: Lies on edge of hurricane belt; hurricane season lasts from June to November; Extreme points* Northernmost point – Gun Point, Carriacou* Northernmost point (Grenada only) - Tanga Langue, Saint Patrick Parish* Easternmost point – east coast of Petite Martinique island* Easternmost point (Grenada only) - Artiste Point, Saint Andrew Parish* Southernmost point – Glover Island, Saint George Parish* Southernmost point (Grenada only) - Prickly Point, Saint George Parish* Westernmost point – Point Salines, Saint George Parish* Highest point – Mount Saint Catherine: 840 m* Lowest point – Caribbean Sea: 0 m; Environment - international agreements:: Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Whaling; Geography - note:: The administration of the islands of the Grenadines group is divided between Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (northern Grenadines) and Grenada (southern Grenadines):" ], [ "See also", "* Grenadines* List of cities in Grenada* List of islands of Grenada* List of rivers of Grenada* List of volcanoes in Grenada* Parishes of Grenada" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", " " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Grenada" ], [ "Introduction", "The demography of the population of Grenada includes population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population." ], [ "Population", "According to the 2011 census Grenada has 105,539 inhabitants.", "The estimated population of is ()." ], [ "Fertility rate", "The fertility rate in Grenada was 2.21 in 2013." ], [ "Vital statistics", "Average population (x 1000)Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Total fertility rateInfant mortality rate 1950 772 9621 0561 90638.613.824.9 1951 773 0371 2761 76139.616.723.0 1952 773 1191 2551 86440.416.324.2 1953 783 2831 0842 19942.013.928.2 1954 793 507 7932 71444.210.034.2 1955 813 9191 2052 71448.414.933.5 1956 833 6271 1792 44843.814.229.6 1957 854 664 9083 75655.110.744.4 1958 864 253 9733 28049.211.237.9 1959 884 115 9193 19646.610.436.2 1960 904 0161 0322 98444.711.533.2 1961 913 6911 0222 66940.411.229.2 1962 923 419 8402 57937.09.127.9 1963 933 445 8272 61836.98.928.0 1964 943 374 8042 57035.98.527.3 1965 952 968 8222 14631.48.722.7 1966 952 820 8521 96829.79.020.7 1967 952 816 7862 03029.78.321.4 1968 952 994 8222 17231.68.722.9 1969 952 757 7681 98929.18.121.0 1970 942 741 7431 99829.07.921.2 1971 942 879 7392 14030.67.822.7 1972 942 939 6602 27931.37.024.3 1973 942 933 7262 20731.37.823.6 1974 932 734 7342 00029.47.921.5 1975 922 890 6192 27131.36.724.6 1976 912 712 6782 03429.77.422.2 1977 902 628 8061 82229.18.920.2 1978 892 521 7651 75628.38.619.7 1979 892 664 7391 92530.18.321.7 1993 97.0562 220 7451 47522.67.615.0 1994 97.7932 254 7771 47722.77.814.9 1995 98.5402 286 8071 47922.88.014.8 12.7 1996 98.9212 096 7821 31420.87.813.0 14.3 1997 99.5162 191 7071 48421.77.014.7 14.1 1998 100.1001 938 8191 11919.18.111.0 19.1 1999 100.7031 791 794 99717.77.89.8 15.2 2000 101.3081 883 7651 11818.57.511.0 14.3 2001 103.1431 899 7271 17218.67.111.5 17.4 2002 104.0681 756 887 86916.98.58.4 20.5 2003 104.769 1 851 810 1 041 17.7 7.7 10.0 11.9 2004 104.712 1 868 884 984 17.8 8.4 9.4 9.6 2005 104.4411 804 834 97017.38.09.3 2.2 9.4 2006 104.7081 663 765 89815.97.38.6 1.9 12.6 2007 104.9811 825 740 1 08517.47.010.4 2.2 7.1 2008 105.2981 809 842 96717.2 8.09.2 2.1 5.0 2009 105.175 1 800 781 1 019 17.17.49.72.0 7.8 2010 105.038 1 709 831 878 16.3 7.98.41.9 12.3 2011 106.667 1 812 795 1 017 17.0 7.59.52.18 15.5 2012 107.599 1 661 857 804 15.4 8.07.51.92 13.8 2013 108.580 1 838 822 1 016 16.9 7.69.42.13 17.4 2014 109.374 1 750 958 792 16.0 8.87.22.00 18.9 2015 110.096 1 694 869 825 15.47.9 7.51.8 16.5 2016 110.910 1 577898 679 14.2 8.16.11.5 19.7 2017 111.467 1 398 885513 12.57.94.61.7 24.3 2018 111.959 1 520 965555 13.68.65.0 15.8 2019 112.579 1 575 981594 14.08.75.3 11.4 2020 113.135 1 526 1 007519 13.58.94.6 17.0===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 56 222 55 245 111 467 100 0–4 4 282 3 872 8 154 7.32 5–9 3 793 3 634 7 427 6.66 10–14 4 392 4 276 8 668 7.78 15–19 4 869 4 818 9 687 8.69 20–24 5 027 4 797 9 824 8.81 25–29 4 758 4 722 9 480 8.50 30–34 3 596 3 514 7 110 6.38 35–39 3 424 3 130 6 554 5.88 40–44 3 120 2 904 6 024 5.40 45–49 3 416 3 198 6 614 5.93 50–54 3 179 3 195 6 374 5.72 55–59 2 455 2 231 4 686 4.20 60–64 1 806 1 765 3 571 3.20 65-69 1 261 1 497 2 758 2.47 70-74 1 106 1 287 2 393 2.15 75-79 732 999 1 731 1.55 80-84 417 695 1 112 1.00 85-89 168 359 527 0.47 90+ 78 197 275 0.25Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 12 467 11 782 24 249 21.75 15–64 39 993 38 429 78 422 70.35 65+ 3 762 5 034 8 796 7.89" ], [ "Other demographics statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2019:One birth every 288 minutes\tOne death every 480 minutes\tOne net migrant every 1440 minutes\tNet gain of one person every 1440 minutesDemographic statistics according to the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated:;Nationality::noun: Grenadian(s):adjective: Grenadian;Population::113,949 (2022 est.", ");Ethnic groups::African descent 82.4%, mixed 13.3%, East Indian 2.2%, other 1.3%, unspecified 0.9% (2011 est.", ");Age structure:Population pyramid of Grenada in 2017:''0-14 years:'' 23.23% (male 13,709 /female 12,564):''15-24 years:'' 14.14% (male 8,034 /female 7,959):''25-54 years:'' 40.05% (male 23,104 /female 22,187):''55-64 years:'' 11.69% (male 6,734 /female 6,490):''65 years and over:'' 10.89% (male 5,774 /female 6,539) (2020 est.", ");Median age::total: 33.3 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 99th:male: 33.1 years :female: 33.4 years (2020 est.", ");Birth rate: :13.94 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 128th;Death rate::8.31 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 79th;Total fertility rate::1.93 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 117th;Net migration rate::-2.43 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 173rd;Population growth rate::0.32% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 169st;Languages::English (official), French patois;Religions::Protestant 49.2% (includes Pentecostal 17.2%, Seventh Day Adventist 13.2%, Anglican 8.5%, Baptist 3.2%, Church of God 2.4%, Evangelical 1.9%, Methodist 1.6%, other 1.2%), Roman Catholic 36%, Jehovah's Witness 1.2%, Rastafarian 1.2%, other 5.5%, none 5.7%, unspecified 1.3% (2011 est.", ");Life expectancy at birth: :total population: 75.74 years :male: 73.13 years :female: 78.6 years (2022 est.", ");Dependency ratios::total dependency ratio: 50.5 (2020 est.", "):youth dependency ratio: 35.8 (2020 est.", "):elderly dependency ratio: 14.7 (2020 est.", "):potential support ratio: 6.8 (2020 est.", ");Urbanization::urban population: 36.9% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 0.86% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.", ");Obesity - adult prevalence rate::21.3% (2016).", "Country comparison to the world: 90th;Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2014 est.", "):total population: 98.6% :male: 98.6% :female: 98.6% (2014 est.", ");School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)::total: 17 years :male: 16 years :female: 17 years (2017)" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "The vast majority of the population of Grenada are of African descent (89.4% at the 2001 census).", "There is also a significant mixed population (8.2%), along with a small European origin minority (0.4%), East Indians (1.6%), and there are small numbers of Lebanese/Syrians (0.04%) and Chinese (0.02%).===Amerindians===Grenada has a small population of pre-Columbian native Caribs.", "According to the 2001 census there are only 125 Caribs remaining (0.12% of the total population)." ], [ "Languages", "Apart from a 114-year period of French occupancy (1649-1763) English has been the country's official language.", "However, over time the minority of the population use a colloquial spoken language considered to be either English-based creole languages or (Grenadian Creole English) and which is said reflects the African, European and Indian heritage of the nation.The Grenadian creoles originally influenced by French, now contain elements from a variety of Grenadian Creole and a little of the African languages.", "Grenadian Creole French is mainly spoken in smaller rural areas, but today it can only be heard in a few small pockets of the society.", "Grenadian Creole French is mainly known as ''Patois'' and may have similarities to the Saint Lucian Creole French.It is believed that the one-time native or indigenous languages were Iñeri and Karina." ], [ "Religion", "Historically the religious makeup of the islands of Grenada covers the period from first European occupation in the 17th century.", "This has always been predominantly Christian and largely Roman Catholic (due to the first occupants being French) and from the 1891 census we get a snapshot of the population and its religious proclivities - over half were Roman Catholic (55%), a third were Church of England (36%), others listed were Wesleyan (6%) and Presbyterian (0.88%).More recently, according to the government's 2011 information, 85.2% percent of the population of Grenada is considered Christian, 7.7% is non-Christian and 7% has no religious belief.", "Roughly one third of Christians are Roman Catholics (36% of the total population), a reflection of early French influence on the island, and one half are Protestant (49.2%).", "Anglicanism constitutes the largest Protestant group, with about 11.5% of the population.", "Pentecostals are the second largest group (about 11.3%), followed by Seventh-day Adventists (approximately 10.5% of the population).", "Other estimates include Baptists (2.9%), Church of God (2.6%), Methodists (1.8%), Evangelicals (1.6%) Jehovah's Witnesses (1.1%), and Brethren Christian (0.5%).The number of non-Christians is small.", "These religious groups include the Rastafarian Movement (1.1% of the population), Hinduism (0.2%) and Muslims (0.3%)." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Grenada" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of Grenada''' takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democracy, whereby the prime minister is the head of government.", "Grenada is an independent Commonwealth realm.", "It is governed under a multi-party parliamentary system whose political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom; it has a prime minister and a cabinet, and a bicameral Parliament with an elected House of Representatives and an appointed Senate.", "Executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament.", "Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech, press, worship, motion, and association.", "Grenada is a member of the eastern Caribbean court system.", "The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.", "Jurisprudence is based on English common law.Citizens enjoy a wide range of civil and political rights guaranteed by the constitution.", "Grenada's constitution provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully.", "Citizens exercise this right through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage.Grenada has two significant political parties, both moderate: the National Democratic Congress (liberal) and the New National Party (conservative).", "Minor parties include the up-and-coming Progress Party, which is led by Kerry Velon Simmons – one of the youngest active political leaders, the left-of-center Maurice Bishop Patriotic Movement (MBPM, organized by the pro-Bishop survivors of the October 1983 anti-Bishop coup) and the populist GULP of former Prime Minister Eric Gairy.At the July 2008, election the NDC won a comfortable seven-seat majority over the government of former Prime Minister Keith Mitchell.", "New Prime Minister Tillman Thomas formed a government after narrowly losing by one seat to Mitchell's NNP in the November 2003 election.", "In elections held on February 19, 2013, Keith Mitchell's NNP swept all fifteen parliamentary seats.", "This historic victory was a repeat of the 1999 elections in which the NNP also swept all 15 seats.", "Prime Minister Mitchell has the distinction as being the only Caribbean politician to sweep all seats on two occasions.", "Constitutionally, this development means that there is no official opposition in Parliament.", "As such, Governor General Carlye Glean, who is the titular head of state, will appoint 5 Senators to the Upper House, who will serve as the de facto opposition.Security in Grenada is maintained by the 650 members of the Royal Grenada Police Force (RGPF), which included an 80-member paramilitary special services unit (SSU) and a 30-member coast guard.", "The U.S. Army and the U.S. Coast Guard provide periodic training and material support for the SSU and the coast guard." ], [ "Executive branch", "As head of state, King Charles III is represented in Grenada by a governor general who acts on the advice of the prime minister and the cabinet.", "The leader of the majority party serves as Prime Minister and head of government.", "The cabinet consists of members, including the prime minister and ministers of executive departments.", "They answer politically to the House of Assembly.", "The Governor General appoints the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court on the advice of the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition.", "The Governor General appoints the other justices with the advice of a judicial commission.", "The Privy Council of the United Kingdom serves as the highest appellate court." ], [ "Legislative branch", "The Parliament has two chambers.", "The House of Representatives has 15 members, elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies.", "The Senate has 13 appointed members, 10 appointed by the government and three by the parliamentary opposition)." ], [ "Political parties and elections" ], [ "Judicial branch", "The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was the highest court until 1979, when People's Law No.", "84 was passed terminating appeals from the Grenadian courts.", "Appeals to the J.C.P.C.", "was restored in 1991.West Indies Associated States Supreme Court or Eastern Caribbean States Supreme Court is the judiciary of Grenada from 1967 to 1979 and since 1991.An associate judge resides in Grenada.From 1979 to 1991 the court system comprises the High Court and the Court of Appeals, which replaced the Eastern Caribbean States Supreme Court established under the West Indies Act of 1967.Grenada was readmitted into the Eastern Caribbean States Supreme Court in 1991." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "6 parishes and 1 dependency; Carriacou and Petit Martinique, Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Mark, Saint Patrick" ], [ "International organization participation", "ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OECS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WToO, WTrO, frat" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Grenada" ], [ "Introduction", " Nutmeg is one of Grenada's key exportsThe '''economy of Grenada''' is largely tourism-based, small, and open economy.", "Over the past two decades, the main thrust of Grenada's economy has shifted from agriculture to services, with tourism serving as the leading foreign currency earning sector.", "The country's principal export crops are the spices nutmeg and mace (Grenada is the world's second-largest producer of nutmeg after Indonesia).", "Other crops for export include cocoa, citrus fruits, bananas, cloves, and cinnamon.", "Manufacturing industries in Grenada operate mostly on a small scale, including production of beverages and other foodstuffs, textiles, and the assembly of electronic components for export.Economic growth picked up in the late 1990s following slow growth and domestic fiscal adjustment in the early years of the decade.", "Despite an expansionary fiscal policy, the public debt remained moderate at around 50 percent of GDP as deficits were financed partly by privatization receipts.", "Since 2001, economic growth has declined.", "The decline was caused by adverse shocks, such as a slowdown in the global economy and natural disasters.", "To deal with the shocks, fiscal policy became more expansionary, while privatization receipts declined.", "As a result, public debt increased sharply to near 110 percent of GDP in 2003.Economic conditions worsened when Hurricane Ivan hit the country in September 2004; progress in fiscal consolidation was impeded as government revenues fell and policy priorities was shifted to post-hurricane relief.Although reconstruction has proceeded quickly with significant aid from the international community, tourism and agricultural activities remain weak and nearly offset the stimulus from the reconstruction boom.", "The country is still facing the difficult task of reconstruction and recovery, while public debt is unsustainable and the government faces large financing gaps.", "In the years ahead, reinvigorating growth will be a high priority, and continued efforts are needed to address vulnerabilities." ], [ "Overview", "The economy of Grenada is small, and tourism is its largest foreign exchange earner.", "Grenada shares a common central bank with Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) and holds East Caribbean dollars as its currency.", "After tourism, Grenada relies heavily on agricultural exports, mainly different types of spices.", "Nutmeg, wheat flour, and various fruits make up the majority of Grenada's exports (per 2017).", "Grenada has suffered many economic drawbacks since becoming a nation.", "A major concern is the rising fiscal deficit and heavy debt crippling its government operations.", "Hurricane Ivan in 2004 led to serious setbacks for Grenada, along with the Great Recession in 2008 as the United States of America is one of Grenada's largest trade partners.", "Grenada was listed nine spaces above the bottom when it came to total debt in 126 developing countries in 2017." ], [ "Economic Performance", "After experiencing GDP growth averaging nearly six percent a year in the late 1990s, economic growth declined considerably after 2001 as a result of a decline in the tourism industry following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, and damages caused by several hurricanes.The economy of Grenada was brought to a near standstill in September 2004 by Hurricane Ivan, which damaged or destroyed 90 percent of the country's buildings, including some tourist facilities.", "On July 2005, Hurricane Emily struck Grenada who was still recovering from the impact of Hurricane Ivan.", "Besides the negative impacts to the tourism industry, the two devastating hurricanes destroyed or significantly damaged a large percentage of Grenada's tree crops, which may take years to recover.As the damage of Hurricane Ivan to the economy exceeded 200 percent of GDP, economic growth registered a negative growth of three percent in 2004, compared with a positive growth rate of 5.8 percent in 2003.Although signs of recovery have been seen in Grenada after the damage inflicted by Hurricanes Ivan and Emily, economic conditions remain difficult; GDP is projected at a growth rate of only one percent for 2005.With the absence of sustained growth, the fiscal situation started to deteriorate after 2001, reflecting a continued expansionary policy with a sharp increase in spending on social sectors, the wage bill, and goods and services.", "As a result, the fiscal deficit rose to 8.5 percent of GDP in 2001 from 3.2 percent in 2000.The fiscal situation remained shaky in 2002, with the deficit widening to 19.2 percent of GDP due to dampened output from Tropical Storm Lili.", "As the economy began to recover in 2003, the government began to take steps for fiscal consolidation, and the fiscal deficit fell to 4.8 percent of GDP.", "Progress in fiscal consolidation was impeded in 2004 as the government policy changed abruptly to post-hurricane relief.", "Meanwhile, government revenues decreased as a result of the impact of the hurricanes on the economy.While economic growth has declined since 2001 due to adverse shocks, including a slowdown in the global economy and natural disasters, fiscal policy became more expansionary when privatization receipts declined.", "As a result, public debt has increased sharply to over 100 percent of GDP since 2002; it remained as high as near 130 percent of GDP in 2004.Grenada is a member of the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (ECCB), which manages monetary policy and issues a common currency for all the member countries.", "Inflation has remained low and stable within the framework of the currency board arrangement, with inflation averaging at two percent over the past 15 years." ], [ "Balance of Payments", "Grenada's current account balance has remained in large deficit due to its heavy dependence on import of most consumer goods and domestic investment.", "Following an average deficit of around 44 percent of GDP from 1997 to 2000, the current account deficit has increased to over 35 percent of GDP since 2001 due to higher import demand combined with lower receipts from tourism and nutmeg exports.", "The current account deficits are financed by inflows of foreign direct investment, official grants and loans, and commercial borrowing by the private sector.", "Grenada's economy is vulnerable to external shocks considering its high dependence on tourism, exports, and imports of most of the goods that are consumed or invested domestically.", "It is also prone to other adverse shocks such as natural disasters." ], [ "Regional Situation", "In the aftermath of Hurricanes Ivan and Emily, the priority now for Grenada is to continue the recovery process necessary to restore the infrastructure that was devastated by the hurricanes.", "The international community has disbursed significant amounts of aid, including financial help under the International Monetary Fund's emergency assistance policy for natural disasters and assistance from the World Bank and the Caribbean Development Bank.In the context of regional economic development, further integration into the Eastern Caribbean regional economy will help enhance Grenada's competitiveness and increase its scale of economy in production, marketing and distribution." ], [ "International Monetary Fund", "The nation of Grenada joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF) on August 27, 1975.Since then, Grenada has been under heavy review with the IMF, who have made Grenada eligible for special drawing rights.", "Special drawing rights (abbreviated SDR) are supplementary foreign exchange reserve assets defined and maintained by the IMF.", "Based on Grenada's performances, both economically and policy wise, Grenada can be eligible for more SDRs.", "In the previous years, Grenada and the IMF have been working closely to grow and sustain their economy." ], [ "Statistics", "Grenada electricity production 1980-2019'''GDP:'''purchasing power parity - $1.401 billion (2015 est.", ")'''GDP - real growth rate:'''4.6% (2015 est.", ")'''GDP - per capita:'''purchasing power parity - $13,100 (2015 est.", ")'''GDP - composition by sector:'''''agriculture:'' 6.2%''industry:'' 14.3%''services:'' 79.5% (2015 est.", ")'''Population below poverty line:'''38% (2008 est.", ")'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''''lowest 10%:'' NA%''highest 10%:'' NA%'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''1.3% (2015)'''Labor force:'''59,900 (2013)'''Labor force - by occupation:'''services 69%, agriculture 11%, industry 20% (2008 est.", ")'''Unemployment rate:'''33.5% (2013)'''Budget:'''''revenues:'' $191.8 million''expenditures:'' $230.9 million (2012 est)'''Industries:'''food and beverages, textiles, light assembly operations, tourism, construction'''Industrial production growth rate:'''-1% (2015 est.", ")'''Electricity - production:'''193 GWh (2012 est.", ")'''Electricity - production by source:'''''fossil fuel:'' 98.2%''hydro:'' 0%''nuclear:'' 0%''other:'' 1.4% (2012 est.", ")'''Electricity - consumption:'''178 GWh (2012 est.", ")'''Electricity - exports:'''0 kWh (2013 est.", ")'''Electricity - imports:'''0 kWh (2013 est.", ")'''Agriculture - products:'''bananas, cocoa, nutmeg, mace, citrus, avocados, root crops, sugarcane, maize, vegetables'''Exports:'''$43.8 million (2015 est.", ")'''Exports - commodities:'''nutmeg, bananas, cocoa, fruit and vegetables, clothing, mace'''Exports - partners:'''Nigeria 44.7%, St. Lucia 10.8%, Antigua and Barbuda 7.3%, St. Kitts and Nevis 6.6%, Dominica 6.6%, United States 5.8% (2015)'''Imports:'''$310.4 million (2015 est.", ")'''Imports - commodities:'''food, manufactured goods, machinery, chemicals, fuel'''Imports - partners:'''Trinidad and Tobago 49.6%, United States 16.4% (2015)'''Debt - external:'''$679 million (2013 est.", ")'''Economic aid - recipient:'''$8.3 million (1995)'''Currency:'''1 East Caribbean dollar (EC$) = 100 cents'''Exchange rates:'''East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 – 2.7000 (fixed rate since 1976)'''Fiscal year:'''calendar year" ], [ "References", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Grenada" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Transport in Grenada''' consists of a network of highways connecting major population centres, airports and ports and harbours along the coast.", "Grenada has no merchant marine.There is one industrial railway, used by a rum distillery.", "'''Highways:'''''total:''1,127 km''paved:''687 kmDrivers in Grenada drive on the left hand side of the road.", "Visitors not accustomed to this should be extra cautious when driving on the island's highways and roads.", "''unpaved:''440 km (1999 est.", ")Grenada's roads can pose hazardous driving conditions, including aggressive drivers and sharp curves.Grenada has several ports of entry including seaports, bays and harbours:St. George'sSt. David's BayGrenvilleHillsborough on Carriacou'''Airports:'''3 (1999 est.", ")'''Airports - with paved runways:'''''total:''3''2,438 to 3,047 m:''1''914 to 1,523 m:''1''under 914 m:''1 (2006 est.)" ], [ "References", "* CIA World Fact Book" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Grenada" ], [ "Introduction", "The United States, Venezuela, Cuba, and the People's Republic of China have embassies in Grenada.", "Grenada has been recognized by most members of the United Nations and maintains diplomatic missions in the United Kingdom, the United States, Venezuela, and Canada.Grenada is a member of the Caribbean Development Bank, CARICOM, the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), and the Commonwealth of Nations.", "It joined the United Nations in 1974, and the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the Organization of American States in 1975.Grenada also is a member of the Eastern Caribbean's Regional Security System (RSS).In December 2014, Grenada joined Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America (ALBA) as a full member.", "Prime minister Mitchell said that the membership was a natural extension of the co-operation Grenada have had over the years with both Cuba and Venezuela." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Grenada maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate1Unknown2Unknown3Unknown4Unknown5Unknown6Unknown7Unknown8Unknown9Unknown10Unknown11Unknown12Unknown13Unknown14Unknown1516171819202122232425262728293031323334353637383940414243—44454647484950515253545556575859606162636465666768697071Before 198272Before 198273Before 198274Before 198275767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113—114115—116117118119120—121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137" ], [ "Bilateral relations", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes * Australia is represented in Grenada by its High Commission in Trinidad and Tobago.", "* Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.3 November 1978Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 November 1978Austria is represented in Grenada by its embassy in Havana, Cuba.", "Grenada has an honorary consulate in Vienna.3 March 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 March 1974.21 September 1981Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 September 1981.", "Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States and of the Caribbean Community.7 February 1974See Canada-Grenada relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 7 February 1974Grenada has a consulate general in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.20 January 2005 (before from 1 October 1985 to 8 August 1989)See China–Grenada relationsGrenada announced the resumption of diplomatic ties with the People's Republic of China on January 20, 2005.14 April 1979See Cuba–Grenada relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 14 April 19796 November 2018Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 November 2018Denmark is represented in Grenada through a consulate.Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations, of the Organization of American States and of the Caribbean Community.As a member of CARICOM Grenada strongly backed efforts by the United States to implement United Nations Security Council Resolution 940, designed to facilitate the departure of Haiti's de facto authorities from power.", "Grenada subsequently contributed personnel to the multinational force which restored the democratically elected government of Haiti in October 1994.1 October 1975See Grenada–India relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 October 1975The relations between the two can be traced back from mid-19th century when both were under the greater British colony.", "Both have friendly relations till date.", "India has its accredited diplomatic mission through its High Commission in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.", "Grenada has presently no diplomatic mission.2012Ireland is Represented with Grenada though is embassy in Havana Cuba.", "Grenada is represented with Ireland though is embassy in Brussels Belgium.", "Italy is represented in Grenada by its embassy in Caracas, Venezuela.", "Grenada has an honorary consulate in Florence.", "Malaysia is represented in Grenada by its embassy in Caracas, Venezuela.", "Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.2013New Zealand is represented in Grenada by its embassy in Bridgetown, Barbados.", "Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.3 April 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 April 1975Grenadian–Romanian relations are foreign relations between Grenada and Romania.", "Both countries are full members of the United Nations.", "The relations were formal diplomatic relations between Grenada and Romania.", "Grenada and Romania full diplomatic relations were established on the Thursday 3 April 1975.7 September 1979, severed 3 November 1983, Restored 17 September 2002See Grenada – Soviet Union relationsDuring the New Jewel Movement, the Soviet Union tried to make the island of Grenada to function as a Soviet base, and also by getting supplies from Cuba.", "In October 1983, during the U.S. invasion of Grenada, U.S. President Ronald Reagan maintained that US Marines arrived on the island of Grenada, which was considered a Soviet-Cuban ally that would export communist revolution throughout the Caribbean.", "In November, at a joint hearing of Congressional Subcommittee, it was told that Grenada could be used as a staging area for subversion of the nearby countries, for intersection of shipping lanes, and for the transit of troops and supplies from Cuba to Africa, and from Eastern Europe and Libya to Central America.", "In December, the State Department published a preliminary report on Grenada, in which was claimed as an \"Island of Soviet Internationalism\".", "When the US Marines landed on the island, they discovered a large amount of documents, which included agreements between the Soviet Government, and the New Jewel Movement, recorded minutes of the Committee meetings, and reports from the Grenadian embassy in Moscow.", "Diplomatic relations between Grenada and the Soviet Union were severed in 1983 by the Governor General of Grenada.", "Eventually in 2002, Grenada re-established diplomatic relations with the newly formed Russian Federation.1 August 1974, severed 23 July 1980, Restored 17 May 1984See Grenada–South Korea relationsThe establishment of diplomatic relations between South Korea and Grenada started on 1 August 1974 and the bilateral trade in 2012 were exports : $1.78 and million imports : $140 thousand.1 March 1979Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 March 1979Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States and of the Caribbean Community.Feb.", "25, 1975See Grenada–Turkey relationsTurkish Embassy in Port of Spain is accredited to Grenada.", "Trade volume between the two countries was US$910 thousand in 2019.March 1975In September 2004 York House, the building housing the Parliament of Grenada was destroy by Hurricane Ivan, the government of the UAE contributed US$4.5 million (of the US$12.2) to construct the new Parliament building completed in 2018.7 February 1974See Grenada–United Kingdom relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 7 February 1974* Grenada has a high commission in London.", "* United Kingdom has a high commission in St. George's.29 November 1974See Grenada–United States relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 29 November 1974The U.S. Government established an embassy in Grenada in November 1983.The U.S.", "Ambassador to Grenada is resident in Bridgetown, Barbados.", "The embassy in Grenada is staffed by a chargé d'affaires who reports to the ambassador in Bridgetown.", "Grenada has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and a consulate general in New York City.The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) played a major role in Grenada's development.", "In addition to the $45 million emergency aid for reconstruction from 2004's Hurricane Ivan, USAID provided more than $120 million in economic assistance from 1984 to 1993.About 25 Peace Corps volunteers in Grenada teach special education, remedial reading, and vocational training and assist with HIV/AIDS work.", "Grenada receives counter-narcotics assistance from the United States and benefits from U.S. military exercise-related construction and humanitarian civic action projects.Prime Minister Keith Mitchell joined President Bill Clinton, in May 1997, for a meeting with 14 other Caribbean leaders during the first-ever U.S.-regional summit in Bridgetown, Barbados.", "The summit strengthened the basis for regional cooperation on justice and counter-narcotics issues, finance and development, and trade." ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in Grenada* List of diplomatic missions of Grenada" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Guam" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''history of Guam''' starts with the early arrival around 2000 BC of Austronesian people known today as the Chamorro Peoples.", "The Chamorus then developed a \"pre-contact\" society, that was colonized by the Spanish in the 17th century.", "The present American rule of the island began with the 1898 Spanish–American War.", "Guam's history of colonialism is the longest among the Pacific islands." ], [ "Guam prior to European contact", "===Migrations===Map showing the Neolithic Austronesian migrations into the islands of the Indo-PacificThe Mariana Islands were the first islands settled by humans in Remote Oceania.", "Incidentally it is also the first and the longest of the ocean-crossing voyages of the Austronesian peoples into Remote Oceania, and is separate from the later Polynesian settlement of the rest of Remote Oceania.", "They were first settled around 1500 to 1400 BC by migrants departing from the Philippines.Archeological studies of human activity on the islands has revealed potteries with red-slipped, circle-stamped and punctate-stamped designs found in the Mariana Islands dating between 1500 and 1400 BC.", "These artifacts show similar aesthetics to pottery found in Northern and Central Philippines, the Nagsabaran (Cagayan Valley) pottery, which flourished during the period between 2000 and 1300 BC.Comparative and historical linguistics also indicate that the Chamoru language is most closely related to Indonesian Language Malayian subfamily of the Austronesian languages, instead of the Oceanic subfamily of the languages of the rest of Remote Oceania.Chief Gadao is featured in many legends about Guam before European colonization.Mitchondrial DNA and whole genome sequencing of the Chamoru people strongly support an ancestry from the Philippines.", "Genetic analysis of pre-''Latte'' period skeletons in Guam also show that they do not have Australo-Melanesian (\"Papuan\") ancestry which rules out origins from the Bismarck Archipelago, New Guinea, or eastern Indonesia.", "The Lapita culture itself (the ancestral branch of the Polynesian migrations) is younger than the first settlement of the Marianas (the earliest Lapita artifacts are dated to around 1350 to 1300 BCE), indicating that they originated from separate migration voyages.Nevertheless, DNA analysis also show close genetic relationship between ancient settlers of the Marianas and early Lapita settlers in the Bismarck Archipelago.", "This may indicate that both the Lapita culture and the Marianas were settled from direct migrations from the Philippines, or that early settlers from the Marianas voyaged further southwards into the Bismarcks and reconnected with the Lapita people.The Marianas also later established contact and received migrations from the Caroline Islands at around the first millennium CE.", "This brought new pottery styles, language, genes, and the hybrid Polynesian breadfruit.The period 900 to 1700 CE of the Marianas, immediately before and during the Spanish colonization, is known as the ''Latte'' period.", "It is characterized by rapid cultural change, most notably by the massive megalithic ''latte'' stones (also spelled ''latde'' or ''latti'').", "These were composed of the ''haligi'' pillars capped with another stone called ''tasa'' (which prevented rodents from climbing the posts).", "These served as supports for the rest of the structure which was made of wood.", "Remains of structures made with similar wooden posts have also been found.", "Human graves have also been found in front of ''latte'' structures, The ''Latte'' period was also characterized by the introduction of rice agriculture, which is unique in the pre-contact Pacific Islands.The reasons for these changes are still unclear, but it is believed that it may have resulted from a third wave of migrants from Island Southeast Asia.", "Comparisons with other architectural traditions makes it likely that this third migration wave were again from the Philippines, or from eastern Indonesia (either Sulawesi or Sumba), all of which have a tradition of raised buildings with capstones.", "Interestingly, the word ''haligi'' (\"pillar\") is also used in various languages throughout the Philippines; while the Chamoru word ''guma'' (\"house\") closely resembles the Sumba word ''uma''.===Ancient Chamoru society===1819 illustration depicting the three Chamoru castesMost of what is known about Pre-Contact (\"Ancient\") Chamorus comes from legends and myths, archaeological evidence, Jesuit missionary accounts, and observations from visiting scientists like Otto von Kotzebue and Louis de Freycinet.When Europeans first arrived on Guam, Chamoru society roughly fell into three classes: matao (upper class), achaot (middle class), and mana'chang (lower class).", "The matao were located in the coastal villages, which meant they had the best access to fishing grounds while the mana'chang were located in the interior of the island.", "Matao and mana'chang rarely communicated with each other, and matao often used achaot as a go-between.There were also \"makhanas\" (shamans) and \"suruhanus\" (herb doctors), skilled in healing and medicine.", "Belief in spirits of ancient Chamorros called ''Taotao Mona'' still persists as remnant of pre-European society.", "Early European explorers noted the sakman, CHamorus' fast sailing vessels used for trading with other islands of Micronesia.===Latte===Latte stone from a northern beachThe latte stones were not a recent development in Contact CHamoru society.", "The latte stone consists of a head and a base shaped out of limestone.", "Like the Easter Island Moai statues, there is plenty of speculation over how this was done by a society without machines or metal, but the generally accepted view is that the head and base were etched out of the ground by sharp adzes and picks (possibly with the use of fire), and carried to the assembly area by an elaborate system of ropes and logs.", "The latte stone was used as a part of the raised foundation for a magalahi (matao chief) house, although they may have also been used for canoe sheds.Archaeologists using carbon-dating have broken Pre-Contact Guam (i.e.", "Chamoru) history into three periods: \"Pre-Latte\" (BC 2000?", "to AD 1) \"Transitional Pre-Latte\" (AD 1 to AD 1000), and \"Latte\" (AD 1000 to AD 1521).", "Archaeological evidence also suggests that Chamoru society was on the verge of another transition phase by 1521, as latte stones became bigger.Assuming the stones were used for chiefly houses, it can be argued that Chamoru society was becoming more stratified, either from population growth or the arrival of new people.", "The theory remains tenuous, however, due to lack of evidence, but if proven correct, will further support the idea that Pre-Contact Chamorus lived in a vibrant and dynamic environment." ], [ "Spanish era", "=== Magellan's first encounter with Guam ===Manila Galleon by the CHamoru in the Ladrones Islands, ca.", "1590 Boxer CodexThe first known contact between Guam and Europeans occurred when a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer sailing for the King of Spain, King Charles I, later King Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor), arrived with his 3-ship fleet in Guam on March 6, 1521, after a long voyage across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, from Spain.", "History credits the village of Umatac as his landing place, but drawings from the navigator's diary suggest that Magellan may have landed in Tumon in northern Guam.", "The expedition had started out in Spain with five ships.", "By the time they reached the Marianas they were down to three ships and nearly half the crew, due to storms, diseases and the mutiny in one ship which destroyed the expedition.", "Tired and hungry from their long discovery voyage, the crew prepared to go ashore and restore provisions in Guam.", "However, the excited native Chamorus who had a different concept of ownership, based on subsistence living.", "Locals canoed out to the ships and began helping themselves to everything that was not nailed down to the deck of the galleons.", "\"The aboriginals were willing to engage in barter... Their love of gain overcame every other consideration.\"", "When Magellan arrived on Guam, he was greeted by hundreds of small outrigger canoes that appeared to be flying over the water due to their considerable speed.", "These outrigger canoes were called Proas and resulted in Magellan naming Guam ''Islas de las Velas Latinas'' (\"Islands of the Lateen sails\").", "Antonio Pigafetta (one of Magellan's original 18) said that the name was \"Island of Sails,\" but he also writes that the inhabitants \"entered the ships and stole whatever they could lay their hands on,\" including \"the small boat that was fastened to the poop of the flagship.\"", "\"Those people are poor, but ingenious and very thievish, on account of which we called those three islands ''Islas de los Ladrones'' (\"Islands of thieves\").", "\"After a few shots were fired from the Trinidad's big guns, the natives were frightened off from the ship and retreated into the surrounding jungle.", "Magellan was eventually able to obtain rations and offered iron, a highly prized material, in exchange for fresh fruits, vegetables, and water.", "Details of this visit, the first in history between the Spanish and a Pacific island people, come from the journal of Antonio Pigafetta, the expedition's scribe and one of only 18 crew members to eventually survive the circumnavigation of the globe, completed by Juan Sebastian Elcano.=== Spanish colonization ===1845 depiction of a group of CHamorus fishing for a villageDespite Magellan's visit, Guam was not officially claimed by Spain until 1565 by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi.", "However, the island was not actually colonized until the 17th century.On June 15, 1668, the galleon San Diego arrived at the shore of the island of Guam.", "Jesuit missionaries led by Diego Luis de San Vitores arrived on Guam to introduce Christianity and develop trade.", "The Spanish taught the CHamorus to cultivate maize (corn), raise cattle, and tan hides, as well as to adopt western-style clothing.", "They also introduced the Spanish language and culture.", "Once Christianity was established, the Catholic Church became the focal point for village activities, as in other Spanish cities.", "Since 1565, Guam became a regular port-of-call for the Spanish galleons that crossed the Pacific Ocean from Mexico to the Philippines.Chief Quipuha was the maga'lahi, or high ranking male, in the area of Hagåtña when the Spanish landed off its shores in 1668.Quipuha welcomed the missionaries and consented to be baptized by San Vitores as Juan Quipuha.", "Quipuha granted the lands on which the first Catholic Church in Guam was constructed in 1669.Chief Quipuha died in 1669 but his policy of allowing the Spanish to establish a base on Guam had important consequences for the future of the island.", "It also facilitated the Manila Galleon trade.A few years later, Jesuit priest San Vitores and his assistant, Pedro Calungsod, were killed by Chief Mata'pang of Tomhom (Tumon), allegedly for baptizing the Chief's baby girl without the Chief's consent.", "This was in April 1672.Many CHamorus at the time believed baptisms killed babies: because priests would baptize infants already near death (in the belief that this was the only way to save such children's souls), baptism seemed to many CHamorus to be the cause of death.", "Precipitated by the death of Quipuha, and the murder of Father San Vitores and Pedro Calungsod by local rebel chief Matapang, tensions led to a number of conflicts.", "Captain Juan de Santiago started a campaign to conquer the island, which was continued by the successive commanders of the Spanish forces.", "The Spanish-Chamorro Wars on Guam began in 1670 over growing tensions with the Jesuit mission, with the last large-scale uprising in 1683.After his arrival in 1674, Captain Damian de Esplana ordered the arrest of rebels who attacked the population of certain towns.", "Hostilities eventually led to the destruction of villages such as Chochogo, Pepura, Tumon, Sidia-Aty, Sagua, Nagan and Ninca.", "Starting in June 1676, the first Spanish Governor of Guam, Capt.", "Francisco de Irrisarri y Vinar, controlled internal affairs more strictly than his predecessors in order to curb tensions.", "He also ordered the construction of schools, roads and other infrastructure.", "In 1680, Captain Jose de Quiroga arrived and continued some of the development projects started by his predecessors.", "He also continued the search for the rebels who had assassinated Father San Vitores, resulting in campaigns against the rebels which were hiding out in some islands, eventually leading to the death of Matapang, Hurao and Aguarin.", "Quiroga brought some natives from the northern islands to Guam, ordering the population to live in a few large villages.", "These included Jinapsan, Umatac, Pago, Agat and Inarajan, where he built a number of churches.", "By July 1695, Quiroga had completed the conquest of Guam, Rota, Tinian and Aguigan.", "Intermittent warfare, plus the typhoons of 1671 and 1693, and in particular the smallpox epidemic of 1688, reduced the Chamorro population from 50,000 to 10,000, finally to less than 5,000.Umatac in 1846During the course of the Spanish administration of Guam, lower birth rates and diseases reduced the population from 12,000 to roughly 5,000 by 1741.After 1695, CHamorus settled in five villages: Hagåtña, Agat, Umatac, Pago, and Fena.", "During this historical period, Spanish language and customs were introduced in the island and Catholicism became the predominant religion.", "The Spanish built infrastructures such as roads and ports, as well as schools and hospitals.", "Spanish and Filipinos, mostly men, increasingly intermarried with the CHamorus, particularly the new cultured or \"high\" people (''manak'kilo'') or gentry of the towns.", "In 1740, CHamorus of the Northern Mariana Islands, except Rota, were moved from some of their home islands to Guam.===Expulsion of the Jesuits===The island of Guajan (Guam), detail from ''Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Islas Filipinas'' (1734)On February 26, 1767, Charles III of Spain issued a decree confiscating the property of the Jesuits and banishing them from Spain and her possessions.", "As a consequence, the Jesuit fathers on Guam departed on November 2, 1769, on the schooner ''Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe'', abandoning their churches, rectories and ranches.The arrival of Governor Don Mariano Tobias, on September 15, 1771, brought agricultural reforms, including making land available to the islanders for cultivation, encouraged the development of cattle raising, imported deer and water buffalo from Manila, donkeys and mules from Acapulco, established cotton mills and salt pans, free public schools, and the first Guam militia.", "Later, he was transferred to Manila in June 1774.Spain built several defensive fortification to protect their Pacific fleet, such as Fort Nuestra Señora de la Soledad in Umatac.", "The Galleon Era ended in 1815 following the Mexican Independence.", "Guam later was host to a number of scientists, voyagers, and whalers from Russia, France, and England who also provided detailed accounts of the daily life on Guam under Spanish rule.", "Through the Spanish colonial period, Guam inherited food, language, and surnames from Spain and Spanish America.", "Other reminders of colonial times include the old Governor's Palace in Plaza de España and the Spanish Bridge, both in Hagatña.", "Guam's Cathedral Dulce Nombre de Maria was formally opened on February 2, 1669, as was the Royal College of San Juan de Letran.", "The cultures of both Guam and the Northern Marianas gained many similarities with Spanish culture due to three centuries of Spanish rule.===Post-Napoleonic era===Following the Napoleonic Wars, many Spanish colonies in the Western Hemisphere had become independent, shifting the economic dependence of Guam from Mexico to the Philippines.", "Don Francisco Ramon de Villalobos, who became governor in 1831, improved economic conditions including the promotion of rice cultivation and the establishment of a leper hospital.Otto von Kotzebue visited the island in November 1817, and Louis de Freycinet in March 1819.Jules Dumont d'Urville made two visits, the first in May 1828.The island became a rest stop for whalers starting in 1823.A devastating typhoon struck the island on August 10, 1848, followed by a severe earthquake on January 25, 1849, which resulted in many refugees from the Caroline Islands, victims of the resultant tsunami.", "After a smallpox epidemic killed 3,644 Guamanians in 1856, Carolinians and Japanese were permitted to settle in the Marianas.", "Guam received nineteen Filipino prisoners after their failed 1872 Cavite mutiny.", "Later in 1896, more than fifty Filipino \"deportados\" were sent to Guam, when they attempted to escape many were killed and wounded by Chamorro artillerymen." ], [ "American era", "===Capture of Guam===U.S.", "Marine patrolman, 1914On June 21, 1898, the United States captured Guam in a bloodless landing during the Spanish–American War.", "By the Treaty of Paris, Spain officially ceded the island to the United States.", "Between the American capture of Guam, and installation of a Naval Governor in August 1899, there was a flux in governance of the island.", "Guam became part of an American telegraph line to the Philippines, also ceded by the treaty; a way station for American ships traveling to and from there; and an important part of the United States' War Plan Orange against Japan.", "Although Alfred Thayer Mahan, Robert Coontz, and others envisioned the island as \"a kind of Gibraltar\" in the Pacific, Congress repeatedly failed to fulfill the military's requests to fortify Guam; when the German warship was interned in 1914 before America's entry into World War I, its crew of 543 outnumbered their American custodians.Guam came to serve as a station for American merchant and warships traveling to and from the Philippines (another American acquisition from Spain) while the Northern Mariana Islands were sold by Spain to Germany for part of its rapidly expanding German Empire.", "A U.S. Navy yard was established at Piti in 1899, and a United States Marine Corps barracks at Sumay in 1901.During the Philippine–American War of 1899–1902, Apolinario Mabini was exiled to Guam in 1901 after his capture.", "Mabini was one of 43 prisoners, accompanied by 15 servants, who were exiled to Guam.", "They were imprisoned on the site of a former leper hospital in Asan.", "The prison was commanded by an officer of the United States Army; under the army officer the guards of the facility were provided by the United States Marine Corps.", "The facility was named the Presidio of Asan.", "Marines assigned to the facility would rotate from Cavite every six months.", "One of those exiled and imprisoned at the facility would be one of the first two Resident Commissioner of the Philippines Pablo Ocampo.", "The facility closed in 1903.Following the German defeat in World War I, the Northern Mariana Islands became part of the South Seas Mandate, a League of Nations Mandate in 1919 with the nearby Empire of Japan as the mandatory (\"trustee\") as a member nation of the victorious Allies in the \"Great War\".", "The 1910 Catholic Encyclopedia said of Guam, \"of its total population of 11,490 (11,159 natives), Hagåtña, the capital, contains about 8,000.Possessing a good harbor, the island serves as a United States naval station, the naval commandant acting also as governor.", "The products of the island are maize, copra, rice, sugar, and valuable timber.\"", "Military officers governed the island as \"USS ''Guam''\", and the United States Navy opposed proposals for civilian government until 1950.===World War II===Marines before the ruins of the church in Hagåtña during the liberation of Guam in 1944.During World War II, Guam was attacked and invaded by Japan on Monday, December 8, 1941, at the same time as the attack on Pearl Harbor, across the International Date Line.", "In addition, Japan made major military moves into Southeast Asia and the East Indies islands of the South Pacific Ocean against the British and Dutch colonies, opening a new wider Pacific phase in the Second World War.", "The Japanese renamed Guam (Great Shrine Island).The Northern Mariana Islands had become a League of Nations mandate assigned to Japan in 1919, pursuant to the Treaty of Versailles of 1919.Indigenous Chamorro people from the Northern Marianas were brought to Guam to serve as interpreters and in other capacities for the occupying Japanese force.", "The Guamanian Chamorros were treated as an occupied enemy by the Japanese military.", "After the war, this would cause resentment between the Guamanian Chamorros and the Chamorros of the Northern Marianas.", "Guam's Chamorros believed their northern brethren should have been compassionate towards them, whereas having been administered by Japan for over 30 years, the Northern Mariana Chamorros were loyal to the Japanese government.The Japanese occupation of Guam lasted for approximately 31 months, from 1941 to 1944.During this period, the indigenous people of Guam were subjected to forced labor, family separation, incarceration, execution, concentration camps and forced prostitution.", "Approximately 1,000 people died during the occupation, according to later Congressional committee testimony in 2004.Some historians estimate that war violence killed 10% of Guam's then 20,000 population.", "It was a coercive experience for the Chamoru people, whose loyalty to the United States became a point of contention with the Japanese.", "Several American servicemen remained on the island, however, and were hidden by the Chamoru people.", "All of these servicemen were found and executed by Japanese forces in 1942; only one escaped.Hagåtña next to trees destroyed by the bombardment, August 1944The second Battle of Guam began on July 21, 1944, with American troops landing on western side of the island after several weeks of pre-invasion bombardment by the U.S. Navy.", "After several weeks of heavy fighting, Japanese forces officially surrendered on August 10, 1944.More than 18,000 Japanese were killed as only 485 surrendered.", "Sergeant Shoichi Yokoi, who surrendered in January 1972, appears to have been the last confirmed Japanese holdout, having held out for 28 years in the forested back country on Guam.", "The United States also captured and occupied the nearby Northern Marianas Islands.Guam was subsequently converted into a forward operations base for the U.S. Navy and Air Force.", "Airfields were constructed in the northern part of the island (including Andersen Air Force Base), the island's pre-WWII Naval Station was expanded, and numerous facilities and supply depots were constructed throughout the island.", "North Field was established in 1944, and was renamed for Brigadier General James Roy Andersen of the old U.S. Army Air Forces as Andersen Air Force Base.Guam's two largest pre-war communities (Sumay and Hagåtña) were virtually destroyed during the 1944 battle.", "Many Chamoru families lived in temporary re-settlement camps near the beaches before moving to permanent homes constructed in the island's outer villages.", "Guam's southern villages largely escaped damage, however.===Self-determination===Delegate from Guam to the United States House of Representatives in 1973, Antonio Borja Won Pat actively lobbied for Guam's self-representationThe immediate years after World War II saw the U.S. Navy attempting to resume its predominance in Guam affairs.", "This eventually led to resentment, and thus increased political pressure from Chamoru leaders for greater autonomy.The result was the Guam Organic Act of 1950 which established Guam as an unincorporated organized territory of the United States and, for the first time in Guam history, provided for a civilian government.The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, section 307, granted U.S. citizenship to \"all persons born in the island of Guam on or after April 11, 1899.In the 1960s, the island's required security clearance for visitors was lifted.On September 11, 1968, eighteen years after passage of the Organic Act, Congress passed the \"Elective Governor Act\" (Public Law 90-497), which allowed the people of Guam to elect their own governor and lieutenant governor.", "Nearly four years later, Congress passed the \"Guam-Virgin Islands Delegate\" Act that allowed for one Guam delegate in the U.S. House of Representatives.", "The delegate has a voice in debates and a vote in committees, but no vote on the floor of the House.Andersen Air Force Base played a major role in the Vietnam War.", "The host unit was later designated the 36th Wing (36 WG), assigned to the Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) Thirteenth Air Force (13AF).", "In September 2012, 13 AF was deactivated and its functions merged into PACAF.", "The multinational Cope North military exercise is an annual event.Although Public Law 94-584 established the formation of a \"locally drafted\" constitution (later known as the \"Guam Constitution\"), the proposed document was rejected by Guam residents in an August 4, 1979 referendum.In the meantime, Guam's local government had formed several political status commissions to address possible options for self-determination.", "The following year after passage of the Guam Delegate Act saw the creation of the \"Status Commission\" by the Twelfth Guam Legislature.This was followed by the establishment of the \"Second Political Status Commission\" in 1975 and the Guam \"Commission on Self-Determination\" (CSD) in 1980.The Twenty-Fourth Guam Legislature established the \"Commission on Decolonization\" in 1996 to enhance CSD's ongoing studies of various political status options and public education campaigns.These efforts enabled the CSD, barely two years after its creation, to organize a status referendum on January 12, 1982.49% of voters chose a closer relationship with the United States via Commonwealth.Twenty-six percent voted for Statehood, while ten percent voted for the Status Quo (as an Unincorporated territory).", "A subsequent run-off referendum held between Commonwealth and Statehood saw 73% of Guam voters choosing Commonwealth over Statehood (27%).", "Today, Guam remains an unincorporated territory despite referendums and a United Nations mandate to establish a permanent status for the island.===Contemporary Guam===The aircraft carrier sailing into Apra Harbor, 2011Guam's U.S. military installations remain among the most strategically vital in the Pacific Ocean.", "When the United States closed U.S.", "Naval Base Subic Bay and Clark Air Base bases in the Philippines after the expiration of their leases in the early 1990s, many of the forces stationed there were relocated to Guam.The removal of Guam's security clearance by President John F. Kennedy in 1963 allowed for the development of a tourism industry.", "The island's rapid economic development was fueled both by rapid growth in this industry as well as increased U.S. Federal Government spending during the 1980s and 1990s.Since 1974, about 124 historic sites in Guam have been recognized under the U.S. National Register of Historic Places.", "Guam temporarily hosted 100,000 Vietnamese refugees in 1975's Operation New Life , and 6,600 Kurdish refugees in 1996.On August 6, 1997, Guam was the site of the Korean Air Flight 801 aircraft accident.", "The Boeing 747–300 jetliner was preparing to land when it crashed into a hill, killing 228 of the 254 people on board.The 1997 Asian financial crisis, which hit Japan particularly hard, severely affected Guam's tourism industry.", "Military cutbacks in the 1990s also disrupted the island's economy.", "Economic recovery was further hampered by devastation from Supertyphoons Paka in 1997 and Pongsona in 2002, as well as the effects of the September 11 terrorist attacks on tourism.The recovery of the Japanese and Korean tourist markets reflected those countries' economic recoveries, as well as Guam's continued appeal as a weekend tropical retreat.", "U.S. military spending also dramatically increased as part of the War on Terrorism.The late 2000s saw proposals to strengthen U.S. military facilities, including negotiations to transfer 8,000 U.S. Marines from Okinawa.", "American forces were originally scheduled to relocate from Okinawa to Guam beginning in 2012 or 2013.However, that was set back due to budget constrains and local resistance to the additional military presence; Marine Corps Base Camp Blaz was activated in 2020 but the relocation is scheduled to start no later than by the first half of the 2020s.In August 2017, North Korea warned that it might launch mid-range ballistic missiles into waters within of Guam, following an exchange of threats between the governments of North Korea and the United States.In 2018, a Government Accountability Office report stated that Agent Orange was used as a commercial herbicide in Guam during the Vietnam and Korean Wars.", "An analysis of chemicals present in the island's soil, together with resolutions passed by Guam's legislature, suggest that Agent Orange was among the herbicides routinely used on and around military bases Anderson Air Force Base, Naval Air Station Agana, Guam.", "Despite the evidence, the Department of Defense continues to deny that Agent Orange was ever stored or used on Guam.", "Several Guam veterans have collected an enormous amount of evidence to assist in their disability claims for direct exposure to dioxin containing herbicides such as 2,4,5-T which are similar to the illness associations and disability coverage that has become standard for those who were harmed by the same chemical contaminant of Agent Orange used in Vietnam.", "\"Cosmopolitan\" Guam poses particular challenges for CHamorus struggling to preserve their culture and identity in the face of acculturation.", "The increasing numbers of CHamorus, especially CHamoru youth, relocating to the U.S. Mainland has further complicated both the definition and preservation of CHamoru identity." ], [ "See also", "* Guam* Villages of Guam* San Vitores* Chief Kepuha" ], [ "Further reading", "Robert F. Rogers, ''Destiny's Landfall: A History of Guam'' (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1995)Paul Carano and Pedro C. Sanchez, ''A Complete History of Guam'' (Rutland, VT: C. E. Tuttle, 1964)Howard P. Willens and Dirk Ballendorf, ''The Secret Guam Study: How President Ford's 1975 Approval of Commonwealth Was Blocked by Federal Officials'' (Mangilao, Guam: Micronesian Area Research Center; Saipan: Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Division of Historical Preservation, 2004)Lawrence J. Cunningham, ''Ancient Chamorro Society'' (Honolulu: Bess Press, 1992)Anne Perez Hattori, ''Colonial Dis-Ease: U.S. Navy Health Policies and the Chamorros of Guam, 1898-1941'' (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2004)Pat Hickey, ''The Chorito Hog-Leg, Book One: A Novel of Guam in Time of War'' (Indianapolis: AuthorHouse Publishing, 2007)Vicente Diaz, ''Repositioning the Missionary: Rewriting the Histories of Colonialism, Native Catholicism, and Indigeneity in Guam'' (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2010)Keith Lujan Camacho, ''Cultures of Commemoration: The Politics of War, Memory, and History in the Mariana Islands'' (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2011)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "External links", " ''allthingsguam'' A Guam History resource—virtual textbook, virtual workbook and more* Guam Humanities Council* Guampedia, Guam's Online Encyclopedia* War in the Pacific National Historic Park* The Latte Stones of Guam* Bisita Guam* Prefecture Apostolic of Mariana Islands* Guam Online's History Webpage* Brief History of Guam's U.S.", "Naval Hospital* Senate Resolution 254, 105th Congress Includes brief history of Guam's movement towards self-determination" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Guam" ], [ "Introduction", " Guam is a U.S. territory in the western Pacific Ocean, at the boundary of the Philippine Sea.", "It is the southernmost and largest member of the Mariana Islands archipelago, which is itself the northernmost group of islands in Micronesia.", "The closest political entity is the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), another U.S. territory.", "Guam shares maritime boundaries with CNMI to the north and the Federated States of Micronesia to the south.", "It is located approximately one quarter of the way from the Philippines to Hawaii.", "Its location and size make it strategically important.", "It is the only island with both a protected harbor and land for multiple airports between Asia and Hawaii, on an east–west axis, and between Papua New Guinea and Japan, on a north–south axis.The island is a result of the volcanic activity created by subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Philippine Sea Plate at the nearby Mariana Trench, which runs from the east of Guam to the southwest.", "Volcanic eruptions established the base of the island in the Eocene, roughly 56 to 33.9 million years ago (mya).", "The north of Guam is a result of this base being covered with layers of coral reef, turning into limestone, and then being thrust by tectonic activity to create a plateau.", "The rugged south of the island is a result of more recent volcanic activity.", "Cocos Island off the southern tip of Guam is the largest of the many small islets along the coastline.Politically, Guam is divided into 19 villages.", "The majority of the population lives on the coralline limestone plateaus of the north, with political and economic activity centered in the central and northern regions.", "The rugged geography of the south largely limits settlement to rural coastal areas.", "The western coast is leeward of the trade winds and is the location of Apra Harbor, the capitol Hagåtña, and the tourist center of Tumon.", "The U.S. Defense Department owns about 29% of the island, under the management of Joint Region Marianas." ], [ "Geology", "The Mariana Islands lie atop the largely submerged East Mariana Ridge, a part of the Izu–Bonin–Mariana (IBM) Arc.", "The IBM Arc is a tectonic plate convergent boundary where the west Pacific Plate subducts the Philippine Sea Plate.", "Guam is actually located on the Mariana Plate, a micro plate between the two.", "The subduction area is marked by the Mariana Trench, the deepest gash in the earth's surface, which includes three deep spots to the south of Guam.", "From east to west, these are: Nero Deep, which was the deepest known spot in the ocean from 1899 to 1927 at ; Sirena Deep, the third deepest measured point at ; and Challenger Deep, the deepest point at .There have been three major eruptions on Guam.", "the first, the Facpi formation, in the mid Eocene, laid the base of the island and is still the topmost formation along the southwestern coast.", "The second eruption created the Alutom formation that is still the topmost strata in the middle of the island.", "The Mount Alifan-Mount Lamlam ridge is the remnant of the Alutom formation caldera.", "The last volcanic layer, called the Umatac formation, was formed by the third and final eruption, which surrounded this ridge in the south of Guam.", "Meanwhile, volcanic activity alternately submerged areas of the island, which hosted coral reefs, and then lifted those reefs, which became limestone.", "The island may be divided into four general geophysical regions: the uplifted and relatively flat coralline limestone plateau in the north that provides most of the drinking water; the low-rising hills of the Alutom Formation in the center; the mountains of the Umatac formation in the south; and the coastal lowlands ringing most of the island.", "Much of the coast is protected by a fringing reef.Soils are mostly silty clay or clay and may be gray, black, brown or reddish brown; acidity and depth vary.", "There are four National Natural Landmarks in Guam chosen as exemplars of the island's geology: Facpi Point, Fouha Point, Mount Lamlam, and Two Lovers Point.File:Two lovers point (80103943).jpg\|Two Lovers Point, a National Natural Landmark, is a sea cliff of coralline limestone in northern Guam=== Earthquakes ===Guam occasionally experiences earthquakes; most with epicenters near Guam have had magnitudes ranging from 5.0 to 8.7.Unlike Anatahan in the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam is not volcanically active, though vog (volcanic smog) from Anatahan affects it due to proximity." ], [ "Strategic position", "Guam is about from both Tokyo in the north and Manila in the west, and about from Honolulu in the east.", "Guam's size and possession of a natural safe anchorage at Apra Harbor, uniquely among its neighbors, have driven much of its history.Guam was a minor but integral part of the Spanish Manila galleon trade.", "Located on the east-to-west trade winds, galleons from Mexico would briefly reprovision on Guam before continuing on to Manila.", "The westerlies are well away from Guam so it was not a stop on the return trip.", "During the height of Pacific whaling, Apra Harbor was a major stop for whalers.After the American capture of Guam in 1898, the Commercial Pacific Cable Company laid submarine communications cable for telegraph through Guam Cable Station, linking the United States to Asia for the first time.", "Guam continues to be a major submarine cable hub in the western Pacific.", "In 1935, Pan American Airways made Sumay, Guam, a base for its ''China Clipper'', the first trans-Pacific air cargo service, flying from San Francisco to Manila, arrived at Sumay on November 27, 1935 and the first passenger service flight on October 21, 1936.The Japanese capture of Guam in 1941 and subsequent American liberation in 1944 were driven by a recognition of Guam's strategic location in a Pacific War.", "Military facilities on Guam, including Naval Base Guam and Andersen Air Force Base, are considered critical forward deployment bases in the Asia-Pacific.", "Guam was a support center for the Korean War (1949-1953) and became even more important during the Vietnam War, when the bombing campaigns Operation Arc Light (1965-1973) and Operation Linebacker II (1972) were flown out of Andersen Air Force Base.", "Guam was similarly the site of Operation New Life, the processing of Vietnamese refugees after the Fall of Saigon in 1975.Guam is a linchpin of the \"Second Island Chain\" in the Island Chain Strategy first described by the U.S. during the Korean War, but which has become an increasing focus of Chinese foreign policy.", "In 2016, China deployed the DF-26, their first intermediate-range ballistic missile with the range to hit Guam.", "Chinese media wonks and military experts dubbed it the \"Guam Killer.", "\"File:Andersen AFB with 150 B-52s 1972.jpg\|About 150 B-52 bombers at Andersen Air Force Base during the 1972 bombings of North Vietnam.File:Geographic Boundaries of the First and Second Island Chains.png\|The first and second island chains." ], [ "Settlement patterns", "A population density map of Guam, 2000A 1668 description reported that there were approximately 180 Chamoru villages on Guam with a total island population between 35,000 and 50,000.The Spanish strategy of villagization, called ''reducción'', which began in the Spanish-Chamorro Wars, transferred the population to seven towns.", "These relocated people were forced to travel to work on distant farms and ranches, creating the ''lanchu'' system of farmsteading, which was to become a traditional part of Chamoru society well into the twentieth century.", "A map from the early 1700s shows nearly 40 villages on Guam, mostly along the coastlines.", "The Spanish eventually emptied all of the northern and central villages of Guam, except for Hagåtña.", "The population of Guam and the entire Northern Marianas, except for Rota, was moved to Hagåtña, and five southern villages: Agat, Inarajan, Merizo, Pago (which no longer exists), and Umatac.", "Meanwhile, outbreaks of infectious disease inflicted a terrible toll, which was accelerated by concentrating the population.", "The Chamoru population in 1689 was estimated at about 10,000, a third to fifth of the number just 20 years previously.The population changed little over the next two centuries.", "The population in 1901, after the American Capture of Guam, was 9,676, with the majority located in Hagåtña and Sumay on Apra Harbor.", "The population was 18,509 in 1930.The American Naval government build roads and schools in outlying areas in order to urge the population to spend time on their ranch lands and produce more agricultural products.", "There were eight municipalities approved by the Naval governor in the 1920s, Hagåtña, Agat, Asan, Inarajan, Merizo, Piti, Sumay and Yona.", "This increased to 15 in 1939.The devastation from the U.S. retaking of Guam in 1941 and subsequent military build-up of installations at the end of the Pacific War transformed the island's settlements.", "Two municipalities that disappeared entirely after the land became military bases were Machanao in the north and Sumay on Apra Harbor, which are now part of Naval Base Guam.", "The military government prohibited resettlement and rebuilding of Hagåtña, which held almost half of the pre-war population.", "The former residents of Hagåtña dispersed, mainly to their ''lanchus'' (ranches).", "Once most of the wartime bases were built, northern Guam experienced sustained housing construction.", "The original location of Dededo was bulldozed by the Americans to create Harmon Air Force Base.", "When the new location was devastated by Typhoon Karen in 1962 and Typhoon Olive in 1963, the resulting federal aid sparked a construction boom that then resulted in the first large housing subdivisions.", "The neighboring municipality of Yigo on the northeast of the island has experienced dramatic population growth.", "In 1940, there were about 40 families living in the area.", "By the beginning of the 21st century, it was Guam's second most populous village after Dededo." ], [ "Climate", "A jungle beach coastline on GuamGuam has a tropical marine climate that is generally warm and humid, but moderated by northeast trade winds.", "The dry season is from January to June.", "The wet season is from July to December.", "There is little temperature variation.", "There are frequent squalls during the wet season.", "Typhoons are relatively rare but are most common during the wet season and are potentially very destructive.", "Typhoon Pongsona in 2002 had wind gusts up to 290 km/h (183 mph 1-min) over Guam and caused widespread devastation, but no direct deaths because of strict building standards.", "Pongsona was the most damaging typhoon on Guam since Typhoon Paka in 1997." ], [ "Environment", "An enlargeable, detailed map of GuamThe rapid proliferation of the brown tree snake (''Boiga irregularis''), an exotic species, caused the local extinction of the native bird population, such as the Guam rail and Guam kingfisher.", "The island also supports feral populations of introduced Philippine deer (''Rusa marianna''), pigs (''Sus scrofa''), and carabao (''Bubalus bubalis carabanesis'').Extraction of natural resources for economic gain is based around the sea.", "This includes commercial fishing, mostly servicing and unloading of longline fleets and commercial vessels.", "There is recreational fishing of Indo-Pacific blue marlin (''Makaira mazara''), wahoo (''Acanthocybium solandri''), mahi-mahi (''Coryphaena hippurus''), yellowfin tuna (''Thunnus albacares''), and deepwater reef fish.", "Tourism from Japan in particular, but increasingly from China and South Korea, largely derives from an attractive tropical climate and amenities.", "A 2012 estimate was that 16.67% of the land area was being used for permanent crops, while only 1.85% was considered arable land suitable for plowing, planting, and reaping.", "2 km2 was irrigated." ], [ "Extreme points", "The entrance to Apra Harbor, with Point Udall, the westernmost point, on the rightThe three highest points on Guam are Mount Lamlam at , Mount Jumullong Manglo at , and Mount Bolanos, .", "Mount Lamlam is sometimes claimed to be the world's highest mountain at , measured from a base in Challenger Deep away.", "Even if measured from Sirena Deep, away, Mount Lamlam is taller than Mauna Kea, which is typically cited as the tallest mountain including subsurface rise from the ocean floor at .The extreme north, east, south, and west locations on mainland Guam are Ritidian Point, Pati Point, Aga Point, and Point Udall, respectively.", "However, Cocos Island, located off the southern coast of Guam's mainland is the ultimate southernmost point of the territory.", "Point Udall, previously named Orote Point, is also the westernpoint point of the U.S., as measured from the geographic center of the United States." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Guam" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''demographics of Guam''' details an array of demographic statistics relating to the territory of Guam.", "This includes statistics on population, including the Indigenous population; religious affiliations; language; and immigration.", "The Demographics of Guam provides an overview of the history of Guam, as well as a depiction of the villages in the United States territory and its populace.", "The population of Guam, as of July 2021 was 168,801.The demographics of Guam include the demographic features of the population of Guam, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population." ], [ "Population", "While there are no large cities in Guam, the populace resides in villages.", "The most populated village in Guam is Dededo, with a population of 44,943 in 2010.The Indigenous people of Guam are known as the Chamorro people, and are the largest ethnic group in Guam.", "This group is categorised as a minority group in the United States territory.", "The 2021 mean age in the territory of Guam was 31.4 years.", "Guam is the largest and most populated of the territories in the Mariana Islands.The population density of Guam is approximately 310 people per square kilometer.", "The total land area is 544 km2.94.9% of Guam's population lives in urban regions.In the 2020 U.S. Census, Guam had a population of 153,836.This was a 3.5 percent decrease from the population of 159,358 in the 2010 census.===Structure of the population===Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2021) (Including armed forces stationed in the area.", "):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 86 910 81 891 168 801 100 0–4 8 032 7 525 15 557 9.22 5–9 7 973 7 461 15 434 9.14 10–14 7 663 7 088 14 751 8.74 15–19 7 087 6 296 13 383 7.93 20–24 7 342 6 165 13 507 8.00 25–29 6 740 5 916 12 656 7.50 30–34 5 787 5 376 11 163 6.61 35–39 4 866 4 626 9 492 5.62 40–44 4 412 4 372 8 784 5.20 45–49 4 735 4 656 9 391 5.56 50–54 5 245 4 767 10 012 5.93 55–59 5 149 4 792 9 941 5.89 60–64 4 121 3 981 8 102 4.80 65-69 3 121 3 193 6 314 3.74 70-74 2 354 2 558 4 912 2.91 75-79 1 201 1 402 2 603 1.54 80-84 717 1 027 1 744 1.03 85-89 279 525 804 0.48 90-94 75 140 215 0.13 95-99 10 23 33 0.02 100+ 1 2 3 <0.01Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 23 668 22 074 45 742 27.10 15–64 55 484 50 947 106 431 63.05 65+ 7 758 8 870 16 628 9.85" ], [ "Births and deaths", "YearPopulationLive birthsDeathsNatural increaseCrude birth rateCrude death rateTFR 2009 3,391 835 2,556 19.8 4.7 2.72 2010 159,358 3,416 857 2,559 21.4 5.4 3.00 2011 3,298 842 2,456 20.6 5.3 2.86 2012 3,590 883 2,707 22.4 5.5 3.15 2013 3,285 873 2,412 20.5 5.4 2.87 2014 3,395 939 2,456 21.1 5.8 2.96 2015 3,366 985 2,381 20.8 6.1 2.93 2016 3,432 998 2,434 20.6 6.0 3.08 2017 3,297 990 2,317 19.7 5.9 2.97 2018 3,165 1,035 2,130 18.9 6.2 2.85 2019 3,041 1,002 2,039 18.1 6.0 2.74 2020 153,836 2,935 1,167 1,768 17.4 6.9 2.41 2021 2,623 15.5 2.36" ], [ "CIA World Factbook demographic statistics", "The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook.===Age structure===0–14 years: 27.22% (male 23,748/female 22,122)15–24 years: 16.08% (male 14,522/female 12,572)25–54 years: 36.65% (male 31,880/female 29,871)55–64 years: 10.5% (male 9,079/female 8,610)65 years and over: 9.54% (male 7,504/female 8,577) (2020 est.", ")===Population===169,086 as of 2022===Population growth rate===0.16%===Birth rate===18.56 births/1,000 population===Death rate===6.03 deaths/1,000 population===Net migration rate===-10.96 migrant(s)/1,000 population===Sex ratio===At birth: 1.07 male(s)/female0–14 years: 1.07 male(s)/female15–24 years: 1.16 male(s)/female25–54 years: 1.07 male(s)/female55–64 years: 1.07 male(s)/female65 years and over: 0.71 male(s)/femaleTotal population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2022 est.", ")===Infant mortality rate===Total: 11.46 deaths/1,000 live birthsMale: 11.49 deaths/1,000 live birthsFemale: 11.44 deaths/1,000 live births (2022 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===Total population: 77.5 yearsMale: 75.07 yearsFemale: 80.08 years===Total fertility rate===2.78 children born/woman===Nationality===noun: Guamanian / Guamaniansadjective: Guamanian===Ethnic groups===Chamorro 37.3%Filipino 26.3%White 7.1%Chuukese 7%Korean 2.2%Other Pacific Islander 2%Other Asian 2%Chinese 1.6%Palauan 1.6%Japanese 1.5%Pohnpeian 1.4%Mixed 9.5%Other 0.6%===Religion===According to the Pew Research Center, 2010:Catholics 75%Protestants 17.7%Unaffiliated 1.7%Other religions 1.6%Folk religions 1.5%Other Christians 1.4%Buddhists 1.1%Eastern Orthodox <1%Hindu <1%Muslim <1%Jews <1%The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) reported 2,550 members in the LDS Church in Guam in 5 congregations as of 31 December 2019.On 4 May 2019, the church broke ground for a temple in Yigo.In 2020, the Vatican noted that 87.72% of the population is Catholic, with 54 priests and 64 nuns across 27 parishes.===Languages===English 43.6% Filipino 21.2%Chamorro 17.8%Other Pacific island languages 10%Other Asian languages 6.3%Other 1.1%" ], [ "History", "Guam is known to be the first island in the Pacific Ocean to be colonized by Europeans, discovered by the Spaniards in 1521.After Guam was discovered by Ferdinand Magellan under the flag of Spain, the island was repeatedly invaded by alien military forces.", "The island was officially claimed by Spain in 1565.It was the first island as well as the Mariana Islands, inhabited by humans in Remote Oceania.", "Guam has since been occupied by outside entities for over 330 years.Magellan arrived on the shores of Guam with three ships, the Trinidad, the Conception and the Victoria.", "The population of Guam in the mid 16th century was severely reduced, due to the bloodshed caused by the Spaniards, as well as the many diseases carried by the Europeans.", "Guam was ceded to the United States after the Spanish–American War in 1898.It was then taken by the Japanese in 1941 during World War II.", "It was retaken by the United States in 1944.While Guam merely covers 520 km squared of land area, the United States territory is considered to be of international significance, due to geopolitics, as well as the strategic importance of Guam's straits, islands and canals.", "Guam is the largest landfall, for use of communications, military bases and shipping.", "Guam was utilised as a military base in World War II against the Japanese.Guam is a multi-ethnic island, with settlers from the Philippines, Korea, Japan and China forming part of its populace.", "Guam was first settled by migrants from the Philippines in 1,500 to 1,400 BCE.=== The Chamorro people ===The Mariana Islands is an ethnic and cultural heritage of the Chamorro people.", "Despite the invasion attempts from leading military countries, such as Spain, The United States of America and Japan, the Chamorro people have maintained their traditions.", "The cultural endurance of the Chamorro people was evident, as the Indigenous peoples of the Mariana Islands maintained their language, tradition and integrity, in spite of the dominance of imperialism.", "While Guam has remained a colony in the postmodern world, the Chamorro people of Guam have gained an amount of local political control of the island traditions.In pre-Spanish times, Chamorro clans were divided into two distinct, ranked social castes.", "Social castes are different from social classes in that individuals are born into a particular caste and their status, therefore, could not be changed.", "Social classes, on the other hand, are more fluid and members can move between classes.", "The upper caste was known as chamorri, and the lower caste was known as manachang.", "Movement in between these castes, such as through marriage, was prohibited.", "Concubines or other relationships could be maintained only within one's social class.", "In addition, the chamorri caste was divided into an upper noble class called matao and a middle, or demi-noble class, known as acha’ot.=== Architecture ===The most prominent historical architectural complex in Guam is latte architecture.", "This style of architecture is described as village complexes with both residential and communal functions.", "This structure is unique, as the width is constant in all sizes of latte architecture, however the height of the complex differs from small, medium and large.", "Latte architecture is unique to Guam and the Mariana Islands.These types of villages were utilised as expressions of a collective identity, rather than modes of competition or rank.", "The latte structures were tropes for social organisation as well as a Micronesian egalitarian and matrilineal clan.", "This system incorporated hierarchical authority that was founded on respect and reciprocity, rather than totalitarian power or unequal distributions of wealth." ], [ "Environment", "Climate change in Guam is rife throughout the US Island territory and is a pressing issue, as well as a cause for concern for its populace.===Increased air temperatures===There has been increasing rising temperatures in daytime and nighttime air temperatures in Guam.", "The annual number of hot days in Guam had increased, with an average of five days a year exceeding the temperature of 31.1 °C (88 °F).", "It is estimated that 70% of days the year in Guam will potentially experience temperatures over 32 °C (90 °F).", "Furthermore, cool nights (below 23.3 °C/74 °F) in Guam have significantly decreased.", "The 2017 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) National Centers for Environmental Information (NCRI) report found that the number of cold nights in Guam have decreased from an average of forty nights per year in 1995, to zero per year since 2005.Increased air temperatures is an area of concern, partucularly in regards to public health, building construction and utilities.=== Rainfall ===Drought conditions are expected to be more frequent in Guam in the near future, due to decreased amounts of rainfall in the island territory.", "Overall, Guam is likely to become drier in the future, which is an underlying threat to ecosystems and the populace of Guam.", "This issue formulates difficulties in attaining fresh water.=== Tropical storms ===The intensity of tropical storms are expected to increase in Guam.", "While Tropical cyclones will likely decrease in the near future, the cyclones that do form will be more extremely intense and of a higher category, ultimately creating higher wind speeds.", "Guam is situated in one of the most active regions for tropical cyclones in the world.=== Sea levels ===Rising sea levels in Guam produce threats to infrastructure, and is expected to damage natural and built assets in the island territory.", "This is due to the fact that rising sea levels creates extreme coastal erosion, flooding and saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers.", "Changes in sea levels and cyclone occurrence has resulted in increased water frequency and coastal erosion.", "High water can create issues, such as the erosion of buildings and infrastructure, as well as vegetation.=== Changes to the ocean ===As a result of human activities, the chemical composition, temperature and circulation of oceans have significantly changed, which is concerning for marine ecosystems.", "The increased rising temperatures of the sea surface directly causes coral reef bleaching, and is likely to worsen in the near future.", "This is a major issue, due to the fact that coral reefs and ocean ecosystems in Guam facilitate tourism, contributing millions of dollars to Guam's economy.", "The intensity and frequency of heat stress has increased.", "From 2013 to 2017, more than one third of Guam's shallow corals were bleached and died, as a result of rising heat levels in the ocean.=== Issues in relation to climate change in Guam ===Climate change is a concept that pervades the entirety of the globe, and is no different in the US island territory of Guam.", "An array of groups, such as the elderly, children and low-income communities are disproportionately affected by climate change.", "Extreme weather and climate shifts will likely disrupt of the fabric of Guamanian society.", "In relation to human health, rising heat temperatures are a cause for concern, particularly in regards to heat related illnesses.", "Extreme storms and heatwaves are likely to aggravate existing illnesses, increasing the transition of disease.", "The decreased amount of rainfall in Guam, as well as the rise in heat temperatures facilitate an increased demand for fresh water.", "This additionally causes a decreased supply of fresh water.", "The increased droughts in Guam, as a result of the lack of rainfall has caused an increased dependency on well water.", "The amalgamation of potential pumping, droughts and rising sea levels may cause saltwater contamination in wells.", "Therefore, water conservation may be necessary in the near future, to prevent the depletion and access to fresh water in Guam." ], [ "See also", "* Guamanian citizenship and nationality" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Guam" ], [ "Introduction", "Guam is a two-party presidential representative democracy, in which the Governor is the head of government.", "Guam is an organized, unincorporated territory of the United States, with policy relations between Guam and the US under the jurisdiction of the Office of Insular Affairs.", "Guam is also listed on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories." ], [ "Background", "The economic situation in Guam is currently dependent on the significant U.S. military presence there.", "Its status as a tourist destination for Japanese, Singaporeans and South Koreans also contributes to Guam's economy.", "It has also emerged as a destination for economic migrants from the Philippines working at lower-wage jobs in the hospitality industry." ], [ "Debate over political status", "Maintenance of the status quo vis-à-vis the current political relationship between the territory and the United States is controversial.", "There is a significant movement in favor of the Territory becoming a commonwealth, which would give it a political status similar to Puerto Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands.", "Competing movements exist, which advocate political independence from the United States, statehood, or a combination with the Northern Mariana Islands as a single territory (not necessarily commonwealth).", "Therese M. Terlaje, Speaker of the Legislature of Guam, indicated support in 2018 for holding a plebiscite to allow Guamians to vote for their favored political status.These proposals, however, are not seen as favorable by the U.S. federal government, which argues Guam does not have the financial stability or self-sufficiency to warrant such status.", "They cite Guam's increasing reliance on Federal spending as evidence, and question how commonwealth status or statehood would benefit the United States as a whole.A portion of the people on Guam favors a modified version of the current Territorial status, involving greater autonomy from the federal government (similar to the autonomy of individual States).", "Perceived indifference by the U.S. Congress regarding a change-of-status petition submitted by Guam has led many to feel that the territory is being deprived of the benefits of a more equitable union with the United States." ], [ "Past referenda on political status", "=== January 1982 status referendum ===In January 1982, a referendum on Guam's status was held, with a 49.49% plurality of voters favoring commonwealth status, with 25.65% favoring statehood, the second most popular option.", "10.19% said they supported the status quo, while 5.40% supported U.S. incorporated territory status.", "3.9% of voters favored a free association agreement with the U.S., while independence was the least popular option, garnering 3.82% support.=== September 1982 status referendum ===A second referendum with the two most popular options in the original vote (commonwealth status and statehood) was held in September 1982.By a 72.82% to 27.18% margin, Guamanians voted in favor of commonwealth status over statehood.", "However, Guam has not received commonwealth status, and remains an unincorporated territory.=== Future referenda ===In 2000, the Guam Legislature authorized the creation of a non-binding vote to allow native inhabitants of Guam to cast their votes in favor of statehood, a free association agreement, or outright independence from the United States.", "In 2017, Chief Judge Frances Tydingco-Gatewood declared the proposal unconstitutional under the 15th Amendment." ], [ "Political parties and elections" ], [ "See also", "Political party strength in Guam" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Guam Residents Organize Against US Plans for $15B Military Buildup on Pacific Island - video report by ''Democracy Now!''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Communications in Guam" ], [ "Introduction", "Though Guam is a United States territory, some U.S. long-distance plans and courier services list Guam as an international location.", "As a result of Guam's being added to the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) in 1997, calls made to the U.S., Canada, or other participating countries from Guam (or to Guam from other NANP locations) only require the caller to dial a 1 followed by the area code.In this way, only domestic charges are incurred between the US and Guam on most carriers.", "Before Guam's inclusion, calling the U.S. required dialing the international 011 first, thus resulting in higher long-distance rates and less frequent calls to the U.S. by relatives in Guam.", "Prices of long-distance calls to these destinations have dropped significantly to the point where now calling the U.S. from Guam or calling Guam from the U.S. costs the same.== Mail == Some companies in the U.S. mainland still treat Guam as a foreign country and refuse to sell and ship items to Guam.", "However, if an item is shipped via USPS, shipping costs to Guam are the same as coast-to-coast shipping costs within the US.", "Many others will ship to Guam but will charge the shipping as an international destination.", "This is mainly because the company is using a private shipping company like UPS, FedEx, or DHL for its shipping.Much of the mail to and from Guam routes through Hawaii and awaits cargo space on United Airlines which is contracted to deliver mail between Hawaii and Guam." ], [ "Telephones", "'''Telephones – main lines in use:'''85,000 (2007)'''Telephones – mobile cellular:'''98,000 (2007)'''Telephone system:''': ''domestic:'' GTA: ~70,000 local access lines, dial-up and DSL, Internet, long-distance service, TDMA and GSM wireless services via Pulse Mobile & Docomo Pacific (formerly Guam Wireless) ChoicePhone LLC, dba iConnect with iDen, GSM and 4G LTE networks.", ": ''international:'' satellite earth stations – 2 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean); submarine cables to United States, Japan and Australia.", ": ''international access code:'' +1.671 (in the North American Numbering Plan, Area code 671)" ], [ "Radio and television", "'''Radio broadcast stations:'''AM 4, FM 7, shortwave 2 (2005)'''Radios:'''300,000 (2007)'''Television broadcast stations:'''8 (2007)'''Televisions:'''200,000 (2007)" ], [ "Internet", "'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''4 (2013)'''Country code (Top-level domain):''' GU" ], [ "Submarine cables", "Because of its location in the western Pacific and its status as U.S. territory, Guam has one of the most extensive submarine communications cable infrastructures in the Asia-Pacific.", "The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami cut many of the primary cables connecting the United States and Asia, prompting companies to look for alternate locations for new cables.", "In 2019, GTA Teleguam and RTI Cable built the island's first combined neutral cable landing station and data center.", "This coincided with a bill introduced to the Legislature of Guam by Sen. Telo Taitague to conduct an economic study and develop policy recommendations on submarine cables.", "GTA also seeks to attract U.S. companies to build data centers on Guam, noting the reduced network latency from Asia to Guam, compared to the U.S.", "Existing cable landing stations and their cables are:* Tanguisson cable landing station in Tamuning: Asia-America Gateway, Australia–Japan Cable and Guam-Philippines* Tumon Bay cable landing station in Tamuning: TPC-5CN, Australia–Japan Cable* Tata Piti cable landing station: VSNL Transpacific, Tata TGN-Intra Asia, and Pipe Pacific Cable-1* GTA Piti-I cable landing station: SEA-US, Japan-Guam-Australia South* Gateway Network Connections neutral cable landing station and data center in Piti: HK-G, Japan-Guam-Australia North, SxS Cable System* Unknown landing station: HANTRU-1Retired cables landing on Guam include China-US Cable Network and PacRimWest." ], [ "See also", "* Area code 671, Guam's telephone area code" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transportation in Guam" ], [ "Introduction", "The United States territory of Guam has no railways or freeways, nor does it have a merchant marine.", "The largest port is Apra Harbor, which serves almost all commercial traffic including cruise, cargo and fishing vessels.", "There are smaller harbors located on the island (most notably one in Hagatna and one in Agat) which serve recreational boaters.", "Roads are primarily paved by a coral/oil mixture that, when it gets wet, tends to have oil float to the surface, making the roads dangerous.", "This is one of the reasons the speed limit on most of the island is 35 mph.", "But, during road repair or maintenance, a different mixture of asphalt that is not as slippery is used.", "Its main commercial airport is the Antonio B.", "Won Pat International Airport.Route Marker for Guam Highway 8.", "'''Highways:''': ''total:'' 885 km: ''paved:'' 675 km: ''unpaved:'' 210 km: ''note:'' there is another 685 km of roads classified non-public, including roads located on federal government installations'''Airports:'''5 (1999 est.", ")'''Airports - with paved runways:''': ''total:'' 4: ''over 3,047 m:'' 2: ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 1: ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 1 (2007 est.", ")'''Airports - with unpaved runways:''': ''total:'' 1: ''under 914 m:'' 1 (2007 est.)" ], [ "See also", "* Guam* List of highways in Guam" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Guatemala" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of Guatemala''' begins with the Maya civilization (2600 BC – 1697 AD), which was among those that flourished in their country.", "The country's modern history began with the Spanish conquest of Guatemala in 1524.Most of the great Classic-era (250–900 AD) Maya cities of the Petén Basin region, in the northern lowlands, had been abandoned by the year 1000 AD.", "The states in the Belize central highlands flourished until the 1525 arrival of Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado.", "Called \"The Invader\" by the Mayan people, he immediately began subjugating the Indian states.Guatemala was part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala for nearly 330 years.", "This captaincy included what is now Chiapas in Mexico and the modern countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica.", "The colony became independent in 1821 and then became a part of the First Mexican Empire until 1823.From 1824 it was a part of the Federal Republic of Central America.", "When the Republic dissolved in 1841, Guatemala became fully independent.In the late 19th and early 20th century, Guatemala's potential for agricultural exploitation attracted several foreign companies, most prominently the United Fruit Company (UFC).", "These companies were supported by the country's authoritarian rulers and the United States government through their support for brutal labor regulations and massive concessions to wealthy landowners.", "In 1944, the policies of Jorge Ubico led to a popular uprising that began the ten-year Guatemalan Revolution.", "The presidencies of Juan José Arévalo and Jacobo Árbenz saw sweeping social and economic reforms, including a significant increase in literacy and a successful agrarian reform program.The progressive policies of Arévalo and Árbenz led the UFC to lobby the United States government for their overthrow, and a US-engineered coup in 1954 ended the revolution and installed a military regime.", "This was followed by other military governments, and jilted off a civil war that lasted from 1960 to 1996.The war saw human rights violations, including a genocide of the indigenous Maya population by the military.", "Following the war's end, Guatemala re-established a representative democracy.", "It has since struggled to enforce the rule of law and suffers a high crime rate and continued extrajudicial killings, often executed by security forces." ], [ "Pre-Columbian era", " The remains of the ''Nakbé'' palace from the mid pre-Classic period, Mirador Basin, Petén, GuatemalaThe earliest human settlements in Guatemala date back to the Paleo-Indian period and were made up of hunters and gatherers.Sites dating back to 6500 BC have been found in Quiché in the Highlands and Sipacate, Escuintla on the central Pacific coast.Although it is unclear when these groups of hunters and gatherers turned to cultivation, pollen samples from Petén and the Pacific coast indicate maize cultivation as early as 3500 BC.", "By 2500 BC, small settlements were developing in Guatemala's Pacific lowlands in such places as Tilapa, La Blanca, Ocós, El Mesak, and Ujuxte, where the oldest pieces of ceramic pottery from Guatemala have been found.", "Excavations in the Antigua Guatemala Urías and Rucal, have yielded stratified materials from the Early and Middle Preclassic periods (2000 BC to 400 BC).", "Paste analyses of these early pieces of pottery in the Antigua Valley indicate they were made of clays from different environmental zones, suggesting people from the Pacific coast expanded into the Antigua Valley.Guatemala's Pre-Columbian era can be divided into the Preclassic period (from 2000 BC to 250 AD), the Classic period (250 to 900 AD) and the Postclassic period (900 to 1500 AD).", "Until recently, the Preclassic was regarded as a formative period, consisting of small villages of farmers who lived in huts and few permanent buildings, but this notion has been challenged by recent discoveries of monumental architecture from that period, such as an altar in La Blanca, San Marcos, from 1000 BC; ceremonial sites at Miraflores and El Naranjo from 801 BC; the earliest monumental masks; and the Mirador Basin cities of Nakbé, Xulnal, El Tintal, Wakná and El Mirador.", "''Barrigones'' sculptureIn Monte Alto near La Democracia, Escuintla, giant stone heads and potbellies (or ''barrigones'') have been found, dating back to around 1800 BC.", "The stone heads have been ascribed to the Pre-Olmec Monte Alto Culture and some scholars suggest the Olmec Culture originated in the Monte Alto area.", "It has also been argued the only connection between the statues and the later Olmec heads is their size.", "The Monte Alto Culture may have been the first complex culture of Mesoamerica, and predecessor of all other cultures of the region.", "In Guatemala, some sites have unmistakable Olmec style, such as Chocolá in Suchitepéquez, La Corona in Peten, and Tak'alik A´baj, in Retalhuleu, the last of which is the only ancient city in the Americas with Olmec and Mayan features.El Mirador was by far the most populated city in pre-Columbian America.", "Both the El Tigre and Monos pyramids encompass a volume greater than 250,000 cubic meters.", "Richard Hansen, the director of the archaeological project of the Mirador Basin, believes the Maya at Mirador Basin developed the first politically organized state in America around 1500 BC, named the Kan Kingdom in ancient texts.", "There were 26 cities, all connected by ''sacbeob'' (highways), which were several kilometers long, up to 40 meters wide, and two to four meters above the ground, paved with stucco.", "These are clearly distinguishable from the air in the most extensive virgin tropical rain forest in Mesoamerica.Hansen believes the Olmec were not the mother culture in Mesoamerica.", "Due to findings at Mirador Basin in Northern Petén, Hansen suggests the Olmec and Maya cultures developed separately, and merged in some places, such as Tak'alik Abaj in the Pacific lowlands.Maya city of TikalNorthern Guatemala has particularly high densities of Late Pre-classic sites, including Naachtun, ''Xulnal'', El Mirador, Porvenir, Pacaya, La Muralla, Nakbé, El Tintal, ''Wakná'' (formerly ''Güiro''), Uaxactún, and Tikal.", "Of these, El Mirador, Tikal, Nakbé, Tintal, Xulnal and Wakná are the largest in the Maya world, Such size was manifested not only in the extent of the site, but also in the volume or monumentality, especially in the construction of immense platforms to support large temples.", "Many sites of this era display monumental masks for the first time (Uaxactún, El Mirador, Cival, Tikal and Nakbé).", "Hansen's dating has been called into question by many other Maya archaeologists, and developments leading to probably extra-regional power by the Late Preclassic of Kaminaljuyu, in the southern Maya area, suggest that Maya civilization developed in different ways in the Lowlands and the SMA to produce what we know as the Classic Maya.On 3 June 2020, researchers published an article in ''Nature'' describing their discovery of the oldest and largest Maya site, known as Aguada Fénix, in Mexico.", "It features monumental architecture, an elevated, rectangular plateau measuring about 1,400 meters long and nearly 400 meters wide, constructed of a mixture of earth and clay.", "To the west is a 10-meter-tall earthen mound.", "Remains of other structures and reservoirs were also detected through the Lidar technology.", "It is estimated to have been built from 1000 to 800 BC, demonstrating that the Maya built large, monumental complexes from their early period.The Classic period of Mesoamerican civilization corresponds to the height of the Maya civilization, and is represented by countless sites throughout Guatemala.", "The largest concentration is found in Petén.", "This period is characterized by expanded city-building, the development of independent city-states, and contact with other Mesoamerican cultures.This lasted until around 900 AD, when the Classic Maya civilization collapsed.", "The Maya abandoned many of the cities of the central lowlands or died in a drought-induced famine.", "Scientists debate the cause of the Classic Maya Collapse, but gaining currency is the Drought Theory discovered by physical scientists studying lake beds, ancient pollen, and other tangible evidence.In 2018, 60,000 uncharted structures were revealed in northern Guatemala by archaeologists with the help of Lidar technology lasers.", "The project applied Lidar technology on an area of 2,100 square kilometers in the Maya Biosphere Reserve in the Petén region of Guatemala.", "Thanks to the new findings, archaeologists believe that 7–11 million Maya people inhabited northern Guatemala during the late classical period from 650 to 800 A.D., twice the estimated population of medieval England.", "Lidar technology digitally removed the tree canopy to reveal ancient remains and showed that Maya cities, such as Tikal, were larger than previously assumed.", "The use of Lidar revealed numerous houses, palaces, elevated highways, and defensive fortifications.", "According to archaeologist Stephen Houston, it is one of the most overwhelming findings in over 150 years of Maya archaeology." ], [ "Colonial era", "The colonial era of the history of Guatemala comprises the years from 1524 (when the Spaniards conquered the country) to 1821(when it became independent from Spain.=== Spanish conquest ===Central America in the 16th century before Spanish conquestSecond-in-command to Hernán Cortés, Pedro de Alvarado was sent to the Guatemala highlands with 300 Spanish foot soldiers, 120 Spanish horsemen and several hundred Cholula and Tlascala auxiliaries.Alvarado entered Guatemala from Soconusco on the Pacific lowlands, headed for Xetulul Humbatz, Zapotitlán.", "He initially allied himself with the Cakchiquel nation to fight against their traditional rivals the K'iche'.", "The conquistador started his conquest in Xepau Olintepeque, defeating the K'iché's 72,000 men, led by Tecún Umán (now Guatemala's national hero).", "Alvarado went to Q'umarkaj, (Utatlán), the K'iche' capital, and burned it on 7 March 1524.He proceeded to Iximche, and made a base near there in Tecpan on 25 July 1524.From there he made several campaigns to other cities, including Chuitinamit, the capital of the Tzutuhils (1524); Mixco Viejo, capital of the Poqomam; and Zaculeu, capital of the Mam (1525).", "He was named captain general in 1527.Having secured his position, Alvarado turned against his allies the Cakchiquels, confronting them in several battles until they were subdued in 1530.Battles with other tribes continued up to 1548, when the Q'eqchi' in Nueva Sevilla, Izabal were defeated, leaving the Spanish in complete control of the region.Not all native tribes were subdued by bloodshed.", "Bartolomé de las Casas pacified the Kekchí in Alta Verapaz without violence.After more than a century of colonization, during which mutually independent Spanish authorities in Yucatán and Guatemala made various attempts to subjugate Petén and neighboring parts of what is now Mexico.", "In 1697, the Spanish finally conquered Nojpetén, capital of the Itza Maya, and Zacpetén, capital of the Kowoj Maya.", "Due to Guatemala's location in the Pacific American coast, it became a trade node in the commerce between Asia and Latin America when it arose to become a supplementary trade route to the Manila Galleons." ], [ "Era of independence from Spain", "=== 19th century ======= Independence and Central America civil war ====Criollos rejoice upon learning about the declaration of independence on 15 September 1821.Painting by Rafael Beltranena.In 1821, Fernando VII's power in Spain was weakened by French invasions and other conflicts, and Mexico declared the Plan de Iguala; this led Mariano Aycinena y Piñol and other criollos to demand the weak Captain General Gabino Gaínza to declare Guatemala and the rest of Central America as an independent entity.", "Aycinena y Piñol was one of the signatories of the Declaration of Independence of Central America from the Spanish Empire, and then lobbied strongly for Central America's annexation to the Mexican Empire of Agustín de Iturbide, due to its conservative and ecclesiastical nature.", "remained in the legislature and was the advisor of the Governors of Guatemala in the next few years.In October 1826, Central American Federation president Manuel José de Arce y Fagoaga dissolved the Legislature and tried to establish a Unitarian System for the region, switching from the Liberal to the Conservative party, that Aycinena led.", "The rest of Central America did not want this system; they wanted the Aycinena family out of power altogether, and therefore, the Central American Civil War (1826–1829) started.", "From this war emerged the dominant figure of the Honduran general Francisco Morazán.", "Mariano Aycinena y Piñol -leader of the Ayicena family and the conservative power- was appointed as Governor of Guatemala on 1 March 1827 by president Manuel José Arce; Aycinena regime was a dictatorship: he censored free press and any book with liberal ideology was forbidden.", "He also established Martial Law and the retroactive death penalty.", "He reinstated mandatory tithing for the secular clergy of the Catholic Church==== Invasion of General Morazán in 1829 ====Morazán and his liberal forces were fighting around San Miguel, in El Salvador beating any conservative federal forces sent by Guatemalan general Manuel Arzú from San Salvador.", "Then, Arzú decided to take matters in his own hands and left Colonel Montúfar in charge of San Salvador and went after Morazán.", "After realizing that Arzu was after him, Morazán left for Honduras to look for more volunteers for his army.", "On 20 September, Manuel Arzá was close to the Lempa River with 500 men, when he was notified that the rest of his army had capitulated in San Salvador.", "Morazán then went back to El Salvador with a considerable army and General Arzú, feigning a sickness, fled to Guatemala, leaving lieutenant colonel Antonio de Aycinena in command.", "Aycinena and his 500 troops were going to Honduras when they were intercepted by Morazán troops in San Antonio, forcing Aycinena to concede defeat on 9 October.", "With Aycinena defeat, there were no more conservative federal troops in El Salvador.", "On 23 October, general Morazán marched triumphantly in San Salvador.", "A few days later, he went to Ahuachapán, to organize an army to take down the conservative aristocrats led by Mariano Aycinena y Piñol in Guatemala and establish a regime favorable to the central American Federation that was the dream of the liberal criollos.Upon learning this, Aycinena y Piñol tried to negotiate with Morazán to no avail: Morazán was willing to take down the aristocrats at all costs.Map of Guatemala in 1829.Note that borders with Mexico, Yucatán and Chiapas are not defined.Plaza Central of Antigua Guatemala in 1829.The old \"Palacio de la Capitanía General\" was still destroyed after the 1773 earthquake.After his victory in San Miguelito, Morazán's army increased in size given that a lot of voluntaries from Guatemala joined him.", "On 15 March, when Morazán and his army were on their way to occupy their previous positions, they were intercepted by federal troops in Las Charcas.", "However, Morazán had a better position and smashed the federal army.", "The battle field was left full of corpses, while the allies took a lot of prisoners and weaponry.", "the allies continued to recapture their old positions in San José Pinula and Aceituno, and place Guatemala City under siege once again.", "General Verveer, ambassador from the King of Netherlands and Belgium before the Central American government and who was in Guatemala to negotiate the construction of a transoceanic Canal in Nicaragua, tried to mediate between the State of Guatemala and Morazán, but did not succeed.", "Military operations continued, with great success for the allies.To prepare for the siege from Morazán troops, on 18 March 1829, Aycinena decreed martial law, but he was completely defeated.", "On 12 April 1829, Aycinena conceded defeat and he and Morazán signed an armistice pact; then, he was sent to prison, along with his Cabinet members and the Aycinena family was secluded in their mansion.", "Morazán, however, annulled the pact on 20 April, since his real objective was to take power away from the conservatives and the regular clergy of the Catholic Church in Guatemala, whom the Central American leaders despised since they had had the commerce and power monopoly during the Spanish Colony.==== Liberal rule ====A member of the liberal party, Mariano Gálvez was appointed the chief of state in 1831.This was during a period of turmoil that made governing difficult.", "After the expulsion of the conservative leader of the Aycinena family and the regular clergy in 1829, Gálvez was appointed by Francisco Morazán as Governor of Guatemala in 1831.According to liberal historians Ramón Rosa and Lorenzo Montúfar y Rivera, Gálvez promoted major innovations in all aspects of the administration to make it less dependent on the influence of the Catholic Church.", "He also made public education independent of the Church, fostered science and the arts, eliminated religious festivals as holidays, founded the National Library and the National Museum, promoted respect for the laws and the rights of citizens, guaranteed freedom of the press and freedom of thought, established civil marriage and divorce, respected freedom of association, and promulgated the Livingston Code (penal code of Louisiana).", "Gálvez did this against much opposition from the population who were not used to the fast pace of change; he also initiated judicial reform, reorganized municipal government and established a general head tax which severely impacted the native population.", "However, these were all changes that the liberals wanted to implement to eliminate the political and economic power of the aristocrats and of the Catholic Church—whose regular orders were expelled in 1829 and the secular clergy was weakened by means of abolishing mandatory tithing.Among his major errors was a contract made with Michael Bennett—commercial partner of Francisco Morazán in the fine wood business—on 6 August 1834; the contract provided that the territories of Izabal, las Verapaces, Petén and Belize would be colonized within twenty years, but this proved impossible, plus made people irritated by having to deal with \"heretics\".", "In February 1835 Gálvez was re-elected for a second term, during which the Asiatic cholera afflicted the country.", "The secular clergy that was still in the country, persuaded the uneducated people of the interior that the disease was caused by the poisoning of the springs by order of the government and turned the complaints against Gálvez into a religious war.", "Peasant revolts began in 1837 and under chants of \"Hurray for the true religion!\"", "and \"Down with the heretics!\"", "started growing and spreading.", "Gálvez asked the National Assembly to transfer the capital of the Federation from Guatemala City to San Salvador.His major opponents were Colonel and Juan de Dios Mayorga; also, José Francisco Barrundia and Pedro Molina, who had been his friends and party colleagues, came to oppose him in the later years of his government after he violently tried to repress the peasant revolt using a scorched earth approach against rural communities.In 1838, Antigua Guatemala, Chiquimula and Salamá withdrew recognition of his government, and in February of that year Rafael Carrera's revolutionary forces entered Guatemala City asking for the cathedral to be opened to restore order in the Catholic communities, obliging Gálvez to relinquish power.", "Gálvez remained in the city after he lost power.==== Rise of Rafael Carrera ====In 1838, the liberal forces of the Honduran leader Francisco Morazán and Guatemalan José Francisco Barrundia invaded Guatemala and reached San Sur, where they executed Pascual Alvarez, Carrera's father-in-law.", "They impaled his head on a pike as a warning to all followers of the Guatemalan caudillo.", "On learning this, Carrera and his wife Petrona—who had come to confront Morazán as soon as they learned of the invasion and were in Mataquescuintla—swore they would never forgive Morazán even in his grave; they felt it impossible to respect anyone who would not avenge family members.After sending several envoys, whom Carrera would not receive—especially Barrundia whom Carrera did not want to murder in cold blood – Morazán began a scorched earth offensively, destroying villages in his path and stripping them of their few assets.", "The Carrera forces had to hide in the mountains.", "Believing that Carrera was totally defeated, Morazán and Barrundia marched on to Guatemala City, where they were welcomed as saviors by the state governor Pedro Valenzuela and members of the conservative Aycinena Clan, who proposed to sponsor one of the liberal battalions, while Valenzuela and Barrundia gave Morazán all the Guatemalan resources needed to solve any financial problem he had.", "The criollos of both parties celebrated until dawn that they finally had a criollo caudillo like Morazán, who was able to crush the peasant rebellion.Morazán used the proceeds to support Los Altos and then replaced Valenzuela by Mariano Rivera Paz, member of the Aycinena clan, although he did not return to that clan any property confiscated in 1829; in revenge, Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol voted for the dissolution of the Central American Federation in San Salvador a little later, forcing Morazán to return to El Salvador to fight to save his federal mandate.", "Along the way, Morazán increased repression in eastern Guatemala, as punishment for helping Carrera.", "Knowing that Morazán had gone to El Salvador, Carrera tried to take Salamá with the small force that remained but was defeated, losing his brother Laureano in the combat.", "With just a few men left, he managed to escape, badly wounded, to Sanarate.", "After recovering to some extent, he attacked a detachment in Jutiapa and managed to get a small amount of booty which he handed to the volunteers who accompanied him and prepared to attack Petapa—near Guatemala City—where he was victorious, though with heavy casualties.In September of that year, he attempted an assault on the capital of Guatemala, but the liberal general Carlos Salazar Castro defeated him in the fields of Villa Nueva and Carrera had to retreat.", "After an unsuccessful attempt to take the Quetzaltenango, Carrera was surrounded and wounded, and he had to capitulate to the Mexican General Agustin Guzman, who had been in Quetzaltenango since the time of Vicente Filísola's arrival in 1823.Morazán had the opportunity to shoot Carrera, but did not because he needed the support of the Guatemalan peasants to counter the attacks of Francisco Ferrera in El Salvador; instead, Morazán left Carrera in charge of a small fort in Mita, and without any weapons.", "Knowing that Morazán was going to attack El Salvador, Francisco Ferrera gave arms and ammunition to Carrera and convinced him to attack Guatemala City.Meanwhile, despite insistent advice to definitely crush Carrera and his forces, Salazar tried to negotiate with him diplomatically; he even went as far as to show that he neither feared nor distrusted Carrera by removing the fortifications of the Guatemalan capital, in place in since the battle of Villa Nueva.", "Taking advantage of Salazar's good faith and Ferrera's weapons, Carrera took Guatemala City by surprise on 13 April 1839; Castro Salazar, Mariano Gálvez and Barrundia fled before the arrival of Carrera's militiamen.", "Salazar, in his nightshirt, vaulted roofs of neighboring houses and sought refuge; reaching the border disguised as a peasant.", "With Salazar gone, Carrera reinstated Rivera Paz as head of state of Guatemala.==== Invasion and absorption of Los Altos ====Captain General Rafael Carrera after being appointed president for life of the Republic of Guatemala in 1854State coat of Los Altos, carved in stone on the grave of heroes in the Cemetery of QuetzaltenangoOn 2 April 1838, in the city of Quetzaltenango, a secessionist group founded the independent State of Los Altos which sought independence from Guatemala.", "The most important members of the Liberal Party of Guatemala and liberal enemies of the conservative regime moved to Los Altos, leaving their exile in El Salvador.", "The liberals in Los Altos began severely criticizing the Conservative government of Rivera Paz; they had their own newspaper—''El Popular''—which contributed to the harsh criticism.Los Altos was the region with the main production and economic activity of the former state of Guatemala.", "without Los Altos, conservatives lost much of the resources that had given Guatemala hegemony in Central America.", "Then, the government of Guatemala tried to reach to a peaceful solution, but altenses, protected by the recognition of the Central American Federation Congress, did not accept; Guatemala's government then resorted to force, sending Carrera as commanding general of the Army to subdue Los Altos.Carrera defeated General Agustin Guzman when the former Mexican officer tried to ambush him and then went on to Quetzaltenango, where he imposed a harsh and hostile conservative regime instead of the liberals.", "Calling all council members, he told them flatly that he was behaving leniently towards them as it was the first time they had challenged him, but sternly warned them that there would be no mercy if there was a second time.", "Finally, Guzmán, and the head of state of Los Altos, Marcelo Molina, were sent to the capital of Guatemala, where they were displayed as trophies of war during a triumphant parade on 17 February 1840; in the case of Guzman, shackled, still with bleeding wounds, and riding a mule.", "General Francisco Morazán On 18 March 1840, liberal caudillo Morazán invaded Guatemala with 1500 soldiers to avenge the insult done in Los Altos.", "Fearing that such action would end with liberal efforts to hold together the Central American Federation, Guatemala had a cordon of guards from the border with El Salvador; without a telegraph service, men ran carrying last-minute messages.", "With the information from these messengers, Carrera hatched a plan of defense leaving his brother Sotero in charge of troops who presented only slight resistance in the city.", "Carrera pretended to flee and led his ragtag army to the heights of Aceituno, with few men, few rifles and two old cannons.", "The city was at the mercy of the army of Morazán, with bells of the twenty churches ringing for divine assistance.Once Morazán reached the capital, he took it very easily and freed Guzman, who immediately left for Quetzaltenango to give the news that Carrera was defeated; Carrera then, taking advantage of what his enemies believed, applied a strategy of concentrating fire on the Central Park of the city and also employed surprise attack tactics which caused heavy casualties to the army of Morazán, finally forcing the survivors to fight for their lives.", "Morazán's soldiers lost the initiative and their previous numerical superiority.", "Furthermore, in unfamiliar surroundings in the city, they had to fight, carry their dead and care for their wounded while resentful and tired from the long march from El Salvador to Guatemala.Carrera, by then an experienced military man, was able to defeat Morazán thoroughly.", "The disaster for the liberal general was complete: aided by Angel Molina—son of Guatemalan Liberal leader Pedro Molina Mazariegos—who knew the streets of the city, had to flee with his favorite men, disguised, shouting \"Long live Carrera!\"", "through the ravine of \"El Incienso\" to El Salvador.", "In his absence, Morazán had been supplanted as Head of State of his country, and had to embark for exile in Peru.", "In Guatemala, survivors from his troops were shot without mercy, while Carrera was out in unsuccessful pursuit of Morazán.", "This engagement sealed the status of Carrera and marked the decline of Morazán, and forced the conservative Aycinena clan criollos to negotiate with Carrera and his peasant revolutionary supporters.Guzmán, who was freed by Morazán when the latter had seemingly defeated Carrera in Guatemala City, had gone back to Quetzaltenango to bring the good news.", "The city liberal criollo leaders rapidly reinstated the Los Altos State and celebrated Morazán's victory.", "However, as soon as Carrera and the newly reinstated Mariano Rivera Paz heard the news, Carrera went back to Quetzaltenango with his volunteer army to regain control of the rebel liberal state once and for all.", "On 2 April 1840, after entering the city, Carrera told the citizens that he had already warned them after he defeated them earlier that year.", "Then, he ordered the majority of the liberal city hall officials from Los Altos to be shot.", "Carrera then forcibly annexed Quetzaltenango and much of Los Altos back into conservative Guatemala.After the violent and bloody reinstatement of the State of Los Altos by Carrera in April 1840, Luis Batres Juarros—conservative member of the Aycinena Clan, then secretary general of the Guatemalan government of recently reinstated Mariano Rivera Paz—obtained from the vicar Larrazabal authorization to dismantle the regionalist Church.", "Serving priests of Quetzaltenango—capital of the would-be-state of Los Altos, Urban Ugarte and his coadjutor, José Maria Aguilar, were removed from their parish and likewise the priests of the parishes of San Martin Jilotepeque and San Lucas Tolimán.", "Larrazabal ordered the priests Fernando Antonio Dávila, Mariano Navarrete and Jose Ignacio Iturrioz to cover the parishes of Quetzaltenango, San Martin Jilotepeque and San Lucas Toliman, respectively.The liberal criollos' defeat and execution in Quetzaltenango enhanced Carrera's status with the native population of the area, whom he respected and protected.In 1840, Belgium began to act as an external source of support for Carrera's independence movement, in an effort to exert influence in Central America.", "The ''Compagnie belge de colonisation'' (Belgian Colonization Company), commissioned by Belgian King Leopold I, became the administrator of Santo Tomas de Castilla replacing the failed British Eastern Coast of Central America Commercial and Agricultural Company.", "Even though the colony eventually crumbled, Belgium continued to support Carrera in the mid-19th century, although Britain continued to be the main business and political partner to Carrera.Rafael Carrera was elected Guatemalan Governor in 1844.On 21 March 1847, Guatemala declared itself an independent republic and Carrera became its first president.General Carrera portrait celebrating the foundation of the Republic of Guatemala in 1847Proclamation Coin 1847 of the independent Republic of GuatemalaDuring the first term as president, Carrera had brought the country back from extreme conservatism to a traditional moderation; in 1848, the liberals were able to drive him from office, after the country had been in turmoil for several months.", "Carrera resigned of his own free will and left for México.", "The new liberal regime allied itself with the Aycinena family and swiftly passed a law ordering Carrera's execution if he dared to return to Guatemalan soil.", "The liberal criollos from Quetzaltenango were led by general Agustín Guzmán who occupied the city after Corregidor general Mariano Paredes was called to Guatemala City to take over the Presidential office.", "They declared on 26 August 1848 that Los Altos was an independent state once again.", "The new state had the support of Vasconcelos' regime in El Salvador and the rebel guerrilla army of Vicente and Serapio Cruz who were sworn enemies of Carrera.", "The interim government was led by Guzmán himself and had Florencio Molina and the priest Fernando Davila as his Cabinet members.", "On 5 September 1848, the criollos altenses chose a formal government led by Fernando Antonio Martínez.In the meantime, Carrera decided to return to Guatemala and did so entering by Huehuetenango, where he met with the native leaders and told them that they must remain united to prevail; the leaders agreed and slowly the segregated native communities started developing a new Indian identity under Carrera's leadership.", "In the meantime, in the eastern part of Guatemala, the Jalapa region became increasingly dangerous; former president Mariano Rivera Paz and rebel leader Vicente Cruz were both murdered there after trying to take over the Corregidor office in 1849.When Carrera arrived to Chiantla in Huehuetenango, he received two altenses emissaries who told him that their soldiers were not going to fight his forces because that would lead to a native revolt, much like that of 1840; their only request from Carrera was to keep the natives under control.", "The altenses did not comply, and led by Guzmán and his forces, they started chasing Carrera; the caudillo hid helped by his native allies and remained under their protection when the forces of Miguel García Granados—who arrived from Guatemala City were looking for him.On learning that officer José Víctor Zavala had been appointed as Corregidor in Suchitepéquez Department, Carrera and his hundred jacalteco bodyguards crossed a dangerous jungle infested with jaguars to meet his former friend.", "When they met, Zavala not only did not capture him, but agreed to serve under his orders, thus sending a strong message to both liberal and conservatives in Guatemala City that they would have to negotiate with Carrera or battle on two fronts—Quetzaltenango and Jalapa.", "Carrera went back to the Quetzaltenango area, while Zavala remained in Suchitepéquez as a tactical maneuver.", "Carrera received a visit from a Cabinet member of Paredes and told him that he had control of the native population and that he assured Paredes that he would keep them appeased.", "When the emissary returned to Guatemala City, he told the president everything Carrera said, and added that the native forces were formidable.Guzmán went to Antigua Guatemala to meet with another group of Paredes emissaries; they agreed that Los Altos would rejoin Guatemala, and that the latter would help Guzmán defeat his hated enemy and also build a port on the Pacific Ocean.", "Guzmán was sure of victory this time, but his plan evaporated when, in his absence, Carrera and his native allies had occupied Quetzaltenango; Carrera appointed Ignacio Yrigoyen as Corregidor and convinced him that he should work with the k'iche', mam, q'anjobal and mam leaders to keep the region under control.", "On his way out, Yrigoyen murmured to a friend: Now he is the King of the Indians, indeed!Guzmán then left for Jalapa, where he struck a deal with the rebels, while Luis Batres Juarros convinced President Paredes to deal with Carrera.", "Back in Guatemala City within a few months, Carrera was commander-in-chief, backed by military and political support of the Indian communities from the densely populated western highlands.", "During the first presidency from 1844 to 1848, he brought the country back from excessive conservatism to a moderate regime, and–with the advice of Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol and Pedro de Aycinena—restored relations with the Church in Rome with a Concordat ratified in 1854.He also kept peace between natives and criollos, with the latter fearing a rising like the one that was taking place in Yucatán at the time.==== Caste War of Yucatán ====In Yucatán, then an independent republic north of Guatemala, a war started between the natives and criollo people; this war seemed rooted in the defense of communal lands against the expansion of private ownership, which was accentuated by the boom in the production of henequen, which was an important industrial fiber used to make rope.", "After discovering the value of the plant, the wealthier Yucateco criollos started plantations, beginning in 1833, to cultivate it on a large scale; not long after the henequen boom, a boom in sugar production led to more wealth.", "The sugar and henequen plantations encroached on native communal land, and native workers recruited to work on the plantations were mistreated and underpaid.However, rebel leaders in their correspondence with British Honduras were more often inclined to cite taxation as the immediate cause of the war; Jacinto Pat, for example, wrote in 1848 that \"what we want is liberty and not oppression, because before we were subjugated with the many contributions and taxes that they imposed on us.\"", "Pac's companion, Cecilio Chi added in 1849, that promises made by the rebel Santiago Imán, that he was \"liberating the Indians from the payment of contributions\" as a reason for resisting the central government, but in fact he continued levying them.In June 1847, Méndez learned that a large force of armed natives and supplies had gathered at the Culumpich, a property owned by Jacinto Pat, the Maya ''batab'' (leader), near Valladolid.", "Fearing revolt, Mendez arrested Manuel Antonio Ay, the principal Maya leader of Chichimilá, accused of planning a revolt, and executed him at the town square of Valladolid.", "Furthermore, Méndez searching for other insurgents burned the town of Tepich and repressed its residents.", "In the following months, several Maya towns were sacked and many people arbitrarily killed.", "In his letter of 1849, Cecilio Chi noted that Santiago Mendez had come to \"put every Indian, big and little, to death\" but that the Maya had responded to some degree, in kind, writing \"it has pleased God and good fortune that a much greater portion of them whites than of the Indians have died.Cecilio Chi, the native leader of Tepich, along with Jacinto Pat attacked Tepich on 30 July 1847, in reaction to the indiscriminate massacre of Mayas, ordered that all the non-Maya population be killed.", "By spring of 1848, the Maya forces had taken over most of the Yucatán, with the exception of the walled cities of Campeche and Mérida and the south-west coast, with Yucatecan troops holding the road from Mérida to the port of Sisal.", "The Yucatecan governor Miguel Barbachano had prepared a decree for the evacuation of Mérida, but was apparently delayed in publishing it by the lack of suitable paper in the besieged capital.", "The decree became unnecessary when the republican troops suddenly broke the siege and took the offensive with major advances.Governor Barbachano sought allies anywhere he could find them, in Cuba (for Spain), Jamaica (for the United Kingdom) and the United States, but none of these foreign powers would intervene, although the matter was taken seriously enough in the United States to be debated in Congress.", "Subsequently, therefore, he turned to Mexico, and accepted a return to Mexican authority.", "Yucatán was officially reunited with Mexico on 17 August 1848.Yucateco forces rallied, aided by fresh guns, money, and troops from Mexico, and pushed back the natives from more than half of the state.By 1850 the natives occupied two distinct regions in the southeast and they were inspired to continue the struggle by the apparition of the \"Talking Cross\".", "This apparition, believed to be a way in which God communicated with the Maya, dictated that the War continue.", "Chan Santa Cruz, or Small Holy Cross became the religious and political center of the Maya resistance and the rebellion came to be infused with religious significance.", "Chan Santa Cruz also became the name of the largest of the independent Maya states, as well as the name of the capital city which is now the city of Felipe Carrillo Puerto, Quintana Roo.", "The followers of the Cross were known as the \"Cruzob\".The government of Yucatán first declared the war over in 1855, but hopes for peace were premature.", "There were regular skirmishes, and occasional deadly major assaults into each other's territory, by both sides.", "The United Kingdom recognized the Chan Santa Cruz Maya as a \"de facto\" independent nation, in part because of the major trade between Chan Santa Cruz and British Honduras.==== Battle of La Arada ====After Carrera returned from exile in 1849, Vasconcelos granted asylum to the Guatemalan liberals, who harassed the Guatemalan government in several different forms: José Francisco Barrundia did it through a liberal newspaper established with that specific goal; Vasconcelos gave support during a whole year to a rebel faction \"La Montaña\", in eastern Guatemala, providing and distributing money and weapons.", "By late 1850, Vasconcelos was getting impatient at the slow progress of the war with Guatemala and decided to plan an open attack.", "Under that circumstance, the Salvadorean head of state started a campaign against the conservative Guatemalan regime, inviting Honduras and Nicaragua to participate in the alliance; only the Honduran government led by Juan Lindo accepted.Meanwhile, in Guatemala, where the invasion plans were perfectly well known, President Mariano Paredes started taking precautions to face the situation, while the Guatemalan Archbishop, Francisco de Paula García Peláez, ordered peace prayers in the archdiocese.On 4 January 1851, Doroteo Vasconcelos and Juan Lindo met in Ocotepeque, Honduras, where they signed an alliance against Guatemala.", "The Salvadorean army had 4,000 men, properly trained and armed and supported by artillery; the Honduran army numbered 2,000 men.", "The coalition army was stationed in Metapán, El Salvador, due to its proximity with both the Guatemalan and Honduran borders.On 28 January 1851, Vasconcelos sent a letter to the Guatemalan Ministry of Foreign Relations, in which he demanded that the Guatemalan president relinquish power, so that the alliance could designate a new head of state loyal to the liberals and that Carrera be exiled, escorted to any of the Guatemalan southern ports by a Salvadorean regiment.", "The Guatemalan government did not accept the terms and the Allied army entered Guatemalan territory at three different places.", "On 29 January, a 500-man contingent entered through Piñuelas, Agua Blanca and Jutiapa, led by General Vicente Baquero, but the majority of the invading force marched from Metapán.", "The Allied army was composed of 4,500 men led by Vasconcelos, as Commander in Chief.", "Other commanders were the generals José Santos Guardiola, Ramón Belloso, José Trinidad Cabañas, and Gerardo Barrios.", "Guatemala was able to recruit 2,000 men, led by Lieutenant General Carrera as Commander in Chief, with several colonels.Carrera's strategy was to feign a retreat, forcing the enemy forces to follow the \"retreating\" troops to a place he had previously chosen; on 1 February 1851, both armies were facing each other with only the San José river between them.", "Carrera had fortified the foothills of La Arada, its summit about above the level of the river.", "A meadow deep lay between the hill and the river, and boarding the meadow was a sugar cane plantation.", "Carrera divided his army in three sections: the left wing was led by Cerna and Solares; the right wing led by Bolaños.", "He personally led the central battalion, where he placed his artillery.", "Five hundred men stayed in Chiquimula to defend the city and to aid in a possible retreat, leaving only 1,500 Guatemalans against an enemy of 4,500.The battle began at 8:30 am, when Allied troops initiated an attack at three different points, with an intense fire opened by both armies.", "The first Allied attack was repelled by the defenders of the foothill; during the second attack, the Allied troops were able to take the first line of trenches.", "They were subsequently expelled.", "During the third attack, the Allied force advanced to a point where it was impossible to distinguish between Guatemalan and Allied troops.", "Then, the fight became a melée, while the Guatemalan artillery severely punished the invaders.", "At the height of the battle when the Guatemalans faced an uncertain fate, Carrera ordered that sugar cane plantation around the meadow to be set on fire.", "The invading army was now surrounded: to the front, they faced the furious Guatemalan firepower, to the flanks, a huge blaze and to the rear, the river, all of which made retreat very difficult.", "The central division of the Allied force panicked and started a disorderly retreat.", "Soon, all of the Allied troops started retreating.The 500 men of the rearguard pursued what was left of the Allied army, which desperately fled for the borders of their respective countries.", "The final count of the Allied losses were 528 dead, 200 prisoners, 1,000 rifles, 13,000 rounds of ammunition, many pack animals and baggage, 11 drums and seven artillery pieces.", "Vasconcelos sought refuge in El Salvador, while two Generals mounted on the same horse were seen crossing the Honduran border.", "Carrera regrouped his army and crossed the Salvadorean border, occupying Santa Ana, before he received orders from the Guatemalan President, Mariano Paredes, to return to Guatemala, since the Allies were requesting a cease-fire and a peace treaty.==== Concordat of 1854 ====The Concordat of 1854 was an international treaty between Carrera and the Holy See, signed in 1852 and ratified by both parties in 1854.Through this, Guatemala gave the education of Guatemalan people to regular orders of the Catholic Church, committed to respect ecclesiastical property and monasteries, imposed mandatory tithing and allowed the bishops to censor what was published in the country; in return, Guatemala received dispensations for the members of the army, allowed those who had acquired the properties that the liberals had expropriated from the Church in 1829 to keep those properties, received the taxes generated by the properties of the Church, and had the right to judge certain crimes committed by clergy under Guatemalan law.", "The concordat was designed by Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol and not only reestablished but reinforced the relationship between Church and State in Guatemala.", "It was in force until the fall of the conservative government of Field Marshal Vicente Cerna y Cerna.In 1854, by initiative of Manuel Francisco Pavón Aycinena, Carrera was declared \"supreme and perpetual leader of the nation\" for life, with the power to choose his successor.", "He was in that position until he died on 14 April 1865.While he pursued some measures to set up a foundation for economic prosperity to please the conservative landowners, military challenges at home and in a three-year war with Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua dominated his presidency.", "His rivalry with Gerardo Barrios, President of El Salvador, resulted in open war in 1863.At Coatepeque the Guatemalans suffered a severe defeat, which was followed by a truce.", "Honduras joined with El Salvador, and Nicaragua and Costa Rica with Guatemala.", "The contest was finally settled in favor of Carrera, who besieged and occupied San Salvador, and dominated Honduras and Nicaragua.", "He continued to act in concert with the Clerical Party, and tried to maintain friendly relations with the European governments.", "Before his death, Carrera nominated his friend and loyal soldier, Army Marshall Vicente Cerna y Cerna, as his successor.==== Wyke-Aycinena treaty: Limits convention about Belize ====Coat of Arms of the Republic of Guatemala between 1858 and 1871.A replica was carved on the front side of the Carrera theater before it was remodeled in 1892.1861 map of the boundary between British Honduras (now Belize) and GuatemalaThe Belize region in the Yucatán Peninsula was never occupied by either Spain or Guatemala.", "Spain made some exploratory expeditions in the 16th century that served as its basis to claim the area.", "Guatemala simply inherited that argument to claim the territory, even though it never sent an expedition to the area after independence from Spain, due to the ensuing Central American civil war that lasted until 1860.The British had had a small settlement there since the middle of the 17th century, mainly as buccaneers' quarters and then for wood production.", "The settlements were never recognized as British colonies although they were somewhat under the jurisdiction of the British government in Jamaica.", "In the 18th century, Belize became the main smuggling center for Central America, even though the British accepted Spain's sovereignty over the region via treaties signed in 1783 and 1786, in exchange for a ceasefire and the authorization for British subjects to work in the forests of Belize.After 1821, Belize became the leading edge of Britain's commercial entrance in the isthmus.", "British commercial brokers established themselves and began prosperous commercial routes plying the Caribbean harbors of Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua.When Carrera came to power in 1840 he stopped the complaints over Belize and established a Guatemalan consulate in the region to oversee Guatemalan interests.", "Belize commerce boomed in the region until 1855, when the Colombians built a transoceanic railway that allowed commerce to flow more efficiently between the oceans.", "Thereafter Belize's commercial importance declined.", "When the Caste War of Yucatán began in the Yucatán Peninsula the Belize and Guatemala representatives were on high alert; Yucatán refugees fled into both Guatemala and Belize and Belize's superintendent came to fear that Carrera–given his strong alliance with Guatemalan natives–could support the native uprisings.In the 1850s, the British employed goodwill to settle the territorial differences with Central American countries.", "They: withdrew from the Mosquito Coast in Nicaragua and began talks that would end by restoring the territory to Nicaragua in 1894: returned the Bay Islands to Honduras and negotiated with the American filibuster William Walker in an effort to prevent him from conducting an invasion of Honduras.", "They signed a treaty with Guatemala regarding Belize's borders, which has been referred to by some Guatemalans as the worst mistake made by Rafael Carrera.Pedro de Aycinena y Piñol, as Foreign Secretary, made an extra effort to keep good relations with the Crown.", "In 1859, Walker again threatened Central America; in order to get the weapons needed to face the filibuster, Carrera's regime had to come to terms about Belize with the British.", "On 30 April 1859, the Wyke-Aycinena treaty was signed, between the British and Guatemalan representatives.", "The treaty had two parts:* The first six articles clearly defined the Guatemala-Belize border: Guatemala acknowledged Britain's sovereignty over Belize.", "* The seventh article was about the construction of a road between Guatemala City and the Caribbean coast, which would be of mutual benefit, as Belize needed a way to communicate with the Pacific coast in order to return to commercial relevance; Guatemala needed a road to improve communication with its Atlantic coast.", "However, the road was never built; first because Guatemalans and Belizeans could not agree on the exact location for the road, and later because the conservatives lost power in Guatemala in 1871, and the liberal government declared the treaty void.Among those who signed the treaty was José Milla y Vidaurre, who worked with Aycinena in the Foreign Ministry at the time.", "Carrera ratified the treaty on 1 May 1859, while Charles Lennox Wyke, British consul in Guatemala, traveled to Great Britain and got royal approval on 26 September 1859.American consul Beverly Clarke objected with some liberal representatives, but the issue was settled.As of 1850, it was estimated that Guatemala had a population of 600,000.Guatemala's \"Liberal Revolution\" came in 1871 under the leadership of Justo Rufino Barrios, who worked to modernize the country, improve trade and introduce new crops and manufacturing.", "During this era coffee became an important crop for Guatemala.", "Barrios had ambitions of reuniting Central America and took the country to war in an unsuccessful attempt to attain it, losing his life on the battlefield in 1885 to forces in El Salvador.==== Justo Rufino Barrios government ====Guatemalan National Penitentiary, built by Barrios to incarcerate and torture his political enemiesThe Conservative government in Honduras gave military backing to a group of Guatemalan Conservatives wishing to take back the government, so Barrios declared war on the Honduran government.", "At the same time, Barrios, together with President Luis Bogran of Honduras, declared an intention to reunify the old United Provinces of Central America.During his time in office, Barrios continued with the liberal reforms initiated by García Granados, but he was more aggressive implementing them.", "A summary of his reforms is:* Definitive separation between Church and State: he expelled the regular clergy such as Morazán had done in 1829 and confiscated their properties.", "::Regular orderCoat of armsClergy typeConfiscated propertiesOrder of Preachers75pxRegular* Monasteries* Large extensions of farmland* Sugar mills* Indian doctrinesMercedarians75pxRegular* Monasteries* Large extensions of farmland* Sugar mills* Indian doctrinesSociety of Jesus75pxRegularThe Jesuits had been expelled from the Spanish colonies back in 1765 and did not return to Guatemala until 1852.By 1871, they did not have major possessions.Recoletos75pxRegular* MonasteriresConceptionists75pxRegular* Monasteries* Large extensions of farmlandArchdiocese of Guatemala SecularSchool and Trentin Seminar of Nuestra Señora de la AsunciónCongregation of the Oratory75pxSecular* Church building and housing in Guatemala City were obliterated by presidential order.", "* Forbid mandatory tithing to weaken secular clergy members and the archbishop.", "* Established civil marriage as the only official one in the country* Secular cemeteries* Civil records superseded religious ones* Established secular education across the country* Established free and mandatory elementary schools* Closed the Pontifical University of San Carlos and in its place created the secular National University.Barrios had a National Congress totally pledge to his will, and therefore he was able to create a new constitution in 1879, which allowed him to be reelected as president for another six-year term.He also was intolerant with his political opponents, forcing a lot of them to flee the country and building the infamous Guatemalan Central penitentiary where he had numerous people incarcerated and tortured.Day laborers pay day in Santa Rosa, ca.", "1890, according to the Day Laborer Regulations established by BarriosGuatemala territory during Rafael Carrera and Vicente Cerna conservative regimes.", "Soconusco territories were given to México in exchange for their support to the Liberal revolution in 1871 by Herrera-Mariscal treaty of 1882.Town alcaldes of Highland Guatemala in traditional dress, 1891During Barrios' tenure, the \"indian land\" that the conservative regime of Rafael Carrera had so strongly defended was confiscated and distributed among those officers who had helped him during the Liberal Revolution in 1871.Decree # 170 (a.k.a.", "Census redemption decree) made it easy to confiscate those lands in favor of the army officers and the German settlers in Verapaz as it allowed to publicly sell those common Indian lots.", "Therefore, the fundamental characteristic of the productive system during Barrios regime was the accumulation of large extension of land among few owners and a sort of \"farmland servitude\", based on the exploitation of the native day laborers.In order to make sure that there was a steady supply of day laborers for the coffee plantations, which required a lot of them, Barrios government decreed the ''Day Laborer regulations'', labor legislation that placed the entire native population at the disposition of the new and traditional Guatemalan landlords, except the regular clergy, who were eventually expelled form the country and saw their properties confiscated.", "This decree set the following for the native Guatemalans:# Were forced by law to work on farms when the owners of those required them, without any regard for where the native towns were located.# Were under control of local authorities, who were in charge to make sure that day laborer batches were sent to all the farms that required them.# Were subject to ''habilitation'': a type of forced advanced pay, which buried the day laborer in debt and then made it legal for the landlords to keep them in their land for as long as they wanted.# Created the ''day laborer booklet'': a document that proved that a day laborer had no debts to his employer.", "Without this document, any day laborer was at the mercy of the local authorities and the landlords.In 1879, a constitution was ratified for Guatemala (the Republic's first as an independent nation, as the old Conservador regime had ruled by decree).", "In 1880, Barrios was reelected President for a six-year term.", "Barrios unsuccessfully attempted to get the United States to mediate the disputed boundary between Guatemala and Mexico.==== Government of Manuel Lisandro Barillas ====General Manuel Lisandro Barillas Bercián was able to become interim president of Guatemala after the death of President Justo Rufino Barrios in the Batalla of Chalchuapa in El Salvador in April 1885 and after the resignation of first designate Alejandro Manuel Sinibaldi Castro, by means of a clever scam: he went to the General Cemetery when Barrios was being laid to rest and told the Congress president: \"please prepare room and board for the 5,000 troops that I have waiting for my orders in Mixco\".", "The congress president was scared of this, and declared Barillas interim president on the spot.", "By the time he realized that it was all a lie, it was too late to change anything.Instead of calling for elections, as he should have, Barillas Bercián was able to be declared President on 16 March 1886 and remained in office until 1892.During the government of general Barillas Bercián, the Carrera theater was remodeled to celebrate the Discovery of America fourth centennial; the Italian community in Guatemala donated a statue of Christopher Columbus -Cristóbal Colón, in Spanish- which was placed next to the theater.", "Since then, the place was called \"Colón Theater\".In 1892, Barillas called for elections as he wanted to take care of his personal business; it was the first election in Guatemala that allowed the candidates to make propaganda in the local newspapers.Barillas Bercian was unique among liberal presidents of Guatemala between 1871 and 1944: he handed over power to his successor peacefully.", "When election time approached, he sent for the three Liberal candidates to ask them what their government plan would be.", "Happy with what he heard from general Reyna Barrios, Barillas made sure that a huge column of Quetzaltenango and Totonicapán Indigenous people came down from the mountains to vote for general Reyna Barrios.", "Reyna was elected president.", "As to not to offend the losing candidates, Barillas gave them checks to cover the costs of their presidential campaigns.", "Reyna Barrios went on to become president on 15 March 1892.=== 20th century ===In the 1890s, the United States began to implement the Monroe Doctrine, pushing out European colonial powers and establishing U.S. hegemony over resources and labor in Latin American nations.", "The dictators that ruled Guatemala during the late 19th and early 20th century were generally very accommodating to U.S. business and political interests; thus, unlike other Latin American nations such as Haiti, Nicaragua and Cuba the U.S. did not have to use overt military force to maintain dominance in Guatemala.", "The Guatemalan military/police worked closely with the U.S. military and State Department to secure U.S. interests.", "The Guatemalan government exempted several U.S. corporations from paying taxes, especially the United Fruit Company, privatized and sold off publicly owned utilities, and gave away huge swaths of public land.==== Manuel Estrada Cabrera regime (1898–1920) ====Manuel Estrada Cabrera ruled Guatemala between 1898 and 1920.After the assassination of general José María Reina Barrios on 8 February 1898, the Guatemalan cabinet called an emergency meeting to appoint a new successor, but declined to invite Estrada Cabrera to the meeting, even though he was the First Designated to the Presidency.", "There are two versions on how he was able to get the Presidency: (a) Estrada Cabrera entered \"with pistol drawn\" to assert his entitlement to the presidency and (b) Estrada Cabrera showed up unarmed to the meeting and demanded to be given the presidency as he was the First Designated\".The first Guatemalan head of state taken from civilian life in over 50 years, Estrada Cabrera overcame resistance to his regime by August 1898 and called for September elections, which he won handily.", "At that time, Estrada Cabrera was 44 years old; he was stocky, of medium height, dark, and broad-shouldered.", "The mustache gave him plebeian appearance.", "Black and dark eyes, metallic sounding voice and was rather sullen and brooding.", "At the same time, he already showed his courage and character.", "This was demonstrated on the night of the death of Reina Barrios when he stood in front of the ministers, meeting in the Government Palace to choose a successor, ''Gentlemen, let me please sign this decree.", "As First Designated, you must hand me the Presidency''.", "\"His first decree was a general amnesty and the second was to reopen all the elementary schools closed by Reyna Barrios, both administrative and political measures aimed to gain the public opinion.", "Estrada Cabrera was almost unknown in the political circles of the capital and one could not foresee the features of his government or his intentions.In 1898, the Legislature convened for the election of President Estrada Cabrera, who triumphed thanks to the large number of soldiers and policemen who went to vote in civilian clothes and to the large number of illiterate family that they brought with them to the polls.", "Also, the effective propaganda that was written in the official newspaper \"the Liberal Idea '.", "The latter was run by the poet Joaquin Mendez, and among the drafters were Enrique Gómez Carrillo, -a famous writer who had just returned to Guatemala from Paris, and who had confidence that Estrada Cabrera was the president that Guatemala needed- Rafael Spinola, Máximo Soto Hall and Juan Manuel Mendoza, who later would be Gómez Carrillo's biographer, and others.", "Gómez Carrillo received as a reward for his work as political propagandist the appointment as General Consul in Paris, with 250 gold pesos monthly salary and immediately went back to Europe One of Estrada Cabrera's most famous and most bitter legacies was allowing the entry of the United Fruit Company into the Guatemalan economical and political arena.", "As a member of the Liberal Party, he sought to encourage development of the nation's infrastructure of highways, railroads, and sea ports for the sake of expanding the export economy.", "By the time Estrada Cabrera assumed the presidency, there had been repeated efforts to construct a railroad from the major port of Puerto Barrios to the capital, Guatemala City.", "Yet due to lack of funding exacerbated by the collapse of the internal coffee trade, the railway fell short of its goal.", "Estrada Cabrera decided, without consulting the legislature or judiciary, that striking a deal with the United Fruit Company was the only way to get finish the railway.", "Cabrera signed a contract with UFCO's Minor Cooper Keith in 1904 that gave the company tax-exemptions, land grants, and control of all railroads on the Atlantic side.Estrada Cabrera often employed brutal methods to assert his authority, as that was the school of government in Guatemala at the time.", "Like him, presidents Rafael Carrera y Turcios and Justo Rufino Barrios had led tyrannical governments in the country.", "Right at the beginning of his first presidential period, he started prosecuting his political rivals and soon established a well-organized web of spies.", "One American Ambassador returned to the United States after he learned the dictator had given orders to poison him.", "Former President Manuel Barillas was stabbed to death in Mexico City, on a street outside of the Mexican Presidential Residence on Cabrera's orders; the street now bears the name of Calle Guatemala.", "Also, Estrada Cabrera responded violently to workers' strikes against UFCO.", "In one incident, when UFCO went directly to Estrada Cabrera to resolve a strike (after the armed forces refused to respond), the president ordered an armed unit to enter the workers' compound.", "The forces \"arrived in the night, firing indiscriminately into the workers' sleeping quarters, wounding and killing an unspecified number\".In 1906, Estrada faced serious revolts against his rule; the rebels were supported by the governments of some of the other Central American nations, but Estrada succeeded in putting them down.", "Elections were held by the people against the will of Estrada Cabrera and thus he had the president-elect murdered in retaliation.", "In 1907, the brothers Avila Echeverría and a group of friends decided to kill the president using a bomb along his way.", "They came from prominent families in Guatemala and studied in foreign universities, but when they returned to their homeland, they found a situation where everybody lived in constant fear and the president ruled without any opposition.Everything was carefully planned.", "When Estrada Cabrera went for a ride in his carriage, the bomb exploded, killing the horse and the driver, but only slightly injuring the President.", "Since their attack failed and they were forced to take their own lives; their families also suffered, as they were jailed in the infamous ''Penitenciaría Central''.", "Conditions in the penitentiary were cruel and foul.", "Political offenses were tortured daily and their screams could be heard all over the penitentiary.", "Prisoners regularly died under these conditions since political crimes had no pardon.", "It has been suggested that the extreme despotic characteristics of Estrada did not emerge until after an attempt on his life in 1907.Estrada Cabrera continued in power until forced to resign by new revolts in 1920.By that time, his power had declined drastically and he was reliant on the loyalty of a few generals.", "While the United States threatened intervention if he was removed through revolution, a bipartisan coalition came together to remove him from the presidency.", "He was removed from office after the national assembly charged that he was mentally incompetent, and appointed Carlos Herrera in his place on 8 April 1920.In 1920, prince Wilhelm of Sweden visited Guatemala and made a very objective description of both Guatemalan society and Estrada Cabrera government in his book ''Between two continents, notes from a journey in Central America, 1920''.", "The prince explained the dynamics of the Guatemalan society at the time pointing out that even though it called itself a \"Republic\", Guatemala had three sharply defined classes:# Criollos: a minority conformed originally by ancient families descendants of the Spaniards that conquered Central America and that by 1920 conformed both political parties in the country.", "By 1920, they were mixed to a large extended with foreigners and the great majority had Indian blood in their veins.", "They led the country both politically and intellectually partly because their education, although poor for European standards of the time, was enormously superior to the rest of the people of the country, partly because only criollos were allowed in the main political parties and also because their families controlled and for the most part owner the cultivated parts of the country.# Ladinos: middle class.", "Formed of people born of the cross between natives, blacks and criollos.", "The held almost no political power in 1920 and made the bulk of artisans, storekeepers, tradesmen and minor officials.", "In the eastern part of the country were found agricultural laborers.# Indians: the majority conformed by a mass of natives.", "Uneducated and disinclined to all forms of change, they had furnished excellent soldiers for the Army and often raised, as soldiers, to positions of considerable trust given their disinclination for independent political activity and their inherent respect for government and officialdom.", "They made the main element in the working agricultural population.", "There were three categories within them:## \"Mozos colonos\": settled on the plantations.", "Were given a small piece of land to cultivate on their own account, in return for work in the plantations so many months of the year.## \"Mozos jornaleros\": day-laborers who were contracted to work for certain periods of time.", "They were paid a daily wage.", "::In theory, each \"mozo\" was free to dispose of his labor as he or she pleased, but they were bound to the property by economical ties.", "They could not leave until they had paid off their debt to the owner, and they were victim of those owners, who encouraged the \"mozos\" to get into debt beyond their power to free themselves by granting credit or lending cash.", "If the mozos ran away, the owner could have them pursued and imprisoned by the authorities, with all the cost incurred in the process charged to the ever increasing debt of the mozo.", "If one of them refused to work, he or she was put in prison on the spot.", "::Finally, the wages were extremely low.", "The work was done by contract, but since every \"mozo\" starts with a large debt, the usual advance on engagement, they become servants to the owner.# Independent tillers: living in the most remote provinces, survived by growing crops of maize, wheat or beans, sufficient to meet their own needs and leave a small margin for disposal in the market places of the towns and often carried their goods on their back for up to a day.==== Jorge Ubico regime (1931–1944) ====In 1931, the dictator general Jorge Ubico came to power, backed by the United States, and initiated one of the most brutally repressive governments in Central American history.", "Just as Estrada Cabrera had done during his government, Ubico created a widespread network of spies and informants and had large numbers of political opponents tortured and put to death.", "A wealthy aristocrat (with an estimated income of $215,000 per year in 1930s dollars) and a staunch anti-communist, he consistently sided with the United Fruit Company, Guatemalan landowners and urban elites in disputes with peasants.", "After the crash of the New York Stock Exchange in 1929, the peasant system established by Barrios in 1875 to jump start coffee production in the country was not good enough anymore, and Ubico was forced to implement a system of debt slavery and forced labor to make sure that there was enough labor available for the coffee plantations and that the UFCO workers were readily available.Allegedly, he passed laws allowing landowners to execute workers as a \"disciplinary\" measure.", "He also openly identified as a fascist; he admired Mussolini, Franco, and Hitler, saying at one point: \"I am like Hitler.", "I execute first and ask questions later.\"", "Ubico was disdainful of the indigenous population, calling them \"animal-like\", and stated that to become \"civilized\" they needed mandatory military training, comparing it to \"domesticating donkeys.\"", "He gave away hundreds of thousands of hectares to the United Fruit Company (UFCO), exempted them from taxes in Tiquisate, and allowed the U.S. military to establish bases in Guatemala.Ubico considered himself to be \"another Napoleon\".", "He dressed ostentatiously and surrounded himself with statues and paintings of the emperor, regularly commenting on the similarities between their appearances.", "He militarized numerous political and social institutions—including the post office, schools, and symphony orchestras—and placed military officers in charge of many government posts.", "He frequently traveled around the country performing \"inspections\" in dress uniform, followed by a military escort, a mobile radio station, an official biographer, and cabinet members.On the other hand, Ubico was an efficient administrator:* His new decrees, although unfair to the majority of the indigenous population, proved good for the Guatemalan economy during the Great Depression era, as they increased coffee production across the country.", "* He cut the bureaucrats' salaries by almost half, forcing inflation to recede.", "* He kept the peace and order in Guatemala City, by effectively fighting its crime.==== October Revolution (1944) ====After 14 years, Ubico's repressive policies and arrogant demeanor finally led to pacific disobedience by urban middle-class intellectuals, professionals, and junior army officers in 1944.On 25 June, a peaceful demonstration of female schoolteachers culminated in its suppression by government troops and the assassination of María Chinchilla who became a national heroine.", "On 1 July 1944 Ubico resigned from office amidst a general strike and nationwide protests.", "Initially, he had planned to hand over power to the former director of police, General Roderico Anzueto, whom he felt he could control.", "But his advisors noted that Anzueto's pro-Nazi sympathies had made him very unpopular, and that he would not be able to control the military.", "So Ubico instead chose to select a triumvirate of Major General Bueneventura Piñeda, Major General Eduardo Villagrán Ariza, and General Federico Ponce Vaides.", "The three generals promised to convene the national assembly to hold an election for a provisional president, but when the congress met on 3 July, soldiers held everyone at gunpoint and forced them to vote for General Ponce rather than the popular civilian candidate, Dr. Ramón Calderón.", "Ponce, who had previously retired from military service due to alcoholism, took orders from Ubico and kept many of the officials who had worked in the Ubico administration.", "The repressive policies of the Ubico administration were continued.Opposition groups began organizing again, this time joined by many prominent political and military leaders, who deemed the Ponce regime unconstitutional.", "Among the military officers in the opposition were Jacobo Árbenz and Major Francisco Javier Arana.", "Ubico had fired Árbenz from his teaching post at the ''Escuela Politécnica'', and since then Árbenz had been living in El Salvador, organizing a band of revolutionary exiles.", "On 19 October 1944 a small group of soldiers and students led by Árbenz and Arana attacked the National Palace in what later became known as the \"October Revolution\".", "Ponce was defeated and driven into exile; and Árbenz, Arana, and a lawyer name Jorge Toriello established a junta.", "They declared that democratic elections would be held before the end of the year.The winner of the 1944 elections was a teaching major named Juan José Arévalo, PhD, who had earned a scholarship in Argentina during the government of general Lázaro Chacón due to his superb professor skills.", "Arévalo remained in South America during a few years, working as a university professor in several countries.", "Back in Guatemala during the early years of the Jorge Ubico regime, his colleagues asked him to present a project to the president to create the Faculty of Humanism at the National University, to which Ubico was strongly opposed.", "Realizing the dictatorial nature of Ubico, Arévalo left Guatemala and went back to Argentina.", "He went back to Guatemala after the 1944 Revolution and ran under a coalition of leftist parties known as the ''Partido Acción Revolucionaria'' (\"Revolutionary Action Party\", PAR), and won 85% of the vote in elections that are widely considered to have been fair and open.Arévalo implemented social reforms, including minimum wage laws, increased educational funding, near-universal suffrage (excluding illiterate women), and labor reforms.", "But many of these changes only benefited the upper-middle classes and did little for the peasant agricultural laborers who made up the majority of the population.", "Although his reforms were relatively moderate, he was widely disliked by the United States government, the Catholic Church, large landowners, employers such as the United Fruit Company, and Guatemalan military officers, who viewed his government as inefficient, corrupt, and heavily influenced by communists.", "At least 25 coup attempts took place during his presidency, mostly led by wealthy liberal military officers.==== Presidency of Juan José Arévalo (1945–1951) ====Árbenz served as defense minister under President Arévalo.", "He was the first minister of this portfolio, since it was previously called the ''Ministry of War''.", "In 1947, Dr. Arévalo, in company with a friend and two Russian dancers who were visiting Guatemala, had a car accident on the road to Panajachel.", "Arévalo fell into a ravine and was seriously injured, while all his companions were killed.", "The official party leaders signed a pact with Lieutenant Colonel Arana, in which he pledged not to attempt any coup against the ailing president, in exchange for the revolutionary parties as the official candidate in the next election.", "However, the recovery of the sturdy president was almost miraculous and soon he was able to take over the government.", "Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Javier Arana had accepted this pact because he wanted to be known as a Democratic hero of the uprising against Ponce and believed that the ''Barranco Pact'' ensured his position when the time of the presidential elections came.Arana was a very influential person in Arévalo's government, and had managed to be nominated as the next presidential candidate, ahead of Captain Árbenz, who was told that because of his young age he would have no problem in waiting turn to the next election.", "Arana died in a gun battle against a military civilian who wanted to capture him on 18 July 1949, at the Bridge of Glory, in Amatitlán, where he and his assistant commander had gone to check on weapons and that had been seized at the Aurora Air Base a few days before.", "There are different versions about who ambushed him, and those who ordered the attack; Arbenz and Arévalo have been accused of instigating an attempt to get Arana out of the presidential picture.The death of Lieutenant Colonel Arana is of critical importance in the history of Guatemala, because it was a pivotal event in the history of the Guatemalan revolution: his death not only paved the way for the election of Colonel Árbenz as president of the republic in 1950 but also caused an acute crisis in the government of Dr. Arévalo Bermejo, who all of a sudden had against him an army that was more faithful to Arana than to him, and elite civilian groups that used the occasion to protest strongly against his government.Before his death, Arana had planned to run in the upcoming 1950 presidential elections.", "His death left Árbenz without any serious contenders in the elections (leading some, including the CIA and U.S. military intelligence, to speculate that Árbenz personally had him eliminated for this reason).", "Árbenz got more than three times as many votes as the runner-up, Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes.", "Fuentes claimed that electoral fraud benefited Árbenz; however scholars have pointed out that while fraud may possibly have given Árbenz some of his votes, it was not the reason that he won the election.", "In 1950s Guatemala, only literate men were able to vote by secret ballot; illiterate men and literate women voted by open ballot.", "Illiterate women were not enfranchised at all.For the campaign of 1950, Arbenz asked José Manuel Fortuny – a high-ranking member of the Guatemalan Communist party – to write some speeches.", "The central theme of these was the land reform, the \"pet project\" of Árbenz.", "They shared a comfortable victory in elections in late 1950 and, thereafter, the tasks of government.", "While many of the leaders of the ruling coalition fought hard closeness to the president seeking personal benefits, the leaders of the Guatemalan Labor Party, and especially Fortuny, were the closest advisers and Árbenz were his private practice.The election of Árbenz alarmed U.S. State Department officials, who stated that Arana \"has always represented the only positive conservative element in the Arévalo administration\", that his death would \"strengthen Leftistsic materially\", and that \"developments forecast sharp leftist trend within the government.", "\"==== Presidency of Jacobo Árbenz Guzman (1951–1954) ====Inauguration of colonel Jacobo Árbenz as president of Guatemala in 1951In his inaugural address, Árbenz promised to convert Guatemala from \"a backward country with a predominantly feudal economy into a modern capitalist state\".", "He declared that he intended to reduce dependency on foreign markets and dampen the influence of foreign corporations over Guatemalan politics.", "He also stated that he would modernize Guatemala's infrastructure and do so without the aid of foreign capital.Based on his plan of government, he did the following:# Promulgated the Decree 900, to expropriate idle land from UFCO.# Began construction of the Atlantic Highway# Began construction of the Santo Tomas de Castilla port where port Matías de Gálvez used to be, to compete with Puerto Barrios, UFCO's port.# Began studies for ''Jurun Marinalá'' generation plant to compete with the electric company in the hands of Americans.Árbenz was a Christian socialist and governed as a European-style democratic socialist, and took great inspiration from Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal.", "According to historian Stephen Schlesinger, while Árbenz did have a few communists in lower-level positions in his administration, he \"was not a dictator, he was not a crypto-communist.\"", "Nevertheless, some of his policies, particularly those involving agrarian reform, would be branded as \"communist\" by the upper classes of Guatemala and the United Fruit Company.===== Land reform =====Route Map of the Great White Fleet of the United Fruit Company, which had the monopoly of freight and passenger maritime transportante to and from Puerto Barrios in Guatemala since 1903Prior to Árbenz's election in 1950, a handful of U.S. corporations controlled Guatemala's primary electrical utilities, the nation's only railroad, and the banana industry, which was Guatemala's chief agricultural export industry.", "By the mid-1940s, Guatemalan banana plantations accounted for more than one quarter of all of United Fruit Company's production in Latin America.", "Land reform was the centerpiece of Árbenz's election campaign.", "The revolutionary organizations that had helped put Árbenz in power put constant pressure on him to live up to his campaign promises regarding land reform.", "Árbenz continued Arévalo's reform agenda and in June 1952, his government enacted an agrarian reform program.", "Árbenz set land reform as his central goal, as only 2% of the population owned 70% of the land.On 17 June 1952 Árbenz's administration enacted an agrarian reform law known as Decree 900.The law empowered the government to create a network of agrarian councils which would be in charge of expropriating uncultivated land on estates that were larger than .", "The land was then allocated to individual families.", "Owners of expropriated land were compensated according to the worth of the land claimed in May 1952 tax assessments (which they had often dramatically understated to avoid paying taxes).", "Land was paid for in 25-year bonds with a 3 percent interest rate.", "The program was in effect for 18 months, during which it distributed to about 100,000 families.", "Árbenz himself, a landowner through his wife, gave up of his own land in the land reform program.In 1953, the reform was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, however the democratically elected Congress later impeached four judges associated with the ruling.Decree 900, for the Agrarian Reform in Guatemala created the possibility of gaining crops for those field workers who had no land of their own.", "The effect of this law was similar to what occurred in Europe after the bubonic plague in the Middle Ages: after the plague, which killed one third of Europe's population at the time, the number of landowners decreased, which released many of the terrestrial land, increased supply and lowered land price.", "At the same time, many farmers also died from the plague, so that the labor force declined; this shift in supply of workers increased wages.", "The economic effects of the plague are very similar to those caused by the land reform in Guatemala: During the first harvest after the implementation of the law, the average income of farmers increased from Q225.00/year TO Q700.00/year.", "Some analysts say that conditions in Guatemala improved after the reform and that there was a \"fundamental transformation of agricultural technology as a result of the decrease labor supply.\"", "Rising living standards also happened in Europe in the fifteenth century, while large-scale technological advances occurred.", "Missing workforce after the plague was \"the mother of invention.\"", "The benefits from the reform were not limited solely to the working class of fields: There were increases in consumption, production and domestic private investment.===== Construction of transport infrastructure =====Map of railway lines in Guatemala and El Salvador, which were owned by the IRCA, the subsidiary of the United Fruit Company that controlled the railroad in both countries, while the only Atlantic port was controlled by the Great White Fleet, also a UFCO's companyIn order to establish the necessary physical infrastructure to make possible the \"independent\" and national capitalist development that could get rid of extreme dependence on the United States and break the American monopolies operating in the country, basically the economy of the banana enclave, Arbenz and his government began the planning and construction of the Atlantic Highway, which was intended to compete in the market with the monopoly on land transport exerted by the United Fruit Company, through one of its subsidiaries: the International Railways of Central America (IRCA), which had the concession since 1904, when it was granted by then President Manuel Estrada Cabrera.", "Construction of the highway began by the Roads Department of the Ministry of Communications, with the help of the military engineering battalion.", "It was planned to be built parallel along the railway line, as much as possible.", "The construction of the new port was also aimed to break another UFCO monopoly: Puerto Barrios was owned and operated solely by The Great White Fleet, another UFCO's subsidiary.===== National power plant Jurun Marinalá =====CIA sponsored coup d'état.Marinalá power plant advertisement during Arbenz governmentThe Jurun Marinalá electric power generation plant was planned as the first national hydroelectric power plant in Guatemala.", "The goal was to disrupt the monopoly of the Electric Company, a subsidiary of American Electric Bond and Share (Ebasco), which did not make use of indigenous water resources, but ran fossil fuel-powered plants, thus creating a drain on foreign currency reserves.", "Owing to its massive economic importance, construction continued beyond the Árbenz presidency.", "The plant was finally completed under President Julio César Méndez Montenegro in 1968.It is located in the village of Agua Blanca, inside El Salto, Escuintla.===== Catholic Campaign national pilgrimage against communism =====The Catholic Church, who possessed a large share of power in Central America during the Colonial Era, was gradually losing it after the emancipation from Spain.", "First, it was the struggle of the liberals who overtook power from Guatemalan conservatives (among whom was included the Major Clergy of the Church); conservatives and the Church lost all of their power quota in the provinces of Central America, Guatemala remaining as their last bastion.", "In 1838, with the fall of the liberal President Mariano Galvez, the figure of Lieutenant General Rafael Carrera arose and became the country's conservative leader.", "He rallied his party and the Church back to power, at least in the province of Guatemala.", "With this state of affairs, the Central American Federation could not be carried out because it was liberal in nature and Guatemala's military power and that of its leader Carrera were invincible in his time; so much so, that Carrera eventually founded the Republic of Guatemala on 21 March 1847.After Carrera's death in 1865, Guatemalan Liberals saw their chance to seize power again, and conducted the Liberal Revolution in 1871.Since that time, the attacks on the senior clergy of the Catholic Church raged in Guatemala and secular education, freedom of religion, the expulsion of several religious orders and the expropriation of many church properties were decreed.", "This situation continued throughout all the liberal governments that followed, until October Revolution in 1944, in which the religious situation worsened: now the attacks towards the Church were not only economic, but also religious, as many revolutionaries began to declare themselves opposed to any kind of religion.By 1951, Archbishop Mariano Rossell y Arellano found that it was urgent to recover the elite position of the Catholic Church in Guatemala, and for that reason he allied himself to the interests of the United Fruit Company through the National Liberation Movement and aimed to overthrow the revolutionary governments, which he branded as atheists and communists.", "After the consecration of the Shrine of Esquipulas (1950), and as part of a smear campaign launched against the Árbenz government, he requested sculptor Julio Urruela Vásquez to carve a replica of the Christ of Esquipulas, which was transferred to bronze in 1952 and converted the following year in symbol and banner of the national pilgrimage against communism.", "This Christ was then appointed as ''Commander in Chief'' of the forces of the National Liberation Movement during the invasion of June 1954.On 4 April 1954, Rossell Arellano issued a pastoral letter in which he criticized the progress of communism in the country, and made a call to Guatemalans to rise up and fight the common enemy of God and the homeland.", "This pastoral was distributed throughout the country.===== National Liberation (1954) ========== Agrarian Reform and UFCo conflict =====In 1953, when the government implemented Agrarian Reform, it intended to redistribute large holdings of unused land to peasants, both Latino and Amerindian, for them to develop for subsistence farming.", "It expropriated 250,000 of 350,000 blocks held by the United Fruit Company (UFC) and, according to the government's Decree 900, it would redistribute this land for agricultural purposes.", "UFCO continued to hold thousands of hectares in pasture as well as substantial forest reserves.", "The Guatemalan government had offered the company a Q 609,572 in compensation for the appropriated land.", "The company fought the land expropriation, making several legal arguments.", "It said the government had misinterpreted its own law.", "The Agrarian Reform Law was directed at redistributing unused land able to be developed for agricultural purposes.", "Thus land in pasture, specified forest cover and under cultivation was to be left with the owners and untouched by the expropriators.", "The company argued that most of the land taken from them was cultivated and in use, so it was illegal for the government to take it.Secondly, they argued that the offered compensation was insufficient for the amount and value of the land taken.", "However, the valuations of United Fruit Company's rural property were based on the values declared by the company in its own tax filings.", "In 1945, Arevalo's administration ordered new assessments, to be complete by 1948.UFCo had submitted the assessment by the due date; but, when the Agrarian Reform was implemented, the company declared that they wanted the value of its property changed from the values the company had previously used to dodge taxes.", "The government had investigated in 1951, but a new assessment was never completed.", "UFCo said that the 1948 assessment was outdated, and claimed its land value was much greater.", "They had estimated just compensation would be as high as Q 15,854,849, nearly twenty times more than what the Guatemalan government had offered.The U.S. State Department and the embassy actively began to support the position of UFCo, which was a major US company.", "The Guatemalan government had to fight the pressure.", "The US officially acknowledged that Guatemala had the right to conduct their own politics and business, but U.S. representatives said they were trying to protect UFCo, a US company that generated much revenue and contributed to the US economy.", "Arbenz's administration said that Guatemala needed Agrarian Reform to improve its own economy.", "Arbenz said he would adopt policies for a nationalist economic development if necessary.", "He argued that all foreign investment would be subject to Guatemalan laws.", "Arbenz was firm in promoting the Agrarian Reform and within a couple of years had acted quickly; he claimed that Guatemalan government was not prepared to make an exception for the U.S. concerning Decree 900 and that it was not Guatemalan's fault that the American corporation had lied in its tax forms and declared an artificially low value on their land.Because Arbenz could not be pressured to take into consideration the arguments made to prevent expropriation from UFCo, his government was undermined with propaganda.", "For U.S. the national security was also highly important.", "They had combined both political and economic interests.", "The fear of allowing communist practices in Guatemala was shared by the urban elite and middle classes, who would not relinquish their privileges that easily.", "The local media-such as newspapers ''El Imparcial'' and ''La Hora''- took advantage of the freedom of press of the regime, and with the sponsorship of UFCo were critical of communism and of the government's legal recognition of the party.", "The opposing political parties organized anticommunism campaigns; thousands of people appeared at the periodic rallies, and the membership in anticommunist organizations had grown steadily.===== Arrival of John Peurifoy to Guatemala =====Between 1950 and 1955, during the government of General Eisenhower in the United States, a witch hunt for communists was conducted: McCarthyism.", "This was characterized by persecuting innocent people by mere suspicion, with unfounded accusations, interrogation, loss of labor, passport denial, and even imprisonment.", "These mechanisms of social control and repression in the United States skirted dangerously with the totalitarian and fascist methods.One of the main characters of McCarthyism was John Peurifoy, who was sent as the ambassador of the United States to Guatemala, as this was the first country in the American sphere of influence after World War II that included elements openly communists in his government.", "He came from Greece, where he had already done considerable anticommunist activity, and was installed as ambassador in November 1953, when Carlos Castillo Armas was already organizing his tiny revolutionary army.", "After a long meeting, Peurifoy made it clear to President Arbenz that the US was worried about the communist elements in his government, and then reported to the Department of State that the Guatemalan leader was not a communist, but that surely a communist leader would come after him; furthermore, in January 1954 he told ''Time'' magazine: ''American public opinion could force us to take some measures to prevent Guatemala from falling into the orbit of international communism''.===== Operation PBSuccess =====The Communist Party was never the center of the communist movement in Guatemala until Jacobo Árbenz came to power in 1951.Prior to 1951, communism lived within the urban labor forces in small study groups during 1944 to 1953 which it had a tremendous influence on these urban labor forces.", "Despite its small size within Guatemala, many leaders were extremely vocal about their beliefs (for instance, in their protests and, more importantly, their literature).", "In 1949, in Congress, the Communist Party only had less than forty members, however, by 1953 it went up to nearly four thousand.", "Before Arbenz come to power in 1951, the communist movement preferred to carry out many of their activities through the so-called mass organization.", "In addition to Arbenz success, Guatemalan Communist Party moved forward its activities into public.After Jacobo Arbenz came to power in 1951, he extended political freedom, allowing communists in Guatemala to participate in politics.", "This move by Arbenz let many opponents in Ubico's regime to recognize themselves as communists.", "By 1952, Arbenz supported a land reform, and took unused agricultural land, about , from owners who had large properties, and made it available to rural workers and farmers.", "These lands were to be taken from the United Fruit Company with compensation; however, the UFC believed the compensation was not enough.", "Meantime, Arbenz allowed the Communist Party to organize and include leaders notably his adviser who were leftist.", "The propaganda effort that was led by United Fruit Company against the revolution in Guatemala persuaded the U.S. government to fight against communism in Guatemala.", "The United States clutched on small details to prove the existence of widespread communism in Guatemala.", "The Eisenhower administration at the time in the U.S. were not happy about the Arbenz government, they considered Arbenz to be too close to communism; there have been reports that Arbenz's wife was a communist and part of the Communist Party in Guatemala.", "Even though it was impossible for the U.S. to gather evidence and information about Guatemala's relations to the Soviet Union, Americans wanted to believe that communism existed in Guatemala.As Arbenz proceeded with land reform, the United Fruit Company, which had a practical monopoly on Guatemalan fruit production and some industry, lobbied the Eisenhower administration to remove Arbenz.", "Of still greater importance, though, was the widespread American concern about the possibility of a so-called \"Soviet beachhead\" opening up in the western hemisphere.", "Arbenz's sudden legalization of the Communist party and importing of arms from then Soviet-satellite state of Czechoslovakia, among other events, convinced major policy makers in the White House and CIA to try for Arbenz's forced removal, although his term was to end naturally in two years.", "This led to a CIA-orchestrated coup in 1954, known as Operation PBSuccess, which saw Arbenz toppled and forced into exile by Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas.", "Despite most Guatemalans' attachment to the original ideals of the 1944 uprising, some private sector leaders and the military began to believe that Arbenz represented a communist threat and supported his overthrow, hoping that a successor government would continue the more moderate reforms started by Arevalo.Many groups of Guatemalan exiles were armed and trained by the CIA, and commanded by Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas they invaded Guatemala on 18 June 1954.The Americans called it an anti-communist coup against Arbenz.", "The coup was supported by CIA radio broadcasts and so the Guatemalan army refused to resist the coup, Arbenz was forced to resign.", "In 1954, a military government replaced Arbenz' government and disbanded the legislature and they arrested communist leaders, Castillo Armas became president.After the CIA coup, hundreds of Guatemalans were rounded up and killed.", "Documents obtained by the National Security Archive revealed that the CIA was involved in planning assassinations of enemies of the new military government, should the coup be successful.==== Earthquake of 1976 ====Damaged hotel, Guatemala City, 1976==== Civil war (1960–1996) ====The government, right-wing paramilitary organizations, and left-wing insurgents were all engaged in the Guatemalan Civil War (1960–96).", "A variety of factors contributed: social and economic injustice and racial discrimination suffered by the indigenous population, the 1954 coup which reversed reforms, weak civilian control of the military, the United States support of the government, and Cuban support of the insurgents.", "The Historical Clarification Commission (commonly known as the \"Truth Commission\") after the war estimated that more than 200,000 people were killed — the vast majority of whom were indigenous civilians.", "93% of the human rights abuses reported to the commission were attributed to the military or other government-supported forces.", "It also determined that in several instances, the government was responsible for acts of genocide.In response to the increasingly autocratic rule of Gen. Ydígoras Fuentes, who took power in 1958 following the murder of Col. Castillo Armas, a group of junior military officers revolted in 1960.When they failed, several went into hiding and established close ties with Cuba.", "This group became the nucleus of the forces who mounted armed insurrection against the government for the next 36 years.In 1966, the left-of-center former law professor Julio César Méndez Montenegro became President of Guatemala while holding the rank of civilian.", "However, the historical political odds were still in favor of the nation's military.", "Shortly after Méndez Montenegro took office, the Guatemalan army launched a major counterinsurgency campaign that largely broke up the guerrilla movement in the countryside.The guerrillas concentrated their attacks in Guatemala City, where they assassinated many leading figures, including U.S.", "Ambassador John Gordon Mein in 1968.Despite this, Méndez Montenegro managed to successfully complete his four-year term as President of Guatemala before being succeeded by Army Colonel Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio in 1970.During the next nearly two decades, Méndez Montenegro was the only civilian to head Guatemala until the inauguration of Vinicio Cerezo in 1986.===== Franja Transversal del Norte =====Location of Franja Transversal del Norte -Northern Transversal Strip- in GuatemalaThe first settler project in the FTN was in Sebol-Chinajá in Alta Verapaz.", "Sebol, then regarded as a strategic point and route through Cancuén river, which communicated with Petén through the Usumacinta River on the border with Mexico and the only road that existed was a dirt one built by President Lázaro Chacón in 1928.In 1958, during the government of General Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) financed infrastructure projects in Sebol, which finally adopted the name \"Fray Bartolomé de las Casas\", municipality created in 1983 in Alta Verapaz.", "In 1960, then Army captain Fernando Romeo Lucas García inherited Saquixquib and Punta de Boloncó farms in northeastern Sebol.", "In 1963 he bought the farm \"San Fernando\" El Palmar de Sejux and finally bought the \"Sepur\" farm near San Fernando.", "During those years, Lucas was in the Guatemalan legislature and lobbied in Congress to boost investment in that area of the country.In those years, the importance of the region was in livestock, exploitation of precious export wood and archaeological wealth.", "Timber contracts were granted to multinational companies such as Murphy Pacific Corporation from California, which invested US$30 million for the colonization of southern Petén and Alta Verapaz, and formed the North Impulsadora Company.", "Colonization of the area was made through a process by which inhospitable areas of the FTN were granted to native peasants.In 1962, the DGAA became the National Institute of Agrarian Reform (INTA), by Decree 1551 which created the law of Agrarian Transformation.", "In 1964, INTA defined the geography of the FTN as the northern part of the departments of Huehuetenango, Quiché, Alta Verapaz and Izabal and that same year priests of the Maryknoll order and the Order of the Sacred Heart began the first process of colonization, along with INTA, carrying settlers from Huehuetenango to the Ixcán sector in Quiché.The Northern Transversal Strip was officially created during the government of General Carlos Arana Osorio in 1970, by Decree 60–70 in the Congress, for agricultural development.===== Guerrilla Army of the Poor =====On 19 January 1972, members of a new Guatemalan guerrilla movement entered Ixcán, from Mexico, and were accepted by many farmers; in 1973, after an exploratory foray into the municipal seat of Cotzal, the insurgent group decided to set up camp underground in the mountains of Xolchiché, municipality of Chajul.In 1974, the insurgent guerrilla group held its first conference, where it defined its strategy of action for the coming months and called itself Guerrilla Army of the Poor (-Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres -EGP-).", "In 1975, the organization had spread around the area of the mountains of northern municipalities of Nebaj and Chajul.", "As part of its strategy EGP agreed to perform acts that notoriety was obtained and through which also symbolize the establishment of a \"social justice\" against the inefficiency and ineffectiveness of the judicial and administrative organs of the State.", "They saw also that with these actions the indigenous rural population of the region is identified with the insurgency, thus motivating joining their ranks.", "As part of this plan was agreed to so-called \"executions\".", "To determine who would be these people subject to \"execution\", the EGP attended complaints received from the public.", "For example, they selected two victims: Guillermo Monzón, who was a military Commissioner in Ixcán and José Luis Arenas, the largest landowner in the area of Ixcán, and who had been reported to the EGP for allegedly having land conflicts with neighboring settlements and abusing their workers.On Saturday, 7 June 1975, José Luis Arenas was killed by unknowns when he was in the premises of his farm \"La Perla\" to pay wage workers.", "In front of his office there were approximately two to three hundred people to receive their payment and four members of EGP mixed among farmers.", "Subsequently, the guerrilla members destroyed the communication radio of the farm and executed Arenas.", "After having murdered José Luis Arenas, guerrilla members spoke in Ixil language to the farmers, informing them that they were members of the Guerrilla Army of the Poor and had killed the \"Tiger Ixcán\".", "They requested to prepare beasts to help the injured and were transported to Chajul to receive medical care.", "Then the attackers fled towards Chajul.José Luis Arenas' son, who was in San Luis Ixcán at the time, seek refuge in a nearby mountain, waiting for a plane to arrive to take him to the capital, in order to immediately report the matter to the Minister of Defense.", "The defense minister replied, \"You are mistaken, there are no guerrillas in the area\".===== Panzós massacre =====Also located in the Northern Transversal Strip, the valley of the Polochic River was inhabited since ancient times by k'ekchí and P'okomchi people.", "In the second half of the nineteenth century, President Justo Rufino Barrios began the allocation of land in the area to German farmers.", "Settlers from Germany arrived in the mid-19th century, acquired land and grew coffee plantations in Alta Verapaz and Quetzaltenango.", "Decree 170 (or decree of Census Redemption Decree) facilitated the expropriation of Indian land in favor of the Germans, because it promoted the auction of communal lands.", "Since that time, the main economic activity was export-oriented, especially coffee, bananas and cardamom.", "The communal property, dedicated to subsistence farming, became private property led to the cultivation and mass marketing of agricultural products.", "Therefore, the fundamental characteristic of the Guatemalan production system has since that time been the accumulation of property in few hands, and a sort of \"farm servitude\" based on the exploitation of \"farmer settlers\".In 1951, the agrarian reform law that expropriated idle land from private hands was enacted, but in 1954, with the National Liberation Movement coup supported by the United States, most of the land that had been expropriated, was awarded back to its former landowners.", "Flavio Monzón was appointed mayor and in the next twenty years he became one of the largest landowners in the area.", "In 1964, several communities settled for decades on the shore of Polochic River claimed property titles to INTA which was created in October 1962, but the land was awarded to Monzón.", "A Mayan peasant from Panzós later said that Monzón \"got the signatures of the elders before he went before INTA to talk about the land.", "When he returned, gathered the people and said that, by an INTA mistake, the land had gone to his name.\"", "Throughout the 1970s, Panzós farmers continued to claim INTA regularization of land ownership receiving legal advice from the FASGUA (Autonomous Trade Union Federation of Guatemala), an organization that supported the peasants' demands through legal procedures.", "However, no peasant received a property title, ever.", "Some obtained promises while other had provisional property titles, and there were also some that only had received permission to plant.", "The peasants began to suffer evictions from their land by farmers, the military and local authorities in favor of the economic interests of Izabal Mining Operations Company (EXMIBAL) and Transmetales.", "Another threat at that time for peasant proprietors were mining projects and exploration of oil: Exxon, Shenandoah, Hispanoil and Getty Oil all had exploration contracts; besides there was the need for territorial expansion of two mega-projects of that era: Northern Transversal Strip and Chixoy Hydroelectric Plant.In 1978, a military patrol was stationed a few kilometers from the county seat of Panzós, in a place known as \"Quinich\".", "At this time organizational capacity of peasant had increased through committees who claimed titles to their land, a phenomenon that worried the landlord sector.", "Some of these owners, among them Monzón, stated: \"Several peasants living in the villages and settlements want to burn urban populations to gain access to private property\", and requested protection from Alta Verapaz governor.On 29 May 1978, peasants from Cahaboncito, Semococh, Rubetzul, Canguachá, Sepacay villages, finca Moyagua and neighborhood La Soledad, decided to hold a public demonstration in the Plaza de Panzós to insist on the claim of land and to express their discontent caused by the arbitrary actions of the landowners and the civil and military authorities.", "Hundreds of men, women, indigenous children went to the square of the municipal seat of Panzós, carrying their tools, machetes and sticks.", "One of the people who participated in the demonstration states: \"The idea was not to fight with anyone, what was required was the clarification of the status of the land.", "People came from various places and they had guns.", "\"There are different versions on how the shooting began: some say it began when \"Mama Maquín\" –an important peasant leader – pushed a soldier who was in her way; others argue that it started because people kept pushing trying to get into the municipality, which was interpreted by the soldiers as an aggression.", "The mayor at the time, Walter Overdick, said that \"people of the middle of the group pushed those who in front\".", "A witness says one protester grabbed the gun from a soldier but did not use it and several people argue that a military voice yelled: \"One, two, three!", "Fire!\".", "In fact, the lieutenant who led the troops gave orders to open fire on the crowd.The shots that rang for about five minutes, were made by regulation firearms carried by the military as well as the three machine guns located on the banks of the square.", "36 Several peasants with machetes wounded several soldiers.", "No soldier was wounded by gunfire.", "The square was covered with blood.Immediately, the army closed the main access roads, despite that \"indigenous felt terrified\".", "An army helicopter flew over the town before picking up wounded soldiers.===== Transition between Laugerud and Lucas Garcia regimes =====Due to his seniority in both the military and economic elites in Guatemala, as well as the fact that he spoke perfectly the q'ekchi, one of the Guatemalan indigenous languages, Lucas García the ideal official candidate for the 1978 elections; and to further enhance his image, he was paired with the leftist doctor Francisco Villagrán Kramer as running mate.", "Villagrán Kramer was a man of recognized democratic trajectory, having participated in the Revolution of 1944, and was linked to the interests of transnational corporations and elites, as he was one of the main advisers of agricultural, industrial and financial chambers of Guatemala.", "Despite the democratic façade, the electoral victory was not easy and the establishment had to impose Lucas García, causing further discredit the electoral system – which had already suffered a fraud when General Laugerud was imposed in the 1974 elections.In 1976, student group called \"FRENTE\" emerged in the University of San Carlos, which completely swept all student body positions that were up for election that year.", "FRENTE leaders were mostly members of the Patriotic Workers' Youth, the youth wing of the Guatemalan Labor Party (-Partido Guatemalteco del Trabajo- PGT), the Guatemalan communist party who had worked in the shadows since it was illegalized in 1954.Unlike other Marxist organizations in Guatemala at the time, PGT leaders trusted the mass movement to gain power through elections.FRENTE used its power within the student associations to launch a political campaign for the 1978 university general elections, allied with leftist Faculty members grouped in \"University Vanguard\".", "The alliance was effective and Oliverio Castañeda de León was elected as President of the Student Body and Saúl Osorio Paz as President of the university; plus they had ties with the university workers union (STUSC) thru their PGT connections.", "Osorio Paz gave space and support to the student movement and instead of having a conflicted relationship with students, different representations combined to build a higher education institution of higher social projection.", "In 1978, the University of San Carlos became one of the sectors with more political weight in Guatemala; that year the student movement, faculty and University Governing Board -Consejo Superior Universitario- united against the government and were in favor of opening spaces for the neediest sectors.", "In order to expand its university extension, the Student Body (AEU) rehabilitated the \"Student House\" in downtown Guatemala City; there, they welcomed and supported families of villagers and peasant already sensitized politically.", "They also organized groups of workers in the informal trade.At the beginning of his tenure as president, Saúl Osorio founded the weekly ''Siete Días en la USAC'', which besides reporting on the activities of the university, constantly denounced the violation of human rights, especially the repression against the popular movement.", "It also told what was happening with revolutionary movements in both Nicaragua and El Salvador.", "For a few months, the state university was a united and progressive institution, preparing to confront the State head on.Now, FRENTE had to face the radical left, represented then by the Student Revolutionary Front \"Robin García\" (FERG), which emerged during the Labor Day march of 1 May 1978.FERG coordinated several student associations on different colleges within University of San Carlos and public secondary education institutions.", "This coordination between legal groups came from the Guerrilla Army of the Poor (EGP), a guerrilla group that had appeared in 1972 and had its headquarters in the oil rich region of northern Quiché department -i.e., the Ixil Triangle of Ixcán, Nebaj and Chajul in Franja Transversal del Norte.", "Although not strictly an armed group, FERG sought confrontation with government forces all the time, giving prominence to measures that could actually degenerate into mass violence and paramilitary activity.", "Its members were not interested in working within an institutional framework and never asked permission for their public demonstrations or actions.On 7 March 1978, Lucas Garcia was elected president; shortly after, on 29 May 1978 -in the late days of General Laugerud García government- in the central square of Panzós, Alta Verapaz, members of the Zacapa Military Zone attacked a peaceful peasant demonstration, killing a lot of people.", "The deceased, indigenous peasants who had been summoned in place, were fighting for the legalization of public lands they had occupied for years.", "Their struggle faced them directly with investors who wanted to exploit the mineral wealth of the area, particularly oil reserves -by Basic Resources International and Shenandoah Oil- and nickel -EXMIBAL.", "The Panzós Massacre caused a stir at the university by the high number of victims and conflicts arose from the exploitation of natural resources by foreign companies.", "In 1978, for example, Osorio Paz and other university received death threats for their outspoken opposition to the construction of an inter-oceanic pipeline that would cross the country to facilitate oil exploration.", "On 8 June the AEU organized a massive protest in downtown Guatemala City where speakers denounced the slaughter of Panzós and expressed their repudiation of Laugerud García regime in stronger terms than ever before.===== Escalation of violence =====After the execution of José Luis Arenas population of Hom, Ixtupil, Sajsivan and Sotzil villages, neighbors of La Perla and annexes, increased support for the new guerrilla movement, mainly due to the land dispute that peasants kept with the owners of the farm for several years and that the execution was seen as an act of \"social justice\".The murder owner of the farm \"La Perla\", located in the municipality of Chajul, resulted in the escalation of violence in the area: part of the population moved closer to the guerrillas, while another part of the inhabitants of Hom kept out of the insurgency.", "In 1979, the owners of the farm \"La Perla\" established links with the army and for the first time a military detachment was installed within the property; in this same building the first civil patrol of the area was established.", "The Army high command, meanwhile, was very pleased with the initial results of the operation and was convinced it had succeeded in destroying most of the social basis of EGP, which had to be expelled from the \"Ixil Triangle\".", "At this time the presence of EGP in the area decreased significantly due to the repressive actions of the Army, who developed its concept of \"enemy\" without necessarily including the notion of armed combatants; the officers who executed the plan were instructed to destroy all towns suspect of cooperate with EGP and eliminate all sources of resistance.", "Army units operating in the \"Ixil Triangle\" belonged to the Mariscal Zavala Brigade, stationed in Guatemala City.", "Moreover, although the guerrillas did not intervene directly when the army attacked the civilian population allegedly because they lacked supplies and ammunition, it did support some survival strategies.", "It streamlined, for example, \"survival plans\" designed to give evacuation instructions in assumption that military incursions took place.", "Most of the population began to participate in the schemes finding that them represented their only alternative to military repression.===== Lucas Garcia presidency =====The election of Lucas García on 7 March 1978 marked the beginning of a full return to the counterinsurgency practices of the Arana period.", "This was compounded by the strong reaction of the Guatemalan military to the situation unfolding in Nicaragua at the time, where the popularly supported Sandinista insurgency was on the verge of toppling the Somoza regime.", "With the aim of preventing an analogous situation from unfolding in Guatemala, the government intensified its repressive campaign against the predominantly indigenous mass movement.", "The repression not only intensified, but became more overt.On 4 August 1978, high school and university students, along with other popular movement sectors, organized the mass movement's first urban protest of the Lucas García period.", "The protests, intended as a march against violence, were attended by an estimated 10,000 people.", "The new minister of the interior under President Lucas García, Donaldo Alvarez Ruiz, promised to break up any protests done without government permission.", "Having refused to ask for permission, the protesters were met by the Pelotón Modelo (Model Platoon) of the National Police.", "Employing new anti-riot gear donated by the United States Government, Platoon agents surrounded marchers and tear-gassed them.", "Students were forced to retreat and dozens of people, mostly school-aged adolescents, were hospitalized.", "This was followed by more protests and death squad killings throughout the later part of the year.", "In September 1978 a general strike broke out to protest sharp increases in public transportation fares; the government responded harshly, arresting dozens of protesters and injuring many more.", "However, as a result of the campaign, the government agreed to the protesters' demands, including the establishment of a public transportation subsidy.", "Fearful that this concession would encourage more protests, the military government, along with state-sponsored paramilitary death squads, generated an unsafe situation for public leaders.The administrator of a large cemetery in Guatemala City informed the press that in the first half of 1978, more than 760 unidentified bodies had arrived at the cemetery, all apparent victims of death squads.", "Amnesty International stated that disappearances were an \"epidemic\" in Guatemala and reported more than 2,000 killings between mid-1978 and 1980.Between January and November 1979 alone the Guatemalan press reported 3,252 disappearances.====== Spanish Embassy fire ======On 31 January 1980, a group of displaced K'iche' and Ixil peasant farmers occupied the Spanish Embassy in Guatemala City to protest the kidnapping and murder of peasants in Uspantán by elements of the Guatemalan Army.", "In the subsequent police raid, over the protests of the Spanish ambassador, the police attacked the building with incendiary explosives.", "A fire ensued as police prevented those inside of the embassy from exiting the building.", "In all, 36 people were killed in the fire.", "The funeral of the victims (including the hitherto obscure father of Rigoberta Menchú, Vicente Menchú) attracted hundreds of thousands of mourners, and a new guerrilla group was formed commemorating the date, the ''Frente patriotico 31 de enero'' (Patriotic Front of 31 January).", "The incident has been called \"the defining event\" of the Guatemalan Civil War.", "The Guatemalan government issued a statement claiming that its forces had entered the embassy at the request of the Spanish Ambassador, and that the occupiers of the embassy, whom they referred to as \"terrorists\", had \"sacrificed the hostages and immolated themselves afterward\".", "Ambassador Cajal denied the claims of the Guatemalan government and Spain immediately terminated diplomatic relations with Guatemala, calling the action a violation of \"the most elementary norms of international law\".", "Relations between Spain and Guatemala were not normalized until 22 September 1984.====== Increased insurgency and state repression: 1980–1982 ======In the months following the Spanish Embassy Fire, the human rights situation continued to deteriorate.", "The daily number of killings by official and unofficial security forces increased from an average of 20 to 30 in 1979 to a conservative estimate of 30 to 40 daily in 1980.Human rights sources estimated 5,000 Guatemalans were killed by the government for \"political reasons\" in 1980 alone, making it the worst human rights violator in the hemisphere after El Salvador.", "In a report titled ''Guatemala: A Government Program of Political Murder,'' Amnesty International stated, \"Between January and November of 1980, some 3,000 people described by government representatives as \"subversives\" and \"criminals\" were either shot on the spot in political assassinations or seized and murdered later; at least 364 others seized in this period have not yet been accounted for\".The repression and excessive force used by the government against the opposition was such that it became source of contention within Lucas Garcia's administration itself.", "This contention within the government caused Lucas Garcia's Vice President Francisco Villagrán Kramer to resign from his position on 1 September 1980.In his resignation, Kramer cited his disapproval of the government's human rights record as one of the primary reasons for his resignation.", "He then went into voluntary exile in the United States, taking a position in the Legal Department of the Inter-American Development Bank.====== Insurgent mobilization ======The effects of state repression on the population further radicalized individuals within the mass movement and led to increased popular support for the insurgency.", "In late 1979, the EGP expanded its influence, controlling a large amount of territory in the Ixil Triangle in El Quiche and holding many demonstrations in Nebaj, Chajul and Cotzal.", "At the same time the EGP was expanding its presence in the Altiplano, a new insurgent movement called the ORPA (Revolutionary Organization of Armed People) made itself known.", "Composed of local youths and university intellectuals, the ORPA developed out of a movement called the Regional de Occidente, which split from the FAR-PGT in 1971.The ORPA's leader, Rodrigo Asturias (a former activist with the PGT and first-born son of Nobel Prize-winning author Miguel Ángel Asturias), formed the organization after returning from exile in Mexico.", "The ORPA established an operational base in the mountains and rain-forests above the coffee plantations of southwestern Guatemala and in the Atitlan where it enjoyed considerable popular support.", "On 18 September 1979, the ORPA made its existence publicly known when it occupied the Mujulia coffee farm in the coffee-growing region of the Quezaltenango province to hold a political education meeting with the workers.Insurgent movements active in the initial phase of the conflict such as the FAR also began to reemerge and prepare for combat.", "In 1980, guerrilla operations on both the urban and rural fronts greatly intensified, with the insurgency carrying out a number of overt acts of armed propaganda and assassinations of prominent right-wing Guatemalans and landowners.", "In 1980, armed insurgents assassinated prominent Ixil landowner Enrique Brol, and president of the CACIF (Coordinating Committee of Agricultural, Commercial, Industrial, and Financial Associations) Alberto Habie.", "Encouraged by guerrilla advances elsewhere in Central America, the Guatemalan insurgents, especially the EGP, began to quickly expand their influence through a wide geographic area and across different ethnic groups, thus broadening the appeal of the insurgent movement and providing it with a larger popular base.", "In October 1980, a tripartite alliance was formalized between the EGP, the FAR and the ORPA as a precondition for Cuban-backing.In early 1981, the insurgency mounted the largest offensive in the country's history.", "This was followed by an additional offensive towards the end of the year, in which many civilians were forced to participate by the insurgents.", "Villagers worked with the insurgency to sabotage roads and army establishments, and destroy anything of strategic value to the armed forces.", "By 1981, an estimated 250,000 to 500,000 members of Guatemala's indigenous community actively supported the insurgency.", "Guatemalan Army Intelligence (G-2) estimated a minimum 360,000 indigenous supporters of the EGP alone.", "Since late 1981 the Army applied a strategy of \"scorched earth\" in Quiché, to eliminate the guerrilla social support EGP.", "In some communities of the region's military forced all residents to leave their homes and concentrate in the county seat under military control.", "Some families obeyed; others took refuge in the mountains.", "K'iche's who took refuge in the mountains, were identified by the Army with the guerrillas and underwent a military siege, and continuous attacks that prevented them from getting food, shelter and medical care.====== La Llorona massacre, El Estor ======La Llorona, located about 18 kilometers from El Estor, department of Izabal (part of the Northern Transversal Strip), was a small village with no more than twenty houses.", "Most of the first settlers arrived from the areas of Senahú and Panzós, both in Alta Verapaz.", "In 1981, the total population was about 130 people, all belonging to the q'eqchi' ethnic group.", "Few people spoke Spanish and most worked in their own cornfields, sporadically working for the local landowners.", "In the vicinity are the villages of El Bongo, Socela, Benque, Rio Pita, Santa Maria, Big Plan, and New Hope.", "Conflicts in the area were related to land tenure, highlighting the uncertainty about the boundaries between farms and communities, and the lack of titles.", "As in the National Institute of Agrarian Transformation (INTA) was not registered a legitimate owner of land occupied La Llorona, the community remained in the belief that the land belonged to the state, which had taken steps to obtain title property.", "However, a farmer with great influence in the area occupied part of the land, generating a conflict between him and the community; men of the village, on its own initiative, devised a new boundary between community land and the farmer, but the problem remained dormant.The second half of the seventies gave rise to the first news about the presence of guerrillas in the villages.", "The commander aparacimiento Ramon, talked to people and said they were the Guerrilla Army of the Poor.", "They passed many villages asking what problems people had and offered to solve them.", "They told peasants that the land belonged to the poor and that they should trust them.", "In 1977, Ramon, a guerrilla commander, regularly visited the village of La Llorona and after finding that the issue of land was causing many problems in the community, taught people to practice new measurements, which spread fear among landowners.", "That same year, the group under Ramon arbitrarily executed the Spanish landowner José Hernández, near El Recreo, which he owned.", "Following this, a clandestine group of mercenaries, dubbed \"fighters of the rich\" was formed to protect the interests of landlords; public authority of El Estor organized the group and paid its members, stemming from the funding of major landowners.", "The group, irregular, was related to the military commissioners of the region and with commanders of the Army, although mutual rivalries also took place.", "The secret organization murdered several people, including victims who had no connection whatsoever with insurgent groups.In December 1978, the EGP group leader, Ramon, was captured by soldiers of the military detachment in El Estor and transferred to the military zone of Puerto Barrios; after two years returned to El Estor; but this time as an officer in the Army G2 and joined a group of soldiers that came to the village.====== Killings ======On the evening of 28 September 1981, an army officer accompanied by four soldiers and a military commissioner met with about thirty civilians.", "At seven o'clock, over thirty civilians, mostly from \"Nueva Esperanza\", including several 'informants' known to military intelligence, gathered around La Llorona along with some military commissioners and a small group of soldiers and army officers.", "Then they entered the village.", "Civilians and commissioners entered twelve houses, and each of them were pulling men and shot them dead outside their own homes; those who tried to escape were also killed.", "Women who tried to protect their husbands were beaten.", "While the military commissioners and civilians executed men, soldiers subtracted belongings of the victims; within half an hour, the authors of the assault left the village.AftermathThe victims bodies, fourteen in all, were in front of houses.", "Women, despite having been threatened with death if they told what happened, ran to the nearest village, El Bongo, for help.", "After a few hours, women came back with people who helped to bury the bodies.", "Days later, widows, with almost 60 fatherless children were welcomed by the parish of El Estor for several days, until the soldiers forced them to return to their village.", "Two widows of those executed on 29 September established close relations with the military commissioners from Bongo.", "This situation led to divisions that still exist in the community.The economic and social activity was disrupted in the village: widows had to take the jobs of their husbands; because of their lack of knowledge in the cultivation of land, harvested very little corn and beans.", "There were diseases, especially among children and the elderly, there was no food or clothing.", "The teacher of the village came only part-time, mostly out of fear, but left after he realized it was not worth to stay because young people had to work nor could they spend money on travel.", "The village had no teacher for the next four years.", "The events generated finally the breakup of the community.", "Some village women though that their husbands were killed because of three others who were linked with the guerrillas and were involved in a land dispute.According to the Historical Clarification Commission, the landlord with whom the villagers had the land dispute took advantage of the situation to appropriate another of land.===== List of other massacres perpetrated by the Army in Franja Transversal del Norte =====The report of the Recovery of Historical Memory lists 422 massacres committed by both sides in the conflict; however, it also states that they did the best they could in terms of obtaining information and therefore the list is incomplete; therefore here are the cases that have also been documented in other reports as well.", "'''Chajul, Nebaj and Ixcán massacres in Franja Transversal del Norte''' # Location Department Date Root cause1Ilom (village), ChajulQuiché23 March 1982After 1981, repression against Ilom was rampant, ending with the massacre of 96 alleged guerrilla members in front of their families on 23 March 1982, as part of Army \"Victoria 82\" plan.", "Soldiers were from the military base in \"La Perla\" while survivors fled and seek shelter in Comunidades de Población en Resistencia -Resistance population communities-.2Chel (village), ChajulQuiché3 April 1982A part of operation \"Victoria 82\", Army soldiers from the military fort in \"La Perla\" rushed into Chel settlement, because it had been targeted as \"subversive\".", "The attack left 95 dead civilians.3Chisis (village), San Juan CotzalQuiché13 February 1982Chisís was a military target for the Army, who considered the village symbolic for the EGP and believed it was the guerrilla headquarters where the attacks in Chajul, Cotzal, and Nebaj had been planned.", "In January 1982, EGP attacked Cotzal military base; the attack lasted 2 hours and 20 minutes, resulting 100 military casualties and 20 for the guerrilla.", "PAC and Army battalions, in revenge, completely destroy Chisis, leaving approximately 200 dead civilians behind.4Acul (village), NebajQuichéApril 1982Combat against EGP.", "There were 17 deaths.===== List of massacres perpetrated by the EGP in FTN =====According to a report by the rightist magazine \"Crónica\", there were 1,258 guerrilla actions against civilians and infrastructure in Guatemala, including more than two hundred murders, sixty eight kidnappings, eleven bombs against embassies and three hundred twenty-nine attacks against civilians.", "Almost all guerrilla massacres occurred in 1982 when further militarization reigned and there was widespread presence of PAC in communities; many of them were victims of non-cooperation with the guerrillas and in some cases they came after a previous attack by the PAC.", "In the massacres perpetrated by the guerrillas there is no use of informants, or concentration of population, or separation of groups; also, there are no recounts of rape or repetitive slaughter.", "There are cases of razed villages and less tendency to mass flight, even though it occurred in some cases.", "the use of lists was also more frequent.In a publication of the Army of Guatemala, sixty massacres perpetrated by the EGP were reported, arguing that they were mostly ignored by REHMI and the Historical Clarification Commission reports.", "It is also reported that in mid-1982, 32 members of \"Star Guerrilla Front \" were shot for not raising the EGP flag.", "'''Chajul, Nebaj and Ixcán massacres in Franja Transversal del Norte'''#LocationDepartmentDateDescription1Calapté, UspantánQuiché17 February 1982There were 42 fatal victims, who were murdered with machetes.2SalacuínAlta VerapazMay 1982EGP entered the community and murdered 20 peasants.3El Conguito (settlement), Las Pacayas (village), San Cristóbal VerapazAlta Verapaz19814Sanimtakaj (village), San Cristóbal VerapazAlta Verapaz19805San Miguel Sechochoch (farm), ChisecAlta VerapazMarch 19826Chacalté, ChajulQuichéJune 1982Attack against a \"reactionary gang\" from the PAC in Chacalté, that had just formed in March and was loyal to the Army after becoming disillusioned with guerrilla promises.", "Resulted in 55 dead civilians.7San Miguel Acatán (town), San Miguel AcatánHuehuetenangoUnknown8Santa Cruz del Quiche (city), Santa Cruz del QuichéQuichéJuly 19829Chuacaman (settlement), El Carmen Chitatul (village), Santa Cruz del QuichéQuichéDecember 198210La Estancia (village), Santa Cruz del QuichéQuichéAugust 198111Xesic (village), Santa Cruz del QuichéQuiché198112Patzité (town)QuichéSeptember 198113Lancetillo (village), UspantánQuichéSeptember 198214La Taña (village), UspantánQuichéMarch 198215Tzununul (village), SacapulasQuichéFebruary 198216Salinas Magdalena (village), SacapulasQuichéAugust 198217Rosario Monte María (village), ChicamánQuichéOctober 1982===== Civil war in the city =====On 31 January 1980, Guatemala got worldwide attention when the Spanish Embassy in Guatemala City was burnt down, resulting in 37 deaths, including embassy personnel and high ranked Guatemalan former government officials.", "A group of native people from El Quiché occupied the embassy in a desperate attempt to bring attention to the issues they were having with the Army in that region of the country, which was rich in oil and had been recently populated as part of the \"Franja Transversal del Norte\" agricultural program.", "In the end, thirty seven people died after a fire started within the embassy after the police force tried to occupy the building; after that, Spain broke its diplomatic relationships with Guatemala.Finance Center in 2011.In 1981, a powerful bomb exploded in the basement of the building, leaving it without windows for several years.", "The owners -Industrial Bank- decided to keep it open to the public to defy the leftist guerrilla.On 5 September 1980 a terrorist attack by Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres (EGP) took place in front of the Guatemalan National Palace, then the headquarters of the Guatemalan government.", "The intention was to prevent the Guatemalan people to support a huge demonstration that the government of general Lucas Garcia had prepared for Sunday 7 September 1980.In the attack, six adults and a boy died after two bombs inside a vehicle went off.There was an undetermined number of wounded and heavy material losses, not only from art pieces from the National Palace, but from all the surrounding buildings, particularly in the Lucky Building, which is right across from the Presidential Office.", "Among the deceased was Domingo Sánchez, Secretary of Agriculture driver; Joaquín Díaz y Díaz, car washer; and Amilcar de Paz, a security guard.The attacks against private financial, commercial and agricultural targets increased in the Lucas Garcia years, as the leftist Marxist groups saw those institutions as \"reactionaries\" and \"millionaire exploiters\" that were collaborating with the genocidal government.", "The following is a non-exhaustive list of the terrorist attacks that occurred in Guatemala city and are presented in the UN Commission report: Date Perpetrator Target Result15 September 1981Rebel Army ForcesCorporación Financiera Nacional (CORFINA)Car bomb damaged the building and neighbor Guatemalan and international financial institutions; there were more than Q300k in losses.19 October 1981EGP Urban guerrillaIndustrial Bank Financial CenterBuilding sabotage.21 December 1981EGP \"Otto René Castillo\" commandoBombs against newly built structures: Chamber of Industry, Torre Panamericana (Bank of Coffee headquarters) and Industrial Bank Financial CenterCar bombs completely destroyed the building's windows.28 December de 1981EGP \"Otto René Castillo\" commandoIndustrial Bank Financial CenterCar bomb against the building which virtually destroyed one of the bank towers.", "In a sign of defiance, the bank did not repair the windows immediately and continued operating as normally as it could.Despite advances by the insurgency, the insurgency made a series of fatal strategic errors.", "The successes made by the revolutionary forces in Nicaragua against the Somoza regime combined with the insurgency's own successes against the Lucas government led rebel leaders to falsely conclude that a military equilibrium was being reached in Guatemala, thus the insurgency underestimated the military strength of the government.", "The insurgency subsequently found itself overwhelmed, and was unable to secure its advances and protect the indigenous civilian population from reprisals by the security forces.===== 'Operation Ceniza' =====In response to the guerrilla offensive in early 1981, the Guatemalan Army began mobilizing for a large-scale rural counter-offensive.", "The Lucas government instituted a policy of forced recruitment and began organizing a \"task-force\" model for fighting the insurgency, by which strategic mobile forces were drawn from larger military brigades.", "To curtail civilian participation in the insurgency and provide greater distinction between \"hostile\" and compliant communities in the countryside, the army resorted to a series of \"civic action\" measures.", "The army under Chief of Staff Benedicto Lucas García (the President's brother) began to search out communities in which to organize and recruit civilians into pro-government paramilitary patrols, who would combat the insurgents and kill their collaborators.In 1980, and 1981, the United States under Reagan administration delivered $10.5 million worth of Bell 212 and Bell 412 helicopters and $3.2 million worth of military trucks and jeeps to the Guatemalan Army.", "In 1981, the Reagan administration also approved a $2 million covert CIA program for Guatemala.On 15 April 1981, EGP rebels attacked a Guatemalan Army patrol from the village of Cocob near Nebaj, killing five personnel.", "On 17 April 1981, a reinforced company of Airborne troops was deployed to the village.", "They discovered fox holes, guerrillas and a hostile population.", "The local people appeared to fully support the guerrillas.", "\"The soldiers were forced to fire at anything that moved\".", "The army killed 65 civilians, including 34 children, five adolescents, 23 adults and two elderly people.In July 1981, the armed forces initiated a new phase of counterinsurgency operations under the code-name \"''Operación Ceniza''\", or \"Operation Ashes\", which lasted through March 1982.The purpose of the operation was to \"separate and isolate the insurgents from the civilian population\".", "During \"''Operación Ceniza''\" some 15,000 troops were deployed on a gradual sweep through the predominantly indigenous Altiplano region, comprising the departments of El Quiché and Huehuetenango.Large numbers of civilians were killed or displaced in the Guatemalan military's counterinsurgency operations.", "To alienate the insurgents from their civilian base, the army carried out large-scale mass killing of unarmed civilians, burned villages and crops, and butchered animals, destroying survivors' means of livelihood.", "Sources with the human rights office of the Catholic Church estimated the death toll from the counterinsurgency in 1981 at 11,000, with most of the victims indigenous peasants of the Guatemalan highlands.", "Other sources and observers put the death toll due to government repression in 1981 at between 9,000 and 13,500.As army repression intensified in the countryside, relations between the Guatemalan military establishment and the Lucas Garcia regime worsened.", "Professionals within the Guatemalan military considered the Lucas approach counterproductive, on grounds that the Lucas government's strategy of military action and systematic terror overlooked the social and ideological causes of the insurgency while radicalizing the civilian population.", "Additionally, Lucas went against the military's interests by endorsing his defense minister, Angel Anibal Guevara, as a candidate in the March 1982 presidential elections.The guerrilla organizations in 1982 combined to form the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG).", "At the same time, extreme right-wing groups of self-appointed vigilantes, including the Secret Anti-Communist Army (ESA) and the White Hand (''La Mano Blanca''), tortured and murdered students, professionals, and peasants suspected of involvement in leftist activities.On 23 March 1982, army troops commanded by junior officers staged a coup d'état to prevent the assumption of power by General Ángel Aníbal Guevara, the hand-picked candidate of outgoing President and General Romeo Lucas García.", "They denounced Guevara's electoral victory as fraudulent.", "The coup leaders asked retired Gen. Efraín Ríos Montt to negotiate the departure of Lucas Guevara.", "Ríos Montt had been the candidate of the Christian Democracy Party in the 1974 presidential election and was widely regarded as having been denied his own victory through fraud.Ríos Montt was by this time a lay pastor in the evangelical Protestant Church of the Word.", "In his inaugural address, he stated that his presidency resulted from the will of God.", "He was widely perceived as having strong backing from the Reagan administration in the United States.", "He formed a three-member military junta that annulled the 1965 constitution, dissolved Congress, suspended political parties and canceled the electoral law.", "After a few months, Montt dismissed his junta colleagues and assumed the ''de facto'' title of \"President of the Republic\".Guerrilla forces and their leftist allies denounced Montt, who sought to defeat them by a combination of military actions and economic reforms; in his words, \"rifles and beans\".", "In May 1982, the Conference of Catholic Bishops accused Montt of responsibility for growing militarization of the country and for continuing military massacres of civilians.", "An army officer was quoted in ''The New York Times'' of 18 July 1982 as telling an audience of indigenous Guatemalans in Cunén that: \"If you are with us, we'll feed you; if not, we'll kill you\".The Plan de Sánchez massacre occurred on the same day.The government began to form local civilian defense patrols (PACs).", "Participation was in theory voluntary, but in practice, many rural Guatemalan men (including young boys and the elderly), especially in the northwest, had no choice but to join either the PACs or be considered guerrillas.", "At their peak, the PACs are estimated to have included 1 million conscripts.", "Montt's conscript army and PACs recaptured essentially all guerrilla territory.", "The insurgents' activity lessened and was largely limited to hit-and-run operations.", "Montt won this partial victory at an enormous cost in civilian deaths.Montt's brief presidency was probably the most violent period of the 36-year internal conflict, which resulted in thousands of deaths of mostly unarmed indigenous civilians.", "Although leftist guerrillas and right-wing death squads also engaged in summary executions, forced disappearances, and torture of noncombatants, the vast majority of human rights violations were carried out by the Guatemalan military and the PACs they controlled.", "The internal conflict is described in great detail in the reports of the Historical Clarification Commission (CEH) and the Archbishop's Office for Human Rights (ODHAG).", "The CEH estimates that government forces were responsible for 93% of the violations; ODHAG earlier estimated that government forces were responsible for 80%.On 8 August 1983, Montt was deposed by his Minister of Defense, General Óscar Humberto Mejía Víctores, who succeeded him as ''de facto'' president of Guatemala.", "Mejía justified his coup, based on problems with \"religious fanatics\" in government and \"official corruption\".", "Seven people were killed in the coup.", "Montt survived to found a political party (the Guatemalan Republic Front) and to be elected President of Congress in 1995 and again in 2000.Awareness in the United States of the conflict in Guatemala, and its ethnic dimension, increased with the 1983 publication of the \"testimonial\" account ''I, Rigoberta Menchú'', a memoir by a leading activist.", "Rigoberta Menchú was awarded the 1992 Nobel Peace Prize for her work in favor of broader social justice.", "In 1998, a book by U.S. anthropologist David Stoll challenged some of the details in Menchú's book, creating an international controversy.", "After the publication of Stoll's book, the Nobel Committee reiterated that it had awarded the Peace Prize based on Menchú's uncontested work promoting human rights and the peace process.General Mejía allowed a managed return to democracy in Guatemala, starting with a 1 July 1984 election for a Constituent Assembly to draft a democratic constitution.", "On 30 May 1985, after nine months of debate, the Constituent Assembly finished drafting a new constitution, which took effect immediately.", "Vinicio Cerezo, a civilian politician and the presidential candidate of the Christian Democracy Party, won the first election held under the new constitution with almost 70% of the vote, and took office on 14 January 1986.==== 1986 to 1996: from constitution to peace accords ====Upon its inauguration in January 1986, President Cerezo's civilian government announced that its top priorities would be to end the political violence and establish the rule of law.", "Reforms included new laws of habeas corpus and ''amparo'' (court-ordered protection), the creation of a legislative human rights committee, and the establishment in 1987 of the Office of Human Rights Ombudsman.", "The Supreme Court embarked on a series of reforms to fight corruption and improve legal system efficiency.With Cerezo's election, the military returned to the more traditional role of providing internal security, specifically by fighting armed insurgents.", "The first two years of Cerezo's administration were characterized by a stable economy and a marked decrease in political violence.", "Dissatisfied military personnel made two coup attempts in May 1988 and May 1989, but the military leadership supported the constitutional order.", "The government was strongly criticized for its reluctance to investigate or prosecute cases of human rights violations.The final two years of Cerezo's government were marked by a failing economy, strikes, protest marches, and allegations of widespread corruption.", "The government's inability to deal with many of the nation's social and health problems—such as infant mortality, illiteracy, deficient health and social services, and rising levels of violence—contributed to popular discontent.Presidential and congressional elections were held on 11 November 1990.After a runoff ballot, Jorge Antonio Serrano Elías was inaugurated on 14 January 1991, completing the first successful transition from one democratically elected civilian government to another.", "Because his Movement of Solidarity Action (MAS) Party gained only 18 of 116 seats in Congress, Serrano entered into a tenuous coalition with the Christian Democrats and the National Union of the center (UCN) to form a government.The Serrano administration's record was mixed.", "It had some success in consolidating civilian control over the army, replacing a number of senior officers and persuading the military to participate in peace talks with the URNG.", "He took the politically unpopular step of recognizing the sovereignty of Belize, which had long been officially, though fruitlessly, claimed as a province by Guatemala.", "The Serrano government reversed the economic slide it inherited, reducing inflation and boosting real growth.In 1992, Efraín Bámaca, a notable guerrilla leader also known as Comandante Everardo, \"disappeared\".", "It was later found that Bámaca was tortured and killed that year by Guatemalan Army officers.", "His widow, the American Jennifer Harbury, and members of the Guatemala Human Rights Commission, based in Washington, D.C., raised protests that ultimately led the United States to declassify documents going back to 1954 related to its actions in Guatemala.", "It was learned that the CIA had been funding the military, although Congress had prohibited such funding since 1990 because of the Army's human rights abuses.", "Congress forced the CIA to end its aid to the Guatemalan Army.On 25 May 1993, Serrano illegally dissolved Congress and the Supreme Court and tried to restrict civil freedoms, allegedly to fight corruption.", "The ''autogolpe'' (palace coup) failed due to unified, strong protests by most elements of Guatemalan society, international pressure, and the army's enforcement of the decisions of the Court of Constitutionality, which ruled against the attempted takeover.", "In the face of this pressure, Serrano fled the country.On 5 June 1993, Congress, pursuant to the 1985 constitution, elected the Human Rights Ombudsman, Ramiro de León Carpio, to complete Serrano's presidential term.", "De León was not a member of any political party.", "Lacking a political base but with strong popular support, he launched an ambitious anti-corruption campaign to \"purify\" Congress and the Supreme Court, demanding the resignations of all members of the two bodies.Despite considerable congressional resistance, presidential and popular pressure led to a November 1993 agreement brokered by the Catholic Church between the administration and Congress.", "This package of constitutional reforms was approved by popular referendum on 30 January 1994.In August 1994, a new Congress was elected to complete the unexpired term.", "Controlled by the anti-corruption parties: the populist Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG) headed by Ríos Montt, and the center-right National Advancement Party (PAN), the new Congress began to abandon the corruption that characterized its predecessors.Under de León, the peace process, now brokered by the United Nations, took on new life.", "The government and the URNG signed agreements on human rights (March 1994), resettlement of displaced persons (June 1994), historical clarification (June 1994), and indigenous rights (March 1995).", "They also made significant progress on a socioeconomic and agrarian agreement.National elections for president, Congress, and municipal offices were held in November 1995.With almost 20 parties competing in the first round, the presidential election came down to a 7 January 1996 runoff in which PAN candidate Álvaro Arzú Irigoyen defeated Alfonso Portillo Cabrera of the FRG by just over 2% of the vote.", "Arzú won because of his strength in Guatemala City, where he had previously served as mayor, and in the surrounding urban area.", "Portillo won all of the rural departments except Petén.", "Under the Arzú administration, peace negotiations were concluded, and the government signed peace accords ending the 36-year internal conflict in December 1996 (see section on peace process).==== 1996 Peace Accords to present ====The human rights situation remained difficult during Arzú's tenure, although some initial steps were taken to reduce the influence of the military in national affairs.", "The most notable human rights case of this period was the brutal slaying of Bishop Juan José Gerardi on 24 April 1998, two days after he had publicly presented a major Catholic Church-sponsored human rights report known as ''Guatemala: Nunca Mas'', summarizing testimony about human rights abuses during the Civil War.", "It was prepared by the Recovery of Historical Memory project, known by the acronym of REMHI.", "In 2001, three Army officers were convicted in civil court and sentenced to lengthy prison terms for his murder.Guatemala held presidential, legislative, and municipal elections on 7 November 1999, and a runoff presidential election on 26 December.", "Alfonso Portillo was criticized during the campaign for his relationship with the FRG's chairman, former president Ríos Montt.", "Many charge that some of the worst human rights violations of the internal conflict were committed under Ríos Montt's rule.In the first round the Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG) won 63 of 113 legislative seats, while the National Advancement Party (PAN) won 37.The New Nation Alliance (ANN) won nine legislative seats, and three minority parties won the remaining four.", "In the runoff on 26 December, Alfonso Portillo (FRG) won 68% of the vote to 32% for Óscar Berger (PAN).", "Portillo carried all 22 departments and Guatemala City, which was considered the PAN's stronghold.Portillo's impressive electoral triumph, with two-thirds of the vote in the second round, gave him a mandate from the people to carry out his reform program.", "He pledged to maintain strong ties to the United States, enhance Guatemala's growing cooperation with Mexico, and join in the integration process in Central America and the Western Hemisphere.", "Domestically, he vowed to support continued liberalization of the economy, increase investment in human capital and infrastructure, establish an independent central bank, and increase revenue by stricter enforcement of tax collections rather than increasing taxation.Portillo also promised to continue the peace process, appoint a civilian defense minister, reform the armed forces, replace the military presidential security service with a civilian one, and strengthen protection of human rights.", "He appointed a pluralist cabinet, including indigenous members and individuals who were independent of the FRG ruling party.Progress in carrying out Portillo's reform agenda during his first year in office was slow.", "As a result, public support for the government sank to nearly record lows by early 2001.The administration made progress on such issues as taking state responsibility for past human rights cases and supporting human rights in international fora.", "It struggled to prosecute past human rights cases, and to achieve military reforms or a fiscal pact to help finance programs to implement peace.", "It is seeking legislation to increase political participation by residents.The prosecution by Portillo's government of suspects in Bishop Gerardi's murder set a precedent in 2001; it was the first time military officers in Guatemala had been tried in civil courts.Faced with a high crime rate, a public corruption problem, often violent harassment and intimidation by unknown assailants of human rights activists, judicial workers, journalists, and witnesses in human rights trials, the government began serious attempts in 2001 to open a national dialogue to discuss the considerable challenges facing the country.In July 2003, the Jueves Negro demonstrations rocked the capital, forcing the closing of the US embassy and the UN mission.", "Supporters of Ríos Montt called for his return to power, demanding that the courts lift a ban against former coup leaders participating in government.", "They wanted Montt to run as a presidential candidate in the 2003 elections.", "The FRG fed the demonstrators.On 9 November 2003, Óscar Berger, a former mayor of Guatemala city, won the presidential election with 39% of the vote.", "As he failed to achieve a fifty percent majority, he had to go through a runoff election on 28 December, which he also won.", "He defeated the center-left candidate Álvaro Colom.", "Allowed to run, Montt trailed a distant third with 11% of the vote.In early October 2005, Guatemala was devastated by Hurricane Stan.", "Although a relatively weak storm, it triggered a flooding disaster, resulting in at least 1,500 people dead and thousands homeless.Determined to make progress against crime and internal police corruption, Óscar Berger in December 2006 came to agreement with the United Nations to gain support for judicial enforcement of its laws.", "They created the International Commission against Impunity in Guatemala (CICIG), an independent institution, which is to assist the Office of the Prosecutor of Guatemala, the National Police Force, and other investigative institutions.", "Their goal was to prosecute cells linked to organised crime and to drug trafficking.", "CICIG has the authority to conduct its own inquiries, and to refer the most significant cases to the national judiciary.", "The stated objective of CICIG is to \"reinforce the national criminal justice system and to help it with its reforms\"., CICIG has led inquiries into some 20 cases.", "It is acting as Deputy Prosecutor in eight other cases.", "CICIG conducted the investigations leading to an arrest warrant against Erwin Sperisen, former Head of the National Civilian Police (Policia Nacional Civil – PNC) from 2004 to 2007.With dual Swiss-Guatemalan citizenship, he fled to Switzerland to escape prosecution in Guatemala for numerous extrajudicial killings and police corruption.", "In addition, 17 other persons are covered by arrest warrants related to these crimes, including several former highly placed political figures of Guatemala.===== President Otto Pérez Molina government and \"La Línea\" case =====Retired general Otto Pérez Molina was elected president along with Roxana Baldetti, the first ever woman vice president in Guatemala; they began their term in office on 14 January 2012.But on 16 April 2015, UN anti-corruption agency CICIG issued a report that implicated several high-profile politicians including Vice President Baldetti's private secretary, Juan Carlos Monzón and the director of the Guatemalan Internal Revenue Service.", "The revelations generated public outrage that had not been seen since the times of general Kjell Eugenio Laugerud Garcia presidency.", "The CICIG, working with the Guatemalan attorney general, revealed the scam known as \"La Línea\", following a year-long investigation that included wire taps; officials received bribes from importers in exchange for reducing tariffs the importers were required to pay, a procedure that as rooted in a long tradition of customs corruption in the country, as successive military governments tried to raise funds for counterinsurgency operations during Guatemala's 36-year-long civil war.Citizens created an event on Facebook inviting all their friends to go to Guatemala City historic downtown to ask for Vice President Baldetti's resignation with the hashtag #RenunciaYa (Resign Now).", "Within days, over 10,000 people said they would attend.", "Quickly the organizers realized that for the action to succeed, they had to guarantee that no one would be harmed and The group set a series of rules making clear that no political party or group was behind that event, instructing protesters to follow the law, and urging people to bring water, food and sunblock but not cover their faces or wear party political colors.", "Tens of thousands of people took to the streets of Guatemala City, and due to the pressure, Baldetti resigned a few days later and was forced to remain in the country after the United States removed her visa to visit that country and the Guatemalan government arraigned her as there was enough suspicion to assume that she might be involved in \"La Linea\" scandal.", "This, and the prominent presence of US Ambassador Todd Robinson in the Guatemalan political scene since the scandal broke loose brought up the suspicion in Guatemalans that the US government was behind the investigation because it needed a government sympathetic to the US in Guatemala to counter the presence of China and Russia in the region.Since then, the UN anti-corruption committee has reported on other cases and more than 20 government officials have stepped down, some have been arrested.", "Of those, the largest are the ones that involve two former president private secretaries: Juan de Dios Rodríguez in the Guatemalan Social Service and Gustavo Martínez, who was involved in a bribe scandal in the coil mega power plant Jaguar Energy.", "Martinez was also President Perez Molina's son-in-law.But also political opposition leaders have been involved in CICIG investigations: several legislators and members of Libertad Democrática Renovada party (LIDER) were formally accused of bribery-related issues, prompting a large decline in the electorate trend for its presidential candidate, Manuel Baldizón, who before April was almost certain to become the next Guatemalan president in the 6 September 2015 presidential elections.", "Baldizón popularity suffered a steep decline and he even went on to accuse CICIG leader, Iván Velásquez, of international obstruction with Guatemalan internal affairs before the Organization of American States.CICIG presented so many cases on Thursdays that Guatemalans started calling them \"CICIG's Thursdays\".", "But it was a Friday press conference that brought up the crisis to its peak: on Friday 21 August 2015, CICIG and the Attorney General, Thelma Aldana, presented an investigation showing enough evidence to believe that both President Pérez Molina and former Vice President Baldetti were the actual leaders of \"La Línea\".", "Baldetti was arrested that same day and an impeachment was requested for the president.", "As a result, several cabinet members resigned, and the clamor for the president's resignation grew to unprecedented levels after President Perez Molina defiantly assured the nation that he was not going to resign on a televised message transmitted on 23 August 2015.After a thousands of protesters took to the streets to demand the increasingly isolated president's resignation, Guatemala's Congress named a commission of five legislators to consider whether to remove the president's immunity from prosecution.", "The request was approved by the supreme court.", "A major day of action kicked off early on Thursday 27 August, with marches and roadblocks across the country.", "Urban groups, which have spearheaded regular protests since the scandal broke in April, on Thursday 27th sought to unite with rural and indigenous organizations who have orchestrated the road blocks.This strike in Guatemala City was filled to bursting with a diverse and peaceful crowd ranging from the indigenous poor to the well-heeled, and included many students from public and private universities.", "Hundreds of schools and businesses closed in support of the protests.", "The organization grouping Guatemala's most powerful business leaders issued a statement demanding that Pérez Molina step down, and urged Congress to withdraw his immunity from prosecution.The attorney general's office released its own statement calling on the president to resign, \"to prevent ungovernability that could destabilize the nation\".", "As pressure mounted, the president's former ministers of defense and the interior, who were named in the corruption investigation and resigned from cabinet recently, left the country.", "Pérez Molina, meanwhile, has been losing support by the day.", "The powerful private sector – until then a loyal supporter of Molina, their former defender in the Army during the Guatemalan Civil War – called for his resignation; however, he also has managed to get support from entrepreneurs that are not affiliated to the private sector chambers: Mario López Estrada – grand child of former dictator Manuel Estrada Cabrera and the billionaire owner of cellular phone companies – had some of his executives assume the cabinet positions that had been vacated days before.The Guatemalan radio station TGTO (\"Emisoras Unidas\") reported having a text message exchange with Perez Molina, who when asked about whether he planned to resign, wrote: \"I will face whatever is necessary to face, and what the law requires\".", "Some protesters have demanded the general election be postponed, both because of the crisis and because it is plagued with accusations of irregularities.", "Others warn that suspending the vote could lead to an institutional vacuum.", "However, on 2 September 2015 Molina quit from office after Congress impeached him a day before, and on 3 September 2015 he was summoned to the Justice Department to face his first legal audience for the La Linea case.===== Jimmy Morales and Alejandro Giammattei in power (2016–2024) =====In October 2015, presidential election, former TV comedian Jimmy Morales was elected as the new President of Guatemala after huge anti-corruption demonstrations.", "He took office in January 2016.In January 2017, President Morales announced that Guatemala will move its embassy in Israel to Jerusalem, becoming the first nation to follow the United States.In January 2020, Alejandro Giammattei replaced Jimmy Morales as the President of Guatemala.", "Giammattei had won the presidential election in August 2019 with his \"tough-on-crime\" agenda.==== Bernardo Arévalo (2024- ) ====In August 2023, Bernardo Arevalo, the candidate of the centre-left Semilla (Seed) Movement and son of the former president Juan José Arévalo, had a landslide victory in Guatemala’s presidential election.", "On 14 January 2024, Bernardo Arévalo was sworn in as Guatemala’s president." ], [ "See also", "List of presidents of GuatemalaPolitics of GuatemalaRoute of the Agroindustry and the Architecture Victoriana of GuatemalaRoute of the Dominican Evangelisation of GuatemalaRoute of the Franciscan Evangelisation in GuatemalaSpanish colonization of the AmericasTimeline of Guatemala City" ], [ "Notes and references", "=== Notes ======References====== Bibliography === * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "Woodward, Ralph Lee (1992).", "''Guatemala''.", "Oxford, England; Santa Barbara, California : Clio Press===Conquest and Colonial era===Cortijo Ocaña, Antonio, & Adelaida Cortijo Ocaña.", "''Cartas desde México y Guatemala (1540–1635).", "El proceso Díaz de la Reguera''.", "Cáceres, Berkeley: Universidad de Extremadura, The Bancroft Library, 2003.", " Few, Martha.", "''For All of Humanity: Mesoamerican and Colonial Medicine in Enlightenment Guatemala''.", "Tucson: University of Arizona Press 2015.", "* Few, Martha.", "''Women Who Live Evil Lives: Gender, Religion, and the Politics of Power in Colonial Guatemala''.", "Austin: University of Texas Press 2002.", "* Komisaruk, Catherine.", "''Labor and Love in Guatemala: The Eve of Independence''.", "Stanford University Press 2013.", "* Lanning, John Tate.", "''The Eighteenth-Century Enlightenment in the University of San Carlos de Guatemala''.", "Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1956.", "* Lovell, W. George.", "''Conquest and Survival in Colonial Guatemala: A Historical Geography of the Cuchumatán Highlands, 1500–1821''.", "3rd edition.", "Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press 2005.", "* Meneray, Wilbur E. ''The Kingdom of Guatemala during the Reign of Charles III, 1759–1788''.", "Chapel Hill, North Carolina: Dissertation: \tPh.D. University of North Carolina 1975* Martínez Peláez, Severo.", "''La Patria Criollo: An Interpretation of Colonial Guatemala''.", "Trans.", "Susan M. Neve and W. George Lovell.", "Durham: Duke University Press 2009.", "Orellana, Sandra.", "''Indian Medicine in Highland Guatemala: The Pre-Hispanic and Colonial Periods''.", "Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1987.", " Van Oss, Adriaan C. ''Catholic Colonialism: A Parish History of Guatemala, 1524–1821''.", "New York: Cambridge University Press 1986.===Post-independence===* Adams, Richard N. ''Crucifixion by Power: Essays on Guatemalan National Social Structure, 1944–1966''.", "Austin: University of Texas Press 1970.", "* * Carmack, Robert, ed.", "''Harvest of Violence: The Maya Indians and the Guatemalan Crisis''.", "Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1982.", "* * Dosal, Paul J.", "''Doing Business with the Dictators: A Political History of United Fruit in Guatemala 1899–1944'', Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources 1993* Garrard-Burnett, Virginia, ''Terror in the land of the Holy Spirit: Guatemala under General Efraín Ríos Montt, 1982–1983''.", "Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press, 2010.", "* Gibbings, Julie.", "\"In the Shadow of Slavery: Historical Time, Labor, and Citizenship in Nineteenth-Century Alta Verapaz, Guatemala,\" ''Hispnaic American Historical Review'' 96.1, (February 2016): 73–107.", "* Grieb, Kenneth.", "''Guatemalan Caudillo''.", "Athens: Ohio University Press 1979.", "* Gleijeses, Piero, ''Shattered Hope: The Guatemalan Revolution and the United States, 1944–1954''.", "Princeton University Press, 1991* Grandin, Greg.", "''The Last Colonial Massacre: Latin America in the Cold War'', Chicago 2004Green, Dee F., and Gareth W. Lowe, eds.", "1989 Olmec Diffusion: A Sculptural View from Pacific Guatemala.", "In ''Regional Perspectives on the Olmec'' (Robert J. Sharer and David C. Grove, eds.", "): 227–246.Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Eng.", " Griffith, William J.", "''Empires in the Wilderness: Foreign Colonization and Development in Guatemala, 1834–1844''.", "Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1965.", "* Hernández Sandoval, Bonar L. ''Guatemala's Catholic Revolution: A History of Religious and Social Reform, 1920–1968'' (U of Notre Dame Press, 2018) Online review''Historia General de Guatemala, 1999'', several authors .", " Immerman, R. H., ''The CIA in Guatemala: The Foreign Policy of Intervention'', University of Texas Press: Austin, 1982.", "* Jonas, Susanne.", "''The Battle for Guatemala: Rebels, Death Squads, and U.S. Power''.", "Boulder: Westview Press 1991.", " Kinzer, Stephen.", "''Overthrow: America's Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq''.", "Henry Holt and Company, LLC.", "New York, 2006.", "* Walter LaFeber, ''Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America''.", "New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1993.", "Malmström, Vincent H. ''The Origins of Civilization in Mesoamerica: A Geographic Perspective'', Department of Geography, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire McCreery, David.", "''Rural Guatemala, 1760–1940''.", "Stanford: Stanford University Press 1994.", "* Menchú, Rigoberta.", "''I, Rigoberta Menchú: An Indian Woman in Guatemala''.", "(1984).", "Morier-Genoud, Eric.", "\"Sant’ Egidio et la paix.", "Interviews de Don Matteo Zuppi & Ricardo Cannelli\", LFM.", "''Social sciences & missions'', no.", "13, Oct. 2003, pp.", "119–145 Samson, Matt.", "\"The Martyrdom of Manuel Saquic.", "Constructing Maya Protestantism in the face of war in contemporary Guatemala\", ''LFM.", "Social sciences & missions'', no.", "13, Oct. 2003, pp.", "41–74 Sanford, Victoria.", "''Buried secrets : truth and human rights in Guatemala'', New York u.a.", ": Palgrave Macmillan, 2003* Schlesinger, Stephen and Stephen Kinzer,''Bitter Fruit: The Untold Story of the American Coup in Guatemala'', Garden City, New York : Doubleday, 1982* Wasserstrom, Robert.", "\"Revolution in Guatemala: Peasants and Politics under the Arbenz Government\", ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 17(4), 433–78.", "* Woodward, Ralph Lee.", "''Class Privileges and Economic Development: The Consulado de Comericio in Guatemala, 1793–1871''.", "Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1966." ], [ "External links", "* * Guatemala: Memory of Silence – English-language summary report of the Historical Clarification Commission report* Background Note: Guatemala – Information from the US State Department* Rights Action – Website of Rights Action, with special reports on mining, human rights, the struggles of indigenous people, and impunity* Guatemala Human Rights Commission/USA – Website of the Guatemala Human Rights Commission/USA, with special reports on human rights, genocide trials, impunity, the Mérida Initiative, femicide, Bishop Gerardi's assassination, and more.", "* The Guatemalan Military: What the U.S.", "Files Reveal – from George Washington University's National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No.", "32" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Guatemala" ], [ "Introduction", " This is a demography of the population of Guatemala including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.According to the 2018 census, 43.56% of the population is Indigenous including 41.66% Mayan, 1.77% Xinca, and 0.13% Garifuna (Mixed African and indigenous).", "Approximately 56% of the population is \"non-Indigenous\", referring to the Mestizo population (people of mixed European and indigenous descent) and the people of European origin.", "These people are called Ladino in Guatemala.", "The population is divided almost evenly between rural and urban areas.About 65% of the population speak Spanish, with nearly all the rest speaking indigenous languages (there are 23 officially recognized indigenous languages)." ], [ "Population", "According to the total population estimate was in .", "The proportion of the population below the age of 15 in 2010 was 41.5%, 54.1% were aged between 15 and 65 years of age, and 4.4% were aged 65 years or older.Guatemala City is home to almost 3 million inhabitants.", "In 1900 Guatemala had a population of 1,885,000.Over the twentifirst century Guatemala's population grew by a factor of fourteen.", "Even though Guatemala's population grew by a factor of 14, it still wasn't the biggest jump in that region.", "Although Guatemala does have an increase in population, the annual population isn't the superior in that region of the world as well.Total population (x 1000)Proportionaged 0–14(%)Proportionaged 15–64(%)Proportionaged 65+(%) 19503 14644.652.92.5 19553 61945.452.02.6 19604 14145.851.62.7 19654 73645.252.02.8 19705 41644.652.52.9 19756 19444.852.32.9 19807 00145.451.63.0 19857 92045.751.23.1 19908 89045.451.33.4 19959 98444.951.43.7 200011 65143.752.34.0 200513 09642.353.64.2 201014 63039.456.34.3 201516 25236.259.34.5 202017 91633.361.65.0===Population by departments===In Guatemala, there are 22 departments that make up the country.", "Each department has its own population, with Guatemala Department ranking at 1 with the highest population and El Progreso Department ranking at 22 with the lowest population.'''Rank''''''Department''''''Pop.''''''Rank''''''Department''''''Pop.", "'''1Guatemala Department3,306,39712Jutiapa489,0852Huehuetenango1,234,59313Izabal445,1253Alta Verapaz1,219,58514Chiquimula397,2024San Marcos1,095,99715Santa Rosa367,5695Quiché955,70516Jalapa345,9266Quetzaltenango844,90617Sacatepéquez336,6067Escuintla746,30918Retalhuleu325,5568Petén711,58519Baja Verapaz291,9039Chimaltenango666,93820Zacapa291,90310Suchitepéquez555,26121Totonicapán134,37311Sololá430,57322El Progreso22,654'''Overall Total: 15,806,675 (2014)'''According to the table, Guatemala Department accounts for 20% of the entire population in Guatemala, while El Progreso only accounts for 0.14% of the population.", "Sololá accounts for 2.7% of the population while ranking in the middle at 11.Overall, the rankings correlate to the percent of the population that each department contains.===Emigration===The Guatemalan civil war from 1960 to 1996 led to mass emigration, particularly Guatemalan immigration to the United States.", "According to the International Organization for Migration, the total number of emigrants increased from 6,700 in the 1960s to 558,776 for the period 1995–2000; by 2005, the total number had reached 1.3 million.", "In 2013, the Migration Policy Institute (MPI) estimated that there were about 900,000 Guatemalan Americans (persons of Guatemalan origin in the United States).CountryCount United States480,665 – 1,489,426 Mexico23,529 Belize14,693 Canada14,256 – 34,665 Germany5,989 Honduras5,172 El Salvador4,209 Spain2,491" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "Indigenous girls in ChichicastenangoOfficial 2018 statistics indicate that approximately 56% of the population is \"non-Indigenous\", referring to the Mestizo population of mixed indigenous and European origins (50-52%) and the people of European origin (14-26%), Most are of Spanish, German and Italian descent.", "These people are called Ladino in Guatemala.", "Genetic testing indicates that Guatemalan Mestizos are of predominantly indigenous ancestry, although they have a high level of European ancestry as well.Approximately 43.4% of the population is Indigenous and consist of 23 Maya groups and one non-Maya group.", "In 2012 these are divided as follows: K'iche 9.1%, 8.4% Kaqchikel, Mam 7.9%, 6.3% Q'eqchi', other Maya peoples 8.6%, 0.2% Indigenous non-Maya.", "They live all over the country, especially in the highlands.", "While the official censuses usually count around 40% of the Guatemalan population being indigenous, this percentage is actually much higher, with around 60% of Guatemalans being indigenous.Garifuna parade on San Isidro Day, in the town of Livingston.In 2002 Census, The Amerindian populations in Guatemala include the K'iche' 9.1%, Kaqchikel 8.4%, Mam 7.9% and Q'eqchi 6.3%.", "8.6% belongs to other Maya groups, 0.4% belong to non-Maya Indigenous peoples.", "The whole Indigenous community in Guatemala is about 40.5% of the population.The Maya Civilization ruled Guatemala and the surrounding regions until around 1521 A.D.", "Following 1521 A.D., Guatemala became a Spanish colony for approximately three centuries, until in 1821 when Guatemala won its independence.", "Since the independence of Guatemala, the country has experienced a wide range of governments, including civilian and military governments.", "In 1996, a peace treaty was signed by the government that ended internal conflicts within the region, which caused over 200,000 casualties and approximately one million refugees.Guatemalan child in Guatemala City celabrating Independence Day.The ethnic population in the Kingdom of Guatemala, at the time of Independence, amounted to nearly 600,000 Indians, 300,000 Castas (mostly Mestizos and a lesser number of Mulattos, Zambos, and Pardos), and 45,000 Criollos or Spaniards, with a very small number of English traders.Other racial groups include numbers of Afro-Guatemalans, Afro-Mestizos, and Garifuna of mixed African and Indigenous Caribbean origins who live in the country's eastern end.", "Some Garifunas live mainly in Livingston, San Vicente and Puerto Barrios.", "They descend mainly from the Arawaks and Belizean Creoles.There are also thousands of Jews residing in Guatemala.", "They are immigrants from Germany and Eastern Europe that arrived in the 19th century.", "Many immigrated during World War II.", "There are approximately 9,000 Jews living in Guatemala today.", "Most live in Guatemala City, Quezaltenango and San Marcos.", "Today, the Jewish community in Guatemala is made up of Orthodox Jews, Sephardi, Eastern European and German Jews.In 2014, numerous members of the Hasidic communities Lev Tahor and Toiras Jesed began settling in the village of San Juan La Laguna.", "The mainstream Jewish community was reportedly dismayed and concerned that the arrival of communities with a more visible adherence to Judaism might stir up anti-Jewish sentiment.", "Despite the tropical heat, the members of the community continued to wear traditional Jewish clothing.Guatemala has a community of East Asian descent, largely of Chinese and Korean origin.", "There are thousands of Arab Guatemalans descending from West Asian countries like Palestine, Syria, Jordan and Iraq.", "Some belong to Christian Churches while others to Islamic Mosques." ], [ "Vital statistics", "===UN estimates===The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.", "PeriodLive birthsper yearDeathsper yearNatural changeper yearCBRCDRNCTFRIMRLife expectancy totalLife expectancy malesLife expectancy females 1950-1955 170 000 75 000 95 00050.322.328.07.0014142.541.843.3 1955-1960 183 000 78 000 104 00047.020.226.96.6013444.543.745.4 1960-1965 204 000 80 000 124 00046.018.028.06.5012747.146.248.1 1965-1970 227 000 80 000 146 00044.715.828.86.3011650.149.051.3 1970-1975 255 000 79 000 177 00044.013.530.46.2010253.952.455.4 1975-1980 287 000 80 000 206 00043.512.231.36.209156.254.458.2 1980-1985 315 000 81 000 234 00042.210.931.36.107958.356.160.8 1985-1990 333 000 79 000 254 00039.69.430.25.706760.958.363.8 1990-1995 367 000 76 000 291 00038.98.130.85.455563.560.566.9 1995-2000 396 000 73 000 322 00037.36.930.45.004666.362.970.0 2000-2005 427 000 72 000 355 00033.85.927.94.333969.065.572.5 2005-2010 449 000 77 000 373 00029.25.423.83.623070.366.773.826.65.021.624.84.820.023.04.718.321.14.716.4 CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)===Vital statistics===Average populationLive birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1,000)Death rate (per 1,000)Natural change (per 1,000)Crude migration change (per 1,000)Fertility rate 19301,760,000100,00043,50056,50056.824.732.1 19311,810,00099,00044,00055,00054.724.330.4-2.8 19321,860,00093,60043,90049,70050.323.626.70.2 19331,910,00090,70052,10038,60047.527.320.26.1 19341,940,00092,20560,05132,15447.531.016.6-1.1 19351,980,00096,03154,78941,24248.527.720.8-0.6 19362,020,00097,64650,60447,04248.325.123.3-3.6 19372,070,00096,98151,02745,95446.924.722.22.0 19382,110,00098,90656,13142,77546.926.620.3-1.3 19392,150,000102,90864,11738,79147.929.818.00.6 19402,200,000106,99855,08351,91548.625.023.6-0.9 19412,250,000103,68856,44447,24446.125.121.01.3 19422,300,000107,51972,47735,04246.731.515.26.6 19432,340,000112,40772,83739,57048.031.116.90.2 19442,390,000111,32463,06848,25646.626.420.20.7 19452,440,000118,91259,73259,18048.724.524.3-3.8 19462,500,000120,52561,64158,88448.224.723.60.5 19472,570,000134,06663,31670,75052.224.627.5-0.3 19482,641,000137,00962,09074,91951.923.528.4-1.5 19492,724,000140,59659,27781,31951.621.829.90.6 19503,146,000142,67361,23481,43948.120.627.4 19513,238,000151,41656,55094,86649.618.531.1-0.9 19523,331,000151,86571,99479,87148.322.925.44.1 19533,426,000156,37770,79485,58348.321.926.42.8 19543,521,000162,77358,132104,64148.917.431.4-2.8 19553,619,000158,85667,08891,76846.319.626.71.8 19563,719,000163,30166,28097,02146.218.827.50.8 19573,820,000170,38170,93399,44846.919.527.40.4 19583,924,000172,74575,63497,11146.220.226.01.8 19594,031,000181,74063,010118,73047.216.430.8 19604,141,000186,47665,805120,67147.116.630.4-2.6 19614,253,000193,83363,287130,54647.515.532.0-4.5 19624,369,000191,42069,287122,13345.616.529.1-1.4 19634,488,000197,67171,449126,22245.816.629.2-1.7 19644,610,000196,38668,278128,10844.215.428.9-1.4 19654,736,000201,05974,830126,22944.016.427.60 19664,864,000206,52075,774130,74644.016.127.8-0.6 19674,996,000201,81671,191130,62541.814.827.10.3 19685,132,000211,67979,421132,25842.716.026.70.7 19695,271,000215,39785,174130,22342.216.725.51.7 19705,416,000212,15177,333134,81840.514.725.71.9 19715,565,000229,67475,223154,45142.614.028.6-1.0 19725,719,000241,59367,989173,60443.612.331.3-3.5 19735,877,000238,49869,454169,04441.812.229.6-1.9 19746,036,000252,20369,820182,38343.011.931.1-4.0 19756,194,000249,33278,708170,62441.413.128.4-2.1 19766,352,000266,72881,627185,10143.213.230.0-4.4 19776,510,000284,74771,777212,97045.011.333.6 19786,669,000286,41566,844219,57144.110.333.8-9.3 19796,832,000295,97272,274223,69844.510.933.6-9.1 19807,001,000303,64371,352232,29144.510.534.1-9.3 19817,177,000308,41375,658232,75544.110.833.3-8.1 19827,358,000312,04776,267235,78043.510.632.9 19837,543,000306,82774,462232,36541.710.131.6-6.4 19847,731,000312,09475,462236,63241.310.031.4-6.4 19857,920,000326,84969,455257,39442.29.033.3-8.8 19868,109,000318,34066,328252,01240.18.431.8-8.0 19878,299,000319,94266,404253,53839.48.231.2-7.8 19888,492,000337,39664,100273,29640.57.732.8-9.7 19898,688,000340,80761,548279,25939.97.232.7-9.8 19908,890,000347,20773,344273,86339.78.431.3-8.3 19919,099,000359,90472,896287,00839.68.031.5-8.8 19929,313,000363,64873,124290,52439.07.931.2-8.4 19939,533,000370,13873,870296,26838.87.731.1-8.2 19949,756,000381,49774,761306,73639.17.731.4-8.8 19959,984,000371,09165,159305,93237.26.530.6-8.0 199610,215,000377,72360,618317,10537.05.931.0-8.6 199710,450,000387,86267,691320,17137.16.530.6-8.3 199810,691,000400,13369,847330,28637.46.530.9-8.5 199910,942,000409,03465,139343,89537.46.031.4-8.7 200011,204,000425,41067,284358,12638.06.032.0-8.8 200111,479,000415,33868,041347,29736.25.930.3-6.5 200211,766,000387,28766,089321,19832.95.627.3-3.0 200312,063,000375,09266,695308,39731.15.525.6-1.0 200412,368,000383,70466,991316,71331.05.425.6-1.0 200512,679,000374,06671,039303,02729.55.623.90.63.796 200612,995,000368,39969,756298,64328.35.422.91.43.621 200713,318,000366,12870,030296,09827.45.222.22.13.461 200813,678,000369,76970,233299,53627.05.121.94.5 3.386 200914,000,190351,62871,707279,92125.15.120.03.13.122 201014,259,687361,90672,748289,15825.45.120.3-2.13.095 201114,521,515373,69272,354301,33825.75.020.7-2.83.088 201214,781,942388,61372,657315,95626.34.821.5-3.83.105 201315,043,981387,34276,639310,70325.75.120.6-3.33.050 201415,306,316386,19577,807308,38825.25.120.1_3.1 3.046 201515,567,419391,42580,876310,54925.15.219.9-3.22.896 201615,827,690390,38282,585307,79724.75.219.5-3.12.804 201716,087,418381,66481,726299,93823.75.118.6-2.52.663 2018 (C)16,346,950383,26383,071300,19223.45.118.3-2.52.617 201916,604,026366,85585,600281,25522.15.216.9-1.52.464 202016,858,333341,21296,001245,21120.25.714.50.52.266 202117,109,746345,149118,465226,68420.26.813.41.52.261 202217,357,886345,86995,386250,48319.95.514.4-0.12.242(C) = Census results.===Current vital statistics===+ Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''January – March 2022''' 78,718 26,293 +52,425 '''January – March 2023''' 79,935 22,791 +56,604 '''Difference''' +1,217 (+1.54%) -3,502 (-13.32%) +4,179===Fertility and births (demographic and health surveys)===Total fertility rate (TFR) (wanted fertility rate) and crude birth rate (CBR): Year CBR (total) TFR (total) CBR (urban) TFR (urban) CBR (rural) TFR (rural) 1987 5.6 (4.9) 4.1 (3.5) 6.5 (5.8) 1995 5.1 (4.0) 3.8 (3.0) 6.2 (4.8) 1998-99 38.0 5.0 (4.1) 34.8 4.1 (3.4) 40.1 5.8 (4.6) 2002 4.4 3.4 5.2 2008-09 3.6 2.9 4.2 2014-15 27.3 3.1 (2.6) 22.5 2.5 (2.0) 31.0 3.7 (3.0)=== Structure of the population ===Age groupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 6 197 399 6 502 381 12 699 780 100 0-4 1 035 549 1 000 763 2 036 312 16.03 5-9 921 924 901 718 1 823 642 14.36 10-14 815 791 808 328 1 624 119 12.79 15-19 685 359 694 215 1 379 574 10.86 20-24 571 385 608 879 1 180 264 9.29 25-29 446 309 506 386 952 695 7.50 30-34 340 378 412 767 753 145 5.93 35-39 270 907 329 253 600 160 4.73 40-44 225 243 267 504 492 747 3.88 45-49 191 635 218 053 409 688 3.23 50-54 175 311 191 751 367 062 2.89 55-59 149 593 161 320 310 913 2.45 60-64 113 686 119 957 233 643 1.84 65-69 94 128 98 864 192 992 1.52 70-74 74 463 81 804 156 267 1.23 75-79 50 340 57 089 107 429 0.85 80+ 35 398 43 730 79 128 0.62Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0-14 2 773 264 2 710 809 5 484 073 43.18 15-64 3 169 806 3 510 085 6 679 891 52.60 65+ 254 329 281 487 535 816 4.22Age groupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 7 003 337 7 358 328 14 361 666 100 0-4 1 103 521 1 062 224 2 165 745 15.08 5-9 1 017 180 987 490 2 004 670 13.96 10-14 906 603 891 659 1 798 262 12.52 15-19 794 459 795 688 1 590 147 11.07 20-24 646 911 675 214 1 322 125 9.21 25-29 538 214 590 746 1 128 960 7.86 30-34 418 535 494 657 913 192 6.36 35-39 323 010 402 681 725 691 5.05 40-44 258 454 321 849 580 303 4.04 45-49 215 304 260 145 475 449 3.31 50-54 182 662 211 040 393 702 2.74 55-59 165 910 184 214 350 124 2.44 60-64 139 395 152 936 292 331 2.04 65-69 103 433 111 058 214 491 1.49 70-74 81 809 88 219 170 028 1.18 75-79 60 257 68 733 128 990 0.90 80+ 47 678 59 778 107 456 0.75Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0-14 3 027 304 2 941 373 5 968 677 41.56 15-64 3 682 856 4 089 167 7 772 023 54.12 65+ 293 177 327 788 620 965 4.32Age groupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 7 903 664 8 272 469 16 176 133 100 0-4 1 153 297 1 109 217 2 262 514 13.99 5-9 1 090 294 1 052 014 2 142 308 13.24 10-14 1 008 018 980 523 1 988 541 12.29 15-19 893 687 882 665 1 776 352 10.98 20-24 771 615 781 835 1 553 450 9.60 25-29 624 841 661 798 1 286 639 7.95 30-34 517 919 581 120 1 099 039 6.79 35-39 403 769 485 904 889 673 5.50 40-44 311 703 395 488 707 191 4.37 45-49 248 840 314 591 563 431 3.48 50-54 206 306 253 126 459 432 2.84 55-59 173 501 203 741 377 242 2.33 60-64 155 222 175 581 330 803 2.05 65+ 344 652 394 866 739 518 4.57Age groupMaleFemaleTotal% 0-14 3 251 609 3 141 754 6 393 363 39.52 15-64 4 307 403 4 735 849 9 043 252 55.90 65+ 344 652 394 866 739 518 4.57Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 8 297 763 8 560 570 16 858 333 100 0–4 964 534 923 439 1 887 973 11.20 5–9 942 751 904 725 1 847 476 10.96 10–14 908 851 875 615 1 784 466 10.59 15–19 902 462 876 901 1 779 363 10.55 20–24 856 396 847 945 1 704 341 10.11 25–29 758 833 769 162 1 527 995 9.06 30–34 639 958 666 481 1 306 439 7.75 35–39 516 111 558 703 1 074 814 6.38 40–44 418 920 475 152 894 072 5.30 45–49 335 429 396 737 732 166 4.34 50–54 264 478 316 929 581 407 3.45 55–59 210 286 256 500 466 786 2.77 60–64 169 897 206 911 376 808 2.24 65-69 135 380 163 324 298 704 1.77 70-74 106 158 124 792 230 950 1.37 75-79 76 784 88 274 165 058 0.98 80-84 48 603 56 589 105 192 0.62 85-89 26 355 31 866 58 221 0.35 90-94 11 376 14 392 25 768 0.15 95-99 3 406 4 595 8 001 0.05 100+ 795 1 538 2 333 0.01Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 2 816 136 2 703 779 5 519 915 32.74 15–64 5 072 770 5 371 421 10 444 191 61.95 65+ 408 857 485 370 894 227 5.30=== Marriage and childbearing ===The legal age for females to get married in Guatemala was 14, but was raised to 16 with parental consent and 18 without in November 2015.This phenomenon, known as child marriage, is prevalent in Central America; in rural areas of Guatemala, 53% of 20 to 24-year-old women married before their 18th birthday.", "Once married, young girls are likely to abandon their education and are exposed to domestic and sexual violence.", "They are no longer seen as girls; their husbands, who are often older men, see them as servants.", "Frequently births are at home.", "Most of these women are isolated without networks of support.In most cases, motherhood comes after marriage.", "However, due to the fact that these young women' bodies are not entirely developed, many pregnancies result in high complications and high risks for both the mother and baby, during and after labor.", "Because there is limited access to health services, women in Guatemala choose a different alternative when it comes to the care during and after child delivery.", "Pregnancies before marriage are on the rise and unmarried women make their decision based on their image more than their safety.", "Single Guatemalan women may choose midwives as their health care provider during pregnancy and delivery to avoid feeling ashamed.", "Other women know the midwives in the community personally so they opt for a private healthcare provider.", "Throughout the country, midwives are known as the providers of choice for approximately 80% of the births even though they are not professionally trained.", "This contributes to the increasing infant mortality rate of 100 per 1,000 births as reported in some Guatemalan communities." ], [ "Other demographic statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.", "One birth every 1 minutes\tOne death every 6 minutes\tOne net migrant every 58 minutes\tNet gain of one person every 2 minutesDemographic statistics according to the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.===Population===:17,703,190 (2022 est.", "):16,581,273 (July 2018 est.", ")===Ethnic groups===Mestizo (mixed Amerindian-Spanish - in local Spanish called Ladino) 56%, Maya 41.7%, Xinca (Indigenous, non-Maya) 1.8%, African descent 0.2%, Garifuna (mixed West and Central African, Island Carib, and Arawak) 0.1%, foreign 0.2% (2018 est.", ")===Age structure===Population pyramid of Guatemala in 2020:''0-14 years:'' 33.68% (male 2,944,145/female 2,833,432):''15-24 years:'' 19.76% (male 1,705,730/female 1,683,546):''25-54 years:'' 36.45% (male 3,065,933/female 3,186,816):''55-64 years:'' 5.41% (male 431,417/female 496,743):''65 years and over:'' 4.7% (male 363,460/female 442,066) (2020 est.", "):''0-14 years:'' 34.55% (male 2,919,281 /female 2,810,329):''15-24 years:'' 20.23% (male 1,688,900 /female 1,665,631):''25-54 years:'' 35.47% (male 2,878,075 /female 3,002,920):''55-64 years:'' 5.28% (male 407,592 /female 468,335):''65 years and over:'' 4.46% (male 336,377 /female 403,833) (2018 est.", ")===Birth rate===:22.34 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 56th:24.6 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 50th===Death rate===:4.91 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 199th:5 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 194th===Total fertility rate===:2.62 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 65th:2.87 children born/woman (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 58th===Median age===:total: 23.2 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 178th:male: 22.6 years:female: 23.8 years (2020 est.", "):total: 22.5 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 179th:male: 22 years :female: 23.1 years (2018 est.", ")===Population growth rate===:1.58% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 63rd:1.72% (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 59th===Net migration rate===:-1.66 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 162nd:-2.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 168th===Mother's mean age at first birth===:20.6 years (2014/15 est.", "):note: median age at first birth among women 25-49===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:60.6% (2014/15)===Dependency ratios===:total dependency ratio: 68.7 (2015 est.", "):youth dependency ratio: 61.1 (2015 est.", "):elderly dependency ratio: 7.6 (2015 est.", "):potential support ratio: 13.1 (2015 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===Life expectancy at birth in Guatemala:total population: 72.91 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 150th:male: 70.88 years:female: 75.04 years (2022 est.", "):total population: 71.8 years :male: 69.8 years :female: 73.9 years (2018 est.", ")===Major infectious diseases===:degree of risk: high (2020):food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever:vectorborne diseases: dengue fever and malaria===Languages===:Spanish (official) 68.9%, Maya languages 30.9% (K'iche 8.7%, Q'eqchi 7%, Mam 4.6%, Kaqchikel 4.3%, other 6.3%), other 0.3% (includes Xinca and Garifuna) (2001 est.", "):note: the 2003 Law of National Languages officially recognized 23 indigenous languages, including 21 Maya languages, Xinka, and Garifuna===Religions===Roman Catholic 41.7%, Evangelical 38.8%, other 2.7%, atheist 0.1%, none 13.8%, unspecified 2.9% (2018 est.", ")===Urbanization===:urban population: 52.7% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 2.59% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.", "):urban population: 51.1% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: 2.68% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.", ")===Education expenditures===:3.3% of GDP (2020) Country comparison to the world: 136th===Literacy===definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2015 est.", "):total population: 80.8%:male: 85.3%:female: 76.7% (2018)===School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)===:total: 11 years:male: 11 years:female: 10 years (2019)===Unemployment, youth ages 15–24===:total: 4.6%:male: 4%:female: 5.7% (2019 est.)" ], [ "Languages", "The official language of Guatemala is Spanish.", "It is spoken by nearly 93% of the population and is found mainly in the departments of the Southern region, Eastern region, Guatemala City and Peten.", "Though the official language is Spanish, it is often the second language among the Indigenous population.Approximately 23 additional Amerindian languages are spoken by more than 40% of the population.", "21 Mayan languages, one indigenous, and one Arawakan are spoken in Guatemala.", "The most significant are; Quiche, Cakchiquel, Kekchi, Mam, Garifuna and Xinca.There are also significant numbers of German, Chinese, French and English speakers.RankLanguageLanguage family1SpanishIndo-European2K’iche’Mayan3Q'eqchi'Mayan4KaqchikelMayan5MamMayan6PoqomchiMayan7Tz’utujilMayan8AchíMayan9Q’anjob’alMayan10IxilMayan11AkatekMayan12JakaltekMayan13ChujMayan14PoqomamMayan15Ch'orti'Mayan16AwakatekMayan17SakapultekMayan18SipakapaMayan19GarífunaArawakan20UspantekMayan21TektitekMayan22MopanMayan23Xincan languagesIsolate24ItzaMayan" ], [ "Religion", "Catholicism was the official religion during the colonial era, and today is the most professed church in the population, but since the 1960s, with the Armed Conflict, Protestantism has increased progressively, today around two fifths of Guatemalans are Protestant, specially Evangelicals (with Pentecostals as the biggest branch).", "Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy claim rapid growth, especially among the Indigenous Maya.", "Other churches include the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses, and other Christian minorities.", "More than 60% of Catholics and 80% of Protestants are actives members, today Catholicism and Protestantism are more unity to obtain the Politic control against globalization influence such as the acceptance of Homosexuality, abortion and other Human rights.", "Although Christianity is largely influential in public complex, since 1990 decade there are notable presence of non-religious people in surveys of religious identification.Indigenous beliefs are sometimes combined with Christianity.", "Maya religion believers only account for less than 0.1% of the population and since the mid-1990s the Constitution recognizes the rights of Maya Religion.", "The Islamic community in Guatemala is growing, and is projected to include at least 2,000 believers by 2030.There is a mosque in Guatemala City called the Islamic Da'wah Mosque of Guatemala (Spanish: Mezquita de Aldawaa Islámica).", "The president of the Islamic Community of the country is Jamal Mubarak.", "Religious evolution in GuatemalaYear% Catholic% Protestants% Others% No religion March 1986 62.1% 25.0% 3.5% 10.4% March 1991 63.0% 19.4% 4.0% 13.6% October 2001-January 2002 55.8% 23.1% 3.8% 17.3% June 2011 50.0% 35.0% 3.0% 12.0% June 2017 44.5% 39.0% 3.3% 13.2%" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Guatemala" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Politics of Guatemala''' takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, where by the President of Guatemala is both head of state, head of government, and of a multi-party system.", "Executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Congress of the Republic.", "The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.", "Guatemala is a Constitutional Republic.Guatemala's 1985 Constitution provides for a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government.Modern Guatemalan politics are still strongly affected by the Guatemalan Civil War (1960–1996).", "From the late 1990s to the mid-2010s, Guatemalan democracy improved, as greater civilian control of the military was achieved and anti-corruption measures were adopted.", "Since 2017, there has been democratic backsliding in Guatemala." ], [ "Legislative branch", "Guatemalan Congress.The Congress of the Republic ''(Congreso de la República)'' has 158 members, elected for a four-year term, partially in departmental constituencies and partially by nationwide proportional representation." ], [ "Judicial branch", "The Constitutional Court ''(Corte de Constitucionalidad)'' is Guatemala's constitutional court and only interprets the law in matters that affect the country's constitution.", "It is composed of five judges, elected for concurrent five-year terms each with a supplement, each serving one year as president of the Court: one is elected by Congress, one elected by the Supreme Court of Justice, one is appointed by the President, one is elected by Superior Council of the Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala, and one by the Bar Association ''(Colegio de Abogados);''The Supreme Court of Justice ''(Corte Suprema de Justicia)'' is Guatemala's highest court.", "It comprises thirteen members, who serve concurrent five-year terms and elect a president of the Court each year from among their number.", "The Supreme Court has an Appeal Court formed by 43 members.", "When one of the Supreme Court is absent or cannot participate in a case, one of the Appeal Court takes its place.", "The president of the Supreme Court of Justice is also president of the Judicial Branch of Guatemala (''Organismo Judicial de Guatemala''), and supervises both the hundreds of trial judges around the country (who are named to five-year terms) and the administrative work force which assists the magistrates." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Guatemala is divided into 22 departments, administered by governors appointed by the president.", "Guatemala City and 333 other municipalities are governed by popularly elected mayors or councils." ], [ "Foreign relations", "Guatemala's major diplomatic interests are regional security and increasingly, regional development and economic integration." ], [ "Political culture and human rights", "The 1999 presidential and legislative elections were considered by international observers to have been free and fair.", "Participation by women and indigenous voters was higher than in the recent past, although concerns remained regarding the accessibility of polling places in rural areas.Alfonso Portillo's landslide victory combined with a Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG) majority in Congress suggested possibilities for rapid legislative action.", "However, under the Guatemalan Constitution of 1985, passage of many kinds of legislation requires a two-thirds vote.", "Passage of such legislation is not possible, therefore, with FRG votes alone.The political balance was disrupted in 2000 when allegations surfaced that the FRG had illegally altered legislation.", "Following an investigation, the Supreme Court stripped those involved, including President of Congress and FRG chief Ríos Montt, of their legislative immunity to face charges in the case.", "At roughly the same time, the PAN opposition suffered an internal split and broke into factions; the same occurred in the ANN.", "As a result, reforms essential to peace implementation await legislative action.New cases of human rights abuse continued to decline, although violent harassment of human rights workers presented a serious challenge to government authority.", "Common crime, aggravated by a legacy of violence and vigilante justice, presents another serious challenge.", "Impunity remains a major problem, primarily because democratic institutions, including those responsible for the administration of justice, have developed only a limited capacity to cope with this legacy.", "The government has stated it will require until 2002 to meet the target of increasing its tax burden (at about 10% of GDP, currently the lowest in the region) to 12% of GDP.During the Presidential race, the FRG organized what will later be known as Black Thursday (Jueves negro).", "The FRG organized its partisans from the country and brought them to the city.", "The FRG gave them transport, food, a shelter for the night, and meter long sticks.", "With these sticks, the participants ran through the streets wreaking havoc on the public infrastructure.", "During this day a journalist of Prensa Libre (a leading newspaper) was killed.The media, which have a tradition of being independent and free,According to whom?", "took it very personally and for the next month, every headline was about these events, and the participation of the ruling party in this day of terror.", "The FRG was protesting the ruling of the TSE (supreme electoral tribunal) to ban the FRG candidate Efrain Rios Mont from the race.", "The TSE argued that as a formal putschist, he was banned by the constitution from ever becoming president.", "The FRG argued that since the events in which the former general participated predate the constitution, he was eligible for presidential office.", "Common sense argued that if such a clause was not retroactive by nature it would have no point.Since 2004 Óscar Berger of the GANA (a coalition of political parties rather than a single one) won the elections, it is important to note that this was the first government in the history of democratic Guatemala that did not have an overwhelming majority in Congress.", "After he took office in January 2004 it was made public that the FRG had wildly ransacked the government going to the extremes of stealing computer equipment and objects of historic importance.", "Alfonso Portillo fled to Mexico with an impressive amount of money stolen from military funds, the national hospital, and the revenue service.", "Guatemala made a formal request for the deportation of Portillo to face charges of embezzlement, however, Mexico has never revoked diplomatic asylum once it is granted to a person.Though the constitution says nothing about it, the vice president runs the government like a prime minister while the president deals with foreign affairs, this can be seen regularly as the VP stands in for the president in many events that are traditionally presided by the President of the Republic.Criminality has reached staggering proportions: about 200 murders per month and it is starting to affect the economy as many companies prefer to leave the country than face the growing corruption and insecurity.", "One significant problem is the ongoing gang warfare between the M18 (Mara Dieciocho) and the MS (Mara Salvatrucha).", "These are two rival street gangs comprising loosely linked international franchise organizations, who wield a power somewhat like that of the US mafia of the 1930s and are for the moment above and beyond the grasp of the law.", "They hold territory under their control and extort \"taxes\" (la renta) from it.They are not yet involved in high-level organized trafficking.", "That industry is of a different class of organized crime in Guatemala, with Mexican smugglers and top-ranking Guatemalan police officials regularly making headlines being caught with hundreds of kilograms of cocaine.The mara phenomenon originated in the United States in the 1980s, specifically in Los Angeles, among refugees fleeing civil wars in El Salvador and Guatemala.", "Later many members of the maras were deported from the United States to their countries of origin, and during the 1990s this has helped fuel the spread of the two gangs across the United States, Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and even Italy and Spain.", "There is a zone of Guatemala City, \"El Gallito\" which is recognized as being outside of Government control, it belongs to the drug lords that inhabit it.", "Barrio \"El Gallito\" is located in Zone 3, away from the National Palace where the Government's offices are located.Drug trafficking has reached staggering proportions in Guatemala, with corruption extending to top positions of many branches of government.", "Various narco-mafias vie for control of the remote northern jungle regions of Petén, where drugs, arms, and people all cross the border into Mexico, mostly bound for the United States.", "Drug trafficking is undoubtedly the greatest threat to political freedom in Guatemala today.Guatemala is plagued by lynchings which severely blemish the country's humans rights record as a violation of due process of law.The Berger administration has been hailed in some circles for its work in devolution.", "Guatemala has always been a strongly centralized state and the administration sought to take halt the growing pre-eminence of the Capital.", "For example, the administration has engaged in mobile cabinets where the President and all his ministers will go into the country and change the seat of power every so often, to be \"closer to the people\".The administration is facing growing financial difficulties, potentially in part due to 60% of the population being considered \"poor\" and therefore ineligible for taxation.", "The SAT (superintendence of tributary administration), the revenue service, is therefore obligated to tax the middle class which is starting to suffer under the burden.", "The SAT has become stringent in its application of the law seeking the full penalties of incarceration for tax evasion.In September 2006 the PNC (civil national police), in a joint action with the national military took by storm the Pavon detention centre, a prison with 1,500 inmates which until that date hadn't been requisitioned for 10 years and which was a hub of criminal activity.", "Some inmates, the guard of the chief of the mafioso what ran the prison and the leader himself resisted the onslaught of forces of law with AK-47 and handguns, they were massacred.", "Around 3,000 infantry and 4 tanks participated in the action.", "This was a milestone in the history of Guatemala and made national headlines.2006 saw the dismemberment of the GANA in the face of the 2007 elections.", "It fractured into many parties, damaging the ability of the government to get legislation through Congress.In the November 2007, second round presidential elections, Álvaro Colom of the UNE was elected president, defeating ex-general Otto Perez Molina of the PP.", "And in 2011, Retired General Otto Pérez Molina of the Patriotic Party won the presidential election in a runoff against populist Manuel Baldizón of the LIDER party.", "Pérez Molina assumed office on 14 January 2012, and his vice president is Roxana Baldetti.", "In september 2015, President Otto Perez Molina resigned because of bribery allegations.In October 2015 presidential election, former TV comedian Jimmy Morales was elected as the new President of Guatemala after huge anti-corruption demonstrations.", "He took office in January 2016.In January 2020, Alejandro Giammattei replaced Jimmy Morales as the President of Guatemala.", "Giammattei had won the presidential election in August 2019 with his \"tough-on-crime\" agenda.", "In August 2023, Bernardo Arevalo, the candidate of the centre-left Semilla (Seed) Movement, had a landslide victory in Guatemala’s presidential election.", "On 14 January 2024, Bernardo Arévalo was sworn in as Guatemala’s president." ], [ "See also", "Central American Parliament" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Congresso of the Republic of Guatemala* Justice of Guatemala" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Guatemala" ], [ "Introduction", "Historical GDP per capita development of El Salvador, Guatemala and HondurasThe '''economy of Guatemala''' is a considered a developing economy, highly dependent on agriculture, particularly on traditional crops such as coffee, sugar, and bananas.", "Guatemala's GDP per capita is roughly one-third of Brazil's.", "The Guatemalan economy is the largest in Central America.", "It grew 3.3 percent on average from 2015 to 2018.However, Guatemala remains one of the poorest countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, having highly unequal incomes and chronically malnourished children.", "The country is beset by political insecurity, and lacks skilled workers and infrastructure.", "It depends on remittances for nearly one-tenth of the GDP.The 1996 peace accords ended the 36-years-long Guatemalan Civil War, and removed a major obstacle to foreign investment.", "Since then Guatemala has pursued important reforms and macroeconomic stabilization.", "On 1 July 2006, the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) entered into force between the United States and Guatemala.", "It has since spurred increased investment in the export sector.", "The distribution of income remains highly unequal, with 12% of the population living below the international poverty line.", "Guatemala's large expatriate community in the United States, has made it the top remittance recipient in Central America.", "These inflows are a primary source of foreign income, equivalent to nearly two-thirds of exports.Guatemala's gross domestic product for 1990 was estimated at $19.1 billion, with real growth slowing to approximately 3.3%.", "Ten years later, in 2000, it rose from 1 to 4% and by 2010 it had fallen back to 3%, according to the World Bank.", "The final peace accord in December 1996 left Guatemala well-positioned for rapid economic growth.Guatemala's economy is dominated by the private sector, which generates about 85% of GDP.", "Most of its manufacturing is light assembly and food processing, geared to the domestic, U.S., and Central American markets.", "In 1990 the labor force participation rate for women was 42%, later increasing by 1% in 2000 to 43% and 51% in 2010.For men, the labor force participation rate in 1990 was about 89%, decreased to 88% in 2000, and increased up to 90% in 2010 (World Bank).", "Self-employment for men is about 50%, while the rate for women is about 32% (Pagàn 1).Over the past several years, tourism and exports of textiles, apparel, and nontraditional agricultural products such as winter vegetables, fruit, and cut flowers have boomed, while more traditional exports such as sugar, bananas, and coffee continue to represent a large share of the export market.Over the past twenty years the percentage of exports of goods and services has fluctuated.", "In 1990 it was 21% and in 2000, 20%.", "It increased again in 2010 to 26%.", "On the other hand, its level of imports of goods and services has continually increased.", "In 1990 its imports of goods and services was about 25%.", "In 2000 it increased by 4% up to 29%, and in 2010 it increased up to 36%.", "Migration is another important avenue in Guatemala.", "According to Cecilia Menjivar, remittances are \"central to the economy.\"", "In 2004 remittances to Guatemala from men's migration to the U.S. accounted for approximately 97% (Menjivar 2).The United States is the country's largest trading partner, providing 36% of Guatemala's imports and receiving 40% of its exports.", "The government sector is small and shrinking, with its business activities limited to public utilities—some of which have been privatized—ports and airports and several development-oriented financial institutions.", "Guatemala was certified to receive export trade benefits under the United States' Caribbean Basin Trade and Partnership Act (CBTPA) in October 2000, and enjoys access to U.S. Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) benefits.", "Due to concerns over serious worker rights protection issues, however, Guatemala's benefits under both the CBTPA and GSP are currently under review.The country is predominantly poor, with 49 percent of the population living in rural areas.", "Guatemala is characterized by a markedly unequal distribution of wealth, assets, and opportunities: between 2000 and 2014, rural poverty increased from 74.5 to 76.1 percent, while extreme rural poverty increased from 23.8 to 35.3 percent.", "Young people and indigenous communities are the most vulnerable.", "Among indigenous people, who comprise almost 40 percent of the total population, the poverty rate is approximately 80 percent.The Inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI) index for Guatemala is 0.481 (Data from 2019), below the average for Latin America (0.596) and distant from the countries with very high human development (0.800)." ], [ "Economic development and poverty in Guatemala", "From 1990 until 2018, Guatemala was growing with an annual GDP growth oscillating around 3.5%.Manufacturing (20%), commerce (18%), private services (14%), and agriculture (12%) are the biggest estimated economic sectors in Guatemala.", "The country's economic structure shows a declining trend in the agricultural sector.Guatemala is the third biggest country in Central America.", "It has one of the highest disparities between rich and poor as well as one of the highest poverty levels worldwide, with 54% of the population living below the poverty line in 2006 and 54% in 2011.According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), which looks at multiple deprivations in the same household in regard to education, health and standard of living, found that in 2011, 25.9% of the population experienced multiple deprivations and another 9.8% were vulnerable to such deprivations.", "A human development report also states that the average percentage of multidimensional poverty in 2011 was 49.1%." ], [ "Poor women and unpaid work", "In Guatemala in 2010, 31% of the female population was illiterate.", "In rural Guatemala, 70.5% are poor; women are more likely to be poor in the more rural areas.", "Gammage argues that women in poor households engage more in domestic tasks and undertake more household maintenance, social reproduction and care work than men.", "Similarly, Benería states that the women perform tough work but do not get paid and argues that there is an opportunity cost related, since the women could be paid for other work instead.", "Unpaid household work is associated with the number of people in the household, the location, and the availability of paid employment.", "This means that women in rural Guatemala are greater victims of poverty than urban women, and most poverty is found in the rural parts of Guatemala, so Gammage found that many rural women perform unpaid work." ], [ "Educated women and the labor force", "The labor force participation rate for women in Guatemala was at 41% in 2018.Women have a small pay disadvantage, earning 97% of male wages in most occupations.", "Gender inequality declines if women have a second and/or third educational degree, and they are treated more equally with their male counterparts.", "As in many countries, both men and women earn the most if they have a university degree.", "The percent of women with a steady income increases for women who have completed the secondary level of schooling, but decreases again after university.", "This means that women earn about the same as men if they both have a secondary education, but after university, men earn more.", "The situation changes on the professional level, where women earn more than men.", "Men work more hours in all professions, except in the household, because many women have part-time jobs." ], [ "Child labor", "Children in Guatemala are engaged in child labor, primarily in agriculture, according to the U.S. Department of Labor.", "In fact, 13.4% of children aged 7 to 14 work; 68% of them are in the agricultural sector, 13% in the industrial sector, and 18% in the services sector.", "The 2013 DOL report stated that \"Guatemala ... lacks Government programs targeting sectors in which children are known to engage in exploitative labor, such as domestic service, mining, quarrying, and construction.", "\"In December 2014, the Department's ''List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor'' included mostly agricultural goods produced in such working conditions, namely broccoli, coffee, corn and sugarcane.", "Guatemala's firework and gravel production also resorted to child labor according to the report." ], [ "Maquilas", "Among the most important factors in Guatemala's economy are the significant number of Korean-owned maquila factories in the highlands of Guatemala.", "Korean entrepreneurs have adopted a buyer-driven commodity chain process that depends on the existence of a large labor force, low capital investment and low skills.", "Korea presents itself to Guatemalan industry and to Guatemalan workers by means of subcontractors responsible for delivering finished orders to multiple buyers, mostly located in the United States.", "Buyers include Macy's and JCPenney and brands such as Liz Claiborne, OshKosh and Tracy Evans.The first industries began in 1980s.", "At first, workers were very interested in the new jobs in the factories, because they offered the opportunity to transition to what was seen as a new and modern world, away from agricultural work.", "However, in the factories, workers' backs hurt, because they sat for many hours on backless benches in front of sewing machines.", "Workers would usually enter the plant at 7:00 a.m. and take a 1-hour break for lunch at noon.", "They were expected to work until 7:00 or 8:00pm.", "About 70% of the workers in macula factories were female.", "Years later, there was a huge turnover.", "Workers started to leave the macula factories for reasons like stress, bad treatment, poor payment, etc." ], [ "Economic priorities", "Current economic priorities include:* Liberalizing the trade regime;* Financial services sector reform;* Overhauling Guatemala's public finances;* Simplifying the tax structure, enhancing tax compliance, and broadening the tax base.", "* Improving the investment climate through procedural and regulatory simplification and adopting a goal of concluding treaties to protect investment and intellectual property rights.Import tariffs have been lowered in conjunction with Guatemala's Central American neighbors so that most fall between 0% and 15%, with further reductions planned.", "Responding to Guatemala's changed political and economic policy environment, the international community has mobilized substantial resources to support the country's economic and social development objectives.", "The United States, along with other donor countries—especially France, Italy, Spain, Germany, Japan, and the international financial institutions—have increased development project financing.", "Donors' response to the need for international financial support funds for implementation of the Peace Accords is, however, contingent upon Guatemalan government reforms and counterpart financing.Problems hindering economic growth include high crime rates, illiteracy and low levels of education, and an inadequate and underdeveloped capital market.", "They also include lack of infrastructure, particularly in the transportation, telecommunications, and electricity sectors, although the state telephone company and electricity distribution were privatized in 1998.The distribution of income and wealth remains highly skewed.", "The wealthiest 10% of the population receives almost one-half of all income, and the top 20% receives two-thirds of all income.", "Approximately 29% of the population lives in poverty, and 6% of that number live in extreme poverty.", "Guatemala's social indicators, such as infant mortality and illiteracy, are successively improving, but remain in low growth and are still among the worst in the hemisphere.", "In 2000 the percentage of girls completing primary school was approximately 52%.", "That percentage rose in 2010 to about 81%.", "The completion rate in primary school for boys in 2000 was 63% and rose to 87% in 2010.In 2005 Guatemala ratified its signature to the Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA) between the United States and several other Central American countries.The electricity sector is being privatized, resulting in very high prices.", "In rural areas, although electricity consumption per household is very low, the ratings can represent more than 20% of farmers' salaries according to the Comité de développement paysan (Codeca).", "Since privatization, the price per kilowatthour has risen to the point of becoming one of the most expensive in Latin America.", "To protest against this situation and demand the renationalization of electrical services, Codeca members organized demonstrations and exposed themselves to repression.", "Between 2012 and 2014, 97 people were imprisoned, 220 wounded and 17 killed.===2009 food crisis===In September 2009, Guatemalan President Álvaro Colom declared that lack of food and proper nutrition were a national emergency.", "Colom stated that the situation is the combined result of a severe drought and global warming, which have reduced the domestic food supply, and the global financial crisis, which reduced Guatemala's ability to import food.", "Colom said the government would immediately seek assistance from the international community for emergency food supplies.A number of international organizations expressed concern about Guatemala's current economic status in 2009.The United Nations World Food Programme (WFP) and the World Bank reported the following:Guatemala has the fourth highest rate of chronic malnutrition in the world and the highest in the western hemisphere.", "Approximately 75% of Guatemalans live below the poverty level, which is defined as an income that is not sufficient to purchase a basic basket of goods and basic services.", "Approximately 58% of the population have incomes below the extreme poverty line, which is defined as the amount needed to purchase a basic basket of food.", "Approximately 50% of Guatemalan children under the age of 5 now suffer from chronic under-nutrition.", "In the nation's highlands, where many indigenous people live, 70% of children under age 5 are malnourished." ], [ "Agriculture", "Guatemala is the world leader in cardamom production and export.", "As of 2013, demand for biofuels has resulted in diversion of land from subsistence agriculture to sugar cane and African Palm plantations.", "Much of the land is owned by large landlords.", "Due to legal requirements for production of biofuels in the United States the price of maize, a Guatemalan staple, has risen sharply.", "Agriculture accounts for 60% of Guatemalan exports and employs more than 50% of the labor force.In 2018, Guatemala produced 35.5 million tons of sugarcane (it's one of the 10 largest producers in the world) and 4 million tons of banana (it's one of the 15 largest world producers).", "In addition, in the same year it produced 2.3 million tons of palm oil, 245 thousand tons of coffee, 1.9 million tons of maize, 623 thousand tons of melon, 312 thousand tons of pineapple, 564 thousand tons of potato, 349 thousand tons of rubber, 331 thousand tons of tomato, 253 thousand tons of beans, 124 thousand tons of avocado, 124 thousand tons of lemon, 177 thousand tons of orange, 120 thousand tons of cauliflower and broccoli, 93 thousand tons of papaya, 107 thousand tons of watermelon, 98 thousand tons of carrot, 75 thousand tons of cabbage, 84 thousand tons of lettuce and chicory, 38 thousand tons of cardamom in addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.=== Scale ===The agricultural sector of Guatemala's economy consists of two types of producers: numerous small-scale peasant-owned farms in the highlands, and fewer medium- to large-scale operations in the more fertile lowlands.", "The smaller farms produce staples for Guatemalan consumption, such as beans and maize, as well as fruits and vegetables for export.", "Larger farms produce export and plantation products like bananas, sugar cane, coffee, and rubber and palm oil.", "While 88% of agricultural land in Guatemala is in large-scale farms, 92% of all farms in Guatemala are small.", "Large farms produce 1/3 more per hectare than small farms, but employ fewer people overall.=== Non-traditional agricultural exports ===The shift to the production of non-traditional agricultural exports (NTAE) is a strategy used by developing countries like Guatemala to grow the agricultural sector and decreasing inequality by including the rural poor in the benefits of globalization.", "The most important NTAE crops in Guatemala include fruit like mangos, melons, and berries* vegetables like cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, and snow peas* organic crops such as coffee.", "The value of non-traditional agricultural export crops has increased from $146 million US in 1992 to $262 million in 2001.IN 1998, NTAE accounted for 8.7 percent of the total exports.", "NTAE production largely comes from small-scale farmers.", "While the farmers who are involved in this market are not failing, this market limits their capital accumulation to slow growth, and therefore they are not able to profit highly off of this market.=== Gender ===The agricultural sector of Guatemala is differentiated by gender, and this differential can be seen in several different areas within the sector.", "More men than women inherit or buy land individually, although many houses choose to rent land instead of buying it.", "Additionally, there is a gender gap in the division of agricultural labor.", "Traditionally, men dominated subsistence production and agricultural production for domestic markets, while women had roles in small animal production, craft production, and the selling of products in regional rather than national markets.", "With the shift toward NTAE, there has also been an increase in field labor for women.", "Additionally, women have been included in land-use decision processes in NTAE production.", "Sarah Hamilton, Linda Asturias de Barrios, and Brenda Tevalán have stated that despite a traditional patriarchal structure in Guatemala, NTAE production is associated with increased independence and equality between men and women." ], [ "Macroeconomic development", "Guatemala became more economically developed and stable from 1990 to 2011.The annual GDP growth rate for Guatemala in 2000 was 3.6%, but just 0.9% in 2009, increasing slightly in 2010 to 2.0% The poverty rate in Guatemala in 2006 was 54.8%, and the extreme poverty rate was 26.1%.", "Latin America as a whole had a poverty rate of 33% and an extreme poverty rate of 12.9% in 2009.The data indicate that Guatemala is behind other Latin American countries, in terms of lowering poverty rates, but there has been an increase in economic activity in terms of GDP and development.", "Guatemala's HDI increased from 0.462 in 1990, to 0.525 in 2000, to 0.550 in 2005, and 0.574 in 2011.3 Guatemala ranked 131st in HDI in 2011.Other important human development statistics such as the total fertility rate in Guatemala decreased from 4.8 births per woman in 2000 to 4.2 births per woman in 2006.During the same period, life expectancy increased from 67.9 years in 2000, to 69.9 years in 2006.The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2021 (with IMF staff estimates in 2022–2027).", "Inflation below 5% is in green.", "The annual unemployment rate is extracted from the World Bank, although the International Monetary Fund find them unreliable.YearGDP(in Bil.", "US$PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in Bil.", "US$nominal)GDP per capita(in US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Percent)Unemployment(in Percent)Government debt(in % of GDP)198019.22,660.27.71,070.33.7%10.7%n/an/a198121.12,857.98.41,140.20.6%11.4%n/an/a198221.62,854.58.51,126.2-3.5%4.9%n/an/a198321.92,819.38.91,140.0-2.5%6.7%n/an/a198422.82,862.69.31,163.10.5%3.2%n/an/a198523.42,861.911.01,338.7-0.6%19.2%n/an/a198623.92,849.45.9705.80.1%32.8%n/an/a198725.42,949.26.9797.03.6%10.8%n/an/a198827.33,093.77.4841.83.9%10.3%n/an/a198929.53,260.38.6946.83.9%13.0%n/an/a199031.53,403.77.5808.93.1%38.0%n/an/a199133.63,540.59.2966.03.0%35.1%2.6%n/a199235.93,699.910.21,045.44.6%10.2%2.6%n/a199338.03,825.611.01,110.03.4%13.4%2.6%n/a199440.23,951.212.51,229.03.5%12.5%2.6%n/a199542.84,116.014.01,348.94.4%8.4%2.6%n/a199644.84,212.415.01,408.22.8%11.1%2.7%n/a199747.54,362.017.01,559.64.1%9.2%2.7%n/a199850.24,512.118.41,656.44.6%6.6%2.7%n/a199952.84,639.217.41,527.23.7%5.2%2.7%n/a200055.44,752.918.11,555.62.5%6.0%2.7%18.0%200158.04,862.219.71,655.02.4%7.3%2.8%19.1%200261.45,027.921.91,795.84.2%8.1%2.8%17.4%200364.25,138.523.11,847.32.6%5.6%2.8%19.8%200467.95,307.325.01,951.83.0%7.6%3.0%20.6%200572.25,512.628.22,151.73.1%9.1%3.1%20.0%200678.65,864.731.32,337.05.6%6.6%3.1%20.9%200785.66,246.235.02,556.86.0%6.8%3.1%20.8%200890.46,454.940.22,873.13.7%11.4%3.3%19.6%200991.66,395.838.02,654.10.6%1.9%3.5%22.8%201095.36,511.441.52,836.12.8%3.9%3.5%24.0%2011101.66,794.347.43,172.14.4%6.2%3.1%23.8%2012107.27,017.749.93,267.83.1%3.8%2.8%24.6%2013112.07,183.153.03,397.63.5%4.3%3.0%25.0%2014118.87,457.957.83,632.14.4%3.4%2.7%24.7%2015127.67,849.162.23,825.94.1%2.4%2.5%24.8%2016130.17,847.266.03,982.02.7%4.4%2.6%25.0%2017133.97,912.571.64,233.03.1%4.4%2.5%25.1%2018141.88,210.573.34,247.53.4%3.8%2.3%26.4%2019150.18,518.577.24,379.84.0%3.7%2.2%26.4%2020149.28,300.277.64,318.6-1.8%3.2%3.6%31.5%2021167.89,148.986.04,687.88.0%4.3%3.6%30.8%2022185.89,931.491.34,879.93.4%6.4%n/a30.1%2023198.610,402.895.65,006.73.2%5.6%n/a30.0%2024210.610,809.0102.95,280.93.8%4.3%n/a29.7%2025222.311,183.1110.25,545.53.6%4.0%n/a29.6%2026234.611,564.2117.95,815.03.5%4.0%n/a29.4%2027247.511,957.2126.16,094.93.5%4.0%n/a29.3%=== Electrical infrastructure in rural Guatemala ===400pxIn Guatemala lack of access to electricity is concentrated in rural areas, although informal settlements around urban peripheries also tend to lack metered service.", "Guatemala's post-civil war efforts to improve electrical access in the countryside have proceeded under the auspices of the Rural Electrification Plan (Spanish: PER), a public-private partnership between the government's Ministry of Education and Mines (Mineduc) and private power companies.", "Over the period 2000 to 2011, the PER improved rates of electrical grid connectivity among non-indigenous (62 to 82 percent) and indigenous (48 to 70 percent) households in Guatemala.", "Continuity of the electrical grid is robust, with both groups reporting only about one hour per day of unavailability.", "Even when rural users are connected to the grid and pay subsidized rates, they often have difficulty affording electrical appliances, which translates into low power consumption (less than five percent of average US residential usage).", "This low power usage by rural customers is often not profitable for power companies, disincentivizing further expansion of the grid.", "As of 2014, one third of Guatemala's poorest rural residents still lacked electricity.", "By contrast, only around 8% of high-income rural residents lacked service, demonstrating that affordability plays a role in the accessibility of electrical grids.In 2016, domestic hydroelectric power supplied the majority (about 34 percent) of Guatemala's electricity.", "The planning process for constructing new hydropower dams was updated by the Guatemalan Congress in 1996 and 2007 (Decree 93–96, the \"General Law of Electricity\"), giving project developers more power over the process, especially with regards to environmental impact assessments (EIA).", "A study in Guatemala covering the period 2009 to 2014 found that private construction firms generally have little knowledge of the rights of rural indigenous peoples their projects may be affecting.", "Firms typically hire consultants to perform EIAs and liaise with affected communities.", "However, consultants are frequently disinterested in adequately informing rural communities of the potential impacts of proposed projects.", "Instead, consultants frequently resort to bribery and manipulation to obtain consent to proceed with hydroelectric projects.", "Interlocutors from within the government say that there is internal pressure to approve EIAs even if they are performed inadequately, showing that visions of Guatemala's energy future may be overriding the interests of segments of its populace." ], [ "External links", "* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Guatemala*Tariffs applied by Guatemala as provided by ITC's Access Map''', an online database of customs tariffs and market requirements." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Guatemala" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in Guatemala''' include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet." ], [ "Radio and television", "* Radio stations: 1 government-owned radio station and hundreds of privately owned radio stations (2007).", "* Radios: 835,000 (1997).", "* Television stations: 4 privately owned national terrestrial channels dominate TV broadcasting; multi-channel satellite and cable services are available (2007).", "* Television sets: 640,000 (1997)." ], [ "Telephones", "Guatemala's incumbent telephone company is TELGUA, which won the bidding for the privatization of the government run GUATEL.", "* Calling code: +502* International call prefix: 00* Main lines in use: 665,061 lines (2000) 1.4 million lines (2006)** 1.7 million lines, 63rd in the world (2012)* Mobile cellular: 663,296 lines (2000) 6.8 million lines (2006) 10.2 million lines, 70% of the population (2007) 20.8 million lines, 46th in the world (2012)* Telephone system: fairly modern network centered in Guatemala City; connected to Central American Microwave System, a trunk microwave radio relay system that links the countries of Central America and Mexico with each other.", "* Satellite earth stations: 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean).", "* Communications cables: landing point for both the Americas Region Caribbean Ring (ARCOS-1) and the SAm-1 fiber optic submarine cable systems that together provide connectivity to South and Central America, parts of the Caribbean, and the US (2011).", "* Operators:: International Operator Brand Users Technology Web Site América Móvil Claro/PCS Digital 3,591,138 (June 2007) CDMA 1x EVDO Rev 0 1900 MHz, GSM/GPRS/EDGE 900/1900 MHz, UMTS/HSPA 1900 MHz (1.5 Mbit/s) with video calling and data services available.", "Claro Guatemala Telefónica Movistar 2,514,612 (June 2007) CDMA 1x EVDO Rev A 1900 MHz and GSM/GPRS/EDGE 1900 MHz, UMTS/HSPA 1900 MHz (7.2 Mbit/s) with data services only available.", "Movistar Guatemala Millicom / Local partners TIGO/COMCEL 3,116,998 (June 2007) TDMA/N-AMPS (to be shut down) and GSM/GPRS/EDGE 850 MHz, UMTS/HSDPA 850 MHz (3.6 Mbit/s) with video calling and data services available TIGO Guatemala Digicel Group Digicel must be launched before June 18, 2008 Planned GSM/GPRS/EDGE 900 MHz Digicel Group" ], [ "Internet", "* Top-level domain: .gt * Internet users:: Year Users 2002 ~200,000 2003 ~600,000 2004 ~1.0 million 2005 ~1.7 million 2006 ~2.4 million 2007 ~3.8 million 2009 ~2.3 million, 72nd in the world 2012 ~2.3 million, 86th in the world; 16.0% of the population, 153rd in the world* Fixed broadband: unknown (2012).", "* Mobile broadband: 632,624 subscriptions, 85th in the world; 4.5% of the population, 113th in the world (2012).", "* Internet hosts: 357,552 hosts, 60th in the world (2012).", "* IPv4: 552,192 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 39.2 addresses per 1000 people (2012).", "* Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 27 (2004).===Internet censorship and surveillance===In 2011 the OpenNet Initiative reported no evidence of Internet filtering in Guatemala.Guatemala's constitution protects freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and individual privacy, however, government officials routinely violate these rights.", "Recent constitutional reforms have legalized various electronic surveillance techniques that threaten online privacy.", "* The Ley de Proteccion Integral de la Niñez y Adolescencia (Law on the Protection of Children and Adolescents) permits the restriction of content for children younger than eighteen years of age if it is deemed harmful to their development.", "Media outlets and organizers of public events are required to evaluate and classify programmed content according to this law.", "* The Ley de Emisión del Pensamiento (Law on Expression of Thought) prohibits libel, slander, and treason in printed form, and stipulates that the author of any publication containing an opinion that the judiciary considers to be subversive, morally damaging, or \"disrespectful\" of private life may be subject to punishment.", "The Law on Expression of Thought explicitly requires newspapers that have incorrectly attributed acts to or published false information about people or entities to publish any corrections, explanations, or refutations sent to them by those they have accused.", "In cases of printed material that involves treason, is subversive, is \"damaging to morals,\" or contains slander or libel, newspapers may be subject to a trial by jury; decisions may be appealed within 48 hours.", "The law makes an exception when the offended party is a government employee or official: if the offending content concerns \"purely official acts\" related to government work, the case will be judged in a \"court of honor,\" and the decision will be final and closed to appeal.", "* The Ley de Orden Público (Law of Public Order) states that if the government has declared the country to be \"in a state of siege,\" journalists must \"refrain from publishing anything that might cause confusion or panic.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Media of Guatemala" ], [ "References", "* * * Source for telephone numbers - prensalibre.com.gt" ], [ "External links", "* Registro de Dominios .GT , domain registrar for the .gt domain." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Guatemala" ], [ "Introduction", "Transportation in Guatemala includes roads, waterways, and airports.", "It formerly included railways.The Ministry of Communications, Infrastructure, and Housing oversees the planning, maintenance and development of infrastructure and transport systems.", "The General Directorate of Roads is responsible for the planning, design and supervision of construction works and maintenance of the country's roads." ], [ "Roads", "Guatemala has an extensive road network, where 12.72% of the roads connect with Mexico and Central America, 17.27% are National Roads, 43.84% are Departmental and 26.17% are Rural.", "All the country's roads have Guatemala City as their point of origin.", "Among the busiest international routes in the country are the Pan-American highway that connects Mexico with Central America and the CA-9 highway that connects Puerto Barrios in the Guatemalan Caribbean with Puerto Quetzal in the Pacific.", "=== Urban transportation ===The urban transport system began in Guatemala City in the 1990s and since then it has been one of the most used means of transport within metropolitan areas.", "Bus services such as Transmetro and Transurbano differ from other means of transportation, such as private or departmental public transport as they are regulated by lines with defined stops and are primarily used for short-distance transportation.=== Intercity transporation ===The Intercity system connects various cities, departments, and countries.", "It is mainly used for long-distance travel.", "In Guatemala, it is common to see Chicken buses, which are recycled and often colorfully painted former US school buses.", "There are also Pullman buses that offer different destinations within Guatemalan territory.==== Streets ====Guatemalan streets tend to be one-ways to ease congestion and move traffic.==== Highways ====''Total:'' 14,095 km''Paved:'' 4,863 km (including 75 km of expressways)''Unpaved:'' 9,232 km (1999 est.)" ], [ "Railways", "''''''total:'' operated by the Railroad Development Corporation until September 2007, now closed * closed''narrow gauge:''884 km gauge (single track)===Railway links with adjacent countries===* Mexico - currently closed (since 1996 or before) - break-of-gauge /* Belize - None* Honduras - none in use - break-of-gauge / (?", ")* El Salvador - currently closed" ], [ "Waterways", "260 km navigable year round; additional 730 km navigable during high-water season" ], [ "Pipelines", "* oil 480 km" ], [ "Ports and harbors", "=== Atlantic Ocean===* Puerto Barrios* Santo Tomás de Castilla===Pacific Ocean===* Champerico, Puerto Quetzal, Puerto San José===Merchant marine===None (1999 est.", ")===Boats===Ferries are available in certain regions, such as Sayaxché or around Livingston.", "The best way to get to the various Mayan villages around Lake Atitlan is on one of the ubiquitous \"shark\" boats." ], [ "Airports", "450 (2006 est.", ")===Named airports===La Aurora International AirportMundo Maya International AirportSan José AirportQuetzaltenango AirportPuerto Barrios Airport===Airports - with paved runways===''total:'' 11''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 3''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 2''914 to 1,523 m:'' 4''under 914 m:'' 2 (2006 est.", ")===Airports - with unpaved runways===''total:'' 439''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 1''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 8''914 to 1,523 m:'' 111''under 914 m:'' 319 (2006 est.)" ], [ "See also", " Guatemala" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Armed Forces of Guatemala" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Guatemalan Armed Forces''' () is the unified military organization comprising the Guatemalan Army, Navy, Air Force, and Presidential Honor Guard.", "The president of Guatemala is the commander-in-chief of the military, and formulates policy, training, and budget through the Minister of Defence.", "Day-to-day operations are conducted by the Chief of the General Staff." ], [ "History", "Guatemala is a signatory to the Rio Pact and was a member of the Central American Defense Council (CONDECA).", "The President of the Republic is commander-in-chief.Prior to 1945 the Defence Ministry was titled the Secretariat of War (''Secretaría de la Guerra'').An agreement signed in September 1996, which is one of the substantive peace accords, mandated that the mission of the armed forces change to focus exclusively on external threats.", "Presidents Álvaro Arzú and his successors Alfonso Portillo, Óscar Berger and Álvaro Colom, have used a constitutional clause to order the army on a temporary basis to support the police in response to a nationwide wave of violent crime, a product of the Mexican criminal organizations going across the north-west region.The peace accords call for a one-third reduction in the army's authorized strength and budget — achieved in 2004 — and for a constitutional amendment to permit the appointment of a civilian minister of defense.", "A constitutional amendment to this end was defeated as part of a May 1999 plebiscite, but discussions between the executive and legislative branches continue on how to achieve this objective.In 2004 the army has gone beyond its accord-mandated target, and has implemented troop reductions from an estimated 28,000 to 15,500 troops, including subordinate air force (1,000) and navy (1,000) elements.", "It is equipped with armaments and material from the United States, Israel, Taiwan, Argentina, Spain, and France.", "As part of the army downsizing, the operational structure of 19 military zones and three strategic brigades are being recast as several military zones are eliminated and their area of operations absorbed by others.", "The air force operates three air bases; the navy has two port bases.The Guatemalan army has a special forces unit (specializing in anti-insurgent jungle warfare) known as the Kaibiles.", "In 2011, a Guatemalan court convicted four members of the Kaibiles, of killing more than 200 civilians in the Dos Erres massacre in 1982.Each man was sentenced to 6,050 years in prison.", "Their convictions for their roles in the massacre nearly 30 years prior, in which soldiers killed more than 200 men, women, and children, would not have happened if not for the courage of victims of violence and Guatemala's attorney general, Claudia Paz y Paz.", "After the convictions of the Dos Erres four, based on a Guatemalan government's commitment to reorganize its special forces units, the U.S. Department of Defense resumed military aid." ], [ "Armed Forces Day", "The (Army Day or Armed Forces Day) is celebrated on 30 June, although if it occurs on a Tuesday or Wednesday it is celebrated on the prior Monday, and if it occurs on Thursday, Friday, Saturday, or Sunday it moves to the following Monday." ], [ "Organization", "The Armed Forces today number at around 39,000 active personnel.===Leadership======Service branches=======Army====The Army or Land Forces are the oldest military branch of the armed forces.", "In the middle of the 19th century, General Rafael Carrera promoted it with the triumph in the Battle of San José La Arada, dated to 2 February 1851, a date that is today commemorated as the day of this branch.Members of the Navy====Navy====The Navy was founded on 15 January 1959, by the then President Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes, due to the need to protect the country's marine resources, which at the time were the object of illegal predation by fishing boats from neighboring countries.", "It is a state entity with functions as a police agency for seas and rivers.====Air Force====The Guatemalan Air Force () constitutes the aviation portion of the Guatemalan Army.", "Founded in 1921, it is organized, equipped and trained to plan, conduct and execute the actions imposed by the State Military Defense in relation to the use of air power.====Honor Guard====The Presidential Honor Guard of Guatemala is a branch of the Guatemalan Land Forces, responsible for the care and protection of the President of the Republic, as well as the Vice President." ], [ "Equipment", "=== Small arms === Name Image Caliber Type Origin Notes Pistols M1911 150px .45 ACP Semi-automatic pistol Browning Hi-Power 150px 9×19mm Semi-automatic pistol Beretta 92 150px 9×19mm Semi-automatic pistol Walther P38 150px 9×19mm Semi-automatic pistol Glock 19 150px 9×19mm Semi-automatic pistol SIG Sauer P226 150px 9×19mm Semi-automatic pistol ShotgunsValtro PM5/35012 gaugeShotgunUse by Kaibiles; stockless configuration with 350mm barrel Submachine guns Uzi 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun Mini-Uzi150x150px9×19mmSubmachine gun FMK-3 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun MAC-10 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun M3 Grease Gun 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun M3 and M3A1 Beretta M12 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun Rifles AKM 150px 7.62×39mm Assault rifle AKS-74U 150px 5.45×39mm CarbineAssault rifle Samopal vz.58 150px 7.62×39mm Assault rifle IMI Galil 150px 5.56×45mm Assault rifle IWI Galil ACE 150px 5.56×45mm Assault rifle Galil Córdova 150px 5.56×45mm Assault rifle Tavor CTAR21150x150px5.56×45mmAssault rifleIn use with Kaibiles M16 150px 5.56×45mm Assault rifle Colt 7275.56×45mmAssault rifleIn use with KaibilesColt 733150x150px5.56×45mmAssault rifleIn use with Kaibiles M4 150px 5.56×45mm CarbineAssault rifle T65 150px 5.56×45mm Assault rifle ArmaLite AR-10 150px 7.62×51mm Battle rifle Machine guns Daewoo K3 150px 5.56×45mm Light machine gun Browning M1919 150px 7.62×51mm Medium machine gun Browning M2 150px .50 BMG Heavy machine gun FN MAG 150px 7.62×51mm General-purpose machine gun Sniper and anti-materiel rifles Barrett M82 150px .50 BMG Anti-materiel rifle Rocket propelled grenade launchers M20 Super Bazooka 150px 60mm Rocket-propelled grenade M7A2 LAW166x166pxRocket-propelled grenade Grenade launchers M203 150px 40×46mm SR Grenade launcher M79 150px 40×46mm Grenade launcher ===Anti-tank weapons=== Name Image Type Origin Caliber Notes M40A1 150px Recoilless rifle 105mm 56 in service.", "M-1968 150px Recoilless rifle 105mm 64 in service.===Tanks=== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes M41 Walker Bulldog 150px Light tank 10 INS ===Reconnaissance=== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes RBY Mk 1 150px Reconnaissance vehicle 10 INS M8 Greyhound 150px Armored car 12 INS ===Armored personnel carriers=== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes M113 150px Armored personnel carrier 10 INS Cadillac Gage Commando 150px Armored personnel carrier 7 INS Armadillo 150px Armored personnel carrier 30 ===Utility vehicles=== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes AIL Abir 150px Utility vehicle 20 INS M151 150px Utility vehicle Unknown INS Trucks M35 150px Utility truck Unknown INS M54 150px Utility truck Unknown INS Ural-4320 150px Utility truck 3 INS Steyr-Puch Pinzgauer 150px Utility truck Unknown INS ===Artillery=== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes Mortars M224 150px Mortar 625 INS Field artillery M-56 150px Howitzer 26 INS M101 150px Howitzer 24 INS===Air defence systems=== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes Bofors L/60 150px Autocannon Unknown INS Blowpipe 150px MANPADS 82 launchers.", "INS" ], [ "Notable military personnel", "* Captain General Rafael Carrera * Colonel Jacobo Árbenz Guzman * Field Marshal José Víctor Zavala* General Justo Rufino Barrios* General Miguel Garcia Granados" ], [ "References", "===Work cited===" ], [ "External links", " Official Website of Guatemala's Military * * Raul Sohr.", "‘’Centroamérica en guerra.’’ Alianza Editorial.", "México.", "1988.", "* Christopher F. Foss.", "‘’Jane's tank and combat vehicles recognition guide.", "‘’Harper Collins Publishers.", "UK.", "2000." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Guatemala" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Guatemala's''' major '''diplomatic interests''' are regional security and increasingly, regional development and economic integration." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Guatemala maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px # Country Date 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 — (suspended) 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 — 33 34 35 — 36 37 38 39 40 41 — 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160" ], [ "Bilateral relations", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes27 November 2007* Andorra does not have an accreditation to Guatemala.", "* Guatemala is accredited to Andorra from its embassy in Madrid, Spain.", "* Argentina has an embassy in Guatemala City.", "* Guatemala has an embassy in Buenos Aires.29 June 1998Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 June 1998.1 November 1994* Azerbaijan is accredited to Guatemala through its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.", "* Guatemala is accredited to Azerbaijan through its consulate in Istanbul, Turkey.", "There are four Australia–Guatemala bilateral treaties.", "Guatemala has an embassy in Canberra, Australia.", "The Australian embassy in Mexico has consular responsibility for Guatemala.", "Trade between the two countries is 32 Million.11 September 1993''See Belize-Guatemala relations''Guatemala has a longstanding claim to a large portion of Belize.", "The territorial dispute caused problems with the United Kingdom and later with Belize following its 1981 independence from the UK.", "In December 1989, Guatemala sponsored Belize for permanent observer status in the Organization of American States (OAS).", "In September 1991 Guatemala recognized Belize's independence and established diplomatic ties, while acknowledging that the boundaries remained in dispute.", "In anticipation of an effort to bring the border dispute to an end in early 1996, the Guatemalan Congress ratified two long-pending international agreements governing frontier issues and maritime rights.In early 2000 the Guatemalan Foreign Ministry proposed a border settlement that would transfer more than half of Belize's territory to Guatemala.", "Following a spate of border incidents, both sides agreed during talks under OAS auspices in November 2000 to confidence-building measures to reduce tensions.", "They followed that with an agreement on opening substantive discussions on the dispute.", "Both Guatemala and Belize are participating in the confidence-building measures, including the Guatemala-Belize Language Exchange Project.In September 2010, the Guatemalan Congress overwhelmingly gave its approval for a referendum to be held; giving the people of Guatemala a say in whether or not that country’s claim to Belize should be taken to the International Court of Justice.", "Under the special agreement (compromise) signed in December 2008 by Belize and Guatemala it was agreed that if the people of both nations approved, by way of a simultaneous referendum on the same day, that the dispute would proceed to the ICJ.", "The outcome of any ruling handed down by the ICJ will be final and binding, regardless of in whose favor the ruling is handed down.1952* Guatemala is accredited to Bolivia from its embassy in Lima, Peru.", "* Bolivia is accredited to Guatemala from its embassy in San José, Costa Rica.21 November 1906* Brazil has an embassy in Guatemala City.", "* Guatemala has an embassy in Brasília.16 September 1961* Canada has an embassy in Guatemala City.", "* Guatemala has an embassy in Ottawa and a consulate-general in Montreal.8 August 1840* Chile has an embassy in Guatemala City.", "* Guatemala has an embassy in Santiago de Chile.", "(Taiwan)15 June 1933* As of March 2023, Guatemala is one of 13 nations who recognize the legitimacy of the Republic of China (ROC) on Taiwan under the One China policy.", "* The ROC has an embassy in Guatemala City.", "* Guatemala has an embassy in Taipei, on the island of Taiwan.18 August 1839* Costa Rica has an embassy in Guatemala City.", "* Guatemala has an embassy in San José.30 April 1902See Cuba–Guatemala relations* Cuba has an embassy in Guatemala City* Guatemala has an embassy in Havana21 March 1821* El Salvador has an embassy in Guatemala City.", "* Guatemala has an embassy in San Salvador.2 March 1831* France has an embassy in Guatemala City.", "* Guatemala has an embassy in Paris.", "1 May 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 May 1992.", "Both countries are full members of Organization of American States and Association of Caribbean States.1821* Guatemala has an embassy in Tegucigalpa and a consulate in San Pedro Sula.", "* Honduras has an embassy in Guatemala.16 May 1972''See Guatemala–India relations''* India maintains an embassy in Guatemala City.", "* Guatemala has an embassy in New Delhi.29 April 1992* Indonesia is accredited to Guatemala from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.", "* Guatemala has an embassy in Jakarta.15 May 1948Dinner hosted by Israeli Ambassador to Guatemala Joshua Shai, in honor of President of Guatemala Enrique Peralta Azurdia, at his residence in Guatemala, 1964.", "* Israel maintains an embassy in Guatemala City.", "* Guatemala has an embassy in Jerusalem.In May 2018, Guatemala was the second country after the United States to move its embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem.The first COVID vaccines to arrive in Guatemala were received from donations sent by Israel.6 September 1838''See Guatemala–Mexico relations; Guatemalan immigration to Mexico''Diplomatic relations between Mexico and Guatemala began in 1838 after the dissolution of the Federal Republic of Central America.", "Mexico has an embassy in Guatemala City and a consulate in Quetzaltenango and Tecún Umán.", "Guatemala has an embassy in Mexico City and consulates-general in Cancún, Mérida, Monterrey, Oaxaca City, San Luis Potosí, Tapachula, Tenosique, Tijuana, Tuxtla Gutiérrez and Veracruz City; consulates in Acayucan, Ciudad Hidalgo, Comitán and consular office in Arriaga.", "Both countries are members of the Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, and the Rio Group.15 March 1971 Guatemala has an embassy in Rabat.", "* Morocco has an embassy in Guatemala City.15 May 1845* Guatemala has an embassy in Managua.", "* Nicaragua has an embassy in Guatemala City.25 January 1935* Guatemala has an embassy in Panama City.", "* Panama has an embassy in Guatemala City.1 May 1907* Guatemala is accredited to Paraguay from its embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina.", "* Paraguay is accredited to Guatemala from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.21 June 1972* Guatemala is accredited to Philippines from its embassy in Tokyo, Japan.", "* Philippines is accredited to Guatemala through its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.19 April 1945''See Guatemala–Russia relations''* Guatemala has an embassy in Moscow.", "* Russia has an embassy in Guatemala City.24 October 1962* Guatemala has an embassy in Seoul, South Korea.", "* South Korea has an embassy in Guatemala City.29 May 1863''See Guatemala–Spain relations''* Guatemala has an embassy in Madrid.", "* Spain has an embassy in Guatemala City.", "9 December 1930* Guatemala has an embassy in Stockholm.", "* Sweden has an embassy in Guatemala City, which is also accredited to El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama.3 March 1957* Guatemala has an embassy in Bangkok.", "* Thailand is accredited to Guatemala through its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.18 July 1874''See Guatemala–Turkey relations''* Guatemala has an embassy in Ankara and an honorary consulate in Istanbul.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Guatemala City.", "Trade volume between the two countries was 63.5 million USD in 2019 (Guatemalan exports/imports: 10/53.5 million USD).12 July 1837 Guatemala has an embassy in London.", "* United Kingdom has an embassy in Guatemala City.4 August 1824''See Guatemala–United States relations''Relations between the United States and Guatemala traditionally have been close, although at times strained by human rights and civil-military issues.", "U.S. policy objectives in Guatemala include:* Supporting the institutionalization of democracy and implementation of the Peace Accords* Encouraging respect for human rights and the rule of law, and implementation of the International Commission against Impunity in Guatemala (CICIG)* Supporting broad-based economic growth and sustainable development and maintaining mutually beneficial trade and commercial relations, including ensuring that benefits of Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR) reach all sectors of the Guatemalan populace* Cooperating to combat money laundering, corruption, narcotics trafficking, alien-smuggling, and other transnational crime* Supporting Central American integration through support for resolution of border/territorial disputesThe United States, as a member of \"the Friends of Guatemala\", along with Colombia, Mexico, Spain, Norway, and Venezuela, played an important role in the UN-moderated peace accords.", "The United States strongly supported the six substantive and three procedural accords, which, along with the signing of the December 29, 1996 final accord, form the blueprint for profound political, economic, and social change.", "To that end, the U.S. government committed over $500 million to support peace implementation since 1997.In recent years the number of violent crimes reported by U.S. citizens has steadily increased, though the number of Americans traveling to Guatemala has increased.Most U.S. assistance to Guatemala is provided through the U.S. Agency for International Development's (USAID) offices for Guatemala.", "USAID/Guatemala's current program builds on the gains of the peace process that followed the signing of the peace accords in December 1996, as well as on the achievements of its 1997–2004 peace program.", "The current program works to advance U.S. foreign policy objectives by focusing on Guatemala's potential as Central America's largest economy and trading partner of the United States, but also recognizes the country's lagging social indicators and widespread poverty.", "The three areas of focus for USAID/Guatemala's program are modeled after the Millennium Challenge Account areas—ruling justly, economic freedom, and investing in people.16 March 1907''See Guatemala–Uruguay relations''* Guatemala has an embassy in Montevideo.", "* Uruguay has an embassy in Guatemala City.31 October 1890* Guatemalan President Alejandro Giammattei announced it would sever ties with Venezuela, prompting to close its embassy both in Caracas and Guatemala City, following the ongoing presidential crisis." ], [ "Multilateral relations", "The Central American Ministers of Trade meet on a regular basis to work on regional approaches to trade issues.", "In March 1998, Guatemala joined its Central American neighbors in signing a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement (TIFA).", "In 2000 it joined Honduras and El Salvador in signing a free trade agreement with Mexico, which went into effect in 2001.Guatemala also originated the idea for, and is the seat of, the Central American Parliament (PARLACEN).Guatemala participates in several regional groups, particularly those related to the environment and trade.", "For example, US President Clinton and the Central American presidents signed the CONCAUSA (Conjunto Centroamerica-USA) agreement at the Summit of the Americas in December 1994.CONCAUSA is a cooperative plan of action to promote clean, efficient energy use; conserve the region's biodiversity; strengthen legal and institutional frameworks and compliance mechanisms; and improve and harmonize environmental protection standards.", "'''Illicit drugs:'''Guatemala is a transit country for cocaine shipments; minor producer of illicit opium poppy and cannabis for the international drug trade; active eradication program in 1996 effectively eliminated the cannabis crop; proximity to Mexico makes Guatemala a major staging area for drugs (cocaine shipments)." ], [ "See also", "* Belizean–Guatemalan territorial dispute* List of diplomatic missions in Guatemala* List of diplomatic missions of Guatemala* Visa requirements for Guatemalan citizens" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Guatemala* Legal Opinion on Guatemala's Territorial Claim to Belize and MFA Library and GAR and Other Documents and Summary of Legal Opinion of 25 November 2008* Belize/Guatemala ICJ Compromis Signed at OAS in Washington, D.C. on 8 December 2008 and Compromis and Videos and U.S. Congratulations and U.K. Congratulations and Photographs and Compromis for Christmas of 8 December 2008 and Belize Leading Counsel of 19 December 2008" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Guernsey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Guernsey''' ( ; Guernésiais: ''Guernési''; ) is the second largest island in the Channel Islands, located west of the Cotentin Peninsula, Normandy.", "It is the largest island in the Bailiwick of Guernsey, which includes three other inhabited islands (Herm, Jethou and Lihou) and many small islets and rocks.", "The Bailiwick has a population of 63,950, the vast majority of whom live on Guernsey, and the island has a land area of .Guernsey was part of the Duchy of Normandy until 1204, when the Channel Islands remained loyal to the English crown, splitting from mainland Normandy.", "In 1290, the Channel Islands were divided administratively and Guernsey became part of the Bailiwick of Guernsey.", "During the Second World War, Guernsey was invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany.", "After five years of occupation, the island was liberated on 9 May 1945, which is celebrated annually as Liberation Day.Guernsey is administered as part of the Bailiwick of Guernsey, a self-governing dependency of the British Crown.", "The island is thus not part of the United Kingdom, although the UK government has certain responsibilities for the Bailiwick.", "The British monarch is the head of state and the head of government is the President of the Policy and Resources Committee.", "The jurisdiction's parliament and government is the States of Guernsey.", "The island is divided into ten parishes.", "It has one town called Saint Peter Port.Guernsey's largest industry is financial services, followed by tourism and agriculture.", "The island is particularly well-known for its cattle.", "Guernsey's culture is strongly influenced by Britain, evident in its use of the pound sterling and the status of English as the primary native language.", "Norman and French culture also have an impact, such as the island's traditional language, Guernésiais.", "In addition, French writer Victor Hugo spent fifteen years in exile in Guernsey, where he wrote some of his best-known works." ], [ "Toponymy", "The island's name, \"Guernsey\", like that of neighbouring \"Jersey\", is of Old Norse origin.", "The second element of each word, \"-ey\", is the Old Norse for \"island\", while the original root, \"guern(s)\", is of uncertain origin and meaning, possibly deriving from either a personal name such as Grani or Warinn, or from ''gron'', meaning pine tree.Previous names for the Channel Islands vary over history, but include the ''Lenur'' islands, and ''Sarnia''; Sarnia for Guernsey, or ''Lisia'' (Guernsey) and ''Angia'' (Jersey)." ], [ "History", "===Early history===Around 6000 BC, rising seas created the English Channel and separated the Norman promontories that became the bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey from continental Europe.", "Neolithic farmers then settled on its coast and built the dolmens and menhirs found in the islands today, providing evidence of human presence dating back to around 5000 BC.Evidence of Roman settlements on the island, and the discovery of amphorae from the Herculaneum area and Spain, show evidence of an intricate trading network with regional and long-distance trade.", "Buildings found in La Plaiderie, St. Peter Port dating from 100 to 400 AD appear to be warehouses.", "The earliest evidence of shipping was the discovery of a wreck of a ship in St Peter Port harbour, which has been named ''Asterix''.", "It is thought to be a 3rd-century Roman cargo vessel and was probably at anchor or grounded when a fire broke out.", "Travelling from the Kingdom of Gwent, Saint Sampson, later the abbot of Dol in Brittany, is credited with the introduction of Christianity to Guernsey.===Middle Ages===In 933, the Cotentin Peninsula, including Avranchin, which included the islands, were placed by the French King Ranulf under the control of William I.", "The island of Guernsey and the other Channel Islands represent the last remnants of the medieval Duchy of Normandy.About the year 1030, the fleet of Robert, Duke of Normandy, which was to support the claim of his cousins Alfred and Edward to the English crown against Canute, was scattered by a storm, and was driven down the Channel to Guernsey.", "The Duke was taken to St. Michael's Abbey.", "In gratitude for the abbot's hospitality, he gave all the lands within the Close of the Vale to the abbot forever as fief of St. Michael, with permission to extend this to the northwestern part of the island as soon as settlers could be found to clear and cultivate the land; and he gave them engineers and workmen to complete the castle of St. Michael and to erect such other forts as were deemed necessary.Around the middle of the eleventh century, Guernsey was beset by a new breed of pirates who built a castle called Le Château des Sarrasins in the centre of the island near the present church of Catel; Duke William of Normandy (later the Conqueror) commissioned his Esquire Sampson d'Anneville to fight them.", "As a reward, in 1061 he received half of the western part of the island under the title of Fief d'Anneville.", "Sampson attracted a number of emigrants from Normandy to settle on his feudal estate, and Duke William distributed lands in Guernsey to other Norman landowners, such as the estates of Sausmarez, Les Bruniaux de St. Martin, Mauxmarquis, Rohais, etc.Most of Guernsey was soon cultivated, and around this time the island was divided into ten parishes.", "Each free fief had a manorial court to hear disputes between tenants, and the Abbot of St. Michael and the Seigneur d'Anneville had the right of high jurisdiction and the privilege of trying and executing criminals, respectively, so that the civil order of the island was fully regulated even before the Norman conquest of England.In 1204, when King John lost the continental portion of the Duchy to Philip II of France, the islands remained part of the kingdom of England.", "The islands were then recognised by the 1259 Treaty of Paris as part of Henry III's territories.During the Middle Ages, the island was a haven for pirates that would use the \"lamping technique\" to ground ships close to the island.", "This intensified during the Hundred Years War, when, starting in 1339, the island was occupied by the Capetians on several occasions.", "The Guernsey Militia was first mentioned as operational in 1331 and would help defend the island for a further 600 years.In 1372, the island was invaded by Aragonese mercenaries under the command of Owain Lawgoch (remembered as ''Yvon de Galles''), who was in the pay of the French king.", "Owain and his dark-haired mercenaries were later absorbed into Guernsey legend as invading fairies from across the sea.===Early modern period===As part of the peace between England and France, Pope Sixtus IV issued in 1483 a papal bull granting the \"Privilege of Neutrality'\", by which \"the Islands, their harbours and seas, as far as the eye can see,\" were considered neutral territory.", "Anyone molesting Islanders would be excommunicated.", "A royal charter in 1548 confirmed the neutrality.", "The French attempted to invade Jersey a year later in 1549 but were defeated by the militia.", "The neutrality lasted another century, until William III of England abolished the privilege due to privateering activity against Dutch ships.In the mid-16th century, the island was influenced by Calvinist reformers from Normandy.", "During the Marian persecutions, three women, the Guernsey Martyrs, were burned at the stake for their Protestant beliefs, along with the infant son of one of the women.", "The burning of the infant was ordered by Bailiff Hellier Gosselin, with the advice of priests nearby who said the boy should burn due to having inherited moral stain from his mother.", "Later on, Hellier Gosselin fled the island to escape widespread outrage.Castle Cornet over the harbour of St Peter Port in the second half of the 17th centuryDuring the English Civil War, Guernsey sided with the Parliamentarians.", "The allegiance was not total, however; there were a few Royalist uprisings in the southwest of the island, while Castle Cornet was occupied by the Governor, Sir Peter Osborne, and Royalist troops.", "In December 1651, with full honours of war, Castle Cornet surrendered—the last Royalist outpost anywhere in the British Isles to surrender.Wars against France and Spain during the 17th and 18th centuries gave Guernsey shipowners and sea captains the opportunity to exploit the island's proximity to mainland Europe by applying for letters of marque and turning their merchantmen into privateers.By the beginning of the 18th century, Guernsey's residents were starting to settle in North America, in particular founding Guernsey County in Ohio in 1810.The threat of invasion by Napoleon prompted many defensive structures to be built at the end of that century.", "The early 19th century saw a dramatic increase in the prosperity of the island, due to its success in the global maritime trade, and the rise of the stone industry.", "Maritime trade suffered a major decline with the move away from sailing craft as materials such as iron and steel were not available on the island.Le Braye du Valle was a tidal channel that made the northern extremity of Guernsey, Le Clos du Valle, a tidal island.", "Le Braye du Valle was drained and reclaimed in 1806 by the British Government as a defence measure.", "The eastern end of the former channel became the town and harbour (from 1820) of St Sampson's, now the second biggest port in Guernsey.", "The western end of La Braye is now Le Grand Havre.", "The roadway called \"The Bridge\" across the end of the harbour at St Sampson's recalls the bridge that formerly linked the two parts of Guernsey at high tide.", "New roads were built and main roads metalled for ease of use by the military.", "Infrastructure was funded by creating money debt-free starting in 1815.===Contemporary period===The islands of Guernsey, Herm and Sark (left to right) as seen from spaceDuring the First World War, about 3,000 island men served in the British Expeditionary Force.", "Of these, about 1,000 served in the Royal Guernsey Light Infantry regiment formed from the Royal Guernsey Militia in 1916.From 30 June 1940, during the Second World War, the Channel Islands were occupied by German troops.", "Seventeen thousand people from Guernsey's total population of 41,000 were evacuated to England prior to the German occupation.", "The evacuees included 80 per cent of Guernsey children who lived with relatives or strangers in Great Britain during the war.", "Most children returned home after the war ended in 1945.The occupying German forces deported over 1,000 Guernsey residents to camps in southern Germany, notably to the ''Lager Lindele'' (Lindele Camp) near Biberach an der Riß and to Oflag VII-C in Laufen.", "Guernsey was very heavily fortified during World War II, out of all proportion to the island's strategic value.", "German defences and alterations remain visible, particularly to Castle Cornet and around the northern coast of the island.", "Guernsey and Jersey were both liberated on 9 May 1945, now celebrated as Liberation Day on the two islands.During the late 1940s the island repaired the damage caused to its buildings during the occupation.", "The tomato industry started up again and thrived until the 1970s when the significant increase in world oil prices led to a sharp, terminal decline.", "Tourism has remained important.", "Finance businesses grew in the 1970s and expanded in the next two decades and are important employers.", "Guernsey's constitutional and trading relationships with the UK are largely unaffected by Brexit." ], [ "Geography", "Detailed map of Guernsey and nearby islandsSituated in Mont Saint-Michel Bay at around , Guernsey, Herm and some other smaller islands together have a total area of and coastlines of about .", "Elevation varies from sea level to at Hautnez on Guernsey.Guernsey from the airThere are many smaller islands, islets, rocks and reefs in Guernsey waters.", "Combined with a tidal range of and fast currents of up to 12 knots, this makes sailing in local waters dangerous.", "The very large tidal variation provides an environmentally rich inter-tidal zone around the islands, and some sites have received Ramsar Convention designation.The tidal flows in the area are remarkable, owing to the flatness of the ground for nearly 32 km (20 mi) westward.", "Guernsey is the westernmost of the Channel Islands, and the jurisdiction is at the greatest distance from the coast of Normandy than any of the other islands.===Climate===Guernsey's climate is temperate with mild winters and mild, sunny summers.", "It is classified as an oceanic climate, with a dry-summer trend, although marginally wetter than Mediterranean summers.", "The warmest months are July and August, when temperatures are generally around with some days occasionally going above .", "On average, the coldest month is February with an average air temperature of .", "Average air temperature reaches in August.", "Snow rarely falls and is unlikely to settle, but is most likely to fall in February.", "The temperature rarely drops below freezing, although strong wind-chill from Arctic winds can sometimes make it feel like it.", "The rainiest months are December (average ), November (average ) and January (average ).", "July is, on average, the sunniest month with 253 hours recorded sunshine; December the least with 58 hours recorded sunshine.", "Sea temperatures have been rising and now vary between in February to in August.", "Average wind speeds vary between and with gusts over every 4-5 years.====Carbon====Guernsey plans to reach carbon neutrality by 2050, according to the Climate Change Policy & Action Plan adopted in August 2020.===Geology===Guernsey cliffsGuernsey has a geological history stretching further back into the past than most of Europe.", "It forms part of the geological province of France known as the Armorican Massif.", "There is a broad geological division between the north and south of the island.", "The Southern Metamorphic Complex is elevated above the geologically younger, lower-lying Northern Igneous Complex.", "Guernsey has experienced a complex geological evolution (especially the rocks of the southern complex) with multiple phases of intrusion and deformation recognisable.Guernsey is composed of nine main rock types; two of these are granites and the rest gneiss." ], [ "Politics", "Guernsey is a parliamentary representative democracy and a British Crown Dependency.", "The Lieutenant Governor of Guernsey is the \"representative of the Crown in right of the ''république'' of the Bailiwick of Guernsey\".", "The official residence of the Lieutenant Governor is Government House.", "Since 2022 the incumbent has been Lieutenant General Richard Cripwell .", "The post was created in 1835 as a result of the abolition of the office of Governor.", "Since that point, the Lieutenant Governor has always resided locally.The jurisdiction is not part of the United Kingdom, although defence and most foreign relations are handled by the British Government.The entire jurisdiction lies within the Common Travel Area of the British Islands and the Republic of Ireland.", "Taken together with the separate jurisdictions of Alderney and Sark it forms the Bailiwick of Guernsey.===States of Guernsey===Bailiff Richard Collas (right) attending the Queen's birthday parade 2016 in his formal robesThe deliberative assembly of the States of Guernsey () is called the States of Deliberation () and consists of 38 People's Deputies, elected on an islandwide basis every four years.", "There are also two representatives from Alderney, a semi-autonomous dependency of the Bailiwick, but Sark sends no representative since it has its own legislature.", "The Bailiff or Deputy Bailiff preside in the assembly.", "There are also two non-voting members: H.M. Procureur (analogous to the role of Attorney General) and H.M. Comptroller (analogous to Solicitor General), both appointed by the Crown and collectively known as the Law Officers of the Crown.A ''projet de loi'' is the equivalent of a UK bill or a French ''projet de loi'', and a law is the equivalent of a UK act of parliament or a French ''loi''.", "A draft law passed by the States can have no legal effect until formally approved by His Majesty in Council and promulgated by means of an order in council.", "Laws are given the Royal Sanction at regular meetings of the Privy Council in London, after which they are returned to the islands for formal registration at the Royal Court.", "The States also make delegated legislation known as Ordinances (''Ordonnances'') and Orders (''ordres'') which do not require the Royal Assent.", "Commencement orders are usually in the form of ordinances.The Policy and Resources Committee is responsible for Guernsey's constitutional and external affairs, developing strategic and corporate policy and coordinating States business.", "It also examines proposals and Reports placed before Guernsey's Parliament (the States of Deliberation) by Departments and Non States Bodies.", "The President of the committee is the de facto head of government of Guernsey.===Legal system===Guernsey's legal system originates in Norman Customary Law, overlaid with principles taken from English common law and Equity as well as from statute law enacted by the competent legislature(s) – usually, but not always, the States of Guernsey.", "Guernsey has almost complete autonomy over internal affairs and certain external matters.", "However, the Crown – that is to say, the UK Government – retains an ill-defined reserved power to intervene in the domestic affairs of any of the three Crown Dependencies within the British Islands \"in the interests of good government\".", "The UK Parliament is also a source of Guernsey law for those matters which are reserved to the UK, namely defence and foreign affairs.The head of the bailiwick judiciary in Guernsey is the Bailiff, who, as well as performing the judicial functions of a Chief Justice, is also the head of the States of Guernsey and has certain civic, ceremonial and executive functions.", "The Bailiff's functions may be exercised by the Deputy Bailiff.", "The posts of Bailiff and Deputy Bailiff are Crown appointments.", "Sixteen Jurats, who need no specific legal training, are elected by the States of Election from among Islanders.", "They act as a jury, as judges in civil and criminal cases and fix the sentence in criminal cases.", "First mentioned in 1179, there is a list of Jurats who have served since 1299.The oldest Courts of Guernsey can be traced back to the 9th century.", "The principal court is the Royal Court and exercises both civil and criminal jurisdiction.", "Additional courts, such as the Magistrate's Court, which deals with minor criminal matters, and the Court of Appeal, which hears appeals from the Royal Court, have been added to the Island's legal system over the years.===External relations===Several European countries have a consular presence within the jurisdiction.", "The French Consulate is based at Victor Hugo's former residence at Hauteville House.While the jurisdiction of Guernsey has complete autonomy over internal affairs and certain external matters, the topic of complete independence from the British Crown has been discussed widely and frequently, with ideas ranging from Guernsey obtaining independence as a Dominion to the bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey uniting and forming an independent Federal State within the Commonwealth, whereby both islands retain their independence with regards to domestic affairs but internationally, the islands would be regarded as one state.Although it was not a member of the European Union, it had a special relationship with it until Brexit.", "It had been treated as part of the European Community with access to the single market for the purposes of the free trade in goods.", "From 2021 with free travel to the continent ceasing, additional bureaucratic procedures come into force, including the need for international driving licences and green cards for vehicle insurance.===Parishes===The parishes of GuernseyGuernsey has ten parishes, which act as civil administration districts with limited powers.", "Each parish is administered by a Douzaine, made up of twelve members or more, known as Douzeniers.", "Douzeniers are elected for a four-year mandate, three, four or five Douzeniers being elected by parishioners at a parish meeting each year.", "The senior Douzenier is known as the Doyen (Dean).", "Two elected Constables () carry out the decisions of the Douzaine, serving for between one and three years.", "The longer serving Constable is known as the Senior Constable and his or her colleague as the Junior Constable.", "The Douzaines levy an Occupiers Rate on properties to provide funding for running of the administration.Guernsey's Church of England parishes fall under the See of Canterbury, having split from the Bishopric of Winchester in 2014.The biggest parish is Castel, while the most populated is St Peter Port." ], [ "Economy", "Financial services, such as banking, fund management, and insurance, account for about 37% of GDP.", "Tourism, manufacturing, and horticulture, mainly tomatoes and cut flowers, especially freesias, have been declining.", "Light tax and death duties make Guernsey a popular offshore finance centre for private-equity funds.Guernsey does not have a Central Bank and it issues its own sterling coinage and banknotes.", "UK coinage and (English, Scottish and Northern Irish-faced) banknotes also circulate freely and interchangeably.", "Total island investment funds, used to fund pensions and future island costs, amount to £2.7billion as at June 2016.The island issued a 30-year bond in December 2015 for £330m, its first bond in 80 years.", "The island has been given a credit rating of AA-/A-1+ with a stable outlook from Standard & Poor's.Guernsey has the official ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code '''GG''' and the official ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 code '''GGY'''; market data vendors, such as Reuters, will report products related to Guernsey using the alpha-3 code.In March 2016 there were over 32,291 people employed in Guernsey with 4,864 being self-employed and 2,453 employing businesses.", "19.6% worked in the finance industry and median earnings were £31,215.===Infrastructure===A Guernsey Post pillar boxPublic services, such as water, wastewater, the two main harbours and the airport are still owned and controlled by the States of Guernsey.", "Electricity, and postal services have been commercialised and are now operated by companies Guernsey Electricity and Guernsey Post which are wholly owned by the States of Guernsey.", "Gas is supplied by an independent private company.In 1998, Guernsey and Jersey jointly formed the Channel Islands Electricity Grid to operate and manage the submarine cables between Europe and the Channel Islands.", "The installation of these cables was originally to provide the island with a secure form of backup power but now are effectively the primary source of power with the local diesel generators providing back-up.Guernsey Telecoms, which provided telecommunications, was sold by the States to Cable & Wireless plc, rebranded as Sure and was sold to Batel co in April 2013.Newtel was the first alternative telecommunications company on the island and was acquired by Wave Telecom in 2010 and subsequently rebranded as Jersey Telecom.", "Airtel-Vodafone also provide a mobile network.Both the Guernsey Post postal boxes (since 1969) and the telephone boxes (since 2002) are painted blue, but otherwise are identical to their British counterparts, the red pillar box and red telephone box.", "In 2009 the telephone boxes at the bus station were painted yellow just like they used to be when Guernsey Telecoms was state-owned.", "The oldest pillar box still in use in the British Isles can be found in Union Street, St Peter Port, and dates back to 1853.An ATR 42-500 of Aurigny Air Services takes off from Bristol Airport, England (2016).===Transport===The primary mode of transport on the island is the motor vehicle.", "Guernsey has an extensive network of lanes, some of which are distinguished as green lanes under the name 'Ruette Tranquille', translated to 'quiet street'.", "Pedestrians, cyclists, and horse riders have priority with the speed limit on these lanes at 15 mph.Ports and harbours exist at St Peter Port and St Sampson.", "There is a single paved airport, Guernsey Airport.", "The States of Guernsey wholly own their own airline, Aurigny.", "The decision to purchase the airline was made to protect important air links to and from the island and the sale was completed on 15 May 2003.Guernsey has a public bus service, operated by CT Plus under the name 'buses.gg', owned by Kelsian Group on behalf of the States of Guernsey Environment and Infrastructure Department.", "There is also a taxi network and an electronic bike scheme (EVie), which also operates in Jersey.===Business===, the finance industry forms the largest economic sector in Guernsey, generating around 40% of Guernsey's GDP and directly employing around 21% of its workforce.", "Banks began setting up operations in the island from the early 1960s onwards in order to avoid high onshore taxes and restrictive regulation.", "The industry regulator is the Guernsey Financial Services Commission, which was established in 1987.In 2015, the Bailiwick of Guernsey (in conjunction with Jersey) established the Channel Islands Financial Ombudsman (CIFO) to resolve consumer complaints about financial services provided in or from the Channel Islands of Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney and Sark.Prior to the growth of the finance industry, the island's main industries were quarrying and horticulture.", "The latter particularly declined as a result of the oil-price shocks of the 1970s and the introduction of cheap North Sea gas that benefited Dutch growers.", "Guernsey is home to Specsavers Optical Group, and Healthspan also has its headquarters in Guernsey.===Tourism===Towers in GuernseyGuernsey has been a tourist destination since at least the Victorian days, with the first tourist guide published in 1834.In the 19th century, two rail companies (London and South Western Railway and Great Western Railway) ran competing boats from the UK to St Peter Port, with a race to the only convenient berth.", "This was halted with the sinking of the SS ''Stella'' in 1899.Guernsey enters Britain in Bloom with St Martin Parish winning the small town category twice in 2006 and 2011, Saint Peter Port winning the large coastal category in 2014 and St Peter's winning the small coastal prize in 2015.Herm has won Britain in Bloom categories several times: in 2002, 2008, and 2012, Herm won the Britain in Bloom Gold Award.The military history of the island has left a number of fortifications, including Castle Cornet, Fort Grey, Guernsey loophole towers and a large collection of German fortifications with a number of museums.The use of the roadstead in front of St Peter Port by over 100 cruise ships a year is bringing over 100,000 day-trip passengers to the island each year.===Taxation===Guernsey, Alderney and Sark each raise their own taxation, although in 1949 Alderney (but not Sark) transferred its fiscal rights to Guernsey.Personal tax liability differs according to whether an individual is resident in the island or not.", "Individuals resident in the Jurisdiction of Guernsey (which does not include Sark) pay income tax at the rate of 20% on their worldwide income, whereas non-residents are only liable on income arising from activity or ownership within Guernsey.", "The income tax year in Guernsey aligns to the calendar year.", "All Guernsey-resident individuals are subject to an upper limit on their tax liability, which is known as the \"tax cap\".", "Individuals may elect either of the following; Tax on non-Guernsey-source income originally restricted to £110,000, plus tax on Guernsey-source income (excluding Guernsey bank interest), or Taxed on worldwide income originally restricted to £220,000, including Guernsey-source income.", "Income derived from Guernsey land and property is excluded from the tax cap, as from 1 January 2015, and is subject to tax at the normal rate of 20%.", "Only one cap applies per married couple.", "As from 1 January 2019, these tax caps have increased to £130,000 and £260,000 respectively.", "Guernsey has also introduced a new lower £50k tax cap for new residents for three years, subject to buying an Open Market Part A house with a document duty in excess of that amount, and not having lived in Guernsey or Alderney for three years prior.Since 2008, Guernsey has operated three levels of corporation tax, depending on the source of the income.", "* A 0% corporation tax rate on most companies.", "* A 10% rate (income from banking business and, with effect from 1 January 2013, extended to domestic insurance business, fiduciary business, insurance intermediary business and insurance manager business).", "* A 20% rate (income from trading activities regulated by the Office of the Director General of Utility Regulation, and income from the ownership of lands and buildings).Guernsey levies no capital gains, inheritance, capital transfer, value added (VAT / TVA) or general withholding taxes.", "Guernsey has thus been described a tax haven.", "In the 2011 Budget, the UK announced that it would be ending Low Value Consignment Relief that was being used to sell goods VAT free to customers across the UK, with this legislation coming into force on 1 April 2012.Tax revenues represent 22.4% of GDP.Social Insurance Scheme payments are based on gross earnings and apply to all persons over school leaving age.", "Employees are subject to a rate of 6.8%, whilst the self-employed pay 11.3%.", "Both have upper and lower earnings limits.", "Those classed as non-employed and under pension age pay a rate of 10.7%.", "Other categories have different rates." ], [ "Society", "===Demographics===The population is 63,026 (July 2016 est.)", "The median age for males is 40 years and for females is 42 years.", "The population growth rate is 0.775% with 9.62 births/1,000 population, 8 deaths/1,000 population, and annual net migration of 6.07/1,000 population.", "The life expectancy is 80.1 years for males and 84.5 years for females.", "The Bailiwick ranked 10th in the world in 2015 with an average life expectancy of 82.47 years.===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 31 381 32 067 63 448 100 0–4 1 403 1 295 2 698 4.25 5–9 1 692 1 602 3 294 5.19 10–14 1 723 1 581 3 304 5.21 15–19 1 620 1 512 3 132 4.94 20–24 1 866 1 778 3 644 5.74 25–29 1 976 1 869 3 845 6.06 30–34 2 080 2 052 4 132 6.51 35–39 2 033 1 902 3 935 6.20 40–44 1 913 1 987 3 900 6.15 45–49 2 095 2 212 4 307 6.79 50–54 2 378 2 601 4 979 7.85 55–59 2 467 2 494 4 961 7.82 60–64 2 059 2 172 4 231 6.67 65-69 1 763 1 729 3 492 5.50 70-74 1 730 1 882 3 612 5.69 75-79 1 095 1 211 2 306 3.63 80-84 858 1 030 1 888 2.98 85-89 419 687 1 106 1.74 90-94 172 347 519 0.82 95+ 39 124 163 0.26Age group MaleFemaleTotalPer cent 0–14 4 818 4 478 9 296 14.65 15–64 20 487 20 579 41 066 64.72 65+ 6 076 7 010 13 086 20.62===Border control===The whole jurisdiction of Guernsey is part of the Common Travel Area.For immigration and nationality purposes it is UK law, and not Guernsey law, which applies (technically the Immigration Act 1971, extended to Guernsey by Order in Council).", "Guernsey may not apply different immigration controls from the UK.", "After the United Kingdom left the European Union, from 1 January 2021 all EU nationals, other than British or Irish nationals, travelling for anything other than visitor purposes, are required to apply for a visa to enter the UK, Bailiwick of Guernsey, Jersey or the Isle of Man, prior to travel.", "People coming for employment to Guernsey require a Visa and a Population Management document.===Housing restrictions===Guernsey undertakes a population management mechanism using restrictions over who may work in the island through control of which properties people may live in.", "The housing market is split between \"local market\" properties and a set number of \"open market\" properties.", "Anyone may live in an open market property, but local market properties can only be lived in by those who qualify – either through being born in Guernsey (to at least one local parent), by obtaining a housing licence, or by virtue of sharing a property with someone who does qualify (living ''en famille'').", "Consequently, \"open market'\" properties are much more expensive both to buy and to rent.", "Housing licences are for fixed periods, often only valid for 4 years and only as long as the individual remains employed by a specified Guernsey employer.", "The licence will specify the type of accommodation and be specific to the address the person lives in, and is often subject to a police record check.", "These restrictions apply equally regardless of whether the property is owned or rented, and only apply to occupation of the property.", "Thus, a person whose housing licence expires may continue to own a Guernsey property, but will no longer be able to live in it.", "There are no restrictions on who may own a property.Coast of GuernseyThere are a number of routes to qualifying as a \"local\" for housing purposes.", "Generally, it is sufficient to be born to at least one Guernsey parent and to live in the island for ten years in a twenty-year period.", "In a similar way a partner (married or otherwise) of a local can acquire local status.", "Multiple problems arise following early separation of couples, especially if they have young children or if a local partner dies; in these situations, personal circumstances and compassion can add weight to requests for local status.", "Once \"local\" status has been achieved it remains in place for life.", "Even a lengthy period of residence outside Guernsey does not invalidate \"local\" housing status.Although Guernsey's inhabitants are full British citizens, prior to the UK's withdrawal from the EU, an endorsement restricted the right of establishment in other European Union states was placed in the passport of British citizens connected solely with the Channel Islands and Isle of Man.", "If it was classified with \"Islander Status\", the British passport was endorsed as follows: 'The holder is not entitled to benefit from EU provisions relating to employment or establishment'.", "Those who had a parent or grandparent born in the United Kingdom itself (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland), or had lived in the United Kingdom for 5 years, were not subject to this restriction.===Education===Elizabeth College, in St Peter Port, GuernseyTeaching in Guernsey is based on the English National Curriculum.", "There are 10 primary schools, plus two junior schools and three infant schools.", ", the island no longer has the 11-plus exam, which was used to transfer pupils to one of four 11–16 secondary schools, or a co-educational grammar school.", "There are also three fee-paying colleges with lower schools, for which pupils over 11 receive grant support from the States of Guernsey.", "In 2016, the States of Guernsey voted to end the use of the 11-plus exams from 2019 onwards.", "It is also responsible for education on the neighbouring islands.In 2008, the school-leaving age was raised so the earliest date is the last Friday in June in the year a pupil turns 16, in line with England, Wales and Northern Ireland.", "This means pupils will be between 15 and 10 months and 16 and 10 months before being able to leave.", "Prior to this, pupils could leave school at the end of the term in which they turned 14, if they so wished: a letter was required to be sent to the Education department to confirm this.", "However, this option was undertaken by relatively few pupils, the majority choosing to complete their GCSEs and then either begin employment or continue their education.Post-GCSE pupils have a choice of transferring to the state-run Grammar School & Sixth Form Centre, or to the independent colleges for academic AS/A Levels/International Baccalureate Diploma Programme.", "They also have the option to study vocational subjects at the island's ''Guernsey College of Further Education''.There are no universities in the island.", "Students who attend university in the United Kingdom receive state support towards both maintenance and tuition fees.", "In 2007, the Education Department received the approval of the States Assembly to introduce student contributions to the costs of higher education, in the form of student loans, as apply in the UK.", "However, immediately after the general election of 2008, the States Assembly voted in favour of a Requête which proposed abolishing the student loans scheme on the grounds that it was expensive to run and would potentially discourage students from going to, and then returning to the island from, university.", "In 2012, the Education Department reported to the States Assembly that it had no need to re-examine the basis of higher education funding at the present time." ], [ "Culture", "George Métivier''Children on the Beach of Guernsey'' (1883) by Pierre-Auguste RenoirThe French impressionist painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir visited the island in late summer 1883.While on the island, he painted fifteen pictures of the views on the island, all featuring the bay and beach of Moulin Huet on the south coast.A Guernsey cowGuernsey cattle are an internationally famous icon of the island.", "As well as being prized for its rich creamy milk, which is claimed to hold health benefits over milk from other breeds, Guernsey cattle are increasingly being raised for their distinctively flavoured and rich yellowy-fatted beef, with butter made from the milk of Guernsey cows also has a distinctive yellow colour.", "Since the 1960s the number of individual islanders raising these cattle for private supply has diminished significantly, but Guernsey steers can still be occasionally seen grazing on L'Ancresse common.Guernsey also hosts a breed of goat known as the Golden Guernsey, distinguished by its golden-coloured coat.", "At the end of the Second World War, the Golden Guernsey had almost been rendered extinct due to interbreeding on the island.", "The survival of this breed is largely credited to the work of a single woman, Miriam Milbourne, who successfully hid her herd from the Germans during the occupation.", "Although no longer considered to be critically endangered, the breed remains on the watchlist of the Rare Breeds Survival Trust.", "The traditional explanation for the donkey (''âne'' in French and Guernésiais) is the steepness of St Peter Port streets that necessitated beasts of burden for transport (in contrast to the flat terrain of the rival capital of Saint Helier in Jersey), although it is also used in reference to Guernsey inhabitants' stubbornness.", "In turn, Guernseymen traditionally refer to Jerseymen as ''crapauds'' (\"toads\").The so-called Guernsey lily, ''Nerine sarniensis'', is also used as a symbol of the island, although this species was introduced to the island from South Africa.=== Local food ===A local delicacy is the ormer (''Haliotis tuberculata''), a variety of abalone harvested under strict laws from beaches at low spring tides.", "Traditional Guernsey recipes include a stew called Guernsey bean jar, notably served at the annual Viaer Marchi festival.", "Its chief ingredients include haricot and butter beans, pork, and shin beef.", "Guernsey gâche (pronounced \"gosh\") is a special bread made with raisins, sultanas and mixed peel.", "''Gâche mélée'' is a dessert consisting of spiced, chopped apples suspended in a sponge mix.=== Languages ===English is the language in general use by the majority of the population, while Guernésiais, the Norman language of the island, is spoken fluently by only about 2% of the population (according to 2001 census).", "However, 14% of the population claim some understanding of the language.", "Until the early 20th century, French was the only official language of the Bailiwick, and all deeds for the sale and purchase of real estate in Guernsey were written in French until 1971.Family and place names reflect this linguistic heritage.", "George Métivier, a poet, wrote in Guernésiais.", "The loss of the island's language and the Anglicisation of its culture, which began in the 19th century and proceeded inexorably for a century, accelerated sharply when the majority of the island's school children were evacuated to the UK for five years during the German occupation of 1940–45.=== Literature ===Victor Hugo, having arrived on Halloween 1855, wrote some of his best-known works while in exile in Guernsey, including ''Les Misérables''.", "His home in St Peter Port, Hauteville House, is now a museum administered by the city of Paris.", "In 1866, he published a novel set on Guernsey, ''Travailleurs de la Mer'' (''Toilers of the Sea''), which he dedicated to the island.", "Guernsey was his home for fifteen years.Mabel Collins (1851–1927), a theosophist and prolific author, was born in St Peter Port.Guernseyman G. B. Edwards wrote a critically acclaimed novel, ''The Book of Ebenezer Le Page'', that was published in 1981, including insights into Guernsey life during the 20th century.", "In September 2008, a blue plaque was affixed to the house on the Braye Road where Edwards was raised.Henry Watson Fowler moved to Guernsey in 1903.He and his brother Francis George Fowler composed ''The King's English'', the Concise Oxford Dictionary and much of ''Modern English Usage'' on the island.", "''The Guernsey Literary and Potato Peel Pie Society'', a novel by Mary Ann Shaffer and Annie Barrows, describes the Occupation of Germans during World War II.", "Written in 2009, it is about a writer who begins corresponding with residents of the island, and becomes compelled to visit the island.===Film===A ''Guernsey Literary and Potato Peel Pie Society'' film adaptation, starring Lily James and Jessica Brown Findlay, was released in 2018.The 2022 British psychological thriller film ''Marooned Awakening'', starring Murray McArthur, Tilly Keeper and Tim McInnerny was co-written by and stars Guernseyman, Cameron Ashplant.", "Ashplant produced the film through Across the Channel Productions Ltd, alongside London-based director Musaab Mustafa, and Guernsey co-producers Frances and Roger Le Tissier of Ivy Gate Films.", "Principal photography was completed entirely on Guernsey in September 2021.The film premiered on the island at Beau Séjour Theatre on 3 September 2022.===Media===Local TV coverage is provided by BBC Channel Islands and ITV Channel Television.", "There are three relay transmitters in Guernsey (St Peter Port, Les Touillets and Torteval) which are transmitted from the Fremont Point transmitter.", "Guernsey has two radio stations: BBC Radio Guernsey on 93.2 FM and Island FM on 104.7 FM which both broadcast from St. Peter Port.The main local newspaper for the island is served by the ''Guernsey Press''.", "===Sport===Joshua Gosselin racing for the Guernsey Velo ClubGuernsey participates in the biennial Island Games, which it hosted in 1987 and 2003 at Footes Lane.", "Guernsey has also participated as a country in its own right in Commonwealth Games since 1970.Its first medals came in 1982 with its first gold in 1990.In those sporting events where Guernsey does not have international representation, but the British Home Nations are competing separately, highly skilled islanders may choose to compete for any of the Home Nations.", "There are, however, restrictions on subsequent transfers to represent other Home Nations.", "The football player Matt Le Tissier, for example, could have played for the Scottish or Welsh football teams, but opted to play for England instead.Football in Guernsey is run by the Guernsey Football Association.", "The top tier of Guernsey football is the FNB Priaulx League where there are eight teams (Alderney, Belgrave Wanderers, Northerners, Sylvans, St Martin's, Rovers, Rangers and Vale Recreation).", "The second tier is the Jackson League.", "In the 2011–12 season, Guernsey F.C.", "was formed and entered the Combined Counties League Division 1, becoming the first Channel Island club ever to compete in the English leagues.", "Guernsey became division champions comfortably on 24 March 2012, they won the Combined Counties Premier Challenge Cup on 4 May 2012.Their second season saw them promoted again on the final day in front of 1,754 'Green Lions' fans, this time to Division One South of the Isthmian League, despite their fixtures being heavily affected not only by poor winter weather, but by their notable progression to the semi-finals of the FA Vase cup competition.", "They play in level 8 of the English football pyramid.", "The Corbet Football Field, donated by Jurat Wilfred Corbet OBE in 1932, has fostered the sport greatly over the years.", "Recently, the island upgraded to a larger, better-quality stadium, in Footes Lane.Guernsey has the second oldest tennis club in the world, at Kings (founded in 1857), with courts built in 1875.The island has produced a world class tennis player in Heather Watson as well as professional squash players in Martine Le Moignan, Lisa Opie and Chris Simpson.Guernsey was declared an affiliate member by the International Cricket Council (ICC) in 2005 and an associate member in 2008.The Guernsey cricket team plays in the World Cricket League and European Cricket Championship as well as the Sussex Cricket League.Various forms of motorsport take place on the island, including races on the sands on Vazon beach as well as a quarter-mile \"sprint\" along the Vazon coast road.", "Le Val des Terres, a steeply winding road rising south from St Peter Port to Fort George, is often the focus of both local and international hill-climb races.", "The 2005, 2006 and 2007 World Touring Car Champion Andy Priaulx is a Guernseyman.The racecourse on L'Ancresse Common was re-established in 2004 after a gap of 13 years, with the first new race occurring on 2 May 2005.Races are held on most May Day bank holidays, with competitors from Guernsey as well as Jersey, France and the UK participating.", "Sea angling around Guernsey and the other islands in the Bailiwick from shore or boat is a popular pastime for both locals and visitors with the Bailiwick boasting multiple UK records." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of Guernsey* Index of Guernsey-related articles* Bibliography of Guernsey* List of people from Guernsey* United Kingdom–Crown Dependencies Customs Union* Little Chapel" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * " ], [ "External links", " States of Guernsey* Government House Guernsey* VisitGuernsey/ Guernsey tourism" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Guernsey" ], [ "Introduction", "The Bailiwick of GuernseyThe '''history of Guernsey''' stretches back with evidence of Neolithic occupation, followed by Roman occupation.", "Christianity was brought to Guernsey by St Sampson.The islands were annexed by the Duchy of Normandy and were ruled separately by William the Conqueror even after becoming King of England.", "Over the centuries the islands experienced trade benefits and restrictions with attacks by pirates and naval forces leading to improvements in fortifications and the establishment of the Guernsey militia.", "Guernsey has remained loyal to the English Crown for over 1,000 years.During the English Civil War, Guernsey supported the Parliamentarians, whilst Castle Cornet sided with the Royalists.", "The Napoleonic Wars brought prosperity through privateering and maritime trade, with a later rise of the stone industry, quarrying, horticulture, and tourism.", "The language in common use began to change from Guernésiais to English.The islands were occupied by German troops in World War II, with the Islanders later rebuilding their lives through tourism, agriculture, trade and more recently, the finance industry." ], [ "Prehistory", "La Gran'mère du Chimquière'', the Grandmother of Chimquiere, the statue menhir at the gate of Saint Martin's church is an important prehistoric monumentAround 6000 BC, the rising sea created the English Channel and separated the Norman promontories that became the bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey from continental Europe.", "Neolithic farmers then settled on its coast and built the dolmens and menhirs found on the islands today.", "The island of Guernsey contains two sculpted menhirs of great archaeological interest, while the dolmen known as ''L'Autel du Dehus'' contains a dolmen deity known as ''Le Gardien du Tombeau''.The Roman occupation of western Europe induced people to flee, including to the Channel Islands where a number of hoards have been found, including the Grouville Hoard.", "It later brought trade and Roman settlements.", "A 3rd-century Gallo-Roman ship wreck was found in St Peter Port harbour.", "Trade was by ship down the west coast of Europe, silver from England, Breton pottery, wine amphorae, as discovered in the Kings Road excavation in St Peter Port.", "The Nunnery in Alderney, was a 5th-century Roman signal station fort." ], [ "Early history", "===The arrival of Christianity===During their migration to Brittany, Britons occupied the ''Lenur'' islands (the former name of the Channel Islands) including ''Sarnia'' or ''Lisia'' (Guernsey) and ''Angia'' (Jersey).", "It was formerly thought that the island's original name was ''Sarnia'', but recent research indicates that this might have been the Latin name for Sark.", "(''Sarnia'' nonetheless remains the island's traditional designation.)", "Travelling from the Kingdom of Gwent, Saint Sampson, later the abbot of Dol in Brittany, is credited with the introduction of Christianity to Guernsey.A chapel, dedicated to St Magloire, stood in the Vale.", "St Magloire was a nephew of St Samson of Dol, and was born about the year 535.The chapel in his name was mentioned in a bull of Pope Adrian IV as being in the patronage of Mont Saint-Michel, in Normandy; all traces of the chapel have gone.", "While the chapel would probably be of a much later date, St Magloire, the British missionary, may well have set up a centre of Christian worship before A.D. 600.Somewhere around A.D. 968, from the Benedictine monastery of Mont Saint-Michel, came to Guernsey to establish a community in the North of the Island.", "The Priory of Mont Saint-Michel was a dependency of the famous Abbey of Mont Saint-Michel===The Duchy of Normandy===The history of the Bailiwick of Guernsey goes back to 933 when the islands came under the control of William Longsword, son of Rollo the first Duke of Normandy, having been annexed from the Duchy of Brittany by the Duchy of Normandy.", "The island of Guernsey and the other island in the Channel Islands represent the last remnants of the medieval Duchy of Normandy.", "In the islands, Elizabeth II's traditional title as head of state was Duke of Normandy.", "(The masculine nomenclature \"Duke\" is retained even when the monarch is female.", ")In 1020, Duke Richard II split Guernsey in half, between the viscounts of the Cotentin and the viscounts of Bessin.", "However, when one of the former's ancestor died heirless in around 1137, the fief reverted to the Duke, hence why it is named (the King's fief).According to tradition, Robert I, Duke of Normandy (the father of William the Conqueror) was journeying to England in 1032, to help Edward the Confessor.", "He was obliged to take shelter in Guernsey and gave land, now known as the ''Clos du Valle'', to the monks.", "Furthermore, in 1061, when pirates attacked and pillaged the Island, a complaint was made to Duke William.", "He sent over Sampson D'Anneville, who succeeded, with the aid of the monks, in driving the pirates out.", "For this service, Sampson D' Anneville and the monks were rewarded with a grant of half the Island between them.", "The portion that went to the monastery was known as ''Le Fief St Michel'', and included the parishes of St Saviour, St Pierre du Bois, Ste.", "Marie du Catel, and the Vale.", "The part of Sampson was called fief of Anneville.Another version says that Sampson followed Duke William and fought Neel de Saint Saveur Nigel de Saint-Sauveur, who held the fief of de Bessin in Guernsey.", "The rebels were eventually defeated at the decisive Battle of Val-ès-Dunes (1047) and on this occasion Nèel, Viscount of Cotentin, fled to Brittany and forfeited his fief in Guernsey.", "This battle is described by Wace in his poem \"Roman du Rou\".", "In any case, in this version too, Sampson d'Anneville stands at the beginning of the actual feudal settlement of the island.", "Sampson built a manor house called Manor d'Anneville and had two sons.", "The founding of the Seigneurie and fief d'Anneville in one quarter of the island, followed by the settlement of various Norman lords, means that feudal settlement and organisation of the island had already taken place before the Conquest.", "This tradition, of course, underlines the special character of Guernsey.", "It is echoed by many historians.", "Other historians, such as James Marr, suggest that this second phase of development was longer and continued after the death of William in 1087 and the rise of Geoffrey of Anjou.In 1066, the Duke William the Conqueror defeated Harold Godwinson at Hastings to become the King of England; however, he continued to rule his French possessions, including Guernsey, as a separate entity, as fealty was owed to the King of France.", "This initial association of Guernsey with England did not last long, as William split his possessions between his sons: Robert Curthose became Duke of Normandy and William Rufus gained the English Crown.", "William Rufus' brother Henry I recaptured Normandy for England in 1106.The island was then part of the English King's realm (though still part of Normandy and France).", "Around 1142, it is recorded that Guernsey was under the control of the Count of Anjou, who administered Normandy for the Duke.=== Late Middle Ages ===The loss of Normandy by King John in 1204 isolated the Channel Islands from mainland Europe.", "Each time England and France went to war over the coming centuries, trade to and from the Channel Islands was restricted or banned and even when not officially at war, the island was repeatedly attacked by continental pirates and naval forces.Battle 1342Fortifications were improved in the Channel Islands, manned by professional soldiers and the Guernsey militia who would help to defend the Island for the next 600 years.", "Service was compulsory in the militia for every man in the Island.", "Raids on Guernsey in 1336 and 1337 by exiled David Bruce, came at the start of the Hundred Years War, they were followed by Sark being captured and using this as a base, the next year when, starting in 1339, Guernsey was occupied by the Capetians, holding the Island for two years and Castle Cornet for seven.", "The attacks would recur on several occasions.It was 1348 when the Black Death reached the Island, ravaging the population.", "In 1372, the island was invaded by Aragonese mercenaries under the command of Owain Lawgoch (remembered as ''Yvon de Galles''), who was in the pay of the French king.", "Lawgoch and his dark-haired mercenaries were later absorbed into Guernsey legend as an invasion by fairies from across the sea.In 1394 Richard II of England granted a new Charter to the islands.", "Because of great loyalty shown to the Crown, they were exempted for ever from English tolls, customs and duties.Shipbuilding skills improved and trade to and from Guernsey increased with a growing number of ports, sometimes using trading treaties and sometimes avoiding paying duties.", "Guernsey ships in the 14th century were small.", "12-80 tons with crews of 8-20 men.", "In times of war, ships could be seized as prizes, the practice continuing in times of peace, against all nationalities, as piracy.In 1441, Guernsey's liberties, customs and usages were set out in .===The Reformation===The burning of the Guernsey Martyrs 1556In the mid-16th century, the island was influenced by Calvinist reformers from Normandy.", "During the Marian persecutions, three local women, the Guernsey Martyrs, were burned at the stake in 1556 for their Protestant beliefs.", "Two years later Elizabeth I came to the throne and Catholicism faded in Guernsey.The French and piracy were problems to trade with Guernsey in the 16th century, requiring English naval ships to keep them at bay.", "Guernsey and Jersey were given certain privileges as the English crown needed the Islands to be loyal, not least of which was the Islands neutrality, allowing trade to be pursued with France and England, even when these were at war.", "The trade creating revenue from taxes to pay for the Island garrisons." ], [ "Early modern history", "===Civil War===Castle Cornet seen at night over the harbour of St Peter Port.During the English Civil War, Guernsey sided with the Parliamentarians, while Jersey remained Royalist.", "Guernsey's decision was mainly related to the higher proportion of Calvinists and other Reformed churches, as well as Charles I's refusal to take up the case of some Guernsey seamen who had been captured by the Barbary corsairs.", "The allegiance was not total, however; there were a few Royalist uprisings in the southwest of the island, while Castle Cornet was occupied by the Governor, Sir Peter Osborne, and Royalist troops.", "Castle Cornet, which had been built to protect Guernsey, was turned on by the town of St. Peter Port, who constantly bombarded it.", "It was the penultimate Royalist stronghold to capitulate (in 1651) === 17th and 18th trade and emigration ===The Newfoundland cod trade was important to Guernsey until around 1700 when the small Guernsey ships found that the smuggling trade could prove more profitable, with Island businesses established to buy in goods for sale to smugglers until smuggling declined at the end of the 18th century, when legal privateering took over as the most profitable business.Wars against France and Spain during the 17th and 18th centuries gave Guernsey shipowners and sea captains the opportunity to exploit the island's proximity to mainland Europe by applying for Letters of Marque and turning their merchantmen into licensed privateers.", "It was very profitable.", "In the first ten years of 18th century, the War of the Spanish Succession, 608 prizes were taken by Guernsey privateers.", "there was however a downside with about 50 ships being lost.", "To spread the risk, people would buy a share in a ship, (⅛ for instance) receiving a portion of prize monies after costs, if successful.", "Many Islanders became rich without ever setting foot on a sailing vessel.", "Ships became larger, with more crew and were better armed as more money was invested.", "Late in the 18th century, during the American Revolutionary War which lasted for 8 years, Guernsey and Alderney privateers took 221 prizes worth £981,300 (in today's terms, about £100m).", "The Islands and Guernsey in particular provided an important element to the blockading of enemies of Britain.During the late 17th century the grant by Charles II of England of an island to George Carteret the Bailiff of Jersey, which was renamed ''New Jersey'', combined with the Channel Island trading ships visiting New England saw Islanders setting up businesses and settling overseas.", "By the beginning of the 18th century, Guernsey's residents were starting to settle in North America.", "Guernsey County was founded in Ohio in 1810.Ordinary trade continued, fishing had always been an important business.", "Knitting was an important home industry, overseas shipping carrying such diverse goods as wood, sugar, rum, coal, tobacco, salt, textiles, finished goods, glass, emigrants and wine.", "Trading mainly with Europe, the West Indies and the Americas." ], [ "19th century", "Privateering during the Napoleonic Wars generated more profits, rolling on from the French Revolutionary Wars.", "London issued 5,632 letters of Marque of which Guernsey captains received 602, amongst around 70 ships varying in size from 5 to 500 ton.", "The Letter of Marque would set out which countries' ships could be taken, by which ship, owned by which people.", "Ships also became stronger and better armed.", "The war saw the introduction of a series of UK Privateer Acts, to set out rules of valuation of prizes to reduce disputes in Court.Fort George was a former garrison for the British Army.", "Construction started in 1780, and was completed in 1812.It was built to accommodate the increase in the number of troops stationed in the island in anticipation of a French invasion during the Napoleonic Wars.", "Le Braye du Valle was a tidal channel that made the northern extremity of Guernsey, Le Clos du Valle, a tidal island.", "Le Braye du Valle was drained and reclaimed in 1806 by the British Government as a defence measure.", "The eastern end of the former channel became the town and harbour (from 1820) of St. Sampson's, now the second biggest port in Guernsey.", "The western end of La Braye is now Le Grand Havre.", "The roadway called \"The Bridge\" across the end of the harbour at St. Sampson's recalls the bridge that formerly linked the two parts of Guernsey at high tide.", "New roads were built and main roads metalled for ease of use by the military.In 1813, the States requested to the Privy Council permission to issue Guernsey coinage.", "The Council agreed on the condition it was struck at the Royal Mint.", "However, when the first coins were issued in 1830, they had not been minted at the Royal Mint, but by R. Boulton & Co. of Birmingham.", "It is likely for this reason that coins of the Guernsey pound did not traditionally feature the sovereign.", "French currency remained legal tender in Guernsey until 1921.Guernsey created money debt-free for building roads in 1815.In 1821, the population of Guernsey was 20,302, 11,173 of whom were living in St. Peter Port.", "By 1901, the island population had doubled.The 19th century saw a dramatic increase in prosperity of the island, due to its success in the global maritime trade, and the rise of the stone industry.", "Ships were travelling further to trade, one notable Guernseyman, William Le Lacheur, established the Costa Rican coffee trade with Europe and the Corbet Family who created the Fruit Export Company Shipbuilding also increased in the 1840-70 era, declining when iron ships were demanded.The quarrying industry was an important employer in the 19th century, Guernsey granite was highly prized, with London Bridge and many important London roads being repaved in Guernsey granite, resulting in hundreds of quarries appearing in the northern parishes.", "Horticulture developed from the use of glasshouses for growing grapes to the growing of tomatoes, becoming a very important industry from the 1860s.", "Tourism during the Victorian era and the use of Guernsey as a refuge or retirement location brought money to the Island, Victor Hugo being one of the most distinguished refugees.Light industry businesses would regularly appear and after a few decades would move on, such as the Dundee firm James Keiller, who set up in Guernsey in 1857 and lasting until 1879 to avoid the high taxes on sugar in the UK, with marmalade manufactured in Guernsey exported all over the world.It was normal for the island to deport vagrants, criminals and anyone who had fallen on hard times who were not \"local\".", "Between 1842 and 1880, 10,000 people were deported.", "This included local-born widows and local-born children of \"foreign\" men and people who, whilst not born in Guernsey, had resided in Guernsey for over 50 years.", "This reduced the burden on the parish requirement to look after their poor and discouraged France, England and Ireland encouraging their poor to emigrate to Guernsey.At the end of the century, long resisted, the time had arrived for change, to schools, where English would be taught as a language, to the government, including the use of English as a language in Court together with voting reform, and some changes to the unfair treatment of non-locals as regards their deportation if unwanted and their summary arrest and detention for petty debt offences, it being almost impossible for an immigrant to ever be recognised as a local, irrespective of their wealth and the number of decades residing in Guernsey." ], [ "20th century", "===World War I===During World War I, approximately 3,000 island men served in the British Expeditionary Force.", "Of these, about 1,000 served in the Royal Guernsey Light Infantry regiment formed from the Royal Guernsey Militia in 1916.In August 1917, Guernsey hosted an anti submarine French flying boat squadron, erecting hangars near Castle Cornet.", "The base is credited with having destroyed 25 German submarines.", "The Guernsey Roll of Honour includes 1,343 who were Bailiwick of Guernsey individuals or who served in the Royal Guernsey Light Infantry.The economic depression in the 1930s also affected Guernsey.", "Unemployed labourers being given jobs such as building sea defences and constructing roads, including Le Val des Terres, opened in 1935 by ''Le Prince de Galles''.===World War II===For most of World War II, the Bailiwick was occupied by German troops.", "Before the occupation, many Guernsey children had been evacuated to England to live with relatives or strangers during the war.", "Some children were never reunited with their families.Plaque to the memory of Guernsey civilians killed, particularly in the 28 June 1940 bombing raidThe occupying German forces deported some of the Bailiwick's residents to camps in the southwest of Germany, notably to the ''Lager Lindele'' (Lindele Camp) near Biberach an der Riß.", "Among those deported was Ambrose (later Sir Ambrose) Sherwill, who, as the President of the States Controlling Committee, was ''de facto'' head of the civilian population.", "Sir Ambrose, who was Guernsey-born, had served in the British Army during the First World War and later became Bailiff of Guernsey.", "Three islanders of Jewish descent were deported to France and from there to Auschwitz where they were killed in The Holocaust.", "In Alderney, four camps were built to house forced labourers, mostly from Eastern Europe, two were handed for the SS to run.", "They were the only concentration camps run on British soil and are commemorated on memorials under Alderney's French name ''Aurigny''.Occupation laws were enforced by the German garrison.", "For example, rewards were offered to informants who reported anyone for painting \"V-for Victory\" signs on walls and buildings; a practice that had become popular among islanders wishing to express their loyalty to Britain.Guernsey was very heavily fortified during World War II out of all proportion to the island's strategic value, for example four captured vintage Russian 305mm naval guns were installed at Batterie Mirus.", "German defences and alterations remain visible, including additions made to Castle Cornet and a windmill.", "Hitler had become obsessed with the idea that the Allies would try to regain the islands at any price, so over 20 per cent of the materials used to construct the \"Atlantic Wall\" (the Nazi attempt to defend continental Europe from seaborne invasion) was committed to the Channel Islands, including 47,000 cu m of concrete used for gun bases.", "Most of the German fortifications remain intact and although the majority of them stand on private property, several are open to the public.Starvation threatened the Island in late 1944 after the German forces were cut off and supplies could not be brought in from France.", "The SS ''Vega'', chartered by the Red Cross, brought Red Cross food parcels and other essential supplies into the Island.The Island was liberated on 9 May 1945.===Post-war===After 1945 the Islanders had to rebuild their lives, the return of evacuees, especially children who could hardly remember their relatives.", "Many properties had been damaged through wood being stripped from them for fuel, the island had an enormous debt, tourism was destroyed and the growing industry was damaged.", "The amount of scrap metal collected is now regretted.", "Rationing continued as in the UK, until the mid-1950s.Many traditional businesses, such as fishing and quarrying, would not return.", "So the Islanders looked to other opportunities, the physical import/export of goods was difficult as the harbours were too small and freight cost too expensive, so control of trade was looked at, the right to supply Mateus Rosé to the UK was controlled by a Guernsey business and it became the top selling wine in the world.By the 1960s the island had recovered, tourism was important again, the horticulture industry was booming, 500 million tomatoes being exported annually, then came the crash.", "Cheap North Sea fuel allowed the Netherlands to provide cheap heating to their growers, the Guernsey industry was undercut on price, which combined with rising fuel prices saw the complete demise of the tomato industry after 100 years by the end of the 1970s.", "Restrictions were introduced to make it harder and more expensive for people to move to the island as there was a fear of a massive population increase.During the 1970s and 1980s the island began to boom in the finance industry.", "Not an easy transition for people from the growing industry to an office environment.", "Profits and salaries were good and the Island had revenues to support long term capital expenditure plans.", "Continuing through the 1990s with divergence to related industries, such as captive insurance and fund management have managed to keep unemployment low.", "Tourism declined in the 1980s when the price of a holiday in Spain became much cheaper than coming to Guernsey, leaving the island aiming to attract the higher end of the market.Light industry businesses had continued to appear and operate for a few decades in Guernsey including electronic (Tektronix from 1957 to the 1980s) and the current Specsavers which was established in 1984." ], [ "See also", "* Archaeology of the Channel Islands* Fortifications of Guernsey* Maritime history of the Channel Islands" ], [ "Further reading", "Mawson, Gillian (2012) ''Guernsey Evacuees: Forgotten Evacuees of the Second World War'', History PressMawson, Gillian (2016) ''Britain's Wartime Evacuees'', Frontline BooksJohnston, Peter (2014), ''A Short History of Guernsey'', 6th edition, Guernsey Society, Sarnia, novel by guernesiais writer G.B.", "Edwards (life on Guernsey from 1900 until 1970)." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Guernsey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Politics of Guernsey''' take place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic British Crown dependency.Guernsey has an unwritten constitution arising from the Treaty of Paris (1259).", "When Henry III and the King of France came to terms over the Duchy of Normandy, the Norman mainland the suzerainty of the King of France.", "The Channel Islands however remained loyal to the British crown due to the loyalties of its Seigneurs.", "But they were never absorbed into the Kingdom of England by any Act of Union and exist as \"peculiars of the Crown\"." ], [ "Offices", "\|Lieutenant GovernorLieutenant General Richard Cripwell CB, CBE15 February 2022Bailiff Richard McMahon11 May 2020President of Policy and Resources Committee Deputy Lyndon Trott13 December 2023 Lt.", "Governor Ian Corder (middle) and Bailiff Richard Collas (right) attending the Queen's birthday parade 2016 in St. Peter Port, GuernseyThe Lieutenant Governor is the appointed unelected representative of \"the Crown in right of the ''république'' of the Bailiwick of Guernsey\".", "The official residence of the Lieutenant Governor is Government House, Queens Road, St Peter Port.", "From 15 April 2011, the incumbent had been Peter Walker until his death on 6 September 2015.The Bailiff is the first civil officer in the Bailiwick of Guernsey, serving as president of the legislature and the Royal Court.", "The Bailiff is appointed by the Crown, and generally holds office until retirement age (65).", "He presides at the Royal Court, and takes the opinions of the ''Jurats'', elected lay judges; he also presides over States meetings, and represents the Crown in all civil matters.The president of the Policy and Resources Committee, who can also be termed the '''Chief Minister''' is head of the political States of Deliberation." ], [ "The States of Deliberation", "The States of Guernsey, officially called the States of Deliberation, consists of 38 People's Deputies, elected from multi-member districts every four years.", "There are also two representatives from Alderney, a self-governing dependency within the Bailiwick, but Sark sends no representative.", "There are also two non-voting members - HM Procureur and HM Comptroller, appointed by the Crown.Laws made by the States are known as ''Projet(s) de Loi'' before they are passed and ''Loi'' or ''Law(s)'' afterwards (e.g., ''The Human Rights (Bailiwick of Guernsey) Law 2000''.A Project de Loi is the equivalent of an English Bill, and a Law is the equivalent of an English Act of Parliament.", "Laws have no effect until Royal assent is promulgated as Orders-in-Council of the Crown.", "They are given the Royal Sanction at regular meetings of the Privy Council in London after, which they are returned to the Islands for formal registration at the Royal Court.The States also make delegated legislation known as Ordinances ''(Ordonnances)'' and Orders ''(Ordres)'' which do not require Royal Assent.", "Commencement orders are usually in the form of Ordinances." ], [ "Policy and Resources Committee", "The Policy and Resources Committee is responsible for Guernsey's constitutional and external affairs, developing strategic and corporate policy and coordinating states business.", "It also examines proposals and reports placed before Guernsey's Parliament (the States of Deliberation) by departments and non states bodies.", "The president of the committee is the de facto head of government of Guernsey.Prior to 2016 the job was undertaken by the Policy Council of Guernsey which was chaired by the Chief Minister." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "Guernsey has three political parties: the Alliance Party Guernsey, the Guernsey Party, and the Guernsey Partnership of Independents.", "The Alliance Party was registered in February 2020 and was the first party to be formed on the Island.", "A third registered party, the Guernsey Partnership of Independents, claims not to be a party in the conventional sense as its members are free to set their own manifestos which may differ from the party manifesto, and are not subject to the whip.", "The 1948 Reform Law resulted in the 12 Jurats and 10 Parish Rectors no longer forming part of the States of Deliberation, their place being taken by 12 Conseillers holding office for 6 years, elected by the States of Election.In 2000 there were 33 Deputies elected with three-year mandates, and 12 Conseillers representing the Bailiwick, serving terms of six years, with half being elected every three.", "The Conseiller system was scrapped for the 2004 election.In the 2004, 2008 and 2012 elections there were 45 Deputy seats for election.", "From 2016 the number of Deputy seats was reduced to 38.In addition there are two representatives of the States of Alderney in the States of Guernsey." ], [ "Judicial branch", "The legal system is derived from Norman French and English common law, justice being administered through a combination of Magistrates Court and the Royal Court.", "The Royal Court is presided over by the Bailiff (or Deputy Bailiff) and 12 Jurats (a permanent elected jury), the ultimate court of appeal being the Privy Council." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "There are ten parishes in Guernsey.", "Each parish is administered by a Douzaine.", "Douzeniers are elected for a six-year mandate, two Douzeniers being elected by parishioners at a Parish Meeting in November each year.", "The senior Douzenier is known as the Doyen.", "Two elected Constables carry out the decisions of the Douzaine, serving for between one and three years.", "The longest serving constable is known as the Senior Constable and the other constables are known as the Junior Constable.Parishes: Castel, Forest, St Andrew, St Martin, St Peter, St Peter Port, St Sampson, St Saviour, Torteval and ValeAs regards General Elections, from 2020 Guernsey follows an island wide election system whereby 38 deputies are chosen by all registered voters, previously in 2004, Guernsey had seven following electoral districts, loosely based on the parish system:" ], [ "European Parliament", "Unlike citizens of the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar, who had a vote within the South West England constituency until Brexit in 2020, Guernsey, in common with other Crown dependencies, was never a part of the European Union and its citizens had no vote in the European Parliament." ], [ "See also", "* Elections in GuernseyElectoral firsts in GuernseyPolicy Council of Guernsey*Royal Commission on the Constitution (United Kingdom)" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Guinea" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Guinea''' ( ), officially the '''Republic of Guinea''' (), is a coastal country in West Africa.", "It borders the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Guinea-Bissau to the northwest, Senegal to the north, Mali to the northeast, Cote d'Ivoire to the southeast, and Sierra Leone and Liberia to the south.", "It is sometimes referred to as '''Guinea-Conakry''' after its capital Conakry, to distinguish it from other territories in the eponymous region such as Guinea-Bissau and Equatorial Guinea.", "Guinea has a population of 14 million and an area of .Formerly French Guinea, it achieved independence in 1958.Guinea has a history of military coups d'état.", "After decades of authoritarian rule, in 2010 it held its first democratic election.", "As it continued to hold multi-party elections, the country continued to face ethnic conflicts, corruption, and abuses by military and police.", "In 2011, the United States government claimed that torture by security forces and abuse of women and children (including female genital mutilation) were ongoing human rights issues.", "In 2021, a military faction overthrew president Alpha Condé and suspended the constitution.Muslims represent 90% of the population.", "The country is divided into four geographic regions: Maritime Guinea on the Atlantic coast, the Fouta Djallon or Middle Guinea highlands, the Upper Guinea savanna region in the northeast, and the Guinée forestière region of tropical forests.", "French, the official language of Guinea, is a language of communication in schools, in government administration, and the media.", "More than 24 indigenous languages are spoken and the largest are Susu, Pular, and Maninka, which dominate respectively in Maritime Guinea, Fouta Djallon, and Upper Guinea, while Guinée forestière is ethnolinguistically diverse.", "Guinea's economy is mostly dependent on agriculture and mineral production.", "It is the world's second largest producer of bauxite, and has deposits of diamonds and gold.", "The country was at the core of the 2014 Ebola outbreak." ], [ "Name", "Guinea is named after the Guinea region which lies along the Gulf of Guinea.", "It stretches north through the forested tropical regions and ends at the Sahel.", "The English term Guinea comes directly from the Portuguese word ''Guiné'' which emerged in the mid-15th century to refer to the lands inhabited by the ''Guineus'', a generic term for the black African peoples south of the Senegal River, in contrast to the \"tawny\" Zenaga Berbers above it, whom they called ''Azengues'' or Moors.In 1978, the official name was named to the People's Revolutionary Republic of Guinea.", "In 1984, the country was renamed the Republic of Guinea after the death of the first president Ahmed Sékou Touré." ], [ "History", "The land that is now Guinea either bordered or was situated within a series of historic African empires before the French arrived in the 1890s and claimed the terrain as part of colonial French West Africa.", "Guinea declared independence from France on 2 October 1958.From independence until the presidential election of 2010, Guinea was governed by multiple autocratic rulers.===West African empires and kingdoms===What is now Guinea sat on the fringes of various West African empires.", "The earliest, the Ghana Empire, grew on trade and ultimately fell after repeated incursions of the Almoravids.", "It was in this period that Islam first arrived in the region by way of North African traders.The Sosso Empire (12th to 13th centuries) flourished in the resulting void, and the Mali Empire came to prominence when Soundiata Kéïta defeated the Sosso ruler Soumangourou Kanté at the Battle of Kirina, in .", "The Mali Empire was ruled by Mansa (Emperors), including Kankou Moussa who made a hajj to Mecca in 1324.After his reign, the Mali Empire began to decline and was ultimately supplanted by its vassal states in the 15th century.The Songhai Empire expanded its power from about 1460 and eventually surpassed the Mali Empire in both territory and wealth.", "It continued to prosper until a civil war, over succession, followed the death of Askia Daoud in 1582.The empire fell to invaders from Morocco at the Battle of Tondibi 3 years later.", "The Moroccans proved unable to rule the kingdom effectively and it split into smaller kingdoms.After the fall of some of the West African empires, various kingdoms existed in what is now Guinea.", "Fulani Muslims migrated to Futa Jallon in Central Guinea, and established an Islamic state from 1727 to 1896, with a written constitution and alternate rulers.", "The Wassoulou or Wassulu Empire (1878–1898) was led by Samori Toure in the predominantly Malinké area of what is now upper Guinea and southwestern Mali (Wassoulou).", "It moved to Ivory Coast before being conquered by the French.===Colony===European traders competed for the cape trade from the 17th century onward and made inroads earlier.", "Slaves were exported to work elsewhere.", "The traders used the regional slave practices.Guinea's colonial period began with French military penetration into the area in the mid-19th century.", "French domination was assured by the defeat in 1898 of the armies of Samori Touré, Mansa (or Emperor) of the Ouassoulou state and leader of Malinké descent, which gave France control of what today is Guinea and adjacent areas.France negotiated Guinea's present boundaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the British for Sierra Leone, the Portuguese for their Guinea colony (now Guinea-Bissau), and Liberia.", "Under the French, the country formed the Territory of Guinea within French West Africa, administered by a governor general resident in Dakar.", "Lieutenant governors administered the individual colonies, including Guinea.President Ahmed Sékou Touré was supported by Communist states, and in 1961, visited Yugoslavia.In 1958, the French Fourth Republic collapsed due to political instability and its failures in dealing with its colonies, especially Indochina and Algeria.", "The French Fifth Republic gave the colonies the choice of autonomy in a new French Community or immediate independence, in the referendum of 28 September 1958.Unlike most other colonies, Guinea voted overwhelmingly for independence.", "It was led by Ahmed Sékou Touré whose Democratic Party of Guinea-African Democratic Rally (PDG) had won 56 of 60 seats in 1957 territorial elections.", "The French withdrew, and on 2 October 1958, Guinea proclaimed itself a sovereign and independent republic, with Sékou Touré as president.", "''The Washington Post'' observed the \"brutal\" French tearing down all that they considered their contributions to Guinea: \"In reaction, and as a warning to other French-speaking territories, the French pulled out of Guinea over a two-month period, taking everything they could with them.", "They unscrewed lightbulbs, removed plans for sewage pipelines in Conakry, the capital, and even burned medicines rather than leave them for the Guineans.", "\"===Post-colonial (1958–)===Subsequently, Guinea aligned itself with the Soviet Union and adopted socialist policies.", "It then moved towards a Chinese model of socialism.", "It continued to receive investment from capitalist countries, such as the United States.", "By 1960, Touré had declared PDG the country's only legal political party, and for the next 24 years, the government and PDG were one.", "Touré was re-elected unopposed to 4 7-year terms as president, and every 5 years voters were presented with a single list of PDG candidates for the National Assembly.", "Advocating a hybrid African Socialism domestically and Pan-Africanism abroad, Touré became a polarising leader, with his government becoming intolerant of dissent, imprisoning thousands, and stifling the press.Throughout the 1960s, the Guinean government nationalised land, removed French-appointed and traditional chiefs from power, and had strained ties with the French government and French companies.", "Touré's government relied on the Soviet Union and China for infrastructure aid and development, and much of this was used for political and not economic purposes, such as the building of stadiums to hold political rallies.On 22 November 1970, Portuguese forces from neighbouring Portuguese Guinea staged Operation Green Sea, a raid on Conakry by several hundred exiled Guinean opposition forces.", "Among their goals, the Portuguese military wanted to kill or capture Sekou Touré due to his support of PAIGC, an independence movement and rebel group that had carried out attacks inside Portuguese Guinea from their bases in Guinea.", "After some fighting, the Portuguese-backed forces retreated, having freed several dozen Portuguese prisoners of war that were being held by PAIGC in Conakry, and without having ousted Touré.", "In the years after the raid, purges were carried out by the Touré government, and at least 50 thousand people were killed.", "Others were imprisoned and faced torture.", "Some foreigners were forced to leave the country, after having had their Guinean spouse arrested and their children placed into state custody.Guinea was elected as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council 1972–73.In 1977, a declining economy, mass killings, a stifling political atmosphere, and a ban on all private economic transactions led to the Market Women's Revolt, a series of anti-government riots started by women working in Conakry's Madina Market.", "This prompted Touré to make major reforms.", "Touré vacillated from supporting the Soviet Union to supporting the United States.", "The late 1970s and early 1980s saw some economic reforms, while Touré's centralized control of the state remained.", "Regarding its relationship with France, after the election of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing as French president, trade increased and the two countries exchanged diplomatic visits.Sékou Touré died on 26 March 1984, after a heart operation in the United States, and was replaced by Prime Minister Louis Lansana Beavogui, who was to serve as interim president, pending new elections.", "PDG was due to elect a new leader on 3 April 1984.Under the constitution, that person would have been the only candidate for president.", "Hours before that meeting, Colonels Lansana Conté and Diarra Traoré seized power in a bloodless coup.", "Conté assumed the role of president, with Traoré serving as prime minister, until December.U.S.", "President Jimmy Carter welcoming Ahmed Sékou Touré outside the White House, Washington, D.C., 1979Conté denounced the previous regime's record on human rights, releasing 250 political prisoners and encouraging approximately 200 thousand more to return from exile.", "He made explicit the turn away from socialism.In 1992, Conté announced a return to civilian rule, with a presidential poll in 1993, followed by elections to parliament in 1995 (in which his party—the Party of Unity and Progress—won 71 of 114 seats.)", "In September 2001, the opposition leader Alpha Condé was imprisoned for endangering state security and pardoned 8 months later.", "Subsequently, he spent time in exile in France.In 2001, Conté organized and won a referendum to lengthen the presidential term, and in 2003, began his third term after elections were boycotted by the opposition.", "In January 2005, Conté survived a suspected assassination attempt while making a public appearance in the capital of Conakry.", "His opponents claimed that he was a \"tired dictator\", whose departure was inevitable, whereas his supporters believed that he was winning a battle with dissidents.", "According to ''Foreign Policy'', Guinea was in danger of becoming a failed state.In 2000, Guinea suffered from the instability which had blighted the rest of West Africa, as rebels crossed the borders from Liberia and Sierra Leone.", "It seemed that the country was headed for civil war.", "Conté blamed neighbouring leaders for coveting Guinea's natural resources, and these claims were denied.", "In 2003, Guinea agreed to plans with her neighbours to tackle the insurgents.", "The 2007 Guinean general strike resulted in the appointment of a new prime minister.Conté remained in power until his death on 23 December 2008.Several hours after his death, Moussa Dadis Camara seized control in a coup, declaring himself head of a military junta.", "Protests against the coup became violent, and 157 people were killed when, on 28 September 2009, the junta ordered its soldiers to attack people gathered to protest Camara's attempt to become president.", "The soldiers went on a rampage of rape, mutilation, and murder, which caused some foreign governments to withdraw their support for the new regime.On 3 December 2009, an aide shot Camara during a dispute over the rampage in September.", "Camara went to Morocco for medical care.", "Vice-president (and defense minister) Sékouba Konaté flew from Lebanon to run the country.", "After meeting in Ouagadougou on 13 and 14 January 2010, Camara, Konaté and Blaise Compaoré, President of Burkina Faso, produced a formal statement of 12 principles promising a return of Guinea to civilian rule within 6 months.", "The presidential election of 27 June brought allegations of fraud, and a second election was held on 7 November.", "Voter turnout was \"high\", and the elections went \"relatively smoothly\".", "Alpha Condé, leader of the opposition party Rally of the Guinean People (RGP), won the election, promising to reform the security sector and review mining contracts.In February 2013, political violence erupted after street protests over transparency of upcoming May elections.", "The protests were fueled by the opposition coalition's decision to step down from the elections, in protest of the lack of transparency in the preparations for elections.", "9 people were killed during the protests, and around 220 were injured.", "Some deaths and injuries were caused by security forces using live ammunition on protesters.", "The violence led to ethnic clashes between the Malinke and Fula, who supported and opposed President Condé, respectively.", "On 26 March 2013, the opposition party backed out of negotiations with the government over the election, saying that the government had not respected them, and had broken all agreements.The 2019–2020 Guinean protests against the rule of Alpha CondéOn 25 March 2014, the World Health Organization stated that Guinea's Ministry of Health had reported an outbreak of Ebola virus disease in Guinea.", "This initial outbreak had 86 cases, including 59 deaths.", "By 28 May, there were 281 cases, with 186 deaths.", "It is believed that the first case was Emile Ouamouno, a 2-year-old boy in the village of Meliandou.", "He fell ill on 2 December 2013 and died on 6 December.", "On 18 September 2014, 8 members of an Ebola education health care team were murdered by villagers in the town of Womey.", "As of 1 November 2015, there had been 3,810 cases and 2,536 deaths in Guinea.The 2019–2020 Guinean protests were a series of violent protests and mass civil unrest against the rule of Alpha Conde that broke out on October 14, 2019, against constitutional changes.", "More than 800 were killed in clashes.", "After the 2020 Guinean presidential election, Alpha Condé's election to a third term was challenged by the opposition, who accused him of fraud.", "Condé claimed a constitutional referendum from March 2020 allowed him to run despite the 2-term limit.On 5 September 2021, after hours of gunfire near the presidential palace, Lieutenant Colonel Mamady Doumbouya seized control of state television and declared that President Alpha Conde's government had been dissolved and the nation's borders closed.", "By the evening, the putschists declared control of all Conakry and the country's armed forces.", "According to ''Guinée Matin,'' by 6 September the military fully controlled the state administration and started to replace the civil administration with its military counterpart.", "The United Nations, European Union, African Union, ECOWAS (which suspended Guinea's membership) and La Francophonie denounced the coup, and called for President Condé's unconditional release.", "Similar responses came from some neighboring and Western countries (including the United States), and from China (which relies on Guinea for half of its aluminum ore, facilitated by its connections to President Condé).", "Despite these, On 1 October 2021, Mamady Doumbouya was sworn in as interim President.On 11 May 2023, at least 7 people were shot dead in anti-government demonstrations in cities across Guinea.", "The anti-government movement became involved in peaceful protests and called on rulers to end military rule in Guinea and transition the country to democracy.On 18 December 2023, an explosion occurred at the country's main oil depot in Conakry, killing 24 people and causing extensive fuel shortages in the country in the following weeks.", "Existing civil and economic unrest in the country temporarily worsened as a result, with several confrontations between protestors and police in Conakry, increased fuel and travel costs, and general price inflation throughout the country." ], [ "Geography", "Guinea's cities and administrative divisionsGuinea shares a border with Guinea-Bissau to the northwest, Senegal to the north, Mali to the northeast, Ivory Coast to the east, Sierra Leone to the southwest and Liberia to the south.", "The nation forms a crescent as it curves from its southeast region to the north and west, to its northwest border with Guinea-Bissau and southwestern coast on the Atlantic Ocean.", "The sources of the Niger River, the Gambia River, and the Senegal River are all found in the Guinea Highlands.", "At , Guinea is roughly the size of the United Kingdom.", "There are of coastline and a total land border of .", "It lies mostly between latitudes 7° and 13°N, and longitudes 7° and 15°W, with a smaller area that is west of 15°.Map of Köppen climate classificationGuinea is divided into 4 regions: Maritime Guinea, also known as Lower Guinea or the Basse-Coté lowlands, populated mainly by the Susu ethnic group; the cooler, more mountainous Fouta Djallon that run roughly north–south through the middle of the country, populated by Fulas; the Sahelian Haute-Guinea to the northeast, populated by Malinké; and the forested jungle regions in the southeast, with several ethnic groups.", "Guinea's mountains are the source for the Niger, the Gambia, and Senegal Rivers, and rivers flowing to the sea on the west side of the range in Sierra Leone and Ivory Coast.", "The highest point in Guinea is Mount Nimba at .", "While the Guinean and Ivorian sides of the Nimba Massif are a UNESCO Strict Nature Reserve, the portion of the so-called Guinean Backbone continues into Liberia, where it has been mined for decades; the damage is evident in the Nzérékoré Region at .Guinea is home to 5 ecoregions: Guinean montane forests, Western Guinean lowland forests, Guinean forest-savanna mosaic, West Sudanian savanna, and Guinean mangroves.", "It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.9/10, ranking it 114th globally out of 172 countries.=== Wildlife ===Badiar National ParkThe southern part of Guinea lies within the Guinean Forests of West Africa Biodiversity hotspot, while the north-east is characterized by dry savanna woodlands.", "Declining populations of some animals are restricted to uninhabited distant parts of parks and reserves.Species found in Guinea include the following:* Amphibians : ''Hemisus guineensis'', ''Phrynobatrachus guineensis''* Reptiles : ''Acanthodactylus guineensis'', ''Mochlus guineensis''* Arachnids: ''Malloneta guineensis'', ''Dictyna guineensis''* Insects : ''Zorotypus guineensis'', ''Euchromia guineensis''* Birds: ''Melaniparus guineensis''===Regions and prefectures===Regions of GuineaThe Republic of Guinea covers of West Africa, about 10 degrees north of the equator.", "It is divided into 4 natural regions with distinct human, geographic, and climatic characteristics:* Maritime Guinea (''La Guinée Maritime'') covers 18% of the country.", "* Middle Guinea (''La Moyenne-Guinée'') covers 20% of the country.", "* Upper Guinea (''La Haute-Guinée'') covers 38% of the country.", "* Forested Guinea (''Guinée forestière'') covers 23% of the country, and is both forested and mountainous.Fouta Djallon highlands in central GuineaGuinea is divided into 8 administrative regions which are subdivided into 33 prefectures.", "The capital Conakry with a population of 1,675,069 ranks as a special zone.RegionCapitalPopulation (2014 census by National Institute of Statistics)Conakry Region Conakry1,675,069Nzérékoré Region Nzérékoré1,591,716Kindia Region Kindia1,573,690Boké Region Boké1,092,291Labé Region Labé1,001,392Mamou Region Mamou737,062Kankan Region Kankan1,979,038Faranah RegionFaranah949,589" ], [ "Politics", "Guinea is a republic.", "The president is directly elected by the people and is the head of state and the head of government.", "The unicameral National Assembly is the legislative body of the country, and its members are directly elected by the people.", "The judicial branch is headed by the Supreme Court of Guinea, the highest and final court of appeal in the country.The National Assembly of Guinea, the country's legislative body, did not meet from 2008 to 2013, when it was dissolved after the military coup in December.", "Elections have been postponed multiple times since 2007.In April 2012, President Condé postponed the elections indefinitely, citing the need to ensure that they were \"transparent and democratic\".", "The 2013 Guinean legislative election was held on 24 September.", "President Alpha Condé's party, the Rally of the Guinean People (RPG), won a plurality of seats in the National Assembly of Guinea, with 53 out of 114 seats.", "The opposition parties won a total of 53 seats, and opposition leaders denounced the official results as fraudulent.The president of Guinea is normally elected by popular vote for a 5-year term; the winning candidate must receive a majority of the votes cast to be elected president.", "The president governs Guinea, assisted by a council of 25 civilian ministers, appointed by him.", "The government administers the country through 8 regions, 33 prefectures, over 100 subprefectures, and districts (known as communes in Conakry and other cities and villages, or ''quartiers'' in the interior).", "District-level leaders are elected; the president appoints officials to all other levels of the centralized administration.", "Former President Alpha Condé derived support from Guinea's second-largest ethnic group, the Malinke.", "Guinea's opposition was backed by the Fula ethnic group, who account for around 33.4% of the population.===Foreign relations===President Alpha Condé with Russian President Vladimir Putin on 28 September 2017Guinea is a member of the African Union, Agency for the French-Speaking Community, African Development Bank, Economic Community of West African States, World Bank, Islamic Development Bank, IMF, and the United Nations.According to a February 2009 U.S. Department of State statement, Guinea's foreign relations, including those with its West African neighbours, had improved steadily since 1985.The Department's October 2018 statement indicated that—although \"the U.S. condemned\" Guinea's \"2008 military coup d'etat,\"—the U.S. had \"close relations\" with Guinea before the coup, and after \"Guinea's presidential elections in 2010, the United States re-established strong diplomatic relations with the government.\"", "The statement indicated support for the \"legislative elections in 2013 and a second presidential election in 2015,\" as signs of \"democratic reform.\"", "A March 2021 report by the U.S. State Department blasted extensive human rights violations by the government, security forces and businesses in Guinea.", "The report cited extensive international criticism of the recent national elections, which yielded \"President Alpha Conde's re-election (despite disputed results)... following a controversial March referendum amending the constitution and allowing him to run for a third term.\"", "The Department condemned the 2021 coup, warning that \"violence and any extra-constitutional measures will only erode Guinea's prospects for peace, stability, and prosperity, and could limit the ability of the United States and Guinea's other international partners to support the country...,\" While not explicitly calling for President Condé's return to power, the U.S. called for \"national dialogue to address concerns sustainably and transparently to enable a peaceful and democratic way forward for Guinea...\"The United Nations promptly denounced the 2021 coup, and some of Guinea's allies condemned the coup.", "The African Union and West Africa's regional bloc (ECOWAS), both threatened sanctions—while some analysts expect the threats to be of limited effect because Guinea is not a member of the West African currency union, and is not a landlocked country.", "ECOWAS promptly suspended Guinea's membership, and demanded the unconditional release of President Condé, while sending envoys to Conakry to attempt a \"constitutional\" resolution of the situation.", "Uncharacteristically responding to another nation's internal affairs, China (which relies on Guinea for half of its aluminium ore, facilitated by connections to ousted President Condé) openly opposed the coup.===Military===Guinea's armed forces are divided into 5 branches—army, navy, air force, the paramilitary National Gendarmerie and the Republican Guard—whose chiefs report to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff who is subordinate to the Minister of Defence.", "In addition, regime security forces include the National Police Force (Sûreté Nationale).", "The Gendarmerie, responsible for internal security, has a strength of several thousand.The army, with about 15,000 personnel, is by far the largest branch of the armed forces and is mainly responsible for protecting the state borders, the security of administered territories, and defending Guinea's national interests.", "Air force personnel total about 700.Its equipment includes several Russian-supplied fighter planes and transports.", "The navy has about 900 personnel and operates several small patrol craft and barges.===Human rights===Homosexuality is illegal in Guinea.", "The prime minister declared in 2010 that he does not consider sexual orientation a legitimate human right.Guinea has one of the world's highest rates of female genital mutilation (FGM, sometimes referred to as 'female circumcision') according to Anastasia Gage, an associate professor at Tulane University, and Ronan van Rossem, an associate professor at Ghent University.", "Female genital mutilation in Guinea had been performed on more than 98% of women .", "In Guinea \"almost all cultures, religions, and ethnicities\" practice female genital mutilation.", "The 2005 Demographic and Health Survey reported that 96% of women have gone through the operation." ], [ "Economy", "Malinke fisher women on the Niger River, Niandankoro, Kankan Region, in eastern GuineaKissidougou market===Agriculture===The agriculture sector at some point employed approximately 75% of the country.", "The rice is cultivated in the flooded zones between streams and rivers.", "The local production of rice is not sufficient to feed the country, so rice is imported from Asia.", "The sector cultivates coffee beans, pineapples, peaches, nectarines, mangoes, oranges, bananas, potatoes, tomatoes, cucumbers, pepper, and other types of produce.", "Guinea is one of the emerging regional producers of apples and pears.", "There are plantations of grapes, pomegranates, and more recent years have seen the development of strawberry plantations, based on the vertical hydroponic system.===Natural resources===Guinea has 25% or more of the world's known bauxite reserves.", "It has diamonds, gold, and other metals.", "Bauxite and alumina are the most major exports.", "Other industries include processing plants for beer, juices, soft drinks and tobacco.", "Agriculture employs 75% of the nation's labour force.", "Under French rule, and at the beginning of independence, Guinea was an exporter of bananas, pineapples, coffee, peanuts, and palm oil.", "Soil, water, and climatic conditions provide opportunities for irrigated farming and agro industry.===Mining===A proportional representation of Guinea exports, 2019Guinea possesses over 25 billion tonnes (metric tons) of bauxite – and perhaps up to one half of the world's reserves.", "Its mineral wealth includes more than 4-billion tonnes of high-grade iron ore, and diamond and gold deposits, and uranium.", "Possibilities for investment and commercial activities exist in all these areas, and Guinea's \"poorly developed infrastructure and rampant corruption continue to present obstacles to large-scale investment projects\".Joint venture bauxite mining and alumina operations in north-west Guinea historically provide about 80% of Guinea's Foreign exchange reserves.", "Bauxite is refined into alumina, which is later smelted into aluminium.", "The ''Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinée'' (CBG) exports about 14 million tonnes of high-grade bauxite annually.", "CBG is a joint venture, 49% owned by the Guinean government and 51% by an international consortium known as Halco Mining Inc., itself a joint venture controlled by aluminium producer Alcoa (AA), global miner Rio Tinto Group and Dadco Investments.", "CBG has exclusive rights to bauxite reserves and resources in north-western Guinea, through 2038.In 2008, protesters upset about poor electrical services blocked the tracks CBG uses.", "Guinea includes a proviso in its agreements with international oil companies, requiring its partners to generate power for nearby communities.Children engaged in manual labour in order to support their families.The ''Compagnie des Bauxites de Kindia'' (CBK), a joint venture between the government of Guinea and RUSAL, produces some 2.5 million tonnes annually, nearly all of which is exported to Russia and Eastern Europe.", "Dian Dian, a Guinean/Ukrainian joint bauxite venture, has a projected production rate of per year, and is not expected to begin operation for several years.", "The ''Alumina Compagnie de Guinée'' (ACG) which took over the former Friguia Consortium produced about 2.4 million tonnes in 2004, as raw material for its alumina refinery.", "The refinery exports about 750,000 tonnes of alumina.", "Both Global Alumina and Alcoa-Alcan have signed conventions with the government of Guinea to build large alumina refineries, with a combined capacity of about 4 million tonnes per year.The Simandou mine is an iron ore reserve.", "In March 2010, Anglo-Australian corporation Rio Tinto Group and its biggest shareholder, Aluminum Corporation of China Limited (Chinalco), signed a preliminary agreement to develop Rio Tinto's iron ore project.", "In 2017, the Serious Fraud Office (SFO), Britain's anti-fraud regulator, launched an official investigation into Rio Tinto's business and mining practices in Guinea.Tigui Camara, a former model, is the first woman in Guinea to own a mining company which is partially run as a social enterprise.===Oil===In 2006, Guinea signed a production sharing agreement with Hyperdynamics Corporation of Houston to explore an offshore tract, and was then in partnership with Dana Petroleum PLC (Aberdeen, United Kingdom).", "The initial well, the Sabu-1, was scheduled to begin drilling in October 2011, at a site in approximately 700 metres of water.", "The Sabu-1 targeted a 4-way anticline prospect with upper Cretaceous sands, and was anticipated to be drilled to a total depth of 3,600 meters.Following the completion of exploratory drilling in 2012, the Sabu-1 well was not deemed commercially viable.", "In November 2012, Hyperdynamics subsidiary SCS reached an agreement for a sale of 40% of the concession to Tullow Oil, bringing ownership shares in the Guinea offshore tract to 37% Hyperdynamics, 40% Tullow Oil, and 23% Dana Petroleum.", "Hyperdynamics will have until September 2016, under the current agreement, to begin drilling its next selected site, the Fatala Cenomanian turbidite fan prospect.===Tourism===The \"Voile de la Mariée\" (Bride's Veil) waterfall in KindiaAmong the attractions in Guinea are the waterfalls found mostly in the Basse Guinee (Lower Guinea) and Moyenne Guinee (Middle Guinea) regions.", "The Soumba cascade at the foot of Mount Kakoulima in Kindia, Voile de la Mariée (Bride's Veil) in Dubreka, the Kinkon cascades that are about high on the Kokoula River in the prefecture of Pita, the Kambadaga falls that can reach during the rainy season on the same river, the Ditinn & Mitty waterfalls in Dalaba, and the Fetoré waterfalls and the stone bridge in the region of Labe are among water-related tourist sites." ], [ "Sciences and technology", "Guinea was ranked 128th out of 132 in the Global Innovation Index in 2023." ], [ "Transport", "Ahmed Sékou Touré International Airport is the largest airport in the country, with flights to other cities in Africa and to Europe.Built between 1904 and 1910, a railway once linked Conakry to Kankan via Kouroussa ceased operating in 1995 and had been dismantled altogether by 2007 with rails mostly stolen and/or sold for scrap.", "Plans had at one time been mooted for the passenger line to be rehabilitated as part of an iron-ore development master plan and while the start of work was announced in 2010, corruption charges led the whole master plan to be paused and the line was rebuilt as a 105 km mineral railway, paralleling the older route as far as the mines of Kalia.", "There is a state run mineral railway linking the bauxite mines of Sangarédi to the port of Kamsar (137 km) and a 1960s narrow-gauge line operated by Russian aluminium producer RusAl to the mines at Fria (143 km).As part of the plans to restart iron ore mining at Simandou blocks 1 and 2, the new development consortium pledged in 2019 to fund the construction of a new heavy-duty standard gauge railway to Matakong on the Atlantic coast where they would invest some US$20 billion in developing a deepwater port.", "The 650 km route is longer than an alternative heading south to the port of Buchanan, Liberia, which was considered as an alternative in an October 2019 feasibility study.", "However, the Matakong route would be entirely within Guinea and tied to an agricultural development corridor for citizens along the route.Some vehicles in Guinea are more than 20 years old, and cabs are any 4-door vehicle which the owner has designated as being for hire.", "Locals, nearly entirely without vehicles of their own, rely upon these taxis (which charge per seat) and small buses to take them around town and across the country.", "They also rely on motorcycles, of which some operate as a taxi service.", "Horses and donkeys pull carts, primarily to transport construction materials." ], [ "Demography", "Population in GuineaYearMillion1950 3.02000 8.8 In 2021, the population of Guinea was estimated to be million.", "Conakry, the capital and most populous city, is a hub of economy, commerce, education, and culture.", "In 2014, the total fertility rate (TFR) of Guinea was estimated at 4.93 children born per woman.The official language of Guinea is French.", "Pular was spoken by 33.9% of the population in 2018 as its native language, followed by Mandingo, with 29.4%.", "The third most spoken native language is the Susu, spoken by 21.2% of the population in 2018 as their first language.", "Other languages spoken in Guinea as Guineans native language totalled 16% of the population in 2018, including Kissi and Kpelle.The population of Guinea comprises about 24 ethnic groups.", "The Mandinka, also known as Mandingo or Malinké, comprise 29.4% of the population and are mostly found in eastern Guinea concentrated around the Kankan and Kissidougou prefectures.", "The Fulas or Fulani, comprise 33.4% of the population and are mostly found in the Futa Djallon region.", "The Soussou, comprising 21.2% of the population, are predominantly in western areas around the capital Conakry, Forécariah, and Kindia.", "Smaller ethnic groups make up the remaining 16% of the population, including Kpelle, Kissi, Zialo, Toma and others.", "In 2017 approximately 10,000 non-Africans lived in Guinea, predominantly Lebanese, French, and other Europeans.===Religion===In 2023, the Association of Religion Date Archives (ARDA) noted that the population was made up of Muslims at 86.8%, Christian 3.52%, and Animist 9.42%.", "In the past Muslims and Christians have incorporated indigenous African beliefs into their outlook.The majority of Guinean Muslims are adherent to Sunni Islam, of the Maliki school of jurisprudence, influenced by Sufism.", "Christian groups include Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, and Evangelical groups.", "Jehovah's Witnesses are active in the country and recognized by the Government.", "There is a Baháʼí Faith community.", "There are numbers of Hindus, Buddhists, and traditional Chinese religious groups among the expatriate community.There were 3 days of ethno-religious fighting in the city of Nzerekore in July 2013.Fighting between ethnic Kpelle who are Christian or animist, and ethnic Konianke who are Muslims and close to the larger Malinke ethnic group, left at least 54 dead.", "The dead included people who were killed with machetes and burned alive.", "The violence ended after the Guinea military imposed a curfew, and President Conde made a televised appeal for calm.In 2021, violence was limited to Kendoumaya, Lower Guinea, and mainly concerned a land rights dispute between locals and a monastery.===Education===Schoolgirls in thumbIn 2010 it was estimated that 41% of adults were literate (52% of males and 30% of females).Primary education is compulsory for 6 years.", "In 1999, primary school attendance was 40% and children, particularly girls, were kept out of school to assist their parents with domestic work or agriculture, or to be married.", "In 2015 Guinea had \"one of the highest rates\" of child marriage in the world, although in 2023 they are no longer in the top 5.===Health=======Ebola====In 2014, an outbreak of the Ebola virus occurred in Guinea.", "In response, the health ministry banned the sale and consumption of bats, thought to be carriers of the disease.", "The virus eventually spread from rural areas to Conakry, and by June 2014 had spread to neighbouring countries - Sierra Leone and Liberia.", "In August 2014 Guinea closed its borders to Sierra Leone and Liberia to help contain the spread of the virus, as more new cases of the disease were being reported in those countries than in Guinea.The outbreak began in December in a village called Meliandou, southeastern Guinea, near the borders with Liberia and Sierra Leone.", "The first known case involved a 2-year-old child who died, after fever and vomiting and passing black stool, on 6 December.", "The child's mother died a week later, then a sister and a grandmother, all with symptoms that included fever, vomiting, and diarrhoea.", "Then, by way of care-giving visits or attendance at funerals, the outbreak spread to other villages.", "\"Unsafe burials\" is a source of the transmission of the disease.", "The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that the inability to engage with local communities hindered the ability of health workers to trace the origins and strains of the virus.While WHO terminated the Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) on 29 March 2016, the Ebola Situation Report released on 30 March confirmed 5 more cases in the preceding 2 weeks, with viral sequencing relating 1 of the cases to the November 2014 outbreak.The Ebola epidemic affected the treatment of other diseases in Guinea.", "Healthcare visits by the population declined due to fear of infection and to mistrust in the health-care system, and the system's ability to provide routine health-care and HIV/AIDS treatments decreased due to the Ebola outbreak.Ebola re-emerged in Guinea in January–February 2021.====Maternal and child healthcare====The 2021 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Guinea is 576.This is compared with 680 in 2010, 859.9 in 2008 and 964.7 in 1990.The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 146 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5's mortality is 29.In Guinea the number of midwives per 1,000 live births is 1 and the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women is 1 in 26.Guinea has the second highest prevalence of female genital mutilation in the world.====HIV/AIDS====An estimated 170,000 adults and children were infected at the end of 2004.Surveillance surveys conducted in 2001 and 2002 show higher rates of HIV in urban areas than in rural areas.", "Prevalence was highest in Conakry (5%) and in the cities of the Forest Guinea region (7%) bordering Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, and Sierra Leone.HIV is spread primarily through multiple-partner intercourse.", "Men and women are at nearly equal risk for HIV, with people aged 15 to 24 most vulnerable.", "Surveillance figures from 2001 to 2002 show the rates among commercial sex workers (42%), active military personnel (6.6%), truck drivers and bush taxi drivers (7.3%), miners (4.7%), and adults with tuberculosis (8.6%).Several factors were attributed to what fuel the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Guinea.", "They include unprotected sex, multiple sexual partners, illiteracy, endemic poverty, unstable borders, refugee migration, lack of civic responsibility, and scarce medical care and public services.====Malnutrition====A 2012 study reported malnutrition rates with levels ranging from 34% to 40% by region, and acute malnutrition rates above 10% in Upper Guinea's mining zones.", "The survey showed that 139,200 children underwent acute malnutrition, 609,696 underwent chronic malnutrition and further 1,592,892 have anemia.", "Degradation of care practices, limited access to medical services, inadequate hygiene practices and a lack of food diversity were said to explain these levels.====Malaria====Malaria is transmitted year-round, with peak transmission from July through October.", "It is a cause of disability in Guinea.====COVID-19 pandemic====The first case of COVID-19 was reported in Guinea on 13 March 2020.By the end of 2020 the total number of confirmed cases was 13,722.Of these, 13,141 had recovered, 500 were active, and 81 people had died." ], [ "Culture", "A market stall selling vegetables in Dinguiraye Prefecture, Guinea=== Sports ===Football is the \"most popular sport\" in the country of Guinea, alongside basketball.Football operations are run by the Guinean Football Federation.", "The association administers the national football team, and the national league.", "It was founded in 1960 and affiliated with FIFA since 1962 and with the Confederation of African Football since 1963.The Guinea national football team, nicknamed ''Syli nationale'' (National Elephants), have played international football since 1962.Their first opponent was East Germany.", "They have yet to reach World Cup finals, and were runners-up to Morocco in the Africa Cup of Nations in 1976.Guinée Championnat National is the top division of Guinean football.", "Since it was established in 1965, 3 teams have dominated in winning the Guinée Coupe Nationale.", "Horoya AC has at least 16 titles and is the 2017–2018 champion.", "Hafia FC (known as Conakry II in 1960s) has at least 15 titles, having dominated in 1960s and 70s.", "AS Kaloum Star (known as Conakry I in the 1960s) has at least 13 titles.", "All 3 teams are based in the capital, Conakry.Hafia FC won the African Cup of Champions Clubs 3 times, in 1972, 1975 and 1977, while Horoya AC won the 1978 African Cup Winners' Cup.=== Polygamy ===Polygamy is generally prohibited by law in Guinea, and there are exceptions.", "In 2020, it was estimated that about 26% of marriages were polygamous (29% Muslim and 10% Christian).=== Cuisine ===Guinean cuisine varies by region with rice as a staple.", "Cassava is consumed.", "Part of West African cuisine, the foods of Guinea include yétissé, peanut sauce , okra sauce and tapalapa bread.", "In rural areas, food is eaten from a \"large serving dish\" and eaten by hand outside of homes.=== Music ====== Visual art ===" ], [ "See also", "* Outline of Guinea* Index of Guinea-related articles" ], [ "References", "===Notes===" ], [ "External links", "* * Guinea.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Guinea from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''* * Guinea profile from the BBC News* * * Guinea 2008 Summary Trade Statistics" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Guinea" ], [ "Introduction", "The modern state of Guinea did not come into existence until 1958, but the history of the area stretches back well before European colonization.", "Its current boundaries were determined during the colonial period by the Berlin Conference (1884–1885) and the French, who ruled Guinea until 1958." ], [ "West African empires", "What is now Guinea was on the fringes of the major West African empires.", "The Ghana Empire is believed to be the earliest of these which grew on trade but contracted and ultimately fell due to the hostile influence of the Almoravids.", "It was in this period that Islam first arrived in the region.The Sosso kingdom (12th to 13th centuries) briefly flourished in the void but the Islamic Mandinka Mali Empire came to prominence when Soundiata Kéïta defeated the Sosso ruler, Sumanguru Kanté at the semi-historical Battle of Kirina in .", "The Mali Empire was ruled by Mansa (Emperors), the most famous being Kankou Moussa, who made a famous hajj to Mecca in 1324.Shortly after his reign the Mali Empire began to decline and was ultimately supplanted by its vassal states in the 15th century.The most successful of these was the Songhai Empire, expanding its power from about 1460, and eventually surpassing the Mali Empire in both territory and wealth.", "It continued to prosper until a civil war over succession followed the death of Askia Daoud in 1582.The weakened empire fell to invaders from Morocco at the Battle of Tondibi just 3 years later.", "The Moroccans proved unable to rule the kingdom effectively, however, and it split into many small kingdoms.Starting in the 13th century, the Arab slave trade flourished in the region and the Gulf of Guinea.", "The slave trade was greatly expanded in the 15th century when Portugal established a number of trading posts in Guinea, purchasing exporting, and kidnapping captives as part of the Atlantic slave trade.", "Other European nations would eventually participate in the trade, which persisted into the mid 19th century." ], [ "Kingdoms in Guinea", "After the fall of the major West African empires, various kingdoms existed in what is modern day Guinea.===Futa Jallon===Fulani Muslims migrated to Futa Jallon in Central Guinea and established an Islamic state from 1735 to 1898 with a written constitution and alternate rulers.===Wassoulou Empire===The Wassoulou empire was a short-lived (1878–1898) empire, led by Samory Touré in the predominantly Malinké area of what is now upper Guinea and southwestern Mali (Wassoulou).", "It moved to Ivory Coast before being conquered by the French." ], [ "Colonial era", "Map of French West Africa circa 1913Guinea's colonial period began with French military penetration into the area in the early to mid-19th century, as France replaced Portugal as the dominant European power in the region.", "The French exerted control by building forts and occupying coastal towns, then gradually expanding inland.", "The French Empire first administrated the territory as part of its Senegalese colony, later establishing the colony of Rivières du Sud in 1882 and finally the colony of French Guinea in 1891.French domination was assured by the defeat in 1898 of the armies of Samori Touré, the Mansa (or Emperor) of the Ouassoulou state and leader of Malinké descent, whose defeat gave France control of what today is Guinea and adjacent areas.France negotiated Guinea's present boundaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with other nations, namely the British colony of Sierra Leone, Portuguese colonial Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau), and the United States-backed Liberia." ], [ "Independence (1958)", "In 1958 the French Fourth Republic collapsed due to political instability and its failures in dealing with its colonies, especially Indochina and Algeria.", "The founding of a Fifth Republic was supported by the French people, while French President Charles de Gaulle made it clear on 8 August 1958 that France's colonies were to be given a stark choice between more autonomy in a new French Community and immediate independence in the referendum to be held on 28 September 1958.The other French colonies chose the former but Guinea — under the leadership of Ahmed Sékou Touré whose Democratic Party of Guinea (PDG) had won 56 of 60 seats in 1957 territorial elections — voted overwhelmingly for independence.", "The French withdrew quickly, destroying infrastructure and equipment along the way, and on October 2, 1958, Guinea proclaimed itself a sovereign and independent republic, with Sékou Touré as president.===Sékou Touré's rule (1958–1984)===French President Charles de Gaulle warned U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower not to embrace Guinea or France would leave NATO's integrated military structure and tell United States troops to leave France.", "As a result the United States did not engage with the Touré government, in response Guinea quickly turned to the Soviet Union—making it the Kremlin's first success story in Africa.", "Following France's withdrawal, Guinea quickly aligned itself with the Soviet Union and adopted socialist policies.", "This alliance was short lived, however, as Guinea moved towards a Chinese model of socialism.", "Nevertheless, President John F. Kennedy and his Peace Corps director Sargent Shriver tried even harder than the Kremlin's Nikita Khrushchev.", "By 1963 Guinea had shifted away from Moscow into a closer friendship with Washington.", "Guinea relied more and more on aid and investment from the U.S.", "Even the relationship with France improved, after the election of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing as president, trade increased and the two countries exchanged diplomatic visits.By 1960, Touré had declared the PDG the only legal party.", "For the next 24 years, the government and the PDG were one.", "Touré was reelected unopposed to four seven-year terms as president, and every five years voters were presented with a single list of PDG candidates for the National Assembly.", "Advocating a hybrid African Socialism domestically and Pan-Africanism abroad, Touré quickly became a polarising leader, and his government became intolerant of dissent, imprisoning hundreds, and stifling free press.At the same time, the Guinean government nationalised land, removed French appointed and traditional chiefs from power, and broke ties with French government and companies.", "Vacillating between support for the Soviet Union and (by the late 1970s) the United States, Guinea's economic situation became as unpredictable as its diplomatic line.", "Alleging plots and conspiracies against him at home and abroad, Touré's regime targeted real and imagined opponents, driving thousands of political opponents into exile.In 1970, Portuguese forces, from neighboring Portuguese Guinea, staged Operation Green Sea, a raid into Guinea with the support of exiled Guinean opposition forces.", "Among other goals, the Portuguese military wanted to kill or capture Sekou Toure due his support of the PAIGC, a guerilla movement operating inside Portuguese Guinea.", "After several days of fierce fighting, the Portuguese forces retreated without achieving most of their goals.", "The regime of Sékou Touré increased the number of internal arrests and executions.The Guinean Market Women's Revolt in 1977 resulted in the regime's softening of economic restrictions and began a turn away from the radical socialism previously practiced by the government.Sékou Touré died on March 26, 1984, after a heart operation in the United States, and was replaced by Prime Minister Louis Lansana Beavogui, who was to serve as interim president pending new elections.===Lansana Conté's rule (1984–2008)===The PDG was due to elect a new leader on April 3, 1984.Under the constitution, that person would have been the only candidate for president.", "However, hours before that meeting, Colonels Lansana Conté and Diarra Traoré seized power in a bloodless coup.", "Conté assumed the role of president, with Traoré serving as prime minister until December.", "Conté immediately denounced the previous regime's record on human rights, released 250 political prisoners and encouraged approximately 200,000 more to return from exile.", "He also made explicit the turn away from socialism, but this did little to alleviate poverty and the country showed no immediate signs of moving towards democracy.In 1992, Conté announced a return to civilian rule, with a presidential poll in 1993 followed by elections to parliament in 1995 (in which his party – the Party of Unity and Progress – won 71 of 114 seats.)", "Despite his stated commitment to democracy, Conté's grip on power remained tight.", "In September 2001 the opposition leader Alpha Condé was imprisoned for endangering state security, though he was pardoned 8 months later.", "He subsequently spent a period of exile in France.In 2001 Conté organized and won a referendum to lengthen the presidential term and in 2003 begun his third term after elections were boycotted by the opposition.", "In January 2005, Conté survived a suspected assassination attempt while making a rare public appearance in the capital Conakry.", "His opponents claimed that he was a \"tired dictator\" whose departure was inevitable, whereas his supporters believed that he was winning a battle with dissidents.", "Guinea still faces very real problems and according to ''Foreign Policy'' is in danger of becoming a failed state.In 2000 Guinea became embroiled in the instability which had long blighted the rest of West Africa as rebels crossed the borders with Liberia and Sierra Leone and it seemed for a time that the country was headed for civil war.", "Conté blamed neighbouring leaders for coveting Guinea's natural resources, though these claims were strenuously denied.", "In 2003 Guinea agreed plans with her neighbours to tackle the insurgents.", "In 2007 there were big protests against the government, resulting in the appointment of a new prime minister.===Conté's death and the 2008 coup d'état===In a coup d'état several days following Touré's death, Lansana Conté became the President.", "The constitution and parliament were suspended and a committee for national recovery was established.", "Conté remained in power until his death on 22 December 2008.In several hours following his death, Moussa Dadis Camara seized control of Guinea as the head of a junta.", "On 28 September 2009, the junta ordered its soldiers to attack people who had gathered to protest Camara's presumed candidacy in the upcoming presidential elections.", "The soldiers went on a rampage of rape, mutilation, and murder.On 3 December 2009, an aide shot Camara during a dispute about the rampage of September 2009.Camara went to Morocco for medical care.", "Vice-President (and defense minister) Sékouba Konaté flew back from Lebanon to run the country in Camara's absence.On 12 January 2010 Camara was flown from Morocco to Burkina Faso.", "After meeting in Ouagadougou on 13 and 14 January, Camara, Konaté and Blaise Compaoré, President of Burkina Faso, produced a formal statement of twelve principles promising a return of Guinea to civilian rule within six months.", "It was agreed that the military would not contest the forthcoming elections, and Camara would continue his convalescence outside Guinea.", "On 21 January 2010 the military junta appointed Jean-Marie Doré as Prime Minister of a six-month transition government, leading up to elections.The presidential election was set to take place on 27 June and 18 July 2010, it was held as being the first free and fair election since independence in 1958.The first round took place normally on 27 June 2010 with ex Prime Minister Cellou Dalein Diallo and his rival Alpha Condé emerging as the two runners-up for the second round.However, due to allegations of electoral fraud, the second round of the election was postponed until 19 September 2010.A delay until 10 October was announced by the electoral commission (CENI), subject to approval by Sékouba Konaté.", "Yet another delay until 24 October was announced in early October.", "Elections were finally held on 7 November.", "Voter turnout was high, and the elections went relatively smoothly.16 November 2010, Alpha Condé, the leader of the opposition party Rally of the Guinean People (RGP), was officially declared the winner of a 7 November run-off in Guinea's presidential election.", "He had promised to reform the security sector and review mining contracts if elected.On the night of 18 July 2011, President Condé's residence was attacked in an attempted coup.", "The attack included a fierce firefight and rocket propelled grenades.", "The president was unharmed.", "Sixteen people have been charged with the attempted assassination.", "Most of those indicted are close associates of Konaté.The National Assembly of Guinea, the country's legislative body, has not met since 2008 when it was dissolved after the military coup in December.", "Elections have been postponed many times since 2007 and, most recently, were scheduled for 8 July 2012.In April 2012, President Condé postponed the elections indefinitely, citing the need to ensure that they were \"transparent and democratic\".In February 2013, a plane carrying the head of the Guinean armed forces, General Kelefa Diallo, and nine other military officials, crashed on its way to the Liberian capital, Monrovia.====2013 protests====The opposition coalition withdrew from the electoral process in mid-February, mainly due to President Conde's insistence on using a suspicious South African firm Waymark Infotech to draw up the registered voter list.", "In late February 2013, political violence erupted in Guinea after protesters took to the streets to voice their concerns over the transparency of the upcoming May 2013 elections.", "The demonstrations were fueled by the opposition coalition's decision to step down from the electoral process in protest at the lack of transparency in the preparations for elections.Nine people were killed during the protests, while around 220 were injured, and many of the deaths and injuries were caused by security forces using live fire on protesters.", "The political violence also led to inter-ethnic clashes between the Fula and Malinke peoples, the latter forming the base of support for President Condé, with the former consisting mainly of the opposition.On 26 March 2013 the opposition party backed out of the negotiation with the government over the upcoming 12 May election.", "The opposition claimed that the government has not respected them, and have not kept any promises they agreed to.", "This is expected to lead to more protests and fighting in the streets of Guinea.===2014 Ebola outbreak===Beginning in July 2014, Guinea suffered the most severe recorded outbreak of Ebola in history, which rapidly spread to neighbouring countries Liberia and Sierra Leone.", "The epidemic was over by June 2016.=== 2020 elections ===In October 2020, president Alpha Condé won presidential elections.", "Condé had been in power since 2010 and he won the third term.", "Opposition did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud.", "The president said a constitutional referendum in March 2020 allowed him to run despite a two-term limit.", "After the election there were violent protests across the country.=== Coup d'état 2021 ===On September 5, 2021, Alpha Condé was deposed by the military.", "National Committee of Reconciliation and Development headed by Mamady Doumbouya took power.", "On 1 October 2021, Colonel Mamady Doumbouya, who led the previous month's coup, was sworn in as interim president of Guinea." ], [ "See also", "* List of heads of government of Guinea* List of heads of state of Guinea* Politics of Guinea* Conakry history and timeline'''General:'''* History of West Africa" ], [ "Further reading", "* Chafer, Tony.", "''The End of Empire in French West Africa: France's Successful Decolonization''.", "Berg (2002).", "* Davidson, Basil.", "\"Guinea, Past And Present\" ''History Today'' (June 1959) 9#6 pp 392–398.Covers 1800 to 1959.", "* O'Toole, Thomas and Bah-Lalya, Ibrahima.", "''Historical Dictionary of Guinea'' (3rd ed.", "Scarecrow Press.", "1995).", "online" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Elizabeth Blunt.", "Civil war fears in Guinea.", "''BBC News''.", "October 23, 2000.", "* Guinea head blames neighbours.", "''BBC News''.", "January 6, 2001.", "* Stopping Guinea’s slide.", "International Crisis Group, Africa Report No.", "94.June 14, 2005.", "* Adama Sow: Chancen und Risiken von NGOs – Die Gewerkschaften in Guinea während der Unruhen 2007 – EPU Research Papers: Issue 03/07, Stadtschlaining 2007 * André R. Lewin.", "Sékou Touré’s “No”.", "''African Geopolitics.''", "2005.", "* Bad government, bad neighbour.", "''The Economist''.", "July 21, 2005.", "* Background Note: Guinea*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Guinea" ], [ "Introduction", "Guinea's cities and administrative divisions.Location of GuineaGuinea is a country on the coast of West Africa and is bordered by Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, Mali, Ivory Coast, Liberia, and Sierra Leone.Guinea is divided into four geographic regions: Maritime Guinea (Lower Guinea) a coastal plain running north to south behind the coast; the pastoral Fouta Djallon highlands (Middle Guinea); the northern savanna (Upper Guinea); and a southeastern rain-forest region (Forest Guinea)." ], [ "Location", "Guinea is in western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone.", "Its geographic coordinates are .", "Guinea's total area is 245,857 km2, comprising 245,717 km2 of land and 140 km2 of water.Guinea's land boundaries span a total of 4,046 km: with Ivory Coast 816 km, Guinea-Bissau 421 km, Liberia 590 km, Mali 1,062 km, Senegal 363 km, and Sierra Leone 794 km.", "It has a 320-km coastline, and claims an exclusive economic zone of , with a territorial sea of ." ], [ "Climate", "The coastal region of Guinea and most of the inland have a tropical climate, with a monsoonal-type rainy season lasting from April to November, relatively high and uniform temperatures, southwesterly winds, and high humidity.The capital Conakry's year-round average high is , and the low is .", "Conakry's average annual rainfall is almost .", "Sahelian Upper Guinea has a shorter rainy season and greater daily temperature variations.", "There is a dry season (December to May) with northeasterly harmattan winds." ], [ "Rivers and water", "Guinea's topography.The Niger River, the Gambia River, and the Senegal River are among the 22 West African rivers that have their origins in Guinea." ], [ "Ecoregions", "* Guinean forest-savanna mosaic covers most of the country, covering most of Maritime Guinea and Upper Guinea, as well as the lower elevations of the Fouta Djallon.", "It extends north into Guinea Bissau and Senegal, and east through Mali and Ivory Coast.", "* Western Guinean lowland forests occupies the southwestern portion of Maritime Guinea around Conakry, and Forest Guinea, along with coastal Sierra Leone, Liberia, and western Ivory Coast.", "* Guinean montane forests, cover the Fouta Djallon and Guinea Highlands of southeast Guinea above an elevation of 600 meters.", "* Guinean mangroves, in the coastal estuaries.", "Enclaves extend north into Guinea Bissau, Gambia and Senegal, and southeast through Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Ivory Coast." ], [ "Resources and environment", "The country's natural resources include bauxite, iron ore, diamonds, gold, uranium, hydropower, fish, and salt.", "It has 12.21% arable land, and 2.85% of the land is permanent crops.", "949.2 km2 (2003) of land is irrigated.", "Guinea's total renewable water resources total 226 km3.=== Environmental issues ===Current environmental issues in Guinea include: deforestation; inadequate supplies of potable water; desertification; soil contamination and erosion; and overfishing and overpopulation in forest regions.", "Poor mining practices have led to environmental damage.Guinea is party to the following international environmental agreements: Biodiversity, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling." ], [ "Terrain", "Its terrain is generally flat coastal plain, hilly to mountainous interior.", "The country's lowest point is the Atlantic Ocean (0 m), and highest is Mont Nimba (1,752 m).A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 549km² of tidal flats in Guinea, making it the 47th ranked country in terms of tidal flat area.This is a list of the extreme points of Guinea, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.", "* Northernmost point – the northern section of the border with Senegal, Boké Region.", " Easternmost point – the confluence of the Gben river and the Férédougouba river on the border with Ivory Coast, Nzérékoré Region.", "* Southernmost point – unnamed location on the border with Liberia immediately south of the village of Gonon, Nzérékoré Region.", "* Westernmost point – Ile du Noufrage, Boké Region.", "* Westernmost point (mainland) – the point at which the border with Guinea-Bissau enters the Rio Compony estuary.", "* ''Note: Guinea does not have a northernmost point, this section of the border being formed by a straight latitudinal line''" ], [ "See also", " Administrative divisions of Guinea" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia

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