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[ [ "Genetic engineering" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Genetic engineering''', also called '''genetic modification''' or '''genetic manipulation''', is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology.", "It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms.", "New DNA is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using recombinant DNA methods or by artificially synthesising the DNA.", "A construct is usually created and used to insert this DNA into the host organism.", "The first recombinant DNA molecule was made by Paul Berg in 1972 by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with the lambda virus.", "As well as inserting genes, the process can be used to remove, or \"knock out\", genes.", "The new DNA can be inserted randomly, or targeted to a specific part of the genome.An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be genetically modified (GM) and the resulting entity is a genetically modified organism (GMO).", "The first GMO was a bacterium generated by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen in 1973.Rudolf Jaenisch created the first GM animal when he inserted foreign DNA into a mouse in 1974.The first company to focus on genetic engineering, Genentech, was founded in 1976 and started the production of human proteins.", "Genetically engineered human insulin was produced in 1978 and insulin-producing bacteria were commercialised in 1982.Genetically modified food has been sold since 1994, with the release of the Flavr Savr tomato.", "The Flavr Savr was engineered to have a longer shelf life, but most current GM crops are modified to increase resistance to insects and herbicides.", "GloFish, the first GMO designed as a pet, was sold in the United States in December 2003.In 2016 salmon modified with a growth hormone were sold.Genetic engineering has been applied in numerous fields including research, medicine, industrial biotechnology and agriculture.", "In research, GMOs are used to study gene function and expression through loss of function, gain of function, tracking and expression experiments.", "By knocking out genes responsible for certain conditions it is possible to create animal model organisms of human diseases.", "As well as producing hormones, vaccines and other drugs, genetic engineering has the potential to cure genetic diseases through gene therapy.Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are used in industrial genetic engineering.", "Additionally mRNA vaccines are made through genetic engineering to treat viruses such as COVID-19.The same techniques that are used to produce drugs can also have industrial applications such as producing enzymes for laundry detergent, cheeses and other products.The rise of commercialised genetically modified crops has provided economic benefit to farmers in many different countries, but has also been the source of most of the controversy surrounding the technology.", "This has been present since its early use; the first field trials were destroyed by anti-GM activists.", "Although there is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, critics consider GM food safety a leading concern.", "Gene flow, impact on non-target organisms, control of the food supply and intellectual property rights have also been raised as potential issues.", "These concerns have led to the development of a regulatory framework, which started in 1975.It has led to an international treaty, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, that was adopted in 2000.Individual countries have developed their own regulatory systems regarding GMOs, with the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe." ], [ "Overview", "Comparison of conventional plant breeding with transgenic and cisgenic genetic modification|upright=1.7Genetic engineering is a process that alters the genetic structure of an organism by either removing or introducing DNA, or modifying existing genetic material in situ.", "Unlike traditional animal and plant breeding, which involves doing multiple crosses and then selecting for the organism with the desired phenotype, genetic engineering takes the gene directly from one organism and delivers it to the other.", "This is much faster, can be used to insert any genes from any organism (even ones from different domains) and prevents other undesirable genes from also being added.Genetic engineering could potentially fix severe genetic disorders in humans by replacing the defective gene with a functioning one.", "It is an important tool in research that allows the function of specific genes to be studied.", "Drugs, vaccines and other products have been harvested from organisms engineered to produce them.", "Crops have been developed that aid food security by increasing yield, nutritional value and tolerance to environmental stresses.The DNA can be introduced directly into the host organism or into a cell that is then fused or hybridised with the host.", "This relies on recombinant nucleic acid techniques to form new combinations of heritable genetic material followed by the incorporation of that material either indirectly through a vector system or directly through micro-injection, macro-injection or micro-encapsulation.", "Genetic engineering does not normally include traditional breeding, in vitro fertilisation, induction of polyploidy, mutagenesis and cell fusion techniques that do not use recombinant nucleic acids or a genetically modified organism in the process.", "However, some broad definitions of genetic engineering include selective breeding.", "Cloning and stem cell research, although not considered genetic engineering, are closely related and genetic engineering can be used within them.", "Synthetic biology is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesised material into an organism.Plants, animals or microorganisms that have been changed through genetic engineering are termed genetically modified organisms or GMOs.", "If genetic material from another species is added to the host, the resulting organism is called transgenic.", "If genetic material from the same species or a species that can naturally breed with the host is used the resulting organism is called cisgenic.", "If genetic engineering is used to remove genetic material from the target organism the resulting organism is termed a knockout organism.", "In Europe genetic modification is synonymous with genetic engineering while within the United States of America and Canada genetic modification can also be used to refer to more conventional breeding methods." ], [ "History", "Humans have altered the genomes of species for thousands of years through selective breeding, or artificial selection as contrasted with natural selection.", "More recently, mutation breeding has used exposure to chemicals or radiation to produce a high frequency of random mutations, for selective breeding purposes.", "Genetic engineering as the direct manipulation of DNA by humans outside breeding and mutations has only existed since the 1970s.", "The term \"genetic engineering\" was coined by the Russian-born geneticist Nikolay Timofeev-Ressovsky in his 1934 paper \"The Experimental Production of Mutations\", published in the British journal Biological Reviews.", "Jack Williamson used the term in his science fiction novel Dragon's Island, published in 1951 – one year before DNA's role in heredity was confirmed by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase, and two years before James Watson and Francis Crick showed that the DNA molecule has a double-helix structure – though the general concept of direct genetic manipulation was explored in rudimentary form in Stanley G. Weinbaum's 1936 science fiction story ''Proteus Island''.In 1974 Rudolf Jaenisch created a genetically modified mouse, the first GM animal.In 1972, Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecules by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with that of the lambda virus.", "In 1973 Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen created the first transgenic organism by inserting antibiotic resistance genes into the plasmid of an ''Escherichia coli'' bacterium.", "A year later Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world's first transgenic animal These achievements led to concerns in the scientific community about potential risks from genetic engineering, which were first discussed in depth at the Asilomar Conference in 1975.One of the main recommendations from this meeting was that government oversight of recombinant DNA research should be established until the technology was deemed safe.In 1976 Genentech, the first genetic engineering company, was founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson and a year later the company produced a human protein (somatostatin) in ''E.", "coli''.", "Genentech announced the production of genetically engineered human insulin in 1978.In 1980, the U.S. Supreme Court in the ''Diamond v. Chakrabarty'' case ruled that genetically altered life could be patented.", "The insulin produced by bacteria was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1982.In 1983, a biotech company, Advanced Genetic Sciences (AGS) applied for U.S. government authorisation to perform field tests with the ice-minus strain of ''Pseudomonas syringae'' to protect crops from frost, but environmental groups and protestors delayed the field tests for four years with legal challenges.", "In 1987, the ice-minus strain of ''P.", "syringae'' became the first genetically modified organism (GMO) to be released into the environment when a strawberry field and a potato field in California were sprayed with it.", "Both test fields were attacked by activist groups the night before the tests occurred: \"The world's first trial site attracted the world's first field trasher\".The first field trials of genetically engineered plants occurred in France and the US in 1986, tobacco plants were engineered to be resistant to herbicides.", "The People's Republic of China was the first country to commercialise transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992.In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially release the first genetically modified food, the Flavr Savr, a tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life.", "In 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil, making it the first genetically engineered crop commercialised in Europe.", "In 1995, Bt potato was approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency, after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the US.", "In 2009 11 transgenic crops were grown commercially in 25 countries, the largest of which by area grown were the US, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay and South Africa.In 2010, scientists at the J. Craig Venter Institute created the first synthetic genome and inserted it into an empty bacterial cell.", "The resulting bacterium, named Mycoplasma laboratorium, could replicate and produce proteins.", "Four years later this was taken a step further when a bacterium was developed that replicated a plasmid containing a unique base pair, creating the first organism engineered to use an expanded genetic alphabet.", "In 2012, Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier collaborated to develop the CRISPR/Cas9 system, a technique which can be used to easily and specifically alter the genome of almost any organism." ], [ "Process", "Polymerase chain reaction is a powerful tool used in molecular cloning.Creating a GMO is a multi-step process.", "Genetic engineers must first choose what gene they wish to insert into the organism.", "This is driven by what the aim is for the resultant organism and is built on earlier research.", "Genetic screens can be carried out to determine potential genes and further tests then used to identify the best candidates.", "The development of microarrays, transcriptomics and genome sequencing has made it much easier to find suitable genes.", "Luck also plays its part; the Roundup Ready gene was discovered after scientists noticed a bacterium thriving in the presence of the herbicide.=== Gene isolation and cloning ===The next step is to isolate the candidate gene.", "The cell containing the gene is opened and the DNA is purified.", "The gene is separated by using restriction enzymes to cut the DNA into fragments or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify up the gene segment.", "These segments can then be extracted through gel electrophoresis.", "If the chosen gene or the donor organism's genome has been well studied it may already be accessible from a genetic library.", "If the DNA sequence is known, but no copies of the gene are available, it can also be artificially synthesised.", "Once isolated the gene is ligated into a plasmid that is then inserted into a bacterium.", "The plasmid is replicated when the bacteria divide, ensuring unlimited copies of the gene are available.", "The RK2 plasmid is notable for its ability to replicate in a wide variety of single-celled organisms, which makes it suitable as a genetic engineering tool.Before the gene is inserted into the target organism it must be combined with other genetic elements.", "These include a promoter and terminator region, which initiate and end transcription.", "A selectable marker gene is added, which in most cases confers antibiotic resistance, so researchers can easily determine which cells have been successfully transformed.", "The gene can also be modified at this stage for better expression or effectiveness.", "These manipulations are carried out using recombinant DNA techniques, such as restriction digests, ligations and molecular cloning.===Inserting DNA into the host genome===A gene gun uses biolistics to insert DNA into plant tissue.There are a number of techniques used to insert genetic material into the host genome.", "Some bacteria can naturally take up foreign DNA.", "This ability can be induced in other bacteria via stress (e.g.", "thermal or electric shock), which increases the cell membrane's permeability to DNA; up-taken DNA can either integrate with the genome or exist as extrachromosomal DNA.", "DNA is generally inserted into animal cells using microinjection, where it can be injected through the cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus, or through the use of viral vectors.Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of ''Agrobacterium'' for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors.", "In plants the DNA is often inserted using ''Agrobacterium''-mediated transformation, taking advantage of the ''Agrobacterium''s T-DNA sequence that allows natural insertion of genetic material into plant cells.", "Other methods include biolistics, where particles of gold or tungsten are coated with DNA and then shot into young plant cells, and electroporation, which involves using an electric shock to make the cell membrane permeable to plasmid DNA.As only a single cell is transformed with genetic material, the organism must be regenerated from that single cell.", "In plants this is accomplished through the use of tissue culture.", "In animals it is necessary to ensure that the inserted DNA is present in the embryonic stem cells.", "Bacteria consist of a single cell and reproduce clonally so regeneration is not necessary.", "Selectable markers are used to easily differentiate transformed from untransformed cells.", "These markers are usually present in the transgenic organism, although a number of strategies have been developed that can remove the selectable marker from the mature transgenic plant.''A.", "tumefaciens'' attaching itself to a carrot cellFurther testing using PCR, Southern hybridization, and DNA sequencing is conducted to confirm that an organism contains the new gene.", "These tests can also confirm the chromosomal location and copy number of the inserted gene.", "The presence of the gene does not guarantee it will be expressed at appropriate levels in the target tissue so methods that look for and measure the gene products (RNA and protein) are also used.", "These include northern hybridisation, quantitative RT-PCR, Western blot, immunofluorescence, ELISA and phenotypic analysis.The new genetic material can be inserted randomly within the host genome or targeted to a specific location.", "The technique of gene targeting uses homologous recombination to make desired changes to a specific endogenous gene.", "This tends to occur at a relatively low frequency in plants and animals and generally requires the use of selectable markers.", "The frequency of gene targeting can be greatly enhanced through genome editing.", "Genome editing uses artificially engineered nucleases that create specific double-stranded breaks at desired locations in the genome, and use the cell's endogenous mechanisms to repair the induced break by the natural processes of homologous recombination and nonhomologous end-joining.", "There are four families of engineered nucleases: meganucleases, zinc finger nucleases, transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and the Cas9-guideRNA system (adapted from CRISPR).", "TALEN and CRISPR are the two most commonly used and each has its own advantages.", "TALENs have greater target specificity, while CRISPR is easier to design and more efficient.", "In addition to enhancing gene targeting, engineered nucleases can be used to introduce mutations at endogenous genes that generate a gene knockout." ], [ "Applications", "Genetic engineering has applications in medicine, research, industry and agriculture and can be used on a wide range of plants, animals and microorganisms.", "Bacteria, the first organisms to be genetically modified, can have plasmid DNA inserted containing new genes that code for medicines or enzymes that process food and other substrates.", "Plants have been modified for insect protection, herbicide resistance, virus resistance, enhanced nutrition, tolerance to environmental pressures and the production of edible vaccines.", "Most commercialised GMOs are insect resistant or herbicide tolerant crop plants.", "Genetically modified animals have been used for research, model animals and the production of agricultural or pharmaceutical products.", "The genetically modified animals include animals with genes knocked out, increased susceptibility to disease, hormones for extra growth and the ability to express proteins in their milk.=== Medicine ===Genetic engineering has many applications to medicine that include the manufacturing of drugs, creation of model animals that mimic human conditions and gene therapy.", "One of the earliest uses of genetic engineering was to mass-produce human insulin in bacteria.", "This application has now been applied to human growth hormones, follicle stimulating hormones (for treating infertility), human albumin, monoclonal antibodies, antihemophilic factors, vaccines and many other drugs.", "Mouse hybridomas, cells fused together to create monoclonal antibodies, have been adapted through genetic engineering to create human monoclonal antibodies.", "Genetically engineered viruses are being developed that can still confer immunity, but lack the infectious sequences.Genetic engineering is also used to create animal models of human diseases.", "Genetically modified mice are the most common genetically engineered animal model.", "They have been used to study and model cancer (the oncomouse), obesity, heart disease, diabetes, arthritis, substance abuse, anxiety, aging and Parkinson disease.", "Potential cures can be tested against these mouse models.", "Gene therapy is the genetic engineering of humans, generally by replacing defective genes with effective ones.", "Clinical research using somatic gene therapy has been conducted with several diseases, including X-linked SCID, chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), and Parkinson's disease.", "In 2012, Alipogene tiparvovec became the first gene therapy treatment to be approved for clinical use.", "In 2015 a virus was used to insert a healthy gene into the skin cells of a boy suffering from a rare skin disease, epidermolysis bullosa, in order to grow, and then graft healthy skin onto 80 percent of the boy's body which was affected by the illness.Germline gene therapy would result in any change being inheritable, which has raised concerns within the scientific community.", "In 2015, CRISPR was used to edit the DNA of non-viable human embryos, leading scientists of major world academies to call for a moratorium on inheritable human genome edits.", "There are also concerns that the technology could be used not just for treatment, but for enhancement, modification or alteration of a human beings' appearance, adaptability, intelligence, character or behavior.", "The distinction between cure and enhancement can also be difficult to establish.", "In November 2018, He Jiankui announced that he had edited the genomes of two human embryos, to attempt to disable the ''CCR5'' gene, which codes for a receptor that HIV uses to enter cells.", "The work was widely condemned as unethical, dangerous, and premature.", "Currently, germline modification is banned in 40 countries.", "Scientists that do this type of research will often let embryos grow for a few days without allowing it to develop into a baby.Researchers are altering the genome of pigs to induce the growth of human organs, with the aim of increasing the success of pig to human organ transplantation.", "Scientists are creating \"gene drives\", changing the genomes of mosquitoes to make them immune to malaria, and then looking to spread the genetically altered mosquitoes throughout the mosquito population in the hopes of eliminating the disease.=== Research ===Knockout miceHuman cells in which some proteins are fused with green fluorescent protein to allow them to be visualisedGenetic engineering is an important tool for natural scientists, with the creation of transgenic organisms one of the most important tools for analysis of gene function.", "Genes and other genetic information from a wide range of organisms can be inserted into bacteria for storage and modification, creating genetically modified bacteria in the process.", "Bacteria are cheap, easy to grow, clonal, multiply quickly, relatively easy to transform and can be stored at -80 °C almost indefinitely.", "Once a gene is isolated it can be stored inside the bacteria providing an unlimited supply for research.Organisms are genetically engineered to discover the functions of certain genes.", "This could be the effect on the phenotype of the organism, where the gene is expressed or what other genes it interacts with.", "These experiments generally involve loss of function, gain of function, tracking and expression.", "* '''Loss of function experiments''', such as in a gene knockout experiment, in which an organism is engineered to lack the activity of one or more genes.", "In a simple knockout a copy of the desired gene has been altered to make it non-functional.", "Embryonic stem cells incorporate the altered gene, which replaces the already present functional copy.", "These stem cells are injected into blastocysts, which are implanted into surrogate mothers.", "This allows the experimenter to analyse the defects caused by this mutation and thereby determine the role of particular genes.", "It is used especially frequently in developmental biology.", "When this is done by creating a library of genes with point mutations at every position in the area of interest, or even every position in the whole gene, this is called \"scanning mutagenesis\".", "The simplest method, and the first to be used, is \"alanine scanning\", where every position in turn is mutated to the unreactive amino acid alanine.", "* '''Gain of function experiments''', the logical counterpart of knockouts.", "These are sometimes performed in conjunction with knockout experiments to more finely establish the function of the desired gene.", "The process is much the same as that in knockout engineering, except that the construct is designed to increase the function of the gene, usually by providing extra copies of the gene or inducing synthesis of the protein more frequently.", "Gain of function is used to tell whether or not a protein is sufficient for a function, but does not always mean it is required, especially when dealing with genetic or functional redundancy.", "* '''Tracking experiments''', which seek to gain information about the localisation and interaction of the desired protein.", "One way to do this is to replace the wild-type gene with a 'fusion' gene, which is a juxtaposition of the wild-type gene with a reporting element such as green fluorescent protein (GFP) that will allow easy visualisation of the products of the genetic modification.", "While this is a useful technique, the manipulation can destroy the function of the gene, creating secondary effects and possibly calling into question the results of the experiment.", "More sophisticated techniques are now in development that can track protein products without mitigating their function, such as the addition of small sequences that will serve as binding motifs to monoclonal antibodies.", "* '''Expression studies''' aim to discover where and when specific proteins are produced.", "In these experiments, the DNA sequence before the DNA that codes for a protein, known as a gene's promoter, is reintroduced into an organism with the protein coding region replaced by a reporter gene such as GFP or an enzyme that catalyses the production of a dye.", "Thus the time and place where a particular protein is produced can be observed.", "Expression studies can be taken a step further by altering the promoter to find which pieces are crucial for the proper expression of the gene and are actually bound by transcription factor proteins; this process is known as promoter bashing.=== Industrial ===Products of genetic engineeringOrganisms can have their cells transformed with a gene coding for a useful protein, such as an enzyme, so that they will overexpress the desired protein.", "Mass quantities of the protein can then be manufactured by growing the transformed organism in bioreactor equipment using industrial fermentation, and then purifying the protein.", "Some genes do not work well in bacteria, so yeast, insect cells or mammalian cells can also be used.", "These techniques are used to produce medicines such as insulin, human growth hormone, and vaccines, supplements such as tryptophan, aid in the production of food (chymosin in cheese making) and fuels.", "Other applications with genetically engineered bacteria could involve making them perform tasks outside their natural cycle, such as making biofuels, cleaning up oil spills, carbon and other toxic waste and detecting arsenic in drinking water.", "Certain genetically modified microbes can also be used in biomining and bioremediation, due to their ability to extract heavy metals from their environment and incorporate them into compounds that are more easily recoverable.In materials science, a genetically modified virus has been used in a research laboratory as a scaffold for assembling a more environmentally friendly lithium-ion battery.", "Bacteria have also been engineered to function as sensors by expressing a fluorescent protein under certain environmental conditions.===Agriculture===Bt-toxins present in peanut leaves (bottom image) protect it from extensive damage caused by lesser cornstalk borer larvae (top image).One of the best-known and controversial applications of genetic engineering is the creation and use of genetically modified crops or genetically modified livestock to produce genetically modified food.", "Crops have been developed to increase production, increase tolerance to abiotic stresses, alter the composition of the food, or to produce novel products.The first crops to be released commercially on a large scale provided protection from insect pests or tolerance to herbicides.", "Fungal and virus resistant crops have also been developed or are in development.", "This makes the insect and weed management of crops easier and can indirectly increase crop yield.", "GM crops that directly improve yield by accelerating growth or making the plant more hardy (by improving salt, cold or drought tolerance) are also under development.", "In 2016 Salmon have been genetically modified with growth hormones to reach normal adult size much faster.GMOs have been developed that modify the quality of produce by increasing the nutritional value or providing more industrially useful qualities or quantities.", "The Amflora potato produces a more industrially useful blend of starches.", "Soybeans and canola have been genetically modified to produce more healthy oils.", "The first commercialised GM food was a tomato that had delayed ripening, increasing its shelf life.Plants and animals have been engineered to produce materials they do not normally make.", "Pharming uses crops and animals as bioreactors to produce vaccines, drug intermediates, or the drugs themselves; the useful product is purified from the harvest and then used in the standard pharmaceutical production process.", "Cows and goats have been engineered to express drugs and other proteins in their milk, and in 2009 the FDA approved a drug produced in goat milk.=== Other applications ===Genetic engineering has potential applications in conservation and natural area management.", "Gene transfer through viral vectors has been proposed as a means of controlling invasive species as well as vaccinating threatened fauna from disease.", "Transgenic trees have been suggested as a way to confer resistance to pathogens in wild populations.", "With the increasing risks of maladaptation in organisms as a result of climate change and other perturbations, facilitated adaptation through gene tweaking could be one solution to reducing extinction risks.", "Applications of genetic engineering in conservation are thus far mostly theoretical and have yet to be put into practice.Genetic engineering is also being used to create microbial art.", "Some bacteria have been genetically engineered to create black and white photographs.", "Novelty items such as lavender-colored carnations, blue roses, and glowing fish have also been produced through genetic engineering." ], [ "Regulation", "The regulation of genetic engineering concerns the approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the development and release of GMOs.", "The development of a regulatory framework began in 1975, at Asilomar, California.", "The Asilomar meeting recommended a set of voluntary guidelines regarding the use of recombinant technology.", "As the technology improved the US established a committee at the Office of Science and Technology, which assigned regulatory approval of GM food to the USDA, FDA and EPA.", "The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, an international treaty that governs the transfer, handling, and use of GMOs, was adopted on 29 January 2000.One hundred and fifty-seven countries are members of the Protocol, and many use it as a reference point for their own regulations.The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.", "Some countries allow the import of GM food with authorisation, but either do not allow its cultivation (Russia, Norway, Israel) or have provisions for cultivation even though no GM products are yet produced (Japan, South Korea).", "Most countries that do not allow GMO cultivation do permit research.", "Some of the most marked differences occur between the US and Europe.", "The US policy focuses on the product (not the process), only looks at verifiable scientific risks and uses the concept of substantial equivalence.", "The European Union by contrast has possibly the most stringent GMO regulations in the world.", "All GMOs, along with irradiated food, are considered \"new food\" and subject to extensive, case-by-case, science-based food evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority.", "The criteria for authorisation fall in four broad categories: \"safety\", \"freedom of choice\", \"labelling\", and \"traceability\".", "The level of regulation in other countries that cultivate GMOs lie in between Europe and the United States.+Regulatory agencies by geographical regionRegionRegulatorsNotesUSUSDA, FDA and EPAEuropeEuropean Food Safety AuthorityCanadaHealth Canada and the Canadian Food Inspection AgencyRegulated products with novel features regardless of method of originAfricaCommon Market for Eastern and Southern AfricaFinal decision lies with each individual country.ChinaOffice of Agricultural Genetic Engineering Biosafety AdministrationIndiaInstitutional Biosafety Committee, Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation and Genetic Engineering Approval CommitteeArgentinaNational Agricultural Biotechnology Advisory Committee (environmental impact), the National Service of Health and Agrifood Quality (food safety) and the National Agribusiness Direction (effect on trade)Final decision made by the Secretariat of Agriculture, Livestock, Fishery and Food.BrazilNational Biosafety Technical Commission (environmental and food safety) and the Council of Ministers (commercial and economical issues)AustraliaOffice of the Gene Technology Regulator (oversees all GM products), Therapeutic Goods Administration (GM medicines) and Food Standards Australia New Zealand (GM food).The individual state governments can then assess the impact of release on markets and trade and apply further legislation to control approved genetically modified products.One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled.", "The European Commission says that mandatory labeling and traceability are needed to allow for informed choice, avoid potential false advertising and facilitate the withdrawal of products if adverse effects on health or the environment are discovered.", "The American Medical Association and the American Association for the Advancement of Science say that absent scientific evidence of harm even voluntary labeling is misleading and will falsely alarm consumers.", "Labeling of GMO products in the marketplace is required in 64 countries.", "Labeling can be mandatory up to a threshold GM content level (which varies between countries) or voluntary.", "In Canada and the US labeling of GM food is voluntary, while in Europe all food (including processed food) or feed which contains greater than 0.9% of approved GMOs must be labelled." ], [ "Controversy", "Critics have objected to the use of genetic engineering on several grounds, including ethical, ecological and economic concerns.", "Many of these concerns involve GM crops and whether food produced from them is safe and what impact growing them will have on the environment.", "These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, and protests, and to restrictive regulation of commercial products in some countries.Accusations that scientists are \"playing God\" and other religious issues have been ascribed to the technology from the beginning.", "Other ethical issues raised include the patenting of life, the use of intellectual property rights, the level of labeling on products, control of the food supply and the objectivity of the regulatory process.", "Although doubts have been raised, economically most studies have found growing GM crops to be beneficial to farmers.Gene flow between GM crops and compatible plants, along with increased use of selective herbicides, can increase the risk of \"superweeds\" developing.", "Other environmental concerns involve potential impacts on non-target organisms, including soil microbes, and an increase in secondary and resistant insect pests.", "Many of the environmental impacts regarding GM crops may take many years to be understood and are also evident in conventional agriculture practices.", "With the commercialisation of genetically modified fish there are concerns over what the environmental consequences will be if they escape.There are three main concerns over the safety of genetically modified food: whether they may provoke an allergic reaction; whether the genes could transfer from the food into human cells; and whether the genes not approved for human consumption could outcross to other crops.", "There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction.", "Nonetheless, members of the public are less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe." ], [ "In popular culture", "Genetic engineering features in many science fiction stories.", "Frank Herbert's novel ''The White Plague'' describes the deliberate use of genetic engineering to create a pathogen which specifically kills women.", "Another of Herbert's creations, the ''Dune'' series of novels, uses genetic engineering to create the powerful Tleilaxu.", "Few films have informed audiences about genetic engineering, with the exception of the 1978 ''The Boys from Brazil'' and the 1993 ''Jurassic Park'', both of which make use of a lesson, a demonstration, and a clip of scientific film.", "Genetic engineering methods are weakly represented in film; Michael Clark, writing for the Wellcome Trust, calls the portrayal of genetic engineering and biotechnology \"seriously distorted\" in films such as ''The 6th Day''.", "In Clark's view, the biotechnology is typically \"given fantastic but visually arresting forms\" while the science is either relegated to the background or fictionalised to suit a young audience.", "In the 2007 video game, ''BioShock'', genetic engineering plays an important role in the central storyline and universe.", "The game takes place in the fictional underwater dystopia Rapture, in which its inhabitants possess genetic superhuman abilities after injecting themselves with \"plasmids\", a serum which grants such powers.", "Also in the city of Rapture are \"Little Sisters\", little girls who are generically engineered, as well as a side-plot in which a cabaret singer sells her foetus to genetic scientists who implant false memories into the newborn and genetically engineer it to grow into an adult." ], [ "See also", "* Biological engineering* Modifications (genetics)* RNA editing#Therapeutic mRNA Editing* Semi-synthetic organisms* Mutagenesis (molecular biology technique)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* GMO Safety - Information about research projects on the biological safety of genetically modified plants.", "* GMO-compass, news on GMO en EU" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gettysburg Address" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Gettysburg Address''' is a speech that U.S. President Abraham Lincoln delivered during the American Civil War at the dedication of the Soldiers' National Cemetery, now known as Gettysburg National Cemetery, in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania on the afternoon of November 19, 1863, four and a half months after the Union armies defeated Confederate forces in the Battle of Gettysburg, the Civil War's deadliest battle.", "It remains one of the best-known speeches in American history.Lincoln's carefully crafted but brief address, which was not even scheduled as the day's primary speech, came to be seen as one of the greatest and most influential statements on the American national purpose.", "In just 271 words, beginning with the now famous phrase \"Four score and seven years ago\"‍, referring to the signing of the Declaration of Independence 87 years earlier, Lincoln described the U.S. as a nation \"conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal\", and represented the Civil War as a test that would determine whether such a nation could endure.", "Lincoln extolled the sacrifices of those who died at Gettysburg in defense of those principles, and then urged that the nation ensure:Despite the prominent place of the speech in the history and popular culture of the United States, its exact wording is disputed.", "The five known manuscripts of the Gettysburg Address in Lincoln's hand differ in a number of details, and also differ from contemporary newspaper reprints of the speech.", "Nor is it precisely clear where, on the grounds of the Gettysburg cemetery, Lincoln delivered the address.", "Modern scholarship locates the speakers' platform at least away from the traditional site in Soldiers' National Cemetery at the Soldiers' National Monument, such that it stood entirely within the private, adjacent Evergreen Cemetery.", "A 2022 interpretation of photographs of the day, using 3D modeling software, has argued for a slightly different locationstraddling the current fence around Evergreen Cemetery." ], [ "Background", "David Wills, who led the establishment of Soldiers' National Cemetery, inviting Lincoln to speak at Gettysburg''A Harvest of Death'' Union soldiers dead at Gettysburg, photographed by Timothy H. O'Sullivan, July 5–6, 1863Following the Battle of Gettysburg on July 1–3, 1863, the removal of the fallen Union soldiers from the Gettysburg Battlefield graves and their reburial in graves at the National Cemetery at Gettysburg began on October 17, though on the day of the ceremony, interment was less than half complete.In inviting President Lincoln to the ceremonies, David Wills, of the committee for the November 19 Consecration of the National Cemetery at Gettysburg, wrote, \"It is the desire that, after the Oration, you, as Chief Executive of the nation, formally set apart these grounds to their sacred use by a few appropriate remarks.", "\"On the train trip from Washington, D.C. to Gettysburg on November 18, Lincoln was accompanied by three members of his Cabinet, William Seward, John Usher, and Montgomery Blair, several foreign officials, his secretary John Nicolay, and his assistant secretary, John Hay.", "During the trip, Lincoln remarked to Hay that he felt weak; on the morning of November 19, Lincoln mentioned to Nicolay that he was dizzy.", "Hay noted during the speech that Lincoln's face had \"a ghastly color\" and that he was \"sad, mournful, almost haggard\".", "After the speech, when Lincoln boarded the 6:30pm train to return to Washington, D.C., he was feverish and weak with a severe headache.", "A protracted illness followed, which included a vesicular rash; it was diagnosed as a mild case of smallpox.", "It is highly likely that Lincoln was in the prodromal period of smallpox as he delivered the Gettysburg Address.After arriving in Gettysburg, which had become filled with large crowds, Lincoln spent the night in Wills's house.", "A large crowd appeared at the house, singing and wanting Lincoln to make a speech.", "Lincoln met the crowd, but did not have a speech prepared, and returned inside after saying a few extemporaneous words.", "The crowd then continued to another house, where Secretary of State William Seward delivered a speech.", "Later that night, Lincoln wrote and briefly met with Seward before going to bed at about midnight." ], [ "Program and Everett's \"Gettysburg Oration\"", "Edward Everett delivered a two-hour oration before Lincoln's short remarks.The program organized for that day by Wills and his committee included:While it is Lincoln's short speech that has gone down in history as one of the finest examples of English public oratory, it was Everett's oration that was slated to be the \"Gettysburg address\" that day.", "His now seldom-read oration was 13,607 words long and lasted two hours.Lengthy dedication addresses like Everett's were common at cemeteries in this era.", "The tradition began in 1831 when Justice Joseph Story delivered the dedication address at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts.", "Those addresses often linked cemeteries to the mission of Union." ], [ "Text", "Shortly after Everett's well-received remarks, Lincoln spoke for only a few minutes.", "With a \"few appropriate remarks\", he was able to summarize his view of the war in just ten sentences.Despite the historical significance of Lincoln's speech, modern scholars disagree as to its exact wording, and contemporary transcriptions published in newspaper accounts of the event and even handwritten copies by Lincoln himself differ in their wording, punctuation, and structure.", "Of these versions, the Bliss version, written well after the speech as a favor for a friend, is viewed by many as the standard text.", "Its text differs, however, from the written versions prepared by Lincoln before and after his speech.", "It is the only version to which Lincoln affixed his signature, and the last he is known to have written.", "The Bliss version is as follows:" ], [ "Lincoln's sources", "In ''Lincoln at Gettysburg'', Garry Wills notes the parallels between Lincoln's speech and Pericles's Funeral Oration during the Peloponnesian War as described by Thucydides.", "Pericles' speech, like Lincoln's:* Begins with an acknowledgment of revered predecessors: \"I shall begin with our ancestors: it is both just and proper that they should have the honor of the first mention on an occasion like the present\"* Praises the uniqueness of the State's commitment to democracy: \"If we look to the laws, they afford equal justice to all in their private differences\"* Honors the sacrifice of the slain, \"Thus choosing to die resisting, rather than to live submitting, they fled only from dishonor, but met danger face to face\"* Exhorts the living to continue the struggle: \"You, their survivors, must determine to have as unfaltering a resolution in the field, though you may pray that it may have a happier issue.", "\"James M. McPherson notes this connection in his review of Wills's book.", "Gore Vidal also draws attention to this link in a BBC documentary about oration.In contrast, writer Adam Gopnik, in ''The New Yorker'', notes that while Everett's Oration was explicitly neoclassical, referring directly to Marathon and Pericles, \"Lincoln's rhetoric is, instead, deliberately Biblical.", "(It is difficult to find a single obviously classical reference in any of his speeches.)", "Lincoln had mastered the sound of the King James Bible so completely that he could recast abstract issues of constitutional law in Biblical terms, making the proposition that Texas and New Hampshire should be forever bound by a single post office sound like something right out of Genesis.", "\"Wills also observed Lincoln's usage of the imagery of birth, life, and death in reference to a nation \"brought forth\", \"conceived\", and that shall not \"perish\".", "A 1959 thesis by William J. Wolf suggested that the address had a central image of baptism, although Glenn LaFantasie, writing for the ''Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association'', believes that Wolf's position was likely an overstatement.", "Philip B. Kunhardt Jr. suggests that Lincoln was inspired by the ''Book of Common Prayer''.Allen C. Guelzo, the director of Civil War Era studies at Gettysburg College in Pennsylvania, and others have suggested that Lincoln's formulation \"four score and seven\" was an allusion to the King James Version of the Bible's , in which man's lifespan is given as \"threescore years and ten; and if by reason of strength they be fourscore years\".", "LaFantasie also connected \"four score and seven years\" with Psalms 90:10, and referred to Lincoln's usage of the phrase \"our fathers\" as \"mindful of the Lord's Prayer\".", "He also refers to Garry Wills's tracing of spiritual language in the address to the Gospel of Luke.===\"Government of the people, by the people, for the people\"===Detail of Elihu Vedder's mural ''Government'' (1896), in the Library of Congress.", "The title figure bears a tablet inscribed with Lincoln's famous phrase.Several theories have been advanced by Lincoln scholars to explain the provenance of Lincoln's famous phrase \"government of the people, by the people, for the people\".", "Despite many claims, there is no evidence that a similar phrase appears in the Prologue to John Wycliffe's 1384 English translation of the Bible.In a discussion \"A more probable origin of a famous Lincoln phrase\", in a letter to ''The American Monthly Review of Reviews'', Unitarian minister John White Chadwick points to William Herndon, Lincoln's law partner, who wrote in the 1888 work ''Abraham Lincoln: The True Story of A Great Life'' that he had brought to Lincoln some of the sermons of abolitionist minister Theodore Parker, of Massachusetts, and that Lincoln was moved by Parker's use of this idea:Craig R. Smith, in \"Criticism of Political Rhetoric and Disciplinary Integrity\", suggested Lincoln's view of the government as expressed in the Gettysburg Address was influenced by the noted speech of Massachusetts Senator Daniel Webster, the \"Second Reply to Hayne\", in which Webster famously thundered \"Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable!\"", "Specifically, in this speech on January 26, 1830, before the United States Senate, Webster described the federal government as: \"made for the people, made by the people, and answerable to the people\", foreshadowing Lincoln's \"government of the people, by the people, for the people\".", "Webster also noted, \"This government, Sir, is the independent offspring of the popular will.", "It is not the creature of State legislatures; nay, more, if the whole truth must be told, the people brought it into existence, established it, and have hitherto supported it, for the very purpose, amongst others, of imposing certain salutary restraints on State sovereignties.\"" ], [ "Five manuscripts", "The five extant versions of Lincoln's remarks, presented as a single annotated textEach of the five known manuscript copies of the Gettysburg Address is named for the person who received it from Lincoln.", "Lincoln gave copies to his private secretaries, John Nicolay and John Hay.", "Both of these drafts were written around the time of his November 19 address, while the other three copies of the address, the Everett, Bancroft, and Bliss copies, were written by Lincoln for charitable purposes well after November 19.In part because Lincoln provided a title and signed and dated the Bliss copy, it has become the standard text of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address.Nicolay and Hay were appointed custodians of Lincoln's papers by Lincoln's son Robert Todd Lincoln in 1874.After appearing in facsimile in an article written by John Nicolay in 1894, the Nicolay copy was presumably among the papers passed to Hay by Nicolay's daughter Helen upon Nicolay's death in 1901.Robert Lincoln began a search for the original copy in 1908, which resulted in the discovery of a handwritten copy of the Gettysburg Address among the bound papers of John Hay—a copy now known as the \"Hay copy\" or \"Hay draft\".The Hay draft differed from the version of the Gettysburg Address published by John Nicolay in 1894 in a number of significant ways: it was written on a different type of paper, had a different number of words per line and number of lines, and contained editorial revisions in Lincoln's hand.Both the Hay and Nicolay copies of the Address are within the Library of Congress, encased in specially designed, temperature-controlled, sealed containers with argon gas in order to protect the documents from oxidation and continued deterioration.=== Nicolay copy ===The Nicolay copy is often called the \"first draft\" because it is believed to be the earliest copy that exists.", "Scholars disagree over whether the Nicolay copy was actually the reading copy Lincoln held at Gettysburg on November 19.In an 1894 article that included a facsimile of this copy, Nicolay, who had become the custodian of Lincoln's papers, wrote that Lincoln had brought to Gettysburg the first part of the speech written in ink on Executive Mansion stationery, and that he had written the second page in pencil on lined paper before the dedication on November 19.Matching folds are still evident on the two pages, suggesting it could be the copy that eyewitnesses say Lincoln took from his coat pocket and read at the ceremony.", "Others believe that the delivery text has been lost, because some of the words and phrases of the Nicolay copy do not match contemporary transcriptions of Lincoln's original speech.", "The words \"under God\", for example, are missing in this copy from the phrase \"that this nation shall have a new birth of freedom ...\" In order for the Nicolay draft to have been the reading copy, either the contemporary transcriptions were inaccurate, or Lincoln would have had to depart from his written text in several instances.", "This copy of the Gettysburg Address apparently remained in John Nicolay's possession until his death in 1901, when it passed to his friend and colleague John Hay.", "It used to be on display as part of the American Treasures exhibition of the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.=== Hay copy ===Hay copy with Lincoln's handwritten correctionsThe existence of the Hay copy was first announced to the public in 1906, after the search for the \"original manuscript\" of the Address among the papers of John Hay brought it to light.", "Significantly, it differs somewhat from the manuscript of the Address described by John Nicolay in his article, and contains numerous omissions and inserts in Lincoln's own hand, including omissions critical to the basic meaning of the sentence, not simply words that would be added by Lincoln to strengthen or clarify their meaning.", "In this copy, as in the Nicolay copy, the words \"under God\" are not present.This version has been described as \"the most inexplicable\" of the drafts and is sometimes referred to as the \"second draft\".", "The \"Hay copy\" was made either on the morning of the delivery of the Address, or shortly after Lincoln's return to Washington.", "Those who believe that it was completed on the morning of his address point to the fact that it contains certain phrases that are not in the first draft but are in the reports of the address as delivered and in subsequent copies made by Lincoln.", "It is probable, they conclude, that, as stated in the explanatory note accompanying the original copies of the first and second drafts in the Library of Congress, Lincoln held this second draft when he delivered the address.", "Lincoln eventually gave this copy to Hay, whose descendants donated both it and the Nicolay copy to the Library of Congress in 1916.=== Everett copy ===The Everett copy, also known as the \"Everett-Keyes copy\", was sent by President Lincoln to Edward Everett in early 1864, at Everett's request.", "Everett was collecting the speeches at the Gettysburg dedication into one bound volume to sell for the benefit of stricken soldiers at New York's Sanitary Commission Fair.", "The draft Lincoln sent became the third autograph copy, and is now in the possession of the Illinois State Historical Library in Springfield, Illinois, where it is displayed in the Treasures Gallery of the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum.=== Bancroft copy ===The Bancroft copy of the Gettysburg Address was written out by President Lincoln in February 1864 at the request of George Bancroft, the famed historian and former Secretary of the Navy, whose comprehensive ten-volume ''History of the United States'' later led him to be known as the \"father of American History\".", "Bancroft planned to include this copy in ''Autograph Leaves of Our Country's Authors'', which he planned to sell at a Soldiers' and Sailors' Sanitary Fair in Baltimore.", "As this fourth copy was written on both sides of the paper, it proved unusable for this purpose, and Bancroft was allowed to keep it.", "This manuscript is the only one accompanied both by a letter from Lincoln transmitting the manuscript and by the original envelope addressed and franked by Lincoln.", "This copy remained in the Bancroft family for many years, was sold to various dealers and purchased by Nicholas and Marguerite Lilly Noyes, who donated the manuscript to Cornell University in 1949.It is now held by the Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections in the Carl A. Kroch Library at Cornell.", "It is the only one of the five copies to be privately owned.=== Bliss copy ===Bliss copy on display in the Lincoln Room of the White HouseDiscovering that his fourth written copy could not be used, Lincoln then wrote a fifth draft, which was accepted for the purpose requested.", "The Bliss copy, named for Colonel Alexander Bliss, Bancroft's stepson and publisher of ''Autograph Leaves'', is the only draft to which Lincoln affixed his signature.", "Lincoln is not known to have made any further copies of the Gettysburg Address.", "Because of the apparent care in its preparation, and in part, because Lincoln provided a title and signed and dated this copy, it has become the standard version of the address and the source for most facsimile reproductions of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address.", "It is the version that is inscribed on the South wall of the Lincoln Memorial.This draft is now displayed in the Lincoln Room of the White House, a gift of Oscar B. Cintas, former Cuban Ambassador to the United States.", "Cintas, a wealthy collector of art and manuscripts, purchased the Bliss copy at a public auction in 1949 for $54,000 ($ as of ), at that time the highest price ever paid for a document at public auction.", "Cintas' properties were claimed by the Castro government after the Cuban Revolution in 1959, but Cintas, who died in 1957, willed the Gettysburg Address to the American people, provided it would be kept at the White House, where it was transferred in 1959.Garry Wills concluded the Bliss copy \"is stylistically preferable to others in one significant way: Lincoln removed 'here' from 'that cause for which they (here) gave ...' The seventh 'here' is in all other versions of the speech.\"", "Wills noted the fact that Lincoln \"was still making such improvements\", suggesting Lincoln was more concerned with a perfected text than with an \"original\" one.From November 21, 2008, to January 1, 2009, the Albert H. Small Documents Gallery at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History hosted a limited public viewing of the Bliss copy, with the support of then-First Lady Laura Bush.", "The museum also launched an online exhibition and interactive gallery to enable visitors to look more closely at the document.=== Associated Press report ===Another contemporary source of the text is the Associated Press dispatch, transcribed from the shorthand notes taken by reporter Joseph L. Gilbert.", "It also differs from the drafted text in a number of minor ways." ], [ "Contemporary sources and reaction", "''The New York Times'' article from November 20, 1863, indicates Lincoln's speech was interrupted five times by applause and was followed by \"long continued applause\".Eyewitness reports vary as to their view of Lincoln's performance.", "In 1931, the printed recollections of 87-year-old Mrs. Sarah A. Cooke Myers, who was 19 when she attended the ceremony, suggest a dignified silence followed Lincoln's speech: \"I was close to the President and heard all of the Address, but it seemed short.", "Then there was an impressive silence like our Menallen Friends Meeting.", "There was no applause when he stopped speaking.\"", "According to historian Shelby Foote, after Lincoln's presentation, the applause was delayed, scattered, and \"barely polite\".", "In contrast, Pennsylvania Governor Andrew Gregg Curtin maintained, \"He pronounced that speech in a voice that all the multitude heard.", "The crowd was hushed into silence because the President stood before them ...", "It was so Impressive!", "It was the common remark of everybody.", "Such a speech, as they said it was!", "\"In an oft-repeated legend, Lincoln is said to have turned to his bodyguard Ward Hill Lamon and remarked that his speech, like a bad plow, \"won't scour\".", "According to Garry Wills, this statement has no basis in fact and largely originates from the unreliable recollections of Lamon.", "In Garry Wills's view, \" had done what he wanted to do \".In a letter to Lincoln written the following day, Everett praised the President for his eloquent and concise speech, saying, \"I should be glad if I could flatter myself that I came as near to the central idea of the occasion, in two hours, as you did in two minutes.\"", "Lincoln replied that he was glad to know the speech was not a \"total failure\".Other public reaction to the speech was divided along partisan lines.", "The Democratic-leaning ''Chicago Times'' observed, \"The cheek of every American must tingle with shame as he reads the silly, flat and dishwatery utterances of the man who has to be pointed out to intelligent foreigners as the President of the United States.\"", "In contrast, the Republican-leaning ''The New York Times'' was complimentary and printed the speech.", "In Massachusetts, the ''Springfield Republican'' also printed the entire speech, calling it \"a perfect gem\" that was \"deep in feeling, compact in thought and expression, and tasteful and elegant in every word and comma\".", "The ''Republican'' predicted that Lincoln's brief remarks would \"repay further study as the model speech\".", "In 2013, on the sesquicentennial of the address, ''The Patriot-News'' of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, formerly the ''Patriot & Union'', retracted its original reaction (\"silly remarks\" deserving \"the veil of oblivion\") stating: \"Seven score and ten years ago, the forefathers of this media institution brought forth to its audience a judgment so flawed, so tainted by hubris, so lacking in the perspective history would bring, that it cannot remain unaddressed in our archives. ...", "the ''Patriot & Union'' failed to recognize the speech's momentous importance, timeless eloquence, and lasting significance.", "The ''Patriot-News'' regrets the error.", "\"Foreign newspapers also criticized Lincoln's remarks.", "''The Times'' of London commented: \"The ceremony at Gettysburg was rendered ludicrous by some of the luckless sallies of that poor President Lincoln.", "\"Congressman Joseph A. Goulden, then an eighteen-year-old school teacher, was present and heard the speech.", "He served in the United States Marine Corps during the war, and later had a successful career in insurance in Pennsylvania and New York City before entering Congress as a Democrat.", "In his later life, Goulden was often asked about the speech, since the passage of time made him one of a dwindling number of individuals who had been present for it.", "He commented on the event and Lincoln's speech in favorable terms, naming Lincoln's address as one of the inspirations for him to enter military service.", "Goulden's recollections included remarks to the House of Representatives in 1914.=== Audio recollections ===William R. Rathvon is the only known eyewitness of both Lincoln's arrival at Gettysburg and the address itself to have left an audio recording of his recollections.", "One year before his death in 1939, Rathvon's reminiscences were recorded on February 12, 1938, at the Boston studios of radio station WRUL, including his reading the address, itself, and a 78 RPM record was pressed.", "The title of the 78 record was \"I Heard Lincoln That Day – William R. Rathvon, TR Productions\".", "A copy wound up at National Public Radio (NPR) during a \"Quest for Sound\" project in 1999.Like most people who came to Gettysburg, the Rathvon family was aware that Lincoln was going to make some remarks.", "The family went to the town square where the procession was to form to go out to the cemetery that had not been completed yet.", "At the head of the procession rode Lincoln on a gray horse preceded by a military band that was the first the young boy had ever seen.", "Rathvon describes Lincoln as so tall and with such long legs that they went almost to the ground; he also mentions the long eloquent speech given by Edward Everett of Massachusetts whom Rathvon accurately described as the \"most finished orator of the day\".", "Rathvon then goes on to describe how Lincoln stepped forward and \"with a manner serious almost to sadness, gave his brief address\".", "During the delivery, along with some other boys, young Rathvon wiggled his way forward through the crowd until he stood within of Lincoln and looked up into what he described as his \"serious face\".", "Rathvon recalls candidly that, although he listened \"intently to every word the president uttered and heard it clearly\", he explains, \"boylike, I could not recall any of it afterwards\".", "But he explains that if anyone said anything disparaging about \"honest Abe\", there would have been a \"junior battle of Gettysburg\".", "In the recording Rathvon speaks of Lincoln's speech allegorically \"echoing through the hills\".=== Photographs ===The only known and confirmed photograph of Lincoln at Gettysburg, taken by photographer David Bachrach, was identified in the Mathew Brady collection of photographic plates in the National Archives and Records Administration in 1952.While Lincoln's speech was short and may have precluded multiple pictures of him while speaking, he and the other dignitaries sat for hours during the rest of the program.", "Given the length of Everett's speech and the length of time it took for 19th-century photographers to get \"set up\" before taking a picture, it is quite plausible that the photographers were ill-prepared for the brevity of Lincoln's remarks.Bachrach photo with a red arrow indicating Lincoln=== Usage of \"under God\" ===The words \"under God\" do not appear in the Nicolay and Hay drafts but are included in the three later copies (Everett, Bancroft, and Bliss).", "Accordingly, some skeptics maintain that Lincoln did not utter the words \"under God\" at Gettysburg.", "However, at least three reporters telegraphed the text of Lincoln's speech on the day the Address was given with the words \"under God\" included.", "Historian William E. Barton argues that:The reporters present included Joseph Gilbert, from the Associated Press; Charles Hale, from the ''Boston Advertiser''; John R. Young (who later became the Librarian of Congress), from the ''Philadelphia Press''; and reporters from the ''Cincinnati Commercial'', ''New York Tribune'', and ''The New York Times''.", "Charles Hale \"had notebook and pencil in hand, and took down the slow-spoken words of the President\".", "\"He took down what he declared was the exact language of Lincoln's address, and his declaration was as good as the oath of a court stenographer.", "His associates confirmed his testimony, which was received, as it deserved to be, at its face value.\"", "One explanation is that Lincoln deviated from his prepared text and inserted the phrase when he spoke.", "Ronald C. White, visiting professor of history at the University of California, Los Angeles and professor of American religious history emeritus at the San Francisco Theological Seminary, wrote in this context of Lincoln's insertion and usage of \"under God\":It was an uncharacteristically spontaneous revision for a speaker who did not trust extemporaneous speech.", "Lincoln had added impromptu words in several earlier speeches, but always offered a subsequent apology for the change.", "In this instance, he did not.", "And Lincoln included \"under God\" in all three copies of the address he prepared at later dates.", "\"Under God\" pointed backward and forward: back to \"this nation\", which drew its breath from both political and religious sources, but also forward to a \"new birth\".", "Lincoln had come to see the Civil War as a ritual of purification.", "The old Union had to die.", "The old man had to die.", "Death became a transition to a new Union and a new humanity.The phrase \"under God\" was used frequently in works published before 1860, usually with the meaning \"with God's help\"." ], [ "Platform location", "The ''Lincoln Address Memorial'', designed by Louis Henrick, with bust of Lincoln by Henry Kirke Bush-Brown, erected at the Gettysburg National Cemetery in 1912.Outside of either entrance to the National Cemetery, twin historical markers read:Nearby, Nov. 19, 1863, in dedicating the National Cemetery, Abraham Lincoln gave the address which he had written in Washington and revised after his arrival at Gettysburg the evening of November 18.Directly inside the Taneytown Road entrance are the ''Lincoln Address Memorial'' and Rostrum, which has hosted speeches by five U.S. Presidents.", "Lincoln was not one of them, and a small metal sign near the speech memorial stirs controversy by stating:The Address was delivered about 300 yards from this spot along the upper Cemetery drive.", "The site is now marked by the Soldiers' National Monument.Holding title as the ''Traditional Site,'' the validity of the Soldiers' National Monument has been challenged by platform occupants (in the distant past) and by (relatively recent) photographic analyses.", "Based upon a pair of photographic analyses, the Gettysburg National Military Park (G.N.M.P.)", "has placed a marker (near 39°49.199′N 77°13.840′W) which states, \"The location of the platform was never marked, but is believed to be in Evergreen Cemetery, on the other side of the iron fence.", "\"The observer of this newer marker stands facing the fence which separates the two adjacent cemeteries (one public and one private).", "Another heavy endorsement of the ''Traditional Site,'' this one in bronze and placed by Lincoln's native Commonwealth, stands nearby.Absent an original and enduring marker, the location of the platform is in the hands of rhetoricians and scholars.", "The Superintendent of Evergreen Cemetery, Brian Kennell, emphatically endorses the findings of William Frassanito's photographic analysis.===Pre-modern===Analysis of this photograph, taken by Alexander Gardner looking northeast on November 19, 1863, rules out the ''Traditional Site'' at Soldiers' National Monument as a possible location for the speaker's platform.Colonel W. Yates Selleck was a marshal in the parade on Consecration Day and was seated on the platform when Lincoln made the address.", "Selleck marked a map with the position of the platform and described it as \" almost due north of Soldiers' National Monument, from a point in the outer circle of lots where the Michigan and New York burial sections are separated by a path\".", "A location which approximates this description is 39°49.243′N, 77°13.869′W.As pointed out in 1973 by retired park historian Frederick Tilberg, the ''Selleck Site'' is lower than the crest of Cemetery Hill, and only the crest presents a panoramic view of the battlefield.", "A spectacular view from the location of the speech was noted by many eyewitnesses, is consistent with the ''Traditional Site'' at the Soldiers' National Monument (and other sites on the crest) but is inconsistent with the ''Selleck Site.", "''The ''Kentucky Memorial'', erected in 1975, is directly adjacent to the Soldiers' National Monument, and states, \"Kentucky honors her son, Abraham Lincoln, who delivered his immortal address at the site now marked by the soldiers' monument.\"", "With its position at the center of the concentric rings of soldiers' graves and the continuing endorsement of Lincoln's native state the Soldiers' National Monument persists as a credible location for the speech.Writing a physical description of the layout for the Gettysburg National Cemetery under construction in November 1863, the correspondent from the ''Cincinnati Daily Commercial'' described the dividing lines between the state grave plots as \"the radii of a common center, where a flag pole is now raised, but where it is proposed to erect a national monument\".", "With the inclusion of this quotation Tilberg inadvertently verifies a central principle of future photographic analyses—a flagpole, rather than the speakers' platform, occupied the central point of the soldiers' graves.", "In fact, the precision of the photo-analyses relies upon the coincidence of position between this temporary flag pole and the future monument.Confusing to today's tourist, the ''Kentucky Memorial'' is contradicted by a newer marker which was erected nearby by the Gettysburg National Military Park and locates the speakers' platform inside Evergreen Cemetery.", "Similarly, outdated National Park Service documents which pinpoint the location at the Soldiers' National Monument have not been systematically revised since the placement of the newer marker.", "Miscellaneous web pages perpetuate the ''Traditional Site.", "''===Photo analysis=======2D and optical stereoscopy====thumbIn 1982, Senior Park Historian Kathleen Georg Harrison first analyzed photographs and proposed a location in Evergreen Cemetery but has not published her analysis.", "Speaking for Harrison without revealing details, two sources characterize her proposed location as \"on or near the Brown family vault\" in Evergreen Cemetery.William A. Frassanito, a former military intelligence analyst, documented a comprehensive photographic analysis in 1995, and it associates the location of the platform with the position of specific modern headstones in Evergreen Cemetery.", "According to Frassanito, the extant graves of Israel Yount (died 1892)(), John Koch (died 1913)(), and George E. Kitzmiller (died 1874)() are among those which occupy the location of the 1863 speaker's stand.====3D photo-rendering and -animation====Over the course of many years, an Assistant Professor of New Media at the University of North Carolina at Asheville, Christopher Oakley, and his students have labored to produce and relentlessly perfect \"a lifelike virtual 3-D re-creation of Lincoln delivering the Gettysburg Address\" as part of the ''Virtual Lincoln Project.''", "One result was revealed when “Placing the Platform: Using 3D Technology to Pinpoint Lincoln at Gettysburg” was presented on November 18, 2022, at the Lincoln Forum XXVII in Gettysburg.As a starting point, the project modeled the topography around Cemetery Hill, the Gatehouse at Evergreen Cemetery and the documented positions of nonextant objects which appear in photographs (the poplar tree, the flag pole and the Duttera House among them) using 3-D animation software Maya.", "Next, the platform and its occupants were modeled.", "Finally, the approximate positions of the cameras were placed into the 3-D environment, and the overall model was iteratively refined.", "By reproducing the appearance of the four known photographs, taken distantly from one another in 1863, Lincoln and the platform have been placed in virtual reality.Oakley's model shows the platform straddling the iron fence between the Soldiers' National Cemetery and Evergreen Cemetery.", "It increases the size of the platform and changes its shape from rectangular, as previous researchers have maintained, to trapezoidal.", "Most significantly, the speaker's position occupies a portion of the platform over the grounds of the Soldiers' National Cemetery.William Frassanito's analysis is based upon two of the four photographic perspectives which were employed by Oakley to validate his 3D model.", "Frassanito assesses one of his sources by stating, \"This view by Weaver was probably not taken from the second-story window of the gatehouse itself.\"", "Via enlargement of a Gardner photograph (taken from the opposite direction), John J. Richter may have identified a photographer with a camera in this exact window, thereby weakening the contribution of the Weaver photograph to Frassanito's conclusions.", "Oakley's proprietary 3D model utilizes the position of Weaver's camera as suggested by Richter.===Resolution===Frassanito's analysis places the dedicatory platform at the graves of George Kitzmiller, Israel Yount, and John Koch.", "Erroneous indicators are identified in the distant background.The GNMP marker, Wills's interpretation of Harrison's analysis, the Frassanito analysis, and the Oakley analysis concur that the platform was located entirely or mostly in private Evergreen Cemetery, rather than public Soldiers' National Cemetery.", "The National Park Service's ''National Cemetery Walking Tour'' brochure is one NPS document which agrees:The Soldiers' National Monument, long misidentified as the spot from which Lincoln spoke, honors the fallen soldiers.", "The location of the speech was actually on the crown of this hill, a short distance on the other side of the iron fence and inside the Evergreen Cemetery, where President Lincoln delivered the Gettysburg Address to a crowd of some 15,000 people.The locations determined by the Harrison/Wills, Frassanito, and Oakley analyses differ by approximately 40 yards.", "Frassanito has documented 1) his own conclusion, 2) his own methods and 3) a refutation of the Harrison site, but neither the GNMP nor Harrison has provided any documentation.", "Oakley's interpretation was only made public in 2022 and is still under review.", "Each of the four points to a location in Evergreen Cemetery, as do modern NPS publications.Although Lincoln dedicated the Gettysburg National Cemetery, the monument at the Cemetery's center actually has nothing to do with Lincoln or his famous speech.", "Intended to symbolize Columbia paying tribute to her fallen sons, its appreciation has been commandeered by the thirst for a tidy home for the speech.", "Freeing the Cemetery and Monument to serve their original purpose, honoring of Union departed, is as unlikely as a resolution to the location controversy and the erection of a public monument to the speech in the exclusively private Evergreen Cemetery." ], [ "Legacy", "The words of the Gettysburg Address inside the Lincoln Memorial.The importance of the Gettysburg Address in the history of the United States is underscored by its enduring presence in American culture.", "In addition to its prominent place carved into a stone cella on the south wall of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., the Gettysburg Address is frequently referred to in works of popular culture, with the implicit expectation that contemporary audiences will be familiar with Lincoln's words.In the many generations that have passed since the Address, it has remained among the most famous speeches in American history and is often taught in classes about history or civics.", "Lincoln's Gettysburg Address is itself referenced in another of those famed orations, Martin Luther King Jr.'s \"I Have a Dream\" speech.", "Standing on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in August 1963, King began with a reference, by the style of his opening phrase, to President Lincoln and his enduring words: \"Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation.", "This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice.", "\"Phrases from the Address are often used or referenced in other works.", "The current Constitution of France states that the principle of the French Republic is \"''gouvernement du peuple, par le peuple et pour le peuple'' (\"government of the people, by the people, and for the people\"), a literal translation of Lincoln's words.", "Sun Yat-Sen's \"Three Principles of the People\" as well as the preamble for the 1947 Constitution of Japan were also inspired from that phrase.", "The aircraft carrier has as its ship's motto the phrase \"shall not perish\".U.S.", "Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts wrote of the address and its enduring presence in American culture after Lincoln's assassination in April 1865: \"That speech, uttered at the field of Gettysburg ... and now sanctified by the martyrdom of its author, is a monumental act.", "In the modesty of his nature he said 'the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here; but it can never forget what they did here.'", "He was mistaken.", "The world at once noted what he said, and will never cease to remember it.", "\"In January 1961 John F. Kennedy tasked his speech writer Ted Sorensen to study the Gettysburg Address in order to help him with his own inaugural address.", "Sorensen drew many lessons from the Gettysburg Address which according to Sorensen included rhetoric devices used by many speech writers like alliterations, rhymes, repetitions as well as contrast and balance.U.S.", "President John F. Kennedy stated in July 1963 about the battle and Lincoln's speech: \"Five score years ago the ground on which we here stand shuddered under the clash of arms and was consecrated for all time by the blood of American manhood.", "Abraham Lincoln, in dedicating this great battlefield, has expressed, in words too eloquent for paraphrase or summary, why this sacrifice was necessary.", "\"In 2015, the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library Foundation compiled ''Gettysburg Replies: The World Responds to Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address''.", "The work challenges leaders to craft 272 word responses to celebrate Lincoln, the Gettysburg Address, or a related topic.One of the replies was by astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson in which he made the point that one of Lincoln's greatest legacies was establishing, in the same year of the Gettysburg Address, the National Academy of Sciences, which had the longterm effect of \"setting our Nation on a course of scientifically enlightened governance, without which we all may perish from this Earth\".===Envelope and other myths===A common American myth about the Gettysburg Address is that Lincoln quickly wrote the speech on the back of an envelope while on the train.", "This widely held misunderstanding may have originated with a popular book, ''The Perfect Tribute'', by Mary Raymond Shipman Andrews (1906), which was assigned reading for generations of schoolchildren, sold 600,000 copies when published as a standalone volume, and was twice adapted for film.Other lesser-known claims include Harriet Beecher Stowe's assertion that Lincoln had composed the address \"in only a few moments\", and that of industrialist Andrew Carnegie, who claimed to have personally supplied Lincoln with a pen." ], [ "Popular culture", "''A Lincoln Portrait'' is a classical orchestral work written by the American composer Aaron Copland in which the closing phrases of the Gettysburg address are intoned at the conclusion of the narrated Lincoln quotations which lead to the orchestral closing crescendo.", "The work involves a full orchestra, with particular emphasis on the brass section at climactic moments.", "The work is narrated with the reading of excerpts of Abraham Lincoln's great documents, including the Gettysburg Address.", "The intoned reading from the Address uses only the last two sentences starting with the words, \"That from these honored dead ...\"." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "See also", "* Consecration of the National Cemetery at Gettysburg" ], [ "References", "'''Informational notes''': The Gettysburg Address: Nicolay copy, page 1 (jpg), page 2 (jpg).", "The Library of Congress.", ": The Gettysburg Address: Hay copy, page 1 (jpg), page 2 (jpg).", "The Library of Congress.", ": Everett copy (jpg).", "virtualgettsyburg.com.", "Retrieved from internet archive 2007-06-14 version on 2007-12-10.: Bancroft copy cover letter (pic), Bancroft copy, page 1 (pic), page 2 (pic).", "Cornell University Library.", "Retrieved on 2007-12-11.: Bliss copy, page 1 (jpg), page 2 (jpg), page 3 (jpg).", "Illinois Historic Preservation Agency.", "Retrieved on 2007-12-11.'''", "Citations'''''' Bibliography '''* * Boritt, Gabor (2006).", "''The Gettysburg Gospel: The Lincoln Speech That Nobody Knows''.", "Simon & Schuster.", "432 pp. .", "* Busey, John W., and Martin, David G. (2005).", "''Regimental Strengths and Losses at Gettysburg'', 4th ed.", "Longstreet House, .", "* Frassanito, William A.", "(1995).", "''Early Photography at Gettysburg''.", "Gettysburg, PA: Thomas Publications.", ".", "* Gramm, Kent (2001).", "''November: Lincoln's Elegy at Gettysburg''.", "Bloomington: Indiana University Press.", ".", "* * * Kunhardt, Philip B. Jr. (1983).", "''A New Birth of Freedom: Lincoln at Gettysburg.''", "Little Brown & Co. 263 pp. .", "* * * * * * * Reid, Ronald F. \"Newspaper Responses to the Gettysburg Addresses\".", "''Quarterly Journal of Speech'' 1967 53(1): 50–60..* * Sauers, Richard A.", "(2000).", "\"Battle of Gettysburg\".", "In ''Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History''.", "Heidler, David S., and Heidler, Jeanne T., eds.", "W.W. Norton & Company.", ".", "* Schaub, Diana (2021).", "''His Greatest Speeches: How Lincoln Moved the Nation''.", "New York: St. Martin's Press.", ".", "* Schwartz, Barry.", "\"The new Gettysburg Address: fusing history and memory\".", "''Poetics'' 33.1 (2005): 63–79.online* Schwartz, Barry.", "\"Rereading the Gettysburg address: Social change and collective memory\".", "''Qualitative Sociology'' 19.3 (1996): 395–422.online* * * * Wieck, Carl F. (2002).", "''Lincoln's Quest for Equality: The Road to Gettysburg.''", "Northern Illinois University Press.", "224 pp.", "* * ===Primary sources===* Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library Foundation, ed.", "(2015).", "''Gettysburg Replies: The World Responds to Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address''," ], [ "External links", "* Library of Congress, Gettysburg Address exhibit* Gettysburg National Military Park (GNMP) Gettysburg Historical Handbook * Online Lincoln Coloring Book for Teachers and Students* Cornell University Library exhibit on Contemporary newspaper reactions.", "* Abraham Lincoln: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress* Gettysburg Address read by Sam Waterston, Matthew Broderick, Ken Burns, David McCullough, Stephen Lang, Paul W. Bucha, etc.", "Music by John Williams.", "* Gettysburg Address audio performances by Jeff Daniels, Jim Getty, Johnny Cash, Colin Powell, Sam Waterston, and W. F. Hooley from AmericanRhetoric.com* The Gettysburg Address An online exhibition from the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Genetic code" ], [ "Introduction", "A series of codons in part of a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule.", "Each codon consists of three nucleotides, usually corresponding to a single amino acid.", "The nucleotides are abbreviated with the letters A, U, G and C. This is mRNA, which uses U (uracil).", "DNA uses T (thymine) instead.", "This mRNA molecule will instruct a ribosome to synthesize a protein according to this code.The '''genetic code''' is the set of rules used by living cells to translate information encoded within genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences of nucleotide triplets, or codons) into proteins.", "Translation is accomplished by the ribosome, which links proteinogenic amino acids in an order specified by messenger RNA (mRNA), using transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules to carry amino acids and to read the mRNA three nucleotides at a time.", "The genetic code is highly similar among all organisms and can be expressed in a simple table with 64 entries.The codons specify which amino acid will be added next during protein biosynthesis.", "With some exceptions, a three-nucleotide codon in a nucleic acid sequence specifies a single amino acid.", "The vast majority of genes are encoded with a single scheme (see the RNA codon table).", "That scheme is often referred to as the canonical or standard genetic code, or simply ''the'' genetic code, though variant codes (such as in mitochondria) exist." ], [ "History", "The genetic codeEfforts to understand how proteins are encoded began after DNA's structure was discovered in 1953.The key discoverers, English biophysicist Francis Crick and American biologist James Watson, working together at the Cavendish Laboratory of the University of Cambridge, hypothesied that information flows from DNA and that there is a link between DNA and proteins.", "Soviet-American physicist George Gamow was the first to give a workable scheme for protein synthesis from DNA.", "He postulated that sets of three bases (triplets) must be employed to encode the 20 standard amino acids used by living cells to build proteins, which would allow a maximum of amino acids.", "He named this DNA–protein interaction (the original genetic code) as the \"diamond code\".In 1954, Gamow created an informal scientific organisation the RNA Tie Club, as suggested by Watson, for scientists of different persuasions who were interested in how proteins were synthesised from genes.", "However, the club could have only 20 permanent members to represent each of the 20 amino acids; and four additional honorary members to represent the four nucleotides of DNA.The first scientific contribution of the club, later recorded as \"one of the most important unpublished articles in the history of science\" and \"the most famous unpublished paper in the annals of molecular biology\", was made by Crick.", "Crick presented a type-written paper titled \"On Degenerate Templates and the Adaptor Hypothesis: A Note for the RNA Tie Club\" to the members of the club in January 1955, which \"totally changed the way we thought about protein synthesis\", as Watson recalled.", "The hypothesis states that the triplet code was not passed on to amino acids as Gamow thought, but carried by a different molecule, an adaptor, that interacts with amino acids.", "The adaptor was later identified as tRNA.===Codons===The Crick, Brenner, Barnett and Watts-Tobin experiment first demonstrated that '''codons''' consist of three DNA bases.", "Marshall Nirenberg and J. Heinrich Matthaei were the first to reveal the nature of a codon in 1961.They used a cell-free system to translate a poly-uracil RNA sequence (i.e., UUUUU...) and discovered that the polypeptide that they had synthesized consisted of only the amino acid phenylalanine.", "They thereby deduced that the codon UUU specified the amino acid phenylalanine.This was followed by experiments in Severo Ochoa's laboratory that demonstrated that the poly-adenine RNA sequence (AAAAA...) coded for the polypeptide poly-lysine and that the poly-cytosine RNA sequence (CCCCC...) coded for the polypeptide poly-proline.", "Therefore, the codon AAA specified the amino acid lysine, and the codon CCC specified the amino acid proline.", "Using various copolymers most of the remaining codons were then determined.Subsequent work by Har Gobind Khorana identified the rest of the genetic code.", "Shortly thereafter, Robert W. Holley determined the structure of transfer RNA (tRNA), the adapter molecule that facilitates the process of translating RNA into protein.", "This work was based upon Ochoa's earlier studies, yielding the latter the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1959 for work on the enzymology of RNA synthesis.Extending this work, Nirenberg and Philip Leder revealed the code's triplet nature and deciphered its codons.", "In these experiments, various combinations of mRNA were passed through a filter that contained ribosomes, the components of cells that translate RNA into protein.", "Unique triplets promoted the binding of specific tRNAs to the ribosome.", "Leder and Nirenberg were able to determine the sequences of 54 out of 64 codons in their experiments.", "Khorana, Holley and Nirenberg received the 1968 Nobel for their work.The three stop codons were named by discoverers Richard Epstein and Charles Steinberg.", "\"Amber\" was named after their friend Harris Bernstein, whose last name means \"amber\" in German.", "The other two stop codons were named \"ochre\" and \"opal\" in order to keep the \"color names\" theme.=== Expanded genetic codes (synthetic biology) ===In a broad academic audience, the concept of the evolution of the genetic code from the original and ambiguous genetic code to a well-defined (\"frozen\") code with the repertoire of 20 (+2) canonical amino acids is widely accepted.However, there are different opinions, concepts, approaches and ideas, which is the best way to change it experimentally.", "Even models are proposed that predict \"entry points\" for synthetic amino acid invasion of the genetic code.Since 2001, 40 non-natural amino acids have been added into proteins by creating a unique codon (recoding) and a corresponding transfer-RNA:aminoacyl – tRNA-synthetase pair to encode it with diverse physicochemical and biological properties in order to be used as a tool to exploring protein structure and function or to create novel or enhanced proteins.H.", "Murakami and M. Sisido extended some codons to have four and five bases.", "Steven A. Benner constructed a functional 65th (''in vivo'') codon.In 2015 N. Budisa, D. Söll and co-workers reported the full substitution of all 20,899 tryptophan residues (UGG codons) with unnatural thienopyrrole-alanine in the genetic code of the bacterium ''Escherichia coli''.In 2016 the first stable semisynthetic organism was created.", "It was a (single cell) bacterium with two synthetic bases (called X and Y).", "The bases survived cell division.In 2017, researchers in South Korea reported that they had engineered a mouse with an extended genetic code that can produce proteins with unnatural amino acids.In May 2019, researchers reported the creation of a new \"Syn61\" strain of the bacterium ''Escherichia coli''.", "This strain has a fully synthetic genome that is refactored (all overlaps expanded), recoded (removing the use of three out of 64 codons completely), and further modified to remove the now unnecessary tRNAs and release factors.", "It is fully viable and grows 1.6× slower than its wild-type counterpart \"MDS42\"." ], [ "Features", "Reading frames in the DNA sequence of a region of the human mitochondrial genome coding for the genes ''MT-ATP8'' and ''MT-ATP6'' (in black: positions 8,525 to 8,580 in the sequence accession NC_012920).", "There are three possible reading frames in the 5' → 3' forward direction, starting on the first (+1), second (+2) and third position (+3).", "For each codon (square brackets), the amino acid is given by the vertebrate mitochondrial code, either in the +1 frame for ''MT-ATP8'' (in red) or in the +3 frame for ''MT-ATP6'' (in blue).", "The ''MT-ATP8'' genes terminates with the TAG stop codon (red dot) in the +1 frame.", "The ''MT-ATP6'' gene starts with the ATG codon (blue circle for the M amino acid) in the +3 frame.===Reading frame===A reading frame is defined by the initial triplet of nucleotides from which translation starts.", "It sets the frame for a run of successive, non-overlapping codons, which is known as an \"open reading frame\" (ORF).", "For example, the string 5'-AAATGAACG-3' (see figure), if read from the first position, contains the codons AAA, TGA, and ACG ; if read from the second position, it contains the codons AAT and GAA ; and if read from the third position, it contains the codons ATG and AAC.", "Every sequence can, thus, be read in its 5' → 3' direction in three reading frames, each producing a possibly distinct amino acid sequence: in the given example, Lys (K)-Trp (W)-Thr (T), Asn (N)-Glu (E), or Met (M)-Asn (N), respectively (when translating with the vertebrate mitochondrial code).", "When DNA is double-stranded, six possible reading frames are defined, three in the forward orientation on one strand and three reverse on the opposite strand.", "Protein-coding frames are defined by a start codon, usually the first AUG (ATG) codon in the RNA (DNA) sequence.In eukaryotes, ORFs in exons are often interrupted by introns.=== Start and stop codons ===Translation starts with a chain-initiation codon or start codon.", "The start codon alone is not sufficient to begin the process.", "Nearby sequences such as the Shine-Dalgarno sequence in ''E.", "coli'' and initiation factors are also required to start translation.", "The most common start codon is AUG, which is read as methionine or as formylmethionine (in bacteria, mitochondria, and plastids).", "Alternative start codons depending on the organism include \"GUG\" or \"UUG\"; these codons normally represent valine and leucine, respectively, but as start codons they are translated as methionine or formylmethionine.The three stop codons have names: UAG is ''amber'', UGA is ''opal'' (sometimes also called ''umber''), and UAA is ''ochre''.", "Stop codons are also called \"termination\" or \"nonsense\" codons.", "They signal release of the nascent polypeptide from the ribosome because no cognate tRNA has anticodons complementary to these stop signals, allowing a release factor to bind to the ribosome instead.===Effect of mutations===Examples of notable mutations that can occur in humansDuring the process of DNA replication, errors occasionally occur in the polymerization of the second strand.", "These errors, mutations, can affect an organism's phenotype, especially if they occur within the protein coding sequence of a gene.", "Error rates are typically 1 error in every 10–100 million bases—due to the \"proofreading\" ability of DNA polymerases.Missense mutations and nonsense mutations are examples of point mutations that can cause genetic diseases such as sickle-cell disease and thalassemia respectively.", "Clinically important missense mutations generally change the properties of the coded amino acid residue among basic, acidic, polar or non-polar states, whereas nonsense mutations result in a stop codon.Mutations that disrupt the reading frame sequence by indels (insertions or deletions) of a non-multiple of 3 nucleotide bases are known as frameshift mutations.", "These mutations usually result in a completely different translation from the original, and likely cause a stop codon to be read, which truncates the protein.", "These mutations may impair the protein's function and are thus rare in ''in vivo'' protein-coding sequences.", "One reason inheritance of frameshift mutations is rare is that, if the protein being translated is essential for growth under the selective pressures the organism faces, absence of a functional protein may cause death before the organism becomes viable.", "Frameshift mutations may result in severe genetic diseases such as Tay–Sachs disease.Although most mutations that change protein sequences are harmful or neutral, some mutations have benefits.", "These mutations may enable the mutant organism to withstand particular environmental stresses better than wild type organisms, or reproduce more quickly.", "In these cases a mutation will tend to become more common in a population through natural selection.", "Viruses that use RNA as their genetic material have rapid mutation rates, which can be an advantage, since these viruses thereby evolve rapidly, and thus evade the immune system defensive responses.", "In large populations of asexually reproducing organisms, for example, ''E.", "coli'', multiple beneficial mutations may co-occur.", "This phenomenon is called clonal interference and causes competition among the mutations.===Degeneracy===Grouping of codons by amino acid residue molar volume and hydropathicity.", "A more detailed version is available.single letter code.Degeneracy is the redundancy of the genetic code.", "This term was given by Bernfield and Nirenberg.", "The genetic code has redundancy but no ambiguity (see the codon tables below for the full correlation).", "For example, although codons GAA and GAG both specify glutamic acid (redundancy), neither specifies another amino acid (no ambiguity).", "The codons encoding one amino acid may differ in any of their three positions.", "For example, the amino acid leucine is specified by '''Y'''U'''R''' or CU'''N''' (UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA, or CUG) codons (difference in the first or third position indicated using IUPAC notation), while the amino acid serine is specified by UC'''N''' or AG'''Y''' (UCA, UCG, UCC, UCU, AGU, or AGC) codons (difference in the first, second, or third position).", "A practical consequence of redundancy is that errors in the third position of the triplet codon cause only a silent mutation or an error that would not affect the protein because the hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity is maintained by equivalent substitution of amino acids; for example, a codon of NUN (where N = any nucleotide) tends to code for hydrophobic amino acids.", "NCN yields amino acid residues that are small in size and moderate in hydropathicity; NAN encodes average size hydrophilic residues.", "The genetic code is so well-structured for hydropathicity that a mathematical analysis (Singular Value Decomposition) of 12 variables (4 nucleotides x 3 positions) yields a remarkable correlation (C = 0.95) for predicting the hydropathicity of the encoded amino acid directly from the triplet nucleotide sequence, ''without translation.''", "Note in the table, below, eight amino acids are not affected at all by mutations at the third position of the codon, whereas in the figure above, a mutation at the second position is likely to cause a radical change in the physicochemical properties of the encoded amino acid.Nevertheless, changes in the first position of the codons are more important than changes in the second position on a global scale.", "The reason may be that charge reversal (from a positive to a negative charge or vice versa) can only occur upon mutations in the first position of certain codons, but not upon changes in the second position of any codon.", "Such charge reversal may have dramatic consequences for the structure or function of a protein.", "This aspect may have been largely underestimated by previous studies.===Codon usage bias===The frequency of codons, also known as codon usage bias, can vary from species to species with functional implications for the control of translation.", "The codon varies by organism; for example, most common proline codon in E. coli is CCG, whereas in humans this is the least used proline codon.Codon AA Fraction Freq ‰ NumberCodon AA Fraction Freq ‰ NumberCodon AA Fraction Freq ‰ Number Codon AA Fraction Freq ‰ Number UUUF0.4617.6714,298UCUS0.1915.2618,711UAUY0.4412.2495,699UGUC0.4610.6430,311UUCF0.5420.3824,692UCCS0.2217.7718,892UACY0.5615.3622,407UGCC0.5412.6513,028UUAL0.087.7311,881UCAS0.1512.2496,448UAA*0.301.040,285UGA*0.471.663,237UUGL0.1312.9525,688UCGS0.054.4179,419UAG*0.240.832,109UGGW1.0013.2535,595CUUL0.1313.2536,515CCUP0.2917.5713,233CAUH0.4210.9441,711CGUR0.084.5184,609CUCL0.2019.6796,638CCCP0.3219.8804,620CACH0.5815.1613,713CGCR0.1810.4423,516CUAL0.077.2290,751CCAP0.2816.9688,038CAAQ0.2712.3501,911CGAR0.116.2250,760CUGL0.4039.61,611,801CCGP0.116.9281,570CAGQ0.7334.21,391,973CGGR0.2011.4464,485AUUI0.3616.0650,473ACUT0.2513.1533,609AAUN0.4717.0689,701AGUS0.1512.1493,429AUCI0.4720.8846,466ACCT0.3618.9768,147AACN0.5319.1776,603AGCS0.2419.5791,383AUAI0.177.5304,565ACAT0.2815.1614,523AAAK0.4324.4993,621AGAR0.2112.2494,682AUGM1.0022.0896,005ACGT0.116.1246,105AAGK0.5731.91,295,568AGGR0.2112.0486,463GUUV0.1811.0448,607GCUA0.2718.4750,096GAUD0.4621.8885,429GGUG0.1610.8437,126GUCV0.2414.5588,138GCCA0.4027.71,127,679GACD0.5425.11,020,595GGCG0.3422.2903,565GUAV0.127.1287,712GCAA0.2315.8643,471GAAE0.4229.01,177,632GGAG0.2516.5669,873GUGV0.4628.11,143,534GCGA0.117.4299,495GAGE0.5839.61,609,975GGGG0.2516.5669,768" ], [ "Alternative genetic codes", "=== Non-standard amino acids ===In some proteins, non-standard amino acids are substituted for standard stop codons, depending on associated signal sequences in the messenger RNA.", "For example, UGA can code for selenocysteine and UAG can code for pyrrolysine.", "Selenocysteine came to be seen as the 21st amino acid, and pyrrolysine as the 22nd.", "Unlike selenocysteine, pyrrolysine-encoded UAG is translated with the participation of a dedicated aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase.", "Both selenocysteine and pyrrolysine may be present in the same organism.", "Although the genetic code is normally fixed in an organism, the achaeal prokaryote ''Acetohalobium arabaticum'' can expand its genetic code from 20 to 21 amino acids (by including pyrrolysine) under different conditions of growth.=== Variations ===logo of the ''Globobulimina pseudospinescens'' mitochondrial genome by FACIL.", "The program is able to correctly infer that the Protozoan Mitochondrial Code is in use.", "The logo shows the 64 codons from left to right, predicted alternatives in red (relative to the standard genetic code).", "Red line: stop codons.", "The height of each amino acid in the stack shows how often it is aligned to the codon in homologous protein domains.", "The stack height indicates the support for the prediction.There was originally a simple and widely accepted argument that the genetic code should be universal: namely, that any variation in the genetic code would be lethal to the organism (although Crick had stated that viruses were an exception).", "This is known as the \"frozen accident\" argument for the universality of the genetic code.", "However, in his seminal paper on the origins of the genetic code in 1968, Francis Crick still stated that the universality of the genetic code in all organisms was an unproven assumption, and was probably not true in some instances.", "He predicted that \"The code is universal (the same in all organisms) or nearly so\".", "The first variation was discovered in 1979, by researchers studying human mitochondrial genes.", "Many slight variants were discovered thereafter, including various alternative mitochondrial codes.", "These minor variants for example involve translation of the codon UGA as tryptophan in ''Mycoplasma'' species, and translation of CUG as a serine rather than leucine in yeasts of the \"CTG clade\" (such as ''Candida albicans'').", "Because viruses must use the same genetic code as their hosts, modifications to the standard genetic code could interfere with viral protein synthesis or functioning.", "However, viruses such as totiviruses have adapted to the host's genetic code modification.", "In bacteria and archaea, GUG and UUG are common start codons.", "In rare cases, certain proteins may use alternative start codons.Surprisingly, variations in the interpretation of the genetic code exist also in human nuclear-encoded genes: In 2016, researchers studying the translation of malate dehydrogenase found that in about 4% of the mRNAs encoding this enzyme the stop codon is naturally used to encode the amino acids tryptophan and arginine.", "This type of recoding is induced by a high-readthrough stop codon context and it is referred to as ''functional translational readthrough''.Despite these differences, all known naturally occurring codes are very similar.", "The coding mechanism is the same for all organisms: three-base codons, tRNA, ribosomes, single direction reading and translating single codons into single amino acids.", "The most extreme variations occur in certain ciliates where the meaning of stop codons depends on their position within mRNA.", "When close to the 3' end they act as terminators while in internal positions they either code for amino acids as in ''Condylostoma magnum'' or trigger ribosomal frameshifting as in ''Euplotes''.The origins and variation of the genetic code, including the mechanisms behind the evolvability of the genetic code, have been widely studied, and some studies have been done experimentally evolving the genetic code of some organisms.=== Inference ===Variant genetic codes used by an organism can be inferred by identifying highly conserved genes encoded in that genome, and comparing its codon usage to the amino acids in homologous proteins of other organisms.", "For example, the program FACIL infers a genetic code by searching which amino acids in homologous protein domains are most often aligned to every codon.", "The resulting amino acid (or stop codon) probabilities for each codon are displayed in a genetic code logo.As of January 2022, the most complete survey of genetic codes is done by Shulgina and Eddy, who screened 250,000 prokaryotic genomes using their Codetta tool.", "This tool uses a similar approach to FACIL with a larger Pfam database.", "Despite the NCBI already providing 27 translation tables, the authors were able to find new 5 genetic code variations (corroborated by tRNA mutations) and correct several misattributions.", "Codetta was later used to analyze genetic code change in ciliates." ], [ "Origin", "The genetic code is a key part of the history of life, according to one version of which self-replicating RNA molecules preceded life as we know it.", "This is the RNA world hypothesis.", "Under this hypothesis, any model for the emergence of the genetic code is intimately related to a model of the transfer from ribozymes (RNA enzymes) to proteins as the principal enzymes in cells.", "In line with the RNA world hypothesis, transfer RNA molecules appear to have evolved before modern aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, so the latter cannot be part of the explanation of its patterns.A hypothetical randomly evolved genetic code further motivates a biochemical or evolutionary model for its origin.", "If amino acids were randomly assigned to triplet codons, there would be 1.5 × 1084 possible genetic codes.", "This number is found by calculating the number of ways that 21 items (20 amino acids plus one stop) can be placed in 64 bins, wherein each item is used at least once.", "However, the distribution of codon assignments in the genetic code is nonrandom.", "In particular, the genetic code clusters certain amino acid assignments.Amino acids that share the same biosynthetic pathway tend to have the same first base in their codons.", "This could be an evolutionary relic of an early, simpler genetic code with fewer amino acids that later evolved to code a larger set of amino acids.", "It could also reflect steric and chemical properties that had another effect on the codon during its evolution.", "Amino acids with similar physical properties also tend to have similar codons, reducing the problems caused by point mutations and mistranslations.Given the non-random genetic triplet coding scheme, a tenable hypothesis for the origin of genetic code could address multiple aspects of the codon table, such as absence of codons for D-amino acids, secondary codon patterns for some amino acids, confinement of synonymous positions to third position, the small set of only 20 amino acids (instead of a number approaching 64), and the relation of stop codon patterns to amino acid coding patterns.Three main hypotheses address the origin of the genetic code.", "Many models belong to one of them or to a hybrid:*Random freeze: the genetic code was randomly created.", "For example, early tRNA-like ribozymes may have had different affinities for amino acids, with codons emerging from another part of the ribozyme that exhibited random variability.", "Once enough peptides were coded for, any major random change in the genetic code would have been lethal; hence it became \"frozen\".", "*Stereochemical affinity: the genetic code is a result of a high affinity between each amino acid and its codon or anti-codon; the latter option implies that pre-tRNA molecules matched their corresponding amino acids by this affinity.", "Later during evolution, this matching was gradually replaced with matching by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases.", "*Optimality: the genetic code continued to evolve after its initial creation, so that the current code maximizes some fitness function, usually some kind of error minimization.Hypotheses have addressed a variety of scenarios:* Chemical principles govern specific RNA interaction with amino acids.", "Experiments with aptamers showed that some amino acids have a selective chemical affinity for their codons.", "Experiments showed that of 8 amino acids tested, 6 show some RNA triplet-amino acid association.", "* Biosynthetic expansion.", "The genetic code grew from a simpler earlier code through a process of \"biosynthetic expansion\".", "Primordial life \"discovered\" new amino acids (for example, as by-products of metabolism) and later incorporated some of these into the machinery of genetic coding.", "Although much circumstantial evidence has been found to suggest that fewer amino acid types were used in the past, precise and detailed hypotheses about which amino acids entered the code in what order are controversial.", "However, several studies have suggested that Gly, Ala, Asp, Val, Ser, Pro, Glu, Leu, Thr may belong to a group of early-addition amino acids, whereas Cys, Met, Tyr, Trp, His, Phe may belong to a group of later-addition amino acids.", "* Natural selection has led to codon assignments of the genetic code that minimize the effects of mutations.", "A recent hypothesis suggests that the triplet code was derived from codes that used longer than triplet codons (such as quadruplet codons).", "Longer than triplet decoding would increase codon redundancy and would be more error resistant.", "This feature could allow accurate decoding absent complex translational machinery such as the ribosome, such as before cells began making ribosomes.", "* Information channels: Information-theoretic approaches model the process of translating the genetic code into corresponding amino acids as an error-prone information channel.", "The inherent noise (that is, the error) in the channel poses the organism with a fundamental question: how can a genetic code be constructed to withstand noise while accurately and efficiently translating information?", "These \"rate-distortion\" models suggest that the genetic code originated as a result of the interplay of the three conflicting evolutionary forces: the needs for diverse amino acids, for error-tolerance and for minimal resource cost.", "The code emerges at a transition when the mapping of codons to amino acids becomes nonrandom.", "The code's emergence is governed by the topology defined by the probable errors and is related to the map coloring problem.", "*Game theory: Models based on signaling games combine elements of game theory, natural selection and information channels.", "Such models have been used to suggest that the first polypeptides were likely short and had non-enzymatic function.", "Game theoretic models suggested that the organization of RNA strings into cells may have been necessary to prevent \"deceptive\" use of the genetic code, i.e.", "preventing the ancient equivalent of viruses from overwhelming the RNA world.", "*Stop codons: Codons for translational stops are also an interesting aspect to the problem of the origin of the genetic code.", "As an example for addressing stop codon evolution, it has been suggested that the stop codons are such that they are most likely to terminate translation early in the case of a frame shift error.", "In contrast, some stereochemical molecular models explain the origin of stop codons as \"unassignable\"." ], [ "See also", "* List of genetic engineering software* Codon tables" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* The Genetic Codes: Genetic Code Tables* The Codon Usage Database — Codon frequency tables for many organisms* History of deciphering the genetic code" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Golden ratio" ], [ "Introduction", "A golden rectangle with long side and short side can be divided into two pieces: a similar golden rectangle (shaded red, right) with long side and short side and a square (shaded blue, left) with sides of length .", "This illustrates the relationship In mathematics, two quantities are in the '''golden ratio''' if their ratio is the same as the ratio of their sum to the larger of the two quantities.", "Expressed algebraically, for quantities and with , is in a golden ratio to ifwhere the Greek letter phi ( or ) denotes the golden ratio.", "The constant satisfies the quadratic equation and is an irrational number with a value ofThe golden ratio was called the '''extreme and mean ratio''' by Euclid, and the '''divine proportion''' by Luca Pacioli, and also goes by several other names.Mathematicians have studied the golden ratio's properties since antiquity.", "It is the ratio of a regular pentagon's diagonal to its side and thus appears in the construction of the dodecahedron and icosahedron.", "A golden rectangle—that is, a rectangle with an aspect ratio of —may be cut into a square and a smaller rectangle with the same aspect ratio.", "The golden ratio has been used to analyze the proportions of natural objects and artificial systems such as financial markets, in some cases based on dubious fits to data.", "The golden ratio appears in some patterns in nature, including the spiral arrangement of leaves and other parts of vegetation.Some 20th-century artists and architects, including Le Corbusier and Salvador Dalí, have proportioned their works to approximate the golden ratio, believing it to be aesthetically pleasing.", "These uses often appear in the form of a golden rectangle." ], [ "Calculation", "Two quantities and are in the ''golden ratio'' ifOne method for finding a closed form for starts with the left fraction.", "Simplifying the fraction and substituting the reciprocal ,Therefore,Multiplying by giveswhich can be rearranged toThe quadratic formula yields two solutions:Because is a ratio between positive quantities, is necessarily the positive root.", "The negative root is in fact the negative inverse , which shares many properties with the golden ratio." ], [ "History", "According to Mario Livio,Ancient Greek mathematicians first studied the golden ratio because of its frequent appearance in geometry; the division of a line into \"extreme and mean ratio\" (the golden section) is important in the geometry of regular pentagrams and pentagons.", "According to one story, 5th-century BC mathematician Hippasus discovered that the golden ratio was neither a whole number nor a fraction (it is irrational), surprising Pythagoreans.", "Euclid's ''Elements'' () provides several propositions and their proofs employing the golden ratio, and contains its first known definition which proceeds as follows:Michael Maestlin, the first to write a decimal approximation of the ratioThe golden ratio was studied peripherally over the next millennium.", "Abu Kamil (c. 850–930) employed it in his geometric calculations of pentagons and decagons; his writings influenced that of Fibonacci (Leonardo of Pisa) (c. 1170–1250), who used the ratio in related geometry problems but did not observe that it was connected to the Fibonacci numbers.Luca Pacioli named his book ''Divina proportione'' (1509) after the ratio; the book, largely plagiarized from Piero della Francesca, explored its properties including its appearance in some of the Platonic solids.", "Leonardo da Vinci, who illustrated Pacioli's book, called the ratio the ''sectio aurea'' ('golden section').", "Though it is often said that Pacioli advocated the golden ratio's application to yield pleasing, harmonious proportions, Livio points out that the interpretation has been traced to an error in 1799, and that Pacioli actually advocated the Vitruvian system of rational proportions.", "Pacioli also saw Catholic religious significance in the ratio, which led to his work's title.", "16th-century mathematicians such as Rafael Bombelli solved geometric problems using the ratio.German mathematician Simon Jacob (d. 1564) noted that consecutive Fibonacci numbers converge to the golden ratio; this was rediscovered by Johannes Kepler in 1608.The first known decimal approximation of the (inverse) golden ratio was stated as \"about \" in 1597 by Michael Maestlin of the University of Tübingen in a letter to Kepler, his former student.", "The same year, Kepler wrote to Maestlin of the Kepler triangle, which combines the golden ratio with the Pythagorean theorem.", "Kepler said of these:Eighteenth-century mathematicians Abraham de Moivre, Nicolaus I Bernoulli, and Leonhard Euler used a golden ratio-based formula which finds the value of a Fibonacci number based on its placement in the sequence; in 1843, this was rediscovered by Jacques Philippe Marie Binet, for whom it was named \"Binet's formula\".", "Martin Ohm first used the German term ''goldener Schnitt'' ('golden section') to describe the ratio in 1835.James Sully used the equivalent English term in 1875.By 1910, inventor Mark Barr began using the Greek letter phi as a symbol for the golden ratio.", "It has also been represented by tau the first letter of the ancient Greek τομή ('cut' or 'section').Dan Shechtman demonstrates quasicrystals at the NIST in 1985 using a Zometoy model.The zome construction system, developed by Steve Baer in the late 1960s, is based on the symmetry system of the icosahedron/dodecahedron, and uses the golden ratio ubiquitously.", "Between 1973 and 1974, Roger Penrose developed Penrose tiling, a pattern related to the golden ratio both in the ratio of areas of its two rhombic tiles and in their relative frequency within the pattern.", "This gained in interest after Dan Shechtman's Nobel-winning 1982 discovery of quasicrystals with icosahedral symmetry, which were soon afterward explained through analogies to the Penrose tiling." ], [ "Mathematics", "===Irrationality===The golden ratio is an irrational number.", "Below are two short proofs of irrationality:====Contradiction from an expression in lowest terms====rational, then it would be the ratio of sides of a rectangle with integer sides (the rectangle comprising the entire diagram).", "But it would also be a ratio of integer sides of the smaller rectangle (the rightmost portion of the diagram) obtained by deleting a square.", "The sequence of decreasing integer side lengths formed by deleting squares cannot be continued indefinitely because the positive integers have a lower bound, so cannot be rational.This is a proof by infinite descent.", "Recall that:If we call the whole and the longer part then the second statement above becomesTo say that the golden ratio is rational means that is a fraction where and are integers.", "We may take to be in lowest terms and and to be positive.", "But if is in lowest terms, then the equally valued is in still lower terms.", "That is a contradiction that follows from the assumption that is rational.====By irrationality of ====Another short proof – perhaps more commonly known – of the irrationality of the golden ratio makes use of the closure of rational numbers under addition and multiplication.", "If is rational, then is also rational, which is a contradiction if it is already known that the square root of all non-square natural numbers are irrational.===Minimal polynomial===quadratic polynomial .", "The golden ratio's negative and reciprocal are the two roots of the quadratic polynomial .The golden ratio is also an algebraic number and even an algebraic integer.", "It has minimal polynomialThis quadratic polynomial has two roots, and The golden ratio is also closely related to the polynomialwhich has roots and As the root of a quadratic polynomial, the golden ratio is a constructible number.===Golden ratio conjugate and powers===The conjugate root to the minimal polynomial isThe absolute value of this quantity corresponds to the length ratio taken in reverse order (shorter segment length over longer segment length, ).This illustrates the unique property of the golden ratio among positive numbers, thator its inverse:The conjugate and the defining quadratic polynomial relationship lead to decimal values that have their fractional part in common with :The sequence of powers of contains these values more generally,any power of is equal to the sum of the two immediately preceding powers:As a result, one can easily decompose any power of into a multiple of and a constant.", "The multiple and the constant are always adjacent Fibonacci numbers.", "This leads to another property of the positive powers of :If then:===Continued fraction and square root===Approximations to the reciprocal golden ratio by finite continued fractions, or ratios of Fibonacci numbersThe formula can be expanded recursively to obtain a continued fraction for the golden ratio:It is in fact the simplest form of a continued fraction, alongside its reciprocal form:The convergents of these continued fractions ... or are ratios of successive Fibonacci numbers.", "The consistently small terms in its continued fraction explain why the approximants converge so slowly.", "This makes the golden ratio an extreme case of the Hurwitz inequality for Diophantine approximations, which states that for every irrational , there are infinitely many distinct fractions such that,This means that the constant cannot be improved without excluding the golden ratio.", "It is, in fact, the smallest number that must be excluded to generate closer approximations of such Lagrange numbers.A continued square root form for can be obtained from , yielding:===Relationship to Fibonacci and Lucas numbers===Fibonacci numbers and Lucas numbers have an intricate relationship with the golden ratio.", "In the Fibonacci sequence, each number is equal to the sum of the preceding two, starting with the base sequence :The sequence of Lucas numbers (not to be confused with the generalized Lucas sequences, of which this is part) is like the Fibonacci sequence, in which each term is the sum of the previous two, however instead starts with :Exceptionally, the golden ratio is equal to the limit of the ratios of successive terms in the Fibonacci sequence and sequence of Lucas numbers:In other words, if a Fibonacci and Lucas number is divided by its immediate predecessor in the sequence, the quotient approximates .For example, and These approximations are alternately lower and higher than and converge to as the Fibonacci and Lucas numbers increase.Closed-form expressions for the Fibonacci and Lucas sequences that involve the golden ratio are:Combining both formulas above, one obtains a formula for that involves both Fibonacci and Lucas numbers:Between Fibonacci and Lucas numbers one can deduce which simplifies to express the limit of the quotient of Lucas numbers by Fibonacci numbers as equal to the square root of five:Indeed, much stronger statements are true:::These values describe as a fundamental unit of the algebraic number field .Successive powers of the golden ratio obey the Fibonacci recurrence, i.e.", "The reduction to a linear expression can be accomplished in one step by using:This identity allows any polynomial in to be reduced to a linear expression, as in:Consecutive Fibonacci numbers can also be used to obtain a similar formula for the golden ratio, here by infinite summation:In particular, the powers of themselves round to Lucas numbers (in order, except for the first two powers, and , are in reverse order):and so forth.", "The Lucas numbers also directly generate powers of the golden ratio; for :Rooted in their interconnecting relationship with the golden ratio is the notion that the sum of ''third'' consecutive Fibonacci numbers equals a Lucas number, that is ; and, importantly, that .Both the Fibonacci sequence and the sequence of Lucas numbers can be used to generate approximate forms of the golden spiral (which is a special form of a logarithmic spiral) using quarter-circles with radii from these sequences, differing only slightly from the ''true'' golden logarithmic spiral.", "''Fibonacci spiral'' is generally the term used for spirals that approximate golden spirals using Fibonacci number-sequenced squares and quarter-circles.===Geometry===The golden ratio features prominently in geometry.", "For example, it is intrinsically involved in the internal symmetry of the pentagon, and extends to form part of the coordinates of the vertices of a regular dodecahedron, as well as those of a 5-cell.", "It features in the Kepler triangle and Penrose tilings too, as well as in various other polytopes.====Construction===='''Dividing by interior division'''# Having a line segment construct a perpendicular at point with half the length of Draw the hypotenuse # Draw an arc with center and radius This arc intersects the hypotenuse at point # Draw an arc with center and radius This arc intersects the original line segment at point Point divides the original line segment into line segments and with lengths in the golden ratio.", "'''Dividing by exterior division'''# Draw a line segment and construct off the point a segment perpendicular to and with the same length as # Do bisect the line segment with # A circular arc around with radius intersects in point the straight line through points and (also known as the extension of ).", "The ratio of to the constructed segment is the golden ratio.Application examples you can see in the articles Pentagon with a given side length, Decagon with given circumcircle and Decagon with a given side length.Both of the above displayed different algorithms produce geometric constructions that determine two aligned line segments where the ratio of the longer one to the shorter one is the golden ratio.====Golden angle====When two angles that make a full circle have measures in the golden ratio, the smaller is called the ''golden angle'', with measure This angle occurs in patterns of plant growth as the optimal spacing of leaf shoots around plant stems so that successive leaves do not block sunlight from the leaves below them.====Pentagonal symmetry system=========Pentagon and pentagram=====A pentagram colored to distinguish its line segments of different lengths.", "The fourlengths are in golden ratio to one another.In a regular pentagon the ratio of a diagonal to a side is the golden ratio, while intersecting diagonals section each other in the golden ratio.", "The golden ratio properties of a regular pentagon can be confirmed by applying Ptolemy's theorem to the quadrilateral formed by removing one of its vertices.", "If the quadrilateral's long edge and diagonals are and short edges are then Ptolemy's theorem gives Dividing both sides by yields (see above),The diagonal segments of a pentagon form a pentagram, or five-pointed star polygon, whose geometry is quintessentially described by .", "Primarily, each intersection of edges sections other edges in the golden ratio.", "The ratio of the length of the shorter segment to the segment bounded by the two intersecting edges (that is, a side of the inverted pentagon in the pentagram's center) is as the four-color illustration shows.Pentagonal and pentagrammic geometry permits us to calculate the following values for :=====Golden triangle and golden gnomon=====golden triangle can be subdivided by an angle bisector into a smaller golden triangle and a golden gnomon .The triangle formed by two diagonals and a side of a regular pentagon is called a ''golden triangle'' or ''sublime triangle''.", "It is an acute isosceles triangle with apex angle 36° and base angles 72°.", "Its two equal sides are in the golden ratio to its base.", "The triangle formed by two sides and a diagonal of a regular pentagon is called a ''golden gnomon''.", "It is an obtuse isosceles triangle with apex angle 108° and base angle 36°.", "Its base is in the golden ratio to its two equal sides.", "The pentagon can thus be subdivided into two golden gnomons and a central golden triangle.", "The five points of a regular pentagram are golden triangles, as are the ten triangles formed by connecting the vertices of a regular decagon to its center point.Bisecting one of the base angles of the golden triangle subdivides it into a smaller golden triangle and a golden gnomon.", "Analogously, any acute isosceles triangle can be subdivided into a similar triangle and an obtuse isosceles triangle, but the golden triangle is the only one for which this subdivision is made by the angle bisector, because it is the only isosceles triangle whose base angle is twice its apex angle.", "The angle bisector of the golden triangle subdivides the side that it meets in the golden ratio, and the areas of the two subdivided pieces are also in the golden ratio.If the apex angle of the golden gnomon is trisected, the trisector again subdivides it into a smaller golden gnomon and a golden triangle.", "The trisector subdivides the base in the golden ratio, and the two pieces have areas in the golden ratio.", "Analogously, any obtuse triangle can be subdivided into a similar triangle and an acute isosceles triangle, but the golden gnomon is the only one for which this subdivision is made by the angle trisector, because it is the only isosceles triangle whose apex angle is three times its base angle.=====Penrose tilings=====The kite and dart tiles of the Penrose tiling.", "The colored arcs divide each edge in the golden ratio; when two tiles share an edge, their arcs must match.The golden ratio appears prominently in the ''Penrose tiling'', a family of aperiodic tilings of the plane developed by Roger Penrose, inspired by Johannes Kepler's remark that pentagrams, decagons, and other shapes could fill gaps that pentagonal shapes alone leave when tiled together.", "Several variations of this tiling have been studied, all of whose prototiles exhibit the golden ratio:*Penrose's original version of this tiling used four shapes: regular pentagons and pentagrams, \"boat\" figures with three points of a pentagram, and \"diamond\" shaped rhombi.", "*The kite and dart Penrose tiling uses kites with three interior angles of 72° and one interior angle of 144°, and darts, concave quadrilaterals with two interior angles of 36°, one of 72°, and one non-convex angle of 216°.", "Special matching rules restrict how the tiles can meet at any edge, resulting in seven combinations of tiles at any vertex.", "Both the kites and darts have sides of two lengths, in the golden ratio to each other.", "The areas of these two tile shapes are also in the golden ratio to each other.", "*The kite and dart can each be cut on their symmetry axes into a pair of golden triangles and golden gnomons, respectively.", "With suitable matching rules, these triangles, called in this context ''Robinson triangles'', can be used as the prototiles for a form of the Penrose tiling.", "*The rhombic Penrose tiling contains two types of rhombus, a thin rhombus with angles of 36° and 144°, and a thick rhombus with angles of 72° and 108°.", "All side lengths are equal, but the ratio of the length of sides to the short diagonal in the thin rhombus equals , as does the ratio of the sides of to the long diagonal of the thick rhombus.", "As with the kite and dart tiling, the areas of the two rhombi are in the golden ratio to each other.", "Again, these rhombi can be decomposed into pairs of Robinson triangles.====In triangles and quadrilaterals=========Odom's construction=====Odom's construction: George Odom found a construction for involving an equilateral triangle: if the line segment joining the midpoints of two sides is extended to intersect the circumcircle, then the two midpoints and the point of intersection with the circle are in golden proportion.=====Kepler triangle=====The ''Kepler triangle'', named after Johannes Kepler, is the unique right triangle with sides in geometric progression:These side lengths are the three Pythagorean means of the two numbers .", "The three squares on its sides have areas in the golden geometric progression .Among isosceles triangles, the ratio of inradius to side length is maximized for the triangle formed by two reflected copies of the Kepler triangle, sharing the longer of their two legs.", "The same isosceles triangle maximizes the ratio of the radius of a semicircle on its base to its perimeter.For a Kepler triangle with smallest side length , the area and acute internal angles are:=====Golden rectangle=====with only a straightedge and compass in four simple steps:Draw a square.Draw a line from the midpoint of one side of the square to an opposite corner.Use that line as the radius to draw an arc that defines the height of the rectangle.Complete the golden rectangle.The golden ratio proportions the adjacent side lengths of a ''golden rectangle'' in ratio.", "Stacking golden rectangles produces golden rectangles anew, and removing or adding squares from golden rectangles leaves rectangles still proportioned in ratio.", "They can be generated by ''golden spirals'', through successive Fibonacci and Lucas number-sized squares and quarter circles.", "They feature prominently in the icosahedron as well as in the dodecahedron (see section below for more detail).=====Golden rhombus=====A ''golden rhombus'' is a rhombus whose diagonals are in proportion to the golden ratio, most commonly .", "For a rhombus of such proportions, its acute angle and obtuse angles are:The lengths of its short and long diagonals and , in terms of side length are:Its area, in terms of ,and :Its inradius, in terms of side :Golden rhombi form the faces of the rhombic triacontahedron, the two golden rhombohedra, the Bilinski dodecahedron, and the rhombic hexecontahedron.====Golden spiral====The golden spiral (red) and its approximation by quarter-circles (green), with overlaps shown in yellowA logarithmic spiral whose radius grows by the golden ratio per 108° of turn, surrounding nested golden isosceles triangles.", "This is a different spiral from the golden spiral, which grows by the golden ratio per 90° of turn.Logarithmic spirals are self-similar spirals where distances covered per turn are in geometric progression.", "A logarithmic spiral whose radius increases by a factor of the golden ratio for each quarter-turn is called the golden spiral.", "These spirals can be approximated by quarter-circles that grow by the golden ratio, or their approximations generated from Fibonacci numbers, often depicted inscribed within a spiraling pattern of squares growing in the same ratio.", "The exact logarithmic spiral form of the golden spiral can be described by the polar equation with :Not all logarithmic spirals are connected to the golden ratio, and not all spirals that are connected to the golden ratio are the same shape as the golden spiral.", "For instance, a different logarithmic spiral, encasing a nested sequence of golden isosceles triangles, grows by the golden ratio for each 108° that it turns, instead of the 90° turning angle of the golden spiral.", "Another variation, called the \"better golden spiral\", grows by the golden ratio for each half-turn, rather than each quarter-turn.====In the dodecahedron and icosahedron====Cartesian coordinates of the dodecahedron : A nested cube inside the dodecahedron is represented with dotted lines.The regular dodecahedron and its dual polyhedron the icosahedron are Platonic solids whose dimensions are related to the golden ratio.", "An icosahedron is made of regular pentagonal faces, whereas the icosahedron is made of equilateral triangles; both with edges.For a dodecahedron of side , the radius of a circumscribed and inscribed sphere, and midradius are ( and respectively):While for an icosahedron of side , the radius of a circumscribed and inscribed sphere, and midradius are:The volume and surface area of the dodecahedron can be expressed in terms of :As well as for the icosahedron:Three golden rectangles touch all of the vertices of a regular icosahedron.These geometric values can be calculated from their Cartesian coordinates, which also can be given using formulas involving .", "The coordinates of the dodecahedron are displayed on the figure above, while those of the icosahedron are the cyclic permutations of:Sets of three golden rectangles intersect perpendicularly inside dodecahedra and icosahedra, forming Borromean rings.", "In dodecahedra, pairs of opposing vertices in golden rectangles meet the centers of pentagonal faces, and in icosahedra, they meet at its vertices.", "In all, the three golden rectangles contain vertices of the icosahedron, or equivalently, intersect the centers of of the dodecahedron's faces.A cube can be inscribed in a regular dodecahedron, with some of the diagonals of the pentagonal faces of the dodecahedron serving as the cube's edges; therefore, the edge lengths are in the golden ratio.", "The cube's volume is times that of the dodecahedron's.", "In fact, golden rectangles inside a dodecahedron are in golden proportions to an inscribed cube, such that edges of a cube and the long edges of a golden rectangle are themselves in ratio.", "On the other hand, the octahedron, which is the dual polyhedron of the cube, can inscribe an icosahedron, such that an icosahedron's vertices touch the edges of an octahedron at points that divide its edges in golden ratio.Other polyhedra are related to the dodecahedron and icosahedron or their symmetries, and therefore have corresponding relations to the golden ratio.", "These include the compound of five cubes, compound of five octahedra, compound of five tetrahedra, the compound of ten tetrahedra, rhombic triacontahedron, icosidodecahedron, truncated icosahedron, truncated dodecahedron, and rhombicosidodecahedron, rhombic enneacontahedron, and Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra, and rhombic hexecontahedron.", "In four dimensions, the dodecahedron and icosahedron appear as faces of the 120-cell and 600-cell, which again have dimensions related to the golden ratio.===Other properties===The golden ratio's ''decimal expansion'' can be calculated via root-finding methods, such as Newton's method or Halley's method, on the equation or on (to compute first).", "The time needed to compute digits of the golden ratio using Newton's method is essentially , where is the time complexity of multiplying two -digit numbers.", "This is considerably faster than known algorithms for and .", "An easily programmed alternative using only integer arithmetic is to calculate two large consecutive Fibonacci numbers and divide them.", "The ratio of Fibonacci numbers and each over digits, yields over significant digits of the golden ratio.", "The decimal expansion of the golden ratio has been calculated to an accuracy of ten trillion digits.In the complex plane, the fifth roots of unity (for an integer ) satisfying are the vertices of a pentagon.", "They do not form a ring of quadratic integers, however the sum of any fifth root of unity and its complex conjugate, ''is'' a quadratic integer, an element of Specifically,This also holds for the remaining tenth roots of unity satisfying For the gamma function , the only solutions to the equation are and .When the golden ratio is used as the base of a numeral system (see golden ratio base, sometimes dubbed ''phinary'' or ''-nary''), quadratic integers in the ring – that is, numbers of the form for – have terminating representations, but rational fractions have non-terminating representations.The golden ratio also appears in hyperbolic geometry, as the maximum distance from a point on one side of an ideal triangle to the closer of the other two sides: this distance, the side length of the equilateral triangle formed by the points of tangency of a circle inscribed within the ideal triangle, is The golden ratio appears in the theory of modular functions as well.", "For , letThenandwhere and in the continued fraction should be evaluated as .", "The function is invariant under , a congruence subgroup of the modular group.", "Also for positive real numbers and then is a Pisot–Vijayaraghavan number." ], [ "Applications and observations", "Rhythms apparent to the eye: rectangles in aspect ratios (left, middle) and (right side) tile the square.===Architecture===The Swiss architect Le Corbusier, famous for his contributions to the modern international style, centered his design philosophy on systems of harmony and proportion.", "Le Corbusier's faith in the mathematical order of the universe was closely bound to the golden ratio and the Fibonacci series, which he described as \"rhythms apparent to the eye and clear in their relations with one another.", "And these rhythms are at the very root of human activities.", "They resound in man by an organic inevitability, the same fine inevitability which causes the tracing out of the Golden Section by children, old men, savages and the learned.", "\"Le Corbusier explicitly used the golden ratio in his Modulor system for the scale of architectural proportion.", "He saw this system as a continuation of the long tradition of Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci's \"Vitruvian Man\", the work of Leon Battista Alberti, and others who used the proportions of the human body to improve the appearance and function of architecture.In addition to the golden ratio, Le Corbusier based the system on human measurements, Fibonacci numbers, and the double unit.", "He took suggestion of the golden ratio in human proportions to an extreme: he sectioned his model human body's height at the navel with the two sections in golden ratio, then subdivided those sections in golden ratio at the knees and throat; he used these golden ratio proportions in the Modulor system.", "Le Corbusier's 1927 Villa Stein in Garches exemplified the Modulor system's application.", "The villa's rectangular ground plan, elevation, and inner structure closely approximate golden rectangles.Another Swiss architect, Mario Botta, bases many of his designs on geometric figures.", "Several private houses he designed in Switzerland are composed of squares and circles, cubes and cylinders.", "In a house he designed in Origlio, the golden ratio is the proportion between the central section and the side sections of the house.===Art===Da Vinci's illustration of a dodecahedron from Pacioli's ''Divina proportione'' (1509)Leonardo da Vinci's illustrations of polyhedra in Pacioli's ''Divina proportione'' have led some to speculate that he incorporated the golden ratio in his paintings.", "But the suggestion that his ''Mona Lisa'', for example, employs golden ratio proportions, is not supported by Leonardo's own writings.", "Similarly, although Leonardo's ''Vitruvian Man'' is often shown in connection with the golden ratio, the proportions of the figure do not actually match it, and the text only mentions whole number ratios.Salvador Dalí, influenced by the works of Matila Ghyka, explicitly used the golden ratio in his masterpiece, ''The Sacrament of the Last Supper''.", "The dimensions of the canvas are a golden rectangle.", "A huge dodecahedron, in perspective so that edges appear in golden ratio to one another, is suspended above and behind Jesus and dominates the composition.A statistical study on 565 works of art of different great painters, performed in 1999, found that these artists had not used the golden ratio in the size of their canvases.", "The study concluded that the average ratio of the two sides of the paintings studied is with averages for individual artists ranging from (Goya) to (Bellini).", "On the other hand, Pablo Tosto listed over 350 works by well-known artists, including more than 100 which have canvasses with golden rectangle and proportions, and others with proportions like and Depiction of the proportions in a medieval manuscript.", "According to Jan Tschichold: \"Page proportion 2:3.Margin proportions 1:1:2:3.Text area proportioned in the Golden Section.", "\"===Books and design===According to Jan Tschichold,There was a time when deviations from the truly beautiful page proportions and the Golden Section were rare.", "Many books produced between 1550 and 1770 show these proportions exactly, to within half a millimeter.According to some sources, the golden ratio is used in everyday design, for example in the proportions of playing cards, postcards, posters, light switch plates, and widescreen televisions.===Flags===The flag of Togo, whose aspect ratio uses the golden ratioThe aspect ratio (width to height ratio) of the flag of Togo was intended to be the golden ratio, according to its designer.===Music===Ernő Lendvai analyzes Béla Bartók's works as being based on two opposing systems, that of the golden ratio and the acoustic scale, though other music scholars reject that analysis.", "French composer Erik Satie used the golden ratio in several of his pieces, including ''Sonneries de la Rose+Croix''.", "The golden ratio is also apparent in the organization of the sections in the music of Debussy's ''Reflets dans l'eau (Reflections in Water)'', from ''Images'' (1st series, 1905), in which \"the sequence of keys is marked out by the intervals and and the main climax sits at the phi position\".The musicologist Roy Howat has observed that the formal boundaries of Debussy's ''La Mer'' correspond exactly to the golden section.", "Trezise finds the intrinsic evidence \"remarkable\", but cautions that no written or reported evidence suggests that Debussy consciously sought such proportions.Music theorists including Hans Zender and Heinz Bohlen have experimented with the 833 cents scale, a musical scale based on using the golden ratio as its fundamental musical interval.", "When measured in cents, a logarithmic scale for musical intervals, the golden ratio is approximately 833.09 cents.===Nature===Detail of the saucer plant, ''Aeonium tabuliforme'', showing the multiple spiral arrangement (parastichy)Johannes Kepler wrote that \"the image of man and woman stems from the divine proportion.", "In my opinion, the propagation of plants and the progenitive acts of animals are in the same ratio\".The psychologist Adolf Zeising noted that the golden ratio appeared in phyllotaxis and argued from these patterns in nature that the golden ratio was a universal law.", "Zeising wrote in 1854 of a universal orthogenetic law of \"striving for beauty and completeness in the realms of both nature and art\".However, some have argued that many apparent manifestations of the golden ratio in nature, especially in regard to animal dimensions, are fictitious.===Physics===The quasi-one-dimensional Ising ferromagnet CoNb2O6 (cobalt niobate) has 8 predicted excitation states (with E8 symmetry), that when probed with neutron scattering, showed its lowest two were in golden ratio.", "Specifically, these quantum phase transitions during spin excitation, which occur at near absolute zero temperature, showed pairs of kinks in its ordered-phase to spin-flips in its paramagnetic phase; revealing, just below its critical field, a spin dynamics with sharp modes at low energies approaching the golden mean.===Optimization===There is no known general algorithm to arrange a given number of nodes evenly on a sphere, for any of several definitions of even distribution (see, for example, ''Thomson problem'' or ''Tammes problem'').", "However, a useful approximation results from dividing the sphere into parallel bands of equal surface area and placing one node in each band at longitudes spaced by a golden section of the circle, i.e.", "This method was used to arrange the 1500 mirrors of the student-participatory satellite Starshine-3.The golden ratio is a critical element to golden-section search as well." ], [ "Disputed observations", "Examples of disputed observations of the golden ratio include the following:Nautilus shells are often erroneously claimed to be golden-proportioned.", "* Specific proportions in the bodies of vertebrates (including humans) are often claimed to be in the golden ratio; for example the ratio of successive phalangeal and metacarpal bones (finger bones) has been said to approximate the golden ratio.", "There is a large variation in the real measures of these elements in specific individuals, however, and the proportion in question is often significantly different from the golden ratio.", "* The shells of mollusks such as the nautilus are often claimed to be in the golden ratio.", "The growth of nautilus shells follows a logarithmic spiral, and it is sometimes erroneously claimed that any logarithmic spiral is related to the golden ratio, or sometimes claimed that each new chamber is golden-proportioned relative to the previous one.", "However, measurements of nautilus shells do not support this claim.", "* Historian John Man states that both the pages and text area of the Gutenberg Bible were \"based on the golden section shape\".", "However, according to his own measurements, the ratio of height to width of the pages is * Studies by psychologists, starting with Gustav Fechner , have been devised to test the idea that the golden ratio plays a role in human perception of beauty.", "While Fechner found a preference for rectangle ratios centered on the golden ratio, later attempts to carefully test such a hypothesis have been, at best, inconclusive.", "* In investing, some practitioners of technical analysis use the golden ratio to indicate support of a price level, or resistance to price increases, of a stock or commodity; after significant price changes up or down, new support and resistance levels are supposedly found at or near prices related to the starting price via the golden ratio.", "The use of the golden ratio in investing is also related to more complicated patterns described by Fibonacci numbers (e.g.", "Elliott wave principle and Fibonacci retracement).", "However, other market analysts have published analyses suggesting that these percentages and patterns are not supported by the data.===Egyptian pyramids===The Great Pyramid of GizaThe Great Pyramid of Giza (also known as the Pyramid of Cheops or Khufu) has been analyzed by pyramidologists as having a doubled Kepler triangle as its cross-section.", "If this theory were true, the golden ratio would describe the ratio of distances from the midpoint of one of the sides of the pyramid to its apex, and from the same midpoint to the center of the pyramid's base.", "However, imprecision in measurement caused in part by the removal of the outer surface of the pyramid makes it impossible to distinguish this theory from other numerical theories of the proportions of the pyramid, based on pi or on whole-number ratios.", "The consensus of modern scholars is that this pyramid's proportions are not based on the golden ratio, because such a basis would be inconsistent both with what is known about Egyptian mathematics from the time of construction of the pyramid, and with Egyptian theories of architecture and proportion used in their other works.===The Parthenon===Many of the proportions of the Parthenon are alleged to exhibit the golden ratio, but this has largely been discredited.The Parthenon's façade (c. 432 BC) as well as elements of its façade and elsewhere are said by some to be circumscribed by golden rectangles.", "Other scholars deny that the Greeks had any aesthetic association with golden ratio.", "For example, Keith Devlin says, \"Certainly, the oft repeated assertion that the Parthenon in Athens is based on the golden ratio is not supported by actual measurements.", "In fact, the entire story about the Greeks and golden ratio seems to be without foundation.\"", "Midhat J. Gazalé affirms that \"It was not until Euclid ... that the golden ratio's mathematical properties were studied.", "\"From measurements of 15 temples, 18 monumental tombs, 8 sarcophagi, and 58 grave stelae from the fifth century BC to the second century AD, one researcher concluded that the golden ratio was totally absent from Greek architecture of the classical fifth century BC, and almost absent during the following six centuries.Later sources like Vitruvius (first century BC) exclusively discuss proportions that can be expressed in whole numbers, i.e.", "commensurate as opposed to irrational proportions.===Modern art===Albert Gleizes, ''Les Baigneuses'' (1912)The Section d'Or ('Golden Section') was a collective of painters, sculptors, poets and critics associated with Cubism and Orphism.", "Active from 1911 to around 1914, they adopted the name both to highlight that Cubism represented the continuation of a grand tradition, rather than being an isolated movement, and in homage to the mathematical harmony associated with Georges Seurat.", "(Several authors have claimed that Seurat employed the golden ratio in his paintings, but Seurat's writings and paintings suggest that he employed simple whole-number ratios and any approximation of the golden ratio was coincidental.)", "The Cubists observed in its harmonies, geometric structuring of motion and form, \"the primacy of idea over nature\", \"an absolute scientific clarity of conception\".", "However, despite this general interest in mathematical harmony, whether the paintings featured in the celebrated 1912 ''Salon de la Section d'Or'' exhibition used the golden ratio in any compositions is more difficult to determine.", "Livio, for example, claims that they did not, and Marcel Duchamp said as much in an interview.", "On the other hand, an analysis suggests that Juan Gris made use of the golden ratio in composing works that were likely, but not definitively, shown at the exhibition.", "Art historian Daniel Robbins has argued that in addition to referencing the mathematical term, the exhibition's name also refers to the earlier ''Bandeaux d'Or'' group, with which Albert Gleizes and other former members of the Abbaye de Créteil had been involved.Piet Mondrian has been said to have used the golden section extensively in his geometrical paintings, though other experts (including critic Yve-Alain Bois) have discredited these claims." ], [ "See also", "* List of works designed with the golden ratio* Metallic mean* Plastic ratio* Sacred geometry* Supergolden ratio* Silver ratio" ], [ "References", "=== Explanatory footnotes ====== Citations ======Works cited===* (Originally titled ''A Mathematical History of Division in Extreme and Mean Ratio''.", ")* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * Information and activities by a mathematics professor.", "* The Myth That Will Not Go Away, by Keith Devlin, addressing multiple allegations about the use of the golden ratio in culture.", "* Spurious golden spirals collected by Randall Munroe* YouTube lecture on Zeno's mice problem and logarithmic spirals" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Genome" ], [ "Introduction", "A label diagram explaining the different parts of a prokaryotic genomeAn image of the 46 chromosomes making up the diploid genome of a human male (the mitochondrial chromosomes are not shown).In the fields of molecular biology and genetics, a '''genome''' is all the genetic information of an organism.", "It consists of nucleotide sequences of DNA (or RNA in RNA viruses).", "The nuclear genome includes protein-coding genes and non-coding genes, other functional regions of the genome such as regulatory sequences (see non-coding DNA), and often a substantial fraction of junk DNA with no evident function.", "Almost all eukaryotes have mitochondria and a small mitochondrial genome.", "Algae and plants also contain chloroplasts with a chloroplast genome.The study of the genome is called genomics.", "The genomes of many organisms have been sequenced and various regions have been annotated.", "The Human Genome Project was started in October 1990, and then reported the sequence of the human genome in April 2003, although the initial \"finished\" sequence was missing 8% of the genome consisting mostly of repetitive sequences.With advancements in technology that could handle sequencing of the many repetitive sequences found in human DNA that were not fully uncovered by the original Human Genome Project study, scientists reported the first end-to-end human genome sequence in March 2022." ], [ "Origin of the term", "The term ''genome'' was created in 1920 by Hans Winkler, professor of botany at the University of Hamburg, Germany.", "The website Oxford Dictionaries and the Online Etymology Dictionary suggest the name is a blend of the words ''gene'' and ''chromosome''.", "However, see omics for a more thorough discussion.", "A few related ''-ome'' words already existed, such as ''biome'' and ''rhizome'', forming a vocabulary into which ''genome'' fits systematically." ], [ "Definition", "It's very difficult to come up with a precise definition of \"genome.\"", "It usually refers to the DNA (or sometimes RNA) molecules that carry the genetic information in an organism but sometimes it is difficult to decide which molecules to include in the definition; for example, bacteria usually have one or two large DNA molecules (chromosomes) that contain all of the essential genetic material but they also contain smaller extrachromosomal plasmid molecules that carry important genetic information.", "The definition of 'genome' that's commonly used in the scientific literature is usually restricted to the large chromosomal DNA molecules in bacteria.Eukaryotic genomes are even more difficult to define because almost all eukaryotic species contain nuclear chromosomes plus extra DNA molecules in the mitochondria.", "In addition, algae and plants have chloroplast DNA.", "Most textbooks make a distinction between the nuclear genome and the organelle (mitochondria and chloroplast) genomes so when they speak of, say, the human genome, they are only referring to the genetic material in the nucleus.", "This is the most common use of 'genome' in the scientific literature.Most eukaryotes are diploid, meaning that there are two copies of each chromosome in the nucleus but the 'genome' refers to only one copy of each chromosome.", "Some eukaryotes have distinctive sex chromosomes such as the X and Y chromosomes of mammals so the technical definition of the genome must include both copies of the sex chromosomes.", "When referring to the standard reference genome of humans, for example, it consists of one copy of each of the 22 autosomes plus one X chromosome and one Y chromosome." ], [ "Sequencing and mapping", "A '''genome sequence''' is the complete list of the nucleotides (A, C, G, and T for DNA genomes) that make up all the chromosomes of an individual or a species.", "Within a species, the vast majority of nucleotides are identical between individuals, but sequencing multiple individuals is necessary to understand the genetic diversity.", "Part of DNA sequence – prototypification of complete genome of virusIn 1976, Walter Fiers at the University of Ghent (Belgium) was the first to establish the complete nucleotide sequence of a viral RNA-genome (Bacteriophage MS2).", "The next year, Fred Sanger completed the first DNA-genome sequence: Phage Φ-X174, of 5386 base pairs.", "The first bacterial genome to be sequenced was that of Haemophilus influenzae, completed by a team at The Institute for Genomic Research in 1995.A few months later, the first eukaryotic genome was completed, with sequences of the 16 chromosomes of budding yeast ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' published as the result of a European-led effort begun in the mid-1980s.", "The first genome sequence for an archaeon, ''Methanococcus jannaschii'', was completed in 1996, again by The Institute for Genomic Research.The development of new technologies has made genome sequencing dramatically cheaper and easier, and the number of complete genome sequences is growing rapidly.", "The US National Institutes of Health maintains one of several comprehensive databases of genomic information.", "Among the thousands of completed genome sequencing projects include those for rice, a mouse, the plant ''Arabidopsis thaliana'', the puffer fish, and the bacteria E. coli.", "In December 2013, scientists first sequenced the entire ''genome'' of a Neanderthal, an extinct species of humans.", "The genome was extracted from the toe bone of a 130,000-year-old Neanderthal found in a Siberian cave.New sequencing technologies, such as massive parallel sequencing have also opened up the prospect of personal genome sequencing as a diagnostic tool, as pioneered by Manteia Predictive Medicine.", "A major step toward that goal was the completion in 2007 of the full genome of James D. Watson, one of the co-discoverers of the structure of DNA.Whereas a genome sequence lists the order of every DNA base in a genome, a genome map identifies the landmarks.", "A genome map is less detailed than a genome sequence and aids in navigating around the genome.", "The Human Genome Project was organized to map and to sequence the human genome.", "A fundamental step in the project was the release of a detailed genomic map by Jean Weissenbach and his team at the Genoscope in Paris.Reference genome sequences and maps continue to be updated, removing errors and clarifying regions of high allelic complexity.", "The decreasing cost of genomic mapping has permitted genealogical sites to offer it as a service, to the extent that one may submit one's genome to crowdsourced scientific endeavours such as DNA.LAND at the New York Genome Center, an example both of the economies of scale and of citizen science." ], [ "Viral genomes", "Viral genomes can be composed of either RNA or DNA.", "The genomes of RNA viruses can be either single-stranded RNA or double-stranded RNA, and may contain one or more separate RNA molecules (segments: monopartit or multipartit genome).", "DNA viruses can have either single-stranded or double-stranded genomes.", "Most DNA virus genomes are composed of a single, linear molecule of DNA, but some are made up of a circular DNA molecule." ], [ "Prokaryotic genomes", "Prokaryotes and eukaryotes have DNA genomes.", "Archaea and most bacteria have a single circular chromosome, however, some bacterial species have linear or multiple chromosomes.", "If the DNA is replicated faster than the bacterial cells divide, multiple copies of the chromosome can be present in a single cell, and if the cells divide faster than the DNA can be replicated, multiple replication of the chromosome is initiated before the division occurs, allowing daughter cells to inherit complete genomes and already partially replicated chromosomes.", "Most prokaryotes have very little repetitive DNA in their genomes.", "However, some symbiotic bacteria (e.g.", "''Serratia symbiotica'') have reduced genomes and a high fraction of pseudogenes: only ~40% of their DNA encodes proteins.Some bacteria have auxiliary genetic material, also part of their genome, which is carried in plasmids.", "For this, the word ''genome'' should not be used as a synonym of ''chromosome''." ], [ "Eukaryotic genomes", "In a typical human cell, the genome is contained in 22 pairs of autosomes, two sex chromosomes (the female and male variants shown at bottom right), as well as the mitochondrial genome (shown to scale as \"MT\" at bottom left).", "Eukaryotic genomes are composed of one or more linear DNA chromosomes.", "The number of chromosomes varies widely from Jack jumper ants and an asexual nemotode, which each have only one pair, to a fern species that has 720 pairs.", "It is surprising the amount of DNA that eukaryotic genomes contain compared to other genomes.", "The amount is even more than what is necessary for DNA protein-coding and noncoding genes due to the fact that eukaryotic genomes show as much as 64,000-fold variation in their sizes.", "However, this special characteristic is caused by the presence of repetitive DNA, and transposable elements (TEs).A typical human cell has two copies of each of 22 autosomes, one inherited from each parent, plus two sex chromosomes, making it diploid.", "Gametes, such as ova, sperm, spores, and pollen, are haploid, meaning they carry only one copy of each chromosome.", "In addition to the chromosomes in the nucleus, organelles such as the chloroplasts and mitochondria have their own DNA.", "Mitochondria are sometimes said to have their own genome often referred to as the \"mitochondrial genome\".", "The DNA found within the chloroplast may be referred to as the \"plastome\".", "Like the bacteria they originated from, mitochondria and chloroplasts have a circular chromosome.Unlike prokaryotes where exon-intron organization of protein coding genes exists but is rather exceptional, eukaryotes generally have these features in their genes and their genomes contain variable amounts of repetitive DNA.", "In mammals and plants, the majority of the genome is composed of repetitive DNA.", "Genes in eukaryotic genomes can be annotated using FINDER.=== DNA sequencing ===High-throughput technology makes sequencing to assemble new genomes accessible to everyone.", "Sequence polymorphisms are typically discovered by comparing resequenced isolates to a reference, whereas analyses of coverage depth and mapping topology can provide details regarding structural variations such as chromosomal translocations and segmental duplications.=== Coding sequences ===DNA sequences that carry the instructions to make proteins are referred to as coding sequences.", "The proportion of the genome occupied by coding sequences varies widely.", "A larger genome does not necessarily contain more genes, and the proportion of non-repetitive DNA decreases along with increasing genome size in complex eukaryotes.Composition of the human genome=== Noncoding sequences ===Noncoding sequences include introns, sequences for non-coding RNAs, regulatory regions, and repetitive DNA.", "Noncoding sequences make up 98% of the human genome.", "There are two categories of repetitive DNA in the genome: tandem repeats and interspersed repeats.==== Tandem repeats ====Short, non-coding sequences that are repeated head-to-tail are called tandem repeats.", "Microsatellites consisting of 2–5 basepair repeats, while minisatellite repeats are 30–35 bp.", "Tandem repeats make up about 4% of the human genome and 9% of the fruit fly genome.", "Tandem repeats can be functional.", "For example, telomeres are composed of the tandem repeat TTAGGG in mammals, and they play an important role in protecting the ends of the chromosome.In other cases, expansions in the number of tandem repeats in exons or introns can cause disease.", "For example, the human gene huntingtin (Htt) typically contains 6–29 tandem repeats of the nucleotides CAG (encoding a polyglutamine tract).", "An expansion to over 36 repeats results in Huntington's disease, a neurodegenerative disease.", "Twenty human disorders are known to result from similar tandem repeat expansions in various genes.", "The mechanism by which proteins with expanded polygulatamine tracts cause death of neurons is not fully understood.", "One possibility is that the proteins fail to fold properly and avoid degradation, instead accumulating in aggregates that also sequester important transcription factors, thereby altering gene expression.Tandem repeats are usually caused by slippage during replication, unequal crossing-over and gene conversion.==== Transposable elements ====Transposable elements (TEs) are sequences of DNA with a defined structure that are able to change their location in the genome.", "TEs are categorized as either as a mechanism that replicates by copy-and-paste or as a mechanism that can be excised from the genome and inserted at a new location.", "In the human genome, there are three important classes of TEs that make up more than 45% of the human DNA; these classes are The long interspersed nuclear elements (LINEs), The interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs), and endogenous retroviruses.", "These elements have a big potential to modify the genetic control in a host organism.The movement of TEs is a driving force of genome evolution in eukaryotes because their insertion can disrupt gene functions, homologous recombination between TEs can produce duplications, and TE can shuffle exons and regulatory sequences to new locations.===== Retrotransposons =====Retrotransposons are found mostly in eukaryotes but not found in prokaryotes.", "Retrotransposons form a large portion of the genomes of many eukaryotes.", "A retrotransposon is a transposable element that transposes through an RNA intermediate.", "Retrotransposons are composed of DNA, but are transcribed into RNA for transposition, then the RNA transcript is copied back to DNA formation with the help of a specific enzyme called reverse transcriptase.", "A retrotransposon that carries reverse transcriptase in its sequence can trigger its own transposition but retrotransposons that lack a reverse transcriptase must use reverse transcriptase synthesized by another retrotransposon.", "Retrotransposons can be transcribed into RNA, which are then duplicated at another site into the genome.", "Retrotransposons can be divided into long terminal repeats (LTRs) and non-long terminal repeats (Non-LTRs).", "'''Long terminal repeats (LTRs)''' are derived from ancient retroviral infections, so they encode proteins related to retroviral proteins including gag (structural proteins of the virus), pol (reverse transcriptase and integrase), pro (protease), and in some cases env (envelope) genes.", "These genes are flanked by long repeats at both 5' and 3' ends.", "It has been reported that LTRs consist of the largest fraction in most plant genome and might account for the huge variation in genome size.", "'''Non-long terminal repeats (Non-LTRs)''' are classified as long interspersed nuclear elements (LINEs), short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs), and Penelope-like elements (PLEs).", "In ''Dictyostelium discoideum'', there is another DIRS-like elements belong to Non-LTRs.", "Non-LTRs are widely spread in eukaryotic genomes.Long interspersed elements (LINEs) encode genes for reverse transcriptase and endonuclease, making them autonomous transposable elements.", "The human genome has around 500,000 LINEs, taking around 17% of the genome.Short interspersed elements (SINEs) are usually less than 500 base pairs and are non-autonomous, so they rely on the proteins encoded by LINEs for transposition.", "The Alu element is the most common SINE found in primates.", "It is about 350 base pairs and occupies about 11% of the human genome with around 1,500,000 copies.===== DNA transposons =====DNA transposons encode a transposase enzyme between inverted terminal repeats.", "When expressed, the transposase recognizes the terminal inverted repeats that flank the transposon and catalyzes its excision and reinsertion in a new site.", "This cut-and-paste mechanism typically reinserts transposons near their original location (within 100kb).", "DNA transposons are found in bacteria and make up 3% of the human genome and 12% of the genome of the roundworm ''C.", "elegans''." ], [ "Genome size", "Log–log plot of the total number of annotated proteins in genomes submitted to GenBank as a function of genome sizeGenome size is the total number of the DNA base pairs in one copy of a haploid genome.", "Genome size varies widely across species.", "Invertebrates have small genomes, this is also correlated to a small number of transposable elements.", "Fish and Amphibians have intermediate-size genomes, and birds have relatively small genomes but it has been suggested that birds lost a substantial portion of their genomes during the phase of transition to flight.", "Before this loss, DNA methylation allows the adequate expansion of the genome.In humans, the nuclear genome comprises approximately 3.1 billion nucleotides of DNA, divided into 24 linear molecules, the shortest 45 000 000 nucleotides in length and the longest 248 000 000 nucleotides, each contained in a different chromosome.", "There is no clear and consistent correlation between morphological complexity and genome size in either prokaryotes or lower eukaryotes.", "Genome size is largely a function of the expansion and contraction of repetitive DNA elements.Since genomes are very complex, one research strategy is to reduce the number of genes in a genome to the bare minimum and still have the organism in question survive.", "There is experimental work being done on minimal genomes for single cell organisms as well as minimal genomes for multi-cellular organisms (see developmental biology).", "The work is both ''in vivo'' and ''in silico''.=== Genome size differences due to transposable elements ===Comparison among genome sizesThere are many enormous differences in size in genomes, specially mentioned before in the multicellular eukaryotic genomes.", "Much of this is due to the differing abundances of transposable elements, which evolve by creating new copies of themselves in the chromosomes.", "Eukaryote genomes often contain many thousands of copies of these elements, most of which have acquired mutations that make them defective.Here is a table of some significant or representative genomes.", "See #See also for lists of sequenced genomes.Organism typeOrganismGenome size (base pairs)Approx.", "no.", "of genesNoteVirusPorcine circovirus type 11,7591.8 kBSmallest viruses replicating autonomously in eukaryotic cellsVirusBacteriophage MS23,5693.6 kBFirst sequenced RNA-genomeVirusSV405,2245.2 kBVirusPhage Φ-X1745,3865.4 kBFirst sequenced DNA-genomeVirusHIV9,7499.7 kBVirusPhage λ48,50248.5 kBOften used as a vector for the cloning of recombinant DNAVirusMegavirus1,259,1971.3 MBUntil 2013 the largest known viral genomeVirus''Pandoravirus salinus''2,470,0002.47 MBLargest known viral genome.Eukaryotic organelleHuman mitochondrion16,56916.6 kBBacterium''Nasuia deltocephalinicola'' (strain NAS-ALF)112,091112 kB137Smallest known non-viral genome.", "Symbiont of leafhoppers.Bacterium''Carsonella ruddii''159,662160 kBAn endosymbiont of psyllid insectsBacterium''Buchnera aphidicola''600,000600 kBAn endosymbiont of aphidsBacterium''Wigglesworthia glossinidia''700,000700 kBA symbiont in the gut of the tsetse flyBacterium – cyanobacterium''Prochlorococcus'' spp.", "(1.7 Mb)1,700,0001.7 MB1,884Smallest known cyanobacterium genome.", "One of the primary photosynthesizers on Earth.Bacterium''Haemophilus influenzae''1,830,0001.8 MBFirst genome of a living organism sequenced, July 1995Bacterium''Escherichia coli''4,600,0004.6 MB4,288Bacterium – cyanobacterium''Nostoc punctiforme''9,000,0009 MB7,4327432 open reading framesBacterium''Solibacter usitatus'' (strain Ellin 6076)9,970,00010 MBAmoeboid''Polychaos dubium'' (''\"Amoeba\" dubia'')670,000,000,000670 GBLargest known genome.", "(Disputed)Plant''Genlisea tuberosa''61,000,00061 MBSmallest recorded flowering plant genome, 2014Plant''Arabidopsis thaliana''135,000,000135 MB27,655First plant genome sequenced, December 2000Plant''Populus trichocarpa''480,000,000480 MB73,013First tree genome sequenced, September 2006Plant''Pinus taeda'' (Loblolly pine)22,180,000,00022.18 GB50,172Gymnosperms generally have much larger genomes than angiospermsPlant''Fritillaria assyriaca''130,000,000,000130 GBPlant''Paris japonica'' (Japanese-native, order Liliales)150,000,000,000150 GBLargest plant genome knownPlant – moss''Physcomitrella patens''480,000,000480 MBFirst genome of a bryophyte sequenced, January 2008Fungus – yeast''Saccharomyces cerevisiae''12,100,00012.1 MB6,294First eukaryotic genome sequenced, 1996Fungus''Aspergillus nidulans''30,000,00030 MB9,541Nematode''Pratylenchus coffeae''20,000,00020 MB Smallest animal genome knownNematode''Caenorhabditis elegans''100,300,000100 MB19,000First multicellular animal genome sequenced, December 1998Insect''Belgica antarctica'' (Antarctic midge)99,000,00099 MBSmallest insect genome sequenced thus far, likely an adaptation to an extreme environmentInsect''Drosophila melanogaster'' (fruit fly)175,000,000175 MB13,600Size variation based on strain (175–180 Mb; standard ''y w'' strain is 175 Mb)Insect''Apis mellifera'' (honey bee)236,000,000236 MB10,157Insect''Bombyx mori'' (silk moth)432,000,000432 MB14,62314,623 predicted genesInsect''Solenopsis invicta'' (fire ant)480,000,000480 MB16,569CrustaceanAntarctic krill48,010,000,00048 GB23,00070-92% repetitive DNAAmphibian''Neuse River waterdog''118,000,000,000118 GBLargest tetrapod genome sequenced as of 2022Amphibian''Ornate burrowing frog''1,060,000,0001.06 GBSmallest known frog genomeMammal''Mus musculus''2,700,000,0002.7 GB20,210Mammal''Pan paniscus''3,286,640,0003.3 GB20,000Bonobo – estimated genome size 3.29 billion bpMammal''Homo sapiens''3,117,000,0003.1 GB20,000''Homo sapiens'' genome size estimated at 3.12 Gbp in 2022Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genomeBird''Gallus gallus''1,043,000,0001.0 GB20,000Fish''Tetraodon nigroviridis'' (type of puffer fish)385,000,000390 MBSmallest vertebrate genome known, estimated to be 340 Mb – 385 MbFish''Protopterus aethiopicus'' (marbled lungfish)130,000,000,000130 GBLargest vertebrate genome known" ], [ "Genomic alterations", "All the cells of an organism originate from a single cell, so they are expected to have identical genomes; however, in some cases, differences arise.", "Both the process of copying DNA during cell division and exposure to environmental mutagens can result in mutations in somatic cells.", "In some cases, such mutations lead to cancer because they cause cells to divide more quickly and invade surrounding tissues.", "In certain lymphocytes in the human immune system, V(D)J recombination generates different genomic sequences such that each cell produces a unique antibody or T cell receptors.During meiosis, diploid cells divide twice to produce haploid germ cells.", "During this process, recombination results in a reshuffling of the genetic material from homologous chromosomes so each gamete has a unique genome.=== Genome-wide reprogramming ===Genome-wide reprogramming in mouse primordial germ cells involves epigenetic imprint erasure leading to totipotency.", "Reprogramming is facilitated by active DNA demethylation, a process that entails the DNA base excision repair pathway.", "This pathway is employed in the erasure of CpG methylation (5mC) in primordial germ cells.", "The erasure of 5mC occurs via its conversion to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) driven by high levels of the ten-eleven dioxygenase enzymes TET1 and TET2." ], [ "Genome evolution", "Genomes are more than the sum of an organism's genes and have traits that may be measured and studied without reference to the details of any particular genes and their products.", "Researchers compare traits such as karyotype (chromosome number), genome size, gene order, codon usage bias, and GC-content to determine what mechanisms could have produced the great variety of genomes that exist today (for recent overviews, see Brown 2002; Saccone and Pesole 2003; Benfey and Protopapas 2004; Gibson and Muse 2004; Reese 2004; Gregory 2005).Duplications play a major role in shaping the genome.", "Duplication may range from extension of short tandem repeats, to duplication of a cluster of genes, and all the way to duplication of entire chromosomes or even entire genomes.", "Such duplications are probably fundamental to the creation of genetic novelty.Horizontal gene transfer is invoked to explain how there is often an extreme similarity between small portions of the genomes of two organisms that are otherwise very distantly related.", "Horizontal gene transfer seems to be common among many microbes.", "Also, eukaryotic cells seem to have experienced a transfer of some genetic material from their chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes to their nuclear chromosomes.", "Recent empirical data suggest an important role of viruses and sub-viral RNA-networks to represent a main driving role to generate genetic novelty and natural genome editing." ], [ "In fiction", "Works of science fiction illustrate concerns about the availability of genome sequences.Michael Crichton's 1990 novel ''Jurassic Park'' and the subsequent film tell the story of a billionaire who creates a theme park of cloned dinosaurs on a remote island, with disastrous outcomes.", "A geneticist extracts dinosaur DNA from the blood of ancient mosquitoes and fills in the gaps with DNA from modern species to create several species of dinosaurs.", "A chaos theorist is asked to give his expert opinion on the safety of engineering an ecosystem with the dinosaurs, and he repeatedly warns that the outcomes of the project will be unpredictable and ultimately uncontrollable.", "These warnings about the perils of using genomic information are a major theme of the book.The 1997 film ''Gattaca'' is set in a futurist society where genomes of children are engineered to contain the most ideal combination of their parents' traits, and metrics such as risk of heart disease and predicted life expectancy are documented for each person based on their genome.", "People conceived outside of the eugenics program, known as \"In-Valids\" suffer discrimination and are relegated to menial occupations.", "The protagonist of the film is an In-Valid who works to defy the supposed genetic odds and achieve his dream of working as a space navigator.", "The film warns against a future where genomic information fuels prejudice and extreme class differences between those who can and cannot afford genetically engineered children." ], [ "See also", "* Bacterial genome size* Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources* Genome Browser* Genome Compiler* Genome topology* Genome-wide association study* List of sequenced animal genomes* List of sequenced archaeal genomes* List of sequenced bacterial genomes* List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes* List of sequenced fungi genomes* List of sequenced plant genomes* List of sequenced plastomes* List of sequenced protist genomes* Metagenomics* Microbiome* Molecular epidemiology* Molecular pathological epidemiology* Molecular pathology* Nucleic acid sequence* Pan-genome* Precision medicine* Regulator gene* Whole genome sequencing" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* UCSC Genome Browser – view the genome and annotations for more than 80 organisms.", "* genomecenter.howard.edu (archived 9 August 2013)* Build a DNA Molecule (archived 9 June 2010)* Some comparative genome sizes* DNA Interactive: The History of DNA Science* DNA From The Beginning* All About The Human Genome Project—from Genome.gov* Animal genome size database* Plant genome size database (archived 1 September 2005)* GOLD:Genomes OnLine Database* The Genome News Network* NCBI Entrez Genome Project database* NCBI Genome Primer* GeneCards—an integrated database of human genes* BBC News – Final genome 'chapter' published* IMG (The Integrated Microbial Genomes system)—for genome analysis by the DOE-JGI* GeKnome Technologies Next-Gen Sequencing Data Analysis—next-generation sequencing data analysis for Illumina and 454 Service from GeKnome Technologies (archived 3 March 2012)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gaia philosophy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gaia philosophy''' (named after Gaia, Greek goddess of the Earth) is a broadly inclusive term for relating concepts about, humanity as an effect of the life of this planet.The Gaia hypothesis holds that all organisms on a life-giving planet regulate the biosphere in such a way as to promote its habitability.", "Gaia concepts draw a connection between the survivability of a species (hence its evolutionary course) and its usefulness to the survival of other species.", "While there were a number of precursors to Gaia hypothesis, the first scientific form of this idea was proposed as the Gaia hypothesis by James Lovelock, a UK chemist, in 1970.The Gaia hypothesis deals with the concept of biological homeostasis, and claims the resident life forms of a host planet coupled with their environment have acted and act like a single, self-regulating system.", "This system includes the near-surface rocks, the soil, and the atmosphere.", "Today, many scientists consider such ideas to be unsupported by, or at odds with, the available evidence (see Gaia hypothesis criticism).", "These theories are, however, significant in green politics.== Predecessors to the Gaia theory ==There are some mystical, scientific and religious predecessors to the Gaia philosophy, which had a Gaia-like conceptual basis.", "Many religious mythologies had a view of Earth as being a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts (e.g.", "some Native American religions and various forms of shamanism).Isaac Newton wrote of the earth, \"Thus this Earth resembles a great animal or rather inanimate vegetable, draws in æthereall breath for its dayly refreshment & vitall ferment & transpires again with gross exhalations, And according to the condition of all other things living ought to have its times of beginning youth old age & perishing.", "\"Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, a paleontologist and geologist, believed that evolution fractally unfolded from cell to organism to planet to solar system and ultimately the whole universe, as we humans see it from our limited perspective.", "Teilhard later influenced Thomas Berry and many Catholic humanist thinkers of the 20th century.Lewis Thomas believed that Earth should be viewed as a single cell; he derived this view from Johannes Kepler's view of Earth as a single round organism.Buckminster Fuller is generally credited with making the idea respectable in Western scientific circles in the 20th century.", "Building to some degree on his observations and artifacts, e.g.", "the Dymaxion map of the Earth he created, others began to ask if there was a way to make the Gaia theory scientifically sound.In 1931, L.G.M.", "Baas Becking delivered an inaugural lecture about Gaia in the sense of life and earth.", "Oberon Zell-Ravenheart in 1970 in an article in ''Green Egg'' Magazine, independently articulated the Gaia Thesis.Many believe that these ideas cannot be considered scientific hypotheses; by definition a scientific hypothesis must make testable predictions.", "As the above claims are not currently testable, they are outside the bounds of current science.", "This does not mean that these ideas are not theoretically testable.", "As one can postulate tests that could be applied, given enough time and space, then these ideas should be seen as scientific hypotheses.These are conjectures and perhaps can only be considered as social and maybe political philosophy; they may have implications for theology, or ''thealogy'' as Zell-Ravenheart and Isaac Bonewits put it." ], [ "Range of views", "According to James Kirchner there is a spectrum of Gaia hypotheses, ranging from the undeniable to radical.", "At one end is the undeniable statement that the organisms on the Earth have radically altered its composition.", "A stronger position is that the Earth's biosphere effectively acts as if it is a self-organizing system which works in such a way as to keep its systems in some kind of equilibrium that is conducive to life.", "Today many scientists consider that such a view (and any stronger views) are unlikely to be correct.", "An even stronger claim is that all lifeforms are part of a single planetary being, called Gaia.", "In this view, the atmosphere, the seas, the terrestrial crust would be the result of interventions carried out by Gaia, through the coevolving diversity of living organisms.The most extreme form of Gaia theory is that the entire Earth is a single unified organism with a highly intelligent mind that arose as an emergent property of the whole biosphere.", "In this view, the Earth's biosphere is ''consciously'' manipulating the climate in order to make conditions more conducive to life.", "Scientists contend that there is no evidence at all to support this last point of view, and it has come about because many people do not understand the concept of homeostasis.", "Many non-scientists instinctively and incorrectly see homeostasis as a process that requires conscious control.The more speculative versions of Gaia, including versions in which it is believed that the Earth is actually conscious, sentient, and highly intelligent, are usually considered outside the bounds of what is usually considered science." ], [ "Gaia in biology and science", "Buckminster Fuller has been credited as the first to incorporate scientific ideas into a Gaia theory, which he did with his Dymaxion map of the Earth.The first scientifically rigorous theory was the Gaia hypothesis by James Lovelock, a UK chemist.A variant of this hypothesis was developed by Lynn Margulis, a microbiologist, in 1979.Her version is sometimes called the \"Gaia Theory\" (note uppercase-T).", "Her model is more limited in scope than the one that Lovelock proposed.Whether this sort of system is present on Earth is still open to debate.", "Some relatively simple homeostatic mechanisms are generally accepted.", "For example, when atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rise, plants are able to grow better and thus remove more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.", "Other biological effects and feedbacks exist, but the extent to which these mechanisms have stabilized and modified the Earth's overall climate is largely not known.The Gaia hypothesis is sometimes viewed from significantly different philosophical perspectives.", "Some environmentalists view it as an almost conscious process, in which the Earth's ecosystem is literally viewed as a single unified organism.", "Some evolutionary biologists, on the other hand, view it as an undirected emergent property of the ecosystem: as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, their combined actions tend to have counterbalancing effects on environmental change.", "Proponents of this view sometimes point to examples of life's actions in the past that have resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a reducing environment to an oxygen-rich one.Depending on how strongly the case is stated, the hypothesis conflicts with mainstream neo-Darwinism.", "Most biologists would accept Daisyworld-style homeostasis as possible, but would certainly not accept the idea that this equates to the whole biosphere acting as one organism.A very small number of scientists, and a much larger number of environmental activists, claim that Earth's biosphere is ''consciously'' manipulating the climate in order to make conditions more conducive to life.", "Scientists contend that there is no evidence to support this belief." ], [ "Gaia in the social sciences and politics", "A social science view of Gaia theory is the role of humans as a keystone species who may be able to accomplish global homeostasis.", "Whilst a few social scientists who draw inspiration from 'organic' views of society have embraced Gaia philosophy as a way to explain the human-nature interconnections, most professional social scientists are more involved in reflecting upon the way Gaia philosophy is used and engaged with within sub-sections of society.", "Alan Marshall, in the Department of Social Sciences at Mahidol University, for example, reflects upon the way Gaia philosophy has been used and advocated in various societal settings by environmentalists, spiritualists, managers, economists, and scientists and engineers.", "As Marshall explains, most social scientists had already given up on systems ideas of society in the 1960s before Gaia philosophy was born under James Lovelock's ideas since such ideas were interpreted as supporting conservatism and traditionalism.", "Gaia theory also influenced the dynamics of green politics." ], [ "Gaia in religion", "Rosemary Radford Ruether, the American feminist scholar and theologian, wrote a book called \"Gaia and God: An Ecofeminist Theology of Earth Healing\".A book edited by Allan Hunt Badiner called Dharma Gaia explores the ground where Buddhism and ecology meet through writings by the Dalai Lama, Gary Snyder, Thich Nhat Hanh, Allen Ginsberg, David Abram, Joanna Macy, Robert Aitken, and 25 other Buddhists and ecologists.Gaianism, an earth-centered philosophical, holistic, and spiritual belief that shares expressions with earth religions and paganism while not identifying exclusively with any specific religion, sprang from the gaia hypothesis." ], [ "Criticism", "One of the most problematic issues with referring to Gaia as an organism is its apparent failure to meet the biological criterion of being able to reproduce.", "Obviously this limited view misunderstands cosmic cycles of death of planets and stars into star stuff that creates more planets and stars over billions of years.", "Richard Dawkins has asserted that the planet is not the offspring of any parents and is unable to reproduce." ], [ "See also", "* Arcology* Climate engineering* Environmental philosophy* Gaia (mythology)* Gaia hypothesis (James Lovelock's ideas)* Gardening* James Kirchner* Guy Murchie* Keystone species* Odic force* Places to intervene in a system* Pantheism* Technogaianism* Teleology* Urban ecology* Steven M. Greer - Categorises entire planets to be individual conscious organisms* Superorganism*Edward Goldsmith" ], [ "Books on Gaia", "*Alan Marshall (2002), ''The Unity of Nature'', Imperial College Press.", "*Mary Midgley (2007), ''Earthy realism: the meaning of Gaia''*Mary Midgley (2001), ''Gaia: the next big idea''*Lawrence E. Joseph (1991), ''Gaia: the growth of an idea''*Stephen Henry Schneider (2004), ''Scientists debate gaia: the next century''*Allan Hunt Badiner (1990), ''Dharma Gaia: A Harvest of Essays in Buddhism and Ecology ''*George Ronald Williams (1996), ''The molecular biology of Gaia ''*Tyler Volk (2003), ''Gaia's Body: Toward a Physiology of Earth ''*Norman Myers (1993), ''Gaia An Atlas of Planet Management''*Anne Primavesi (2008), ''Gaia and Climate Change: A Theology of Gift Events''*Anne Primavesi (2000), ''Sacred Gaia: holistic theology and earth system science''*Anne Primavesi (2003), ''Gaia's gift: earth, ourselves, and God after Copernicus''*Peter Bunyard (1996), ''Gaia in Action: Science of the Living Earth''*Francesca Ciancimino Howell (2002), ''Making Magic with Gaia: Practices to Heal Ourselves and Our Planet ''*Pepper Lewis (2005), ''Gaia Speaks''*Toby Tyrrell (2013), ''On Gaia''" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Greenhouse effect" ], [ "Introduction", "Greenhouse gases allow sunlight to pass through the atmosphere and heat the planet, but then absorb and redirect some of the longwave radiation (heat) the planet emits.Energy flows down from the sun and up from the Earth and its atmosphere.", "When greenhouse gases intercept radiation emitted by Earth's surface, they prevent that radiation from escaping into space, causing surface temperatures to rise by about .The '''greenhouse effect''' occurs when greenhouse gases in a planet's atmosphere trap some of the heat radiated from the planet's surface, raising its temperature.", "This process happens because stars emit shortwave radiation that passes through greenhouse gases, but planets emit longwave radiation that is partly absorbed by greenhouse gases.", "That difference reduces the rate at which a planet can cool off in response to being warmed by its host star.", "Adding to greenhouse gases further reduces the rate a planet emits radiation to space, raising its average surface temperature.The Earth's average surface temperature would be about without the greenhouse effect, compared to Earth's 20th century average of about , or a more recent average of about .", "In addition to naturally present greenhouse gases, burning of fossil fuels has increased amounts of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere.", "As a result, global warming of about has occurred since the Industrial Revolution, with the global average surface temperature increasing at a rate of per decade since 1981.The wavelengths of radiation emitted by the Sun and Earth differ because their surface temperatures are different.", "The Sun has a surface temperature of , so it emits most of its energy as ''shortwave radiation'' in near-infrared and visible wavelengths (as sunlight).", "In contrast, Earth's surface has a much lower temperature, so it emits ''longwave radiation'' at mid- and far-infrared wavelengths (sometimes called thermal radiation or radiated heat).", "A gas is a greenhouse gas if it absorbs longwave radiation.", "Earth's atmosphere absorbs only 23% of incoming shortwave radiation, but absorbs 90% of the longwave radiation emitted by the surface, thus accumulating energy and warming the Earth's surface.The existence of the greenhouse effect, while not named as such, was proposed as early as 1824 by Joseph Fourier.", "The argument and the evidence were further strengthened by Claude Pouillet in 1827 and 1838.In 1856 Eunice Newton Foote demonstrated that the warming effect of the sun is greater for air with water vapour than for dry air, and the effect is even greater with carbon dioxide.", "The term ''greenhouse'' was first applied to this phenomenon by Nils Gustaf Ekholm in 1901." ], [ "Definition", "The ''greenhouse effect'' on Earth is defined as: \"The infrared radiative effect of all infrared absorbing constituents in the atmosphere.", "Greenhouse gases (GHGs), clouds, and some aerosols absorb terrestrial radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface and elsewhere in the atmosphere.", "\"The ''enhanced greenhouse effect'' describes the fact that by increasing the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere (due to human action), the natural greenhouse effect is increased." ], [ "Terminology", "The term ''greenhouse effect'' comes from an analogy to greenhouses.", "Both greenhouses and the ''greenhouse effect'' work by retaining heat from sunlight, but the way they retain heat differs.", "Greenhouses retain heat mainly by blocking convection (the movement of air).", "In contrast, the greenhouse effect retains heat by restricting radiative transfer through the air and reducing the rate at which heat escapes to space." ], [ "History of discovery and investigation", "The existence of the greenhouse effect, while not named as such, was proposed as early as 1824 by Joseph Fourier.", "The argument and the evidence were further strengthened by Claude Pouillet in 1827 and 1838.In 1856 Eunice Newton Foote demonstrated that the warming effect of the sun is greater for air with water vapour than for dry air, and the effect is even greater with carbon dioxide.", "She concluded that \"An atmosphere of that gas would give to our earth a high temperature...\"John Tyndall was the first to measure the infrared absorption and emission of various gases and vapors.", "From 1859 onwards, he showed that the effect was due to a very small proportion of the atmosphere, with the main gases having no effect, and was largely due to water vapor, though small percentages of hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide had a significant effect.", "The effect was more fully quantified by Svante Arrhenius in 1896, who made the first quantitative prediction of global warming due to a hypothetical doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide.", "The term ''greenhouse'' was first applied to this phenomenon by Nils Gustaf Ekholm in 1901." ], [ "Measurement", "How causes the greenhouse effect.Matter emits thermal radiation in an amount that is directly proportional to the fourth power of its temperature.", "Some of the radiation emitted by the Earth's surface is absorbed by greenhouse gases and clouds.", "Without this absorption, Earth's surface would have an average temperature of .", "However, because some of the radiation is absorbed, Earth's average surface temperature is around .", "Thus, the Earth's greenhouse effect may be measured as a ''temperature change'' of .Thermal radiation is characterized by how much energy it carries, typically in watts per square meter (W/m).", "Scientists also measure the greenhouse effect based on how much more longwave thermal radiation leaves the Earth's surface than reaches space.", "Currently, longwave radiation leaves the surface at an average rate of 398 W/m, but only 239 W/m reaches space.", "Thus, the Earth's greenhouse effect can also be measured as an ''energy flow change'' of 159 W/m.", "The greenhouse effect can be expressed as a fraction (0.40) or percentage (40%) of the longwave thermal radiation that leaves Earth's surface but does not reach space.Whether the greenhouse effect is expressed as a change in temperature or as a change in longwave thermal radiation, the same effect is being measured." ], [ "Role in climate change", "Earth's rate of heating (graph) is a result of factors which include the enhanced greenhouse effect.Strengthening of the greenhouse effect through additional greenhouse gases from human activities is known as the ''enhanced greenhouse effect''.", "As well as being inferred from measurements by ARGO, CERES and other instruments throughout the 21st century, this increase in radiative forcing from human activity has been observed directly, and is attributable mainly to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.", "The Keeling Curve of atmospheric CO2 abundance.", "is produced by fossil fuel burning and other activities such as cement production and tropical deforestation.", "Measurements of from the Mauna Loa Observatory show that concentrations have increased from about 313 parts per million (ppm) in 1960, passing the 400 ppm milestone in 2013.The current observed amount of exceeds the geological record maxima (≈300 ppm) from ice core data.", "Over the past 800,000 years, ice core data shows that carbon dioxide has varied from values as low as 180 ppm to the pre-industrial level of 270 ppm.", "Paleoclimatologists consider variations in carbon dioxide concentration to be a fundamental factor influencing climate variations over this time scale." ], [ "Energy balance and temperature", "=== Incoming shortwave radiation ===The solar radiation spectrum for direct light at both the top of Earth's atmosphere and at sea levelHotter matter emits shorter wavelengths of radiation.", "As a result, the Sun emits shortwave radiation as sunlight while the Earth and its atmosphere emit longwave radiation.", "Sunlight includes ultraviolet, visible light, and near-infrared radiation.Sunlight is reflected and absorbed by the Earth and its atmosphere.", "The atmosphere and clouds reflect about 23% and absorb 23%.", "The surface reflects 7% and absorbs 48%.", "Overall, Earth reflects about 30% of the incoming sunlight, and absorbs the rest (240 W/m).=== Outgoing longwave radiation ===The greenhouse effect is a reduction in the flux of outgoing longwave radiation, which affects the planet's radiative balance.", "The spectrum of outgoing radiation shows the effects of different greenhouse gases.The Earth and its atmosphere emit ''longwave radiation'', also known as ''thermal infrared'' or ''terrestrial radiation''.", "Informally, longwave radiation is sometimes called ''thermal radiation''.", "Outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) is the radiation from Earth and its atmosphere that passes through the atmosphere and into space.The greenhouse effect can be directly seen in graphs of Earth's outgoing longwave radiation as a function of frequency (or wavelength).", "The area between the curve for longwave radiation emitted by Earth's surface and the curve for outgoing longwave radiation indicates the size of the greenhouse effect.Different substances are responsible for reducing the radiation energy reaching space at different frequencies; for some frequencies, multiple substances play a role.", "Carbon dioxide is understood to be responsible for the dip in outgoing radiation (and associated rise in the greenhouse effect) at around 667 cm−1 (equivalent to a wavelength of 15 microns).Each layer of the atmosphere with greenhouse gases absorbs some of the longwave radiation being radiated upwards from lower layers.", "It also emits longwave radiation in all directions, both upwards and downwards, in equilibrium with the amount it has absorbed.", "This results in less radiative heat loss and more warmth below.", "Increasing the concentration of the gases increases the amount of absorption and emission, and thereby causing more heat to be retained at the surface and in the layers below.=== Effective temperature ===Temperature needed to emit a given amount of thermal radiation.The power of outgoing longwave radiation emitted by a planet corresponds to the ''effective temperature'' of the planet.", "The effective temperature is the temperature that a planet radiating with a uniform temperature (a blackbody) would need to have in order to radiate the same amount of energy.This concept may be used to compare the amount of longwave radiation emitted to space and the amount of longwave radiation emitted by the surface:* ''Emissions to space:'' Based on its emissions of longwave radiation to space, Earth's overall ''effective temperature'' is .", "* ''Emissions from surface:'' Based on thermal emissions from the surface, Earth's ''effective surface temperature'' is about , which is warmer than Earth's overall effective temperature.Earth's surface temperature is often reported in terms of the average near-surface air temperature.", "This is about , a bit lower than the effective surface temperature.", "This value is warmer than Earth's overall effective temperature.=== Energy flux ===Energy flux is the rate of energy flow per unit area.", "Energy flux is expressed in units of W/m2, which is the number of joules of energy that pass through a square meter each second.", "Most fluxes quoted in high-level discussions of climate are global values, which means they are the total flow of energy over the entire globe, divided by the surface area of the Earth, .The fluxes of radiation arriving at and leaving the Earth are important because radiative transfer is the only process capable of exchanging energy between Earth and the rest of the universe.=== Radiative balance ===The temperature of a planet depends on the balance between incoming radiation and outgoing radiation.", "If incoming radiation exceeds outgoing radiation, a planet will warm.", "If outgoing radiation exceeds incoming radiation, a planet will cool.", "A planet will tend towards a state of radiative equilibrium, in which the power of outgoing radiation equals the power of absorbed incoming radiation.Earth's energy imbalance is the amount by which the power of incoming sunlight absorbed by Earth's surface or atmosphere exceeds the power of outgoing longwave radiation emitted to space.", "Energy imbalance is the fundamental measurement that drives surface temperature.", "A UN presentation says \"The EEI is the most critical number defining the prospects for continued global warming and climate change.\"", "One study argues, \"The absolute value of EEI represents the most fundamental metric defining the status of global climate change.\"", "Earth's energy imbalance (EEI) was about 0.7 W/m as of around 2015, indicating that Earth as a whole is accumulating thermal energy and is in a process of becoming warmer.", "Over 90% of the retained energy goes into warming the oceans, with much smaller amounts going into heating the land, atmosphere, and ice.Comparison of Earth's upward flow of longwave radiation in reality and in a hypothetical scenario in which greenhouse gases and clouds are removed or lose their ability to absorb longwave radiation—without changing Earth's albedo (i.e., reflection/absorption of sunlight).", "Top shows the balance between Earth's heating and cooling as measured at the top of the atmosphere (TOA).", "Panel (a) shows the real situation with an active greenhouse effect.", "Panel (b) shows the situation immediately after absorption stops; all longwave radiation emitted by the surface would reach space; there would be more cooling (via longwave radiation emitted to space) than warming (from sunlight).", "This imbalance would lead to a rapid temperature drop.", "Panel (c) shows the final stable steady state, after the surface cools sufficiently to emit only enough longwave radiation to match the energy flow from absorbed sunlight.=== Day and night cycle ===A simple picture assumes a steady state, but in the real world, the day/night (diurnal) cycle, as well as the seasonal cycle and weather disturbances, complicate matters.", "Solar heating applies only during daytime.", "At night the atmosphere cools somewhat, but not greatly because the thermal inertia of the climate system resists changes both day and night, as well as for longer periods.", "Diurnal temperature changes decrease with height in the atmosphere." ], [ "Effect of lapse rate", "=== Lapse rate ===In the lower portion of the atmosphere, the troposphere, the air temperature decreases (or \"lapses\") with increasing altitude.", "The rate at which temperature changes with altitude is called the ''lapse rate''.On Earth, the air temperature decreases by about 6.5°C/km (3.6°F per 1000 ft), on average, although this varies.The temperature lapse is caused by convection.", "Air warmed by the surface rises.", "As it rises, air expands and cools.", "Simultaneously, other air descends, compresses, and warms.", "This process creates a vertical temperature gradient within the atmosphere.This vertical temperature gradient is essential to the greenhouse effect.", "If the lapse rate was zero (so that the atmospheric temperature did not vary with altitude and was the same as the surface temperature) then there would be no greenhouse effect (i.e., its value would be zero).=== Emission temperature and altitude ===black-body emission curve.", "In the chart, emission temperatures range between Tmin and Ts.", "\"Wavenumber\" is frequency divided by the speed of light).Greenhouse gases make the atmosphere near Earth's surface mostly opaque to longwave radiation.", "The atmosphere only becomes transparent to longwave radiation at higher altitudes, where the air is less dense, there is less water vapor, and reduced pressure broadening of absorption lines limits the wavelengths that gas molecules can absorb.For any given wavelength, the longwave radiation that reaches space is emitted by a particular ''radiating layer'' of the atmosphere.", "The intensity of the emitted radiation is determined by the weighted average air temperature within that layer.", "So, for any given wavelength of radiation emitted to space, there is an associated ''effective emission temperature'' (or brightness temperature).A given wavelength of radiation may also be said to have an ''effective emission altitude'', which is a weighted average of the altitudes within the radiating layer.The effective emission temperature and altitude vary by wavelength (or frequency).", "This phenomenon may be seen by examining plots of radiation emitted to space.=== Greenhouse gases and the lapse rate ===Greenhouse gases (GHGs) in dense air near the surface intercept most of the longwave radiation emitted by the warm surface.", "GHGs in sparse air at higher altitudes—cooler because of the environmental lapse rate—emit longwave radiation to space at a lower rate than surface emissions.Earth's surface radiates longwave radiation with wavelengths in the range of 4–100 microns.", "Greenhouse gases that were largely transparent to incoming solar radiation are more absorbent for some wavelengths in this range.The atmosphere near the Earth's surface is largely opaque to longwave radiation and most heat loss from the surface is by evaporation and convection.", "However radiative energy losses become increasingly important higher in the atmosphere, largely because of the decreasing concentration of water vapor, an important greenhouse gas.Rather than thinking of longwave radiation headed to space as coming from the surface itself, it is more realistic to think of this outgoing radiation as being emitted by a layer in the mid-troposphere, which is effectively coupled to the surface by a lapse rate.", "The difference in temperature between these two locations explains the difference between surface emissions and emissions to space, i.e., it explains the greenhouse effect." ], [ "Infrared absorbing constituents in the atmosphere", "=== Greenhouse gases ===A greenhouse gas (GHG) is a gas which contributes to the trapping of heat by impeding the flow of longwave radiation out of a planet's atmosphere.", "Greenhouse gases contribute most of the greenhouse effect in Earth's energy budget.==== Infrared active gases ====Gases which can absorb and emit longwave radiation are said to be ''infrared active'' and act as greenhouse gases.Most gases whose molecules have two different atoms (such as carbon monoxide, ), and all gases with three or more atoms (including and ), are infrared active and act as greenhouse gases.", "(Technically, this is because when these molecules vibrate, those vibrations modify the molecular dipole moment, or asymmetry in the distribution of electrical charge.", "See Infrared spectroscopy.", ")Gases with only one atom (such as argon, Ar) or with two identical atoms (such as nitrogen, , and oxygen, ) are not infrared active.", "They are transparent to longwave radiation, and, for practical purposes, do not absorb or emit longwave radiation.", "(This is because their molecules are symmetrical and so do not have a dipole moment.)", "Such gases make up more than 99% of the dry atmosphere.==== Absorption and emission ====Longwave absorption coefficients of water vapor and carbon dioxide.", "For wavelengths near 15 microns (15 ''μ''m in top scale), where Earth's surface emits strongly, CO2 is a much stronger absorber than water vapor.Greenhouse gases absorb and emit longwave radiation within specific ranges of wavelengths (organized as spectral lines or bands).When greenhouse gases absorb radiation, they distribute the acquired energy to the surrounding air as thermal energy (i.e., kinetic energy of gas molecules).", "Energy is transferred from greenhouse gas molecules to other molecules via molecular collisions.Contrary to what is sometimes said, greenhouse gases do not \"re-emit\" photons after they are absorbed.", "Because each molecule experiences billions of collisions per second, any energy a greenhouse gas molecule receives by absorbing a photon will be redistributed to other molecules before there is a chance for a new photon to be emitted.In a separate process, greenhouse gases emit longwave radiation, at a rate determined by the air temperature.", "This thermal energy is either absorbed by other greenhouse gas molecules or leaves the atmosphere, cooling it.==== Radiative effects ====''Effect on air:'' Air is warmed by latent heat (buoyant water vapor condensing into water droplets and releasing heat), thermals (warm air rising from below), and by sunlight being absorbed in the atmosphere.", "Air is cooled radiatively, by greenhouse gases and clouds emitting longwave thermal radiation.", "Within the troposphere, greenhouse gases typically have a net cooling effect on air, emitting more thermal radiation than they absorb.", "Warming and cooling of air are well balanced, on average, so that the atmosphere maintains a roughly stable average temperature.", "''Effect on surface cooling:'' Longwave radiation flows both upward and downward due to absorption and emission in the atmosphere.", "These canceling energy flows reduce radiative surface cooling (net upward radiative energy flow).", "Latent heat transport and thermals provide non-radiative surface cooling which partially compensates for this reduction, but there is still a net reduction in surface cooling, for a given surface temperature.", "''Effect on TOA energy balance:'' Greenhouse gases impact the top-of-atmosphere (TOA) energy budget by reducing the flux of longwave radiation emitted to space, for a given surface temperature.", "Thus, greenhouse gases alter the energy balance at TOA.", "This means that the surface temperature needs to be higher (than the planet's ''effective temperature'', i.e., the temperature associated with emissions to space), in order for the outgoing energy emitted to space to balance the incoming energy from sunlight.", "It is important to focus on the top-of-atmosphere (TOA) energy budget (rather than the surface energy budget) when reasoning about the warming effect of greenhouse gases.Flow of heat in Earth's atmosphere, showing (a) upward radiation heat flow and up/down radiation fluxes, (b) upward non-radiative heat flow (latent heat and thermals), (c) the balance between atmospheric heating and cooling at each altitude, and (d) the atmosphere's temperature profile.=== Clouds and aerosols ===Clouds and aerosols have both cooling effects, associated with reflecting sunlight back to space, and warming effects, associated with trapping thermal radiation.On average, clouds have a strong net cooling effect.", "However, the mix of cooling and warming effects varies, depending on detailed characteristics of particular clouds (including their type, height, and optical properties).", "Thin cirrus clouds can have a net warming effect.", "Clouds can absorb and emit infrared radiation and thus affect the radiative properties of the atmosphere." ], [ "Basic formulas", "=== Effective temperature ===A given flux of thermal radiation has an associated ''effective radiating temperature'' or ''effective temperature''.", "Effective temperature is the temperature that a black body (a perfect absorber/emitter) would need to be to emit that much thermal radiation.", "Thus, the overall effective temperature of a planet is given by:where OLR is the average flux (power per unit area) of outgoing longwave radiation emitted to space and is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.", "Similarly, the effective temperature of the surface is given by:where SLR is the average flux of longwave radiation emitted by the surface.", "(OLR is a conventional abbreviation.", "SLR is used here to denote the flux of surface-emitted longwave radiation, although there is no standard abbreviation for this.", ")=== Metrics for the greenhouse effect ===Increase in the Earth's greenhouse effect (2000-2022) based on NASA CERES satellite data.The IPCC reports the ''greenhouse effect'', , as being 159 W m, where is the flux of longwave thermal radiation that leaves the surface minus the flux of outgoing longwave radiation that reaches space::Alternatively, the greenhouse effect can be described using the ''normalized greenhouse effect'', , defined as:The normalized greenhouse effect is ''the fraction of the amount of thermal radiation emitted by the surface that does not reach space''.Based on the IPCC numbers, = 0.40.In other words, 40 percent less thermal radiation reaches space than what leaves the surface.Sometimes the greenhouse effect is quantified as a temperature difference.", "This temperature difference is closely related to the quantities above.When the greenhouse effect is expressed as a temperature difference, , this refers to the effective temperature associated with thermal radiation emissions from the surface minus the effective temperature associated with emissions to space:::Informal discussions of the greenhouse effect often compare the actual surface temperature to the temperature that the planet would have if there were no greenhouse gases.", "However, in formal technical discussions, when the size of the greenhouse effect is quantified as a temperature, this is generally done using the above formula.", "The formula refers to the effective surface temperature rather than the actual surface temperature, and compares the surface with the top of the atmosphere, rather than comparing reality to a hypothetical situation.The temperature difference, , indicates how much warmer a planet's surface is than the planet's overall effective temperature.===Radiative balance===transfer heat.", "Evaporation and convection partially compensate for this reduction in surface cooling.", "Low temperatures at high altitudes limit the rate of thermal emissions to space.Earth's top-of-atmosphere (TOA) energy imbalance (EEI) is the amount by which the power of incoming radiation exceeds the power of outgoing radiation::where ASR is the mean flux of absorbed solar radiation.", "ASR may be expanded as:where is the albedo (reflectivity) of the planet and MSI is the mean solar irradiance incoming at the top of the atmosphere.The radiative equilibrium temperature of a planet can be expressed as: A planet's temperature will tend to shift towards a state of radiative equilibrium, in which the TOA energy imbalance is zero, i.e., .", "When the planet is in radiative equilibrium, the overall effective temperature of the planet is given by:Thus, the concept of radiative equilibrium is important because it indicates what effective temperature a planet will tend towards having.If, in addition to knowing the effective temperature, , we know the value of the greenhouse effect, then we know the mean (average) surface temperature of the planet.This is why the quantity known as the greenhouse effect is important: it is one of the few quantities that go into determining the planet's mean surface temperature.=== Greenhouse effect and temperature ===Typically, a planet will be close to radiative equilibrium, with the rates of incoming and outgoing energy being well-balanced.", "Under such conditions, the planet's equilibrium temperature is determined by the mean solar irradiance and the planetary albedo (how much sunlight is reflected back to space instead of being absorbed).The greenhouse effect measures how much warmer the surface is than the overall effective temperature of the planet.", "So, the effective surface temperature, , is, using the definition of ,:One could also express the relationship between and using or .So, the principle that a larger greenhouse effect corresponds to a higher surface temperature, if everything else (i.e., the factors that determine ) is held fixed, is true as a matter of definition.Note that the greenhouse effect influences the temperature of the planet as a whole, in tandem with the planet's tendency to move toward radiative equilibrium." ], [ "Misconceptions", "Earth's overall heat flow.", "Heat (net energy) ''always flows from warmer to cooler'', honoring the Second Law of Thermodynamics.", "(This heat flow diagram is equivalent to NASA's earth energy budget diagram.", "Data is from 2009.", ")There are sometimes misunderstandings about how the greenhouse effect functions and raises temperatures.The ''surface budget fallacy'' is a common error in thinking.", "It involves thinking that an increased concentration could only cause warming by increasing the downward thermal radiation to the surface, as a result of making the atmosphere a better emitter.", "If the atmosphere near the surface is already nearly opaque to thermal radiation, this would mean that increasing could not lead to higher temperatures.", "However, it is a mistake to focus on the surface energy budget rather than the top-of-atmosphere energy budget.", "Regardless of what happens at the surface, increasing the concentration of tends to reduce the thermal radiation reaching space (OLR), leading to a TOA energy imbalance that leads to warming.", "Earlier researchers like Callendar (1938) and Plass (1959) focused on the surface budget, but the work of Manabe in the 1960s clarified the importance of the top-of-atmosphere energy budget.Among those who do not believe in the greenhouse effect, there is a fallacy that the greenhouse effect involves greenhouse gases sending heat from the cool atmosphere to the planet's warm surface, in violation of the Second Law of Thermodynamics.", "However, this idea reflects a misunderstanding.", "Radiation heat flow is the ''net energy flow'' after the flows of radiation in both directions have been taken into account.", "Radiation heat flow occurs in the direction from the surface to the atmosphere and space, as is to be expected given that the surface is warmer than the atmosphere and space.", "While greenhouse gases emit thermal radiation downward to the surface, this is part of the normal process of radiation heat transfer.", "The downward thermal radiation simply reduces the upward thermal radiation net energy flow (radiation heat flow), i.e., it reduces cooling." ], [ "Simplified models", "Earth's energy balance.", "Data as of 2007.Simplified models are sometimes used to support understanding of how the greenhouse effect comes about and how this affects surface temperature.=== Atmospheric layer models ===The greenhouse effect can be seen to occur in a simplified model in which the air is treated as if it is single uniform layer exchanging radiation with the ground and space.", "Slightly more complex models add additional layers, or introduce convection.=== Equivalent emission altitude ===One simplification is to treat all outgoing longwave radiation as being emitted from an altitude where the air temperature equals the overall effective temperature for planetary emissions, .", "Some authors have referred to this altitude as the ''effective radiating level'' (ERL), and suggest that as the concentration increases, the ERL must rise to maintain the same mass of above that level.This approach is less accurate than accounting for variation in radiation wavelength by emission altitude.", "However, it can be useful in supporting a simplified understanding of the greenhouse effect.", "For instance, it can be used to explain how the greenhouse effect increases as the concentration of greenhouse gases increase.Earth's overall equivalent emission altitude has been increasing with a trend of /decade, which is said to be consistent with a global mean surface warming of /decade over the period 1979–2011." ], [ "Related effects on Earth", "===Negative greenhouse effect===Scientists have observed that, at times, there is a negative greenhouse effect over parts of Antarctica.", "In a location where there is a strong temperature inversion, so that the air is warmer than the surface, it is possible for the greenhouse effect to be reversed, so that the presence of greenhouse gases increases the rate of radiative cooling to space.", "In this case, the rate of thermal radiation emission to space is greater than the rate at which thermal radiation is emitted by the surface.", "Thus, the local value of the greenhouse effect is negative.", "===Runaway greenhouse effect===" ], [ "Bodies other than Earth", "+ Greenhouse effect on different celestial bodies Venus Earth Mars Titan Surface temperature, Greenhouse effect, GHE; GHE+AGHE Pressure 92 atm 1 atm 0.0063 atm 1.5 atm Primary gases (0.965) N (0.035) N (0.78) O (0.21)Ar (0.009) (0.95)N (0.03)Ar (0.02) N (0.95) (~0.05) Trace gases , Ar , O, CO H Planetary effective temperature, 73 K tropopause; 82 K stratopause Greenhouse effect, W/m 150 W/m 13 W/m 2.8 W/m GHE; 1.9 W/m GHE+AGHE Normalized greenhouse effect, 0.99 0.39 0.11 0.63 GHE; 0.42 GHE+AGHEIn the solar system, apart from the Earth, at least two other planets and a moon also have a greenhouse effect.===Venus===The greenhouse effect on Venus is particularly large, and it brings the surface temperature to as high as .", "This is due to its very dense atmosphere which consists of about 97% carbon dioxide.Although Venus is about 30% closer to the Sun, it absorbs (and is warmed by) ''less sunlight'' than Earth, because Venus reflects 77% of incident sunlight while Earth reflects around 30%.", "In the absence of a greenhouse effect, the surface of Venus would be expected to have a temperature of .", "Thus, contrary to what one might think, being nearer to the Sun is not a reason why Venus is warmer than Earth.Due to its high pressure, the CO2 in the atmosphere of Venus exhibits ''continuum absorption'' (absorption over a broad range of wavelengths) and is not limited to absorption within the bands relevant to its absorption on Earth.A runaway greenhouse effect involving carbon dioxide and water vapor has for many years been hypothesized to have occurred on Venus; this idea is still largely accepted.", "The planet Venus experienced a runaway greenhouse effect, resulting in an atmosphere which is 96% carbon dioxide, and a surface atmospheric pressure roughly the same as found underwater on Earth.", "Venus may have had water oceans, but they would have boiled off as the mean surface temperature rose to the current .===Mars===Mars has about 70 times as much carbon dioxide as Earth, but experiences only a small greenhouse effect, about .", "The greenhouse effect is small due to the lack of water vapor and the overall thinness of the atmosphere.The same radiative transfer calculations that predict warming on Earth accurately explain the temperature on Mars, given its atmospheric composition.===Titan===Saturn's moon Titan has both a greenhouse effect and an anti-greenhouse effect.", "The presence of nitrogen (N2), methane (CH4), and hydrogen (H2) in the atmosphere contribute to a greenhouse effect, increasing the surface temperature by over the expected temperature of the body without these gases.While the gases N2 and H2 ordinarily do not absorb infrared radiation, these gases absorb thermal radiation on Titan due to pressure-induced collisions, the large mass and thickness of the atmosphere, and the long wavelengths of the thermal radiation from the cold surface.The existence of a high-altitude haze, which absorbs wavelengths of solar radiation but is transparent to infrared, contribute to an anti-greenhouse effect of approximately .The net result of these two effects is a warming of 21 K − 9 K = , so Titan's surface temperature of is 12 K warmer than it would be if there were no atmosphere.=== Effect of pressure ===One cannot predict the relative sizes of the greenhouse effects on different bodies simply by comparing the amount of greenhouse gases in their atmospheres.", "This is because factors other than the quantity of these gases also play a role in determining the size of the greenhouse effect.Overall atmospheric pressure affects how much thermal radiation each molecule of a greenhouse gas can absorb.", "High pressure leads to more absorption and low pressure leads to less.This is due to \"pressure broadening\" of spectral lines.", "When the total atmospheric pressure is higher, collisions between molecules occur at a higher rate.", "Collisions broaden the width of absorption lines, allowing a greenhouse gas to absorb thermal radiation over a broader range of wavelengths.Each molecule in the air near Earth's surface experiences about 7 billion collisions per second.", "This rate is lower at higher altitudes, where the pressure and temperature are both lower.", "This means that greenhouse gases are able to absorb more wavelengths in the lower atmosphere than they can in the upper atmosphere.On other planets, pressure broadening means that each molecule of a greenhouse gas is more effective at trapping thermal radiation if the total atmospheric pressure is high (as on Venus), and less effective at trapping thermal radiation if the atmospheric pressure is low (as on Mars).===Anti-greenhouse effect===" ], [ "See also", "*Climate change feedback*Climate model*Global dimming*Idealized greenhouse model*Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change*Solar radiation management" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Group homomorphism" ], [ "Introduction", "image of ''h''.", "''N'' is the kernel of ''h'' and ''aN'' is a coset of ''N''.In mathematics, given two groups, (''G'',∗) and (''H'', ·), a '''group homomorphism''' from (''G'',∗) to (''H'', ·) is a function ''h'' : ''G'' → ''H'' such that for all ''u'' and ''v'' in ''G'' it holds that:where the group operation on the left side of the equation is that of ''G'' and on the right side that of ''H''.From this property, one can deduce that ''h'' maps the identity element ''eG'' of ''G'' to the identity element ''eH'' of ''H'',:and it also maps inverses to inverses in the sense that :Hence one can say that ''h'' \"is compatible with the group structure\".In areas of mathematics where one considers groups endowed with additional structure, a ''homomorphism'' sometimes means a map which respects not only the group structure (as above) but also the extra structure.", "For example, a homomorphism of topological groups is often required to be continuous." ], [ "Intuition", "The purpose of defining a group homomorphism is to create functions that preserve the algebraic structure.", "An equivalent definition of group homomorphism is: The function ''h'' : ''G'' → ''H'' is a group homomorphism if whenever : ''a'' ∗ ''b'' = ''c''   we have   ''h''(''a'') ⋅ ''h''(''b'') = ''h''(''c'').", "In other words, the group ''H'' in some sense has a similar algebraic structure as ''G'' and the homomorphism ''h'' preserves that." ], [ "Types", ";Monomorphism: A group homomorphism that is injective (or, one-to-one); i.e., preserves distinctness.", ";Epimorphism: A group homomorphism that is surjective (or, onto); i.e., reaches every point in the codomain.", ";Isomorphism: A group homomorphism that is bijective; i.e., injective and surjective.", "Its inverse is also a group homomorphism.", "In this case, the groups ''G'' and ''H'' are called ''isomorphic''; they differ only in the notation of their elements (except of identity element) and are identical for all practical purposes.", "I.e.", "we re-label all elements except identity.", ";Endomorphism: A group homomorphism, ''h'': ''G'' → ''G''; the domain and codomain are the same.", "Also called an endomorphism of ''G''.", ";Automorphism: A group endomorphism that is bijective, and hence an isomorphism.", "The set of all automorphisms of a group ''G'', with functional composition as operation, itself forms a group, the ''automorphism group'' of ''G''.", "It is denoted by Aut(''G'').", "As an example, the automorphism group of ('''Z''', +) contains only two elements, the identity transformation and multiplication with −1; it is isomorphic to ('''Z'''/2'''Z''', +)." ], [ "Image and kernel", "We define the ''kernel of h'' to be the set of elements in ''G'' which are mapped to the identity in ''H'': and the ''image of h'' to be: The kernel and image of a homomorphism can be interpreted as measuring how close it is to being an isomorphism.", "The first isomorphism theorem states that the image of a group homomorphism, ''h''(''G'') is isomorphic to the quotient group ''G''/ker ''h''.The kernel of h is a normal subgroup of ''G'': : and the image of h is a subgroup of ''H''.The homomorphism, ''h'', is a ''group monomorphism''; i.e., ''h'' is injective (one-to-one) if and only if .", "Injection directly gives that there is a unique element in the kernel, and, conversely, a unique element in the kernel gives injection::" ], [ "Examples", "* Consider the cyclic group Z = ('''Z'''/3'''Z''', +) = ({0, 1, 2}, +) and the group of integers ('''Z''', +).", "The map ''h'' : '''Z''' → '''Z'''/3'''Z''' with ''h''(''u'') = ''u'' mod 3 is a group homomorphism.", "It is surjective and its kernel consists of all integers which are divisible by 3.", "* The exponential map yields a group homomorphism from the group of real numbers '''R''' with addition to the group of non-zero real numbers '''R'''* with multiplication.", "The kernel is {0} and the image consists of the positive real numbers.", "* The exponential map also yields a group homomorphism from the group of complex numbers '''C''' with addition to the group of non-zero complex numbers '''C'''* with multiplication.", "This map is surjective and has the kernel {2π''ki'' : ''k'' ∈ '''Z'''}, as can be seen from Euler's formula.", "Fields like '''R''' and '''C''' that have homomorphisms from their additive group to their multiplicative group are thus called exponential fields.", "* The function , defined by is a homomorphism.", "* Consider the two groups and , represented respectively by and , where is the positive real numbers.", "Then, the function defined by the logarithm function is a homomorphism." ], [ "Category of groups", "If and are group homomorphisms, then so is .", "This shows that the class of all groups, together with group homomorphisms as morphisms, forms a category." ], [ "Homomorphisms of abelian groups", "If ''G'' and ''H'' are abelian (i.e., commutative) groups, then the set of all group homomorphisms from ''G'' to ''H'' is itself an abelian group: the sum of two homomorphisms is defined by:(''h'' + ''k'')(''u'') = ''h''(''u'') + ''k''(''u'')    for all ''u'' in ''G''.The commutativity of ''H'' is needed to prove that is again a group homomorphism.The addition of homomorphisms is compatible with the composition of homomorphisms in the following sense: if ''f'' is in , ''h'', ''k'' are elements of , and ''g'' is in , then :    and    .Since the composition is associative, this shows that the set End(''G'') of all endomorphisms of an abelian group forms a ring, the ''endomorphism ring'' of ''G''.", "For example, the endomorphism ring of the abelian group consisting of the direct sum of ''m'' copies of '''Z'''/''n'''''Z''' is isomorphic to the ring of ''m''-by-''m'' matrices with entries in '''Z'''/''n'''''Z'''.", "The above compatibility also shows that the category of all abelian groups with group homomorphisms forms a preadditive category; the existence of direct sums and well-behaved kernels makes this category the prototypical example of an abelian category." ], [ "See also", "*Fundamental theorem on homomorphisms*Quasimorphism*Ring homomorphism" ], [ "References", "**" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Group isomorphism" ], [ "Introduction", "In abstract algebra, a '''group isomorphism''' is a function between two groups that sets up a bijection between the elements of the groups in a way that respects the given group operations.", "If there exists an isomorphism between two groups, then the groups are called '''isomorphic'''.", "From the standpoint of group theory, isomorphic groups have the same properties and need not be distinguished." ], [ "Definition and notation", "Given two groups and a ''group isomorphism'' from to is a bijective group homomorphism from to Spelled out, this means that a group isomorphism is a bijective function such that for all and in it holds thatThe two groups and are isomorphic if there exists an isomorphism from one to the other.", "This is writtenOften shorter and simpler notations can be used.", "When the relevant group operations are understood, they are omitted and one writesSometimes one can even simply write Whether such a notation is possible without confusion or ambiguity depends on context.", "For example, the equals sign is not very suitable when the groups are both subgroups of the same group.", "See also the examples.Conversely, given a group a set and a bijection we can make a group by definingIf and then the bijection is an automorphism (''q.v.", "'').Intuitively, group theorists view two isomorphic groups as follows: For every element of a group there exists an element of such that \"behaves in the same way\" as (operates with other elements of the group in the same way as ).", "For instance, if generates then so does This implies, in particular, that and are in bijective correspondence.", "Thus, the definition of an isomorphism is quite natural.An isomorphism of groups may equivalently be defined as an invertible group homomorphism (the inverse function of a bijective group homomorphism is also a group homomorphism)." ], [ "Examples", "In this section some notable examples of isomorphic groups are listed.", "* The group of all real numbers under addition, , is isomorphic to the group of positive real numbers under multiplication :*: via the isomorphism .", "* The group of integers (with addition) is a subgroup of and the factor group is isomorphic to the group of complex numbers of absolute value 1 (under multiplication):*:* The Klein four-group is isomorphic to the direct product of two copies of , and can therefore be written Another notation is because it is a dihedral group.", "* Generalizing this, for all odd is isomorphic to the direct product of and * If is an infinite cyclic group, then is isomorphic to the integers (with the addition operation).", "From an algebraic point of view, this means that the set of all integers (with the addition operation) is the \"only\" infinite cyclic group.Some groups can be proven to be isomorphic, relying on the axiom of choice, but the proof does not indicate how to construct a concrete isomorphism.", "Examples:* The group is isomorphic to the group of all complex numbers under addition.", "* The group of non-zero complex numbers with multiplication as the operation is isomorphic to the group mentioned above." ], [ "Properties", "The kernel of an isomorphism from to is always {eG}, where eG is the identity of the group If and are isomorphic, then is abelian if and only if is abelian.If is an isomorphism from to then for any the order of equals the order of If and are isomorphic, then is a locally finite group if and only if is locally finite.", "The number of distinct groups (up to isomorphism) of order is given by sequence A000001 in the OEIS.", "The first few numbers are 0, 1, 1, 1 and 2 meaning that 4 is the lowest order with more than one group." ], [ "Cyclic groups", "All cyclic groups of a given order are isomorphic to where denotes addition modulo Let be a cyclic group and be the order of Letting be a generator of , is then equal to We will show thatDefine so that Clearly, is bijective.", "Then which proves that" ], [ "Consequences", "From the definition, it follows that any isomorphism will map the identity element of to the identity element of that it will map inverses to inverses,and more generally, th powers to th powers, and that the inverse map is also a group isomorphism.The relation \"being isomorphic\" is an equivalence relation.", "If is an isomorphism between two groups and then everything that is true about that is only related to the group structure can be translated via into a true ditto statement about and vice versa.== Automorphisms ==An isomorphism from a group to itself is called an automorphism of the group.", "Thus it is a bijection such thatThe image under an automorphism of a conjugacy class is always a conjugacy class (the same or another).The composition of two automorphisms is again an automorphism, and with this operation the set of all automorphisms of a group denoted by itself forms a group, the ''automorphism group'' of For all abelian groups there is at least the automorphism that replaces the group elements by their inverses.", "However, in groups where all elements are equal to their inverses this is the trivial automorphism, e.g.", "in the Klein four-group.", "For that group all permutations of the three non-identity elements are automorphisms, so the automorphism group is isomorphic to (which itself is isomorphic to ).In for a prime number one non-identity element can be replaced by any other, with corresponding changes in the other elements.", "The automorphism group is isomorphic to For example, for multiplying all elements of by 3, modulo 7, is an automorphism of order 6 in the automorphism group, because while lower powers do not give 1.Thus this automorphism generates There is one more automorphism with this property: multiplying all elements of by 5, modulo 7.Therefore, these two correspond to the elements 1 and 5 of in that order or conversely.The automorphism group of is isomorphic to because only each of the two elements 1 and 5 generate so apart from the identity we can only interchange these.The automorphism group of has order 168, as can be found as follows.", "All 7 non-identity elements play the same role, so we can choose which plays the role of Any of the remaining 6 can be chosen to play the role of (0,1,0).", "This determines which element corresponds to For we can choose from 4, which determines the rest.", "Thus we have automorphisms.", "They correspond to those of the Fano plane, of which the 7 points correspond to the 7 elements.", "The lines connecting three points correspond to the group operation: and on one line means and See also general linear group over finite fields.For abelian groups, all non-trivial automorphisms are outer automorphisms.Non-abelian groups have a non-trivial inner automorphism group, and possibly also outer automorphisms." ], [ "See also", "* Group isomorphism problem*" ], [ "References", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geographic information system" ], [ "Introduction", "Basic GIS conceptA '''geographic information system''' ('''GIS''') consists of integrated computer hardware and software that store, manage, analyze, edit, output, and visualize geographic data.", "Much of this often happens within a spatial database, however, this is not essential to meet the definition of a GIS.", "In a broader sense, one may consider such a system also to include human users and support staff, procedures and workflows, the body of knowledge of relevant concepts and methods, and institutional organizations.The uncounted plural, ''geographic information systems'', also abbreviated GIS, is the most common term for the industry and profession concerned with these systems.", "It is roughly synonymous with geoinformatics.", "The academic discipline that studies these systems and their underlying geographic principles, may also be abbreviated as GIS, but the unambiguous GIScience is more common.", "GIScience is often considered a subdiscipline of geography within the branch of technical geography.Geographic information systems are utilized in multiple technologies, processes, techniques and methods.", "They are attached to various operations and numerous applications, that relate to: engineering, planning, management, transport/logistics, insurance, telecommunications, and business.", "For this reason, GIS and location intelligence applications are at the foundation of location-enabled services, which rely on geographic analysis and visualization.GIS provides the capability to relate previously unrelated information, through the use of location as the \"key index variable\".", "Locations and extents that are found in the Earth's spacetime are able to be recorded through the date and time of occurrence, along with x, y, and z coordinates; representing, longitude (''x''), latitude (''y''), and elevation (''z'').", "All Earth-based, spatial–temporal, location and extent references should be relatable to one another, and ultimately, to a \"real\" physical location or extent.", "This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry and studies." ], [ "History and development", "While digital GIS dates to the mid-1960s, when Roger Tomlinson first coined the phrase \"geographic information system\", many of the geographic concepts and methods that GIS automates date back decades earlier.", "E. W. Gilbert's version (1958) of John Snow's 1855 map of the Soho cholera outbreak showing the clusters of cholera cases in the London epidemic of 1854One of the first known instances in which spatial analysis was used came from the field of epidemiology in the \"''Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le département de la Seine''\" (1832).", "French geographer and cartographer, Charles Picquet created a map outlining the forty-eight Districts in Paris, using halftone color gradients, to provide a visual representation for the number of reported deaths due to cholera per every 1,000 inhabitants.In 1854, John Snow, an epidemiologist and physician, was able to determine the source of a cholera outbreak in London through the use of spatial analysis.", "Snow achieved this through plotting the residence of each casualty on a map of the area, as well as the nearby water sources.", "Once these points were marked, he was able to identify the water source within the cluster that was responsible for the outbreak.", "This was one of the earliest successful uses of a geographic methodology in pinpointing the source of an outbreak in epidemiology.", "While the basic elements of topography and theme existed previously in cartography, Snow's map was unique due to his use of cartographic methods, not only to depict, but also to analyze clusters of geographically dependent phenomena.The early 20th century saw the development of photozincography, which allowed maps to be split into layers, for example one layer for vegetation and another for water.", "This was particularly used for printing contours – drawing these was a labour-intensive task but having them on a separate layer meant they could be worked on without the other layers to confuse the draughtsman.", "This work was initially drawn on glass plates, but later plastic film was introduced, with the advantages of being lighter, using less storage space and being less brittle, among others.", "When all the layers were finished, they were combined into one image using a large process camera.", "Once color printing came in, the layers idea was also used for creating separate printing plates for each color.", "While the use of layers much later became one of the typical features of a contemporary GIS, the photographic process just described is not considered a GIS in itself -– as the maps were just images with no database to link them to.Two additional developments are notable in the early days of GIS: Ian McHarg's publication \"''Design with Nature\"'' and its map overlay method and the introduction of a street network into the U.S. Census Bureau's DIME (Dual Independent Map Encoding) system.The first publication detailing the use of computers to facilitate cartography was written by Waldo Tobler in 1959.Further computer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research led to more widespread general-purpose computer \"mapping\" applications by the early 1960s.In 1960 the world's first true operational GIS was developed in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development.", "Developed by Roger Tomlinson, it was called the Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS) and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the Canada Land Inventory, an effort to determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping information about soils, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, waterfowl, forestry and land use at a scale of 1:50,000.A rating classification factor was also added to permit analysis.CGIS was an improvement over \"computer mapping\" applications as it provided capabilities for data storage, overlay, measurement, and digitizing/scanning.", "It supported a national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as arcs having a true embedded topology and it stored the attribute and locational information in separate files.", "As a result of this, Tomlinson has become known as the \"father of GIS\", particularly for his use of overlays in promoting the spatial analysis of convergent geographic data.", "CGIS lasted into the 1990s and built a large digital land resource database in Canada.", "It was developed as a mainframe-based system in support of federal and provincial resource planning and management.", "Its strength was continent-wide analysis of complex datasets.", "The CGIS was never available commercially.In 1964 Howard T. Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis at the Harvard Graduate School of Design (LCGSA 1965–1991), where a number of important theoretical concepts in spatial data handling were developed, and which by the 1970s had distributed seminal software code and systems, such as SYMAP, GRID, and ODYSSEY, to universities, research centers and corporations worldwide.", "These programs were the first examples of general purpose GIS software that was not developed for a particular installation, and was very influential on future commercial software, such as Esri ARC/INFO, released in 1983.By the late 1970s two public domain GIS systems (MOSS and GRASS GIS) were in development, and by the early 1980s, M&S Computing (later Intergraph) along with Bentley Systems Incorporated for the CAD platform, Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), CARIS (Computer Aided Resource Information System), and ERDAS (Earth Resource Data Analysis System) emerged as commercial vendors of GIS software, successfully incorporating many of the CGIS features, combining the first generation approach to separation of spatial and attribute information with a second generation approach to organizing attribute data into database structures.In 1986, Mapping Display and Analysis System (MIDAS), the first desktop GIS product was released for the DOS operating system.", "This was renamed in 1990 to MapInfo for Windows when it was ported to the Microsoft Windows platform.", "This began the process of moving GIS from the research department into the business environment.By the end of the 20th century, the rapid growth in various systems had been consolidated and standardized on relatively few platforms and users were beginning to explore viewing GIS data over the Internet, requiring data format and transfer standards.", "More recently, a growing number of free, open-source GIS packages run on a range of operating systems and can be customized to perform specific tasks.", "The major trend of the 21st Century has been the integration of GIS capabilities with other Information technology and Internet infrastructure, such as relational databases, cloud computing, software as a service (SAAS), and mobile computing." ], [ "GIS software", "The distinction must be made between a singular ''geographic information system'', which is a single installation of software and data for a particular use, along with associated hardware, staff, and institutions (e.g., the GIS for a particular city government); and ''GIS software'', a general-purpose application program that is intended to be used in many individual geographic information systems in a variety of application domains.", "Starting in the late 1970s, many software packages have been created specifically for GIS applications.", "Esri's ArcGIS, which includes ArcGIS Pro and the legacy software ArcMap, currently dominates the GIS Market.", "Other examples of GIS include Autodesk and MapInfo Professional and open source programs such as QGIS, GRASS GIS, MapGuide, and Hadoop-GIS.", "These and other desktop GIS applications include a full suite of capabilities for entering, managing, analyzing, and visualizing geographic data, and are designed to be used on their own.Starting in the late 1990s with the emergence of the Internet, as computer network technology progressed, GIS infrastructure and data began to move to servers, providing another mechanism for providing GIS capabilities.", "This was facilitated by standalone software installed on a server, similar to other server software such as HTTP servers and relational database management systems, enabling clients to have access to GIS data and processing tools without having to install specialized desktop software.", "These networks are known as distributed GIS.", "This strategy has been extended through the Internet and development of cloud-based GIS platforms such as ArcGIS Online and GIS-specialized software as a service (SAAS).", "The use of the Internet to facilitate distributed GIS is known as Internet GIS.An alternative approach is the integration of some or all of these capabilities into other software or information technology architectures.", "One example is a spatial extension to Object-relational database software, which defines a geometry datatype so that spatial data can be stored in relational tables, and extensions to SQL for spatial analysis operations such as overlay.", "Another example is the proliferation of geospatial libraries and application programming interfaces (e.g., GDAL, Leaflet, D3.js) that extend programming languages to enable the incorporation of GIS data and processing into custom software, including web mapping sites and location-based services in smartphones." ], [ "Geospatial data management", "The core of any GIS is a database that contains representations of geographic phenomena, modeling their ''geometry'' (location and shape) and their ''properties'' or ''attributes''.", "A GIS database may be stored in a variety of forms, such as a collection of separate data files or a single spatially-enabled relational database.", "Collecting and managing these data usually constitutes the bulk of the time and financial resources of a project, far more than other aspects such as analysis and mapping.===Aspects of geographic data===GIS uses spatio-temporal (space-time) location as the key index variable for all other information.", "Just as a relational database containing text or numbers can relate many different tables using common key index variables, GIS can relate otherwise unrelated information by using location as the key index variable.", "The key is the location and/or extent in space-time.Any variable that can be located spatially, and increasingly also temporally, can be referenced using a GIS.", "Locations or extents in Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and x, y, and z coordinates representing, longitude, latitude, and elevation, respectively.", "These GIS coordinates may represent other quantified systems of temporo-spatial reference (for example, film frame number, stream gage station, highway mile-marker, surveyor benchmark, building address, street intersection, entrance gate, water depth sounding, POS or CAD drawing origin/units).", "Units applied to recorded temporal-spatial data can vary widely (even when using exactly the same data, see map projections), but all Earth-based spatial–temporal location and extent references should, ideally, be relatable to one another and ultimately to a \"real\" physical location or extent in space–time.Related by accurate spatial information, an incredible variety of real-world and projected past or future data can be analyzed, interpreted and represented.", "This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry into behaviors and patterns of real-world information that previously had not been systematically correlated.===Data modeling===GIS data represents phenomena that exist in the real world, such as roads, land use, elevation, trees, waterways, and states.", "The most common types of phenomena that are represented in data can be divided into two conceptualizations: discrete objects (e.g., a house, a road) and continuous fields (e.g., rainfall amount or population density).", "Other types of geographic phenomena, such as events (e.g., location of World War II battles), processes (e.g., extent of suburbanization), and masses (e.g., types of soil in an area) are represented less commonly or indirectly, or are modeled in analysis procedures rather than data.Traditionally, there are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS for both kinds of abstractions mapping references: raster images and vector.", "Points, lines, and polygons represent vector data of mapped location attribute references.A new hybrid method of storing data is that of identifying point clouds, which combine three-dimensional points with RGB information at each point, returning a \"3D color image\".", "GIS thematic maps then are becoming more and more realistically visually descriptive of what they set out to show or determine.===Data acquisition===Example of hardware for mapping (GPS and laser rangefinder) and data collection (rugged computer).", "The current trend for geographical information system (GIS) is that accurate mapping and data analysis are completed while in the field.", "Depicted hardware (field-map technology) is used mainly for forest inventories, monitoring and mapping.GIS data acquisition includes several methods for gathering spatial data into a GIS database, which can be grouped into three categories: ''primary data capture'', the direct measurement phenomena in the field (e.g., remote sensing, the global positioning system); ''secondary data capture'', the extraction of information from existing sources that are not in a GIS form, such as paper maps, through digitization; and ''data transfer'', the copying of existing GIS data from external sources such as government agencies and private companies.", "All of these methods can consume significant time, finances, and other resources.====Primary data capture====Survey data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on survey instruments using a technique called coordinate geometry (COGO).", "Positions from a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) like Global Positioning System can also be collected and then imported into a GIS.", "A current trend in data collection gives users the ability to utilize field computers with the ability to edit live data using wireless connections or disconnected editing sessions.", "Current trend is to utilize applications available on smartphones and PDAs - Mobile GIS.", "This has been enhanced by the availability of low-cost mapping-grade GPS units with decimeter accuracy in real time.", "This eliminates the need to post process, import, and update the data in the office after fieldwork has been collected.", "This includes the ability to incorporate positions collected using a laser rangefinder.", "New technologies also allow users to create maps as well as analysis directly in the field, making projects more efficient and mapping more accurate.Remotely sensed data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of sensors attached to a platform.", "Sensors include cameras, digital scanners and lidar, while platforms usually consist of aircraft and satellites.", "In England in the mid 1990s, hybrid kite/balloons called helikites first pioneered the use of compact airborne digital cameras as airborne geo-information systems.", "Aircraft measurement software, accurate to 0.4 mm was used to link the photographs and measure the ground.", "Helikites are inexpensive and gather more accurate data than aircraft.", "Helikites can be used over roads, railways and towns where unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are banned.Recently aerial data collection has become more accessible with miniature UAVs and drones.", "For example, the Aeryon Scout was used to map a 50-acre area with a ground sample distance of in only 12 minutes.The majority of digital data currently comes from photo interpretation of aerial photographs.", "Soft-copy workstations are used to digitize features directly from stereo pairs of digital photographs.", "These systems allow data to be captured in two and three dimensions, with elevations measured directly from a stereo pair using principles of photogrammetry.", "Analog aerial photos must be scanned before being entered into a soft-copy system, for high-quality digital cameras this step is skipped.Satellite remote sensing provides another important source of spatial data.", "Here satellites use different sensor packages to passively measure the reflectance from parts of the electromagnetic spectrum or radio waves that were sent out from an active sensor such as radar.", "Remote sensing collects raster data that can be further processed using different bands to identify objects and classes of interest, such as land cover.====Secondary data capture====The most common method of data creation is digitization, where a hard copy map or survey plan is transferred into a digital medium through the use of a CAD program, and geo-referencing capabilities.", "With the wide availability of ortho-rectified imagery (from satellites, aircraft, Helikites and UAVs), heads-up digitizing is becoming the main avenue through which geographic data is extracted.", "Heads-up digitizing involves the tracing of geographic data directly on top of the aerial imagery instead of by the traditional method of tracing the geographic form on a separate digitizing tablet (heads-down digitizing).", "Heads-down digitizing, or manual digitizing, uses a special magnetic pen, or stylus, that feeds information into a computer to create an identical, digital map.", "Some tablets use a mouse-like tool, called a puck, instead of a stylus.", "The puck has a small window with cross-hairs which allows for greater precision and pinpointing map features.", "Though heads-up digitizing is more commonly used, heads-down digitizing is still useful for digitizing maps of poor quality.Existing data printed on paper or PET film maps can be digitized or scanned to produce digital data.", "A digitizer produces vector data as an operator traces points, lines, and polygon boundaries from a map.", "Scanning a map results in raster data that could be further processed to produce vector data.When data is captured, the user should consider if the data should be captured with either a relative accuracy or absolute accuracy, since this could not only influence how information will be interpreted but also the cost of data capture.After entering data into a GIS, the data usually requires editing, to remove errors, or further processing.", "For vector data it must be made \"topologically correct\" before it can be used for some advanced analysis.", "For example, in a road network, lines must connect with nodes at an intersection.", "Errors such as undershoots and overshoots must also be removed.", "For scanned maps, blemishes on the source map may need to be removed from the resulting raster.", "For example, a fleck of dirt might connect two lines that should not be connected.===Projections, coordinate systems, and registration===The earth can be represented by various models, each of which may provide a different set of coordinates (e.g., latitude, longitude, elevation) for any given point on the Earth's surface.", "The simplest model is to assume the earth is a perfect sphere.", "As more measurements of the earth have accumulated, the models of the earth have become more sophisticated and more accurate.", "In fact, there are models called datums that apply to different areas of the earth to provide increased accuracy, like North American Datum of 1983 for U.S. measurements, and the World Geodetic System for worldwide measurements.The latitude and longitude on a map made against a local datum may not be the same as one obtained from a GPS receiver.", "Converting coordinates from one datum to another requires a datum transformation such as a Helmert transformation, although in certain situations a simple translation may be sufficient.In popular GIS software, data projected in latitude/longitude is often represented as a Geographic coordinate system.", "For example, data in latitude/longitude if the datum is the 'North American Datum of 1983' is denoted by 'GCS North American 1983'.===Data quality===While no digital model can be a perfect representation of the real world, it is important that GIS data be of a high quality.", "In keeping with the principle of homomorphism, the data must be close enough to reality so that the results of GIS procedures correctly correspond to the results of real world processes.", "This means that there is no single standard for data quality, because the necessary degree of quality depends on the scale and purpose of the tasks for which it is to be used.", "Several elements of data quality are important to GIS data:;Accuracy:The degree of similarity between a represented measurement and the actual value; conversely, ''error'' is the amount of difference between them.", "In GIS data, there is concern for accuracy in representations of location (''positional accuracy''), property (''attribute accuracy''), and time.", "For example, the US 2020 Census says that the population of Houston on April 1, 2020 was 2,304,580; if it was actually 2,310,674, this would be an error and thus a lack of attribute accuracy.", ";Precision:The degree of refinement in a represented value.", "In a quantitative property, this is the number of significant digits in the measured value.", "An imprecise value is vague or ambiguous, including a range of possible values.", "For example, if one were to say that the population of Houston on April 1, 2020 was \"about 2.3 million,\" this statement would be imprecise, but likely accurate because the correct value (and many incorrect values) are included.", "As with accuracy, representations of location, property, and time can all be more or less precise.", "''Resolution'' is a commonly used expression of positional precision, especially in raster data sets.", ";Uncertainty:A general acknowledgement of the presence of error and imprecision in geographic data.", "That is, it is a degree of general doubt, given that it is difficult to know exactly how much error is present in a data set, although some form of estimate may be attempted (a confidence interval being such an estimate of uncertainty).", "This is sometimes used as a collective term for all or most aspects of data quality.", ";Vagueness or fuzziness:The degree to which an aspect (location, property, or time) of a phenomenon is inherently imprecise, rather than the imprecision being in a measured value.", "For example, the spatial extent of the Houston metropolitan area is vague, as there are places on the outskirts of the city that are less connected to the central city (measured by activities such as commuting) than places that are closer.", "Mathematical tools such as fuzzy set theory are commonly used to manage vagueness in geographic data.", ";Completeness:The degree to which a data set represents all of the actual features that it purports to include.", "For example, if a layer of \"roads in Houston\" is missing some actual streets, it is incomplete.", ";Currency:The most recent point in time at which a data set claims to be an accurate representation of reality.", "This is a concern for the majority of GIS applications, which attempt to represent the world \"at present,\" in which case older data is of lower quality.", ";Consistency:The degree to which the representations of the many phenomena in a data set correctly correspond with each other.", "Consistency in topological relationships between spatial objects is an especially important aspect of consistency.", "For example, if all of the lines in a street network were accidentally moved 10 meters to the East, they would be inaccurate but still consistent, because they would still properly connect at each intersection, and network analysis tools such as shortest path would still give correct results.", ";Propagation of uncertainty:The degree to which the quality of the results of Spatial analysis methods and other processing tools derives from the quality of input data.", "For example, interpolation is a common operation used in many ways in GIS; because it generates estimates of values between known measurements, the results will always be more precise, but less certain (as each estimate has an unknown amount of error).GIS accuracy depends upon source data, and how it is encoded to be data referenced.", "Land surveyors have been able to provide a high level of positional accuracy utilizing the GPS-derived positions.", "High-resolution digital terrain and aerial imagery, powerful computers and Web technology are changing the quality, utility, and expectations of GIS to serve society on a grand scale, but nevertheless there are other source data that affect overall GIS accuracy like paper maps, though these may be of limited use in achieving the desired accuracy.In developing a digital topographic database for a GIS, topographical maps are the main source, and aerial photography and satellite imagery are extra sources for collecting data and identifying attributes which can be mapped in layers over a location facsimile of scale.", "The scale of a map and geographical rendering area representation type, or map projection, are very important aspects since the information content depends mainly on the scale set and resulting locatability of the map's representations.", "In order to digitize a map, the map has to be checked within theoretical dimensions, then scanned into a raster format, and resulting raster data has to be given a theoretical dimension by a rubber sheeting/warping technology process known as georeferencing.A quantitative analysis of maps brings accuracy issues into focus.", "The electronic and other equipment used to make measurements for GIS is far more precise than the machines of conventional map analysis.", "All geographical data are inherently inaccurate, and these inaccuracies will propagate through GIS operations in ways that are difficult to predict.===Raster-to-vector translation===Data restructuring can be performed by a GIS to convert data into different formats.", "For example, a GIS may be used to convert a satellite image map to a vector structure by generating lines around all cells with the same classification, while determining the cell spatial relationships, such as adjacency or inclusion.More advanced data processing can occur with image processing, a technique developed in the late 1960s by NASA and the private sector to provide contrast enhancement, false color rendering and a variety of other techniques including use of two dimensional Fourier transforms.", "Since digital data is collected and stored in various ways, the two data sources may not be entirely compatible.", "So a GIS must be able to convert geographic data from one structure to another.", "In so doing, the implicit assumptions behind different ontologies and classifications require analysis.", "Object ontologies have gained increasing prominence as a consequence of object-oriented programming and sustained work by Barry Smith and co-workers.===Spatial ETL===Spatial ETL tools provide the data processing functionality of traditional extract, transform, load (ETL) software, but with a primary focus on the ability to manage spatial data.", "They provide GIS users with the ability to translate data between different standards and proprietary formats, whilst geometrically transforming the data en route.", "These tools can come in the form of add-ins to existing wider-purpose software such as spreadsheets." ], [ "Spatial analysis{{anchor|Spatial analysis}}", "GIS spatial analysis is a rapidly changing field, and GIS packages are increasingly including analytical tools as standard built-in facilities, as optional toolsets, as add-ins or 'analysts'.", "In many instances these are provided by the original software suppliers (commercial vendors or collaborative non commercial development teams), while in other cases facilities have been developed and are provided by third parties.", "Furthermore, many products offer software development kits (SDKs), programming languages and language support, scripting facilities and/or special interfaces for developing one's own analytical tools or variants.", "The increased availability has created a new dimension to business intelligence termed \"spatial intelligence\" which, when openly delivered via intranet, democratizes access to geographic and social network data.", "Geospatial intelligence, based on GIS spatial analysis, has also become a key element for security.", "GIS as a whole can be described as conversion to a vectorial representation or to any other digitisation process.", "'''Geoprocessing''' is a GIS operation used to manipulate spatial data.", "A typical geoprocessing operation takes an input dataset, performs an operation on that dataset, and returns the result of the operation as an output dataset.", "Common geoprocessing operations include geographic feature overlay, feature selection and analysis, topology processing, raster processing, and data conversion.", "Geoprocessing allows for definition, management, and analysis of information used to form decisions.===Terrain analysis===Hillshade model derived from a digital elevation model of the Valestra area in the northern Apennines (Italy)Many geographic tasks involve the terrain, the shape of the surface of the earth, such as hydrology, earthworks, and biogeography.", "Thus, terrain data is often a core dataset in a GIS, usually in the form of a raster Digital elevation model (DEM) or a Triangulated irregular network (TIN).", "A variety of tools are available in most GIS software for analyzing terrain, often by creating derivative datasets that represent a specific aspect of the surface.", "Some of the most common include:* Slope or grade is the steepness or gradient of a unit of terrain, usually measured as an angle in degrees or as a percentage.", "* Aspect can be defined as the direction in which a unit of terrain faces.", "Aspect is usually expressed in degrees from north.", "* Cut and fill is a computation of the difference between the surface before and after an excavation project to estimate costs.", "* Hydrological modeling can provide a spatial element that other hydrological models lack, with the analysis of variables such as slope, aspect and watershed or catchment area.", "Terrain analysis is fundamental to hydrology, since water always flows down a slope.", "As basic terrain analysis of a digital elevation model (DEM) involves calculation of slope and aspect, DEMs are very useful for hydrological analysis.", "Slope and aspect can then be used to determine direction of surface runoff, and hence flow accumulation for the formation of streams, rivers and lakes.", "Areas of divergent flow can also give a clear indication of the boundaries of a catchment.", "Once a flow direction and accumulation matrix has been created, queries can be performed that show contributing or dispersal areas at a certain point.", "More detail can be added to the model, such as terrain roughness, vegetation types and soil types, which can influence infiltration and evapotranspiration rates, and hence influencing surface flow.", "One of the main uses of hydrological modeling is in environmental contamination research.", "Other applications of hydrological modeling include groundwater and surface water mapping, as well as flood risk maps.", "* Viewshed analysis predicts the impact that terrain has on the visibility between locations, which is especially important for wireless communications.", "* Shaded relief is a depiction of the surface as if it were a three dimensional model lit from a given direction, which is very commonly used in maps.Most of these are generated using algorithms that are discrete simplifications of vector calculus.", "Slope, aspect, and surface curvature in terrain analysis are all derived from neighborhood operations using elevation values of a cell's adjacent neighbours.", "Each of these is strongly affected by the level of detail in the terrain data, such as the resolution of a DEM, which should be chosen carefully.===Proximity analysis===Distance is a key part of solving many geographic tasks, usually due to the friction of distance.", "Thus, a wide variety of analysis tools have analyze distance in some form, such as buffers, Voronoi or Thiessen polygons, Cost distance analysis, and network analysis.===Data analysis===It is difficult to relate wetlands maps to rainfall amounts recorded at different points such as airports, television stations, and schools.", "A GIS, however, can be used to depict two- and three-dimensional characteristics of the Earth's surface, subsurface, and atmosphere from information points.", "For example, a GIS can quickly generate a map with isopleth or contour lines that indicate differing amounts of rainfall.", "Such a map can be thought of as a rainfall contour map.", "Many sophisticated methods can estimate the characteristics of surfaces from a limited number of point measurements.", "A two-dimensional contour map created from the surface modeling of rainfall point measurements may be overlaid and analyzed with any other map in a GIS covering the same area.", "This GIS derived map can then provide additional information - such as the viability of water power potential as a renewable energy source.", "Similarly, GIS can be used to compare other renewable energy resources to find the best geographic potential for a region.Additionally, from a series of three-dimensional points, or digital elevation model, isopleth lines representing elevation contours can be generated, along with slope analysis, shaded relief, and other elevation products.", "Watersheds can be easily defined for any given reach, by computing all of the areas contiguous and uphill from any given point of interest.", "Similarly, an expected thalweg of where surface water would want to travel in intermittent and permanent streams can be computed from elevation data in the GIS.===Topological modeling===A GIS can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data.", "These topological relationships allow complex spatial modelling and analysis to be performed.", "Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something is to something else).===Geometric networks===Geometric networks are linear networks of objects that can be used to represent interconnected features, and to perform special spatial analysis on them.", "A geometric network is composed of edges, which are connected at junction points, similar to graphs in mathematics and computer science.", "Just like graphs, networks can have weight and flow assigned to its edges, which can be used to represent various interconnected features more accurately.", "Geometric networks are often used to model road networks and public utility networks, such as electric, gas, and water networks.", "Network modeling is also commonly employed in transportation planning, hydrology modeling, and infrastructure modeling.===Cartographic modeling===topographic layer (contour lines) over it.", "Next up is a standing water layer (pond, lake) and then a flowing water layer (stream, river), followed by the boundary layer and finally the road layer on top.", "The order is very important in order to properly display the final result.", "Note that the ponds are layered under the streams, so that a stream line can be seen overlying one of the ponds.Dana Tomlin coined the term \"cartographic modeling\" in his PhD dissertation (1983); he later used it in the title of his book, ''Geographic Information Systems and Cartographic Modeling'' (1990).", "Cartographic modeling refers to a process where several thematic layers of the same area are produced, processed, and analyzed.", "Tomlin used raster layers, but the overlay method (see below) can be used more generally.", "Operations on map layers can be combined into algorithms, and eventually into simulation or optimization models.===Map overlay===The combination of several spatial datasets (points, lines, or polygons) creates a new output vector dataset, visually similar to stacking several maps of the same region.", "These overlays are similar to mathematical Venn diagram overlays.", "A union overlay combines the geographic features and attribute tables of both inputs into a single new output.", "An intersect overlay defines the area where both inputs overlap and retains a set of attribute fields for each.", "A symmetric difference overlay defines an output area that includes the total area of both inputs except for the overlapping area.Data extraction is a GIS process similar to vector overlay, though it can be used in either vector or raster data analysis.", "Rather than combining the properties and features of both datasets, data extraction involves using a \"clip\" or \"mask\" to extract the features of one data set that fall within the spatial extent of another dataset.In raster data analysis, the overlay of datasets is accomplished through a process known as \"local operation on multiple rasters\" or \"map algebra\", through a function that combines the values of each raster's matrix.", "This function may weigh some inputs more than others through use of an \"index model\" that reflects the influence of various factors upon a geographic phenomenon.===Geostatistics===Geostatistics is a branch of statistics that deals with field data, spatial data with a continuous index.", "It provides methods to model spatial correlation, and predict values at arbitrary locations (interpolation).When phenomena are measured, the observation methods dictate the accuracy of any subsequent analysis.", "Due to the nature of the data (e.g.", "traffic patterns in an urban environment; weather patterns over the Pacific Ocean), a constant or dynamic degree of precision is always lost in the measurement.", "This loss of precision is determined from the scale and distribution of the data collection.To determine the statistical relevance of the analysis, an average is determined so that points (gradients) outside of any immediate measurement can be included to determine their predicted behavior.", "This is due to the limitations of the applied statistic and data collection methods, and interpolation is required to predict the behavior of particles, points, and locations that are not directly measurable.Interpolation is the process by which a surface is created, usually a raster dataset, through the input of data collected at a number of sample points.", "There are several forms of interpolation, each which treats the data differently, depending on the properties of the data set.", "In comparing interpolation methods, the first consideration should be whether or not the source data will change (exact or approximate).", "Next is whether the method is subjective, a human interpretation, or objective.", "Then there is the nature of transitions between points: are they abrupt or gradual.", "Finally, there is whether a method is global (it uses the entire data set to form the model), or local where an algorithm is repeated for a small section of terrain.Interpolation is a justified measurement because of a spatial autocorrelation principle that recognizes that data collected at any position will have a great similarity to, or influence of those locations within its immediate vicinity.Digital elevation models, triangulated irregular networks, edge-finding algorithms, Thiessen polygons, Fourier analysis, (weighted) moving averages, inverse distance weighting, kriging, spline, and trend surface analysis are all mathematical methods to produce interpolative data.===Address geocoding===Geocoding is interpolating spatial locations (X,Y coordinates) from street addresses or any other spatially referenced data such as ZIP Codes, parcel lots and address locations.", "A reference theme is required to geocode individual addresses, such as a road centerline file with address ranges.", "The individual address locations have historically been interpolated, or estimated, by examining address ranges along a road segment.", "These are usually provided in the form of a table or database.", "The software will then place a dot approximately where that address belongs along the segment of centerline.", "For example, an address point of 500 will be at the midpoint of a line segment that starts with address 1 and ends with address 1,000.Geocoding can also be applied against actual parcel data, typically from municipal tax maps.", "In this case, the result of the geocoding will be an actually positioned space as opposed to an interpolated point.", "This approach is being increasingly used to provide more precise location information.===Reverse geocoding===Reverse geocoding is the process of returning an estimated street address number as it relates to a given coordinate.", "For example, a user can click on a road centerline theme (thus providing a coordinate) and have information returned that reflects the estimated house number.", "This house number is interpolated from a range assigned to that road segment.", "If the user clicks at the midpoint of a segment that starts with address 1 and ends with 100, the returned value will be somewhere near 50.Note that reverse geocoding does not return actual addresses, only estimates of what should be there based on the predetermined range.===Multi-criteria decision analysis===Coupled with GIS, multi-criteria decision analysis methods support decision-makers in analysing a set of alternative spatial solutions, such as the most likely ecological habitat for restoration, against multiple criteria, such as vegetation cover or roads.", "MCDA uses decision rules to aggregate the criteria, which allows the alternative solutions to be ranked or prioritised.", "GIS MCDA may reduce costs and time involved in identifying potential restoration sites.===GIS data mining===GIS or spatial data mining is the application of data mining methods to spatial data.", "Data mining, which is the partially automated search for hidden patterns in large databases, offers great potential benefits for applied GIS-based decision making.", "Typical applications include environmental monitoring.", "A characteristic of such applications is that spatial correlation between data measurements require the use of specialized algorithms for more efficient data analysis." ], [ "Data output and cartography", "Cartography is the design and production of maps, or visual representations of spatial data.", "The vast majority of modern cartography is done with the help of computers, usually using GIS but production of quality cartography is also achieved by importing layers into a design program to refine it.", "Most GIS software gives the user substantial control over the appearance of the data.Cartographic work serves two major functions:First, it produces graphics on the screen or on paper that convey the results of analysis to the people who make decisions about resources.", "Wall maps and other graphics can be generated, allowing the viewer to visualize and thereby understand the results of analyses or simulations of potential events.", "Web Map Servers facilitate distribution of generated maps through web browsers using various implementations of web-based application programming interfaces (AJAX, Java, Flash, etc.", ").Second, other database information can be generated for further analysis or use.", "An example would be a list of all addresses within one mile (1.6 km) of a toxic spill.An archeochrome is a new way of displaying spatial data.", "It is a thematic on a 3D map that is applied to a specific building or a part of a building.", "It is suited to the visual display of heat-loss data.===Terrain depiction===A traditional topographic map rendered in 3DTraditional maps are abstractions of the real world, a sampling of important elements portrayed on a sheet of paper with symbols to represent physical objects.", "People who use maps must interpret these symbols.", "Topographic maps show the shape of land surface with contour lines or with shaded relief.Today, graphic display techniques such as shading based on altitude in a GIS can make relationships among map elements visible, heightening one's ability to extract and analyze information.", "For example, two types of data were combined in a GIS to produce a perspective view of a portion of San Mateo County, California.", "*The digital elevation model, consisting of surface elevations recorded on a 30-meter horizontal grid, shows high elevations as white and low elevation as black.", "*The accompanying Landsat Thematic Mapper image shows a false-color infrared image looking down at the same area in 30-meter pixels, or picture elements, for the same coordinate points, pixel by pixel, as the elevation information.A GIS was used to register and combine the two images to render the three-dimensional perspective view looking down the San Andreas Fault, using the Thematic Mapper image pixels, but shaded using the elevation of the landforms.", "The GIS display depends on the viewing point of the observer and time of day of the display, to properly render the shadows created by the sun's rays at that latitude, longitude, and time of day.===Web mapping===In recent years there has been a proliferation of free-to-use and easily accessible mapping software such as the proprietary web applications Google Maps and Bing Maps, as well as the free and open-source alternative OpenStreetMap.", "These services give the public access to huge amounts of geographic data, perceived by many users to be as trustworthy and usable as professional information.", "For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, web maps hosted on dashboards were used to rapidly disseminate case data to the general public.Some of them, like Google Maps and OpenLayers, expose an application programming interface (API) that enable users to create custom applications.", "These toolkits commonly offer street maps, aerial/satellite imagery, geocoding, searches, and routing functionality.", "Web mapping has also uncovered the potential of crowdsourcing geodata in projects like OpenStreetMap, which is a collaborative project to create a free editable map of the world.", "These mashup projects have been proven to provide a high level of value and benefit to end users outside that possible through traditional geographic information.Web mapping is not without its drawbacks.", "Web mapping allows for the creation and distribution of maps by people without proper cartographic training.", "This has led to maps that ignore cartographic conventions and are potentially misleading, with one study finding that more than half of United States state government COVID-19 dashboards did not follow these conventions." ], [ "Applications", "Since its origin in the 1960s, GIS has been used in an ever-increasing range of applications, corroborating the widespread importance of location and aided by the continuing reduction in the barriers to adopting geospatial technology.", "The perhaps hundreds of different uses of GIS can be classified in several ways:* ''Goal'': the purpose of an application can be broadly classified as either ''scientific research'' or ''resource management''.", "The purpose of research, defined as broadly as possible, is to discover new knowledge; this may be performed by someone who considers herself a scientist, but may also be done by anyone who is trying to learn why the world appears to work the way it does.", "A study as practical as deciphering why a business location has failed would be research in this sense.", "Management (sometimes called operational applications), also defined as broadly as possible, is the application of knowledge to make practical decisions on how to employ the resources one has control over to achieve one's goals.", "These resources could be time, capital, labor, equipment, land, mineral deposits, wildlife, and so on.", "** ''Decision level'': Management applications have been further classified as ''strategic'', ''tactical'', ''operational'', a common classification in business management.", "Strategic tasks are long-term, visionary decisions about what goals one should have, such as whether a business should expand or not.", "Tactical tasks are medium-term decisions about how to achieve strategic goals, such as a national forest creating a grazing management plan.", "Operational decisions are concerned with the day-to-day tasks, such as a person finding the shortest route to a pizza restaurant.", "* ''Topic'': the domains in which GIS is applied largely fall into those concerned with the human world (e.g., economics, politics, transportation, education, landscape architecture, archaeology, urban planning, real estate, public health, crime mapping, national defense), and those concerned with the natural world (e.g., geology, biology, oceanography, climate).", "That said, one of the powerful capabilities of GIS and the spatial perspective of geography is their integrative ability to compare disparate topics, and many applications are concerned with multiple domains.", "Examples of integrated human-natural application domains include deep mapping, Natural hazard mitigation, wildlife management, sustainable development, natural resources, and climate change response.", "* ''Institution'': GIS has been implemented in a variety of different kinds of institutions: ''government'' (at all levels from municipal to international), ''business'' (of all types and sizes), ''non-profit organizations'' (even churches), as well as ''personal'' uses.", "The latter has become increasingly prominent with the rise of location-enabled smartphones.", "* ''Lifespan'': GIS implementations may be focused on a ''project'' or an ''enterprise''.", "A Project GIS is focused on accomplishing a single task: data is gathered, analysis is performed, and results are produced separately from any other projects the person may perform, and the implementation is essentially transitory.", "An Enterprise GIS is intended to be a permanent institution, including a database that is carefully designed to be useful for a variety of projects over many years, and is likely used by many individuals across an enterprise, with some employed full-time just to maintain it.", "* ''Integration'': Traditionally, most GIS applications were ''standalone'', using specialized GIS software, specialized hardware, specialized data, and specialized professionals.", "Although these remain common to the present day, ''integrated'' applications have greatly increased, as geospatial technology was merged into broader enterprise applications, sharing IT infrastructure, databases, and software, often using enterprise integration platforms such as SAP.The implementation of a GIS is often driven by jurisdictional (such as a city), purpose, or application requirements.", "Generally, a GIS implementation may be custom-designed for an organization.", "Hence, a GIS deployment developed for an application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or purpose may not be necessarily interoperable or compatible with a GIS that has been developed for some other application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or purpose.GIS is also diverging into location-based services, which allows GPS-enabled mobile devices to display their location in relation to fixed objects (nearest restaurant, gas station, fire hydrant) or mobile objects (friends, children, police car), or to relay their position back to a central server for display or other processing.GIS is also used in digital marketing and SEO for audience segmentation based on location.===Topics=======Aquatic science========Archaeology========Environmental governance========Environmental contamination========Geologic mapping ========Geospatial intelligence========History====The use of digital maps generated by GIS has also influenced the development of an academic field known as spatial humanities.====Hydrology========Participatory GIS========Public health========Traditional knowledge GIS=======Open Geospatial Consortium standards===The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) is an international industry consortium of 384 companies, government agencies, universities, and individuals participating in a consensus process to develop publicly available geoprocessing specifications.", "Open interfaces and protocols defined by OpenGIS Specifications support interoperable solutions that \"geo-enable\" the Web, wireless and location-based services, and mainstream IT, and empower technology developers to make complex spatial information and services accessible and useful with all kinds of applications.", "Open Geospatial Consortium protocols include Web Map Service, and Web Feature Service.GIS products are broken down by the OGC into two categories, based on how completely and accurately the software follows the OGC specifications.OGC standards help GIS tools communicate.", "''Compliant products'' are software products that comply to OGC's OpenGIS Specifications.", "When a product has been tested and certified as compliant through the OGC Testing Program, the product is automatically registered as \"compliant\" on this site.", "''Implementing products'' are software products that implement OpenGIS Specifications but have not yet passed a compliance test.", "Compliance tests are not available for all specifications.", "Developers can register their products as implementing draft or approved specifications, though OGC reserves the right to review and verify each entry.===Adding the dimension of time===The condition of the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and subsurface can be examined by feeding satellite data into a GIS.", "GIS technology gives researchers the ability to examine the variations in Earth processes over days, months, and years through the use of cartographic visualizations.", "As an example, the changes in vegetation vigor through a growing season can be animated to determine when drought was most extensive in a particular region.", "The resulting graphic represents a rough measure of plant health.", "Working with two variables over time would then allow researchers to detect regional differences in the lag between a decline in rainfall and its effect on vegetation.GIS technology and the availability of digital data on regional and global scales enable such analyses.", "The satellite sensor output used to generate a vegetation graphic is produced for example by the advanced very-high-resolution radiometer (AVHRR).", "This sensor system detects the amounts of energy reflected from the Earth's surface across various bands of the spectrum for surface areas of about 1 square kilometer.", "The satellite sensor produces images of a particular location on the Earth twice a day.", "AVHRR and more recently the moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) are only two of many sensor systems used for Earth surface analysis.In addition to the integration of time in environmental studies, GIS is also being explored for its ability to track and model the progress of humans throughout their daily routines.", "A concrete example of progress in this area is the recent release of time-specific population data by the U.S. Census.", "In this data set, the populations of cities are shown for daytime and evening hours highlighting the pattern of concentration and dispersion generated by North American commuting patterns.", "The manipulation and generation of data required to produce this data would not have been possible without GIS.Using models to project the data held by a GIS forward in time have enabled planners to test policy decisions using spatial decision support systems." ], [ "Semantics", "Tools and technologies emerging from the World Wide Web Consortium's Semantic Web are proving useful for data integration problems in information systems.", "Correspondingly, such technologies have been proposed as a means to facilitate interoperability and data reuse among GIS applications and also to enable new analysis mechanisms.Ontologies are a key component of this semantic approach as they allow a formal, machine-readable specification of the concepts and relationships in a given domain.", "This in turn allows a GIS to focus on the intended meaning of data rather than its syntax or structure.", "For example, reasoning that a land cover type classified as ''deciduous needleleaf trees'' in one dataset is a specialization or subset of land cover type ''forest'' in another more roughly classified dataset can help a GIS automatically merge the two datasets under the more general land cover classification.", "Tentative ontologies have been developed in areas related to GIS applications, for example the hydrology ontology developed by the Ordnance Survey in the United Kingdom and the SWEET ontologies developed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory.", "Also, simpler ontologies and semantic metadata standards are being proposed by the W3C Geo Incubator Group to represent geospatial data on the web.", "GeoSPARQL is a standard developed by the Ordnance Survey, United States Geological Survey, Natural Resources Canada, Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation and others to support ontology creation and reasoning using well-understood OGC literals (GML, WKT), topological relationships (Simple Features, RCC8, DE-9IM), RDF and the SPARQL database query protocols.Recent research results in this area can be seen in the International Conference on Geospatial Semantics and the Terra Cognita – Directions to the Geospatial Semantic Web workshop at the International Semantic Web Conference." ], [ "Societal implications", "With the popularization of GIS in decision making, scholars have begun to scrutinize the social and political implications of GIS.", "GIS can also be misused to distort reality for individual and political gain.", "It has been argued that the production, distribution, utilization, and representation of geographic information are largely related with the social context and has the potential to increase citizen trust in government.", "Other related topics include discussion on copyright, privacy, and censorship.", "A more optimistic social approach to GIS adoption is to use it as a tool for public participation.===In education===At the end of the 20th century, GIS began to be recognized as tools that could be used in the classroom.", "The benefits of GIS in education seem focused on developing spatial cognition, but there is not enough bibliography or statistical data to show the concrete scope of the use of GIS in education around the world, although the expansion has been faster in those countries where the curriculum mentions them.GIS seem to provide many advantages in teaching geography because they allow for analyses based on real geographic data and also help raise many research questions from teachers and students in classrooms.", "They also contribute to improvement in learning by developing spatial and geographical thinking and, in many cases, student motivation.Courses in GIS have also been offered by educational institutions.===In local government===GIS is proven as an organization-wide, enterprise and enduring technology that continues to change how local government operates.", "Government agencies have adopted GIS technology as a method to better manage the following areas of government organization:* Economic development departments use interactive GIS mapping tools, aggregated with other data (demographics, labor force, business, industry, talent) along with a database of available commercial sites and buildings in order to attract investment and support existing business.", "Businesses making location decisions can use the tools to choose communities and sites that best match their criteria for success.", "* Public safety operations such as emergency operations centers, fire prevention, police and sheriff mobile technology and dispatch, and mapping weather risks.", "* Parks and recreation departments and their functions in asset inventory, land conservation, land management, and cemetery management* Public works and utilities, tracking water and stormwater drainage, electrical assets, engineering projects, and public transportation assets and trends* Fiber network management for interdepartmental network assets* School analytical and demographic data, asset management, and improvement/expansion planning* Public administration for election data, property records, and zoning/managementThe Open Data initiative is pushing local government to take advantage of technology such as GIS technology, as it encompasses the requirements to fit the Open Data/Open Government model of transparency.", "With Open Data, local government organizations can implement Citizen Engagement applications and online portals, allowing citizens to see land information, report potholes and signage issues, view and sort parks by assets, view real-time crime rates and utility repairs, and much more.", "The push for open data within government organizations is driving the growth in local government GIS technology spending, and database management." ], [ "See also", "* AM/FM/GIS* Climate Information Service* Comparison of GIS software* Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography* Distributed GIS* Geomatics* GISCorps* GIS Day* Integrated Geo Systems* List of GIS data sources* List of GIS software* Map database management* Quantitative geography* Technical geography* Tobler's first law of geography* Tobler's second law of geography* Virtual globe" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Berry, J. K. (1993).", "''Beyond Mapping: Concepts, Algorithms and Issues in GIS''.", "Fort Collins, CO: GIS World Books.", "* Bolstad, P. (2019).", "''GIS Fundamentals: A first text on Geographic Information Systems, Sixth Edition''.", "Ann Arbor: XanEdu, 764 pp.", "* Burrough, P. A. and McDonnell, R. A.", "(1998).", "''Principles of geographical information systems''.", "Oxford University Press, Oxford, 327 pp.", "* Chang, K. (2007).", "''Introduction to Geographic Information System, 4th Edition''.", "McGraw Hill, * DeMers, M. (2009).", "''Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems, 4th Edition''.", "Wiley, * DeMers, M. (2002).", "''GIS modeling in raster''.", "Wiley, * Fu, P., and J.", "Sun (2010).", "''Web GIS: Principles and Applications''.", "ESRI Press.", "Redlands, CA.", ".", "* Harvey, Francis (2008).", "''A Primer of GIS, Fundamental geographic and cartographic concepts.''", "The Guilford Press, 31 pp.", "* Heywood, I., Cornelius, S., and Carver, S. (2006).", "''An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems''.", "Prentice Hall.", "3rd edition.", "* Longley, P.A., Goodchild, M.F., Maguire, D.J.", "and Rhind, D.W. (2005).", "''Geographic Information Systems and Science''.", "Chichester: Wiley.", "2nd edition.", "* Maguire, D.J., Goodchild M.F., Rhind D.W. (1997).", "\"Geographic Information Systems: principles, and applications\" Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow.", "* Monmonier, M. (2018).", "''How to Lie With Maps''.", "The University of Chicago Press, * Ott, T. and Swiaczny, F. (2001) .", "''Time-integrative GIS.", "Management and analysis of Spatio-temporal data'', Berlin / Heidelberg / New York: Springer.", "* Pickles, J., ed., (1994) ''Ground Truth: The Social Implications of Geographic Information Systems'', New York and London: Guilford, 248 pp.", "* Thurston, J., Poiker, T.K.", "and J. Patrick Moore.", "(2003).", "''Integrated Geospatial Technologies: A Guide to GPS, GIS, and Data Logging''.", "Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.", "* *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Graph theory" ], [ "Introduction", "drawing of a graph.In mathematics, '''graph theory''' is the study of ''graphs'', which are mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations between objects.", "A graph in this context is made up of ''vertices'' (also called ''nodes'' or ''points'') which are connected by ''edges'' (also called ''links'' or ''lines'').", "A distinction is made between '''undirected graphs''', where edges link two vertices symmetrically, and '''directed graphs''', where edges link two vertices asymmetrically.", "Graphs are one of the principal objects of study in discrete mathematics." ], [ "Definitions", "Definitions in graph theory vary.", "The following are some of the more basic ways of defining graphs and related mathematical structures.=== Graph ===A graph with three vertices and three edges.In one restricted but very common sense of the term, a '''graph''' is an ordered pair comprising:* , a set of '''vertices''' (also called '''nodes''' or '''points''');* , a set of '''edges''' (also called '''links''' or '''lines'''), which are unordered pairs of vertices (that is, an edge is associated with two distinct vertices).To avoid ambiguity, this type of object may be called precisely an '''undirected simple graph'''.In the edge , the vertices and are called the '''endpoints''' of the edge.", "The edge is said to '''join''' and and to be '''incident''' on and on .", "A vertex may exist in a graph and not belong to an edge.", "Under this definition, '''multiple edges''', in which two or more edges connect the same vertices, are not allowed.In one more general sense of the term allowing multiple edges, a '''graph''' is an ordered triple comprising:* , a set of '''vertices''' (also called '''nodes''' or '''points''');* , a set of '''edges''' (also called '''links''' or '''lines''');* , an '''incidence function''' mapping every edge to an unordered pair of vertices (that is, an edge is associated with two distinct vertices).To avoid ambiguity, this type of object may be called precisely an '''undirected multigraph'''.A '''loop''' is an edge that joins a vertex to itself.", "Graphs as defined in the two definitions above cannot have loops, because a loop joining a vertex to itself is the edge (for an undirected simple graph) or is incident on (for an undirected multigraph) which is not in .", "To allow loops, the definitions must be expanded.", "For undirected simple graphs, the definition of should be modified to .", "For undirected multigraphs, the definition of should be modified to .", "To avoid ambiguity, these types of objects may be called '''undirected simple graph permitting loops''' and '''undirected multigraph permitting loops''' (sometimes also '''undirected pseudograph'''), respectively.", "and are usually taken to be finite, and many of the well-known results are not true (or are rather different) for infinite graphs because many of the arguments fail in the infinite case.", "Moreover, is often assumed to be non-empty, but is allowed to be the empty set.", "The '''order''' of a graph is , its number of vertices.", "The '''size''' of a graph is , its number of edges.", "The '''degree''' or '''valency''' of a vertex is the number of edges that are incident to it, where a loop is counted twice.", "The '''degree''' of a graph is the maximum of the degrees of its vertices.In an undirected simple graph of order ''n'', the maximum degree of each vertex is and the maximum size of the graph is .The edges of an undirected simple graph permitting loops induce a symmetric homogeneous relation on the vertices of that is called the '''adjacency relation''' of .", "Specifically, for each edge , its endpoints and are said to be '''adjacent''' to one another, which is denoted .=== Directed graph ===A directed graph with three vertices and four directed edges (the double arrow represents an edge in each direction).A '''directed graph''' or '''digraph''' is a graph in which edges have orientations.In one restricted but very common sense of the term, a '''directed graph''' is an ordered pair comprising:* , a set of ''vertices'' (also called ''nodes'' or ''points'');* , a set of ''edges'' (also called ''directed edges'', ''directed links'', ''directed lines'', ''arrows'' or ''arcs'') which are ordered pairs of vertices (that is, an edge is associated with two distinct vertices).To avoid ambiguity, this type of object may be called precisely a '''directed simple graph'''.", "In set theory and graph theory, denotes the set of -tuples of elements of that is, ordered sequences of elements that are not necessarily distinct.In the edge directed from to , the vertices and are called the ''endpoints'' of the edge, the ''tail'' of the edge and the ''head'' of the edge.", "The edge is said to ''join'' and and to be ''incident'' on and on .", "A vertex may exist in a graph and not belong to an edge.", "The edge is called the ''inverted edge'' of .", "''Multiple edges'', not allowed under the definition above, are two or more edges with both the same tail and the same head.In one more general sense of the term allowing multiple edges, a '''directed graph''' is an ordered triple comprising:* , a set of ''vertices'' (also called ''nodes'' or ''points'');* , a set of ''edges'' (also called ''directed edges'', ''directed links'', ''directed lines'', ''arrows'' or ''arcs'');* , an ''incidence function'' mapping every edge to an ordered pair of vertices (that is, an edge is associated with two distinct vertices).To avoid ambiguity, this type of object may be called precisely a '''directed multigraph'''.A ''loop'' is an edge that joins a vertex to itself.", "Directed graphs as defined in the two definitions above cannot have loops, because a loop joining a vertex to itself is the edge (for a directed simple graph) or is incident on (for a directed multigraph) which is not in .", "So to allow loops the definitions must be expanded.", "For directed simple graphs, the definition of should be modified to .", "For directed multigraphs, the definition of should be modified to .", "To avoid ambiguity, these types of objects may be called precisely a '''directed simple graph permitting loops''' and a '''directed multigraph permitting loops''' (or a ''quiver'') respectively.The edges of a directed simple graph permitting loops is a homogeneous relation ~ on the vertices of that is called the ''adjacency relation'' of .", "Specifically, for each edge , its endpoints and are said to be ''adjacent'' to one another, which is denoted ~ ." ], [ "Applications", "The network graph formed by Wikipedia editors (edges) contributing to different Wikipedia language versions (vertices) during one month in summer 2013.Graphs can be used to model many types of relations and processes in physical, biological, social and information systems.", "Many practical problems can be represented by graphs.", "Emphasizing their application to real-world systems, the term ''network'' is sometimes defined to mean a graph in which attributes (e.g.", "names) are associated with the vertices and edges, and the subject that expresses and understands real-world systems as a network is called network science.=== Computer science ===Within computer science, causal and non-causal linked structures are graphs that are used to represent networks of communication, data organization, computational devices, the flow of computation, etc.", "For instance, the link structure of a website can be represented by a directed graph, in which the vertices represent web pages and directed edges represent links from one page to another.", "A similar approach can be taken to problems in social media, travel, biology, computer chip design, mapping the progression of neuro-degenerative diseases, and many other fields.", "The development of algorithms to handle graphs is therefore of major interest in computer science.", "The transformation of graphs is often formalized and represented by graph rewrite systems.", "Complementary to graph transformation systems focusing on rule-based in-memory manipulation of graphs are graph databases geared towards transaction-safe, persistent storing and querying of graph-structured data.=== Linguistics ===Graph-theoretic methods, in various forms, have proven particularly useful in linguistics, since natural language often lends itself well to discrete structure.", "Traditionally, syntax and compositional semantics follow tree-based structures, whose expressive power lies in the principle of compositionality, modeled in a hierarchical graph.", "More contemporary approaches such as head-driven phrase structure grammar model the syntax of natural language using typed feature structures, which are directed acyclic graphs.", "Within lexical semantics, especially as applied to computers, modeling word meaning is easier when a given word is understood in terms of related words; semantic networks are therefore important in computational linguistics.", "Still, other methods in phonology (e.g.", "optimality theory, which uses lattice graphs) and morphology (e.g.", "finite-state morphology, using finite-state transducers) are common in the analysis of language as a graph.", "Indeed, the usefulness of this area of mathematics to linguistics has borne organizations such as TextGraphs, as well as various 'Net' projects, such as WordNet, VerbNet, and others.=== Physics and chemistry ===Graph theory is also used to study molecules in chemistry and physics.", "In condensed matter physics, the three-dimensional structure of complicated simulated atomic structures can be studied quantitatively by gathering statistics on graph-theoretic properties related to the topology of the atoms.", "Also, \"the Feynman graphs and rules of calculation summarize quantum field theory in a form in close contact with the experimental numbers one wants to understand.\"", "In chemistry a graph makes a natural model for a molecule, where vertices represent atoms and edges bonds.", "This approach is especially used in computer processing of molecular structures, ranging from chemical editors to database searching.", "In statistical physics, graphs can represent local connections between interacting parts of a system, as well as the dynamics of a physical process on suchsystems.", "Similarly, in computational neuroscience graphs can be used to represent functional connections between brain areas that interact to give rise to various cognitive processes, where the vertices represent different areas of the brain and the edges represent the connections between those areas.", "Graph theory plays an important role in electrical modeling of electrical networks, here, weights are associated with resistance of the wire segments to obtain electrical properties of network structures.", "Graphs are also used to represent the micro-scale channels of porous media, in which the vertices represent the pores and the edges represent the smaller channels connecting the pores.", "Chemical graph theory uses the molecular graph as a means to model molecules.Graphs and networks are excellent models to study and understand phase transitions and critical phenomena.Removal of nodes or edges leads to a critical transition where the network breaks into small clusters which is studied as a phase transition.", "This breakdown is studied via percolation theory.=== Social sciences ===Moreno Sociogram (1953).Graph theory is also widely used in sociology as a way, for example, to measure actors' prestige or to explore rumor spreading, notably through the use of social network analysis software.", "Under the umbrella of social networks are many different types of graphs.", "Acquaintanceship and friendship graphs describe whether people know each other.", "Influence graphs model whether certain people can influence the behavior of others.", "Finally, collaboration graphs model whether two people work together in a particular way, such as acting in a movie together.=== Biology ===Likewise, graph theory is useful in biology and conservation efforts where a vertex can represent regions where certain species exist (or inhabit) and the edges represent migration paths or movement between the regions.", "This information is important when looking at breeding patterns or tracking the spread of disease, parasites or how changes to the movement can affect other species.Graphs are also commonly used in molecular biology and genomics to model and analyse datasets with complex relationships.", "For example, graph-based methods are often used to 'cluster' cells together into cell-types in single-cell transcriptome analysis.", "Another use is to model genes or proteins in a pathway and study the relationships between them, such as metabolic pathways and gene regulatory networks.", "Evolutionary trees, ecological networks, and hierarchical clustering of gene expression patterns are also represented as graph structures.", "Graph theory is also used in connectomics; nervous systems can be seen as a graph, where the nodes are neurons and the edges are the connections between them.=== Mathematics ===In mathematics, graphs are useful in geometry and certain parts of topology such as knot theory.", "Algebraic graph theory has close links with group theory.", "Algebraic graph theory has been applied to many areas including dynamic systems and complexity.=== Other topics ===A graph structure can be extended by assigning a weight to each edge of the graph.", "Graphs with weights, or weighted graphs, are used to represent structures in which pairwise connections have some numerical values.", "For example, if a graph represents a road network, the weights could represent the length of each road.", "There may be several weights associated with each edge, including distance (as in the previous example), travel time, or monetary cost.", "Such weighted graphs are commonly used to program GPS's, and travel-planning search engines that compare flight times and costs." ], [ "History", "The Königsberg Bridge problemThe paper written by Leonhard Euler on the Seven Bridges of Königsberg and published in 1736 is regarded as the first paper in the history of graph theory.", "This paper, as well as the one written by Vandermonde on the ''knight problem,'' carried on with the ''analysis situs'' initiated by Leibniz.", "Euler's formula relating the number of edges, vertices, and faces of a convex polyhedron was studied and generalized by Cauchy and L'Huilier, and represents the beginning of the branch of mathematics known as topology.More than one century after Euler's paper on the bridges of Königsberg and while Listing was introducing the concept of topology, Cayley was led by an interest in particular analytical forms arising from differential calculus to study a particular class of graphs, the ''trees''.", "This study had many implications for theoretical chemistry.", "The techniques he used mainly concern the enumeration of graphs with particular properties.", "Enumerative graph theory then arose from the results of Cayley and the fundamental results published by Pólya between 1935 and 1937.These were generalized by De Bruijn in 1959.Cayley linked his results on trees with contemporary studies of chemical composition.", "The fusion of ideas from mathematics with those from chemistry began what has become part of the standard terminology of graph theory.In particular, the term \"graph\" was introduced by Sylvester in a paper published in 1878 in ''Nature'', where he draws an analogy between \"quantic invariants\" and \"co-variants\" of algebra and molecular diagrams::\"… Every invariant and co-variant thus becomes expressible by a ''graph'' precisely identical with a Kekuléan diagram or chemicograph.", "… I give a rule for the geometrical multiplication of graphs, ''i.e.''", "for constructing a ''graph'' to the product of in- or co-variants whose separate graphs are given.", "…\" (italics as in the original).The first textbook on graph theory was written by Dénes Kőnig, and published in 1936.Another book by Frank Harary, published in 1969, was \"considered the world over to be the definitive textbook on the subject\", and enabled mathematicians, chemists, electrical engineers and social scientists to talk to each other.", "Harary donated all of the royalties to fund the Pólya Prize.One of the most famous and stimulating problems in graph theory is the four color problem: \"Is it true that any map drawn in the plane may have its regions colored with four colors, in such a way that any two regions having a common border have different colors?\"", "This problem was first posed by Francis Guthrie in 1852 and its first written record is in a letter of De Morgan addressed to Hamilton the same year.", "Many incorrect proofs have been proposed, including those by Cayley, Kempe, and others.", "The study and the generalization of this problem by Tait, Heawood, Ramsey and Hadwiger led to the study of the colorings of the graphs embedded on surfaces with arbitrary genus.", "Tait's reformulation generated a new class of problems, the ''factorization problems'', particularly studied by Petersen and Kőnig.", "The works of Ramsey on colorations and more specially the results obtained by Turán in 1941 was at the origin of another branch of graph theory, ''extremal graph theory''.The four color problem remained unsolved for more than a century.", "In 1969 Heinrich Heesch published a method for solving the problem using computers.", "A computer-aided proof produced in 1976 by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken makes fundamental use of the notion of \"discharging\" developed by Heesch.", "The proof involved checking the properties of 1,936 configurations by computer, and was not fully accepted at the time due to its complexity.", "A simpler proof considering only 633 configurations was given twenty years later by Robertson, Seymour, Sanders and Thomas.The autonomous development of topology from 1860 and 1930 fertilized graph theory back through the works of Jordan, Kuratowski and Whitney.", "Another important factor of common development of graph theory and topology came from the use of the techniques of modern algebra.", "The first example of such a use comes from the work of the physicist Gustav Kirchhoff, who published in 1845 his Kirchhoff's circuit laws for calculating the voltage and current in electric circuits.The introduction of probabilistic methods in graph theory, especially in the study of Erdős and Rényi of the asymptotic probability of graph connectivity, gave rise to yet another branch, known as ''random graph theory'', which has been a fruitful source of graph-theoretic results." ], [ "Representation", "A graph is an abstraction of relationships that emerge in nature; hence, it cannot be coupled to a certain representation.", "The way it is represented depends on the degree of convenience such representation provides for a certain application.", "The most common representations are the visual, in which, usually, vertices are drawn and connected by edges, and the tabular, in which rows of a table provide information about the relationships between the vertices within the graph.=== Visual: Graph drawing ===Graphs are usually represented visually by drawing a point or circle for every vertex, and drawing a line between two vertices if they are connected by an edge.", "If the graph is directed, the direction is indicated by drawing an arrow.", "If the graph is weighted, the weight is added on the arrow.A graph drawing should not be confused with the graph itself (the abstract, non-visual structure) as there are several ways to structure the graph drawing.", "All that matters is which vertices are connected to which others by how many edges and not the exact layout.", "In practice, it is often difficult to decide if two drawings represent the same graph.", "Depending on the problem domain some layouts may be better suited and easier to understand than others.The pioneering work of W. T. Tutte was very influential on the subject of graph drawing.", "Among other achievements, he introduced the use of linear algebraic methods to obtain graph drawings.Graph drawing also can be said to encompass problems that deal with the crossing number and its various generalizations.", "The crossing number of a graph is the minimum number of intersections between edges that a drawing of the graph in the plane must contain.", "For a planar graph, the crossing number is zero by definition.", "Drawings on surfaces other than the plane are also studied.There are other techniques to visualize a graph away from vertices and edges, including circle packings, intersection graph, and other visualizations of the adjacency matrix.=== Tabular: Graph data structures ===The tabular representation lends itself well to computational applications.", "There are different ways to store graphs in a computer system.", "The data structure used depends on both the graph structure and the algorithm used for manipulating the graph.", "Theoretically one can distinguish between list and matrix structures but in concrete applications the best structure is often a combination of both.", "List structures are often preferred for sparse graphs as they have smaller memory requirements.", "Matrix structures on the other hand provide faster access for some applications but can consume huge amounts of memory.", "Implementations of sparse matrix structures that are efficient on modern parallel computer architectures are an object of current investigation.List structures include the edge list, an array of pairs of vertices, and the adjacency list, which separately lists the neighbors of each vertex: Much like the edge list, each vertex has a list of which vertices it is adjacent to.Matrix structures include the incidence matrix, a matrix of 0's and 1's whose rows represent vertices and whose columns represent edges, and the adjacency matrix, in which both the rows and columns are indexed by vertices.", "In both cases a 1 indicates two adjacent objects and a 0 indicates two non-adjacent objects.", "The degree matrix indicates the degree of vertices.", "The Laplacian matrix is a modified form of the adjacency matrix that incorporates information about the degrees of the vertices, and is useful in some calculations such as Kirchhoff's theorem on the number of spanning trees of a graph.The distance matrix, like the adjacency matrix, has both its rows and columns indexed by vertices, but rather than containing a 0 or a 1 in each cell it contains the length of a shortest path between two vertices." ], [ "Problems", "=== Enumeration ===There is a large literature on graphical enumeration: the problem of counting graphs meeting specified conditions.", "Some of this work is found in Harary and Palmer (1973).=== Subgraphs, induced subgraphs, and minors ===A common problem, called the subgraph isomorphism problem, is finding a fixed graph as a subgraph in a given graph.", "One reason to be interested in such a question is that many graph properties are ''hereditary'' for subgraphs, which means that a graph has the property if and only if all subgraphs have it too.Unfortunately, finding maximal subgraphs of a certain kind is often an NP-complete problem.", "For example:* Finding the largest complete subgraph is called the clique problem (NP-complete).One special case of subgraph isomorphism is the graph isomorphism problem.", "It asks whether two graphs are isomorphic.", "It is not known whether this problem is NP-complete, nor whether it can be solved in polynomial time.A similar problem is finding induced subgraphs in a given graph.", "Again, some important graph properties are hereditary with respect to induced subgraphs, which means that a graph has a property if and only if all induced subgraphs also have it.", "Finding maximal induced subgraphs of a certain kind is also often NP-complete.", "For example:* Finding the largest edgeless induced subgraph or independent set is called the independent set problem (NP-complete).Still another such problem, the minor containment problem, is to find a fixed graph as a minor of a given graph.", "A minor or subcontraction of a graph is any graph obtained by taking a subgraph and contracting some (or no) edges.", "Many graph properties are hereditary for minors, which means that a graph has a property if and only if all minors have it too.", "For example, Wagner's Theorem states: * A graph is planar if it contains as a minor neither the complete bipartite graph ''K''3,3 (see the Three-cottage problem) nor the complete graph ''K''5.A similar problem, the subdivision containment problem, is to find a fixed graph as a subdivision of a given graph.", "A subdivision or homeomorphism of a graph is any graph obtained by subdividing some (or no) edges.", "Subdivision containment is related to graph properties such as planarity.", "For example, Kuratowski's Theorem states:* A graph is planar if it contains as a subdivision neither the complete bipartite graph ''K''3,3 nor the complete graph ''K''5.Another problem in subdivision containment is the Kelmans–Seymour conjecture:* Every 5-vertex-connected graph that is not planar contains a subdivision of the 5-vertex complete graph ''K''5.Another class of problems has to do with the extent to which various species and generalizations of graphs are determined by their ''point-deleted subgraphs''.", "For example:* The reconstruction conjecture=== Graph coloring ===Many problems and theorems in graph theory have to do with various ways of coloring graphs.", "Typically, one is interested in coloring a graph so that no two adjacent vertices have the same color, or with other similar restrictions.", "One may also consider coloring edges (possibly so that no two coincident edges are the same color), or other variations.", "Among the famous results and conjectures concerning graph coloring are the following:* Four-color theorem* Strong perfect graph theorem* Erdős–Faber–Lovász conjecture * Total coloring conjecture, also called Behzad's conjecture (unsolved)* List coloring conjecture (unsolved)* Hadwiger conjecture (graph theory) (unsolved)=== Subsumption and unification ===Constraint modeling theories concern families of directed graphs related by a partial order.", "In these applications, graphs are ordered by specificity, meaning that more constrained graphs—which are more specific and thus contain a greater amount of information—are subsumed by those that are more general.", "Operations between graphs include evaluating the direction of a subsumption relationship between two graphs, if any, and computing graph unification.", "The unification of two argument graphs is defined as the most general graph (or the computation thereof) that is consistent with (i.e.", "contains all of the information in) the inputs, if such a graph exists; efficient unification algorithms are known.For constraint frameworks which are strictly compositional, graph unification is the sufficient satisfiability and combination function.", "Well-known applications include automatic theorem proving and modeling the elaboration of linguistic structure.=== Route problems ===* Hamiltonian path problem* Minimum spanning tree* Route inspection problem (also called the \"Chinese postman problem\")* Seven bridges of Königsberg* Shortest path problem* Steiner tree* Three-cottage problem* Traveling salesman problem (NP-hard)=== Network flow ===There are numerous problems arising especially from applications that have to do with various notions of flows in networks, for example:* Max flow min cut theorem=== Visibility problems ===* Museum guard problem=== Covering problems ===Covering problems in graphs may refer to various set cover problems on subsets of vertices/subgraphs.", "* Dominating set problem is the special case of set cover problem where sets are the closed neighborhoods.", "* Vertex cover problem is the special case of set cover problem where sets to cover are every edges.", "* The original set cover problem, also called hitting set, can be described as a vertex cover in a hypergraph.=== Decomposition problems ===Decomposition, defined as partitioning the edge set of a graph (with as many vertices as necessary accompanying the edges of each part of the partition), has a wide variety of questions.", "Often, the problem is to decompose a graph into subgraphs isomorphic to a fixed graph; for instance, decomposing a complete graph into Hamiltonian cycles.", "Other problems specify a family of graphs into which a given graph should be decomposed, for instance, a family of cycles, or decomposing a complete graph ''K''''n'' into specified trees having, respectively, 1, 2, 3, ..., edges.Some specific decomposition problems that have been studied include:* Arboricity, a decomposition into as few forests as possible* Cycle double cover, a decomposition into a collection of cycles covering each edge exactly twice* Edge coloring, a decomposition into as few matchings as possible* Graph factorization, a decomposition of a regular graph into regular subgraphs of given degrees=== Graph classes ===Many problems involve characterizing the members of various classes of graphs.", "Some examples of such questions are below:* Enumerating the members of a class* Characterizing a class in terms of forbidden substructures* Ascertaining relationships among classes (e.g.", "does one property of graphs imply another)* Finding efficient algorithms to decide membership in a class* Finding representations for members of a class" ], [ "See also", "* Gallery of named graphs* Glossary of graph theory* List of graph theory topics* List of unsolved problems in graph theory* Publications in graph theory=== Related topics ===* Algebraic graph theory* Citation graph* Conceptual graph* Data structure* Disjoint-set data structure* Dual-phase evolution* Entitative graph* Existential graph* Graph algebra* Graph automorphism* Graph coloring* Graph database* Graph data structure* Graph drawing* Graph equation* Graph rewriting* Graph sandwich problem* Graph property* Intersection graph* Knight's Tour* Logical graph* Loop* Network theory* Null graph* Pebble motion problems* Percolation theory* Perfect graph* Quantum graph* Random regular graphs* Semantic networks* Spectral graph theory* Strongly regular graphs* Symmetric graphs* Transitive reduction* Tree data structure=== Algorithms ===* Bellman–Ford algorithm* Borůvka's algorithm* Breadth-first search* Depth-first search* Dijkstra's algorithm* Edmonds–Karp algorithm* Floyd–Warshall algorithm* Ford–Fulkerson algorithm* Hopcroft–Karp algorithm* Hungarian algorithm* Kosaraju's algorithm* Kruskal's algorithm* Nearest neighbour algorithm* Network simplex algorithm* Planarity testing algorithms* Prim's algorithm* Push–relabel maximum flow algorithm* Tarjan's strongly connected components algorithm* Topological sorting=== Subareas ===* Algebraic graph theory* Geometric graph theory* Extremal graph theory* Probabilistic graph theory* Topological graph theory=== Related areas of mathematics ===* Combinatorics* Group theory* Knot theory* Ramsey theory=== Generalizations ===* Hypergraph* Abstract simplicial complex=== Prominent graph theorists ===* Alon, Noga* Berge, Claude* Bollobás, Béla* Bondy, Adrian John* Brightwell, Graham* Chudnovsky, Maria* Chung, Fan* Dirac, Gabriel Andrew* Dijkstra, Edsger W.* Erdős, Paul* Euler, Leonhard* Faudree, Ralph* Fleischner, Herbert* Golumbic, Martin* Graham, Ronald* Harary, Frank* Heawood, Percy John* Kotzig, Anton* Kőnig, Dénes* Lovász, László* Murty, U. S. R.* Nešetřil, Jaroslav* Rényi, Alfréd* Ringel, Gerhard* Robertson, Neil* Seymour, Paul* Sudakov, Benny* Szemerédi, Endre* Thomas, Robin* Thomassen, Carsten* Turán, Pál* Tutte, W. T.* Whitney, Hassler" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * English edition, Wiley 1961; Methuen & Co, New York 1962; Russian, Moscow 1961; Spanish, Mexico 1962; Roumanian, Bucharest 1969; Chinese, Shanghai 1963; Second printing of the 1962 first English edition, Dover, New York 2001.", "* * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Graph theory tutorial * A searchable database of small connected graphs* * Concise, annotated list of graph theory resources for researchers* rocs — a graph theory IDE* The Social Life of Routers — non-technical paper discussing graphs of people and computers* Graph Theory Software — tools to teach and learn graph theory* * A list of graph algorithms with references and links to graph library implementations=== Online textbooks ===* Phase Transitions in Combinatorial Optimization Problems, Section 3: Introduction to Graphs (2006) by Hartmann and Weigt* Digraphs: Theory Algorithms and Applications 2007 by Jorgen Bang-Jensen and Gregory Gutin* Graph Theory, by Reinhard Diestel" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gumby" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Gumby''''' is a cartoon character and associated media franchise created by Art Clokey.", "Gumby is a blocky green humanoid made of clay.Gumby stars in two television series, ''Gumby: The Movie'', and other media.", "Upon his debut, in 1953, he immediately became a famous example of stop motion clay animation and an American cultural icon, spawning tributes, parodies, and merchandising." ], [ "Overview", "The ''Gumby'' franchise follows Gumby's adventures through different environments and historical eras.", "His primary sidekick is Pokey, an anthropomorphic orange pony.", "His arch-nemeses are the G and J Blockheads, a pair of silent antagonistic red humanoid figures with cube-shaped heads, one with the letter G on the block, the other with the letter J.", "Their creation was inspired by the trouble-making Katzenjammer Kids.", "Other characters include Prickle, a yellow fire-breathing dinosaur who sometimes styles himself as a detective with pipe and deerstalker hat like Sherlock Holmes; Goo, a flying blue shapeshifting mermaid who spits blue goo balls; Gumbo and Gumba, Gumby's parents; and Nopey, Gumby's dog whose entire vocabulary is the word \"nope\".", "The 1988 syndicated series added Gumby's sister Minga, mastodon friend Denali, and chicken friend Tilly." ], [ "History", "===1953–1969: Origins===Gumby was created by Art Clokey in the early 1950s after he finished film school at the University of Southern California (USC).Clokey's first animated film was a 1953 three-minute student film called ''Gumbasia'', a surreal montage of moving and expanding lumps of clay set to music in a parody of Disney's ''Fantasia''.", "''Gumbasia'' was created in the \"kinesthetic\" style taught by Clokey's USC professor Slavko Vorkapić, described as \"massaging of the eye cells\".", "Much of Gumby's look and feel was inspired by this technique of camera movements and editing.In 1955, Clokey showed ''Gumbasia'' to film producer Sam Engel, who encouraged him to develop his technique by animating figures into children's stories.", "On January 29, 1955, Clokey produced and filmed the first pilot episode starring Gumby, titled ''Adventures of Gumby: A Sample'', but never aired.The name \"Gumby\" came from the muddy clay found at Clokey's grandparents' farm that his family called \"gumbo\".", "Gumby's appearance was inspired by a suggestion from his wife, Ruth (née Parkander), that Gumby be based on the Gingerbread Man.", "Clokey saw the color green as both racially neutral and a symbol of life.", "Gumby's legs and feet were made wide to pragmatically ensure that the figure would stand up during stop motion filming.", "Gumby's slanted head was based on the hairstyle of Clokey's father, Charles Farrington, in an old photograph.The pilot episode was seen by NBC executive Thomas Warren Sarnoff, who asked Clokey to make another one.", "The second episode, ''Gumby on the Moon'', became a huge hit on ''Howdy Doody'', so Sarnoff ordered a series in 1955 titled ''The Gumby Show''.", "In 1955 and 1956, 25 episodes at 11 minutes each aired on NBC.", "In early episodes, Gumby's voice was provided by Ruth Eggleston, wife of the show's art director Al Eggleston, until 1957 when Dallas McKennon assumed the role.", "Al Eggleston also invented Pokey, the little orange pony who was Gumby's best friend and was introduced during the earliest episodes.Because of its variety format, ''The Gumby Show'' features Clokey's animations plus interviews and games.", "During this time, the show had two successive hosts, Robert Nicholson and Pinky Lee.In 1959, ''The Gumby Show'' entered syndication, and more episodes were produced in the 1960s.", "Production started in Hollywood and in 1960 moved to a larger studio in Glendora, California, where it remained until production ended in 1969.During this time, Gumby was primarily voiced by Norma MacMillan and occasionally by Ginny Tyler.", "The cartoon shorts introduce new characters including a blue mermaid named Goo and a yellow dinosaur named Prickle.Several sources claim that Dick Beals also voiced Gumby in the 1960s series.", "However, Beals himself refuted this claim in a 2001 interview.===1982–1989: Revival===Beginning in 1982, Gumby was parodied by Eddie Murphy on ''Saturday Night Live''.", "In it, when the cameras are off, the sweet Gumby reverts to his true self of an irascible, cigar-chomping celebrity who is highly demanding of the production executives.", "Whenever they refuse his demands, Gumby asserts his star status by saying \"I'm ''Gumby'', dammit!\"", "in an exaggerated Jewish accent.", "According to Joseph Clokey, Art's son, he and Art \"thought Eddie was a genius in the way he played that character\".", "In 1987, the original ''Gumby'' shorts were released on home video.", "In 1988, Gumby appeared in ''The Puppetoon Movie''.This renewed interest led to a new ''Gumby Adventures'' series of 99 episodes of 7-minutes, produced for television syndication in association with Lorimar-Telepictures in 1988.Dallas McKennon voices Gumby in the new adventures, in which Gumby and his pals travels beyond their toyland setting as a musical band.", "''Gumby Adventures'' includes new characters, such as Gumby's little sister Minga, a mastodon named Denali and a chicken named Tilly.The new series includes the 1950s and 1960s shorts, with new audio.", "The voices were re-recorded and the music was replaced by Jerry Gerber's new synthesizer score.", "Legal issues prevented Clokey from renewing rights to the original Capitol Records production tracks.===1990–2021: feature film and reruns===Starting in 1992, TV channels such as Nickelodeon and Cartoon Network aired reruns of ''Gumby'' episodes.", "In 1995, Clokey's production company produced an independently released theatrical film, ''Gumby: The Movie'', as the character's first feature-length adventure, with John R. Dilworth, creator of ''Courage the Cowardly Dog'', as animation consultant.", "In it, the villainous Blockheads replace Gumby and his band with robots and kidnap their dog, Lowbelly.", "It has in-joke homages to science-fiction films such as ''Star Wars'', ''The Terminator'', and ''2001: A Space Odyssey''.", "In 1998, the ''Gumby'' episode \"Robot Rumpus\" was featured on ''Mystery Science Theater 3000''.On March 16, 2007, YouTube announced that all ''Gumby'' episodes would appear in their full-length form on its site, digitally remastered and with their original soundtracks.", "This deal also extended to other video sites, including AOL.", "In March 2007, KQED-TV broadcast an hour-long documentary ''Gumby Dharma'' in its ''Truly CA'' series.", "It details Clokey's life and work, and has new animation of Gumby and Pokey.", "For these sequences, animator Stephen A. Buckley voiced Gumby and Clokey voiced Pokey.In 2012, MeTV began airing ''Gumby'' in its weekend morning animation block until the end of the year.In 2014, the VOD service Kabillion broadcast ''Gumby''.===2022–present: Fox ownership===In February 2022, Fox Entertainment, the TV production division of the Murdoch family's Fox Corporation, announced it had acquired the ''Gumby'' intellectual property from the estate of Art's son, Joseph Clokey, encompassing all rights including \"film, TV and streaming, consumer products, licensing, publishing and all other categories\", with plans to launch new series across linear and digital platforms, while adding to the classic ''Gumby'' material available on its free streaming platform Tubi.", "Before Fox ownership he made a cameo in the seventeenth season of The Simpsons in the episode, \"The Girl Who Slept Too Little\"." ], [ "Cast", "*Ruth Eggleston: Gumby (1955–1956), Gumba (1955), Additional voices*Dallas McKennon: Gumby (1957, 1960–1964, 1987–1989, 1995), Pokey (1960–1969), Gumbo (1960), Prickle (1964–1969), Professor Kapp (1964–1988, 1995), Denali (1988), Nopey (1964–1969), Henry (1987 re-dubbed), Rodgy (1987 re-dubbed), Additional voices*Norma MacMillan: Gumby (1964–1969), Pokey (1967–1968), Goo (1964–1969), Gumba (1967–1968)*Ginny Tyler: Gumby (1968–1969), Gumba (1957–1962), Granny (1960–1962), Witty Witch (1960–1962), Additional voices*Betty Hartford: Gumba (1956)*Art Clokey: Pokey (1955–1988, 1995), Prickle (1964–1969, 1987–1989, 1995), Gumbo (1955–1989, 1995), Additional voices*Don Messick: Henry (1963), Rodgy (1963), Additional voices*Paul Frees: Professor Kapp (1963), Additional voices*Gloria Clokey: Goo (1987–1989, 1995), Gumba (1987–1989)*Janet MacDuff: Gumba (1988, 1995), Granny (1988), Additional voices*Holly Harman: Minga (1988), Tilly (1987–1989), Additional voices*Hal Smith: Prickle (1964–1969), Dr. Zveegee, Nopey, Additional voices*Dick Beals: Naughty Boy (1960)*Pinky Lee: Host (1956)*Bobby Nicholson: Scotty McKee (host) (1956–1967)" ], [ "Episodes" ], [ "Reception and legacy", "In 1993, ''TV Guide'' named ''Gumby'' the best cartoon series of the 1950s in its issue celebrating 40 years of television.Beginning in 1994, the Library of Congress used Gumby as a \"spokescharacter\" for ''Adventures into Books: Gumby's World'', a traveling exhibition promoting the Center for the Book's national reading campaign from 1997 to 2000.By the end of the 1990s, Gumby and Pokey had also appeared in various commercials for Cheerios cereal.On August 4, 2006, the Center for Puppetry Arts in Atlanta opened ''Art Clokey's Gumby: The First Fifty Years''.", "This exhibition featured many of the original puppets and sets, along with screening of Clokey's films.", "This event was conceived by David Scheve of T.D.A.", "Animation and Joe Clokey of Premavision, and was one of several exhibits that opened around the country, celebrating the 50th anniversary of ''The Gumby Show''.", "The children's book ''Gumby Goes to the Sun'' was also published that year to commemorate the anniversary.", "The book was originally created in the 1980s by Clokey's daughter, Holly Harman (who voiced Gumby's sister, Minga in the 1988 series).In 2007, the ''Gumby'' comic book series was nominated for two Eisner Awards, Best New Series and Best Publication for a Young Audience, and won the latter.", "A Gumby graphic novel titled ''Gumby: 50 Shades of Clay'' was released in 2017.On October 12, 2011, a Google Doodle acknowledged Art Clokey's 90th birthday.", "It was composed of a toy block with a \"G\" and five clay balls in the Google colors.", "Clicking each ball revealed the Blockheads, Prickle, Goo, Gumby, and Pokey.On December 21, 2019, Eddie Murphy reprised his role while hosting SNL during a sketch on Weekend Update." ], [ "Merchandising", "The video game ''Gumby vs. the Astrobots''The most prominent of Gumby merchandise is the bendable figure set by Lakeside Toys.", "Several single packs and multi-figure sets were made by Jesco (later Trendmasters), and a 50th anniversary collection.", "There are plush dolls, keychains, mugs, a 1988 Colorforms set, a 1995 Trendmasters playset, and a Kubricks set by Medicom.", "A tribute album, ''Gumby: The Green Album'', produced by Shepard Stern, was released in 1989.In August 2005, the first video game featuring Gumby, ''Gumby vs. the Astrobots'', was released by Namco for the Game Boy Advance.", "The plot follows the Blockheads and their cohorts, the Astrobots capturing Pokey, Prickle, Goo, Gumbo and Gumba and placing them in books.", "With his friends and parents in trouble, Gumby sets out to rescue them and defeat the Blockheads.The ''Gumby'' images and toys are registered trademarks of Fox Entertainment.", "Premavision owned the distribution rights to the ''Gumby'' cartoons, having been reverted from previous distributor Warner Bros. Television in 2003, and had licensed the rights to Classic Media until September 30, 2012.At this time, Classic Media was officially acquired by DreamWorks Animation and branded as DreamWorks Classics, which became a subsidiary of NBCUniversal in 2016.As of April 2015, NCircle Entertainment owns home video and digital distribution rights to the cartoons." ], [ "See also", "*List of films featuring clay animation*Morph*Semper Gumby*Davey and Goliath" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Premavision/Clokey Productions *** Gumby at Don Markstein's Toonopedia.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gioachino Rossini" ], [ "Introduction", "Rossini as a young man, '''Gioachino Antonio Rossini''' (29 February 1792 – 13 November 1868) was an Italian composer who gained fame for his 39 operas, although he also wrote many songs, some chamber music and piano pieces, and some sacred music.", "He set new standards for both comic and serious opera before retiring from large-scale composition while still in his thirties, at the height of his popularity.Born in Pesaro to parents who were both musicians (his father a trumpeter, his mother a singer), Rossini began to compose by the age of twelve and was educated at music school in Bologna.", "His first opera was performed in Venice in 1810 when he was 18 years old.", "In 1815 he was engaged to write operas and manage theatres in Naples.", "In the period 1810–1823, he wrote 34 operas for the Italian stage that were performed in Venice, Milan, Ferrara, Naples and elsewhere; this productivity necessitated an almost formulaic approach for some components (such as overtures) and a certain amount of self-borrowing.", "During this period he produced his most popular works, including the comic operas ''L'italiana in Algeri'', ''Il barbiere di Siviglia'' (known in English as ''The Barber of Seville'') and ''La Cenerentola'', which brought to a peak the ''opera buffa'' tradition he inherited from masters such as Domenico Cimarosa and Giovanni Paisiello.", "He also composed ''opera seria'' works such as ''Tancredi'', ''Otello'' and ''Semiramide''.", "All of these attracted admiration for their innovation in melody, harmonic and instrumental colour, and dramatic form.", "In 1824 he was contracted by the Opéra in Paris, for which he produced an opera to celebrate the coronation of Charles X, ''Il viaggio a Reims'' (later cannibalised for his first opera in French, ''Le comte Ory''), revisions of two of his Italian operas, ''Le siège de Corinthe'' and ''Moïse'', and in 1829 his last opera, ''Guillaume Tell''.Rossini's withdrawal from opera for the last 40 years of his life has never been fully explained; contributory factors may have been ill-health, the wealth his success had brought him, and the rise of spectacular grand opera under composers such as Giacomo Meyerbeer.", "From the early 1830s to 1855, when he left Paris and was based in Bologna, Rossini wrote relatively little.", "On his return to Paris in 1855 he became renowned for his musical salons on Saturdays, regularly attended by musicians and the artistic and fashionable circles of Paris, for which he wrote the entertaining pieces ''Péchés de vieillesse''.", "Guests included Franz Liszt, Anton Rubinstein, Giuseppe Verdi, Meyerbeer and Joseph Joachim.", "Rossini's last major composition was his ''Petite messe solennelle'' (1863)." ], [ "Life and career", "===Early life===Rossini was born in 1792 in Pesaro, a town on the Adriatic coast of Italy that was then part of the Papal States.", "He was the only child of Giuseppe Rossini, a trumpeter and horn player, and his wife Anna, ''née'' Guidarini, a seamstress by trade, daughter of a baker.", "Giuseppe Rossini was charming but impetuous and feckless; the burden of supporting the family and raising the child fell mainly on Anna, with some help from her mother and mother-in-law.", "Stendhal, who published a colourful biography of Rossini in 1824, wrote:Giuseppe was imprisoned at least twice: first in 1790 for insubordination to local authorities in a dispute about his employment as town trumpeter; and in 1799 and 1800 for republican activism and support of the troops of Napoleon against the Pope's Austrian backers.", "In 1798, when Rossini was aged six, his mother began a career as a professional singer in comic opera, and for a little over a decade was a considerable success in cities including Trieste and Bologna, before her untrained voice began to fail.In 1802 the family moved to Lugo, near Ravenna, where Rossini received a good basic education in Italian, Latin and arithmetic as well as music.", "He studied the horn with his father and other music with a priest, Giuseppe Malerbe, whose extensive library contained works by Haydn and Mozart, both little known in Italy at the time, but inspirational to the young Rossini.", "He was a quick learner, and by the age of twelve, he had composed a set of six sonatas for four stringed instruments, which were performed under the aegis of a rich patron in 1804.Two years later he was admitted to the recently opened Liceo Musicale, Bologna, initially studying singing, cello and piano, and joining the composition class soon afterwards.", "He wrote some substantial works while a student, including a mass and a cantata, and after two years he was invited to continue his studies.", "He declined the offer: the strict academic regime of the Liceo had given him a solid compositional technique, but as his biographer Richard Osborne puts it, \"his instinct to continue his education in the real world finally asserted itself\".While still at the Liceo, Rossini had performed in public as a singer and worked in theatres as a répétiteur and keyboard soloist.", "In 1810 at the request of the popular tenor Domenico Mombelli he wrote his first operatic score, a two-act operatic ''dramma serio'', ''Demetrio e Polibio'', to a libretto by Mombelli's wife.", "It was publicly staged in 1812, after the composer's first successes.", "Rossini and his parents concluded that his future lay in composing operas.", "The main operatic centre in northeastern Italy was Venice; under the tutelage of the composer Giovanni Morandi, a family friend, Rossini moved there in late 1810, when he was eighteen.===First operas: 1810–1815===Rossini's first opera to be staged was ''La cambiale di matrimonio'', a one-act comedy, given at the small Teatro San Moisè in November 1810.The piece was a great success, and Rossini received what then seemed to him a considerable sum: \"forty ''scudi'' – an amount I had never seen brought together\".", "He later described the San Moisè as an ideal theatre for a young composer learning his craft – \"everything tended to facilitate the début of a novice composer\": it had no chorus, and a small company of principals; its main repertoire consisted of one-act comic operas (''farse''), staged with modest scenery and minimal rehearsal.", "Rossini followed the success of his first piece with three more ''farse'' for the house: ''L'inganno felice'' (1812), ''La scala di seta'' (1812), and ''Il signor Bruschino'' (1813).Rossini maintained his links with Bologna, where in 1811 he had a success directing Haydn's ''The Seasons'', and a failure with his first full-length opera, ''L'equivoco stravagante''.", "He also worked for opera houses in Ferrara and Rome.", "In mid-1812 he received a commission from La Scala, Milan, where his two-act comedy ''La pietra del paragone'' ran for fifty-three performances, a considerable run for the time, which brought him not only financial benefits, but exemption from military service and the title of ''maestro di cartello'' – a composer whose name on advertising posters guaranteed a full house.", "The following year his first ''opera seria'', ''Tancredi'', did well at La Fenice in Venice, and even better at Ferrara, with a rewritten, tragic ending.", "The success of ''Tancredi'' made Rossini's name known internationally; productions of the opera followed in London (1820) and New York (1825).", "Within weeks of ''Tancredi'', Rossini had another box-office success with his comedy ''L'italiana in Algeri'', composed in great haste and premiered in May 1813.1814 was a less remarkable year for the rising composer, neither ''Il turco in Italia'' or ''Sigismondo'' pleasing the Milanese or Venetian public, respectively.", "1815 marked an important stage in Rossini's career.", "In May he moved to Naples, to take up the post of director of music for the royal theatres.", "These included the Teatro di San Carlo, the city's leading opera house; its manager Domenico Barbaia was to be an important influence on the composer's career there.===Naples and ''Il barbiere'': 1815–1820===Il barbiere'' in an 1830 lithograph by Alexandre FragonardThe musical establishment of Naples was not immediately welcoming to Rossini, who was seen as an intruder into its cherished operatic traditions.", "The city had once been the operatic capital of Europe; the memory of Cimarosa was revered and Paisiello was still living, but there were no local composers of any stature to follow them, and Rossini quickly won the public and critics round.", "Rossini's first work for the San Carlo, ''Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra'' was a dramma per musica in two acts, in which he reused substantial sections of his earlier works, unfamiliar to the local public.", "The Rossini scholars Philip Gossett and Patricia Brauner write, \"It is as if Rossini wished to present himself to the Neapolitan public by offering a selection of the best music from operas unlikely to be revived in Naples.\"", "The new opera was received with tremendous enthusiasm, as was the Neapolitan premiere of ''L'italiana in Algeri'', and Rossini's position in Naples was assured.For the first time, Rossini was able to write regularly for a resident company of first-rate singers and a fine orchestra, with adequate rehearsals, and schedules that made it unnecessary to compose in a rush to meet deadlines.", "Between 1815 and 1822 he composed eighteen more operas: nine for Naples and nine for opera houses in other cities.", "In 1816, for the Teatro Argentina in Rome, he composed the opera that was to become his best-known: ''Il barbiere di Siviglia'' (''The Barber of Seville'').", "There was already a popular opera of that title by Paisiello, and Rossini's version was originally given the same title as its hero, ''Almaviva''.", "Despite an unsuccessful opening night, with mishaps on stage and many pro-Paisiello and anti-Rossini audience members, the opera quickly became a success, and by the time of its first revival, in Bologna a few months later, it was billed by its present Italian title and it rapidly eclipsed Paisiello's setting.Isabella Colbran, ''prima donna'' of the Teatro San Carlo, who married Rossini in 1822Rossini's operas for the Teatro San Carlo were substantial, mainly serious pieces.", "His ''Otello'' (1816) provoked Lord Byron to write, \"They have been crucifying ''Othello'' into an opera: music good, but lugubrious – but as for the words!\"", "Nonetheless the piece proved generally popular and held the stage in frequent revivals until it was overshadowed by Verdi's version, seven decades later.", "Among his other works for the house were ''Mosè in Egitto'', based on the biblical story of Moses and the Exodus from Egypt (1818), and ''La donna del lago'', from Sir Walter Scott's poem ''The Lady of the Lake'' (1819).", "For La Scala he wrote the opera semiseria ''La gazza ladra'' (1817), and for Rome his version of the Cinderella story, ''La Cenerentola'' (1817).", "In 1817 came the first performance of one of his operas (''L'Italiana'') at the Theâtre-Italien in Paris; its success led to others of his operas being staged there, and eventually to his contract in Paris from 1824 to 1830.Rossini kept his personal life as private as possible, but he was known for his susceptibility to singers in the companies he worked with.", "Among his lovers in his early years were Ester Mombelli (Domenico's daughter) and Maria Marcolini of the Bologna company.", "By far the most important of these relationships – both personal and professional – was with Isabella Colbran, prima donna of the Teatro San Carlo (and former mistress of Barbaia).", "Rossini had heard her sing in Bologna in 1807, and when he moved to Naples he wrote a succession of important roles for her in ''opere serie''.===Vienna and London: 1820–1824===By the early 1820s, Rossini was beginning to tire of Naples.", "The failure of his operatic tragedy ''Ermione'' the previous year convinced him that he and the Neapolitan audiences had had enough of each other.", "An insurrection in Naples against the monarchy, though quickly crushed, unsettled Rossini; when Barbaia signed a contract to take the company to Vienna, Rossini was glad to join them, but did not reveal to Barbaia that he had no intention of returning to Naples afterwards.", "He travelled with Colbran, in March 1822, breaking their journey at Bologna, where they were married in the presence of his parents in a small church in Castenaso a few miles from the city.", "The bride was thirty-seven, the groom thirty.In Vienna, Rossini received a hero's welcome; his biographers describe it as \"unprecedentedly feverish enthusiasm\", \"Rossini fever\", and \"near hysteria\".", "The authoritarian chancellor of the Austrian Empire, Metternich, liked Rossini's music, and thought it free of all potential revolutionary or republican associations.", "He was therefore happy to permit the San Carlo company to perform the composer's operas.", "In a three-month season they played six of them, to audiences so enthusiastic that Beethoven's assistant, Anton Schindler, described it as \"an idolatrous orgy\".George IV (left) greeting Rossini at the Brighton Pavilion, 1823While in Vienna Rossini heard Beethoven's ''Eroica'' symphony, and was so moved that he determined to meet the reclusive composer.", "He finally managed to do so, and later described the encounter to many people, including Eduard Hanslick and Richard Wagner.", "He recalled that although conversation was hampered by Beethoven's deafness and Rossini's ignorance of German, Beethoven made it plain that he thought Rossini's talents were not for serious opera, and that \"above all\" he should \"do more ''Barbiere''\" ''(Barbers)''.After the Vienna season Rossini returned to Castenaso to work with his librettist, Gaetano Rossi, on ''Semiramide'', commissioned by La Fenice.", "It was premiered in February 1823, his last work for the Italian theatre.", "Colbran starred, but it was clear to everyone that her voice was in serious decline, and ''Semiramide'' ended her career in Italy.", "The work survived that one major disadvantage, and entered the international operatic repertory, remaining popular throughout the 19th century; in Richard Osborne's words, it brought \"Rossini's Italian career to a spectacular close.", "\"In November 1823 Rossini and Colbran set off for London, where a lucrative contract had been offered.", "They stopped for four weeks ''en route'' in Paris.", "Although he was not as feverishly acclaimed by the Parisians as he had been in Vienna, he nevertheless had an exceptionally welcoming reception from the musical establishment and the public.", "When he attended a performance of ''Il barbiere'' at the Théâtre-Italien he was applauded, dragged onto the stage, and serenaded by the musicians.", "A banquet was given for him and his wife, attended by leading French composers and artists, and he found the cultural climate of Paris congenial.At the end of the year Rossini arrived in London, where he was received and made much of by the king, George IV, although the composer was by now unimpressed by royalty and aristocracy.", "Rossini and Colbran had signed contracts for an opera season at the King's Theatre in the Haymarket.", "Her vocal shortcomings were a serious liability, and she reluctantly retired from performing.", "Public opinion was not improved by Rossini's failure to provide a new opera, as promised.", "The impresario, Vincenzo Benelli, defaulted on his contract with the composer, but this was not known to the London press and public, who blamed Rossini.In a 2003 biography of the composer, Gaia Servadio comments that Rossini and England were not made for each other.", "He was prostrated by the Channel crossing and was unlikely to be enthused by the English weather or English cooking.", "Although his stay in London was financially rewarding – the British press reported disapprovingly that he had earned over £30,000 – he was happy to sign a contract at the French embassy in London to return to Paris, where he had felt much more at home.===Paris and final operas: 1824–1829===Rossini, painted in Paris in 1828 by Hortense Haudebourt-LescotRossini's new, and highly remunerative, contract with the French government was negotiated under Louis XVIII, who died in September 1824, soon after Rossini's arrival in Paris.", "It had been agreed that the composer would produce one grand opera for the Académie Royale de Musique and either an ''opera buffa'' or an ''opera semiseria'' for the Théâtre-Italien.", "He was also to help run the latter theatre and revise one of his earlier works for revival there.", "The death of the king and the accession of Charles X changed Rossini's plans, and his first new work for Paris was ''Il viaggio a Reims'', an operatic entertainment given in June 1825 to celebrate Charles's coronation.", "It was Rossini's last opera with an Italian libretto.", "He permitted only four performances of the piece, intending to reuse the best of the music in a less ephemeral opera.", "About half the score of ''Le comte Ory'' (1828) is from the earlier work.Isolier, Ory, Adèle and Ragonde, in ''Le comte Ory''Colbran's enforced retirement put a strain on the Rossinis' marriage, leaving her unoccupied while he continued to be the centre of musical attention and constantly in demand.", "She consoled herself with what Servadio describes as \"a new pleasure in shopping\"; for Rossini, Paris offered continual gourmet delights, as his increasingly rotund shape began to reflect.The first of the four operas Rossini wrote to French librettos were ''Le siège de Corinthe'' (1826) and ''Moïse et Pharaon'' (1827).", "Both were substantial reworkings of pieces written for Naples: ''Maometto II'' and ''Mosè in Egitto''.", "Rossini took great care before beginning work on the first, learning to speak French and familiarising himself with traditional French operatic ways of declaiming the language.", "As well as dropping some of the original music that was in an ornate style unfashionable in Paris, Rossini accommodated local preferences by adding dances, hymn-like numbers and a greater role for the chorus.Rossini's mother, Anna, died in 1827; he had been devoted to her, and he felt her loss deeply.", "She and Colbran had never got on well, and Servadio suggests that after Anna died Rossini came to resent the surviving woman in his life.In 1828 Rossini wrote ''Le comte Ory'', his only French-language comic opera.", "His determination to reuse music from ''Il viaggio a Reims'' caused problems for his librettists, who had to adapt their original plot and write French words to fit existing Italian numbers, but the opera was a success, and was seen in London within six months of the Paris premiere, and in New York in 1831.The following year Rossini wrote his long-awaited French grand opera, ''Guillaume Tell'', based on Friedrich Schiller's 1804 play which drew on the William Tell legend.===Early retirement: 1830–1855===''Guillaume Tell'' was well received.", "The orchestra and singers gathered outside Rossini's house after the premiere and performed the rousing finale to the second act in his honour.", "The newspaper ''Le Globe'' commented that a new era of music had begun.", "Gaetano Donizetti remarked that the first and last acts of the opera were written by Rossini, but the middle act was written by God.", "The work was an undoubted success, without being a smash hit; the public took some time in getting to grips with it, and some singers found it too demanding.", "It nonetheless was produced abroad within months of the premiere, and there was no suspicion that it would be the composer's last opera.Olympe Pélissier in 1830 Rossini, Jointly with ''Semiramide'', ''Guillaume Tell'' is Rossini's longest opera, at three hours and forty-five minutes, and the effort of composing it left him exhausted.", "Although within a year he was planning an operatic treatment of the Faust story, events and ill health overtook him.", "After the opening of ''Guillaume Tell'' the Rossinis had left Paris and were staying in Castenaso.", "Within a year events in Paris had Rossini hurrying back.", "Charles X was overthrown in a revolution in July 1830, and the new administration, headed by Louis Philippe I, announced radical cutbacks in government spending.", "Among the cuts was Rossini's lifetime annuity, won after hard negotiation with the previous regime.", "Attempting to restore the annuity was one of Rossini's reasons for returning.", "The other was to be with his new mistress, Olympe Pélissier.", "He left Colbran in Castenaso; she never returned to Paris and they never lived together again.The reasons for Rossini's withdrawal from opera have been continually discussed during and since his lifetime.", "Some have supposed that aged thirty-seven and in variable health, having negotiated a sizeable annuity from the French government, and having written thirty-nine operas, he simply planned to retire and kept to that plan.", "In a 1934 study of the composer, the critic Francis Toye coined the phrase \"The Great Renunciation\", and called Rossini's retirement a \"phenomenon unique in the history of music and difficult to parallel in the whole history of art\":The poet Heine compared Rossini's retirement with Shakespeare's withdrawal from writing: two geniuses recognising when they had accomplished the unsurpassable and not seeking to follow it.", "Others, then and later, suggested that Rossini had retired because of pique at the successes of Giacomo Meyerbeer and Fromental Halévy in the genre of grand opéra.", "Modern Rossini scholarship has generally discounted such theories, maintaining that Rossini had no intention of renouncing operatic composition, and that circumstances rather than personal choice made ''Guillaume Tell'' his last opera.", "Gossett and Richard Osborne suggest that illness may have been a major factor in Rossini's retirement.", "From about this time, Rossini had intermittent bad health, both physical and mental.", "He had contracted gonorrhoea in earlier years, which later led to painful side-effects, from urethritis to arthritis; he suffered from bouts of debilitating depression, which commentators have linked to several possible causes: cyclothymia, or bipolar disorder, or reaction to his mother's death.For the next twenty-five years following ''Guillaume Tell'' Rossini composed little, although Gossett comments that his comparatively few compositions from the 1830s and 1840s show no falling off in musical inspiration.", "They include the ''Soirées musicales'' (1830–1835: a set of twelve songs for solo or duet voices and piano) and his Stabat Mater (begun in 1831 and completed in 1841).", "After winning his fight with the government over his annuity in 1835 Rossini left Paris and settled in Bologna.", "His return to Paris in 1843 for medical treatment by Jean Civiale sparked hopes that he might produce a new grand opera – it was rumoured that Eugène Scribe was preparing a libretto for him about Joan of Arc.", "The Opéra was moved to present a French version of ''Otello'' in 1844 which also included material from some of the composer's earlier operas.", "It is unclear to what extent – if at all – Rossini was involved with this production, which was in the event poorly received.", "More controversial was the ''pasticcio'' opera of ''Robert Bruce'' (1846), in which Rossini, by then returned to Bologna, closely cooperated by selecting music from his past operas which had not yet been performed in Paris, notably ''La donna del lago.''", "The Opéra sought to present ''Robert'' as a new Rossini opera.", "But although ''Othello'' could at least claim to be genuine, canonic Rossini, the historian Mark Everist notes that detractors argued that ''Robert'' was simply \"fake goods, and from a bygone era at that\"; he cites Théophile Gautier regretting that \"the lack of unity could have been masked by a superior performance; unfortunately the tradition of Rossini's music was lost at the Opéra a long time ago.", "\"The period after 1835 saw Rossini's formal separation from his wife, who remained at Castenaso (1837), and the death of his father at the age of eighty (1839).", "In 1845 Colbran became seriously ill, and in September Rossini travelled to visit her; a month later she died.", "The following year Rossini and Pélissier were married in Bologna.", "The events of the Year of Revolution in 1848 led Rossini to move away from the Bologna area, where he felt threatened by insurrection, and to make Florence his base, which it remained until 1855.By the early 1850s Rossini's mental and physical health had deteriorated to the point where his wife and friends feared for his sanity or his life.", "By the middle of the decade, it was clear that he needed to return to Paris for the most advanced medical care then available.", "In April 1855 the Rossinis set off for their final journey from Italy to France.", "Rossini returned to Paris aged sixty-three and made it his home for the rest of his life.===Sins of old age: 1855–1868===Gossett observes that although an account of Rossini's life between 1830 and 1855 makes depressing reading, it is \"no exaggeration to say that, in Paris, Rossini returned to life\".", "He recovered his health and ''joie de vivre''.", "Once settled in Paris he maintained two homes: a flat in the rue de la Chaussée-d'Antin, a smart central area, and a neo-classical villa built for him in Passy, a commune now absorbed into the city, but then semi-rural.", "He and his wife established a salon that became internationally famous.", "The first of their Saturday evening gatherings – the ''samedi soirs'' – was held in December 1858, and the last, two months before he died in 1868.Rossini in 1865, by Étienne CarjatRossini's original grave monument, alt=funerary monumentRossini began composing again.", "His music from his final decade was not generally intended for public performance, and he did not usually put dates of composition on the manuscripts.", "Consequently, musicologists have found it difficult to give definite dates for his late works, but the first, or among the first, was the song cycle ''Musique anodine'', dedicated to his wife and presented to her in April 1857.For their weekly salons he produced more than 150 pieces, including songs, solo piano pieces, and chamber works for many different combinations of instruments.", "He referred to them as his ''Péchés de vieillesse'' – \"sins of old age\".", "The salons were held both at Beau Séjour – the Passy villa – and, in the winter, at the Paris flat.", "Such gatherings were a regular feature of Parisian life – the writer James Penrose has observed that the well-connected could easily attend different salons almost every night of the week – but the Rossinis' ''samedi soirs'' quickly became the most sought after: \"an invitation was the city's highest social prize.\"", "The music, carefully chosen by Rossini, was not only his own but included works by Pergolesi, Haydn and Mozart and modern pieces by some of his guests.", "Among the composers who attended the salons, and sometimes performed, were Auber, Gounod, Liszt, Rubinstein, Meyerbeer, and Verdi.", "Rossini liked to call himself a fourth-class pianist, but the many famous pianists who attended the ''samedi soirs'' were dazzled by his playing.", "Violinists such as Pablo Sarasate and Joseph Joachim and the leading singers of the day were regular guests.", "In 1860, Wagner visited Rossini via an introduction from Rossini's friend Edmond Michotte who some forty-five years later wrote his account of the genial conversation between the two composers.One of Rossini's few late works intended to be given in public was his ''Petite messe solennelle'', first performed in 1864.In the same year Rossini was made a grand officer of the Legion of Honour by Napoleon III.After a short illness, and an unsuccessful operation to treat colorectal cancer, Rossini died at Passy on 13 November 1868 at the age of seventy-six.", "He left Olympe a life interest in his estate, which after her death, ten years later, passed to the Commune of Pesaro for the establishment of a Liceo Musicale, and funded a home for retired opera singers in Paris.", "After a funeral service attended by more than four thousand people at the church of Sainte-Trinité, Paris, Rossini's body was interred at the Père Lachaise Cemetery.", "In 1887 his remains were moved to the basilica of Santa Croce, Florence." ], [ "Music", "===\"The Code Rossini\"===The writer Julian Budden, noting the formulas adopted early on by Rossini in his career and consistently followed by him thereafter as regards overtures, arias, structures and ensembles, has called them \"the Code Rossini\" in a reference to the Code Napoléon, the legal system established by the French Emperor.", "Rossini's overall style may indeed have been influenced more directly by the French: the historian John Rosselli suggests that French rule in Italy at the start of the 19th century meant that \"music had taken on new military qualities of attack, noise and speed – to be heard in Rossini.\"", "Rossini's approach to opera was inevitably tempered by changing tastes and audience demands.", "The formal \"classicist\" libretti of Metastasio which had underpinned late 18th century ''opera seria'' were replaced by subjects more to the taste of the age of Romanticism, with stories demanding stronger characterisation and quicker action; a jobbing composer needed to meet these demands or fail.", "Rossini's strategies met this reality.", "A formulaic approach was logistically indispensable for Rossini's career, at least at the start: in the seven years 1812–1819, he wrote 27 operas, often at extremely short notice.", "For ''La Cenerentola'' (1817), for example, he had just over three weeks to write the music before the première.Such pressures led to a further significant element of Rossini's compositional procedures, not included in Budden's \"Code\", namely, recycling.", "The composer often transferred a successful overture to subsequent operas: thus the overture to ''La pietra del paragone'' was later used for the ''opera seria'' ''Tancredi'' (1813), and (in the other direction) the overture to ''Aureliano in Palmira'' (1813) ended as (and is today known as) the overture to the comedy ''Il barbiere di Siviglia (The Barber of Seville)''.", "He also liberally re-employed arias and other sequences in later works.", "Spike Hughes notes that of the twenty-six numbers of ''Eduardo e Cristina'', produced in Venice in 1817, nineteen were lifted from previous works.", "\"The audience ... were remarkably good-humoured  ... and asked slyly why the libretto had been changed since the last performance\".", "Rossini expressed his disgust when the publisher Giovanni Ricordi issued a complete edition of his works in the 1850s: \"The same pieces will be found several times, for I thought I had the right to remove from my fiascos those pieces which seemed best, to rescue them from shipwreck ... A fiasco seemed to be good and dead, and now look they've resuscitated them all!", "\"====Overtures====Philip Gossett notes that Rossini \"was from the outset a consummate composer of overtures\".", "His basic formula for these remained constant throughout his career: Gossett characterises them as \"sonata movements without development sections, usually preceded by a slow introduction\" with \"clear melodies, exuberant rhythms and simple harmonic structure\" and a ''crescendo'' climax.", "Richard Taruskin also notes that the second theme is always announced in a woodwind solo, whose \"catchiness\" \"etches a distinct profile in the aural memory\", and that the richness and inventiveness of his handling of the orchestra, even in these early works, marks the start of \"the great nineteenth-century flowering of orchestration.", "\"====Arias====Extract from \"Di tanti palpiti\" (''Tancredi'')Rossini's handling of arias (and duets) in ''cavatina'' style marked a development from the eighteenth-century commonplace of recitative and aria.", "In the words of Rosselli, in Rossini's hands, \"the aria became an engine for releasing emotion\".", "Rossini's typical aria structure involved a lyrical introduction (''\"cantabile\"'') and a more intensive, brilliant, conclusion (''\"cabaletta\"'').", "This model could be adapted in various ways so as to forward the plot (as opposed to the typical eighteenth-century handling which resulted in the action coming to a halt as the requisite repeats of the ''da capo aria'' were undertaken).", "For example, they could be punctuated by comments from other characters (a convention known as ''\"pertichini\"''), or the chorus could intervene between the ''cantabile'' and the ''cabaletta'' so as to fire up the soloist.", "If such developments were not necessarily Rossini's own invention, he nevertheless made them his own by his expert handling of them.", "A landmark in this context is the ''cavatina'' ''\"Di tanti palpiti\"'' from ''Tancredi'', which both Taruskin and Gossett (amongst others) single out as transformative, \"the most famous aria Rossini ever wrote\", with a \"melody that seems to capture the melodic beauty and innocence characteristic of Italian opera.\"", "Both writers point out the typical Rossinian touch of avoiding an \"expected\" cadence in the aria by a sudden shift from the home key of F to that of A flat (see example); Taruskin notes the implicit pun, as the words talk of returning, but the music moves in a new direction.", "The influence was lasting; Gossett notes how the Rossinian ''cabaletta'' style continued to inform Italian opera as late as Giuseppe Verdi's ''Aida'' (1871).====Structure====Poster for a performance of ''Tancredi'' in Ferrara, 1813Such structural integration of the forms of vocal music with the dramatic development of the opera meant a sea-change from the Metastasian primacy of the aria; in Rossini's works, solo arias progressively take up a smaller proportion of the operas, in favour of duets (also typically in ''cantabile-caballetta'' format) and ensembles.During the late 18th century, creators of ''opera buffa'' had increasingly developed dramatic integration of the finales of each act.", "Finales began to \"spread backwards\", taking an ever larger proportion of the act, taking the structure of a musically continuous chain, accompanied throughout by orchestra, of a series of sections, each with its own characteristics of speed and style, mounting to a clamorous and vigorous final scene.", "In his comic operas Rossini brought this technique to its peak and extended its range far beyond his predecessors.", "Of the finale to the first act of ''L'italiana in Algeri'', Taruskin writes that \"running through almost a hundred pages of vocal score in record time, it is the most concentrated single dose of Rossini that there is.", "\"Of greater consequence for the history of opera was Rossini's ability to progress this technique in the genre of ''opera seria''.", "Gossett in a very detailed analysis of the first-act finale of ''Tancredi'' identifies several elements in Rossini's practice.", "These include the contrast of \"kinetic\" action sequences, often characterised by orchestral motifs, with \"static\" expressions of emotion, the final \"static\" section in the form of a caballetta, with all the characters joining in the final cadences.", "Gossett claims that it is \"from the time of ''Tancredi'' that the caballetta ... becomes the obligatory closing section of each musical unit in the operas of Rossini and his contemporaries.", "\"===Early works===With extremely few exceptions, all Rossini's compositions before the ''Péchés de vieillesse'' of his retirement involve the human voice.", "His very first surviving work (apart from a single song) is however a set of string sonatas for two violins, cello and double-bass, written at the age of 12 when he had barely begun instruction in composition.", "Tuneful and engaging, they indicate how remote the talented child was from the influence of the advances in musical form evolved by Mozart, Haydn and Beethoven; the accent is on cantabile melody, colour, variation and virtuosity rather than transformational development.", "These qualities are also evident in Rossini's early operas, especially his ''farse'' (one-act farces), rather than his more formal ''opere serie''.", "Gossett notes that these early works were written at a time when \"the deposited mantles of Cimarosa and Paisiello were unfilled\" – these were Rossini's first, and increasingly appreciated, steps in trying them on.", "The Teatro San Moisè in Venice, where his ''farse'' was first performed, and the La Scala Theatre of Milan which premiered his two-act opera ''La pietra del paragone'' (1812), were seeking works in that tradition; Gossett notes that in these operas \"Rossini's musical personality began to take shape ... many elements emerge that remain throughout his career\" including \"a love of sheer sound, of sharp and effective rhythms\".", "The unusual effect employed in the overture of ''Il signor Bruschino'', (1813) deploying violin bows tapping rhythms on music stands, is an example of such witty originality.===Italy, 1813–1823===Domenico Barbaja in Naples in the 1820sThe great success in Venice of the premieres of both ''Tancredi'' and the comic opera ''L'italiana in Algeri'' within a few weeks of each other (6 February 1813 and 22 May 1813 respectively) set the seal on Rossini's reputation as the rising opera composer of his generation.", "From the end of 1813 to mid-1814 he was in Milan creating two new operas for La Scala, ''Aureliano in Palmira'' and ''Il Turco in Italia''.", "Arsace in ''Aureliano'' was sung by the ''castrato'' Giambattista Velluti; this was the last opera role Rossini wrote for a ''castrato'' singer as the norm became to use contralto voices – another sign of change in operatic taste.", "Rumour had it that Rossini was displeased by Velluti's ornamentation of his music; but in fact throughout his Italian period, up to ''Semiramide'' (1823), Rossini's written vocal lines become increasingly florid, and this is more appropriately credited to the composer's own changing style.Rossini's work in Naples contributed to this stylistic development.", "The city, which was the cradle of the operas of Cimarosa and Paisiello, had been slow to acknowledge the composer from Pesaro, but Domenico Barbaia invited him in 1815 on a seven-year contract to manage his theatres and compose operas.", "For the first time, Rossini was able to work over a long period with a company of musicians and singers, including amongst the latter Isabella Colbran, Andrea Nozzari, Giovanni David and others, who as Gossett notes \"all specialized in florid singing\" and \"whose vocal talents left an indelible and not wholly positive mark on Rossini's style\".", "Rossini's first operas for Naples, ''Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra'' and ''La gazzetta'' were both largely recycled from earlier works, but ''Otello'' (1816) is marked not only by its virtuoso vocal lines but by its masterfully integrated last act, with its drama underlined by melody, orchestration and tonal colour; here, in Gossett's opinion \"Rossini came of age as a dramatic artist.\"", "He further comments:\"Il signor Tambourossini, ou la nouvelle mélodie\" (1821).", "Combining the composer's name with ''tambour'' (French for \"drum\"), this lithograph by the French artist Paul Delaroche makes clear the early Rossini's European reputation as a creator of noise, including a trumpet and drum accompanied by a magpie, several references to his early operas, and showing him and King Midas literally trampling on sheet-music and violins, while Apollo (the god of music) makes his escape in the background.By now, Rossini's career was arousing interest across Europe.", "Others came to Italy to study the revival of Italian opera and used its lessons to advance themselves; amongst these was the Berlin-born Giacomo Meyerbeer who arrived in Italy in 1816, a year after Rossini's establishment at Naples, and lived and worked there until following him to Paris in 1825; he used one of Rossini's librettists, Gaetano Rossi, for five of his seven Italian operas, which were produced at Turin, Venice and Milan.", "In a letter to his brother of September 1818, he includes a detailed critique of ''Otello'' from the point of view of a non-Italian informed observer.", "He is scathing about the self-borrowings in the first two acts, but concedes that the third act \"so firmly established Rossini's reputation in Venice that even a thousand follies could not rob him of it.", "But this act is divinely beautiful, and what is so strange is that its beauties ... are blatantly un-Rossinian: outstanding, even passionate recitatives, mysterious accompaniments, lots of local colour.", "\"Rossini's contract did not prevent him from undertaking other commissions, and before ''Otello, Il barbiere di Siviglia'', a grand culmination of the ''opera buffa'' tradition, had been premiered in Rome (February 1816).", "Richard Osborne catalogues its excellencies:Beyond the physical impact of ... Figaro's \"Largo al factotum\", there is Rossini's ear for vocal and instrumental timbres of a peculiar astringency and brilliance, his quick-witted word-setting, and his mastery of large musical forms with their often brilliant and explosive internal variations.", "Add to that what Verdi called the opera's \"abundance of true musical ideas\", and the reasons for the work's longer-term emergence as Rossini's most popular ''opera buffa'' are not hard to find.Apart from ''La Cenerentola'' (Rome, 1817), and the \"pen-and-ink sketch\" ''farsa'' ''Adina'' (1818, not performed until 1826), Rossini's other works during his contract with Naples were all in the ''opera seria'' tradition.", "Amongst the most notable of these, all containing virtuoso singing roles, were ''Mosè in Egitto'' (1818), ''La donna del lago'' (1819), ''Maometto II'' (1820) all staged in Naples, and ''Semiramide'', his last opera written for Italy, staged at La Fenice in Venice in 1823.The three versions of the opera semiseria ''Matilde di Shabran'' were written in 1821/1822.Both ''Mosè'' and ''Maometto II'' were later to undergo significant reconstruction in Paris (see below).===France, 1824–1829===Extract from Rossini's ''Moïse'' published in ''Le Globe'', 31 March 1827, in an article by Ludovic Vitet Already in 1818, Meyerbeer had heard rumours that Rossini was seeking a lucrative appointment at the Paris Opera – \"Should his proposals be accepted, he will go to the French capital, and we will perhaps experience curious things.\"", "Some six years were to pass before this prophecy came true.In 1824 Rossini, under a contract with the French government, became director of the Théâtre-Italien in Paris, where he introduced Meyerbeer's opera ''Il crociato in Egitto'', and for which he wrote ''Il viaggio a Reims'' to celebrate the coronation of Charles X (1825).", "This was his last opera to an Italian libretto, and was later cannibalised to create his first French opera, ''Le comte Ory'' (1828).", "A new contract in 1826 meant he could concentrate on productions at the Opéra and to this end he substantially revised ''Maometto II'' as ''Le siège de Corinthe'' (1826) and ''Mosé'' as ''Moïse et Pharaon'' (1827).", "Meeting French taste, the works are extended (each by one act), the vocal lines in the revisions are less florid and the dramatic structure is enhanced, with the proportion of arias reduced.", "One of the most striking additions was the chorus at the end of Act III of ''Moïse'', with a ''crescendo'' repetition of a diatonic ascending bass line, rising first by a minor third, then by a major third, at each appearance, and a descending chromatic top line, which roused the excitement of audiences.Rossini's government contract required him to create at least one new ''\"grand opėra\"'', and Rossini settled on the story of William Tell, working closely with the librettist Étienne de Jouy.", "The story in particular enabled him to indulge \"an underlying interest in the related genres of folk music, pastoral and the picturesque\".", "This becomes clear from the overture, which is explicitly programmatic in describing weather, scenery and action, and presents a version of the ''Ranz des Vaches'', the Swiss cowherd's call, which \"undergoes a number of transformations during the opera\" and gives it in Richard Osborne's opinion \"something of the character of a leitmotif\".", "In the opinion of the music historian Benjamin Walton, Rossini \"saturates the work with local colour to such a degree that there is room for little else.\"", "Thus, the role of the soloists is significantly reduced compared to other Rossini operas, the hero not even having an aria of his own, whilst the chorus of the Swiss people is consistently in the musical and dramatic foregrounds.Guillaume Tell'', with Laure Cinti-Damoreau as Mathilde, Adolphe Nourrit as Arnold Melchtal, and Nicolas Levasseur as Walter Furst''Guillaume Tell'' premiered in August 1829.Rossini also provided for the Opéra a shorter, three-act version, which incorporated the ''pas redoublé'' (quick march) final section of the overture in its finale; it was first performed in 1831 and became the basis of the Opéra's future productions.", "''Tell'' was very successful from the start and was frequently revived – in 1868 the composer was present at its 500th performance at the Opéra.", "The ''Globe'' had reported enthusiastically at its opening that \"a new epoch has opened not only for French opera, but for dramatic music elsewhere\".", "This was an era, it transpired, in which Rossini was not to participate.===Withdrawal, 1830–1868===Robert Bruce'' (1846)|alt=A painting of a stage setting based on the ramparts of Sterling Castle in the Late Middle Ages.Rossini's contract required him to provide five new works for the Opéra over 10 years.", "After the première of ''Tell'' he was already considering some opera subjects, including Goethe's ''Faust'', but the only significant works he completed before abandoning Paris in 1836 were the Stabat Mater, written for a private commission in 1831 (later completed and published in 1841), and the collection of salon vocal music ''Soirées musicales'' published in 1835.Living in Bologna, he occupied himself teaching singing at the Liceo Musicale, and also created a ''pasticcio'' of ''Tell'', ''Rodolfo di Sterlinga'', for the benefit of the singer , for which Giuseppe Verdi provided some new arias.", "Continuing demand in Paris resulted in the production of a \"new\" French version of ''Otello'' in 1844 (with which Rossini was not involved) and a \"new\" opera ''Robert Bruce'' for which Rossini cooperated with Louis Niedermeyer and others to recast music for ''La donna del lago'' and others of his works which were little-known in Paris to fit a new libretto.", "The success of both of these was qualified, to say the least.Not until Rossini returned to Paris in 1855 were there signs of a revival of his musical spirits.", "A stream of pieces, for voices, choir, piano, and chamber ensembles, written for his soirées, the ''Péchés de vieillesse (Sins of old age)'' were issued in thirteen volumes from 1857 to 1868; of these, volumes 4 to 8 comprise \"56 semi-comical piano pieces .... dedicated to pianists of the fourth class, to which I have the honour of belonging.\"", "These include a mock funeral march, ''Marche et reminiscences pour mon dernier voyage (March and reminiscences for my last journey).''", "Gossett writes of the ''Péchés'' \"Their historical position remains to be assessed but it seems likely that their effect, direct or indirect, on composers like Camille Saint-Saëns and Erik Satie was significant.", "\"The most substantial work of Rossini's last decade, the ''Petite messe solennelle'' (1863), was written for small forces (originally voices, two pianos and harmonium), and therefore unsuited to concert hall performance; and as it included women's voices it was unacceptable for church performances at the time.", "For these reasons, Richard Osborne suggests, the piece has been somewhat overlooked among Rossini's compositions.", "It is neither especially ''petite'' (little) nor entirely ''solennelle'' (solemn), but is notable for its grace, counterpoint and melody.", "At the end of the manuscript, the composer wrote: Dear God, here it is finished, this poor little Mass.", "Is it sacred music I have written, or damned music?", "I was born for opera buffa, as you know well.", "A little technique, a little heart, that's all.", "Be blessed then, and grant me Paradise." ], [ "Influence and legacy", "Rossini's final resting place, in the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence; sculpture by Giuseppe Cassioli (1900)The popularity of Rossini's melodies led many contemporary virtuosi to create piano transcriptions or fantasies based on them.", "Examples include Sigismond Thalberg's fantasy on themes from ''Moïse'', the sets of variations on \"Non più mesta\" from ''La Cenerentola'' by Henri Herz, Frédéric Chopin, Franz Hünten, Anton Diabelli and Friedrich Burgmüller, and Liszt's transcriptions of the ''William Tell'' overture (1838) and the ''Soirées musicales''.The continuing popularity of his comic operas (and the decline in staging his ''opere serie''), the overthrow of the singing and staging styles of his period, and the emerging concept of the composer as a \"creative artist\" rather than a craftsman, diminished and distorted Rossini's place in music history even though the forms of Italian opera continued up to the period of verismo to be indebted to his innovations.", "Rossini's status amongst his contemporary Italian composers is indicated by the ''Messa per Rossini'', a project initiated by Verdi within a few days of Rossini's death, which he and a dozen other composers created in collaboration.If Rossini's principal legacy to Italian opera was in vocal forms and dramatic structure for serious opera, his legacy to French opera was to provide a bridge from opera buffa to the development of ''opéra comique'' (and thence, via Jacques Offenbach's ''opéras bouffes'' to the genre of operetta).", "''Opéras comiques'' showing a debt to Rossini's style include François-Adrien Boieldieu's ''La dame blanche'' (1825) and Daniel Auber's ''Fra Diavolo'' (1830), as well as works by Ferdinand Hérold, Adolphe Adam and Fromental Halévy.", "Critical of Rossini's style was Hector Berlioz, who wrote of his \"melodic cynicism, his contempt for dramatic and good sense, his endless repetition of a single form of cadence, his eternal puerile crescendo and his brutal bass drum\".It was perhaps inevitable that the formidable reputation which Rossini had built in his lifetime would fade thereafter.", "In 1886, less than twenty years after the composer's death, Bernard Shaw wrote: \"The once universal Rossini, whose ''Semiramide'' appeared to our greener grandfathers a Ninevesque wonder, came at last to be no longer looked upon as a serious musician.\"", "In an 1877 review of ''Il barbiere'', he noted that Adelina Patti sang as an encore in the lesson scene \"Home, Sweet Home\" but that \"the opera proved so intolerably wearisome that some of her audience had already displayed their appreciation of the sentiment of the ballad in the most practical way.", "\"In the early 20th century Rossini received tributes from both Ottorino Respighi, who had orchestrated excerpts from the ''Péchés de viellesse'' both in his ballet ''la boutique fantasque'' (1918) and in his 1925 suite ''Rossiniana'', and from Benjamin Britten, who adapted music by Rossini for two suites, ''Soirées musicales'' (Op.", "9) in 1937 and ''Matinées musicales'' (Op.", "24) in 1941.Richard Osborne singles out the three-volume biography of Rossini by Giuseppe Radiciotti (1927–1929) as an important turning point towards positive appreciation, which may also have been assisted by the trend of neoclassicism in music.", "A firm re-evaluation of Rossini's significance began only later in the 20th century in the light of study, and the creation of critical editions, of his works.", "A prime mover in these developments was the \"Fondazione G. Rossini\" which was created by the city of Pesaro in 1940 using the funds which had been left to the city by the composer.", "Since 1980 the \"Fondazione\" has supported the annual Rossini Opera Festival in Pesaro.In the 21st century, the Rossini repertoire of opera houses around the world remains dominated by ''Il barbiere'', ''La Cenerentola'' being the second most popular.", "Several other operas are regularly produced, including ''Le comte Ory'', ''La donna del lago'', ''La gazza ladra'', ''Guillaume Tell'', ''L'italiana in Algeri'', ''La scala di seta'', ''Il turco in Italia'' and ''Il viaggio a Reims''.", "Other Rossini pieces in the current international repertory, given from time to time, include ''Adina'', ''Armida'', ''Elisabetta regina d'Inghilterra'', ''Ermione'', ''Mosé in Egitto'' and ''Tancredi''.", "The Rossini in Wildbad festival specialises in producing the rarer works.", "The Operabase performance-listing website records 2,319 performances of 532 productions of Rossini operas in 255 venues across the world in the three years 2017–2019.All of Rossini's operas have been recorded." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Books===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Journals and articles===* * * * * * * * * * ===Newspapers===* * ===Liner notes===* * * * * ===Web===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Fondazione Gioachino Rossini, Pesaro * The Center for Italian Opera Studies: Rossini critical edition* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gibberish" ], [ "Introduction", "''Lorem ipsum'' is a placeholder text to use test.", "It is considered as gibberish.", "'''Gibberish''', also called '''jibber-jabber''' or '''gobbledygook''', is speech that is (or appears to be) nonsense: ranging across speech sounds that are not actual words, pseudowords, language games and specialized jargon that seems nonsensical to outsiders.", "\"Gibberish\" is also used as an imprecation to denigrate or tar ideas or opinions the user disagrees with or finds irksome, a rough equivalent of \"nonsense\", \"folderol\", \"balderdash\", or \"claptrap\".", "The implication is that the criticized expression or proposition lacks substance or congruence, as opposed to being a differing view.The related word ''jibber-jabber'' refers to rapid talk that is difficult to understand." ], [ "Etymology", "The etymology of ''gibberish'' is uncertain.", "The term was first seen in English in the early 16th century.", "It is generally thought to be an onomatopoeia imitative of speech, similar to the words ''jabber'' (to talk rapidly) and ''gibber'' (to speak inarticulately).It may originate from the word ''jib'', which is the Angloromani variant of the Romani language word meaning \"language\" or \"tongue\".", "To non-speakers, the Anglo-Romany dialect could sound like English mixed with nonsense words, and if those seemingly nonsensical words are referred to as ''jib'' then the term ''gibberish'' could be derived as a descriptor for nonsensical speech.Samuel Johnson, in ''A Dictionary of the English Language'', published in 1755, wrote that the word gibberish \"is probably derived from the chymical cant, and originally implied the jargon of Geber and his tribe.\"", "The theory was that ''gibberish'' came from the name of a famous 8th century Muslim alchemist, Jābir ibn Hayyān, whose name was Latinized as ''Geber''.", "Thus, ''gibberish'' was a reference to the incomprehensible technical jargon and allegorical coded language used by Jabir and other alchemists.", "After 1818, editors of Johnson's Dictionary rejected that origin theory.A discredited alternative theory asserts that it is derived from the Irish word ''gob'' or ''gab'' (\"mouth\") or from the Irish phrase ''Geab ar ais'' (\"back talk, backward chat\").", "The latter Irish etymology was suggested by Daniel Cassidy, whose work has been criticised by linguists and scholars.", "The terms ''geab'' and ''geabaire'' are certainly Irish words, but the phrase ''geab ar ais'' does not exist, and the word ''gibberish'' exists as a loan-word in Irish as ''gibiris''.The term ''gobbledygook'' was coined by Maury Maverick, a former congressman from Texas and former mayor of San Antonio.", "When Maverick was chairman of the Smaller War Plants Corporation during World War II, he sent a memorandum that said: \"Be short and use plain English.", "... Stay off gobbledygook language.\"", "Maverick defined ''gobbledygook'' as \"talk or writing which is long, pompous, vague, involved, usually with Latinized words.\"", "The allusion was to a turkey, \"always gobbledygobbling and strutting with ridiculous pomposity.\"" ], [ "Use", "===Gobbledygook===The term \"gobbledygook\" has a long history of use in politics to deride deliberately obscure statements and complicated but ineffective explanations.", "The following are a few examples:* Nixon's Oval Office tape from June 14, 1971, showed H. R. Haldeman describing a situation to Nixon as \"... a bunch of gobbledygook.", "But out of the gobbledygook comes a very clear thing: You can't trust the government; you can't believe what they say.", "\"* President Ronald Reagan explained tax law revisions in an address to the nation with the word, May 28, 1985, saying that \"most didn’t improve the system; they made it more like Washington itself: Complicated, unfair, cluttered with gobbledygook and loopholes, designed for those with the power and influence to hire high-priced legal and tax advisers.", "\"* United States Supreme Court justice John Roberts dismissed quantitative sociological reasoning as \"gobbledygook\" in 2017, when arguing against using any mathematical test for gerrymandering.", "* Michael Shanks, former chairman to the National Consumer Council of Great Britain, characterized professional gobbledygook as sloppy jargon intended to confuse nonspecialists: \"'Gobbledygook' may indicate a failure to think clearly, a contempt for one's clients, or more probably a mixture of both.", "A system that can't or won't communicate is not a safe basis for a democracy.", "\"===In acting===Using gibberish whilst acting can be used as an improvisation exercise in theatre arts education.", "===In song===The Italian musical artist Adriano Celentano wrote and performed the song \"Prisencolinensinainciusol\" in gibberish as an intentional mimic of the sound of English to those who are not fluent in the language." ], [ "Other terms and usage", "The terms ''officialese'' or ''bureaucratese'' refer to language used by officials or authorities.", "''Legalese'' is a closely related concept, referring to language used by lawyers, legislators, and others involved with the law.", "The language used in these fields may contain complex sentences and specialized jargon or buzzwords, making it difficult for those outside the field to understand.", "Speakers or writers of officialese or legalese may recognize that it is confusing or even meaningless to outsiders, but view its use as appropriate within their organization or group.Bafflegab is a synonym, a slang term referring to confusing or a generally unintelligible use of jargon." ], [ "See also", "* Babbling* Code-switching* Double-talk* Glossolalia* Grammelot* Jargon* Minionese* Mumbo jumbo (phrase)* Nonsense* Nonsense word* Pig Latin* Prisencolinensinainciusol* Onomatopoeia* Lorem ipsum* Scat singing* Simlish* SMOG* Spin (propaganda)* Stanley Unwin (comedian)* Technobabble* Walla* Word salad" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* A statistical gibberish generator based on Markov chains* The Online Dictionary of Language Terminology* Gibberish - World Wide Words" ] ]
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[ [ "Gnaeus Julius Agricola" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gnaeus Julius Agricola''' (; 13 June 40 – 23 August 93) was a Roman general and politician responsible for much of the Roman conquest of Britain.", "Born to a political family of senatorial rank, Agricola began his military career as a military tribune under Governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus.", "In his subsequent career, he served in a variety of political positions in Rome.", "In 64, he was appointed quaestor in Asia province.", "Two years later, he was appointed Plebeian Tribune, and in 68, he was made praetor.", "During the Year of the Four Emperors in 69, he supported Vespasian, general of the Syrian army, in his bid for the throne.When Vespasian became emperor, Agricola was made a patrician and appointed governor of Gallia Aquitania.", "In 77, he was made consul and governor of Britannia.", "As governor, he completed the conquest of what is today Wales and northern England, and led his army to the far north of Scotland, establishing forts across much of the lowlands.", "In 85, Agricola was recalled from Britain after an unusually lengthy service by Emperor Domitian.", "After his return, he retired from military and public life and died in 93.Most of what is known about Agricola and his governorship was written in the ''De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae'', a primary source, written by Tacitus, Agricola's son-in-law, and detailed archaeological evidence from northern Britain." ], [ "Early life", "Agricola was born in the ''colonia'' of Forum Julii, Gallia Narbonensis (now Fréjus, France).", "Agricola's parents were from noted political families of senatorial rank in Roman Gaul.", "Both of his grandfathers served as imperial governors.", "His father, Lucius Julius Graecinus, was a ''praetor'' and had become a member of the Roman Senate in the year of Agricola's birth.", "Graecinus had become distinguished by his interest in philosophy.", "Between August 40 and January 41, the emperor Caligula ordered his death, because he refused to prosecute the emperor's second cousin Marcus Junius Silanus.His mother was Julia Procilla.", "The Roman historian Tacitus describes her as \"a lady of singular virtue\" who had a fond affection for her son.", "Agricola was educated in Massilia (Marseille), and showed what was considered an unhealthy interest in philosophy." ], [ "Political career", "He began his career in Roman public life as a military tribune, he served in Britain under Gaius Suetonius Paulinus from 58 to 62.He was probably attached to the ''Legio II Augusta'', but was chosen to serve on Suetonius's staff and thus almost certainly participated in the suppression of Boudica's uprising in 61.Returning from Britain to Rome in 62, he married Domitia Decidiana, a woman of noble birth.", "Their first child was a son.", "Agricola was appointed as ''quaestor'' in 64, which he served in the province of Asia under the corrupt proconsul Lucius Salvius Otho Titianus.", "While he was there, his daughter, Julia Agricola, was born, but his son died shortly afterwards.", "He was tribune of the plebs in 66 and ''praetor'' in June 68, during which time he was ordered by the Governor of Spain Galba to take an inventory of the temple treasures.During that time, the emperor Nero was declared a public enemy by the Senate and committed suicide, and the period of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors began.", "Galba succeeded Nero, but was murdered in early 69 by Otho, who took the throne.", "Agricola's mother was murdered on her estate in Liguria by Otho's marauding fleet.", "Hearing of Vespasian's bid for the empire, Agricola immediately gave him his support.", "Otho meanwhile committed suicide after being defeated by Vitellius.After Vespasian had established himself as emperor, Agricola was appointed to the command of the ''Legio XX Valeria Victrix'', stationed in Britain, in place of Marcus Roscius Coelius, who had stirred up a mutiny against the governor, Marcus Vettius Bolanus.", "Britain had revolted during the year of civil war, and Bolanus was a mild governor.", "Agricola reimposed discipline on the legion and helped to consolidate Roman rule.", "In 71, Bolanus was replaced by a more aggressive governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis, and Agricola was able to display his talents as a commander in campaigns against the Brigantes in northern England.When his command ended in 73, Agricola was enrolled as a patrician and appointed to govern Gallia Aquitania.", "There he stayed for almost three years.", "In 76 or 77, he was recalled to Rome and appointed suffect consul, and betrothed his daughter to Tacitus.", "The following year, Tacitus and Julia married; Agricola was appointed to the College of Pontiffs, and returned to Britain for a third time, as its governor (''Legatus Augusti pro praetore'')." ], [ "Governor of Britain", "201pxArriving in midsummer of 77, Agricola discovered that the Ordovices of north Wales had virtually destroyed the Roman cavalry stationed in their territory.", "He immediately moved against them and defeated them.", "His campaign then moved onto Anglesey where he subjugated the entire island.", "Almost two decades earlier, Governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus had attempted the same but Roman forces had to withdraw in 60CE because of the outbreak of the Boudican rebellion.", "Agricola also expanded Roman rule north into Caledonia (modern Scotland).", "In the summer of 79, he pushed his armies to the estuary of the river Taus, usually interpreted as the Firth of Tay, virtually unchallenged, and established some forts.", "Though their location is left unspecified, the close dating of the fort at Elginhaugh in Midlothian makes it a possible candidate.", "He established himself as a good administrator by reforming the widely corrupt corn levy as well as through his military successes.", "He introduced Romanising measures, encouraging communities to build towns on the Roman model and gave a Roman education to sons of native nobility; albeit, as Tacitus notes, for the cynical reason of pacifying the aggressive tribes in Britannia for the servitude of Rome.=== Hibernia===In 81, Agricola \"crossed in the first ship\" and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then.", "Tacitus, in Chapter 24 of ''Agricola'', does not tell us what body of water he crossed.", "Modern scholarship favours either the Firth of Clyde or Firth of Forth.", "Tacitus also mentions Hibernia, so southwest Scotland is perhaps to be preferred.", "The text of the ''Agricola'' has been amended here to record the Romans \"crossing into trackless wastes\", referring to the wilds of the Galloway peninsula.", "Agricola fortified the coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and auxiliaries.", "He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest.", "This conquest never happened, but some historians believe the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland, though no Roman camps have been identified to confirm such a suggestion.Irish legend provides a striking parallel.", "Tuathal Teachtmhar, a legendary High King, is said to have been exiled from Ireland as a boy, and to have returned from Britain at the head of an army to claim the throne.", "The traditional date of his return is between 76 and 80, and archaeology has found Roman or Romano-British artefacts in several sites associated with Tuathal.===The invasion of Caledonia (Scotland)===200pxAgricola among Roman generals and emperors in this frieze from the Great Hall of the National Galleries Scotland by William Brassey Hole 1897The following year, Agricola raised a fleet and encircled the tribes beyond the Forth, and the Caledonians rose in great numbers against him.", "They attacked the camp of the ''Legio IX Hispana'' at night, but Agricola sent in his cavalry and they were put to flight.", "The Romans responded by pushing further north.", "Another son was born to Agricola this year, but died before his first birthday.In the summer of 83, Agricola faced the massed armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius.", "Tacitus estimates their numbers at more than 30,000.Agricola put his auxiliaries in the front line, keeping the legions in reserve, and relied on close-quarters fighting to make the Caledonians' unpointed slashing swords useless as they were unable to swing them properly or utilise thrusting attacks.", "Even though the Caledonians were put to rout and therefore lost this battle, two thirds of their army managed to escape and hide in the Highlands or the \"trackless wilds\" as Tacitus calls them.", "Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be about 10,000 on the Caledonian side and 360 on the Roman side.A number of authors have reckoned the battle to have occurred in the Grampian Mounth within sight of the North Sea.", "In particular, Roy, Surenne, Watt, Hogan and others have advanced notions that the site of the battle may have been Kempstone Hill, Megray Hill or other knolls near the Raedykes Roman camp; these points of high ground are proximate to the Elsick Mounth, an ancient trackway used by Romans and Caledonians for military manoeuvres.", "However, following the discovery of the Roman camp at Durno in 1975, most scholars now believe that the battle took place on the ground around Bennachie in Aberdeenshire.Satisfied with his victory, Agricola extracted hostages from the Caledonian tribes.", "He may have marched his army to the northern coast of Britain, as evidenced by the probable discovery of a Roman fort at Cawdor (near Inverness).He also instructed the prefect of the fleet to sail around the north coast, confirming (allegedly for the first time) that Britain was in fact an island.=== Findings ===In 2019, GUARD Archaeology team led by Iraia Arabaolaza uncovered a marching camp dating to the 1st century AD in Ayr, used by Roman legions during the invasion of Roman General Agricola.", "According to Arabaolaza, the fire pits were split 30 meters apart into two parallel lines.", "The findings also included clay-domed ovens and 26 fire pits dated to between 77- 86 AD and 90 AD loaded with burn and charcoal contents.", "Archaeologists suggested that this site had been chosen as a strategic location for the Roman conquest of Ayrshire." ], [ "Later years", "Agricola was recalled from Britain in 85, after an unusually long tenure as governor.", "Tacitus claims Domitian ordered his recall because Agricola's successes outshone the emperor's own modest victories in Germany.", "He re-entered Rome unobtrusively, reporting as ordered to the palace at night.", "The relationship between Agricola and the emperor is unclear; on the one hand, Agricola was awarded triumphal decorations and a statue (the highest military honours apart from an actual triumph); on the other, Agricola never again held a civil or military post, in spite of his experience and renown.", "He was offered the governorship of the province of Africa, but declined it, whether due to ill health or (as Tacitus claims) the machinations of Domitian.In 93, Agricola died on his family estates in Gallia Narbonensis aged fifty-three.", "Rumours circulated attributing the death to a poison administered by the emperor Domitian, but no positive evidence for this was ever produced." ], [ "See also", "* Cawdor (Roman fort)* History of Northumberland" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Anthony Birley (1996), “Iulius Agricola, Cn.”, in Hornblower, Simon, ''Oxford Classical Dictionary'', Oxford: Oxford University Press* Duncan B Campbell, ''Mons Graupius AD 83'', Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2010.96pp.", "* \"Agricola's Campaigns\", special issue of ''Ancient Warfare'', 1/1 (2007)* Wolfson, Stan.", "''Tacitus, Thule and Caledonia: the achievements of Agricola's navy in their true perspective''.", "Oxford, England: Archaeopress, 2008.118pp.", "(BAR British series; 459)." ], [ "External links", "* Gnaeus Julius Agricola at the Roman-Britain.co.uk * Germania and Agricola at Project Gutenberg* Agricola at Dickinson College Commentaries - Latin text with notes and vocabulary" ] ]
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[ [ "Guanosine" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Guanosine''' (symbol '''G''' or '''Guo''') is a purine nucleoside comprising guanine attached to a ribose (ribofuranose) ring via a β-N9-glycosidic bond.", "Guanosine can be phosphorylated to become guanosine monophosphate (GMP), cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), guanosine diphosphate (GDP), and guanosine triphosphate (GTP).", "These forms play important roles in various biochemical processes such as synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins, photosynthesis, muscle contraction, and intracellular signal transduction (cGMP).", "When guanine is attached by its N9 nitrogen to the C1 carbon of a deoxyribose ring it is known as deoxyguanosine." ], [ "Physical and chemical properties", "Guanosine is a white, crystalline powder with no odor and mild saline taste.It is very soluble in acetic acid, slightly soluble in water, insoluble in ethanol, diethyl ether, benzene and chloroform." ], [ "Functions", "Guanosine is required for an RNA splicing reaction in mRNA, when a \"self-splicing\" intron removes itself from the mRNA message by cutting at both ends, re-ligating, and leaving just the exons on either side to be translated into protein.Guanosine with numbered carbons" ], [ "Uses", "The antiviral drug acyclovir, often used in herpes treatment, and the anti-HIV drug abacavir, are structurally similar to guanosine.", "Guanosine was also used to make regadenoson." ], [ "Sources", "Guanosine can be found in pancreas, clover, coffee plant, and pollen of pines." ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Gödel's ontological proof" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gödel's ontological proof''' is a formal argument by the mathematician Kurt Gödel (1906–1978) for the existence of God.", "The argument is in a line of development that goes back to Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109).", "St. Anselm's ontological argument, in its most succinct form, is as follows: \"God, by definition, is that for which no greater can be conceived.", "God exists in the understanding.", "If God exists in the understanding, we could imagine Him to be greater by existing in reality.", "Therefore, God must exist.\"", "A more elaborate version was given by Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716); this is the version that Gödel studied and attempted to clarify with his ontological argument.Gödel left a fourteen-point outline of his philosophical beliefs in his papers.", "Points relevant to the ontological proof include::4.There are other worlds and rational beings of a different and higher kind.", ":5.The world in which we live is not the only one in which we shall live or have lived.", ":13.There is a scientific (exact) philosophy and theology, which deals with concepts of the highest abstractness; and this is also most highly fruitful for science.", ":14.Religions are, for the most part, bad—but religion is not." ], [ "History", "The first version of the ontological proof in Gödel's papers is dated \"around 1941\".", "Gödel is not known to have told anyone about his work on the proof until 1970, when he thought he was dying.", "In February, he allowed Dana Scott to copy out a version of the proof, which circulated privately.", "In August 1970, Gödel told Oskar Morgenstern that he was \"satisfied\" with the proof, but Morgenstern recorded in his diary entry for 29 August 1970, that Gödel would not publish because he was afraid that others might think \"that he actually believes in God, whereas he is only engaged in a logical investigation (that is, in showing that such a proof with classical assumptions (completeness, etc.)", "correspondingly axiomatized, is possible).\"", "Gödel died January 14, 1978.Another version, slightly different from Scott's, was found in his papers.", "It was finally published, together with Scott's version, in 1987.In letters to his mother, who was not a churchgoer and had raised Kurt and his brother as freethinkers, Gödel argued at length for a belief in an afterlife.", "He did the same in an interview with a skeptical Hao Wang, who said: \"I expressed my doubts as G spoke ... Gödel smiled as he replied to my questions, obviously aware that his answers were not convincing me.\"", "Wang reports that Gödel's wife, Adele, two days after Gödel's death, told Wang that \"Gödel, although he did not go to church, was religious and read the Bible in bed every Sunday morning.\"", "In an unmailed answer to a questionnaire, Gödel described his religion as \"baptized Lutheran (but not member of any religious congregation).", "My belief is ''theistic'', not pantheistic, following Leibniz rather than Spinoza.\"" ], [ "Outline", "The proof uses modal logic, which distinguishes between ''necessary'' truths and ''contingent'' truths.", "In the most common semantics for modal logic, many \"possible worlds\" are considered.", "A truth is ''necessary'' if it is true in all possible worlds.", "By contrast, if a statement happens to be true in our world, but is false in another world, then it is a ''contingent'' truth.", "A statement that is true in some world (not necessarily our own) is called a ''possible'' truth.Furthermore, the proof uses higher-order (modal) logic because the definition of God employs an explicit quantification over properties.First, Gödel axiomatizes the notion of a \"positive property\": for each property ''φ'', either ''φ'' or its negation ¬''φ'' must be positive, but not both (axiom 2).", "If a positive property ''φ'' implies a property ''ψ'' in each possible world, then ''ψ'' is positive, too (axiom 1).", "Gödel then argues that each positive property is \"possibly exemplified\", i.e.", "applies at least to some object in some world (theorem 1).", "Defining an object to be Godlike if it has all positive properties (definition 1), and requiring that property to be positive itself (axiom 3), Gödel shows that in ''some'' possible world a Godlike object exists (theorem 2), called \"God\" in the following.", "Gödel proceeds to prove that a Godlike object exists in ''every'' possible world.To this end, he defines ''essences'': if ''x'' is an object in some world, then a property ''φ'' is said to be an essence of ''x'' if ''φ''(''x'') is true in that world and if ''φ'' necessarily entails all other properties that ''x'' has in that world (definition 2).", "Requiring positive properties being positive in every possible world (axiom 4), Gödel can show that Godlikeness is an essence of a Godlike object (theorem 3).", "Now, ''x'' is said to ''exist necessarily'' if, for every essence ''φ'' of ''x'', there is an element ''y'' with property ''φ'' in every possible world (definition 3).", "Axiom 5 requires necessary existence to be a positive property.Hence, it must follow from Godlikeness.", "Moreover, Godlikeness is an essence of God, since it entails all positive properties, and any non-positive property is the negation of some positive property, so God cannot have any non-positive properties.", "Since necessary existence is also a positive property (axiom 5), it must be a property of every Godlike object, as every Godlike object has all the positive properties (definition 1).", "Since any Godlike object is necessarily existent, it follows that any Godlike object in one world is a Godlike object in all worlds, by the definition of necessary existence.", "Given the existence of a Godlike object in one world, proven above, we may conclude that there is a Godlike object in every possible world, as required (theorem 4).", "Besides axiom 1-5 and definition 1-3, a few other axioms from modal logic were tacitly used in the proof.From these hypotheses, it is also possible to prove that there is only one God in each world by Leibniz's law, the identity of indiscernibles: two or more objects are identical (the same) if they have all their properties in common, and so, there would only be one object in each world that possesses property G. Gödel did not attempt to do so however, as he purposely limited his proof to the issue of existence, rather than uniqueness.===Symbolic notation===" ], [ "Criticism", "Most criticism of Gödel's proof is aimed at its axioms: as with any proof in any logical system, if the axioms the proof depends on are doubted, then the conclusions can be doubted.", "It is particularly applicable to Gödel's proof – because it rests on five axioms, some of which are considered questionable.", "A proof does not necessitate that the conclusion be correct, but rather that by accepting the axioms, the conclusion follows logically.Many philosophers have called the axioms into question.", "The first layer of criticism is simply that there are no arguments presented that give reasons why the axioms are true.", "A second layer is that these particular axioms lead to unwelcome conclusions.", "This line of thought was argued by Jordan Howard Sobel, showing that if the axioms are accepted, they lead to a \"modal collapse\" where every statement that is true is necessarily true, i.e.", "the sets of necessary, of contingent, and of possible truths all coincide (provided there are accessible worlds at all).", "According to Robert Koons, Sobel suggested in a 2005 conference paper that Gödel might have welcomed modal collapse.There are suggested amendments to the proof, presented by C. Anthony Anderson, but argued to be refutable by Anderson and Michael Gettings.", "Sobel's proof of modal collapse has been questioned by Koons, but a counter-defence by Sobel has been given.Gödel's proof has also been questioned by Graham Oppy, asking whether many other almost-gods would also be \"proven\" through Gödel's axioms.", "This counter-argument has been questioned by Gettings, who agrees that the axioms might be questioned, but disagrees that Oppy's particular counter-example can be shown from Gödel's axioms.Religious scholar Fr.", "Robert J. Spitzer accepted Gödel's proof, calling it \"an improvement over the Anselmian Ontological Argument (which does not work).", "\"There are, however, many more criticisms, most focusing on the question of whether these axioms must be rejected to avoid odd conclusions.", "The broader criticism is that even if the axioms cannot be shown to be false, that does not mean that they are true.", "Hilbert's famous remark about interchangeability of the primitives' names applies to those in Gödel's ontological axioms (\"positive\", \"god-like\", \"essence\") as well as to those in Hilbert's geometry axioms (\"point\", \"line\", \"plane\").", "According to André Fuhrmann (2005) it remains to show that the dazzling notion prescribed by traditions and often believed to be essentially mysterious satisfies Gödel's axioms.", "This is not a mathematical, but a theological task.", "It is this task which decides which religion's god has been proven to exist." ], [ "Computer-verified versions", "Christoph Benzmüller and Bruno Woltzenlogel-Paleo formalized Gödel's proof to a level that is suitable for automated theorem proving or at least computer verification via proof assistants.", "The effort made headlines in German newspapers.", "According to the authors of this effort, they were inspired by Melvin Fitting's book.In 2014, they computer-verified Gödel's proof (in the above version).", "They also proved that this version's axioms are consistent, but imply modal collapse, thus confirming Sobel's 1987 argument.", "In the same paper, they suspected Gödel's original version of the axioms to be inconsistent, as they failed to prove their consistency.In 2016, they gave a computer proof that the original version implies , i.e., is inconsistent in every modal logic with a reflexive or symmetric accessibility relation.", "Moreover, they gave an argument that this version is inconsistent in every logic at all, but failed to duplicate it by automated provers.", "However, they were able to verify Melvin Fitting's reformulation of the argument and guarantee its consistency." ], [ "In literature", "A humorous variant of Gödel's ontological proof is mentioned in Quentin Canterel's novel ''The Jolly Coroner''.The proof is also mentioned in the TV series ''Hand of God''.Jeffrey Kegler's 2007 novel ''The God Proof'' depicts the (fictional) rediscovery of Gödel's lost notebook about the ontological proof." ], [ "See also", "* Existence of God* Philosophy of religion* Theism* Ontological argument" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Frode Alfson Bjørdal, \"Understanding Gödel's Ontological Argument\", in T. Childers (ed.", "), ''The Logica Yearbook 1998'', Prague 1999, 214-217.", "* Frode Alfson Bjørdal, \"All Properties are Divine, or God Exists\", in Logic and Logical Philosophy, Vol.", "27 No.", "3, 2018, pp. 329–350.", "* Bromand, Joachim.", "\"Gödels ontologischer Beweis und andere modallogische Gottesbeweise\", in J. Bromand und G. Kreis (Hg.", "), ''Gottesbeweise von Anselm bis Gödel'', Berlin 2011, 381-491.", "* * Melvin Fitting, \"Types, Tableaus, and Godel's God\" Publisher: Dordrecht Kluwer Academic, 2002, , * — See Chapter \"Ontological Proof\", pp.", "403–404, and Appendix B \"Texts Relating to the Ontological Proof\", pp. 429–437.", "* Goldman, Randolph R. \"Gödel's Ontological Argument\", PhD Diss., University of California, Berkeley 2000.", "* Hazen, A. P. \"On Gödel's Ontological Proof\", Australasian Journal of Philosophy, Vol.", "76, No 3, pp.", "361–377, September 1998* * *" ], [ "External links", "** Annotated bibliography of studies on Gödel's Ontological Argument* Thomas Gawlick, '' Was sind und was sollen mathematische Gottesbeweise?", "'', Jan. 2012 — shows Gödel's original proof manuscript on p. 2-3* A Divine Consistency Proof for Mathematics — A submitted work by Harvey Friedman showing that if God exists (in the sense of Gödel), then Mathematics, as formalized by the usual ZFC axioms, is consistent." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of gymnasts" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gymnasts''' are people who participate in the sport of gymnastics.", "This sport contains disciplines that include, but are not limited to:This list is of those who are considered to be notable in their chosen discipline.See gymnasium (ancient Greece) for the origin of the word ''gymnast'' from '''gymnastikos'''." ], [ "Artistic gymnasts", "* List of women's artistic gymnasts* List of men's artistic gymnasts" ], [ "Rhythmic gymnasts", "===Female (rhythmic)=== Gymnast Dates FIG listingAlexandra Aristoteli24 May 1997Lidiia Iakovleva28 August 2003 Naazmi Johnston 28 November 1988 Alexandra Kiroi-Bogatyreva4 March 2002Alannah Mathews9 April 1999 Janine Murray 10 March 1990 Himeka Onoda5 March 1998 Danielle Prince 12 June 1992 Kasumi Takahashi 6 May 1980 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Nicol Ruprecht 2 October 1992 Caroline Weber 31 May 1986 Gymnast Dates FIG listingZohra Aghamirova8 August 2001 Marina Durunda 12 June 1997 Dinara Gimatova 18 November 1986 Anna Gurbanova 24 September 1986 Aliya Garayeva 1 January 1988 Zeynab Javadli 19 July 1991 Zhala Piriyeva 10 May 2000 Lala Yusifova 16 October 1996 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Hanna Bazhko 25 July 1998 Liubov Charkashyna 23 December 1987 Arina Charopa 18 October 1995 Olga Gontar 11 January 1979 Katsiaryna Halkina 25 February 1997 Alina Harnasko 9 August 2001 Maria Kadobina 4 February 1997 Nataliya Leshchyk 25 July 1995 Marina Lobatch 26 June 1970 Larissa Loukianenko 7 August 1973 Aliaksandra Narkevich 22 December 1995 Tatiana Ogrizko 28 May 1976 Evgenia Pavlina 20 July 1978 Yulia Raskina 19 April 1982 Melitina Staniouta 15 November 1993 Elena Tkachenko 31 July 1983 Mariya Trubach 15 November 1999 Alina Tumilovich 21 April 1990 Inna Zhukova 6 September 1986 Gymnast Dates FIG listingMaria Eduarda Arakaki12 August 2003 Angélica Kvieczynski 1 September 1991 Bárbara Domingos2 March 2000 Natália Gaudio 18 December 1992 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Boyanka Angelova 28 October 1994 Eva Brezalieva13 January 2005 Diliana Gueorguieva 18 February 1965 Adriana Dunavska 21 April 1970 Simona Dyankova7 December 1994 Maria Gigova 21 April 1947 Kristina Guiourova 17 February 1959 Lilia Ignatova 17 May 1975 Sofia Ivanova15 September 2005 Lyubomira Kazanova 23 May 1996 Boryana Kaleyn 23 August 2000 Reneta Kamberova 12 September 1990 Elizabeth Koleva 11 November 1972 Stefani Kiryakova5 January 2001 Mihaela Maevska 4 October 1990 Katerina Marinova 13 July 1999 Mila Marinova 3 June 1975 Sylvia Miteva 24 June 1986 Stiliana Nikolova22 August 2005 Tsvetelina Naydenova 28 April 1994 Elizabeth Paisieva 12 December 1986 Bianka Panova 27 May 1970 Maria Petrova 13 November 1975 Simona Peycheva 14 May 1985 Diana Popova 10 December 1976 Madlen Radukanova14 May 2000 Anelia Ralenkova 25 January 1964 Iliana Raeva 15 March 1963 Neshka Robeva 25 May 1946 Katrin Taseva 24 November 1997 Laura Traets13 December 1998 Hristiana Todorova 28 November 1994 Julia Trashlieva 3 February 1936 Neviana Vladinova 23 February 1994 Tatyana Volozhanina28 January 2003Erika Zafirova7 May 1999 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Patricia Bezzoubenko 21 February 1997Tatiana Cocsanova 16 January 2004 Lori Fung 21 February 1963 Carmel Kallemaa 8 October 1997 Maria Kitkarska 13 July 1995 Alexandra Orlando 19 January 1987 Mary Sanders 26 August 1985 Suzanna Shahbazian18 October 2004 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Deng Senyue 15 February 1992 Shang Rong 12 February 2000 Sun Dan 4 September 1986 Zhong Ling 30 October 1983 Zhang Shuo 5 January 1984 Zhao Yating 12 May 2001 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Chrystalleni Trikomiti 30 November 1993 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Hana Machatová-Bogušovská 31 July 1938 Dominika Červenková 18 April 1988 Monika Mickova 29 July 1991 Hana Mičechová 25 January 1946 GymnastDatesFIG listingLogin Elsasyed1 January 2003Polina Fouda17 June 2003Habiba Marzouk14 May 2002Sara Rostom1996Salma Saleh19 December 2003Malak Selim1 May 2003Tia Sobhy7 February 2003 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Jouki Tikkanen 5 July 1995 Ekaterina Volkova 2 July 1997 Gymnast Dates FIG listingOlga Bogdanova24 December 1994Viktoria Bogdanova24 December 1994 Irina Kikkas 22 July 1984 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Nathalie Fauquette 23 March 1987 Hélène Karbanov29 December 2004 Delphine Ledoux 15 May 1985 Maelle Millet22 August 2004 Kseniya Moustafaeva 8 June 1995 Lily Ramonatxo24 February 2005 Eva Serrano 22 April 1978 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Irina Gabashvili 15 August 1960 - 23 March 2009 Salome Pazhava 3 September 1997 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Jana Berezko-Marggrander 17 October 1995 Magdalena Brzeska 14 May 1978 Lisa Ingildeeva 4 December 1988 Laura Jung 25 June 1995 Ute Lehmann Margarita Kolosov11 March 2004 Edita Schaufler 11 July 1980 Carmen Rischer 16 May 1956 Christiana Rosenberg 1958 Darja Varfolomeev4 November 2006 Regina Weber 12 April 1963 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Eleni Andriola 9 November 1986 Eleni Kelaiditi 1 April 2000 Panagiota Lytra14 December 2006 Varvara Filiou 29 December 1994 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Viktória Fráter 30 November 1993 Fanni Pigniczki23 January 2000Dóra Vass1991 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Linoy Ashram 13 May 1999 Daria Atamanov6 December 2005Noga Block2004 Olena Dvornichenko 3 November 1990 Adi Asya Katz2004 Victoria Veinberg Filanovsky 23 February 1995 Katia Pisetsky 26 February 1986 Irina Risenzon 14 January 1988 Neta Rivkin 19 June 1991 Maria Savenkov 2 August 1988 Yuliana Telegina22 March 2002 Rahel Vigdozchik 1 May 1989 Veronika Vitenberg 9 September 1988 Polina Zakaluzny 21 February 1992 Nicol Zelikman 30 January 2001 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Alexandra Agiurgiuculese 15 January 2001 Milena Baldassarri 16 October 2001 Veronica Bertolini 19 October 1995 Elisa Blanchi 13 October 1987 Julieta Cantaluppi 24 January 1985 Romina Laurito 4 April 1987 Alessia Maurelli 22 August 1996 Marta Pagnini 21 January 1991 Sofia Raffaeli19 January 2004 Elisa Santoni 10 December 1987 Anzhelika Savrayuk 23 August 1989 Andreea Stefanescu 13 December 1993 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Kaho Minagawa 20 August 1997 Airi Hatakeyama 16 August 1994 Sakura Hayakawa 17 March 1997 Sumire Kita 11 January 2001 Mao Kunii 5 April 1996 Rie Matsubara 21 October 1993 Chisaki Oiwa20 November 2001 Sayuri Sugimoto 25 January 1996 Kiko Yokota 11 May 1997 Gymnast Dates FIG listingAlina Adilkhanova26 September 2001 Anna Alyabyeva 13 November 1993 Aliya Assymova 16 December 1997 Sabina Ashirbayeva 5 November 1998 Elzhana Taniyeva5 September 2005 Aliya Yussupova 15 April 1984 Gymnast Dates FIG listingRut Castillo16 September 1990 Cynthia Valdez 11 December 1987 Gymnast Dates FIG listingLiliana Lewińska2 November 2008 Joanna Mitrosz 21 August 1988 Aleksandra Szutenberg 15 October 1988 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Irina Deleanu 12 November 1975 Christina Dragan19 April 2007 Ana Luiza Filiorianu 10 July 1999 Denisa Mailat11 October 2002 Alexandra Piscupescu 10 June 1994 Doina Stăiculescu 27 January 1967 Andreea Verdes18 October 2000 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Margarita Aliychuk 10 August 1990 Daria Anenkova 2 April 1999 Irina Annenkova 22 February 1999 Arina Averina 13 August 1998 Dina Averina 13 August 1998 Yulia Barsukova 31 December 1978 Yanina Batyrchina 7 October 1979 Galina Beloglazova 10 June 1967 Olga Belova 22 January 1983 Vera Biryukova 11 April 1998 Anastasia Bliznyuk 28 June 1994 Diana Borisova 21 March 1997 Iuliia Bravikova 17 July 1999 Irina Devina 8 May 1959 Daria Dmitrieva 22 June 1993 Uliana Donskova 24 August 1992 Tatiana Druchinina 18 April 1969 Daria Dubova 29 January 1999 Ksenia Dudkina 25 February 1995 Alina Ermolova 27 February 2001 Anna Gavrilenko 10 July 1990 Zarina Gizikova 20 June 1985 Tatiana Gorbunova 23 January 1990 Olga Ilina 3 January 1995 Victoria Ilina 28 March 1999 Alina Kabaeva 12 May 1983 Evgenia Kanaeva 2 April 1990 Olga Kapranova 6 December 1987 Elena Karpuchina 21 March 1951 Daria Kondakova 30 July 1991 Oxana Kostina 15 April 1973 - 11 February 1993 Lala Kramarenko 6 December 2004 Yana Kudryavtseva 30 September 1997 Natalia Lavrova 4 August 1984 – 23 April 2010 Natalia Lipkovskaya 24 April 1979 Yana Lukonina 26 September 1993 Margarita Mamun 1 November 1995 Alina Makarenko 14 January 1995 Anastasia Maksimova 27 June 1991 Alexandra Merkulova 25 November 1995 Anastasia Nazarenko 17 January 1993 Natalia Pichuzhkina 3 June 1991 Yelena Posevina 13 February 1986 Julia Rosliakova 5 January 1975 Natalia Safonova 17 July 1999 Ekaterina Selezneva 18 May 1995 Maria Sergeeva 7 February 2001 Vera Sessina 23 February 1986 Karolina Sevastyanova 25 April 1995 Daria Shkurikhina 3 October 1990 Polina Shmatko 26 March 2003 Galima Shugurova 8 November 1953 Sofya Skomorokh 18 August 1999 Aleksandra Soldatova 1 June 1998 Daria Svatkovskaya 4 December 1996 Anastasiia Tatareva 19 July 1997 Irina Tchachina 24 April 1982 Maria Titova 19 August 1997 Maria Tolkacheva 8 August 1997 Daria Trubnikova1 January 2003 Laysan Utiasheva 28 June 1985 Amina Zaripova 10 August 1976 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Grace Legote 2 May 1992 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Monija Cebasek 11 April 1997 Aja Jerman 20 August 1999 Sara Kragulj 26 October 1996 Spela Kratochwill 27 January 1998 Aleksandra Podgoršek 22 July 2001 Tjaša Šeme 18 November 1986 Ekaterina Vedeneeva 23 June 1994 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Shin Soo-ji 8 January 1991 Son Yeon-jae 28 May 1994 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Galina Beloglazova 10 June 1967 Irina Deriugina 11 January 1958 Irina Devina 8 May 1959 Tatiana Druchinina 18 April 1969 Irina Gabashvili 15 August 1960 Elena Karpuchina 21 March 1951 Oxana Kostina 15 April 1973 Anna Kotchneva 25 January 1970 Dalia Kutkaitė 11 February 1965 Tatiana Kravtchenko 13 June 1936 Marina Lobatch 26 June 1970 Alfia Nazmutdinova 29 April 1949 Ludmila Savinkova 1 January 1936 Galima Shugurova 8 November 1953 Oxana Skaldina 24 October 1972 Olexandra Timoshenko 18 February 1972 Elena Tomas 11 January 1961 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Carmen Acedo 5 January 1975 Sandra Aguilar 9 August 1992 María Jesús Alegre17 December 1957Alba Baustista13 July 2002Polina Berezina5 December 1997 Marta Baldó 8 April 1979 Begoña Blasco30 April 1960 Nuria Cabanillas 9 August 1980 Almudena Cid 15 June 1980 Artemi Gavezou 19 June 1994 Estela Giménez 29 March 1979 Lorena Guréndez 7 May 1981 Tania Lamarca 30 April 1980 Elena López 4 October 1994 Estíbaliz Martínez 9 May 1980 Lourdes Mohedano 17 June 1995 Carolina Pascual 17 June 1976 Alejandra Quereda 24 July 1992 Carolina Rodríguez 24 May 1986 Salma Solaun2 March 2005 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Anna Bessonova 29 July 1984 Irina Deriugina 11 January 1958 Olena Diachenko 15 June 2001 Olena Dmytrash 1 December 1991 Natalia Godunko 5 December 1984 Yevgeniya Gomon 25 March 1995 Oleksandra Gridasova 5 July 1995 Polina Karika25 June 2005 Kateryna Lutsenko 18 September 1995 Alina Maksimenko 10 July 1991 Viktoria Mazur 15 October 1994 Anastasiia Mulmina 27 April 1997 Viktoriia Onopriienko18 October 2003Khrystyna Pohranychna13 May 2003 Ludmila Savinkova 1 January 1936 Oxana Skaldina 24 October 1972 Ekaterina Serebrianskaya 25 October 1977 Karina Sydorak25 June 2005 Olexandra Timoshenko 18 February 1972 Olena Vitrichenko 25 November 1976 Ganna Rizatdinova 16 July 1993 Eleonora Romanova 17 August 1998 Tamara Yerofeeva 4 March 1982 Gymnast Dates FIG listingMarfa Ekimova17 January 2005 Laura Halford 25 February 1996 Francesca Jones 9 November 1990 Stephani Sherlock 2 September 1996 Gymnast Dates FIG listingEvita Griskenas3 December 2000 Jasmine Kerber 12 April 1996 Mary Sanders 26 August 1985 Laura Zeng 14 October 1999 Julie Zetlin 30 June 1990 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Valeriya Davidova 15 December 1997 Ekaterina Fetisova3 January 2003Takhmina Ikromova6 August 2004 Elizaveta Nazarenkova 17 August 1995 Anastasiya Serdyukova 29 May 1997 Djamila Rakhmatova 19 September 1990 Ulyana Trofimova 28 February 1990 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Milena Reljin 25 May 1967" ], [ "Trampoline gymnasts", "===Female (trampoline)=== Gymnast Dates FIG listing Karen Cockburn 2 October 1980 Rosie MacLennan 28 August 1989 Gymnast Dates FIG listing He Wenna 19 January 1989 Huang Shanshan 18 January 1986 Li Dan 19 September 1988 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Anna Dogonadze 15 February 1973 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Irina Karavayeva 18 May 1975 ===Male (trampoline)=== Gymnast Dates FIG listing Dong Dong 13 April 1989 Lu Chunlong 8 April 1989 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Henrik Stehlik 29 December 1980 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Alexander Moskalenko 4 November 1969 Dmitry Ushakov 15 August 1988 Gymnast Dates FIG listing Yuri Nikitin 15 July 1978" ], [ "See also", "*International Gymnastics Hall of Fame*List of Olympic medalists in gymnastics (men)*List of Olympic medalists in gymnastics (women)*List of current female artistic gymnasts" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* World Ranking (1952-2005)* Summary of Canadian Gymnastic Record* University of Michigan gymnasts" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Genetic programming" ], [ "Introduction", "In artificial intelligence, '''genetic programming''' ('''GP''') is a technique of evolving programs, starting from a population of unfit (usually random) programs, fit for a particular task by applying operations analogous to natural genetic processes to the population of programs.The operations are: selection of the fittest programs for reproduction (crossover), replication and/or mutation according to a predefined fitness measure, usually proficiency at the desired task.", "The crossover operation involves swapping specified parts of selected pairs (parents) to produce new and different offspring that become part of the new generation of programs.", "Some programs not selected for reproduction are copied from the current generation to the new generation.", "Mutation involves substitution of some random part of a program with some other random part of a program.", "Then the selection and other operations are recursively applied to the new generation of programs.Typically, members of each new generation are on average more fit than the members of the previous generation, and the best-of-generation program is often better than the best-of-generation programs from previous generations.", "Termination of the evolution usually occurs when some individual program reaches a predefined proficiency or fitness level.It may and often does happen that a particular run of the algorithm results in premature convergence to some local maximum which is not a globally optimal or even good solution.", "Multiple runs (dozens to hundreds) are usually necessary to produce a very good result.", "It may also be necessary to have a large starting population size and variability of the individuals to avoid pathologies." ], [ "History", "The first record of the proposal to evolve programs is probably that of Alan Turing in 1950.There was a gap of 25 years before the publication of John Holland's 'Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems' laid out the theoretical and empirical foundations of the science.", "In 1981, Richard Forsyth demonstrated the successful evolution of small programs, represented as trees, to perform classification of crime scene evidence for the UK Home Office.Although the idea of evolving programs, initially in the computer language Lisp, was current amongst John Holland’s students, it was not until they organised the first Genetic Algorithms (GA) conference in Pittsburgh that Nichael Cramer published evolved programs in two specially designed languages, which included the first statement of modern \"tree-based\" Genetic Programming (that is, procedural languages organized in tree-based structures and operated on by suitably defined GA-operators).", "In 1988, John Koza (also a PhD student of John Holland) patented his invention of a GA for program evolution.", "This was followed by publication in the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence IJCAI-89.Koza followed this with 205 publications on “Genetic Programming” (GP), name coined by David Goldberg, also a PhD student of John Holland.", "However, it is the series of 4 books by Koza, starting in 1992 with accompanying videos, that really established GP.", "Subsequently, there was an enormous expansion of the number of publications with the Genetic Programming Bibliography, surpassing 10,000 entries.", "In 2010, Koza listed 77 results where Genetic Programming was human competitive.In 1996, Koza started the annual Genetic Programming conference which was followed in 1998 by the annual EuroGP conference, and the first book in a GP series edited by Koza.", "1998 also saw the first GP textbook.", "GP continued to flourish, leading to the first specialist GP journal and three years later (2003) the annual Genetic Programming Theory and Practice (GPTP) workshop was established by Rick Riolo.", "Genetic Programming papers continue to be published at a diversity of conferences and associated journals.", "Today there are nineteen GP books including several for students.===Foundational work in GP===Early work that set the stage for current genetic programming research topics and applications is diverse, and includes software synthesis and repair, predictive modeling, data mining, financial modeling, soft sensors, design, and image processing.", "Applications in some areas, such as design, often make use of intermediate representations, such as Fred Gruau’s cellular encoding.", "Industrial uptake has been significant in several areas including finance, the chemical industry, bioinformatics and the steel industry." ], [ "Methods", "===Program representation===A function represented as a tree structure GP evolves computer programs, traditionally represented in memory as tree structures.", "Trees can be easily evaluated in a recursive manner.", "Every internal node has an operator function and every terminal node has an operand, making mathematical expressions easy to evolve and evaluate.", "Thus traditionally GP favors the use of programming languages that naturally embody tree structures (for example, Lisp; other functional programming languages are also suitable).Non-tree representations have been suggested and successfully implemented, such as linear genetic programming which perhaps suits the more traditional imperative languages.", "The commercial GP software ''Discipulus'' uses automatic induction of binary machine code (\"AIM\") to achieve better performance.", "''µGP'' uses directed multigraphs to generate programs that fully exploit the syntax of a given assembly language.", "Multi expression programming uses Three-address code for encoding solutions.", "Other program representations on which significant research and development have been conducted include programs for stack-based virtual machines, and sequences of integers that are mapped to arbitrary programming languages via grammars.", "Cartesian genetic programming is another form of GP, which uses a graph representation instead of the usual tree based representation to encode computer programs.Most representations have structurally noneffective code (introns).", "Such non-coding genes may seem to be useless because they have no effect on the performance of any one individual.", "However, they alter the probabilities of generating different offspring under the variation operators, and thus alter the individual's variational properties.Experiments seem to show faster convergence when using program representations that allow such non-coding genes, compared to program representations that do not have any non-coding genes.", "Instantiations may have both trees with introns and those without; the latter are called canonical trees.", "Special canonical crossover operators are introduced that maintain the canonical structure of parents in their children.===Selection===Selection is a process whereby certain individuals are selected from the current generation that would serve as parents for the next generation.", "The individuals are selected probabilistically such that the better performing individuals have a higher chance of getting selected.", "The most commonly used selection method in GP is tournament selection, although other methods such as fitness proportionate selection, lexicase selection, and others have been demonstrated to perform better for many GP problems.Elitism, which involves seeding the next generation with the best individual (or best ''n'' individuals) from the current generation, is a technique sometimes employed to avoid regression.===Crossover===In Genetic Programming two fit individuals are chosen from the population to be parents for one or two children.", "In tree genetic programming, these parents are represented as inverted lisp like trees, with their root nodes at the top.", "In subtree crossover in each parent a subtree is randomly chosen.", "(Highlighted with yellow in the animation.)", "In the root donating parent (in the animation on the left) the chosen subtree is removed and replaced with a copy of the randomly chosen subtree from the other parent, to give a new child tree.Sometimes two child crossover is used, in which case the removed subtree (in the animation on the left) is not simply deleted but is copied to a copy of the second parent (here on the right) replacing (in the copy) its randomly chosen subtree.", "Thus this type of subtree crossover takes two fit trees and generates two child trees.", "Genetic programming subtree crossover===Replication===Some individuals selected according to fitness criteria do not participate in crossover, but are copied into the next generation, akin to asexual reproduction in the natural world.", "They may be further subject to mutation.===Mutation===There are many types of mutation in genetic programming.", "They start from a fit syntactically correct parent and aim to randomly create a syntactically correct child.", "In the animationa subtree is randomly chosen (highlighted by yellow).", "It is removed and replaced by a randomly generated subtree.Other mutation operators select a leaf (external node) of the tree and replace it with a randomly chosen leaf.", "Another mutation is to select at random a function (internal node) and replace it with another function with the same arity (number of inputs).", "Hoist mutation randomly chooses a subtree and replaces it with a subtree within itself.", "Thus hoist mutation is guaranteed to make the child smaller.", "Leaf and same arity function replacement ensure the child is the same size as the parent.", "Whereas subtree mutation (in the animation) may, depending upon the function and terminal sets, have a bias to either increase or decrease the tree size.", "Other subtree based mutations try to carefully control the size of the replacement subtree and thus the size of the child tree.", "Animation of creating genetic programing child by mutating parent removing subtree and replacing with random codeSimilarly there are many types of linear genetic programming mutation, each of which tries to ensure the mutated child is still syntactically correct." ], [ "Applications", "GP has been successfully used as an automatic programming tool, a machine learning tool and an automatic problem-solving engine.", "GP is especially useful in the domains where the exact form of the solution is not known in advance or an approximate solution is acceptable (possibly because finding the exact solution is very difficult).", "Some of the applications of GP are curve fitting, data modeling, symbolic regression, feature selection, classification, etc.", "John R. Koza mentions 76 instances where Genetic Programming has been able to produce results that are competitive with human-produced results (called Human-competitive results).", "Since 2004, the annual Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference (GECCO) holds Human Competitive Awards (called Humies) competition, where cash awards are presented to human-competitive results produced by any form of genetic and evolutionary computation.", "GP has won many awards in this competition over the years." ], [ "Meta-genetic programming", "Meta-genetic programming is the proposed meta-learning technique of evolving a genetic programming system using genetic programming itself.", "It suggests that chromosomes, crossover, and mutation were themselves evolved, therefore like their real life counterparts should be allowed to change on their own rather than being determined by a human programmer.", "Meta-GP was formally proposed by Jürgen Schmidhuber in 1987.Doug Lenat's Eurisko is an earlier effort that may be the same technique.", "It is a recursive but terminating algorithm, allowing it to avoid infinite recursion.", "In the \"autoconstructive evolution\" approach to meta-genetic programming, the methods for the production and variation of offspring are encoded within the evolving programs themselves, and programs are executed to produce new programs to be added to the population.Critics of this idea often say this approach is overly broad in scope.", "However, it might be possible to constrain the fitness criterion onto a general class of results, and so obtain an evolved GP that would more efficiently produce results for sub-classes.", "This might take the form of a meta evolved GP for producing human walking algorithms which is then used to evolve human running, jumping, etc.", "The fitness criterion applied to the meta GP would simply be one of efficiency." ], [ "See also", "* Bio-inspired computing* Cartesian genetic programming* Covariance Matrix Adaptation Evolution Strategy (CMA-ES)* Fitness approximation* Gene expression programming* Genetic improvement* Genetic representation* Grammatical evolution* Inductive programming* Linear genetic programming* Multi expression programming* Propagation of schema" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Aymen S Saket & Mark C Sinclair* ''Genetic Programming and Evolvable Machines'', a journal* ''Evo2 for genetic programming''* GP bibliography* The Hitch-Hiker's Guide to Evolutionary Computation* Riccardo Poli, William B. Langdon, Nicholas F. McPhee, John R. Koza, \" A Field Guide to Genetic Programming\" (2008)* Genetic Programming, a community maintained resource" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gustav Klimt" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gustav Klimt''' (14 July 1862 – 6 February 1918) was an Austrian symbolist painter and one of the most prominent members of the Vienna Secession movement.", "Klimt is noted for his paintings, murals, sketches, and other objets d'art.", "Klimt's primary subject was the female body, and his works are marked by a frank eroticism.", "Amongst his figurative works, which include allegories and portraits, he painted landscapes.", "Among the artists of the Vienna Secession, Klimt was the most influenced by Japanese art and its methods.Early in his career, he was a successful painter of architectural decorations in a conventional manner.", "As he began to develop a more personal style, his work was the subject of controversy that culminated when the paintings he completed around 1900 for the ceiling of the Great Hall of the University of Vienna were criticized as pornographic.", "He subsequently accepted no more public commissions, but achieved a new success with the paintings of his \"golden phase\", many of which include gold leaf.", "Klimt's work was an important influence on his younger peer Egon Schiele.Since the 1990s, he has been one of the artists whose paintings fetch top prices at auctions." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Gustav Klimt in 1887''Klimt in a light Blue Smock'' by Egon Schiele, 1913Gustav Klimt was born in Baumgarten, near Vienna in the Austrian Empire, the second of seven children—three boys and four girls.", "His mother, Anna Klimt (''née'' Finster), had an unrealized ambition to be a musical performer.", "His father, Ernst Klimt the Elder, formerly from Bohemia, was a gold engraver.", "All three of their sons displayed artistic talent early on.", "Klimt's younger brothers were Ernst Klimt and .Klimt lived in poverty while attending the Vienna Kunstgewerbeschule, a school of applied arts and crafts, now the University of Applied Arts Vienna, where he studied architectural painting from 1876 until 1883.He revered Vienna's foremost history painter of the time, Hans Makart.", "Klimt readily accepted the principles of a conservative training; his early work may be classified as academic.", "In 1877 his brother, Ernst, who, like his father, would become an engraver, also enrolled in the school.", "The two brothers and their friend, Franz Matsch, began working together and by 1880 they had received numerous commissions as a team that they called the \"Company of Artists\".", "They also helped their teacher in painting murals in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna.", "Klimt began his professional career painting interior murals and ceilings in large public buildings on the Ringstraße, including a successful series of \"Allegories and Emblems\".In 1888 Klimt received the Golden Order of Merit from Emperor Franz Josef I of Austria for his contributions to murals painted in the Burgtheater in Vienna.", "He also became an honorary member of the University of Munich and the University of Vienna.", "In 1892 Klimt's father and brother Ernst both died, and he had to assume financial responsibility for his father's and brother's families.", "The tragedies also affected his artistic vision and soon he would move towards a new personal style.Characteristic of his style at the end of the 19th century is the inclusion of ''Nuda Veritas'' (''naked truth'') as a symbolic figure in some of his works, including ''Ancient Greece and Egypt'' (1891), ''Pallas Athene'' (1898) and ''Nuda Veritas'' (1899).", "Historians believe that Klimt with the ''nuda veritas'' denounced both the policy of the Habsburgs and Austrian society, which ignored all political and social problems of that time.In the early 1890s Klimt met Austrian fashion designer Emilie Louise Flöge (a sibling of his sister-in-law) who was to be his companion until the end of his life.", "His painting, ''The Kiss'' (1907–08), is thought to be an image of them as lovers which was painted five years after Klimt's 1902 full-length portrait of her.", "He designed many costumes that she produced and modeled in his works.During this period Klimt fathered at least fourteen children.===Vienna Secession years===A section of the ''Beethoven Frieze'', at Secession Building, Vienna (1902)Klimt became one of the founding members and president of the ''Wiener Secession'' in 1897 and of the group's periodical, ''Ver Sacrum'' (\"Sacred Spring\").", "He remained with the ''Secession'' until 1908.The goals of the group were to provide exhibitions for unconventional young artists, to bring the works of the best foreign artists to Vienna, and to publish its own magazine to showcase the work of members.", "The group declared no manifesto and did not set out to encourage any particular style—Naturalists, Realists, and Symbolists all coexisted.", "The government supported their efforts and gave them a lease on public land to erect an exhibition hall.", "The group's symbol was Pallas Athena, the Greek goddess of just causes, wisdom, and the arts—of whom Klimt painted his radical version in 1898.", "''Judith II'' (1909)In 1894, Klimt was commissioned to create three paintings to decorate the ceiling of the Great Hall of the University of Vienna.", "Not completed until the turn of the century, his three paintings, ''Philosophy'', ''Medicine'', and ''Jurisprudence'' were criticized for their radical themes and material, and were called \"pornographic\".", "Klimt had transformed traditional allegory and symbolism into a new language that was more overtly sexual and hence more disturbing to some.", "The public outcry came from all quarters—political, aesthetic and religious.", "As a result, the paintings ''(seen in gallery below)'' were not displayed on the ceiling of the Great Hall.", "This was to be the last public commission accepted by the artist.", "All three paintings were destroyed when retreating German forces burned Schloss Immendorf in May 1945, together with another ten paintings, including ''Schubert at the Piano'', ''Girlfriends'' (or ''Two Women Friends''), ''Wally'' (portrait), ''The Music (II)\".His ''Nuda Veritas'' (1899) defined his bid to further \"shake up\" the establishment.", "The starkly naked red-headed woman holds the mirror of truth, while above her is a quotation by Friedrich Schiller in stylized lettering: \"If you cannot please everyone with your deeds and your art, please only a few.", "To please many is bad.\"", "In 1902, animated by resentment Klimt wanted to title the painting ''Gold Fish'' (in which a naked woman ostentatiously and maliciously shows her butt), \"To my critics\", but was dissuaded by friends.In 1902, Klimt finished the ''Beethoven Frieze'' for the Fourteenth Vienna Secessionist exhibition, which was intended to be a celebration of the composer and featured a monumental polychrome sculpture by Max Klinger.", "Intended for the exhibition only, the frieze was painted directly on the walls with light materials.", "After the exhibition the painting was preserved, although it was not displayed again until restored in 1986.The face on the Beethoven portrait resembled the composer and Vienna Court Opera director Gustav Mahler.In 1905, dissensions within the ''Secession'' increased, and when the artistic consultant of the Galerie Mietkhe Carl Moll was attacked by colleagues of the ''Secession'' for his work, a strong controversy arose which created a real internal split, led by Klimt.", "The following year, Klimt formed the group called \"Kunstschau\" (Art Show) or \"Klimt group\", which also included Moll and Otto Wagner, among other important Austrian artists.During this period Klimt did not confine himself to public commissions.", "Beginning in the late 1890s he took annual summer holidays with the Flöge family on the shores of Attersee and painted many of his landscapes there.", "These landscapes constitute the only genre aside from figure painting that seriously interested Klimt.", "In recognition of his intensity, the locals called him ''Waldschrat'' (\"forest demon\").Klimt's Attersee paintings are of sufficient number and quality as to merit separate appreciation.", "Formally, the landscapes are characterized by the same refinement of design and emphatic patterning as the figural pieces.", "Deep space in the Attersee works is flattened so efficiently to a single plane that it is believed that Klimt painted them by using a telescope.===Golden phase and critical success===The Kiss'' 1907–08, oil on canvas, Österreichische Galerie Belvedere, ViennaFrom 1900 Gustav Klimt became famous above all as a \"painter of women\".", "He created about one large-format portrait of a woman per year, in which he applied the principles of Art Nouveau - flatness, decoration, gold leaf application.", "At the same time, he devoted himself to allegories and Old Testament heroines, which he transformed, however, into dangerous \"femmes fatales\".", "Eros, sexuality and femininity were variously interpreted by him as alluring danger.", "Life, love, and death can be determined as the important themes of Klimt's work.", "Klimt's 'Golden Phase' was marked by positive critical reaction and financial success.", "Many of his paintings from this period included gold leaf.", "Klimt had previously used gold in his ''Pallas Athene'' (1898) and ''Judith I'' (1901), although the works most popularly associated with this period are the ''Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I'' (1907) and ''The Kiss'' (1907–08).Klimt traveled in all Europe, mainly to present his works on occasion of international exhibitions, but trips to Venice and Ravenna, both famous for their beautiful mosaics, most likely inspired his gold technique and his Byzantine imagery.", "In 1904, he collaborated with other artists on the lavish Stoclet Palace, the home of a wealthy Belgian industrialist that was one of the grandest monuments of the Art Nouveau age.", "Klimt's contributions to the dining room, including both ''Fulfillment'' and ''Expectation'', were some of his finest decorative works, and as he publicly stated, \"probably the ultimate stage of my development of ornament.", "\"In 1905, Klimt painted ''The Three Ages of Woman'', depicting the cycle of life.", "He created a painted portrait of Margarete Wittgenstein, Ludwig Wittgenstein's sister, on the occasion of her marriage.", "Then, between 1907 and 1909, Klimt painted five canvases of society women wrapped in fur.", "His apparent love of costume is expressed in the many photographs of Flöge modeling clothing he had designed.As he worked and relaxed in his home, Klimt normally wore sandals and a long robe with no undergarments.", "His simple life was somewhat cloistered, devoted to his art, family, and little else except the Secessionist Movement from which he and many colleagues eventually resigned.", "He avoided café society and seldom socialized with other artists.", "Klimt's fame usually brought patrons to his door and he could afford to be highly selective.", "His painting method was very deliberate and painstaking at times and he required lengthy sittings by his subjects.", "Although very active sexually, he kept his affairs discreet and he avoided personal scandal.The artist cultivated close relationships with some of his clients, who were primarily from the assimilated Jewish Viennese Haute bourgeoisie.", "He cultivated intimate relationships especially with his models from upper class circles.", "He was considered progressive for his time, because he allowed women an active role in sexuality.Klimt wrote little about his vision or his methods.", "He wrote mostly postcards to Flöge and kept no diary.", "In a rare writing called \"Commentary on a non-existent self-portrait\", he states \"I have never painted a self-portrait.", "I am less interested in myself as a subject for a painting than I am in other people, above all women...", "There is nothing special about me.", "I am a painter who paints day after day from morning to night ... Whoever wants to know something about me ... ought to look carefully at my pictures.", "\"In 1901 Hermann Bahr wrote, in his ''Speech on Klimt'': \"Just as only a lover can reveal to a man what life means to him and develop its innermost significance, I feel the same about these paintings.", "\"===Final years and death===''Adele Bloch-Bauer I'' (1907), which sold for a record $135 million in 2006, Neue Galerie, New YorkIn 1911 his painting ''Death and Life'' received first prize in the world exhibitions in Rome.", "In 1915 Anna, his mother, died.", "Klimt died three years later in Vienna on 6 February 1918, having suffered a stroke and pneumonia brought about by the worldwide influenza epidemic of that year.", "He was buried at the Hietzinger Cemetery in Hietzing, Vienna.", "Numerous paintings by him were left unfinished." ], [ "Folios", "''Farm Garden with Sunflowers'', 1907, Österreichische Galerie Belvedere===Gustav Klimt: ''Das Werk''===Klimt often used decorative patterns in his paintings.", "''Die Umarmung'' (\"The Embrace\", (c. 1905–1909) – detail from the Stoclet Palace in Brussels.The only folio set produced in Klimt's lifetime, ''Das Werk Gustav Klimts'', was published initially by H. O. Miethke (of Galerie Miethke, Klimt's exclusive gallery in Vienna) from 1908 to 1914 in an edition of 300, supervised personally by the artist.", "The first thirty-five editions (I-XXXV) each included an original drawing by Klimt, and the next thirty-five editions (XXXVI–LXX) each with a facsimile signature on the title page.", "Fifty images depicting Klimt's most important paintings (1893–1913) were reproduced using collotype lithography and mounted on a heavy, cream-colored wove paper with deckle edges.", "Thirty-one of the images (ten of which are multicolored) are printed on ''Chine-collé''.", "The remaining nineteen are high quality halftones prints.", "Each piece was marked with a unique signet—designed by Klimt—which was impressed into the wove paper in gold metallic ink.", "The prints were issued in groups of ten to subscribers, in unbound black paper folders embossed with Klimt's name.", "Because of the delicate nature of collotype lithography, as well as the necessity for multicolored prints (a feat difficult to reproduce with collotypes), and Klimt's own desire for perfection, the series that was published in mid-1908 was not completed until 1914.Each of the fifty prints was categorized among five themes:# '''Allegorical''' (which included multicolored prints of ''The Golden Knight'', 1903 and ''The Virgin'', )# '''Erotic-Symbolist''' (''Water Serpents I'' and ''Water Serpents II'', both c. 1907–08 and ''The Kiss'', c. 1908)# '''Landscapes''' (''Farm Garden with Sunflowers'', 1907)# '''Mythical or Biblical''' (''Pallas Athena'', 1898; ''Judith and The Head of Holofernes'', 1901; and ''Danaë'', c. 1908)# '''Portraits''' (''Emilie Flöge'', 1902)The monochrome collotypes as well as the halftone works were printed with a variety of colored inks ranging from sepia to blue and green.", "Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria was the first to purchase a folio set of ''Das Werk Gustav Klimts'' in 1908.===''Fünfundzwanzig Handzeichnungen''===''Fünfundzwanzig Handzeichnungen'' (\"Twenty-five Drawings\") was released the year after Klimt's death.", "Many of the drawings in the collection were erotic in nature and just as polarizing as his painted works.", "Published in Vienna in 1919 by Gilhofer & Ranschburg, the edition of 500 features twenty-five monochrome and two-color collotype reproductions, nearly indistinguishable from the original works.", "While the set was released a year after Klimt's death, some art historians suspect he was involved with production planning because of the meticulous nature of the printing (Klimt had overseen the production of the plates for ''Das Werk Gustav Klimts'', making sure each one was to his exact specifications, a level of quality carried through similarly in ''Fünfundzwanzig Handzeichnungen'').", "The first ten editions also each contained an original Klimt drawing.Many of the works contained in this volume depict erotic scenes of nude women, some of whom are masturbating alone or are coupled in sapphic embraces.", "When a number of the original drawings were exhibited to the public, at Galerie Miethke in 1910 and the International Exhibition of Prints and Drawings in Vienna in 1913, they were met by critics and viewers who were hostile towards Klimt's contemporary perspective.", "There was an audience for Klimt's erotic drawings, however, and fifteen of his drawings were selected by Viennese poet Franz Blei for his translation of Hellenistic satirist Lucian's ''Dialogues of the Courtesans''.", "The book, limited to 450 copies, provided Klimt with the opportunity to show these more lurid depictions of women and avoided censorship thanks to an audience composed of a small group of (mostly male) affluent patrons.===''Gustav Klimt An Aftermath''===Composed in 1931 by editor Max Eisler and printed by the Austrian State Printing Office, ''Gustav Klimt An Aftermath'' was intended to complete the lifetime folio ''Das Werk Gustav Klimts''.", "The folio contains thirty colored collotypes (fourteen of which are multicolored) and follows a similar format found in ''Das Werk Gustav Klimts'', replacing the unique Klimt-designed signets with gold-debossed plate numbers.", "One hundred and fifty sets were produced in English, with twenty of them (Nos.", "I–XX) presented as a \"gala edition\" bound in gilt leather.", "The set contains detailed images from previously released works (Hygeia from the University Mural ''Medicine'', 1901; a section of the third University Mural ''Jurisprudence'', 1903), as well as the unfinished paintings (''Adam and Eve'', ''Bridal Progress'')." ], [ "Paintings", "Idylle (Idylls).jpg|''Idylle'' (''Idylls'') 1884, Vienna MuseumGustav Klimt - Blind Man - Google Art Project.jpg|''Der Blinde'' (''The Blind Man'') 1896, Leopold MuseumKlimt - Pallas Athene.jpeg|''Pallas Athena'', 1898, Vienna MuseumGustav Klimt - Tranquil Pond (Egelsee near Golling, Salzburg) - Google Art Project.jpg|''Stiller Weiher (Egelsee bei Golling, Salzburg)'' (''Tranquil Pond'') 1899, Leopold MuseumPhilosophy-final-state-1907.jpg|''Philosophy'', c. 1899–1907.Destroyed 1945Klimtmedicinephoto.jpg|''Medicine'', c. 1899–1907.Destroyed 1945Jurisprudence-final-state-1907.jpg|''Jurisprudence'', c. 1899–1907.Destroyed 1945Schubert-Klimt.jpg|''Schubert at the Piano'', 1899.Destroyed 1945Gustav Klimt 039.jpg|''Judith and the Head of Holofernes'', 1901, BelvedereGustav-Klimt-The-Beethoven-Frieze-The-Hostile-Powers.-Far-Wall.jpg|''The Beethoven Frieze: The Hostile Powers'', 1902, Secession BuildingGustav Klimt 053.jpg|''Portrait of Hermine Gallia'', 1904, National GalleryThe Three Ages of Woman.jpg|''The Three Ages of Woman'' 1905, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte ModernaGustav Klimt 052.jpg|''Portrait of Fritza Riedler'', 1906, BelvedereKlimt - Danae - 1907-08.jpeg|''Danaë'', 1907, Private Collection, ViennaGustav Klimt - Hope, II - Google Art Project.jpg|''Hope II,'' 1907–08, Museum of Modern ArtGustav Klimt 068.jpg|''Avenue in Schloss Kammer Park'', 1912, BelvedereGustav Klimt 050.jpg|''Mäda Gertrude Primavesi'', 1912, Metropolitan Museum of ArtKlimtDieJungfrau.jpg|''The Maiden'', 1913, National Gallery PragueKlimt - Bildnis Eugenia Primaesi.jpg|'''', 1913–14, Toyota Municipal Museum of ArtGustav Klimt 021.jpg|''Girlfriends'' or ''Two Women Friends'', 1916–17, Galerie Welz.", "Destroyed 1945Portrait of Friedericke Maria Beer.jpg|''Portrait of '', 1916, Tel Aviv Museum of Art" ], [ "Drawings", "In 1963, the Albertina museum in Vienna began researching the drawings of Gustav Klimt.", "The research project ''Gustav Klimt.", "Die Zeichnungen'', has since been associated with intensive exhibition and publication activities.Between 1980 and 1984 Alice Strobl published the three-volume catalogue raisonné, which records and describes all drawings by Gustav Klimt known at the time in chronological order.", "An additional supplementary volume was published in 1989.In the following year Strobl transferred her work to the art historian and curator Marian Bisanz-Prakken, who had assisted her since 1975 in the determination and classification of the works and who continues the research project to this day.", "Since 1990, Marian Bisanz-Prakken has redefined, documented, and scientifically processed around 400 further drawings.This makes the Albertina Vienna the only institution in the world that has been examining and scientifically classifying the artist's works for half a century.", "The research project now includes information on over 4,300 works by Gustav Klimt.GUGG Two Female Nudes Standing.jpg|''Two Female Nudes Standing'', c. 1900, Solomon R. Guggenheim MuseumGUGG Girl Seated in a Chair.jpg|''Girl Seated in a Chair'', 1904, Solomon R. Guggenheim MuseumGustav Klimt, Portrait of a Woman, c. 1910, NGA 48302.jpg|''Portrait of a Woman'', c. 1910, National Gallery of ArtKlimt Mulher sentada.jpg|''Seated woman masturbating'', 1913" ], [ "Selected works", "''Sonja Knips'', 1898''Rosebushes under the Trees'', c. 1905''Oberösterreichisches Bauernhaus'', 1911Lady with a Fan'', c. 1917–18, Klimt's last painting* Klimt University of Vienna Ceiling Paintings* ''Palais Stoclet'' mosaic in Brussels* ''Fable'' (1883)* ''Idylle'' (1884)* The Theatre in Taormina (1886–1888), Burgtheater, Vienna* ''Auditorium in the Old Burgtheater, Vienna'' (1888)* ''Portrait of Joseph Pembauer, the Pianist and Piano Teacher'' (1890)* ''Ancient Greece II (Girl from Tanagra)'' (1890–91)* ''Portrait of a Lady'' (Frau Heymann?)", "(1894)* ''Music I'' (1895)* ''Love'' (1895)* ''Sculpture'' (1896)* ''Tragedy'' (1897)* ''Music II'' (1898)* ''Pallas Athene'' (1898)* ''Flowing water'' (1898)* ''Portrait of Sonja Knips'' (1898)* ''Fish Blood'' (1898)* ''Schubert at the Piano'' (destroyed 1899)* ''After the Rain (Garden with Chickens in St Agatha)'' (1899)* ''Nymphs (Silver Fish)'' (1899)* ''Mermaids'' (1899)* Philosophy (1899–1907)* ''Nuda Veritas'' (1899)* ''Portrait of Serena Lederer'' (1899)* ''Medicine'' (Hygieia) (1900–1907)* ''Music'' (Lithograph) (1901)* ''Judith I'' (1901)* ''Buchenwald'' (Birkenwald) (1901)* ''Gold Fish (To my critics)'' (1901–02)* ''Insel im Attersee'' (1901–1902)* ''Portrait of Gertha Felsovanyi'' (1902)* ''Portrait of Emilie Flöge'' (1902)* ''Beech Forest'' (1902)* ''Beech Grove I'' (1902)* ''Beethoven Frieze'' (1902)* ''Beech woods'' (1903)* ''Hope'' (1903)* ''Pear Tree'' (1903)* ''Life is a struggle'' (1903)* ''Jurisprudence'' (1903–1907)* ''Water Serpents I'' (Wasserschlangen I, 1904–1907)* ''Water Serpents II'' (Wasserschlangen II, 1904–1907)* ''The Three Ages of Woman'' (1905)* ''Portrait of Margaret Stonborough-Wittgenstein'' (1905)* ''Farm Garden (Flower Garden)'' (1905–06)* ''The Stoclet Frieze'' (1905–1909)* ''Portrait of Fritza Riedler'' (1906)* ''Sunflower'' (1906–07)* ''Farm Garden with Sunflowers'' (1907)* ''Danaë'' (1907)* ''Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I'' (1907)* ''Poppy Field'' (1907)* ''Hope II'' (1907–08)* on the Attersee I (1908)* ''The Kiss'' (1907–08)* ''Lady with Hat and Feather Boa'' (1909)* ''The Tree of Life'' (1909)* ''Judith II'' ''(Salomé)'' (1909)* ''Black Feather Hat (Lady with Feather Hat)'' (1910)* ''Schloss Kammer on the Attersee III'' (1910)* ''The Park'' (1910)* ''Death and Life'' (1911)* ''Cottage Garden with Crucifix'' (destroyed) (1911–12)* ''Apple Tree'' (1912)* ''Forester's House, Weissenbach on Lake Attersee'' (1912)* ''Portrait of Mäda Gertrude Primavesi'' (1912)* ''Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer II'' (1912)* ''The Maiden (Die Jungfrau)'' (1913)* ''Semi-nude seated, reclining'' (1913)* ''Semi-nude seated, with closed eyes'' (1913)* ''Portrait of Eugenia Primavesi'' (1913–14)* ''Lovers, drawn from the right'' (1914)* ''Portrait of Elisabeth Bachofen-Echt'' (1914)* ''Semi-nude lying, drawn from the right'' (1914–15)* ''Portrait of Friederike Maria Beer'' (1916)* ''Houses in Unterach on the Attersee'' (1916)* ''Death and Life'' (1916)* ''Garden Path with Chickens'' (destroyed)(1916)* ''The Girl-Friends'' (destroyed) (1916–17)* ''Woman seated with thighs apart'', drawing (1916–17)* ''The Dancer'' (1916–1918)* ''Leda'' (destroyed) (1917)* ''Portrait of a Lady, en face'' (1917–18)* ''Adam and Eve'' (unfinished, 1917–18)* ''Portrait of Johanna Staude'' (unfinished, 1917–18)* ''The Bride'' (unfinished, 1917–18)* ''Lady with a Fan'', c. 1917–18, Klimt's last painting" ], [ "Legacy", "===Posthumous auction history===Klimt's reconstructed studio (2013) at the Klimt Villa.", "On display, copies of the paintings ''Woman with Fan'' and ''The Bride'' (both c. 1917–18)Klimt's paintings have brought some of the highest prices recorded for individual works of art.", "In November 2003, Klimt's ''Landhaus am Attersee'' sold for $29,128,000, but that sale was soon eclipsed by prices paid for Willem de Kooning's ''Woman III'' and later Klimt's own ''Adele Bloch-Bauer II'', the latter of which sold for $150 million in 2016.More frequently than paintings, however, the artist's works on paper can be found on the art market.", "The art market database Artprice lists 67 auction entries for paintings, but 1564 for drawings and watercolors.", "The most expensive drawing sold so far was \"Reclining Female Nude Facing Left\", which was made between 1914 and 1915 and sold in London in 2008 for .", "However, the majority of the art trade traditionally takes place privately through galleries such as Wienerroither & Kohlbacher, which specialize in the trade with original works by Gustav Klimt and Egon Schiele and regularly present these at monographic exhibitions and international art fairs.In 2006, the 1907 portrait, ''Adele Bloch-Bauer I'', was purchased for the Neue Galerie New York by Ronald Lauder reportedly for US$135 million, surpassing Picasso's 1905 ''Boy With a Pipe'' (sold 5 May 2004 for $104 million), as the highest reported price ever paid for a painting up to that point.On 7 August 2006, Christie's auction house announced it was handling the sale of the remaining four works by Klimt that were recovered by Maria Altmann and her co-heirs after their long legal battle against Austria (see ''Republic of Austria v. Altmann'').", "Altmann's fight to regain her family's paintings has been the subject of a number of documentary films, including ''Adele's Wish''.", "Her struggle also became the subject of the dramatic film the ''Woman in Gold'', a movie inspired by ''Stealing Klimt'', the documentary featuring Maria Altmann herself.", "The portrait of ''Adele Bloch-Bauer II'' was sold at auction in November 2006 for $88 million, the third-highest priced piece of art at auction at the time.", "''The Apple Tree I'' (c. 1912) sold for $33 million, ''Birch Forest'' (1903) sold for $40.3 million, and ''Houses in Unterach on Lake Atter'' (1916) sold for $31 million.", "Collectively, the five restituted paintings netted more than $327 million.", "The painting ''Litzlberg am Attersee'' was auctioned for $40.4 million November 2011.Klimt's last painting, ''Lady with a Fan'' (''Dame mit Fächer'', 1918), is sold by Sotheby's in London on 27 June 2023 for UK£85.3M (US$108.4) to a Hong Kong collector, the highest-priced artwork ever sold at auction in Europe.===Visual art===Gustav Klimt – ''Beech Grove I'', 1902According to the writer Frank Whitford: \"Klimt of course, is an important artist—he's a very ''popular'' artist—but in terms of the history of art, he's a very unimportant artist.", "Although he sums up so much in his work, about the society in which he found himself—in art historical terms his effect was negligible.", "So he's an artist really in a cul-de-sac.\"", "Klimt's work had a strong influence on the paintings of Egon Schiele, with whom he would collaborate to found the ''Kunsthalle'' (Hall of Art) in 1917, to try to keep local artists from going abroad.", "Artists who reinterpreted Klimt's work include Slovak artist Rudolf Fila.===Cultural influence===Already during his lifetime Klimt influenced other artists, such as the Italian Liberty style artist Galileo Chini (1873–1956).", "Klimt was exhibited at the 1910 Venice Biennale.", "Chini and Vittorio Zecchin (1878–1947) created a number of panels in 1914 for the Venice Hotel Terminus called \"La Primavera\" and \"Mille e una notte\".", "These were later exhibited in the Boncompagni Ludovisi Decorative Art Museum.In 1972, the Vienna State Opera presented a new production of ''Salome'', an opera by Oscar Wilde and Richard Strauss, in a Klimt inspired stage setting and costumes by Jürgen Rose.", "This production, directed by Boleslaw Barlog and first conducted by Karl Böhm, became extremely popular and stayed in the repertoire for nearly fifty years.", "It was shown in 265 performances and went on tour to Florence, Washington and twice to Japan.In 2006, an Austrian art-house biographical film about his life was released starring John Malkovich as Klimt.", "In 2008, the Couturier John Galliano found inspiration for the Christian Dior Spring-Summer 2008 haute couture collection in Klimt's work.", "The 2019 collection of designer Alexander McQueen was partially inspired by Klimt.Several of Klimt's most famous works from his golden period inspired the title sequence for the animated adaptation of the manga series, ''Elfen Lied'', in which the art is recreated to fit with the series' own characters and is arranged as a montage with the song \"Lilium\".", "The opening to the anime ''Sound of the Sky'' also is largely inspired by Klimt's works, which was also directed by the same director as ''Elfen Lied''.", "The design of the land of Centopia on the TV series ''Mia and Me'' is inspired by Klimt's works.", "The art of the video game ''Transistor'' also uses patterns and embellishments inspired by Klimt.Gustav Klimt and his work have been the subjects of many collector coins and medals, such as the 100 Euro Painting Gold Coin, issued on 5 November 2003, by the Austrian Mint.", "The obverse depicts Klimt in his studio with two unfinished paintings on easels.Autochrome technology, 1910s Tawny Chatmon, an American photographic artist known for her portraits of Black children overlaid with gold leaf and paint, has sought to place Black figures in glittering gold clothing inspired by Klimt's lavish portraits of white Viennese women.Elements of the portrait ''First Lady Michelle Obama'', by Amy Sherald in 2018, have been noted by art critics to have been influenced by Klimt, in particular the ''Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I''.", "One commentator noted the similarity to fashion designed by Klimt's muse Emilie Louise Flöge.===Commemoration of 150th anniversary of birth===The city of Vienna, Austria had many special exhibitions commemorating the 150th anniversary of Klimt's birth in 2012.Google commemorated Gustav Klimt with a Google doodle celebrating Klimt's painting ''The Kiss'' on his 150th birthday, 14 July 2012.In 2012, the Austrian Mint began a five-coin gold series to coincide with the 150th anniversary of Klimt's birth.", "The first 50 Euro gold coin was issued on 25 January 2012 and featured a portrait of Klimt on the obverse and a portion of his painting of Adele Bloch-Bauer.===Gustav Klimt Foundation===In 2013, the Gustav Klimt Foundation was set up by Ursula Ucicky, widow of Klimt's illegitimate son Gustav Ucicky, with a mission to \"preserve and disseminate Gustav Klimt's legacy.\"", "The managing director of the Leopold Museum, Peter Weinhäupl, was appointed as Chairman of the foundation.", "As a reaction, the museum's director Tobias G. Natter resigned in protest, citing Ucicky's past as a Nazi propaganda film-maker.===Nazi looted art: restitution and litigation===In 2000, a government committee recommended that Klimt's ''Lady with Hat and Feather Boa'', in Belvedere Museum in Vienna, be restituted to the heirs of the Jewish family that had owned it before the Nazi Anschluss.National Public Radio reported on 17 January 2006 that \"The Austrian National Gallery is being compelled by a national arbitration board to return five paintings by Gustav Klimt to a Los Angeles based woman, the heir of a Jewish family that had its art stolen by the Nazis.", "The paintings are estimated to be worth at least $150 million.\"", "This incident, involving Maria Altmann, was subsequently made into the Hollywood movie ''Woman in Gold'', starring Helen Mirren.In 2009 the Lentos Art Museum in Linz, Austria restituted Klimt's Portrait of Ria Munk III (Frauenbildnis) to the heirs of Aranka Munk, a Jewish art collector in Vienna who was murdered in the Holocaust.", "The looted portrait was of her daughter.", "The paintings, including 1907's ''Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I'', were sold by auction house Christie's for $325 million in 2006.In 2021 the French minister of culture announced that the only Klimt in France's national collections was Nazi loot which should be restituted to the heirs of the Jewish family that had been persecuted by Nazis.", "''Rosebushes Under the Trees'', painted in 1905, had been owned by Nora Stiasi, who had been forced to sell it before being murdered by the Nazis.", "It is currently hanging in France's Orsay Museum which purchased it from Swiss art dealer Peter Nathan in 1980.A similar painting, also painted by Klimt and known as ''Apple Trees II'', which was also Nazi loot, was mistakenly returned to the wrong family by the Austrian authorities.Other Klimts that have been the object of ownership battles owing to a history of Nazi looting include the ''Beethoven Frieze'', ''Water Snakes II'', ''Blooming Meadow'' and ''Portrait of Gertrude Lowe''.In 2023, art collector Ronald S. Lauder, agreed to restitute and repurchase Klimt's “The Black Feather Hat,” which had belonged to Irene Beran, before she fled the Nazis.", "The painting's provenance was unclear after it left Beran's collection, resurfacing in Stuttgart in connection to the Nazi Friedrich Welz.", "Beran’s mother and former husband Philip were murdered by the Nazis after being deported to the Theresienstadt concentration camp ." ], [ "See also", "* ''Bride of the Wind'' (biopic)* Gustav Klimt's list of paintings* Japonism* Klimt Villa* Lost artworks* List of Austrian artists and architects* List of claims for restitution for Nazi-looted art* ''Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*Tobias G. Natter, Max Hollein (Eds.", "): ''Klimt & Rodin: An Artistic Encounter'', DelMonico Books – Prestel Publishing, Munich 2017, .", "*Tobias G. Natter (Ed.", "): ''Gustav Klimt: The Complete Paintings'', Taschen, Cologne 2012, .", "* O'Connor, Anne-Marie (2012).", "''The Lady in Gold, The Extraordinary Tale of Gustav Klimt's Masterpiece, Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer'', Alfred A. Knopf, New York, .", "* Tobias G. Natter, Christoph Grunenberg (Eds.", "):''Gustav Klimt.", "Painting, Design and Modern Life'', Tate Publishing, London 2008, .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* Salfellner, Harald (2018), ''Klimt.", "An Illustrated Life''.", "* The Belvedere Vienna & The Van Gogh Museum Amsterdam (editors) (2023), ''Klimt.", "Inspired by Van Gogh, Rodin, Matisse...''.", "Hirmer.", "." ], [ "Further reading", "*Kallir, Jane, Alfred Weidinger: ''Gustav Klimt.", "In Search of the Total Artwork''.", "Prestel, New York 2009, *Kränsel, Nina: ''Gustav Klimt''.", "Prestel, 2007, *Weidinger, Alfred.", "''Klimt.", "Catalogue Raisonné'', Prestel, New York, 2007, *Czernin, Hubertus: ''Die Fälschung: Der Fall Bloch-Bauer und das Werk Gustav Klimts''.", "Czernin Verlag, Vienna 2006.", "* Tobias G. Natter, Max Hollein (Eds.", "): ''The Naked Truth: Klimt, Schiele, Kokoschka and other Scandals'', Prestel, Munich, 2005, .", "* Tobias G. Natter: ''Die Welt von Klimt, Schiele und Kokoschka.", "Sammler und Mäzene'', DuMont, Cologne 2003, .", "*Schorske, Carl E. \"Gustav Klimt: Painting and the Crisis of the Liberal Ego\" in ''Fin-de-Siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture''.", "Vintage Books, 1981." ], [ "External links", "* ''Adele's Wish'' Documentary film on the Bloch-Bauer court case (''Republic of Austria v. Altmann'')* The Bloch-Bauer court case* Klimt's Last Retrospective by Monica Strauss** \"This Kiss to the Whole World\" ''Klimt and the Vienna Secession'' (NYARC)* ''iKlimt'', The Life and Work of Gustav Klimt* Klimt vs. Klimt: Google's Pocket Galery, including three paintings colorized by AI, cf.", "A.I.", "Digitally Resurrects Trio of Lost Gustav Klimt Paintings" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Groucho Marx" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Julius Henry''' \"'''Groucho'''\" '''Marx''' (; October 2, 1890 – August 19, 1977) was an American comedian, actor, writer, and singer who performed in film and vaudeville and on television, radio, and the stage.", "He was a master of quick wit and is considered one of America's greatest comedians.He made 13 feature films as a team with his brothers, who performed under the name the Marx Brothers, of whom he was the third born.", "He also had a successful solo career, primarily on radio and television, most notably as the host of the game show ''You Bet Your Life''.His distinctive appearance, carried over from his days in vaudeville, included quirks such as an exaggerated stooped posture, spectacles, cigar, and a thick greasepaint mustache (later a real mustache) and eyebrows.", "These exaggerated features resulted in the creation of one of the most recognizable and ubiquitous novelty disguises, known as Groucho glasses: a one-piece mask consisting of horn-rimmed glasses, a large plastic nose, bushy eyebrows and mustache." ], [ "Early life", "Julius Henry Marx was born on October 2, 1890, in Manhattan, New York City.", "Marx stated that he was born in a room above a butcher's shop on East 78th Street, \"Between Lexington and Third\", as he told Dick Cavett in a 1969 television interview.", "The Marx children grew up in a turn-of-the-century building at 179 East 93rd Street off Lexington Avenue in a neighborhood now known as Carnegie Hill on the Upper East Side of the borough of Manhattan.", "His older brother Harpo, in his memoir ''Harpo Speaks'', called the building \"the first real home I knew\".", "It was populated with European immigrants, mostly artisans.", "Just across the street were the oldest brownstones in the area, owned by people including the well-connected Loew Brothers and William Orth.", "The Marx family lived there \"for about 14 years\", Groucho also told Cavett.The only known photo of all five Marx brothers with their parents in New York City, 1915; from left: Groucho (aged 25), Gummo (aged 22), Minnie (mother), Zeppo (aged 14), Frenchie (father), Chico (aged 28), and Harpo (aged 27)Marx's family was Jewish.", "His mother was Miene \"Minnie\" Schoenberg, whose family came from Dornum in northern Germany when she was 16 years old.", "His father was Simon \"Sam\" Marx, who changed his name from Marrix, and was called \"Frenchie\" by his sons throughout his life, because he and his family came from Alsace in France.", "Minnie's brother was Al Schoenberg, who shortened his name to Al Shean when he went into show business as half of Gallagher and Shean, a noted vaudeville act of the early 20th century.", "According to Marx, when Shean visited, he would throw the local waifs a few coins so that when he knocked at the door he would be surrounded by adoring fans.", "Marx and his brothers respected his opinions and asked him on several occasions to write some material for them.Minnie Marx did not have an entertainment industry career but had intense ambition for her sons to go on the stage like their uncle.", "While pushing her second son Leonard (Chico Marx) in piano lessons, she found that Julius had a pleasant soprano voice and the ability to remain on key.", "Julius's early career goal was to become a doctor, but the family's need for income forced him out of school at the age of twelve.", "By that time Julius had become a voracious reader, particularly fond of Horatio Alger.", "Marx continued to overcome his lack of formal education by becoming very well-read.After a few stabs at entry-level office work and jobs suitable for adolescents, Marx took to the stage as a boy singer with the Gene Leroy Trio, debuting at the Ramona Theatre in Grand Rapids, Michigan, on July 16, 1905.Marx reputedly claimed that he was \"hopelessly average\" as a vaudevillian, but this was typical Marx, wisecracking in his true form.", "By 1909, Minnie Marx had assembled her sons into an undistinguished vaudeville singing group billed as \"The Four Nightingales\".", "The brothers Julius, Milton (Gummo Marx) and Arthur (originally Adolph, but Harpo Marx from 1911) and another boy singer, Lou Levy, traveled the U.S. vaudeville circuits to little fanfare.", "After exhausting their prospects in the East, the family moved to La Grange, Illinois, to play the Midwest.", "After a particularly dispiriting performance in Nacogdoches, Texas, Julius, Milton, and Arthur began cracking jokes onstage for their own amusement.", "Much to their surprise, the audience liked them better as comedians than as singers.", "They modified the then-popular Gus Edwards comedy skit \"School Days\" and renamed it \"Fun In Hi Skule\".", "The Marx Brothers performed variations on this routine for the next seven years.For a time in vaudeville, all the brothers performed using ethnic accents.", "Leonard, the oldest, developed the Italian accent he used as Chico Marx to convince some roving bullies that he was Italian, not Jewish.", "Arthur, the next oldest, donned a curly red wig and became \"Patsy Brannigan\", a stereotypical Irish character.", "His discomfort when speaking on stage led to his uncle Al Shean's suggestion that he stop speaking altogether and play the role in mime.", "Julius Marx's character from \"Fun In Hi Skule\" was an ethnic German, so Julius played him with a German accent.", "After the sinking of the in 1915, public anti-German sentiment was widespread, and Marx's German character was booed, so he dropped the accent and developed the fast-talking wise-guy character that became his trademark.The Marx Brothers became the biggest comedic stars of the Palace Theatre in New York, which billed itself as the \"Valhalla of Vaudeville\".", "Brother Chico's deal-making skills resulted in three hit plays on Broadway.", "No other comedy routine had ever so infected the Broadway circuit.", "All of this stage work predated their Hollywood career.", "By the time the Marxes made their first movie, they were already major stars with sharply honed skills; and by the time Groucho was relaunched to stardom in television on ''You Bet Your Life'', he had been performing successfully for half a century." ], [ "Career", "=== Vaudeville ===Marx started his career in vaudeville in 1905 when he joined up with an act called The Leroy Trio.", "He answered a newspaper want ad by a man named Robin Leroy who was looking for a boy to join his group as a singer.", "Marx was hired along with fellow vaudeville actor Johnny Morris.", "Through this act, Marx got his first taste of life as a vaudeville performer.", "In 1909, Marx and his brothers had become a group act, at first called The Three Nightingales and later The Four Nightingales.", "The brothers' mother, Minnie Marx, was the group's manager, putting them together and booking their shows.", "The group had a rocky start, performing in less than adequate venues and rarely, if ever, being paid for their performances.", "Eventually brother Milton (Gummo) left the act to serve in World War I and was replaced by Herbert (Zeppo), and the group became known as the Marx Brothers.", "Their first successful show was ''Fun In Hi Skule'' (1910).=== Hollywood ===The Marx Brothers in 1931 (from top, Chico, Harpo, Groucho and Zeppo)Marx made 26 movies, including 13 with his brothers Chico and Harpo.", "Marx developed a routine as a wisecracking hustler with a distinctive chicken-walking lope, an exaggerated greasepaint mustache and eyebrows and an ever-present cigar, improvising insults to stuffy dowagers (frequently played by Margaret Dumont) and anyone else who stood in his way.", "As the Marx Brothers, he and his brothers starred in a series of popular stage shows and movies.Their first movie was a silent film made in 1921 that was never released, and is believed to have been destroyed at the time.", "A decade later, the team made two of their Broadway hits—''The Cocoanuts'' and ''Animal Crackers''—into movies.", "Other successful films were ''Monkey Business'', ''Horse Feathers'', ''Duck Soup'' and ''A Night at the Opera''.", "One quip from Marx concerned his response to Sam Wood, the director of ''A Night at the Opera''.", "Furious with the Marx Brothers' ad-libs and antics on the set, Wood yelled in disgust: \"You can't make an actor out of clay.\"", "Marx responded, \"Nor a director out of Wood.", "\"Duck Soup'' (1933)Marx also worked as a radio comedian and show host.", "One of his earliest stints was a short-lived series in 1932, ''Flywheel, Shyster and Flywheel,'' costarring Chico.", "Though most of the scripts and discs were thought to have been destroyed, all but one of the scripts were found in 1988 in the Library of Congress.In 1947, Marx was asked to host a radio quiz program ''You Bet Your Life.''", "It was broadcast by ABC and then CBS before moving to NBC.", "It moved from radio to television on October 5, 1950, and ran for eleven years.", "Filmed before an audience, the show consisted of Marx bantering with the contestants and ad-libbing jokes before briefly quizzing them.", "The show was responsible for popularizing the phrases \"Say the secret word and the duck will come down and give you fifty dollars,\" \"Who's buried in Grant's Tomb?\"", "and \"What color is the White House?\"", "(asked to reward a losing contestant a consolation prize).Chico on the set of ''A Day at the Races'' (1937)Throughout his career Marx introduced a number of memorable songs in films, including \"Hooray for Captain Spaulding\" and \"Hello, I Must Be Going\", in ''Animal Crackers'', \"Whatever It Is, I'm Against It\", \"Everyone Says I Love You\" and \"Lydia the Tattooed Lady\".", "Frank Sinatra, who once quipped that the only thing he could do better than Marx was sing, made a film with Marx and Jane Russell in 1951 entitled ''Double Dynamite''.=== Mustache, eyebrows, and walk ===In public and off-camera, Harpo and Chico were hard to recognize without their wigs and costumes, and it was almost impossible for fans to recognize Groucho without his trademark eyeglasses, fake eyebrows, and mustache.Groucho and Eve Arden in a scene from ''At the Circus'' (1939)The greasepaint mustache and eyebrows originated spontaneously prior to a vaudeville performance in the early 1920s when he did not have time to apply the pasted-on mustache he had been using (or, according to his autobiography, simply did not enjoy the removal of the mustache because of the effects of tearing an adhesive bandage off the same patch of skin every night).", "After applying the greasepaint mustache, a quick glance in the mirror revealed his natural hair eyebrows were too undertoned and did not match the rest of his face, so Marx added the greasepaint to his eyebrows and headed for the stage.", "The absurdity of the greasepaint was never discussed on-screen, but in a famous scene in ''Duck Soup,'' where both Chicolini (Chico) and Pinky (Harpo) disguise themselves as Groucho, they are briefly seen applying the greasepaint, implicitly answering any question a viewer might have had about where he got his mustache and eyebrows.Marx was asked to apply the greasepaint mustache once more for ''You Bet Your Life'' when it came to television, but he refused, opting instead to grow a real one, which he wore for the rest of his life.", "By this time, his eyesight had weakened enough for him to actually need corrective lenses; before then, his eyeglasses had merely been a stage prop.", "He debuted this new, and now much-older, appearance in ''Love Happy,'' the Marx Brothers's last film as a comedy team.Marx did paint the old character mustache over his real one on a few rare occasions, including a TV sketch with Jackie Gleason on the latter's variety show in the 1960s (in which they performed a variation on the song \"Mister Gallagher and Mister Shean,\" co-written by Marx's uncle Al Shean) and the 1968 Otto Preminger film ''Skidoo''.", "In his late 70s at the time, Marx remarked on his appearance: \"I looked like I was embalmed.\"", "He played a mob boss called \"God\" and, according to Marx, \"both my performance and the film were God-awful!", "\"The exaggerated walk, with one hand on the small of his back and his torso bent almost 90 degrees at the waist, was a parody of a fad from the 1880s and 1890s.", "Fashionable young men of the upper classes would affect a walk with their right hand held fast to the base of their spines, and with a slight lean forward at the waist and a very slight twist toward the right with the left shoulder, allowing the left hand to swing free with the gait.", "Edmund Morris, in his biography ''The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt'', describes a young Roosevelt, newly elected to the State Assembly, walking into the House Chamber for the first time in this trendy, affected gait, somewhat to the amusement of the older and more rural members.", "Marx exaggerated this fad to a marked degree, and the comedic effect was enhanced by how out of date the fashion was by the 1940s and 1950s." ], [ "Personal life", "Chico, and Harpo) by Yusuf Karsh, 1946Marx's three marriages ended in divorce.", "His first wife was chorus girl Ruth Johnson (m. 1920–1942).", "He was 29 and she was 19 at the time of their wedding.", "The couple had two children, Arthur Marx and Miriam Marx.", "His second wife was Kay Marvis (m. 1945–1951), née Catherine Dittig, former wife of Leo Gorcey.", "Marx was 54 and Kay was 21 at the time of their marriage.", "They had a daughter, Melinda Marx.", "His third wife was actress Eden Hartford (m. 1954–1969).", "He was 64 and she was 24 at the time of their wedding.During the early 1950s, Marx described his perfect woman: \"Someone who looks like Marilyn Monroe and talks like George S.", "Kaufman.", "\"Marx was denied membership in an informal symphonietta of friends (including Harpo) organized by Ben Hecht, because he could play only the mandolin.", "When the group began its first rehearsal at Hecht's home, Marx rushed in and demanded silence from the \"lousy amateurs\".", "The musicians discovered him conducting the Los Angeles Symphony Orchestra in a performance of the overture to ''Tannhäuser'' in Hecht's living room.", "Marx was allowed to join the symphonietta.Later in life, Marx would sometimes note to talk show hosts, not entirely jokingly, that he was unable to actually insult anyone, because the target of his comment would assume that it was a Groucho-esque joke, and would laugh.Melinda, 1953Despite his lack of formal education, he wrote many books, including his autobiography, ''Groucho and Me'', (1959) and ''Memoirs of a Mangy Lover'' (1963).", "He was a friend of such literary figures as Booth Tarkington, T. S. Eliot, and Carl Sandburg.", "Much of his personal correspondence with those and other figures is featured in the book ''The Groucho Letters'' (1967) with an introduction and commentary on the letters written by Marx, who donated his letters to the Library of Congress.", "His daughter Miriam published a collection of his letters to her in 1992 titled ''Love, Groucho.", "''In ''Life with Groucho: A Son's Eye View'', Arthur Marx relates that in his latter years, Groucho increasingly referred to himself by the name Hackenbush, referring to the character of that name he played in ''A Day at the Races''.Marx made serious efforts to learn to play the guitar.", "In the 1932 film ''Horse Feathers'', he performs the film's love theme \"Everyone Says I Love You\" for costar Thelma Todd on a Gibson L-5.In July 1937, an America-vs.-England pro-celebrity tennis doubles match was organized, featuring Marx and Ellsworth Vines playing against Charlie Chaplin and Fred Perry, to open the new clubhouse at the Beverly Hills Tennis Club.", "Marx appeared on court with twelve rackets and a suitcase, leaving Chaplin—who took tennis seriously—bemused, before he asked what was in it.", "Marx asked Chaplin what was in his, with Chaplin responding he didn't have one.", "Marx replied, \"What kind of tennis player are you?\"", "After playing only a few games, Marx sat on the court and unpacked an elaborate picnic lunch from his suitcase.Irving Berlin quipped: \"The world would not be in such a snarl, had Marx been Groucho instead of Karl.\"", "In his book ''The Groucho Phile'', Marx says \"I've been a liberal Democrat all my life\", and \"I frankly find Democrats a better, more sympathetic crowd....", "I'll continue to believe that Democrats have a greater regard for the common man than Republicans do\".", "However, during an episode of ''Firing Line'' on July 7, 1967, Marx admitted to voting for Wendell Willkie, the Republican candidate for president in 1940, over Franklin D. Roosevelt, stating that he did not believe that any man should run for more than two terms.", "Marx mentioned in a television interview that he disliked the women's liberation movement." ], [ "Later years", "===''You Bet Your Life''===Marx's radio career was not as successful as his work on stage and in film, though historians such as Gerald Nachman and Michael Barson suggest that, in the case of the single-season ''Flywheel, Shyster, and Flywheel'' (1932), the failure may have been a combination of a poor time slot and the Marx Brothers' returning to Hollywood to make another film.In the mid-1940s, he weathered a depressing lull in his career.", "His radio show ''Blue Ribbon Town'' had failed, and he was unable to sell his proposed sitcom ''The Flotsam Family'' only to see it become a huge hit as ''The Life of Riley'' with William Bendix in the title role.", "By that time, the Marx Brothers as film performers had officially retired.Marx was scheduled to appear on a radio show with Bob Hope.", "Annoyed that he was made to wait in the green room for 40 minutes, he went on the air in a foul mood.", "Hope started by saying \"Why, Groucho Marx!", "Groucho, what are you doing out here in the desert?\"", "Marx retorted, \"Huh, desert, I've been sitting in the dressing room for forty minutes!", "Some desert alright ...\".", "Marx continued to ignore the script, ad-libbing at length, and took it well beyond its allotted time slot.Listening in on the show was producer John Guedel, who had a brainstorm.", "He approached Marx about doing a quiz show, to which Marx derisively retorted, \"A quiz show?", "Only actors who are completely washed up resort to a quiz show!\"", "Undeterred, Guedel proposed that the quiz would be only a backdrop for Marx's interviews of people, and the storm of ad-libbing that they would elicit.", "Marx replied, \"Well, I've had no success in radio, and I can't hold on to a sponsor.", "At this point, I'll try anything!", "\"Marx as main host of ''You Bet Your Life'', 1953''You Bet Your Life'' debuted in October 1947 on ABC radio (which aired it from 1947 to 1949), sponsored by costume jewelry manufacturer Allen Gellman; and then on CBS (1949–50), and finally NBC.", "The show was on radio only from 1947 to 1950; on both radio and television from 1950 to 1960; and on television only, from 1960 to 1961.The show proved a huge hit, being one of the most popular on television by the mid-1950s, garnering a number one rating in 1953.With George Fenneman as his announcer and straight man, Marx entertained his audiences with rapier wit and improvised conversation with his guests.", "Since ''You Bet Your Life'' was mostly ad-libbed and unscripted — although writers did pre-interview the guests and feed Marx ready-made lines in advance — the producers insisted that the network prerecord it instead of it being broadcast live.", "There were three reasons for this: prerecording provided Marx with time to fish around for funny exchanges, any intervening dead spots could be edited out; and most importantly to protect the network from what was considered risqué, since Marx was a notorious loose cannon and known to say almost anything.", "The television show ran for 11 seasons until it was canceled in 1961.Ironically longtime major sponsor, automobile ''marque'' DeSoto went out of business for declining sales that same year.", "For the DeSoto ads, Marx would sometimes say: \"Tell 'em Groucho sent you\", or \"Try a DeSoto before you decide.\"", "In the mid-1970s, episodes of the show were syndicated and rebroadcast as ''The Best of Groucho''.The program's theme music was an instrumental version of \"Hooray for Captain Spaulding,\" which became increasingly identified as Marx's personal theme song.", "A recording of the song with Marx and the Ken Lane singers with an orchestra directed by Victor Young was released in 1952.Another recording made by Marx during this period was \"The Funniest Song in the World,\" released on the Young People's Records label in 1949.It was a series of five original children's songs with a connecting narrative about a monkey and his fellow zoo creatures.One of Marx's most oft-quoted remarks may have occurred during a 1947 radio episode.", "Marx was interviewing Charlotte Story, who had borne 20 children.", "When Marx asked why she had chosen to raise such a large family, Mrs. Story is said to have replied, \"I love my husband,\" to which Marx responded, \"I love my cigar, but I take it out of my mouth once in a while.\"", "The remark was judged too risqué to be aired, according to the anecdote, and was edited out before broadcast.", "Charlotte Story and her husband Marion, indeed parents of 20 children, were real people who appeared on the program.", "Audio recordings of the interview exist, and a reference to cigars is made (\"With each new kid, do you go around passing out cigars?", "\"), but there is no evidence of the claimed remark.", "\"I get credit all the time for things I never said,\" Marx told Roger Ebert in 1972.", "\"You know that line in ''You Bet Your Life''?", "The guy says he has seventeen kids and I say, 'I smoke a cigar, but I take it out of my mouth occasionally'?", "I never said that.\"", "Marx's 1976 memoir recounts the episode as fact, but co-writer Hector Arce relied mostly on sources other than Marx himself—who was by then in his mid eighties, in ill health and mentally compromised—and was probably unaware that Marx had specifically denied making the observation.", "Head writer Bernie Smith recalled in a 1996 interview that the remark was indeed made—but again, well after the fact.In 1946, as part of the marketing campaign for the Marx Brothers film ''A Night in Casablanca'', Marx created a storyline that Warner Bros. Pictures threatened to sue him, contending that that title was too similar to their 1942 film ''Casablanca''.", "Groucho wrote open letters \"responding\" to the four Warner brothers, including one in which he questions their own use of various words, such as: wondering if \"in 1471, Ferdinand Balboa Warner, your great-great-grandfather,... stumbled on the shores of Africa and... named it Casablanca\"; suggesting that \"David Burbank|David Burbank's survivors aren't too happy with the fact that\" Warner Bros. Burbank, California studios are called their \"Burbank studios\"; and even suggesting a Marx Brothers legal action addressing \"What about 'Warner Brothers'?", "... Professionally, we were brothers long before you were.", "\"=== Other work ===On August 5, 1948, Marx's comedy play ''April Fool'' premiered at the Lobero Theatre in Santa Barbara, California, to mediocre reviews.", "Penned by Groucho Marx and Norman Krasna, the play was rewritten and retitled ''Time for Elizabeth'', and opened at the Fulton Theatre in New York City on September 27, 1948, where it closed after only 8 performances.", "By the time ''You Bet Your Life'' debuted on TV on October 5, 1950, Marx had grown a real mustache (which he had already sported earlier in the films ''Copacabana'' and ''Love Happy'').During a tour of Germany in 1958, accompanied by then-wife Eden, daughter Melinda, Robert Dwan and Dwan's daughter Judith, he climbed a pile of rubble that marked the site of Adolf Hitler's bunker, the site of Hitler's death, and performed a two-minute Charleston.", "He later remarked to Richard J. Anobile in ''The Marx Brothers Scrapbook,'' \"Not much satisfaction after he killed six million Jews!", "\"Marx as Ko-Ko, 1960In 1960, Marx, a lifelong devotee of the comic operas of Gilbert and Sullivan, appeared as Ko-Ko, the Lord High Executioner, in a televised production of ''The Mikado'' on NBC's ''Bell Telephone Hour''.", "A clip of this is in rotation on Classic Arts Showcase.Another TV show, ''Tell It to Groucho'', premiered January 11, 1962, on CBS, but only lasted five months.", "On October 1, 1962, Marx, after acting as occasional guest host of ''The Tonight Show'' during the six-month interval between Jack Paar and Johnny Carson, introduced Carson as the new host.In 1964, Marx starred in the \"Time for Elizabeth\" episode of ''Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre'', a truncated version of a play that he and Norman Krasna wrote in 1948.In 1965, Marx starred in a weekly show for British TV titled ''Groucho'', broadcast on ITV.", "The program was along similar lines to ''You Bet Your Life'', with Keith Fordyce taking on the Fenneman role.", "However, it was poorly received and lasted only 11 weeks.Marx appeared as a gangster named God in the comedy movie ''Skidoo'' (1968), directed by Otto Preminger, and starring Jackie Gleason and Carol Channing.", "It was released by the studio where the Marx Brothers began their film career, Paramount Pictures.", "The film received almost universally negative reviews.", "Writer Paul Krassner published a story in the February 1981 issue of ''High Times'', relating how Marx prepared for the LSD-themed movie by taking a dose of the drug in Krassner's company, and had a moving, largely pleasant experience.Marx developed friendships with rock star Alice Cooper—the two were photographed together for ''Rolling Stone'' magazine—and television host Dick Cavett, becoming a frequent guest on Cavett's late-night talk show, even appearing in a one-man, 90-minute interview.", "He befriended Elton John when the British singer was staying in California in 1972, insisting on calling him \"John Elton\".", "According to writer Philip Norman, when Marx jokingly pointed his index fingers as if holding a pair of six-shooters, Elton John put up his hands and said, \"Don't shoot me, I'm only the piano player,\" thereby naming the album he had just completed.", "A film poster for the Marx Bros. movie ''Go West'' is visible on the album cover photograph as an homage to Marx.", "Elton John accompanied Marx to a performance of ''Jesus Christ Superstar''.", "As the lights went down, Marx called out, \"Does it have a happy ending?\"", "And during the Crucifixion scene, he declared, \"This is sure to offend the Jews.", "\"Marx and Brooke Hayward, 1961Marx's previous work regained popularity; new books of transcribed conversations were published by Richard J. Anobile and Charlotte Chandler.", "In a BBC interview in 1975, Marx called his greatest achievement having a book selected for cultural preservation in the Library of Congress.", "In a Cavett interview in 1971, Marx said being published in ''The New Yorker'' under his own name, Julius Henry Marx, meant more than all the plays he appeared in.", "As a man who never had formal schooling, to have his writings declared culturally important was a point of great satisfaction.As he passed his 81st birthday in 1971, Marx became increasingly frail, physically and mentally, as a result of a succession of minor strokes and other health issues.", "In 1972, largely at the behest of his companion Erin Fleming, Marx staged a live one-man show at Carnegie Hall that was later released as a double album, ''An Evening with Groucho'', on A&M Records.", "He also made an appearance in 1973 on a short-lived variety show hosted by Bill Cosby.", "Fleming's influence on Marx was controversial.", "Some close to Marx believed that she did much to revive his popularity, and the relationship with a younger woman boosted his ego and vitality.", "Others described her as a Svengali, exploiting an increasingly senile Marx in pursuit of her own stardom.", "Marx's children, particularly Arthur, felt strongly that Fleming was pushing their weak father beyond his physical and mental limits.", "Writer Mark Evanier concurred.On the 1974 Academy Awards telecast which was Groucho Marx's final major public appearance, Jack Lemmon presented him with an honorary Academy Award to a standing ovation.", "The award honored Harpo, Chico, and Zeppo as well: \"in recognition of his brilliant creativity and for the unequalled achievements of the Marx Brothers in the art of motion picture comedy\".", "Noticeably frail, Marx took a bow for his deceased brothers, saying that \"I wish that Harpo and Chico could be here to share with me this great honor.\"", "(Zeppo, still alive, was in the audience).", "He also praised the late Margaret Dumont as a great straight woman who never understood any of his jokes.", "Marx's final appearance was a brief sketch with George Burns in the Bob Hope television special ''Joys'' (a parody of the 1975 movie ''Jaws'') in March 1976.His health continued to decline the following year; when his younger brother Gummo died at age 83 on April 21, 1977, Marx was never told for fear of eliciting still further deterioration of his health.Marx maintained his irrepressible sense of humor to the very end, however.", "George Fenneman, his radio and TV announcer, good-natured foil, and lifelong friend, often related a story of one of his final visits to Marx's home: When the time came to end the visit, Fenneman lifted Marx from his wheelchair, put his arms around his torso, and began to \"walk\" the frail comedian backwards across the room towards his bed.", "As he did, he heard a weak voice in his ear: \"Fenneman,\" whispered Marx, \"you always were a lousy dancer.\"", "When a nurse approached him with a thermometer during his final hospitalization, explaining that she wanted to see if he had a temperature, he responded, \"Don't be silly—everybody has a temperature.\"", "Actor Elliott Gould recalled a similar incident: \"I recall the last time I saw Groucho, he was in the hospital, and he had tubes in his nose and what have you,\" he said.", "\"And when he saw me, he was weak, but he was there; and he put his fingers on the tubes and played them like it was a clarinet.", "Groucho played the tubes for me, which brings me to tears.\"" ], [ "Death", "Niche at Eden Memorial ParkMarx was hospitalized at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center with pneumonia on June 22, 1977, and died there nearly two months later at the age of 86 on August 19, four months after Gummo's death.", "Media coverage of Groucho's death and legacy was overshadowed by the sudden death of Elvis Presley three days previously.His body was cremated and the ashes are interred in the Eden Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles.", "He was survived by his three children and younger brother Zeppo, who outlived him by two years.", "His gravestone bears no epitaph but in one of his last interviews he suggested one: \"Excuse me, I can't stand up.", "\"Litigation over his estate lasted into the 1980s.", "Eventually, his three children were awarded the bulk of the estate, while Erin Fleming, his companion during his final years, was ordered to repay $472,000." ], [ "Legacy", "Marx and John Lennon (a pun on \"Marx\" and \"Lenin\") on a 1994 Abkhazia stamp as a way of asserting the former Soviet republic's independence.Groucho Marx was considered the most recognizable of the Marx Brothers.", "Groucho-like characters and references have appeared in popular culture both during and after his life, some aimed at audiences who may never have seen a Marx Brothers movie.", "Marx's trademark eyeglasses, nose, mustache, and cigar have become icons of comedy—glasses with fake noses and mustaches (referred to as \"Groucho glasses\", \"nose-glasses,\" and other names) are sold by novelty and costume shops around the world.The cover of The Firesign Theatre's 1969 album, ''How Can You Be in Two Places at Once When You're Not Anywhere at All'', subtitled ''All Hail Marx and Lennon'', features images of Groucho Marx and John Lennon.Nat Perrin, close friend of Groucho Marx and writer of several Marx Brothers films, inspired John Astin's portrayal of Gomez Addams on the 1960s TV series ''The Addams Family'' with similarly thick mustache, eyebrows, sardonic remarks, backward logic, and ever-present cigar (pulled from his breast pocket already lit).", "''Minnie's Boys'', a 1970 Broadway musical, focused on the younger years of Marx (played by Lewis J. Stadlen), his brothers, and his mother (played by Shelley Winters).", "Marx received credit as the show's advisor and appeared on ''The Dick Cavett Show'' to promote the production.", "In 1972, at Cannes, Marx was made a Commander in the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres, an honor he was very proud of.", "In a TV episode of MASH titled: \"Yankee Doodle Doctor\" Hawkeye Pierce (Alan Alda) portrays Marx in a parody movie along with Trapper John (Wayne Rogers) portraying Harpo Marx.A meeting with Elton John led to a press photo of Marx pointing both of his index fingers and thumbs at Elton like revolvers.", "John's spontaneous response of holding up his hands and replying, \"Don't shoot me!", "I'm only the piano player!\"", "was so amusing that Elton John reused it as the title of a 1973 album.", "An added Marx homage was that a poster for the Marx Brothers' movie ''Go West'' was included on the cover art.Newspaper ad for ''Animal Crackers'' (1930) with Lillian Roth paragraph.Marx was also known to influence the Warner Bros. cartoon character Bugs Bunny, who recited his famous line \"Of course you realize this means war!\"", "in two of his cartoons in the ''Looney Tunes'' series, ''Long-Haired Hare'' and ''Bully for Bugs'', when his antagonist has offended him.Two albums by British rock band Queen, ''A Night at the Opera'' (1975) and ''A Day at the Races'' (1976), are named after Marx Brothers films.", "In March 1977, Marx invited Queen to visit him in his Los Angeles home; there they performed \"'39\" a cappella.A long-running ad campaign for Vlasic Pickles features an animated stork that imitates Marx's mannerisms and voice.", "On the famous Hollywood Sign in California, one of the \"O\"s is dedicated to Marx.", "Alice Cooper contributed over $27,000 to remodel the sign, in memory of his friend.Actor Frank Ferrante has performed as Groucho Marx on stage since 1986.He continues to tour under rights granted by the Marx family in a show entitled ''An Evening with Groucho'' in theaters throughout the United States and Canada with supporting actors and piano accompanist Jim Furmston.", "In the late 1980s, Ferrante starred as Marx in the off-Broadway and London show ''Groucho: A Life in Revue'', penned by Marx's son Arthur.", "Ferrante portrayed the comedian from age 15 to 85.The show was later filmed for PBS in 2001.In 1982, Gabe Kaplan filmed a version of the same show, entitled ''Groucho''.In the Hungarian dubbed version of Woody Allen's film ''Annie Hall'', a famous quotation told by Alvy Singer (Allen) at the beginning of the film is not attributed to Groucho Marx as in the original, but to Buster Keaton.", "The reason was that in communist Hungary, the name 'Marx' was associated with Karl Marx, and the name was not allowed to be used in such a light, humorous context.Woody Allen's 1996 musical ''Everyone Says I Love You'', in addition to being named for one of Marx's signature songs, ends with a Groucho-themed New Year's Eve party in Paris, which some of the stars, including Allen and Goldie Hawn, attend in full Groucho costume.", "The highlight of the scene is an ensemble song-and-dance performance of \"Hooray for Captain Spaulding\"—done entirely in French.Dylan Dog and his sidekick Groucho (left).", "Art by Luca MarescaGrouchoMostra \"Dylan Dog e motori, gioie e orrori\" - panoramio (26).jpgIn 2008, ''Minnie's Boys'' was remounted Off-Broadway with Erik Liberman as Groucho and Pamela Myers as Minnie Marx.", "Liberman later played Marx in a musical based on ''Flywheel, Shyster, and Flywheel'' called ''The Most Ridiculous Thing You Ever Hoid'' (2010) and at the Obama White House.Groucho, a supporting character in the Italian horror comics series ''Dylan Dog'', is a Groucho Marx impersonator whose character became his permanent personality, and he works with Dylan Dog as his professional sidekick.", "In the English-language version by Dark Horse Comics, to avoid legal complications regarding Groucho Marx's estate, the art was altered so that Groucho no longer sports the Marx brother's signature moustache, and was renamed ''Felix''.Throughout the ''M*A*S*H'' television series, several Groucho homage traits are mirrored in Alan Alda's portrayal of Hawkeye, including the 1972 season one episode \"Yankee Doodle Doctor\" that had a full Groucho impression complete with nose, moustache and glasses.In 2023, notable artist William Kentridge included a drawing of Marx in his solo museum exhibition at The Broad in Los Angeles." ], [ "Filmography", "=== Features ===+ Films with the Marx Brothers Title Year Role Notes ''Humor Risk'' 1921 Villain Previewed once and never released; thought to be lost ''The Cocoanuts'' 1929 Hammer Released by Paramount Pictures; based on a 1925 Marx Brothers Broadway musical ''Animal Crackers'' 1930 Captain Jeffrey Spaulding Released by Paramount; based on a 1928 Marx Brothers Broadway musical ''The House That Shadows Built'' 1931 Caesar's Ghost Short subject; non-theatrical promotional release by Paramount ''Monkey Business'' 1931 Groucho Released by Paramount ''Horse Feathers'' 1932 Professor Quincy Adams Wagstaff Released by Paramount ''Duck Soup'' 1933 Rufus T. Firefly Released by ParamountPost-Zeppo ''A Night at the Opera'' 1935 Otis B. Driftwood Released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer ''A Day at the Races'' 1937 Dr. Hugo Z. Hackenbush Released by MGM ''Room Service'' 1938 Gordon Miller Released by RKO Radio Pictures; based on a 1937 Broadway play ''At the Circus'' 1939 J. Cheever Loophole Released by MGM ''Go West'' 1940 S. Quentin Quale Released by MGM ''The Big Store'' 1941 Wolf J. Flywheel Released by MGM (intended to be their last film) ''A Night in Casablanca'' 1946 Ronald Kornblow Released by United Artists ''Love Happy'' 1949 Detective Sam Grunion Released by United Artists ''Showdown at Ulcer Gulch'' 1957 Stage Conductor (voice) Cameo ''The Story of Mankind'' 1957 Peter Minuit Cameo ''General Electric Theater'' 1959 Suspect in a Police Lineup Episode: \"The Incredible Jewel Robbery\"+ Solo filmography Title Year Role Notes ''Yours for the Asking'' 1936 Sunbather Uncredited cameo ''The King and the Chorus Girl'' 1937 Co-writer with Norman Krasna ''Instatanes'' 1943 Unknown ''Copacabana'' 1947 Lionel Q. Deveraux Released by United Artist ''Mr.", "Music'' 1950 Himself Released by Paramount Pictures ''You Bet Your Life'' 1950–61 Himself (host) Quiz show ''Double Dynamite'' 1951 Emile J. Keck Released by RKO ''A Girl in Every Port'' 1952 Benjamin Linn Released by RKO ''Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter?''", "1957 George Schmidlap Uncredited; released by 20th Century Fox ''The Bell Telephone Hour'' 1960 Ko-Ko Episode: \"The Mikado\" (aired April 29, 1960) ''General Electric Theater'' 1962 John Graham Episode: \"The Hold-Out\" ''Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre'' 1964 Ed Davis Episode: \"Time For Elizabeth\" ''I Dream of Jeannie'' 1967 Himself Episode: \"The Greatest Invention in the World\" ''Skidoo'' 1968 God Released by Paramount ''Julia'' 1968 Mr. Flywheel Episode: \"Farewell, My Friends, Hello\"===Short subjects===*''Hollywood on Parade No.", "11'' (1933)*''Screen Snapshots Series 16, No.", "3'' (1936)*''Sunday Night at the Trocadero'' (1937)*''Screen Snapshots: The Great Al Jolson'' (1955)*''Showdown at Ulcer Gulch'' (1956) (voice)*''Screen Snapshots: Playtime in Hollywood'' (1956)" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Books by Groucho Marx===*''Beds'' (Farrar & Rinehart, 1930)*''Beds'': revised & updated edition (Bobbs-Merrill, 1976 )*''Many Happy Returns: An Unofficial Guide to Your Income-Tax Problems'' Illustrated by Otto Soglow (Simon & Schuster, 1942)* ''Groucho and Me'' (B. Geis Associates, 1959)*''Memoirs of a Mangy Lover'' (B. Geis Associates, 1963)*''The Groucho Letters: Letters From and To Groucho Marx'' (Simon & Schuster, 1967, )*''The Marx Bros, Scrapbook'' with Richard Anobile (Darien House/W W Norton, 1973, )*''The Secret Word Is Groucho'' with Hector Arce (Putnam, 1976)*''The Groucho Phile: An Illustrated Life by Groucho Marx'' with Hector Arce (Galahad, 1976, )===Essays and reporting===**" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Miriam Marx Allen, ''Love, Groucho: Letters From Groucho Marx to His Daughter Miriam'' (1992, )*Charlotte Chandler, ''Hello, I Must Be Going!''", "(1979, )*Robert Dwan, ''As Long as They're Laughing: Groucho Marx and You Bet Your Life'' (2000, )*Stefan Kanfer, ''Groucho: The Life and Times of Julius Henry Marx'' (2000, )*Simon Louvish, ''Monkey Business: The Lives and Legends of the Marx Brothers'' (2001, )*Arthur Marx, ''Son of Groucho'' (1972, )*Glenn Mitchell, ''The Marx Brothers Encyclopedia'' (1996, )*Steve Stoliar, ''Raised Eyebrows: My Years Inside Groucho's House'' (1996, )* ''Julius H. (Groucho) Marx v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue'', 29 T.C.", "88 (1957)" ], [ "External links", "* ***** Groucho Marx Interview – Press Conference London June 1965 (audio file)* FBI Records: The Vault - Groucho Marx at vault.fbi.gov* The Marx Brothers Museum" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Game Boy Advance" ], [ "Introduction", "The ('''GBA''') is a 32-bit handheld game console developed, manufactured and marketed by Nintendo as the successor to the Game Boy Color.", "It was released in Japan on March 21, 2001, in North America on June 11, 2001, in the PAL region on June 22, 2001, and in mainland China as '''iQue Game Boy Advance''' on June 8, 2004.The GBA is part of the sixth generation of video game consoles.", "The original model was followed in 2003 by the Game Boy Advance SP, a redesigned model with a frontlit screen and clamshell form factor.", "A newer revision of the SP with a backlit screen was released in 2005.A miniaturized redesign, the Game Boy Micro, was released in September 2005., 81.51 million units of the Game Boy Advance series have been sold worldwide.", "Its successor, the Nintendo DS, was released in November 2004 and is backward compatible with Game Boy Advance software." ], [ "History", "Unlike the Game Boy and Game Boy Color, which have the \"portrait\" form factor (designed by Gunpei Yokoi), the Game Boy Advance has a \"landscape\" form factor, putting the buttons to the sides of the device instead of below the screen.", "It was designed by the French designer Gwénaël Nicolas and his Tokyo-based design studio Curiosity Inc.News of a successor to the Game Boy Color (GBC) first emerged at the Space World trade show in late August 1999, where it was reported that two new handheld systems were in development: an improved version of the GBC with wireless online connectivity, codenamed the Advanced Game Boy (AGB), and a new 32-bit system set for release the following year.", "On September 1, 1999, Nintendo officially announced the Game Boy Advance, revealing details about the system's specifications including online connectivity through a cellular device and an improved model of the Game Boy Camera.", "Nintendo teased that the handheld would first be released in Japan in August 2000, with the North American and European launch dates slated for the end of the same year.", "Simultaneously, Nintendo announced a partnership with Konami to form Mobile 21, a development studio that would focus on creating technology for the GBA to interact with the GameCube, Nintendo's home console which was also in development at the time with the codename Dolphin.", "On August 21, 2000, IGN showed images of a GBA development kit running a demonstrational port of ''Yoshi's Story'', and on August 22, pre-production images of the GBA were revealed in ''Famitsu'' magazine in Japan.", "On August 24, Nintendo officially revealed the console to the public, with the Japanese and North American launch dates and 10 launch games.", "The GBA was then featured at Space World 2000 from August 24 to 26 alongside several peripherals for the system, including the GBA Link cable, the GameCube - Game Boy Advance link cable, a rechargeable battery pack for the system, and an infrared communications adaptor which would allow systems to exchange data.", "In March 2001, Nintendo revealed details about the system's North American launch, including the suggested price of $99.99 and the 15 launch games.", "Nintendo estimated that around 60 new games would be released by the end of 2001.===Project Atlantis===In 1996, magazines including ''Electronic Gaming Monthly'' and ''Next Generation'' featured reports of a successor to the original Game Boy, codenamed '''Project Atlantis'''.", "Nintendo's initial target was to release the system in at least one territory by the end of 1996, which would make it appear to most likely refer to the Game Boy Color.", "However, it was described as having a 32-bit ARM processor, a 3-by-2-inch (7.6 cm x 5 cm) color screen, and a link port — a description that more closely matches the Game Boy Advance.", "''Electronic Gaming Monthly'' reported the processor to be an ARM710, clocked at 25 MHz, while ''Next Generation'' claimed it to be a StrongARM SA-110, possibly supporting 160 MHz.", "Both were designed by Advanced RISC Machines (ARM), which also created the CPU for the Game Boy Advance (and all Nintendo handhelds up to the Switch).", "In terms of software, it was announced that Nintendo of Japan was working on a game for the system called ''Mario's Castle'', ultimately unreleased.", "Nintendo suspended the Atlantis project sometime in 1997, since the original Game Boy's 80% of the handheld market share was considered too high to merit the release of a successor.During a panel discussion at 2009's Game Developers Conference, a canceled \"Game Boy Advance predecessor\" was shown on-screen, which looked like a bulky Game Boy Color.", "''Joystiq'' concluded this unnamed device was most likely Project Atlantis." ], [ "Hardware", "===Technical specifications===The technical specifications of the original Game Boy Advance are, as provided by Nintendo:Size Approximately x x (WxHxD)Weight Approximately Screen 2.9 inch reflective thin-film transistor (TFT) color liquid-crystal display (LCD)Display size by Framerate59.727500569606 HzPower 2× AA batteriesBattery life Approximately 15 hours on average while playing Game Boy Advance games (varies depending on the Game Pak being played, volume setting and any external peripherals being used such as a screen light)CPU 16.8 MHz 32-bit ARM7TDMI with embedded memory; 8.388 or 4.194 MHz Sharp LR35902 (Z80 & 8080-derived) for Game Boy Color and Game Boy backward compatibilityMemory 32 kilobyte + 96 kilobyte VRAM (internal to CPU); 256 kilobyte DRAM (external to CPU)Resolution 240 × 160 pixels (3:2 aspect ratio)Color support 15-bit RGB (5 bits depth per channel), capable of displaying 512 simultaneous colors in \"character mode\" and 32,768 (215) simultaneous colors in \"bitmap mode\"Sound Dual 8-bit DAC for stereo sound (called Direct Sound), plus all legacy channels from Game Boy.", "The DACs can be used to play back streams of wave data, or used to output multiple wave samples processed or mixed in software by the CPU.Input Backward compatibility for Game Boy and Game Boy Color games is provided by a custom 4.194/8.388 MHz hybrid Z80 and 8080-based coprocessor (Game Boy Advance software can use the audio tone generators to supplement the primary sound system), while a link port at the top of the unit allows it to be connected to other devices using a Game Link cable or GameCube link cable.", "When playing Game Boy or Game Boy Color games on the Game Boy Advance, the L and R buttons can be used to toggle between a stretched widescreen format and the original screen ratio of the Game Boy .", "Game Boy games can be played using the same selectable color palettes as on the Game Boy Color.", "Every Nintendo handheld system following the release of the Game Boy Advance SP has included a built-in light and rechargeable battery.The Game Boy Advance 2D graphics hardware has scaling and rotation for traditional tiled backgrounds in its modes 1 and 2, and scaling and rotation for bitmaps in modes 3 through 5 (used less often on the GBA because of technical limitations).", "On each machine supporting this effect, it is possible to change the scaling and rotation values during the horizontal blanking period of each scanline to draw a flat plane in a perspective projection.", "More complex effects such as fuzz are possible by using other equations for the position, scaling, and rotation of each line.", "The \"character mode\" supports up to 4 tile map background layers per frame, with each tile being 8x8 pixels in size and having 16 or 256 colors.", "The \"character mode\" also supports up to 128 hardware sprites per frame, with any sprite size from 8x8 to 64x64 pixels and with 16 or 256 colors per sprite.===Color variants===The Game Boy Advance was available in numerous colors and limited editions throughout its production.", "It was initially available in Arctic, Black, Orange (Japan Only), Fuchsia (translucent pink), Glacier (translucent blue), and Indigo.", "Later in the system's lifespan, additional colors and special editions were released, including: Red, Clear Orange/Black, Platinum, White, Gold (Japan Only), Hello Kitty edition (pink with Hello Kitty and logo on bezel), ''The King of Fighters'' edition (black with images on bezel and buttons), ''Chobits'' edition (translucent light blue, with images on bezel and buttons), ''Battle Network Rockman EXE 2'' (light blue with images on bezel), ''Mario Bros.'' edition (Glacier with Mario and Luigi on bezel), and Yomiuri Giants edition (Glacier with images on bezel).Several ''Pokémon''-themed limited-edition systems were made available in Pokémon Center stores in Japan.", "These editions include: Gold Pokémon edition (Gold with Pikachu and Pichu on bezel), Suicune edition (blue/grey with greyscale Pikachu and Pichu on bezel, and a Pokémon Center sticker on the back), Celebi edition (olive green with Celebi images on bezel), and Latias/Latios edition (pink/red and purple, with images of Latias and Latios on bezel)." ], [ "Games", "The Game Boy Advance Game PakGame Boy Advance Game Pak disassembledWith hardware performance comparable to the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, the Game Boy Advance represents progress for sprite-based technology.", "The system's library includes platformers, SNES-like role-playing video games, and games ported from various 8-bit and 16-bit systems of the previous generations.", "This includes the ''Super Mario Advance'' series, and the system's backward compatibility with all earlier Game Boy titles.", "Though most GBA games primarily employ 2D graphics, developers have ambitiously designed some 3D GBA games that push the limits of the hardware, including first-person shooters like a port of ''Doom'', racing games like ''V-Rally 3'', and even platformers, like ''Asterix & Obelix XXL''.Some cartridges are colored to resemble the game (usually for the ''Pokémon'' series; ''Pokémon Emerald'', for example, being a clear emerald green).", "Others have special built-in features, including rumble features (''Drill Dozer''), tilt sensors (''WarioWare: Twisted!", "'', ''Yoshi's Universal Gravitation'') and solar sensors (''Boktai'').In Japan, the final game to be released on the system was ''Final Fantasy VI Advance'' on November 30, 2006, which was also the final game published by Nintendo on the system.", "In North America, the last game for the system was ''Samurai Deeper Kyo'', released on February 12, 2008.In Europe, the last game for the system is ''The Legend of Spyro: The Eternal Night'', released on November 2, 2007.The Japan-only ''Rhythm Tengoku'', the first game in what would eventually become known outside Japan as the ''Rhythm Heaven''/''Rhythm Paradise'' series, is the final first-party-developed game for the system, released on August 3, 2006.=== Launch games === Title JP NA EU Notes ''Army Men Advance'' Top-down shooter ''Boku wa Koukuu Kanseikan'' Simulation game ''Castlevania: Circle of the Moon'' Platform game in the ''Castlevania'' series ''ChuChu Rocket!''", "Port of the 1999 Sega Dreamcast game ''Earthworm Jim'' Port of the 1994 platform game ''EZ-Talk Shokyuuhen 1-6 Kan Set'' One of the first games developed by NDCube ''Fire Pro Wrestling'' Top-down wrestler ''F-Zero Maximum Velocity'' Racing game, first ''F-Zero'' game to be released on a handheld game console, one of the first games developed by NDCube ''Golf Master: Japan Golf Tour'' Sports game ''GT Advance Championship Racing'' Racing game ''Iridion 3D'' Quasi-3D rail shooter game ''J.", "League Pocket'' Soccer game ''Konami Krazy Racers'' Kart racing game ''Kuru Kuru Kururin'' Puzzle game ''Mega Man Battle Network'' Real-time tactical RPG ''Momotaru Matsuri'' Role-playing game ''Monster Guardians'' Role-playing game ''Mr.", "Driller 2'' Port of the 2000 arcade game ''Namco Museum'' Compilation consisting of ''Ms.", "Pac-Man'', ''Galaga'', ''Galaxian'', ''Pole Position'', and ''Dig Dug'' ''Napoleon'' Real-time strategy game ''Pinobee: Wings of Adventure'' First game developed by ''Artoon'' ''Pitfall: The Mayan Adventure'' Port of the 1994 platform game ''Play Novel: Silent Hill'' Visual novel based on the 1998 horror game ''Power Pro Kun Pocket 3'' Baseball game ''Rayman Advance'' Port of the 1995 platform game ''Ready 2 Rumble Boxing: Round 2'' Portable version of the 2000 boxing game ''Super Dodge Ball Advance'' Sports game ''Super Mario Advance'' Remake of ''Super Mario Bros. 2'' (1988) and ''Mario Bros.'' (1983) ''Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2'' Portable version of the 2000 skateboarding video game ''Top Gear GT Championship'' Racing game ''Total Soccer Manager'' Soccer manager ''Tweety and the Magic Gems'' Last ''Looney Tunes'' game published by Kemco ''Winning Point'' Horse racing game ''Yu-Gi-Oh!", "Dungeon Dice Monsters'' Dice-driven tactics game===Compatibility with other systems===Clockwise from left: A Game Boy Game Pak, a Game Boy Advance Game Pak, and a Nintendo DS Game Card.", "On the far right is a US nickel (diameter 21.21mm) shown for scale.An accessory for the GameCube, known as the Game Boy Player, was released in 2003 as the successor to the Super Game Boy peripheral for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System.", "The accessory allows Game Boy Advance, Game Boy, and Game Boy Color games to be played on the GameCube.", "However, some games may have compatibility issues due to certain features requiring extra hardware.", "For example, playing games with built-in motion sensors, such as ''Yoshi's Topsy-Turvy'', would require players to manipulate the console.The GBA is the last Nintendo handheld system to bear the Game Boy name.", "Games developed for it are incompatible with older Game Boy systems, and each game's box carries a label indicating that the game is \"not compatible with other Game Boy systems\".", "However, games designed for older Game Boy systems are compatible with the Game Boy Advance, with options to play such games on either their standard aspect ratios or a stretched fullscreen.Game Boy Advance games are compatible with Nintendo DS models that support them with a dedicated GBA cartridge slot beneath the touch screen (specifically the original model and the Nintendo DS Lite), although they do not support multiplayer or features involving the use of GBA accessories due to the absence of the GBA's external peripheral port on the DS.", "The Nintendo DSi and Nintendo DSi XL lack a GBA cartridge slot, and do not support backward compatibility with the GBA.===Re-releases===Since the Game Boy Advance was discontinued, many of its games have been re-released on newer Nintendo systems via its digital distribution services.", "As part of an Ambassador Program for early adopters of the Nintendo 3DS system, ten GBA games, along with ten Nintendo Entertainment System games, were made available free for players who bought a 3DS system before the price drop on August 12, 2011.Unlike other Virtual Console games for the system, features such as the Home menu or save states are missing, since the games are running natively instead of via emulation.In January 2014, Nintendo President Satoru Iwata announced that Game Boy Advance games would be released on the Wii U's Virtual Console in April 2014.The first set of GBA games, including ''Advance Wars'', ''Metroid Fusion'', and ''Mario & Luigi: Superstar Saga'', were released April 3, 2014.All Virtual Console releases are single-player only, as they do not emulate multiplayer features enabled by Game Link cables.In February 2023, Nintendo added Game Boy Advance games to its Nintendo Switch Online service, exclusively to those with the ''Expansion Pack'' tier." ], [ "Accessories", "===Official===The Wireless Adapter was packed in with ''Pokémon FireRed'' and ''LeafGreen''.Nintendo released various addons for the Game Boy Advance, which include:* Wireless Adapter: Released in 2004, this adapter hooks up to the back of the Game Boy Advance.", "It replaces link cables and allows many people to link together.", "It was marketed for US$20 and came included with ''Pokémon FireRed'' and ''LeafGreen''.", "Because it was released so late in the Game Boy Advance's life, fewer than 20 games support this hardware.", "''FireRed''/''LeafGreen'' and ''Emerald'' feature a \"Union Room\" where up to forty people can connect via the adapter to battle or trade Pokémon.", "A special version was released for the Game Boy Micro, which has full compatibility with other models of the Wireless Adapter.", "* Game Boy Advance Infra-Red Adapter: This adapter is only compatible with ''Cyberdrive Zoids'', and was not sold separately.", "It is not compatible with the Game Boy Micro.", "* Nintendo GameCube – Game Boy Advance link cable: The link cable is used to connect the Game Boy Advance to the GameCube for interoperability between corresponding games, such as are ''Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles'', ''Pac-Man Vs.'', and ''The Legend of Zelda: Four Swords Adventures''.", "The cable enables functionality such as allowing up to 4 players to use their Advance or SP handheld as a controller that has additional information on the screen, unlocking additional content in compatible GameCube games, or transferring content between GameCube and Game Boy Advance titles.", "* Play-Yan: The Play-Yan is an MP3/MPEG4 player for the Game Boy Advance and Nintendo DS.", "The cartridge is slightly broader than a normal Game Boy Advance cartridge and includes a built-in headphone port as well as an SD card slot.", "Music or videos that users have downloaded from the Internet can be transferred onto an SD card and slotted into the Play-Yan device.", "Nintendo released several mini-games for the Play-Yan that could be downloaded from their website, although this functionality was later removed through a firmware update.", "The Play-Yan was initially available in Japan only but was released in Europe as the Nintendo MP3 Player on December 8, 2006, with the MPEG4 functionality removed.", "The Play-Yan was never released in North America.", "* e-Reader: The e-Reader is a scanning device that plugs into the game cartridge slot of the Game Boy Advance.", "It was released in Japan in December 2001, and North America in September 2002.Specialized cards with codes along the side and bottom are slid through the slot, scanning the card into the Game Boy Advance.", "e-Reader cards include classic games like ''Donkey Kong'' and ''Excitebike'' that can be scanned for play on the handheld.", "Other cards were released that unlock in-game content in compatible GBA titles such as ''Super Mario Advance 4: Super Mario Bros. 3'' and ''Pokémon Ruby'' and ''Sapphire'', and in GameCube games like ''Animal Crossing''.", "The ''Pokémon Trading Card Game'' playing cards also adopt the e-Reader codes.", "The e-Reader works with the Game Boy Player and Game Boy Advance SP, but cannot fit into the Nintendo DS's Game Boy slot (however it can fit into the Nintendo DS Lite's Game Boy slot).", "* Game Boy Advance Video: First released in North America in May 2004, these cartridges included two episodes of thirty-minute cartoon programs such as ''Dragon Ball GT'', ''Pokémon'', ''SpongeBob SquarePants'', ''Sonic X'', ''Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles'', and ''Yu-Gi-Oh!''.", "Three feature-length movies, ''Shrek'' (2001), ''Shrek 2'' (2004), and ''Shark Tale'' (2004) were also released for the format.", "These cartridges display an error when inserted into a GameCube via a Game Boy Player, to prevent users from attempting to record the episodes onto other media.", "* Cleaning cartridge: A white cartridge that has a soft cloth inside to clean the cartridge slot of the Game Boy Advance or Nintendo DS when inserted.", "* Mobile Adapter: The device works with Game Boy and Game Boy Advance systems to connect to mobile phones for remote play.", "It was released in Japan and was compatible with ''Pokémon Crystal''.===Unofficial===Other accessories for the Game Boy Advance include:* Afterburner: The Afterburner is an internal front-lighting system manufactured by Triton Labs and released in mid-2002.The installation consists of disassembling the system, removing some plastic from the interior of the case, attaching the lighting mechanism to the screen, and soldering two wires to the motherboard for power.", "Optionally, a potentiometer or an integrated circuit could be added to allow adjusting the brightness of the light.", "When the initial version of the Game Boy Advance SP was released, it included a very similar integrated lighting system.", "This was replaced in the subsequent version of the Game Boy Advance SP with a backlit display.", "According to Triton Labs, the Afterburner achieved considerable success during the lifespan of the GBA, with many gamers buying it.", "Though the kit voids the system's warranty, the company had minor trouble keeping up with demand for the accessory during the 2002 holiday season.", "* WormCam: This camera by Nyko attaches to the top of the Game Boy Advance and connects to the link port.", "The snapshots can then be uploaded to a computer with the USB cable and software.", "* Glucoboy: This is a blood glucose monitor with built-in games released in Australia in 2007 for children with diabetes." ], [ "Revisions", "===Game Boy Advance SP===Game Boy Advance SPIn early 2003, Nintendo introduced a new form-factor for the handheld, known as the Game Boy Advance SP (model AGS-001).", "The redesigned unit features a clamshell design that resembles a pocket-size laptop computer, including a folding case approximately one-half the size of the original unit.", "It has a rechargeable lithium-ion battery, a significantly brighter LCD screen, and an internal front-light that can be toggled on and off.", "The redesign was intended to address some common complaints about the original Game Boy Advance, which had been criticized for being somewhat uncomfortable to use, especially due to a dark screen.====Backlight model (AGS-101)====Game Boy Advance SP (model AGS-101)On September 19, 2005, Nintendo released a new version of the SP, model AGS-101, that features a brighter backlit display.", "The switch that controls the backlight now toggles between two brightness levels.===Game Boy Micro===Game Boy MicroIn September 2005, Nintendo released a second redesign of the Game Boy Advance.", "This model, dubbed the Game Boy Micro, is similar in style to the original Game Boy Advance's horizontal orientation, but is much smaller and sleeker.", "The Game Boy Micro allows the user to switch between several colored faceplates to allow customization, a feature which Nintendo advertised heavily around the Game Boy Micro's launch.", "Nintendo also hoped that this \"fashion\" feature would help target audiences outside of typical video game players.", "Unlike the previous Game Boy Advance models, the Game Boy Micro is unable to support Game Boy and Game Boy Color titles.", "The Game Boy Micro did not make much of an impact in the video game market, as it was overshadowed by the Nintendo DS, which also played Game Boy Advance games through the GBA cartridge slot." ], [ "Reception", "Upon its North American release, IGN praised the Game Boy Advance's graphical capabilities and battery life, but criticized the system's shoulder button placement and noted the system's high price tag which \"may be a tad bit too high to swallow\", ultimately scoring the system with an \"8.0\" out of 10.They also pointed out the system's lack of a backlight which occasionally got in the way of playing games.ABC News praised the Game Boy Advance's graphics, grip, and larger screen, stating that \"You've never had as much fun playing old games.", "\"Reviewing for CNET, Darren Gladstone scored the system with a 7.0 out of 10, praising its graphical performance and backward compatibility, but being considerably critical of the system's lack of a backlit screen, noting that it makes it \"nearly impossible\" to play in normal lighting conditions.", "Gladstone ultimately recommended the sleeker and backlit Game Boy Advance SP instead, despite noting that the cheaper price of the original model may \"appeal to gamers on a lower budget.", "\"ROM hacks, fan games, and Homebrew games are developed for the GBA.===Sales===Nintendo hoped to sell 1.1 million Game Boy Advance units by the end of March with the system's Japanese debut, and anticipated sales of 24 million units before the end of 2001; many marketing analysts believed this to be a realistic goal due to the company's lack of major competition in the handheld video game market.", "Within the first week of its North American launch in June, the Game Boy Advance sold 500,000 units, making it the fastest-selling video game console in the United States at the time.", "In response to strong sales, Nintendo ordered 100,000 units to ship to retail stores, hoping to ship another half million of them by the end of June.", "The Game Boy Advance also became the fastest-selling system in the United Kingdom, selling 81,000 units in its first week of release and beating the PlayStation 2's previous record of 20,000 units.", "In 2004, the system's sales in the United Kingdom surpassed one million units.On December 1, 2006, Nintendo of America released launch-to-date information indicating that the company had sold 33.6 million units of the Game Boy Advance series in the United States.", "In a Kotaku article published on January 18, 2008, Nintendo revealed that the Game Boy Advance series had sold 36.2 million units in the United States, as of January 1, 2008., 81.51 million units of the Game Boy Advance series have been sold worldwide, 43.57 million of which are Game Boy Advance SP units and 2.42 million of which are Game Boy Micro units." ], [ "See also", "* Visteon Dockable Entertainment" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website (archived)* Game Boy Advance at Nintendo.com ( archived versions at the Internet Archive Wayback Machine)* * Game Boy Advance Manual (UK, DE, FR)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Google Search" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Google Search''' (also known simply as '''Google''' or '''Google.com''') is a search engine operated by Google.", "It allows users to search for information on the Internet by entering keywords or phrases.", "Google Search uses algorithms to analyze and rank websites based on their relevance to the search query.", "It is the most popular search engine worldwide.As of 2020, Google Search has a 92% share of the global search engine market.", "By 2012, it handled more than 3.5 billion searches per day.Google Search is the most-visited website in the world.", "Approximately 26.75% of Google's monthly global traffic comes from the United States, 4.44% from India, 4.4% from Brazil, 3.92% from the United Kingdom and 3.84% from Japan according to data provided by Similarweb.The order of search results returned by Google is based, in part, on a priority rank system called \"PageRank\".", "Google Search also provides many different options for customized searches, using symbols to include, exclude, specify or require certain search behavior, and offers specialized interactive experiences, such as flight status and package tracking, weather forecasts, currency, unit, and time conversions, word definitions, and more.The main purpose of Google Search is to search for text in publicly accessible documents offered by web servers, as opposed to other data, such as images or data contained in databases.", "It was originally developed in 1996 by Larry Page, Sergey Brin, and Scott Hassan.", "In 2011, Google introduced \"Google Voice Search\" to search for spoken, rather than typed, words.", "In 2012, Google introduced a semantic search feature named Knowledge Graph.Analysis of the frequency of search terms may indicate economic, social and health trends.", "Data about the frequency of use of search terms on Google can be openly inquired via Google Trends and have been shown to correlate with flu outbreaks and unemployment levels, and provide the information faster than traditional reporting methods and surveys.", "As of mid-2016, Google's search engine has begun to rely on deep neural networks." ], [ "Search indexing", "Google indexes hundreds of terabytes of information from web pages.", "For websites that are currently down or otherwise not available, Google provides links to cached versions of the site, formed by the search engine's latest indexing of that page.", "Additionally, Google indexes some file types, being able to show users PDFs, Word documents, Excel spreadsheets, PowerPoint presentations, certain Flash multimedia content, and plain text files.", "Users can also activate \"SafeSearch\", a filtering technology aimed at preventing explicit and pornographic content from appearing in search results.Despite Google search's immense index, sources generally assume that Google is only indexing less than 5% of the total Internet, with the rest belonging to the deep web, inaccessible through its search tools.In 2012, Google changed its search indexing tools to demote sites that had been accused of piracy.", "In October 2016, Gary Illyes, a webmaster trends analyst with Google, announced that the search engine would be making a separate, primary web index dedicated for mobile devices, with a secondary, less up-to-date index for desktop use.", "The change was a response to the continued growth in mobile usage, and a push for web developers to adopt a mobile-friendly version of their websites.", "In December 2017, Google began rolling out the change, having already done so for multiple websites.=== \"Caffeine\" search architecture upgrade ===In August 2009, Google invited web developers to test a new search architecture, codenamed \"Caffeine\", and give their feedback.", "The new architecture provided no visual differences in the user interface, but added significant speed improvements and a new \"under-the-hood\" indexing infrastructure.", "The move was interpreted in some quarters as a response to Microsoft's recent release of an upgraded version of its own search service, renamed Bing, as well as the launch of Wolfram Alpha, a new search engine based on \"computational knowledge\".", "Google announced completion of \"Caffeine\" on June 8, 2010, claiming 50% fresher results due to continuous updating of its index.With \"Caffeine\", Google moved its back-end indexing system away from MapReduce and onto Bigtable, the company's distributed database platform.=== \"Medic\" search algorithm update ===In August 2018, Danny Sullivan from Google announced a broad core algorithm update.", "As per current analysis done by the industry leaders Search Engine Watch and Search Engine Land, the update was to drop down the medical and health-related websites that were not user friendly and were not providing good user experience.", "This is why the industry experts named it \"Medic\".Google reserves very high standards for YMYL (Your Money or Your Life) pages.", "This is because misinformation can affect users financially, physically, or emotionally.", "Therefore, the update targeted particularly those YMYL pages that have low-quality content and misinformation.", "This resulted in the algorithm targeting health and medical-related websites more than others.", "However, many other websites from other industries were also negatively affected." ], [ "Search results", "=== Ranking of results ===In 2013 the European Commission found that Google Search favored Google's own products, instead of the best result for consumers' needs.", "In February 2015 Google announced a major change to its mobile search algorithm which would favor mobile friendly over other websites.", "Nearly 60% of Google searches come from mobile phones.", "Google says it wants users to have access to premium quality websites.", "Those websites which lack a mobile-friendly interface would be ranked lower and it is expected that this update will cause a shake-up of ranks.", "Businesses who fail to update their websites accordingly could see a dip in their regular websites traffic.=== PageRank ===Google's rise was largely due to a patented algorithm called PageRank which helps rank web pages that match a given search string.", "When Google was a Stanford research project, it was nicknamed BackRub because the technology checks backlinks to determine a site's importance.", "Other keyword-based methods to rank search results, used by many search engines that were once more popular than Google, would check how often the search terms occurred in a page, or how strongly associated the search terms were within each resulting page.", "The PageRank algorithm instead analyzes human-generated links assuming that web pages linked from many important pages are also important.", "The algorithm computes a recursive score for pages, based on the weighted sum of other pages linking to them.", "PageRank is thought to correlate well with human concepts of importance.", "In addition to PageRank, Google, over the years, has added many other secret criteria for determining the ranking of resulting pages.", "This is reported to comprise over 250 different indicators, the specifics of which are kept secret to avoid difficulties created by scammers and help Google maintain an edge over its competitors globally.PageRank was influenced by a similar page-ranking and site-scoring algorithm earlier used for RankDex, developed by Robin Li in 1996.Larry Page's patent for PageRank filed in 1998 includes a citation to Li's earlier patent.", "Li later went on to create the Chinese search engine Baidu in 2000.In a potential hint of Google's future direction of their Search algorithm, Google's then chief executive Eric Schmidt, said in a 2007 interview with the ''Financial Times'': \"The goal is to enable Google users to be able to ask the question such as 'What shall I do tomorrow?'", "and 'What job shall I take?.", "Schmidt reaffirmed this during a 2010 interview with ''The Wall Street Journal'': \"I actually think most people don't want Google to answer their questions, they want Google to tell them what they should be doing next.", "\"=== Google optimization ===Because Google is the most popular search engine, many webmasters attempt to influence their website's Google rankings.", "An industry of consultants has arisen to help websites increase their rankings on Google and other search engines.", "This field, called search engine optimization, attempts to discern patterns in search engine listings, and then develop a methodology for improving rankings to draw more searchers to their clients' sites.", "Search engine optimization encompasses both \"on page\" factors (like body copy, title elements, H1 heading elements and image alt attribute values) and Off Page Optimization factors (like anchor text and PageRank).", "The general idea is to affect Google's relevance algorithm by incorporating the keywords being targeted in various places \"on page\", in particular the title element and the body copy (note: the higher up in the page, presumably the better its keyword prominence and thus the ranking).", "Too many occurrences of the keyword, however, cause the page to look suspect to Google's spam checking algorithms.", "Google has published guidelines for website owners who would like to raise their rankings when using legitimate optimization consultants.", "It has been hypothesized, and, allegedly, is the opinion of the owner of one business about which there have been numerous complaints, that negative publicity, for example, numerous consumer complaints, may serve as well to elevate page rank on Google Search as favorable comments.", "The particular problem addressed in ''The New York Times'' article, which involved DecorMyEyes, was addressed shortly thereafter by an undisclosed fix in the Google algorithm.", "According to Google, it was not the frequently published consumer complaints about DecorMyEyes which resulted in the high ranking but mentions on news websites of events which affected the firm such as legal actions against it.", "Google Search Console helps to check for websites that use duplicate or copyright content.=== \"Hummingbird\" search algorithm upgrade ===In 2013, Google significantly upgraded its search algorithm with \"Hummingbird\".", "Its name was derived from the speed and accuracy of the hummingbird.", "The change was announced on September 26, 2013, having already been in use for a month.", "\"Hummingbird\" places greater emphasis on natural language queries, considering context and meaning over individual keywords.", "It also looks deeper at content on individual pages of a website, with improved ability to lead users directly to the most appropriate page rather than just a website's homepage.", "The upgrade marked the most significant change to Google search in years, with more \"human\" search interactions and a much heavier focus on conversation and meaning.", "Thus, web developers and writers were encouraged to optimize their sites with natural writing rather than forced keywords, and make effective use of technical web development for on-site navigation.=== Search results quality ===In the 2020s, observers reported on a perceived declining quality of search results found in Google Search.In 2023, drawing on internal Google documents disclosed as part of the United States v. Google LLC (2020) antitrust case, technology reporters claimed that Google Search was \"bloated and overmonetized\" and that the \"semantic matching\" of search queries put advertising profits before quality.", "''Wired'' withdrew Megan Gray's piece after Google complained about alleged inaccuracies, while the author reiterated that «As stated in court, \"A goal of Project Mercury was to increase commercial queries\"»." ], [ "Interface", "=== Page layout ===At the top of the search page, the approximate result count and the response time two digits behind decimal is noted.", "Of search results, page titles and URLs, dates, and a preview text snippet for each result appears.", "Along with web search results, sections with images, news, and videos may appear.", "The length of the previewed text snipped was experimented with in 2015 and 2017.=== Universal search ===\"Universal search\" was launched by Google on May 16, 2007, as an idea that merged the results from different kinds of search types into one.", "Prior to Universal search, a standard Google search would consist of links only to websites.", "Universal search, however, incorporates a wide variety of sources, including websites, news, pictures, maps, blogs, videos, and more, all shown on the same search results page.", "Marissa Mayer, then-vice president of search products and user experience, described the goal of Universal search as \"we're attempting to break down the walls that traditionally separated our various search properties and integrate the vast amounts of information available into one simple set of search results.In June 2017, Google expanded its search results to cover available job listings.", "The data is aggregated from various major job boards and collected by analyzing company homepages.", "Initially only available in English, the feature aims to simplify finding jobs suitable for each user.=== Rich snippets ===In May 2009, Google announced that they would be parsing website microformats to populate search result pages with \"Rich snippets\".", "Such snippets include additional details about results, such as displaying reviews for restaurants and social media accounts for individuals.In May 2016, Google expanded on the \"Rich snippets\" format to offer \"Rich cards\", which, similarly to snippets, display more information about results, but shows them at the top of the mobile website in a swipeable carousel-like format.", "Originally limited to movie and recipe websites in the United States only, the feature expanded to all countries globally in 2017.=== Knowledge Graph ===The Knowledge Graph is a knowledge base used by Google to enhance its search engine's results with information gathered from a variety of sources.", "This information is presented to users in a box to the right of search results.", "Knowledge Graph boxes were added to Google's search engine in May 2012, starting in the United States, with international expansion by the end of the year.", "The information covered by the Knowledge Graph grew significantly after launch, tripling its original size within seven months, and being able to answer \"roughly one-third\" of the 100 billion monthly searches Google processed in May 2016.The information is often used as a spoken answer in Google Assistant and Google Home searches.", "The Knowledge Graph has been criticized for providing answers without source attribution.=== Personal tab ===In May 2017, Google enabled a new \"Personal\" tab in Google Search, letting users search for content in their Google accounts' various services, including email messages from Gmail and photos from Google Photos.=== Google Discover ===Google Discover, previously known as Google Feed, is a personalized stream of articles, videos, and other news-related content.", "The feed contains a \"mix of cards\" which show topics of interest based on users' interactions with Google, or topics they choose to follow directly.", "Cards include, \"links to news stories, YouTube videos, sports scores, recipes, and other content based on what Google determined you're most likely to be interested in at that particular moment.\"", "Users can also tell Google they're not interested in certain topics to avoid seeing future updates.Google Discover launched in December 2016 and received a major update in July 2017.Another major update was released in September 2018, which renamed the app from Google Feed to Google Discover, updated the design, and adding more features.Discover can be found on a tab in the Google app and by swiping left on the home screen of certain Android devices.", "As of 2019, Google will not allow political campaigns worldwide to target their advertisement to people to make them vote.=== Search Generative Experience ===At the 2023 Google I/O event in May, Google unveiled Search Generative Experience (SGE), an experimental feature in Google Search available through Google Labs which produces AI-generated summaries in response to search prompts.", "This was part of Google's wider efforts to counter the unprecedented rise of generative AI technology, ushered by OpenAI's launch of ChatGPT, which sent Google executives to a panic due to its potential threat to Google Search.", "Google added the ability to generate images in October.=== Redesigns ===Product Sans, Google's typeface since 2015In late June 2011, Google introduced a new look to the Google home page in order to boost the use of the Google+ social tools.One of the major changes was replacing the classic navigation bar with a black one.", "Google's digital creative director Chris Wiggins explains: \"We're working on a project to bring you a new and improved Google experience, and over the next few months, you'll continue to see more updates to our look and feel.\"", "The new navigation bar has been negatively received by a vocal minority.In November 2013, Google started testing yellow labels for advertisements displayed in search results, to improve user experience.", "The new labels, highlighted in yellow color, and aligned to the left of each sponsored link help users differentiate between organic and sponsored results.On December 15, 2016, Google rolled out a new desktop search interface that mimics their modular mobile user interface.", "The mobile design consists of a tabular design that highlights search features in boxes.", "and works by imitating the desktop Knowledge Graph real estate, which appears in the right-hand rail of the search engine result page, these featured elements frequently feature Twitter carousels, People Also Search For, and Top Stories (vertical and horizontal design) modules.", "The Local Pack and Answer Box were two of the original features of the Google SERP that were primarily showcased in this manner, but this new layout creates a previously unseen level of design consistency for Google results.=== Smartphone apps ===Google offers a \"Google Search\" mobile app for Android and iOS devices.", "The mobile apps exclusively feature Google Discover and a \"Collections\" feature, in which the user can save for later perusal any type of search result like images, bookmarks or map locations into groups.", "Android devices were introduced to a preview of the feed, perceived as related to Google Now, in December 2016, while it was made official on both Android and iOS in July 2017.In April 2016, Google updated its Search app on Android to feature \"Trends\"; search queries gaining popularity appeared in the autocomplete box along with normal query autocompletion.", "The update received significant backlash, due to encouraging search queries unrelated to users' interests or intentions, prompting the company to issue an update with an opt-out option.", "In September 2017, the Google Search app on iOS was updated to feature the same functionality.In December 2017, Google released \"Google Go\", an app designed to enable use of Google Search on physically smaller and lower-spec devices in multiple languages.", "A Google blog post about designing \"India-first\" products and features explains that it is \"tailor-made for the millions of people in India and Indonesia coming online for the first time\"." ], [ "{{anchor|Domain names}}Performing a search", "A definition link is provided for many search terms.Google Search consists of a series of localized websites.", "The largest of those, the google.com site, is the top most-visited website in the world.", "Some of its features include a definition link for most searches including dictionary words, the number of results you got on your search, links to other searches (e.g.", "for words that Google believes to be misspelled, it provides a link to the search results using its proposed spelling), the ability to filter results to a date range, and many more.=== Search syntax ===Google search accepts queries as normal text, as well as individual keywords.", "It automatically corrects apparent misspellings by default (while offering to use the original spelling as a selectable alternative), and provides the same results regardless of capitalization.", "For more customized results, one can use a wide variety of operators, including, but not limited to:* OR – Search for webpages containing one of two similar queries, such as ''marathon OR race''* - (minus sign) – Exclude a word or a phrase, so that ''\"apple -tree\"'' searches where word ''\"tree\"'' is not used* \"\" – Force inclusion of a word or a phrase, such as ''\"tallest building\"''* * – Placeholder symbol allowing for any substitute words in the context of the query, such as ''\"largest * in the world\"''* .. – Search within a range of numbers, such as ''\"camera $50..$100\"''* site: – Search within a specific website, such as ''\"site:youtube.com\"''* define: – Search for definitions for a word or phrase, such as ''\"define:phrase\"''* stocks: – See the stock price of investments, such as ''\"stocks:googl\"''* related: – Find webpages related to specific URL addresses, such as ''\"related:www.wikipedia.org\"''* cache: – Highlights the search-words within the cached pages, so that ''\"cache:www.google.com xxx\"'' shows cached content with word \"xxx\" highlighted.", "* @ – Search for a specific word on social media networks, such as ''\"@twitter\"''Google also offers a '''Google Advanced Search''' page with a web interface to access the advanced features without needing to remember the special operators.==== Query expansion ====Google applies query expansion to submitted search queries, using techniques to deliver results that it considers \"smarter\" than the query users actually submitted.", "This technique involves several steps, including:* Word stemming – Certain words can be reduced so other, similar terms, are also found in results, so that ''\"translator\"'' can also search for ''\"translation\"''* Acronyms – Searching for abbreviations can also return results about the name in its full length, so that ''\"NATO\"'' can show results for ''\"North Atlantic Treaty Organization\"''* Misspellings – Google will often suggest correct spellings for misspelled words* Synonyms – In most cases where a word is incorrectly used in a phrase or sentence, Google search will show results based on the correct synonym* Translations – The search engine can, in some instances, suggest results for specific words in a different language* Ignoring words – In some search queries containing extraneous or insignificant words, Google search will simply drop those specific words from the queryA screenshot of suggestions by Google Search when \"wikip\" is typedIn 2008, Google started to give users autocompleted search suggestions in a list below the search bar while typing, originally with the approximate result count previewed for each listed search suggestion.=== \"I'm Feeling Lucky\" ===Google's homepage includes a button labeled \"I'm Feeling Lucky\".", "This feature originally allowed users to type in their search query, click the button and be taken directly to the first result, bypassing the search results page.", "Clicking it while leaving the search box empty opens Google's archive of Doodles.", "With the 2010 announcement of Google Instant, an automatic feature that immediately displays relevant results as users are typing in their query, the \"I'm Feeling Lucky\" button disappears, requiring that users opt-out of Instant results through search settings to keep using the \"I'm Feeling Lucky\" functionality.", "In 2012, \"I'm Feeling Lucky\" was changed to serve as an advertisement for Google services; users hover their computer mouse over the button, it spins and shows an emotion (\"I'm Feeling Puzzled\" or \"I'm Feeling Trendy\", for instance), and, when clicked, takes users to a Google service related to that emotion.Tom Chavez of \"Rapt\", a firm helping to determine a website's advertising worth, estimated in 2007 that Google lost $110 million in revenue per year due to use of the button, which bypasses the advertisements found on the search results page.=== Special interactive features ===Besides the main text-based search-engine function of Google search, it also offers multiple quick, interactive features.", "These include, but are not limited to:* Calculator* Time zone, currency, and unit conversions* Word translations* Flight status* Local film showings* Weather forecasts* Population and unemployment rates* Package tracking* Word definitions* Metronome* Roll a die* \"Do a barrel roll\" (search page spins)* \"Askew\" (results show up sideways)=== \"OK Google\" conversational search ===During Google's developer conference, Google I/O, in May 2013, the company announced that users on Google Chrome and ChromeOS would be able to have the browser initiate an audio-based search by saying \"OK Google\", with no button presses required.", "After having the answer presented, users can follow up with additional, contextual questions; an example include initially asking \"OK Google, will it be sunny in Santa Cruz this weekend?", "\", hearing a spoken answer, and reply with \"how far is it from here?\"", "An update to the Chrome browser with voice-search functionality rolled out a week later, though it required a button press on a microphone icon rather than \"OK Google\" voice activation.", "Google released a browser extension for the Chrome browser, named with a \"beta\" tag for unfinished development, shortly thereafter.", "In May 2014, the company officially added \"OK Google\" into the browser itself; they removed it in October 2015, citing low usage, though the microphone icon for activation remained available.", "In May 2016, 20% of search queries on mobile devices were done through voice." ], [ "Operations", "=== Search products ===In addition to its tool for searching web pages, Google also provides services for searching images, Usenet newsgroups, news websites, videos ('''Google Videos'''), searching by locality, maps, and items for sale online.", "'''Google Videos''' allows searching the World Wide Web for video clips.", "The service evolved from Google Video, Google's discontinued video hosting service that also allowed to search the web for video clips.In 2012, Google has indexed over 30 trillion web pages, and received 100 billion queries per month.", "It also caches much of the content that it indexes.", "Google operates other tools and services including Google News, Google Shopping, Google Maps, Google Custom Search, Google Earth, Google Docs, Picasa (discontinued), Panoramio (discontinued), YouTube, Google Translate, Google Blog Search and Google Desktop Search (discontinued).There are also products available from Google that are not directly search-related.", "Gmail, for example, is a webmail application, but still includes search features; Google Browser Sync does not offer any search facilities, although it aims to organize your browsing time.=== Energy consumption ===In 2009, Google claimed that a search query requires altogether about 1 kJ or 0.0003 kW·h, which is enough to raise the temperature of one liter of water by 0.24 °C.", "According to green search engine Ecosia, the industry standard for search engines is estimated to be about 0.2 grams of CO2 emission per search.", "Google's 40,000 searches per second translate to 8 kg CO2 per second or over 252 million kilos of CO2 per year.=== Google Doodles ===On certain occasions, the logo on Google's webpage will change to a special version, known as a \"Google Doodle\".", "This is a picture, drawing, animation, or interactive game that includes the logo.", "It is usually done for a special event or day although not all of them are well known.", "Clicking on the Doodle links to a string of Google search results about the topic.", "The first was a reference to the Burning Man Festival in 1998, and others have been produced for the birthdays of notable people like Albert Einstein, historical events like the interlocking Lego block's 50th anniversary and holidays like Valentine's Day.", "Some Google Doodles have interactivity beyond a simple search, such as the famous \"Google Pac-Man\" version that appeared on May 21, 2010." ], [ "Criticism", "=== Privacy ===Google has been criticized for placing long-term cookies on users' machines to store preferences, a tactic which also enables them to track a user's search terms and retain the data for more than a year.Since 2012, Google Inc. has globally introduced encrypted connections for most of its clients, to bypass governative blockings of the commercial and IT services.=== Complaints about indexing ===In 2003, ''The New York Times'' complained about Google's indexing, claiming that Google's caching of content on its site infringed its copyright for the content.", "In both ''Field v. Google'' and ''Parker v. Google'', the United States District Court of Nevada ruled in favor of Google.=== Child sexual abuse ===A 2019 ''New York Times'' article on Google Search showed that images of child sexual abuse had been found on Google and that the company had been reluctant at times to remove them.=== January 2009 malware bug ===A screenshot of the error of January 31, 2009Google flags search results with the message \"This site may harm your computer\" if the site is known to install malicious software in the background or otherwise surreptitiously.", "For approximately 40 minutes on January 31, 2009, all search results were mistakenly classified as malware and could therefore not be clicked; instead a warning message was displayed and the user was required to enter the requested URL manually.", "The bug was caused by human error.", "The URL of \"/\" (which expands to all URLs) was mistakenly added to the malware patterns file.=== Possible misuse of search results ===In 2007, a group of researchers observed a tendency for users to rely exclusively on Google Search for finding information, writing that \"With the Google interface the user gets the impression that the search results imply a kind of totality. ...", "In fact, one only sees a small part of what one could see if one also integrates other research tools.", "\"In 2011, Google Search query results have been shown by Internet activist Eli Pariser to be tailored to users, effectively isolating users in what he defined as a filter bubble.", "Pariser holds algorithms used in search engines such as Google Search responsible for catering \"a personal ecosystem of information\".", "Although contrasting views have mitigated the potential threat of \"informational dystopia\" and questioned the scientific nature of Pariser's claims, filter bubbles have been mentioned to account for the surprising results of the U.S. presidential election in 2016 alongside fake news and echo chambers, suggesting that Facebook and Google have designed personalized online realities in which \"we only see and hear what we like\".=== FTC fines ===In 2012, the US Federal Trade Commission fined Google US$22.5 million for violating their agreement not to violate the privacy of users of Apple's Safari web browser.", "The FTC was also continuing to investigate if Google's favoring of their own services in their search results violated antitrust regulations.===Payments to Apple===In a November 2023 disclosure, during the ongoing antitrust trial against Google, an economics professor at the University of Chicago revealed that Google pays Apple 36% of all search advertising revenue generated when users access Google through the Safari browser.", "This revelation reportedly caused Google's lead attorney to cringe visibly.", "The revenue generated from Safari users has been kept confidential, but the 36% figure suggests that it is likely in the tens of billions of dollars.Both Apple and Google have argued that disclosing the specific terms of their search default agreement would harm their competitive positions.", "However, the court ruled that the information was relevant to the antitrust case and ordered its disclosure.", "This revelation has raised concerns about the dominance of Google in the search engine market and the potential anticompetitive effects of its agreements with Apple.=== Big data and human bias ===Google search engine robots are programmed to use algorithms that understand and predict human behavior.", "The book, ''Race After Technology: Abolitionist Tools for the New Jim Code'' by Ruha Benjamin talks about human bias as a behavior that the Google search engine can recognize.", "In 2016, some users google searched \"three Black teenagers\" and images of criminal mugshots of young African American teenagers came up.", "Then, the users searched \"three White teenagers\" and were presented with photos of smiling, happy teenagers.", "They also searched for \"three Asian teenagers\", and very revealing photos of Asian girls and women appeared.", "Benjamin concluded that these results reflect human prejudice and views on different ethnic groups.", "A group of analysts explained the concept of a racist computer program: \"The idea here is that computers, unlike people, can't be racist but we're increasingly learning that they do in fact take after their makers ...", "Some experts believe that this problem might stem from the hidden biases in the massive piles of data that the algorithms process as they learn to recognize patterns ... reproducing our worst values\"." ], [ "Trademark", "As people talk about \"googling\" rather than searching, the company has taken some steps to defend its trademark, in an effort to prevent it from becoming a generic trademark.", "This has led to lawsuits, threats of lawsuits, and the use of euphemisms, such as calling Google Search a '''famous web search engine'''." ], [ "Discontinued features", "=== Translate foreign pages ===Until May 2013, Google Search had offered a feature to translate search queries into other languages.", "A Google spokesperson told ''Search Engine Land'' that \"Removing features is always tough, but we do think very hard about each decision and its implications for our users.", "Unfortunately, this feature never saw much pick up\".======Instant search was announced in September 2010 as a feature that displayed suggested results while the user typed in their search query, initially only in select countries or to registered users.", "The primary advantage of the new system was its ability to save time, with Marissa Mayer, then-vice president of search products and user experience, proclaiming that the feature would save 2–5 seconds per search, elaborating that \"That may not seem like a lot at first, but it adds up.", "With Google Instant, we estimate that we'll save our users 11 hours with each passing second!\"", "Matt Van Wagner of ''Search Engine Land'' wrote that \"Personally, I kind of like Google Instant and I think it represents a natural evolution in the way search works\", and also praised Google's efforts in public relations, writing that \"With just a press conference and a few well-placed interviews, Google has parlayed this relatively minor speed improvement into an attention-grabbing front-page news story\".", "The upgrade also became notable for the company switching Google Search's underlying technology from HTML to AJAX.Instant Search could be disabled via Google's \"preferences\" menu for those who didn't want its functionality.The publication ''2600: The Hacker Quarterly'' compiled a list of words that Google Instant did not show suggested results for, with a Google spokesperson giving the following statement to ''Mashable'':''PC Magazine'' discussed the inconsistency in how some forms of the same topic are allowed; for instance, \"lesbian\" was blocked, while \"gay\" was not, and \"cocaine\" was blocked, while \"crack\" and \"heroin\" were not.", "The report further stated that seemingly normal words were also blocked due to pornographic innuendos, most notably \"scat\", likely due to having two completely separate contextual meanings, one for music and one for a sexual practice.On July 26, 2017, Google removed Instant results, due to a growing number of searches on mobile devices, where interaction with search, as well as screen sizes, differ significantly from a computer.======\"Instant previews\" allowed previewing screenshots of search results' web pages without having to open them.", "The feature was introduced in November 2010 to the desktop website and removed in April 2013 citing low usage.===Dedicated encrypted search page===Various search engines provide encrypted Web search facilities.", "In May 2010 Google rolled out SSL-encrypted web search.", "The encrypted search was accessed at encrypted.google.com However, the web search is encrypted via Transport Layer Security (TLS) by default today, thus every search request should be automatically encrypted if TLS is supported by the web browser.", "On its support website, Google announced that the address encrypted.google.com would be turned off April 30, 2018, stating that all Google products and most new browsers use HTTPS connections as the reason for the discontinuation.=== Real-Time Search ===Google Real-Time Search was a feature of Google Search in which search results also sometimes included real-time information from sources such as Twitter, Facebook, blogs, and news websites.", "The feature was introduced on December 7, 2009 and went offline on July 2, 2011, after the deal with Twitter expired.", "Real-Time Search included Facebook status updates beginning on February 24, 2010.A feature similar to Real-Time Search was already available on Microsoft's Bing search engine, which showed results from Twitter and Facebook.", "The interface for the engine showed a live, descending \"river\" of posts in the main region (which could be paused or resumed), while a bar chart metric of the frequency of posts containing a certain search term or hashtag was located on the right hand corner of the page above a list of most frequently reposted posts and outgoing links.", "Hashtag search links were also supported, as were \"promoted\" tweets hosted by Twitter (located persistently on top of the river) and thumbnails of retweeted image or video links.In January 2011, geolocation links of posts were made available alongside results in Real-Time Search.", "In addition, posts containing syndicated or attached shortened links were made searchable by the ''link:'' query option.", "In July 2011 Real-Time Search became inaccessible, with the Real-Time link in the Google sidebar disappearing and a custom 404 error page generated by Google returned at its former URL.", "Google originally suggested that the interruption was temporary and related to the launch of Google+; they subsequently announced that it was due to the expiry of a commercial arrangement with Twitter to provide access to tweets." ], [ "See also", "* List of search engines by popularity* Timeline of Google Search* Censorship by Google § Google Search* Google (verb)* Dragonfly (search engine)* Google bombing* Google Panda* Google Penguin* Googlewhack* Halalgoogling* Reunion (advertisement)* List of search engines* Comparison of web search engines* History of Google* List of Google products" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Google Hacks'' from O'Reilly is a book containing tips about using Google effectively.", "Now in its third edition (2006).", ".", "* ''Google: The Missing Manual'' by Sarah Milstein and Rael Dornfest (O'Reilly, 2004).", "* ''How to Do Everything with Google'' by Fritz Schneider, Nancy Blachman, and Eric Fredricksen (McGraw-Hill Osborne Media, 2003).", "* ''Google Power'' by Chris Sherman (McGraw-Hill Osborne Media, 2005).", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* * The Original Google!", "* Google search trends" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Genius" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Genius''' is a characteristic of original and exceptional insight in the performance of some art or endeavor that surpasses expectations, sets new standards for the future, establishes better methods of operation, or remains outside the capabilities of competitors.", "Genius is associated with intellectual ability and creative productivity.", "The term ''genius'' can also be used to refer to people characterised by genius, and/or to polymaths who excel across many subjects.", "There is no scientifically precise definition of genius.", "When used to refer to the characteristic, genius is associated with talent, but several authors such as Cesare Lombroso and Arthur Schopenhauer systematically distinguish these terms.", "Walter Isaacson, biographer of many well-known geniuses, explains that although high intelligence may be a prerequisite, the most common trait that actually defines a genius may be the extraordinary ability to apply creativity and imaginative thinking to almost any situation." ], [ "Etymology", " Srinivasa Ramanujan, a mathematician who is widely regarded as a genius.", "He made substantial contributions to mathematics despite little formal training.", "Confucius, one of the most influential thinkers of the ancient world and the most famous Chinese philosopher, is often considered a genius.In ancient Rome, the ''genius'' (plural in Latin ''genii'') was the guiding spirit or tutelary deity of a person, family (''gens''), or place (''genius loci'').", "Connotations of the word in Latin have a lineal relationship with the Greek word ''daemon'' in classical and medieval texts'','' and also share a relationship with the Arabic word ''al-ghul'' (as in the star ''Algol''; its literal meaning being \"the Demon\").The noun is related to the Latin verbs \"gignere\" (to beget, to give birth to) and \"generare\" (to beget, to generate, to procreate), and derives directly from the Indo-European stem thereof: \"ǵenh\" (to produce, to beget, to give birth).", "Because the achievements of exceptional individuals seemed to indicate the presence of a particularly powerful ''genius'', by the time of Augustus, the word began to acquire its secondary meaning of \"inspiration, talent\".", "The term ''genius'' acquired its modern sense in the eighteenth century, and is a conflation of two Latin terms: ''genius'', as above, and ''Ingenium'', a related noun referring to our innate dispositions, talents, and inborn nature.", "Beginning to blend the concepts of the divine and the talented, the ''Encyclopédie'' article on genius (génie) describes such a person as \"he whose soul is more expansive and struck by the feelings of all others; interested by all that is in nature never to receive an idea unless it evokes a feeling; everything excites him and on which nothing is lost.\"" ], [ "Historical development", "===Galton=== Miguel de Cervantes, novelist who is acknowledged as a literary geniusThe assessment of intelligence was initiated by Francis Galton (1822–1911) and James McKeen Cattell.", "They had advocated the analysis of reaction time and sensory acuity as measures of \"neurophysiological efficiency\" and the analysis of sensory acuity as a measure of intelligence.Galton is regarded as the founder of psychometry.", "He studied the work of his older half-cousin Charles Darwin about biological evolution.", "Hypothesizing that eminence is inherited from ancestors, Galton did a study of families of eminent people in Britain, publishing it in 1869 as ''Hereditary Genius''.", "Galton's ideas were elaborated from the work of two early 19th-century pioneers in statistics: Carl Friedrich Gauss and Adolphe Quetelet.", "Gauss discovered the normal distribution (bell-shaped curve): given a large number of measurements of the same variable under the same conditions, they vary at random from a most frequent value, the \"average\", to two least frequent values at maximum differences greater and lower than the most frequent value.", "Quetelet discovered that the bell-shaped curve applied to social statistics gathered by the French government in the course of its normal processes on large numbers of people passing through the courts and the military.", "His initial work in criminology led him to observe \"the greater the number of individuals observed the more do peculiarities become effaced...\".", "This ideal from which the peculiarities were effaced became \"the average man\".Galton was inspired by Quetelet to define the average man as \"an entire normal scheme\"; that is, if one combines the normal curves of every measurable human characteristic, one will, in theory, perceive a syndrome straddled by \"the average man\" and flanked by persons that are different.", "In contrast to Quetelet, Galton's average man was not statistical but was theoretical only.", "There was no measure of general averageness, only a large number of very specific averages.", "Setting out to discover a general measure of the average, Galton looked at educational statistics and found bell-curves in test results of all sorts; initially in mathematics grades for the final honors examination and in entrance examination scores for Sandhurst.Galton's method in ''Hereditary Genius'' was to count and assess the eminent relatives of eminent men.", "He found that the number of eminent relatives was greater with a closer degree of kinship.", "This work is considered the first example of historiometry, an analytical study of historical human progress.", "The work is controversial and has been criticized for several reasons.", "Galton then departed from Gauss in a way that became crucial to the history of the 20th century AD.", "The bell-shaped curve was not random, he concluded.", "The differences between the average and the upper end were due to a non-random factor, \"natural ability\", which he defined as \"those qualities of intellect and disposition, which urge and qualify men to perform acts that lead to reputation…a nature which, when left to itself, will, urged by an inherent stimulus, climb the path that leads to eminence.\"", "The apparent randomness of the scores was due to the randomness of this natural ability in the population as a whole, in theory.Criticisms include that Galton's study fails to account for the impact of social status and the associated availability of resources in the form of economic inheritance, meaning that inherited \"eminence\" or \"genius\" can be gained through the enriched environment provided by wealthy families.", "Galton went on to develop the field of eugenics.", "Galton attempted to control for economic inheritance by comparing the adopted nephews of popes, who would have the advantage of wealth without being as closely related to popes as sons are to their fathers, to the biological children of eminent individuals." ], [ "Psychology", " Stanley Kubrick, deemed a filmmaking genius Marie Curie, physicist and chemist cited as a geniusGenius is expressed in a variety of forms (e.g., mathematical, literary, musical performance).", "Persons with genius tend to have strong intuitions about their domains, and they build on these insights with tremendous energy.", "Carl Rogers, a founder of the Humanistic Approach to Psychology, expands on the idea of a genius trusting his or her intuition in a given field, writing: \"El Greco, for example, must have realized as he looked at some of his early work, that 'good artists do not paint like that.'", "But somehow he trusted his own experiencing of life, the process of himself, sufficiently that he could go on expressing his own unique perceptions.", "It was as though he could say, 'Good artists don't paint like this, but ''I'' paint like this.'", "Or to move to another field, Ernest Hemingway was surely aware that 'good writers do not write like this.'", "But fortunately he moved toward being Hemingway, being himself, rather than toward someone else's conception of a good writer.", "\"Several people commonly regarded as geniuses have been or were diagnosed with mental disorders, for example Vincent van Gogh, Virginia Woolf, John Forbes Nash Jr., and Ernest Hemingway.It has been suggested that there exists a connection between mental illness, in particular schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, and genius.", "Individuals with bipolar disorder and schizotypal personality disorder, the latter of which being more common amongst relatives of schizophrenics, tend to show elevated creativity.In a 2010 study done in the Karolinska Institute it was observed that highly creative individuals and schizophrenics have a lower density of thalamic dopamine D2 receptors.", "One of the investigators explained that \"Fewer D2 receptors in the thalamus probably means a lower degree of signal filtering, and thus a higher flow of information from the thalamus.\"", "This could be a possible mechanism behind the ability of healthy highly creative people to see numerous uncommon connections in a problem-solving situation and the bizarre associations found in the schizophrenics.=== IQ and genius === Albert Einstein, theoretical physicist who is considered a geniusGalton was a pioneer in investigating both eminent human achievement and mental testing.", "In his book ''Hereditary Genius'', written before the development of IQ testing, he proposed that hereditary influences on eminent achievement are strong, and that eminence is rare in the general population.", "Lewis Terman chose \"'near' genius or genius\" as the classification label for the highest classification on his 1916 version of the Stanford–Binet test.", "By 1926, Terman began publishing about a longitudinal study of California schoolchildren who were referred for IQ testing by their schoolteachers, called Genetic Studies of Genius, which he conducted for the rest of his life.", "Catherine M. Cox, a colleague of Terman's, wrote a whole book, ''The Early Mental Traits of 300 Geniuses'', published as volume 2 of The Genetic Studies of Genius book series, in which she analyzed biographical data about historic geniuses.", "Although her estimates of childhood IQ scores of historical figures who never took IQ tests have been criticized on methodological grounds, Cox's study was thorough in finding out what else matters besides IQ in becoming a genius.", "By the 1937 second revision of the Stanford–Binet test, Terman no longer used the term \"genius\" as an IQ classification, nor has any subsequent IQ test.", "In 1939, David Wechsler specifically commented that \"we are rather hesitant about calling a person a genius on the basis of a single intelligence test score\".The Terman longitudinal study in California eventually provided historical evidence regarding how genius is related to IQ scores.", "Many California pupils were recommended for the study by schoolteachers.", "Two pupils who were tested but rejected for inclusion in the study (because their IQ scores were too low) grew up to be Nobel Prize winners in physics, William Shockley, and Luis Walter Alvarez.", "Based on the historical findings of the Terman study and on biographical examples such as Richard Feynman, who had a self-reported IQ of 125 and went on to win the Nobel Prize in physics and become widely known as a genius, the current view of psychologists and other scholars of genius is that a minimum level of IQ (approximately 125) is necessary for genius but not sufficient, and must be combined with personality characteristics such as drive and persistence, plus the necessary opportunities for talent development.", "For instance, in a chapter in an edited volume on achievement, IQ researcher Arthur Jensen proposed a multiplicative model of genius consisting of high ability, high productivity, and high creativity.", "Jensen's model was motivated by the finding that eminent achievement is highly positively skewed, a finding known as Price's law, and related to Lotka's law.Some high IQ individuals join a High IQ society.", "The most famous and largest is Mensa International, but many other more selective organizations also exist, including Intertel, Triple Nine Society, Prometheus Society, and Mega Society." ], [ "Philosophy", "Leonardo da Vinci is widely acknowledged as having been a genius and a polymath.Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, considered a prodigy and musical geniusVarious philosophers have proposed definitions of what genius is and what that implies in the context of their philosophical theories.In the philosophy of David Hume, the way society perceives genius is similar to the way society perceives the ignorant.", "Hume states that a person with the characteristics of a genius is looked at as a person disconnected from society, as well as a person who works remotely, at a distance, away from the rest of the world.", "On the other hand, the mere ignorant is still more despised; nor is any thing deemed a surer sign of an illiberal genius in an age and nation where the sciences flourish, than to be entirely destitute of all relish for those noble entertainments.", "The most perfect character is supposed to lie between those extremes; retaining an equal ability and taste for books, company, and business; preserving in conversation that discernment and delicacy which arise from polite letters; and in business, that probity and accuracy which are the natural result of a just philosophy.In the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, genius is the ability to independently arrive at and understand concepts that would normally have to be taught by another person.", "For Kant, originality was the essential character of genius.", "The artworks of the Kantian genius are also characterized by their exemplarity which is imitated by other artists and serve as a rule for other aesthetical judgements.", "This genius is a talent for producing ideas which can be described as non-imitative.", "Kant's discussion of the characteristics of genius is largely contained within the ''Critique of Judgment'' and was well received by the Romantics of the early 19th century.", "In addition, much of Schopenhauer's theory of genius, particularly regarding talent and freedom from constraint, is directly derived from paragraphs of Part I of Kant's ''Critique of Judgment''.In the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer, a genius is someone in whom intellect predominates over \"will\" much more than within the average person.", "In Schopenhauer's aesthetics, this predominance of the intellect over the will allows the genius to create artistic or academic works that are objects of pure, disinterested contemplation, the chief criterion of the aesthetic experience for Schopenhauer.", "Their remoteness from mundane concerns means that Schopenhauer's geniuses often display maladaptive traits in more mundane concerns; in Schopenhauer's words, they fall into the mire while gazing at the stars, an allusion to Plato's dialogue ''Theætetus'', in which Socrates tells of Thales (the first philosopher) being ridiculed for falling in such circumstances.", "As he says in Volume 2 of ''The World as Will and Representation'':In the philosophy of Thomas Carlyle, genius is called (in ''Past and Present'') \"the inspired gift of God\"; the \"Man of Genius\" possesses \"the presence of God Most High in a man\".", "The actions of the \"Man of Genius\" can manifest this in various ways: in his \"transcendent capacity of taking trouble\" (often misquoted as \"an infinite capacity for taking pains\"), in that he can \"recognise how every object has a divine beauty in it\" as a poet or painter does, or in that he has \"an original power of thinking\".", "In accordance with his Great Man theory, Carlyle considered such individuals as Odin, William the Conqueror and Frederick the Great to be \"Men of Genius\".In the philosophy of Bertrand Russell, genius entails that an individual possesses unique qualities and talents that make the genius especially valuable to the society in which he or she operates, once given the chance to contribute to society.", "Russell's philosophy further maintains, however, that it is possible for such geniuses to be crushed in their youth and lost forever when the environment around them is unsympathetic to their potential maladaptive traits.", "Russell rejected the notion he believed was popular during his lifetime that, \"genius will out\".In his classic work ''The Limitations of Science'', J. W. N. Sullivan discussed a utilitarian philosophy on the retrospective classification of genius.", "Namely, scholarship that is so original that, were it not for that particular contributor, would not have emerged until much later (if ever) is characteristic of genius.", "Conversely, scholarship that was ripe for development, no matter how profound or prominent, is not necessarily indicative of genius." ], [ "Literature and pop culture", "Geniuses are variously portrayed in literature and film as both protagonists and antagonists, and may be the hero or villain of the story.", "In pop culture, the genius is often stereotypically depicted as either the wisecracking whiz or the tortured genius.Throughout both literature and movies, the tortured genius character is often seen as an imperfect or tragic hero who wrestles with the burden of superior intelligence, arrogance, eccentricities, addiction, awkwardness, mental health issues, a lack of social skills, isolation, or other insecurities.", "They regularly experience existential crises, struggling to overcome personal challenges to employ their special abilities for good or succumbing to their own tragic flaws and vices.", "This common motif repeated throughout fiction is notably present in the characters of Dr. Bruce Banner in the ''Hulk'' and Dr. Henry Jekyll in ''The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde'', among others.", "Although not as extreme, other examples of literary and filmic characterizations of the tortured genius stereotype, to varying degrees, include: Sherlock Holmes, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in ''Amadeus'', Dr. John Nash in ''A Beautiful Mind'', Leonardo da Vinci in ''Da Vinci's Demons'', Dr. Gregory House in ''House'', Will Hunting in ''Good Will Hunting'', and Dr. Sheldon Cooper in ''The Big Bang Theory.", "''One of the most famous genius-level rivalries to occur in literary fiction is between Sherlock Holmes and his nemesis Professor Moriarty; the latter character also identified as the modern archetype of an evil genius." ], [ "Supergenius", "Supergenius is a concept of a characteristic in where one's cognitive or intellectual capacity supersedes that of a standard or conventional level of Genius.", "One that is of extreme brilliance; standing out of among other geniuses.Such individual or entities whether human or AI, arguably existent (albeit slim to none), in who are either approaching, if not, far exceed what most would consider possible in some cases and contexts, regarding human limits of intelligence in a given domain, achievement, or cognitive proficiency and attributes.", "Quite possibly entering into or bordering on the realm of superintelligence in some facets.", "But nonetheless are within human plausibility, even though far-reaching." ], [ "See also", "* Chess prodigy* Eccentricity (behavior)* Intellectual giftedness* Gifted education* List of Nobel laureates* MacArthur Fellows Program* Savant syndrome" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * *** ** *** * * * * **** *** *** * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "Sources listed in chronological order of publication within each category.===Books===* * * * * * * * * ===Review articles===* * ===Web articles===* * * On societal expectations of geniuses.===Encyclopedia entries===* Or in other words Scott j simpkin" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grain (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Grains''' are the seeds of arable crops or the crops bearing them.", "'''Grain''' or '''grains''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Material structures", "*Grain (textile), the orientation of a woven textile used in a garment*Grain, a solid-fuel rocket's propellant charge; roughly a hollow cylinder, sometimes textured, and possibly very large*Crystallite or \"grain\" in metallurgy, a single crystal inside solid-state matter*Film grain, the gritty texture sometimes apparent on images produced using photographic film or paper (grainy)*Grain size (or particle size), for particles of rock in geology*Wood grain, the alignment and texture of the fibres in wood" ], [ "Places", "*Isle of Grain in Kent, England**Grain Power Station, a power station on the Isle of Grain*Grain Valley, Missouri, a city in the US" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "*''Grain'' (film), 2015 European film by Semih Kaplanoğlu*''Grain'' (magazine), a Canadian literary magazine*\"The Grain\", an 1886 short story by Leo Tolstoy" ], [ "Other uses", "*Grain (unit), a unit of mass equal to 64.79891 milligrams, of an avoirdupois pound**Grains per gallon, a unit of water hardness*Grain (cipher), a stream cipher designed for restricted hardware environments**Grain 128a, successor of Grain cipher*Grain (surfboard company), a company that manufactures hollow wooden surfboards*Grain (company), a Series B Singaporean food-delivery startup*GRAIN, an international non-governmental organization for sustainable agriculture*Grain of salt, an idiom" ], [ "See also", "*Granule (disambiguation)*Peter Grain (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grass (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Grass''' refers to the many species of plants in the family Poaceae.", "'''Grass''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Plants", "* Grass is also commonly used in the names of other plants, some but not all with narrow leaves, including:**Blue-eyed grasses, ''Sisyrinchium'' in the family Iridaceae**China grass, ''Boehmeria nivea'', a nettle grown for fibre, in family Urticaceae**Cotton grass, ''Eriophorum'' spp., in family Cyperaceae.", "**Deergrass (disambiguation): ***''Rhexia'' spp., in family Melastomataceae***''Trichophorum'' spp., in family Cyperaceae, particularly ''Trichophorum cespitosum''**Ditch grass, ''Ruppia maritima'', in family Ruppiaceae**Eelgrass:***''Zostera'' in family Zosteraceae***''Vallisneria'' in family Hydrocharitaceae**Golden-eye grass, ''Curculigo orchioides'', in family Hypoxidaceae**Good Friday Grass, ''Luzula campestris'', in family Juncaceae.", "**Goosegrass, ''Galium aparine'' in the family Rubiaceae**Grass (cannabis), a slang name for cannabis (drug)**Grass of Parnassus, ''Parnassia'', in family Celastraceae**Knotgrass, ''Polygonum spp.", "'', in family Polygonaceae**Mondo grass, ''Ophiopogon japonicus'', in family Asparagaceae**Nutgrass, ''Cyperus rotundus'', in family Cyperaceae**Pepper grass, ''Lepidium'' spp., in family Brassicaceae**Sawgrass, ''Cladium'' spp., in family Cyperaceae**Scurvy-grass, ''Cochlearia'' spp., in family Brassicaceae**Scurvy-grass sorrel, ''Oxalis enneaphylla'' in family Oxalidaceae**Seagrasses in four families, Posidoniaceae, Zosteraceae, Hydrocharitaceae, or Cymodoceaceae**Sleeping grass, ''Mimosa pudica'', in family Fabaceae**Whitlow grass, ''Draba'' and ''Erophila'' spp., in family Brassicaceae:**Xyridaceae, known as the yellow-eyed grass family" ], [ "People with the surname", "*Alex Grass (1927–2009), American businessman and lawyer *Arthur Grass (1897–1994), English-born Brazilian cricketer*Frank J. Grass (born 1951), American general *Günter Grass (1927–2015), German author and playwright, Nobel Prize in Literature 1999*John Grass (1837–1918), Native American Lakota leader*Philippe Grass (1801–1876), French sculptor*Vincent Grass (born 1949), Belgian actor" ], [ "Places", "*Grass Mountain (Vermont)*Grass Range, Montana*Grass Valley, California" ], [ "Art, entertainment, and media", "===Film===* ''Grass'' (1925 film), a documentary about the Bakhtiari tribe of Iran* ''Grass'' (1999 film), a documentary about marijuana* ''Grass'' (1968), an independent film by Clarke Mackey* ''Grass'' (2018 film), a South Korean film===Games===* Grass (card game), a cannabis-themed card game similar to ''Mille Bornes''===Literature===* ''Grass'' (novel), a novel in ''The Arbai Trilogy'' by Sheri Tepper* \"Grass\", a poem by Patti Smith from her 1978 book ''Babel''* \"Grass\", a poem by Carl Sandburg===Music===* \"Grass\", Russian art song by Aleksandr Yegorovich Varlamov (1801-1848)* ''Grass'' (album), a 2005 album by Keller Williams* \"Grass\" (Animal Collective song), a single by the band Animal Collective* \"Grass\" (XTC song), a 1986 single by XTC, written Moulding, from the ''Skylarking'' album* \"Grass\" (Robert Wyatt song) single, words by poet Ivor Cutler 1981===Television===* ''Grass'' (TV series), a 2003 BBC television series" ], [ "Computing and technology", "* GRASS (programming language), a programming language used for animations* GRASS GIS, a geographic information system* Gradient Recall Acquisition using Steady States, a form of magnetic resonance imaging" ], [ "Slang usage", "* Grass, grasser or Supergrass (informant) in the UK, an informant, especially one criminal informing on another, to the police or other authorities.", "* Grass, an informal name for marijuana." ], [ "Other uses of the above", "* Grass dance, a Native American style of pow wow dancing" ], [ "See also", "* Gras (disambiguation) * Grasse, a commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department (of which it is a sub-prefecture), on the French Riviera" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grape" ], [ "Introduction", "Grapes \"Black\" (dark blue) and \"white\" (light green) table grapesA '''grape''' is a fruit, botanically a berry, of the deciduous woody vines of the flowering plant genus ''Vitis''.", "Grapes are a non-climacteric type of fruit, generally occurring in clusters.The cultivation of grapes began perhaps 8,000 years ago, and the fruit has been used as human food over history.", "Eaten fresh or in dried form (as raisins, currants and sultanas), grapes also hold cultural significance in many parts of the world, particularly for their role in winemaking.", "Other grape-derived products include various types of jam, juice, vinegar and oil." ], [ "History", "The Middle East is generally described as the homeland of grapes and the cultivation of this plant began there 6,000–8,000 years ago.", "Yeast, one of the earliest domesticated microorganisms, occurs naturally on the skins of grapes, leading to the discovery of alcoholic drinks such as wine.", "The earliest archeological evidence for a dominant position of wine-making in human culture dates from 8,000 years ago in Georgia.The oldest known winery was found in Armenia, dating to around 4000 BC.", "By the 9th century AD, the city of Shiraz was known to produce some of the finest wines in the Middle East.", "Thus it has been proposed that Syrah red wine is named after Shiraz, a city in Persia where the grape was used to make Shirazi wine.Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics record the cultivation of purple grapes, and history attests to the ancient Greeks, Cypriots, Phoenicians, and Romans growing purple grapes both for eating and wine production.", "The growing of grapes would later spread to other regions in Europe, as well as North Africa, and eventually in North America.In 2005 a team of archaeologists concluded that some Chalcolithic wine jars, which were discovered in Cyprus in the 1930s, were the oldest of their kind in the world, dating back to 3,500 BC.", "Moreover, Commandaria, a sweet dessert wine from Cyprus, is the oldest manufactured wine in the world, its origins traced as far back as 2000 BC.", "In North America, native grapes belonging to various species of the genus ''Vitis'' proliferate in the wild across the continent, and were a part of the diet of many Native Americans, but were considered by early European colonists to be unsuitable for wine.", "In the 19th century, Ephraim Bull of Concord, Massachusetts, cultivated seeds from wild ''Vitis labrusca'' vines to create the Concord grape which would become an important agricultural crop in the United States." ], [ "Description", "Grapes are a type of fruit that grow in clusters of 15 to 300, and can be crimson, black, dark blue, yellow, green, orange, and pink.", "\"White\" grapes are actually green in color, and are evolutionarily derived from the purple grape.", "Mutations in two regulatory genes of white grapes turn off production of anthocyanins, which are responsible for the color of purple grapes.", "Anthocyanins and other pigment chemicals of the larger family of polyphenols in purple grapes are responsible for the varying shades of purple in red wines.", "Grapes are typically an ellipsoid shape resembling a prolate spheroid.===Nutrition===Raw grapes are 81% water, 18% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and have negligible fat (table).", "A reference amount of raw grapes supplies of food energy and a moderate amount of vitamin K (14% of the Daily Value), with no other micronutrients in significant amounts." ], [ "Grapevines", "Concord is a variety of North American ''labrusca'' grapeMost domesticated grapes come from cultivars of ''Vitis vinifera'', a grapevine native to the Mediterranean and Central Asia.", "Minor amounts of fruit and wine come from American and Asian species such as:* ''Vitis amurensis'', the most important Asian species* ''Vitis labrusca'', the North American table and grape juice grapevines (including the Concord cultivar), sometimes used for wine, are native to the Eastern United States and Canada.", "* ''Vitis mustangensis'' (the mustang grape), found in Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, Texas, and Oklahoma* ''Vitis riparia'', a wild vine of North America, is sometimes used for winemaking and for jam.", "It is native to the entire Eastern United States and north to Quebec.", "* ''Vitis rotundifolia'' (the muscadine), used for jams and wine, is native to the Southeastern United States from Delaware to the Gulf of Mexico." ], [ "Trade", "+Top grape exporting countries by years (in USD)RankCountry201720182019202020211Peru673.4M847.3M917.9M1.0B1.5B2Chile1.2B1.2B1.2B1.0B927.1M3Netherlands653.3M778.1M721.8M794.5M916.5M4South Africa572.0M567.4M553.4M567.2M907.3M5Italy864.8M800.1M724.8M835.1M876.7M6United States904.9M926.6M857.2M825.2M782.7M7China735.4M690.1M987.4M1.2B757.3M8Spain338.4M410.9M343.6M471.6M516.8M9Australia286.4M286.9M386.5M432.2M344.5M10India281.7M279.2M320.1M295.9M336.4M -World8.5B8.7B9.0B9.5B9.9BSource: Tridge" ], [ "Distribution and production", "Top 20 grape producing countries in 2012.According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 75,866 square kilometers of the world are dedicated to grapes.", "Approximately 71% of world grape production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit, and 2% as dried fruit.", "A portion of grape production goes to producing grape juice to be reconstituted for fruits canned \"with no added sugar\" and \"100% natural\".", "The area dedicated to vineyards is increasing by about 2% per year.There are no reliable statistics that break down grape production by variety.", "It is believed that the most widely planted variety is Sultana, also known as Thompson Seedless, with at least 3,600 km2 (880,000 acres) dedicated to it.", "The second most common variety is Airén.", "Other popular varieties include Cabernet Sauvignon, Sauvignon blanc, Cabernet Franc, Merlot, Grenache, Tempranillo, Riesling, and Chardonnay.+ Top producers of grapesfor wine making, by area planted Country Area (km2) + Top grape producing countries by years(in metric tons)RankCountry20092010201120122020 1 8,038,703 8,651,831 9,174,280 9,600,000 F14,769,088 2 6,629,198 6,777,731 6,756,449 6,661,8208,222,360 3 8,242,500 7,787,800 7,115,500 5,819,0106,817,770 4 6,101,525 5,794,433 6,588,904 5,338,5125,884,230 5 5,535,333 6,107,617 5,809,315 5,238,3005,388,679 6 4,264,720 4,255,000 4,296,351 4,275,6594,208,908 7 2,600,000 2,903,000 3,149,380 3,200,000 F3,125,000 8 2,181,567 2,616,613 2,750,000 2,800,000 F2,772,561 9 2,305,000 2,225,000 2,240,000 2,150,000 F2,055,746 10 1,748,590 1,743,496 1,683,927 1,839,0302,028,185 — ''World'' 58,521,410 58,292,101 58,500,118 67,067,12878,034,332" ], [ "Table and wine grapes", "Wine grapes on the vineCommercially cultivated grapes can usually be classified as either table or wine grapes, based on their intended method of consumption: eaten raw (table grapes) or used to make wine (wine grapes).", "The sweetness of grapes depends on when they are harvested, as they do not continue to ripen once picked.", "While almost all of them belong to the same species, ''Vitis vinifera'', table and wine grapes have significant differences, brought about through selective breeding.", "Table grape cultivars tend to have large, seedless fruit (see below) with relatively thin skin.", "Wine grapes are smaller, usually seeded, and have relatively thick skins (a desirable characteristic in winemaking, since much of the aroma in wine comes from the skin).", "Wine grapes also tend to be very sweet: they are harvested at the time when their juice is approximately 24% sugar by weight.", "By comparison, commercially produced \"100% grape juice\", made from table grapes, is usually around 15% sugar by weight." ], [ "Seedless grapes", "Seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings.", "Because grapevines are vegetatively propagated by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction.", "It is an issue for breeders, who must either use a seeded variety as the female parent or rescue embryos early in development using tissue culture techniques.There are several sources of the seedlessness trait, and essentially all commercial cultivators get it from one of three sources: Thompson Seedless, Russian Seedless, and Black Monukka, all being cultivars of ''Vitis vinifera''.", "There are currently more than a dozen varieties of seedless grapes.", "Several, such as Einset Seedless, Benjamin Gunnels's Prime seedless grapes, Reliance, and Venus, have been specifically cultivated for hardiness and quality in the relatively cold climates of northeastern United States and southern Ontario.An offset to the improved eating quality of seedlessness is the loss of potential health benefits provided by the enriched phytochemical content of grape seeds (see Health claims, below)." ], [ "Uses", "=== Culinary ===Grapes are eaten raw, dried (as raisins, currants and sultanas), or cooked.", "Also, depending on grape cultivar, grapes are used in winemaking.", "Grapes can be processed into a multitude of products such as jams, juices, vinegars and oils.Commercially cultivated grapes are classified as either table or wine grapes.", "These categories are based on their intended method of consumption: grapes that are eaten raw (table grapes), or grapes that are used to make wine (wine grapes).Table grape cultivars normally have large, seedless fruit and thin skins.", "Wine grapes are smaller (in comparison to table grapes), usually contains seeds, and have thicker skins (a desirable characteristic in making wine.", "Most of the aroma in wine is from the skin.", "Wine grapes tend to have a high sugar content.", "They are harvested at peak sugar levels (approximately 24% sugar by weight.)", "In comparison, commercially produced \"100% grape juice\" made from table grapes are normally around 15% sugar by weight.==== Raisins, currants and sultanas ====RaisinsIn most of Europe and North America, dried grapes are referred to as \"raisins\" or the local equivalent.", "In the UK, three different varieties are recognized, forcing the EU to use the term \"dried vine fruit\" in official documents.A ''raisin'' is any dried grape.", "While ''raisin'' is a French loanword, the word in French refers to the fresh fruit; ''grappe'' (from which the English ''grape'' is derived) refers to the bunch (as in ''une grappe de raisins'').", "A raisin in French is called ''raisin sec'' (\"dry grape\").A ''currant'' is a dried Zante Black Corinth grape, the name being a corruption of the French ''raisin de Corinthe'' (Corinth grape).", "The names of the black and red currant, now more usually blackcurrant and redcurrant, two berries unrelated to grapes, are derived from this use.", "Some other fruits of similar appearance are also so named, for example, Australian currant, native currant, Indian currant.A ''sultana'' was originally a raisin made from Sultana grapes of Turkish origin (known as Thompson Seedless in the United States), but the word is now applied to raisins made from either white grapes or red grapes that are bleached to resemble the traditional sultana.==== Juice ====Grape juiceGrape juice is obtained from crushing and blending grapes into a liquid.", "The juice is often sold in stores or fermented and made into wine, brandy, or vinegar.", "Grape juice that has been pasteurized, removing any naturally occurring yeast, will not ferment if kept sterile, and thus contains no alcohol.", "In the wine industry, grape juice that contains 7–23% of pulp, skins, stems and seeds is often referred to as \"must\".", "In North America, the most common grape juice is purple and made from Concord grapes, while white grape juice is commonly made from Niagara grapes, both of which are varieties of grapes, a different species from European wine grapes.", "In California, Sultana (known there as Thompson Seedless) grapes are sometimes diverted from the raisin or table market to produce white juice." ], [ "Pomace and phytochemicals", "Winemaking from red and white grape flesh and skins produces substantial quantities of organic residues, collectively called pomace (also \"marc\"), which includes crushed skins, seeds, stems, and leaves generally used as compost.", "Grape pomace – some 10-30% of the total mass of grapes crushed – contains various phytochemicals, such as unfermented sugars, alcohol, polyphenols, tannins, anthocyanins, and numerous other compounds, some of which are harvested and extracted for commercial applications (a process sometimes called \"valorization\" of the pomace).=== Skin ===alt=Anatomical-style diagram of three grapes on their stalks.", "Two of the grapes are shown in cross-section with all their internal parts labeled.Anthocyanins tend to be the main polyphenolics in purple grapes, whereas flavan-3-ols (i.e.", "catechins) are the more abundant class of polyphenols in white varieties.", "Total phenolic content is higher in purple varieties due almost entirely to anthocyanin density in purple grape skin compared to absence of anthocyanins in white grape skin.", "Phenolic content of grape skin varies with cultivar, soil composition, climate, geographic origin, and cultivation practices or exposure to diseases, such as fungal infections.Muscadine grapes contain a relatively high phenolic content among dark grapes.", "In muscadine skins, ellagic acid, myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, and trans-resveratrol are major phenolics.The flavonols syringetin, syringetin 3-O-galactoside, laricitrin and laricitrin 3-O-galactoside are also found in purple grape but absent in white grape.=== Seeds ===Muscadine grape seeds contain about twice the total polyphenol content of skins.", "Grape seed oil from crushed seeds is used in cosmeceuticals and skincare products.", "Grape seed oil, including tocopherols (vitamin E) and high contents of phytosterols and polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid, oleic acid, and alpha-linolenic acid.=== Resveratrol ===Resveratrol, a stilbene compound, is found in widely varying amounts among grape varieties, primarily in their skins and seeds.", "Muscadine grapes have about one hundred times higher concentration of stilbenes than pulp.", "Fresh grape skin contains about 50 to 100 micrograms of resveratrol per gram." ], [ "Health claims", "=== French paradox ===Comparing diets among Western countries, researchers have discovered that although French people tend to eat higher levels of animal fat, the incidence of heart disease remains low in France.", "This phenomenon has been termed the French paradox, and is thought to occur from protective benefits of regularly consuming red wine, among other dietary practices.", "Alcohol consumption in moderation may be cardioprotective by its minor anticoagulant effect and vasodilation.Using grape leaves in cuisine (Dolma)Although adoption of wine consumption is generally not recommended by health authorities, some research indicates moderate consumption, such as one glass of red wine a day for women and two for men, may confer health benefits.", "Alcohol itself may have protective effects on the cardiovascular system.=== Grape and raisin toxicity in dogs ===The consumption of grapes and raisins presents a potential health threat to dogs.", "Their toxicity to dogs can cause the animal to develop acute kidney failure (the sudden development of kidney failure) with anuria (a lack of urine production) and may be fatal." ], [ "In religion", "Christians have traditionally used wine during worship services as a means of remembering the blood of Jesus Christ which was shed for the remission of sins.", "Christians who oppose the partaking of alcoholic beverages sometimes use grape juice as the \"cup\" or \"wine\" in the Lord's Supper.The Catholic Church continues to use wine in the celebration of the Eucharist because it is part of the tradition passed down through the ages starting with Jesus Christ at the Last Supper, where Catholics believe the consecrated bread and wine become the body and blood of Jesus Christ, a dogma known as transubstantiation.", "Wine is used (not grape juice) both due to its strong Scriptural roots, and also to follow the tradition set by the early Christian Church.", "The Code of Canon Law of the Catholic Church (1983), Canon 924 says that the wine used must be natural, made from grapes of the vine, and not corrupt." ], [ "Gallery", "File:GrapesBuds.JPG|Flower budsFile:GrapesFlowers.JPG|FlowersFile:TenderGrapes.JPG|Immature fruitFile:Grapes Angoor.JPG|Grapes in IranFile:Grapes.jpg|Wine grapesFile:Cyprusgrapefarm.jpg|Vineyard in the Troodos MountainsFile:Seedless grapes of Kallidaikurichi.jpg|seedless grapesFile:Grapes in the Philippines 1.jpg|Grapes in the La Union, Philippines" ], [ "See also", "* Annual growth cycle of grapevines* Drakshasava, a traditional Ayurvedic tonic made from grapes* Grape syrup* List of grape dishes* List of grape varieties* ''Menispermum canadense'', a poisonous species resembling wild grapes* Propagation of grapevines* The Fox and the Grapes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Creasy, G. L. and L. L. Creasy (2009).", "''Grapes'' (Crop Production Science in Horticulture).", "CABI.", "." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Genetic disorder" ], [ "Introduction", "Diagram featuring examples of a disease located on each chromosomeA '''genetic disorder''' is a health problem caused by one or more abnormalities in the genome.", "It can be caused by a mutation in a single gene (monogenic) or multiple genes (polygenic) or by a chromosomal abnormality.", "Although polygenic disorders are the most common, the term is mostly used when discussing disorders with a single genetic cause, either in a gene or chromosome.", "The mutation responsible can occur spontaneously before embryonic development (a ''de novo'' mutation), or it can be inherited from two parents who are carriers of a faulty gene (autosomal recessive inheritance) or from a parent with the disorder (autosomal dominant inheritance).", "When the genetic disorder is inherited from one or both parents, it is also classified as a '''hereditary disease'''.", "Some disorders are caused by a mutation on the X chromosome and have X-linked inheritance.", "Very few disorders are inherited on the Y chromosome or mitochondrial DNA (due to their size).There are well over 6,000 known genetic disorders, and new genetic disorders are constantly being described in medical literature.", "More than 600 genetic disorders are treatable.", "Around 1 in 50 people are affected by a known single-gene disorder, while around 1 in 263 are affected by a chromosomal disorder.", "Around 65% of people have some kind of health problem as a result of congenital genetic mutations.", "Due to the significantly large number of genetic disorders, approximately 1 in 21 people are affected by a genetic disorder classified as \"rare\" (usually defined as affecting less than 1 in 2,000 people).", "Most genetic disorders are rare in themselves.Genetic disorders are present before birth, and some genetic disorders produce birth defects, but birth defects can also be developmental rather than hereditary.", "The opposite of a hereditary disease is an acquired disease.", "Most cancers, although they involve genetic mutations to a small proportion of cells in the body, are acquired diseases.", "Some cancer syndromes, however, such as ''BRCA'' mutations, are hereditary genetic disorders." ], [ "{{anchor|Single gene disorder}}Single-gene", "+Prevalence of some single-gene disordersDisorder prevalence (approximate)Autosomal dominantFamilial hypercholesterolemia1 in 500Myotonic dystrophy type 11 in 2,100Neurofibromatosis type I1 in 2,500Hereditary spherocytosis1 in 5,000Marfan syndrome1 in 4,000Huntington's disease1 in 15,000Autosomal recessiveSickle cell anaemia1 in 625Cystic fibrosis1 in 2,000Tay–Sachs disease1 in 3,000Phenylketonuria1 in 12,000Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease1 in 20,000Mucopolysaccharidoses1 in 25,000Lysosomal acid lipase deficiency1 in 40,000Glycogen storage diseases1 in 50,000Galactosemia1 in 57,000X-linkedDuchenne muscular dystrophy1 in 5,000Hemophilia1 in 10,000 Values are for liveborn infantsA '''single-gene disorder''' (or '''monogenic disorder''') is the result of a single mutated gene.", "Single-gene disorders can be passed on to subsequent generations in several ways.", "Genomic imprinting and uniparental disomy, however, may affect inheritance patterns.", "The divisions between recessive and dominant types are not \"hard and fast\", although the divisions between autosomal and X-linked types are (since the latter types are distinguished purely based on the chromosomal location of the gene).", "For example, the common form of dwarfism, achondroplasia, is typically considered a dominant disorder, but children with two genes for achondroplasia have a severe and usually lethal skeletal disorder, one that achondroplasics could be considered carriers for.", "Sickle cell anemia is also considered a recessive condition, but heterozygous carriers have increased resistance to malaria in early childhood, which could be described as a related dominant condition.", "When a couple where one partner or both are affected or carriers of a single-gene disorder wish to have a child, they can do so through ''in vitro'' fertilization, which enables preimplantation genetic diagnosis to occur to check whether the embryo has the genetic disorder.Most congenital metabolic disorders known as inborn errors of metabolism result from single-gene defects.", "Many such single-gene defects can decrease the fitness of affected people and are therefore present in the population in lower frequencies compared to what would be expected based on simple probabilistic calculations.=== Autosomal dominant ===Only one mutated copy of the gene will be necessary for a person to be affected by an autosomal dominant disorder.", "Each affected person usually has one affected parent.", "The chance a child will inherit the mutated gene is 50%.", "Autosomal dominant conditions sometimes have reduced penetrance, which means although only one mutated copy is needed, not all individuals who inherit that mutation go on to develop the disease.", "Examples of this type of disorder are Huntington's disease, neurofibromatosis type 1, neurofibromatosis type 2, Marfan syndrome, hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer, hereditary multiple exostoses (a highly penetrant autosomal dominant disorder), tuberous sclerosis, Von Willebrand disease, and acute intermittent porphyria.", "Birth defects are also called congenital anomalies.=== Autosomal recessive ===Two copies of the gene must be mutated for a person to be affected by an autosomal recessive disorder.", "An affected person usually has unaffected parents who each carry a single copy of the mutated gene and are referred to as genetic carriers.", "Each parent with a defective gene normally do not have symptoms.", "Two unaffected people who each carry one copy of the mutated gene have a 25% risk with each pregnancy of having a child affected by the disorder.", "Examples of this type of disorder are albinism, medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease, Tay–Sachs disease, Niemann–Pick disease, spinal muscular atrophy, and Roberts syndrome.", "Certain other phenotypes, such as wet versus dry earwax, are also determined in an autosomal recessive fashion.", "Some autosomal recessive disorders are common because, in the past, carrying one of the faulty genes led to a slight protection against an infectious disease or toxin such as tuberculosis or malaria.", "Such disorders include cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease, phenylketonuria and thalassaemia.File:Autosomal recessive inheritance for affected enzyme.png|Hereditary defects in enzymes are generally inherited in an autosomal fashion because there are more non-X chromosomes than X-chromosomes, and a recessive fashion because the enzymes from the unaffected genes are generally sufficient to prevent symptoms in carriers.Autosomal dominant inheritance for structural protein.png|On the other hand, hereditary defects in structural proteins (such as osteogenesis imperfecta, Marfan's syndrome and many Ehlers–Danlos syndromes) are generally autosomal dominant, because it is enough that some components are defective to make the whole structure dysfunctional.", "This is a dominant-negative process, wherein a mutated gene product adversely affects the non-mutated gene product within the same cell.=== X-linked dominant ===karyogram showing an overview of the human genome.", "It shows annotated bands and sub-bands as used in the nomenclature of genetic disorders.", "It shows 22 homologous chromosomes, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the sex chromosome (bottom right), as well as the mitochondrial genome (to scale at bottom left).X-linked dominant disorders are caused by mutations in genes on the X chromosome.", "Only a few disorders have this inheritance pattern, with a prime example being X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets.", "Males and females are both affected in these disorders, with males typically being more severely affected than females.", "Some X-linked dominant conditions, such as Rett syndrome, incontinentia pigmenti type 2, and Aicardi syndrome, are usually fatal in males either ''in utero'' or shortly after birth, and are therefore predominantly seen in females.", "Exceptions to this finding are extremely rare cases in which boys with Klinefelter syndrome (44+xxy) also inherit an X-linked dominant condition and exhibit symptoms more similar to those of a female in terms of disease severity.", "The chance of passing on an X-linked dominant disorder differs between men and women.", "The sons of a man with an X-linked dominant disorder will all be unaffected (since they receive their father's Y chromosome), but his daughters will all inherit the condition.", "A woman with an X-linked dominant disorder has a 50% chance of having an affected fetus with each pregnancy, although in cases such as incontinentia pigmenti, only female offspring are generally viable.=== X-linked recessive ===X-linked recessive conditions are also caused by mutations in genes on the X chromosome.", "Males are much more frequently affected than females, because they only have the one X chromosome necessary for the condition to present.", "The chance of passing on the disorder differs between men and women.", "The sons of a man with an X-linked recessive disorder will not be affected (since they receive their father's Y chromosome), but his daughters will be carriers of one copy of the mutated gene.", "A woman who is a carrier of an X-linked recessive disorder (XRXr) has a 50% chance of having sons who are affected and a 50% chance of having daughters who are carriers of one copy of the mutated gene.", "X-linked recessive conditions include the serious diseases hemophilia A, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and Lesch–Nyhan syndrome, as well as common and less serious conditions such as male pattern baldness and red–green color blindness.", "X-linked recessive conditions can sometimes manifest in females due to skewed X-inactivation or monosomy X (Turner syndrome).=== Y-linked ===Y-linked disorders are caused by mutations on the Y chromosome.", "These conditions may only be transmitted from the heterogametic sex (e.g.", "male humans) to offspring of the same sex.", "More simply, this means that Y-linked disorders in humans can only be passed from men to their sons; females can never be affected because they do not possess Y-allosomes.Y-linked disorders are exceedingly rare but the most well-known examples typically cause infertility.", "Reproduction in such conditions is only possible through the circumvention of infertility by medical intervention.=== Mitochondrial ===This type of inheritance, also known as maternal inheritance, is the rarest and applies to the 13 genes encoded by mitochondrial DNA.", "Because only egg cells contribute mitochondria to the developing embryo, only mothers (who are affected) can pass on mitochondrial DNA conditions to their children.", "An example of this type of disorder is Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy.It is important to stress that the vast majority of mitochondrial diseases (particularly when symptoms develop in early life) are actually caused by a nuclear gene defect, as the mitochondria are mostly developed by non-mitochondrial DNA.", "These diseases most often follow autosomal recessive inheritance." ], [ "Multifactorial disorder", "Genetic disorders may also be complex, multifactorial, or polygenic, meaning they are likely associated with the effects of multiple genes in combination with lifestyles and environmental factors.", "Multifactorial disorders include heart disease and diabetes.", "Although complex disorders often cluster in families, they do not have a clear-cut pattern of inheritance.", "This makes it difficult to determine a person's risk of inheriting or passing on these disorders.", "Complex disorders are also difficult to study and treat because the specific factors that cause most of these disorders have not yet been identified.", "Studies that aim to identify the cause of complex disorders can use several methodological approaches to determine genotype–phenotype associations.", "One method, the genotype-first approach, starts by identifying genetic variants within patients and then determining the associated clinical manifestations.", "This is opposed to the more traditional phenotype-first approach, and may identify causal factors that have previously been obscured by clinical heterogeneity, penetrance, and expressivity.On a pedigree, polygenic diseases do tend to \"run in families\", but the inheritance does not fit simple patterns as with Mendelian diseases.", "This does not mean that the genes cannot eventually be located and studied.", "There is also a strong environmental component to many of them (e.g., blood pressure).", "Other factors include:* asthma* autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis* cancers* ciliopathies* cleft palate* diabetes* heart disease* hypertension* inflammatory bowel disease* intellectual disability* mood disorder* obesity* refractive error* infertility" ], [ "Chromosomal disorder", "Chromosomes in Down syndrome, the most common human condition due to aneuploidy.", "There are three chromosomes 21 (in the last row).A chromosomal disorder is a missing, extra, or irregular portion of chromosomal DNA.", "It can be from an atypical number of chromosomes or a structural abnormality in one or more chromosomes.", "An example of these disorders is Trisomy 21 (the most common form of Down syndrome), in which there is an extra copy of chromosome 21 in all cells." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Due to the wide range of genetic disorders that are known, diagnosis is widely varied and dependent of the disorder.", "Most genetic disorders are diagnosed pre-birth, at birth, or during early childhood however some, such as Huntington's disease, can escape detection until the patient begins exhibiting symptoms well into adulthood.The basic aspects of a genetic disorder rests on the inheritance of genetic material.", "With an in depth family history, it is possible to anticipate possible disorders in children which direct medical professionals to specific tests depending on the disorder and allow parents the chance to prepare for potential lifestyle changes, anticipate the possibility of stillbirth, or contemplate termination.", "Prenatal diagnosis can detect the presence of characteristic abnormalities in fetal development through ultrasound, or detect the presence of characteristic substances via invasive procedures which involve inserting probes or needles into the uterus such as in amniocentesis." ], [ "Prognosis", "Not all genetic disorders directly result in death; however, there are no known cures for genetic disorders.", "Many genetic disorders affect stages of development, such as Down syndrome, while others result in purely physical symptoms such as muscular dystrophy.", "Other disorders, such as Huntington's disease, show no signs until adulthood.", "During the active time of a genetic disorder, patients mostly rely on maintaining or slowing the degradation of quality of life and maintain patient autonomy.", "This includes physical therapy and pain management." ], [ "Treatment", "From personal genomics to gene therapyThe treatment of genetic disorders is an ongoing battle, with over 1,800 gene therapy clinical trials having been completed, are ongoing, or have been approved worldwide.", "Despite this, most treatment options revolve around treating the symptoms of the disorders in an attempt to improve patient quality of life.Gene therapy refers to a form of treatment where a healthy gene is introduced to a patient.", "This should alleviate the defect caused by a faulty gene or slow the progression of the disease.", "A major obstacle has been the delivery of genes to the appropriate cell, tissue, and organ affected by the disorder.", "Researchers have investigated how they can introduce a gene into the potentially trillions of cells that carry the defective copy.", "Finding an answer to this has been a roadblock between understanding the genetic disorder and correcting the genetic disorder." ], [ "Epidemiology", "Around 1 in 50 people are affected by a known single-gene disorder, while around 1 in 263 are affected by a chromosomal disorder.", "Around 65% of people have some kind of health problem as a result of congenital genetic mutations.", "Due to the significantly large number of genetic disorders, approximately 1 in 21 people are affected by a genetic disorder classified as \"rare\" (usually defined as affecting less than 1 in 2,000 people).", "Most genetic disorders are rare in themselves.", "There are well over 6,000 known genetic disorders, and new genetic disorders are constantly being described in medical literature." ], [ "History", "The earliest known genetic condition in a hominid was in the fossil species ''Paranthropus robustus,'' with over a third of individuals displaying amelogenesis imperfecta." ], [ "See also", "* FINDbase (the Frequency of Inherited Disorders database)* Genetic epidemiology* List of genetic disorders* Population groups in biomedicine* Mendelian error" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Public Health Genomics at CDC* OMIM — Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man, a catalog of human genes and genetic disorders* Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD) Office of Rare Diseases (ORD), National Institutes of Health (NIH)* CDC’s National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities* Genetic Disease Information from the Human Genome Project* Global Genes Project, Genetic and Rare Diseases Organization* List of Genetic Disorders - Genome.gov" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Guanine" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Guanine''' () (symbol '''G''' or '''Gua''') is one of the four main nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, the others being adenine, cytosine, and thymine (uracil in RNA).", "In DNA, guanine is paired with cytosine.", "The guanine nucleoside is called guanosine.With the formula C5H5N5O, guanine is a derivative of purine, consisting of a fused pyrimidine-imidazole ring system with conjugated double bonds.", "This unsaturated arrangement means the bicyclic molecule is planar." ], [ "Properties", "Guanine, along with adenine and cytosine, is present in both DNA and RNA, whereas thymine is usually seen only in DNA, and uracil only in RNA.", "Guanine has two tautomeric forms, the major keto form (see figures) and rare enol form.It binds to cytosine through three hydrogen bonds.", "In cytosine, the amino group acts as the hydrogen bond donor and the C-2 carbonyl and the N-3 amine as the hydrogen-bond acceptors.", "Guanine has the C-6 carbonyl group that acts as the hydrogen bond acceptor, while a group at N-1 and the amino group at C-2 act as the hydrogen bond donors.Guanine can be hydrolyzed with strong acid to glycine, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide.", "First, guanine gets deaminated to become xanthine.", "Guanine oxidizes more readily than adenine, the other purine-derivative base in DNA.", "Its high melting point of 350 °C reflects the intermolecular hydrogen bonding between the oxo and amino groups in the molecules in the crystal.", "Because of this intermolecular bonding, guanine is relatively insoluble in water, but it is soluble in dilute acids and bases." ], [ "History", "The first isolation of guanine was reported in 1844 by the German chemist (1819–1885), who obtained it as a mineral formed from the excreta of sea birds, which is known as guano and which was used as a source of fertilizer; guanine was named in 1846.Between 1882 and 1906, Emil Fischer determined the structure and also showed that uric acid can be converted to guanine." ], [ "Synthesis", "Trace amounts of guanine form by the polymerization of ammonium cyanide ().", "Two experiments conducted by Levy et al.", "showed that heating 10 mol·L−1 at 80 °C for 24 hours gave a yield of 0.0007%, while using 0.1 mol·L−1 frozen at −20 °C for 25 years gave a 0.0035% yield.", "These results indicate guanine could arise in frozen regions of the primitive earth.", "In 1984, Yuasa reported a 0.00017% yield of guanine after the electrical discharge of , , , and 50 mL of water, followed by a subsequent acid hydrolysis.", "However, it is unknown whether the presence of guanine was not simply a resultant contaminant of the reaction.", ":10NH3 + 2CH4 + 4C2H6 + 2H2O → 2C5H8N5O (guanine) + 25H2A Fischer–Tropsch synthesis can also be used to form guanine, along with adenine, uracil, and thymine.", "Heating an equimolar gas mixture of CO, H2, and NH3 to 700 °C for 15 to 24 minutes, followed by quick cooling and then sustained reheating to 100 to 200 °C for 16 to 44 hours with an alumina catalyst, yielded guanine and uracil::10CO + H2 + 10NH3 → 2C5H8N5O (guanine) + 8H2OAnother possible abiotic route was explored by quenching a 90% N2–10%CO–H2O gas mixture high-temperature plasma.Traube's synthesis involves heating 2,4,5-triamino-1,6-dihydro-6-oxypyrimidine (as the sulfate) with formic acid for several hours.Traube purine synthesis" ], [ "Biosynthesis", "Guanine is not synthesized de novo, instead it's split from the more complex molecule, guanosine, by the enzyme guanosine phosphorylase::guanosine + phosphate guanine + alpha-D-ribose 1-phosphateGuanine can be synthesized de novo, with the rate-limiting enzyme of inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase." ], [ "Other occurrences and biological uses", "The word guanine derives from the Spanish loanword ''guano'' (\"bird/bat droppings\"), which itself is from the Quechua word ''wanu'', meaning \"dung\".", "As the Oxford English Dictionary notes, guanine is \"A white amorphous substance obtained abundantly from guano, forming a constituent of the excrement of birds\".In 1656 in Paris, a Mr. Jaquin extracted from the scales of the fish ''Alburnus alburnus'' so-called \"pearl essence\", which is crystalline guanine.", "In the cosmetics industry, crystalline guanine is used as an additive to various products (e.g., shampoos), where it provides a pearly iridescent effect.", "It is also used in metallic paints and simulated pearls and plastics.", "It provides shimmering luster to eye shadow and nail polish.", "Facial treatments using the droppings, or guano, from Japanese nightingales have been used in Japan and elsewhere, because the guanine in the droppings makes the skin look paler.", "Guanine crystals are rhombic platelets composed of multiple transparent layers, but they have a high index of refraction that partially reflects and transmits light from layer to layer, thus producing a pearly luster.", "It can be applied by spray, painting, or dipping.", "It may irritate the eyes.", "Its alternatives are mica, faux pearl (from ground shells), and aluminium and bronze particles.Guanine has a very wide variety of biological uses that include a range of functions ranging in both complexity and versatility.", "These include camouflage, display, and vision among other purposes.Spiders, scorpions, and some amphibians convert ammonia, as a product of protein metabolism in the cells, to guanine, as it can be excreted with minimal water loss.Guanine is also found in specialized skin cells of fish called iridocytes (e.g., the sturgeon), as well as being present in the reflective deposits of the eyes of deep-sea fish and some reptiles, such as crocodiles and chameleons.On 8 August 2011, a report, based on NASA studies with meteorites found on Earth, was published suggesting building blocks of DNA and RNA (guanine, adenine and related organic molecules) may have been formed extra-terrestrially in outer space." ], [ "See also", "* Cytosine* Guanine deaminase" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Guanine MS Spectrum* Guanine at chemicalland21.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Genocide" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Genocide''' is the intentional destruction of a people in whole or in part.In 1948, the United Nations Genocide Convention defined genocide as any of five \"acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group\".", "These five acts were: killing members of the group, causing them serious bodily or mental harm, imposing living conditions intended to destroy the group, preventing births, and forcibly transferring children out of the group.", "Victims are targeted because of their real or perceived membership of a group, not randomly.The Political Instability Task Force estimated that 43 genocides occurred between 1956 and 2016, resulting in about 50 million deaths.", "The UNHCR estimated that a further 50 million had been displaced by such episodes of violence up to 2008.Genocide, especially large-scale genocide, is widely considered to signify the epitome of human evil.", "As a label, it is contentious because it is moralizing, and has been used as a type of moral category since the late 1990s." ], [ "Etymology", "Raphael Lemkin coined the term ''genocide'' in 1944.His analysis of atrocities inflicted on the Poles were adopted by the UN Genocide Convention as its criteria for determining \"genocidal intent\"Aftermath of the 1941 Odessa massacre, in which Jewish deportees were killed outside Brizula (now Podilsk) during the HolocaustMembers of the burn corpses of Jews in pits at Auschwitz II-Birkenau, an extermination camp.Polish lawyer Raphael Lemkin coined the term ''genocide'' in his 1944 book ''Axis Rule in Occupied Europe'', combining the Greek word (, \"race, people\") with the Latin suffix (\"act of killing\").", "In ''Axis Rule'', Lemkin documents his research of Nazi occupation policies in Europe, and records a case study of the occupation of Poland.", "Lemkin asserted that Nazi atrocities against Poles consisted of five policies which exposed their \"intent to destroy\" the Polish nation.", "These included i) mass-killings of Poles ii) inflicting \"serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group\" iii) planned deterioration of living conditions \"calculated to bring about their destruction\" iv) implementation of various \"measures intended to prevent births within the group\" such as promotion of abortions, burdening pregnant women, etc.", "v) forced transfer of Polish children to German families.", "Each of these five markers, according to Lemkin, revealed the Nazi plan to eliminate the Polish identity with certainty.", "These five criteria were adopted by the 1948 Genocide Convention (CPPCG) as its proof for the concept of genocidal intent.Before the term was coined, there had been various ways of describing such events.", "Some languages already had words for such killings, including German (, ) and Polish (, ).", "After reading about the 1921 assassination of Talat Pasha, the main architect of the Armenian genocide, by Armenian Soghomon Tehlirian, Lemkin asked his professor why there was no law under which Talat could be charged.", "He later explained that \"as a lawyer, I thought that a crime should not be punished by the victims, but should be punished by a court.\"", "In 1941, when describing the \"methodical, merciless butchery\" of \"scores of thousands\" of Russians by Nazi troops during the German invasion of the Soviet Union, Winston Churchill spoke of \"a crime without a name\".", "Lemkin's ''Axis Rule in Occupied Europe'' describes the implementation of Nazi policies in occupied Europe and mentions earlier mass killings.Lemkin defined genocide as follows:The preamble to the 1948 Genocide Convention notes that instances of genocide have taken place throughout history; it was not until Lemkin coined the term and the prosecution of perpetrators of the Holocaust at the Nuremberg Trials that the United Nations defined the crime of genocide under international law in the Genocide Convention.", "It was several years before the term was widely adopted by the international community.", "When the Nuremberg trials revealed the inadequacy of phrases like \"Germanization\", \"crimes against humanity\" and \"mass murder\", scholars of international law reached agreement that Lemkin's work provided a conceptual framework for Nazi crimes.", "A 1946 headline in ''The New York Times'' announced that \"Genocide Is the New Name for the Crime Fastened on the Nazi Leaders\"; the word was used in indictments at the Nuremberg trials, held from 1945, but solely as a descriptive term, not yet as a formal legal term.", "The so-called Polish Genocide Trials of Arthur Greiser and Amon Leopold Goth in 1946 were the first trials in which judgments included the term." ], [ "Prohibited acts", "The Genocide Convention establishes five prohibited acts that, when committed with the requisite intent, amount to genocide.", "Genocide is not just defined as wide scale massacre-style killings that are visible and well-documented.", "International law recognizes a broad range of forms of violence in which the crime of genocide can be enacted.=== Killing members of the group ''Article II(a)'' ===While mass killing is not necessary for genocide to have been committed, it has been present in almost all recognized genocides.", "A near-uniform pattern has emerged throughout history in which men and adolescent boys are singled out for murder in the early stages, such as in the genocide of the Yazidis by Daesh, the Ottoman Turks' attack on the Armenians, and the Burmese security forces' attacks on the Rohingya.", "Men and boys are typically subject to \"fast\" killings, such as by gunshot.", "Women and girls are more likely to die slower deaths by slashing, burning, or as a result of sexual violence.", "The jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), among others, shows that both the initial executions and those that quickly follow other acts of extreme violence, such as rape and torture, are recognized as falling under the first prohibited act.A less settled discussion is whether deaths that are further removed from the initial acts of violence can be addressed under this provision of the Genocide Convention.", "Legal scholars have posited, for example, that deaths resulting from other genocidal acts including causing serious bodily or mental harm or the successful deliberate infliction of conditions of life calculated to bring about physical destruction should be considered genocidal killings.=== Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group ''Article II(b)'' ===This second prohibited act can encompass a wide range of non-fatal genocidal acts.", "The ICTR and International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) have held that rape and sexual violence may constitute the second prohibited act of genocide by causing both physical and mental harm.", "In its landmark Akayesu decision, the ICTR held that rapes and sexual violence resulted in \"physical and psychological destruction\".", "Sexual violence is a hallmark of genocidal violence, with most genocidal campaigns explicitly or implicitly sanctioning it.", "It is estimated that 250,000 to 500,000 women were raped in the three months of the Rwandan genocide, many of whom were subjected to multiple rapes or gang rape.", "In Darfur, a systemic campaign of rape and often sexual mutilation was carried out and in Burma public mass rapes and gang rapes were inflicted on the Rohingya by Burmese security forces.", "Sexual slavery was documented in the Armenian genocide by the Ottoman Turks and Daesh's genocide of the Yazidi.Torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment, when committed with the requisite intent, are also genocide by causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group.", "The ICTY found that both experiencing a failed execution and watching the murder of one's family members may constitute torture.", "The Syrian Commission of Inquiry (COI) also found that enslavement, removal of one's children into indoctrination or sexual slavery, and acts of physical and sexual violence rise to the level of torture, as well.", "While it was subject to some debate, the ICTY and, later, the Syrian COI held that under some circumstances deportation and forcible transfer may also cause serious bodily or mental harm.=== Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction ''Article II(c)'' ===bison hunting for various reasons, including as a way of destroying the means of survival of Plains Indians to pressure them to remain on Indian reservations.The third prohibited act is distinguished from the genocidal act of killing because the deaths are not immediate (or may not even come to pass), but rather create circumstances that do not support prolonged life.", "Due to the longer period of time before the actual destruction would be achieved, the ICTR held that courts must consider the duration of time the conditions are imposed as an element of the act.", "In the 19th century the United States federal government supported the extermination of bison, which Native Americans in the Great Plains relied on as a source of food.", "This was done for various reasons, primarily to pressure them onto reservations during times of conflict.", "Some genocide experts describe this as an example of genocide that involves removing the means of survival.The ICTR provided guidance into what constitutes a violation of the third act.", "In Akayesu, it identified \"subjecting a group of people to a subsistence diet, systematic expulsion from homes and the reduction of essential medical services below minimum requirement\" as rising to genocide.", "In Kayishema and Ruzindana, it extended the list to include: \"lack of proper housing, clothing, hygiene and medical care or excessive work or physical exertion\" among the conditions.", "It further noted that, in addition to deprivation of necessary resources, rape could also fit within this prohibited act.", "In August 2023, founding chief prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) Luis Moreno Ocampo published a report presenting evidence that Azerbaijan was committing genocide against the ethnic Armenians of Artsakh Nagorno-Karabakh under Article II(c) of the Genocide Convention by placing their historic land under a comprehensive blockade, cutting all access to food, medical supplies, electricity, gas, internet, and stopping all movement of people to and from Armenia.=== Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group ''Article II(d)'' ===The fourth prohibited act is aimed at preventing the protected group from regenerating through reproduction.", "It encompasses acts affecting reproduction and intimate relationships, such as involuntary sterilization, forced abortion, the prohibition of marriage, and long-term separation of men and women intended to prevent procreation.", "Rape has been found to violate the fourth prohibited act on two bases: where the rape was committed with the intent to impregnate a woman and thereby force her to carry a child of another group (in societies where group identity is determined by patrilineal identity) and where the person raped subsequently refuses to procreate as a result of the trauma.", "Accordingly, it can take into account both physical and mental measures imposed by the perpetrators.=== Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group ''Article II(e)'' ===The final prohibited act is the only prohibited act that does not lead to physical or biological destruction, but rather to destruction of the group as a cultural and social unit.", "It occurs when children of the protected group are transferred to the perpetrator group.", "Boys are typically taken into the group by changing their names to those common of the perpetrator group, converting their religion, and using them for labor or as soldiers.", "Girls who are transferred are not generally converted to the perpetrator group, but instead treated as chattel, as played out in both the Yazidi and Armenian genocides." ], [ "Crime", "=== Pre-criminalization view ===Before genocide was made a crime against national law, it was considered a sovereign right.", "When Lemkin asked about a way to punish the perpetrators of the Armenian genocide, a law professor told him: \"Consider the case of a farmer who owns a flock of chickens.", "He kills them and this is his business.", "If you interfere, you are trespassing.\"", "As late as 1959, many world leaders still \"believed states had a right to commit genocide against people within their borders\", according to political scientist Douglas Irvin-Erickson.=== International law ===Human skulls at the Murambi Genocide Memorial Centre in RwandaArmenian genocide victimsAfter the Holocaust, which had been perpetrated by Nazi Germany prior to and during World War II, Lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of international laws defining and forbidding genocides.", "In 1946, the first session of the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution that affirmed genocide was a crime under international law and enumerated examples of such events (but did not provide a full legal definition of the crime).", "In 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the ''Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide'' (CPPCG) which defined the crime of genocide for the first time.The ''CPPCG'' was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 9 December 1948 and came into effect on 12 January 1951 (Resolution 260 (III)).", "It contains an internationally recognized definition of genocide which has been incorporated into the national criminal legislation of many countries and was also adopted by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, which established the International Criminal Court (ICC).", "Article II of the Convention defines genocide as:Incitement to genocide is recognized as a separate crime under international law and an inchoate crime which does not require genocide to have taken place to be prosecutable.The first draft of the convention included political killings; these provisions were removed in a political and diplomatic compromise following objections from many diverse countries, and originally promoted by the World Jewish Congress and Raphael Lemkin's conception, with some scholars popularly emphasizing in literature the role of the Soviet Union, a permanent United Nations Security Council member.", "The Soviets argued that the convention's definition should follow the etymology of the term, and Joseph Stalin in particular may have feared greater international scrutiny of the country's political killings, such as the Great Purge.", "Lemkin, who coined ''genocide'', approached the Soviet delegation as the resolution vote came close to reassure the Soviets that there was no conspiracy against them; none in the Soviet-led bloc opposed the resolution, which passed unanimously in December 1946.Other nations, including the United States, feared that including political groups in the definition would invite international intervention in domestic politics.By 1951, Lemkin was saying that the Soviet Union was the only state that could be indicted for genocide, his concept of genocide, as outlined in ''Axis Rule in Occupied Europe'', covering Stalinist deportations as genocide by default, and differing in many ways from the adopted Genocide Convention.", "From a 21st-century perspective, it was such a broad coverage that it would include any grossly human rights violation as genocide, and that many events deemed by Lemkin genocidal did not amount to genocide.", "As the Cold War began, this change was the result of Lemkin's turn to anti-communism in an attempt to convince the United States to ratify the Genocide Convention.=== Intent ===Under international law, genocide has two mental (''mens rea'') elements: the general mental element and the element of specific intent (''dolus specialis'').", "The general element refers to whether the prohibited acts were committed with intent, knowledge, recklessness, or negligence.", "For most serious international crimes, including genocide, the requirement is that the perpetrator act with intent.", "The Rome Statute defines intent as meaning to engage in the conduct and, in relation to consequences, as meaning to cause that consequence or being \"aware that it will occur in the ordinary course of events\".The specific intent element defines the purpose of committing the acts: \"to destroy in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such\".", "The specific intent is a core factor distinguishing genocide from other international crimes, such as war crimes or crimes against humanity.==== \"Intent to destroy\" ====In 2007, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) noted in its judgement on ''Jorgic v. Germany'' case that, in 1992, the majority of legal scholars took the narrow view that \"intent to destroy\" in the CPPCG meant the intended physical-biological destruction of the protected group, and that this was still the majority opinion.", "But the ECHR also noted that a minority took a broader view, and did not consider biological-physical destruction to be necessary, as the intent to destroy a national, racial, religious or ethnic group as a social unit was enough to qualify as genocide.In the same judgement, the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts.", "It noted that the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and the International Court of Justice had agreed with the narrow interpretation (that biological-physical destruction was necessary for an act to qualify as genocide).", "The ECHR also noted that at the time of its judgement, apart from courts in Germany (which had taken a broad view), that there had been few cases of genocide under other Convention states' municipal laws, and that \"There are no reported cases in which the courts of these States have defined the type of group destruction the perpetrator must have intended in order to be found guilty of genocide.", "\"In the case of \"Onesphore Rwabukombe\", the German Federal Court of Justice adhered to its previous judgement, and did not follow the narrow interpretation of the ICTY and the ICJ.==== \"In whole or in part\" ====The phrase \"in whole or in part\" has been subject to much discussion by scholars of international humanitarian law.", "In the Ruhashyankiko report of the United Nations it was once argued that the killing of only a single individual could be genocide if the intent to destroy the wider group was found in the murder, yet official court rulings have since contradicted this.", "The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in ''Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001)'' that Genocide had been committed.", "In ''Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Appeals Chamber – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004)'' paragraphs 8, 9, 10, and 11 addressed the issue of ''in part'' and found that \"the part must be a substantial part of that group.", "The aim of the Genocide Convention is to prevent the intentional destruction of entire human groups, and the part targeted must be significant enough to have an impact on the group as a whole.\"", "The Appeals Chamber goes into details of other cases and the opinions of respected commentators on the Genocide Convention to explain how they came to this conclusion.The judges continue in paragraph 12, \"The determination of when the targeted part is substantial enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations.", "The numeric size of the targeted part of the group is the necessary and important starting point, though not in all cases the ending point of the inquiry.", "The number of individuals targeted should be evaluated not only in absolute terms but also in relation to the overall size of the entire group.", "In addition to the numeric size of the targeted portion, its prominence within the group can be a useful consideration.", "If a specific part of the group is emblematic of the overall group or is essential to its survival, that may support a finding that the part qualifies as substantial within the meaning of Article 4 of the Tribunal's Statute.", "\"In paragraph 13 the judges raise the issue of the perpetrators' access to the victims: \"The historical examples of genocide also suggest that the area of the perpetrators' activity and control, as well as the possible extent of their reach, should be considered.", "...", "The intent to destroy formed by a perpetrator of genocide will always be limited by the opportunity presented to him.", "While this factor alone will not indicate whether the targeted group is substantial, it can—in combination with other factors—inform the analysis.", "\"==== \"A national, ethnic, racial or religious group\" ====The drafters of the CPPCG chose not to include political or social groups among the protected groups.", "Instead, they opted to focus on \"stable\" identities, attributes that are historically understood as being born into and unable or unlikely to change over time.", "This definition conflicts with modern conceptions of race as a social construct rather than innate fact and the practice of changing religion, etc.International criminal courts have typically applied a mix of objective and subjective markers for determining whether or not a targeted population is a distinct group.", "Differences in language, physical appearance, religion, and cultural practices are objective criteria that may show that the groups are distinct.", "However, in circumstances such as the Rwandan genocide, Hutus and Tutsis were often physically indistinguishable.In such a situation where a definitive answer based on objective markers is not clear, courts have turned to the subjective standard that \"if a victim was perceived by a perpetrator as belonging to a protected group, the victim could be considered by the Chamber as a member of the protected group\".", "Stigmatization of the group by the perpetrators through legal measures, such as withholding citizenship, requiring the group to be identified, or isolating them from the whole could show that the perpetrators viewed the victims as a protected group.=== Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide ===The convention came into force as international law on 12 January 1951 after the minimum 20 countries became parties.", "At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council were parties to the treaty: France and the Republic of China.", "The Soviet Union ratified in 1954, the United Kingdom in 1970, the People's Republic of China in 1983 (having replaced the Taiwan-based Republic of China on the UNSC in 1971), and the United States in 1988.William Schabas has suggested that a permanent body as recommended by the Whitaker Report to monitor the implementation of the Genocide Convention, and require states to issue reports on their compliance with the convention (such as were incorporated into the United Nations Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture), would make the convention more effective.=== UN Security Council Resolution 1674 ===UN Security Council Resolution 1674, adopted by the United Nations Security Council on 28 April 2006, \"reaffirms the provisions of paragraphs 138 and 139 of the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document regarding the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity\".", "The resolution committed the council to action to protect civilians in armed conflict.In 2008 the UN Security Council adopted resolution 1820, which noted that \"rape and other forms of sexual violence can constitute war crimes, crimes against humanity or a constitutive act with respect to genocide\".=== Municipal law ===Since the Convention came into effect in January 1951 about 80 United Nations member states have passed legislation that incorporates the provisions of CPPCG into their municipal law." ], [ "Other definitions of genocide", "Writing in 1998, Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Björnson stated that the CPPCG was a legal instrument resulting from a diplomatic compromise.", "As such the wording of the treaty is not intended to be a definition suitable as a research tool, and although it is used for this purpose, as it has international legal credibility that others lack, other genocide definitions have also been proposed.", "They go on to say that none of these alternative definitions have gained widespread support, they postulate that the major reason why no generally accepted genocide definition has emerged is because academics have adjusted their focus to emphasise different periods and have found it expedient to use slightly different definitions.", "For example, Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn studied all human history, while Leo Kuper and Rudolph Rummel concentrated on the 20th century, and Helen Fein, Barbara Harff, and Ted Gurr looked at post-World War II events.Yehuda Bauer, has argued that the present definition is problematic, contending that many of what are usually called genocides were not racially motivated.", "Bauer gave the Rwandan Genocide, where, Bauer argued, both the perpetrators and victims were of the same ethnicity, as an example.", "He argued that, because of this discrepancy, \"clearly, the existing definition of genocide is inadequate and needs to be altered.", "\"=== Cultural genocide and ethnocide ====== Political and social groups ===The exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the CPPCG legal definition has been criticized by some historians and sociologists, for example, M. Hassan Kakar in his book ''The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982'' argues that the international definition of genocide is too restricted, and that it should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator and quotes Chalk and Jonassohn: \"Genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group, as that group and membership in it are defined by the perpetrator.\"", "In turn some states such as Ethiopia, France, and Spain include political groups as legitimate genocide victims in their anti-genocide laws.Some academics such as Norman Naimark and Anton Weiss-Wendt argue that the exclusion of political and social groups in the final 1948 version of the Genocide Convention was a consequence of Soviet lobbying.", "Though social and political groups were mentioned in initial drafts of the Convention, the Soviet Union would not agree to become a signatory, unless they were omitted.", "The United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect states that the definition of genocide reached in the Convention was the \"result of a negotiating process and reflects the compromise reached among United Nations Member States.", "\"Harff and Gurr defined genocide as \"the promotion and execution of policies by a state or its agents which result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a group ... when the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or nationality\".", "Harff and Gurr also differentiate between genocides and politicides by the characteristics by which members of a group are identified by the state.", "In genocides, the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or nationality.", "In politicides the victim groups are defined primarily in terms of their hierarchical position or political opposition to the regime and dominant groups.", "Daniel D. Polsby and Don B. Kates, Jr. state that \"we follow Harff's distinction between genocides and 'pogroms', which she describes as 'short-lived outbursts by mobs, which, although often condoned by authorities, rarely persist'.", "If the violence persists for long enough, however, Harff argues, the distinction between condonation and complicity collapses.", "\"According to Rudolph Rummel, genocide has three different meanings.", "The ordinary meaning is murder by the government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, or religious group membership.", "The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the ''Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide'' (CPPCG).", "This also includes non-killings that in the end eliminate the group, such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children out of the group to another group.", "A generalized meaning of genocide is similar to the ordinary meaning but also includes government killings of political opponents or otherwise intentional murder.", "It is to avoid confusion regarding what meaning is intended that Rummel created the term democide to distinguish from this third meaning.Highlighting the potential for state and non-state actors to commit genocide in the 21st century, for example, in failed states or as non-state actors acquiring weapons of mass destruction, Adrian Gallagher defined genocide as 'When a source of collective power (usually a state) intentionally uses its power base to implement a process of destruction in order to destroy a group (as defined by the perpetrator), in whole or in substantial part, dependent upon relative group size'.", "The definition upholds the centrality of intent, the multidimensional understanding of destroying, broadens the definition of group identity beyond that of the 1948 definition yet argues that a substantial part of a group has to be destroyed before it can be classified as genocide.Other proposed definitions of genocide include social groups defined by gender, sexual orientation, or gender identity.=== Democide ===Democide, a term devised by American political scientist Rudolph Rummel, describes \"the intentional killing of an unarmed or disarmed person by government agents acting in their authoritative capacity and pursuant to government policy or high command.\"", "This definition covers any murder of any number of persons by any government, including government mandated forced labor, concentration camps, extrajudicial summary killings, civil wars, and mass deaths due to government neglect such as government induced famines like Holodomor.", "Rummel estimates that in the 20th century, democide resulted in over 262 million deaths.Holocaust historian Yehuda Bauer agreed with Rummel that democide was a more appropriate term in more cases to describe mass atrocities than genocide due to the more inclusive definition of democide versus genocide.=== Transgender genocide ===In 2013 some international trans activists introduced the term 'transcide' to describe the elevated level of killings of trans people globally.", "A coalition of NGOs from South America and Europe started the \"Stop Trans Genocide\" campaign.", "The term \"trancide\" follows an earlier term, gendercide.", "Legal scholars have argued that the definition of genocide should be expanded to cover transgender people, because they are victims of institutional discrimination, persecution, and violence.", "Brian Kritz argued that existing law should be extended to protect transgender people.", "Similar arguments have been made regarding extending the legal definition of \"crimes against humanity.\"", "Aside from legal studies, transgender genocide has been examined by scholars of queer studies, hate studies, and other fields." ], [ "International prosecution", "=== By ''ad hoc'' tribunals ===Nuon Chea, the Khmer Rouge's chief ideologist, before the Cambodian Genocide Tribunal on 5 December 2011All signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both in peace and wartime, though some barriers make this enforcement difficult.", "In particular, some of the signatories—namely, Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, the United States, Vietnam, Yemen, and former Yugoslavia—signed with the proviso that no claim of genocide could be brought against them at the International Court of Justice without their consent.", "Despite official protests from other signatories (notably Cyprus and Norway) on the ethics and legal standing of these reservations, the immunity from prosecution they grant has been invoked from time to time, as when the United States refused to allow a charge of genocide brought against it by former Yugoslavia following the 1999 Kosovo War.It is commonly accepted that, at least since World War II, genocide has been illegal under customary international law as a peremptory norm, as well as under conventional international law.", "Acts of genocide are generally difficult to establish for prosecution because a chain of accountability must be established.", "International criminal courts and tribunals function primarily when the states involved are incapable or unwilling to prosecute crimes of this magnitude themselves.==== Nuremberg Tribunal (1945–1946) ====The Nazi leaders at the Palace of Justice, NurembergThe Nazi leaders who were prosecuted shortly after World War II for taking part in the Holocaust, and other mass murders, were charged under existing international laws, such as crimes against humanity, as the crime of \"genocide' was not formally defined until the 1948 ''Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide'' (CPPCG).", "Nevertheless, the recently coined term appeared in the indictment of the Nazi leaders, Count 3, which stated that those charged had \"conducted deliberate and systematic genocide—namely, the extermination of racial and national groups—against the civilian populations of certain occupied territories in order to destroy particular races and classes of people, and national, racial or religious groups, particularly Jews, Poles, Gypsies and others.", "\"==== International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1993–2017) ====Srebrenica-Potočari Memorial and Cemetery to Genocide VictimsThe term ''Bosnian genocide'' is used to refer either to the killings committed by Serb forces in Srebrenica in 1995, or to ethnic cleansing that took place elsewhere during the 1992–1995 Bosnian War.In 2001, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) judged that the 1995 Srebrenica massacre was an act of genocide.", "On 26 February 2007, the International Court of Justice (ICJ), in the ''Bosnian Genocide Case'', upheld the ICTY's earlier finding that the massacre in Srebrenica and Zepa constituted genocide, but found that the Serbian government had not participated in a wider genocide on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war, as the Bosnian government had claimed.On 12 July 2007, European Court of Human Rights when dismissing the appeal by Nikola Jorgić against his conviction for genocide by a German court (''Jorgic v. Germany'') noted that the German courts wider interpretation of genocide has since been rejected by international courts considering similar cases.", "The ECHR also noted that in the 21st century \"Amongst scholars, the majority have taken the view that ethnic cleansing, in the way in which it was carried out by the Serb forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to expel Muslims and Croats from their homes, did not constitute genocide.", "However, there are also a considerable number of scholars who have suggested that these acts did amount to genocide, and the ICTY has found in the Momcilo Krajisnik case that the actus reus of genocide was met in Prijedor \"With regard to the charge of genocide, the Chamber found that in spite of evidence of acts perpetrated in the municipalities which constituted the actus reus of genocide\".About 30 people have been indicted for participating in genocide or complicity in genocide during the early 1990s in Bosnia.", "To date, after several plea bargains and some convictions that were successfully challenged on appeal two men, Vujadin Popović and Ljubiša Beara, have been found guilty of committing genocide, Zdravko Tolimir has been found guilty of committing genocide and conspiracy to commit genocide, and two others, Radislav Krstić and Drago Nikolić, have been found guilty of aiding and abetting genocide.", "Three others have been found guilty of participating in genocides in Bosnia by German courts, one of whom Nikola Jorgić lost an appeal against his conviction in the European Court of Human Rights.", "A further eight men, former members of the Bosnian Serb security forces were found guilty of genocide by the State Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina (See List of Bosnian genocide prosecutions).Slobodan Milošević, as the former President of Serbia and of Yugoslavia, was the most senior political figure to stand trial at the ICTY.", "He died on 11 March 2006 during his trial where he was accused of genocide or complicity in genocide in territories within Bosnia and Herzegovina, so no verdict was returned.", "In 1995, the ICTY issued a warrant for the arrest of Bosnian Serbs Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić on several charges including genocide.", "On 21 July 2008, Karadžić was arrested in Belgrade, and later tried in The Hague accused of genocide among other crimes.", "On 24 March 2016, Karadžić was found guilty of genocide in Srebrenica, war crimes and crimes against humanity, 10 of the 11 charges in total, and sentenced to 40 years' imprisonment.", "Mladić was arrested on 26 May 2011 in Lazarevo, Serbia, and was tried in The Hague.", "The verdict, delivered on 22 November 2017 found Mladić guilty of 10 of the 11 charges, including genocide and he was sentenced to life imprisonment.==== International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994–present) ====Genocide Memorial Center in KigaliThe International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) is a court under the auspices of the United Nations for the prosecution of offenses committed in Rwanda during the genocide which occurred there during April 1994, commencing on 6 April.", "The ICTR was created on 8 November 1994 by the Security Council of the United Nations in order to judge those people responsible for the acts of genocide and other serious violations of the international law performed in the territory of Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31 December 1994.So far, the ICTR has finished nineteen trials and convicted twenty-seven accused persons.", "On 14 December 2009, two more men were accused and convicted for their crimes.", "Another twenty-five persons are still on trial.", "Twenty-one are awaiting trial in detention, two more added on 14 December 2009.Ten are still at large.", "The first trial, of Jean-Paul Akayesu, began in 1997.Akayesu was the first person ever to be convicted of the crime of genocide.", "In October 1998, Akayesu was sentenced to life imprisonment.", "Jean Kambanda, interim Prime Minister, pleaded guilty.Trials for deeds committed during the Rwandan genocide have also occurred in national courts, including Désiré Munyaneza, who in 2009 became the first man to be arrested and convicted in Canada on charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity, and Yvonne Ntacyobatabara Basebya, who in 2013 became the first Dutch citizen to be convicted for incitement to genocide.==== Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (from 2003) ====Rooms of the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum contain thousands of photos taken by the Khmer Rouge of their victims.Skulls in the Choeung EkThe Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, Kang Kek Iew, Ta Mok and other leaders, organized the mass killing of ideologically suspect groups.", "The total number of victims is estimated at 1.7 million Cambodians between 1975 and 1979, including deaths from slave labour.On 6 June 2003 the Cambodian government and the United Nations reached an agreement to set up the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC) which would focus exclusively on crimes committed by the most senior Khmer Rouge officials during the period of Khmer Rouge rule of 1975–1979.The judges were sworn in early July 2006.The genocide charges related to killings of Cambodia's Vietnamese and Cham minorities, tens of thousands of whom are estimated to have been killedThe investigating judges were presented with the names of four suspects charged with genocide on 18 July 2007.", "* Nuon Chea, a former prime minister, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity on 15 September 2010.His trial started on 27 June 2011 and ended on 7 August 2014, with a life sentence imposed for crimes against humanity.", "* Khieu Samphan, a former head of state, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity on 15 September 2010.His trial began on 27 June 2011.and also ended on 7 August 2014, with a life sentence imposed for crimes against humanity.", "* Ieng Sary, a former foreign minister, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity on 15 September 2010.His trial started on 27 June 2011, and ended with his death on 14 March 2013.He was never convicted.", "* Ieng Thirith, a former minister for social affairs and wife of Ieng Sary, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity on 15 September 2010.Proceedings against her were suspended pending a health evaluation.", "In September 2012, she was released from prison due to advanced Alzheimer's disease; she died on 22 August 2015 at the age of 83 from complications of the disease.=== By the International Criminal Court ===Since 2002, the International Criminal Court can exercise its jurisdiction if national courts are unwilling or unable to investigate or prosecute genocide, thus being a \"court of last resort,\" leaving the primary responsibility to exercise jurisdiction over alleged criminals to individual states.", "Due to the United States concerns over the ICC, the United States prefers to continue to use specially convened international tribunals for such investigations and potential prosecutions.==== Darfur, Sudan ====A mother with her sick baby at Abu Shouk IDP camp in North DarfurThere has been much debate over categorizing the situation in Darfur as genocide.", "The ongoing conflict in Darfur, Sudan, which started in 2003, was declared a \"genocide\" by United States Secretary of State Colin Powell on 9 September 2004 in testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee.", "Since that time however, no other permanent member of the UN Security Council has done so.", "In fact, in January 2005, an International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, authorized by UN Security Council Resolution 1564 of 2004, issued a report to the Secretary-General stating that \"the Government of Sudan has not pursued a policy of genocide.\"", "Nevertheless, the Commission cautioned that \"The conclusion that no genocidal policy has been pursued and implemented in Darfur by the Government authorities, directly or through the militias under their control, should not be taken in any way as detracting from the gravity of the crimes perpetrated in that region.", "International offences such as the crimes against humanity and war crimes that have been committed in Darfur may be no less serious and heinous than genocide.", "\"In March 2005, the Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, taking into account the Commission report but without mentioning any specific crimes.", "Two permanent members of the Security Council, the United States and China, abstained from the vote on the referral resolution.", "As of his fourth report to the Security Council, the Prosecutor has found \"reasonable grounds to believe that the individuals identified in the UN Security Council Resolution 1593 have committed crimes against humanity and war crimes,\" but did not find sufficient evidence to prosecute for genocide.In April 2007, the Judges of the ICC issued arrest warrants against the former Minister of State for the Interior, Ahmad Harun, and a Militia Janjaweed leader, Ali Kushayb, for crimes against humanity and war crimes.On 14 July 2008, prosecutors at the International Criminal Court (ICC), filed ten charges of war crimes against Sudan's President Omar al-Bashir: three counts of genocide, five of crimes against humanity and two of murder.", "The ICC's prosecutors claimed that al-Bashir \"masterminded and implemented a plan to destroy in substantial part\" three tribal groups in Darfur because of their ethnicity.On 4 March 2009, the ICC issued a warrant of arrest for Omar Al Bashir, President of Sudan as the ICC Pre-Trial Chamber I concluded that his position as head of state does not grant him immunity against prosecution before the ICC.", "The warrant was for war crimes and crimes against humanity.", "It did not include the crime of genocide because the majority of the Chamber did not find that the prosecutors had provided enough evidence to include such a charge.", "Later the decision was changed by the Appeals Panel and after issuing the second decision, charges against Omar al-Bashir include three counts of genocide." ], [ "Examples", "Soviet POWs held by the Nazis in Mauthausen concentration camp.", "Political scientist Adam Jones wrote: \"The murder of at least 3.3 million Soviet POWs is one of the least-known of modern genocides; there is still no full-length book on the subject in English.", "\"The concept of genocide can be applied to historical events.", "The preamble of the CPPCG states that \"at all periods of history genocide has inflicted great losses on humanity.\"", "Revisionist attempts to challenge or affirm claims of genocide are illegal in some countries.", "Several European countries ban the denial of the Holocaust and the denial of the Armenian genocide, while in Turkey referring to the Armenian genocide, Greek genocide, and ''Sayfo'', and to the period of mass starvation during the Great Famine of Mount Lebanon affecting Maronites, as genocides may be prosecuted under Article 301.Historian William Rubinstein argues that the origin of 20th-century genocides can be traced back to the collapse of the elite structure and normal modes of government in parts of Europe following World War I, commenting:According to Esther Brito, the way in which states commit genocide has evolved in the 21st century and genocidal campaigns have attempted to circumvent international systems designed to prevent, mitigate, and prosecute genocide by adjusting the duration, intensity, and methodology of the genocide.", "Brito states that modern genocides often happen on a much longer time scale than traditional ones – taking years or decades – and that instead of traditional methods of beatings and executions less directly fatal tactics are used but with the same effect.", "Brito described the contemporary plights of the Rohingya and Uyghurs as examples of this newer form of genocide.", "The abuses against West Papuans in Indonesia have also been described as a slow-motion genocide." ], [ "Stages, risk factors, and prevention", "Study of the risk factors and prevention of genocide was underway before the 1982 International Conference on the Holocaust and Genocide during which multiple papers on the subject were presented.", "In 1996 Gregory Stanton, the president of Genocide Watch, presented a briefing paper called \"The 8 Stages of Genocide\" at the United States Department of State.", "In it he suggested that genocide develops in eight stages that are \"predictable but not inexorable\".The Stanton paper was presented to the State Department, shortly after the Rwandan Genocide and much of its analysis are based on why that genocide occurred.", "The preventative measures suggested, given the briefing paper's original target audience, were those that the United States could implement directly or indirectly by using its influence on other governments.", "In 2012, he added two additional stages, discrimination and persecution.", "Stage Characteristics Preventive measures 1.Classification People are divided into \"us and them\".", "\"The main preventive measure at this early stage is to develop universalistic institutions that transcend...", "divisions.\"", "2.Symbolization \"When combined with hatred, symbols may be forced upon unwilling members of pariah groups...\" \"To combat symbolization, hate symbols can be legally forbidden as can hate speech\".3.Discrimination\"Law or cultural power excludes groups from full civil rights: segregation or apartheid laws, denial of voting rights\".", "\"Pass and enforce laws prohibiting discrimination.", "Full citizenship and voting rights for all groups.\"", "4.Dehumanization \"One group denies the humanity of the other group.", "Members of it are equated with animals, vermin, insects, or diseases.\"", "\"Local and international leaders should condemn the use of hate speech and make it culturally unacceptable.", "Leaders who incite genocide should be banned from international travel and have their foreign finances frozen.\"", "5.Organization \"Genocide is always organized... Special army units or militias are often trained and armed...\" \"The U.N. should impose arms embargoes on governments and citizens of countries involved in genocidal massacres, and create commissions to investigate violations\" 6.Polarization \"Hate groups broadcast polarizing propaganda...\" \"Prevention may mean security protection for moderate leaders or assistance to human rights groups...Coups d'état by extremists should be opposed by international sanctions.\"", "7.Preparation \"Victims are identified and separated out because of their ethnic or religious identity...\" \"At this stage, a Genocide Emergency must be declared.", "...\"8.Persecution\"Expropriation, forced displacement, ghettos, concentration camps\".", "\"Direct assistance to victim groups, targeted sanctions against persecutors, mobilization of humanitarian assistance or intervention, protection of refugees.\"", "9.Extermination \"It is 'extermination' to the killers because they do not believe their victims to be fully human\".", "\"At this stage, only rapid and overwhelming armed intervention can stop genocide.", "Real safe areas or refugee escape corridors should be established with heavily armed international protection.\"", "10.Denial \"The perpetrators... deny that they committed any crimes...\" \"The response to denial is punishment by an international tribunal or national courts\"Other authors have focused on the structural conditions leading up to genocide and the psychological and social processes that create an evolution toward genocide.", "Ervin Staub showed that economic deterioration and political confusion and disorganization were starting points of increasing discrimination and violence in many instances of genocides and mass killing.", "They lead to scapegoating a group and ideologies that identified that group as an enemy.", "A history of devaluation of the group that becomes the victim, past violence against the group that becomes the perpetrator leading to psychological wounds, authoritarian cultures and political systems, and the passivity of internal and external witnesses (bystanders) all contribute to the probability that the violence develops into genocide.", "Intense conflict between groups that is unresolved, becomes intractable and violent can also lead to genocide.", "In 2006, Dirk Moses criticised genocide studies due to its \"rather poor record of ending genocide\"." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of Genocide studies* Allport's Scale * Countervalue* Cultural genocide* Death squad* Democide* Ethnocide* Gendercide* Genocide education* Genocide of indigenous peoples* Mass atrocity crimes* Omnicide* Policide* Political cleansing of population* Religious cleansing* Utilitarian genocide=== Research ===* Center for the Study of Genocide and Human Rights* International Association of Genocide Scholars" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "=== Articles ===* (in Spanish) Aizenstatd, Najman Alexander.", "\"Origen y Evolución del Concepto de Genocidio\".", "Vol.", "25 Revista de Derecho de la Universidad Francisco Marroquín 11 (2007).", "* (in Spanish) Marco, Jorge.", "\"Genocidio y Genocide Studies: Definiciones y debates\", en: Aróstegui, Julio, Marco, Jorge y Gómez Bravo, Gutmaro (coord.", "): \"De Genocidios, Holocaustos, Exterminios...\", ''Hispania Nova'', 10 (2012).", "Véase * Krain, M. (1997).", "\"State-Sponsored Mass Murder: A Study of the Onset and Severity of Genocides and Politicides.\"", "Journal of Conflict Resolution 41(3): 331–360.=== Books ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Lewy, Guenter (2012).", "''Essays on Genocide and Humanitarian Intervention''.", "University of Utah Press.", ".", "* * * * * * * * * Schmid, A. P. (1991).", "Repression, State Terrorism, and Genocide: Conceptual Clarifications.", "State Organized Terror: The Case of Violent Internal Repression.", "P. T. Bushnell.", "Boulder, Colorado, USA: Westview Press.", "312 p.* * ''Overcoming Evil: Genocide, violent conflict and terrorism''.", "New York: Oxford University Press.", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "=== Documents ===* * * * === Research institutes, advocacy groups, and other organizations ===* * * * * * * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "George Clinton" ], [ "Introduction", "__NOTOC__'''George Clinton''' commonly refers to:*George Clinton (funk musician) (born 1941), American funk musician*George Clinton (vice president) (1739–1812), 4th Vice President of the United States and 1st Governor of New York'''George Clinton''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Music", "*George Clinton (clarinettist) (1850–1913), British clarinettist*George S. Clinton (born 1947), American musician" ], [ "Politics", "*George Clinton (Royal Navy officer) (1686–1761), British colonial governor of Newfoundland and of New York*George Clinton Jr. (1771–1809), U.S. Representative from New York, nephew of Vice President George Clinton*George Henry Clinton, Louisiana politician*George W. Clinton (1807–1885), mayor of Buffalo, New York*George De Witt Clinton, member of the 77th (1854) and 80th New York State Legislatures (1857)*George Clinton (born 1846), member of the 107th New York State Legislature (1884), son of Mayor George W. Clinton" ], [ "Other people", "*George Clinton (rugby league) (1924–2010), English rugby league footballer who played in the 1940s and 1950s, and coached in the 1950s and 1960s*George Perkins Clinton (1867–1937), American botanist and mycologist" ], [ "See also", "*Clinton (surname)*George Clinton Sweeney (1895–1966), United States federal judge" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Germanic peoples" ], [ "Introduction", "Roman bronze statuette representing a Germanic man with his hair in a Suebian knot.", "Dating to the late 1st century – early 2nd century A.D.The '''Germanic peoples''' were historical groups of people that once occupied Northwestern and Central Europe and Scandinavia during antiquity and into the early Middle Ages.", "Since the 19th century, they have traditionally been defined by the use of ancient and early medieval Germanic languages and are thus equated at least approximately with '''Germanic-speaking peoples''', although different academic disciplines have their own definitions of what makes someone or something \"Germanic\".", "The Romans named the area belonging to North-Central Europe in which Germanic peoples lived ''Germania'', stretching east to west between the Vistula and Rhine rivers and north to south from southern Scandinavia to the upper Danube.", "In discussions of the Roman period, the Germanic peoples are sometimes referred to as '''''Germani''''' or '''ancient Germans''', although many scholars consider the second term problematic since it suggests identity with present-day Germans.", "The very concept of \"Germanic peoples\" has become the subject of controversy among contemporary scholars.", "Some scholars call for its total abandonment as a modern construct since lumping \"Germanic peoples\" together implies a common group identity for which there is little evidence.", "Other scholars have defended the term's continued use and argue that a common Germanic language allows one to speak of \"Germanic peoples\", regardless of whether these ancient and medieval peoples saw themselves as having a common identity.", "While several historians and archaeologists continue to use the term \"Germanic peoples\" to refer to historical people groups from the 1st to 4th centuries CE, the term is no longer used by most historians and archaeologists for the period around the Fall of the Roman Empire and the Early Middle Ages.Scholars generally agree that it is possible to refer to Germanic-speaking peoples after 500 BCE.", "Archaeologists usually connect the early Germanic peoples with the Jastorf culture of the Pre-Roman Iron Age, which is found in Denmark (southern Scandinavia) and northern Germany from the 6th to 1st centuries BCE, around the same time that the First Germanic Consonant Shift is theorized to have occurred; this sound change led to recognizably Germanic languages.", "From northern Germany and southern Scandinavia, the Germanic peoples expanded south, east, and west, coming into contact with the Celtic, Iranic, Baltic, and Slavic peoples.", "Roman authors first described Germanic peoples near the Rhine in the 1st century BCE, while the Roman Empire was establishing its dominance in that region.", "Under Emperor Augustus (27 BCE–14 CE), the Romans attempted to conquer a large area of Germania, but they withdrew after a major Roman defeat at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 CE.", "The Romans continued to control the Germanic frontier closely by meddling in its politics, and they constructed a long fortified border, the Limes Germanicus.", "From 166 to 180 CE, Rome was embroiled in a conflict against the Germanic Marcomanni, Quadi, and many other peoples known as the Marcomannic Wars.", "The wars reordered the Germanic frontier, and afterwards, new Germanic peoples appear for the first time in the historical record, such as the Franks, Goths, Saxons, and Alemanni.", "During the Migration Period (375–568), various Germanic peoples entered the Roman Empire and eventually took control of parts of it and established their own independent kingdoms after the collapse of Western Roman rule.", "The most powerful of them were the Franks, who conquered many of the others.", "Eventually, the Frankish king Charlemagne claimed the title of Holy Roman Emperor for himself in 800.Archaeological finds suggest that Roman-era sources portrayed the Germanic way of life as more primitive than it actually was.", "Instead, archaeologists have unveiled evidence of a complex society and economy throughout Germania.", "Germanic-speaking peoples originally shared similar religious practices.", "Denoted by the term Germanic paganism, they varied throughout the territory occupied by Germanic-speaking peoples.", "Over the course of Late Antiquity, most continental Germanic peoples and the Anglo-Saxons of Britain converted to Christianity, but the Saxons and Scandinavians converted only much later.", "The Germanic peoples shared a native script from around the first century or before, the runes, which was gradually replaced with the Latin script, although runes continued to be used for specialized purposes thereafter.Traditionally, the Germanic peoples have been seen as possessing a law dominated by the concepts of feuding and blood compensation.", "The precise details, nature and origin of what is still normally called \"Germanic law\" are now controversial.", "Roman sources state that the Germanic peoples made decisions in a popular assembly (the ''thing'') but that they also had kings and war leaders.", "The ancient Germanic-speaking peoples probably shared a common poetic tradition, alliterative verse, and later Germanic peoples also shared legends originating in the Migration Period.The publishing of Tacitus's ''Germania'' by humanist scholars in the 1400s greatly influenced the emerging idea of \"Germanic peoples\".", "Later scholars of the Romantic period, such as Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, developed several theories about the nature of the Germanic peoples that were highly influenced by romantic nationalism.", "For those scholars, the \"Germanic\" and modern \"German\" were identical.", "Ideas about the early Germans were also highly influential among and were influenced and co-opted by the nationalist and racist völkisch movement and later by the Nazis, which led in the second half of the 20th century to a backlash against many aspects of earlier scholarship." ], [ "Terminology", "===Etymology===The etymology of the Latin word , from which Latin and English Germanic are derived, is unknown, although several proposals have been put forward.", "Even the language from which it derives is a subject of dispute, with proposals of Germanic, Celtic, and Latin, and Illyrian origins.", "Herwig Wolfram, for example, thinks must be Gaulish.", "The historian Wolfgang Pfeifer more or less concurs with Wolfram and surmises that the name is likely of Celtic etymology and is related to the Old Irish word ('neighbours') or could be tied to the Celtic word for their war cries, , which simplifies into 'the neighbours' or 'the screamers'.", "Regardless of its language of origin, the name was transmitted to the Romans via Celtic speakers.It is unclear that any people group ever referred to themselves as ''Germani''.", "By late antiquity, only peoples near the Rhine, especially the Franks and sometimes the Alemanni, were called ''Germani'' by Latin or Greek writers.", "''Germani'' subsequently ceased to be used as a name for any group of people and was revived as such only by the humanists in the 16th century.", "Previously, scholars during the Carolingian period (8th–11th centuries) had already begun using ''Germania'' and ''Germanicus'' in a territorial sense to refer to East Francia.In modern English, the adjective ''Germanic'' is distinct from ''German'', which is generally used when referring to modern Germans only.", "''Germanic'' relates to the ancient ''Germani'' or the broader Germanic group.", "In modern German, the ancient ''Germani'' are referred to as and ''Germania'' as , as distinct from modern Germans () and modern Germany ().", "The direct equivalents in English are, however, ''Germans'' for ''Germani'' and ''Germany'' for ''Germania'' although the Latin is also used.", "To avoid ambiguity, the ''Germani'' may instead be called \"ancient Germans\" or ''Germani'' by using the Latin term in English.===Modern definitions and controversies===The modern definition of Germanic peoples developed in the 19th century, when the term ''Germanic'' was linked to the newly identified Germanic language family.", "Linguistics provided a new way of defining the Germanic peoples, which came to be used in historiography and archaeology.", "While Roman authors did not consistently exclude Celtic-speaking people or have a term corresponding to Germanic-speaking peoples, this new definition—which used the Germanic language as the main criterion—presented the ''Germani'' as a people or nation () with a stable group identity linked to language.", "As a result, some scholars treat the (Latin) or (Greek) of Roman-era sources as non-Germanic if they seemingly spoke non-Germanic languages.", "For clarity, Germanic peoples, when defined as \"speakers of a Germanic language\", are sometimes referred to as \"Germanic-speaking peoples\".", "Today, the term \"Germanic\" is widely applied to \"phenomena including identities, social, cultural or political groups, to material cultural artefacts, languages and texts, and even specific chemical sequences found in human DNA\".", "Several scholars continue to use the term to refer to a culture existing between the 1st to 4th centuries CE, but most historians and archaeologists researching Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages no longer use it.Apart from the designation of a language family (i.e., \"Germanic languages\"), the application of the term \"Germanic\" has become controversial in scholarship since 1990, especially among archaeologists and historians.", "Scholars have increasingly questioned the notion of ethnically defined people groups () as stable basic actors of history.", "The connection of archaeological assemblages to ethnicity has also been increasingly questioned.", "This has resulted in different disciplines developing different definitions of \"Germanic\".", "Beginning with the work of the \"Toronto School\" around Walter Goffart, various scholars have denied that anything such as a common Germanic ethnic identity ever existed.", "Such scholars argue that most ideas about Germanic culture are taken from far later epochs and projected backwards to antiquity.", "Historians of the Vienna School, such as Walter Pohl, have also called for the term to be avoided or used with careful explanation, and argued that there is little evidence for a common Germanic identity.", "The Anglo-Saxonist Leonard Neidorf writes that historians of the continental-European Germanic peoples of the 5th and 6th centuries are \"in agreement\" that there was no pan-Germanic identity or solidarity.", "Whether a scholar favors the existence of a common Germanic identity or not is often related to their position on the nature of the end of the Roman Empire.Defenders of continued use of the term ''Germanic'' argue that the speakers of Germanic languages can be identified as Germanic people by language regardless of how they saw themselves.", "Linguists and philologists have generally reacted skeptically to claims that there was no Germanic identity or cultural unity, and they may view ''Germanic'' simply as a long-established and convenient term.", "Some archaeologists have also argued in favor of retaining the term ''Germanic'' due to its broad recognizability.", "Archaeologist Heiko Steuer defines his own work on the ''Germani'' in geographical terms (covering ''Germania''), rather than in ethnic terms.", "He nevertheless argues for some sense of shared identity between the ''Germani'', noting the use of a common language, a common runic script, various common objects of material culture such as bracteates and gullgubber (small gold objects) and the confrontation with Rome as things that could cause a sense of shared \"Germanic\" culture.", "Despite being cautious of the use of ''Germanic'' to refer to peoples, Sebastian Brather, Wilhelm Heizmann and Steffen Patzold nevertheless refer to further commonalities such as the widely attested worship of deities such as Odin, Thor and Frigg, and a shared legendary tradition.===Classical terminology===The first author to describe the ''Germani'' as a large category of peoples distinct from the Gauls and Scythians was Julius Caesar, writing around 55 BCE during his governorship of Gaul.", "In Caesar's account, the clearest defining characteristic of the ''Germani'' people was that they lived east of the Rhine, opposite Gaul on the west side.", "Caesar sought to explain both why his legions stopped at the Rhine and also why the ''Germani'' were more dangerous than the Gauls and a constant threat to the empire.", "He also classified the Cimbri and Teutons, peoples who had previously invaded Italy, as ''Germani'', and examples of this threat to Rome.", "Although Caesar described the Rhine as the border between ''Germani'' and Celts, he also describes a group of people he identifies as ''Germani'' who live on the west bank of the Rhine in the northeast of Gaul, the Germani cisrhenani.", "It is unclear if these ''Germani'' were actually Germanic speakers.", "According to the Roman historian Tacitus in his ''Germania'' (c. 98 CE), it was among this group, specifically the Tungri, that the name ''Germani'' first arose, and was spread to further groups.", "Tacitus continues to mention Germanic tribes on the west bank of the Rhine in the period of the early Empire.", "Caesar's division of the ''Germani'' from the Celts was not taken up by most writers in Greek.Caesar and authors following him regarded Germania as stretching east of the Rhine for an indeterminate distance, bounded by the Baltic Sea and the Hercynian Forest.", "Pliny the Elder and Tacitus placed the eastern border at the Vistula.", "The Upper Danube served as a southern border.", "Between there and the Vistula Tacitus sketched an unclear boundary, describing Germania as separated in the south and east from the Dacians and the Sarmatians by mutual fear or mountains.", "This undefined eastern border is related to a lack of stable frontiers in this area such as were maintained by Roman armies along the Rhine and Danube.", "The geographer Ptolemy (2nd century CE) applied the name Germania magna (\"Greater Germania\", ) to this area, contrasting it with the Roman provinces of Germania Prima and Germania Secunda (on the west bank of the Rhine).", "In modern scholarship, Germania magna is sometimes also called (\"free Germania\"), a name coined by Jacob Grimm around 1835.Caesar and, following him, Tacitus, depicted the ''Germani'' as sharing elements of a common culture.", "A small number of passages by Tacitus and other Roman authors (Caesar, Suetonius) mention Germanic tribes or individuals speaking a language distinct from Gaulish.", "For Tacitus (''Germania'' 43, 45, 46), language was a characteristic, but not defining feature of the Germanic peoples.", "Many of the ascribed ethnic characteristics of the ''Germani'' represented them as typically \"barbarian\", including the possession of stereotypical vices such as \"wildness\" and of virtues such as chastity.", "Tacitus was at times unsure whether a people were Germanic or not, expressing his uncertainty about the Bastarnae, who he says looked like Sarmatians but spoke like the ''Germani'', about the Osi and the Cotini, and about the Aesti, who were like Suebi but spoke a different language.", "When defining the ''Germani'' ancient authors did not differentiate consistently between a territorial definition (\"those living in ''Germania''\") and an ethnic definition (\"having Germanic ethnic characteristics\"), although the two definitions did not always align.The Romans did not regard the eastern Germanic speakers such as Goths, Gepids, and Vandals as ''Germani'', but rather connected them with other non-Germanic-speaking peoples such as the Huns, Sarmatians, and Alans.", "Romans described these peoples, including those who did not speak a Germanic language, as \"Gothic people\" () and most often classified them as \"Scythians\".", "The writer Procopius, describing the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Vandals, Alans, and Gepids, derived the Gothic peoples from the ancient Getae and described them as sharing similar customs, beliefs, and a common language.===Subdivisions===The approximate positions of the three groups and their sub-peoples reported by Tacitus:Several ancient sources list subdivisions of the Germanic tribes.", "Writing in the first century CE, Pliny the Elder lists five Germanic subgroups: the Vandili, the Inguaeones, the Istuaeones (living near the Rhine), the Hermiones (in the Germanic interior), and the Peucini Basternae (living on the lower Danube near the Dacians).", "In chapter 2 of the ''Germania'', written about a half-century later, Tacitus lists only three subgroups: the Ingvaeones (near the sea), the Hermiones (in the interior of Germania), and the Istvaeones (the remainder of the tribes); Tacitus says these groups each claimed descent from the god Mannus, son of Tuisto.", "Tacitus also mentions a second tradition that there were four sons of either Mannus or Tuisto from whom the groups of the Marsi, Gambrivi, Suebi, and Vandili claim descent.", "The Hermiones are also mentioned by Pomponius Mela, but otherwise, these divisions do not appear in other ancient works on the ''Germani''.There are a number of inconsistencies in the listing of Germanic subgroups by Tacitus and Pliny.", "While both Tacitus and Pliny mention some Scandinavian tribes, they are not integrated into the subdivisions.", "While Pliny lists the Suebi as part of the Hermiones, Tacitus treats them as a separate group.", "Additionally, Tacitus's description of a group of tribes as united by the cult of Nerthus (''Germania'' 40) as well as the cult of the Alcis controlled by the Nahanarvali (''Germania'' 43) and Tacitus's account of the origin myth of the Semnones (''Germania'' 39) all suggest different subdivisions than the three mentioned in ''Germania'' chapter 2.The subdivisions found in Pliny and Tacitus have been very influential for scholarship on Germanic history and language up until recent times.", "However, outside of Tacitus and Pliny there are no other textual indications that these groups were important.", "The subgroups mentioned by Tacitus are not used by him elsewhere in his work, contradict other parts of his work, and cannot be reconciled with Pliny, who is equally inconsistent.", "Additionally, there is no linguistic or archaeological evidence for these subgroups.", "New archaeological finds have tended to show that the boundaries between Germanic peoples were very permeable, and scholars now assume that migration and the collapse and formation of cultural units were constant occurrences within Germania.", "Nevertheless, various aspects such as the alliteration of many of the tribal names in Tacitus's account and the name of Mannus himself suggest that the descent from Mannus was an authentic Germanic tradition." ], [ "Languages", "=== Proto-Germanic ===All Germanic languages derive from the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE), which is generally thought to have been spoken between 4500 and 2500 BCE.", "The ancestor of Germanic languages is referred to as Proto- or Common Germanic, and likely represented a group of mutually intelligible dialects.", "They share distinctive characteristics which set them apart from other Indo-European sub-families of languages, such as Grimm's and Verner's law, the conservation of the PIE ablaut system in the Germanic verb system (notably in strong verbs), or the merger of the vowels ''a'' and ''o'' qualities (''ə'', ''a'', ''o'' > ''a;'' ''ā'', ''ō'' > ''ō'').", "During the Pre-Germanic linguistic period (2500–500 BCE), the proto-language was almost certainly influenced by an unknown non-Indo-European language, still noticeable in the Germanic phonology and lexicon.Although Proto-Germanic is reconstructed without dialects via the comparative method, it is almost certain that it never was a uniform proto-language.", "The late Jastorf culture occupied so much territory that it is unlikely that Germanic populations spoke a single dialect, and traces of early linguistic varieties have been highlighted by scholars.", "Sister dialects of Proto-Germanic itself certainly existed, as evidenced by the absence of the First Germanic Sound Shift (Grimm's law) in some \"Para-Germanic\" recorded proper names, and the reconstructed Proto-Germanic language was only one among several dialects spoken at that time by peoples identified as \"Germanic\" by Roman sources or archeological data.", "Although Roman sources name various Germanic tribes such as Suevi, Alemanni, Bauivari, etc., it is unlikely that the members of these tribes all spoke the same dialect.=== Early attestations ===Definite and comprehensive evidence of Germanic lexical units only occurred after Caesar's conquest of Gaul in the 1st century BCE, after which contacts with Proto-Germanic speakers began to intensify.", "The ''Alcis'', a pair of brother gods worshipped by the Nahanarvali, are given by Tacitus as a Latinized form of (a kind of 'stag'), and the word ('hair dye') is certainly borrowed from Proto-Germanic (English ''soap)'', as evidenced by the parallel Finnish loanword ''.''", "The name of the ''framea'', described by Tacitus as a short spear carried by Germanic warriors, most likely derives from the compound ('forward-going one'), as suggested by comparable semantical structures found in early runes (e.g., ''raun-ij-az'' 'tester', on a lancehead) and linguistic cognates attested in the later Old Norse, Old Saxon and Old High German languages: '','' and all mean 'to carry out'.Negau helmet B, carved in the Etruscan alphabet during the 3rd–2nd c. BCE, is generally regarded as Proto-Germanic.", "In the absence of earlier evidence, it must be assumed that Proto-Germanic speakers living in ''Germania'' were members of preliterate societies.", "The only pre-Roman inscriptions that could be interpreted as Proto-Germanic, written in the Etruscan alphabet, have not been found in ''Germania'' but rather in the Venetic region.", "The inscription ''harikastiteiva\\\\\\ip'', engraved on the Negau helmet in the 3rd–2nd centuries BCE, possibly by a Germanic-speaking warrior involved in combat in northern Italy, has been interpreted by some scholars as ''Harigasti Teiwǣ'' ( 'army-guest' + 'god, deity'), which could be an invocation to a war-god or a mark of ownership engraved by its possessor.", "The inscription ''Fariarix'' ( 'ferry' + 'ruler') carved on tetradrachms found in Bratislava (mid-1st c. BCE) may indicate the Germanic name of a Celtic ruler.=== Linguistic disintegration ===By the time Germanic speakers entered written history, their linguistic territory had stretched farther south, since a Germanic dialect continuum (where neighbouring language varieties diverged only slightly between each other, but remote dialects were not necessarily mutually intelligible due to accumulated differences over the distance) covered a region roughly located between the Rhine, the Vistula, the Danube, and southern Scandinavia during the first two centuries of the Common Era.", "East Germanic speakers dwelled on the Baltic sea coasts and islands, while speakers of the Northwestern dialects occupied territories in present-day Denmark and bordering parts of Germany at the earliest date when they can be identified.In the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, migrations of East Germanic ''gentes'' from the Baltic Sea coast southeastwards into the hinterland led to their separation from the dialect continuum.", "By the late 3rd century CE, linguistic divergences like the West Germanic loss of the final consonant ''-z'' had already occurred within the \"residual\" Northwest dialect continuum.", "The latter definitely ended after the 5th- and 6th-century migrations of Angles, Jutes and part of the Saxon tribes towards modern-day England.=== Classification ===Matronae Vacallinehae) from Mechernich-Weyer, GermanyThe Germanic languages are traditionally divided between East, North and West Germanic branches.", "The modern prevailing view is that North and West Germanic were also encompassed in a larger subgroup called Northwest Germanic.", "* Northwest Germanic: mainly characterized by the ''i''-umlaut, and the shift of the long vowel ''*ē'' towards a long ''*ā'' in accented syllables; it remained a dialect continuum following the migration of East Germanic speakers in the 2nd–3rd century CE;** North Germanic or Primitive Norse: initially characterized by the monophthongization of the sound ''ai'' to ''ā'' (attested from ca.", "400 BCE); a uniform northern dialect or ''koiné'' attested in runic inscriptions from the 2nd century CE onward, it remained practically unchanged until a transitional period that started in the late 5th century; and Old Norse, a language attested by runic inscriptions written in the Younger Fuþark from the beginning of the Viking Age (8th–9th centuries CE);** West Germanic: including Old Saxon (attested from the 5th c. CE), Old English (late 5th c.), Old Frisian (6th c.), Frankish (6th c.), Old High German (6th c.), and possibly Langobardic (6th c.), which is only scarcely attested; they are mainly characterized by the loss of the final consonant -''z'' (attested from the late 3rd century), and by the ''j''-consonant gemination (attested from ca.", "400 BCE); early inscriptions from the West Germanic areas found on altars where votive offerings were made to the ''Matronae Vacallinehae'' (Matrons of Vacallina) in the Rhineland dated to ca.", "160–260 CE; West Germanic remained a \"residual\" dialect continuum until the Anglo-Saxon migrations in the 5th–6th centuries CE;* East Germanic, of which only Gothic is attested by both runic inscriptions (from the 3rd c. CE) and textual evidence (principally Wulfila's Bible; ca.", "350–380).", "It became extinct after the fall of the Visigothic Kingdom in the early 8th century.", "The inclusion of the Burgundian and Vandalic languages within the East Germanic group, while plausible, is still uncertain due to their scarce attestation.", "The latest attested East Germanic language, Crimean Gothic, has been partially recorded in the 16th century.Further internal classifications are still debated among scholars, as it is unclear whether the internal features shared by several branches are due to early common innovations or to the later diffusion of local dialectal innovations." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory===Area of the Nordic Bronze Age culture, ca 1200 BCThe Germanic-speaking peoples speak an Indo-European language.", "The leading theory for the origin of Germanic languages, suggested by archaeological, linguistic and genetic evidence, postulates a diffusion of Indo-European languages from the Pontic–Caspian steppe towards Northern Europe during the third millennium BCE, via linguistic contacts and migrations from the Corded Ware culture towards modern-day Denmark, resulting in cultural mixing with the earlier Funnelbeaker culture.", "The subsequent culture of the Nordic Bronze Age (c. 2000/1750-c. 500 BCE) shows definite cultural and population continuities with later Germanic peoples, and is often supposed to have been the culture in which the Germanic Parent Language, the predecessor of the Proto-Germanic language, developed.", "However, it is unclear whether these earlier peoples possessed any ethnic continuity with the later Germanic peoples.Generally, scholars agree that it is possible to speak of Germanic-speaking peoples after 500 BCE, although the first attestation of the name ''Germani'' is not until much later.", "Between around 500 BCE and the beginning of the common era, archeological and linguistic evidence suggest that the ''Urheimat'' ('original homeland') of the Proto-Germanic language, the ancestral idiom of all attested Germanic dialects, was primarily situated in the southern Jutland peninsula, from which Proto-Germanic speakers migrated towards bordering parts of Germany and along the sea-shores of the Baltic and the North Sea, an area corresponding to the extent of the late Jastorf culture.", "If the Jastorf Culture is the origin of the Germanic peoples, then the Scandinavian peninsula would have become Germanic either via migration or assimilation over the course of the same period.", "Alternatively, has stressed that two other archaeological groups must have belonged to the ''Germani'', one on either side of the Lower Rhine and reaching to the Weser, and another in Jutland and southern Scandinavia.", "These groups would thus show a \"polycentric origin\" for the Germanic peoples.", "The neighboring Przeworsk culture in modern Poland is thought to possibly reflect a Germanic and Slavic component.", "The identification of the Jastorf culture with the ''Germani'' has been criticized by Sebastian Brather, who notes that it seems to be missing areas such as southern Scandinavia and the Rhine-Weser area, which linguists argue to have been Germanic, while also not according with the Roman era definition of ''Germani'', which included Celtic-speaking peoples further south and west.Celtic–Germanic contact zone in the Iron Age around 500 BC–1 BCE according to Stefan Schumacher (2007)A category of evidence used to locate the Proto-Germanic homeland is founded on traces of early linguistic contacts with neighbouring languages.", "Germanic loanwords in the Finnic and Sámi languages have preserved archaic forms (e.g.", "Finnic ''kuningas'', from Proto-Germanic 'king'; ''rengas'', from 'ring'; etc.", "), with the older loan layers possibly dating back to an earlier period of intense contacts between pre-Germanic and Finno-Permic (i.e.", "Finno-Samic) speakers.", "Shared lexical innovations between Celtic and Germanic languages, concentrated in certain semantic domains such as religion and warfare, indicates intensive contacts between the ''Germani'' and Celtic peoples, usually identified with the archaeological La Tène culture, found in southern Germany and the modern Czech Republic.", "Early contacts probably occurred during the Pre-Germanic and Pre-Celtic periods, dated to the 2nd millennium BCE, and the Celts appear to have had a large amount of influence on Germanic culture from up until the first century CE, which led to a high degree of Celtic-Germanic shared material culture and social organization.", "Some evidence of linguistic convergence between Germanic and Italic languages, whose ''Urheimat'' is supposed to have been situated north of the Alps before the 1st millennium BCE, have also been highlighted by scholars.", "Shared changes in their grammars also suggest early contacts between Germanic and Balto-Slavic languages; however, some of these innovations are shared with Baltic only, which may point to linguistic contacts during a relatively late period, at any rate after the initial breakup of Balto-Slavic into Baltic and Slavic languages, with the similarities to Slavic being seen as remnants of Indo-European archaisms or the result of secondary contacts.=== Earliest recorded history ===early Germanic tribes into Central Europe:According to some authors the Bastarnae or Peucini were the first ''Germani'' to be encountered by the Greco-Roman world and thus to be mentioned in historical records.", "They appear in historical sources going back as far as the 3rd century BCE through the 4th century CE.", "Another eastern people known from about 200 BCE, and sometimes believed to be Germanic-speaking, are the Sciri (Greek: ), who are recorded threatening the city of Olbia on the Black Sea.", "Late in the 2nd century BCE, Roman and Greek sources recount the migrations of the Cimbri, Teutones and Ambrones whom Caesar later classified as Germanic.", "The movements of these groups through parts of Gaul, Italy and Hispania resulted in the Cimbrian War (113–101 BCE) against the Romans, in which the Teutons and Cimbri were victorious over several Roman armies but were ultimately defeated.The first century BCE was a time of the expansion of Germanic-speaking peoples at the expense of Celtic-speaking polities in modern southern Germany and the Czech Republic.", "In 63 BCE, Ariovistus, king of the Suevi and a host of other peoples, led a force across the Rhine into Gaul to aid the Sequani against their enemies the Aedui.", "The Suevi were victorious at the Battle of Magetobriga, and initially were considered an ally of Rome.", "The Aedui were Roman allies and Julius Caesar, the governor of the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul in 58 BCE, went to war with them, defeating Ariovistus at the Battle of Vosges.", "In 55 BCE, Caesar crossed the Rhine into Germania, massacring a large migrating group of Tencteri and Usipetes who had crossed the Rhine from the east.===Roman Imperial Period to 375===Germania, in existence from 7 BCE to 9 CE.", "The dotted line represents the Limes Germanicus, the fortified border constructed following the final withdrawal of Roman forces from Germania.====Early Roman Imperial period (27 BCE–166 CE)====Throughout the reign of Augustus—from 27 BCE until 14 CE—the Roman empire expanded into Gaul, with the Rhine as a border.", "Starting in 13 BCE, there were Roman campaigns across the Rhine for a 28-year period.", "First came the pacification of the Usipetes, Sicambri, and Frisians near the Rhine, then attacks increased further from the Rhine, on the Chauci, Cherusci, Chatti and Suevi (including the Marcomanni).", "These campaigns eventually reached and even crossed the Elbe, and in 5 CE Tiberius was able to show strength by having a Roman fleet enter the Elbe and meet the legions in the heart of ''Germania''.", "Once Tiberius subdued the Germanic people between the Rhine and the Elbe, the region at least up to Weser—and possibly up to the Elbe—was made the Roman province ''Germania'' and provided soldiers to the Roman army.However, within this period two Germanic kings formed larger alliances.", "Both of them had spent some of their youth in Rome; the first of them was Maroboduus of the Marcomanni, who had led his people away from the Roman activities into Bohemia, which was defended by forests and mountains, and had formed alliances with other peoples.", "In 6 CE, Rome planned an attack against him but the campaign was cut short when forces were needed for the Illyrian revolt in the Balkans.Just three years later (9 CE), the second of these Germanic figures, Arminius of the Cherusci—initially an ally of Rome—drew a large Roman force into an ambush in northern Germany, and destroyed the three legions of Publius Quinctilius Varus at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.", "Marboduus and Arminius went to war with each other in 17 CE; Arminius was victorious and Marboduus was forced to flee to the Romans.Following the Roman defeat at the Teutoburg Forest, Rome gave up on the possibility of fully integrating this region into the empire.", "Rome launched successful campaigns across the Rhine between 14 and 16 CE under Tiberius and Germanicus, but the effort of integrating Germania now seemed to outweigh its benefits.", "In the reign of Augustus's successor, Tiberius, it became state policy to expand the empire no further than the frontier based roughly upon the Rhine and Danube, recommendations that were specified in the will of Augustus and read aloud by Tiberius himself.", "Roman intervention in Germania led to a shifting and unstable political situation, in which pro- and anti-Roman parties vied for power.", "Arminius was murdered in 21 CE by his fellow Germanic tribesmen, due in part to these tensions and for his attempt to claim supreme kingly power for himself.In the wake of Arminius's death, Roman diplomats sought to keep the Germanic peoples divided and fractious.", "Rome established relationships with individual Germanic kings that are often discussed as being similar to client states; however, the situation on the border was always unstable, with rebellions by the Frisians in 28 CE, and attacks by the Chauci and Chatti in the 60s CE.", "The most serious threat to the Roman order was the Revolt of the Batavi in 69 CE, during the civil wars following the death of Nero known as the Year of the Four Emperors.", "The Batavi had long served as auxiliary troops in the Roman army as well as in the imperial bodyguard as the so-called ''Numerus Batavorum'', often called the Germanic bodyguard.", "The uprising was led by Gaius Julius Civilis, a member of the Batavian royal family and Roman military officer, and attracted a large coalition of people both inside and outside of the Roman territory.", "The revolt ended following several defeats, with Civilis claiming to have only supported the imperial claims of Vespasian, who was victorious in the civil war.A bog body, the Osterby Man, displaying the Suebian knot, a hairstyle which, according to Tacitus, was common among Germanic warriorsThe century after the Batavian Revolt saw mostly peace between the Germanic peoples and Rome.", "In 83 CE, Emperor Domitian of the Flavian dynasty attacked the Chatti north of Mainz (Mogontiacum).", "This war would last until 85 CE.", "Following the end of the war with the Chatti, Domitian reduced the number of Roman soldiers on the upper Rhine and shifted the Roman military to guarding the Danube frontier, beginning the construction of the ''limes'', the longest fortified border in the empire.", "The period afterwards was peaceful enough that the emperor Trajan reduced the number of soldiers on the frontier.", "According to Edward James, the Romans appear to have reserved the right to choose rulers among the barbarians on the frontier.====Marcomannic Wars to 375 CE====Following sixty years of quiet on the frontier, 166 CE saw a major incursion of peoples from north of the Danube during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, beginning the Marcomannic Wars.", "By 168 (during the Antonine plague), barbarian hosts consisting of Marcomanni, Quadi, and Sarmatian Iazyges, attacked and pushed their way to Italy.", "They advanced as far as Upper Italy, destroyed Opitergium/Oderzo and besieged Aquileia.", "The Romans had finished the war by 180, through a combination of Roman military victories, the resettling of some peoples on Roman territory, and by making alliances with others.", "Marcus Aurelius's successor Commodus chose not to permanently occupy any territory conquered north of the Danube, and the following decades saw an increase in the defenses at the ''limes''.", "The Romans renewed their right to choose the kings of the Marcomanni and Quadi, and Commodus forbid them to hold assemblies unless a Roman centurion was present.Depiction of Romans fighting Goths on the Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus (c. 250–260 CE)The period after the Marconmannic Wars saw the emergence of peoples with new names along the Roman frontiers, which were probably formed by the merger of smaller groups.", "These new confederacies or peoples tended to border the Roman imperial frontier.", "Many ethnic names from earlier periods disappear.", "The Alamanni emerged along the upper Rhine and are mentioned in Roman sources from the third century onward.", "The Goths begin to be mentioned along the lower Danube, where they attacked the city of Histria in 238.The Franks are first mentioned occupying territory between the Rhine and Weser.", "The Lombards seem to have moved their center of power to the central Elbe.", "Groups such as the Alamanni, Goths, and Franks were not unified polities; they formed multiple, loosely associated groups, who often fought each other and some of whom sought Roman friendship.", "The Romans also begin to mention seaborne attacks by the Saxons, a term used generically in Latin for Germanic-speaking pirates.", "A system of defenses on both sides of the English Channel, the Saxon Shore, was established to deal with their raids.From 250 onward, the Gothic peoples formed the \"single most potent threat to the northern frontier of Rome\".", "In 250 CE a Gothic king Cniva led Goths with Bastarnae, Carpi, Vandals, and Taifali into the empire, laying siege to Philippopolis.", "He followed his victory there with another on the marshy terrain at Abrittus, a battle which cost the life of Roman emperor Decius.", "In 253/254, further attacks occurred reaching Thessalonica and possibly Thrace.", "In 267/268 there were large raids led by the Herules in 267/268, and a mixed group of Goths and Herules in 269/270.Gothic attacks were abruptly ended in the years after 270, after a Roman victory in which the Gothic king Cannabaudes was killed.The Roman ''limes'' largely collapsed in 259/260, during the Crisis of the Third Century (235–284), and Germanic raids penetrated as far as northern Italy.", "The ''limes'' on the Rhine and upper Danube was brought under control again in 270s, and by 300 the Romans had reestablished control over areas they had abandoned during the crisis.", "From the later third century onward, the Roman army relied increasingly on troops of Barbarian origin, often recruited from Germanic peoples, with some functioning as senior commanders in the Roman army.", "In the 4th century, warfare along the Rhine frontier between the Romans and Franks and Alemanni seems to have mostly consisted of campaigns of plunder, during which major battles were avoided.", "The Romans generally followed a policy of trying to prevent strong leaders from emerging among the barbarians, using treachery, kidnapping, and assassination, paying off rival tribes to attack them, or by supporting internal rivals.===Migration Period (ca.", "375–568)===2nd century to 6th century simplified migrationsThe Migration Period is traditionally cited by historians as beginning in 375 CE, under the assumption that the appearance of the Huns prompted the Visigoths to seek shelter within the Roman Empire in 376.The end of the migration period is usually set at 586 when the Lombards invaded Italy.", "During this time period, numerous barbarian groups invaded the Roman Empire and established new kingdoms within its boundaries.", "These Germanic migrations traditionally mark the transition between antiquity and the beginning of the early Middle Ages.", "The reasons for the migrations of the period are unclear, but scholars have proposed overpopulation, climate change, bad harvests, famines, and adventurousness as possible reasons.", "Migrations were probably carried out by relatively small groups rather than entire peoples.====Early Migration Period (before 375–420)====The Greuthungi, a Gothic group in modern Ukraine under the rule of Ermanaric, were among the first peoples attacked by the Huns, apparently facing Hunnic pressure for some years.", "Following Ermanaric's death, the Greuthungi's resistance broke and they moved toward the Dniester river.", "A second Gothic group, the Tervingi under King Athanaric, constructed a defensive earthwork against the Huns near the Dniester.", "However, these measures did not stop the Huns and the majority of the Tervingi abandoned Athanaric; they subsequently fled—accompanied by a contingent of Greuthungi—to the Danube in 376, seeking asylum in the Roman Empire.", "The emperor Valens chose only to admit the Tervingi, who were settled in the Roman provinces of Thrace and Moesia.Due to mistreatment by the Romans, the Tervingi revolted in 377, starting the Gothic War, joined by the Greuthungi.", "The Goths and their allies defeated the Romans first at Marcianople, then defeated and killed emperor Valens in the Battle of Adrianople in 378, destroying two-thirds of Valens' army.", "Following further fighting, peace was negotiated in 382, granting the Goths considerable autonomy within the Roman Empire.", "However, these Goths—who would be known as the Visigoths—revolted several more times, finally coming to be ruled by Alaric.", "In 397, the disunited eastern Empire submitted to some of his demands, possibly giving him control over Epirus.", "In the aftermath of the large-scale Gothic entries into the empire, the Franks and Alemanni became more secure in their positions in 395, when Stilicho, the barbarian generalissimo who held power in the western Empire, made agreements with them.A replica of an ivory diptych probably depicting Stilicho (on the right), the son of a Vandal father and a Roman mother, who became the most powerful man in the Western Roman Empire from 395 to 408 CEIn 401, Alaric invaded Italy, coming to an understanding with Stilicho in 404/5.This agreement allowed Stilicho to fight against the force of Radagaisus, who had crossed the Middle Danube in 405/6 and invaded Italy, only to be defeated outside Florence.", "That same year, a large force of Vandals, Suevi, Alans, and Burgundians crossed the Rhine, fighting the Franks but facing no Roman resistance.", "In 409, the Suevi, Vandals, and Alans crossing the Pyrenees into Spain, where they took possession of the northern part of the peninsula.", "The Burgundians seized the land around modern Speyer, Worms, and Strasbourg, territory that was recognized by the Roman Emperor Honorius.", "When Stilicho fell from power in 408, Alaric invaded Italy again and eventually sacked Rome in 410; Alaric died shortly thereafter.", "The Visigoths withdrew into Gaul where they faced a power struggle until the succession of Wallia in 415 and his son Theodoric I in 417/18.Following successful campaigns against them by the Roman emperor Flavius Constantius, the Visigoths were settled as Roman allies in Gaul between modern Toulouse and Bourdeaux.Other Goths, including those of Athanaric, continued to live outside the empire, with three groups crossing into the Roman territory after the Tervingi.", "The Huns gradually conquered Gothic groups north of the Danube, of which at least six are known, from 376 to 400.Those in Crimea may never have been conquered.", "The Gepids also formed an important Germanic people under Hunnic rule; the Huns had largely conquered them by 406.One Gothic group under Hunnic domination was ruled by the Amal dynasty, who would form the core of the Ostrogoths.", "The situation outside the Roman empire in 410s and 420s is poorly attested, but it is clear that the Huns continued to spread their influence onto the middle Danube.==== The Hunnic Empire (c. 420–453) ====In 428, the Vandal leader Geiseric moved his forces across the strait of Gibraltar into north Africa.", "Within two years, they had conquered most of north Africa.", "By 434, following a renewed political crisis in Rome, the Rhine frontier had collapsed, and in order to restore it, the Roman Flavius Aetius engineered the destruction of the Burgundian kingdom in 435/436, possibly with Hunnic mercenaries, and launched several successful campaigns against the Visigoths.", "In 439, the Vandals conquered Carthage, which served as an excellent base for further raids throughout the Mediterranean and became the basis for the Vandal Kingdom.", "The loss of Carthage forced Aetius to make peace with the Visigoths in 442, effectively recognizing their independence within the boundaries of the empire.", "During the resulting peace, Aetius resettled the Burgundians in Sapaudia in southern Gaul.", "In the 430s, Aetius negotiated peace with the Suevi in Spain, leading to a practical loss of Roman control in the province.", "Despite the peace, the Suevi expanded their territory by conquering Mérida in 439 and Seville in 441.By 440, Attila and the Huns had come to rule a multi-ethnic empire north of the Danube; two of the most important peoples within this empire were the Gepids and the Goths.", "The Gepid king Ardaric came to power around 440 and participated in various Hunnic campaigns.", "In 450, the Huns interfered in a Frankish succession dispute, leading in 451 to an invasion of Gaul.", "Aetius, by uniting a coalition of Visigoths, part of the Franks, and others, was able to defeat the Hunnic army at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains.", "In 453, Attila died unexpectedly, and an alliance led by Ardaric's Gepids rebelled against the rule of his sons, defeating them in the Battle of Nedao.", "Either before or after Attila's death, Valamer, a Gothic ruler of the Amal dynasty, seems to have consolidated power over a large part of the Goths in the Hunnic domain.", "For the next 20 years, the former subject peoples of the Huns would fight among each other for preeminence.The arrival of the Saxons in Britain is traditionally dated to 449, however, archaeology indicates they had begun arriving in Britain earlier.", "Latin sources used ''Saxon'' generically for seaborne raiders, meaning that not all of the invaders belonged to the continental Saxons.", "According to the British monk Gildas (c. 500 – c. 570), this group had been recruited to protect the Romano-British from the Picts, but had revolted.", "They quickly established themselves as rulers on the eastern part of the island.====After the death of Attila (453–568)====Barbarian kingdoms and peoples after the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CEMausoleum of Theodoric the GreatIn 455, in the aftermath of the death of Aetius in 453 and the murder of emperor Valentinian III in 455, the Vandals invaded Italy and sacked Rome in 455.In 456, the Romans persuaded the Visigoths to fight the Suevi, who had broken their treaty with Rome.", "The Visigoths and a force of Burgundians and Franks defeated the Suevi at the Battle of Campus Paramus, reducing Suevi control to northwestern Spain.", "The Visigoths went on to conquer all of the Iberian Peninsula by 484 except a small part that remained under Suevian control.The Ostrogoths, led by Valamer's brother Thiudimer, invaded the Balkans in 473.Thiudimer's son Theodoric succeeded him in 476.In that same year, a barbarian commander in the Roman Italian army, Odoacer, mutinied and removed the final western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus.", "Odoacer ruled Italy for himself, largely continuing the policies of Roman imperial rule.", "He destroyed the Kingdom of the Rugians, in modern Austria, in 487/488.Theodoric, meanwhile, successfully extorted the Eastern Empire through a series of campaigns in the Balkans.", "The eastern emperor Zeno agreed to send Theodoric to Italy in 487/8.After a successful invasion, Theodoric killed and replaced Odoacer in 493, founding a new Ostrogothic kingdom.", "Theodoric died in 526, amid increasing tensions with the eastern empire.Toward the end of the migration period, in the early 500s, Roman sources portray a completely changed ethnic landscape outside of the empire: the Marcomanni and Quadi disappeared, as had the Vandals.", "Instead, the Thuringians, Rugians, Sciri, Herules, Goths, and Gepids are mentioned as occupying the Danube frontier.", "From the mid-5th century onward, the Alamanni had greatly expanded their territory in all directions and launched numerous raids into Gaul.", "The territory under the Frankish influence had grown to encompass northern Gaul and Germania to the Elbe.", "The Frankish king Clovis I united the various Frankish groups in 490s, and conquered the Alamanni by 506.From the 490s onward, Clovis waged wars against the Visigoths, defeating them in 507 and taking control of most of Gaul.", "Clovis's heirs conquered the Thuringians by 530 and the Burgundians by 532.The continental Saxons, composed of many subgroups, were made tributary to the Franks, as were the Frisians, who faced an attack by the Danes under Hygelac in 533.The Vandal and Ostrogothic kingdoms were destroyed in 534 and 555 respectively by the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) empire under Justinian.", "Around 500, a new ethnic identity appears in modern southern Germany, the Baiuvarii (Bavarians), under the patronage of Theodoric's Ostrogothic kingdom and then of the Franks.", "The Lombards, moving out of Bohemia, destroyed the kingdom of the Heruli in Pannonia in 510.In 568, after destroying the Gepid kingdom, the last Germanic kingdom in the Carpathian basin, the Lombards under Alboin invaded northern Italy, eventually conquering most of it.", "This invasion has traditionally been regarded as the end of the migration period.", "The eastern part of Germania, formerly inhabited by the Goths, Gepids, Vandals, and Rugians, was gradually Slavicized, a process enabled by the invasion of the nomadic Avars.===Early Middle Ages to c. 800===Frankish expansion from the early kingdom of Clovis I (481) to the divisions of Charlemagne's Empire (843–870)The Sutton Hoo helmet from c. 625 in the British MuseumMerovingian Frankia became divided into three subkingdoms: Austrasia in the east around the Rhine and Meuse, Neustria in the west around Paris, and Burgundy in the southeast around Chalon-sur-Saône.", "The Franks ruled a multilingual and multi-ethnic kingdom, divided between a mostly Romance-speaking West and a mostly Germanic-speaking east, that integrated former Roman elites but remained centered on a Frankish ethnic identity.", "In 687, the Pippinids came to control the Merovingian rulers as mayors of the palace in Neustria.", "Under their direction, the subkingdoms of Frankia were reunited.", "Following the mayoralty of Charles Martel, the Pippinids replaced the Merovingians as kings in 751, when Charles's son Pepin the Short became king and founded the Carolingian dynasty.", "His son, Charlemagne, would go on to conquer the Lombards, Saxons, and Bavarians.", "Charlemagne was crowned Roman emperor in 800 and regarded his residence of Aachen as the new Rome.Following their invasion in 568, the Lombards quickly conquered larger parts of the Italian peninsula.", "From 574 to 584, a period without a single Lombard ruler, the Lombards nearly collapsed, until a more centralized Lombard polity emerged under King Agilulf in 590.The invading Lombards only ever made up a very small percentage of the Italian population, however Lombard ethnic identity expanded to include people of both Roman and barbarian descent.", "Lombard power reached its peak during the reign of King Liutprand (712–744).", "After Liutprand's death, the Frankish King Pippin the Short invaded in 755, greatly weakening the kingdom.", "The Lombard kingdom was finally annexed by Charlemagne in 773.After a period of weak central authority, the Visigothic kingdom came under the rule of Liuvigild, who conquered the Kingdom of the Suebi in 585.A Visigothic identity that was distinct from the Romance-speaking population they ruled had disappeared by 700, with the removal of all legal differences between the two groups.", "In 711, a Muslim army landed at Grenada; the entire Visigothic kingdom would be conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate by 725.In what would become England, the Anglo-Saxons were divided into several competing kingdoms, the most important of which were Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex.", "In the 7th century, Northumbria established overlordship over the other Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms, until Mercia revolted under Wulfhere in 658.Subsequently, Mercia would establish dominance until 825 with the death of King Cenwulf.", "Few written sources report on Vendel period Scandinavia from 400 to 700, however this period saw profound societal changes and the formation of early states with connections to the Anglo-Saxon and Frankish kingdoms.", "In 793, the first recorded Viking raid occurred at Lindisfarne, ushering in the Viking Age." ], [ "Religion", "===Germanic paganism===Oberdorla moor, modern Thuringia.", "The idols were found in context with animal bones and other evidence of sacrificial rites.|303x303pxGermanic paganism refers to the traditional, culturally significant religion of the Germanic-speaking peoples.", "It did not form a uniform religious system across Germanic-speaking Europe, but varied from place to place, people to people, and time to time.", "In many contact areas (e.g.", "Rhineland and eastern and northern Scandinavia), it was similar to neighboring religions such as those of the Slavs, Celts, and Finnic peoples.", "The term is sometimes applied as early as the Stone Age, Bronze Age, or the earlier Iron Age, but it is more generally restricted to the time period after the Germanic languages had become distinct from other Indo-European languages.", "From the first reports in Roman sources to the final conversion to Christianity, Germanic paganism thus covers a period of around one thousand years.", "Scholars are divided as to the degree of continuity between the religious practices of the earlier Germanic peoples and those attested in later Norse paganism and elsewhere: while some scholars argue that Tacitus, early medieval sources, and the Norse sources indicate religious continuity, other scholars are highly skeptical of such arguments.Like their neighbors and other historically related peoples, the ancient Germanic peoples venerated numerous indigenous deities.", "These deities are attested throughout literature authored by or written about Germanic-speaking peoples, including runic inscriptions, contemporary written accounts, and in folklore after Christianization.", "As an example, the second of the two Merseburg charms (two Old High German examples of alliterative verse from a manuscript dated to the ninth century) mentions six deities: Woden, Balder, Sinthgunt, Sunna, Frija, and Volla.With the exception of ''Sinthgunt'', proposed cognates to these deities occur in other Germanic languages, such as Old English and Old Norse.", "By way of the comparative method, philologists are then able to reconstruct and propose early Germanic forms of these names from early Germanic mythology.", "Compare the following table:Old High GermanOld NorseOld EnglishProto-Germanic reconstructionNotes''Wuotan''''Óðinn''''Wōden''*''Wōđanaz''A deity similarly associated with healing magic in the Old English ''Nine Herbs Charm'' and particular forms of magic throughout the Old Norse record.", "This deity is strongly associated with extensions of *''Frijjō'' (see below).", "''Balder''''Baldr''''Bældæg''*''Balđraz''In Old Norse texts, where the only description of the deity occurs, Baldr is a son of the god Odin and is associated with beauty and light.", "''Sunne''''Sól''''Sigel''*''Sowelō'' ~ *''Sōel''A theonym identical to the proper noun 'Sun'.", "A goddess and the personified Sun.", "''Volla''''Fulla''Unattested*''Fullōn''A goddess associated with extensions of the goddess *''Frijjō'' (see below).", "The Old Norse record refers to Fulla as a servant of the goddess Frigg, while the second Merseburg Charm refers to Volla as Friia's sister.", "''Friia''''Frigg''''Frīg''*''Frijjō''Associated with the goddess Volla/Fulla in both the Old High German and Old Norse records, this goddess is also strongly associated with the god Odin (see above) in both the Old Norse and Langobardic records.The structure of the magic formula in this charm has a long history prior to this attestation: it is first known to have occurred in Vedic India, where it occurs in the Atharvaveda, dated to around 500 BCE.", "Numerous other beings common to various groups of ancient Germanic peoples receive mention throughout the ancient Germanic record.", "One such type of entity, a variety of supernatural women, is also mentioned in the first of the two Merseburg Charms:Old High GermanOld NorseOld EnglishProto-Germanic reconstructionNotes''itis''''dís''''ides''*''đīsō''A type of goddess-like supernatural entity.", "The West Germanic forms present some linguistic difficulties but the North Germanic and West Germanic forms are used explicitly as cognates (compare Old English ''ides Scildinga'' and Old Norse ''dís Skjǫldunga'').Other widely attested entities from the North and West Germanic folklore include elves, dwarfs, and the mare.", "(For more discussion on these entities, see Proto-Germanic folklore.", ")The great majority of material describing Germanic mythology stems from the North Germanic record.", "The body of myths among the North Germanic-speaking peoples is known today as Norse mythology and is attested in numerous works, the most expansive of which are the ''Poetic Edda'' and the ''Prose Edda''.", "While these texts were composed in the 13th century, they frequently quote genres of traditional alliterative verse known today as ''eddic poetry'' and ''skaldic poetry'' dating to the pre-Christian period.An image of a museum reproduction of one of the two golden horns of Gallehus, found in Denmark and dating to the early fifth century.", "Composed in Proto-Norse, the Elder Futhark inscription on the horn features the earliest known generally accepted example of Germanic alliterative verse.West Germanic mythology (that of speakers of, e.g., Old English and Old High German) is comparatively poorly attested.", "Notable texts include the Old Saxon Baptismal Vow and the Old English Nine Herbs Charm.", "While most extant references are simply to deity names, some narratives do survive into the present, such as the Lombard origin myth, which details a tradition among the Lombards that features the deities Frea (cognate with Old Norse ) and Godan (cognate with Old Norse ).", "Attested in the 7th-century ''Origo Gentis Langobardorum'' and the 8th-century ''Historia Langobardorum'' from the Italian Peninsula, the narrative strongly corresponds in numerous ways with the prose introduction to the eddic poem ''Grímnismál'', recorded in 13th-century Iceland.Very few texts make up the corpus of Gothic and other East Germanic languages, and East Germanic paganism and its associated mythic body is especially poorly attested.", "Notable topics that provide insight into the matter of East Germanic paganism include the Ring of Pietroassa, which appears to be a cult object (see also Gothic runic inscriptions), and the mention of the Gothic (cognate with Old Norse ''Æsir'' '(pagan) gods') by Jordanes.Practices associated with the religion of the ancient Germanic peoples see fewer attestations.", "However, elements of religious practices are discernable throughout the textual record associated with the ancient Germanic peoples, including a focus on sacred groves and trees, the presence of seeresses, and numerous vocabulary items.", "The archaeological record has yielded a variety of depictions of deities, a number of them associated with depictions of the ancient Germanic peoples (see Anthropomorphic wooden cult figurines of Central and Northern Europe).", "Notable from the Roman period are the Matres and Matronae, some having Germanic names, to whom devotional altars were set up in regions of Germania, Eastern Gaul, and Northern Italy (with a small distribution elsewhere) that were occupied by the Roman army from the first to the fifth century.Germanic mythology and religious practice is of particular interest to Indo-Europeanists, scholars who seek to identify aspects of ancient Germanic culture—both in terms of linguistic correspondence and by way of motifs—stemming from Proto-Indo-European culture, including Proto-Indo-European mythology.", "The primordial being Ymir, attested solely in Old Norse sources, makes for a commonly cited example.", "In Old Norse texts, the death of this entity results in creation of the cosmos, a complex of motifs that finds strong correspondence elsewhere in the Indo-European sphere, notably in Vedic mythology.===Conversion to Christianity===Page from the containing the Gothic Bible translated by WulfilaGermanic peoples began entering the Roman Empire in large numbers at the same time that Christianity was spreading there, and this connection was a major factor encouraging conversion.", "The East Germanic peoples, the Langobards, and the Suevi in Spain converted to Arian Christianity, a form of Christianity that rejected the divinity of Christ.", "The first Germanic people to convert to Arianism were the Visigoths, at the latest in 376 when they entered the Roman Empire.", "This followed a longer period of missionary work by both Orthodox Christians and Arians, such as the Arian Wulfila, who was made missionary bishop of the Goths in 341 and translated the Bible into Gothic.", "The Arian Germanic peoples all eventually converted to Nicene Christianity, which had become the dominant form of Christianity within the Roman Empire; the last to convert were the Visigoths in Spain under their king Reccared in 587.The areas of the Roman Empire conquered by the Franks, Alemanni, and Baiuvarii were mostly Christian already, but it appeared Christianity declined there.", "In 496, the Frankish king Clovis I converted to Nicene Christianity.", "This began a period of missionizing within Frankish territory.", "The Anglo-Saxons gradually converted following a mission sent by Pope Gregory the Great in 595.In the 7th century, Frankish-supported missionary activity spread out of Gaul, led by figures of the Anglo-Saxon mission such as Saint Boniface.", "The Saxons initially rejected Christianization, but were eventually forcibly converted by Charlemagne as a result of their conquest in the Saxon Wars in 776/777.While attempts to convert the Scandinavian peoples began in 831, they were mostly unsuccessful until the 10th and 11th centuries.", "The last Germanic people to convert were the Swedes, although the Geats had converted earlier.", "The pagan Temple at Uppsala seems to have continued to exist into the early 1100s." ], [ "Society and culture", "===Runic writing===The Vimose Comb, housed at the National Museum of Denmark and dating to around from , bears the oldest generally accepted runic inscription.Germanic speakers developed a native script, the runes (or the ''fuþark''), and the earliest known form of which consists of 24 characters.", "The runes are generally held to have been used exclusively by Germanic-speaking populations.", "All known early runic inscriptions are found in Germanic contexts with the potential exception of one inscription, which may indicate cultural transfer between the Germanic speakers to Slavic speakers (and may potentially be the earliest known writing among Slavic speakers).Like other indigenous scripts of Europe, the runes ultimately developed from the Phoenician alphabet, but unlike similar scripts, the runes were not replaced by the Latin alphabet by the first century BCE.", "Runes remained in use among the Germanic peoples throughout their history despite the significant influence of Rome.The precise date that Germanic speakers developed the runic alphabet is unknown, with estimates varying from 100 BCE to 100 CE.", "Generally accepted inscriptions in the oldest attested form of the script, called the Elder Futhark, date from 200 to 700 CE.", "The word ''rune'' is widely attested among Germanic languages, where it developed from Proto-Germanic and held a primary meaning of 'secret', but also other meanings such as 'whisper', 'mystery', 'closed deliberation', and 'council'.", "In most cases, runes appear not to have been used for everyday communication and knowledge of them may have generally been limited to a small group, for whom the term ''erilaR'' is attested from the sixth century onward.The letters of the Elder Futhark are arranged in an order called the ''futhark'', so named after its first six characters.", "The alphabet is supposed to have been extremely phonetic, and each letter could also represent a word or concept, so that, for instance, the f-rune also stood for ('cattle, property').", "Such examples are known as ''Begriffsrunen'' ('concept runes').", "Runic inscriptions are found on organic materials such as wood, bone, horn, ivory, and animal hides, as well as on stone and metal.", "Inscriptions tend to be short, and are difficult to interpret as profane or magical.", "They include names, inscriptions by the maker of an object, memorials to the dead, as well as inscriptions that are religious or magical in nature.===Personal names===The Istaby Stone (DR359) is a runestone that features a Proto-Norse Elder Futhark inscription describing three generations of men.", "Their names share the common element of 'wolf' (''wulfaz'') and alliterate.Germanic personal names are commonly dithematic, consisting of two components that may be combined freely (such as the Old Norse female personal name ''Sigríðr'', consisting of 'victory' + 'beloved').", "As summarized by Per Vikstrand, \"The old Germanic personal names are, from a social and ideological point of view, characterized by three main features: religion, heroism, and family bonds.", "The religious aspect of Germanic names seems to be an inherited, Indo-European trace, which the Germanic languages share with Greek and other Indo-European languages.", "\"One point of debate surrounding Germanic name-giving practice is whether name elements were considered semantically meaningful when combined.", "Whatever the case, an element of a name could be inherited by a male or female's offspring, leading to an alliterative lineage (related, see alliterative verse).", "The runestone D359 in Istaby, Sweden provides one such example, where three generations of men are connected by way of the element , meaning 'wolf' (the alliterative ''Haþuwulfaz'', *''Heruwulfaz'', and ''Hariwulfaz'').", "Sacral components to Germanic personal names are also attested, including elements such as *''hailaga''- and *''wīha''- (both usually translated as 'holy, sacred', see for example Vé), and deity names (theonyms).", "Deity names as first components of personal names are attested primarily in Old Norse names, where they commonly reference in particular the god Thor (Old Norse ).===Poetry and legend===The ancient Germanic-speaking peoples were a largely oral culture.", "Written literature in Germanic languages is not recorded until the 6th century (Gothic Bible) or the 8th century in modern England and Germany.", "The philologist Andreas Heusler proposed the existence of various genres of literature in the \"Old Germanic\" period, which were largely based on genres found in high medieval Old Norse poetry.", "These include ritual poetry, epigrammatic poetry (), memorial verses (), lyric, narrative poetry, and praise poetry.", "Heinrich Beck suggests that, on the basis of Latin mentions in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the following genres can be adduced: origo gentis (the origin of a people or their rulers), the fall of heroes (), praise poetry, and laments for the dead.Some stylistic aspects of later Germanic poetry appear to have origins in the Indo-European period, as shown by comparison with ancient Greek and Sanskrit poetry.", "Originally, the Germanic-speaking peoples shared a metrical and poetic form, alliterative verse, which is attested in very similar forms in Old Saxon, Old High German and Old English, and in a modified form in Old Norse.", "Alliterative verse is not attested in the small extant Gothic corpus.", "The poetic forms diverge among the different languages from the 9th century onward.Later Germanic peoples shared a common legendary tradition.", "These heroic legends mostly involve historical personages who lived during the migration period (4th–6th centuries AD), placing them in highly ahistorical and mythologized settings; they originate and develop as part of an oral tradition.", "Some early Gothic heroic legends are already found in Jordanes' ''Getica'' ().", "The close link between Germanic heroic legend and Germanic language and possibly poetic devices is shown by the fact that the Germanic speakers in Francia who adopted a Romance language, do not preserve Germanic legends but rather developed their own heroic folklore—excepting the figure of Walter of Aquitaine.===Germanic law===Germanic bracteate from Funen, DenmarkUntil the middle of the 20th century, the majority of scholars assumed the existence of a distinct Germanic legal culture and law.", "Early ideas about Germanic law have come under intense scholarly scrutiny since the 1950s, and specific aspects of it such as the legal importance of ''sibb'', retinues, and loyalty, and the concept of outlawry can no longer be justified.", "Besides the assumption of a common Germanic legal tradition and the use of sources of different types from different places and time periods, there are no native sources for early Germanic law.", "The earliest written legal sources, the ''Leges Barbarorum'', were all written under Roman and Christian influence and often with the help of Roman jurists, and contain large amounts of \"Vulgar Latin Law\", an unofficial legal system that functioned in the Roman provinces.Although Germanic law never appears to have been a competing system to Roman law, it is possible that Germanic \"modes of thought\" () still existed, with important elements being an emphasis on orality, gesture, formulaic language, legal symbolism, and ritual.", "Some items in the \"Leges\", such as the use of vernacular words, may reveal aspects of originally Germanic, or at least non-Roman, law.", "Legal historian Ruth Schmidt-Wiegand writes that this vernacular, often in the form of Latinized words, belongs to \"the oldest layers of a Germanic legal language\" and shows some similarities to Gothic.===Warfare===Image of Romans fighting the Marcomanni on the Column of Marcus Aurelius (193 CE)Warfare seems to have been a constant in Germanic society, including conflicts among and within Germanic peoples.", "There is no common Germanic word for \"war\", and it was not necessarily differentiated from other forms of violence.", "Historical information on Germanic warfare almost entirely depends on Greco-Roman sources, however their accuracy has been questioned.", "The core of the army was formed by the comitatus (retinue), a group of warriors following a chief.", "As retinues grew larger, their names could become associated with entire peoples.", "Many retinues functioned as (mercenary units in the Roman army).Roman sources stress, perhaps partially as a literary topos, that the Germanic peoples fought without discipline.", "Germanic warriors fought mostly on foot, in tight formations in close combat.", "Tacitus mentions a single formation as used by the ''Germani'', the wedge ().", "Cavalry was rare: in the Roman period, it mostly consisted of chiefs and their immediate retinues, who may have dismounted to fight.", "However, East Germanic peoples such as the Goths developed cavalry forces armed with lances due to contact with various nomadic peoples.", "Archaeological finds, mostly in the form of grave goods, indicate that most warriors were armed with spear, shield, and often with swords.", "Higher status individuals were often buried with spurs for riding.", "The only archaeological evidence for helmets and chain mail shows them to be of Roman manufacture." ], [ "Economy and material culture", "===Agriculture and population density===Unlike agriculture in the Roman provinces, which was organized around the large farms known as villae rusticae, Germanic agriculture was organized around villages.", "When Germanic peoples expanded into northern Gaul in the 4th and 5th centuries CE, they brought this village-based agriculture with them, which increased the agricultural productivity of the land; Heiko Steuer suggests this means that Germania was more agriculturally productive than is generally assumed.", "Villages were not distant from each other but often within sight, revealing a fairly high population density, and contrary to the assertions of Roman sources, only about 30% of Germania was covered in forest, about the same percentage as today.Based on pollen samples and the finds of seeds and plant remains, the chief grains cultivated in Germania were barley, oats, and wheat (both Einkorn and emmer), while the most common vegetables were beans and peas.", "Flax was also grown.", "Agriculture in Germania relied heavily on animal husbandry, primarily the raising of cattle, which were smaller than their Roman counterparts Both cultivation and animal husbandry methods improved with time, with examples being the introduction of rye, which grew better in Germania, and the introduction of the three-field system.===Crafts===It is unclear if there was a special class of craftsmen in Germania, however archaeological finds of tools are frequent.", "Many everyday items such as dishes were made out of wood, and archaeology has found the remains of wooden well construction.", "The 4th-century CE Nydam and Illerup ships show highly developed knowledge of ship construction, while elite graves have revealed wooden furniture with complex joinery.", "Products made from ceramics included cooking, drinking, and storage, vessels, as well as lamps.", "While originally formed by hand, the period around 1 CE saw the introduction of the potter's wheel.", "Some of the ceramics produced on potter's wheels seem to have been done in direct imitation of Roman wares, and may have been produced by Romans in Germania or by ''Germani'' who had learned Roman techniques while serving in the Roman army.", "The shape and decoration of Germanic ceramics vary by region and archaeologists have traditionally used these variations to determine larger cultural areas.", "Many ceramics were probably produced locally in hearths, but large pottery kilns have also been discovered, and it seems clear that there were areas of specialized production.===Metalworking=== A 5th-century CE gold collar from Ålleberg, Sweden.", "It displays Germanic filigree work.Despite the claims of Roman writers such as Tacitus that the ''Germani'' had little iron and lacked expertise in working it, deposits of iron were commonly found in Germania and Germanic smiths were skillful metalworkers.", "Smithies are known from multiple settlements, and smiths were often buried with their tools.", "An iron mine discovered at Rudki, in the Łysogóry mountains of modern central Poland, operated from the 1st to the 4th centuries CE and included a substantial smelting workshop; similar facilities have been found in Bohemia.", "The remains of large smelting operations have been discovered by Ribe in Jutland (4th to 6th century CE), as well as at Glienick in northern Germany and at Heeten in the Netherlands (both 4th century CE).", "Germanic smelting furnaces may have produced metal that was as high-quality as that produced by the Romans.", "In addition to large-scale production, nearly every individual settlement seems to have produced some iron for local use.", "Iron was used for agricultural tools, tools for various crafts, and for weapons.Lead was needed in order to make molds and for the production of jewelry, however it is unclear if the ''Germani'' were able to produce lead.", "While lead mining is known from within the Siegerland across the Rhine from the Roman Empire, it is sometimes theorized that this was the work of Roman miners.", "Another mine within Germania was near modern Soest, where again it is theorized that lead was exported to Rome.", "The neighboring Roman provinces of Germania superior and Germania inferior produced a great deal of lead, which has been found stamped as (\"Germanic lead\") in Roman shipwrecks.Deposits of gold are not found naturally within Germania and had to either be imported or could be found having naturally washed down rivers.", "The earliest known gold objects made by Germanic craftsmen are mostly small ornaments dating from the later 1st century CE.", "Silver working likewise dates from the first century CE, and silver often served as a decorative element with other metals.", "From the 2nd century onward, increasingly complex gold jewelry was made, often inlaid with precious stones and in a polychrome style.", "Inspired by Roman metalwork, Germanic craftsmen also began working with gold and silver-gilt foils on belt buckles, jewelry, and weapons.", "Pure gold objects produced in the late Roman period included torcs with snakeheads, often displaying filigree and cloisonné work, techniques that dominated throughout Germanic Europe.===Clothing and textiles===A pair of trousers with attached stockings found in the Thorsberg moor (3rd century CE)Clothing does not generally preserve well archaeologically.", "Early Germanic clothing is shown on some Roman stone monuments such as Trajan's Column and the Column of Marcus Aurelius, and is occasionally discovered in finds from in moors, mostly from Scandinavia.", "Frequent finds include long trousers, sometimes including connected stockings, shirt-like gowns () with long sleeves, large pieces of cloth, and capes with fur on the inside.", "All of these are thought to be male clothing, while finds of tubular garments are thought to be female clothing.", "These would have reached to the ankles and would likely have been held in place by brooches at the height of the shoulders, as shown on Roman monuments.", "On Roman depictions, the dress was gathered below the breast or at the waist, and there are frequently no sleeves.", "Sometimes a blouse or skirt is depicted below the dress, along with a neckerchief around the throat.", "By the middle of the 5th century CE, both men and women among the continental Germanic peoples came to wear a Roman-style tunic as their most important piece of clothing.", "This was secured at the waist and likely adopted due to intensive contact with the Roman world.", "The Romans typically depict Germanic men and women as bareheaded, although some head-coverings have been found.", "Although Tacitus mentions an undergarment made of linen, no examples of these have been found.Surviving examples indicate that Germanic textiles were of high quality and mostly made of flax and wool.", "Roman depictions show the Germani wearing materials that were only lightly worked.", "Surviving examples indicate that a variety of weaving techniques were used.", "Leather was used for shoes, belts, and other gear.", "Spindles, sometimes made of glass or amber, and the weights from looms and distaffs are frequently found in Germanic settlements.===Trade===The Minerva Bowl, part of the Hildesheim Treasure, likely a Roman diplomatic gift.", "The treasure may date from the reign of Nero (37–68 CE) or the early Flavian dynasty (69–96 CE).Archaeology shows that from at least the turn of the 3rd century CE larger regional settlements in Germania existed that were not exclusively involved in an agrarian economy, and that the main settlements were connected by paved roads.", "The entirety of Germania was within a system of long-distance trade.", "Migration-period seaborne trade is suggested by Gudme on the Danish island of Funen and other harbors on the Baltic.Roman trade with Germania is poorly documented.", "Roman merchants crossing the Alps for Germania are recorded already by Caesar in the 1st century BCE.", "During the imperial period, most trade probably took place in trading posts in Germania or at major Roman bases.", "The most well-known Germanic export to the Roman Empire was amber, with a trade centered on the Baltic coast.", "Economically, however, amber is likely to have been fairly unimportant.", "The use of Germanic loanwords in surviving Latin texts suggests that besides amber (), the Romans also imported the feathers of Germanic geese () and hair dye ().", "Germanic slaves were also a major commodity.", "Archaeological discoveries indicate that lead was exported from Germania as well, perhaps mined in Roman-Germanic \"joint ventures\".Products imported from Rome are found archaeologically throughout the Germanic sphere and include vessels of bronze and silver, glassware, pottery, brooches; other products such as textiles and foodstuffs may have been just as important.", "Rather than mine and smelt non-ferrous metals themselves, Germanic smiths seem to have often preferred to melt down finished metal objects from Rome, which were imported in large numbers, including coins, metal vessels, and metal statues.", "Tacitus mentions in ''Germania'' chapter 23 that the Germani living along the Rhine bought wine, and Roman wine has been found in Denmark and northern Poland.", "Finds of Roman silver coinage and weapons might have been war booty or the result of trade, while high quality silver items may have been diplomatic gifts.", "Roman coinage may have acted as a form of currency as well." ], [ "Genetics", "The use of genetic studies to investigate the Germanic past is controversial, with scholars such as Guy Halsall suggesting it could represent a hearkening back to 19th-century ideas of race.", "Sebastian Brather, Wilhelm Heizmann, and Steffen Patzold write that genetics studies are of great use for demographic history, but cannot give us any information about cultural history.", "In a 2013 book which reviewed studies made up until then, scholars noted that most Germanic speakers today have a Y-DNA that is a mixture including haplogroup I1, R1a1a, R1b-P312 and R1b-U106; however, the authors also note that these groups are older than Germanic languages and found among speakers of other languages." ], [ "Modern reception", "The rediscovery of Tacitus's ''Germania'' in the 1450s was used by German humanists to claim a glorious classical past for their nation that could compete with that of Greece and Rome, and to equate the \"Germanic\" with the \"German\".", "While the humanists' notion of the \"Germanic\" was initially vague, later it was narrowed and used to support a notion of German(ic) superiority to other nations.", "Equally important was Jordanes's ''Getica'', rediscovered by Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini in the mid-15th century and first printed in 1515 by Konrad Peutinger, which depicted Scandinavia as the \"womb of nations\" () from which all the historical northeastern European barbarians migrated in the distant past.", "While treated with suspicion by German scholars, who preferred the indigenous origin given by Tacitus, this motif became very popular in contemporary Swedish Gothicism, as it supported Sweden's imperial ambitions.", "Peutinger printed the ''Getica'' together with Paul the Deacon's ''History of the Lombards'', so that the ''Germania'', the ''Getica'', and the ''History of the Lombards'' formed the basis for the study of the Germanic past.", "Scholars did not clearly differentiate between the Germanic peoples, Celtic peoples, and the \"Scythian peoples\" until the late 18th century with the discovery of Indo-European and the establishment of language as the primary criterion for nationality.", "Before that time, German scholars considered the Celtic peoples to be part of the Germanic group.The beginning of Germanic philology proper starts around the turn of the 19th century, with Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm being the two most significant founding figures.", "Their oeuvre included various monumental works on linguistics, culture, and literature.", "Jacob Grimm offered many arguments identifying the Germans as the \"most Germanic\" of the Germanic-speaking peoples, many of which were taken up later by others who sought to equate \"Germanicness\" () with \"Germanness\" ().", "Grimm also argued that the Scandinavian sources were, while much later, more \"pure\" attestations of \"Germanness\" than those from the south, an opinion that remains common today.", "German nationalist thinkers of the völkisch movement placed a great emphasis on the connection of modern Germans to the ''Germania'' using Tacitus to prove the purity and virtue of the German people, which had allowed them to conquer the decadent Romans.", "German historians used the Germanic past to argue for a liberal, democratic form of government and a unified German state.", "Contemporary Romantic nationalism in Scandinavia placed more weight on the Viking Age, resulting in the movement known as Scandinavism.In the late 19th century, Gustaf Kossinna developed several widely accepted theories tying archaeological finds of specific assemblages of objects.", "Kossina used his theories to extend Germanic identity back to the Neolithic period and to state with confidence when and where various Germanic and other peoples had migrated within Europe.", "In the 1930s and 40s, the Nazi Party made use of notions of Germanic \"purity\" reaching back into the earliest prehistoric times.", "Nazi ideologues also used the \"Germanic\" nature of peoples such as the Franks and Goths to justify territorial annexations in northern France, Ukraine, and the Crimea.", "Scholars reinterpreted Germanic culture to justify the Nazis' rule as anchored in the Germanic past, emphasizing noble leaders and warlike retinues who dominated surrounding peoples.", "After 1945, these associations led to a scholarly backlash and re-examining of Germanic origins.", "Many medieval specialists have even demanded that scholars avoid the term ''Germanic'' altogether since it is too emotionally charged, adding that it has been politically abused and creates more confusion than clarity." ], [ "See also", "* List of early Germanic peoples" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * .", "** * * * ** * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "'''Classical and medieval sources'''* Agathias, ''Histories''* Bede, ''Ecclesiastical history of England'', in Latin* Caesar, ''De Bello Gallico''* Cicero, ''Against Piso''* Dio Cassius, ''Roman History''* ''Historia Augusta''* Jordanes, ''Getica''* Titus Livy, ''History of Rome''* Paul the Deacon, ''History of the Langobards'', in Latin* Pliny the Elder, ''Natural Histories''* Pomponius Mela, Description of the World* Procopius, ''Gothic War''* Ptolemy, ''Geography''* Strabo, ''Geography''* Suetonius, ''12 Caesars''* Tacitus, ''Germania''* Tacitus, ''The History''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ganges" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Ganges''' River ( ; in India: '''Ganga''', ; in Bangladesh: '''Padma''', ) is a trans-boundary river of Asia which flows through India and Bangladesh.", "The river rises in the western Himalayas in the Indian state of Uttarakhand.", "It flows south and east through the Gangetic plain of North India, receiving the right-bank tributary, the Yamuna, which also rises in the western Indian Himalayas, and several left-bank tributaries from Nepal that account for the bulk of its flow.", "In West Bengal state, India, a feeder canal taking off from its right bank diverts 50% of its flow southwards, artificially connecting it to the Hooghly River.", "The Ganges continues into Bangladesh, its name changing to the Padma.", "It is then joined by the Jamuna, the lower stream of the Brahmaputra, and eventually the Meghna, forming the major estuary of the Ganges Delta, and emptying into the Bay of Bengal.", "The Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna system is the second-largest river on earth by discharge.The main stem of the Ganges begins at the town of Devprayag, at the confluence of the Alaknanda, which is the source stream in hydrology on account of its greater length, and the Bhagirathi, which is considered the source stream in all of Hindu mythology.The Ganges is a lifeline to tens of millions of people who live in its basin and depend on it for their daily needs.", "It has been important historically, with many former provincial or imperial capitals such as Pataliputra, Kannauj, Sonargaon, Dhaka, Bikrampur, Kara, Munger, Kashi, Patna, Hajipur, Delhi, Bhagalpur, Murshidabad, Baharampur, Kampilya, and Kolkata located on its banks or the banks of tributaries and connected waterways.", "The river is home to approximately 140 species of fish, 90 species of amphibians, and also reptiles and mammals, including critically endangered species such as the gharial and South Asian river dolphin.", "The Ganges is the most sacred river to Hindus.", "It is worshipped as the goddess ''Ganga'' in Hinduism.The Ganges is threatened by severe pollution.", "This not only poses a danger to humans but also to many species of animals.", "The levels of fecal coliform bacteria from human waste in the river near Varanasi are more than a hundred times the Indian government's official limit.", "The Ganga Action Plan, an environmental initiative to clean up the river, has been considered a failure which is variously attributed to corruption, a lack of will in the government, poor technical expertise, poor environmental planning and a lack of support from religious authorities." ], [ "Course", "Bhagirathi River at Gangotri.Devprayag, confluence of Alaknanda (right) and Bhagirathi (left), and beginning of the Ganges.Garhwal region of Uttarakhand, India.The Gandhi Setu Bridge across the Ganges in Patna, BiharA sailboat on the main distributary of the Ganges in Bangladesh, the Padma river.The Ganges delta in a 2020 satellite image.The Ganges at Sultanganj.The upper phase of the river Ganges begins at the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers in the town of Devprayag in the Garhwal division of the Indian state of Uttarakhand.", "The Bhagirathi is considered to be the source in Hindu culture and mythology, although the Alaknanda is longer, and therefore, hydrologically the source stream.", "The headwaters of the Alakananda are formed by snow melt from peaks such as Nanda Devi, Trisul, and Kamet.", "The Bhagirathi rises at the foot of Gangotri Glacier, at Gomukh, at an elevation of and was mythologically referred to as residing in the matted locks of Shiva; symbolically Tapovan, which is a meadow of ethereal beauty at the feet of Mount Shivling, just away.Although many small streams comprise the headwaters of the Ganges, the six longest and their five confluences are considered sacred.", "The six headstreams are the Alaknanda, Dhauliganga, Nandakini, Pindar, Mandakini and Bhagirathi.", "Their confluences, known as the Panch Prayag, are all along the Alaknanda.", "They are, in downstream order, Vishnuprayag, where the Dhauliganga joins the Alaknanda; Nandprayag, where the Nandakini joins; Karnaprayag, where the Pindar joins; Rudraprayag, where the Mandakini joins; and finally, Devprayag, where the Bhagirathi joins the Alaknanda to form the Ganges.After flowing for through its narrow Himalayan valley, the Ganges emerges from the mountains at Rishikesh, then debouches onto the Gangetic Plain at the pilgrimage town of Haridwar.", "At Haridwar, a headworks diverts some of its water into the Ganges Canal, which irrigates the ''Doab'' region of Uttar Pradesh, whereas the river, whose course has been roughly southwest until this point, now begins to flow southeast through the plains of northern India.The Ganges river follows a arching course passing through the cities of Bijnor, Kannauj, Farukhabad, and Kanpur.", "Along the way it is joined by the Ramganga, which contributes an average annual flow of about to the river.", "The Ganges joins the long River Yamuna at the Triveni Sangam at Prayagraj(previously Allahabad), a confluence considered holy in Hinduism.", "At their confluence the Yamuna is larger than the Ganges contributing about 58.5% of the combined flow, with an average flow of .Now flowing east, the river meets the long Tamsa River (also called ''Tons''), which flows north from the Kaimur Range and contributes an average flow of about .", "After the Tamsa, the long Gomti River joins, flowing south from the Himalayas.", "The Gomti contributes an average annual flow of about .", "Then the long Ghaghara River (Karnali River), also flowing south from the Himalayas of Tibet through Nepal joins.", "The Ghaghara (Karnali), with its average annual flow of about , is the largest tributary of the Ganges by discharge.", "After the Ghaghara confluence, the Ganges is joined from the south by the long Son River, which contributes about .", "The long Gandaki River, then the long Kosi River, join from the north flowing from Nepal, contributing about and , respectively.", "The Kosi is the third largest tributary of the Ganges by discharge, after Ghaghara (Karnali) and Yamuna.", "The Kosi merges into the Ganges near Kursela in Bihar.Along the way between Prayagraj and Malda, West Bengal, the Ganges river passes the towns of Chunar, Mirzapur, Varanasi, Ghazipur, Ara, Patna, Chapra, Hajipur, Mokama, Begusarai, Munger, Sahibganj, Rajmahal, Bhagalpur, Ballia, Buxar, Simaria, Sultanganj, and Farakka.", "At Bhagalpur, the river begins to flow south-southeast and at Farakka, it begins its attrition with the branching away of its first distributary, the long Bhāgirathi-Hooghly, which goes on to become the Hooghly River.", "Just before the border with Bangladesh the Farakka Barrage controls the flow of Ganges, diverting some of the water into a feeder canal linked to the Hooghly for the purpose of keeping it relatively silt-free.", "The Hooghly River is formed by the confluence of the Bhagirathi River and Ajay River at Katwa, and Hooghly has a number of tributaries of its own.", "The largest is the Damodar River, which is long, with a drainage basin of .", "The Hooghly River empties into the Bay of Bengal near Sagar Island.", "Between Malda and the Bay of Bengal, the Hooghly river passes the towns and cities of Murshidabad, Nabadwip, Kolkata and Howrah.After entering Bangladesh, the main branch of the Ganges river is known as the Padma.", "The Padma is joined by the Jamuna River, the largest distributary of the Brahmaputra.", "Further downstream, the Padma joins the Meghna River, the converged flow of Surma-Meghna River System taking on the Meghna's name as it enters the Meghna Estuary, which empties into the Bay of Bengal.", "Here it forms the Bengal Fan, the world's largest submarine fan, which alone accounts for 10–20% of the global burial of organic carbon.The Ganges Delta, formed mainly by the large, sediment-laden flows of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, is the world's largest delta, at about .", "It stretches along the Bay of Bengal.Only the Amazon and Congo rivers have a greater average discharge than the combined flow of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Surma-Meghna river system.", "In full flood only the Amazon is larger." ], [ "Geology", "The Indian subcontinent lies atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.", "Its defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when, as a part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, it began a northeastwards drift—lasting fifty million years—across the then unformed Indian Ocean.", "The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountain ranges.", "In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough, which, having gradually been filled with sediment borne by the Indus and its tributaries and the Ganges and its tributaries, now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.The Indo-Gangetic Plain is geologically known as a foredeep or foreland basin." ], [ "Hydrology", "A 1908 map showing the course of the Ganges and its tributaries.Major left-bank tributaries include the Gomti River, Ghaghara River, Gandaki River and Kosi River; major right-bank tributaries include the Yamuna River, Son River, Punpun and Damodar.", "The hydrology of the Ganges River is very complicated, especially in the Ganges Delta region.", "One result is different ways to determine the river's length, its discharge, and the size of its drainage basin.The River Ganges at Kolkata, with Howrah Bridge in the backgroundLower Ganges in Lakshmipur, BangladeshThe name ''Ganges'' is used for the river between the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers, in the Himalayas, and the first bifurcation of the river, near the Farakka Barrage and the India-Bangladesh Border.", "The length of the Ganges is frequently said to be slightly over long, about , or .", "In these cases the river's source is usually assumed to be the source of the Bhagirathi River, Gangotri Glacier at Gomukh and its mouth being the mouth of the Meghna River on the Bay of Bengal.", "Sometimes the source of the Ganges is considered to be at Haridwar, where its Himalayan headwater streams debouch onto the Gangetic Plain.In some cases, the length of the Ganges is given by its Hooghly River distributary, which is longer than its main outlet via the Meghna River, resulting in a total length of about , if taken from the source of the Bhagirathi, or , if from Haridwar to the Hooghly's mouth.", "In other cases the length is said to be about , from the source of the Bhagirathi to the Bangladesh border, where its name changes to ''Padma''.For similar reasons, sources differ over the size of the river's drainage basin.", "The basin covers parts of four countries, India, Nepal, China, and Bangladesh; eleven Indian states, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, West Bengal, and the Union Territory of Delhi.", "The Ganges basin, including the delta but not the Brahmaputra or Meghna basins, is about , of which is in India (about 80%), in Nepal (13%), in Bangladesh (4%), and in China (3%).", "Sometimes the Ganges and Brahmaputra–Meghna drainage basins are combined for a total of about or .", "The combined Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin (abbreviated GBM or GMB) drainage basin is spread across Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and China.The Ganges basin ranges from the Himalaya and the Transhimalaya in the north, to the northern slopes of the Vindhya range in the south, from the eastern slopes of the Aravalli in the west to the Chota Nagpur plateau and the Sunderbans delta in the east.", "A significant portion of the discharge from the Ganges comes from the Himalayan mountain system.", "Within the Himalaya, the Ganges basin spreads almost 1,200 km from the Yamuna-Satluj divide along the Simla ridge forming the boundary with the Indus basin in the west to the Singalila Ridge along the Nepal-Sikkim border forming the boundary with the Brahmaputra basin in the east.", "This section of the Himalaya contains 9 of the 14 highest peaks in the world over 8,000m in height, including Mount Everest which is the high point of the Ganges basin.", "The other peaks over 8,000m in the basin are Kangchenjunga, Lhotse, Makalu, Cho Oyu, Dhaulagiri, Manaslu, Annapurna and Shishapangma.", "The Himalayan portion of the basin includes the south-eastern portion of the state of Himachal Pradesh, the entire state of Uttarakhand, the entire country of Nepal and the extreme north-western portion of the state of West Bengal.The discharge of the Ganges also differs by source.", "Frequently, discharge is described for the mouth of the Meghna River, thus combining the Ganges with the Brahmaputra and Meghna.", "This results in a total average annual discharge of about , or .", "In other cases the average annual discharges of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna are given separately, at about for the Ganges, about for the Brahmaputra, and about for the Meghna.Hardinge Bridge, Bangladesh, crosses the Ganges-Padma River.", "It is one of the key sites for measuring streamflow and discharge on the lower Ganges.The maximum peak discharge of the Ganges, as recorded at Hardinge Bridge in Bangladesh, exceeded .", "The minimum recorded at the same place was about , in 1997.The hydrologic cycle in the Ganges basin is governed by the Southwest Monsoon.", "About 84% of the total rainfall occurs in the monsoon from June to September.", "Consequently, streamflow in the Ganges is highly seasonal.", "The average dry season to monsoon discharge ratio is about 1:6, as measured at Hardinge Bridge.", "This strong seasonal variation underlies many problems of land and water resource development in the region.", "The seasonality of flow is so acute it can cause both drought and floods.", "Bangladesh, in particular, frequently experiences drought during the dry season and regularly suffers extreme floods during the monsoon.In the Ganges Delta, many large rivers come together, both merging and bifurcating in a complicated network of channels.", "The two largest rivers, the Ganges and Brahmaputra, both split into distributary channels, the largest of which merge with other large rivers before themselves joining the Bay of Bengal.", "But this current channel pattern was not always the case.", "Over time the rivers in Ganges Delta have often changed course, sometimes altering the network of channels in significant ways.Before the late 12th century the Bhagirathi-Hooghly distributary was the main channel of the Ganges and the Padma was only a minor spill-channel.", "The main flow of the river reached the sea not via the modern Hooghly River but rather by the Adi Ganga.", "Between the 12th and 16th centuries, the Bhagirathi-Hooghly and Padma channels were more or less equally significant.", "After the 16th century, the Padma grew to become the main channel of the Ganges.", "It is thought that the Bhagirathi-Hooghly became increasingly choked with silt, causing the main flow of the Ganges to shift to the southeast and the Padma River.", "By the end of the 18th century, the Padma had become the main distributary of the Ganges.", "One result of this shift to the Padma was that the Ganges now joined the Meghna and Brahmaputra rivers before emptying into the Bay of Bengal.", "The present confluence of the Ganges and Meghna was formed very recently, about 150 years ago.Also near the end of the 18th century, the course of the lower Brahmaputra changed dramatically, significantly altering its relationship with the Ganges.", "In 1787 there was a great flood on the Teesta River, which at the time was a tributary of the Ganges-Padma River.", "The flood of 1787 caused the Teesta to undergo a sudden change course, an avulsion, shifting east to join the Brahmaputra and causing the Brahmaputra to shift its course south, cutting a new channel.", "This new main channel of the Brahmaputra is called the Jamuna River.", "It flows south to join the Ganges-Padma.", "During ancient times, the main flow of the Brahmaputra was more easterly, passing by the city of Mymensingh and joining the Meghna River.", "Today this channel is a small distributary but retains the name Brahmaputra, sometimes Old Brahmaputra.", "The site of the old Brahmaputra-Meghna confluence, in the locality of Langalbandh, is still considered sacred by Hindus.", "Near the confluence is a major early historic site called Wari-Bateshwar.In the rainy season of 1809, the lower channel of the Bhagirathi, leading to Kolkata, had been entirely shut; but in the following year it opened again and was nearly of the same size as the upper channel but both however suffered a considerable diminution, owing probably to the new communication opened below the Jalanggi on the upper channel." ], [ "Discharge", "Discharge of the Ganges River at Farakka Barrage (period from 1998/01/01 to 2023/12/31): YearDischarge (m3/s)YearDischarge (m3/s)''Annual average''Average minimumAverage maximum''Annual average''Average minimumAverage maximum1998''21,200''11,26032,1392011''8,315''4,94215,6481999''20,227''12,30827,2752012''10,531''5,52916,4042000''18,953''11,55826,7892013''14,350''8,55919,5342001''14,825''9,37119,8722014''12,409''7,11817,6822002''10,495''5,63616,7832015''12,104''7,25617,0302003''12,580''6,88119,5162016''15,220''9,03523,4902004''9,735''5,46814,6312017''11,919''6,85617,6042005''12,200''7,01918,3972018''11,967''6,17618,8052006''11,522''7,74116,7182019''14,923''7,07924,7572007''14,816''9,57420,3252020''15,882''9,83723,4912008''16,183''9,96822,8702021''17,818''9,54327,0032009''9,241''4,52413,2822022''14,142''7,14822,5692010''7,148''3,34312,3752023''9,417''1,64518,744'''''Average''' (1998/01/01 to 2023/12/31):'''''''13,389.3'''''''7,514.4''''20,143.6''" ], [ "History", "The first European traveller to mention the Ganges was the Greek envoy Megasthenes (ca.", "350–290 BCE).", "He did so several times in his work Indica: \"India, again, possesses many rivers both large and navigable, which, having their sources in the mountains which stretch along the northern frontier, traverse the level country, and not a few of these, after uniting with each other, fall into the river called the Ganges.", "Now this river, which at its source is 30 stadia broad, flows from north to south, and empties its waters into the ocean forming the eastern boundary of the Gangaridai, a nation which possesses a vast force of the largest-sized elephants.\"", "(Diodorus II.37).In 1951 a water sharing dispute arose between India and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) after India declared its intention to build the Farakka Barrage.", "The original purpose of the barrage, which was completed in 1975, was to divert up to of water from the Ganges to the Bhagirathi-Hooghly distributary to restore navigability at the Port of Kolkata.", "It was assumed that during the worst dry season the Ganges flow would be around , thus leaving for the then East Pakistan.", "East Pakistan objected and a protracted dispute ensued.", "In 1996 a 30-year treaty was signed with Bangladesh.", "The terms of the agreement are complicated, but in essence, they state that if the Ganges flow at Farakka was less than then India and Bangladesh would each receive 50% of the water, with each receiving at least for alternating ten-day periods.", "However, within a year the flow at Farakka fell to levels far below the historic average, making it impossible to implement the guaranteed sharing of water.", "In March 1997, flow of the Ganges in Bangladesh dropped to its lowest ever, .", "Dry season flows returned to normal levels in the years following, but efforts were made to address the problem.", "One plan is for another barrage to be built in Bangladesh at Pangsha, west of Dhaka.", "This barrage would help Bangladesh better utilize its share of the waters of the Ganges." ], [ "Religious and cultural significance", "===Embodiment of sacredness===Chromolithograph, ''Indian woman floating lamps on the Ganges'', by William Simpson, 1867The Ganges is a sacred river to Hindus along every fragment of its length.", "All along its course, Hindus bathe in its waters, paying homage to their ancestors and their gods by cupping the water in their hands, lifting it, and letting it fall back into the river; they offer flowers and rose petals and float shallow clay dishes filled with oil and lit with wicks (diyas).", "On the journey back home from the Ganges, they carry small quantities of river water with them for use in rituals; Ganga Jal, literally \"the water of the Ganges\".The Ganges is the embodiment of all sacred waters in Hindu mythology.", "Local rivers are said to be ''like'' the Ganges and are sometimes called the local Ganges.", "The Godavari River of Maharashtra in Western India is called the Ganges of the South or the 'Dakshin Ganga'; the Godavari is the Ganges that was led by the sage Gautama to flow through Central India.", "The Ganges is invoked whenever water is used in Hindu ritual and is therefore present in all sacred waters.", "Despite this, nothing is more stirring for a Hindu than a dip in the actual river, which is thought to remit sins, especially at one of the famous tirthas such as Varanasi, Gangotri, Haridwar, or the Triveni Sangam at Prayagraj.", "The symbolic and religious importance of the Ganges is one of the few things that Hindus, even their skeptics, have agreed upon.", "Jawaharlal Nehru, a religious iconoclast himself, asked for a handful of his ashes to be thrown into the Ganges.", "\"The Ganga\", he wrote in his will, \"is the river of India, beloved of her people, round which are intertwined her racial memories, her hopes and fears, her songs of triumph, her victories and her defeats.", "She has been a symbol of India's age-long culture and civilization, ever-changing, ever-flowing, and yet ever the same Ganga.", "\"===''Avatarana'' – Descent of Ganges===''Descent of Ganga'', painting by Raja Ravi Varma c. 1910In late May or early June every year, Hindus celebrate the ''karunasiri'' and the rise of the Ganges from earth to heaven.", "The day of the celebration, ''Ganga Dashahara'', the ''Dashami'' (tenth day) of the waxing moon of the Hindu calendar month Jyestha, brings throngs of bathers to the banks of the river.", "A dip in the Ganges on this day is said to rid the bather of ten sins (dasha = Sanskrit \"ten\"; hara = to destroy) or ten lifetimes of sins.", "Those who cannot journey to the river, however, can achieve the same results by bathing in any nearby body of water, which, for the true believer, takes on all the attributes of the Ganges.The ''karunasiri'' is an old theme in Hinduism with a number of different versions of the story.", "In the Vedic version, Indra, the Lord of Swarga (Heaven) slays the celestial serpent, Vritra, releasing the celestial liquid, ''soma'', or the nectar of the gods which then plunges to the earth and waters it with sustenance.In the Vaishnava version of the myth, the heavenly waters were then a river called ''Vishnupadi'' (Sanskrit: \"from the foot of Vishnu\").", "As Lord Vishnu as the avatar Vamana completes his celebrated three strides —of earth, sky, and heaven— he stubs his toe on the vault of heaven, punches open a hole and releases the ''Vishnupadi'', which until now had been circling the cosmic egg.", "Flowing out of the vault, she plummets down to Indra's heaven, where she is received by Dhruva, once a steadfast worshipper of Vishnu, now fixed in the sky as the Pole star.", "Next, she streams across the sky forming the Milky Way and arrives on the moon.", "She then flows down earthwards to Brahma's realm, a divine lotus atop Mount Meru, whose petals form the earthly continents.", "There, the divine waters break up, with one stream, the Bhagirathi, flowing down one petal into Bharatvarsha (India) as the Ganges.It is Shiva, however, among the major deities of the Hindu pantheon, who appears in the most widely known version of the ''avatarana'' story.", "Told and retold in the ''Ramayana'', the ''Mahabharata'' and several Puranas, the story begins with a sage, Kapila, whose intense meditation has been disturbed by the sixty thousand sons of King Sagara.", "Livid at being disturbed, Kapila sears them with his angry gaze, reduces them to ashes, and dispatches them to the netherworld.", "Only the waters of the Ganges, then in heaven, can bring the dead sons their salvation.", "A descendant of these sons, King Bhagiratha, anxious to restore his ancestors, undertakes rigorous penance and is eventually granted the prize of Ganges's descent from heaven.", "However, since her turbulent force would also shatter the earth, Bhagiratha persuades Shiva in his abode on Mount Kailash to receive the Ganges in the coils of his tangled hair and break her fall.", "The Ganges descends, is tamed in Shiva's locks, and arrives in the Himalayas.", "She is then led by the waiting Bhagiratha down into the plains at Haridwar, across the plains first to the confluence with the Yamuna at Prayag and then to Varanasi, and eventually to Ganges Sagar (Ganges delta), where she meets the ocean, sinks to the netherworld, and saves the sons of Sagara.", "In honour of Bhagirath's pivotal role in the ''avatarana'', the source stream of the Ganges in the Himalayas is named Bhagirathi, (Sanskrit, \"of Bhagiratha\").===Redemption of the Dead===Preparations for cremations on the banks of the Ganges in Varanasi, 1903.The dead are being bathed, wrapped in cloth, and covered with wood.", "The photograph has a caption, \"Who dies in the waters of the Ganges obtains heaven.", "\"As the Ganges had descended from heaven to earth, she is also considered the vehicle of ''ascent'', from earth to heaven.", "As the ''Triloka-patha-gamini'', (Sanskrit: ''triloka'' = \"three worlds\", ''patha'' = \"road\", ''gamini'' = \"one who travels\") of the Hindu tradition, she flows in heaven, earth, and the netherworld, and, consequently, is a \"tirtha\" or crossing point of all beings, the living as well as the dead.", "It is for this reason that the story of the ''avatarana'' is told at ''Shraddha'' ceremonies for the deceased in Hinduism, and Ganges water is used in Vedic rituals after death.", "Among all hymns devoted to the Ganges, there are none more popular than the ones expressing the worshipper's wish to breathe his last surrounded by her waters.", "The ''Gangashtakam'' expresses this longing fervently:O Mother! ...", "Necklace adorning the worlds!Banner rising to heaven!I ask that I may leave of this body on your banks,Drinking your water, rolling in your waves,Remembering your name, bestowing my gaze upon you.No place along her banks is more longed for at the moment of death by Hindus than Varanasi, the Great Cremation Ground, or ''Mahashmshana''.", "Those who are lucky enough to die in Varanasi, are cremated on the banks of the Ganges, and are granted instant salvation.", "If the death has occurred elsewhere, salvation can be achieved by immersing the ashes in the Ganges.", "If the ashes have been immersed in another body of water, a relative can still gain salvation for the deceased by journeying to the Ganges, if possible during the lunar \"fortnight of the ancestors\" in the Hindu calendar month of Ashwin (September or October), and performing the ''Shraddha'' rites.Hindus also perform ''pinda pradana'', a rite for the dead, in which balls of rice and sesame seed are offered to the Ganges while the names of the deceased relatives are recited.", "Every sesame seed in every ball thus offered, according to one story, assures a thousand years of heavenly salvation for each relative.", "Indeed, the Ganges is so important in the rituals after death that the ''Mahabharata'', in one of its popular ''ślokas'', says, \"If only (one) bone of a (deceased) person should touch the water of the Ganges, that person shall dwell honoured in heaven.\"", "As if to illustrate this truism, the ''Kashi Khanda'' (Varanasi Chapter) of the Skanda Purana recounts the remarkable story of ''Vahika'', a profligate and unrepentant sinner, who is killed by a tiger in the forest.", "His soul arrives before Yama, the Lord of Death, to be judged for the afterworld.", "Having no compensating virtue, Vahika's soul is at once dispatched to hell.", "While this is happening, his body on earth, however, is being picked at by vultures, one of whom flies away with a foot bone.", "Another bird comes after the vulture, and in fighting him off, the vulture accidentally drops the bone into the Ganges below.", "Blessed by this event, Vahika, on his way to hell, is rescued by a celestial chariot which takes him instead to heaven.===The Purifying Ganges===Women and children at a bathing ghat on the Ganges in Banares (Varanasi), 1885.Hindus consider the waters of the Ganges to be both pure and purifying.", "Regardless of all scientific understanding of its waters, the Ganges is always ritually and symbolically pure in Hindu culture.", "Nothing reclaims order from disorder more than the waters of the Ganga.", "Moving water, as in a river, is considered purifying in Hindu culture because it is thought to both absorb impurities and take them away.", "The swiftly moving Ganga, especially in its upper reaches, where a bather has to grasp an anchored chain to not be carried away, is especially purifying.", "What the Ganges removes, however, is not necessarily physical dirt, but symbolic dirt; it wipes away the sins of the bather, not just of the present, but of a lifetime.A popular paean to the Ganga is the ''Ganga Lahiri'' composed by a 17th-century poet Jagannatha who, legend has it, was turned out of his Hindu Brahmin caste for carrying on an affair with a Muslim woman.", "Having attempted futilely to be rehabilitated within the Hindu fold, the poet finally appeals to Ganga, the hope of the hopeless, and the comforter of last resort.", "Along with his beloved, Jagannatha sits at the top of the flight of steps leading to the water at the famous ''Panchganga'' Ghat in Varanasi.", "As he recites each verse of the poem, the water of the Ganges rises one step until in the end it envelops the lovers and carries them away.", "\"I come to you as a child to his mother\", begins the ''Ganga Lahiri''.", "I come as an orphan to you, moist with love.I come without refuge to you, giver of sacred rest.I come a fallen man to you, uplifter of all.I come undone by disease to you, the perfect physician.I come, my heart dry with thirst, to you, ocean of sweet wine.Do with me whatever you will.===Consort, Shakti, and Mother===Ganga is a consort to all three major male deities of Hinduism.", "As Brahma's partner she always travels with him in the form of water in his kamandalu (water-pot).", "She is also Vishnu's consort.", "Not only does she emanate from his foot as ''Vishnupadi'' in the ''avatarana'' story, but is also, with Sarasvati and Lakshmi, one of his co-wives.", "In one popular story, envious of being outdone by each other, the co-wives begin to quarrel.", "While Lakshmi attempts to mediate the quarrel, Ganga and Sarasvati, heap misfortune on each other.", "They curse each other to become rivers, and to carry within them, by washing, the sins of their human worshippers.", "Soon their husband, Vishnu, arrives and decides to calm the situation by separating the goddesses.", "He orders Sarasvati to become the wife of Brahma, Ganga to become the wife of Shiva, and Lakshmi, as the blameless conciliator, to remain as his own wife.", "Ganga and Sarasvati, however, are so distraught at this dispensation, and wail so loudly, that Vishnu is forced to take back his words.", "Consequently, in their lives as rivers they are still thought to be with him.Shiva, as ''Gangadhara'', bearing the Descent of the Ganges, as the goddess Parvati, the sage Bhagiratha, and the bull Nandi look on (circa 1740).It is Shiva's relationship with Ganga, that is the best-known in Ganges mythology.", "Her descent, the ''avatarana'' is not a one-time event, but a continuously occurring one in which she is forever falling from heaven into his locks and being forever tamed.", "Shiva, is depicted in Hindu iconography as ''Gangadhara'', the \"Bearer of the Ganga\", with Ganga, shown as spout of water, rising from his hair.", "The Shiva-Ganga relationship is both perpetual and intimate.", "Shiva is sometimes called ''Uma-Ganga-Patiswara'' (\"Husband and Lord of Uma (Parvati) and Ganga\"), and Ganga often arouses the jealousy of Shiva's better-known consort.Ganga is the ''shakti'' or the moving, restless, rolling energy in the form of which the otherwise recluse and unapproachable Shiva appears on earth.", "As water, this moving energy can be felt, tasted, and absorbed.", "The war-god Skanda addresses the sage Agastya in the ''Kashi Khand'' of the ''Skanda Purana'' in these words: One should not be amazed ... that this Ganges is really Power, for is she not the Supreme Shakti of the Eternal Shiva, taken in the form of water?This Ganges, filled with the sweet wine of compassion, was sent out for the salvation of the world by Shiva, the Lord of the Lords.Good people should not think this Triple-Pathed River to be like the thousand other earthly rivers, filled with water.The Ganga is also the mother, the ''Ganga Mata'' (''mata''=\"mother\") of Hindu worship and culture, accepting all and forgiving all.", "Unlike other goddesses, she has no destructive or fearsome aspect, destructive though she might be as a river in nature.", "She is also a mother to other gods.", "She accepts Shiva's incandescent seed from the fire-god Agni, which is too hot for this world and cools it in her waters.", "This union produces Skanda, or Kartikeya, the god of war.", "In the ''Mahabharata'', she is the wife of Shantanu, and the mother of heroic warrior-patriarch, Bhishma.", "When Bhishma is mortally wounded in battle, Ganga comes out of the water in human form and weeps uncontrollably over his body.The Ganges is the distilled lifeblood of the Hindu tradition, of its divinities, holy books, and enlightenment.", "As such, her worship does not require the usual rites of invocation (''avahana'') at the beginning and dismissal (''visarjana'') at the end, required in the worship of other gods.", "Her divinity is immediate and everlasting.===Ganges in classical Indian iconography===Early in ancient Indian culture, the river Ganges was associated with fecundity, its redeeming waters, and its rich silt providing sustenance to all who lived along its banks.", "A counterpoise to the dazzling heat of the Indian summer, the Ganges came to be imbued with magical qualities and to be revered in anthropomorphic form.", "By the 5th century CE, an elaborate mythology surrounded the Ganges, now a goddess in her own right, and a symbol for all rivers of India.", "Hindu temples all over India had statues and reliefs of the goddess carved at their entrances, symbolically washing the sins of arriving worshippers and guarding the gods within.", "As protector of the sanctum sanctorum, the goddess soon came to be depicted with several characteristic accessories: the ''makara'' (a crocodile-like undersea monster, often shown with an elephant-like trunk), the ''kumbha'' (an overfull vase), various overhead parasol-like coverings, and a gradually increasing retinue of humans.Central to the goddess's visual identification is the ''makara'', which is also her ''vahana'', or mount.", "An ancient symbol in India, it pre-dates all appearances of the goddess Ganga in art.", "The ''makara'' has a dual symbolism.", "On the one hand, it represents the life-affirming waters and plants of its environment; on the other, it represents fear, both fear of the unknown which it elicits by lurking in those waters, and real fear which it instils by appearing in sight.", "The earliest extant unambiguous pairing of the ''makara'' with Ganga is at the Udayagiri Caves in Central India (circa 400 CE).", "Here, in the Cave V, flanking the main figure of Vishnu shown in his boar incarnation, two river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna appear atop their respective mounts, ''makara'' and ''kurma'' (a turtle or tortoise).The ''makara'' is often accompanied by a ''gana'', a small boy or child, near its mouth, as, for example, shown in the Gupta period relief from Besnagar, Central India, in the left-most frame above.", "The ''gana'' represents both posterity and development (''udbhava'').", "The pairing of the fearsome, life-destroying ''makara'' with the youthful, life-affirming ''gana'' speaks to two aspects of the Ganges herself.", "Although she has provided sustenance to millions, she has also brought hardship, injury, and death by causing major floods along her banks.", "The goddess Ganga is also accompanied by a dwarf attendant, who carries a cosmetic bag, and on whom she sometimes leans, as if for support.", "(See, for example, frames 1, 2, and 4 above.", ")The ''purna kumbha'' or full pot of water is the second most discernible element of the Ganga iconography.", "Appearing first also in the relief in the Udayagiri Caves (5th century), it gradually appeared more frequently as the theme of the goddess matured.", "By the 7th century it had become an established feature, as seen, for example, in the Dashavatara temple, Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh (7th century), the Trimurti temple, Badoli, Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, and at the Lakshmaneshwar temple, Kharod, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, (9th or 10th century), and seen very clearly in frame 3 above and less clearly in the remaining frames.", "Worshipped even today, the full pot is emblematic of the formless Brahman, as well as of woman, of the womb, and of birth.", "Furthermore, The river goddesses Ganga and Saraswati were both born from Brahma's pot, containing the celestial waters.In her earliest depictions at temple entrances, the goddess Ganga appeared standing beneath the overhanging branch of a tree, as seen as well in the Udayagiri caves.", "However, soon the tree cover had evolved into a ''chatra'' or parasol held by an attendant, for example, in the 7th-century Dasavatara temple at Deogarh.", "(The parasol can be clearly seen in frame 3 above; its stem can be seen in frame 4, but the rest has broken off.)", "The cover undergoes another transformation in the temple at Kharod, Bilaspur (9th or 10th century), where the parasol is lotus-shaped, and yet another at the Trimurti temple at Badoli where the parasol has been replaced entirely by a lotus.As the iconography evolved, sculptors, especially in central India, were producing animated scenes of the goddess, replete with an entourage and suggestive of a queen en route to a river to bathe.", "A relief similar to the depiction in frame 4 above, is described in as follows: A typical relief of about the ninth century that once stood at the entrance of a temple, the river goddess Ganga is shown as a voluptuously endowed lady with a retinue.", "Following the iconographic prescription, she stands gracefully on her composite ''makara'' mount and holds a water pot.", "The dwarf attendant carries her cosmetic bag, and a ... female holds the stem of a giant lotus leaf that serves as her mistress's parasol.", "The fourth figure is a male guardian.", "Often in such reliefs, the ''makara'' tail is extended with great flourish into a scrolling design symbolizing both vegetation and water.===Kumbh Mela===A procession of Akharas marching over a makeshift bridge over the Ganges River.", "Kumbh Mela at Prayagraj, 2001.Kumbh Mela is a mass Hindu pilgrimage in which Hindus gather at the Ganges River.", "The normal Kumbh Mela is celebrated every 3 years, the ''Ardh'' (half) Kumbh is celebrated every six years at Haridwar and Prayagraj, the ''Purna'' (complete) Kumbh takes place every twelve years at four places (Triveni Sangam (Prayagraj), Haridwar, Ujjain, and Nashik).", "The ''Maha'' (great) Kumbh Mela which comes after 12 'Purna Kumbh Melas', or 144 years, is held at Prayagraj.The major event of the festival is ritual bathing at the banks of the river.", "Other activities include religious discussions, devotional singing, mass feeding of holy men and women and the poor, and religious assemblies where doctrines are debated and standardized.", "Kumbh Mela is the most sacred of all the pilgrimages.", "Thousands of holy men and women attend, and the auspiciousness of the festival is in part attributable to this.", "The sadhus are seen clad in saffron sheets with ashes and powder dabbed on their skin per the requirements of ancient traditions.", "Some called ''naga sanyasis'', may not wear any clothes." ], [ "Irrigation", "The Ganges and its all tributaries, especially the Yamuna, have been used for irrigation since ancient times.", "Dams and canals were common in the Gangetic plain by the 4th century BCE.", "The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin has a huge hydroelectric potential, on the order of 200,000 to 250,000 megawatts, nearly half of which could easily be harnessed.", "As of 1999, India tapped about 12% of the hydroelectric potential of the Ganges and just 1% of the vast potential of the Brahmaputra.===Canals===Head works of the Ganges canal in Haridwar (1860).", "Photograph by Samuel Bourne.Megasthenes, a Greek ethnographer who visited India during the 3rd century BCE when Mauryans ruled India described the existence of canals in the Gangetic plain.", "Kautilya (also known as Chanakya), an advisor to Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of Maurya Empire, included the destruction of dams and levees as a strategy during the war.", "Firuz Shah Tughlaq had many canals built, the longest of which, , was built in 1356 on the Yamuna River.", "Now known as the Western Yamuna Canal, it has fallen into disrepair and been restored several times.", "The Mughal emperor Shah Jahan built an irrigation canal on the Yamuna River in the early 17th century.", "It fell into disuse until 1830, when it was reopened as the Eastern Yamuna Canal, under British control.", "The reopened canal became a model for the Upper Ganges Canal and all following canal projects.The Ganges Canal highlighted in red stretching between its headworks off the Ganges River in Haridwar and its confluences with the Jumna (Yamuna) River in Etawah and with the Ganges in Cawnpore (now Kanpur).The first British canal in India (which did not have Indian antecedents) was the Ganges Canal built between 1842 and 1854.Contemplated first by Col. John Russell Colvin in 1836, it did not at first elicit much enthusiasm from its eventual architect Sir Proby Thomas Cautley, who balked at the idea of cutting a canal through extensive low-lying land to reach the drier upland destination.", "However, after the Agra famine of 1837–38, during which the East India Company's administration spent Rs.", "2,300,000 on famine relief, the idea of a canal became more attractive to the company's budget-conscious Court of Directors.", "In 1839, the Governor General of India, Lord Auckland, with the Court's assent, granted funds to Cautley for a full survey of the swath of land that underlay and fringed the projected course of the canal.", "The Court of Directors, moreover, considerably enlarged the scope of the projected canal, which, in consequence of the severity and geographical extent of the famine, they now deemed to be the entire Doab region.The enthusiasm, however, proved to be short-lived.", "Auckland's successor as Governor-General, Lord Ellenborough, appeared less receptive to large-scale public works, and for the duration of his tenure, withheld major funds for the project.", "Only in 1844, when a new Governor-General, Lord Hardinge, was appointed, did official enthusiasm and funds return to the Ganges canal project.", "Although the intervening impasse had seemingly affected Cautley's health and required him to return to Britain in 1845 for recuperation, his European sojourn gave him an opportunity to study contemporary hydraulic works in the United Kingdom and Italy.", "By the time of his return to India even more supportive men were at the helm, both in the North-Western Provinces, with James Thomason as Lt.", "Governor, and in British India with Lord Dalhousie as Governor-General.", "Canal construction, under Cautley's supervision, now went into full swing.", "A long canal, with another of branch lines, eventually stretched between the headworks in Haridwar, splitting into two branches below Aligarh, and its two confluences with the Yamuna (Jumna in map) mainstem in Etawah and the Ganges in Kanpur (Cawnpore in map).", "The Ganges Canal, which required a total capital outlay of £2.15 million, was officially opened in 1854 by Lord Dalhousie.", "According to historian Ian Stone: It was the largest canal ever attempted in the world, five times greater in its length than all the main irrigation lines of Lombardy and Egypt put together, and longer by a third than even the largest USA navigation canal, the Pennsylvania Canal.===Dams and barrages===A major barrage at Farakka was opened on 21 April 1975, It is located close to the point where the main flow of the river enters Bangladesh, and the tributary Hooghly (also known as Bhagirathi) continues in West Bengal pastKolkata.", "This barrage, which feeds the Hooghly branch of the river by a long feeder canal, and its water flow management has been a long-lingering source of dispute with Bangladesh.", "Indo-Bangladesh Ganges Water Treaty signed in December 1996 addressed some of the water sharing issues between India and Bangladesh.", "There is Lav Khush Barrage across the River Ganges in Kanpur.Tehri Dam was constructed on Bhagirathi River, a tributary of the Ganges.", "It is located 1.5 km downstream of Ganesh Prayag, the place where Bhilangana meets Bhagirathi.", "Bhagirathi is called the Ganges after Devprayag.", "Construction of the dam in an earthquake-prone area was controversial.Bansagar Dam was built on the Sone River, a tributary of the Ganges for both irrigation and hydroelectric power generation.", "Ganges floodwaters along with Brahmaputra waters can be supplied to most of its right side basin area along with central and south India by constructing a coastal reservoir to store water on the Bay of Bengal sea area." ], [ "Economy", "A girl selling plastic containers in Haridwar for carrying Ganges water.The Ganges Basin with its fertile soil is instrumental to the agricultural economies of India and Bangladesh.", "The Ganges and its tributaries provide a perennial source of irrigation to a large area.", "Chief crops cultivated in the area include rice, sugarcane, lentils, oil seeds, potatoes, and wheat.", "Along the banks of the river, the presence of swamps and lakes provides a rich growing area for crops such as legumes, chillies, mustard, sesame, sugarcane, and jute.", "There are also many fishing opportunities along the river, though it remains highly polluted.", "Also, the major industrial towns of Unnao and Kanpur, situated on the banks of the river with the predominance of tanning industries add to the pollution.===Tourism===Tourism is another related activity.", "Three towns holy to Hinduism—Haridwar, Prayagraj, and Varanasi—attract millions of pilgrims to its waters to take a dip in the Ganges, which is believed to cleanse oneself of sins and help attain salvation.", "The rapids of the Ganges are also popular for river rafting in the town of Rishikesh, attracting adventure seekers in the summer months.", "Several cities such as Kanpur, Kolkata and Patna have also developed riverfront walkways along the banks to attract tourists." ], [ "Ecology and environment", "''Ganges from Space''Human development, mostly agriculture, has replaced nearly all of the original natural vegetation of the Ganges basin.", "More than 95% of the upper Gangetic Plain has been degraded or converted to agriculture or urban areas.", "Only one large block of relatively intact habitat remains, running along the Himalayan foothills and including Rajaji National Park, Jim Corbett National Park, and Dudhwa National Park.", "As recently as the 16th and 17th centuries the upper Gangetic Plain harboured impressive populations of wild Asian elephants (''Elephas maximus''), Bengal tigers (''Panthera t. tigris''), Indian rhinoceros (''Rhinoceros unicornis''), gaurs (''Bos gaurus''), barasinghas (''Rucervus duvaucelii''), sloth bears (''Melursus ursinus'') and Indian lions (''Panthera leo leo'').", "In the 21st century there are few large wild animals, mostly deer, wild boars, wildcats, and small numbers of Indian wolves, golden jackals, and red and Bengal foxes.", "Bengal tigers survive only in the Sundarbans area of the Ganges Delta.", "The Sundarbands freshwater swamp ecoregion, however, is nearly extinct.", "The Sundarbans mangroves (''Heritiera fomes'') also grow in the Sundarbans area of the Ganges Delta.", "Threatened mammals in the upper Gangetic Plain include the tiger, elephant, sloth bear, and four-horned antelope (''Tetracerus quadricornis'').Lesser florican (''Sypheotides indicus'')Many types of birds are found throughout the basin, such as myna, ''Psittacula'' parakeets, crows, kites, partridges, and fowls.", "Ducks and snipes migrate across the Himalayas during the winter, attracted in large numbers to wetland areas.", "There are no endemic birds in the upper Gangetic Plain.", "The great Indian bustard (''Ardeotis nigriceps'') and lesser florican (''Sypheotides indicus'') are considered globally threatened.The natural forest of the upper Gangetic Plain has been so thoroughly eliminated it is difficult to assign a natural vegetation type with certainty.", "There are a few small patches of forest left, and they suggest that much of the upper plains may have supported a tropical moist deciduous forest with sal (''Shorea robusta'') as a climax species.A similar situation is found in the lower Gangetic Plain, which includes the lower Brahmaputra River.", "The lower plains contain more open forests, which tend to be dominated by ''Bombax ceiba'' in association with ''Albizzia procera'', ''Duabanga grandiflora'', and ''Sterculia vilosa''.", "There are early seral forest communities that would eventually become dominated by the climax species sal (''Shorea robusta'') if forest succession was allowed to proceed.", "In most places forests fail to reach climax conditions due to human causes.", "The forests of the lower Gangetic Plain, despite thousands of years of human settlement, remained largely intact until the early 20th century.", "Today only about 3% of the ecoregion is under natural forest and only one large block, south of Varanasi, remains.", "There are over forty protected areas in the ecoregion, but over half of these are less than .", "The fauna of the lower Gangetic Plain is similar to the upper plains, with the addition of a number of other species such as the smooth-coated otter (''Lutrogale perspicillata'') and the large Indian civet (''Viverra zibetha'').===Fish===The catla (''Catla catla'') is one of the Indian carp species that support major fisheries in the Ganges.It has been estimated that about 350 fish species live in the entire Ganges drainage, including several endemics.", "In a major 2007–2009 study of fish in the Ganges basin (including the river itself and its tributaries, but excluding the Brahmaputra and Meghna basins), a total of 143 fish species were recorded, including 10 non-native introduced species.", "The most diverse orders are Cypriniformes (barbs and allies), Siluriformes (catfish) and Perciformes (perciform fish), each comprising about 50%, 23% and 14% of the total fish species in the drainage.There are distinct differences between the different sections of the river basin, but Cyprinidae is the most diverse throughout.", "In the upper section (roughly equalling the basin parts in Uttarakhand) more than 50 species have been recorded and Cyprinidae alone accounts for almost 80% those, followed by Balitoridae (about 15.6%) and Sisoridae (about 12.2%).", "Sections of the Ganges basin at altitudes above above sea level are generally without fish.", "Typical genera approaching this altitude are ''Schizothorax'', ''Tor'', ''Barilius'', ''Nemacheilus'' and ''Glyptothorax''.", "About 100 species have been recorded from the middle section of the basin (roughly equalling the sections in Uttar Pradesh and parts of Bihar) and more than 55% of these are in family Cyprinidae, followed by Schilbeidae (about 10.6%) and Clupeidae (about 8.6%).", "The lower section (roughly equalling the basin in parts of Bihar and West Bengal) includes major floodplains and is home to almost 100 species.", "About 46% of these are in the family Cyprinidae, followed by Schilbeidae (about 11.4%) and Bagridae (about 9%).The Ganges basin supports major fisheries, but these have declined in recent decades.", "In the Prayagraj region in the middle section of the basin, catches of carp fell from 424.91 metric tons in 1961–1968 to 38.58 metric tons in 2001–2006, and catches of catfish fell from 201.35 metric tons in 1961–1968 to 40.56 metric tons in 2001–2006.In the Patna region in the lower section of the basin, catches of carp fell from 383.2 metric tons to 118, and catfish from 373.8 metric tons to 194.48.Some of the fish commonly caught in fisheries include catla (''Catla catla''), golden mahseer (''Tor putitora''), tor mahseer (''Tor tor''), rohu (''Labeo rohita''), walking catfish (''Clarias batrachus''), pangas catfish (''Pangasius pangasius''), goonch catfish (''Bagarius''), snakeheads (''Channa''), bronze featherback (''Notopterus notopterus'') and milkfish (''Chanos chanos'').The Ganges basin is home to about 30 fish species that are listed as threatened with the primary issues being overfishing (sometimes illegal), pollution, water abstraction, siltation and invasive species.", "Among the threatened species is the critically endangered Ganges shark (''Glyphis gangeticus'').", "Several fish species migrate between different sections of the river, but these movements may be prevented by the building of dams.===Crocodilians and turtles===The threatened gharial (''Gavialis gangeticus'') is a large fish-eating crocodilian that is harmless to humansThe main sections of the Ganges River are home to the gharial (''Gavialis gangeticus'') and mugger crocodile (''Crocodylus palustris''), and the Ganges delta is home to the saltwater crocodile (''C.", "porosus'').", "Among the numerous aquatic and semi-aquatic turtles in the Ganges basin are the northern river terrapin (''Batagur baska''; only in the lowermost section of the basin), three-striped roofed turtle (''B.", "dhongoka''), red-crowned roofed turtle (''B.", "kachuga''), black pond turtle (''Geoclemys hamiltonii''), Brahminy river turtle (''Hardella thurjii''), Indian black turtle (''Melanochelys trijuga''), Indian eyed turtle (''Morenia petersi''), brown roofed turtle (''Pangshura smithii''), Indian roofed turtle (''Pangshura tecta''), Indian tent turtle (''Pangshura tentoria''), Indian flapshell turtle (''Lissemys punctata''), Indian narrow-headed softshell turtle (''Chitra indica''), Indian softshell turtle (''Nilssonia gangetica''), Indian peacock softshell turtle (''N.", "hurum'') and Cantor's giant softshell turtle (''Pelochelys cantorii''; only in the lowermost section of Ganges basin).", "Most of these are seriously threatened.===Ganges river dolphin===The Gangetic dolphin in a sketch by Whymper and P. Smit, 1894.The river's most famed faunal member is the freshwater Ganges river dolphin (''Platanista gangetica gangetica''), which has been declared India's national aquatic animal.This dolphin used to exist in large schools near urban centres in both the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers but is now seriously threatened by pollution and dam construction.", "Their numbers have now dwindled to a quarter of their numbers of fifteen years before, and they have become extinct in the Ganges' main tributaries.", "A recent survey by the World Wildlife Fund found only 3,000 left in the water catchment of both river systems.The Ganges river dolphin is one of only five true freshwater dolphins in the world.", "The other four are the baiji (''Lipotes vexillifer'') of the Yangtze River in China, now likely extinct; the Indus River dolphin of the Indus River in Pakistan; the Amazon river dolphin of the Amazon River in South America; and the Araguaian river dolphin (not considered a separate species until 2014) of the Araguaia–Tocantins basin in Brazil.", "There are several marine dolphins whose ranges include some freshwater habitats, but these five are the only dolphins who live only in freshwater rivers and lakes.=== Effects of climate change ===The Tibetan Plateau contains the world's third-largest store of ice.", "Qin Dahe, the former head of the China Meteorological Administration, said that the recent fast pace of melting and warmer temperatures will be good for agriculture and tourism in the short term; but issued a strong warning:In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), in its Fourth Report, stated that the Himalayan glaciers which feed the river were at risk of melting by 2035.The IPCC has now withdrawn that prediction, as the original source admitted that it was speculative and the cited source was not a peer-reviewed finding.", "In its statement, the IPCC stands by its general findings relating to the Himalayan glaciers being at risk from global warming (with consequent risks to water flow into the Gangetic basin).", "Many studies have suggested that climate change will affect the water resources in the Ganges river basin including increased summer (monsoon) flow, and peak runoff could result in an increased risk of flooding." ], [ "Pollution and environmental concerns", "ghats'' in Varanasi; the ashes of the dead are released along the banks of the Ganges.People bathing and washing clothes along the banks of the Ganges in VaranasiThe Ganges suffers from extreme pollution levels, caused by the 400 million people who live close to the river.", "Sewage from many cities along the river's course, industrial waste and religious offerings wrapped in non-degradable plastics add large amounts of pollutants to the river as it flows through densely populated areas.", "The problem is exacerbated by the fact that many poorer people rely on the river on a daily basis for bathing, washing, and cooking.", "The World Bank estimates that the health costs of water pollution in India equal three percent of India's GDP.", "It has also been suggested that eighty percent of all illnesses in India and one-third of deaths can be attributed to water-borne diseases.Varanasi, a city of one million people that many pilgrims visit to take a \"holy dip\" in the Ganges, releases around 200 million liters of untreated human sewage into the river each day, leading to large concentrations of fecal coliform bacteria.", "According to official standards, water safe for bathing should not contain more than 500 fecal coliforms per 100 ml, yet upstream of Varanasi's ghats the river water already contains 120 times as much, 60,000 fecal coliform bacteria per 100 ml.After the cremation of the deceased at Varanasi's ghats, the bones and ashes are immersed into the Ganges.", "However, in the past thousands of uncremated bodies were thrown into the Ganges during cholera epidemics, spreading the disease.", "Even today, holy men, pregnant women, people with leprosy or chicken pox, people who have been bitten by snakes, people who have committed suicide, the poor, and children under 5 are not cremated at the ghats but are left to float free, to decompose in the waters.", "In addition, those who cannot afford the large amount of wood needed to incinerate the entire body, leave behind many half-burned body parts.After passing through Varanasi, and receiving 32 streams of raw sewage from the city, the concentration of fecal coliforms in the river's waters rises from 60,000 to 1.5 million, with observed peak values of 100 million per 100 ml.", "Drinking and bathing in its waters therefore carries a high risk of infection.Between 1985 and 2000, Rs.", "10 billion, around US$226 million, or less than 4 cents per person per year, were spent on the Ganga Action Plan, an environmental initiative that was \"the largest single attempt to clean up a polluted river anywhere in the world\".", "The Ganga Action Plan has been described variously as a \"failure\" and a \"major failure\".According to one study, The Ganga Action Plan, which was taken on priority and with much enthusiasm, was delayed for two years.", "The expenditure was almost doubled.", "But the result was not very appreciable.", "Much expenditure was done on political propaganda.", "The concerning governments and the related agencies were not very prompt to make it a success.", "The public of the areas was not taken into consideration.", "The release of urban and industrial wastes in the river was not controlled fully.", "The flowing of dirty water through drains and sewers were not adequately diverted.", "The continuing customs of burning dead bodies, throwing carcasses, washing of dirty clothes by washermen, and immersion of idols and cattle wallowing were not checked.", "Very little provision of public latrines was made and the open defecation of lakhs of people continued along the riverside.", "All these made the Action Plan a failure.The failure of the Ganga Action Plan has also been variously attributed to \"environmental planning without proper understanding of the human-environment interactions\", Indian \"traditions and beliefs\", \"corruption and a lack of technical knowledge\" and \"lack of support from religious authorities\".In December 2009 the World Bank agreed to loan India US$1 billion over the next five years to help save the river.", "According to 2010 Planning Commission estimates, an investment of almost Rs.", "70 billion (Rs.", "70 billion, approximately US$1.5 billion) is needed to clean up the river.In November 2008, the Ganges, alone among India's rivers, was declared a \"National River\", facilitating the formation of a National Ganga River Basin Authority that would have greater powers to plan, implement and monitor measures aimed at protecting the river.In July 2014, the Government of India announced an integrated Ganges-development project titled ''Namami Gange Programme'' and allocated 2,037 crore for this purpose.", "The main objectives of the Namami Gange project is to improve the water quality by the abatement of pollution and rejuvenation of river Ganga by creating infrastructures like sewage treatment plants, river surface cleaning, biodiversity conservation, afforestation, and public awareness.In March 2017 the High Court of Uttarakhand declared the Ganges River a legal \"person\", in a move that according to one newspaper, \"could help in efforts to clean the pollution-choked rivers\".", ", the ruling has been commented on in Indian newspapers to be hard to enforce, that experts do not anticipate immediate benefits, that the ruling is \"hardly game changing\", that experts believe \"any follow-up action is unlikely\", and that the \"judgment is deficient to the extent it acted without hearing others (in states outside Uttarakhand) who have stakes in the matter.", "\"The incidence of water-borne and enteric diseases—such as gastrointestinal disease, cholera, dysentery, hepatitis A and typhoid—among people who use the river's waters for bathing, washing dishes and brushing teeth is high, at an estimated 66% per year.Recent studies by Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) say that the river is so full of killer pollutants that those living along its banks in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Bengal are more prone to cancer than anywhere else in the country.", "Conducted by the National Cancer Registry Programme under the ICMR, the study throws up shocking findings indicating that the river is thick with heavy metals and lethal chemicals that cause cancer.", "According to Deputy Director-General of NCRP A. Nandkumar, the incidence of cancer was highest in the country in areas drained by the Ganges and stated that the problem would be studied deeply and with the findings presented in a report to the health ministry.Apart from that, many NGOs have come forward to rejuvenate the river Ganges.", "Vikrant Tongad, an Environmental specialist from SAFE Green filed a petition against Simbhaoli Sugar Mill (Hapur UP) to NGT.", "NGT slapped a fine of Rs.", "5 crores to Sugar Mill and a fine of Rs.", "25 lakhs to Gopaljee Dairy for discharging untreated effluents into the Simbhaoli drain.===Water shortages===Along with ever-increasing pollution, water shortages are getting noticeably worse.", "Some sections of the river are already completely dry.", "Around Varanasi, the river once had an average depth of , but in some places, it is now only .===Mining===Illegal mining in the Ganges river bed for stones and sand for construction work has long been a problem in Haridwar district, Uttarakhand, where it touches the plains for the first time.", "This is despite the fact that quarrying has been banned in Kumbh Mela area zone covering 140 km2 area in Haridwar." ], [ "In art and literature", "* A painting of the Ganges entering the plains near Haridwar by William Purser with a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838.", "* A painting of the Ganges near Kahalgaon by J. M. W. Turner with a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839." ], [ "See also", "* Environmental personhood* Fair river sharing* Ganga Pushkaram* Gangaputra Brahmin* Ganga Talao* Ganga Lake (Mongolia)* List of rivers by discharge* List of rivers by length* List of rivers of India* Mahaweli Ganga* National Waterway 1* Pollution of the Ganges* River bank erosion along the Ganges in Malda and Murshidabad districts* Sankat Mochan Foundation* Ganga (goddess)* Peninsular River System" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", " * Christopher de Bellaigue, \"The River\" (the Ganges; review of Sunil Amrith, ''Unruly Waters: How Rains, Rivers, Coasts, and Seas Have Shaped Asia's History''; Sudipta Sen, ''Ganges: The Many Pasts of an Indian River''; and Victor Mallet, ''River of Life, River of Death: The Ganges and India's Future''), ''The New York Review of Books'', vol.", "LXVI, no.", "15 (10 October 2019), pp. 34–36.", "\"In 1951 the average Indian inhabitant of India had access annually to 5,200 cubic meters of water.", "The figure today is 1,400 ... and will probably fall below 1,000 cubic meters – the UN's definition of 'water scarcity' – at some point in the next few decades.", "Compounding the problem of lower summer rainfall ... India's water table is in freefall due to an increase in the number of tube wells ... Other contributors to India's seasonal dearth of water are canal leaks and the continued sowing of thirsty crops\" (p. 35.", ")* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Ganga in the Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909* Melting Glaciers Threaten Ganga* The impacts of water infrastructure and climate change on the hydrology of the Upper Ganga River Basin IWMI research report* ''The Ganges: A Journey into India'' (NPR)* ''Ganga Ma: A Pilgrimage to the Source'' 58 min Documentary" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mobile Suit Gundam Wing" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Mobile Suit Gundam Wing''''', also known in Japan as , is 1995 Japanese mecha anime series directed by Masashi Ikeda and written by Katsuyuki Sumizawa.", "It is the sixth installment in the ''Gundam'' franchise, taking place in the \"After Colony\" timeline.", "As with the original series, the plot of ''Gundam Wing'' centers on a war in the future (specifically, the year After Colony 195) between Earth and its orbital colonies in the Earth-Moon system.The series aired in Japan on the terrestrial TV Asahi network.", "It ran for 49 episodes, beginning on April 7, 1995, and ending on March 29, 1996.It received multiple manga adaptations, as well as video games.", "Four original video animation (OVA) episodes were produced including a retelling of the series, ''Operation Meteor'', and a direct sequel, ''Endless Waltz''.", "In 2010, Sumizawa started writing the novel ''Frozen Teardrop'', another sequel to the series.", "While the series fared modestly well in Japan, it found greater success in the United States and single-handedly popularized the ''Gundam'' franchise in the West." ], [ "Plot", "In the distant future, Mankind has colonized space, with clusters of space colonies at each of the five Earth-Moon Lagrange points.", "Down on the Earth, the nations have come together to form the United Earth Sphere Alliance.", "This Alliance oppresses the colonies with its vast military might.", "The colonies wishing to be free, joined together in a movement headed by the pacifist Heero Yuy.", "In the year After Colony 175, Yuy is shot dead by an assassin, forcing the colonies to search for other paths to peace.", "The assassination prompts five disaffected scientists from the Organization of the Zodiac, more commonly referred to as OZ, to turn rogue upon the completion of the mobile suit prototype Tallgeese.The story of ''Gundam Wing'' begins in the year After Colony 195, with the start of \"Operation Meteor\": the scientists' plan for revenge against OZ.", "The operation involves five teenage boys, who have each been chosen and trained by each of the five scientists, then sent to Earth independently in extremely advanced mobile suits (one designed by each of the scientists) known as \"Gundams\" (called such because they are constructed from a rare and astonishingly durable material called Gundanium alloy, which can only be created in outer space).", "Each Gundam is sent from a different colony, and the pilots are unaware of each other's existence.The series focuses primarily on the five Gundam pilots: Heero Yuy (an alias, not to be confused with the martyred pacifist), Duo Maxwell, Trowa Barton, Quatre Raberba Winner and Chang Wufei.", "Their mission is to use their Gundams to attack OZ directly, to rid the Alliance of its weapons, and to free the colonies from its oppressive rule.", "The series also focuses on Relena Peacecraft, heir to the pacifist Sanc Kingdom, who becomes an important political ally to the Gundam pilots (particularly Heero) throughout the series." ], [ "Production", "The making of ''Gundam Wing'' was influenced by ''Mobile Fighter G Gundam'' with the idea of having five main characters.", "Originally, the series was meant to be titled ''Gundam Meteor'' after \"Operation Meteor.\"", "Bandai suggested having a Gundam with the ability of transforming into a plane-like form (which led to the creation of the Wing Gundam and its \"Bird Mode\").", "The writers worked together for one week conceptualizing the characters, mobile suits and first 40 episodes.", "Director Masashi Ikeda reacted to their work comparing it to the first ''Gundam'' series, ''Zeta'' and ''G'' all at once.", "The series was more focused on drama than mecha, which the staff credits as one of the reasons for the show's popularity within the female demographic.Writer Katsuyuki Sumizawa expressed difficulties in the making of the story as opposed to his work in novels due to the fact he relayed duties to other members.", "However, the handling of the five characters was made easy due to the setting.", "Early sketches of the protagonists by Ikeda were handled by character designer Shuko Murase.", "He was cast due to his work with Ikeda in ''Samurai Troopers''.", "The director wanted the designs to appeal to the female demographic.", "Originally, Duo Maxwell was set as the protagonist but was replaced by Heero Yuy.", "The staff members noted Heero was too different from previous Gundam protagonists and were afraid he would be unpopular.", "The voice casting was more difficult to do than the ones from previous series due to the different atmosphere.Following the series' ending, the staff members were asked by the studio to make a sequel due to its popularity.", "Neither Ikeda nor executive producer Hideyuki Tomioka intended to make a sequel for ''Gundam Wing''.", "However, Sumizawa was bothered by the finale as he felt the series ended abruptly.", "Tomioka asked Sumizawa if he could write a continuation which he agreed." ], [ "Media", "===Anime===''Gundam Wing'' was not the first series in the ''Gundam'' franchise to be dubbed and distributed in the U.S. (the compilation film version of the original ''Mobile Suit Gundam'', as well as the OVAs ''War in the Pocket'' and ''Stardust Memory'', preceded it by about two years), but it is well known as the first ''Gundam'' series to be aired on American television.", "This dub was licensed by Sunrise and the voice work was done by Ocean Productions.", "The series aired on Cartoon Network's weekday afternoon after-school programming block Toonami, premiering on March 6, 2000.In the first extended promo leading up to the series' premiere, voice actor Peter Cullen narrated the back story, evoking memories of ''Voltron's'' opening credits.", "The promo was said to be so riveting that Bandai decided to use it as the official promo for the series.", "''Gundam Wing'' was a huge ratings winner for Toonami (often outperforming veteran series such as ''Dragon Ball Z'' and ''Sailor Moon'') and became, for a time, not only the highest rated series on Toonami but on all of Cartoon Network.It was broadcast in two formats: an edited version shown in the daytime on Toonami and an uncut version shown past midnight as part of Toonami's \"Midnight Run.\"", "Examples of the edits included the removal of blood, profanity, atheism, and the word \"kill\" being replaced with the word \"destroy\" (this was extended to Duo's nickname, \"The God of Death,\" changed to \"The Great Destroyer,\" forcing the alteration of two episode titles), though the word \"death\" was mostly left intact.", "All ''Gundam Wing'' episodes have been released to VHS and DVD in the U.S.", "Differences between the two video systems is that the VHS episodes contain the edited version while the DVD episodes contain the uncut version.Due to the closure of Bandai Entertainment, the series was out-of-print for sometime.", "On October 11, 2014 at their 2014 New York Comic Con panel, Sunrise announced they will be releasing all of the ''Gundam'' franchise, including ''Gundam Wing'' in North America though distribution from Right Stuf Inc., beginning in Spring 2015.Right Stuf released the series on Blu-ray and DVD in two sets in November 2017.In addition, a collector's edition set containing the complete series, ''Endless Waltz'', ''Operation Meteor'' and the ''Frozen Teardrop'' picture drama was released in December 2017.===OVAs===After the series ended, four original video animation (OVA) episodes, compiling various scenes from the series along with a few minutes of new footage, were released in 1996 as ''Gundam Wing: Operation Meteor'' I and II.A three-part OVA titled ''Gundam Wing: Endless Waltz'' was produced in 1997 as a sequel to the TV series; plot-wise, it brought the \"After Colony\" timeline to a close.", "The OVA was also notable for its massive redesigns of all the Gundams by Hajime Katoki, such as the Wing Gundam Zero's new \"angel-winged\" appearance.", "A compilation film version of ''Endless Waltz'' (featuring additional footage, alterations of the music score and a different ending theme) was later released in Japan on August 1, 1998.", "''Endless Waltz'' premiered on Cartoon Network in the U.S. on November 10, 2000.Both the OVA and film versions of ''Endless Waltz'' were later released together on DVD.", "Right Stuf released both OVAs on Blu-ray and DVD in December 2017 (though ''Operation Meteor'' remains un-dubbed).===Manga===In addition to manga adaptations of the series and ''Endless Waltz'', several manga sidestories have also been produced.", "''Episode Zero'' is a prequel, detailing the events leading up to series; the stories have been collected in a volume that also contains one brief open-ended interlude, ''Preventer 5'', that details an operation that occurs after ''Endless Waltz''.", "A coincident storyline to the series is presented in ''Last Outpost (G-Unit)''.", "Several sequel manga, occurring between ''Gundam Wing'' and ''Endless Waltz'', have also been written: ''Blind Target'', ''Ground Zero'' and ''Battlefield of Pacifists''.The ''Gundam Wing'', ''Battlefield of Pacifists'' and ''Endless Waltz'' manga series were published in English by Tokyopop, while ''Blind Target'', ''Ground Zero'' and ''Episode Zero'' were published by Viz Communications.", "Another sequel manga detailing the future of the colonies entitled ''Tiel's Impulse'' was printed in 1998 and has not been published in the United States.In September 2010, ''Gundam Ace'' magazine began serializing a manga titled ''New Mobile Report Gundam Wing Endless Waltz: The Glory of Losers'' that retells the events of the anime while incorporating facts from ''Episode Zero'' and the novel ''Frozen Teardrop''.", "The manga ended in November 2017 and was compiled into fourteen volumes.", "The manga also uses Hajime Katoki's Gundam redesigns from ''Endless Waltz'' and other subsequent media, instead of the original Kunio Okawara designs featured in the anime.", "Vertical published English editions of the manga volumes under the title ''Mobile Suit Gundam Wing Endless Waltz: Glory of the Losers'' from July 2017 to November 2019.===Novel sequel===In early 2010, ''Gundam Ace'' magazine announced they would serialize a \"New ''Gundam Wing'' Project\".", "The project was eventually revealed to be a novel, titled ''New Mobile Report Gundam Wing: Frozen Teardrop''.", "Written by Katsuyuki Sumizawa, the novel begins a new timeline, following the \"Mars Century\" calendar (\"MC\") which was the successor of the previous \"After Colony\" calendar.", "According to an interview with the author, the novel spans backwards into the AC century and the Gundam pilots, Relena, and their children make appearances.===Other media===A fighting video game titled ''Shin Kidō Senki Gundam Wing: Endless Duel'' was developed by Natsume Co., Ltd. and released for the Super Famicom in Japan on March 29, 1996.A second fighting game titled ''Shin Kidō Senki Gundam Wing: The Battle'' was developed by Natsume Co., Ltd. and released for the PlayStation in Japan on October 11, 2002 as the 13th volume of the Simple Characters 2000 series.", "''Gundam Wing'' characters and mecha have also appeared in several other video game series including ''Super Robot Wars'', ''Gundam Battle Assault'', ''Another Century's Episode'', ''Mobile Suit Gundam: Extreme Vs.'' and ''Dynasty Warriors: Gundam''.Upon the series' debut in North America, ''Gundam Wing'' received a large roster of licensees for merchandise including wallscrolls, apparel, school supplies, skateboards, trading cards, model kits and action figures." ], [ "Soundtracks", ";Openings:*\"Just Communication\" by Two-Mix (ep.", "1–40) (YTV Broadcast: 1–49)*\"Rhythm Emotion\" by Two-Mix (ep.", "41–49);Ending:*\"It's Just Love!\"", "by Rumi Ohishi (ep.", "1–49)*\"Just Communication\" (Instrumental Version) by Kow Otani (Toonami Broadcast, ep.", "1–49; the credits aired over a shortened version of the show's first opening animation);Insert songs:*\"Just Communication\" by Two-Mix (eps.", "3 & 49)*\"Rhythm Emotion\" by Two-Mix (eps.", "36, 38, 39, and 41)" ], [ "Reception", "''Gundam Wing'' was only a modest success in Japan during its initial run; it, along with ''G Gundam'', was the only ''Gundam'' series of the 1990s that managed an average television rating over four percent.", "It was ranked number two in ''Animage'' magazine's Anime Grand Prix in 1996 and was also ranked number 76 in the publication's list of the 100 most important anime of all time.", "The series is infamous within ''dōjinshi'' where authors tend to depict romantic relationships between several of the protagonists.", "''Gundam Wing'' was a greater success in North America, however, and is credited by John Oppliger on ''Animation Anime News Blog'' with single-handedly popularizing the ''Gundam'' franchise among American audiences.", "Just over a week after its premiere on Cartoon Network on March 6, 2000, the series was the top rated program in all age groups.", "During the summer of 2000, it remained as the first or second top-rated show among kids and teens during its twelve airings per week on the Toonami block.", "''Gundam Wing'' was ranked the 73rd best animated series by IGN, calling the series \"so good that even those opposed to anime have to give the show its due credit\"." ], [ "See also", "*" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "External links", "*Official Website: Anime*Kodansha USA publishing page: Mobile Suit Gundam WING (Mobile Suit GUNDAM WING Endless Waltz: Glory of the Losers)**" ] ]
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[ [ "Gödel's completeness theorem" ], [ "Introduction", "∀''x''.", "''R''(''x'',''x'')) → (∀''x''∃''y''.", "''R''(''x'',''y'')) holds in all structures (only the simplest 8 are shown left).", "By Gödel's completeness result, it must hence have a natural deduction proof (shown right).", "'''Gödel's completeness theorem''' is a fundamental theorem in mathematical logic that establishes a correspondence between semantic truth and syntactic provability in first-order logic.The completeness theorem applies to any first-order theory: If ''T'' is such a theory, and φ is a sentence (in the same language) and every model of ''T'' is a model of φ, then there is a (first-order) proof of φ using the statements of ''T'' as axioms.", "One sometimes says this as \"anything true in all models is provable\".", "(This does not contradict Gödel's incompleteness theorem, which is about a formula φu that is unprovable in a certain theory ''T'' but true in the \"standard\" model of the natural numbers: φu is false in some other, \"non-standard\" models of ''T''.", ")The completeness theorem makes a close link between model theory, which deals with what is true in different models, and proof theory, which studies what can be formally proven in particular formal systems.It was first proved by Kurt Gödel in 1929.It was then simplified when Leon Henkin observed in his Ph.D. thesis that the hard part of the proof can be presented as the Model Existence Theorem (published in 1949).", "Henkin's proof was simplified by Gisbert Hasenjaeger in 1953." ], [ "Preliminaries", "There are numerous deductive systems for first-order logic, including systems of natural deduction and Hilbert-style systems.", "Common to all deductive systems is the notion of a ''formal deduction''.", "This is a sequence (or, in some cases, a finite tree) of formulae with a specially designated ''conclusion''.", "The definition of a deduction is such that it is finite and that it is possible to verify algorithmically (by a computer, for example, or by hand) that a given sequence (or tree) of formulae is indeed a deduction.A first-order formula is called ''logically valid'' if it is true in every structure for the language of the formula (i.e.", "for any assignment of values to the variables of the formula).", "To formally state, and then prove, the completeness theorem, it is necessary to also define a deductive system.", "A deductive system is called ''complete'' if every logically valid formula is the conclusion of some formal deduction, and the completeness theorem for a particular deductive system is the theorem that it is complete in this sense.", "Thus, in a sense, there is a different completeness theorem for each deductive system.", "A converse to completeness is ''soundness'', the fact that only logically valid formulas are provable in the deductive system.If some specific deductive system of first-order logic is sound and complete, then it is \"perfect\" (a formula is provable if and only if it is logically valid), thus equivalent to any other deductive system with the same quality (any proof in one system can be converted into the other)." ], [ "Statement", "We first fix a deductive system of first-order predicate calculus, choosing any of the well-known equivalent systems.", "Gödel's original proof assumed the Hilbert-Ackermann proof system.===Gödel's original formulation===The completeness theorem says that if a formula is logically valid then there is a finite deduction (a formal proof) of the formula.Thus, the deductive system is \"complete\" in the sense that no additional inference rules are required to prove all the logically valid formulae.", "A converse to completeness is ''soundness'', the fact that only logically valid formulae are provable in the deductive system.", "Together with soundness (whose verification is easy), this theorem implies that a formula is logically valid if and only if it is the conclusion of a formal deduction.===More general form===The theorem can be expressed more generally in terms of logical consequence.", "We say that a sentence ''s'' is a ''syntactic consequence'' of a theory ''T'', denoted , if ''s'' is provable from ''T'' in our deductive system.", "We say that ''s'' is a ''semantic consequence'' of ''T'', denoted , if ''s'' holds in every model of ''T''.", "The completeness theorem then says that for any first-order theory ''T'' with a well-orderable language, and any sentence ''s'' in the language of ''T'',Since the converse (soundness) also holds, it follows that if and only if , and thus that syntactic and semantic consequence are equivalent for first-order logic.This more general theorem is used implicitly, for example, when a sentence is shown to be provable from the axioms of group theory by considering an arbitrary group and showing that the sentence is satisfied by that group.Gödel's original formulation is deduced by taking the particular case of a theory without any axiom.===Model existence theorem===The completeness theorem can also be understood in terms of consistency, as a consequence of Henkin's model existence theorem.", "We say that a theory ''T'' is ''syntactically consistent'' if there is no sentence ''s'' such that both ''s'' and its negation ¬''s'' are provable from ''T'' in our deductive system.", "The model existence theorem says that for any first-order theory ''T'' with a well-orderable language,Another version, with connections to the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem, says:Given Henkin's theorem, the completeness theorem can be proved as follows: If , then does not have models.", "By the contrapositive of Henkin's theorem, then is syntactically inconsistent.", "So a contradiction () is provable from in the deductive system.", "Hence , and then by the properties of the deductive system, .===As a theorem of arithmetic===The model existence theorem and its proof can be formalized in the framework of Peano arithmetic.", "Precisely, we can systematically define a model of any consistent effective first-order theory ''T'' in Peano arithmetic by interpreting each symbol of ''T'' by an arithmetical formula whose free variables are the arguments of the symbol.", "(In many cases, we will need to assume, as a hypothesis of the construction, that ''T'' is consistent, since Peano arithmetic may not prove that fact.)", "However, the definition expressed by this formula is not recursive (but is, in general, Δ2)." ], [ "Consequences", "An important consequence of the completeness theorem is that it is possible to recursively enumerate the semantic consequences of any effective first-order theory, by enumerating all the possible formal deductions from the axioms of the theory, and use this to produce an enumeration of their conclusions.This comes in contrast with the direct meaning of the notion of semantic consequence, that quantifies over all structures in a particular language, which is clearly not a recursive definition.Also, it makes the concept of \"provability\", and thus of \"theorem\", a clear concept that only depends on the chosen system of axioms of the theory, and not on the choice of a proof system." ], [ "Relationship to the incompleteness theorems", "Gödel's incompleteness theorems show that there are inherent limitations to what can be proven within any given first-order theory in mathematics.", "The \"incompleteness\" in their name refers to another meaning of ''complete'' (see model theory – Using the compactness and completeness theorems): A theory is complete (or decidable) if every sentence in the language of is either provable () or disprovable ().The first incompleteness theorem states that any which is consistent, effective and contains Robinson arithmetic (\"''Q''\") must be incomplete in this sense, by explicitly constructing a sentence which is demonstrably neither provable nor disprovable within .", "The second incompleteness theorem extends this result by showing that can be chosen so that it expresses the consistency of itself.Since cannot be proven in , the completeness theorem implies the existence of a model of in which is false.", "In fact, is a Π1 sentence, i.e.", "it states that some finitistic property is true of all natural numbers; so if it is false, then some natural number is a counterexample.", "If this counterexample existed within the standard natural numbers, its existence would disprove within ; but the incompleteness theorem showed this to be impossible, so the counterexample must not be a standard number, and thus any model of in which is false must include non-standard numbers.In fact, the model of ''any'' theory containing ''Q'' obtained by the systematic construction of the arithmetical model existence theorem, is ''always'' non-standard with a non-equivalent provability predicate and a non-equivalent way to interpret its own construction, so that this construction is non-recursive (as recursive definitions would be unambiguous).Also, if is at least slightly stronger than ''Q'' (e.g.", "if it includes induction for bounded existential formulas), then Tennenbaum's theorem shows that it has no recursive non-standard models." ], [ "Relationship to the compactness theorem", "The completeness theorem and the compactness theorem are two cornerstones of first-order logic.", "While neither of these theorems can be proven in a completely effective manner, each one can be effectively obtained from the other.The compactness theorem says that if a formula φ is a logical consequence of a (possibly infinite) set of formulas Γ then it is a logical consequence of a finite subset of Γ.", "This is an immediate consequence of the completeness theorem, because only a finite number of axioms from Γ can be mentioned in a formal deduction of φ, and the soundness of the deductive system then implies φ is a logical consequence of this finite set.", "This proof of the compactness theorem is originally due to Gödel.Conversely, for many deductive systems, it is possible to prove the completeness theorem as an effective consequence of the compactness theorem.The ineffectiveness of the completeness theorem can be measured along the lines of reverse mathematics.", "When considered over a countable language, the completeness and compactness theorems are equivalent to each other and equivalent to a weak form of choice known as weak Kőnig's lemma, with the equivalence provable in RCA0 (a second-order variant of Peano arithmetic restricted to induction over Σ01 formulas).", "Weak Kőnig's lemma is provable in ZF, the system of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory without axiom of choice, and thus the completeness and compactness theorems for countable languages are provable in ZF.", "However the situation is different when the language is of arbitrary large cardinality since then, though the completeness and compactness theorems remain provably equivalent to each other in ZF, they are also provably equivalent to a weak form of the axiom of choice known as the ultrafilter lemma.", "In particular, no theory extending ZF can prove either the completeness or compactness theorems over arbitrary (possibly uncountable) languages without also proving the ultrafilter lemma on a set of same cardinality." ], [ "Completeness in other logics", "The completeness theorem is a central property of first-order logic that does not hold for all logics.", "Second-order logic, for example, does not have a completeness theorem for its standard semantics (but does have the completeness property for Henkin semantics), and the set of logically-valid formulas in second-order logic is not recursively enumerable.", "The same is true of all higher-order logics.", "It is possible to produce sound deductive systems for higher-order logics, but no such system can be complete.Lindström's theorem states that first-order logic is the strongest (subject to certain constraints) logic satisfying both compactness and completeness.A completeness theorem can be proved for modal logic or intuitionistic logic with respect to Kripke semantics." ], [ "Proofs", "Gödel's original proof of the theorem proceeded by reducing the problem to a special case for formulas in a certain syntactic form, and then handling this form with an ''ad hoc'' argument.In modern logic texts, Gödel's completeness theorem is usually proved with Henkin's proof, rather than with Gödel's original proof.", "Henkin's proof directly constructs a term model for any consistent first-order theory.", "James Margetson (2004) developed a computerized formal proof using the Isabelle theorem prover.", "Other proofs are also known." ], [ "See also", "* Gödel's incompleteness theorems* Original proof of Gödel's completeness theorem" ], [ "Further reading", "* The first proof of the completeness theorem.", "* The same material as the dissertation, except with briefer proofs, more succinct explanations, and omitting the lengthy introduction.", "* Chapter 5: ''\"Gödel's completeness theorem\"''." ], [ "External links", "* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: \" Kurt Gödel\"—by Juliette Kennedy.", "* MacTutor biography: Kurt Gödel.", "* Detlovs, Vilnis, and Podnieks, Karlis, \" Introduction to mathematical logic.\"" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point" ], [ "Introduction", "The 'golden spike' (bronze disk in the lower section of the image) or 'type section' of the '''Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point''' (GSSP) for the base of Ediacaran period (Ediacara, South Australia)The 'golden spike' marking the Ediacaran GSSPA '''Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point''' ('''GSSP''') is an internationally agreed upon reference point on a stratigraphic section which defines the lower boundary of a stage on the geologic time scale.", "The effort to define GSSPs is conducted by the International Commission on Stratigraphy, a part of the International Union of Geological Sciences.", "Most, but not all, GSSPs are based on paleontological changes.", "Hence GSSPs are usually described in terms of transitions between different faunal stages, though far more faunal stages have been described than GSSPs.", "The GSSP definition effort commenced in 1977.As of 2023, 79 of the 101 stages that need a GSSP have a ratified GSSP." ], [ "Rules", "A geologic section has to fulfill a set of criteria to be adapted as a GSSP by the ICS.", "The following list summarizes the criteria:* A GSSP has to define the lower boundary of a geologic stage.", "* The lower boundary has to be defined using a primary marker (usually first appearance datum of a fossil species).", "** There should also be secondary markers (other fossils, chemical, geomagnetic reversal).", "** The horizon in which the marker appears should have minerals that can be radiometrically dated.", "** The marker has to have regional and global correlation in outcrops of the same age** The marker should be independent of facies.", "* The outcrop has to have an adequate thickness* Sedimentation has to be continuous without any changes in facies* The outcrop should be unaffected by tectonic and sedimentary movements, and metamorphism* The outcrop has to be accessible to research and free to access.", "** This includes that the outcrop has to be located where it can be visited quickly (International airport and good roads), has to be kept in good condition (Ideally a national reserve), in accessible terrain, extensive enough to allow repeated sampling and open to researchers of all nationalities." ], [ "Agreed-upon Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Points", "Once a GSSP boundary has been agreed upon, a \"golden spike\" is driven into the geologic section to mark the precise boundary for future geologists (though in practice the \"spike\" need neither be golden nor an actual spike).", "The first stratigraphic boundary was defined in 1972 by identifying the Silurian-Devonian boundary with a bronze plaque at a locality called Klonk, northeast of the village of Suchomasty in the Czech Republic.", "GSSPs are also sometimes referred to as '''Golden Spikes'''.===Fortune Head GSSP===The Precambrian-Cambrian boundary GSSP at Fortune Head, Newfoundland is a typical GSSP.", "It is accessible by paved road and is set aside as a nature preserve.", "A continuous section is available from beds that are clearly Precambrian into beds that are clearly Cambrian.", "The boundary is set at the first appearance of a complex trace fossil ''Treptichnus pedum'' that is found worldwide.", "The Fortune Head GSSP is unlikely to be washed away or built over.", "Nonetheless, ''Treptichnus pedum'' is less than ideal as a marker fossil as it is not found in every Cambrian sequence, and it is not assured that it is found at the same level in every exposure.", "In fact, further eroding its value as a boundary marker, it has since been identified in strata 4m ''below'' the GSSP.However, no other fossil is known that would be preferable.", "There is no radiometrically datable bed at the boundary at Fortune Head, but there is one slightly above the boundary in similar beds nearby.These factors have led some geologists to suggest that this GSSP is in need of reassigning." ], [ "Global Standard Stratigraphic Ages", "Because defining a GSSP depends on finding well-preserved geologic sections and identifying key events, this task becomes more difficult as one goes farther back in time.", "Before 630 million years ago, boundaries on the geologic timescale are defined simply by reference to fixed dates, known as \"Global Standard Stratigraphic Ages\" (GSSAs).As of November 2023, there are two \"formalized\" GSSAs, one for the base of the Hadean (ratified October 2022), and the other for the base of the Archean and Eoarchean (ratified in mid-late 2023).", "These are defined based on dates obtained from physical samples which contain uncertainties, and can have associated physical stratotypes.", "This is in contrast to non-formalized GSSAs, which are completely arbitrary age values with no imprecision." ], [ "See also", "*Body plan*MN zonation*Fauna*Geologic time scale**New Zealand geologic time scale*List of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points*North American land mammal age*Type locality" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Hedberg, H.D., (editor), ''International stratigraphic guide: A guide to stratigraphic classification, terminology, and procedure'', New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1976* International Stratigraphic Chart from the International Commission on Stratigraphy* GSSP table with pages on each ratified GSSP from the ICS Subcommission for Stratigraphic Information* USA National Park Service* Washington State University * Web Geological Time Machine* Eon or Aeon, Math Words – An alphabetical index" ], [ "External links", "* The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP): overview* Chart of The Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP): chart* Table of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSPs) with links to summary pages for each one: chart* GSSPs and Continental drift 3D views* Geotime chart displaying geologic time periods compared to the fossil record – Deals with chronology and classifications for laymen (not GSSPs)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gough Whitlam" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Edward Gough Whitlam''' (11 July 191621 October 2014) was the 21st prime minister of Australia, serving from 1972 to 1975.He held office as the leader of the Australian Labor Party (ALP), of which he was the longest-serving.", "He was notable for being the head of a reformist and socially progressive administration that ended with his removal as prime minister after controversially being dismissed by the governor-general of Australia, Sir John Kerr, at the climax of the 1975 constitutional crisis.", "Whitlam is the only Australian prime minister ever to have been removed from office against his will.Whitlam was an air navigator in the Royal Australian Air Force for four years during World War II, and worked as a barrister following the war.", "He was first elected to the Australian House of Representatives in 1952, becoming a member of parliament (MP) for the division of Werriwa.", "Whitlam became deputy leader of the Labor Party in 1960, and in 1967, after the retirement of Arthur Calwell, was elected leader of the party and became the Leader of the Opposition.", "After narrowly losing the 1969 federal election to John Gorton, Whitlam led Labor to victory at the 1972 election, after 23 years of continuous Coalition government.In its first term, the Whitlam government introduced numerous socially progressive and reformist policies and initiatives, including the termination of military conscription and the end of Australian involvement in the Vietnam War, institution of universal health care and free university education, and the implementation of legal aid programmes.", "With the opposition-controlled Australian Senate delaying passage of bills, Whitlam called a snap double dissolution election in May 1974 in which he won a slightly reduced majority in the House of Representatives, and picked up three Senate seats to hold equal Senate numbers to the opposition.", "The Whitlam government then instituted the first and only joint sitting enabled under section 57 of the Australian constitution as part of the double dissolution process.", "His government's second term was dominated by a declining economy suffering from the 1973 oil crisis and the 1970s global recession, as well as a political scandal known as the Loans affair, which led to the removal of two government ministers.", "The opposition continued to obstruct Whitlam's agenda in the Senate.In late 1975, the opposition senators refused to allow a vote on the government's appropriation bills, returning them to the House of Representatives with a demand that the government go to an election, thus denying the government supply.", "Whitlam refused to agree to the request, arguing that his government, which held a clear majority in the House of Representatives, was being held to ransom by the Senate.", "The crisis ended in mid-November, when governor-general Sir John Kerr dismissed him from office and commissioned the opposition leader, Malcolm Fraser, as caretaker prime minister.", "Labor lost the subsequent election by a landslide.", "Whitlam stepped down as leader of the party after losing again at the 1977 election, and retired from parliament the following year.", "Upon the election of the Hawke government in 1983, he was appointed as Ambassador to UNESCO, a position he filled with distinction, and was elected a member of the UNESCO Executive Board.", "He remained active into his nineties.", "The propriety and circumstances of his dismissal and the legacy of his government have been frequently debated in the decades since he left office.", "Whitlam is often ranked in the upper-tier of Australian prime ministers by political experts and academics, with political journalist Paul Kelly writing in 1994 that \"there is no doubt that in three years his government was responsible for more reforms and innovations than any other government in Australian history\"." ], [ "Early life", "\"Ngara\", Whitlam's birthplace (now demolished)Edward Gough Whitlam was born on 11 July 1916 at the family home 'Ngara', 46 Rowland Street, Kew, a suburb of Melbourne, the elder of two children (his sister, Freda, was born four years after him), to Martha (née Maddocks) and Fred Whitlam.", "His father was a federal public servant who later was Commonwealth Crown Solicitor, and Whitlam senior's involvement in human rights issues was a powerful influence on his son.", "Since his maternal grandfather was also named Edward, from early childhood he was called by his middle name, Gough, which in turn had come from his paternal grandfather who had been named after the British soldier Field-Marshal Hugh Gough, 1st Viscount Gough.In 1918, Fred Whitlam was promoted to deputy Crown solicitor and transferred to Sydney.", "The family lived first in the North Shore suburb of Mosman and then in Turramurra.", "At age six, Gough began his education at Chatswood Church of England Girls' School (early primary schooling at a girls' school was not unusual for small boys at the time).", "After a year there, he attended Mowbray House School and Knox Grammar School in the suburbs of Sydney.Fred Whitlam was promoted again in 1927, this time to Assistant Crown Solicitor.", "The position was located in the new national capital of Canberra, and the Whitlam family moved there.", "As of 2008, Whitlam was the only prime minister to have spent his formative years in Canberra.", "At the time, conditions remained primitive in what was dubbed \"the bush capital\" and \"the land of the blowflies\".", "Gough attended the government Telopea Park School.", "In 1932, Whitlam's father transferred him to Canberra Grammar School where, at the Speech Day ceremony that year, he was awarded a prize by the Governor-General, Sir Isaac Isaacs.RAAF officer personnel file dated 1942Whitlam enrolled at St Paul's College at the University of Sydney at the age of 18.He earned his first wages by appearing, with several other \"Paulines\", in a cabaret scene in the film ''The Broken Melody''the students were chosen because St Paul's required formal wear at dinner, and they could therefore supply their own costumes.", "After receiving a Bachelor of Arts degree with second-class honours in classics, Whitlam remained at St Paul's to begin his law studies.", "He had originally contemplated an academic career, but his lacklustre marks made that unlikely.", "Dropping out of Greek classes, he professed himself unable to care for the \"dry as dust\" lectures of Enoch Powell." ], [ "Military service", "Gough Whitlam in Cooktown, Queensland, in 1944Soon after the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Whitlam enlisted in the Sydney University Regiment, part of the Militia.", "In late 1941, following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, and with a year remaining in his legal studies, he volunteered for the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF).", "In 1942, while awaiting entry into the service, Whitlam met and married Margaret Elaine Dovey, who had swum for Australia in the 1938 British Empire Games and was the daughter of barrister and future New South Wales Supreme Court judge Bill Dovey.", "He entered the RAAF on 20 June 1942.Whitlam trained as a navigator and bomb aimer, before serving with No.", "13 Squadron RAAF, based mainly on the Gove Peninsula, Northern Territory, flying Lockheed Ventura bombers.", "He reached the rank of Flight Lieutenant.", "While in the service, he began his political activities, distributing literature for the Australian Labor Party during the 1943 federal election and urging the passage of the \"Fourteen Powers\" referendum of 1944, which would have expanded the powers of the federal government.", "Although the party was victorious, the referendum it advocated was defeated.", "In 1961, Whitlam said of the referendum defeat, \"My hopes were dashed by the outcome and from that moment I determined to do all I could do to modernise the Australian Constitution.\"", "While still in uniform, Whitlam joined the ALP in Sydney in 1945.He was discharged from the RAAF on 17 October 1945, and continued to use Air Force log books to record all the flights he took until 2007.Whitlam completed his studies after the war, obtained his Bachelor of Laws, and was admitted to the federal and New South Wales bars in 1947." ], [ "Early political career, 1952–1967", "===Member of Parliament, 1952–1960===Whitlam as a newly elected MP in the 1950sWhitlam with his wife Margaret and their four children in 1954With his war service loan, Whitlam built a house in seaside Cronulla.", "He also bought the block of land next door, using the prize money (£1,000 in security bonds) he received for winning the Australian National Quiz Championship in 1948 and 1949 (he was runner-up in 1950).", "He sought to make a career in the ALP there, but local Labor supporters were sceptical of Whitlam's loyalties, given his privileged background.", "In the postwar years, he practised law, concentrating on landlord/tenant matters, and sought to build his bona fides in the party.", "He ran twiceunsuccessfullyfor the local council, once (also unsuccessfully) for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly, and campaigned for other candidates.", "In 1951, Bert Lazzarini, the Labor member for the Federal electorate of Werriwa, announced that he would stand down at the next election.", "Whitlam won the preselection as ALP candidate.", "Lazzarini died in 1952 before completing his term and Whitlam was elected to the House of Representatives in the ensuing by-election on 29 November 1952.Whitlam trebled Lazzarini's majority in a 12 per cent swing to Labor.Whitlam joined the ALP minority in the House of Representatives.", "His maiden speech provoked an interruption by a future prime minister, John McEwen, who was then told by the Speaker that maiden speeches are traditionally heard in silence.", "Whitlam responded to McEwen by saying Benjamin Disraeli had been heckled in his maiden speech and had responded, \"The time will come when you shall hear me.\"", "He told McEwen, \"The time will come when you may interrupt me.\"", "According to early Whitlam biographers Laurie Oakes and David Solomon, this cool response put the Coalition government on notice that the new Member for Werriwa would be a force to be reckoned with.In the rough and tumble debate in the House of Representatives, Whitlam called fellow MHR Bill Bourke \"this grizzling Quisling\", Garfield Barwick (who, as High Court Chief Justice, played a role in Whitlam's downfall) a \"bumptious bastard\", and he said Bill Wentworth exhibited a \"hereditary streak of insanity\".", "After calling future prime minister William McMahon a \"quean\", he apologised.Whitlam in 1959The ALP had been out of office since the Chifley Government's defeat in 1949 and, since 1951, had been under the leadership of Bert Evatt, whom Whitlam greatly admired.", "In 1954, the ALP seemed likely to return to power.", "The Prime Minister, Robert Menzies, adroitly used the defection of a Soviet official to his advantage, and his coalition of the Liberal and Country parties was returned in the 1954 election with a seven-seat majority.", "After the election, Evatt attempted to purge the party of industrial groupers, who had long dissented from party policy, and who were predominantly Catholic and anti-communist.", "The ensuing division in the ALP, which came to be known as \"The Split\", sparked the birth of the Democratic Labor Party (DLP).", "It was a conflict that helped to keep Labor out of power for a generation, since DLP supporters chose the Liberal Party in preferential voting.", "Whitlam supported Evatt throughout this period.In 1955, a redistribution divided Whitlam's electorate of Werriwa in two, with his Cronulla home located in the new electorate of Hughes.", "Although Whitlam would have received ALP support in either division, he chose to continue standing for Werriwa and moved from Cronulla to Cabramatta.", "This meant even longer journeys for his older children to attend school, since neither electorate had a high school at the time, and they attended school in Sydney.Whitlam was appointed to the Parliamentary Joint Committee on Constitutional Review in 1956.Biographer Jenny Hocking calls his service on the committee, which included members from all parties in both chambers of Parliament, one of the \"great influences in his political development\".", "According to Hocking, service on the committee caused Whitlam to focus not on internal conflicts consuming the ALP, but on Labor goals which were possible and worthwhile in the constitutional framework.", "Many Labor goals, such as nationalisation, ran contrary to the Constitution.", "Whitlam came to believe the Constitutionand especially Section 96 (which allowed the federal government to make grants to the states)could be used to advance a worthwhile Labor programme.===Deputy Leader, 1960–1967===By the late 1950s Whitlam was seen as a leadership contender once the existing Labor leaders exited the scene.", "Most of the party's major figures, including Evatt, Deputy Leader Arthur Calwell, Eddie Ward, and Reg Pollard, were in their sixties, twenty years older than Whitlam.", "In 1960, after losing three elections, Evatt resigned and was replaced by Calwell, with Whitlam defeating Ward for deputy leader.", "Calwell came within a handful of votes of winning the cliffhanger 1961 election.", "He had not wanted Whitlam as deputy leader, and believed Labor would have won if Ward had been in the position.Soon after the 1961 election, events began to turn against Labor.", "When President Sukarno of Indonesia announced that he intended to take over West New Guinea as the colonial Dutch departed, Calwell responded by declaring that Indonesia must be stopped by force.", "Calwell's statement was called \"crazy and irresponsible\" by Prime Minister Menzies, and the incident reduced public support for the ALP.", "At that time, the Federal Conference of the Labor Party, which dictated policy to parliamentary members, consisted of six members from each state, but not Calwell or Whitlam.", "In early 1963 a special conference met in a Canberra hotel to determine Labor policy regarding a proposed US base in northern Australia; Calwell and Whitlam were photographed by ''The Daily Telegraph'' peering in through the doors, waiting for the verdict.", "In an accompanying story, Alan Reid of the ''Telegraph'' wrote that Labor was ruled by \"36 faceless men\".", "The Liberals seized on it, issuing a leaflet called \"Mr Calwell and the Faceless Men\" which accused Calwell and Whitlam of taking direction from \"36 unknown men, not elected to Parliament nor responsible to the people\".Menzies manipulated the Opposition on issues that bitterly divided it, such as direct aid to the states for private schools, and the proposed base.", "He called an early election for November 1963, standing in support of those two issues.", "The Prime Minister performed better than Calwell on television and received an unexpected boost after the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy.", "As a result, the Coalition easily defeated Labor on a 10-seat swing.", "Whitlam had hoped Calwell would step down after 1963, but he remained, reasoning that Evatt had been given three opportunities to win, and that he should be allowed a third try.", "Calwell dismissed proposals that the ALP leader and deputy leader should be entitled to membership of the party's conference (or on its governing 12-person Federal Executive, which had two representatives from each state), and instead ran successfully for one of the conference's Victoria seats.", "Labor did badly in a 1964 by-election in the Tasmanian electorate of Denison, and lost seats in the 1964 half-Senate election.", "The party was also defeated in the state elections in the most populous state, New South Wales, surrendering control of the state government for the first time since 1941.Whitlam's relationship with Calwell, never good, deteriorated further after publication of a 1965 article in ''The Australian''.", "The article reported off-the-record comments Whitlam had made that his leader was \"too old and weak\" to win office, and that the party might be gravely damaged by an \"old-fashioned\" 70-year-old Calwell seeking his first term as prime minister.", "Later that year, at Whitlam's and Don Dunstan's urging, and over Calwell's objection, the biennial party conference made major changes to the party's platform: deleting support for the White Australia policy and making the ALP's leader and deputy leader ''ex officio'' members of the conference and executive, along with the party's leader and deputy leader in the Senate.", "As Whitlam considered the Senate unrepresentative, he opposed the admission of its ALP leaders to the party's governing bodies.Menzies retired in January 1966, and was succeeded as prime minister by the new Liberal Party leader, Harold Holt.", "After years of politics being dominated by the elderly Menzies and Calwell, the younger Holt was seen as a breath of fresh air, and attracted public interest and support in the run-up to the November election.In early 1966, the 36-member conference, with Calwell's assent, banned any ALP parliamentarian from supporting federal assistance to the states for spending on both government and private schools, commonly called \"state aid\".", "Whitlam broke with the party on the issue, and was charged with gross disloyalty by the executive, an offence which carried the penalty of expulsion from the party.", "Before the matter could be heard, Whitlam left for Queensland, where he campaigned intensively for the ALP candidate Rex Patterson in the Dawson by-election.", "The ALP won, dealing the government its first by-election defeat since 1952.Whitlam survived the expulsion vote by a margin of only two, gaining both Queensland votes.", "At the end of April, Whitlam challenged Calwell for the leadership; though Calwell received two-thirds of the vote, he announced that if the party lost the upcoming election, he would not stand again for the leadership.Holt called an election for November 1966, in which Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War was a major issue.", "Calwell called for an \"immediate and unconditional withdrawal\" of Australian troops from Vietnam.", "Whitlam, however, said this would deprive Australia of any voice in a settlement, and that regular troops, rather than conscripts, should remain under some circumstances.", "Calwell considered Whitlam's remark disastrous, disputing the party line just five days before the election.", "The ALP suffered a crushing defeat; the party was reduced to 41 seats in the House of Representatives.", "Shortly after the election, Whitlam faced another expulsion vote for his stance on Vietnam, and survived.", "True to his word, Calwell resigned two months after the election.", "At the caucus meeting on 8February 1967, Whitlam was elected party leader, defeating leading left-wing candidate Jim Cairns." ], [ "Leader of the Opposition, 1967–1972", "===Reforming the ALP===Whitlam and his wife Margaret entering the memorial service for Harold Holt in December 1967Whitlam believed the Labor Party had little chance of being elected unless it could expand its appeal from the traditional working-class base to include the suburban middle class.", "He sought to shift control of the ALP from union officials to the parliamentary party, and hoped even rank-and-file party members could be given a voice in the conference.", "In 1968, controversy erupted within the party when the executive refused to seat new Tasmanian delegate Brian Harradine, a Whitlam supporter who was considered a right-wing extremist.", "Whitlam resigned the leadership, demanding a vote of confidence from caucus.", "He defeated Cairns for the leadership in an unexpectedly close 38–32 vote.", "Despite the vote, the executive refused to seat Harradine.With the ALP's governing bodies unwilling to reform themselves, Whitlam worked to build support for change among ordinary party members.", "He was successful in reducing union influence in the party, though he was never able to give the rank and file a direct vote in selecting the executive.", "The Victoria branch of the party had long been a problem; its executive was far to the left of the rest of the ALP, and had little electoral success.", "Whitlam was able to reconstruct the Victoria party organisation against the will of its leaders, and the reconstituted state party proved essential to victory in the 1972 election.By the time of the 1969 party conference, Whitlam had gained considerable control over the ALP.", "That conference passed 61 resolutions, including broad changes to party policy and procedures.", "It called for the establishment of an Australian Schools Commission to consider the proper level of state aid for schools and universities, recognition of Aboriginal land claims, and expanded party policy on universal health care.", "The conference also called for increased federal involvement in urban planning, and formed the basis of \"The Program\" of modern socialism which Whitlam and the ALP presented to the voters in 1972.Since 1918, Labor had called for the abolition of the existing Australian Constitution, and the vesting of all political power in Parliament, a plan which would turn the states into powerless geographic regions.", "Beginning in 1965, Whitlam sought to change this goal.", "He finally succeeded at the 1971 ALP Conference in Launceston, Tasmania, which called for Parliament to receive \"such plenary powers as are necessary and desirable\" to achieve the ALP's goals in domestic and international affairs.", "Labor also pledged to abolish the Senate; this goal was not erased from the party platform until 1979, after Whitlam had stepped down as leader.===Leader of the Opposition===Whitlam in August 1971Soon after taking the leadership, Whitlam reorganised the ALP caucus, assigning portfolios and turning the Labor frontbench into a shadow cabinet.", "While the Liberal-Country Coalition had a huge majority in the House of Representatives, Whitlam energised the party by campaigning intensively to win two by-elections in 1967: first in Corio in Victoria, and later that year in Capricornia in Queensland.", "The November half-Senate election saw a moderate swing to Labor and against the Coalition, compared with the general election the previous year.", "These federal victories, in which both Whitlam and Holt campaigned, helped give Whitlam the leverage he needed to carry out party reforms.At the end of 1967, Holt vanished while swimming in rough seas near Melbourne; his body was never recovered.", "John McEwen, as leader of the junior Coalition partner, the Country Party, took over as prime minister for three weeks until the Liberals could elect a new leader.", "Senator John Gorton won the vote and became prime minister.", "The leadership campaign was conducted mostly by television, and Gorton appeared to have the visual appeal needed to keep Whitlam out of office.", "Gorton resigned his seat in the Senate, and in February 1968 won the by-election for Holt's seat of Higgins in Victoria.", "For the remainder of the year, Gorton appeared to have the better of Whitlam in the House of Representatives.", "In his chronicle of the Whitlam years, however, speechwriter Graham Freudenberg asserts that Gorton's erratic behaviour, Whitlam's strengthening of his party, and events outside Australia (such as the Vietnam War) ate away at Liberal dominance.Gorton called an election for October 1969.Whitlam and the ALP, with little internal dissension, stood on a platform calling for domestic reform, an end to conscription, and the withdrawal of Australian troops from Vietnam by 1July 1970.Whitlam knew that, given the ALP's poor position after the 1966 election, victory was unlikely.", "Nevertheless, Whitlam scored an 18-seat swing, Labor's best performance since losing government in 1949.It also scored a 7.1 per cent two-party swing, the largest to not result in a change of government.", "Although the Coalition was returned for an eighth term in government, it was with a slim majority of three seats, down from 19 prior to the election.", "Labor actually won a bare majority of the two-party vote and only DLP preferences, especially in Melbourne-area seats, kept Whitlam from becoming prime minister.", "The 1970 half-Senate election brought little change to Coalition control, but the Coalition vote fell below 40 per cent for the first time, representing a severe threat to Gorton's leadership.Whitlam speaking at the Aboriginal Tent Embassy, February 1972In March 1971, the resentment against Gorton came to a head when a confidence vote in the Liberal caucus resulted in a tie.", "Declaring that this was a sign he no longer had the confidence of the party, Gorton resigned, and William McMahon was elected his successor.", "With the Liberals in turmoil, Whitlam and the ALP sought to gain public trust as a credible government-in-waiting.", "The party's actions, such as its abandonment of the White Australia policy, gained favourable media attention.", "The Labor leader flew to Papua New Guinea and pledged himself to the independence of what was then under Australian trusteeship.", "In 1971, Whitlam flew to Beijing and met with Chinese officials, including Zhou Enlai.", "McMahon attacked Whitlam for the visit and claimed that the Chinese had manipulated him.", "This attack backfired when US President Richard Nixon announced that he would visit China the following year.", "His National Security Advisor, Henry Kissinger, visited Beijing between 9–11 July (less than a week after Whitlam's visit of 4–6 July), and, unknown to Whitlam, some of Kissinger's staff had been in Beijing preparing for Kissinger's visit at the same time as the Labor delegation.", "According to Whitlam biographer Jenny Hocking, the incident transformed Whitlam into an international statesman, while McMahon was seen as reacting defensively to Whitlam's foreign policy ventures.", "Other errors by McMahon, such as a confused ad-lib speech while visiting Washington, and a statement to Indonesia's President Suharto that Australia was a \"west European nation\", also damaged the government.Whitlam giving a speech during the 1972 election campaignBy early 1972, Labor had established a clear lead in the polls; indeed, for the first time since 1955 its support was greater than the combined vote for the Coalition and DLP.", "Unemployment was at a ten-year peak, rising to 2.14 per cent in August (though the unemployment rate was calculated differently compared to the present, and did not include thousands of rural workers on Commonwealth-financed relief work).", "Inflation was also at its highest rate since the early 1950s.", "The government recovered slightly in the August Budget session of Parliament, proposing income tax cuts and increased spending.", "The Labor strategy for the run-up to the election was to sit back and allow the Coalition to make mistakes.", "Whitlam controversially stated in March \"draft-dodging is not a crime\" and that he would be open to a revaluation of the Australian dollar.", "With the Coalition sinking in the polls and his own personal approval ratings down as low as 28 per cent, McMahon waited as long as he could, finally calling an election for the House of Representatives for 2December.", "Whitlam noted that the polling day was the anniversary of the Battle of Austerlitz at which another \"ramshackle, reactionary coalition\" had been given a \"crushing defeat\".Labor campaigned under the slogan \"It's Time\", an echo of Menzies' successful 1949 slogan, \"It's Time for a Change\".", "Surveys showed that even Liberal voters approved of the Labor slogan.", "Whitlam pledged an end to conscription and the release of individuals who had refused the draft; an income tax surcharge to pay for universal health insurance; free dental care for students; and renovation of ageing urban infrastructure.", "The party pledged to eliminate university tuition fees and establish a schools commission to evaluate educational needs.", "The party benefited from the support of the proprietor of News Limited, Rupert Murdoch, who preferred Whitlam over McMahon.", "Labor was so dominant in the campaign that some of Whitlam's advisers urged him to stop joking about McMahon; people were feeling sorry for him.", "The election saw the ALP increase its tally by 12 seats, mostly in suburban Sydney and Melbourne, for a majority of nine in the House of Representatives.", "The ALP gained little beyond the suburban belts, however, losing a seat in South Australia and two in Western Australia." ], [ "Prime Minister, 1972–1975", "===First term=======Duumvirate====Whitlam and his deputy, Lance BarnardWhitlam took office with a majority in the House of Representatives, but without control of the Senate (elected in the 1967 and 1970 half-elections).", "The Senate at that time consisted of ten members from each of the six states, elected by single transferable vote.", "Historically, when Labor won government, the parliamentary caucus chose the ministers, with the party leader having the power only to assign portfolios.", "However, the new Labor caucus would not meet until after the final results came in on 15 December.", "With Labor's win beyond doubt even though counting was still underway, McMahon advised the Governor-General, Sir Paul Hasluck, that he was no longer in a position to govern.", "Soon afterward, Whitlam advised Hasluck that he could form a government with his new majority.", "This was in accordance with longstanding Australian constitutional practice.", "Convention also held that McMahon would stay on as caretaker prime minister until the full results were in.", "However, Whitlam was unwilling to wait that long.", "On 5December, per Whitlam's request, Hasluck swore Whitlam and Labor's deputy leader, Lance Barnard, as an interim two-man government, with Whitlam as prime minister and Barnard as deputy prime minister.", "The two men held 27 portfolios during the two weeks before a full cabinet could be determined.During the two weeks the so-called \"duumvirate\" held office, Whitlam sought to fulfill those campaign promises that did not require legislation.", "Whitlam ordered negotiations to establish full relations with the People's Republic of China, and broke those with Taiwan.", "The diplomatic relations were established in 1972 and an embassy opened in Beijing in 1973.Legislation allowed the defence minister to grant exemptions from conscription.", "Barnard held this office, and exempted everyone.", "Seven men were at that time incarcerated for refusing conscription; Whitlam arranged for their liberation.", "The Whitlam government in its first days reopened the equal pay case pending before the Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Commission, and appointed a woman, Elizabeth Evatt, to the commission.", "Whitlam and Barnard eliminated sales tax on contraceptive pills, announced major grants for the arts, and appointed an interim schools commission.", "The duumvirate barred racially discriminatory sports teams from Australia, and instructed the Australian delegation at the United Nations to vote in favour of sanctions on apartheid South Africa and Rhodesia.", "It also ordered the Australian Army Training Team home from Vietnam, ending Australia's involvement in the war; most troops, including all conscripts, had been withdrawn by McMahon.", "According to Whitlam's speechwriter Graham Freudenberg, the duumvirate was a success, as it showed that the Labor government could manipulate the machinery of government, despite almost a quarter-century in opposition.", "However, Freudenberg noted that the rapid pace and public excitement caused by the duumvirate's actions caused the Opposition to be wary of giving Labor too easy a time, and gave rise to one post-mortem assessment of the Whitlam government: \"We did too much too soon.", "\"====Enacting a program====Members of the Third Whitlam Ministry in 1974The McMahon government had consisted of 27 ministers, twelve of whom comprised the Cabinet.", "In the run-up to the election, the Labor caucus had decided that if the party took power all 27 ministers were to be Cabinet members.", "Intense canvassing took place amongst ALP parliamentarians as the duumvirate did its work, and on 18 December the caucus elected the Cabinet.", "The results were generally acceptable to Whitlam, and within three hours, he had announced the portfolios of the Cabinet members.", "To give himself greater control over the Cabinet, in January 1973 Whitlam established five Cabinet committees (with the members appointed by himself, not the caucus) and took full control of the Cabinet agenda.Whitlam, prime minister for fewer than three years between 1972 and 1975, pushed through a raft of reforms that radically changed Australia's economic, legal and cultural landscape.The Whitlam government abolished the death penalty for federal crimes.", "Legal aid was established, with offices in each state capital.", "It abolished university fees, and established the Schools Commission to allocate funds to schools.", "Whitlam founded the Department of Urban Development and, having lived in developing Cabramatta, most of which lacked sewage facilities, established the National Sewerage Program, which set a goal to leave no urban home unsewered.", "The Whitlam government gave grants directly to local government units for urban renewal, flood prevention, and the promotion of tourism.", "Other federal grants financed highways linking the state capitals, and paid for standard-gauge rail lines between the states.", "The government attempted to set up a new city at Albury–Wodonga on the Victoria–New South Wales border.", "The process was started for \"Advance Australia Fair\" to become the country's national anthem in place of \"God Save the Queen\".", "The Order of Australia replaced the British honours system in early 1975.In 1973, the National Gallery of Australia, then called the Australian National Gallery, bought the painting \"Blue Poles\" by contemporary artist Jackson Pollock for US$2million (A$1.3million at the time of payment), which was about a third of its annual budget.", "This required Whitlam's personal permission, which he gave on the condition the price was publicised.", "The purchase created a political and media scandal, and was said to symbolise, alternatively, Whitlam's foresight and vision or his profligate spending.Whitlam travelled extensively as prime minister, and was the first Australian prime minister to visit China while in office.", "He was criticised for making this visit, especially after Cyclone Tracy struck Darwin; he interrupted an extensive tour of Europe for 48 hours (deemed too brief a period by many) to view the devastation.Whitlam visits China, 1973.====Early troubles====From the start of the Whitlam government, the Opposition, led by Billy Snedden, who replaced McMahon as Liberal leader in December 1972, sought to use control of the Senate to baulk Whitlam.", "It did not seek to block all government legislation; the Coalition senators, led by Senate Liberal leader Reg Withers, sought to block government legislation only when the obstruction would advance the Opposition's agenda.", "The Whitlam government also had troubles in relations with the states.", "New South Wales refused the government's request to close the Rhodesian Information Centre in Sydney.", "The Queensland premier, Joh Bjelke-Petersen refused to consider any adjustment in Queensland's border with Papua New Guinea, which, due to the state's ownership of islands in the Torres Strait, came within half a kilometre of the Papuan mainland.", "Liberal state governments in New South Wales and Victoria were re-elected by large margins in 1973.Whitlam and his majority in the House of Representatives proposed a constitutional referendum in December 1973, transferring control of wages and prices from the states to the federal government.", "The two propositions failed to attract a majority of voters in any state, and were rejected by over 800,000 votes nationwide.In 1974, the Senate refused to pass six bills after they were passed twice by the House of Representatives.", "With the Opposition threatening to disrupt money supply to government, Whitlam used the Senate's recalcitrance to trigger a double dissolution election, holding it instead of the half-Senate election.", "After a campaign featuring the Labor slogan \"Give Gough a fair go\", the Whitlam government was returned, with its majority in the House of Representatives cut from seven to five and its Senate seats increased by three.", "It was only the second time since Federation that a Labor government had been elected to a second full term.", "The government and the opposition each had 29 Senators with two seats held by independents.", "The deadlock over the twice-rejected bills was broken, uniquely in Australian history, with a special joint sitting of the two houses of Parliament under Section 57 of the Constitution.", "This session, authorised by the new governor-general, John Kerr, passed bills providing for universal health insurance (known then as Medibank, today as Medicare) and providing the Northern Territory and Australian Capital Territory with representation in the Senate, effective at the next election.====Murphy raids====Whitlam visits US President Richard Nixon, July 1973In February 1973, the Attorney General, Senator Lionel Murphy, led a police raid on the Melbourne office of the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation, which was under his ministerial responsibility.", "Murphy believed that ASIO might have files relating to threats against Yugoslav Prime Minister Džemal Bijedić, who was about to visit Australia, and feared ASIO might conceal or destroy them.", "The Opposition attacked the Government over the raid, terming Murphy a \"loose cannon\".", "A Senate investigation of the incident was cut short when Parliament was dissolved in 1974.According to journalist and author Wallace Brown, the controversy over the raid continued to dog the Whitlam government throughout its term, because the incident was \"so silly\".====Gair Affair====By early 1974, the Senate had rejected nineteen government bills, ten of them twice.", "With a half-Senate election due by mid-year, Whitlam looked for ways to shore up support in that body.", "Queensland senator and former DLP leader Vince Gair signalled his willingness to leave the Senate for a diplomatic post.", "Gair's term would not expire until the following half-Senate election or upon a double dissolution election.", "With five Queensland seats at stake in the half-Senate election, the ALP was expected to win only two, but if six (including Gair's) were at stake, the party would be likely to win a third.", "Possible control of the Senate was therefore at stake; Whitlam agreed to Gair's request and had Governor-General Sir Paul Hasluck appoint him ambassador to Ireland.", "Word leaked of Gair's pending resignation, and Whitlam's opponents attempted to counteract his manoeuvre.", "On what became known as the \"Night of the Long Prawns\", Country Party members secreted Gair at a small party in a legislative office as the ALP searched for him to secure his written resignation.", "As Gair enjoyed beer and prawns, Bjelke-Petersen advised the Queensland governor, Colin Hannah, to issue writs for only the usual five vacancies, since Gair's seat was not yet vacant, effectively countering Whitlam's plan.===Second term===By mid-1974, Australia was in an economic slump, suffering from the 1973 oil crisis and 1973–1975 recession.", "The 1973 oil crisis had caused prices to spike and, according to government figures, inflation topped 13 per cent for over a year between 1973 and 1974.Part of the inflation was due to Whitlam's desire to increase wages and conditions of the Commonwealth Public Service as a pacesetter for the private sector.", "The Whitlam government had cut tariffs by 25 per cent in 1973; 1974 saw an increase in imports of 30 per cent and a $1.5billion increase in the trade deficit.", "Primary producers of commodities such as beef were caught in a credit squeeze as short-term rates rose to extremely high levels.", "Unemployment also rose significantly.", "Unease within the ALP led to Barnard's defeat when Jim Cairns challenged him for his deputy leadership.", "Whitlam gave little help to his embattled deputy, who had formed the other half of the duumvirate.Despite these economic indicators, the Budget presented in August 1974 saw large increases in spending, especially in education.", "Treasury officials had advised a series of tax and fee increases, ranging from excise taxes to the cost of posting a letter; their advice was mostly rejected by Cabinet.", "The Budget was unsuccessful in dealing with the inflation and unemployment, and Whitlam introduced large tax cuts in November.", "He also announced additional spending to help the private sector.Beginning in October 1974, the Whitlam government sought overseas loans to finance its development plans, with the newly enriched oil nations a likely target.", "Whitlam attempted to secure financing before informing the Loan Council which included state officials hostile to Whitlam.", "His government empowered Pakistani financier Tirath Khemlani as an intermediary in the hope of securing US$4billion in loans.", "While the Loans Affair did not result in a loan, according to author and Whitlam speechwriter Graham Freudenberg, \"The only cost involved was the cost to the reputation of the Government.", "That cost was to be immenseit was government itself.", "\"Whitlam appointed Senator Murphy to the High Court, even though Murphy's Senate seat would not be up for election if a half-Senate election were held.", "Labor then held three of the five short-term New South Wales Senate seats.", "Under proportional representation, Labor could hold its three short-term seats in the next half-Senate election but, if Murphy's seat were also contested, Labor was unlikely to win four out of six.", "Thus, a Murphy appointment meant the almost certain loss of a seat in the closely divided Senate at the next election.", "Whitlam appointed Murphy anyway.", "By convention, senators appointed by the state legislature to fill casual vacancies were from the same political party as the former senator.", "The New South Wales premier, Tom Lewis felt that this convention applied only to vacancies caused by deaths or ill-health, and arranged for the legislature to elect Cleaver Bunton, former mayor of Albury and an independent.", "By March 1975, many Liberal parliamentarians felt Snedden was doing an inadequate job as leader of the Opposition, and that Whitlam was dominating him in the House of Representatives.", "Malcolm Fraser challenged Snedden for the leadership, and defeated him on 21 March.Soon after Fraser's accession, controversy arose over the Whitlam government's actions in trying to restart peace talks in Vietnam.", "As the North prepared to end the civil war, Whitlam sent cables to both Vietnamese governments, telling Parliament both cables were substantially the same.", "The Opposition contended he had misled Parliament, and a motion to censure Whitlam was defeated along party lines.", "The Opposition also attacked Whitlam for not allowing enough South Vietnamese refugees into Australia, with Fraser calling for the entry of 50,000.Freudenberg alleges that 1,026 Vietnamese refugees entered Australia in the final eight months of the Whitlam government, and only 399 in 1976 under Fraser.", "However, by 1977, Australia had accepted more than five thousand refugees.As the political situation deteriorated, Whitlam and his government continued to enact legislation: The Family Law Act 1975 provided for no-fault divorce while the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 caused Australia to ratify the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination that Australia had signed under Holt, but which had never been ratified.", "In August 1975, Whitlam gave the Gurindji people of the Northern Territory title deeds to part of their traditional lands, beginning the process of Aboriginal land reform.", "The next month, Australia granted independence to Papua New Guinea.The Suharto-Whitlam House in Dieng Plateau, Indonesia, where Whitlam discussed the future of East Timor with Indonesia's President Suharto in 1974Following the 1974 Carnation Revolution, Portugal began a process of decolonisation and began a withdrawal from Portuguese Timor (later East Timor).", "Australians had long taken an interest in the colony; the nation had sent troops to the region during World WarII, and many East Timorese had fought the Japanese as guerrillas.", "In September 1974, Whitlam met with President Suharto in Indonesia and indicated that he would support Indonesia if it annexed East Timor.", "At the height of the Cold War, and in the context of the American retreat from Indo-China, he felt that incorporation of East Timor into Indonesia would enhance the stability of the region, and reduce the risk of the East Timorese FRETILIN movement, which many feared was communist, coming to power.Whitlam had offered Barnard a diplomatic post and in early 1975 Barnard agreed to this, triggering a by-election in his Tasmanian electorate of Bass.", "The election on 28 June proved a disaster for Labor, which lost the seat with a swing against it of 17 per cent.", "The next week, Whitlam removed deputy prime minister Cairns, who had misled Parliament about the Loans Affair amid controversy about his relationship with his office manager, Junie Morosi.", "At the time of Cairns's dismissal, one Senate seat was vacant, following the death on 30 June of Queensland ALP Senator Bertie Milliner.", "The state Labor party nominated Mal Colston, resulting in a deadlock.", "The unicameral Queensland legislature twice voted against Colston, and the party refused to submit any alternative candidates.", "Bjelke-Petersen finally convinced the legislature to elect a low-level union official, Albert Field, who had contacted his office and expressed a willingness to serve.", "In interviews, Field made it clear he would not support Whitlam.", "Field was expelled from the ALP for standing against Colston, and Labor senators boycotted his swearing-in.", "Whitlam argued that, because of the manner of filling vacancies, the Senate was \"corrupted\" and \"tainted\", with the Opposition enjoying a majority they did not win at the ballot box." ], [ "Dismissal", "In October 1975, the Opposition, led by Malcolm Fraser, determined to withhold supply by deferring consideration of appropriation bills.", "With Field on leave (his Senate appointment having been challenged), the Coalition had an effective majority of 30–29 in the Senate.", "The Coalition believed that if Whitlam could not deliver supply, and would not advise new elections, Kerr would have to dismiss him.", "Supply would run out on 30 November.The stakes were raised in the conflict on 10 October, when the High Court declared valid the Act granting the territories two senators each.", "In a half-Senate election, most successful candidates would not take their places until 1July 1976, but the territories' senators, and those filling Field's and Bunton's seats, would assume their seats immediately.", "This gave Labor an outside chance of controlling the Senate, at least until 1July 1976.On 14 October, Labor minister Rex Connor, mastermind of the loans scheme, was forced to resign when Khemlani released documents showing that Connor had made misleading statements.", "The continuing scandal bolstered the Coalition in their stance that they would not concede supply.", "Whitlam on the other hand, convinced that he would win the battle, was glad of the distraction from the Loans Affair, and believed he would \"smash\" not only the Senate, but Fraser's leadership as well.Whitlam told the House of Representatives on 21 October,Whitlam and his ministers repeatedly claimed that the Opposition was damaging not only the constitution, but the economy as well.", "The Coalition senators remained united, though several became increasingly concerned about the tactic of blocking supply.", "As the crisis dragged into November, Whitlam attempted to make arrangements for public servants and suppliers to be able to cash cheques at banks.", "These transactions would be temporary loans which the government would repay once supply was restored.", "This plan to prolong government without supply was presented to Kerr unsigned on 6November, under the title \"Draft Joint Opinion\" (ostensibly of solicitor-general Maurice Byers and attorney-general Kep Enderby).", "It proposed that public employees, including members of the armed forces and police, \"could assign arrears of pay by way of mortgage\".", "The government's refusal to formalise this and other \"advice\" was a factor justifying Kerr's resort to advice from elsewhere.Kerr was following the crisis closely.", "At a luncheon with Whitlam and several of his ministers on 30 October, Kerr suggested a compromise: if Fraser conceded supply, Whitlam would agree not to call the half-Senate election until May or June 1976, or alternatively would agree not to call the Senate into session until after 1July.", "Whitlam rejected the idea, seeking to end the Senate's right to deny supply.", "On 3November, after a meeting with Kerr, Fraser proposed that if the government agreed to hold a House of Representatives election at the same time as the half-Senate election, the Coalition would concede supply.", "Whitlam rejected this offer, stating that he had no intention of advising a House election for at least a year.With the crisis unresolved, Kerr decided to dismiss Whitlam as prime minister.", "Fearing that Whitlam would go to the Queen and potentially have him removed, the Governor-General gave Whitlam no prior hint.", "Against Whitlam's advice, he conferred with High Court Chief Justice Sir Garfield Barwick, who agreed that he had the power to dismiss Whitlam.A meeting among the party leaders, including Whitlam and Fraser, to resolve the crisis on the morning of 11 November came to nothing.", "Kerr and Whitlam met at the Governor-General's office that afternoon at 1:00pm.", "Unknown to Whitlam, Fraser was waiting in an ante-room; Whitlam later said he would not have set foot in the building if he had known Fraser was there.", "Whitlam, as he had told Kerr by phone earlier that day, came prepared to advise a half-Senate election, to be held on 13 December.", "Kerr instead told Whitlam he had terminated his commission as prime minister, and handed him a letter to that effect.", "After the conversation, Whitlam returned to the Prime Minister's residence, The Lodge, had lunch and conferred with his advisers.", "Immediately after his meeting with Whitlam, Kerr commissioned Fraser as caretaker Prime Minister, on the assurance he could obtain supply and would then advise Kerr to dissolve both houses for election.In the confusion, Whitlam and his advisers did not immediately tell any Senate members of the dismissal, with the result that when the Senate convened at 2:00pm, the appropriation bills were rapidly passed, with the ALP senators assuming the Opposition had given in.", "The bills were soon sent to Kerr to receive Royal Assent.", "At 2:34pm, ten minutes after supply had been secured, Fraser rose in the House and announced he was prime minister.", "Whitlam immediately moved a successful no confidence motion against Fraser in the House.", "The Speaker, Gordon Scholes, was instructed to advise Kerr to reinstate Whitlam.Kerr refused to receive Scholes, keeping him waiting for more than an hour.", "In that time Kerr rang Justice Anthony Mason to ask for advice.", "Mason told him the no confidence motion in the House was \"irrelevant\".", "Kerr then dissolved Parliament by proclamation: his Official Secretary, David Smith, came to Parliament House to proclaim the dissolution from the front steps.", "A large, angry crowd had gathered, and Smith was nearly drowned out by their noise.", "He concluded his task by taking the unilateral step of re-instating the traditional ending for a royal proclamation \"God save the Queen\", a practice the Whitlam government had abolished.", "Whitlam, who had been standing behind Smith, then addressed the crowd:Well may we say \"God save the Queen\", because nothing will save the Governor-General!", "The Proclamation which you have just heard read by the Governor-General's Official Secretary was countersigned Malcolm Fraser, who will undoubtedly go down in Australian history from Remembrance Day 1975 as Kerr's cur.", "They won't silence the outskirts of Parliament House, even if the inside has been silenced for a few weeks....", "Maintain your rage and enthusiasm for the campaign for the election now to be held and until polling day.===Alleged CIA involvement===Kerr had been involved with a number of CIA fronts.", "In the 1950s, Kerr had joined the Association for Cultural Freedom, a conservative group which had been established by, and received funding from, the CIA through the Congress for Cultural Freedom.", "Kerr was on its executive board and wrote for its magazine ''Quadrant''.", "In 1966, Kerr helped to found Lawasia (or Law Asia), an organization of lawyers which had offices in all the major capitals of Asia.", "It was funded by The Asia Foundation, a prominent CIA front.Christopher Boyce, who was convicted of spying for the Soviet Union while an employee of a CIA contractor, said the CIA wanted Whitlam removed from office because he threatened to close US military bases in Australia, including Pine Gap.", "Boyce said Kerr was described by the CIA as \"our man Kerr\".", "Former ASIO chief Sir Edward Woodward has dismissed the notion of CIA involvement, as has journalist Paul Kelly.", "Whitlam later wrote that Kerr did not need any encouragement from the CIA.", "However, he also said that in 1977 United States Deputy Secretary of State Warren Christopher made a special trip to Sydney to meet with him and told him, on behalf of US President Jimmy Carter, of his willingness to work with whatever government Australians elected, and that the US would never again interfere with Australia's democratic processes." ], [ "Return to Opposition, 1975–1978", "The Domain in Sydney, 24 November 1975.As the ALP began the 1975 campaign, it seemed that its supporters would maintain their rage.", "Early rallies drew huge crowds, with attendees handing Whitlam money to pay election expenses.", "The crowds greatly exceeded those in any of Whitlam's earlier campaigns; in The Domain, Sydney, 30,000 people gathered for an ALP rally below a banner: \"Shame Fraser Shame\".", "Fraser's appearances drew protests, and a letter bomb sent to Kerr was defused by authorities.", "Instead of making a policy speech to keynote his campaign, Whitlam made a speech attacking his opponents and calling 11 November \"a day which will live in infamy\".Polls from the first week of campaigning showed a nine-point swing against Labor, which would have decimated Labor if repeated in an election.", "Whitlam's campaign team disbelieved the results at first, but additional polling returns clearly showed that the electorate had turned against Labor.", "The Coalition attacked Labor for economic conditions, and released television commercials with the title \"The Three Dark Years\" showing images from Whitlam government scandals.", "The ALP campaign concentrated on the issue of Whitlam's dismissal and did not address the economy until its final days.", "By that time Fraser was confident of victory and content to sit back, avoid specifics and make no mistakes.", "In the election, the Coalition won the largest majority government in Australian history, winning 91 seats to Labor's 36.Labor suffered a 6.5 per cent swing against it and its caucus was cut almost in half, suffering a 30-seat swing.", "Labor was left with five fewer seats than it had when Whitlam took the leadership.", "The Coalition also won a 37–25 majority in the Senate.Peter NicholsonWhitlam stayed on as Opposition leader, surviving a leadership challenge.", "In early 1976, an additional controversy broke when it was reported that Whitlam had been involved in ALP attempts to raise $500,000 during the election from the Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr government of Iraq.", "No money had actually been paid, and no charges were filed.The Whitlams were visiting China at the time of the Tangshan earthquake in July 1976, though they were staying in Tianjin, away from the epicentre.", "''The Age'' printed a cartoon by Peter Nicholson showing the Whitlams huddled together in bed with Margaret Whitlam saying, \"Did the earth move for you too, dear?\"", "This cartoon prompted a page full of outraged letters from Labor partisans and a telegram from Gough Whitlam, safe in Tokyo, requesting the original of the cartoon.In early 1977 Whitlam faced a leadership challenge from Bill Hayden, the last treasurer in the Whitlam government, with Whitlam remaining leader of the ALP by a two-vote margin.", "Fraser called an election for 10 December.", "Although Labor managed to pick up five seats, the Coalition still enjoyed a majority of 48.According to Freudenberg, \"The meaning and the message were unmistakable.", "It was the Australian people's rejection of Edward Gough Whitlam.\"", "Whitlam's son Tony, who had joined his father in the House of Representatives at the 1975 election, was defeated.", "Shortly after the election, Whitlam resigned as party leader and was succeeded by Hayden." ], [ "Later years and death, 1978–2014", "Whitlam was made a Companion of the Order of Australia in June 1978, and resigned from Parliament on 31 July of the same year.", "He then held various academic positions.", "When Labor returned to power under Bob Hawke in 1983, Whitlam was appointed as Australia's ambassador to UNESCO, based in Paris.", "He served for three years in this post, defending UNESCO against allegations of corruption.", "At the end of his term as ambassador Whitlam was elected to the Executive Board of UNESCO for a three-year term, until 1989.In 1985, he was appointed to Australia's Constitutional Commission.Whitlam was appointed chairman of the National Gallery of Australia in 1987 after his son Nick, who was then managing director of the State Bank of New South Wales, turned down the position.", "He and Margaret Whitlam were part of the bid team that in 1993 persuaded the International Olympic Committee to give Sydney the right to host the 2000 Summer Olympics.Sir John Kerr died in 1991.He and Whitlam never reconciled; indeed, Whitlam always saw his dismissal from office as a \"constitutional coup d'état\".", "Whitlam and Fraser put aside their differences and became friends during the 1980s, though they never discussed the events of 1975.The two subsequently campaigned together in support of the 1999 Australian republic referendum.", "In March 2010, Fraser visited Whitlam at his Sydney office while on a book tour to promote his memoirs.", "Whitlam accepted an autographed copy of the book and presented Fraser with a copy of his 1979 book about the dismissal, ''The Truth of the Matter''.During the 1990s Labor government, Whitlam used the Australian Greens as a \"decoy questioner\" in parliament.", "According to Dee Margetts, Whitlam \"didn't like what Keating and Hawke had done\" and regularly sent the Greens questions to ask the government about policies he disagreed with.Margaret at Parliament House for the national apology to the Stolen Generations in February 2008Gough Whitlam (right) at 88, with the then-leader of the Australian Labor Party, Mark Latham, at an election fundraising event in Melbourne, September 2004Whitlam initially had a close relationship with Labor leader Mark Latham, who held his old seat of Werriwa.", "However, by 2005 he had called for Latham's resignation from parliament.", "Whitlam called his support of Latham to enter federal politics as one of his \"lingering regrets\".Whitlam supported fixed four-year terms for both houses of Parliament.", "In 2006, he accused the ALP of failing to press for this change.", "In April 2007, he and Margaret Whitlam were both made life members of the Australian Labor Party.", "This was the first time anyone had been made a life member of the party organisation at the national level.In 2007, Whitlam testified at an inquest into the death of Brian Peters, one of five Australia-based TV personnel killed in East Timor in October 1975.Whitlam indicated he had warned Peters' colleague, Greg Shackleton, who was also killed, that the Australian government could not protect them in East Timor and that they should not go there.", "He also said Shackleton was \"culpable\" if he had not passed on Whitlam's warning.Whitlam joined three other former prime ministers in February 2008 in returning to Parliament to witness the Federal Government apology to the Aboriginal Stolen Generations by the then prime minister Kevin Rudd.", "On 21 January 2009, Whitlam achieved a greater age () than any other prime minister of Australia, surpassing the previous record holder Frank Forde.", "On the 60th anniversary of his marriage to Margaret Whitlam, he called it \"very satisfactory\" and claimed a record for \"matrimonial endurance\".", "In 2010, it was reported that Whitlam had moved into an aged care facility in Sydney's inner east in 2007.Despite this, he continued to go to his office three days a week.", "Margaret Whitlam remained in the couple's nearby apartment.", "In early 2012, she suffered a fall there, leading to her death in hospital at the age of 92 on 17 March of that year, a month short of the Whitlams' 70th wedding anniversary.Gough Whitlam died on the morning of 21 October 2014.His family announced that there would be a private cremation and a public memorial service.", "He was the longest-lived Australian Prime Minister, dying at the age of 98 years and 102 days.", "He predeceased his successor Malcolm Fraser (14 years his junior) by just under five months.", "His funeral was attended by seven Australian prime ministers." ], [ "Memorials", "Memorial service, Sydney Town Hall, at welcome to countryA state memorial service was held on 5November 2014 in the Sydney Town Hall and was led by Kerry O'Brien.", "The Welcome to Country was given by Auntie Millie Ingram and eulogies were delivered by Graham Freudenberg, Cate Blanchett, Noel Pearson, John Faulkner and Antony Whitlam.", "Pearson's contribution in particular was hailed as \"one of the best political speeches of our time\".", "Musical performances were delivered by William Barton (a didgeridoo improvisation), Paul Kelly and Kev Carmody (their land rights protest song ''From Little Things Big Things Grow''), as well as the Sydney Philharmonia Choir and the Sydney Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Benjamin Northey.", "In accordance with Whitlam's wishes, the orchestra performed \"In Tears of Grief\" from Bach's ''St Matthew Passion'', \"Va, pensiero\" from Verdi's ''Nabucco'', \"Un Bal\" from ''Symphonie fantastique'' by Berlioz and, as the final piece, ''Jerusalem'' by Parry.", "''Jerusalem'' was followed by a flypast of four RAAF F/A-18 Hornets in missing man formation.", "Those attending the memorial included the current and some former governors-general, the current and all living former prime ministers, and members of the family of Vincent Lingiari.", "The two-hour service, attended by 1,000 invited guests and 900 others, was screened to thousands outside the Hall, as well as in Cabramatta and Melbourne, and broadcast live by ABC television.In honour of Whitlam, the Australian Electoral Commission created the Division of Whitlam in the House of Representatives in place of the Division of Throsby, with effect from the 2016 election.", "ACT Chief Minister Katy Gallagher announced that a future Canberra suburb will be named for Whitlam, and that his family would be consulted about other potential memorials.", "Gough Whitlam Park in Earlwood, New South Wales, is named after him.In January 2021, the Whitlams' purpose-built home from 1956 to 1978 at 32 Albert Street, Cabramatta, designed by architect Roy Higson Dell Appleton, came up for sale.", "It was eventually sold at for $1.15 million to a group of Labor supporters, including former NSW Premier Barrie Unsworth, with the intention of restoring the house for educational purposes as a museum.", "The work is supported by a Commonwealth government national heritage grant of $1.3 million, and is to be managed by the Whitlam Institute of Western Sydney University.", "The house was proposed to be listed as a local heritage item in the ''Fairfield Local Environmental Plan 2013'' as part of a regular LEP review, which identified the house as being at least of state heritage significance.", "Following renovations and restoration works, the \"Whitlam Prime Ministerial Home\" was officially opened by Prime Minister Anthony Albanese on 2 December 2022." ], [ "Legacy and historical evaluation", "Bust of Gough Whitlam by sculptor Victor Greenhalgh, in the Prime Ministers Avenue in the Ballarat Botanical GardensWhitlam remains well remembered for the circumstances of his dismissal.", "It is a legacy he did little to efface; he wrote a 1979 book, ''The Truth of the Matter'' (the title is a play on that of Kerr's 1978 memoir, ''Matters for Judgment''), and devoted part of his subsequent book, ''Abiding Interests'', to the circumstances of his removal.", "According to journalist and author Paul Kelly, who penned two books on the crisis, Whitlam \"achieved a paradoxical triumph: the shadow of the dismissal has obscured the sins of his government\".More books have been written about Whitlam, including his own writings, than about any other Australian prime minister.", "According to Whitlam biographer Jenny Hocking, for a period of at least a decade, the Whitlam era was viewed almost entirely in negative terms, but that has changed.", "Still, she feels Australians take for granted programmes and policies initiated by the Whitlam government, such as recognition of China, legal aid, and Medicare.", "Ross McMullin, who wrote an official history of the ALP, notes that Whitlam remains greatly admired by many Labor supporters because of his efforts to reform Australian government, and his inspiring leadership.", "Some rankings have put Whitlam high on the list of Australia's better prime ministers.", "Economist and writer Ross Gittins evaluates opinions on the Whitlam government's responses to the economic challenges of the time:Wallace Brown describes Whitlam in his book about his experiences covering Australian prime ministers as a journalist:Whitlam's last words in the documentary film ''Gough WhitlamIn His Own Words'' (2002) were in response to a question about his status as an icon and elder statesman.", "He said:" ], [ "Published works", "* ''On Australia's Constitution'' (Melbourne: Widescope, 1977).", "* ''The Truth of the Matter'' (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1979).", "* ''The Whitlam Government'' (Ringwood: Viking, 1985).", "* ''Abiding Interests'' (Brisbane: University of Queensland Press, 1997).", "* ''My Italian Notebook: The Story of an Enduring Love Affair'' (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 2002)" ], [ "See also", "* ''The Hon E.G.", "Whitlam'', painting by Clifton Pugh* Whitlam government* First Whitlam Ministry* Second Whitlam Ministry* Third Whitlam Ministry" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Gough WhitlamAustralia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia* The Whitlam Institute* The Whitlam Dismissal11 November 1975* Dismissal letterCopy of dismissal letter* Gurindji Land Ceremony Speechtranscript and audio from August 1975* Listen to an excerpt of Gough Whitlam's 'Kerr's Cur' speech from the National Film and Sound Archive* \"It's Time\" speechtranscript* Whitlam Labor Rally 14 November 1975- Speech held three days after dismissal in King George Square, Brisbane.", "State Library of Queensland" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geri and Freki" ], [ "Introduction", "The god Odin enthroned and flanked by the wolves Geri and Freki and the ravens Huginn and Muninn as illustrated (1882) by Carl Emil DoeplerIn Norse mythology, '''Geri''' and '''Freki''' are two wolves which are said to accompany the god Odin.", "They are attested in the ''Poetic Edda'', a collection of epic poetry compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, in the ''Prose Edda'', written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, and in the poetry of skalds.", "The pair has been compared to similar figures found in Greek, Roman and Vedic mythology, and may also be connected to beliefs surrounding the Germanic \"wolf-warrior bands\", the Úlfhéðnar." ], [ "Etymology", "The name ''Geri'' has been interpreted as meaning either \"the greedy one\" or \"the ravenous one\".", "The name ''Geri'' can be traced back to the Proto-Germanic adjective , attested in Burgundian ''girs'', Old Norse , Old High German or and Old Dutch , all of which mean \"greedy\".The name ''Freki'' can be traced back to the Proto-Germanic adjective , attested in Gothic () \"covetous, avaricious\", Old Norse \"greedy\", Old English \"desirous, greedy, gluttonous, audacious\" and Old High German \"greedy\".", "John Lindow interprets both Old Norse names as nominalized adjectives.", "Bruce Lincoln further traces ''Geri'' back to a Proto-Indo-European stem *'''', which is the same as that found in , a name referring to the hound closely associated with the events of ." ], [ "Attestations", "In the ''Poetic Edda'' poem ''Grímnismál'', the god Odin (disguised as ''Grímnir'') provides the young Agnarr with information about Odin's companions.", "Agnarr is told that Odin feeds Geri and Freki while the god himself consumes only wine::Benjamin Thorpe translation::Geri and Freki the war-wont sates,:the triumphant sire of hosts;:but on wine only the famed in arms,:Odin, ever lives.", ":Henry Adams Bellows translation::Freki and Geri does Heerfather feed,:The far-famed fighter of old::But on wine alone does the weapon-decked god,:Othin, forever live.The pair is also alluded to via the kenning \"Viðrir's (Odin's) hounds\" in ''Helgakviða Hundingsbana I'', verse 13, where it is related that they roam the field \"greedy for the corpses of those who have fallen in battle\".", ":Benjamin Thorpe translation::The warriors went to the trysting place of swords,:which they had appointed at Logafiöll.", ":Broken was Frodi's peace between the foes::Vidrir’s hounds went about the isle slaughter-greedy.", ":Henry Adams Bellows translation::The warriors forth to the battle went,:The field they chose at Logafjoll;:Frothi's peace midst foes they broke,:Through the isle went hungrily Vithrir's hounds.In the ''Prose Edda'' book ''Gylfaginning'' (chapter 38), the enthroned figure of High explains that Odin gives all of the food on his table to his wolves Geri and Freki and that Odin requires no food, for wine is to him both meat and drink.", "High then quotes the above-mentioned stanza from the poem ''Grímnismál'' in support.", "In chapter 75 of the ''Prose Edda'' book ''Skáldskaparmál'' a list of names for wargs and wolves is provided that includes both Geri and Freki.In skaldic poetry ''Geri'' and ''Freki'' are used as common nouns for \"wolf\" in chapter 58 of ''Skáldskaparmál'' (quoted in works by the skalds Þjóðólfr of Hvinir and Egill Skallagrímsson) and ''Geri'' is again used as a common noun for \"wolf\" in chapter 64 of the ''Prose Edda'' book ''Háttatal''.", "Geri is referenced in kennings for \"blood\" in chapter 58 of ''Skáldskaparmál'' (\"Geri's ales\" in a work by the skald Þórðr Sjáreksson) and in for \"carrion\" in chapter 60 (\"Geri's morsel\" in a work by the skald Einarr Skúlason).", "''Freki'' is also used in a kenning for \"carrion\" (\"Freki's meal\") in a work by Þórðr Sjáreksson in chapter 58 of ''Skáldskaparmál''." ], [ "Archaeological record", "If the rider on horseback on the image on the Böksta Runestone has been correctly identified as Odin, then Geri and Freki are shown taking part in hunting an elk." ], [ "Theories", "A Vendel era bronze plate found on Öland, Sweden depicting a wolf-pelt warrior drawing a sword beside a dancing figure.", "''Freki'' is also a name applied to the monstrous wolf Fenrir in the ''Poetic Edda'' poem ''Völuspá''.", "Folklorist John Lindow sees irony in the fact that Odin feeds one Freki at his dinner table and another—Fenrir—with his flesh during the events of Ragnarök.Historian Michael Spiedel connects Geri and Freki with archaeological finds depicting figures wearing wolf-pelts and frequently found wolf-related names among the Germanic peoples, including Wulfhroc (\"Wolf-Frock\"), Wolfhetan (\"Wolf-Hide\"), Isangrim (\"Grey-Mask\"), Scrutolf (\"Garb-Wolf\"), Wolfram (\"Wolf (and) Raven\"), Wolfgang (\"Wolf-Gait\"), Wolfdregil (\"Wolf-Runner\"), and Vulfolaic (\"Wolf-Dancer\") and myths regarding wolf warriors from Norse mythology (such as the Úlfhéðnar).", "Michael Speidel believes this to point to the pan-Germanic wolf-warrior band cult centered on Odin that waned away after Christianization.Scholars have also noted Indo-European parallels to the wolves Geri and Freki as companions of a divinity.", "19th century scholar Jacob Grimm observed a connection between this aspect of Odin's character and the Greek Apollo, to whom both the wolf and the raven are sacred.", "Philologist Maurice Bloomfield further connected the pair with the two dogs of Yama in Vedic mythology, and saw them as a Germanic counterpart to a more general and widespread Indo-European \"Cerberus\"-theme.", "Speidel finds similar parallels in the Vedic Rudra and the Roman Mars.", "Elaborating on the connection between wolves and figures of great power, he writes: \"This is why Geri and Freki, the wolves at Woden's side, also glowered on the throne of the Anglo-Saxon kings.", "Wolf-warriors, like Geri and Freki, were not mere animals but mythical beings: as Woden's followers they bodied forth his might, and so did wolf-warriors.", "\"Bernd Heinrich theorizes that Geri and Freki, along with Odin and his ravens Huginn and Muninn, reflect a symbiosis observed in the natural world among ravens, wolves, and humans on the hunt::In a biological symbiosis one organism typically shores up some weakness or deficiency of the other(s).", "As in such a symbiosis, Odin the father of all humans and gods, though in human form was imperfect by himself.", "As a separate entity he lacked depth perception (being one-eyed) and he was apparently also uninformed and forgetful.", "But his weaknesses were compensated by his ravens, Hugin (mind) and Munin (memory) who were part of him.", "They perched on his shoulders and reconnoitered to the ends of the earth each day to return in the evening and tell him the news.", "He also had two wolves at his side, and the man/god-raven-wolf association was like one single organism in which the ravens were the eyes, mind, and memory, and the wolves the providers of meat and nourishment.", "As god, Odin was the ethereal part—he only drank wine and spoke only in poetry.", "I wondered if the Odin myth was a metaphor that playfully and poetically encapsulates ancient knowledge of our prehistoric past as hunters in association with two allies to produce a powerful hunting alliance.", "It would reflect a past that we have long forgotten and whose meaning has been obscured and badly frayed as we abandoned our hunting cultures to become herders and agriculturists, to whom ravens act as competitors." ], [ "See also", "* List of wolves" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Bellows, Henry Adams (1923).", "''The Poetic Edda''.", "American-Scandinavian Foundation.", "* Bellows, Henry Adams (1936).", "''The Poetic Edda''.", "Princeton: Princeton University Press.", "* Bloomfield, Maurice (1908) \"Cerberus\" in: Hastings, James (Ed.)", "''Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics'', Vol.", "5.Edinburgh: T. & T.", "Clark.", "* Faulkes, Anthony (Trans.)", "(1995).", "''Edda''.", "Everyman.", ".", "* Grimm, Jacob (1882).", "''Teutonic Mythology'', Vol.", "I, Translated from the 4th Edition by James Steven Stallybrass.", "London: George Bell & Sons.", "* Heinrich, Bernd (2006 1999).", "''The Mind of the Raven''.", "Harper Perennial.", "* * Lindow, John (2001). ''", "Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs''.", "Oxford University Press.", ".", "* Orel, Vladimir (2003).", "''A Handbook of Germanic Etymology''.", "Leiden: Brill.", ".", "* Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall.", "''Dictionary of Northern Mythology''.", "D.S.", "Brewer.", "* * Spiedel, Michael (2004). ''", "Ancient Germanic Warriors: Warrior Styles from Trajan's Column to Icelandic Sagas''.", "Routledge.", "* Thorpe, Benjamin (Trans) (1907).", "''Edda Sæmundar Hinns Frôða The Edda of Sæmund the Learned''.", "Part I. London Trübner & Co" ], [ "External links", "* * MyNDIR (My Norse Digital Image Repository) Illustrations of Geri and Freki from manuscripts and early print books." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ginnungagap" ], [ "Introduction", "In Norse mythology, '''Ginnungagap''' (old Norse: ; \"gaping abyss\", \"yawning void\") is the primordial, magical void mentioned in three poems from the ''Poetic Edda'' and the ''Gylfaginning'', the Eddaic text recording Norse cosmogony." ], [ "Etymology", "''Ginnunga-'' is usually interpreted as deriving from a verb meaning \"gape\" or \"yawn\", but no such word occurs in Old Norse except in verse 3 of the Eddic poem \"Vǫluspá\", \"''gap var ginnunga''\", which may be a play on the term.In her edition of the poem, Ursula Dronke suggested it was borrowed from Old High German ''ginunga'', as the term Múspell is believed to have been borrowed from Old High German.", "An alternative etymology links the ''ginn-'' prefix with that found in terms with a sacral meaning, such as ''ginn-heilagr'', ''ginn-regin'' (both referring to the gods) and ''ginn-runa'' (referring to the runes), thus interpreting ''Ginnungagap'' as signifying a \"magical (and creative) power-filled space\"." ], [ "Creation", "Ginnungagap appears as the primordial void in the Norse creation account.", "The ''Gylfaginning'' states:In the ''Völuspá'', a supernaturally long-lived völva who was raised by jötnar tells the story of how Odin and his two brothers created the world from Ginnungagap." ], [ "Geographic rationalization", "Scandinavian cartographers from the early 15th century attempted to localize or identify Ginnungagap as a real geographic location from which the creation myth derived.", "A fragment from a 15th-century (pre-Columbus) Old Norse encyclopedic text entitled ''Gripla'' (Little Compendium) places Ginnungagap between Greenland and Vinland:A scholion in a 15th-century manuscript of Adam of Bremen's ''Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum'' similarly refers to ''Ghimmendegop'' as the Norse word for the abyss in the far north.Later, the 17th-century Icelandic bishop Guðbrandur Thorlaksson also used the name ''Ginnung'''e'''gap'' to refer to a narrow body of water, possibly the Davis Strait, separating the southern tip of Greenland from ''Estotelandia, pars America extrema'', probably Baffin Island." ], [ "In popular culture", "* ''Ginnungagap'' is song taken from the forthcoming Jethro Tull album, RökFlöte, and released as a single on January 20, 2023.", "* Ginnungagap is featured in the Marvel Universe, as a void that existed before the formation of the world.", "In this place were formed entities such as the Elder Gods, Xian, Ennead, Frost Giants, Fire Demons, Nyx and Amatsu-Mikaboshi.", "* In the Netflix series ''Ragnarok'', Ginnungagap is visited as camping site for a classroom field trip during Season 1, Episode 4; it also happens to be the name of this particular episode.", "In Season 2, Episode 2, Ginnungagap is visited by the characters Laurits and Vidar, and is depicted as a scenic vantage point overlooking a fjord and two adjoining mountains.", "* Alastair Reynolds' space opera novel ''Absolution Gap'' features a chasm named Ginnungagap Rift.", "* Swedish death metal band, Amon Amarth and their 2001 album The Crusher features a track titled, \"Fall Through Ginnungagap\".", "* Swedish symphonic metal band, Therion, features a track titled \"Ginnungagap\" on their ''Secret of the Runes'' album from 2001.", "* EVE Online has a black hole whose accretion disk shows up in the skybox named Ginnungagap.", "* \"Ginungagap\" (sic) is the title of a science fiction short story by Michael Swanwick.", "* French neofolk group SKÁLD included a song titled \"Ginnunga\" in their 2018 album ''Vikings Chant''.", "* Ginnungagap (ギンヌンガガプ, ''Ginnungagapu'') is a weaponized grimoire introduced in ''Fire Emblem Fates'', a video-game franchise published by Nintendo.", "It is a high-level item that hits the hardest of all tomes and scrolls in the game.", "* Ginungagap is the hub world of the video game ''Jøtun''.", "* In PlatinumGames's ''Bayonetta 3'', the main characters travel through the multiverse, and the Ginnungagap is used as a gateway.", "In the game, it is referred to as \"Ginnungagap, the Chaotic Rift\".", "* A variation of Ginnungagap called \"The Spark of the World\" appears in the 2022 action-adventure video game ''God of War Ragnarök''.", "This location becomes accessible during the main quest while in Muspelheim, appearing as a cosmic tapestry of orange sparks merged with blue-tinged essence, presumably from Niflheim." ], [ "See also", "* Abyss (religion)* Chaos (mythology)* Plane (esotericism)* Void (astronomy)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Dillmann, F. X.", "(1998).", "\"Ginnungagap\" in: Beck, H., Steuer, H. & Timpe, D.", "(Eds.)", "''Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde, Volume 12''.", "Berlin: de Gruyter.", ".", "**" ], [ "External links", "* Guðbrandur Thorlaksson's 1606 map of the North Atlantic" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Green" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Green''' is the color between cyan and yellow on the visible spectrum.", "It is evoked by light which has a dominant wavelength of roughly 495570 nm.", "In subtractive color systems, used in painting and color printing, it is created by a combination of yellow and cyan; in the RGB color model, used on television and computer screens, it is one of the additive primary colors, along with red and blue, which are mixed in different combinations to create all other colors.", "By far the largest contributor to green in nature is chlorophyll, the chemical by which plants photosynthesize and convert sunlight into chemical energy.", "Many creatures have adapted to their green environments by taking on a green hue themselves as camouflage.", "Several minerals have a green color, including the emerald, which is colored green by its chromium content.During post-classical and early modern Europe, green was the color commonly associated with wealth, merchants, bankers, and the gentry, while red was reserved for the nobility.", "For this reason, the costume of the ''Mona Lisa'' by Leonardo da Vinci and the benches in the British House of Commons are green while those in the House of Lords are red.", "It also has a long historical tradition as the color of Ireland and of Gaelic culture.", "It is the historic color of Islam, representing the lush vegetation of Paradise.", "It was the color of the banner of Muhammad, and is found in the flags of nearly all Islamic countries.In surveys made in American, European, and Islamic countries, green is the color most commonly associated with nature, life, health, youth, spring, hope, and envy.", "In the European Union and the United States, green is also sometimes associated with toxicity and poor health, but in China and most of Asia, its associations are very positive, as the symbol of fertility and happiness.", "Because of its association with nature, it is the color of the environmental movement.", "Political groups advocating environmental protection and social justice describe themselves as part of the Green movement, some naming themselves Green parties.", "This has led to similar campaigns in advertising, as companies have sold green, or environmentally friendly, products.", "Green is also the traditional color of safety and permission; a green light means go ahead, a green card permits permanent residence in the United States." ], [ "Etymology and linguistic definitions", "The word ''green'' has the same Germanic root as the words for ''grass'' and ''grow''The word ''green'' comes from the Middle English and Old English word ''grene'', which, like the German word ''grün'', has the same root as the words ''grass'' and ''grow''.", "It is from a Common Germanic ''*gronja-'', which is also reflected in Old Norse ''grænn'', Old High German ''gruoni'' (but unattested in East Germanic), ultimately from a PIE root ''*'' \"to grow\", and root-cognate with ''grass'' and ''to grow''.The first recorded use of the word as a color term in Old English dates to ca.", "AD 700.Latin with ''viridis'' also has a genuine and widely used term for \"green\".", "Related to ''virere'' \"to grow\" and ''ver'' \"spring\", it gave rise to words in several Romance languages, French ''vert'', Italian ''verde'' (and English ''vert'', ''verdure'' etc.).", "Likewise the Slavic languages with ''zelenъ''.", "Ancient Greek also had a term for yellowish, pale green – χλωρός, ''chloros'' (cf.", "the color of chlorine), cognate with χλοερός \"verdant\" and χλόη \"chloe, the green of new growth\".Thus, the languages mentioned above (Germanic, Romance, Slavic, Greek) have old terms for \"green\" which are derived from words for fresh, sprouting vegetation.However, comparative linguistics makes clear that these terms were coined independently, over the past few millennia, and there is no identifiable single Proto-Indo-European or word for \"green\".", "For example, the Slavic ''zelenъ'' is cognate with Sanskrit ''harithah'' \"yellow, ochre, golden\".The Turkic languages also have ''jašɨl'' \"green\" or \"yellowish green\", compared to a Mongolian word for \"meadow\".=== Languages where green and blue are one color ===The notion of \"green\" in modern European languages corresponds to about 520–570 nm, but many historical and non-European languages make other choices, e.g.", "using a term for the range of ca.", "450–530 nm (\"blue/green\") and another for ca.", "530–590 nm (\"green/yellow\").In some languages, including old Chinese, Thai, old Japanese, and Vietnamese, the same word can mean either blue or green.", "The Chinese character 青 (pronounced ''qīng'' in Mandarin, ''ao'' in Japanese, and ''thanh'' in Sino-Vietnamese) has a meaning that covers both blue and green; blue and green are traditionally considered shades of \"青\".", "In more contemporary terms, they are 藍 (''lán'', in Mandarin) and 綠 (''lǜ'', in Mandarin) respectively.", "Japanese also has two terms that refer specifically to the color green, 緑 (''midori'', which is derived from the classical Japanese descriptive verb ''midoru'' \"to be in leaf, to flourish\" in reference to trees) and グリーン (''guriin'', which is derived from the English word \"green\").", "However, in Japan, although the traffic lights have the same colors as other countries have, the green light is described using the same word as for blue, ''aoi'', because green is considered a shade of aoi; similarly, green variants of certain fruits and vegetables such as green apples, green ''shiso'' (as opposed to red apples and red shiso) will be described with the word ''aoi''.", "Vietnamese uses a single word for both blue and green, ''xanh'', with variants such as ''xanh da trời'' (azure, lit.", "\"sky blue\"), ''lam'' (blue), and ''lục'' (green; also ''xanh lá cây'', lit.", "\"leaf green\").", "\"Green\" in modern European languages corresponds to about 520–570 nm, but many historical and non-European languages make other choices, e.g.", "using a term for the range of ca.", "450–530 nm (\"blue/green\") and another for ca.", "530–590 nm (\"green/yellow\").", "In the comparative study of color terms in the world's languages, green is only found as a separate category in languages with the fully developed range of six colors (white, black, red, green, yellow, and blue), or more rarely in systems with five colors (white, red, yellow, green, and black/blue).", "These languages have introduced supplementary vocabulary to denote \"green\", but these terms are recognizable as recent adoptions that are not in origin color terms (much like the English adjective orange being in origin not a color term but the name of a fruit).", "Thus, the Thai word เขียว ''kheīyw'', besides meaning \"green\", also means \"rank\" and \"smelly\" and holds other unpleasant associations.The Celtic languages had a term for \"blue/green/grey\", Proto-Celtic ''*glasto-'', which gave rise to Old Irish ''glas'' \"green, grey\" and to Welsh ''glas'' \"blue\".", "This word is cognate with the Ancient Greek γλαυκός \"bluish green\", contrasting with χλωρός \"yellowish green\" discussed above.A dark green rectangleIn modern Japanese, the term for green is 緑, while the old term for \"blue/green\", now means \"blue\".", "But in certain contexts, green is still conventionally referred to as 青, as in and , reflecting the absence of blue-green distinction in old Japanese (more accurately, the traditional Japanese color terminology grouped some shades of green with blue, and others with yellow tones)." ], [ "In science", " sRGB rendering of the spectrum of visible light Colour Frequency(THz) Wavelength(nm) 668–789 380–450 610–668 450–490 575–610 490–520 526–575 520–570 508–526 570–590 484–508 590–620 400–484 620–770=== Color vision and colorimetry ===In optics, the perception of green is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 495–570 nm.", "The sensitivity of the dark-adapted human eye is greatest at about 507 nm, a blue-green color, while the light-adapted eye is most sensitive about 555 nm, a yellow-green; these are the peak locations of the rod and cone (scotopic and photopic, respectively) luminosity functions.The perception of greenness (in opposition to redness forming one of the opponent mechanisms in human color vision) is evoked by light which triggers the medium-wavelength ''M'' cone cells in the eye more than the long-wavelength ''L'' cones.", "Light which triggers this greenness response more than the yellowness or blueness of the other color opponent mechanism is called green.", "A green light source typically has a spectral power distribution dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 487–570 nm.Green, blue and red are additive colors.", "All the colors seen are made by mixing them in different intensities.Human eyes have color receptors known as cone cells, of which there are three types.", "In some cases, one is missing or faulty, which can cause color blindness, including the common inability to distinguish red and yellow from green, known as deuteranopia or red-green color blindness.Green is restful to the eye.", "Studies show that a green environment can reduce fatigue.In the subtractive color system, used in painting and color printing, green is created by a combination of yellow and blue, or yellow and cyan; in the RGB color model, used on television and computer screens, it is one of the additive primary colors, along with red and blue, which are mixed in different combinations to create all other colors.", "On the HSV color wheel, also known as the RGB color wheel, the complement of green is magenta; that is, a color corresponding to an equal mixture of red and blue light (one of the purples).", "On a traditional color wheel, based on subtractive color, the complementary color to green is considered to be red.In additive color devices such as computer displays and televisions, one of the primary light sources is typically a narrow-spectrum yellowish-green of dominant wavelength ~550 nm; this \"green\" primary is combined with an orangish-red \"red\" primary and a purplish-blue \"blue\" primary to produce any color in between – the RGB color model.", "A unique green (green appearing neither yellowish nor bluish) is produced on such a device by mixing light from the green primary with some light from the blue primary.=== Lasers ===Three green lasers being fired at a single spot in the sky from the Starfire Optical RangeLasers emitting in the green part of the spectrum are widely available to the general public in a wide range of output powers.", "Green laser pointers outputting at 532 nm (563.5 THz) are relatively inexpensive compared to other wavelengths of the same power, and are very popular due to their good beam quality and very high apparent brightness.", "The most common green lasers use diode pumped solid state (DPSS) technology to create the green light.An infrared laser diode at 808 nm is used to pump a crystal of neodymium-doped yttrium vanadium oxide (Nd:YVO4) or neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG) and induces it to emit 281.76 THz (1064 nm).", "This deeper infrared light is then passed through another crystal containing potassium, titanium and phosphorus (KTP), whose non-linear properties generate light at a frequency that is twice that of the incident beam (563.5 THz); in this case corresponding to the wavelength of 532 nm (\"green\").Other green wavelengths are also available using DPSS technology ranging from 501 nm to 543 nm.Green wavelengths are also available from gas lasers, including the helium–neon laser (543 nm), the Argon-ion laser (514 nm) and the Krypton-ion laser (521 nm and 531 nm), as well as liquid dye lasers.", "Green lasers have a wide variety of applications, including pointing, illumination, surgery, laser light shows, spectroscopy, interferometry, fluorescence, holography, machine vision, non-lethal weapons, and bird control.As of mid-2011, direct green laser diodes at 510 nm and 500 nm have become generally available,although the price remains relatively prohibitive for widespread public use.", "The efficiency of these lasers (peak 3%) compared to that of DPSS green lasers (peak 35%)may also be limiting adoption of the diodes to niche uses.=== Pigments, food coloring and fireworks ===The Chicago River is dyed green every year to mark St. Patrick's DayMany minerals provide pigments which have been used in green paints and dyes over the centuries.", "Pigments, in this case, are minerals which reflect the color green, rather that emitting it through luminescent or phosphorescent qualities.", "The large number of green pigments makes it impossible to mention them all.", "Among the more notable green minerals, however is the emerald, which is colored green by trace amounts of chromium and sometimes vanadium.Chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3), is called chrome green, also called viridian or institutional green when used as a pigment.", "For many years, the source of amazonite's color was a mystery.", "Widely thought to have been due to copper because copper compounds often have blue and green colors, the blue-green color is likely to be derived from small quantities of lead and water in the feldspar.Copper is the source of the green color in malachite pigments, chemically known as basic copper(II) carbonate.Verdigris is made by placing a plate or blade of copper, brass or bronze, slightly warmed, into a vat of fermenting wine, leaving it there for several weeks, and then scraping off and drying the green powder that forms on the metal.", "The process of making verdigris was described in ancient times by Pliny.", "It was used by the Romans in the murals of Pompeii, and in Celtic medieval manuscripts as early as the 5th century AD.", "It produced a blue-green which no other pigment could imitate, but it had drawbacks: it was unstable, it could not resist dampness, it did not mix well with other colors, it could ruin other colors with which it came into contact, and it was toxic.", "Leonardo da Vinci, in his treatise on painting, warned artists not to use it.", "It was widely used in miniature paintings in Europe and Persia in the 16th and 17th centuries.", "Its use largely ended in the late 19th century, when it was replaced by the safer and more stable chrome green.", "Viridian, as described above, was patented in 1859.It became popular with painters, since, unlike other synthetic greens, it was stable and not toxic.", "Vincent van Gogh used it, along with Prussian blue, to create a dark blue sky with a greenish tint in his painting ''Café Terrace at Night''.Green earth is a natural pigment used since the time of the Roman Empire.", "It is composed of clay colored by iron oxide, magnesium, aluminum silicate, or potassium.", "Large deposits were found in the South of France near Nice, and in Italy around Verona, on Cyprus, and in Bohemia.", "The clay was crushed, washed to remove impurities, then powdered.", "It was sometimes called Green of Verona.Mixtures of oxidized cobalt and zinc were also used to create green paints as early as the 18th century.Cobalt green, sometimes known as Rinman's green or zinc green, is a translucent green pigment made by heating a mixture of cobalt (II) oxide and zinc oxide.", "Sven Rinman, a Swedish chemist, discovered this compound in 1780.Green chrome oxide was a new synthetic green created by a chemist named Pannetier in Paris in about 1835.Emerald green was a synthetic deep green made in the 19th century by hydrating chrome oxide.", "It was also known as Guignet green.Fireworks typically use barium salts to create green sparksThere is no natural source for green food colorings which has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration.", "Chlorophyll, the E numbers E140 and E141, is the most common green chemical found in nature, and only allowed in certain medicines and cosmetic materials.Quinoline Yellow (E104) is a commonly used coloring in the United Kingdom but is banned in Australia, Japan, Norway and the United States.Green S (E142) is prohibited in many countries, for it is known to cause hyperactivity, asthma, urticaria, and insomnia.To create green sparks, fireworks use barium salts, such as barium chlorate, barium nitrate crystals, or barium chloride, also used for green fireplace logs.", "Copper salts typically burn blue, but cupric chloride (also known as \"campfire blue\") can also produce green flames.", "Green pyrotechnic flares can use a mix ratio 75:25 of boron and potassium nitrate.", "Smoke can be turned green by a mixture: solvent yellow 33, solvent green 3, lactose, magnesium carbonate plus sodium carbonate added to potassium chlorate.=== Biology ===Plagiomnium affine laminazellen.jpeg|The chloroplasts of plant cells contain a high concentration of chlorophyll, making them appear green.Caerulea3 crop.jpg|Frogs often appear green because dermal iridophores reflect blue light through a yellow upperlayer, filtering the light to be primarily green.Yellow-naped Amazon.jpg|A yellow-naped Amazon parrot, colored green for camouflage in the jungleMicrommata virescens (Arcugnano).jpg|The green huntsman spider is green due to the presence of bilin pigments in the spider's hemolymph and tissue fluidsGreen is common in nature, as many plants.", "are green because of a complex chemical known as chlorophyll, which is involved in photosynthesis.", "Chlorophyll absorbs the long wavelengths of light (red) and short wavelengths of light (blue) much more efficiently than the wavelengths that appear green to the human eye, so light reflected by plants is enriched in green.Chlorophyll absorbs green light poorly because it first arose in organisms living in oceans where purple halobacteria were already exploiting photosynthesis.", "Their purple color arose because they extracted energy in the green portion of the spectrum using bacteriorhodopsin.", "The new organisms that then later came to dominate the extraction of light were selected to exploit those portions of the spectrum not used by the halobacteria.A green mambaAnimals typically use the color green as camouflage, blending in with the chlorophyll green of the surrounding environment.", "Most fish, reptiles, amphibians, and birds appear green because of a reflection of blue light coming through an over-layer of yellow pigment.", "Perception of color can also be affected by the surrounding environment.", "For example, broadleaf forests typically have a yellow-green light about them as the trees filter the light.", "Turacoverdin is one chemical which can cause a green hue in birds, especially.", "Invertebrates such as insects or mollusks often display green colors because of porphyrin pigments, sometimes caused by diet.", "This can causes their feces to look green as well.", "Other chemicals which generally contribute to greenness among organisms are flavins (lychochromes) and hemanovadin.", "Humans have imitated this by wearing green clothing as a camouflage in military and other fields.", "Substances that may impart a greenish hue to one's skin include biliverdin, the green pigment in bile, and ceruloplasmin, a protein that carries copper ions in chelation.The green huntsman spider is green due to the presence of bilin pigments in the spider's hemolymph (circulatory system fluids) and tissue fluids.It hunts insects in green vegetation, where it is well camouflaged.=== Green eyes ===There is no green pigment in green eyes; like the color of blue eyes, it is an optical illusion; its appearance is caused by the combination of an amber or light brown pigmentation of the stroma, given by a low or moderate concentration of melanin, with the blue tone imparted by the Rayleigh scattering of the reflected light.Nobody is brought into the world with green eyes.", "An infant has one of two eye hues: dark or blue.", "Following birth, cells called melanocytes start to discharge melanin, the earthy colored shade, in the child's irises.", "This begins happening since melanocytes respond to light in time.Green eyes are most common in Northern and Central Europe.They can also be found in Southern Europe, West Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia.", "In Iceland, 89% of women and 87% of men have either blue or green eye color.A study of Icelandic and Dutch adults found green eyes to be much more prevalent in women than in men.Among European Americans, green eyes are most common among those of recent Celtic and Germanic ancestry, about 16%." ], [ "In history and art", "===Prehistoric history===Neolithic cave paintings do not have traces of green pigments, but neolithic peoples in northern Europe did make a green dye for clothing, made from the leaves of the birch tree.", "It was of very poor quality, more brown than green.", "Ceramics from ancient Mesopotamia show people wearing vivid green costumes, but it is not known how the colors were produced.=== Ancient history ===Gardens of Nakh 1.JPG|The gardens of ancient Egypt were symbols of rebirth.", "Tomb painting of the gardens of Amon at the temple of Karnak, from the tomb of Nakh, the chief gardener.", "Early 14th century BC.Osiris-tomb-of-Nefertari.jpg|The Ancient Egyptian god Osiris, ruler of the underworld and of rebirth and regeneration, was typically shown with a green face.", "(Tomb of Nefertari, 1295–1253 BC)Primavera di Stabiae.jpg|Ancient Roman fresco of Flora, or Spring, from Stabiae (2nd century AD)Gorgan ceramic.JPG|Gorgan ceramic, Early 13th centuryIn Ancient Egypt, green was the symbol of regeneration and rebirth, and of the crops made possible by the annual flooding of the Nile.", "For painting on the walls of tombs or on papyrus, Egyptian artists used finely ground malachite, mined in the west Sinai and the eastern desert; a paintbox with malachite pigment was found inside the tomb of King Tutankhamun.", "They also used less expensive green earth pigment, or mixed yellow ochre and blue azurite.", "To dye fabrics green, they first colored them yellow with dye made from saffron and then soaked them in blue dye from the roots of the woad plant.For the ancient Egyptians, green had very positive associations.", "The hieroglyph for green represented a growing papyrus sprout, showing the close connection between green, vegetation, vigor and growth.", "In wall paintings, the ruler of the underworld, Osiris, was typically portrayed with a green face, because green was the symbol of good health and rebirth.", "Palettes of green facial makeup, made with malachite, were found in tombs.", "It was worn by both the living and the dead, particularly around the eyes, to protect them from evil.", "Tombs also often contained small green amulets in the shape of scarab beetles made of malachite, which would protect and give vigor to the deceased.", "It also symbolized the sea, which was called the \"Very Green\".In Ancient Greece, green and blue were sometimes considered the same color, and the same word sometimes described the color of the sea and the color of trees.", "The philosopher Democritus described two different greens: , or pale green, and , or leek green.", "Aristotle considered that green was located midway between black, symbolizing the earth, and white, symbolizing water.", "However, green was not counted among the four classic colors of Greek painting – red, yellow, black and white – and is rarely found in Greek art.The Romans had a greater appreciation for the color green; it was the color of Venus, the goddess of gardens, vegetables and vineyards.", "The Romans made a fine green earth pigment that was widely used in the wall paintings of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Lyon, Vaison-la-Romaine, and other Roman cities.", "They also used the pigment verdigris, made by soaking copper plates in fermenting wine.", "By the second century AD, the Romans were using green in paintings, mosaics and glass, and there were ten different words in Latin for varieties of green.=== Postclassical history ===Van Eyck - Arnolfini Portrait.jpg|In the ''Arnolfini portrait'' by Jan van Eyck (1434), the rich green fabric of the dress showed the wealth and status of the family.Duccio di Buoninsegna 068.jpg|Duccio di Buoninsegna painted the faces in this painting (1308–1311) with an undercoat of green earth pigment.", "The surface pink has faded, making the faces look green today.Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF retouched.jpg|The green costume of the ''Mona Lisa'' shows she was from the gentry, not from the nobility.Michael Pacher 004.jpg|In the 15th century ''Saint Wolfgang and the Devil'' by Michael Pacher, the Devil is green.", "Poets such as Chaucer also drew connections between the color green and the devil.Pietro Perugino cat67a.jpg|In this 1503 painting by Perugino, malachite pigment was used to paint the bright green garments of the worshippers, while the background greens were painted in green earth pigments.In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, the color of clothing showed a person's social rank and profession.", "Red could only be worn by the nobility, brown and gray by peasants, and green by merchants, bankers and the gentry and their families.", "The Mona Lisa wears green in her portrait, as does the bride in the Arnolfini portrait by Jan van Eyck.There were no good vegetal green dyes which resisted washing and sunlight for those who wanted or were required to wear green.", "Green dyes were made out of the fern, plantain, buckthorn berries, the juice of nettles and of leeks, the digitalis plant, the broom plant, the leaves of the fraxinus, or ash tree, and the bark of the alder tree, but they rapidly faded or changed color.", "Only in the 16th century was a good green dye produced, by first dyeing the cloth blue with woad, and then yellow with ''Reseda luteola'', also known as yellow-weed.The pigments available to painters were more varied; monks in monasteries used verdigris, made by soaking copper in fermenting wine, to color medieval manuscripts.", "They also used finely-ground malachite, which made a luminous green.", "They used green earth colors for backgrounds.During the early Renaissance, painters such as Duccio di Buoninsegna learned to paint faces first with a green undercoat, then with pink, which gave the faces a more realistic hue.", "Over the centuries the pink has faded, making some of the faces look green.===Modern history======= In the 18th and 19th century ====Constable DeadhamVale.jpg|''Dedham Vale'' (1802) by John Constable.", "The paintings of Constable romanticized the vivid green landscapes of EnglandJean-Baptiste Debret - Coroação de D. Pedro I.jpg|In the painting of Jean-Baptiste Debret (1822), Emperor Pedro I of Brazil wearing the imperial mantle decorated with green fabric.Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot 010.jpg|In the paintings of Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot (1796–1875), the green of trees and nature became the central element of the painting, with the people secondaryMarie Bashkirtseff 2.jpg|''Spring'', by Marie Bashkirtseff, 1884Vincent Willem van Gogh 076.jpg|''The Night Café'', (1888), by Vincent van Gogh, used red and green to express what Van Gogh called \"the terrible human passions.", "\"Émile Bernard - Still life with teapot, cup and fruit - Google Art Project.jpg|Émile Bernard – ''Still life with green teapot, cup and fruit'', 1890Louis Anquetin - Woman at the Champs-Élysées by night - Google Art Project.jpg|Louis Anquetin – ''Woman at the Champs-Élysées by night''The 18th and 19th centuries brought the discovery and production of synthetic green pigments and dyes, which rapidly replaced the earlier mineral and vegetable pigments and dyes.", "These new dyes were more stable and brilliant than the vegetable dyes, but some contained high levels of arsenic, and were eventually banned.In the 18th and 19th centuries, green was associated with the romantic movement in literature and art.", "The German poet and philosopher Goethe declared that green was the most restful color, suitable for decorating bedrooms.", "Painters such as John Constable and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot depicted the lush green of rural landscapes and forests.", "Green was contrasted to the smoky grays and blacks of the Industrial Revolution.The second half of the 19th century saw the use of green in art to create specific emotions, not just to imitate nature.", "One of the first to make color the central element of his picture was the American artist James McNeill Whistler, who created a series of paintings called \"symphonies\" or \"noctures\" of color, including ''Symphony in gray and green; The Ocean'' between 1866 and 1872.The late 19th century also brought the systematic study of color theory, and particularly the study of how complementary colors such as red and green reinforced each other when they were placed next to each other.", "These studies were avidly followed by artists such as Vincent van Gogh.", "Describing his painting, The ''Night Cafe'', to his brother Theo in 1888, Van Gogh wrote: \"I sought to express with red and green the terrible human passions.", "The hall is blood red and pale yellow, with a green billiard table in the center, and four lamps of lemon yellow, with rays of orange and green.", "Everywhere it is a battle and antithesis of the most different reds and greens.", "\"==== In the 20th and 21st century ====In the 1980s green became a political symbol, the color of the Green Party in Germany and in many other European countries.", "It symbolized the environmental movement, and also a new politics of the left which rejected traditional socialism and communism.", "(See section below.)" ], [ "Symbolism and associations", "=== Safety and permission ===A green light is the universal symbol of permission to goGreen can communicate safety to proceed, as in traffic lights.", "Green and red were standardized as the colors of international railroad signals in the 19th century.", "The first traffic light, using green and red gas lamps, was erected in 1868 in front of the Houses of Parliament in London.", "It exploded the following year, injuring the policeman who operated it.", "In 1912, the first modern electric traffic lights were put up in Salt Lake City, Utah.", "Red was chosen largely because of its high visibility, and its association with danger, while green was chosen largely because it could not be mistaken for red.", "Today green lights universally signal that a system is turned on and working as it should.", "In many video games, green signifies both health and completed objectives, opposite red.=== Nature, vivacity, and life ===Green is the color most commonly associated in Europe and the United States with nature, vivacity and life.It is the color of many environmental organizations, such as Greenpeace, and of the Green Parties in Europe.", "Many cities have designated a garden or park as a green space, and use green trash bins and containers.", "A green cross is commonly used to designate pharmacies in Europe.In China, green is associated with the east, with sunrise, and with life and growth.", "In Thailand, the color green is considered auspicious for those born on a Wednesday (light green for those born at night).=== Springtime, freshness, and hope ===Green is the color most commonly associated in the United States and Europe with springtime, freshness, and hope.", "Green is often used to symbolize rebirth and renewal and immortality.", "In Ancient Egypt; the god Osiris, king of the underworld, was depicted as green-skinned.", "Green as the color of hope is connected with the color of springtime; hope represents the faith that things will improve after a period of difficulty, like the renewal of flowers and plants after the winter season.=== Youth and inexperience ===Green the color most commonly associated in Europe and the United States with youth.", "It also often is used to describe anyone young, inexperienced, probably by the analogy to immature and unripe fruit.", "Examples include green cheese, a term for a fresh, unaged cheese, and greenhorn, an inexperienced person.=== Food and diet ===Indian FSSAI labels.", "The green dot symbol (top-left) identifies lacto-vegetarian food.The color green has been increasingly used by food companies, governments, and practitioners themselves to identify veganism and vegetarianism.", "The government of India requires food that is vegetarian to be marked with a green circle as part of the ''Food Safety and Standards Act of 2006'' with changes to symbolism since but still maintaining the color green.", "In 2021, India introduced a green V to exclusively label vegan options.", "In the west, the V-Label, a green V designed by the European Vegetarian Union, has been used by food distributors to label vegan and vegetarian options.=== Calm, tolerance, and the agreeable ===Surveys also show that green is the color most associated with the calm, the agreeable, and tolerance.", "Red is associated with heat, blue with cold, and green with an agreeable temperature.", "Red is associated with dry, blue with wet, and green, in the middle, with dampness.", "Red is the most active color, blue the most passive; green, in the middle, is the color of neutrality and calm, sometimes used in architecture and design for these reasons.Blue and green together symbolize harmony and balance.", "Experimental studies also show this calming effect in a statistical significant decrease of negative emotionsand increase of creative performance.=== Jealousy and envy ===Green is often associated with jealousy and envy.", "The expression \"green-eyed monster\" was first used by William Shakespeare in Othello: \"it is the green-eyed monster which doth mock the meat it feeds on.\"", "Shakespeare also used it in the Merchant of Venice, speaking of \"green-eyed jealousy\".=== Love and sexuality ===Green today is not commonly associated in Europe and the United States with love and sexuality, but in stories of the medieval period it sometimes represented love and the base, natural desires of man.", "It was the color of the serpent in the Garden of Eden who caused the downfall of Adam and Eve.", "However, for the troubadours, green was the color of growing love, and light green clothing was reserved for young women who were not yet married.In Persian and Sudanese poetry, dark-skinned women, called \"green\" women, were considered erotic.", "The Chinese term for cuckold is \"to wear a green hat.\"", "This was because in ancient China, prostitutes were called \"the family of the green lantern\" and a prostitute's family would wear a green headscarf.In Victorian England, the color green was associated with homosexuality.=== Dragons, fairies, monsters, and devils ===Michael Pacher 004.jpg|''Saint Wolfgang and the Devil'', by Michael Pacher.Liber Floridus page scan A, ca.", "1460.jpg|A medieval illustration of a dragon (1460)Chinese draak.jpg|A Chinese dragon danceLeprechaun ill artlibre jnl.png|A 20th-century depiction of a leprechaunIn legends, folk tales and films, fairies, dragons, monsters, and the devil are often shown as green.In the Middle Ages, the devil was usually shown as either red, black or green.", "Dragons were usually green, because they had the heads, claws and tails of reptiles.Modern Chinese dragons are also often green, but unlike European dragons, they are benevolent; Chinese dragons traditionally symbolize potent and auspicious powers, particularly control over water, rainfall, hurricane, and floods.", "The dragon is also a symbol of power, strength, and good luck.", "The Emperor of China usually used the dragon as a symbol of his imperial power and strength.", "The dragon dance is a popular feature of Chinese festivals.In Irish and English folklore, the color was sometimes associated with witchcraft, and with faeries and spirits.", "The type of Irish fairy known as a leprechaun is commonly portrayed wearing a green suit, though before the 20th century he was usually described as wearing a red suit.In theater and film, green was often connected with monsters and the inhuman.", "The earliest films of Frankenstein were in black and white, but in the poster for the 1935 version ''The Bride of Frankenstein'', the monster had a green face.", "Actor Bela Lugosi wore green-hued makeup for the role of Dracula in the 1927–1928 Broadway stage production.=== Poison and sickness ===Like other common colors, green has several completely opposite associations.", "While it is the color most associated by Europeans and Americans with good health, it is also the color most often associated with toxicity and poison.", "There was a solid foundation for this association; in the nineteenth century several popular paints and pigments, notably verdigris, vert de Schweinfurt and vert de Paris, were highly toxic, containing copper or arsenic.", "The intoxicating drink absinthe was known as \"the green fairy\".A green tinge in the skin is sometimes associated with nausea and sickness.", "The expression 'green at the gills' means appearing sick.", "The color, when combined with gold, is sometimes seen as representing the fading of youth.", "In some Far East cultures the color green is used as a symbol of sickness or nausea.=== Social status, prosperity and the dollar ===Hybrid Commons Chamber Rehearsal (D).jpg|The green benches in the House of Commons of the United KingdomUnited States one dollar bill, reverse.jpg|The reverse of the United States one-dollar bill has been green since 1861, giving it the popular name greenback.Green in Europe and the United States is sometimes associated with status and prosperity.", "From the Middle Ages to the 19th century it was often worn by bankers, merchants country gentlemen and others who were wealthy but not members of the nobility.", "The benches in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, where the landed gentry sat, are colored green.In the United States green was connected with the dollar bill.", "Since 1861, the reverse side of the dollar bill has been green.", "Green was originally chosen because it deterred counterfeiters, who tried to use early camera equipment to duplicate banknotes.", "Also, since the banknotes were thin, the green on the back did not show through and muddle the pictures on the front of the banknote.", "Green continues to be used because the public now associates it with a strong and stable currency.One of the more notable uses of this meaning is found in ''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz''.", "The Emerald City in this story is a place where everyone wears tinted glasses that make everything appear green.", "According to the populist interpretation of the story, the city's color is used by the author, L. Frank Baum, to illustrate the financial system of America in his day, as he lived in a time when America was debating the use of paper money versus gold." ], [ "On flags", "* The flag of Italy (1797) was modeled after the French tricolor.", "It was originally the flag of the Cisalpine Republic, whose capital was Milan; red and white were the colors of Milan, and green was the color of the military uniforms of the army of the Cisalpine Republic.", "Other versions say it is the color of the Italian landscape, or symbolizes hope.", "* The flag of Brazil has a green field adapted from the flag of the Empire of Brazil.", "The green represented the royal family.", "* The flag of India was inspired by an earlier flag of the independence movement of Gandhi, which had a red band for Hinduism and a green band representing Islam, the second largest religion in India.", "* The flag of Pakistan symbolizes Pakistan's commitment to Islam and equal rights of religious minorities where the larger portion (3:2 ratio) of flag is dark green representing Muslim majority (98% of total population) while a white vertical bar (3:1 ratio) at the mast representing equal rights for religious minorities and minority religions in country.", "The crescent and star symbolizes progress and bright future respectively.", "* The flag of Bangladesh has a green field based on a similar flag used during the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971.It consists of a red disc on top of a green field.", "The red disc represents the sun rising over Bengal, and also the blood of those who died for the independence of Bangladesh.", "The green field stands for the lushness of the land of Bangladesh.", "* The flag of the international constructed language Esperanto has a green field and a green star in a white area.", "The green represents hope (''\"esperanto\"'' means \"one who hopes\"), the white represents peace and neutrality and the star represents the five inhabited continents.Green is one of the three colors (along with red and black, or red and gold) of Pan-Africanism.", "Several African countries thus use the color on their flags, including Nigeria, South Africa, Ghana, Senegal, Mali, Ethiopia, Togo, Guinea, Benin, and Zimbabwe.", "The Pan-African colors are borrowed from the Ethiopian flag, one of the oldest independent African countries.", "Green on some African flags represents the natural richness of Africa.Many flags of the Islamic world are green, as the color is considered sacred in Islam (see below).", "The flag of Hamas, as well as the flag of Iran, is green, symbolizing their Islamist ideology.", "The 1977 flag of Libya consisted of a simple green field with no other characteristics.", "It was the only national flag in the world with just one color and no design, insignia, or other details.", "Some countries used green in their flags to represent their country's lush vegetation, as in the flag of Jamaica, and hope in the future, as in the flags of Portugal and Nigeria.", "The green cedar of Lebanon tree on the Flag of Lebanon officially represents steadiness and tolerance.Green is a symbol of Ireland, which is often referred to as the \"Emerald Isle\".", "The color is particularly identified with the republican and nationalist traditions in modern times.", "It is used this way on the flag of the Republic of Ireland, in balance with white and the Protestant orange.", "Green is a strong trend in the Irish holiday St. Patrick's Day." ], [ "In politics", "Green harp flag of Ireland 17th century.svg|The green harp flag was the banner of Irish nationalism from the 17th century until the early 20th century.AustralianGreensLogo official.svg|The emblem of the Australian Greens.", "The party won 12.7% of the primary vote in the 2022 election for the Australian Senate.Manif EPR Lyon Bellecour Verts.jpg|A demonstration by Les Verts, the green party of France, in Lyon.Greenpeace Rainbow warrior 2.jpg|The ''Rainbow Warrior'', the ship of the Greenpeace environmental movement.Logo Partai Bulan Bintang.svg|The logo of the Crescent Star Party uses star and crescent symbol with green background.The first recorded green party was a political faction in Constantinople during the 6th century Byzantine Empire.", "which took its name from a popular chariot racing team.", "They were bitter opponents of the blue faction, which supported Emperor Justinian I and which had its own chariot racing team.", "In 532 AD rioting between the factions began after one race, which led to the massacre of green supporters and the destruction of much of the center of Constantinople.", "(See Nika Riots).Green was the traditional color of Irish nationalism, beginning in the 17th century.", "The green harp flag, with a traditional gaelic harp, became the symbol of the movement.", "It was the banner of the Society of United Irishmen, which organized the ultimately unsuccessful Irish Rebellion of 1798.When Ireland achieved independence in 1922, green was incorporated into the national flag.In the 1970s green became the color of the third biggest Swiss Federal Council political party, the Swiss People's Party SVP.", "The ideology is Swiss nationalism, national conservatism, right-wing populism, economic liberalism, agrarianism, isolationism, euroscepticism.", "The SVP was founded on September 22, 1971 and has 90,000 members.In the 1980s green became the color of a number of new European political parties organized around an agenda of environmentalism.", "Green was chosen for its association with nature, health, and growth.", "The largest green party in Europe is Alliance '90/The Greens (German: Bündnis 90/Die Grünen) in Germany, which was formed in 1993 from the merger of the German Green Party, founded in West Germany in 1980, and Alliance 90, founded during the Revolution of 1989–1990 in East Germany.", "In the 2009 federal elections, the party won 11% of the votes and 68 out of 622 seats in the Bundestag.Green parties in Europe have programs based on ecology, grassroots democracy, nonviolence, and social justice.", "Green parties are found in over one hundred countries, and most are members of the Global Green Network.Greenpeace is a non-governmental environmental organization which emerged from the anti-nuclear and peace movements in the 1970s.", "Its ship, the Rainbow Warrior, frequently tried to interfere with nuclear tests and whaling operations.", "The movement now has branches in forty countries.The Australian Greens was founded in 1992.In the 2010 federal election, the party received 13% of the vote (more than 1.6 million votes) in the Senate, a first for any Australian minor party.Green is the color associated with Puerto Rico's Independence Party, the smallest of that country's three major political parties, which advocates Puerto Rican independence from the United States.In Indonesia, green is used by several Islamist political party, including National Awakening Party, Crescent Star Party, United Development Party, and the local Aceh Just and Prosperous Party.In Taiwan, green is used by Democratic Progressive Party.", "Green in Taiwan associates with Taiwan independence movement." ], [ "In religion", "Green is the traditional color of Islam.", "According to tradition, the robe and banner of Muhammad were green, and according to the Koran (XVIII, 31 and LXXVI, 21) those fortunate enough to live in paradise wear green silk robes.", "Muhammad is quoted in a hadith as saying that \"water, greenery, and a beautiful face\" were three universally good things.", "Green was accordingly adopted as a Shi'a color.Al-Khidr (\"The Green One\"), was an important Qur'anic figure who was said to have met and traveled with Moses.", "He was given that name because of his role as a diplomat and negotiator.", "Green was also considered to be the median color between light and obscurity.Roman Catholic and more traditional Protestant clergy wear green vestments at liturgical celebrations during Ordinary Time.", "In the Eastern Catholic Church, green is the color of Pentecost.", "Green is one of the Christmas colors as well, possibly dating back to pre-Christian times, when evergreens were worshiped for their ability to maintain their color through the winter season.", "Romans used green holly and evergreen as decorations for their winter solstice celebration called Saturnalia, which eventually evolved into a Christmas celebration.", "In Ireland and Scotland especially, green is used to represent Catholics, while orange is used to represent Protestantism.", "This is shown on the national flag of Ireland.In Paganism, green represents abundance, growth, wealth, renewal, and balance.", "In magickal practices, green is often used to bring money and luck.", "One figure who shares parallels with various deities is the Green Man." ], [ "In gambling and sports", "Judo newaza.jpg|A green belt in judo.Baccara Palette.jpg|A baccarat palette and cards on a casino gambling table.1929 Birkin Blower Bentley (Ralph Lauren's) at Lime Rock 2014.jpg|A 1929 Bentley colored British racing green.Jean Béraud Le Billard.jpg|A billiards table, colored green after the lawns where the ancestors of the game were originally played.", "* Gambling tables in a casino are traditionally green.", "The tradition is said to have started in gambling rooms in Venice in the 16th century.", "* Billiards tables are traditionally covered with green woolen cloth.", "The first indoor tables, dating to the 15th century, were colored green after the grass courts used for the similar lawn games of the period.", "* Green was the traditional color worn by hunters in the 19th century, particularly the shade called hunter green.", "In the 20th century most hunters began wearing the color olive drab, a shade of green, instead of hunter green.", "* Green is a common color for sports teams.", "Well-known teams include A.S. Saint-Étienne of France, known as ''Les Verts'' (The Greens).", "The Green Bay Packers, an American football team, has the color in its official name and wears green uniforms.", "A number of national soccer teams feature the color, with the color usually reflective of the teams' national flag.", "* British racing green was the international motor racing color of Britain from the early 1900s until the 1960s, when it was replaced by the colors of the sponsoring automobile companies.", "* A green belt in karate, taekwondo, and judo symbolizes a level of proficiency in the sport." ], [ "Idioms and expressions", "* '''Having a green thumb''' (American English) or '''green fingers''' (British English).", "To be passionate about or talented at gardening.", "The expression was popularized beginning in 1925 by a BBC gardening program.", "* '''Greenhorn'''.", "Someone who is inexperienced.", "* '''Green-eyed monster'''.", "Refers to jealousy.", "(See section above on jealousy and envy).", "* '''Greenmail'''.", "A term used in finance and corporate takeovers.", "It refers to the practice of a company paying a high price to buy back shares of its own stock to prevent an unfriendly takeover by another company or businessman.", "It originated in the 1980s on Wall Street, and originates from the green of dollars.", "* '''Green room'''.", "A room at a theater where actors rest when not onstage, or a room at a television studio where guests wait before going on-camera.", "It originated in the late 17th century from a room of that color at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in London.", "* '''Greenwashing'''.", "Environmental activists sometimes use this term to describe the advertising of a company which promotes its positive environmental practices to cover up its environmental destruction.", "* '''Green around the gills'''.", "A description of a person who looks physically ill.* '''Going green'''.", "An expression commonly used to refer to preserving the natural environment, and participating in activities such as recycling materials.", "* '''Looking green'''.", "A description of a person who looks revolted or repulsed." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "See also", "*Shades of green*Green pigments" ], [ "References", "=== Cited texts ===* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Green All Over—slideshow by ''Life'' magazine" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gradient" ], [ "Introduction", "The gradient, represented by the blue arrows, denotes the direction of greatest change of a scalar function.", "The values of the function are represented in greyscale and increase in value from white (low) to dark (high).In vector calculus, the '''gradient''' of a scalar-valued differentiable function of several variables is the vector field (or vector-valued function) whose value at a point gives the direction and the rate of fastest increase.", "The gradient transforms like a vector under change of basis of the space of variables of .", "If the gradient of a function is non-zero at a point , the direction of the gradient is the direction in which the function increases most quickly from , and the magnitude of the gradient is the rate of increase in that direction, the greatest absolute directional derivative.", "Further, a point where the gradient is the zero vector is known as a stationary point.", "The gradient thus plays a fundamental role in optimization theory, where it is used to minimize a function by gradient descent.", "In coordinate-free terms, the gradient of a function may be defined by:where is the total infinitesimal change in for an infinitesimal displacement , and is seen to be maximal when is in the direction of the gradient .", "The nabla symbol , written as an upside-down triangle and pronounced \"del\", denotes the vector differential operator.When a coordinate system is used in which the basis vectors are not functions of position, the gradient is given by the vector whose components are the partial derivatives of at .", "That is, for , its gradient is defined at the point in ''n''-dimensional space as the vectorNote that the above definition for gradient is only defined for the function , if it is differentiable at .", "There can be functions for which partial derivatives exist in every direction but fail to be differentiable.", "For example, the function unless at origin where , is not differentiable at the origin as it does not have a well defined tangent plane despite having well defined partial derivatives in every direction at the origin.", "In this particular example, under rotation of x-y coordinate system, the above formula for gradient fails to transform like a vector (gradient becomes dependent on choice of basis for coordinate system) and also fails to point towards the 'steepest ascent' in some orientations.", "For differentiable functions where the formula for gradient holds, it can be shown to always transform as a vector under transformation of the basis so as to always point towards the fastest increase.The gradient is dual to the total derivative : the value of the gradient at a point is a tangent vector – a vector at each point; while the value of the derivative at a point is a ''co''tangent vector – a linear functional on vectors.", "They are related in that the dot product of the gradient of at a point with another tangent vector equals the directional derivative of at of the function along ; that is, .", "The gradient admits multiple generalizations to more general functions on manifolds; see ." ], [ "Motivation", "Gradient of the 2D function is plotted as arrows over the pseudocolor plot of the function.Consider a room where the temperature is given by a scalar field, , so at each point the temperature is , independent of time.", "At each point in the room, the gradient of at that point will show the direction in which the temperature rises most quickly, moving away from .", "The magnitude of the gradient will determine how fast the temperature rises in that direction.Consider a surface whose height above sea level at point is .", "The gradient of at a point is a plane vector pointing in the direction of the steepest slope or grade at that point.", "The steepness of the slope at that point is given by the magnitude of the gradient vector.The gradient can also be used to measure how a scalar field changes in other directions, rather than just the direction of greatest change, by taking a dot product.", "Suppose that the steepest slope on a hill is 40%.", "A road going directly uphill has slope 40%, but a road going around the hill at an angle will have a shallower slope.", "For example, if the road is at a 60° angle from the uphill direction (when both directions are projected onto the horizontal plane), then the slope along the road will be the dot product between the gradient vector and a unit vector along the road, as the dot product measures how much the unit vector along the road aligns with the steepest slope, which is 40% times the cosine of 60°, or 20%.More generally, if the hill height function is differentiable, then the gradient of dotted with a unit vector gives the slope of the hill in the direction of the vector, the directional derivative of along the unit vector." ], [ "Notation", "The gradient of a function at point is usually written as .", "It may also be denoted by any of the following:* : to emphasize the vector nature of the result.", "* * and : Einstein notation." ], [ "Definition", "The gradient of the function depicted as a projected vector field on the bottom plane.The gradient (or gradient vector field) of a scalar function is denoted or where (nabla) denotes the vector differential operator, del.", "The notation is also commonly used to represent the gradient.", "The gradient of is defined as the unique vector field whose dot product with any vector at each point is the directional derivative of along .", "That is,where the right-hand side is the directional derivative and there are many ways to represent it.", "Formally, the derivative is ''dual'' to the gradient; see relationship with derivative.When a function also depends on a parameter such as time, the gradient often refers simply to the vector of its spatial derivatives only (see Spatial gradient).The magnitude and direction of the gradient vector are independent of the particular coordinate representation.===Cartesian coordinates===In the three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system with a Euclidean metric, the gradient, if it exists, is given bywhere , , are the standard unit vectors in the directions of the , and coordinates, respectively.", "For example, the gradient of the functionisor In some applications it is customary to represent the gradient as a row vector or column vector of its components in a rectangular coordinate system; this article follows the convention of the gradient being a column vector, while the derivative is a row vector.===Cylindrical and spherical coordinates===In cylindrical coordinates with a Euclidean metric, the gradient is given by:where is the axial distance, is the azimuthal or azimuth angle, is the axial coordinate, and , and are unit vectors pointing along the coordinate directions.In spherical coordinates, the gradient is given by:where is the radial distance, is the azimuthal angle and is the polar angle, and , and are again local unit vectors pointing in the coordinate directions (that is, the normalized covariant basis).For the gradient in other orthogonal coordinate systems, see Orthogonal coordinates (Differential operators in three dimensions).===General coordinates===We consider general coordinates, which we write as , where is the number of dimensions of the domain.", "Here, the upper index refers to the position in the list of the coordinate or component, so refers to the second component—not the quantity squared.", "The index variable refers to an arbitrary element .", "Using Einstein notation, the gradient can then be written as: (Note that its dual is ),where and refer to the unnormalized local covariant and contravariant bases respectively, is the inverse metric tensor, and the Einstein summation convention implies summation over ''i'' and ''j''.", "If the coordinates are orthogonal we can easily express the gradient (and the differential) in terms of the normalized bases, which we refer to as and , using the scale factors (also known as Lamé coefficients) : (and ),where we cannot use Einstein notation, since it is impossible to avoid the repetition of more than two indices.", "Despite the use of upper and lower indices, , , and are neither contravariant nor covariant.The latter expression evaluates to the expressions given above for cylindrical and spherical coordinates." ], [ "Relationship with derivative{{anchor|Derivative}}", "===Relationship with total derivative===The gradient is closely related to the total derivative (total differential) : they are transpose (dual) to each other.", "Using the convention that vectors in are represented by column vectors, and that covectors (linear maps ) are represented by row vectors, the gradient and the derivative are expressed as a column and row vector, respectively, with the same components, but transpose of each other:While these both have the same components, they differ in what kind of mathematical object they represent: at each point, the derivative is a cotangent vector, a linear form (or covector) which expresses how much the (scalar) output changes for a given infinitesimal change in (vector) input, while at each point, the gradient is a tangent vector, which represents an infinitesimal change in (vector) input.", "In symbols, the gradient is an element of the tangent space at a point, , while the derivative is a map from the tangent space to the real numbers, .", "The tangent spaces at each point of can be \"naturally\" identified with the vector space itself, and similarly the cotangent space at each point can be naturally identified with the dual vector space of covectors; thus the value of the gradient at a point can be thought of a vector in the original , not just as a tangent vector.Computationally, given a tangent vector, the vector can be ''multiplied'' by the derivative (as matrices), which is equal to taking the dot product with the gradient:====Differential or (exterior) derivative====The best linear approximation to a differentiable functionat a point in is a linear map from to which is often denoted by or and called the differential or total derivative of at .", "The function , which maps to , is called the total differential or exterior derivative of and is an example of a differential 1-form.Much as the derivative of a function of a single variable represents the slope of the tangent to the graph of the function, the directional derivative of a function in several variables represents the slope of the tangent hyperplane in the direction of the vector.The gradient is related to the differential by the formulafor any , where is the dot product: taking the dot product of a vector with the gradient is the same as taking the directional derivative along the vector.If is viewed as the space of (dimension ) column vectors (of real numbers), then one can regard as the row vector with componentsso that is given by matrix multiplication.", "Assuming the standard Euclidean metric on , the gradient is then the corresponding column vector, that is,====Linear approximation to a function====The best linear approximation to a function can be expressed in terms of the gradient, rather than the derivative.", "The gradient of a function from the Euclidean space to at any particular point in characterizes the best linear approximation to at .", "The approximation is as follows:for close to , where is the gradient of computed at , and the dot denotes the dot product on .", "This equation is equivalent to the first two terms in the multivariable Taylor series expansion of at .===Relationship with ===Let be an open set in .", "If the function is differentiable, then the differential of is the Fréchet derivative of .", "Thus is a function from to the space such thatwhere · is the dot product.As a consequence, the usual properties of the derivative hold for the gradient, though the gradient is not a derivative itself, but rather dual to the derivative:;Linearity:The gradient is linear in the sense that if and are two real-valued functions differentiable at the point , and and are two constants, then is differentiable at , and moreover ;Product rule:If and are real-valued functions differentiable at a point , then the product rule asserts that the product is differentiable at , and ;Chain rule:Suppose that is a real-valued function defined on a subset of , and that is differentiable at a point .", "There are two forms of the chain rule applying to the gradient.", "First, suppose that the function is a parametric curve; that is, a function maps a subset into .", "If is differentiable at a point such that , then where ∘ is the composition operator: .More generally, if instead , then the following holds:where T denotes the transpose Jacobian matrix.For the second form of the chain rule, suppose that is a real valued function on a subset of , and that is differentiable at the point .", "Then" ], [ "Further properties and applications", "===Level sets===A level surface, or isosurface, is the set of all points where some function has a given value.If is differentiable, then the dot product of the gradient at a point with a vector gives the directional derivative of at in the direction .", "It follows that in this case the gradient of is orthogonal to the level sets of .", "For example, a level surface in three-dimensional space is defined by an equation of the form .", "The gradient of is then normal to the surface.More generally, any embedded hypersurface in a Riemannian manifold can be cut out by an equation of the form such that is nowhere zero.", "The gradient of is then normal to the hypersurface.Similarly, an affine algebraic hypersurface may be defined by an equation , where is a polynomial.", "The gradient of is zero at a singular point of the hypersurface (this is the definition of a singular point).", "At a non-singular point, it is a nonzero normal vector.===Conservative vector fields and the gradient theorem===The gradient of a function is called a gradient field.", "A (continuous) gradient field is always a conservative vector field: its line integral along any path depends only on the endpoints of the path, and can be evaluated by the gradient theorem (the fundamental theorem of calculus for line integrals).", "Conversely, a (continuous) conservative vector field is always the gradient of a function." ], [ "Generalizations", "=== Jacobian ===The Jacobian matrix is the generalization of the gradient for vector-valued functions of several variables and differentiable maps between Euclidean spaces or, more generally, manifolds.", "A further generalization for a function between Banach spaces is the Fréchet derivative.Suppose is a function such that each of its first-order partial derivatives exist on .", "Then the Jacobian matrix of is defined to be an matrix, denoted by or simply .", "The th entry is .", "Explicitly===Gradient of a vector field===Since the total derivative of a vector field is a linear mapping from vectors to vectors, it is a tensor quantity.In rectangular coordinates, the gradient of a vector field is defined by:(where the Einstein summation notation is used and the tensor product of the vectors and is a dyadic tensor of type (2,0)).", "Overall, this expression equals the transpose of the Jacobian matrix:In curvilinear coordinates, or more generally on a curved manifold, the gradient involves Christoffel symbols:where are the components of the inverse metric tensor and the are the coordinate basis vectors.Expressed more invariantly, the gradient of a vector field can be defined by the Levi-Civita connection and metric tensor:where is the connection.===Riemannian manifolds===For any smooth function on a Riemannian manifold , the gradient of is the vector field such that for any vector field ,that is,where denotes the inner product of tangent vectors at defined by the metric and is the function that takes any point to the directional derivative of in the direction , evaluated at .", "In other words, in a coordinate chart from an open subset of to an open subset of , is given by:where denotes the th component of in this coordinate chart.So, the local form of the gradient takes the form:Generalizing the case , the gradient of a function is related to its exterior derivative, sinceMore precisely, the gradient is the vector field associated to the differential 1-form using the musical isomorphism(called \"sharp\") defined by the metric .", "The relation between the exterior derivative and the gradient of a function on is a special case of this in which the metric is the flat metric given by the dot product." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * .", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gauss (unit)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''gauss''' (symbol: '''''', sometimes '''Gs'''), is a unit of measurement of magnetic induction, also known as magnetic flux density.", "The unit is part of the Gaussian system of units, which inherited it from the older centimetre–gram–second electromagnetic units (CGS-EMU) system.", "It was named after the German mathematician and physicist Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1936.One gauss is defined as one maxwell per square centimetre.As the centimetre–gram–second system of units (cgs system) has been superseded by the International System of Units (SI), the use of the gauss has been deprecated by the standards bodies, but is still regularly used in various subfields of science.", "The SI unit for magnetic flux density is the tesla (symbol T), which corresponds to ." ], [ "Name, symbol, and metric prefixes", "Albeit not a component of the International System of Units, the usage of the gauss generally follows the rules for SI units.", "Since the name is derived from a person's name, its symbol is the uppercase letter \"G\".", "When the unit is spelled out, it is written in lowercase (\"gauss\"), unless it begins a sentence.", "The gauss may be combined with metric prefixes, such as in milligauss, mG (or mGs), or kilogauss, kG (or kGs)." ], [ "Unit conversions", "The gauss is the unit of magnetic flux density '''B''' in the system of Gaussian units and is equal to Mx/cm2 or g/Bi/s2, while the oersted is the unit of -field.", "One tesla (T) corresponds to 104 gauss, and one ampere (A) per metre corresponds to 4π × 10−3 oersted.", "The units for magnetic flux Φ, which is the integral of magnetic -field over an area, are the weber (Wb) in the SI and the maxwell (Mx) in the CGS-Gaussian system.", "The conversion factor is , since flux is the integral of field over an area, area having the units of the square of distance, thus (magnetic field conversion factor) times the square of (linear distance conversion factor).", "108 Mx/Wb = 104 G/T × (102 cm/m)2." ], [ "Typical values", "* 10−9–10−8 G – the magnetic field of the human brain* 10−6–10−3 G – the magnetic field of Galactic molecular clouds.", "Typical magnetic field strengths within the interstellar medium of the Milky Way are ~5 μG.", "* 0.25–0.60 G – the Earth's magnetic field at its surface* 4 G – near Jupiter's equator* 25 G – the Earth's magnetic field in its core* 50 G – a typical refrigerator magnet* 100 G – an iron magnet* 1500 G – within a sun spot* 10000 to 13000 G – remanence of a neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) magnet* 16000 to 22000 G – saturation of high permeability iron alloys used in transformers* 3000–70000 G – a medical magnetic resonance imaging machine * 1012–1013 G – the surface of a neutron star* 4 × 1013 G – the Schwinger limit* 1014 G – the magnetic field of SGR J1745-2900, orbiting the supermassive black hole Sgr A* in the center of the Milky Way.", "* 1015 G – the magnetic field of some newly created magnetars* 1017 G – the upper limit to neutron star magnetism" ], [ "See also", "*Tesla (unit)*Centimetre–gram–second system of units*Gaussian units" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Glacier" ], [ "Introduction", "Glacier of the Geikie Plateau in Greenland.The Taschachferner in the Ötztal Alps in Austria.", "The mountain to the left is the Wildspitze (3.768 m), second highest in Austria.With 7,253 known glaciers, Pakistan contains more glacial ice than any other country on earth outside the polar regions.", "At in length, the pictured Baltoro Glacier is one of the world's longest alpine glaciers.A '''glacier''' (; ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight.", "A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries.", "It acquires distinguishing features, such as crevasses and seracs, as it slowly flows and deforms under stresses induced by its weight.", "As it moves, it abrades rock and debris from its substrate to create landforms such as cirques, moraines, or fjords.", "Although a glacier may flow into a body of water, it forms only on land and is distinct from the much thinner sea ice and lake ice that form on the surface of bodies of water.On Earth, 99% of glacial ice is contained within vast ice sheets (also known as \"continental glaciers\") in the polar regions, but glaciers may be found in mountain ranges on every continent other than the Australian mainland, including Oceania's high-latitude oceanic island countries such as New Zealand.", "Between latitudes 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the Himalayas, Andes, and a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico, New Guinea and on Zard-Kuh in Iran.", "With more than 7,000 known glaciers, Pakistan has more glacial ice than any other country outside the polar regions.", "Glaciers cover about 10% of Earth's land surface.", "Continental glaciers cover nearly or about 98% of Antarctica's , with an average thickness of ice .", "Greenland and Patagonia also have huge expanses of continental glaciers.", "The volume of glaciers, not including the ice sheets of Antarctica and Greenland, has been estimated at 170,000 km3.Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth, holding with ice sheets about 69 percent of the world's freshwater.", "Many glaciers from temperate, alpine and seasonal polar climates store water as ice during the colder seasons and release it later in the form of meltwater as warmer summer temperatures cause the glacier to melt, creating a water source that is especially important for plants, animals and human uses when other sources may be scant.", "However, within high-altitude and Antarctic environments, the seasonal temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater.Since glacial mass is affected by long-term climatic changes, e.g., precipitation, mean temperature, and cloud cover, glacial mass changes are considered among the most sensitive indicators of climate change and are a major source of variations in sea level.A large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, appears blue, as large quantities of water appear blue, because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than blue.", "The other reason for the blue color of glaciers is the lack of air bubbles.", "Air bubbles, which give a white color to ice, are squeezed out by pressure increasing the created ice's density." ], [ "Etymology and related terms", "The word ''glacier'' is a loanword from French and goes back, via Franco-Provençal, to the Vulgar Latin '''', derived from the Late Latin '''', and ultimately Latin '''', meaning \"ice\".", "The processes and features caused by or related to glaciers are referred to as glacial.", "The process of glacier establishment, growth and flow is called glaciation.", "The corresponding area of study is called glaciology.", "Glaciers are important components of the global cryosphere." ], [ "Types", "=== Classification by size, shape and behavior ===The Quelccaya Ice Cap in Peru is the second-largest glaciated area in the tropicsGlaciers are categorized by their morphology, thermal characteristics, and behavior.", "''Alpine glaciers'' form on the crests and slopes of mountains.", "A glacier that fills a valley is called a ''valley glacier'', or alternatively, an ''alpine glacier'' or ''mountain glacier''.", "A large body of glacial ice astride a mountain, mountain range, or volcano is termed an ''ice cap'' or ''ice field''.", "Ice caps have an area less than by definition.Glacial bodies larger than are called ''ice sheets'' or ''continental glaciers''.", "Several kilometers deep, they obscure the underlying topography.", "Only nunataks protrude from their surfaces.", "The only extant ice sheets are the two that cover most of Antarctica and Greenland.", "They contain vast quantities of freshwater, enough that if both melted, global sea levels would rise by over .", "Portions of an ice sheet or cap that extend into water are called ice shelves; they tend to be thin with limited slopes and reduced velocities.", "Narrow, fast-moving sections of an ice sheet are called ''ice streams''.", "In Antarctica, many ice streams drain into large ice shelves.", "Some drain directly into the sea, often with an ice tongue, like Mertz Glacier.", "''Tidewater glaciers'' are glaciers that terminate in the sea, including most glaciers flowing from Greenland, Antarctica, Baffin, Devon, and Ellesmere Islands in Canada, Southeast Alaska, and the Northern and Southern Patagonian Ice Fields.", "As the ice reaches the sea, pieces break off or calve, forming icebergs.", "Most tidewater glaciers calve above sea level, which often results in a tremendous impact as the iceberg strikes the water.", "Tidewater glaciers undergo centuries-long cycles of advance and retreat that are much less affected by climate change than other glaciers.=== Classification by thermal state === Webber Glacier on Grant Land is an advancing polar glacierThermally, a ''temperate glacier'' is at a melting point throughout the year, from its surface to its base.", "The ice of a ''polar glacier'' is always below the freezing threshold from the surface to its base, although the surface snowpack may experience seasonal melting.", "A ''subpolar glacier'' includes both temperate and polar ice, depending on the depth beneath the surface and position along the length of the glacier.", "In a similar way, the thermal regime of a glacier is often described by its basal temperature.", "A ''cold-based glacier'' is below freezing at the ice-ground interface and is thus frozen to the underlying substrate.", "A ''warm-based glacier'' is above or at freezing at the interface and is able to slide at this contact.", "This contrast is thought to a large extent to govern the ability of a glacier to effectively erode its bed, as sliding ice promotes plucking at rock from the surface below.", "Glaciers which are partly cold-based and partly warm-based are known as ''polythermal''." ], [ "Formation", "A glacier cave located on the Perito Moreno Glacier in ArgentinaGlaciers form where the accumulation of snow and ice exceeds ablation.", "A glacier usually originates from a cirque landform (alternatively known as a corrie or as a ) – a typically armchair-shaped geological feature (such as a depression between mountains enclosed by arêtes) – which collects and compresses through gravity the snow that falls into it.", "This snow accumulates and the weight of the snow falling above compacts it, forming névé (granular snow).", "Further crushing of the individual snowflakes and squeezing the air from the snow turns it into \"glacial ice\".", "This glacial ice will fill the cirque until it \"overflows\" through a geological weakness or vacancy, such as a gap between two mountains.", "When the mass of snow and ice reaches sufficient thickness, it begins to move by a combination of surface slope, gravity, and pressure.", "On steeper slopes, this can occur with as little as of snow-ice.In temperate glaciers, snow repeatedly freezes and thaws, changing into granular ice called firn.", "Under the pressure of the layers of ice and snow above it, this granular ice fuses into denser firn.", "Over a period of years, layers of firn undergo further compaction and become glacial ice.", "Glacier ice is slightly more dense than ice formed from frozen water because glacier ice contains fewer trapped air bubbles.Glacial ice has a distinctive blue tint because it absorbs some red light due to an overtone of the infrared OH stretching mode of the water molecule.", "(Liquid water appears blue for the same reason.", "The blue of glacier ice is sometimes misattributed to Rayleigh scattering of bubbles in the ice.)" ], [ "Structure", "Black ice glacier near Aconcagua, ArgentinaA glacier originates at a location called its glacier head and terminates at its glacier foot, snout, or terminus.Glaciers are broken into zones based on surface snowpack and melt conditions.", "The ablation zone is the region where there is a net loss in glacier mass.", "The upper part of a glacier, where accumulation exceeds ablation, is called the accumulation zone.", "The equilibrium line separates the ablation zone and the accumulation zone; it is the contour where the amount of new snow gained by accumulation is equal to the amount of ice lost through ablation.", "In general, the accumulation zone accounts for 60–70% of the glacier's surface area, more if the glacier calves icebergs.", "Ice in the accumulation zone is deep enough to exert a downward force that erodes underlying rock.", "After a glacier melts, it often leaves behind a bowl- or amphitheater-shaped depression that ranges in size from large basins like the Great Lakes to smaller mountain depressions known as cirques.The accumulation zone can be subdivided based on its melt conditions.# The dry snow zone is a region where no melt occurs, even in the summer, and the snowpack remains dry.# The percolation zone is an area with some surface melt, causing meltwater to percolate into the snowpack.", "This zone is often marked by refrozen ice lenses, glands, and layers.", "The snowpack also never reaches the melting point.# Near the equilibrium line on some glaciers, a superimposed ice zone develops.", "This zone is where meltwater refreezes as a cold layer in the glacier, forming a continuous mass of ice.# The wet snow zone is the region where all of the snow deposited since the end of the previous summer has been raised to 0 °C.The health of a glacier is usually assessed by determining the glacier mass balance or observing terminus behavior.", "Healthy glaciers have large accumulation zones, more than 60% of their area is snow-covered at the end of the melt season, and they have a terminus with a vigorous flow.Following the Little Ice Age's end around 1850, glaciers around the Earth have retreated substantially.", "A slight cooling led to the advance of many alpine glaciers between 1950 and 1985, but since 1985 glacier retreat and mass loss has become larger and increasingly ubiquitous." ], [ "Motion", "Shear or herring-bone crevasses on Emmons Glacier (Mount Rainier); such crevasses often form near the edge of a glacier where interactions with underlying or marginal rock impede flow.", "In this case, the impediment appears to be some distance from the near margin of the glacier.The overhanging icefront of the advancing Webber Glacier with waterfalls (Borup Fiord area, Northern Ellesmere Island).", "Debris rich layers have been sheared and folded into the basal cold glacier ice.", "The glacier front is 6 km broad and up to 40 m high.", "July 20, 1978,Glaciers move downhill by the force of gravity and the internal deformation of ice.", "Ice behaves like a brittle solid until its thickness exceeds about 50 m (160 ft).", "The pressure on ice deeper than 50 m causes plastic flow.", "At the molecular level, ice consists of stacked layers of molecules with relatively weak bonds between layers.", "When the stress on the layer above exceeds the inter-layer binding strength, it moves faster than the layer below.Glaciers also move through basal sliding.", "In this process, a glacier slides over the terrain on which it sits, lubricated by the presence of liquid water.", "The water is created from ice that melts under high pressure from frictional heating.", "Basal sliding is dominant in temperate or warm-based glaciers.Although evidence in favor of glacial flow was known by the early 19th century, other theories of glacial motion were advanced, such as the idea that meltwater, refreezing inside glaciers, caused the glacier to dilate and extend its length.", "As it became clear that glaciers behaved to some degree as if the ice were a viscous fluid, it was argued that \"regelation\", or the melting and refreezing of ice at a temperature lowered by the pressure on the ice inside the glacier, was what allowed the ice to deform and flow.", "James Forbes came up with the essentially correct explanation in the 1840s, although it was several decades before it was fully accepted.=== Fracture zone and cracks ===Ice cracks in the Titlis GlacierThe top of a glacier are rigid because they are under low pressure.", "This upper section is known as the ''fracture zone'' and moves mostly as a single unit over the plastic-flowing lower section.", "When a glacier moves through irregular terrain, cracks called crevasses develop in the fracture zone.", "Crevasses form because of differences in glacier velocity.", "If two rigid sections of a glacier move at different speeds or directions, shear forces cause them to break apart, opening a crevasse.", "Crevasses are seldom more than deep but, in some cases, can be at least deep.", "Beneath this point, the plasticity of the ice prevents the formation of cracks.", "Intersecting crevasses can create isolated peaks in the ice, called seracs.Crevasses can form in several different ways.", "Transverse crevasses are transverse to flow and form where steeper slopes cause a glacier to accelerate.", "Longitudinal crevasses form semi-parallel to flow where a glacier expands laterally.", "Marginal crevasses form near the edge of the glacier, caused by the reduction in speed caused by friction of the valley walls.", "Marginal crevasses are largely transverse to flow.", "Moving glacier ice can sometimes separate from the stagnant ice above, forming a bergschrund.", "Bergschrunds resemble crevasses but are singular features at a glacier's margins.", "Crevasses make travel over glaciers hazardous, especially when they are hidden by fragile snow bridges.Below the equilibrium line, glacial meltwater is concentrated in stream channels.", "Meltwater can pool in proglacial lakes on top of a glacier or descend into the depths of a glacier via moulins.", "Streams within or beneath a glacier flow in englacial or sub-glacial tunnels.", "These tunnels sometimes reemerge at the glacier's surface.=== Speed ===The speed of glacial displacement is partly determined by friction.", "Friction makes the ice at the bottom of the glacier move more slowly than ice at the top.", "In alpine glaciers, friction is also generated at the valley's sidewalls, which slows the edges relative to the center.Mean glacial speed varies greatly but is typically around per day.", "There may be no motion in stagnant areas; for example, in parts of Alaska, trees can establish themselves on surface sediment deposits.", "In other cases, glaciers can move as fast as per day, such as in Greenland's Jakobshavn Isbræ.", "Glacial speed is affected by factors such as slope, ice thickness, snowfall, longitudinal confinement, basal temperature, meltwater production, and bed hardness.A few glaciers have periods of very rapid advancement called surges.", "These glaciers exhibit normal movement until suddenly they accelerate, then return to their previous movement state.", "These surges may be caused by the failure of the underlying bedrock, the pooling of meltwater at the base of the glacier — perhaps delivered from a supraglacial lake — or the simple accumulation of mass beyond a critical \"tipping point\".", "Temporary rates up to per day have occurred when increased temperature or overlying pressure caused bottom ice to melt and water to accumulate beneath a glacier.In glaciated areas where the glacier moves faster than one km per year, glacial earthquakes occur.", "These are large scale earthquakes that have seismic magnitudes as high as 6.1.The number of glacial earthquakes in Greenland peaks every year in July, August, and September and increased rapidly in the 1990s and 2000s.", "In a study using data from January 1993 through October 2005, more events were detected every year since 2002, and twice as many events were recorded in 2005 as there were in any other year.=== Ogives ===Forbes bands on the Mer de Glace glacier in FranceOgives or Forbes bands are alternating wave crests and valleys that appear as dark and light bands of ice on glacier surfaces.", "They are linked to seasonal motion of glaciers; the width of one dark and one light band generally equals the annual movement of the glacier.", "Ogives are formed when ice from an icefall is severely broken up, increasing ablation surface area during summer.", "This creates a swale and space for snow accumulation in the winter, which in turn creates a ridge.", "Sometimes ogives consist only of undulations or color bands and are described as wave ogives or band ogives." ], [ "Geography", "Fox Glacier in New Zealand finishes near a rainforestGlaciers are present on every continent and in approximately fifty countries, excluding those (Australia, South Africa) that have glaciers only on distant subantarctic island territories.", "Extensive glaciers are found in Antarctica, Argentina, Chile, Canada, Alaska, Greenland and Iceland.", "Mountain glaciers are widespread, especially in the Andes, the Himalayas, the Rocky Mountains, the Caucasus, Scandinavian mountains, and the Alps.", "Snezhnika glacier in Pirin Mountain, Bulgaria with a latitude of 41°46′09″ N is the southernmost glacial mass in Europe.", "Mainland Australia currently contains no glaciers, although a small glacier on Mount Kosciuszko was present in the last glacial period.", "In New Guinea, small, rapidly diminishing, glaciers are located on Puncak Jaya.", "Africa has glaciers on Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, on Mount Kenya, and in the Rwenzori Mountains.", "Oceanic islands with glaciers include Iceland, several of the islands off the coast of Norway including Svalbard and Jan Mayen to the far north, New Zealand and the subantarctic islands of Marion, Heard, Grande Terre (Kerguelen) and Bouvet.", "During glacial periods of the Quaternary, Taiwan, Hawaii on Mauna Kea and Tenerife also had large alpine glaciers, while the Faroe and Crozet Islands were completely glaciated.The permanent snow cover necessary for glacier formation is affected by factors such as the degree of slope on the land, amount of snowfall and the winds.", "Glaciers can be found in all latitudes except from 20° to 27° north and south of the equator where the presence of the descending limb of the Hadley circulation lowers precipitation so much that with high insolation snow lines reach above .", "Between 19˚N and 19˚S, however, precipitation is higher, and the mountains above usually have permanent snow.Even at high latitudes, glacier formation is not inevitable.", "Areas of the Arctic, such as Banks Island, and the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica are considered polar deserts where glaciers cannot form because they receive little snowfall despite the bitter cold.", "Cold air, unlike warm air, is unable to transport much water vapor.", "Even during glacial periods of the Quaternary, Manchuria, lowland Siberia, and central and northern Alaska, though extraordinarily cold, had such light snowfall that glaciers could not form.In addition to the dry, unglaciated polar regions, some mountains and volcanoes in Bolivia, Chile and Argentina are high () and cold, but the relative lack of precipitation prevents snow from accumulating into glaciers.", "This is because these peaks are located near or in the hyperarid Atacama Desert." ], [ "Glacial geology", "abrasionGlaciers erode terrain through two principal processes: plucking and abrasion.As glaciers flow over bedrock, they soften and lift blocks of rock into the ice.", "This process, called plucking, is caused by subglacial water that penetrates fractures in the bedrock and subsequently freezes and expands.", "This expansion causes the ice to act as a lever that loosens the rock by lifting it.", "Thus, sediments of all sizes become part of the glacier's load.", "If a retreating glacier gains enough debris, it may become a rock glacier, like the Timpanogos Glacier in Utah.Abrasion occurs when the ice and its load of rock fragments slide over bedrock and function as sandpaper, smoothing and polishing the bedrock below.", "The pulverized rock this process produces is called rock flour and is made up of rock grains between 0.002 and 0.00625 mm in size.", "Abrasion leads to steeper valley walls and mountain slopes in alpine settings, which can cause avalanches and rock slides, which add even more material to the glacier.", "Glacial abrasion is commonly characterized by glacial striations.", "Glaciers produce these when they contain large boulders that carve long scratches in the bedrock.", "By mapping the direction of the striations, researchers can determine the direction of the glacier's movement.", "Similar to striations are chatter marks, lines of crescent-shape depressions in the rock underlying a glacier.", "They are formed by abrasion when boulders in the glacier are repeatedly caught and released as they are dragged along the bedrock.Glacially plucked granitic bedrock near Mariehamn, ÅlandThe rate of glacier erosion varies.", "Six factors control erosion rate:* Velocity of glacial movement* Thickness of the ice* Shape, abundance and hardness of rock fragments contained in the ice at the bottom of the glacier* Relative ease of erosion of the surface under the glacier* Thermal conditions at the glacier base* Permeability and water pressure at the glacier baseWhen the bedrock has frequent fractures on the surface, glacial erosion rates tend to increase as plucking is the main erosive force on the surface; when the bedrock has wide gaps between sporadic fractures, however, abrasion tends to be the dominant erosive form and glacial erosion rates become slow.", "Glaciers in lower latitudes tend to be much more erosive than glaciers in higher latitudes, because they have more meltwater reaching the glacial base and facilitate sediment production and transport under the same moving speed and amount of ice.Material that becomes incorporated in a glacier is typically carried as far as the zone of ablation before being deposited.", "Glacial deposits are of two distinct types:* ''Glacial till'': material directly deposited from glacial ice.", "Till includes a mixture of undifferentiated material ranging from clay size to boulders, the usual composition of a moraine.", "* ''Fluvial and outwash sediments'': sediments deposited by water.", "These deposits are stratified by size.Larger pieces of rock that are encrusted in till or deposited on the surface are called \"glacial erratics\".", "They range in size from pebbles to boulders, but as they are often moved great distances, they may be drastically different from the material upon which they are found.", "Patterns of glacial erratics hint at past glacial motions.=== Moraines ===Lake Louise, Alberta, Canada|leftGlacial moraines are formed by the deposition of material from a glacier and are exposed after the glacier has retreated.", "They usually appear as linear mounds of till, a non-sorted mixture of rock, gravel, and boulders within a matrix of fine powdery material.", "Terminal or end moraines are formed at the foot or terminal end of a glacier.", "Lateral moraines are formed on the sides of the glacier.", "Medial moraines are formed when two different glaciers merge and the lateral moraines of each coalesce to form a moraine in the middle of the combined glacier.", "Less apparent are ground moraines, also called ''glacial drift'', which often blankets the surface underneath the glacier downslope from the equilibrium line.", "The term ''moraine'' is of French origin.", "It was coined by peasants to describe alluvial embankments and rims found near the margins of glaciers in the French Alps.", "In modern geology, the term is used more broadly and is applied to a series of formations, all of which are composed of till.", "Moraines can also create moraine-dammed lakes.=== Drumlins ===Drumlins around Horicon Marsh, Wisconsin, in an area with one of the highest concentration of drumlins in the world.", "The curved path of the Laurentide Ice Sheet is evident in the orientation of the various mounds.Drumlins are asymmetrical, canoe-shaped hills made mainly of till.", "Their heights vary from 15 to 50 meters, and they can reach a kilometer in length.", "The steepest side of the hill faces the direction from which the ice advanced (''stoss''), while a longer slope is left in the ice's direction of movement (''lee'').", "Drumlins are found in groups called ''drumlin fields'' or ''drumlin camps''.", "One of these fields is found east of Rochester, New York; it is estimated to contain about 10,000 drumlins.", "Although the process that forms drumlins is not fully understood, their shape implies that they are products of the plastic deformation zone of ancient glaciers.", "It is believed that many drumlins were formed when glaciers advanced over and altered the deposits of earlier glaciers.=== Glacial valleys, cirques, arêtes, and pyramidal peaks ===leftBefore glaciation, mountain valleys have a characteristic \"V\" shape, produced by eroding water.", "During glaciation, these valleys are often widened, deepened and smoothed to form a U-shaped glacial valley or glacial trough, as it is sometimes called.", "The erosion that creates glacial valleys truncates any spurs of rock or earth that may have earlier extended across the valley, creating broadly triangular-shaped cliffs called truncated spurs.", "Within glacial valleys, depressions created by plucking and abrasion can be filled by lakes, called paternoster lakes.", "If a glacial valley runs into a large body of water, it forms a fjord.Typically glaciers deepen their valleys more than their smaller tributaries.", "Therefore, when glaciers recede, the valleys of the tributary glaciers remain above the main glacier's depression and are called hanging valleys.At the start of a classic valley glacier is a bowl-shaped cirque, which have escarped walls on three sides but is open on the side that descends into the valley.", "Cirques are where ice begins to accumulate in a glacier.", "Two glacial cirques may form back to back and erode their backwalls until only a narrow ridge, called an arête is left.", "This structure may result in a mountain pass.", "If multiple cirques encircle a single mountain, they create pointed pyramidal peaks; particularly steep examples are called horns.=== Roches moutonnées ===Passage of glacial ice over an area of bedrock may cause the rock to be sculpted into a knoll called a ''roche moutonnée,'' or \"sheepback\" rock.", "Roches moutonnées may be elongated, rounded and asymmetrical in shape.", "They range in length from less than a meter to several hundred meters long.", "Roches moutonnées have a gentle slope on their up-glacier sides and a steep to vertical face on their down-glacier sides.", "The glacier abrades the smooth slope on the upstream side as it flows along, but tears rock fragments loose and carries them away from the downstream side via plucking.=== Alluvial stratification ===As the water that rises from the ablation zone moves away from the glacier, it carries fine eroded sediments with it.", "As the speed of the water decreases, so does its capacity to carry objects in suspension.", "The water thus gradually deposits the sediment as it runs, creating an alluvial plain.", "When this phenomenon occurs in a valley, it is called a ''valley train''.", "When the deposition is in an estuary, the sediments are known as bay mud.", "Outwash plains and valley trains are usually accompanied by basins known as \"kettles\".", "These are small lakes formed when large ice blocks that are trapped in alluvium melt and produce water-filled depressions.", "Kettle diameters range from 5 m to 13 km, with depths of up to 45 meters.", "Most are circular in shape because the blocks of ice that formed them were rounded as they melted.=== Glacial deposits ===300x300pxWhen a glacier's size shrinks below a critical point, its flow stops and it becomes stationary.", "Meanwhile, meltwater within and beneath the ice leaves stratified alluvial deposits.", "These deposits, in the forms of columns, terraces and clusters, remain after the glacier melts and are known as \"glacial deposits\".", "Glacial deposits that take the shape of hills or mounds are called ''kames''.", "Some kames form when meltwater deposits sediments through openings in the interior of the ice.", "Others are produced by fans or deltas created by meltwater.", "When the glacial ice occupies a valley, it can form terraces or kames along the sides of the valley.", "Long, sinuous glacial deposits are called ''eskers''.", "Eskers are composed of sand and gravel that was deposited by meltwater streams that flowed through ice tunnels within or beneath a glacier.", "They remain after the ice melts, with heights exceeding 100 meters and lengths of as long as 100 km.=== Loess deposits ===Very fine glacial sediments or rock flour is often picked up by wind blowing over the bare surface and may be deposited great distances from the original fluvial deposition site.", "These eolian loess deposits may be very deep, even hundreds of meters, as in areas of China and the Midwestern United States.", "Katabatic winds can be important in this process." ], [ "Climate change", "Glaciers, which can be hundreds of thousands of years old, are used to track climate change over long periods of time.", "Researchers melt or crush samples from glacier ice cores whose progressively deep layers represent respectively earlier times in Earth's climate history.", "The researchers apply various instruments to the content of bubbles trapped in the cores' layers in order to track changes in the atmosphere's composition.", "Temperatures are deduced from differing relative concentrations of respective gases, confirming that for at least the last million years, global temperatures have been linked to carbon dioxide concentrations.Human activities in the industrial era have increased the concentration of carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping greenhouse gases in the air, causing current global warming.", "Human influence is the principal driver of changes to the cryosphere of which glaciers are a part.", "Ice lagoon Jökulsárlón at the foot of the Vatnajökull Glacier, Iceland, 2023Global warming creates positive feedback loops with glaciers.", "For example, in ice–albedo feedback, rising temperatures increase glacier melt, exposing more of earth's land and sea surface (which is darker than glacier ice), allowing sunlight to warm the surface rather than being reflected back into space.", "Reference glaciers tracked by the World Glacier Monitoring Service have lost ice every year since 1988.An indicator for glacier loss is the Glacier Loss Day.Water runoff from melting glaciers causes global sea level to rise, a phenomenon the IPCC terms a \"slow onset\" event.", "Impacts at least partially attributable to sea level rise include encroachment on coastal settlements and infrastructure, increase in populations inhabiting 100-year coastal flood zones, existential threats to small islands and low-lying coasts, declines in coastal fishery resources, losses of coastal ecosystems and ecosystem services, groundwater salinization, increased risks to coastal food and water security, and compounding damage from tropical cyclones, flooding, storm surge, and land subsidence." ], [ "Isostatic rebound", "300x300pxLarge masses, such as ice sheets or glaciers, can depress the crust of the Earth into the mantle.", "The depression usually totals a third of the ice sheet or glacier's thickness.", "After the ice sheet or glacier melts, the mantle begins to flow back to its original position, pushing the crust back up.", "This post-glacial rebound, which proceeds very slowly after the melting of the ice sheet or glacier, is currently occurring in measurable amounts in Scandinavia and the Great Lakes region of North America.A geomorphological feature created by the same process on a smaller scale is known as ''dilation-faulting''.", "It occurs where previously compressed rock is allowed to return to its original shape more rapidly than can be maintained without faulting.", "This leads to an effect similar to what would be seen if the rock were hit by a large hammer.", "Dilation faulting can be observed in recently de-glaciated parts of Iceland and Cumbria." ], [ "On other planets", "Protonilus Mensae, Ismenius Lacus quadrangle, MarsThe polar ice caps of Mars show geologic evidence of glacial deposits.", "The south polar cap is especially comparable to glaciers on Earth.", "Topographical features and computer models indicate the existence of more glaciers in Mars' past.", "At mid-latitudes, between 35° and 65° north or south, Martian glaciers are affected by the thin Martian atmosphere.", "Because of the low atmospheric pressure, ablation near the surface is solely caused by sublimation, not melting.", "As on Earth, many glaciers are covered with a layer of rocks which insulates the ice.", "A radar instrument on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter found ice under a thin layer of rocks in formations called lobate debris aprons (LDAs).In 2015, as ''New Horizons'' flew by the Pluto-Charon system, the spacecraft discovered a massive basin covered in a layer of nitrogen ice on Pluto.", "A large portion of the basin's surface is divided into irregular polygonal features separated by narrow troughs, interpreted as convection cells fuelled by internal heat from Pluto's interior.", "Glacial flows were also observed near Sputnik Planitia's margins, appearing to flow both into and out of the basin." ], [ "See also", "* * * * *" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* === General references ===* A less-technical treatment of all aspects, with photographs and firsthand accounts of glaciologists' experiences.", "All images of this book can be found online (see Weblinks: Glaciers-online)* * * An undergraduate-level textbook.", "* A textbook for undergraduates avoiding mathematical complexities* A textbook devoted to explaining the geography of our planet.", "* A comprehensive reference on the physical principles underlying formation and behavior." ], [ "Further reading", "* Gornitz, Vivien.", "''Vanishing Ice: Glaciers, Ice Sheets, and Rising Seas'' (Columbia University Press, 2019) online review* Moon, Twila.", "Saying goodbye to glaciers, ''Science,'' 12 May 2017, Vol.", "356, Issue 6338, pp.", "580–581," ], [ "External links", "* , a report in the Global Environment Outlook (GEO) series.", "* Glacial structures – photo atlas* NOW on PBS \"On Thin Ice\"* Photo project tracks changes in Himalayan glaciers since 1921* Short radio episode '' California Glaciers'' from ''The Mountains of California'' by John Muir, 1894.California Legacy Project* Dynamics of Glaciers* Mountain glaciers and their role in the Earth system* GletscherVergleiche.ch – Before/After Images by Simon Oberli" ] ]
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[ [ "Gylfaginning" ], [ "Introduction", "Gylfi is tricked in an illustration from Icelandic Manuscript, SÁM 66'''''Gylfaginning''''' (Old Norse: 'The Beguiling of Gylfi' or 'The Deluding of Gylfi'; 13th century Old Norse pronunciation ) is the first main part of the 13th century ''Prose Edda'', after the initial Prologue.", "The ''Gylfaginning'' takes the form of a dialogue between a Swedish King Gylfi and three men on thrones in Asgard called High, Just-As-High, and Third.", "Gylfi asks many questions of the three men on the history and future of the Æsir.", "The creation and eventual destruction of the world are described, as are many other aspects of Norse mythology.", "While the Gylfaginning never makes it explicit, the three are often presumed to be guises of Odin.The second part of the ''Prose Edda'' is the ''Skáldskaparmál'' and the third ''Háttatal''.", "The work is often attributed to or considered to have been compiled by Snorri Sturluson." ], [ "Summary", "The ''Gylfaginning'' tells the story of Gylfi, a king of \"the land that men now call Sweden\".", "He is tricked by one of the goddesses of the Æsir, and wonders if all Æsir use magic and tricks for their will to be done.", "To find out more, he takes the \"path of the serpent\" to journey to Asgard.", "The Æsir realize he is coming and prepare illusions to deceive him; he finds a great palace.", "Inside the palace he encounters a man who asks Gylfi's name; Gylfi introduces himself as Gangleri.", "\"Gangleri\" then is taken to the king of the palace and comes upon three men on thrones: High, Just-As-High, and Third (Hár, Jafnhár, and Þriði).Gangleri is then challenged to show his wisdom by asking questions, as is the custom in many sagas.", "Each question made to High, Just-As-High, and Third is about an aspect of the Norse mythology or its gods, and also about the creation and destruction of the world (Ragnarök).", "In the end, the palace and its people vanish, presumably as they were illusions to begin with.", "Gylfi is left standing on empty ground.", "Gylfi then returns to his nation and retells the tales he was told.", "It can be argued that the author used this narrative device as a means of being able to safely document a vanishing and largely oral tradition within a Christian context.", "In the same way, a line continues the idea raised in the Prologue that Asgard is another name for the city of Troy, another way to make stories of the Norse gods acceptable as describing a lost ancient history rather than rival deities to the Christian god.", "The very final section of the ''Gylfaginning'' is also related to the Trojan connection to the Æsir, but is discarded as a later addition written by a separate author than the rest of the work by some scholars.", "According to this final section, the human descendants of the Trojans took on the same names told in the stories that had been told to Gylfi, presumably to endow themselves with additional authority.The work as a whole is around 20,000 words." ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* *" ], [ "External links", "* , 1916 translation by Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur* Guðni Jónsson (ed.", "), ''Eddukvaeði'', Íslendingasagnaútgáfan (1954) ( heimskringla.no), Old Norse edition* Text of all original manuscripts* The text with modern Icelandic spelling" ] ]
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[ [ "Glorious Revolution" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Glorious Revolution''' is the sequence of events that led to the deposition of James II and VII in November 1688.He was replaced by his daughter Mary II and her Dutch husband, William III of Orange, who was also his nephew.", "The two ruled as joint monarchs of England, Scotland and Ireland until Mary's death in 1694.The Revolution itself was relatively bloodless, but pro-Stuart revolts between 1689 and 1746 caused significant casualties, while the political movement known as Jacobitism persisted into the late 18th century.", "William's invasion was the last successful invasion of England.Despite his own Catholicism, for various reasons James became king in February 1685 with widespread backing from the Protestant majorities in England and Scotland, as well as largely Catholic Ireland.", "Although his policies quickly eroded this support, it was not until June 1688 that dissatisfaction became a political crisis.", "The birth of James Francis Edward on 10 June displaced his Protestant elder sister Mary as the heir presumptive.", "The prospect of a Catholic dynasty destroyed James's political authority, and led a few of his domestic opponents to seek external support in removing him.Although there was little sign of armed English domestic resistance, both William and the Dutch States General were concerned James would support Louis XIV of France in the Nine Years' War.", "Claiming to be responding to an Invitation asking him to \"protect the Protestant religion\", William landed in Devon with 20,000 men on 5 November 1688.As he advanced on London, James' army disintegrated, and he went into exile in France on 23 December.", "In April 1689, Parliament made William and Mary joint monarchs of England and Ireland.", "A separate but similar Scottish settlement was made in June.Domestically, the Revolution confirmed the primacy of Parliament over the Crown in both England and Scotland.", "In terms of external policy, until his death in 1701, William combined the roles of Dutch stadholder and British monarch.", "Both states thus became allies in resisting French expansion, an alliance which persisted for much of the 18th century, despite differing objectives.", "Under William's leadership, Dutch resources were focused on the land war with France, with the Royal Navy taking the lead at sea.", "This was a significant factor in the Dutch Republic being overtaken as the leading European maritime power by Britain during the War of the Spanish Succession." ], [ "Background", "Despite his Catholicism, James became king in 1685 with widespread backing in all three of his kingdoms.", "In June 1685, he quickly crushed Protestant risings in Scotland and England, but was forced into exile less than four years later.", "Modern historians argue James failed to appreciate how much Royal power relied on support from the landed gentry, and the loss of that support fatally damaged his regime.", "The vast majority of the gentry in England and Scotland were Protestant, while even in largely Catholic Ireland a disproportionate number were members of the Protestant Church of Ireland.", "Although willing to accept James's personal religious beliefs, his backers did so only so long as he maintained the primacy of the Protestant Church of England and Church of Scotland.", "When his policies appeared to undermine the existing political and religious order, the result was to alienate his English and Scottish supporters and destabilise Ireland.James II & VII, King of England, Scotland and Ireland, by Godfrey Kneller, National Portrait Gallery, LondonStuart political ideology derived from James VI and I, who in 1603 had created a vision of a centralised state, run by a monarch whose authority came from God, and where the function of Parliament was simply to obey.", "Disputes over the relationship between king and Parliament led to the War of the Three Kingdoms and continued after the 1660 Stuart Restoration.", "Charles II came to rely on the Royal Prerogative since measures passed in this way could be withdrawn when he decided, rather than Parliament.", "However, it could not be used for major legislation or taxation.Concern that Charles II intended to create an absolute monarchy led to the 1679 to 1681 Exclusion Crisis, dividing the English political class into those who wanted to 'exclude' James from the throne, mostly Whigs, and their opponents, mostly Tories.", "However, in 1685 many Whigs feared the consequences of bypassing the 'natural heir', while Tories were often strongly anti-Catholic, and their support assumed the continued primacy of the Church of England.", "Most importantly, it was seen as a short-term issue; James was 52, his marriage to Mary of Modena remained childless after 11 years, and the heirs were his Protestant daughters, Mary and Anne.There was much greater sympathy in Scotland for a 'Stuart heir', and the 1681 Succession Act confirmed the duty of all to support him, 'regardless of religion.'", "Over 95 percent of Scots belonged to the national church or kirk; even other Protestant sects were banned, and by 1680, Catholics were a tiny minority confined to parts of the aristocracy and the remote Highlands.", "Episcopalians had regained control of the kirk in 1660, leading to a series of Presbyterian uprisings, but memories of the bitter religious conflicts of the Civil War period meant the majority preferred stability.In England and Scotland, most of those who backed James in 1685 wanted to retain existing political and religious arrangements, but this was not the case in Ireland.", "While he was guaranteed support from the Catholic majority, James was also popular among Irish Protestants, since the Church of Ireland depended on Royal support for its survival, while Ulster was dominated by Presbyterians who supported his tolerance policies.", "However, religion was only one factor; of equal concern for Catholics were laws barring them from serving in the military or holding public office, and land reform.", "In 1600, 90% of Irish land was owned by Catholics but following a series of confiscation during the 17th century, this had dropped to 22% in 1685.Catholic and Protestant merchants in Dublin and elsewhere objected to commercial restrictions placing them at a disadvantage to their English competitors.===The political background in England===James's attempts to allow tolerance for English Catholics coincided with the October 1685 Edict of Fontainebleau revoking it for Huguenots.While James's supporters viewed hereditary succession as more important than his personal Catholicism, they opposed his policies of 'Tolerance' under which Catholics would be allowed to hold public office and engage in public life.", "Opposition was led by devout Anglicans who argued that the measures he proposed were incompatible with the oath he had sworn as king to uphold the supremacy of the Church of England.", "In an age when oaths were seen as fundamental to a stable society, by demanding that Parliament approve his measures James was seen not only to be breaking his own word but requiring others to do the same.", "Parliament refused to comply, despite being \"the most Loyal Parliament a Stuart ever had\".Although historians generally accept James wished to promote Catholicism, not establish an Absolute monarchy, his stubborn and inflexible reaction to opposition had the same result.", "When the English and Scottish Parliaments refused to repeal the 1678 and 1681 Test Acts, he suspended them in November 1685 and ruled by decree.", "Attempts to form a 'King's party' of Catholics, English Dissenters and dissident Scottish Presbyterians was politically short-sighted, since it rewarded those who joined the 1685 rebellions and undermined his supporters.Demanding tolerance for Catholics was also badly timed.", "In October 1685 Louis XIV of France issued the Edict of Fontainebleau revoking the 1598 Edict of Nantes which had given French Protestants the right to practise their religion; over the next four years, an estimated 200,000 to 400,000 went into exile, 40,000 of whom settled in London.", "Combined with Louis's expansionist policies and the killing of 2,000 Vaudois Protestants in 1686, it led to fears Protestant Europe was threatened by a Catholic counter-reformation.", "These concerns were reinforced by events in Ireland; the Lord Deputy, the Earl of Tyrconnell, wanted to create a Catholic establishment able to survive James's death, which meant replacing Protestant officials at a pace that was inherently destabilising.===Timeline of events: 1686 to 1688===The Seven Bishops prosecuted for seditious libel in 1688The majority of those who backed James in 1685 did so because they wanted stability and the rule of law, qualities frequently undermined by his actions.", "After suspending Parliament in November 1685, he sought to rule by decree; although the principle was not disputed, the widening of its scope caused considerable concern, particularly when judges who disagreed with its application were dismissed.", "He then alienated many by perceived attacks on the established church; Henry Compton, Bishop of London, was suspended for refusing to ban John Sharp from preaching after he gave an anti-Catholic sermon.He often made things worse by political clumsiness; to general fury, the Ecclesiastical Commission of 1686 established to discipline the Church of England included suspected Catholics like the Earl of Huntingdon.", "This was combined with an inability to accept opposition; in April 1687, he ordered Magdalen College, Oxford, to elect a Catholic sympathiser named Anthony Farmer as president, but as he was ineligible under the college statutes, the fellows elected John Hough instead.", "Both Farmer and Hough withdrew in favour of another candidate selected by James, who then demanded the fellows personally apologise on their knees for 'defying' him; when they refused, they were replaced by Catholics.Attempts to create an alternative 'Kings Party' were never likely to succeed, as English Catholics made up only 1.1% of the population and Nonconformists 4.4%.", "Both groups were divided; since private worship was generally tolerated, Catholic moderates feared greater visibility would provoke a backlash.", "Among Nonconformists, while Quakers and Congregationalists supported repeal of the Test Acts, the majority wanted to amend the 1662 Act of Uniformity and be allowed back into the Church of England.", "When James ensured the election of the Presbyterian John Shorter as Lord Mayor of London in 1687, he insisted on complying with the Test Act, reportedly because of a 'distrust of the King's favour...thus encouraging that which His Majesties whole Endeavours were intended to disannull.", "'James Francis Edward Stuart, circa 1703, whose birth in June 1688 created the possibility of a Catholic dynasty.To ensure a compliant Parliament, James required potential MPs to be approved by their local Lord Lieutenant; eligibility for both offices required positive answers in writing to the 'Three Questions', one being a commitment to repeal of the Test Act.", "In addition, local government and town corporations were purged to create an obedient electoral machine, further alienating the county gentry who had formed the majority of those who backed James in 1685.On 24 August 1688, writs were issued for a general election.The expansion of the military caused great concern, particularly in England and Scotland, where memories of the Civil War left huge resistance to standing armies.", "In Ireland, Talbot replaced Protestant officers with Catholics; James did the same in England, while basing the troops at Hounslow appeared a deliberate attempt to overawe Parliament.", "In April 1688, he ordered his Declaration of Indulgence read in every church; when the Archbishop of Canterbury and six other bishops refused, they were charged with seditious libel and confined in the Tower of London.", "Two events turned dissent into a crisis; the birth of James Francis Edward Stuart on 10 June created the prospect of a Catholic dynasty, while the acquittal of the Seven Bishops on 30 June destroyed James's political authority." ], [ "Dutch intervention", "===Prelude: 1685 to June 1688===Huguenot refugees, whose expulsion from France in 1685 helped create a sense that Protestant Europe was under threat.In 1677, James's elder daughter and heir Mary married her Protestant cousin William III of Orange, stadtholder of the main provinces of the Dutch Republic.", "The two initially shared common objectives in wanting Mary to succeed her father, while French ambitions in the Spanish Netherlands threatened both English and Dutch trade.", "Although William sent James troops to help suppress the 1685 Monmouth Rebellion, their relationship deteriorated thereafter.The Franco-Dutch War, continued French expansion, and expulsion of the Huguenots meant William assumed another war was inevitable, and although the States General of the Netherlands preferred peace, the majority accepted he was correct.", "This view was widely shared throughout Protestant Europe; in October 1685, Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg renounced his French alliance for one with the Dutch.", "In July 1686, other Protestant states formed the anti-French League of Augsburg, with Dutch support; securing or neutralising English resources, especially the Royal Navy, now became key to both sides.Following a skirmish between French and Dutch naval vessels in July 1686, William concluded English neutrality was not enough and he needed their active support in the event of war.", "His relationship with James was affected by the fact both men relied on advisors with relatively limited views; in William's case, mainly English and Scots Presbyterian exiles, the latter with close links to the Protestant minority in Ireland, who saw Tyrconnell's policies as a threat to their existence.", "Having largely alienated his Tory support base, James depended on a small circle of Catholic converts like Sunderland, Melfort and Perth.William III of England, stadtholder of Guelders, Holland, Zealand, Utrecht and OverijsselSuspicions increased when James sought William's backing for repealing the Test Acts; he predictably refused, further damaging their relationship.", "Having previously assumed he was guaranteed English support in a war with France, William now worried he might face an Anglo-French alliance, despite assurances by James he had no intention of doing so.", "Historians argue these assurances were genuine, but James did not appreciate the distrust caused by his domestic policies.", "In August 1687, William's cousin de Zuylestein travelled to England with condolences on the death of Mary of Modena's mother, allowing him to make contact with the political opposition.", "Throughout 1688, his English supporters provided William detailed information on public opinion and developments, very little of which was intercepted.In October 1687, after fourteen years of marriage and multiple miscarriages, it was announced the Queen was pregnant, Melfort immediately declaring it was a boy.", "When James then wrote to Mary urging her to convert to Catholicism, it convinced many he was seeking a Catholic heir, one way or the other and may have been a deciding factor in whether to invade.", "Early in 1688, a pamphlet circulated in England written by Dutch Grand Pensionary Gaspar Fagel; this guaranteed William's support for freedom of worship for Dissenters ''and'' retaining the Test Acts, unlike James who offered tolerance in return for repeal.In April 1688, Louis XIV announced tariffs on Dutch herring imports, along with plans to support the Royal Navy in the English Channel.", "James immediately denied making any such request, but fearing it was the prelude to a formal alliance, the Dutch began preparing a military intervention.", "On the pretext of needing additional resources to deal with French privateers, in July the States General authorised an additional 9,000 sailors and 21 new warships.===Invitation to William===Henry Sydney, who drafted the Invitation to WilliamThe success of William's invasion would partly depend on domestic support, and at the end of April William met with Edward Russell, unofficial envoy for the Whig opposition.", "In a conversation recorded by Gilbert Burnet, he requested a formal invitation asking him to \"rescue the nation and the religion\", with a projected date of end September.", "William subsequently claimed he was 'forced' to take control of the conspiracy when Russell warned him the English would rise against James even without his help, and he feared this would lead to a republic, depriving his wife of her inheritance.Although this version is strongly disputed, Zuylestein returned to England in June, ostensibly to congratulate James on his new son, in reality to co-ordinate with William's supporters.", "Spurred by the prospect of a Catholic successor, the \"Invitation to William\" was quickly drafted by Henry Sydney, later described by Whig historians as \"the great wheel on which the Revolution rolled\".", "The signatories provided no considerable political power and were not representative, but they were selected to make it seem like they represented a broad spectrum, and provided William with an essential propaganda tool.", "Danby, a Tory, and Devonshire, a Whig; Henry Compton, Bishop of London, for the church; Shrewsbury and Lumley for the army, and finally Russell and Sydney for the navy.", "They promised to support a Dutch landing, but stressed the importance of acting quickly.The Invitation was carried to The Hague on 30 June by Rear Admiral Herbert, disguised as a common sailor.", "Meanwhile, William's ally Bentinck launched a propaganda campaign in England, which presented him as a \"true Stuart\", but one without the faults of either James or Charles II.", "Much of the \"spontaneous\" support for William on his landing was organised by Bentinck and his agents." ], [ "Dutch preparations: July to September 1688", "The Dutch were concerned by their vulnerable eastern border.", "In 1672, an alliance with the Electorate of Cologne allowed France to nearly over-run the Republic.William's key strategic purpose was creating a defensive coalition that would block further French expansion in Europe, an objective not shared by the majority of his English supporters.", "In 1672, an alliance with the Electorate of Cologne had enabled France to bypass Dutch forward defences and nearly over-run the Republic, so ensuring an anti-French ruler was vital to prevent a repetition.", "As an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire, Cologne's ruler was nominated by Pope Innocent XI, in conjunction with Emperor Leopold I.", "Both Louis and James were in dispute with Innocent over the right to appoint Catholic bishops and clergy; when the old Elector died in June 1688, Innocent and Leopold ignored the French candidate in favour of Joseph Clemens of Bavaria.After 1678, France continued its expansion into the Rhineland, including the 1683 to 1684 War of the Reunions, additional territorial demands in the Palatinate, and construction of forts at Landau and Traben-Trarbach.", "This presented an existential threat to Habsburg dominance, guaranteeing Leopold's support for the Dutch, and negating French attempts to build German alliances.", "William's envoy Johann von Görtz assured Leopold English Catholics would not be persecuted and intervention was to elect a free Parliament, not depose James, a convenient fiction that allowed him to remain neutral.Although his English supporters considered a token force sufficient, William assembled 260 transport ships and 15,000 men, nearly half the 30,000 strong Dutch States Army.", "With France on the verge of war, their absence was of great concern to the States General and Bentinck hired 13,616 German mercenaries to man Dutch border fortresses, freeing elite units like the Scots Brigade for use in England.", "The increase could be presented as a limited precaution against French aggression, as the Dutch would typically double or triple their army strength in wartime; William instructed his experienced deputy Schomberg to prepare for a campaign in Germany." ], [ "Decision to invade", "A Dutch herring fleet.", "French tariffs on this lucrative trade helped William build domestic support for military intervention.At the beginning of September, an invasion remained in the balance, with the States General fearing a French attack via Flanders while their army was in England.", "However, the surrender of Belgrade on 6 September seemed to presage an Ottoman collapse and release Austrian resources for use in Germany.", "Hoping to act before Leopold could respond and relieve pressure on the Ottomans, Louis attacked Philippsburg.", "With France now committed in Germany, this greatly reduced the threat to the Dutch.Instead, Louis attempted to intimidate the States General, and on 9 September, his envoy D'Avaux handed them two letters.", "The first warned an attack on James meant war with France, the second any interference with French operations in Germany would end with the destruction of the Dutch state.", "Both misfired; convinced Louis was trying to drag him into war, James told the Dutch there was no secret Anglo-French alliance against them, although his denials only increased their suspicions.", "By confirming France's primary objective was the Rhineland, the second allowed William to move troops from the eastern border to the coast, even though most of the new mercenaries had yet to arrive.On 22 September, the French seized over 100 Dutch ships, many owned by Amsterdam merchants; in response, on 26 September the Amsterdam City Council agreed to back William.", "This was a significant decision since the Council dominated the States of Holland, the most powerful political body in the Dutch Republic which contributed nearly 60% of its budget.", "French troops entered the Rhineland on 27 September and in a secret session held on 29th, William argued for a pre-emptive strike, as Louis and James would \"attempt to bring this state to its ultimate ruin and subjugation, as soon as they find the occasion\".", "This was accepted by the States, with the objective left deliberately vague, other than making the English \"King and Nation live in a good relation, and useful to their friends and allies, and especially to this State\".Following their approval, the Amsterdam financial market raised a loan of four million guilders in only three days, with further financing coming from various sources, including two million guilders from the banker Francisco Lopes Suasso.", "The biggest concern for Holland was the potential impact on the Dutch economy and politics of William becoming ruler of England; the claim he had no intention of \"removing the King from the throne\" was not believed.", "These fears were arguably justified; William's access to English resources permanently diminished Amsterdam's power within the Republic and its status as the world's leading commercial and financial centre." ], [ "English defensive strategy", "Dartmouth, commander of the English fleet.Neither James nor Sunderland trusted Louis, correctly suspecting that his support would continue only so long as it coincided with French interests, while Mary of Modena claimed his warnings were simply an attempt to drag England into an unwanted alliance.", "As a former naval commander, James appreciated the difficulties of a successful invasion, even in good weather, and as autumn approached, the likelihood seemed to diminish.", "With the Dutch on the verge of war with France, he did not believe the States General would allow William to make the attempt; if they did, his army and navy were strong enough to defeat it.Reasonable in theory, his reliance on the loyalty and efficiency of the military proved deeply flawed.", "Both the army and the navy remained overwhelmingly Protestant and anti-Catholic; in July, only personal intervention by James prevented a naval mutiny when a Catholic captain held Mass on his ship.", "The transfer of 2,500 Catholics from the Royal Irish Army to England in September led to clashes with Protestant troops, some of his most reliable units refused to obey orders, and many of their officers resigned.When James demanded the repatriation of all six regiments of the Scots Brigade in January 1688, William refused but used the opportunity to purge those considered unreliable, a total of 104 officers and 44 soldiers.", "Some may have been Williamite agents, such as Colonel Belasyse, a Protestant with over 15 years of service who returned to his family estates in Yorkshire and made contact with Danby.", "The promotion of Catholic former Brigade officers like Thomas Buchan and Alexander Cannon to command positions led to the formation of the Association of Protestant Officers, which included senior veterans like Charles Trelawny, Churchill, and Percy Kirke.On 14 August, Churchill offered his support to William, helping convince him it was safe to risk an invasion; although James was aware of the conspiracy, he took no action.", "One reason may have been fears over the impact on the army; with a notional strength of 34,000, it looked impressive on paper but morale was brittle while many were untrained or lacked weapons.", "It also had to fill policing roles previously delegated to the militia, which had been deliberately allowed to decay; most of the 4,000 regular troops brought from Scotland in October had to be stationed in London to keep order.", "In October, attempts were made to restore the militia but many members were reportedly so angry at the changes made to local corporations, James was advised it was better not to raise them.Lord Danby, one of the Immortal Seven and William's agent in Northern EnglandWidespread discontent and growing hostility to the Stuart regime were particularly apparent in North-East and South-West England, the two landing places identified by William.", "A Tory whose brother Jonathan was one of the Seven Bishops, Trelawny's commitment confirmed support from a powerful and well-connected West Country bloc, allowing access to the ports of Plymouth and Torbay.", "In the north, a force organised by Belasyse and Danby prepared to seize York, its most important city, and Hull, its largest port.Herbert had been replaced by Dartmouth as commander of the fleet when he defected in June but many captains owed him their appointments and were of doubtful loyalty.", "Dartmouth suspected Berkeley and Grafton of plotting to overthrow him; to monitor them, he placed their ships next to his and minimised contact between the other vessels to prevent conspiracy.", "A lack of funds meant that excluding fireships and light scouting vessels, only 16 warships were available in early October, all third rates or fourth rates that were short of both men and supplies.While The Downs was the best place to intercept a cross-Channel attack, it was also vulnerable to a surprise assault, even for ships fully manned and adequately provisioned.", "Instead, James placed his ships in a strong defensive position near Chatham Dockyard, believing the Dutch would seek to establish naval superiority before committing to a landing.", "While this had been the original plan, winter storms meant conditions deteriorated rapidly for those on the transports; William therefore decided to sail in convoy and avoid battle.", "The easterly winds that allowed the Dutch to cross prevented the Royal Navy leaving the Thames estuary and intervening.The English fleet was outnumbered 2:1, undermanned, short of supplies, and in the wrong place.", "Key landing locations in the South-West and Yorkshire had been secured by sympathisers, while both army and navy were led by officers whose loyalty was questionable.", "Even early in 1686, foreign observers doubted the military would fight for James against a Protestant heir and William claimed only to be securing the inheritance of his wife Mary.", "While still a dangerous undertaking, the invasion was less risky than it seemed." ], [ "Invasion", "===Embarkation of the army and the Declaration of The Hague===William III by Jan Wyck, commemorating the landing at Brixham, Torbay, 5 November 1688.The Dutch preparations, though carried out with great speed, could not remain secret.", "The English envoy Ignatius White, the Marquess d'Albeville, warned his country: \"an absolute conquest is intended under the specious and ordinary pretences of religion, liberty, property and a free Parliament\".", "Louis threatened an immediate declaration of war if William proceeded and sent James 300,000 livres.Embarkations, begun on 22 September (Gregorian calendar), had been completed on 8 October, and the expedition was that day openly approved by the States of Holland; the same day James issued a proclamation to the English nation that it should prepare for a Dutch invasion to ward off conquest.", "On 30 September/10 October (Julian/Gregorian calendars) William issued the ''Declaration of The Hague'' (actually written by Fagel), of which 60,000 copies of the English translation by Gilbert Burnet were distributed after the landing in England, in which he assured that his only aim was to maintain the Protestant religion, install a free parliament and investigate the legitimacy of the Prince of Wales.", "He would respect the position of James.William went on to condemn James's advisers for overturning the religion, laws, and liberties of England, Scotland, and Ireland by the use of the suspending and dispensing power; the establishment of the \"manifestly illegal\" commission for ecclesiastical causes and its use to suspend the Bishop of London and to remove the Fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford.", "William also condemned James's attempt to repeal the Test Acts and the penal laws through pressuring individuals and waging an assault on parliamentary boroughs, as well as his purging of the judiciary.", "James's attempt to pack Parliament was in danger of removing \"the last and great remedy for all those evils\".William boarding ''Den Briel.", "''\"Therefore\", William continued, \"we have thought fit to go over to England, and to carry over with us a force sufficient, by the blessing of God, to defend us from the violence of those evil Counsellors ... this our Expedition is intended for no other design, but to have, a free and lawful Parliament assembled as soon as is possible\".", "On 4/14 October, William responded to the allegations by James in a second declaration, denying any intention to become king or to conquer England, a claim which remains controversial.The swiftness of the embarkations surprised all foreign observers.", "Louis had in fact delayed his threats against the Dutch until early September because he assumed it then would be too late in the season to set the expedition in motion anyway, if their reaction proved negative; typically, such an enterprise would take at least some months.", "Being ready after the last week of September / first week of October would normally have meant that the Dutch could have profited from the last spell of good weather, as the autumn storms tend to begin in the third week of that month.", "However, this year they came early.", "For three weeks, the invasion fleet was prevented by adverse south-westerly gales from departing from the naval port of Hellevoetsluis and Catholics all over the Netherlands and the British kingdoms held prayer sessions that this \"popish wind\" might endure.", "However, on 14/24 October, it became the famous \"Protestant Wind\" by turning to the east.===Crossing and landing===The formation of the Dutch invasion fleetAlthough most of the warships were provided by the Admiralty of Amsterdam, the expedition was officially treated as a private affair, with the States General allowing William use of the Dutch army and fleet.", "For propaganda purposes, English admiral Arthur Herbert was nominally in command, but in reality, operational control remained with Lieutenant-Admiral Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest and Vice-Admiral Philips van Almonde.", "Accompanied by Willem Bastiaensz Schepers, the Rotterdam shipping magnate who provided financing, William boarded the frigate ''Den Briel'' on 16/26 October.", "The fleet contained 49 warships, 76 transports for the soldiers, 120 transports for the 5,000 horses required by the cavalry and supply train, and 40,000 men on board, of whom 9,500 were sailors of the Dutch States Navy.", "It was the largest fleet assembled in European waters up to that date.Having departed on 19/29 October, the expedition was halfway across the North Sea when it was scattered by a gale, forcing the ''Brill'' back to Hellevoetsluis on 21/31 October.", "William refused to go ashore, and the fleet reassembled, having lost only one ship but nearly a thousand horses; press reports deliberately exaggerated the damage and claimed the expedition might be postponed until next spring.", "Dartmouth and his senior commanders considered taking advantage of this by blockading Hellevoetsluis, then decided against it, partly because the stormy weather made it dangerous but also because they could not rely on their men.William replaced his losses and departed when the wind changed on 1/11 November, this time heading for Harwich where Bentinck had prepared a landing site.", "It has been suggested this was a feint to divert some of Dartmouth's ships north, which proved to be the case and when the wind shifted again, the Dutch armada sailed south into the Strait of Dover.", "In doing so, they twice passed the English fleet, which was unable to intercept because of the adverse winds and tides.William landed at Torbay, whose sheltered position makes the weather unusually moderate (note non-native cabbage trees).On 3/13 November, the invasion fleet entered the English Channel in an enormous formation 25 ships deep, the troops lined up on deck, firing musket volleys, colours flying and military bands playing.", "Intended to awe observers with its size and power, Rapin de Thoyras later described it as \"the most magnificent and affecting spectacle...ever seen by human eyes\".", "The same wind blowing the Dutch down the Channel kept Dartmouth confined in the Thames estuary; by the time he was able to make his way out, he was too far behind to stop William reaching Torbay on 5 November.As anticipated, the French fleet remained in the Mediterranean, in order to support an attack on the Papal States if needed, while a south-westerly gale now forced Dartmouth to shelter in Portsmouth harbour and kept him there for two days, allowing William to complete his disembarkation undisturbed.", "The regular Dutch troops amounted to 14,000–15,000 men, consisting of around 11,000 infantry, including nearly 5,000 members of the elite Anglo-Scots Brigade and Dutch Blue Guards, 3,660 cavalry and an artillery train of twenty-one 24-pounder cannon.Some 5,000 volunteers, consisting of British exiles and Huguenots, also accompanied the fleet, making a total army of over 20,000 men.", "William brought these volunteers along to accelerate English army reforms, because they could replace the soldiers who were loyal to James.", "William brought weapons to equip another 20,000 men, although the subsequent and rapid collapse of James's army meant the local volunteers who joined by 20 November were eventually dismissed." ], [ "The collapse of James's rule", "James had considered himself safe from invasion, due to the French threat to the Spanish Netherlands, his navy and because it was late in the year for launching an expedition.", "He now panicked and met with the bishops on 28 September, offering them concessions.", "They responded five days later with demands that he restore the religious position to that prevailing in February 1685, and hold free elections for a new Parliament.", "Although they hoped this would allow James to remain king, in reality there was little chance of this.", "At a minimum, he would have to disinherit his son, enforce the Test Acts, and accept the supremacy of Parliament, all of which were unacceptable.", "In addition, by now his Whig opponents did not trust him to keep his promises, while Tories like Danby were too committed to William to escape punishment.Although his veterans were superior to the largely untested recruits of the Royal Army, William and his English supporters preferred to avoid bloodshed.", "Torbay was sufficiently far from London to provide time for the regime to collapse on its own, while to avoid alienating the local population, his troops were well supplied and paid three months in advance.", "On 9 November, he entered Exeter and issued a proclamation claiming he sought only to secure the rights of his wife and a free Parliament.", "Despite this, there was little enthusiasm for either party, and the general mood was one of confusion and distrust.", "In Northern England, much of the gentry confirmed their backing for the invasion after Danby had the ''Declaration'' read out in York on 12 November.On 19 November, James joined his main force of 19,000 at Salisbury, but morale was low and the loyalty of some of his commanders was doubtful.", "Officers of several regiments defected to William between 10 and 20 November, although only a few of them took any troops with them.", "Supply problems meanwhile left the Royal Army short of food and ammunition.", "On 20 November, dragoons led by Irish Catholic Patrick Sarsfield clashed with Williamite scouts at Wincanton; along with a minor skirmish at Reading on 9 December, also featuring Sarsfield, these were the only substantial military actions of the campaign.", "After securing his rear by taking Plymouth on 18 November, William began his advance on 21 November, while Danby and Belasyse captured York and Hull several days later.John Churchill, circa 1685, whose defection to William was a serious blow.Although only a tiny minority of James's army defected, the effect on the morale of his army was great.", "James's commander Feversham and other senior officers advised retreat.", "Lacking information on William's movements, suspicious of his own soldiers, worn out by lack of sleep and debilitating nose-bleeds, on 23 November James agreed.", "Because of its strategic implications, the withdrawal was a practical admission of defeat.", "The next day Churchill, Grafton and Princess Anne's husband George deserted to William, followed by Anne herself on 26 November.", "The next day, James held a meeting at Whitehall Palace with those peers still in London; with the exception of Melfort, Perth and other Catholics, they urged him to issue writs for a parliamentary election and negotiate with William.On 8 December, Halifax, Nottingham and Godolphin met with William at Hungerford to hear his demands, which included the dismissal of Catholics from public office and funding for his army.", "Many viewed these as a reasonable basis for a settlement, but James decided to flee the country, convinced by Melfort and others that his life was threatened.", "This suggestion is generally dismissed by historians, since William made it clear he would not allow James to be harmed.", "Most Tories wanted him to retain his throne, while the Whigs simply wanted to drive him out of the country by imposing conditions he would refuse.The Queen and Prince of Wales left for France on 9 December, James following separately on 10 December.", "Accompanied only by Edward Hales and Ralph Sheldon, he made his way to Faversham in Kent seeking passage to France, first dropping the Great Seal in the River Thames in a last-ditch attempt to prevent Parliament being summoned.", "In London, his flight and rumours of a \"Papist\" invasion led to riots and destruction of Catholic property, which quickly spread throughout the country.", "To fill the power vacuum, the Earl of Rochester set up a temporary government including members of the Privy Council and City of London authorities, but it took them two days to restore order.The entrance of William in London, 16 December 1688.When news arrived, James had been captured in Faversham on 11 December by local fishermen, Lord Ailesbury, one of his personal attendants, was sent to escort him back to London.", "On entering the city on 16 December, he was welcomed by cheering crowds.", "By making it seem that James remained in control, Tory loyalists hoped for a settlement which would leave them in government.", "To create an appearance of normality, he heard Mass and presided over a meeting of the Privy Council.", "James made it clear to the French ambassador Paul Barillon that he still intended to escape to France.", "His few remaining supporters viewed his flight as cowardice, and a failure to ensure law and order criminally negligent.Happy to help him into exile, William recommended he relocate to Ham, largely because it was easy to escape from.", "James suggested Rochester instead, allegedly because his personal guard was there, in reality conveniently positioned for a ship to France.", "On 18 December, he left London with a Dutch escort as William entered, cheered by the same crowds who greeted his predecessor two days before.", "William occupied London and now effectively controlled the English government and the country's army, navy, and finances.", "On 22 December, Berwick arrived in Rochester with blank passports allowing them to leave England, while his guards were told that if James wanted to leave, \"they should not prevent him, but allow him to gently slip through\".", "Although Ailesbury and others begged him to stay, he left for France on 23 December." ], [ "The revolutionary settlement", "William III and Mary II reigned jointly until her death in 1694, when William became sole monarch.James's departure significantly shifted the balance of power in favour of William, who took control of the provisional government on 28 December.", "Elections were held in early January for a Convention Parliament, which assembled on 22 January.", "The Whigs had a slight majority in the Commons and the Lords was dominated by the Tories, but both were led by moderates.", "Archbishop Sancroft and other Stuart loyalists wanted to preserve the line of succession; they recognised keeping James on the throne was no longer possible, so they preferred Mary either be appointed his regent or sole monarch.The next two weeks were spent debating how to resolve this issue, much to the annoyance of William, who needed a swift resolution; the situation in Ireland was rapidly deteriorating, while the French had over-run large parts of the Rhineland and were preparing to attack the Dutch.", "At a meeting with Danby and Halifax on 3 February, he announced his intention to return home if the Convention did not appoint him joint monarch; Mary let it be known she would only rule jointly with her husband.", "Faced with this ultimatum, on 6 February Parliament declared that in deserting his people James had abdicated and thus vacated the Crown, which was therefore offered jointly to William and Mary.Historian Tim Harris argues the most radical act of the 1688 Revolution was breaking the succession and establishing the idea of a \"contract\" between ruler and people, a fundamental rebuttal of the Stuart ideology of divine right.", "While this was a victory for the Whigs, other pieces of legislation were proposed by the Tories, often with moderate Whig support, designed to protect the Anglican establishment from being undermined by future monarchs, including the Calvinist William.", "The Declaration of Right was a tactical compromise, setting out where James had failed and establishing the rights of English citizens, without agreeing their cause or offering solutions.", "In December 1689, this was incorporated into the Bill of Rights.The coronation of William and Mary, Charles RochussenHowever, there were two areas that arguably broke new constitutional ground, both responses to what were viewed as specific abuses by James.", "First, the Declaration of Right made keeping a standing army without parliamentary consent illegal, overturning the 1661 and 1662 Militia Acts and vesting control of the military in Parliament, not the Crown.", "The second was the Coronation Oath Act 1688; the result of James's perceived failure to comply with that taken in 1685, it established obligations owed by the monarchy to the people.At their coronation on 11 April, William and Mary swore to \"govern the people of this kingdom of England, and the dominions thereunto belonging, according to the statutes in Parliament agreed on, and the laws and customs of the same\".", "They were also to maintain the Protestant Reformed faith and \"preserve inviolable the settlement of the Church of England, and its doctrine, worship, discipline and government as by law established\".===Scotland and Ireland===Parliament House, Edinburgh, where the Convention of Estates met in March 1689While Scotland was not involved in the landing, by November 1688 only a tiny minority supported James.", "Many of those who accompanied William were Scots exiles, including the Earl of Melville, the Duke of Argyll, his personal chaplain William Carstares and Gilbert Burnet.", "News of James's flight led to celebrations and anti-Catholic riots in Edinburgh and Glasgow.", "Most members of the Scottish Privy Council went to London.", "On 7 January 1689, they asked William to take over government.", "Elections were held in March for a Scottish Convention, which was also a contest between Presbyterians and Episcopalians for control of the Kirk.", "While only 50 of the 125 delegates were classed as Episcopalian, they were hopeful of victory since William supported the retention of bishops.On 16 March a Letter from James was read out to the convention, demanding obedience and threatening punishment for non-compliance.", "Public anger at its tone meant some Episcopalians stopped attending the convention, claiming to fear for their safety and others changed sides.", "The 1689–1691 Jacobite Rising forced William to make concessions to the Presbyterians, ended Episcopacy in Scotland and excluded a significant portion of the political class.", "Many later returned to the Kirk but Non-Juring Episcopalianism was the key determinant of Jacobite support in 1715 and 1745.The English Parliament held that James 'abandoned' his throne.", "The Convention argued that he 'forfeited' it by his actions, as listed in the Articles of Grievances.", "On 11 April, the Convention ended James's reign and adopted the Articles of Grievances and the Claim of Right Act, making Parliament the primary legislative power in Scotland.", "On 11 May, William and Mary accepted the Crown of Scotland; after their acceptance, the ''Claim'' and the ''Articles'' were read aloud, leading to an immediate debate over whether or not an endorsement of these documents was implicit in that acceptance." ], [ "Anglo-Dutch alliance", "Though he had carefully avoided making it public, William's main motive in organising the expedition had been the opportunity to bring England into an alliance against France.", "On 9 December 1688 he had already asked the States General to send a delegation of three to negotiate the conditions.", "On 18 February (Julian calendar) he asked the convention to support the Republic in its war against France.", "It refused, only consenting to pay £600,000 for the continued presence of the Dutch army in England.", "On 9 March (Gregorian calendar) the States General responded to Louis's earlier declaration of war by declaring war on France in return.Before they could take part in the war, both the English and Scottish armies had to be rebuilt from scratch.", "Many officers who had supported James' removal were unwilling to continue under his successor, while William was reluctant to trust those who had not already served under him.", "In addition, according historian Jonathan Scott: 'The state and discipline of the rank and file was ‘deplorable’.", "There was a dire lack of experience and competence at every level.'", "For the purpose of reforming the English army on the Dutch model William appointed Dutch officers to key positions, which caused considerable resentment in England.William III at the Battle of Landen, by Ernest CroftsOn 19 April (Julian calendar) the Dutch delegation signed a naval treaty with England.", "It stipulated that the combined Anglo-Dutch fleet would always be commanded by an Englishman, even when of lower rank.", "The Dutch agreed to this to make their dominance over the English army less painful for the British.", "The treaty also specified that the two parties would contribute in the ratio of five English vessels against three Dutch vessels, meaning in practice that the Dutch navy in the future would be smaller than the English.", "The Navigation Acts were not repealed.", "On 18 May, the new Parliament allowed William to declare war on France.", "On 9 September 1689, (Gregorian calendar), William as King of England joined the League of Augsburg against France.===The decline of the Dutch Republic===Having England as an ally meant that the military situation of the Republic was strongly improved, which allowed William to be uncompromising in his position towards France.", "The Dutch successfully secured their positions in the Spanish Netherlands, and halted French territorial expansion, but these military campaigns were very expensive.", "In 1712, at the end of the War of the Spanish Succession, the Republic was financially exhausted and was forced to let its fleet deteriorate, making what was by then the Kingdom of Great Britain the dominant maritime power of the world.The Dutch economy, already burdened by the high national debt and concomitant high taxation, suffered from the other European states' protectionist policies, which its weakened fleet was no longer able to resist.", "To make matters worse, the main Dutch trading and banking houses moved much of their activity from Amsterdam to London after 1688.Between 1688 and 1720, world trade dominance shifted from the Republic to Great Britain." ], [ "Assessment and historiography", "While the 1688 revolution was labeled \"Glorious\" by Protestant preachers two decades later, its historiography is complex, and its assessment disputed.", "Thomas Macaulay's account of the Revolution in ''The History of England from the Accession of James the Second'' exemplifies the \"Whig history\" narrative of the Revolution as a largely consensual and bloodless triumph of English common sense, confirming and strengthening its institutions of tempered popular liberty and limited monarchy.", "Edmund Burke set the tone for that interpretation when he proclaimed: \"The Revolution was made to preserve our ancient indisputable laws and liberties, and that ancient constitution of government which is our only security for law and liberty.", "\"An alternative narrative emphasizes William's successful foreign invasion from the Netherlands, and the size of the corresponding military operation.", "Several researchers have emphasized that aspect, particularly after the third centenary of the event in 1988.The historian J. R. Jones suggested that the invasion \"should be seen ... as the first and arguably the only decisive phase of the Nine Years' War.\"", "John Childs added that \"there was no natural political turmoil in England in 1688\", or \"at least not of sufficient consequence to produce the overthrow of a king.\"", "Jonathan Israel also stresses the importance of the Dutch aspect by arguing that, due the Dutch occupation of London, parliament was hardly free when they decided to accept William as their king.It has been argued that the invasion aspect had been downplayed as a result of British pride and effective Dutch propaganda, trying to depict the course of events as a largely internal English affair.", "As the invitation was initiated by figures who had little influence, the legacy of the Glorious Revolution has been described as a successful propaganda act by William to cover up and justify his invasion.", "The claim that William was fighting for the Protestant cause in England was used to great effect to disguise the military, cultural and political impact that the Dutch regime had on England.A third version, proposed by Steven Pincus, underplays the invasion aspect but unlike the Whig narrative views the Revolution as a divisive and violent event that involved all classes of the English population, not just the main aristocratic protagonists.", "Pincus argues that his interpretation echoes the widely held view of the Revolution in its aftermath, starting with its revolutionary labelling.", "Pincus argues that it was momentous especially when looking at the alternative that James was trying to enact – a powerful centralised autocratic state, using French-style \"state-building\".", "England's role in Europe and the country's political economy in the 17th century rebuts the view of many late-20th-century historians that nothing revolutionary occurred during the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89.Pincus says it was not a placid turn of events.In diplomacy and economics William III transformed the English state's ideology and policies.", "This occurred not because William III was an outsider who inflicted foreign notions on England but because foreign affairs and political economy were at the core of the English revolutionaries' agenda.", "The revolution of 1688–89 cannot be fathomed in isolation.", "It would have been inconceivable without the changes resulting from the events of the 1640s and 1650s.", "The ideas accompanying the Glorious Revolution were rooted in the mid-century upheavals.", "The 17th century was a century of revolution in England, deserving of the same scholarly attention that 'modern' revolutions attract.James II tried building a powerful militarised state on the mercantilist assumption that the world's wealth was necessarily finite, and empires were created by taking land from other states.", "The East India Company was thus an ideal tool to create a vast new English imperial dominion by warring with the Dutch and the Mughal Empire in India.", "After 1689 came an alternative understanding of economics, which saw Britain as a commercial rather than an agrarian society.", "It led to the foundation of the Bank of England, the creation of Europe's first widely circulating credit currency and the commencement of the \"Age of Projectors\".", "This subsequently gave weight to the view, advocated most famously by Adam Smith in 1776, that wealth was created by human endeavour and was thus potentially infinite.Karl Marx viewed the revolution as essentially conservative in nature, writing that it was shaped by an alliance between English commercial and industrial bourgeoisie and increasingly commercialized large land owners.", "===Impact===As a coup, albeit largely bloodless, its legitimacy rests in the will expressed separately by the Scottish and English Parliaments according to their respective legal processes.", "On this point, the Earl of Shaftesbury declared in 1689, \"The Parliament of England is that supreme and absolute power, which gives life and motion to the English government\".", "The Revolution established the primacy of parliamentary sovereignty, a principle still relevant in consultation with the 15 Commonwealth realms regarding succession issues.", "The Bill of Rights 1689 formally established a system of constitutional monarchy and ended moves towards absolute monarchy by restricting the power of the monarch, who could no longer suspend laws, levy taxes, make royal appointments or maintain a standing army during peacetime without Parliament's consent.", "The British Army remains the military arm of Parliament, not the monarch, although the Crown is the source of all military executive authority.Unlike the 1638 to 1651 Wars of the Three Kingdoms, most ordinary people in England and Scotland were relatively untouched by the \"Glorious Revolution\", the majority of the bloodshed taking place in Ireland.", "As a consequence, some historians suggest that in England at least it more closely resembles a coup d'état, rather than a social upheaval such as the French Revolution.", "This view is consistent with the original meaning of \"revolution\" as a circular process under which an old system of values is restored to its original position, with England's supposed \"ancient constitution\" being reasserted, rather than formed anew.", "Contemporary English political thought, as expressed in John Locke's then popular social contract theory, linked to George Buchanan's view of the contractual agreement between the monarch and their subjects, an argument used by the Scottish Parliament as justification for the Claim of Right.Under the Coronation Oath Act 1688, William had sworn to maintain the primacy of the Church of England, which both his native Dutch Reformed Church and the Church of Scotland viewed as ideologically suspect in both doctrine and use of bishops.", "This required a certain degree of religious flexibility on his part, especially as he needed to placate his Catholic allies, Spain and Emperor Leopold.", "Despite promising legal toleration for Catholics in his ''Declaration'' of October 1688, William failed due to domestic opposition.", "The Act of Toleration 1689 granted relief to Nonconformists but Catholic emancipation would be delayed until 1829." ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * ** ** ** * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * ** ** ** * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** ** * * * * * * * * ** * * * ** ** * * * * *** * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * *" ] ]
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[ [ "Great Lakes Colleges Association" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Great Lakes Colleges Association''' ('''GLCA''') is a consortium of 13 liberal arts colleges located in the states around the Great Lakes.", "The GLCA's offices are located in Ann Arbor, Michigan and its 13 schools are located in Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Indiana.", "It was chartered in the state of Michigan and incorporated as a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization in 1962.Its stated mission is to take actions that will help strengthen and preserve its colleges, being a leading force on behalf of education in the tradition of the liberal arts and sciences.The organization is the founder and administrator of the Global Liberal Arts Alliance." ], [ "Operations", "GLCA operates a Tuition Remission Exchange involving its 13 colleges plus Beloit College, Grinnell College, Willamette University, and Wittenberg University, by which students eligible for tuition remission because of parental employment at one of the colleges will receive tuition remission at any one of the other colleges in the Exchange.GLCA awards three literary prizes annually to a poet, a fiction writer, and a creative nonfiction writer to honor their first books.", "Winning authors receive all-expense-paid trips to several of GLCA's member colleges, at which they will be paid an honorarium of at least $500 to meet with students, give readings, and lead discussions.The Philadelphia Center, which offers an off-campus study program with the opportunity to gain college credit while living and learning independently in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, is managed and operated by Albion College in partnership with the GLCA.The consortium extended its first offer of membership in 46 years to Allegheny College in 2008." ], [ "Member institutions", "The GLCA's member institutions are:*Albion College*Allegheny College*Antioch College*Denison University*DePauw University*Earlham College*Hope College*Kalamazoo College*Kenyon College*Oberlin College*Ohio Wesleyan University*Wabash College*College of Wooster" ], [ "External links", "*" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Goidelic languages" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Goidelic''' ( ) or '''Gaelic languages''' (; ; ) form one of the two groups of Insular Celtic languages, the other being the Brittonic languages.Goidelic languages historically formed a dialect continuum stretching from Ireland through the Isle of Man to Scotland.", "There are three modern Goidelic languages: Irish (''''), Scottish Gaelic (''''), and Manx ('''').", "Manx died out as a first language in the 20th century but has since been revived to some degree." ], [ "Nomenclature", "''Gaelic'', by itself, is sometimes used to refer to Scottish Gaelic, especially in Scotland, and therefore is ambiguous.", "Irish and Manx are sometimes referred to as Irish Gaelic and Manx Gaelic (as they are Goidelic or Gaelic languages), but the use of the word \"Gaelic\" is unnecessary because the terms Irish and Manx, when used to denote languages, always refer to those languages.", "This is in contrast to Scottish Gaelic, for which \"Gaelic\" distinguishes the language from the Germanic language known as Scots.The endonyms (, and in Irish, in Manx and in Scottish Gaelic) are derived from Old Irish , which in turn is derived from Old Welsh meaning \"pirate, raider\".", "The medieval mythology of the places its origin in an eponymous ancestor of the Gaels and the inventor of the language, ." ], [ "Classification", "The family tree of the Goidelic languages, within the Insular Celtic branch of the Celtic language family, is as follows* Primitive Irish** Old Irish*** Middle Irish**** Modern Irish**** Scottish Gaelic**** Manx" ], [ "Origin, history, and range", "Britain and Ireland in the first few centuries of the 1st millennium, before the founding of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.Goidelic language and culture would eventually become dominant in the Pictish area and far northern parts of the Brittonic area.During the historical era, Goidelic was restricted to Ireland and, possibly, the west coast of Scotland.", "Medieval Gaelic literature tells us that the kingdom of Dál Riata emerged in western Scotland during the 6th century.", "The mainstream view is that Dál Riata was founded by Irish migrants, but this is not universally accepted.", "Archaeologist Ewan Campbell says there is no archaeological evidence for a migration or invasion, and suggests strong sea links helped maintain a pre-existing Gaelic culture on both sides of the North Channel.Dál Riata grew in size and influence, and Gaelic language and culture was eventually adopted by the neighbouring Picts (a group of peoples who may have spoken a Brittonic language) who lived throughout Scotland.", "Manx, the language of the Isle of Man, is closely akin to the Gaelic spoken in the Hebrides, the Irish spoken in northeast and eastern Ireland, and the now-extinct Galwegian Gaelic of Galloway (in southwest Scotland), with some influence from Old Norse through the Viking invasions and from the previous British inhabitants.The oldest written Goidelic language is Primitive Irish, which is attested in Ogham inscriptions from about the 4th century.", "The forms of this speech are very close, and often identical, to the forms of Gaulish recorded before and during the time of the Roman Empire.", "The next stage, Old Irish, is found in glosses (i.e.", "annotations) to Latin manuscripts—mainly religious and grammatical—from the 6th to the 10th century, as well as in archaic texts copied or recorded in Middle Irish texts.", "Middle Irish, the immediate predecessor of the modern Goidelic languages, is the term for the language as recorded from the 10th to the 12th century; a great deal of literature survives in it, including the early Irish law texts.Classical Gaelic, otherwise known as Early Modern Irish, covers the period from the 13th to the 18th century, during which time it was used as a literary standard in Ireland and Scotland.", "This is often called Classical Irish, while ''Ethnologue'' gives the name \"Hiberno-Scottish Gaelic\" to this standardised written language.", "As long as this written language was the norm, Ireland was considered the Gaelic homeland to the Scottish literati.Later orthographic divergence has resulted in standardised pluricentristic orthographies.", "Manx orthography, which was introduced in the 16th and 17th centuries, was based loosely on English and Welsh orthography, and so never formed part of this literary standard.===Proto-Goidelic===Proto-Goidelic, or proto-Gaelic, is the proposed proto-language for all branches of Goidelic.", "It is proposed as the predecessor of Goidelic, which then began to separate into different dialects before splitting during the Middle Irish period into the separate languages of Irish, Manx, and Scottish Gaelic." ], [ "Irish", "Irish is one of the Republic of Ireland's two official languages along with English.", "Historically the predominant language of the island, it is now mostly spoken in parts of the south, west, and northwest.", "The legally defined Irish-speaking areas are called the ; all government institutions of the Republic, in particular the parliament (''''), its upper house ('''') and lower house (''''), and the prime minister ('''') have official names in this language, and some are only officially referred to by their Irish names even in English.", "At present, the are primarily found in Counties Cork, Donegal, Mayo, Galway, Kerry, and, to a lesser extent, in Waterford and Meath.", "In the Republic of Ireland 1,774,437 (41.4% of the population aged three years and over) regard themselves as able to speak Irish to some degree.", "Of these, 77,185 (1.8%) speak Irish on a daily basis outside school.", "Irish is also undergoing a revival in Northern Ireland and has been accorded some legal status there under the 1998 Good Friday Agreement but its official usage remains divisive to certain parts of the population.", "The 2001 census in Northern Ireland showed that 167,487 (10.4%) people \"had some knowledge of Irish\".", "Combined, this means that around one in three people () on the island of Ireland can understand Irish at some level.Regions where respondents stated they could speak Irish from 2011Despite the ascent in Ireland of the English and Anglicised ruling classes following the 1607 Flight of the Earls (and the disappearance of much of the Gaelic nobility), Irish was spoken by the majority of the population until the later 18th century, with a huge impact from the Great Famine of the 1840s.", "Disproportionately affecting the classes among whom Irish was the primary spoken language, famine and emigration precipitated a steep decline in native speakers, which only recently has begun to reverse.The Irish language has been recognised as an official and working language of the European Union.", "Ireland's national language was the twenty-third to be given such recognition by the EU and previously had the status of a treaty language." ], [ "Scottish Gaelic", "A Scottish Gaelic speaker, recorded in ScotlandLinguistic division in early twelfth century Scotland:Some people in the north and west of mainland Scotland and most people in the Hebrides still speak Scottish Gaelic, but the language has been in decline.", "There are now believed to be approximately 60,000 native speakers of Scottish Gaelic in Scotland, plus around 1,000 speakers of the Canadian Gaelic dialect in Nova Scotia.Its historical range was much larger.", "For example, it was the everyday language of most of the rest of the Scottish Highlands until little more than a century ago.", "Galloway was once also a Gaelic-speaking region, but the Galwegian dialect has been extinct there for approximately three centuries.", "It is believed to have been home to dialects that were transitional between Scottish Gaelic and the two other Goidelic languages.", "While Gaelic was spoken across the Scottish Borders and Lothian during the early High Middle Ages it does not seem to have been spoken by the majority and was likely the language of the ruling elite, land-owners and religious clerics.", "Some other parts of the Scottish Lowlands spoke Cumbric, and others Scots Inglis, the only exceptions being the Northern Isles of Orkney and Shetland where Norse was spoken.", "Scottish Gaelic was introduced across North America with Gaelic settlers.", "Their numbers necessitated North American Gaelic publications and print media from Cape Breton Island to California.Scotland takes its name from the Latin word for 'Gael', '''', plural '''' (of uncertain etymology).", "''Scotland'' originally meant ''Land of the Gaels'' in a cultural and social sense.", "(In early Old English texts, ''Scotland'' referred to Ireland.)", "Until late in the 15th century, ''Scottis'' in Scottish English (or ''Scots Inglis'') was used to refer only to Gaelic, and the speakers of this language who were identified as ''Scots''.", "As the ruling elite became Scots Inglis/English-speaking, ''Scottis'' was gradually associated with the land rather than the people, and the word ''Erse'' ('Irish') was gradually used more and more as an act of culturo-political disassociation, with an overt implication that the language was not really Scottish, and therefore foreign.", "This was something of a propaganda label, as Gaelic has been in Scotland for at least as long as English, if not longer.In the early 16th century the dialects of northern Middle English, also known as Early Scots, which had developed in Lothian and had come to be spoken elsewhere in the Kingdom of Scotland, themselves later appropriated the name Scots.", "By the 17th century Gaelic speakers were restricted largely to the Highlands and the Hebrides.", "Furthermore, the culturally repressive measures taken against the rebellious Highland communities by The Crown following the second Jacobite Rebellion of 1746 caused still further decline in the language's use – to a large extent by enforced emigration (e.g.", "the Highland Clearances).", "Even more decline followed in the 19th and early 20th centuries.The Scottish Parliament has afforded the language a secure statutory status and \"equal respect\" (but not full equality in legal status under Scots law) with English, sparking hopes that Scottish Gaelic can be saved from extinction and perhaps even revitalised." ], [ "Manx", "A Manx speaker, recorded on the Isle of Man.Long the everyday language of most of the Isle of Man, Manx began to decline sharply in the 19th century.", "The last monolingual Manx speakers are believed to have died around the middle of the 19th century; in 1874 around 30% of the population were estimated to speak Manx, decreasing to 9.1% in 1901 and 1.1% in 1921.The last native speaker of Manx, Ned Maddrell, died in 1974.At the end of the 19th century a revival of Manx began, headed by the Manx Language Society ('''').", "Both linguists and language enthusiasts searched out the last native speakers during the 20th century, recording their speech and learning from them.", "In the United Kingdom Census 2011, there were 1,823 Manx speakers on the island, representing 2.27% of the population of 80,398, and a steady increase in the number of speakers.Today Manx is the sole medium for teaching at five of the island's pre-schools by a company named '''' (\"little people\"), which also operates the sole Manx-medium primary school, the ''''.", "Manx is taught as a second language at all of the island's primary and secondary schools and also at the University College Isle of Man and Centre for Manx Studies." ], [ "Comparison", "===Numbers===Comparison of Goidelic numbers, including Old Irish.", "Welsh numbers have been included for a comparison between Goidelic and Brythonic branches.GoidelicBrythonic # Old Irish Irish Scottish Gaelic Manx Welsh1 * 2 * 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 20 100 and are no longer used in counting.", "Instead the suppletive forms and are normally used for counting but for comparative purposes, the historic forms are listed in the table above===Common phrases=== Irish Scottish Gaelic Manx English Welcome ''Ulster:'' ''Connacht:'' ''Munster:'' ''Over-regional:'' ''Lewis:'' ''Argyll and Outer Hebrides:'' How are you?", "''Ulster:'' ''Connacht:'' ''Munster:'' ''Over-regional:'' ''West coast mainland:'' What is your name?", "I am... Good day Good morning Good afternoon/evening Good night ''Outer Hebrides and Skye:'' ''Over-regional:'' ''Southwestern:'' Thank you Good-bye Health (used as a toastcf.", "English \"cheers\")" ], [ "Influence on other languages", "There are several languages that show Goidelic influence, although they are not Goidelic languages themselves:*Shelta language is sometimes thought to be a Goidelic language, but is in fact a cant based on Irish and English, with a primarily Irish-based grammar and English-based syntax.", "*The Bungi dialect in Canada is an English dialect spoken by Métis that was influenced by Orkney English, Scots English, Cree, Ojibwe, and Scottish Gaelic.", "*Beurla Reagaird is a cant spoken by Scottish travelling folk, which is to a large extent based on Scottish Gaelic.", "* The Welsh language spoken in West Wales may still retain some influences of its Goidelic speaking past – the same applies to Cornish spoken in Western Cornwall and the English dialect of Merseyside Scouse.", "*English and especially Highland English have numerous words of both Scottish Gaelic and Irish origin." ], [ "See also", "Water feature commemorating the first supply of water by gravitation to Portmahomack in 1887.It carries an inscription in poor Gaelic, \"\" (which, if it read ''Uisge Tobar a' Bhaistidh'' would translate as \"Water of the Well of Baptism\")* Comparison of Irish, Manx, and Scottish Gaelic* Goidelic substrate hypothesis* Proto-Celtic language* Specific dialects of Irish:** Connacht Irish** Munster Irish** Newfoundland Irish** Ulster Irish* Specific dialects of Scottish Gaelic:** Canadian Gaelic** Galwegian Gaelic* Literature in the other languages of Britain" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Scottish Gaelic Wikipedia* Irish language Wikipedia* Manx Wikipedia* Comparison of Irish and Scottish Gaelic" ] ]
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[ [ "Gnosticism" ], [ "Introduction", "Page from the Gospel of JudasBeth Manda (Mashkhanna) in Nasiriyah, southern Iraq in 2016, a contemporary-style mandi'''Gnosticism''' (from Ancient Greek: γνωστικός, romanized: ''gnōstikós'', Koine Greek: Help:IPA/Greek|ɣnostiˈkos, 'having knowledge') is a collection of religious ideas and systems that coalesced in the late 1st century AD among Jewish and early Christian sects.", "These various groups emphasized personal spiritual knowledge (''gnosis'') above the proto-orthodox teachings, traditions, and authority of religious institutions.", "Gnostic cosmogony generally presents a distinction between a supreme, hidden God and a malevolent lesser divinity (sometimes associated with the biblical deity Yahweh) who is responsible for creating the material universe.", "Consequently, Gnostics considered material existence flawed or evil, and held the principal element of salvation to be direct knowledge of the hidden divinity, attained via mystical or esoteric insight.", "Many Gnostic texts deal not in concepts of sin and repentance, but with illusion and enlightenment.Gnostic writings flourished among certain Christian groups in the Mediterranean world around the second century, when the Fathers of the early Church denounced them as heresy.", "Efforts to destroy these texts proved largely successful, resulting in the survival of very little writing by Gnostic theologians.", "Nonetheless, early Gnostic teachers such as Valentinus saw their beliefs as aligned with Christianity.", "In the Gnostic Christian tradition, Christ is seen as a divine being which has taken human form in order to lead humanity back to recognition of its own divine nature.", "However, Gnosticism is not a single standardized system, and the emphasis on direct experience allows for a wide variety of teachings, including distinct currents such as Valentinianism and Sethianism.", "In the Persian Empire, Gnostic ideas spread as far as China via the related movement Manichaeism, while Mandaeism, which is the only surviving Gnostic religion from antiquity, is found in Iraq, Iran and diaspora communities.", "Jorunn Buckley posits that the early Mandaeans may have been among the first to formulate what would go on to become Gnosticism within the community of early followers of Jesus.For centuries, most scholarly knowledge about Gnosticism was limited to the anti-heretical writings of early Christian figures such as Irenaeus of Lyons and Hippolytus of Rome.", "There was a renewed interest in Gnosticism after the 1945 discovery of Egypt's Nag Hammadi library, a collection of rare early Christian and Gnostic texts, including the Gospel of Thomas and the Apocryphon of John.", "Elaine Pagels has noted the influence of sources from Hellenistic Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and Platonism on the Nag Hammadi texts.", "Since the 1990s, Gnosticism has come under increasing scrutiny from scholars.", "One such issue is whether Gnosticism ought to be considered one form of early Christianity, an interreligious phenomenon, or an independent religion.", "Going further than this, other contemporary scholars such as Michael Allen Williams and David G. Robertson contest whether \"Gnosticism\" is still a valid or useful historical category at all, or if instead it was simply a term of art of proto-orthodox heresiologists for a disparate group of contemporaneous Christian groups." ], [ "Etymology", "''Gnosis'' is a feminine Greek noun which means \"knowledge\" or \"awareness.\"", "It is often used for personal knowledge compared with intellectual knowledge (εἴδειν ''eídein'').", "A related term is the adjective ''gnostikos'', \"cognitive\", a reasonably common adjective in Classical Greek.", "By the Hellenistic period, it began also to be associated with Greco-Roman mysteries, becoming synonymous with the Greek term ''musterion''.", "Consequentially, ''Gnosis'' often refers to knowledge based on personal experience or perception.", "In a religious context, ''gnosis'' is mystical or esoteric knowledge based on direct participation with the divine.", "In most Gnostic systems, the sufficient cause of salvation is this \"knowledge of\" (\"acquaintance with\") the divine.", "It is an inward \"knowing\", comparable to that encouraged by Plotinus (neoplatonism), and differs from proto-orthodox Christian views.", "Gnostics are \"those who are oriented toward knowledge and understanding – or perception and learning – as a particular modality for living\".", "The usual meaning of ''gnostikos'' in Classical Greek texts is \"learned\" or \"intellectual\", such as used by Plato in the comparison of \"practical\" (''praktikos'') and \"intellectual\" (''gnostikos'').", "Plato's use of \"learned\" is fairly typical of Classical texts.Sometimes employed in the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible, the adjective is not used in the New Testament, but Clement of Alexandria who speaks of the \"learned\" (''gnostikos'') Christian quite often, uses it in complimentary terms.", "The use of ''gnostikos'' in relation to heresy originates with interpreters of Irenaeus.", "Some scholars consider that Irenaeus sometimes uses ''gnostikos'' to simply mean \"intellectual\", whereas his mention of \"the intellectual sect\" is a specific designation.", "The term \"Gnosticism\" does not appear in ancient sources, and was first coined in the 17th century by Henry More in a commentary on the seven letters of the Book of Revelation, where More used the term \"Gnosticisme\" to describe the heresy in Thyatira.", "The term ''Gnosticism'' was derived from the use of the Greek adjective ''gnostikos'' (Greek γνωστικός, \"learned\", \"intellectual\") by St. Irenaeus (c. 185 AD) to describe the school of Valentinus as ''he legomene gnostike haeresis'' \"the heresy called Learned (gnostic)\"." ], [ "Origins", "The origins of Gnosticism are obscure and still disputed.", "The proto-orthodox Christian groups called Gnostics a heresy of Christianity, but according to the modern scholars the theology's origin is closely related to Jewish sectarian milieus and early Christian sects.", "Some scholars debate Gnosticism's origins as having roots in Buddhism, due to similarities in beliefs, but ultimately, its origins are unknown.", "As Christianity developed and became more popular, so did Gnosticism, with both proto-orthodox Christian and Gnostic Christian groups often existing in the same places.", "The Gnostic belief was widespread within Christianity until the proto-orthodox Christian communities expelled the group in the second and third centuries (AD).", "Gnosticism became one of the first groups to be declared heretical.Some scholars prefer to speak of \"gnosis\" when referring to first-century ideas that later developed into Gnosticism, and to reserve the term \"Gnosticism\" for the synthesis of these ideas into a coherent movement in the second century.", "According to James M. Robinson, no gnostic texts clearly pre-date Christianity, and \"pre-Christian Gnosticism as such is hardly attested in a way to settle the debate once and for all.", "\"Most popular Gnostic sects were heavily inspired by Zoroastrianism.===Jewish Christian origins===Contemporary scholarship largely agrees that Gnosticism has Jewish Christian origins, originating in the late first century AD in nonrabbinical Jewish sects and early Christian sects.", "Ethel S. Drower adds, \"heterodox Judaism in Galilee and Samaria appears to have taken shape in the form we now call Gnostic, and it may well have existed some time before the Christian era.", "\"Many heads of Gnostic schools were identified as Jewish Christians by Church Fathers, and Hebrew words and names of God were applied in some gnostic systems.", "The cosmogonic speculations among Christian Gnostics had partial origins in ''Maaseh Breshit'' and ''Maaseh Merkabah''.", "This thesis is most notably put forward by Gershom Scholem (1897–1982) and Gilles Quispel (1916–2006).", "Scholem detected Jewish ''gnosis'' in the imagery of merkabah mysticism, which can also be found in certain Gnostic documents.", "Quispel sees Gnosticism as an independent Jewish development, tracing its origins to Alexandrian Jews, to which group Valentinus was also connected.Many of the Nag Hammadi texts make reference to Judaism, in some cases with a violent rejection of the Jewish God.", "Gershom Scholem once described Gnosticism as \"the Greatest case of metaphysical anti-Semitism\".", "Professor Steven Bayme said gnosticism would be better characterized as anti-Judaism.", "Recent research into the origins of Gnosticism shows a strong Jewish influence, particularly from Hekhalot literature.Within early Christianity, the teachings of Paul the Apostle and John the Evangelist may have been a starting point for Gnostic ideas, with a growing emphasis on the opposition between flesh and spirit, the value of charisma, and the disqualification of the Jewish law.", "The mortal body belonged to the world of inferior, worldly powers (the ''archons''), and only the spirit or soul could be saved.", "The term ''gnostikos'' may have acquired a deeper significance here.Alexandria was of central importance for the birth of Gnosticism.", "The Christian ''ecclesia'' (i. e. congregation, church) was of Jewish–Christian origin, but also attracted Greek members, and various strands of thought were available, such as \"Judaic apocalypticism, speculation on divine wisdom, Greek philosophy, and Hellenistic mystery religions.", "\"Regarding the angel Christology of some early Christians, Darrell Hannah notes:The pseudepigraphical Christian text ''Ascension of Isaiah'' identifies Jesus with angel Christology:The Shepherd of Hermas is a Christian literary work considered as canonical scripture by some of the early Church fathers such as Irenaeus.", "Jesus is identified with angel Christology in parable 5, when the author mentions a Son of God, as a virtuous man filled with a Holy \"pre-existent spirit\".===Neoplatonic influences===In the 1880s Gnostic connections with neo-Platonism were proposed.", "Ugo Bianchi, who organised the Congress of Messina of 1966 on the origins of Gnosticism, also argued for Orphic and Platonic origins.", "Gnostics borrowed significant ideas and terms from Platonism, using Greek philosophical concepts throughout their text, including such concepts as hypostasis (reality, existence), ''ousia'' (essence, substance, being), and demiurge (creator God).", "Both Sethian Gnostics and Valentinian Gnostics seem to have been influenced by Plato, Middle Platonism, and Neo-Pythagoreanism academies or schools of thought.", "Both schools attempted \"an effort towards conciliation, even affiliation\" with late antique philosophy, and were rebuffed by some Neoplatonists, including Plotinus.===Persian origins or influences===Early research into the origins of Gnosticism proposed Persian origins or influences, spreading to Europe and incorporating Jewish elements.", "According to Wilhelm Bousset (1865–1920), Gnosticism was a form of Iranian and Mesopotamian syncretism, and Richard August Reitzenstein (1861–1931) situated the origins of Gnosticism in Persia.Carsten Colpe (b.", "1929) has analyzed and criticised the Iranian hypothesis of Reitzenstein, showing that many of his hypotheses are untenable.", "Nevertheless, Geo Widengren (1907–1996) argued for the origin of Mandaean Gnosticism in Mazdean (Zoroastrianism) Zurvanism, in conjunction with ideas from the Aramaic Mesopotamian world.However, scholars specializing in Mandaeism such as Kurt Rudolph, Mark Lidzbarski, Rudolf Macúch, Ethel S. Drower, James F. McGrath, Charles G. Häberl, Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley, and Şinasi Gündüz argue for a Palestinian origin.", "The majority of these scholars believe that the Mandaeans likely have a historical connection with John the Baptist's inner circle of disciples.", "Charles Häberl, who is also a linguist specializing in Mandaic, finds Palestinian and Samaritan Aramaic influence on Mandaic and accepts Mandaeans having a \"shared Palestinian history with Jews\".===Buddhist parallels===In 1966, at the Congress of Median, Buddhologist Edward Conze noted phenomenological commonalities between Mahayana Buddhism and Gnosticism, in his paper ''Buddhism and Gnosis'', following an early suggestion put forward by Isaac Jacob Schmidt.", "The influence of Buddhism in any sense on either the ''gnostikos'' Valentinus (c.170) or the Nag Hammadi texts (3rd century) is not supported by modern scholarship, although Elaine Pagels called it a \"possibility\"." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Cosmology===The Syrian–Egyptian traditions postulate a remote, supreme Godhead, the Monad.", "From this highest divinity emanate lower divine beings, known as Aeons.", "The Demiurge arises among the Aeons and creates the physical world.", "Divine elements \"fall\" into the material realm, and are latent in human beings.", "Redemption from the fall occurs when the humans obtain Gnosis, esoteric or intuitive knowledge of the divine.===Dualism and monism===Gnostic systems postulate a dualism between God and the world, varying from the \"radical dualist\" systems of Manichaeism to the \"mitigated dualism\" of classic gnostic movements.", "Radical dualism, or absolute dualism, posits two co-equal divine forces, while in ''mitigated dualism'' one of the two principles is in some way inferior to the other.", "In ''qualified monism'' the second entity may be divine or semi-divine.", "Valentinian Gnosticism is a form of monism, expressed in terms previously used in a dualistic manner.===Moral and ritual practice===Gnostics tended toward asceticism, especially in their sexual and dietary practice.", "In other areas of morality, Gnostics were less rigorously ascetic, and took a more moderate approach to correct behavior.", "In normative early Christianity, the Church administered and prescribed the correct behavior for Christians, while in Gnosticism it was the internalised motivation that was important.", "Ptolemy's ''Epistle to Flora'' describes a general asceticism, based on the moral inclination of the individual.", "For example, ritualistic behavior was not seen to possess as much importance as any other practice, unless it was based on a personal, internal motivation.=== Female representation ===It is difficult to find real women represented in sources characterized as 'Gnostic.'", "The few that are mentioned are portrayed to be chaotic, disobedient, and even enigmatic.''''''", "However, significant Gnostic texts like the Nag Hammadi place women in roles of leadership and heroism, contradicting the narrative that women in Gnostic spaces were mere victims to their circumstance.", "The role women played in the evolution of Gnosticism is an area of study still being explored." ], [ "Concepts", "===Monad===In many Gnostic systems, God is known as the ''Monad'', the One.", "God is the high source of the pleroma, the region of light.", "The various emanations of God are called æons.", "According to Hippolytus, this view was inspired by the Pythagoreans, who called the first thing that came into existence the ''Monad'', which begat the dyad, which begat the numbers, which begat the point, begetting lines, etc.===Pleroma===''Pleroma'' (Greek πλήρωμα, \"fullness\") refers to the totality of God's powers.", "The heavenly pleroma is the center of divine life, a region of light \"above\" (the term is not to be understood spatially) our world, occupied by spiritual beings such as aeons (eternal beings) and sometimes archons.", "Jesus is interpreted as an intermediary aeon who was sent from the pleroma, with whose aid humanity can recover the lost knowledge of the divine origins of humanity.", "The term is thus a central element of Gnostic cosmology.Pleroma is also used in the general Greek language, and is used by the Greek Orthodox church in this general form, since the word appears in the Epistle to the Colossians.", "Proponents of the view that Paul was actually a gnostic, such as Elaine Pagels, view the reference in Colossians as a term that has to be interpreted in a gnostic sense.===Emanation===The Supreme Light or Consciousness descends through a series of stages, gradations, worlds, or hypostases, becoming progressively more material and embodied.", "In time it will turn around to return to the One (epistrophe), retracing its steps through spiritual knowledge and contemplation.===Aeon===In many Gnostic systems, the aeons are the various emanations of the superior God or Monad.", "Beginning in certain Gnostic texts with the hermaphroditic aeon Barbelo, the first emanated being, various interactions with the Monad occur which result in the emanation of successive pairs of aeons, often in male–female pairings called ''syzygies''.", "The numbers of these pairings varied from text to text, though some identify their number as being thirty.", "The aeons as a totality constitute the ''pleroma'', the \"region of light\".", "The lowest regions of the pleroma are closest to the darkness; that is, the physical world.Two of the most commonly paired æons were Christ and ''Sophia'' (Greek: \"Wisdom\"); the latter refers to Christ as her \"consort\" in ''A Valentinian Exposition''.===Sophia===In Gnostic tradition, the name '''Sophia''' (Σοφία, Greek for \"wisdom\") refers to the final emanation of God, and is identified with the ''anima mundi'' or world-soul.", "She is occasionally referred to by the Hebrew equivalent of ''Achamoth'' (this is a feature of Ptolemy's version of the Valentinian gnostic myth).", "Jewish Gnosticism with a focus on Sophia was active by 90 AD.", "In most, if not all, versions of the gnostic myth, Sophia births the demiurge, who in turn brings about the creation of materiality.", "The positive and negative depictions of materiality depend on the myth's depictions of Sophia's actions.", "Sophia in this highly patriarchal narrative is described as unruly and disobedient, which is due to her bringing a creation of chaos into the world.", "The creation of the Demiurge was an act done without her counterpart's consent and because of the predefined hierarchy between the two of them, this action contributed to the narrative that she was unruly and disobedient.", "''Sophia'', emanating without her partner, resulted in the production of the ''Demiurge'' (Greek: lit.", "\"public builder\"), who is also referred to as ''Yaldabaoth'' and variations thereof in some Gnostic texts.", "This creature is concealed outside the pleroma; in isolation, and thinking itself alone, it creates materiality and a host of co-actors, referred to as archons.", "The demiurge is responsible for the creation of humankind; trapping elements of the pleroma stolen from Sophia inside human bodies.", "In response, the Godhead emanates two savior aeons, ''Christ'' and ''the Holy Spirit''; Christ then embodies itself in the form of Jesus, in order to be able to teach humans how to achieve gnosis, by which they may return to the pleroma.===Demiurge===A lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in Bernard de Montfaucon's ''L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures'' may be a depiction of Yaldabaoth, the Demiurge; however, see Mithraic Zervan Akarana.The term ''demiurge'' derives from the Latinized form of the Greek term ''dēmiourgos'', δημιουργός, literally \"public or skilled worker\".", "This figure is also called \"Yaldabaoth\", Samael (Aramaic: ''sæmʻa-ʼel'', \"blind god\"), or \"Saklas\" (Syriac: ''sækla'', \"the foolish one\"), who is sometimes ignorant of the superior god, and sometimes opposed to it; thus in the latter case he is correspondingly malevolent.", "Other names or identifications are Ahriman, El, Satan, and Yahweh.The demiurge creates the physical universe and the physical aspect of humanity.", "The demiurge typically creates a group of co-actors named archons who preside over the material realm and, in some cases, present obstacles to the soul seeking ascent from it.", "The inferiority of the demiurge's creation may be compared to the technical inferiority of a work of art, painting, sculpture, etc.", "to the thing the art represents.", "In other cases, it takes on a more ascetic tendency to view material existence negatively, which then becomes more extreme when materiality, including the human body, is perceived as evil and constrictive, a deliberate prison for its inhabitants.Moral judgements of the demiurge vary from group to group within the broad category of Gnosticism, viewing materiality as being inherently evil, or as merely flawed and as good as its passive constituent matter allows.===Archon===In late antiquity some variants of Gnosticism used the term archon to refer to several servants of the demiurge.", "According to Origen's ''Contra Celsum'', a sect called the Ophites posited the existence of seven archons, beginning with Iadabaoth or Ialdabaoth, who created the six that follow: Iao, Sabaoth, Adonaios, Elaios, Astaphanos, and Horaios.", "Ialdabaoth had a head of a lion.===Other concepts===Other Gnostic concepts are:* sarkic – earthly, hidebound, ignorant, uninitiated.", "The lowest level of human thought; the fleshly, instinctive level of thinking.", "* hylic – lowest order of the three types of human.", "Unable to be saved since their thinking is entirely material, incapable of understanding the gnosis.", "* psychic – \"soulful\", partially initiated.", "Matter-dwelling spirits* pneumatic – \"spiritual\", fully initiated, immaterial souls escaping the doom of the material world via gnosis.", "* kenoma – the visible or manifest cosmos, \"lower\" than the pleroma* charisma – gift, or energy, bestowed by pneumatics through oral teaching and personal encounters* logos – the divine ordering principle of the cosmos; personified as Christ.", "See also Odic force.", "* hypostasis – literally \"that which stands beneath\" the inner reality, emanation (appearance) of God, known to psychics* ousia – essence of God, known to pneumatics.", "Specific individual things or being." ], [ "Jesus as Gnostic saviour", "Jesus is identified by some Gnostics as an embodiment of the supreme being who became incarnate to bring ''gnōsis'' to the earth, while others adamantly denied that the supreme being came in the flesh, claiming Jesus to be merely a human who attained enlightenment through gnosis and taught his disciples to do the same.", "Others believed Jesus was divine, although did not have a physical body, reflected in the later Docetist movement.", "Among the Mandaeans, Jesus was considered a ''mšiha kdaba'' or \"false messiah\" who perverted the teachings entrusted to him by John the Baptist.", "Still other traditions identify Mani, the founder of Manichaeism, and Seth, third son of Adam and Eve, as salvific figures." ], [ "Development", "Three periods can be discerned in the development of Gnosticism:* Late-first century and early second century: development of Gnostic ideas, contemporaneous with the writing of the New Testament;* mid-second century to early third century: high point of the classical Gnostic teachers and their systems, \"who claimed that their systems represented the inner truth revealed by Jesus\";* end of the second century to the fourth century: reaction by the proto-orthodox church and condemnation as heresy, and subsequent decline.During the first period, three types of tradition developed:* Genesis was reinterpreted in Jewish milieus, viewing Yahweh as a jealous God who enslaved people; freedom was to be obtained from this jealous God;* A wisdom tradition developed, in which Jesus' sayings were interpreted as pointers to an esoteric wisdom, in which the soul could be divinized through identification with wisdom.", "Some of Jesus' sayings may have been incorporated into the gospels to put a limit on this development.", "The conflicts described in 1 Corinthians may have been inspired by a clash between this wisdom tradition and Paul's gospel of crucifixion and arising;* A mythical story developed about the descent of a heavenly creature to reveal the Divine world as the true home of human beings.", "Jewish Christianity saw the Messiah, or Christ, as \"an eternal aspect of God's hidden nature, his \"spirit\" and \"truth\", who revealed himself throughout sacred history\".The movement spread in areas controlled by the Roman Empire and Arian Goths, and the Persian Empire.", "It continued to develop in the Mediterranean and Middle East before and during the 2nd and 3rd centuries, but decline also set in during the third century, due to a growing aversion from the Nicene Church, and the economic and cultural deterioration of the Roman Empire.", "Conversion to Islam, and the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229), greatly reduced the remaining number of Gnostics throughout the Middle Ages, though Mandaean communities still exist in Iraq, Iran and diaspora communities.", "Gnostic and pseudo-gnostic ideas became influential in some of the philosophies of various esoteric mystical movements of the 19th and 20th centuries in Europe and North America, including some that explicitly identify themselves as revivals or even continuations of earlier gnostic groups." ], [ "Relation with early Christianity", "Dillon notes that Gnosticism raises questions about the development of early Christianity.===Orthodoxy and heresy===The Christian heresiologists, most notably Irenaeus, regarded Gnosticism as a Christian heresy.", "Modern scholarship notes that early Christianity was diverse, and Christian orthodoxy only settled in the 4thcentury, when the Roman Empire declined and Gnosticism lost its influence.", "Gnostics and proto-orthodox Christians shared some terminology.", "Initially, they were hard to distinguish from each other.According to Walter Bauer, \"heresies\" may well have been the original form of Christianity in many regions.", "This theme was further developed by Elaine Pagels, who argues that \"the proto-orthodox church found itself in debates with gnostic Christians that helped them to stabilize their own beliefs.\"", "According to Gilles Quispel, Catholicism arose in response to Gnosticism, establishing safeguards in the form of the monarchic episcopate, the creed, and the canon of holy books.===Historical Jesus===The Gnostic movements may contain information about the historical Jesus, since some texts preserve sayings which show similarities with canonical sayings.", "Especially the Gospel of Thomas has a significant amount of parallel sayings.", "Yet, a striking difference is that the canonical sayings center on the coming endtime, while the Thomas-sayings center on a kingdom of heaven that is already here, and not a future event.", "According to Helmut Koester, this is because the Thomas-sayings are older, implying that in the earliest forms of Christianity, Jesus was regarded as a wisdom-teacher.", "An alternative hypothesis states that the Thomas authors wrote in the second century, changing existing sayings and eliminating the apocalyptic concerns.", "According to April DeConick, such a change occurred when the end time did not come, and the Thomasine tradition turned toward a \"new theology of mysticism\" and a \"theological commitment to a fully-present kingdom of heaven here and now, where their church had attained Adam and Eve's divine status before the Fall.", "\"===Johannine literature===The prologue of the Gospel of John describes the incarnated Logos, the light that came to earth, in the person of Jesus.", "The ''Apocryphon of John'' contains a scheme of three descendants from the heavenly realm, the third one being Jesus, just as in the Gospel of John.", "The similarities probably point to a relationship between gnostic ideas and the Johannine community.", "According to Raymond Brown, the Gospel of John shows \"the development of certain gnostic ideas, especially Christ as heavenly revealer, the emphasis on light versus darkness, and anti-Jewish animus.\"", "The Johannine material reveals debates about the redeemer myth.", "The Johannine letters show that there were different interpretations of the gospel story, and the Johannine images may have contributed to second-century Gnostic ideas about Jesus as a redeemer who descended from heaven.", "According to DeConick, the Gospel of John shows a \"transitional system from early Christianity to gnostic beliefs in a God who transcends our world.\"", "According to DeConick, ''John'' may show a bifurcation of the idea of the Jewish God into Jesus' Father in Heaven and the Jews' father, \"the Father of the Devil\" (most translations say \"of your father the Devil\"), which may have developed into the gnostic idea of the Monad and the Demiurge.===Paul and Gnosticism===Tertullian calls Paul \"the apostle of the heretics\", because Paul's writings were attractive to gnostics, and interpreted in a gnostic way, while Jewish Christians found him to stray from the Jewish roots of Christianity.", "In I Corinthians (), Paul refers to some church members as \"having knowledge\" (, ''ton echonta gnosin'').", "James Dunn writes that in some cases, Paul affirmed views that were closer to Gnosticism than to proto-orthodox Christianity.According to Clement of Alexandria, the disciples of Valentinus said that Valentinus was a student of a certain Theudas, who was a student of Paul, and Elaine Pagels notes that Paul's epistles were interpreted by Valentinus in a gnostic way, and Paul could be considered a proto-gnostic as well as a proto-Catholic.", "Many Nag Hammadi texts, including, for example, the ''Prayer of Paul'' and the Coptic ''Apocalypse of Paul'', consider Paul to be \"the great apostle\".", "The fact that he claimed to have received his gospel directly by revelation from God appealed to the gnostics, who claimed ''gnosis'' from the risen Christ.", "The Naassenes, Cainites, and Valentinians referred to Paul's epistles.", "Timothy Freke and Peter Gandy have expanded upon this idea of Paul as a gnostic teacher; although their premise that Jesus was invented by early Christians based on an alleged Greco-Roman mystery cult has been dismissed by scholars.", "However, his revelation was different from the gnostic revelations." ], [ "Major movements", "=== Judean–Israelite Gnosticism===Although Elkesaites and Mandaeans were found mainly in Mesopotamia in the first few centuries of the common era, their origins appear to be Judean–Israelite in the Jordan valley.====Elkesaites====The Elkesaites were a Judeo-Christian baptismal sect that originated in the Transjordan and were active between 100 and 400 AD.", "The members of this sect performed frequent baptisms for purification and had a Gnostic disposition.", "The sect is named after its leader ''Elkesai''.According to Joseph Lightfoot, the Church Father Epiphanius (writing in the 4th century AD) seems to make a distinction between two main groups within the Essenes: \"Of those that came before his Elxai (Elkesai), an Ossaean prophet time and during it, the Ossaeans and the Nasaraeans.", "\"==== Mandaeism ====baptismMandaeism is a Gnostic, monotheistic and ethnic religion.", "The Mandaeans are an ethnoreligious group that speak a dialect of Eastern Aramaic known as Mandaic.", "They are the only surviving Gnostics from antiquity.", "Their religion has been practiced primarily around the lower Karun, Euphrates and Tigris and the rivers that surround the Shatt-al-Arab waterway, part of southern Iraq and Khuzestan Province in Iran.", "Mandaeism is still practiced in small numbers, in parts of southern Iraq and the Iranian province of Khuzestan, and there are thought to be between 60,000 and 70,000 Mandaeans worldwide.The name 'Mandaean' comes from the Aramaic ''manda'' meaning knowledge.", "John the Baptist is a key figure in the religion, as an emphasis on baptism is part of their core beliefs.", "According to Nathaniel Deutsch, \"Mandaean anthropogony echoes both rabbinic and gnostic accounts.\"", "Mandaeans revere Adam, Abel, Seth, Enos, Noah, Shem, Aram, and especially John the Baptist.", "Significant amounts of original Mandaean Scripture, written in Mandaean Aramaic, survive in the modern era.", "The most important holy scripture is known as the Ginza Rabba and has portions identified by some scholars as being copied as early as the 2nd–3rd centuries, while others such as S. F. Dunlap place it in the 1st century.", "There is also the Qolastā, or Canonical Book of Prayer and the Mandaean Book of John (Sidra ḏ'Yahia) and other scriptures.Mandaeans believe that there is a constant battle or conflict between the forces of good and evil.", "The forces of good are represented by ''Nhura'' (Light) and ''Maia Hayyi'' (Living Water) and those of evil are represented by ''Hshuka'' (Darkness) and ''Maia Tahmi'' (dead or rancid water).", "The two waters are mixed in all things in order to achieve a balance.", "Mandaeans also believe in an afterlife or heaven called ''Alma d-Nhura'' (World of Light).In Mandaeism, the World of Light is ruled by a Supreme God, known as Hayyi Rabbi ('The Great Life' or 'The Great Living God').", "God is so great, vast, and incomprehensible that no words can fully depict how immense God is.", "It is believed that an innumerable number of Uthras (angels or guardians), manifested from the light, surround and perform acts of worship to praise and honor God.", "They inhabit worlds separate from the lightworld and some are commonly referred to as emanations and are subservient beings to the Supreme God who is also known as 'The First Life'.", "Their names include Second, Third, and Fourth Life (i.e.", "Yōšamin, Abathur, and Ptahil).The Lord of Darkness (Krun) is the ruler of the World of Darkness formed from dark waters representing chaos.", "A main defender of the darkworld is a giant monster, or dragon, with the name Ur, and an evil, female ruler also inhabits the darkworld, known as Ruha.", "The Mandaeans believe these malevolent rulers created demonic offspring who consider themselves the owners of the seven planets and twelve zodiac constellations.According to Mandaean beliefs, the material world is a mixture of light and dark created by Ptahil, who fills the role of the demiurge, with help from dark powers, such as Ruha the Seven, and the Twelve.", "Adam's body (believed to be the first human created by God in Abrahamic tradition) was fashioned by these dark beings, however his soul (or mind) was a direct creation from the Light.", "Therefore, Mandaeans believe the human soul is capable of salvation because it originates from the World of Light.", "The soul, sometimes referred to as the 'inner Adam' or Adam kasia, is in dire need of being rescued from the dark, so it may ascend into the heavenly realm of the World of Light.", "Baptisms are a central theme in Mandaeism, believed to be necessary for the redemption of the soul.", "Mandaeans do not perform a single baptism, as in religions such as Christianity; rather, they view baptisms as a ritual act capable of bringing the soul closer to salvation.", "Therefore, Mandaeans are baptized repeatedly during their lives.", "Mandaeans consider John the Baptist to have been a Nasoraean Mandaean.", "John is referred to as their greatest and final teacher.Jorunn J. Buckley and other scholars specializing in Mandaeism believe that the Mandaeans originated about two thousand years ago in the Palestine-Israel region and moved east due to persecution.", "Others claim a southwestern Mesopotamia origin.", "However, some scholars take the view that Mandaeism is older and dates from pre-Christian times.", "Mandaeans assert that their religion predates Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as a monotheistic faith.", "Mandaeans believe that they descend directly from Shem, Noah's son, and also from John the Baptist's original disciples.Due to paraphrases and word-for-word translations from the Mandaean originals found in the ''Psalms of Thomas'', it is now believed that the pre-Manichaean presence of the Mandaean religion is more than likely.", "The Valentinians embraced a Mandaean baptismal formula in their rituals in the 2nd century CE.", "Birger A. Pearson compares the ''Five Seals'' of Sethianism, which he believes is a reference to quintuple ritual immersion in water, to Mandaean ''masbuta''.", "According to Jorunn J. Buckley, \"Sethian Gnostic literature ... is related, perhaps as a younger sibling, to Mandaean baptism ideology.", "\"In addition to accepting Mandaeism's Israelite or Judean origins, Buckley adds:==== Samaritan Baptist sects ====According to Magris, Samaritan Baptist sects were an offshoot of John the Baptist.", "One offshoot was in turn headed by Dositheus, Simon Magus, and Menander.", "It was in this milieu that the idea emerged that the world was created by ignorant angels.", "Their baptismal ritual removed the consequences of sin, and led to a regeneration by which natural death, which was caused by these angels, was overcome.", "The Samaritan leaders were viewed as \"the embodiment of God's power, spirit, or wisdom, and as the redeemer and revealer of 'true knowledge.The Simonians were centered on Simon Magus, the magician baptised by Philip and rebuked by Peter in Acts 8, who became in early Christianity the archetypal false teacher.", "The ascription by Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and others of a connection between schools in their time and the individual in Acts 8 may be as legendary as the stories attached to him in various apocryphal books.", "Justin Martyr identifies Menander of Antioch as Simon Magus' pupil.", "According to Hippolytus, Simonianism is an earlier form of the Valentinian doctrine.The Quqites were a group who followed a Samaritan, Iranian type of Gnosticism in 2nd-century AD Erbil and in the vicinity of what is today northern Iraq.", "The sect was named after their founder Quq, known as \"the potter\".", "The Quqite ideology arose in Edessa, Syria, in the 2nd century.", "The Quqites stressed the Hebrew Bible, made changes in the New Testament, associated twelve prophets with twelve apostles, and held that the latter corresponded to the same number of gospels.", "Their beliefs seem to have been eclectic, with elements of Judaism, Christianity, paganism, astrology, and Gnosticism.=== Syrian-Egyptian Gnosticism ===Syrian-Egyptian Gnosticism includes Sethianism, Valentinianism, Basilideans, Thomasine traditions, and Serpent Gnostics, as well as a number of other minor groups and writers.", "Hermeticism is also a western Gnostic tradition, though it differs in some respects from these other groups.", "The Syrian–Egyptian school derives much of its outlook from Platonist influences.", "It depicts creation in a series of emanations from a primal monadic source, finally resulting in the creation of the material universe.", "These schools tend to view evil in terms of matter that is markedly inferior to goodness and lacking spiritual insight and goodness rather than as an equal force.Many of these movements used texts related to Christianity, with some identifying themselves as specifically Christian, though quite different from the Orthodox or Roman Catholic forms.", "Jesus and several of his apostles, such as Thomas the Apostle, claimed as the founder of the Thomasine form of Gnosticism, figure in many Gnostic texts.", "Mary Magdalene is respected as a Gnostic leader, and is considered superior to the twelve apostles by some gnostic texts, such as the Gospel of Mary.", "John the Evangelist is claimed as a Gnostic by some Gnostic interpreters, as is even St. Paul.", "Most of the literature from this category is known to us through the Nag Hammadi Library.==== Sethite-Barbeloite ====Sethianism was one of the main currents of Gnosticism during the 2nd to 3rd centuries, and the prototype of Gnosticism as condemned by Irenaeus.", "Sethianism attributed its ''gnosis'' to Seth, third son of Adam and Eve and ''Norea'', wife of Noah, who also plays a role in Mandeanism and Manicheanism.", "Their main text is the ''Apocryphon of John'', which does not contain Christian elements, and is an amalgam of two earlier myths.", "Earlier texts such as Apocalypse of Adam show signs of being pre-Christian and focus on Seth, third son of Adam and Eve.", "Later Sethian texts continue to interact with Platonism.", "Sethian texts such as Zostrianos and Allogenes draw on the imagery of older Sethian texts, but use \"a large fund of philosophical conceptuality derived from contemporary Platonism, (that is, late middle Platonism) with no traces of Christian content.", "\"According to John D. Turner, German and American scholarship views Sethianism as \"a distinctly inner-Jewish, albeit syncretistic and heterodox, phenomenon\", while British and French scholarship tends to see Sethianism as \"a form of heterodox Christian speculation\".", "Roelof vandenBroek notes that \"Sethianism\" may never have been a separate religious movement, and that the term refers rather to a set of mythological themes which occur in various texts.According to Smith, Sethianism may have begun as a pre-Christian tradition, possibly a syncretic cult that incorporated elements of Christianity and Platonism as it grew.", "According to Temporini, Vogt, and Haase, early Sethians may be identical to or related to the Nazarenes (sect), the Ophites, or the sectarian group called heretics by Philo.According to Turner, Sethianism was influenced by Christianity and Middle Platonism, and originated in the second century as a fusion of a Jewish baptizing group of possibly priestly lineage, the so-called ''Barbeloites'', named after Barbelo, the first emanation of the Highest God, and a group of Biblical exegetes, the ''Sethites'', the \"seed of Seth\".", "At the end of the second century, Sethianism grew apart from the developing Christian orthodoxy, which rejected the docetian view of the Sethians on Christ.", "In the early third century, Sethianism was fully rejected by Christian heresiologists, as Sethianism shifted toward the contemplative practices of Platonism while losing interest in their primal origins.", "In the late third century, Sethianism was attacked by neo-Platonists like Plotinus, and Sethianism became alienated from Platonism.", "In the early- to mid-fourth century, Sethianism fragmented into various sectarian Gnostic groups such as the Archontics, Audians, Borborites, and Phibionites, and perhaps Stratiotici, and Secundians.", "Some of these groups existed into the Middle Ages.==== Valentinianism ====Valentinianism was named after its founder Valentinus (), who was a candidate for bishop of Rome but started his own group when another was chosen.", "Valentinianism flourished after mid-second century.", "The school was popular, spreading to Northwest Africa and Egypt, and through to Asia Minor and Syria in the east, and Valentinus is specifically named as ''gnostikos'' by Irenaeus.", "It was an intellectually vibrant tradition, with an elaborate and philosophically \"dense\" form of Gnosticism.", "Valentinus' students elaborated on his teachings and materials, and several varieties of their central myth are known.Valentinian Gnosticism may have been monistic rather than dualistic.", "In the Valentinian myths, the creation of a flawed materiality is not due to any moral failing on the part of the Demiurge, but due to the fact that he is less perfect than the superior entities from which he emanated.", "Valentinians treat physical reality with less contempt than other Gnostic groups, and conceive of materiality not as a separate substance from the divine, but as attributable to an ''error of perception'' which becomes symbolized mythopoetically as the act of material creation.The followers of Valentinus attempted to systematically decode the Epistles, claiming that most Christians made the mistake of reading the Epistles literally rather than allegorically.", "Valentinians understood the conflict between ''Jews'' and ''Gentiles'' in Romans to be a coded reference to the differences between ''Psychics'' (people who are partly spiritual but have not yet achieved separation from carnality) and ''Pneumatics'' (totally spiritual people).", "The Valentinians argued that such codes were intrinsic in gnosticism, secrecy being important to ensuring proper progression to true inner understanding.According to Bentley Layton \"Classical Gnosticism\" and \"The School of Thomas\" antedated and influenced the development of Valentinus, whom Layton called \"the great Gnostic reformer\" and \"the focal point\" of Gnostic development.", "While in Alexandria, where he was born, Valentinus probably would have had contact with the Gnostic teacher Basilides, and may have been influenced by him.", "Simone Petrement, while arguing for a Christian origin of Gnosticism, places Valentinus after Basilides, but before the Sethians.", "According to Petrement, Valentinus represented a moderation of the anti-Judaism of the earlier Hellenized teachers; the demiurge, widely regarded as a mythological depiction of the Old Testament God of the Hebrews (i.e.", "Jehova), is depicted as more ignorant than evil.==== Basilideans ====The Basilidians or Basilideans were founded by Basilides of Alexandria in the second century.", "Basilides claimed to have been taught his doctrines by Glaucus, a disciple of St. Peter, but could also have been a pupil of Menander.", "Basilidianism survived until the end of the 4thcentury as Epiphanius knew of Basilidians living in the Nile Delta.", "It was, however, almost exclusively limited to Egypt, though according to Sulpicius Severus it seems to have found an entrance into Spain through a certain Mark from Memphis.", "St. Jerome states that the Priscillianists were infected with it.==== Thomasine traditions ====The ''Thomasine Traditions'' refers to a group of texts which are attributed to the apostle Thomas.", "Karen L. King notes that \"Thomasine Gnosticism\" as a separate category is being criticised, and may \"not stand the test of scholarly scrutiny\".==== Marcion ====Marcion was a Church leader from Sinope (a city on the south shore of the Black Sea in present-day Turkey), who preached in Rome around 150CE, but was expelled and started his own congregation, which spread throughout the Mediterranean.", "He rejected the Old Testament, and followed a limited Christian canon, which included only a redacted version of Luke, and ten edited letters of Paul.", "Some scholars do not consider him to be a gnostic, but his teachings clearly resemble some Gnostic teachings.", "He preached a radical difference between the God of the Old Testament, the Demiurge, the \"evil creator of the material universe\", and the highest God, the \"loving, spiritual God who is the father of Jesus\", who had sent Jesus to the earth to free mankind from the tyranny of the Jewish Law.", "Like the Gnostics, Marcion argued that Jesus was essentially a divine spirit appearing to men in the shape of a human form, and not someone in a true physical body.", "Marcion held that the heavenly Father (the father of Jesus Christ) was an utterly alien god; he had no part in making the world, nor any connection with it.==== Hermeticism ====Hermeticism is closely related to Gnosticism, but its orientation is more positive.==== Other Gnostic groups ====* Serpent Gnostics.", "The Naassenes, Ophites and the Serpentarians gave prominence to snake symbolism, and snake handling played a role in their ceremonies.", "* Cerinthus (c. 100), the founder of a school with gnostic elements.", "Like a Gnostic, Cerinthus depicted Christ as a heavenly spirit separate from the man Jesus, and he cited the demiurge as creating the material world.", "Unlike the Gnostics, Cerinthus taught Christians to observe the Jewish law; his demiurge was holy, not lowly; and he taught the Second Coming.", "His gnosis was a secret teaching attributed to an apostle.", "Some scholars believe that the First Epistle of John was written as a response to Cerinthus.", "* The Cainites are so-named since Hippolytus of Rome claims that they worshiped Cain, as well as Esau, Korah, and the Sodomites.", "There is little evidence concerning the nature of this group.", "Hippolytus claims that they believed that indulgence in sin was the key to salvation because since the body is evil, one must defile it through immoral activity (see libertinism).", "The name Cainite is used as the name of a religious movement, and not in the usual Biblical sense of people descended from Cain.", "* The Carpocratians, a libertine sect following only the Gospel according to the Hebrews.", "* The school of Justin, which combined gnostic elements with the ancient Greek religion.", "* The Borborites, a libertine Gnostic sect, said to be descended from the Nicolaitans=== Persian Gnosticism ===The Persian schools, which appeared in the western Persian Sasanian provice of Asoristan, and whose writings were originally produced in the Eastern Aramaic dialects spoken in Mesopotamia at the time, are representative of what is believed to be among the oldest of the Gnostic thought forms.", "These movements are considered by most to be religions in their own right and are not emanations from Christianity or Judaism.==== Manichaeism ====Sogdian.", "Manuscript from Qocho, Tarim Basin.Manichaeism was founded by Mani (216–276).", "Mani's father was a member of the Jewish Christian sect of the Elcesaites, a subgroup of the Gnostic Ebionites.", "At ages 12 and 24, Mani had visionary experiences of a \"heavenly twin\" of his, calling him to leave his father's sect and preach the true message of Christ.", "In 240–241, Mani travelled to the Indo-Greek Kingdom of the Sakas in what is now Afghanistan, where he studied Hinduism and its various extant philosophies.", "Returning in 242, he joined the court of Shapur I, to whom he dedicated his only work written in Persian, known as the ''Shabuhragan''.", "The original writings were written in Syriac, an Eastern Aramaic language, in a unique Manichaean script.Manichaeism conceives of two coexistent realms of light and darkness that become embroiled in conflict.", "Certain elements of the light became entrapped within darkness, and the purpose of material creation is to engage in the slow process of extraction of these individual elements.", "In the end, the kingdom of light will prevail over darkness.", "Manicheanism inherits this dualistic mythology from Zurvanist Zoroastrianism, in which the eternal spirit Ahura Mazda is opposed by his antithesis, Angra Mainyu.", "This dualistic teaching embodied an elaborate cosmological myth that included the defeat of a primal man by the powers of darkness that devoured and imprisoned the particles of light.According to Kurt Rudolph, the decline of Manichaeism that occurred in Persia in the 5th century was too late to prevent the spread of the movement into the east and the west.", "In the west, the teachings of the school moved into Syria, Northern Arabia, Egypt and North Africa.", "There is evidence for Manicheans in Rome and Dalmatia in the 4th century, and also in Gaul and Spain.", "From Syria, it progressed further into Syria Palestina, Anatolia, and Byzantine and Persian Armenia.The influence of Manicheanism was attacked by imperial elects and polemical writings, but the religion remained prevalent until the 6th century, and still exerted influence in the emergence of Paulicianism, Bogomilism, and Catharism in the Middle Ages, until it was ultimately stamped out by the Catholic Church.In the east, Rudolph relates, Manicheanism was able to bloom, because the religious monopoly position previously held by Christianity and Zoroastrianism had been broken by nascent Islam.", "In the early years of the Arab conquest, Manicheanism again found followers in Persia (mostly amongst educated circles), but flourished most in Central Asia, to which it had spread through Iran.", "There, in 762, Manicheanism became the state religion of the Uyghur Khaganate.=== Middle Ages ===After its decline in the Mediterranean world, Gnosticism lived on in the periphery of the Byzantine Empire, and resurfaced in the western world.", "The Paulicians, an Adoptionist group which flourished between 650 and 872 in Armenia and the Eastern Themes of the Byzantine Empire, were accused by orthodox medieval sources of being Gnostic and quasi Manichaean Christian.", "The Bogomils, emerged in Bulgaria between 927 and 970 and spread throughout Europe.", "It was as synthesis of Armenian Paulicianism and the Bulgarian Orthodox Church reform movement.The Cathars (Cathari, Albigenses or Albigensians) were also accused by their enemies of the traits of Gnosticism; though whether or not the Cathari possessed direct historical influence from ancient Gnosticism is disputed.", "If their critics are reliable the basic conceptions of Gnostic cosmology are to be found in Cathar beliefs (most distinctly in their notion of a lesser, Satanic, creator god), though they did not apparently place any special relevance upon knowledge (''gnosis'') as an effective salvific force.==== Islam ====In Sufism, Iblis rules the material world in a manner that resembles the Gnostic Demiurge.The Quran, like Gnostic cosmology, makes a sharp distinction between this world and the afterlife.", "God is commonly thought of as being beyond human comprehension.", "In some Islamic schools of thought, God is identifiable with the Monad.However, according to Islam and unlike most Gnostic sects, not rejection of this world but performing good deeds leads to Paradise.", "According to the Islamic belief in tawhid (strict monotheism), there was no room for a lower deity such as the demiurge.", "According to Islam, both good and evil come from one God, a position especially opposed by the Manichaeans.", "Ibn al-Muqaffa', a Manichaean apologist who later converted to Islam, depicted the Abrahamic God as a demonic entity who \"fights with humans and boasts about His victories\" and \"sitting on a throne, from which He can descend\".", "It would be impossible that both light and darkness were created from one source since they were regarded as two different eternal principles.", "Muslim theologists countered with the example of a repeating sinner, who says: \"I laid, and I repent\"; this would prove that good can also result out of evil.Islam also integrated traces of an entity given authority over the lower world in some early writings: Iblis is regarded by some Sufis as the owner of this world and humans must avoid the treasures of this world since they would belong to him.In the Isma'ili Shi'i work ''Umm al-Kitab'', Azazil's role resembles whose of the demiurge.", "Like the demiurge, he is endowed with the ability to create a world and seeks to imprison humans in the material world, but here, his power is limited and depends on the higher God.", "Such anthropogenic can be found frequently among Isma'ili traditions.", "In fact, Isma'ilism has been often criticised as non-Islamic.", "Al-Ghazali characterized them as a group who are outwardly Shia but were adherents of a dualistic and philosophical religion.Further traces of Gnostic ideas can be found in Sufi anthropogeny.", "Like the gnostic conception of human beings imprisoned in matter, Sufi traditions acknowledge that the human soul is an accomplice of the material world and subject to bodily desires similar to the way archontic spheres envelop the pneuma.", "The ruh (pneuma, spirit) must therefore gain victory over the lower and material-bound nafs (psyche, soul, or anima) to overcome its animal nature.", "A human being captured by its animal desires, mistakenly claims autonomy and independence from the \"higher God\", thus resembling the lower deity in classical gnostic traditions.", "However, since the goal is not to abandon the created world, but just to free oneself from lower desires, it can be disputed whether this can still be Gnostic, but rather a completion of the message of Muhammad.It seems that Gnostic ideas were an influential part of early Islamic development but later lost its influence.", "However light metaphors and the idea of unity of existence () still prevailed in later Islamic thought, such as that of ibn Sina.==== Kabbalah ====Gershom Scholem, a historian of Jewish philosophy, wrote that several core Gnostic ideas reappear in medieval Kabbalah, where they are used to reinterpret earlier Jewish sources.", "In these cases, according to Scholem, texts such as the Zohar adapted Gnostic precepts for the interpretation of the Torah, while not using the language of Gnosticism.", "Scholem further proposed that there was a Jewish Gnosticism which influenced the early origins of Christian Gnosticism.Given that some of the earliest dated Kabbalistic texts emerged in medieval Provence, at which time Cathar movements were also supposed to have been active, Scholem and other mid-20th century scholars argued that there was mutual influence between the two groups.", "According to Dan Joseph, this hypothesis has not been substantiated by any extant texts.=== Modern times ===Found today in Iraq, Iran and diaspora communities, the Mandaeans are an ancient Gnostic ethnoreligious group that follow John the Baptist and have survived from antiquity.", "Their name comes from the Aramaic ''manda'' meaning knowledge or gnosis.", "There are thought to be 60,000 to 70,000 Mandaeans worldwide.", "A number of modern gnostic ecclesiastical bodies have been set up or re-founded since the discovery of the Nag Hammadi library, including the Ecclesia Gnostica, Apostolic Johannite Church, Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica, the Gnostic Church of France, the Thomasine Church, the Alexandrian Gnostic Church, and the North American College of Gnostic Bishops.", "A number of 19th-century thinkers such as Arthur Schopenhauer, Albert Pike and Madame Blavatsky studied Gnostic thought extensively and were influenced by it, and even figures like Herman Melville and W. B. Yeats were more tangentially influenced.", "Jules Doinel \"re-established\" a Gnostic church in France in 1890, which altered its form as it passed through various direct successors (Fabre des Essarts as ''Tau Synésius'' and Joanny Bricaud as ''Tau Jean II'' most notably), and, though small, is still active today.Early 20th-century thinkers who heavily studied and were influenced by Gnosticism include Carl Jung (who supported Gnosticism), Eric Voegelin (who opposed it), Jorge Luis Borges (who included it in many of his short stories), and Aleister Crowley, with figures such as Hermann Hesse being more moderately influenced.", "René Guénon founded the gnostic review, ''La Gnose'' in 1909, before moving to a more Perennialist position, and founding his Traditionalist School.", "Gnostic Thelemite organizations, such as Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica and Ordo Templi Orientis, trace themselves to Crowley's thought.", "The discovery and translation of the Nag Hammadi library after 1945 has had a huge effect on Gnosticism since World War II.", "Intellectuals who were heavily influenced by Gnosticism in this period include Lawrence Durrell, Hans Jonas, Philip K. Dick and Harold Bloom, with Albert Camus and Allen Ginsberg being more moderately influenced.", "Celia Green has written on Gnostic Christianity in relation to her own philosophy.", "Alfred North Whitehead was aware of the existence of the newly discovered Gnostic scrolls.", "Accordingly, Michel Weber has proposed a Gnostic interpretation of his late metaphysics." ], [ "Sources", "===Heresiologists===Prior to the discovery of the Nag Hammadi library in 1945 Gnosticism was known primarily through the works of heresiologists, Church Fathers who opposed those movements.", "These writings had an antagonistic bias towards gnostic teachings, and were incomplete.", "Several heresiological writers, such as Hippolytus, made little effort to exactly record the nature of the sects they reported on, or transcribe their sacred texts.", "Reconstructions of incomplete Gnostic texts were attempted in modern times, but research on Gnosticism was coloured by the orthodox views of those heresiologists.Justin Martyr () wrote the ''First Apology'', addressed to Roman emperor Antoninus Pius, which criticised Simon Magus, Menander and Marcion.", "Since then, both Simon and Menander have been considered as 'proto-Gnostic'.", "Irenaeus (died ) wrote ''Against Heresies'' (), which identifies Simon Magus from Flavia Neapolis in Samaria as the inceptor of Gnosticism.", "From Samaria he charted an apparent spread of the teachings of Simon through the ancient \"knowers\" into the teachings of Valentinus and other, contemporary Gnostic sects.", "Hippolytus (170–235) wrote the ten-volume ''Refutation Against all Heresies'', of which eight have been unearthed.", "It also focuses on the connection between pre-Socratic (and therefore Pre-Incantation of Christ) ideas and the false beliefs of early gnostic leaders.", "Thirty-three of the groups he reported on are considered Gnostic by modern scholars, including 'the foreigners' and 'the Seth people'.", "Hippolytus further presents individual teachers such as Simon, Valentinus, Secundus, Ptolemy, Heracleon, Marcus and Colorbasus.", "Tertullian () from Carthage wrote ''Adversus Valentinianos'' ('Against the Valentinians'), c.206, as well as five books around 207–208 chronicling and refuting the teachings of Marcion.===Gnostic texts===Prior to the discovery at Nag Hammadi, a limited number of texts were available to students of Gnosticism.", "Reconstructions were attempted from the records of the heresiologists, but these were necessarily coloured by the motivation behind the source accounts.", "The Nag Hammadi library is a collection of Gnostic texts discovered in 1945 near Nag Hammadi, Upper Egypt.", "Twelve leather-bound papyrus codices buried in a sealed jar were found by a local farmer named Muhammed al-Samman.", "The writings in these codices comprised fifty-two mostly Gnostic treatises, but they also include three works belonging to the ''Corpus Hermeticum'' and a partial translation/alteration of Plato's ''Republic''.", "These codices may have belonged to a nearby Pachomian monastery, and buried after Bishop Athanasius condemned the use of non-canonical books in his Festal Letter of 367.Though the original language of composition was probably Greek, the various codices contained in the collection were written in Coptic.", "A 1st- or 2nd-century date of composition for the lost Greek originals has been proposed, though this is disputed; the manuscripts themselves date from the 3rd and 4th centuries.", "The Nag Hammadi texts demonstrated the fluidity of early Christian scripture and early Christianity itself." ], [ "Academic studies", "===Development===Prior to the discovery of Nag Hammadi, the Gnostic movements were largely perceived through the lens of the early church heresiologists.", "Johann Lorenz von Mosheim (1694–1755) proposed that Gnosticism developed on its own in Greece and Mesopotamia, spreading to the west and incorporating Jewish elements.", "According to Mosheim, Jewish thought took Gnostic elements and used them against Greek philosophy.", "J.Horn and Ernest Anton Lewald proposed Persian and Zoroastrian origins, while Jacques Matter described Gnosticism as an intrusion of eastern cosmological and theosophical speculation into Christianity.In the 1880s, Gnosticism was placed within Greek philosophy, especially neo-Platonism.", "Adolf von Harnack (1851–1930), who belonged to the ''School of the History of Dogma'' and proposed a ''Kirchengeschichtliches Ursprungsmodell'', saw Gnosticism as an internal development within the church under the influence of Greek philosophy.", "According to Harnack, Gnosticism was the \"acute Hellenization of Christianity\".The ''Religionsgeschichtliche Schule'' (\"history of religions school\", 19th century) had a profound influence on the study of Gnosticism.", "The ''Religionsgeschichtliche Schule'' saw Gnosticism as a pre-Christian phenomenon, and Christian ''gnosis'' as only one, and even marginal instance of this phenomenon.", "According to Wilhelm Bousset (1865–1920), Gnosticism was a form of Iranian and Mesopotamian syncretism, and Eduard Norden (1868–1941) also proposed pre-Christian origins, while Richard August Reitzenstein (1861–1931), and Rudolf Bultmann (1884–1976) also situated the origins of Gnosticism in Persia.", "Hans Heinrich Schaeder (1896–1957) and Hans Leisegang saw Gnosticism as an amalgam of eastern thought in a Greek form.Hans Jonas (1903–1993) took an intermediate approach, using both the comparative approach of the ''Religionsgeschichtliche Schule'' and existentialist hermeneutics that predated Rudolph Bultmann's demythologization procedure.", "Jonas emphasized the duality between the Gnostic God and the world, and concluded that Gnosticism cannot be derived from Platonism nor Judaism.", "Instead he proposed that Gnosticism manifested an existential situation triggered by the conquests of Alexander The Great and their impact over Greek city-states and \"oriental\" casts of priests-intellectuals.", "By contrast, contemporary scholarship largely agrees that Gnosticism has Jewish or Judeo-Christian origins; this theses is most notably put forward by Gershom G. Scholem (1897–1982) and Gilles Quispel (1916–2006).The study of Gnosticism and of early Alexandrian Christianity received a strong impetus from the discovery of the Coptic Nag Hammadi Library in 1945.A great number of translations have been published, and the works of Elaine Pagels, Professor of Religion at Princeton University, especially ''The Gnostic Gospels'', which detailed the suppression of some of the writings found at Nag Hammadi by early bishops of the Christian church, have popularized Gnosticism in mainstream culture, but also incited strong responses and condemnations from clergical writers.===Definitions of Gnosticism===According to Matthew J. Dillon, six trends can be discerned in the definitions of Gnosticism:* Typologies, \"a catalogue of shared characteristics that are used to classify a group of objects together.", "\"* Traditional approaches, viewing Gnosticism as a Christian heresy* Phenomenological approaches, most notably Hans Jonas* Restricting Gnosticism, \"identifying which groups were explicitly called gnostics\", or which groups were clearly sectarian* Deconstructing Gnosticism, abandoning the category of \"Gnosticism\"* Psychology and cognitive science of religion, approaching Gnosticism as a psychological phenomenon====Typologies====The 1966 Messina conference on the origins of gnosis and Gnosticism proposed to designateThis definition has now been abandoned.", "It created a religion, \"Gnosticism\", from the \"gnosis\" which was a widespread element of ancient religions, suggesting a homogeneous conception of gnosis by these Gnostic religions, which did not exist at the time.According to Dillon, the texts from Nag Hammadi made clear that this definition was limited, and that they are \"better classified by movements (such as Valentinian), mythological similarity (Sethian), or similar tropes (presence of a Demiurge).\"", "Dillon further notes that the Messian-definition \"also excluded pre-Christian Gnosticism and later developments, such as the Mandaeans and the Manichaeans.", "\"Hans Jonas discerned two main currents of Gnosticism, namely Syrian-Egyptian, and Persian, which includes Manicheanism and Mandaeism.", "Among the Syrian-Egyptian schools and the movements they spawned are a typically more Monist view.", "Persian Gnosticism possesses more dualist tendencies, reflecting a strong influence from the beliefs of the Persian Zurvanist Zoroastrians.", "Those of the medieval Cathars, Bogomils, and Carpocratians seem to include elements of both categories.", "However, scholars such as Kurt Rudolph, Mark Lidzbarski, Rudolf Macúch, Ethel S. Drower and Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley argue for a Palestinian origin for Mandaeism.Gilles Quispel divided Syrian-Egyptian Gnosticism further into Jewish Gnosticism (the ''Apocryphon of John'') and Christian Gnosis (Marcion, Basilides, Valentinus).", "This \"Christian Gnosticism\" was Christocentric, and influenced by Christian writings such as the Gospel of John and the Pauline epistles.", "Other authors speak rather of \"Gnostic Christians\", noting that Gnostics were a prominent substream in the early church.====Traditional approaches – Gnosticism as Christian heresy====The best known example of this approach is Adolf von Harnack (1851–1930), who stated that \"Gnosticism is the acute Hellenization of Christianity.\"", "According to Dillon, \"many scholars today continue in the vein of Harnack in reading gnosticism as a late and contaminated version of Christianity\", notably Darrell Block, who criticises Elaine Pagels for her view that early Christianity was wildly diverse.====Phenomenological approaches====Hans Jonas (1903–1993) took an existential phenomenological approach to Gnosticism.", "According to Jonas, alienation is a distinguishing characteristic of Gnosticism, making it different from contemporary religions.", "Jonas compares this alienation with the existentialist notion of ''geworfenheit'', Martin Heidegger's \"thrownness\", as in being thrown into a hostile world.====Restricting Gnosticism====In the late 1980s scholars voiced concerns about the broadness of \"Gnosticism\" as a meaningful category.", "Bentley Layton proposed to categorize Gnosticism by delineating which groups were marked as gnostic in ancient texts.", "According to Layton, this term was mainly applied by heresiologists to the myth described in the ''Apocryphon of John'', and was used mainly by the Sethians and the Ophites.", "According to Layton, texts which refer to this myth can be called \"classical Gnostic\".In addition, Alastair Logan uses social theory to identify Gnosticism.", "He uses Rodney Stark and William Bainbridge's sociological theory on traditional religion, sects and cults.", "According to Logan, the Gnostics were a cult, at odds with the society at large.===Criticism of \"Gnosticism\" as a category===According to the Westar Institute's Fall 2014 Christianity Seminar Report on Gnosticism, there is no group that possesses all of the usually-attributed features.", "Nearly every group possesses one or more of them, or some modified version of them.", "There was no particular relationship among any set of groups which one could distinguish as \"Gnostic\", as if they were in opposition to some other set of groups.", "For instance, every sect of Christianity on which we have any information on this point believed in a separate Logos who created the universe at God's behest.", "Likewise, they believed some kind of secret knowledge (\"gnosis\") was essential to ensuring one's salvation.", "Likewise, they had a dualist view of the cosmos, in which the lower world was corrupted by meddling divine beings and the upper world's God was awaiting a chance to destroy it and start over, thereby helping humanity to escape its corrupt bodies and locations by fleeing into celestial ones.According to Michael Allen Williams, the concept of Gnosticism as a distinct religious tradition is questionable, since \"gnosis\" was a pervasive characteristic of many religious traditions in antiquity, and not restricted to the so-called Gnostic systems.", "According to Williams, the conceptual foundations on which the category of Gnosticism rests are the remains of the agenda of the heresiologists.", "The early church heresiologists created an interpretive definition of Gnosticism, and modern scholarship followed this example and created a ''categorical'' definition.", "According to Williams the term needs replacing to more accurately reflect those movements it comprises, and suggests to replace it with the term \"the Biblical demiurgical tradition\".According to Karen King, scholars have \"unwittingly continued the project of ancient heresiologists\", searching for non-Christian influences, thereby continuing to portray a pure, original Christianity.In light of such increasing scholarly rejection and/or restriction of the concept of Gnosticism, David G. Robertson has written on the distortions which misapplications of the term continue to perpetuate in religious studies." ], [ "Psychological approaches", "Carl Jung approached Gnosticism from a psychological perspective, which was followed by Gilles Quispel.", "According to this approach, Gnosticism is a map for the human development in which an undivided person, centered on the Self, develops out of the fragmentary personhood of young age.", "According to Quispel, gnosis is a third force in western culture, alongside faith and reason, which offers an experiential awareness of this Self.According to Ioan Culianu, gnosis is made possible through universal operations of the mind, which can be arrived at \"anytime, anywhere\".", "A similar suggestion has been made by Edward Conze, who suggested that the similarities between ''prajñā'' and ''sophia'' may be due to \"the actual modalities of the human mind\", which in certain conditions result in similar experiences." ], [ "Notes", "===Subnotes===" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Works cited=======Printed sources====* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ====Web sources====" ], [ "Further reading", ";Primary sources* * * ;General* * * * * Translated as * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "; Texts* Gnostic Society Library – primary sources and commentaries* Early Christian Writings – primary texts* Gnostic texts at sacred-texts.com; Encyclopedias* * Gnosticism, by Edward Moore, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy* Gnosticism by Kurt Rudolph, Encyclopædia Iranica* Gnosticism Catholic Encyclopedia" ] ]
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[ [ "Gregor Aichinger" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gregor Aichinger''' (c. 1565 – 21 January 1628) was a German composer." ], [ "Life", "He was organist to the Fugger family of Augsburg in 1584.In 1599 he went for a two-year visit to Rome for musical, rather than religious reasons, although he had taken holy orders before his appointment under the Fuggers.", "Proske, in the preface to vol.", "2 of his ''Musica Divina'', calls him a priest of Regensburg, and is inclined to give him the palm for the devout and ingenuous mastery of his style.", "Certainly this impression is fully borne out by the beautiful and somewhat quaint works included in that great anthology." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "**" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Gospel of Barnabas" ], [ "Introduction", "Facsimile of two pages of the Italian manuscriptThe '''Gospel of Barnabas''' is a non-canonical, pseudepigraphical gospel written in the Late Middle Ages and attributed to the early Christian disciple Barnabas, who (in this work) is one of the apostles of Jesus.", "It is about the same length as the four canonical gospels combined and largely harmonises stories in the canonical gospels with Islamic elements such as the denial of Jesus' crucifixion.", "The gospel presents a detailed account of the life of Jesus.", "It begins with the nativity of Jesus, which includes the annunciation by the archangel Gabriel to Mary which precedes Jesus' birth.", "The gospel follows his ministry, ending with the message of Jesus to spread his teachings around the world.", "Judas Iscariot replaced Jesus at the crucifixion.The gospel survives in two manuscripts (in Italian and Spanish), both dated to the Middle Ages.", "It is one of three works with Barnabas' name; the others are the Epistle of Barnabas and the Acts of Barnabas, although they are not related to each other.", "The earliest known mention of the Gospel of Barnabas has been discovered in a 1634 manuscript by a Morisco which was found in Madrid, and the earliest published reference to it was in the 1715 book ''Menagiana'' by the French poet Bernard de la Monnoye.The gospel's origins and author have been debated; several theories are speculative, and none has general acceptance.", "The Gospel of Barnabas is dated to the 13th to 15th centuries, much too late to have been written by Barnabas ().", "Many of its teachings are synchronous with those in the Quran and oppose the Bible, especially the New Testament; some, however, contradict the Quran." ], [ "Contents", "The Gospel of Barnabas, as long as the four canonical gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) combined, contains 222 chapters and about 75,000 words.", "Its original title, appearing on the cover of the Italian manuscript, is ''The True Gospel of Jesus, Called Christ, a New Prophet Sent by God to the World: According to the Description of Barnabas His Apostle''; it follows a critique by the author, who claims to be the biblical Barnabas, of \"all them that dwell upon the earth desireth peace and consolation\" (including Paul the Apostle) who are \"deceived by Satan into preaching a 'most impious doctrine' by 'calling Jesus son of God, repudiating the circumcision ... and permitting every unclean meat'.", "\"It appears to be a gospel harmony, focusing on the ministry and passion of Jesus.", "The gospel begins with combined elements of Matthew and Luke, such as the annunciation by the archangel Gabriel to Mary, the Adoration of the Magi, the massacre of the Innocents, the circumcision of Jesus, and his finding in the Temple.", "It then jumps to Jesus at age 30, when he goes to the Mount of Olives with his mother to gather olives; while praying there, he received the gospel from Gabriel.", "After this revelation, he tells his mother that he will no longer live with her.", "Jesus later goes to Jerusalem and begins preaching there.", "He appoints twelve apostles to accompany him during his ministry; the gospel mentions only ten, including Barnabas.", "The gospel follows teachings attributed to Jesus about the origins of circumcision, condemnation of the uncircumcised, and the life of Abraham (including his destruction of idols and the sacrifice of his son Ishmael).Chapter 39 contains the first of Jesus' nine mentions of Muhammad by name.", "The gospel recounts the transfiguration of Jesus and his proclamation of the prophet, Muhammad, who will come after him.", "After a number of his parables and teachings it describes his passion, beginning with his confrontations with the scribes and Pharisees about the woman taken in adultery.", "Mary is told by Gabriel about her son's forthcoming crucifixion and his protection from it; the high priest, Herod Antipas, and Pontius Pilate discuss what to do about him.", "Jesus and his disciples hide in Nicodemus' house, where they have the Last Supper.", "Judas Iscariot betrays him for thirty pieces of silver; God then commands Gabriel, Michael, Raphael, and Uriel to save Jesus by taking him \"out by the window that looketh toward the South\" to the third heaven.Judas, whose face and speech are changed to resemble those of Jesus, returns to the house while the other disciples are sleeping.", "He is surprised to know that they think he is Jesus, and he is arrested.", "Pilate orders his crucifixion, and he is placed in Joseph of Arimathea's tomb.", "Jesus prays for the ability to see his mother and disciples and tell them what actually happened.", "He turns to Barnabas, whom he charges with writing about what occurred.", "The gospel ends with the dispersion of the disciples and another criticism of Paul." ], [ "Textual history", "The Gospel of Barnabas is dated from the 14th to the 17th centuries,:57 too late to have been written by the biblical Barnabas ().", ":3 It is one of three extant works bearing his name, along with the Epistle of Barnabas and the Acts of Barnabas.", ":53–60 A \"Gospel according to Barnabas\" was first mentioned in the sixth-century Gelasian Decree, and was condemned as apocryphal.", "Another mention of a gospel using his name is in the seventh-century ''List of the Sixty Books'', or the ''Catalogue of the Sixty Canonical Books''.", "Historians are uncertain whether these refer to this Gospel of Barnabas, since no quotes have been preserved for confirmation.", "Jomier believes a forger could have taken the title after the publishing of the Gelasian Decree by printing press.The earliest reference to the gospel may have been in a 1634 letter in the Biblioteca Nacional de España written in Tunisia by Ibrahim al-Taybil (Juan Pérez in Spanish), an Arabic-Spanish translator and author.", "He referred to the \"Gospel of Saint Barnabas, where one can find the light\".", "The first published reference to the gospel was by the French poet Bernard de la Monnoye in his 1715 book, ''Menagiana''.", "Dutch orientalist Adriaan Reland referred to the gospel's Spanish version in his 1717 (''On the Mohammedan Religion'').", "The following year, a reference to the Italian version appeared in the Irish philosopher John Toland's (''The Nazarenes'').", "British Orientalist George Sale cited the Italian and Spanish manuscripts in his 1734 ''The Preliminary Discourse to the Koran''.=== Manuscripts ======= Italian ====1835 painting of the Austrian National Library, where the Italian manuscript was keptIn , Toland said that he was shown the manuscript he called the \"Mahometan Gospel\" in 1709 in Amsterdam through an ambassador in the city and the anti-Trinitarian scholar Jean Frederic Cramer (counsellor of Frederick I of Prussia).", "His description is not detailed, and provides no information about the gospel's general contents.", "However, he quotes the opening of the gospel (\"The true Gospel of Jesus called Christ, a new prophet sent by God to the world, according to the relation of Barnabas his apostle\"); a fragment (\"The Apostle Barnabas says, 'He gets the worst of it who overcomes in evil contentions; because he thus comes to have the more sin), and the ending:Jesus being gone, the Disciples scattered themselves into many parts of Palestine, and of the rest of the world; and the truth, being hated of Satan, was persecuted by falshood, as it ever happens.", "For certain wicked men, under pretence of being Disciples, preached that Jesus was dead, and not risen again: others preached that Jesus was truly dead, and risen again: others preached, and still continued to preach, that Jesus is the Son of God, among which persons Paul has been deceived.", "We therefore, according to the measure of our knowledge, do preach to those who fear God, to the end that they may be saved at the last day of divine judgment; Amen.", "The end of the Gospel.Dated to the end of the sixteenth century, the manuscript was anonymous.", "Toland observed that it was written on a \"Turkish paper delicately gummed and polished\", bound in the \"Turkish manner\", and the fine quality of its ink and orthography led him to assume that it was at least three hundred years old.", "In the appendix of his book, Toland wrote: \"It was an octavo volume six inches long, four broad, and one-and-a-half thick, and containing 229 leaves, each of about eighteen and nineteen lines.\"", "The manuscript was obtained by Prince Eugene of Savoy in 1738 through Cramer, who wrote in a dedicatory preface that no Christian had ever been allowed to see it \"although they strove with all means at their disposal to find it and take a look at it\".", "It is currently held by the Austrian National Library.The scholars Lonsdale and Laura Ragg published an English translation of the Italian manuscript by Oxford University Press in 1907.An Arabic translation, at the initiative of the Egyptian scholar Rashid Rida, was published the following year and became popular in the Muslim world; Saʿādeh, a Christian, translated it.", "Rida began publishing promotional excerpts and information about the Arabic translation before its publication in July 1907 in his magazine, .", "The Raggs' English translation (without their critical preface) became popular in 1973 in Pakistan, when it was published by M. A. Rahim and promoted as the \"true gospel of Jesus\" by local newspapers.", "In Indonesia, it was translated in 1969, 1970, and 1980; the 1970 translation, by and Abubakar Basymeleh, was republished with additional footnotes in 1987.Translations in Dutch (1990), German (1994), modern Italian, Persian (1927), Spanish, Turkish, and Urdu (1916) have also been published.==== Spanish ====The University of Sydney's Fisher Library, where the Spanish manuscript was discoveredThe Spanish manuscript was lost for more than a century; Sale became the only source for a detailed description in his 1734 book, ''The Koran''.", "He wrote, \"The book is a moderate quarto ... written in a very legible hand, but a little damaged towards the latter end.", "It contains two hundred and twenty-two chapters of unequal length, and four hundred and twenty pages.\"", "Sale saw the manuscript while it was still in the possession of rector George Holme.", "It later passed to Thomas Monkhouse, a fellow of The Queen's College, Oxford, and was seen by the Reverend Joseph White.", "White quoted several extracts from the English translation in a 1784 lecture, before the gospel's whereabouts became unknown.A Spanish Gospel of Barnabas was found at the University of Sydney's Fisher Library, among the books of Australian politician Charles Nicholson, in 1976.A copy of Sale's manuscript, made between 1736 and 1745, it is incomplete and has differences from the Italian manuscript; the subheaders of chapters 1–27 are missing.", "Only the first third of chapter 120 exists, ending on page 116 with a note: \"Cap.", "121 to 200 wanting\".", "The next page continues with chapter 200, chapter 199 in the Italian manuscript (a discrepancy which continues until chapter 222 in the Spanish manuscript, 221 in the Italian).", "The Spanish 218th chapter has different lines, and the subheader (\"In which the passion of Judas the Betrayer is recounted\").", "The Italian chapter 222 is missing from the Spanish manuscript.", "J. E. Fletcher, who discovered the latter, published his findings in the October 1976 issue of .Scholars note parallels in the manuscript to a series of Morisco forgeries (collectively known as the Lead Books of Sacromonte), which may date it to the 16th century.", "Claiming to be a translation of an Italian manuscriptprobably not the extant oneit opens with a prologue by Fra Marino (likely a pseudonym).", "According to Fra Marino, he first encountered writings by the Church Father Irenaeus which criticized Paul and referred to the Gospel of Barnabas.", "While with his friend Pope Sixtus V at a Vatican City library, he then found a copy of the Gospel of Barnabas and converted to Islam after reading it.", "Mustafa de Aranda, an Aragonese Muslim who lived in Istanbul (then Constantinople), is identified in the translator's note as the translator of the Italian manuscript into Spanish.", "Nothing further is known about this, and none of Irenaeus' writings mentioned the gospel.", "Through the University of Granada, Luis Bernabé Pons published the incomplete Spanish manuscript (with missing parts derived from the Italian manuscript) in a 1998 book entitled (''The Moorish Text of the Gospel of Saint Barnabas'').==== Syriac ====The Ethnography Museum of Ankara, where an alleged Syriac copy was thought to have been heldIn 1985, Turkish media reported that an alleged Syriac-language copy of the Gospel of Barnabas had been found in the city of Hakkâri.", "In February 2012, the Turkish press reported that the Ministry of Culture and Tourism confirmed that a 52-page biblical manuscript thought to be the Gospel of Barnabas had been deposited at the Ethnography Museum of Ankara.", "The manuscript was reportedly found in Cyprus in 2000 in a police anti-smuggling operation, and had been in a police repository since then.", "Photographs of a cover page were widely published, on which can be read an inscription in a neo-Aramaic hand: \"In the name of our Lord, this book is written on the hands of the monks of the high monastery in Nineveh, in the 1,500th year of our Lord.", "\"This finding was reported by the mass media as being a 1500-year-old manuscript of the Gospel of Barnabas with prophecies of the coming of Muhammad.", "No further report has been published." ], [ "Authorship and origins", "Some researchers believe that phrases in Barnabas resemble those used by Dante Alighieri.The Gospel of Barnabas is probably of late-medieval or later origin, since its author is familiar with works during this period.", "Nothing is known about its author, however; many hypotheses have been made, but none are conclusive.", "Researchers who argue for an Italian origin note its similarities to Dante Alighieri's early-14th-century ''Divine Comedy''.", "Barnabas says that God made nine heavens, in contrast to the Quran's seven, and uses Dante's catchphrase (\"false and lying gods\") three times.", "Others also find textual similarities between passages in the gospel and late-medieval vernacular harmonies of the canonical gospels, speculated as deriving from a lost Vetus Latina version of the second-century ''Diatessaron''.The gospel has been hypothesized as having Spanish origins or connections.", "Spanish academic Mikel de Epalza suggested that the Italian manuscript was created by a Spaniard, with elements of Tuscan and Venetian dialects.", "Epalza said that the author may have been a Spanish student at the University of Bologna (where the dialects were spoken), since Spaniards commonly studied there during the Middle Ages.", "Analysis indicates linguistic errors in the manuscript, demonstrating the author's unfamiliarity with Italian.", "Author David Fox wrote about Arabic gospel forgeries written in 1588 by two Moriscos in Granada, theorizing that the Gospel of Barnabas may have been another Morisco forgery.This theory also leads other researchers to advocate a Spanish priority; they believe that the preface in the Spanish manuscript was a fabrication, a \"mere literary device\".", "According to Luis Bernabé Pons, the Lead Books of Sacromonte (found in Granada in 1595) were meant to begin the Gospel of Barnabas.", "The books, written on round lead leaves, deal with the arrival of James the Great and his disciples in Spain.", "The books say that James was tasked to hide them in Spain, where a priest (helped by Arabs) would discover them.", "The \"great conqueror king of the Arab kings\"probably referring to the Ottoman Empirelater summoned a council in Cyprus, the traditional site of Barnabas' martyrdom.", "Pons said that Barnabas' name was used because the Lead Books were \"suspected and scrutinized\" for Islamic content, including the .", "The plan failed when the Moriscos were expelled between 1609 and 1614.A comparison of the Italian and Spanish texts indicates several places where the Spanish reading appears secondary; words or phrases necessary for meaning are missing from the Spanish text, but appear in the Italian.", "Biblical scholar Jan Joosten hypothesized a lost Italian original, which he dated to the mid-14th century and may have been used by both manuscripts.", "Joosten noted that the Spanish text adapts a number of \"Italianisms\".", "The Italian text uses the conjunction (\"therefore\"), and the Spanish text reads (\"however\"); the Italian word is the one required in the context.", "Only the Spanish reading makes sense in several passages, however, and many features of the Italian text are not found in the Spanish.Jan Slomp wrote in ''Islamochristiana'' that the names in the Spanish manuscript (Fra Marino and Mustafa de Aranda) may refer to the same person, since converts at the time often changed their names.", "Slomp said that they may have been a Jew, with the name \"Fra Marino\" based on : a derisive term for (Jewish converts to Catholicism).", "Other theories about an Arabic original are based on Sale's description of an Arabic gospel popular among Muslims, attributed to Barnabas, which he had never seen.", "The Raggs assumed that Sale misunderstood Toland's challenge to Muslims in ''Nazarenus'' to produce a gospel similar to Barnabas'.", "No further proof for it exists, and Sale's conjecture has been generally dismissed by researchers." ], [ "Analysis", "=== Anachronisms and factual errors ===Map of the DecapolisThe Gospel of Barnabas contains historic anachronisms, as well as geographical and other factual errors.", "According to the Raggs, they prove its medieval origins and the author's ignorance of first-century Palestine.", "Anachronisms include:* In chapter three, Pontius Pilate is said to have governed Judea and Annas and Caiaphas were the high priests when Jesus was born ().", "Annas became high priest in AD 6, and his son-in-law Caiaphas succeeded him in AD 18.Pilate did not become procurator until AD 26–27.", "* In chapter 15, during the first century of Jesus' ministry, it is said that the \"feast of Tabernacles was near\".", "In chapter 30, the author writes of the Senofegia which would also take place that year; Tabernacles and Senofegia are synonymous.", "* In chapters 20–21, it is said that Jesus and his disciples arrived in Nazareth after embarking on the Sea of Galilee and \"went up to Capernaum\"; Capernaum was on the shore, and Nazareth more than 15 miles inland.", "* In chapters 42 and 96, Jesus said: \"I am not the Messiah\".", "The authors appear to not realise that the Greek ''Christ'' and the Hebrew ''Messiah'' are synonymous; both mean \"the anointed one\".", "* In chapter 63, Nineveh is described as near the Mediterranean Sea; it was away, in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq).", "* In chapter 65, Jesus is said to go to the \"Probatica\" pool.", "According to the author, it is so called \"because the angel of God every day troubled the water, and whosoever first entered the water after its movement was cured of every kind of infirmity\"; , Greek for the Aramaic , means \"of the sheep\".", "* In chapter 82, it is said that a jubilee occurs every hundred years; the Jewish jubilee is every fifty years.", "Pope Boniface VIII proclaimed 1300 as the first Christian jubilee, and the next jubilee would take place a hundred years later.", "* In chapter 99, Tyre is said to be near the Jordan River; in reality, it is more than away.", "* In chapter 144, the word ''Pharisee'' is said to mean \"seeking God\"; derived from the Hebrew, it means \"separated\".", "In the next chapter, it is said that the Pharisees began when the Canaanites had power in Palestine; this would have been in the 11th century BC or earlier; the Pharisees, a Jewish religious movement, began no earlier than the second century BC.", "* In chapter 152, it is said that wine barrels were in use during Jesus' time; large jars (pithoi) were used then to store wine.", "* In chapters 214 and 217, the \"pagan\" Herod Antipas is said to rule Jerusalem and Judea; his authority was in Galilee, and he followed the Jewish religion.=== Anti-Pauline tone ===Scholarly analysis indicates that the Gospel of Barnabas had an anti-Pauline tone, most clearly shown in its prologue and epilogue; these depict Paul preaching a perverted version of Jesus' teachings, and as \"deceived\" in thinking that Jesus was God (or the Son of God).", "In his ''Connecting with Muslims: A Guide to Communicating Effectively'' (2014), Lebanese author and Christian missionary Fouad Masri called the gospel anachronistic; in the Acts of the Apostles, Barnabas was Paul's best friend and not an enemy.", "For the ''Journal of Higher Criticism'', R. Blackhirst wrote that the Epistle to the Galatians account of conflict between Paul and Barnabas may have been why the gospel's author attributed it to Barnabas.=== Parallels with the Quran ======= Crucifixion of Jesus ====In the Gospel of Barnabas, Jesus was not crucified.", "Judas Iscariot (whose face was made to resemble his) replaced him on the cross, and Jesus was raised into heaven by God.", "This agrees with the mainstream interpretations of An-Nisa 157–158, affirming that Jesus was not crucified but instead his lookalike was:and for boasting, “We killed the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, the messenger of Allah.” But they neither killed nor crucified him—it was only made to appear so.", "Even those who argue for this ˹crucifixion˺ are in doubt.", "They have no knowledge whatsoever—only making assumptions.", "They certainly did not kill him.", "Rather, Allah raised him up to Himself.", "And Allah is Almighty, All-Wise.— Qur'ān 4:157-158In its narrative of Jesus' crucifixion, the gospel is thought to be influenced by (or adopt) docetism: a heterodox doctrine that Jesus' human form was an illusion.", "David Sox wrote that the Gospel of Barnabas' portrayal of Judas Iscariot is more sympathetic than that in the canonical gospels, where he is cast as a villainous betrayer; in Christian tradition, his name is synonymous with one who deceives under the guise of friendship.", "The Raggs said that since the alleged substitution in the Quran is unnamed and unexplained, the author of the gospel attempted to fill this void.Ghulam Murtaza Azad described the gospel as a medieval forgery in ''Islamic Studies'', but found its narrative more reasonable than that of the canonical gospels: \"A man who is not religious minded can hardly believe that a person who wrought such great miracles could not save himself from humiliation and cross.", "The Christians say that he was crucified in order to save mankind from their sins.", "This explanation of crucifixion is strange and difficult to understand.", "And stranger than that is that the traitor was saved and the master was hanged.\"", "In his ''Understand My Muslim People'' (2004), Abraham Sarker wrote that the narrative is popular in Quranic exegesis.==== Prediction of Muhammad ====In accordance with As-Saff 6, Muslims believe that Jesus was the forerunner of Muhammad and predicted Muhammad's coming:And ˹remember˺ when Jesus, son of Mary, said, “O children of Israel!", "I am truly Allah’s messenger to you, confirming the Torah which came before me, and giving good news of a messenger after me whose name will be Aḥmad.” Yet when the Prophet came to them with clear proofs, they said, “This is pure magic.”—Qur'ān 61:6 In Islam, the word (Arabic for \"the praised one\") refers to Muhammad.", "The Gospel of Barnabas contains a number of sayings attributed to Jesus, who Muslims believe predicted the coming of Muhammad.", "The gospel places Jesus in the role played by John the Baptist in the canonical gospels; this appears to contradict the Quran, however, which says that Jesus was the promised messiah.==== Nontrinitarianism ====According to the Nicene Creed, the concept of the Trinity means that God is one and also exists consubstantially as three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit); Jesus is the Son.", "Trinitarianism is rejected by Islam, which believes in the concept of (indivisible oneness) and considers the Trinity a equating God with his creation.", "Muslims believe that, like other Islamic prophets, Jesus was human and never claimed to be God.", "The Gospel of Barnabas contains statements, attributed to Jesus, in which he denies being the Son of God.", "The gospel says that Jesus appeared to be crucified as punishment for people who claimed his divinity, and Muhammad was sent later to expose the transgressions by the Christians for worshipping Jesus." ], [ "Perspectives", "=== Christian ===The Gospel of Barnabas is not accepted by Christians, who consider it inferior to the four canonical gospels and a forgery.", "According to Togardo Siburian of the , it is often used \"by Muslim propagandists in a guerrilla manner to prey on Christians with weak theological commitments.", "This is what is said to be the efficacy of the book, as new material for the stealth 'Islamization' of Christian churches today.\"", "Jan Joosten called it a \"hotchpotch of Christian, Jewish, and Muslim materials\".", "J. N. J. Kritzinger wrote for ''Religion in Southern Africa'' that the gospel is an obstacle to Christian–Muslim interfaith dialogue, and neither side should use it to discredit the other's religion.", "Christian theologian Norman Geisler criticised Muslims who use it to validate their arguments:It is not surprising that Muslim apologists appeal to the Gospel of Barnabas in that it supports a central Islamic teaching in contrast to the New Testament.", "It claims that Jesus did not die on the cross ... Rather, it argues that Judas Iscariot died in Jesus' stead ... having been substituted for him at the last minute.", "This view has been adopted by many Muslims, since the vast majority of them believe that someone else was substituted on the cross for Jesus.Jan Slomp wrote that it was difficult to understand the absence of mentions of the gospel in early Islamic writings if it had existed since antiquity, a view shared by A. H. Mathias Zahniser in his ''The Mission and Death of Jesus in Islam and Christianity'' (2017).", "Slomp called it a \"conscious attempt at imitating a ''Diatessaron''\".", ":35 Egyptian Catholic philosopher wrote for the 1971 ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', \"The appearance of a forgery entitled the Gospel of Barnabas put into the hands of the Muslim polemicists ... a new weapon whose effects on the ordinary public, and even on some insufficiently informed members of universities are felt even today.\"", "A critical book, William F. Campbell's ''The Gospel of Barnabas: Its True Value'', was published in 1989.=== Islamic ======= Acceptance ====Some have identified it as the Injil, one of four Islamic holy books sent by God.", "About the gospel's generally-positive reception in the Muslim world, Scottish orientalist W. Montgomery Watt said that it is not uncommon for Muslims to be persuaded to believe in it without question; some are unaware of the scholarly consensus that it is a forgery.", "According to German scholar Christine Schirrmacher, Muslim positivity about the gospel is based on its claim of being written by an eyewitness and disagreement (favoured by Islam) with mainstream Christian doctrines.Among Muslims, the gospel was first cited by Pakistani scholar Rahmatullah Kairanawi in his (1853).", "It became more popular after the 1908 publication of Rashid Rida's Arabic translation.", "According to Pakistani scholar Abul A'la Maududi, the Gospel of Barnabas is \"more genuine than the four canonical gospels\".", "Rida agreed that it was \"superior\" to the canonical gospels in its \"divine knowledge, glorification of the Creator, and knowledge of ethics, manners and values\".", "During a 1940 course at Al-Azhar University, Egyptian intellectual Muhammad Abu Zahra challenged Christians to study and refute the gospel: \"The most significant service to the religions and to humanity would be that the church take the trouble to study the gospel according to Barnabas and refute it and to bring us the proofs on which this refutation is based.", "\"At a 1976 Christian–Muslim dialogue in Libya, each Muslim delegate first received copies of the Gospel of Barnabas and the Quran; the gospel was withdrawn after a protest by the Vatican.", "Rahim published ''Jesus: A Prophet of Islam'', defending the gospel, in 1979.M.", "A. Yusseff wrote in ''The Dead Sea Scrolls, The Gospel of Barnabas, and the New Testament'' (1985) that no other gospels can equal its authenticity.", "A 2007 Iranian film, ''The Messiah'', was apparently based on the gospel and was the first film to depict Jesus from Christian and Islamic perspectives.", "It had a mixed critical response, praised for \"generating interfaith dialogue\" but criticised for its controversial account of the crucifixion.", "Director Nader Talebzadeh said, \"I pray for Christians.", "They've been misled.", "They will realize one day the true story.", "\"==== Rejection ====The Gospel of Barnabas is criticized by Muslim scholars, who reject it partially or completely.", "According to American scholar Amina Inloes, the many differences between the gospel and the Quran dilute its importance.", "In the January 1977 issue of the ''Islamic World League'' journal, Syrian writer Yahya al-Hashimi called it a polemic by a Jew to generate hostility between Christians and Muslims.", "Al-Hashimi said that there was no need to use apocryphal gospels to prove that Muhammad was a prophet, because he believed Muhammad had been foretold by Jesus as the Paraclete in the Gospel of John.", "Egyptian literary critic Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad cited several reasons to reject the gospel, including the use of Andalusi Arabic phrases and teachings which conflict with the Quran." ], [ "See also", "* Toledot Yeshu* Acts of Barnabas* Epistle of Barnabas" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Georgius Agricola" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Georgius Agricola''' (; born '''Georg Bauer'''; 24 March 1494 – 21 November 1555) was a German Humanist scholar, mineralogist and metallurgist.", "Born in the small town of Glauchau, in the Electorate of Saxony of the Holy Roman Empire, he was broadly educated, but took a particular interest in the mining and refining of metals.", "He was the first to drop the Arabic definite article ''al-'', exclusively writing ''chymia'' and ''chymista'' in describing activity that we today would characterize as chemical or alchemical, giving chemistry its modern name.", "For his groundbreaking work ''De Natura Fossilium'' published in 1546, he is generally referred to as the Father of Mineralogy and the founder of geology as a scientific discipline.He is well known for his pioneering work ''De re metallica libri XII'', that was published in 1556, one year after his death.", "This 12-volume work is a comprehensive and systematic study, classification and methodical guide on all available factual and practical aspects, that are of concern for mining, the mining sciences and metallurgy, investigated and researched in its natural environment by means of direct observation.", "Unrivalled in its complexity and accuracy, it served as the standard reference work for two centuries.", "Agricola stated in the preface, that he will exclude \"all those things which I have not myself seen, or have not read or heard of\".", "He continued, \"That which I have neither seen, nor carefully considered after reading or hearing of, I have not written about.", "\"As a scholar of the Renaissance he was committed to a universal approach towards learning and research.", "He published over 40 complete scholarly works during his professional life on a wide range of subjects and disciplines, such as pedagogy, medicine, metrology, mercantilism, pharmacy, philosophy, geology, history, and many more.", "His innovative and comprehensive scholarly work, based on new and precise methods of production and control, has made his work a central part of scholarship and understanding of science during that period." ], [ "Etymology", "He is often, although not universally referred to as \"the Father of mineralogy\" and the founder of geology as a scientific discipline.", "Poet Georg Fabricius has bestowed a brief honorary title on him in recognition of his legacy, that his fellow Saxons cite regularly: ''die ausgezeichnete Zierde des Vaterlandes'', (literally: ''the distinguished ornament of the Fatherland'').", "He was baptized with his birth name ''Georg Pawer''.", "''Pawer'' is a vernacular form of the modern German term ''Bauer'', which translates to ''farmer'' in English.", "His teacher, the Leipzig professor Petrus Mosellanus convinced him to consider the common practice of name latinisation, particularly popular among Renaissance scholars, so \"Georg Pawer\" became \"Georgius Agricola\".", "Coincidentally, the name Georg/Georgius derives from Greek and also means \"farmer\"." ], [ "Early life", "===Youth===Agricola was born in 1494 as Georg Pawer, the second of seven children of a clothier and dyer in Glauchau.", "At the age of twelve he enrolled in the Latin school in Chemnitz or Zwickau.", "From 1514 to 1518 he studied at the Leipzig University where, under the name ''Georgius Pawer de Glauchaw'', he first inscribed to the summer semester for theology, philosophy and philology under rector Nikolaus Apel and for ancient languages, Greek and Latin in particular, He received his first Latin lectures under Petrus Mosellanus, a celebrated humanist of the time and adherent of Erasmus of Rotterdam.===Humanist education===Gifted with a precocious intellect and his freshly acquired title of Baccalaureus artium, Agricola early threw himself into the pursuit of the \"new learning\", with such effect that at the age of 24 he was appointed ''Rector extraordinarius'' of Ancient Greek at the 1519 established ''Zwickau Greek school'', which was soon to be united with the Great School of Zwickau (Zwickauer Ratsschule).", "In 1520 he published his first book, a Latin grammar manual with practical and methodical hints for teachers.", "In 1522 he ended his appointment to again study at Leipzig for another year, where, as rector, he was supported by his former tutor and professor of classics, Peter Mosellanus, with whom he had always been in correspondence.", "He also subscribed to the studies of medicine, physics, and chemistry.In 1523 he traveled to Italy and enrolled in the University of Bologna and probably Padua and completed his studies in medicine.", "It remains unclear where he acquired his diploma.", "In 1524 he joined the Aldine Press, a prestigious printing office in Venice that was established by Aldus Manutius, who had died in 1515.Manutius had established and maintained contacts and the friendship in a network among the many scholars, including the most celebrated, from all over Europe, whom he had encouraged to come to Venice and take care of the redaction of the numerous publications of the classics of antiquity.", "At the time of Agricola's visit, the business was run by Andrea Torresani and his daughter Maria.", "Agricola participated in the edition of a work in several volumes on Galen until 1526." ], [ "Professional life", "===Town physician and pharmacist===A water mill used for raising oreFire-setting undergroundHe returned to Zwickau in 1527 and to Chemnitz in autumn of the same year, where he married Anna Meyner, a widow from Schneeberg.", "Upon his search for employment as town physician and pharmacist in the Ore Mountains, preferably a place, where he could satisfy his ardent longings for the studies on mining, he settled in the suitable little town Joachimsthal in the ''Bohemian Erzgebirge'', where in 1516 significant silver ore deposits were found.", "The 15,000 inhabitants made Joachimsthal a busy, booming centre of mining and smelting works with hundreds of shafts for Agricola to investigate.His primary post proved to be not very demanding and he lent all his spare time to his studies.", "Beginning in 1528 he immersed himself in comparisons and tests on what had been written about mineralogy and mining and his own observations of the local materials and the methods of their treatment.", "He constructed a logical system of the local conditions, rocks and sediments, the minerals and ores, explained the various terms of general and specific local territorial features.", "He combined this discourse on all natural aspects with a treatise on the actual mining, the methods and processes, local extraction variants, the differences and oddities he had learnt from the miners.", "For the first time, he tackled questions on the formation of ores and minerals, attempted to bring the underlying mechanisms to light and introduce his conclusions in a systematic framework.", "He laid out the whole process in a scholarly dialogue and published it under the title ''Bermannus, sive de re metallica dialogus'', (Bermannus, or a dialogue on metallurgy) in 1530.The work was highly praised by Erasmus for the attempt to put the knowledge, won by practical inquiry into order and further investigate in reduced form.", "Agricola, in his capacity of physician, also suggested, that minerals and their effects on and relationship to human medicine should be a future subject of investigation.In 1531 Christian Egenolff in Frankfurt published his German book named ''Rechter Gebrauch d'Alchimei, mitt vil bissher verborgenen, nutzbaren unnd lustigen Künsten, nit allein den fürwitzigen Alchimismisten, sonder allen kunstbaren Werckleutten, in und ausserhalb Feurs.", "Auch sunst aller menglichen inn vil wege zugebrauchen'' (''The Proper Use of Alchemy'') which argued that true \"alchemy\" should not attempt transmutation of metals to gold or synthesizing the philosopher's stone but rather study and develop the industrial methods of skilled craftsmen.=== Mayor of Chemnitz ===In the same year Agricola received an offer of the city of ''Kepmnicz'' (Chemnitz) for the position of ''Stadtleybarzt'' (town physician), which he accepted and he relocated to Chemnitz in 1533.Although little is known about his work as physician, Agricola entered his most productive years and soon became lord mayor of Chemnitz and served as diplomat and historiographer for Duke George, who was looking to uncover possible territorial claims and commissioned Agricola with a large historical work, the ''Dominatores Saxonici a prima origine ad hanc aetatem'' (Lords of Saxony from the beginning to the present time), which took 20 years to accomplish and was only published in 1555 at Freiberg.In his work ''De Mensuris et ponderibus'', published in 1533, he described the systems of Greek and Roman measures and weights.", "In the 16th century Holy Roman Empire there were no uniform dimensions, measures, and weights, which impeded trade and commerce.", "This work laid the foundation for Agricola's reputation as a humanist scholar; as he committed himself to the introduction of standardized weights and measures, he entered the public stage and occupied a political position.In 1544, he published the ''De ortu et causis subterraneorum'' (On Subterranean Origins and Causes), in which he criticized older theories and laid out the foundations of modern physical geology.", "It discusses the effect of wind and water as powerful geological forces, the origin and distribution of ground water and mineralizing fluids, the origin of subterranean heat, the origin of ore channels, and the principal divisions of the mineral kingdom.", "However, he maintained that a certain 'materia pinguis' or 'fatty matter,' set into fermentation by heat, gave birth to fossil organic shapes, as opposed to fossil shells having belonged to living animals.In 1546, he published the four volumes of ''De natura eorum quae effluunt e terra'' (The nature of the things that flow out of the earth's interior).", "It deals with the properties of water, its effects, taste, smell, temperature etc.", "and air under the earth, which, as Agricola reasoned, is responsible for earthquakes and volcanoes.The ten books of ''De veteribus et novis metallis'', more commonly known as ''De Natura Fossilium'' were published in 1546 as a comprehensive textbook and account of the discovery and occurrence of minerals, ores, metals, gemstones, earths and igneous rocks, followed by ''De animantibus subterraneis'' in 1548 and a number of smaller works on the metals during the following two years.", "Agricola served as Burgomaster (lord mayor) of Chemnitz in 1546, 1547, 1551 and 1553." ], [ "''De re metallica''", "''De re metallica''Agricola's most famous work, the '' De re metallica libri xii'' was published the year after his death, in 1556; it was perhaps finished in 1550, since the dedication to the elector and his brother is dated to that year.", "The delay is thought to be due to the book's many woodcuts.", "The work is a systematic, illustrated treatise on mining and extractive metallurgy.", "It shows processes to extract ores from the ground, and metals from ore.Until that time, Pliny the Elder's work ''Historia Naturalis'' was the main source of information on metals and mining techniques.", "Agricola acknowledged his debt to ancient authors, such as Pliny and Theophrastus, and made numerous references to Roman works.", "In geology, Agricola described and illustrated how ore veins occur in and on the ground.", "He described prospecting for ore veins and surveying in detail, as well as washing the ores to collect the heavier valuable minerals, such as gold and tin.", "The work shows water mills used in mining, such as the machine for lifting men and material into and out of a mine shaft.", "Water mills found application especially in crushing ores to release the fine particles of gold and other heavy minerals, as well as working giant bellows to force air into the confined spaces of underground workings.Agricola described mining methods which are now obsolete, such as fire-setting, which involved building fires against hard rock faces.", "The hot rock was quenched with water, and the thermal shock weakened it enough for easy removal.", "It was a dangerous method when used underground, and was made redundant by explosives.The work contains, in an appendix, the German equivalents for the technical terms used in the Latin text.", "Modern words that derive from the work include fluorspar (from which was later named fluorine) and bismuth.", "In another example, believing the black rock of the Schloßberg at Stolpen to be the same as Pliny the Elder's basalt, Agricola applied this name to it, and thus originated a petrological term.In 1912, the ''Mining Magazine'' (London) published an English translation of ''De re metallica''.", "The translation was made by Herbert Hoover, the American mining engineer and his wife Lou Henry Hoover.", "Hoover was later President of the United States." ], [ "Death", "Memorial tablet for Agricola at Zeitz cathedral, installed in June 2014Agricola died on November 21, 1555.His \"lifelong friend,\" the Protestant poet and classicist Georg Fabricius, wrote in a letter to the Protestant theologian Phillip Melanchthon, \"He who since the days of childhood had enjoyed robust health was carried off by a four-days' fever.\"", "Agricola was a fervent Catholic, who, according to Fabricius, \"despised our Churches\" and \"would not tolerate with patience that anyone should discuss ecclesiastical matters with him\".", "That did not stop Fabricius in the same letter from calling Agricola \"that distinguished ornament of our Fatherland,\" whose \"religious views...were compatible with reason, it is true, and were dazzling,\" though not \"compatible with truth\"; in 1551 Fabricius had already written the introductory poem to ''De re metallica'' in praise of Agricola.According to traditional urban customs, as a former lord mayor he was entitled to a burial in the local mother church.", "His religious affiliation, however, outweighed his secular prerogatives and monumental services for the city.", "Chemnitz Protestant superintendent Tettelbach urged Prince August to command the refusal of a burial inside the city.", "The command was issued and Tettelbach immediately informed the Agricola party.Upon the initiative of his childhood friend, Naumburg bishop Julius von Pflug, four days later Agricola's body was carried off to Zeitz, more than away and interred by von Pflug in the Zeitz cathedral.", "His wife had a memorial plate commissioned and placed inside, that was already removed during the 17th century.", "Its text, however has been preserved in the Zeitz annals, and reads:To the physician and mayor of Chemnitz, Georgius Agricola, a man most distinguished by piety and scholarship, who had rendered outstanding services to his city, whose legacy will bestow immortal glory on his name, whose spirit Christ himself absorbed into his eternal kingdom.", "His mourning wife and children.", "He died in the 62nd year of life on November 21, 1555 and was born in Glauchau on March 24, 1494" ], [ "See also", "* List of mineralogists* Shen Kuo, 11th-century Chinese author on land formation and mineralogy* Theophrastus* Mineral collecting" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Carolyn Merchant (1980).", "''The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology and the Scientific Revolution'' (San Francisco: HarperCollins).", "* Ralf Kern (2010).", "''Wissenschaftliche Instrumente in ihrer Zeit''.", "Vol.", "1.pp.", "334–336 (Cologne: Koenig)." ], [ "External links", "* Agricola Akademischer Verein, (engl: Agricola Academic Association)* * * * * Agricola's work on gemstones and mineralogy: De Natura Fossilium, translated from Latin by Mark Chance Bandy* Agricola's De Re Metallica translated by former President H. Hoover and his wife L.H.", "Hoover, full text (650 pages) and illustrations* ''De Ortu & Causis Subterraneorum'' full digital facsimile* ''De Re Metallica Libri XII'' full digital facsimile" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Germanicus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Germanicus Julius Caesar''' (24 May 15 BC – 10 October AD 19) was an ancient Roman general and politician most famously known for his campaigns in Germania.", "The son of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia the Younger, Germanicus was born into an influential branch of the patrician ''gens Claudia''.", "The agnomen ''Germanicus'' was added to his full name in 9 BC when it was posthumously awarded to his father in honor of his victories in Germania.", "In AD 4 he was adopted by his paternal uncle Tiberius, himself the stepson and heir of Germanicus' great-uncle Augustus; ten years later, Tiberius succeeded Augustus as Roman emperor.", "As a result of his adoption, Germanicus became an official member of the ''gens Julia'', another prominent family, to which he was related on his mother's side.", "His connection to the ''Julii Caesares'' was further consolidated through a marriage between him and Agrippina the Elder, a granddaughter of Augustus.", "He was also the father of Caligula, the maternal grandfather of Nero, and the older brother of Claudius.During the reign of Augustus, Germanicus enjoyed an accelerated political career, entering the office of quaestor five years before the legal age in AD 7.He held that office until AD 11, and was elected consul for the first time in AD 12.The year after, he was made proconsul of Germania Inferior, Germania Superior, and all of Gaul.", "From there he commanded eight legions, about one-third of the entire Roman army at the time, which he led against the Germanic tribes in his campaigns from AD 14 to 16.He avenged the Roman Empire's defeat in the Teutoburg Forest and retrieved two of the three legionary eagles that had been lost during the battle.", "In AD 17, he returned to Rome, where he received a triumph before leaving to reorganize the provinces of Asia Minor, whereby he incorporated the provinces of Cappadocia and Commagene in AD 18.While in the eastern provinces, Germanicus came into conflict with the governor of Syria, Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso.", "During their feud, Germanicus became ill in Antioch and died on 10 October AD 19.His death has been attributed to poison by ancient sources, but that was never proven.", "As a famous general, he was widely popular and regarded as the ideal Roman long after his death.", "To the Roman people, Germanicus was the Roman equivalent of Alexander the Great due to the nature of his death at a young age, his virtuous character, his dashing physique, and his military renown." ], [ "Name", "Aureus with the portrait of GermanicusGermanicus's ''praenomen'' (personal name) at birth is unknown, but he was probably named Nero Claudius Drusus after his father (conventionally called \"Drusus\"), or possibly Tiberius Claudius Nero after his paternal uncle.", "Some historians such as Iosif Constantin Drăgan believe he may have been named Decimus Claudius Nero or Decimus Claudius Drusus at his ''Dies lustricus'', since his father's ''praenomen'' at birth was \"Decimus\".", "He took the ''agnomen'' (nickname) \"Germanicus\", awarded posthumously to his father in honor of his victories in Germania, at which point he nominally became head of the family in 9 BC.", "By AD 4 his uncle Tiberius adopted Germanicus as his son and heir.", "As a result, Germanicus was adopted out of the ''gens Claudia'' and into that of the ''gens Julia''.", "In accordance with Roman naming conventions, he adopted the name \"Julius Caesar\" while retaining his ''agnomen'', becoming Germanicus Julius Caesar.", "Upon Germanicus' adoption into the ''Julii'', his brother Claudius became the sole legal representative of his father, inheriting the ''agnomen'' \"Germanicus\" as the new head of the family." ], [ "House and early life", "''Ara Pacis'': processional frieze showing members of the Imperial household (south face).", "Germanicus is the toddler holding Antonia Minor's hand.Germanicus was born in Rome on 24 May 15 BC to Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor and had two younger siblings: a sister, Livilla, and a brother, Claudius.", "His paternal grandmother was Livia, who had divorced his grandfather Tiberius Claudius Nero around 24 years before Germanicus' birth.", "Livia's second marriage was to the Roman emperor Augustus.", "His maternal grandparents were the triumvir Mark Antony and Augustus' sister Octavia Minor.", "Germanicus was a key figure in the Julio-Claudian dynasty of the early Roman Empire.", "Tiberius, Germanicus' uncle, became the second Roman emperor and would be succeeded by Germanicus' son Gaius.", "Germanicus was also the brother of the fourth emperor, Claudius, and the grandfather of the fifth emperor, Nero.When Augustus' chosen successor, Gaius Caesar, died in AD 4, he briefly considered Germanicus as his heir.", "His wife Livia persuaded him to choose his stepson Tiberius instead.", "As part of the succession arrangements, Augustus adopted Tiberius on 26 June AD 4, but first required him to adopt Germanicus, thus placing him next in the line of succession after Tiberius.", "Germanicus married Augustus' granddaughter, Agrippina the Elder, probably the next year, to further strengthen his ties to the imperial family.", "The couple had nine children: Nero Julius Caesar; Drusus Caesar; Tiberius Julius Caesar (not to be confused with emperor Tiberius); a child of unknown name (normally referred to as ''Ignotus''); Gaius the Elder; Gaius the Younger (the future emperor \"Caligula\"); Agrippina the Younger (the future empress); Julia Drusilla; and Julia Livilla.", "Only six of his children came of age; Tiberius and the Ignotus died as infants, and Gaius the Elder in his early childhood." ], [ "Career", "===Batonian War===Map of the uprising.Germanicus became a quaestor in AD 7, four years before the legal age of 25.He was sent to Illyricum the same year to help Tiberius suppress a rebellion by the Pannonians and Dalmatians.", "He brought with him an army of levied citizens and former slaves to reinforce Tiberius at Siscia, his base of operations in Illyricum.", "Towards the end of the year, additional reinforcements arrived; three legions from Moesia commanded by Aulus Caecina Severus, and two legions with Thracian cavalry and auxiliary troops from Anatolia commanded by Silvanus.By the time Germanicus had arrived in Pannonia, the rebels had resorted to raiding from the mountain fortresses to which they had withdrawn.", "Because the Roman legions were not so effective at countering this tactic, Tiberius deployed his auxiliary forces and divided his army into small detachments, allowing them to cover more ground and conduct a war of attrition against the rebels in their strong defensive positions.", "The Romans also began to drive the rebels out of the countryside, offering amnesty to those tribes that would lay down their arms, and implemented a scorched earth policy in an effort to starve the enemy out.", "During this period, Germanicus' detachments were in action against the Mazaei, whom he defeated.The rebel position in Pannonia collapsed in AD 8 when one of their commanders, Bato the Breucian, surrendered their leader Pinnes to the Romans and laid down his arms in return for amnesty.", "This was nullified when Bato the Breucian was defeated in battle and subsequently executed by his former ally Bato the Daesitiate, but this left the Pannonians divided against each other, and the Romans were able to subdue the Breuci without battle.", "The pacification of the Breuci, with their large population and resources, was a significant victory for the Romans, who would be reinforced by eight cohorts of Breuci auxiliaries towards the end of the war.", "Bato the Daesitiate withdrew from Pannonia to Dalmatia, where he occupied the mountains of Bosnia and began conducting counter-attacks, most likely against the indigenous people who sided with the Romans.", "Later in the year, Tiberius left Lepidus in command of Siscia and Silvanus at Sirmium.Roman forces took the initiative in AD 9, and pushed into Dalmatia.", "Tiberius divided his forces into three divisions: one under Silvanus, which advanced south-east from Sirmium; another commanded by Lepidus, which advanced north-west along the Una Valley from Siscia toward Burnum; and the third led by Tiberius and Germanicus in the Dalmatian hinterland.", "The divisions under Lepidus and Silvanus practically exterminated the Perustae and Daesitiate in their mountain strongholds.", "Roman forces captured many cities, and those commanded by Germanicus took Raetinum, near Seretium (although it was destroyed in a fire set by the rebels during the siege), Splonum (in modern-day northern Montenegro) and Seretium itself (in modern-day western Bosnia).", "The Roman forces under Tiberius and Germanicus pursued Bato to the fortress of Andretium near Salona, to which they laid siege.", "When it became clear Bato would not surrender, Tiberius assaulted the fortress and captured him.", "While Tiberius negotiated the terms of surrender, Germanicus was sent on a punitive expedition across the surrounding territory, during which he forced the surrender of the fortified town of Arduba and surrounding towns.", "He then sent a deputy to subdue the remaining districts and returned to Tiberius.===Interim===''Battle of Teutoburg Forest'', by Otto Albert Koch (1909).After a distinguished start to his military career, Germanicus returned to Rome in late AD 9 to personally announce his victory.", "He was honored with a triumphal insignia (without an actual triumph) and the rank (not the actual title) of praetor.", "He was also given permission to be a candidate for consul before the regular time and the right to speak first in the Senate after the consuls.", "According to Cassius Dio, Germanicus was a popular quaestor because he acted as an advocate as much in capital jurisdiction cases before Augustus as he did before lesser judges in standard ''quaestiones'' (trials).", "He successfully defended, for example, a quaestor accused of murder in AD 10 in which the prosecutor, fearing the jurors would find in favor of the defense out of deference for Germanicus, demanded a trial before Augustus.In AD 9, three Roman legions commanded by Varus were destroyed by a coalition of German tribes led by Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.", "As proconsul, Germanicus was dispatched with Tiberius to defend the empire against the Germans in AD 11.The two generals crossed the Rhine, made various excursions into enemy territory and, in the beginning of autumn, recrossed the river.", "The campaigns of Tiberius and Germanicus in Germania in the years AD 11–12, combined with an alliance with the Marcomannic federation of Marbod, prevented the German coalition from crossing the Rhine and invading Gaul and Italy.", "In winter, Germanicus returned to Rome, where he was, after five mandates as quaestor and despite never having been aedile or praetor, appointed consul for the year AD 12.He shared the consulship with Gaius Fonteius Capito.", "He continued to advocate for defendants in court during his consulship, a popular move reminiscent of his previous work defending the accused in front of Augustus.", "He also courted popularity by ministering the ''Ludi Martiales'' (games of Mars), as mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his ''Historia Naturalis'', in which he released two hundred lions in the Circus Maximus.On 23 October AD 12, Tiberius held a triumph for his victory over the Pannonians and Dalmatians, which he had postponed on account of the defeat of Varus at Teutoburg Forest.", "He was accompanied, among his other generals, by Germanicus, for whom he had obtained the triumphal regalia.", "Unlike his adoptive brother Drusus, who received no recognition beyond being the son of a triumphator, Germanicus played a distinguished part in the celebration and was given the opportunity to display his consular insignia and triumphal ornaments.===Commander of Germania===Campaigns of Tiberius and Germanicus in the years AD 10/11-13.In pink the anti-Roman Germanic coalition led by Arminius.", "In dark green, territories still directly held by the Romans, in yellow the Roman client statesIn AD 13, Augustus appointed him commander of the forces in the Rhine, which totaled eight legions and was about one-third of Rome's total military force.", "The next year in August, Augustus died and on 17 September the Senate met to confirm Tiberius as princeps.", "That day the Senate also dispatched a delegation to Germanicus' camp to send its condolences for the death of his grandfather and to grant him proconsular ''imperium''.", "The delegation would not arrive until October.In Germany and Illyricum, the legions were in mutiny.", "In Germany, the legions in mutiny were those of the Lower Rhine under Aulus Caecina (the V Alaudae, XXI Rapax, I Germanica, and XX Valeria Victrix).", "The army of the Lower Rhine was stationed in summer quarters on the border of the Ubii.", "They had not been paid the bonuses promised them by Augustus and, when it became clear a response from Tiberius was not forthcoming, they revolted.", "Germanicus dealt with the troops in Germania, and Tiberius' son Drusus dealt with Illyricum.The army of the Lower Rhine sought an increase in pay, the reduction of their service to 16 years (down from 20) to mitigate the hardship of their military tasks, and vengeance against the centurions for their cruelty.", "After Germanicus arrived, the soldiers listed their complaints to him and attempted to proclaim him emperor.", "His open and affable manners made him popular with the soldiers, but he remained loyal to the emperor.", "When news of the mutiny reached the army of the Upper Rhine under Gaius Silius (the Legions II Augusta, XIII Gemina, XVI Gallica, and XIV Gemina) a meeting was held to meet their demands.", "Germanicus negotiated a settlement:*After 20 years of service, a full discharge was given, but after 16 years an immunity from military tasks, except to take part in actions (''missio sub vexillo'').", "*The donative left by Augustus to the troops was to be doubled and discharged.====First campaign against the Germanic tribes====limes''.", "Shows the legion camps and forts in Germania Inferior.To satisfy the requisition promised to the legions, Germanicus paid them out of his own pocket.", "All eight legions were given money, even if they did not demand it.", "Both the armies of the Lower and Upper Rhine had returned to order.", "It seemed prudent to satisfy the armies, but Germanicus took it a step further.", "In a bid to secure the loyalty of his troops, he led them on a raid against the Marsi, a Germanic people on the upper Ruhr river.", "Germanicus massacred the villages of the Marsi he encountered and pillaged the surrounding territory.", "On the way back to their winter quarters at Castra Vetera, they pushed successfully through the opposing tribes (Bructeri, Tubantes, and Usipetes) between the Marsi and the Rhine.Back at Rome, Tiberius instituted the ''Sodales Augustales'', a priesthood of the cult of Augustus, of which Germanicus became a member.", "When news arrived of his raid, Tiberius commemorated his services in the Senate.", "The Senate, in absence of Germanicus, voted that he should be given a triumph.", "Ovid's ''Fasti'' dates the Senate vote of Germanicus' triumph to 1 January AD 15.====Second campaign against the Germanic tribes====''Hermannsdenkmal'' Memorial to Arminius near Detmold, Germany.For the next two years, he led his legions across the Rhine against the Germans, where they would confront the forces of Arminius and his allies.", "Tacitus says the purpose of those campaigns was to avenge the defeat of Varus at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest, and not to expand Roman territory.In early spring AD 15, Germanicus crossed the Rhine and struck the Chatti.", "He sacked their capital Mattium (modern Maden near Gudensberg), pillaged their countryside, then returned to the Rhine.", "Sometime this year, he received word from Segestes, who was held prisoner by Arminius's forces and needed help.", "Germanicus's troops released Segestes and took his pregnant daughter, Arminius's wife Thusnelda, into captivity.", "Again he marched back victorious and at the direction of Tiberius, accepted the title of Imperator.Arminius called his tribe, the Cherusci, and the surrounding tribes to arms.", "Germanicus coordinated a land and riverine offensive, with troops marching eastward across the Rhine, and sailing from the North Sea up the Ems River in order to attack the Bructeri and Cherusci.", "Germanicus' forces went through Bructeri territory, where a general, Lucius Stertinius, recovered the lost eagle of the XIX Legion from among the equipment of the Bructeri after routing them in battle.Germanicus's legions met up to the north, and ravaged the countryside between the Ems and the Lippe, and penetrated to the Teutoburg Forest, a mountain forest in western Germany situated between these two rivers.", "There, Germanicus and some of his men visited the site of the disastrous Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, and began burying the remains of the Roman soldiers that had been left in the open.", "After half a day of the work, he called off the burial of bones so that they could continue their war against the Germans.", "He made his way into the heartland of the Cherusci.", "At a location Tacitus calls the ''pontes longi'' (\"long causeways\"), in boggy lowlands somewhere near the Ems, Arminius's troops attacked the Romans.", "Arminius initially caught Germanicus's cavalry in a trap, inflicting minor casualties, but the Roman infantry reinforced the rout and checked them.", "The fighting lasted for two days, with neither side achieving a decisive victory.", "Germanicus's forces withdrew and returned to the Rhine.====Third campaign against the Germanic tribes====Photograph of the field of Idistaviso by Dr. Paul Knötel (c. 1895).In preparations for his next campaign, Germanicus sent Publius Vitellius and Gaius Antius to collect taxes in Gaul, and instructed Silius, Anteius, and Caecina to build a fleet.", "A fort on the Lippe called ''Castra Aliso'' was besieged, but the attackers dispersed on sight of Roman reinforcements.", "The Germans destroyed the nearby mound and altar dedicated to his father Drusus, but he had them both restored and celebrated funerary games with his legions in honor of his father.", "New barriers and earthworks were put in place, securing the area between Fort Aliso and the Rhine.Germanicus commanded eight legions with Gallic and Germanic auxiliary units overland across the Rhine, up the Ems and Weser rivers as part of his last major campaign against Arminius in AD 16.His forces met those of Arminius on the plains of Idistaviso, by the Weser River near modern Rinteln, in an engagement called the Battle of the Weser River.", "Tacitus says that the battle was a Roman victory: Arminius and his uncle Inguiomer were both wounded in the battle but evaded capture.", "The Roman soldiers involved on the battlefield honored Tiberius as Imperator, and raised a pile of arms as a trophy with the names of the defeated tribes inscribed beneath them.The sight of the Roman trophy constructed on the battlefield enraged the Germans who were preparing to retreat beyond the Elbe, and they launched an attack on the Roman positions at the Angrivarian Wall, thus beginning a second battle.", "The Romans had anticipated the attack and again routed the Germans.", "Germanicus stated that he did not want any prisoners, as the extermination of the Germanic tribes was the only conclusion he saw for the war.", "The victorious Romans then raised a mound with the inscription: \"The army of Tiberius Caesar, after thoroughly conquering the tribes between the Rhine and the Elbe, has dedicated this monument to Mars, Jupiter, and Augustus.", "\"Germanicus sent some troops back to the Rhine, with some of them taking the land route, but most of them took the fast route and traveled by boat.", "They went down the Ems toward the North Sea, but as they reached the sea, a storm struck, sinking many of the boats and killing many men and horses.Then Germanicus ordered Gaius Silius to march against the Chatti with a mixed force of 3,000 cavalry and 33,000 infantry and lay waste to their territory, while he himself, with a larger army, invaded the Marsi for the third time and devastated their land.", "He forced Mallovendus, the defeated leader of the Marsi, to reveal the location of another of the three legion's eagles lost in AD 9.Immediately Germanicus despatched troops to recover it.", "The Romans advanced into the country, defeating any foe they encountered.Germanicus's successes in Germany had made him popular with the soldiers.", "He had dealt a significant blow to Rome's enemies, quelled an uprising of troops, and returned lost standards to Rome.", "His actions had increased his fame, and he had become very popular with the Roman people.", "Tiberius took notice, and had Germanicus recalled to Rome and informed him that he would be given a triumph and reassigned to a different command.====Result====The effort it would have taken to conquer Germania Magna was deemed too great when compared with the low potential for profit from acquiring the new territory.", "Rome regarded Germany as a wild territory of forests and swamps, with little wealth compared to territories Rome already had.", "However, the campaign significantly healed the Roman psychological trauma from the Varus disaster, and greatly recovered Roman prestige.", "In addition to the recovery of two of the three lost eagles, Germanicus had fought Arminius, the leader who destroyed the three Roman legions in AD 9.In leading his troops across the Rhine without recourse to Tiberius, he contradicted the advice of Augustus to keep that river as the boundary of the empire, and opened himself to potential doubts from Tiberius about his motives in taking such independent action.", "This error in political judgment gave Tiberius reason to controversially recall his nephew.", "Tacitus attributed the recall to Tiberius' jealousy of the glory Germanicus had acquired, and, with some bitterness, claims that Germanicus could have completed the conquest of Germania had he been given full operational independence.===Recall===''Thusnelda at the Triumph of Germanicus'', by Karl von Piloty, 1873.At the beginning of AD 17, Germanicus returned to the capital and on 26 May he celebrated a triumph.", "He had captured a few important prisoners, but Arminius was still at large.", "And yet, Strabo, who may have been in Rome at the time, in mentioning the name of Thusnelda, the captured pregnant wife of Arminius, draws attention to the fact that her husband, the victor at Teutoburg Forest, had not been captured and the war itself had not been won.", "Nonetheless, this did not take away from the spectacle of his triumph: a near contemporary calendar marks 26 May as the day in \"which Germanicus Caesar was borne into the city in triumph\", while coins issued under his son Gaius (Caligula) depicted him on a triumphal chariot, with the reverse reading \"Standards Recovered.", "Germans Defeated.", "\"His triumph included a long procession of captives including the wife of Arminius, Thusnelda, and her three-year-old son, among others of the defeated German tribes.", "The procession displayed replicas of mountains, rivers, and battles; and the war was considered closed.Tiberius gave money out to the people of Rome in Germanicus' name, and Germanicus was scheduled to hold the consulship next year with the emperor.", "As a result, in AD 18, Germanicus was granted the eastern part of the empire, just as Agrippa and Tiberius had received before, when they were successors to the emperor.===Command in Asia===Map of Armenia and the Roman client states in eastern Asia Minor.Following his triumph, Germanicus was sent to Asia to reorganize the provinces and kingdoms there, which were in such disarray that the attention of a ''domus Augusta'' was deemed necessary to settle matters.", "Germanicus was given ''imperium maius'' (extraordinary command) over the other governors and commanders of the area he was to operate; however, Tiberius had replaced the governor of Syria with Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, who was meant to be his helper (''adiutor''), but turned out to be hostile.", "According to Tacitus, this was an attempt to separate Germanicus from his familiar troops and weaken his influence, but the historian Richard Alston says Tiberius had little reason to undermine his heir.Germanicus had a busy year in 17.He restored a temple of Spes, and allegedly won a chariot race in the name of Tiberius at the Olympic Games that year.", "However, Eusebius, our main reference for this, does not name Germanicus, and Tacitus makes no reference to this occasion either, which would have required Germanicus to make two trips to Greece within a year.", "Also, not waiting to take up his consulship in Rome, he left after his triumph but before the end of AD 17.He sailed down the Illyrian coast of the Adriatic Sea to Greece.", "He arrived at Nicopolis near the site of the Battle of Actium, where he took up his second consulship on 18 January AD 18.He visited the sites associated with his adoptive grandfather Augustus and his natural grandfather Mark Antony, before crossing the sea to Lesbos and then to Asia Minor.", "There he visited the site of Troy and the oracle of Apollo Claros near Colophon.", "Piso left at the same time as Germanicus, but traveled directly to Athens and then to Rhodes where he and Germanicus met for the first time.", "From there Piso left for Syria where he immediately began replacing the officers with men loyal to himself in a bid to win the loyalty of his soldiers.Next Germanicus traveled through Syria to Armenia where he installed king Artaxias as a replacement for Vonones, whom Augustus had deposed and placed under house arrest at the request of the king of Parthia, Artabanus.", "The king of Cappadocia died too, whereupon Germanicus sent Quintus Veranius to organize Cappadocia as a province – a profitable endeavor as Tiberius was able to reduce the sales tax down to .5% from 1%.", "The revenue from the new province was enough to make up the difference lost from lowering the sales tax.", "The kingdom of Commagene was split on whether or not to remain free or to become a province with both sides sending deputations, so Germanicus sent Quintus Servaeus to organize the province.Having settled these matters he traveled to Cyrrhus, a city in Syria between Antioch and the Euphrates, where he spent the rest of AD 18 in the winter quarters of the Legion X Fretensis.", "Evidently here Piso attended Germanicus, and quarreled because he failed to send troops to Armenia when ordered.", "Artabanus sent an envoy to Germanicus requesting that Vonones be moved further from Armenia as to not incite trouble there.", "Germanicus complied, moving Vonones to Cilicia, both to please Artabanus and to insult Piso, with whom Vonones was friendly.====Egypt====Nicolas Poussin, ''The Death of Germanicus'' (1627), oil painting.", "Collection Minneapolis Institute of Arts.He then made his way to Egypt, arriving to a tumultuous reception in January AD 19.He had gone there to relieve a famine in the country vital to Rome's food supply.", "The move upset Tiberius, because it had violated an order by Augustus that no senator shall enter the province without consulting the emperor and the Senate (Egypt was an imperial province, and belonged to the emperor).", "Germanicus entered the province in his capacity as proconsul without first seeking permission to do so.", "He returned to Syria by summer, where he found that Piso had either ignored or revoked his orders to the cities and legions.", "Germanicus in turn ordered Piso's recall to Rome, although this action was probably beyond his authority.In the midst of this feud, Germanicus became ill and despite the fact Piso had removed himself to the port of Seleucia, he was convinced that Piso was somehow poisoning him.", "Tacitus reports that there were signs of black magic in Piso's house with hidden body-parts and Germanicus's name inscribed on lead tablets.", "Germanicus sent Piso a letter formally renouncing their friendship (''amicitia'').", "Germanicus died soon after on 10 October of that year.", "His death aroused much speculation, with several sources blaming Piso, acting under orders from Emperor Tiberius.", "This was never proven, and Piso later died while facing trial.", "Tacitus says Tiberius was involved in a conspiracy against Germanicus, and Tiberius's jealousy and fear of his nephew's popularity and increasing power was the true motive.The death of Germanicus in dubious circumstances greatly affected Tiberius's popularity in Rome, leading to the creation of a climate of fear in Rome itself.", "Also suspected of connivance in his death was Tiberius's chief advisor, Sejanus, who would, in the 20s, create an atmosphere of fear in Roman noble and administrative circles by the use of treason trials and the role of ''delatores,'' or informers." ], [ "Post Mortem", "Benjamin West, ''Agrippina Landing at Brundisium with the Ashes of Germanicus'' (1768), oil on canvas.", "Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven.When Rome had received word of Germanicus' death, the people began observing a ''iustitium'' before the Senate had officially declared it.", "Tacitus says this shows the true grief that the people of Rome felt, and this also shows that by this time the people already knew the proper way to commemorate dead princes without an edict from a magistrate.", "At his funeral, there were no procession statues of Germanicus.", "There were abundant eulogies and reminders of his fine character and a particular eulogy was given by Tiberius himself in the Senate.The historians Tacitus and Suetonius record the funeral and posthumous honors of Germanicus.", "His name was placed into the Carmen Saliare, and onto the curule seats that were placed with oaken garlands over them as honorary seats for the Augustan priesthood.", "His ivory statue was at the head of the procession during the Circus Games; his posts as priest of Augustus and Augur were to be filled by members of the imperial family; knights of Rome gave his name to a block of seats at a theatre in Rome, and rode behind his effigy on 15 July AD 20.After consulting with his family, Tiberius made his wishes known whereupon the Senate collected the honors into a commemorative decree, the ''Senatus Consultum de memoria honoranda Germanini Caesaris'', and ordered the consuls of AD 20 to issue a public law honoring the death of Germanicus, the ''Lex Valeria Aurelia''.", "Although Tacitus stressed the honors paid to him, the funeral and processions were carefully modeled after those of Gaius and Lucius, Agrippa's sons.", "This served to emphasize the continuation of the ''domus Augusta'' across the transition from Augustus to Tiberius.", "Commemorative arches were built in his honor and not just in Rome, but at the frontier on the Rhine and in Asia where he had governed in life.", "The arch of the Rhine was placed alongside that of his father, where the soldiers had built a funerary monument honoring him.", "Portraits of him and his natural father were placed in the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine in Rome.", "Several cities in Asia Minor were named Germanicopolis in honor of the general (among them Gangra and Germanicia).On the day of Germanicus' death his sister Livilla gave birth to twins by Drusus.", "The oldest was named Germanicus and died young.", "In 37, Germanicus' only remaining son, Caligula, became emperor and renamed September ''Germanicus'' in honor of his father.", "Many Romans, in the account of Tacitus, considered Germanicus to be their equivalent to Alexander the Great, and believed that he would have easily surpassed the achievements of Alexander had he become emperor.", "In book eight of his ''Natural History'', Pliny connects Germanicus, Augustus, and Alexander as fellow equestrians: when Alexander's horse Bucephalus died he named a city, Bucephalia, in his honor.", "Less monumental, Augustus' horse received a funeral mound, which Germanicus wrote a poem about.===Trial of Piso===Piso was rumored to have been responsible for Germanicus' death.", "As accusations accumulated, it was not long before the well known accuser, Lucius Fulcinius Trio, brought charges against him.", "The Pisones were longtime supporters of the Claudians, and had allied themselves with Octavian early on.", "The continued support of the Pisones and his own friendship with Piso made Tiberius hesitant to hear the case himself.", "After briefly hearing both sides, Tiberius referred the case to the Senate, making no effort to hide his deep anger toward Piso.", "Tiberius made allowances for Piso to summon witnesses of all social orders, including slaves, and he was given more time to plead than the prosecutors, but it made no difference: before the trial was over Piso died; ostensibly by suicide, but Tacitus supposes Tiberius may have had him murdered before he could implicate the emperor in Germanicus' death.The accusations brought against Piso are numerous, including:*Insubordination*Corruption*Abandoning and reentering a province *Summary justice *Destroying military discipline *Misusing the ''fiscus principis'' (emperor's money) *Fomenting civil war *Violating the divinity of ''Divus Augustus'' (sacrilege).He was found guilty and punished posthumously for treason.", "The Senate had his property proscribed, forbade mourning on his account, removed images of his likeness, such as statues and portraits, and his name was erased from the base of one statue in particular as part of his ''damnatio memoriae''.", "Yet, in a show of clemency not unlike that of the emperor, the Senate had Piso's property returned and divided equally between his two sons, on condition that his daughter Calpurnia be given 1,000,000 sesterces as dowry and a further 4,000,000 as personal property.", "His wife Plancina was absolved." ], [ "Literary activity", "''Pleiades'' of the Leiden Aratea, an illustrated manuscript of Germanicus' ''Phaenomena'' dating to the 9th century.In AD 4, Germanicus wrote a Latin version of Aratus's ''Phainomena'', which survives, wherein he rewrites the contents of the original.", "For example, he replaces the opening hymn to Zeus with a passage in honor of the Roman emperor.", "He avoided writing in the poetic style of Cicero, who had translated his own version of the ''Phainomena'', and he wrote in a new style to meet the expectations of a Roman audience whose tastes were shaped by \"modern\" authors like Ovid and Virgil.", "For his work, Germanicus is ranked among Roman writers on astronomy, and his work was popular enough for scholia to be written on it well into the Medieval era." ], [ "Historiography", "Germanicus and Tiberius are often contrasted by ancient historians and poets who wrote using themes found in drama, with Germanicus playing the tragic hero and Tiberius the tyrant.", "The endurance of the Principate is challenged in these narratives, by the emperor's jealous trepidation toward competent commanders such as Germanicus.", "Attention is paid particularly to their leadership styles, i.e., in their relationship with the masses.", "Germanicus is painted as a competent leader able to handle the masses whereas Tiberius is indecisive and envious.Despite the poetics attached to Germanicus by ancient authors, it is accepted by historians such as Anthony A. Barrett that Germanicus was an able general.", "He fought against the Pannonians under Tiberius, quelled the mutiny in the Rhine, and led three successful campaigns into Germania.", "As for his popularity, he was popular enough that the mutinous legions of the Rhine attempted to proclaim him emperor in AD 14; however, he remained loyal and led them against the German tribes instead.", "Tacitus and Suetonius claim that Tiberius was jealous of Germanicus' popularity, but Barrett suggests their claim might be contradicted by the fact that, following his campaigns in Germany, Germanicus was given command of the eastern provinces – a sure sign he was intended to rule.", "In accordance with the precedent set by Augustus, Agrippa had been given command of those same provinces in the east when Agrippa was the intended successor to the empire.===Publius Cornelius Tacitus===Museo civico di Amelia, ''Amelia, Umbria'', Italy.The ''Annals'' by Tacitus is one of the most detailed accounts of Germanicus' campaigns against the Germans.", "He wrote his account in the early years of the second century.", "Tacitus described Germanicus as a fine general who was kind and temperate, saying that his early death had taken a great ruler from Rome.Book 1 of ''Annals'' extensively focuses on the mutinies of the legions in Pannonia and Germany (AD 14).", "The riotous army figures into the unpredictable wrath of the Roman people giving Tiberius the chance to reflect on what it means to lead.", "It serves to contrast the \"old-fashioned\" Republican values assigned to Germanicus, and the imperial values possessed by Tiberius.", "The mood of the masses is a recurring theme, with their reactions to the fortunes of Germanicus being a prominent feature of the relationship between him and Tiberius well into the ''Annals'' (as far as ''Annals'' 3.19).===Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus===Suetonius was an equestrian who held administrative posts during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian.", "''The Twelve Caesars'' details a biographical history of the Principate from the birth of Julius Caesar to the death of Domitian in AD 96.Like Tacitus, he drew upon the imperial archives, as well as histories by Aufidius Bassus, Cluvius Rufus, Fabius Rusticus and Augustus' own letters.The attitude of Suetonius toward Germanicus' personality and moral temperament is that of adoration.", "He dedicates a good portion of his ''Life of Caligula'' to Germanicus, claiming Germanicus' physical and moral excellence surpassed that of his contemporaries.", "Suetonius also says that Germanicus was a gifted writer, and that despite all these talents, he remained humble and kind." ], [ "Legacy", "Due to his prominence as heir to the imperial succession, he is depicted in many works of art.", "He often appears in literature as the archetypal ideal Roman.", "His life and character have been portrayed in many works of art, the most notable of which include:* ''Germanico in Germania'' (1732), an Italian opera by Nicola Porpora.", "He was played by Domenico Annibali.", "* ''Death of Germanicus'' (1773–1774), a marble sculpture by British sculptor Thomas Banks.", "* ''Thusnelda im Triumphzug des Germanicus'' (1873), a painting by German painter Karl von Piloty.", "* ''I, Claudius'' (1934), a historical fiction novel by classicist Robert Graves.", "* ''The Caesars'' (1968), a British television series by Philip Mackie.", "He was played by Eric Flynn.", "* ''I, Claudius'' (1976), a British television series by Jack Pulman.", "He was played by David Robb." ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "===Primary sources===* * ===Secondary sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * ** * * * * * * * * * * .", "* * * .", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' (Loeb Classical Library English translation)* Suetonius, ''Life of Tiberius'' (Loeb Classical Library English translation)* Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' Book II (Loeb Classical Library English translation)* Suetonius, ''Life of Caligula'' (Loeb Classical Library translation)* Suetonius, ''Life of Caligula''(Alexander Thomson translation) * * \"Thusnelda\"" ] ]
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[ [ "Giulio Alberoni" ], [ "Introduction", "Cardinal Alberoni'''Giulio Alberoni''' (21 May 1664 OS – 26 June NS 1752) was an Italian cardinal and statesman in the service of Philip V of Spain." ], [ "Early years", "He was born near Piacenza on May 21, 1664, probably at the village of Fiorenzuola d'Arda in the Duchy of Parma.His father was a gardener, and he himself became first connected with the church in the humble position of a bellringer and verger in the Duomo of Piacenza; he was twenty-one when the judge Ignazio Gardini, of Ravenna, was banished, and he followed Gardini to Ravenna, where he met the vice-legate Giorgio Barni, who was made bishop of Piacenza in 1688 and appointed Alberoni chamberlain of his household.", "Alberoni took priest's orders, and afterwards accompanied the son of his patron to Rome.During the War of the Spanish Succession Alberoni laid the foundation of his political success by the services he rendered to Louis-Joseph, duc de Vendôme, commander of the French forces in Italy, to whom the duke of Parma had sent him.", "That a low-ranking priest was used as an envoy was due to the duke's rude manners: the previous envoy, the bishop of Parma, had quit because the duke had wiped his buttocks in front of him: Saint-Simon in his Mémoires relates that Alberoni gained Vendôme's favour when he was received in the same way, but reacted adroitly by kissing the duke's buttocks and crying \"O culo di angelo!\".", "The duke was amused, and this joke started Alberoni's brilliant career.", "When the French forces were recalled in 1706, he accompanied the duke to Paris, where he was favourably received by Louis XIV." ], [ "Middle years", "Anti-Alberoni fresco, from the Palace San MarinoAlberoni accompanied Vendôme to Spain as his secretary and became very active in promoting the cause of the French candidate Philip V. Following Vendôme's death, in 1713 he was made a Count and appointed Consular agent for Parma at Philip's court where he was a Royal favourite.Under the terms of the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, Philip became King of Spain but the Spanish Empire was effectively partitioned.", "The Southern Netherlands and their Italian possessions were ceded to the Austrian Habsburgs and Savoy, Menorca and Gibraltar went to Britain while British merchants gained trading rights in the previously closed market of the Spanish Americas.At this time, the key powerbroker at the Spanish court was Marie-Anne de la Trémoille, princesse des Ursins who dominated Phillip and his wife Maria Luisa of Savoy.", "Alberoni worked with her and when Maria Luisa died in 1714 they arranged for Philip to marry Elisabetta Farnese, daughter of the Duke of Parma.Elisabetta was a strong personality herself and formed an alliance with Alberoni, their first action being to banish the Princesse des Ursins.", "By the end of 1715, Alberoni had been made a Duke and Grandee of Spain, a member of the King's council, Bishop of Málaga and Chief Minister of the Hispanic Monarchy.", "In July 1717, Pope Clement XI appointed him Cardinal, allegedly because of his assistance in resolving several ecclesiastical disputes between Rome and Madrid in favour of Rome.One outcome of the war was to reduce the powers of Castile and Aragon and create a Spanish state similar to the centralised French system.", "This allowed Alberoni to copy the economic reforms of Colbert and he passed a series of decrees aimed at restoring the Spanish economy.", "These abolished internal custom-houses, promoted trade with the Americas, instituted a regular mail service to the colonies and reorganised state finances along lines established by the French economist Jean Orry.", "Some attempts were made to satisfy Spanish conservatives e.g.", "a new School of Navigation was reserved for the sons of the nobility.Battle of Cape Passaro, 11 August 1718; the destruction of the Spanish fleet off SicilyThese reforms made Spain confident enough to attempt the recovery of territories in Italy ceded to Savoy and Charles VI of Austria.", "In 1717, a Spanish force occupied Sardinia unopposed; neither Austria or Savoy had significant naval forces and Austria was engaged in the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18.This assumed the British would not intervene but when 38,000 Spanish troops landed on Sicily in 1718, Britain declared it a violation of Utrecht.", "On 2 August 1718, Britain, France, the Netherlands and the Austrians formed the Quadruple Alliance and on 11 August the Royal Navy destroyed a Spanish fleet off Sicily at the Battle of Cape Passaro.Alberoni now attempted to offset British in the Mediterranean by sponsoring a Jacobite landing to divert their naval resources; he also sought to end the 1716 Anglo-French Alliance by using the Cellamare conspiracy to replace the current French Regent the Duke of Orleans with Phillip of Spain.", "However, he failed to appreciate that Britain was now powerful enough to maintain naval superiority in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic while France declared war on Spain in December 1718 on the discovery of the Conspiracy.France invaded eastern Spain and in October 1719 a British naval expedition captured the Spanish port of Vigo; they landed 6,000 troops, held Vigo for ten days, destroyed vast quantities of stores and equipment and then re-embarked unopposed.", "The nearby city of Santiago de Compostela even paid £40,000 in return for being left alone.", "As intended, this was a crushing demonstration of British naval power and showed the Spanish Britain could land anywhere along their coastline and leave when they wanted to.", "The failure of his policy meant Alberoni was dismissed on 5 December 1719 and ordered to leave Spain, with the Treaty of The Hague in 1720 confirming the outcome of Utrecht." ], [ "Later years", "Cardinal Giulio AlberoniEngraving of Cardinal AlberoniHe went to Italy, escaped from arrest at Genoa, and had to take refuge among the Apennines, Pope Clement XI, who was his bitter enemy, having given strict orders for his arrest.", "On the death of Clement in 1721, Alberoni boldly appeared at the conclave, and took part in the election of Innocent XIII, after which he was for a short time imprisoned by the new pontiff on the demand of Spain on charges including sodomy (Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatine noted in her diaries that he was a pederast).", "He was ultimately cleared by a commission of his fellow Cardinals.", "At the next election (1724) he was himself proposed for the papal chair, and secured ten votes at the conclave that elected Benedict XIII.Benedict's successor, Clement XII (elected 1730), named him legate of Ravenna, where he erected the Porta Alberoni (1739), a magnificent gateway that formerly provided access to the city's dockyards, and has since been moved to the entrance of the Teatro Rasi.", "That same year, the strong and unwarrantable measures he adopted to subject the grand republic of San Marino to the papal states incurred the pope's displeasure and left a historical scar in that place's memory.", "He was soon replaced by another legate in 1740, and he retired to Piacenza, where in 1730 Clement XII appointed him administrator of the hospital of San Lazzaro, a medieval foundation for the benefit of lepers.", "Since leprosy had nearly disappeared in Italy, Alberoni obtained the consent of the pope to suppress the hospital, which had fallen into great disorder, and replaced it with a seminary for the priestly education of seventy poor boys, under the name of the Collegio Alberoni, which it still bears.", "The Cardinal's collections of art gathered in Rome and Piacenza, housed in his richly appointed private apartments, have been augmented by the Collegio.", "There are remarkable suites of Flemish tapestries, and paintings, among which the most famous is the ''Ecce Homo'' by Antonello da Messina (1473), but which also include panels by Jan Provoost and other Flemish artists, oil paintings by Domenico Maria Viani and Francesco Solimena.Alberoni was a gourmand.", "Interspersed in his official correspondence with Parma are requests for local delicacies ''triffole'' (truffles), salame, robiola cheeses, and ''agnolini'' (kind of pasta).", "The pork dish ''\"Coppa del Cardinale\"'', a specialty of Piacenza, is named for him.", "A ''\"timballo Alberoni\"'' combines maccaroni, shrimp sauce, mushrooms, butter and cheese." ], [ "Death and legacy", "He died leaving a sum of 600,000 ducats to endow the seminary he had founded.", "He left the rest of the immense wealth he had acquired in Spain to his nephew.", "Alberoni produced many manuscripts.", "The genuineness of the Political Testament, published in his name at Lausanne in 1753, has been questioned." ], [ "References and sources", ";References;Sources* * Kuethe, Allan J.", "\"Cardinal Alberoni and Reform in the American Empire.\"", "in Francisco A. Eissa-Barroso y Ainara Vázquez Varela, eds.", "''Early Bourbon Spanish America.", "Politics and Society in a forgotten Era (1700–1759)'' (Brill, 2013): 23–38.", "* ''Catholic Encyclopedia'': Giulio Alberoni* Catholic Hierarchy: Giulio Cardinal Alberoni* Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church: Conclave of 31 March – 8 May 1724* Collegio Alberoni, Piacenza* The San Marino event of 1739–40" ] ]
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[ [ "Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz''' more commonly '''Gil de Albornoz''' (; – 23 August 1367), was a Spanish curial cardinal, archbishop of Toledo from 13 May 1338 to 17 December 1350.Grand Penitentiary from December 1352 to August 23, 1364.Cardinal priest with the title of San Clemente from December 17, 1350 to December 1356.Cardinal bishop of Sabina from December 1356 to August 23, 1364.Cardinal legate and vicar general from 30 June 1353 to 1357, who led as condottiere Papal States mercenary armies in two campaigns to reconquer territory in Italy, and statesman.Albornoz was born in Carrascosa del Campo, Spain.", "Raised in Zaragoza and educated alongside his mother's brother, Albornoz pursued his studies in law at Toulouse.", "As the Archbishop of Toledo, he held two reform synods, and throughout his career, he demonstrated his military prowess.", "He fought against a Marinid invasion from Morocco in 1340 at the Battle of Río Salado and led the armed levy of his archbishopric at the taking of Algeciras in 1344.In 1350, Pope Clement VI appointed Albornoz as a cardinal-priest of S. Clemente, recognizing his military and diplomatic abilities.", "Shortly after Pope Innocent VI's election in 1352, Albornoz was appointed grand penitentiary and given the epithet \"Angel of Peace.\"", "However, this title would become an ironic misnomer as he later led campaigns in the Papal States.In 1353, Pope Innocent VI sent Albornoz to Italy with the goal of restoring papal authority in the Church states.", "Leading a small mercenary army, he embarked on a series of successful campaigns against various rulers, ultimately expanding the territories of the Papal States.", "During his time in Italy, Albornoz issued the ''Constitutiones Sanctæ Matris Ecclesiæ'', which effectively regulated the Papal States and their division into provinces until 1816.Despite a decade of warfare and multiple successful campaigns, Albornoz's efforts did not completely secure peace and stability in Italy.", "The Papal State itself faced ongoing conflicts, and mercenary companies roamed Italy, spreading further bloodshed and strife.", "Regardless, as a mark of gratitude for his service, Pope Urban V appointed Albornoz as legate at Bologna in 1367.In addition to his military and diplomatic achievements, Albornoz left a lasting legacy in the field of education.", "In 1364, he founded the College of Saint Clement in Bologna to benefit Castilian, Aragonese, and Portuguese students, providing them with a unique learning opportunity.Albornoz was a descendant of the kings of León and Aragón and founder of the Collegio di Spagna, an academic institution of Bologna." ], [ "Life", "===Early life===House of the Albornoz and Luna family in Cuenca, where Gil de Albornoz spent his childhood.Albornoz was the son of Garcialuarez Albornoz, IV Lord of Albornoz, tutor to the future King Alfonso XI, originally from Uña, Cuenca, and Doña Teresa de Luna, sister of , archbishop of Toledo and a member of the prominent Carrillo family.", "He was born in late 1302 or early 1303, in Carrascosa del Campo, (Cuenca).", "He was raised and educated in Zaragoza, with his mother's brother, and studied law in Toulouse.At the battle of Río Salado he successfully fought against a Marinid invasion from Morocco in 1340, and at the taking of Algeciras in 1344 he led the armed levy of his archbishopric.", "As Archbishop of Toledo he held two reform synods; one at Toledo in May 1339, the other at Alcalá in April 1347.In 1343 he had been sent to Pope Clement VI at Avignon to negotiate a grant of a tax on the revenues of the Church for the Crusade.", "Albornoz left Spain on the death of the king Alfonso XI in March 1350, and never returned.", "It has been said, but not on contemporary evidence, that he fled from fear of Pedro of Castile.", "His military and diplomatic ability became known to the pope, who made him a cardinal-priest of S. Clemente in December of that year, at which point he resigned the archbishopric of Toledo.He was appointed grand penitentiary shortly after election of Pope Innocent VI in December 1352 and given the epithet \"Angel of Peace\", a title which quickly became an ironic misnomer given his future campaigns in the Papal States." ], [ "Campaigns", "===Italy=======First====In 1353 Innocent VI sent him as a legate into Italy, with a view to the restoration of the papal authority in the states of the Church, at the head of a small mercenary army.", "After receiving the support of the archbishop of Milan, Giovanni Visconti, and of those of Pisa, Florence and Siena, he started a campaign against Giovanni di Vico, lord of Viterbo, who had usurped much of the Papal territories in the Latium and Umbria.", "Giovanni was defeated in the battle of Viterbo of 10 March 1354 and signed a treaty of submission.", "To mark his authority over Viterbo, he immediately decided to build a palace there near the San Faustino church.Albornoz then moved to the Marche and Romagna against the Malatesta of Rimini and the Ordelaffi of Forlì.", "The Papal commander Rodolfo II da Varano, lord of Camerino, defeated Galeotto Malatesta, forcing his family to become a loyal ally of the Pope.", "This was followed by the submission of the Montefeltro of Urbino and the da Polenta of Ravenna, and of the cities of Senigallia and Ancona.", "Towards the end of 1356 Albornoz was appointed as bishop of Sabina.Only Giovanni Manfredi of Faenza and Francesco II Ordelaffi of Forlì were at that point resisting the Papal reconquest.", "Albornoz had managed to submit only the former when he was being recalled in 1357, being replaced by Androin de la Roche, abbot of Cluny.", "Before leaving, in a meeting with all the Papal vicars held on 29 April 1357, Albornoz issued the ''Constitutiones Sanctæ Matris Ecclesiæ'', which regulated all the matters of the Papal States and its division into provinces.", "They remained effective until 1816.14th century miniature showing Cardinal Albornoz receiving the keys of the subjugated Italian cities ====Second====Innocent VI, surrounded by Cardinal Albornoz and Emperor Charles IV, at his feet Archbishop preaches Michael of Cesena and William of Ockham.The Cardinal was honoured as ''Pater Ecclesiæ'' at his arrival in Avignon.", "His sojourn there was to be short, however, as Giovanni di Vico and Francesco Ordelaffi (who had hired the famous condottiero Konrad von Landau's \"Grand Company\") were menacing the fragile balance of his last conquests.", "Returned to Italy, Albornoz found an agreement with Landau, forcing Ordelaffi to surrender on 4 July 1359.He then promulgates in the name of the pope the ''Constitutiones Sanctae Matri Ecclesiae'', general regulations of the pontifical administration of the domain of Saint-Pierre.", "Albornoz missed only Bologna to complete his rebuilding of the Papal States.", "When that city was attacked by Bernabò Visconti of Milan, its ruler, Giovanni d'Oleggio, decided to hand it over to Albornoz.", "In the meantime, Innocent died: the Spanish cardinal refused the tiara, and Urban V was elected.", "Under him Albornoz started the military campaign against Visconti and, when all attacks failed, Urban proclaimed a crusade against him.As Urban's greatest desire was that of a crusade against the Turks, the two parts signed a hasty peace, which was highly favourable to Visconti.", "The relentless work of Albornoz ushered in a decade of warfare and atrocity culminating in the massacre of Cesena, a town faithful to the Papal cause whose entire population was executed by the Papal forces while paving the way of Urban V to Rome (1367).As legate, Albornoz showed himself to be an astute manager of men and effective fighter.", "He began by making use of Cola di Rienzo (former leader of the citizenship freedom in Rome), whose release from prison at Avignon he secured.", "After the murder of the tribune in 1354 Albornoz pursued his task of restoring the pope's authority by intrigue and force with remarkable success.", "However, the ten years of bloody warfare conducted by Albornoz accomplished very little to secure the pacification of Italy for now four mercenary companies roved through Italy spreading further bloodshed and strife.", "The Papal State was itself far from completely pacified; a savage and devastating war went on from 1361 to 1367 between Rome and Velletri while in 1366-7 there was a general rebellion in Campagna.", "Despite all and as a mark of gratitude the pope appointed him legate at Bologna in 1367, but he died at Viterbo the same year.", "According to his own desire his remains were carried to Toledo, where Henry of Castile had them entombed with almost royal honours.The college of Saint Clement at Bologna was founded by Albornoz for the benefit Castilian, Aragonese and Portuguese students, in 1364." ], [ "Archbishop", "He was elected archbishop of Toledo by the cathedral chapter to succeed his uncle Jimeno de Luna.", "The election was confirmed by Pope Benedict XII by decree of the Pontifical Foreign Ministry given in Avignon on 13 May 1338, in which he is mentioned as ''Deacon, Archdian of the Order of Calatrava, Pontifical Chaplain and Doctor of Decrees''.", "''Testamentum'', 1533" ], [ "See also", "*Avignon Papacy*Constitutiones Sanctæ Matris Ecclesiæ*Papal States*War of the Eight Saints*History of Rome*Cola di Rienzo" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Works", "*" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Sources of Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda about G. Albornoz" ] ]
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[ [ "Giovanni Aldini" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Giovanni Aldini''' (10 April 1762 – 17 January 1834) was an Italian physician and physicist born in Bologna.", "He was a brother of the statesman Count Antonio Aldini (1756–1826).", "He graduated in physics at University of Bologna in 1782.He became professor of experimental physics at University of Bologna in 1798, in succession to his uncle Luigi Galvani (1737–1798).", "His scientific work was chiefly concerned with galvanism, anatomy and its medical applications, with the construction and illumination of lighthouses, and with experiments for preserving human life and material objects from destruction by fire.", "He wrote in French and English in addition to his native Italian, and in Latin, still used in the 18th century by the scientific community.", "In recognition of his merits, the emperor of Austria made him a knight of the Iron Crown and a councillor of state at Milan, where he died.", "He bequeathed a considerable sum to found a school of natural science for artisans at Bologna." ], [ "Experiments", "Aldini demonstrating electricity generated by an ox head''De animali electricitate'' (\"The animal electricity\"), 1794Aldini's most famous public demonstration of the electro-stimulation technique of deceased limbs was performed on the executed criminal George Forster at Newgate in London in 1803.The Newgate Calendar describes what happened when the galvanic process was used on the body:" ], [ "Shelley's Frankenstein association", "Mary Shelley (born Mary Godwin 30 August 1797) would have been only 5 years old in January 1803 when Aldini experimented on the corpse of George Foster.", "In her introduction to the 1831 edition of ''Frankenstein'' she does not mention Aldini, but \"galvanism\" was among the evening discussion topics before she experienced her \"waking dream\" that led to her writing.", "Chapter 5, the creature awakened:" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "*Mark Pilkington: Sparks of Life.", "Article from The Guardian about Aldini's experiments on an executed criminal.", "* A.", "Parent: ''Giovanni Aldini: from animal electricity to human brain stimulation.''", "(PDF), Can J Neurol Sci.", "2004 Nov;31(4):576-84." ] ]
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[ [ "Girolamo Aleandro" ], [ "Introduction", "right'''Girolamo Aleandro''' (also '''Hieronymus Aleander'''; 13 February 14801 February 1542) was an Italian humanist, linguist, and cardinal." ], [ "Life", "Aleandro was born on 13 February 1480 in Motta di Livenza, in the province of Treviso, part of the Republic of Venice.", "The son of a doctor, he studied medicine, philology, and theology in Padua.", "In Venice he became acquainted with Erasmus and Aldus Manutius, and at an early age was reputed one of the most learned men of the time, with a knowledge of Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and Chaldaean.", "In 1508 he went to Paris on the invitation of Louis XII as professor of ''belles lettres,'' and from 1513 to 1516 held the position of Rector of the University of Paris at the Sorbonne.", "Entering the service of Érard de La Marck, prince-bishop of Liège, he was sent by that prelate on a mission to Rome, where Pope Leo X retained him, giving him (1519) the office of librarian of the Vatican.", "In the following year he went to Germany to be present as papal nuncio at the coronation of Emperor Charles V, and was also present at the Diet of Worms, where he headed the opposition to Martin Luther, advocating the most extreme measures to repress the doctrines of the reformer.", "His conduct evoked the fiercest denunciations of Luther, but it also displeased more moderate men, especially Erasmus.", "The edict against the reformer, which was finally adopted by the emperor and the diet, was drawn up and proposed by Aleandro.", "After the close of the Diet, the papal nuncio went to the Netherlands, where he instigated the executions of two monks of Antwerp due to their embrace of the Reformation, resulting in their being burnt in Brussels.In August 1524 Pope Clement VII appointed Aleandro the Archbishop of Brindisi, for which office he was ordained to the priesthood two months later.", "The pope then sent him as nuncio to the court of King Francis I of France.", "He was taken prisoner along with that monarch at the Battle of Pavia in 1525, and was released only on payment of a heavy ransom.", "He was subsequently employed on various papal missions, especially to Germany, but was unsuccessful in preventing the German princes from making a truce with the reformers, or in checking to any extent the progress of the reformers' doctrines.Aleandro was eventually consecrated a bishop on 28 February 1528 to fulfill the duties of his office.", "He was created a cardinal ''in pectore'' on 22 December 1536 by Pope Paul III (at the same time as Reginald Pole), which was published (i.e., publicly announced) only on 13 March 1538, at which time he was able to assume that office.", "He was given the rank of Cardinal Priest, with his titular church in Rome as San Ciriaco alle Terme Diocleziane, which was changed a week later to the Church of San Crisogono.Aleandro resigned as Archbishop of Brindisi on 30 January 1541.He died at Rome on 1 February 1542.His remains were initially buried in his titular church, but later were transferred to his hometown and re-buried there in the Church of San Niccolò." ], [ "Writings", "Aleandro compiled a ''Lexicon Graeco-Latinum'' (1512) and an introductory Greek grammar, the ''Elementale introductorium in nominum et verborum declinationes Graecas'' (1509), and edited Greek texts by Isocrates, Plutarch, and Lucian (1509–1510).Some of his Latin verses were included in the ''Carmina Illustrium Poetarum Italiorum'' of Joannes Matthaeus Toscanus.", "The Vatican Library contains manuscript letters and other documents written by him in connection with his various missions against Luther, which are important sources for the Reformation and Counter-Reformation; they were used by (among others) the church historian Francesco Sforza Pallavicino in his history of the council of Trent." ], [ "See also", "* Hochstratus Ovans" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Galeazzo Alessi" ], [ "Introduction", "Alessi's original project for the façade of Palazzo Marino, Milan, altered in the execution'''Galeazzo Alessi''' (1512 – 30 December 1572) was an Italian architect from Perugia, known throughout Europe for his distinctive style based on his enthusiasm for ancient architecture.", "He studied drawing for civil and military architecture under the direction of Giovanni Battista Caporali.For a number of years he lived in Genoa.", "He was involved in the lay-out of the streets and the restoration of the city walls, as well as being responsible for many of its impressive palazzi, now a part of the World Heritage List.", "Alessi displayed particular aptitude for organizing compositions on sloping sites.", "* Saint-Georges Church, Périgueux, France His work can be found in many other Italian cities, including in Ferrara, Bologna, Naples and Milan, where he designed the facade of Santa Maria presso San Celso.", "With Vignola, he designed the Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli in Assisi, the seventh largest Christian church at the time.", "Elsewhere in Europe, he designed churches and palaces in France, Germany and Flanders.", "He produced designs for El Escorial in Spain, but age and health prevented him from carrying them out." ], [ "Selected works", "=== Perugia ===* Rocca Paolina, remodelling* Loggia at the Oratorio di S. Angelo della Pace* S. Maria del Popolo (Camera di Commercio)* Loggia for the Palazzo dei Priori, remodelling* Convent of Santa Giuliana (S. Caterina)* Portale of the Villa del Leone* Doorway in the southern flank of the Duomo* Works for San Pietro===Assisi===* Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli* Tabernacle of San Francesco ( original design in the Metropolitan Museum of Art)* Works in the Cathedral of San Rufino===Genoa===* Villa Giustiniani-Cambiaso, Albaro* Basilica of S. Maria Assunta, Carignano* Porta del Molo (Porta Siberia), inserted in the city walls* Cupola of St. Lawrence Cathedral* Villa delle Peschiere* Villa Grimaldi-Sauli in Bisagno* Proposals for the palazzi in the Strada Nuova=== Milan ===* Palazzo Marino (Municipio di Milano), for the Genoese Tommaso Marino.", "* San Barnaba* Auditorium of the Scuole Canobiane* Santa Maria presso San Celso* San Raffaele* Various projects in the Duomo di Milano, including the monument of the Arcimboldi.===Sacro Monte di Varallo (Vercelli)===* City plan===Rome===*Unexecuted designs for the Church of the Gesù" ], [ "References", "*Rossi, ''Di Galeazzo Alessi memorie'' (Perugia, 1873)* Emmina De Negri, ''Galeazzo Alessi : architetto a Genova'', (Quaderni dell'Istituto di storia dell'arte dell'Università di Genova, number 1, (Genoa) 1957).", "* ''Galeazzo Alessi e l'architettura del Cinquecento'', atti del convegno internazionale di studi : Genoa, 16–20 April 1974, (Genoa 1975)* R. L. Torrijos, \"Un testamento dimenticato di Galeazzo Alessi\", in ''Architettura, storia e documenti'', '''1''' (1985:97-100)*" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Giulio Alenio" ], [ "Introduction", "life of Jesus.A depiction of the Colossus of Rhodes in a 1620 book by Aleni.", "'''Giulio Aleni''' (; 1582– 10 June 1649), in Chinese , was an Italian Jesuit missionary and scholar.", "He was born in Leno near Brescia in Italy, at the time part of the Republic of Venice, and died at Yanping in China.", "He became a member of the Society of Jesus in 1600 and distinguished himself in his knowledge of mathematics and theology.", "He is known for helping publish the Zhifang Waiji, an atlas in Chinese.", "Giulio Aleni also wrote a treatise criticizing the Ming dynasty, the Ming emperors and their elites, and their mistakes and errors.", "Near the end of his life, the Ming dynasty eventually got destroyed and replaced by the Qing dynasty founded by the House of Aisin-Gioro." ], [ "Life", "In 1610, he was sent as a missionary to China.", "While waiting at Macau for a favorable opportunity to enter the country, he taught mathematics to local scholars and published his \"Observation sur l'éclipse de lune du 8 Novembre 1612, faite a Macao\" (''Mémoires de l'Acad.", "des Sciences'', VII, 706).He adopted the dress and manners of the country, was the first Christian missionary in Jiangxi, and built several churches in Fujian.", "One of his converts, Li Jiubiao, recorded the responses of Aleni and Andrius Rudamina, one of his fellow Jesuits, to the questions and speculations of his parishioners and compiled them into a journal." ], [ "Works", "He published works in Chinese on a variety of topics.", "His cosmography, '' Wanwu Zhenyuan'' (萬物真原; The True Origin of the Ten-thousand Things), was translated into Manchu during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor (Wanwu Zhenyuan translated in Manchu script: Wylie: Tumen chakai unengki sekiyen, Möllendorff: Tumen jakai unengki sekiyen).", "A copy was sent from Beijing to Paris in 1789.He completed the work of earlier Jesuit scholars to produce the ''Zhifang waiji'', a global atlas written in Chinese and one of the first to include the Americas.", "Among his most important religious works are a controversial treatise on the Catholic Faith, in which are refuted what he saw as the principal errors of the Ming dynasty; and ''The Life of God, the Saviour, from the Four Gospels'' (Peking, 1635–1637, 8 vols.", "; often reprinted, e.g.", "in 1887 in 3 vols) and used even by Protestant missionaries." ], [ "Legacy", "The life and works of Giulio Aleni are the subject of several conferences in 1994 and 2010.Two of his books, ''Life of Matteo Ricci, Xitai of the West'' and ''Holy images of the Heavenly Lord'' have been presented to the public by ''Fondazione Civiltà Bresciana'' in two separate occasions, on 13 and 25 October 2010." ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* Menegon, Eugenio.", "\"Un solo Cielo.", "Giulio Aleni S.J.", "(1582-1649).", "Geografia, arte, scienza, religione dall’Europa alla Cina\".", "Brescia: Grafo, 1994.", "* John Witek, S.J. \"", "Aleni, Giulio, in Gerald Anderson, ed., ''Biographical Dictionary of Christian Missions'' (Erdmans, 1999), pp.", "9–10 * Lippiello, Tiziana, and Roman Malek.", "''Scholar from the West: Giulio Aleni S.J.", "(1582-1649) and the Dialogue between Christianity and China''.", "Brescia: Sankt Augustin: Fondazione civiltà bresciana; Monumenta Serica Institute, 1997.", "*Sommervogel, Carlos, ''Bibliothèque de la Campagnie de Jesus'', I, 157 sq.", "*Pfister, S.J., ''Bibliogr.", "des Jesuites Chinois miss.", "''*Cordier, ''Essai d'une bibliogr.", "des ouvr.", "publ.", "en Chine par les Europeéns'' (Paris 1883).", "*ALENI, Giulio, Geografia dei paesi stranieri alla Cina.", "Zhifang waiji, with translation (Italian), Introduction and commentary by Paolo De Troia, Brescia, Fondazione Civiltà Bresciana/Centro Giulio Aleni, 2009, with a full Map of ten thousand countries (Wangguo quantu)*Ahn Jaewon, A comparative research on Cicero's orator perfectus and Confucius' rex perfectus( Papers on Rhetoric 10)* Song, Gang.", "''Giulio Aleni, Kouduo richao, and Christian-Confucian Dialogism in Late Ming Fujian'' (艾儒略、「口鐸日抄」及晚明福建的耶儒對話主義), Monumenta Serica Monograph Series LXIX.", "Abingdon, Oxon – New York: Routledge, 2018.", "'''Attribution:'''*" ], [ "External links", "* Life and passion of Christ.", "Digital facsimile of Aleni's ca.", "1640 printing from Houghton Library, Harvard University." ] ]
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[ [ "German cuisine" ], [ "Introduction", "Sauerbraten with KartoffelklößeThe KaDeWe in Berlin, one of the largest delicatessen markets in EuropeThe '''cuisine of Germany''' consists of many different local or regional cuisines, reflecting the country's federal history.", "Germany itself is part of the larger cultural region of Central Europe, sharing many culinary traditions with neighbouring countries such as Poland and the Czech Republic (and Slovakia as well).", "In Northern Europe, in Denmark more specifically, the traditional Danish cuisine had also been influenced by German cuisine in the past, hence several dishes being common between the two countries (e.g.", "potato salad).At the same time, the German cuisine also shares many similar characteristics with the Western European cuisine, as is reflected by some common traditional dishes served in the Low Countries (i.e.", "Netherlands, Belgium, and, most notably, Luxembourg).", "Southern German regions, such as Bavaria and Swabia, share dishes with Austrian cuisine and parts of Swiss cuisine as well.", "The German cuisine has also influenced other European cuisines from Central-Eastern Europe such as those of Hungary or Romania, both countries sharing past and current German heritage in general, through their ethnic German minorities (see also, for example in this regard, the Transylvanian Saxon cuisine).Furthermore, the Michelin Guide of 2015 awarded a three-star ranking (the highest designation) to 11 restaurants in Germany, while 38 more received two-star rankings and 233 one-star rankings.", ", Germany had the fourth-highest number of Michelin three-star restaurants in the world, after Japan, France, and the United States." ], [ "Hot foods", "=== Meat ===Jägerschnitzel with fettuccineCorned Eisbein, with Sauerkraut, among the favorite dishes around the world.early versions of Hot Dogdöner kebapPlate of Currywurst with friesHamburg steak has been known as \"Frikadelle\" in Germany since the 17th century and is believed to be a precursor to the modern Hamburger.The average annual meat consumption is per person.", "The most common varieties are pork, poultry, and beef.", "Other varieties of meat are widely available, but are considered to be insignificant.Meat is usually braised; fried dishes also exist, but these recipes usually originate from France and Austria.", "Several cooking methods used to soften tough cuts have evolved into national specialties, including ''Sauerbraten'' (sour roast), involving marinating beef, horse meat or venison in a vinegar or wine vinegar mixture over several days.A long tradition of sausage-making exists in Germany; more than 1,500 different types of sausage () are made.", "Most ''Wurst'' is made with natural casings of pork, sheep or lamb intestines.", "Among the most popular and most common are ''Bratwurst'', usually made of ground pork and spices, the ''Wiener'' (Viennese), which may be pork or beef and is smoked and fully cooked in a water bath, and ''Blutwurst'' (blood sausage) or ''Schwarzwurst'' (black sausage) made from blood (often of pigs or geese).", "Thousands of types of cold cuts also are available which are also called \"Wurst\" in German.", "There are many regional specialties, such as the ''Münchner Weißwurst'' (Munich white sausage) popular in Bavaria or the ''Currywurst'' (depending on region, either a steamed pork sausage or a version of the ''Bratwurst'', sliced and spiced with curry ketchup) popular in the metropolitan areas of Berlin, Hamburg and the Ruhr Area.", "Strict regulations governing what may and may not be put into them have been in force in Germany since the 13th century.", "In the market ordinance of Landshut in 1236, it was set down that only top-quality meat could be made into sausages.", "Döner kebab sales reach more than 3.5 billion euros each year, making it one of the most popular fast food items in the country.Different types of sausages include also: Bierschinken, Bockwurst, Frankfurter Würstchen, Jagdwurst, Knackwurst, Liverwurst, Mettwurst, Nürnberger Bratwürste, Nürnberger Rostbratwurst, Regensburger Wurst, Saumagen, Teewurst, Thuringian sausage, Weisswurst, Westfälische Rinderwurst and Wollwurst.===Fish===Smoked spratA variety of Fischbrötchen, including with RollmopsOf saltwater fish, whitefish such as Alaska pollock, Atlantic herring, Atlantic cod and saithe are the most common.", "Popular freshwater fish on the German menu are trout, pike, carp, and European perch also are listed frequently.", "These fish are often served grilled, fried as \"Backfisch\" or \"Fischfrikadelle\", or in a soup.", "Seafood traditionally was restricted to the northern coastal areas, except for pickled herring, which was often served in a Fischbrötchen, as ''Rollmops'' (a pickled herring fillet rolled into a cylindrical shape around a piece of pickled gherkin or onion), or ''Brathering'' (fried, marinated herring).Today, many sea fish, such as fresh herring, tuna, mackerel, salmon and sardines, are well established throughout the country.", "Prior to the industrial revolution and the ensuing pollution of the rivers, salmon were common in the rivers Rhine, Elbe, and Oder and only slowly started to return along with a growing consciousness for environmental questions and resulting measures, such as state-of-the-art sewage plant and reduction of agricultural runoff.Fish fingers, known as Fischstäbchen (lit.", ": \"fish sticklets\"), are a popular processed food made using whitefish such as cod, haddock or pollock, which has been battered or breaded.===Vegetables===Typical serving of asparagus with Hollandaise sauce and potatoesVegetables are often used in stews or vegetable soups, but are also served as side dishes.", "Carrots, cauliflower, turnips, spinach, peas, beans, broccoli and many types of cabbage are very common.", "Fried onions are a common addition to many meat dishes throughout the country.", "Circa 1900, carrots were sometimes roasted in water, with the broth used in place of coffee.Asparagus is a popular seasonal side or main dish with a yearly per-capita consumption of .", "The white variety is especially popular in Germany and more common than green asparagus.", "Restaurants will sometimes devote an entire menu to nothing but white asparagus when it is in season.", "Spargel season ( or ''Spargelsaison'') traditionally begins in mid-April and ends on St. John's Day (24 June)." ], [ "Structure of meals", "German breakfast buffet in a hotelBreakfast (''Frühstück,'' ) commonly consists of bread, toast, or bread rolls with butter or margarine, cold cuts, cheeses, jam (''Konfitüre'' or more commonly called ''Marmelade''), honey and eggs (typically boiled).", "Common drinks at breakfast are coffee, tea, milk, cocoa (hot or cold) or fruit juices.", "It is very common to eat hearty toppings at breakfast, including deli meats like ham, salted meats, salami and meat-based spreads such as ''Leberwurst'' (liver sausage), ''Teewurst'' or ''Mettwurst'', and cheeses such as Gouda, ''Frischkäse'' (cream cheese), Brie, ''Harzer Roller'', ''Bergkäse'' and more.", "Most bakeries tend to sell ''belegte Brötchen'' (sandwiches from bread rolls), especially in the morning, for people on the go.Traditionally, the main meal of the day has been lunch (''Mittagessen,'' ), eaten around noon.", "Dinner (''Abendessen,'' , or ''Abendbrot'') was always a smaller meal, often consisting only of a variety of breads, meat or sausages, cheese and some kind of vegetables, similar to breakfast, or possibly sandwiches.", "Smaller meals added during the day bear names such as ''Vesper'' (in the south), ''Brotzeit'' (bread time, also in the south), ''Kaffee und Kuchen'' (, literally for \"coffee and cake\"), or ''Kaffeetrinken''.", "It is a very German custom and comparable with the English five-o'clock tea.", "It takes time between lunch and dinner, often on Sundays with the entire family.However, in Germany, as in other parts of Europe, dining habits have changed over the last 50 years.", "Today, many people eat only a small meal in the middle of the day at work, often also a second breakfast, and enjoy a hot dinner in the evening at home with the whole family.For others, the traditional way of eating is still rather common, not only in rural areas.", "Breakfast is still very popular and may be elaborate and extended on weekends, with friends invited as guests; the same holds for coffee and cake.", "Since the 1990s, the Sunday brunch has also become common, especially in city cafés." ], [ "Side dishes", "German fries ()Noodles, made from wheat flour and egg, are usually thicker than the Italian flat pasta.", "Especially in the southwestern part of the country, the predominant variety of noodles are ''Spätzle'', made with a large number of eggs, and ''Maultaschen'', traditional stuffed noodles reminiscent of ravioli.Besides noodles, potatoes are common.", "Potatoes entered the German cuisine in the late 17th century, and were almost ubiquitous in the 19th century and since.", "They most often are boiled (in salt water, ), but mashed ( or ''Kartoffelbrei'') and pan-roasted potatoes () also are traditional.", "French fries, called , (spoken as \"Pom fritz\" or, respectively, \"Pommès\", deviating from the French pronunciation which would be \"Pom freet\" or \"Pom\") or regionally as in German, are a common style of fried potatoes; they are traditionally offered with either ketchup or mayonnaise, or, as (lit.", "fries red/white), with both.Also common are dumplings (including ''Klöße'' as the term in the north or ''Knödel'' as the term in the south) and in southern Germany potato noodles, including ''Schupfnudeln'', which are similar to Italian ''gnocchi''.Salads, also modern variations, as well as vegetarian dishes are increasingly popular in Germany." ], [ "Spices and condiments", "Quarkkäulchen, a pancake-like dessert with sugar and cinnamonWith the exception of mustard, horseradish, and hot paprika, German dishes are rarely hot and spicy.", "The most popular herbs and spices are traditionally parsley, thyme, laurel, chives, black pepper (both ground and peppercorns), juniper berries, nutmeg, caraway, and paprika (both regular and smoked).", "Cardamom, anise seed, and cinnamon are often used in sweet cakes or beverages associated with Christmas time, and sometimes in the preparation of sausages, but are otherwise rare in German meals.", "Other herbs and spices, such as basil, sage, oregano, hot chili peppers, and curry powder have become popular since the early 1980s.", "Fresh dill is very common in a green salad or fish fillet.Traditional German mustardMustard (''Senf'') is a very common accompaniment to sausages and can vary in strength, the most common version being ''Mittelscharf'' (medium hot), which is somewhere between traditional English and French mustards in strength.", "Düsseldorf, similar to French's Deli Mustard with a taste that is very different from Dijon, and the surrounding area are known for its particularly spicy mustard, which is used both as a table condiment and in local dishes such as ''Senfrostbraten'' (pot roast with mustard).", "In the southern parts of the country, a sweet variety of mustard is made which is almost exclusively served with the Bavarian speciality ''Weißwurst''.", "German mustard is usually considerably less acidic than American varieties.Horseradish is commonly used as a condiment either on its own served as a paste, enriched with cream (''Sahnemeerrettich''), or combined with mustard.", "In some regions of Germany, it is used with meats and sausages where mustard would otherwise be used.", "Its use in Germany has been documented to the 16th century, when it was used as medicine, and as a food, whereby its leaves were consumed as a vegetable.Garlic has never played a large role in traditional German cuisine, but has risen in popularity in recent decades due to the influence of French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Greek, and Turkish cuisines.", "Ramson, a rediscovered herb from earlier centuries, has become quite popular again since the 1990s." ], [ "Desserts", "Black Forest cake () with cherries on topA wide variety of cakes, tarts and pastries are served throughout the country, most commonly made with fresh fruit.", "Apples, plums, strawberries, and cherries are used regularly in cakes.", "Cheesecake is also very popular, often made with quark.", "''Schwarzwälder Kirschtorte'' (Black Forest cake, made with cherries) is probably the most well-known example of a wide variety of typically German tortes filled with whipped or butter cream.Rote Grütze with vanilla sauceGerman doughnuts (which have no hole) are usually balls of yeast dough with jam or other fillings, and are known as ''Berliner'', ''Pfannkuchen'' (in Berlin and Eastern Germany), ''Kreppel'' or ''Krapfen'', depending on the region.", "''Eierkuchen'' or ''Pfannkuchen'' are large (usually around 20–24 cm in diameter), and relatively thin (~5mm) pancakes, comparable to the French ''crêpes''.", "They are served covered with sugar, jam or syrup.", "Salty variants with cheese, ground meat or bacon exist as well as variants with apple slices baked in (called ''Apfelpfannkuchen'', literally for ''apple pancakes''), but they are usually considered to be main dishes rather than desserts.", "In some regions, ''Eierkuchen'' are filled and then wrapped.", "The word ''Pfannkuchen'' means pancake in most parts of Germany.Apple strudel (), a traditional Austrian and Bavarian dessert, served with powdered sugar on top and vanilla sauce underneathA popular dessert in northern Germany is ''Rote Grütze'', red fruit pudding, which is made with black and red currants, raspberries and sometimes strawberries or cherries cooked in juice with corn starch as a thickener.", "It is traditionally served with cream, but also is served with vanilla sauce, milk or whipped cream.", "''Rhabarbergrütze'' (rhubarb pudding) and ''Grüne Grütze'' (gooseberry fruit pudding) are variations of the ''Rote Grütze''.", "A similar dish, ''Obstkaltschale'', may also be found all around Germany.Ice cream and sorbets are also very popular.", "Italian-run ice cream parlours were the first large wave of foreign-run eateries in Germany, which began around the mid-1850s, becoming widespread in the 1920s.", "''Spaghettieis'', which resembles spaghetti, tomato sauce, and ground cheese on a plate, originated in Germany and is a popular ice cream dessert." ], [ "Holidays", "On the Christmas Days following Christmas Eve, roast goose is a staple of Christmas Day meals.", "It is sometimes replaced with European carp, particularly in Southern areas.", "The carp is cut into pieces, coated in breadcrumbs and fried in fat.", "Common side dishes are potato salad, cucumber salad or potatoes.File:Schoko-Osterhase IMGP1551 smial wp.jpg|Chocolate Easter Bunny File:Juravolksfest Neumarkt 2013 - 021.JPG|Oktoberfest GingerbreadChristmas-goose-(Weihnachtsgans) 1.jpg|Roast Christmas goose File:Cookies - Till Westermayer.jpg|Christmas cookiesFile:Rotkaeppchen Sekt Riesling Trocken.jpg|New Year SektFile:Glühwein Weinnachtsmarkt OS.JPG|Mulled wine ()Apart from Christmas, nearly all other Christian holidays and seasons have special dishes associated with them, varying regionally and by denomination.", "The Easter season, for instance, is typically associated with painted Easter eggs, ''Osterbrot'' and a meal of freshwater fish on Good Friday.", "Likewise, Saint Sylvester's Day is often celebrated with a meal of carp.", "The fasting season, which lasts from Ash Wednesday to Easter Sunday, is observed in many areas, especially Catholic ones.", "The preceding carnival season is known for ''Berliner Pfannkuchen (German doughnuts)''.", "The last months of the year, especially the Advent and Christmas season, is often associated with ''Weihnachtsgebäck'' (literally Christmas bakery products), which includes sweet and spicy foods like ''Weihnachts-/Christstollen'', ''Lebkuchen'', ''Spekulatius'', ''Marzipan'', ''Weihnachtsplätzchen'', ''Vanillekipferl'', ''Zimtsterne'' and ''Dominosteine''.", "German supermarkets also sell these products during this period.", "Another popular confectioneries are ''Crêpe'', ''Reibekuchen'' and ''Eier-/Pfannkuchen'', which are sold in Christmas markets." ], [ "Bread", "Bread (''Brot'') is a significant part of German cuisine, with the largest bread diversity in the world.", "Around 3000 types of breads and 1,200 different types of pastries and rolls are produced in about 13,000 bakeries.", "''Roggenmischbrot'', also known as ''Mischbrot'' for short, one of the most typical German breadsBread is served usually for breakfast (often replaced by bread rolls) and in the evening as (open) sandwiches, but rarely as a side dish for the main meal (popular, for example, with ''Eintopf'' or soup).", "The importance of bread in German cuisine is also illustrated by words such as ''Abendbrot'' (meaning supper, literally evening bread) and ''Brotzeit'' (snack, literally bread time).", "In fact, one of the major complaints of the German expatriates in many parts of the world is their inability to find acceptable local breads.", "''Pumpernickel''Regarding bread, German cuisine is more varied than that of any other culture.", "Bread types range from white wheat bread (''Weißbrot'') to grey (''Graubrot'') to black (''Schwarzbrot''), actually dark brown rye bread.", "Some breads contain both wheat and rye flour (hence ''Mischbrot'', mixed bread), and often also wholemeal and whole seeds such as linseed, sunflower seed, or pumpkin seed (''Vollkornbrot'').", "Darker, rye-dominated breads, such as ''Vollkornbrot'' or ''Schwarzbrot'', are typical of German cuisine.", "''Pumpernickel'', sweet-tasting bread created by long-time-steaming instead of regular baking, is internationally well known, although not representative of German black bread as a whole.", "Most German breads are made with sourdough.", "Whole grain is also preferred for high fiber.", "Germans use almost all available types of grain for their breads: wheat, rye, barley, spelt, oats, millet, corn and rice.", "Some breads are even made with potato starch flour.", "Many breads are multigrain breads.Among Germany's most popular breads are spelt (''Dinkelbrot''), rye (''Roggenbrot''), rye-wheat (''Roggenmischbrot''), wheat-rye (''Weizenmischbrot''), wheat (''Weißbrot''), toast (''Toastbrot''), whole-grain (''Vollkornbrot''), wheat-rye-oats with sesame or linseed (''Mehrkornbrot''), sunflower seeds in dark rye bread (''Sonnenblumenkernbrot''), pumpkin seeds in dark rye bread (''Kürbiskernbrot''), potato bread (''Kartoffelbrot'') and roasted onions in light wheat-rye bread (''Zwiebelbrot'').===Bread rolls===Assortment of German rollsBread rolls, known in Germany as ''Brötchen'', which is a diminutive of ''Brot'', with regional linguistic varieties being ''Semmel'' (in South Germany), ''Schrippe'' (especially in Berlin), ''Rundstück'' (in the North and Hamburg) or ''Wecken'', ''Weck'', ''Weckle'', ''Weckli'' and ''Weckla'' (in Baden-Württemberg, Switzerland, parts of Southern Hesse and northern Bavaria), are common in German cuisine.", "A typical serving is a roll cut in half, and spread with butter or margarine.", "Cheese, honey, jam, Nutella, cold cuts such as ham, fish, or preserves are then placed between the two halves, or on each half separately, known as a ''belegtes Brötchen''.Rolls are also used for snacks, or as a hotdog-style roll for ''Bratwurst, Brätel, Fleischkäse'' or ''Schwenker''/''Schwenkbraten''.", "''Franzbrötchen'', which originated in the area of Hamburg, is a small, sweet pastry roll baked with butter and cinnamon." ], [ "Beverages", "===Alcoholic drinks===German wheat beerBeer is very common throughout all parts of Germany, with many local and regional breweries producing a wide variety of beers.", "The pale lager pilsner, a style developed in the mid-19th century, is predominant in most parts of the country today, whereas wheat beer (''Weißbier''/''Weizen'') and other types of lager are common, especially in Bavaria.", "A number of regions have local specialties, many of which, like ''Weißbier'', are more traditionally brewed ales.", "Among these are ''Altbier'', a dark beer available around Düsseldorf and the lower Rhine, ''Kölsch'', a similar style, but light in color, in the Cologne area, and the low-alcohol ''Berliner Weiße'', a sour beer made in Berlin that is often mixed with raspberry or woodruff syrup.", "Since the reunification of 1990, ''Schwarzbier'', which was common in East Germany, but could hardly be found in West Germany, has become increasingly popular in Germany as a whole.", "Beer may also be mixed with other beverages such as pils or lager and carbonated lemonade: ''Radler'' (lit: cyclist), ''Alsterwasser'' (lit: water from the river Alster).German RieslingSince a beer tax law was changed in 1993, many breweries served this trend of mixing beer with other drinks by selling bottles of pre-mixed beverages.", "Examples are ''Bibob'' (by Köstritzer), ''Veltins V+'', ''Mixery'' (by Karlsberg), Dimix (by Diebels) and ''Cab'' (by Krombacher).Cider is also popular in Germany.", "It is called ''Most'' or ''Ebbelwoi''.", "In Hessen, people drink it in a Bembel.Wine is also popular throughout the country.", "German wine comes predominantly from the areas along the upper and middle Rhine and its tributaries.", "Riesling and Silvaner are among the best-known varieties of white wine, while Spätburgunder and Dornfelder are important German red wines.", "The sweet German wines sold in English-speaking countries seem mostly to cater to the foreign market, as they are rare in Germany.", "''Korn'', a German spirit made from malt (wheat, rye or barley), is consumed predominantly in the middle and northern parts of Germany.", "''Obstler'', on the other hand, distilled from apples and pears, plums, cherries (''Kirschwasser''), or mirabelle plums, is preferred in the southern parts.", "The term ''Schnaps'' refers to both kinds of hard liquors.All cold drinks in bars and restaurants are sold in glasses with a calibration mark (''Eichstrich'') that is frequently checked by the ''Eichamt'' (~ Bureau of Weights and Measures) to ensure the guest is getting as much as is offered in the menu.===Non-alcoholic drinks===Coffee is very common, not only for breakfast, but also accompanying a piece of cake (''Kaffee und Kuchen'') in the afternoon, usually on Sundays or special occasions and birthdays.", "It is generally filter coffee, which is weaker than espresso.", "Coffeeshops are also very common in Germany.", "Tea is more common in the northwest.", "East Frisians traditionally have their tea with cream and rock candy (''Kluntje'').", "Germany has the tenth highest per capita coffee consumption worldwide.Popular soft drinks include ''Schorle'', juice or wine mixed with sparkling mineral water, with ''Apfelschorle'' being popular all over Germany, and ''Spezi'', made with cola and an orange-flavored drink such as Fanta.", "Germans are unique among their neighbors in preferring bottled, carbonated mineral water, either plain (''Sprudel'') or flavored (usually lemon) to noncarbonated ones.Drinking water of excellent quality is available everywhere and at any time in Germany.", "Water provided by the public water utilities can be had without hesitation directly from the tap.", "Usually, no chlorine is added.", "Drinking water is controlled by state authority to ensure it is potable.", "Regulations are even stricter than those for bottled water (see Trinkwasserverordnung).Hot chocolate (''Heiße Schokolade'' or ''Kakao'') is also a very common beverage that is most commonly drunk in the days leading up to christmas, where ''Schuss'' (schnapps or liquor) can be added to the beverage.", "It also often gets served alongside pastries in restaurants, or to go throughout the year." ], [ "Regional cuisine", "German regional cuisine can be divided into many varieties such as Bavarian cuisine (southern Germany) or Thuringian (central Germany) and Lower Saxon cuisine (northern Germany).===Baden-Württemberg===MaultaschenThis southwest German state is divided into Baden and Swabia, whose cuisines are slightly different.Due to Baden's physiogeographical situation in the Upper Rhine Plain, with Germany's warmest climate and fruitful volcanic soils, it had good prerequisites to develop a high-quality gastronomy.", "Nationwide, this region features the highest density of star-rated restaurants; the municipality of Baiersbronn is especially well-known for its fine-dining restaurants.", "Swabian cuisine tends to be heavier than Badish cuisine.", "Famous dishes of Baden-Württemberg are Maultaschen, Spätzle and Black Forest cake.===Bavaria===Roasted ''Schweinshaxe''The Bavarian dukes, especially the Wittelsbach family, developed Bavarian cuisine and refined it to be presentable to the royal court.", "This cuisine has belonged to wealthy households, especially in cities, since the 19th century.", "The (old) Bavarian cuisine is closely connected to Czech cuisine and Austrian cuisine (especially from Tyrol and Salzburg), mainly through the Wittelsbach and Habsburg families.", "Already in the beginning, Bavarians were closely connected to their neighbours in Austria through linguistic, cultural and political similarities, which also reflected on the cuisine.A characteristic Bavarian cuisine was further developed by both groups, with a distinct similarity to Franconian and Swabian cuisine.", "A Bavarian speciality is the Brotzeit, a savoury snack, which would originally be eaten between breakfast and lunch.Bavaria is a part of Southeastern Germany, including the city of Munich and spreading to Germany's borders with Austria and the Czech Republic.", "The region is located at higher elevations, and is known for yielding beet and potato crops and also for the production of fine beers.===Franconia===Schäufele und KlößeFranconia, a major region consisting roughly of the northern half of Bavaria, has its own distinct cuisine, so distinct in fact that there is said to be a \"White Sausage Equator\" (''Weißwurstäquator'') that separates Franconia from the rest of Bavaria.", "This is a reference to the fact that those north of the Weißwurstequator do not generally eat the popular Weißwurst common in southern Bavaria.", "A characteristic of Franconian food would include gravies (Soßen), food derived from potatoes, various meats, and, of course, bread.", "Franconia is well known throughout Germany for its heavy foods covered in gravy.", "A good example of Franconian food would be Schäufele and Klöße, which is a pork shoulder served with traditional potato dumplings (Klöße or Knödel) covered in a gravy.===Hamburg===A snack typical for Hamburg: brown shrimps on roasted toast bread garnished with dillDue to its centuries-old history as a harbour town, the traditional cuisine of Hamburg is very diversified and sapid as the supply of ingredients was safe.", "Until the 20th century, it was predominantly characterized by the extensive choice of different kinds of fish from the river Elbe and the quick access to both the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, both being roughly 100 kilometers away from the city center.", "The neighboring regions supplied the city state with fresh vegetables, fruit came mainly from a region called Altes Land just southwest of Hamburg and until industrialization, the neighbourhood of Wilhelmsburg was considered the ‘milk isle’ of Hamburg.International trade made spices and exotic food items from Asia and South America available since the 16th century, and these were soon incorporated into civic kitchens.", "From this basis, the cuisine of Hamburg developed its current characteristics thanks to the supraregional harmonization of the Northern German and Scandinavian cuisine.", "Due to its high economic importance, Hamburg features many internationally recognized gourmet restaurants: 11 of them were awarded a Michelin star in 2010.===Hessen===Frankfurter KranzTypical for Hessen are ''Frankfurter Rippchen'', a spiked pork cutlet, which is often served with sauerkraut and mashed potatoes.Also from Hessen comes the Frankfurt green sauce (''\"Grüne Sauce''\").", "It is a cold sauce based on sour cream with the local herbs borage, chervil, cress, parsley, pimpinelle, sorrel and chives.", "The start of the season is traditionally Maundy Thursday (''\"Gründonnerstag\"''; which means ''\"green Thursday\"'' in German).", "Green sauce is mostly served with potatoes and boiled eggs.One of the best-known specialties from Hesse is the Frankfurter Kranz, a buttercream cake whose shape is reminiscent of a crown, a reminiscence of Frankfurt as the historical coronation city of the German emperors.Cider (''\"Apfelwein\"'' in German, or ''\"Äppelwoi\"'' in the Hessian dialect) is also very popular in and around Frankfurt.", "In the historic district Sachsenhausen there is the so-called Cider Quarter (''\"Äppelwoiviertel\"''), where there are numerous taverns that offer cider, especially in the summer months.", "In the cider taverns, ''\"Handkäs mit Musik\"'' is offered as a snack, a sour milk cheese served in a marinade of onions, vinegar and spices.===Palatinate/Pfalz===Pfälzer SaumagenThe kitchen of the Palatinate, a region in the south of Rhineland-Palatinate, is largely determined by regional dishes.", "They are sometimes quite hearty, not least because the cooking recipes were sometimes developed in times of need or in the context of heavy physical work.Probably the best-known dish is the Pfälzer Saumagen, a pork stomach stuffed with sausage meat, bacon, potatoes and spices.", "The dish became famous as the favorite meal of Federal Chancellor Helmut Kohl, who especially enjoyed serving this dish at state receptions.In the Palatinate, the salty-crust Dampfnudel is a traditional main dish, either with sweet side dishes (for example wine sauce, custard or boiled fruit such as plums, pears or the like) or with salty side dishes (for example potato soup, vegetable soups, goulash or pork) is eaten.===Thuringia===Thuringian marinated cutlet of pork (Rostbrätel) with pan fried potatoesWheat, grapes, sugarbeets, and barley grow well, along with a variety of vegetables, which grow near Erfurt, the state's capital.", "Cauliflower , cabbage (savoy, red, white) , kohlrabi , and broccoli grow by traditional means near Erfurt.", "Tomatoes, lettuce, broad beans, onions, and cucumbers are grown in the eastern portion of the region near Jena under glass centers on about of land.", "Thuringia is the second-largest herb-growing region in Germany; the town of Kölleda was once considered the \"peppermint town\", where herb growers used to congregate to study herb cultivation.One-third of Thuringia is covered in forest, and is considered to be one of the best game-hunting regions in Germany.", "Anyone holding a valid hunting license and a local hunting permit for the area may hunt for game such as red deer, roe deer, wild boar, rabbit, duck, and mouflon (mountain sheep).", "Pheasant and capercaillie are protected game species that may not be hunted.", "The wooded areas also contain a wide variety of edible mushrooms, such as chestnut mushrooms, porcini, and chanterelles, along with wild berries, such as blueberries, cranberries, raspberries, and blackberries, which are all traditional accompaniments to game dishes.The most famous foods from Thuringia are Thuringian sausages and Thuringian dumplings.", "The state is also known for its sausages; steamed, scaled, and cured varieties are all prepared.", "Popular varieties include Thüringer ''Mettwurst'' (a spreadable cured sausage), ''Feldkieker'' (a cured, air-dried sausage dried up to eight months), Thüringer ''Leberwurst'' (a steamed pork and liver sausage), Thüringer ''Rotwurst'' (a steamed blood sausage packed in a bladder or other natural casing) and ''Mett'' (minced pork).===Saxony===Sächsische Kartoffelsuppe (potato soup)In general the cuisine is very hearty and features many peculiarities of central Germany such as a great variety of sauces which accompany the main dish and the fashion to serve ''Klöße'' or Knödel as a side dish instead of potatoes, pasta or rice.", "A typical meal is Sächsischer Sauerbraten.", "Also much freshwater fish is used in Saxon cuisine, particularly carp and trout as is the case throughout Central and Eastern Europe.The rich history of the region did and still does influence the cuisine.", "In the blossoming and growing cities of Dresden and Leipzig an extravagant style of cuisine is cherished (one may only think of the crab as an ingredient in the famous Leipziger Allerlei).", "In other, impoverished regions where the people had to work hard to yield some harvest (e.g., the Ore Mountains), peasant dishes play a major role; famous dishes originating from there include potatoes with Quark, potato soup or potato with bread and linseed oil.", "In the Vogtland region, where the peasants were wealthier, the tradition of Sunday roast remains to this day.", "Typical sweets at Christmas are Pulsnitzer Lebkuchen, Dresdner or Erzgebirgsstollen and Liegnitzer Bombe.Cereal grain cultivation occupies 62% of the cultivated land in Saxony-Anhalt.", "Wheat, barley, oats, and rye are grown, with the rye being grown near Borde, where it is used to make ''Burger Knäckebrot'', a flatbread produced there since 1931.Another 10% of the cultivated area is planted in sugar beets for conversion to sugar, popularized after the 19th century, when the region had an economic boom." ], [ "International influences", "Elements of international cuisine (apart from influences from neighbouring countries) are a relatively recent phenomenon in German cuisine, compared with other West European states.", "Colonial goods shops spread only in the 19th and early 20th centuries and brought luxury goods like cocoa, coconuts, rare exotic spices, coffee and (non-herbal) tea to a wider audience.The first wave of foreigners coming to Germany specifically to sell their food specialties were ice cream makers from northern Italy, who started to arrive in noticeable numbers during the late 1920s.", "With the post-World War II contacts with Allied occupation troops, and especially with the influx of more and more foreign workers that began during the second half of the 1950s, many foreign dishes have been adopted into German cuisine — Italian dishes, such as spaghetti and pizza, have become staples of the German diet.", "In 2008, there were around 9,000 pizzerias and 7,000 Italian restaurants in Germany.", "The pizza is Germany's favourite fast food.Turkish immigrants have introduced Turkish foods to Germany, notably ''döner kebab''.", "In November 2017, it was estimated that 1,500 döner kebab shops were present in Berlin and in circa 16,000 in whole Germany.Arab (mostly Syrian, Lebanese or Moroccan), Chinese, Balkan, Japanese (especially Sushi) and Greek (especially Gyros) restaurants and bars are also widespread in Germany.Indian (especially Curry dishes), Vietnamese, Thai, and other Asian cuisines are rapidly gaining in popularity since the early 2000s.", "Until the late 1990s many of the more expensive restaurants served mostly French inspired dishes for decades.", "Since the end of the 1990s, they have been shifting to a more refined form of German cuisine.Before 1990, the cuisine from East Germany (1949–1990) was influenced by those of other nations within the former Communist bloc.", "East Germans traveled abroad to these countries on holiday (and vice versa as well), and soldiers coming to East Germany from these countries brought their dishes with them.", "A typical dish that came to the East German kitchen this way is Russian ''Soljanka''." ], [ "Food industry", "Germany is the third largest agricultural producer in the European Union and the third largest agricultural exporter in the world.", "In 2013, German food exports were worth around EUR 66 billion.", "Several food products are internationally known brands.File:Gummi Bears in Action 55.JPG|Gummy bearsFile:Jägermeister.jpg|Jägermeister liqueurFile:Dinkelbrezelchen.jpg|Mini pretzelsFile:Ritter Sport - english.png|ChocolateFile:German Marzipan Lübecker Vielfalt.jpg|Lübecker Marzipan" ], [ "See also", "* List of German cheeses* List of German dishes* List of German soups" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*Metzger, Christine (ed.)", "''Culinaria Germany''.", "Cambridge: Ullmann, 2008." ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* * German Foods Official Website* Taste Atlas: Top 100 Most Popular Foods in Germany" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Greek cuisine" ], [ "Introduction", "A Greek salad from ThessalonikiTraditional Greek kleftiko, consisting of lamb marinated with lemon juice, potatoes and spices and cooked slowly in a sealed container.", "'''Greek cuisine''' is the cuisine of Greece and the Greek diaspora.", "In common with many other cuisines of the Mediterranean, it is founded on the triad of wheat, olive oil, and wine.", "It uses vegetables, olive oil, grains, fish, and meat, including pork, poultry, veal and beef, lamb, rabbit, and goat.", "Other important ingredients include pasta (for example hilopites), cheeses, lemon juice, herbs, olives, and yogurt.", "Bread made of wheat is ubiquitous; other grains, notably barley, are also used, especially for paximathia.", "Common dessert ingredients include nuts, honey, fruits, sesame, and filo pastries.", "It continues traditions from Ancient Greek and Byzantine cuisine, while incorporating Turkish, Balkan, and Italian influences." ], [ "History", "Greek baklavaGreek feta cheese stuffed bifteki burgerGreek cuisine is part of the culture of Greece and is recorded in images and texts from ancient times.", "Its influence spread to ancient Rome and then throughout Europe and beyond.Ancient Greek cuisine was characterized by its frugality and was founded on the \"Mediterranean triad\": wheat, olive oil, and wine, with meat being rarely eaten and fish being more common.", "This trend in Greek diet continued in Cyprus and changed only fairly recently when technological progress has made meat more available.", "Wine and olive oil have always been a central part of it and the spread of grapes and olive trees in the Mediterranean and further afield is correlated with Greek colonization.The Spartan diet was also marked by its frugality.", "A notorious staple of the Spartan diet was ''melas zomos'' (black soup), made by boiling the blood of pigs with vinegar to prevent coagulation.", "This dish was noted by the Spartans' Greek contemporaries, particularly Athenians and Corinthians, as proof of the Spartans' different way of living.Byzantine cuisine was similar to ancient cuisine, with the addition of new ingredients, such as caviar, nutmeg and basil.", "Lemons, prominent in Greek cuisine and introduced in the second century, were used medicinally before being incorporated into the diet.", "Fish continued to be an integral part of the diet for coastal dwellers.", "Culinary advice was influenced by the theory of humors, first put forth by the ancient Greek doctor Claudius Aelius Galenus.", "Byzantine cuisine benefited from Constantinople's position as a global hub of the spice trade." ], [ "Overview", "Greek moussakaThe most characteristic and ancient element of Greek cuisine is olive oil, which is used in most dishes.", "It is produced from the olive trees prominent throughout the region, and adds to the distinctive taste of Greek food.", "The olives themselves are also widely eaten.", "The basic grain in Greece is wheat, though barley is also grown.", "Important vegetables include tomato, aubergine (eggplant), potato, green beans, okra, green peppers (capsicum), and onions.", "Honey in Greece is mainly honey from the nectar of fruit trees and citrus trees: lemon, orange, bigarade (bitter orange) trees, thyme honey, and pine honey.", "Mastic, an aromatic, ivory-coloured plant resin, is grown on the Aegean island of Chios.Greek cuisine uses some flavorings more often than other Mediterranean cuisines do, namely oregano, mint, garlic, onion, dill, cumin, and bay laurel leaves.", "Other common herbs and spices include basil, thyme and fennel seed.", "Parsley is also used as a garnish on some dishes.", "Many Greek recipes, especially in the northern parts of the country, use \"sweet\" spices in combination with meat, for example cinnamon, allspice and cloves in stews.Greek gyrosThe climate and terrain has tended to favour the breeding of goats and sheep over cattle, and thus beef dishes are uncommon.", "Fish dishes are common in coastal regions and on the islands.", "A great variety of cheese types are used in Greek cuisine, including ''Feta'', ''Kasseri'', ''Kefalotyri'', ''Graviera'', ''Anthotyros'', ''Manouri'', ''Metsovone'', ''Ladotyri'' (cheese with olive oil), ''Kalathaki'' (a specialty from the island of Limnos), ''Katiki Domokou'' (creamy cheese, suitable for spreads), ''Mizithra'' and many more.Dining out is common in Greece.", "The ''taverna'' and ''estiatorio'' are widespread, serving home cooking at affordable prices to both locals and tourists.", "Locals still largely eat Greek cuisine.Common street foods include souvlaki, gyros, various pitas and roast corn.Fast food became popular in the 1970s, with some chains, such as Goody's and McDonald's serving international food like hamburgers, and others serving Greek foods such as souvlaki, gyros, tyropita, and spanakopita." ], [ "Origins", "Kalamata olivesMany dishes can be traced back to ancient Greece: lentil soup, fasolada (though the modern version is made with white beans and tomatoes, both New World plants), tiganites, retsina (white or rosé wine flavored with pine resin) and pasteli (candy bar with sesame seeds baked with honey); some to the Hellenistic and Roman periods: loukaniko (dried pork sausage); and Byzantium: feta cheese, avgotaraho (cured fish roe), moustalevria and paximadi (traditional hard bread baked from wheat, barley and rye).", "There are also many ancient and Byzantine dishes which are no longer consumed: porridge (''chilós'' in Greek) as the main staple, fish sauce (''garos''), and salt water mixed into wine.Some dishes are borrowed from Italian and adapted to Greek tastes: pastitsio (''pasticcio''), pastitsada (''pasticciata''), stifado (''stufato''), salami, macaronia, mandolato, and more.SouvlakiSome Greek dishes are inherited from Ottoman cuisine, which combined influences from Persian, Levantine-Arabic, Turkish and Byzantine cuisines: meze, kadaifi, halva, and loukoumi.In the 20th century, French cuisine had a major influence on Greek cooking, largely due to the French-trained chef Nikolaos Tselementes, who created the modern Greek pastitsio; he also created the modern Greek version of moussaka by combining an existing eggplant dish with a French-style gratin topping." ], [ "Regions", "Calamari (fried squid)Distinct from the mainstream regional cuisines are:* Cuisine of the Aegean islands (including ''Kykladítiki'' from Kyklades, ''Rhodítiki'' from Rhodes and other Dodecanese islands, and the cuisine of Lesbos island)* Cuisine of Argolis, cuisine of Patras, Arcadian and Maniot cuisines, parts of the Peloponnesean cuisine* Cuisine of the Ionian islands (Heptanisiakí), a lot of Italian influence* ''Ipirótiki'' (Epirotic cuisine)* ''Kritikí'' (Cretan cuisine)* ''Kypriakí'' (Cypriot cuisine)* ''Makedonikí'' (Macedonian cuisine)* ''Mikrasiatikí'', from the Greeks of Asia Minor descent, including ''Polítiki'', from the tradition of the Greeks from Constantinople, a cuisine with significant Anatolian/Ottoman influence* ''Pontiakí'', found anywhere there are Pontic Greeks (Greeks from the Black Sea region)* ''Thrakiótiki'' (Thracian cuisine)Some ethnic minorities living in Greece also have their own cuisine.", "One example is the Aromanians and their Aromanian cuisine." ], [ "Typical dishes", "Typical home-cooked meals include seasonal vegetables stewed with olive oil, herbs, and tomato sauce known as ''lathera''.", "Vegetables used in these dishes include green beans, peas, okra, cauliflower, spinach, leeks and others.", "Many food items are wrapped in filo pastry, either in bite-size triangles or in large sheets: kotopita (chicken pie), spanakopita (spinach and cheese pie), hortopita (greens pie), kreatopita (meat pie, using minced meat), kolokythopita (zucchini pie), and others.", "They have countless variations of pitas (savory pies).Apart from the Greek dishes that can be found all over Greece, there are also many regional dishes.North-Western and Central Greece (Epirus, Thessaly and Roumeli/Central Greece) have a strong tradition of filo-based dishes, such as some special regional pitas.Greek cuisine uses seeds and nuts in everything from pastry to main dishes.The list of Greek dishes includes dishes found in all of Greece as well as some regional ones." ], [ "See also", "* Turkish cuisine* Cypriot cuisine* Greek-American cuisine* Greek Macedonian cuisine* Greek food products* Greek restaurant*European cuisine" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Greek gastronomy * Brochure by the Greek National Tourism Organization" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gospel of Mark" ], [ "Introduction", "The end of Mark 15 (excluding verse 47), along with Mark 16:1 in Codex Sinaiticus ()The '''Gospel of Mark''' is the second of the four canonical gospels and one of the three synoptic Gospels.", "It tells of the ministry of Jesus from his baptism by John the Baptist to his death, the burial of his body, and the discovery of his empty tomb.", "It portrays Jesus as a teacher, an exorcist, a healer, and a miracle worker, though it does not mention a miraculous birth or divine pre-existence.", "He refers to himself as the Son of Man.", "He is called the Son of God but keeps his messianic nature secret; even his disciples fail to understand him.", "All this is in keeping with the Christian interpretation of prophecy, which is believed to foretell the fate of the messiah as suffering servant.Most critical scholars reject the early church tradition linking the gospel to John Mark, who was a companion of Saint Peter, and it is now generally agreed that it was written anonymously for a gentile audience, probably in Rome, sometime shortly before or after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 AD." ], [ "Composition", "Andrea Mantegna's ''St.", "Mark'', 1448|190x190pxThe two-source hypothesis: Most scholars agree that Mark was the first of the gospels to be composed and that the authors of Matthew and Luke used it plus a second document called the Q source when composing their own gospels.|240x240px===Authorship and date===An early Christian tradition deriving from Papias of Hierapolis (c.60–c.130 AD) attributes authorship of the gospel to Mark, a companion and interpreter of Peter, but most scholars believe that it was written anonymously, and that the name of Mark was attached later to link it to an authoritative figure.", "It is usually dated through the eschatological discourse in Mark 13, which scholars interpret as pointing to the First Jewish–Roman War (66–74 AD)—a war that led to the destruction of the Second Temple in AD 70.This would place the composition of Mark either immediately after the destruction or during the years immediately prior.", "The author used a variety of pre-existing sources, such as conflict stories, apocalyptic discourse, miracle stories, parables, a passion narrative, and collections of sayings, although not the hypothesized Q source.===Setting===The Gospel of Mark was written in Greek, for a gentile audience, and probably in Rome, although Galilee, Antioch (third-largest city in the Roman Empire, located in northern Syria), and southern Syria have also been suggested.The consensus among modern scholars is that the gospels are a subset of the ancient genre of ''bios'', or ancient biography.", "Ancient biographies were concerned with providing examples for readers to emulate while preserving and promoting the subject's reputation and memory, and also included morals, rhetoric, propaganda and ''kerygma'' (preaching) in their works.", "Like all the synoptic gospels, the purpose of writing was to strengthen the faith of those who already believed, as opposed to serving as a tractate for missionary conversion.", "Christian churches were small communities of believers, often based on households (an autocratic patriarch plus extended family, slaves, freedmen, and other clients), and the evangelists often wrote on two levels: one the \"historical\" presentation of the story of Jesus, the other dealing with the concerns of the author's own day.", "Thus the proclamation of Jesus in Mark 1:14 and the following verses, for example, mixes the terms Jesus would have used as a 1st-century Jew (\"kingdom of God\") and those of the early church (\"believe\", \"gospel\").Christianity began within Judaism, with a Christian \"church\" (or ἐκκλησία, ''ekklesia'', meaning \"assembly\") that arose shortly after Jesus's death when some of his followers claimed to have witnessed him risen from the dead.", "From the outset, Christians depended heavily on Jewish literature, supporting their convictions through the Jewish scriptures.", "Those convictions involved a nucleus of key concepts: the messiah, the son of God and the son of man, the suffering servant, the Day of the Lord, and the kingdom of God.", "Uniting these ideas was the common thread of apocalyptic expectation: Both Jews and Christians believed that the end of history was at hand, that God would very soon come to punish their enemies and establish his own rule, and that they were at the centre of his plans.", "Christians read the Jewish scripture as a figure or type of Jesus Christ, so that the goal of Christian literature became an experience of the living Christ.", "The new movement spread around the eastern Mediterranean and to Rome and further west, and assumed a distinct identity, although the groups within it remained extremely diverse.colophon of the Gospel of Matthew and before the Gospel of Mark, in the Codex Alexandrinus (AD 400–440)===Synoptic problem===298x298pxThe gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke bear a striking resemblance to each other, so much so that their contents can easily be set side by side in parallel columns.", "The fact that they share so much material verbatim and yet also exhibit important differences has led to several hypotheses explaining their interdependence, a phenomenon termed the synoptic problem.Up until the 19th century the gospel of Mark was traditionally placed second, and sometimes fourth, in the Christian canon, as an abridgement of Matthew.", "The Church has consequently derived its view of Jesus primarily from Matthew, secondarily from John, and only distantly from Mark.", "However, in the 19th century, Mark came to be viewed by many scholars as the earliest of the four gospels, and as a source used by both Matthew and Luke.", "It is widely accepted that this was the first gospel (Marcan Priority) and was used as a source by both Matthew and Luke, who agree with each other in their sequence of stories and events only when they also agree with Mark.", "The hypothesis of Marcan priority continues to be held by the majority of scholars today, and there is a new recognition of the author as an artist and theologian using a range of literary devices to convey his conception of Jesus as the authoritative yet suffering Son of God.===Historicity===When in the 19th century it became widely accepted that Mark was the earliest of the gospels it was assumed that it was therefore the most reliable source for the historical Jesus, but the idea that Mark could be used to reconstruct the historical Jesus suffered two severe blows in the early part of the 20th century, first when William Wrede argued strongly that the \"Messianic Secret\" motif in Mark was a creation of the early church rather than a reflection of the historical Jesus, and in 1919 when Karl Ludwig Schmidt further undermined its historicity with his argument that the links between episodes are the invention of the writer, meaning that it cannot be taken as a reliable guide to the chronology of Jesus' mission: both claims are widely accepted today.", "Since about 1950 there has been a growing consensus that the primary purpose of the author of Mark was to announce a message rather than to report history, but it is nevertheless still seen as the most reliable of the four in terms of its overall description of Jesus's life and ministry." ], [ "Structure and content", "Detailed content of Mark1.", "''Galilean ministry''John the Baptist (1:1–8)Baptism of Jesus (1:9–11)Temptation of Jesus (1:12–13)Return to Galilee (1:14)Good News (1:15)First disciples (1:16–20)Capernaum's synagogue (1:21–28)Peter's mother-in-law (1:29–31)Exorcising at sunset (1:32–34)A leper (1:35–45)A paralytic (2:1–2:12)Calling of Matthew (2:13–17)Fasting and wineskins (2:18–22)Lord of the Sabbath (2:23–28)Man with withered hand (3:1–6)Withdrawing to the sea (3:7–3:12)Commissioning the Twelve (3:13–19)Blind mute (3:20–26)Strong man (3:27)Eternal sin (3:28–30)Jesus' true relatives (3:31–35)Parable of the Sower (4:1–9,13-20)Purpose of parables (4:10–12,33-34)Lamp under a bushel (4:21–23)Mote and Beam (4:24–25)Growing seed and Mustard seed (4:26–32)Calming the storm (4:35–41)Demon named Legion (5:1–20)Daughter of Jairus (5:21–43)Hometown rejection (6:1–6)Instructions for the Twelve (6:7–13)Beheading of John (6:14–29)Feeding the 5000 (6:30–44)Walking on water (6:45–52)Fringe of his cloak heals (6:53–56)Discourse on Defilement (7:1–23)Canaanite woman's daughter (7:24–30)Deaf mute (7:31–37)Feeding the 4000 (8:1–9)No sign will be given (8:10–21)Healing with spit (8:22–26)Peter's confession (8:27–30)Jesus predicts his death (8:31–33, 9:30–32, 10:32–34)Instructions for followers (8:34–9:1)Transfiguration (9:2–13)Possessed boy (9:14–29)Teaching in Capernaum (9:33–50)2.", "''Journey to Jerusalem''Entering Judea and Transjordan ()On divorce (10:2–12)Little children (10:13–16)Rich young man (10:17–31)Son of man came to serve (10:35–45)Blind Bartimaeus (10:46–52)3.", "''Events in Jerusalem''Entering Jerusalem (11:1–11)Cursing the fig tree (11:12–14,20-24)Temple incident (11:15–19)Prayer for forgiveness (11:25–26)Authority questioned (11:27–33)Wicked husbandman (12:1–12)Render unto Caesar... (12:13–17)Resurrection of the Dead (12:18–27)Great Commandment (12:28–34)Is the Messiah the son of David?", "(12:35–40)Widow's mite (12:41–44)Olivet discourse (13)Plot to kill Jesus (14:1–2)Anointing (14:3–9)Bargain of Judas (14:10–11)Last Supper (14:12–26)Denial of Peter (14:27–31,66-72)Agony in the Garden (14:32–42)Kiss of Judas (14:43–45)Arrest (14:46–52)Before the High Priest (14:53–65)Pilate's court (15:1–15)Soldiers mock Jesus (15:16–20)Simon of Cyrene (15:21)Crucifixion (15:22–41)Entombment (15:42–47)Empty tomb (16:1–8)The Longer Ending (16:9–20)Post-resurrection appearances (16:9–13)Great Commission (16:14–18)Ascension (16:19)Dispersion of the Apostles (16:20)Page from Mark in a Latin Bible dated 1486 (Bodleian Library, Oxford)===Structure===There is no agreement on the structure of Mark.", "There is, however, a widely recognised break at Mark 8:26–31: before 8:26 there are numerous miracle stories, the action is in Galilee, and Jesus preaches to the crowds, while after 8:31 there are hardly any miracles, the action shifts from Galilee to gentile areas or hostile Judea, and Jesus teaches the disciples.", "Peter's confession at Mark 8:27–30 that Jesus is the messiah thus forms the watershed to the whole gospel.", "A further generally recognised turning point comes at the end of chapter 10, when Jesus and his followers arrive in Jerusalem and the foreseen confrontation with the Temple authorities begins, leading R.T. France to characterise Mark as a three-act drama.", "James Edwards in his 2002 commentary points out that the gospel can be seen as a series of questions asking first who Jesus is (the answer being that he is the messiah), then what form his mission takes (a mission of suffering culminating in the crucifixion and resurrection, events only to be understood when the questions are answered), while another scholar, C. Myers, has made what Edwards calls a \"compelling case\" for recognising the incidents of Jesus' baptism, transfiguration and crucifixion, at the beginning, middle and end of the gospel, as three key moments, each with common elements, and each portrayed in an apocalyptic light.", "Stephen H. Smith has made the point that the structure of Mark is similar to the structure of a Greek tragedy.===Content===* Jesus is first announced as the Messiah and then later as the Son of God; he is baptised by John and a heavenly voice announces him as the Son of God; he is tested in the wilderness by Satan; John is arrested, and Jesus begins to preach the good news of the kingdom of God.", "* Jesus gathers his disciples; he begins teaching, driving out demons, healing the sick, cleansing lepers, raising the dead, feeding the hungry, and giving sight to the blind; he delivers a long discourse in parables to the crowd, intended for the disciples, but they fail to understand; he performs mighty works, calming the storm and walking on water, but while God and demons recognise him, neither the crowds nor the disciples grasp his identity.", "He also has several run-ins with Jewish lawkeepers, especially in chapters 2–3.", "* Jesus asks the disciples who people say he is, and then, \"but you, who do you say I am?\"", "Peter answers that he is the Christ, and Jesus commands him to silence; Jesus explains that the Son of Man must go to Jerusalem and be killed, but will rise again; Moses and Elijah appear with Jesus and God tells the disciples, \"This is my son,\" but they remain uncomprehending.", "* Jesus goes to Jerusalem, where he is hailed as one who \"comes in the name of the Lord\" and will inaugurate the \"kingdom of David\"; he drives those who buy and sell animals from the Temple and debates with the Jewish authorities; on the Mount of Olives he announces the coming destruction of the Temple, the persecution of his followers, and the coming of the Son of Man in power and glory.", "* A woman perfumes Jesus' head with oil, and Jesus explains that this is a sign of his coming death; Jesus celebrates Passover with the disciples, declares the bread and wine to be his body and blood, and goes with them to Gethsemane to pray; there Judas betrays him to the Jewish authorities.", "Interrogated by the high priest, Jesus says that he is the Christ, the Son of God, and will return as Son of Man at God's right hand.", "The Jewish leaders turn him over to Pilate, who has him crucified as one who claims to be \"king of the Jews\"; Jesus, abandoned by the disciples, is buried in a rock tomb by a sympathetic member of the Jewish council.", "* The women who have followed Jesus come to the tomb on Sunday morning; they find it empty, and are told by a young man in a white robe to go and tell the others that Jesus has risen and has gone before them to Galilee; \"but they said nothing to anyone, for they were afraid\".===Ending===The earliest extant Greek manuscripts of Mark, codices Vaticanus (which contains a large blank space in the column after 16:8) and Sinaiticus, end at Mark 16:8, with the women fleeing in fear from the empty tomb.", "The majority of recent scholars believe this to be the original ending, and that this is supported by statements from the early Church Fathers Eusebius and Jerome.", "The \"shorter ending\", found in a small number of manuscripts, tells how the women told \"those around Peter\" all that the angel had commanded and how the message of eternal life (or \"proclamation of eternal salvation\") was then sent out by Jesus himself; it differs from the rest of Mark both in style and in its understanding of Jesus and is almost universally considered a spurious addition; the overwhelming majority of manuscripts have the \"longer ending\", with accounts of the resurrected Jesus, the commissioning of the disciples to proclaim the gospel, and Christ's ascension.", "In deference to its importance within the manuscript tradition, the New Testament critical editors enclose the longer ending in brackets." ], [ "Theology", "First page of the Gospel of Mark: \"The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God\", by 245x245pxMinuscule 2427\"Archaic Mark\"===Gospel===The author introduces his work as \"gospel\", meaning \"good news\", a literal translation of the Greek \"evangelion\"he uses the word more often than any other writer in the New Testament except Paul.", "Paul uses it to mean \"the good news (of the saving significance of the death and resurrection) of Christ\"; Mark extends it to the career of Christ as well as his death and resurrection.", "Like the other gospels, Mark was written to confirm the identity of Jesus as eschatological delivererthe purpose of terms such as \"messiah\" and \"son of God\".", "As in all the gospels, the messianic identity of Jesus is supported by a number of themes, including: (1) the depiction of his disciples as obtuse, fearful and uncomprehending; (2) the refutation of the charge made by Jesus' enemies that he was a magician; (3) secrecy surrounding his true identity (this last is missing from John).===The failure of the disciples===In Mark, the disciples, especially the Twelve, move from lack of perception of Jesus to rejection of the \"way of suffering\" to flight and denialeven the women who received the first proclamation of his resurrection can be seen as failures for not reporting the good news.", "There is much discussion of this theme among scholars.", "Some argue that the author of Mark was using the disciples to correct \"erroneous\" views in his own community concerning the reality of the suffering messiah, others that it is an attack on the Jerusalem branch of the church for resisting the extension of the gospel to the gentiles, or a mirror of the convert's usual experience of the initial enthusiasm followed by growing awareness of the necessity for suffering.", "It certainly reflects the strong theme in Mark of Jesus as the \"suffering just one\" portrayed in so many of the books of the Jewish scriptures, from Jeremiah to Job and the Psalms, but especially in the \"Suffering Servant\" passages in Isaiah.", "It also reflects the Jewish scripture theme of God's love being met by infidelity and failure, only to be renewed by God.", "The failure of the disciples and Jesus' denial by Peter himself would have been powerful symbols of faith, hope and reconciliation for Christians.===The charge of magic===Mark contains twenty accounts of miracles and healings, accounting for almost a third of the gospel and half of the first ten chapters, more, proportionally, than in any other gospel.", "In the gospels as a whole, Jesus' miracles, prophecies, etc., are presented as evidence of God's rule, but Mark's descriptions of Jesus' healings are a partial exception to this, as his methods, using spittle to heal blindness and magic formulae, were those of a magician.", "This is the charge the Jewish religious leaders bring against Jesus: they say he is performing exorcisms with the aid of an evil spirit and calling up the spirit of John the Baptist.", "\"There was ... no period in the history of the Roman empire in which the magician was not considered an enemy of society,\" subject to penalties ranging from exile to death, says Classical scholar Ramsay MacMullen.", "All the gospels defend Jesus against the charge, which, if true, would contradict their ultimate claims for him.", "The point of the Beelzebub incident in Mark is to set forth Jesus' claims to be an instrument of God, not Satan.===Messianic Secret===In 1901, William Wrede identified the \"Messianic Secret\"Jesus' secrecy about his identity as the messiahas one of Mark's central themes.", "Wrede argued that the elements of the secretJesus' silencing of the demons, the obtuseness of the disciples regarding his identity, and the concealment of the truth inside parableswere fictions and arose from the tension between the Church's post-resurrection messianic belief and the historical reality of Jesus.", "There remains continuing debate over how far the \"secret\" originated with Mark and how far he got it from tradition, and how far, if at all, it represents the self-understanding and practices of the historical Jesus.===Christology===Christology means a doctrine or understanding concerning the person or nature of Christ.", "In the New Testament writings it is frequently conveyed through the titles applied to Jesus.", "Most scholars agree that \"Son of God\" is the most important of these titles in Mark.", "It appears on the lips of God himself at the baptism and the transfiguration, and is Jesus' own self-designation.", "These and other instances provide reliable evidence of how the evangelist perceived Jesus, but it is not clear just what the title meant to Mark and his 1st-century audience.", "Where it appears in the Hebrew scriptures it meant Israel as God's people, or the king at his coronation, or angels, as well as the suffering righteous man.", "In Hellenistic culture the same phrase meant a \"divine man\", a supernatural being.", "There is little evidence that \"son of God\" was a title for the messiah in 1st century Judaism, and the attributes that Mark describes in Jesus are much more those of the Hellenistic miracle-working \"divine man\" than of the Jewish Davidic messiah.Mark does not explicitly state what he means by \"Son of God\", nor when the sonship was conferred.", "The New Testament as a whole presents four different understandings:# Jesus became God's son at his resurrection, God \"begetting\" Jesus to a new life by raising him from the deadthis was the earliest understanding, preserved in Paul's Epistle to the Romans, 1:3–4, and in Acts 13:33;# Jesus became God's son at his baptism, the coming of the Holy Spirit marking him as messiah, while \"Son of God\" refers to the relationship then established for him by Godthis is the understanding implied in Mark 1:9–11; # Matthew and Luke present Jesus as \"Son of God\" from the moment of conception and birth, with God taking the place of a human father;# John, the last of the gospels, presents the idea that the Christ was pre-existent and became flesh as Jesusan idea also found in Paul.However, other scholars dispute this interpretation and instead hold that Jesus is already presented as God's son even before his baptism in Mark.Mark also calls Jesus \"christos\" (Christ), translating the Hebrew \"messiah,\" (anointed person).", "In the Old Testament the term messiah (\"anointed one\") described prophets, priests and kings; by the time of Jesus, with the kingdom long vanished, it had come to mean an eschatological king (a king who would come at the end of time), one who would be entirely human though far greater than all God's previous messengers to Israel, endowed with miraculous powers, free from sin, ruling in justice and glory (as described in, for example, the Psalms of Solomon, a Jewish work from this period).", "The most important occurrences are in the context of Jesus' death and suffering, suggesting that, for Mark, Jesus can only be fully understood in that context.A third important title, \"Son of Man\", has its roots in Ezekiel, the Book of Enoch, (a popular Jewish apocalyptic work of the period), and especially in Daniel 7:13–14, where the Son of Man is assigned royal roles of dominion, kingship and glory.", "Mark 14:62 combines more scriptural allusions: before he comes on clouds the Son of Man will be seated on the right hand of God, pointing to the equivalence of the three titles, Christ, Son of God, Son of Man, the common element being the reference to kingly power.===Christ's death, resurrection and return===Eschatology means the study of the end-times, and the Jews expected the messiah to be an eschatological figure, a deliverer who would appear at the end of the age to usher in an earthly kingdom.", "The earliest Jewish Christian community saw Jesus as a messiah in this Jewish sense, a human figure appointed by God as his earthly regent; but they also believed in Jesus' resurrection and exaltation to heaven, and for this reason they also viewed him as God's agent (the \"son of God\") who would return in glory ushering in the Kingdom of God.The term \"Son of God\" likewise had a specific Jewish meaning, or range of meanings, including referring to an angel, the nation of Israel, or simply a man.", "One of the most significant Jewish meanings of this epithet is a reference to an earthly king adopted by God as his son at his enthronement, legitimizing his rule over Israel.", "In Hellenistic culture, in contrast, the phrase meant a \"divine man\", covering legendary heroes like Hercules, god-kings like the Egyptian pharaohs, or famous philosophers like Plato.", "When the gospels call Jesus \"Son of God\" the intention is to place him in the class of Hellenistic and Greek divine men, the \"sons of God\" who were endowed with supernatural power to perform healings, exorcisms and other wonderful deeds.", "Mark's \"Son of David\" is Hellenistic, his Jesus predicting that his mission involves suffering, death and resurrection, and, by implication, not military glory and conquest.", "This reflects a move away from the Jewish-Christian apocalyptic tradition and towards the Hellenistic message preached by Paul, for whom Christ's death and resurrection, rather than the establishment of the apocalyptic Jewish kingdom, is the meaning of salvation, the \"gospel\"." ], [ "Comparison with other writings", "\"Entering into the sepulchre, they saw a young man sitting on the right side, clothed in a long white garment\"Mark's description of the discovery of the empty tomb (from the Pericopes of Henry II)===Mark and the New Testament===All four gospels tell a story in which Jesus' death and resurrection are the crucial redemptive events.", "There are, however, important differences between the four: Unlike John, Mark never calls Jesus \"God\", or claims that Jesus existed before his earthly life; unlike Matthew and Luke, the author does not mention a virgin birth or indicate whether Jesus had a normal human parentage and birth; unlike Matthew and Luke, he makes no attempt to trace Jesus' ancestry back to King David or Adam with a genealogy.Christians of Mark's time expected Jesus to return as Messiah in their own lifetimeMark, like the other gospels, attributes the promise to Jesus himself, and it is reflected in the Pauline Epistles, the Epistle of James, the Epistle to the Hebrews and in the Book of Revelation.", "When return failed, the early Christians revised their understanding.", "Some acknowledged that the Second Coming had been delayed, but still expected it; others redefined the focus of the promise, the Gospel of John, for example, speaking of \"eternal life\" as something available in the present; while still others concluded that Jesus would not return at all (the Second Epistle of Peter argues against those who held this view).Mark's despairing death of Jesus was changed to a more victorious one in subsequent gospels.", "Mark's Christ dies with the cry, \"My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?", "\"; Matthew, the next gospel to be written, repeats this word for word but manages to make clear that Jesus's death is the beginning of the resurrection of Israel; Luke has a still more positive picture, replacing Mark's (and Matthew's) cry of despair with one of submission to God's will (\"Father, into your hands I commend my spirit\"); while John, the last gospel, has Jesus dying without apparent suffering in fulfillment of the divine plan.===Content unique to Mark===St.", "Mark with angels, holding his gospel.", "His symbol, the winged lion, also appears with him.", "Detail from St Mark's Cathedral.", "* The Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath.", "Not present in either Matthew 12:1–8 or Luke 6:1–5.This is also a so-called \"Western non-interpolation\".", "The passage is not found in the Western text of Mark.", "* People were saying, \"Jesus has gone out of his mind\", see also Rejection of Jesus.", "* Mark is the only gospel with the combination of verses in Mark 4:24–25: the other gospels split them up, Mark 4:24 being found in Luke 6:38 and Matthew 7:2, Mark 4:25 in Matthew 13:12 and Matthew 25:29, Luke 8:18 and Luke 19:26.", "*The Parable of the Growing Seed.", "* Only Mark counts the possessed swine; there are about two thousand.", "* Two consecutive healing stories of women; both make use of the number twelve.", "* Only Mark gives healing commands of Jesus in the (presumably original) Aramaic: ''Talitha koum'', ''Ephphatha''.", "See Aramaic of Jesus.", "* Only place in the New Testament where Jesus is referred to as \"the son of Mary\".", "* Mark is the only gospel where Jesus himself is called a carpenter; in Matthew he is called a carpenter's son.", "* Only place that both names his brothers and mentions his sisters; Matthew has a slightly different name for one brother.", "* The taking of a staff and sandals is permitted in Mark 6:8–9 but prohibited in Matthew 10:9–10 and Luke 9:3.", "* Only Mark refers to Herod Antipas as a king; Matthew and Luke refer to him (more properly) as a tetrarch.", "* The longest version of the story of Herodias' daughter's dance and the beheading of John the Baptist.", "* Mark's literary cycles::* 6:30–44''Feeding'' of the five thousand;:* 6:45–56Crossing of the ''lake'';:* 7:1–13''Dispute'' with the Pharisees;:* 7:14–23''Discourse on Defilement'':Then::* 8:1–9''Feeding'' of the four thousand;:* 8:10Crossing of the ''lake'';:* 8:11–13''Dispute'' with the Pharisees;:* 8:14–21Incident of ''no bread'' and discourse about the ''leaven'' of the Pharisees.", "* Customs that at that time were unique to Jews are explained (hand, produce, and utensil washing): Mark 7:3–4.", "* \"Thus he declared all foods clean\".", "7:19 NRSV, not found in the Matthean parallel Matthew 15:15–20.", "* There is no mention of Samaritans.", "* Jesus heals using his fingers and spit at the same time: 7:33; ''cf.''", "8:23, Luke 11:20, John 9:6, Matthew 8:16.", "* Jesus lays his hands on a blind man twice in curing him: 8:23–25; ''cf.''", "5:23, 16:18, Acts 6:6, Acts 9:17, Acts 28:8, laying on of hands.", "* Jesus cites the Shema Yisrael: \"Hear O Israel ...\"; in the parallels of Matt 22:37–38 and Luke 10:27 the first part of the Shema is absent.", "* Mark points out that the Mount of Olives is across from the Temple.", "* When Jesus is arrested, a naked young man flees.", "A young man in a robe also appears in Mark 16:5–7.", "* Mark does not name the High Priest.", "* Witness testimony against Jesus does not agree.", "* The cock crows \"twice\" as predicted.", "See also Fayyum Fragment.", "The other Gospels simply record, \"the cock crew\".", "Early codices 01, W, and most Western texts have the simpler version.", "* Pilate's position (Governor) is not specified.", "* Simon of Cyrene's sons are named.", "* A summoned centurion is questioned.", "* The women ask each other who will roll away the stone* A young man sits on the \"right side\".", "* Mark is the only canonical gospel with significant various alternative endings.", "Most of the contents of the traditional \"Longer Ending\" () are found in other New Testament texts and are not unique to Mark, see Mark 16#Longer ending of Mark (verses 9–20), the one significant exception being 16:18b (\"and if they drink any deadly thing, it shall not hurt them\"), which is unique to Mark." ], [ "See also", "Gospel of Mark 1:9–11 in Jakartan Malay creole* Acts of the Apostles (genre)* Apocalyptic literature* Gospel harmony* Gospel of Mark (intertextuality)* List of Gospels* List of omitted Bible verses* Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus (reference to Mark)* Secret Gospel of Mark* Textual variants in the Gospel of Mark* Two-source hypothesis" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "'''Online translations of the Gospel of Mark'''* ''Bible Gateway'': 94 languages/219 versions* Bible Hub: 43 languages/101 versions* Wikisource: 1 language/23 versions* oremus Bible Browser: 1 language/3 versions* : 1 language/8 versions'''Related articles'''* Early Christian Writings: On-line scholarly resources* Resources for the Book of Mark at The Text This Week" ] ]
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[ [ "Gospel of Luke" ], [ "Introduction", "Luke 13:29–35; 14:1–10 on Papyrus 45 (folio 15; AD)The '''Gospel of Luke''' tells of the origins, birth, ministry, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus Christ.", "Together with the Acts of the Apostles, it makes up a two-volume work which scholars call Luke–Acts, accounting for 27.5% of the New Testament.", "The combined work divides the history of first-century Christianity into three stages, with the gospel making up the first two of these – the life of Jesus the Messiah from his birth to the beginning of his mission in the meeting with John the Baptist, followed by his ministry with events such as the Sermon on the Plain and its Beatitudes, and his Passion, death, and resurrection.", "Most modern scholars agree that the main sources used for Luke were a), the Gospel of Mark, b), a hypothetical sayings collection called the Q source, and c), material found in no other gospels, often referred to as the L (for Luke) source.", "The author is anonymous; the traditional view that Luke the Evangelist was the companion of Paul is still occasionally put forward, but the scholarly consensus emphasises the many contradictions between Acts and the authentic Pauline letters.", "The most probable date for its composition is around AD 80–110, and there is evidence that it was still being revised well into the 2nd century." ], [ "Composition", "===Textual history===Papyrus 45, a 3rd-century AD Greek papyrus of the Gospel of LukeAutographs (original copies) of Luke and the other Gospels have not been preserved; the texts that survive are third-generation copies, with no two completely identical.", "The earliest witnesses (the technical term for written manuscripts) for the Gospel of Luke fall into two \"families\" with considerable differences between them, the Western and the Alexandrian text-type, and the dominant view is that the Western text represents a process of deliberate revision, as the variations seem to form specific patterns.The fragment is often cited as the oldest witness.", "It has been dated from the late 2nd century, although this dating is disputed.", "Papyrus 75 (= Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV) is another very early manuscript (late 2nd/early 3rd century), and it includes an attribution of the Gospel to Luke.The oldest complete texts are the 4th-century Codex Sinaiticus and Vaticanus, both from the Alexandrian family; Codex Bezae, a 5th- or 6th-century Western text-type manuscript that contains Luke in Greek and Latin versions on facing pages, appears to have descended from an offshoot of the main manuscript tradition, departing from more familiar readings at many points.Codex Bezae shows comprehensively the differences between the versions which show no core theological significance.===Luke–Acts: unity, authorship and date===''Subscriptio'' to the Gospel of Luke in Codex Macedoniensis 034 (Gregory-Aland), 9th centuryThe gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles make up a two-volume work which scholars call Luke–Acts.", "Together they account for 27.5% of the New Testament, the largest contribution by a single author, providing the framework for both the Church's liturgical calendar and the historical outline into which later generations have fitted their idea of the story of Jesus.The author is not named in either volume.", "According to a Church tradition, first attested by Irenaeus ( AD), he was the Luke named as a companion of Paul in three of the Pauline letters, but \"a critical consensus emphasizes the countless contradictions between the account in Acts and the authentic Pauline letters.\"", "An example can be seen by comparing Acts' accounts of Paul's conversion (Acts 9:1–31, Acts 22:6–21, and Acts 26:9–23) with Paul's own statement that he remained unknown to Christians in Judea after that event (Galatians 1:17–24).", "The author of the Gospel of Luke clearly admired Paul, but his theology was significantly different from Paul's on key points and he does not (in Acts) represent Paul's views accurately.", "He was educated, a man of means, probably urban, and someone who respected manual work, although not a worker himself; this is significant, because more high-brow writers of the time looked down on the artisans and small business-people who made up the early church of Paul and were presumably Luke's audience.The eclipse of the traditional attribution to Luke the companion of Paul has meant that an early date for the gospel is now rarely put forward.", "Most scholars date the composition of the combined work to around 80–90 AD, although some others suggest 90–110, and there is textual evidence (the conflicts between Western and Alexandrian manuscript families) that Luke–Acts was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century.===Genre, models and sources===Almost all of Mark's content is found in Matthew, and most of Mark is also found in Luke.", "Matthew and Luke share a large amount of additional material that is not found in Mark, and they also contain much higher proportions of unique special testimony.Luke–Acts is a religio-political history of the founder of the church and his successors, in both deeds and words.", "The author describes his book as a \"narrative\" (), rather than as a gospel, and implicitly criticises his predecessors for not giving their readers the speeches of Jesus and the Apostles, as such speeches were the mark of a \"full\" report, the vehicle through which ancient historians conveyed the meaning of their narratives.", "He seems to have taken as his model the works of two respected Classical authors, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who wrote a history of Rome (''Roman Antiquities''), and the Jewish historian Josephus, author of a history of the Jews (''Antiquities of the Jews'').", "All three authors anchor the histories of their respective peoples by dating the births of the founders (Romulus, Moses, and Jesus) and narrate the stories of the founders' births from God, so that they are sons of God.", "Each founder taught authoritatively, appeared to witnesses after death, and ascended to heaven.", "Crucial aspects of the teaching of all three concerned the relationship between rich and poor and the question of whether \"foreigners\" were to be received into the people.Mark, written around 70 AD, provided the narrative outline for Luke, but Mark contains comparatively little of Jesus' teachings, and for these Luke likely turned to a hypothesized collection of sayings called Q source, which would have consisted mostly, although not exclusively, of \"sayings\".", "Mark and Q account for about 64% of Luke; the remaining material, known as the L source, is of unknown origin and date.", "Most Q and L-source material is grouped in two clusters, Luke 6:17–8:3 and 9:51–18:14, and L-source material forms the first two sections of the gospel (the preface and infancy and childhood narratives).===Audience and authorial intent===Luke was written to be read aloud to a group of Jesus-followers gathered in a house to share the Lord's Supper.", "The author assumes an educated Greek-speaking audience, but directs his attention to specifically Christian concerns rather than to the Greco-Roman world at large.", "He begins his gospel with a preface addressed to \"Theophilus\": the name means \"Lover of God\", and could refer to any Christian, though most interpreters consider it a reference to a Christian convert and Luke's literary patron.", "Here he informs Theophilus of his intention, which is to lead his reader to certainty through an orderly account \"of the events that have been fulfilled among us.\"", "He did not, however, intend to provide Theophilus with a historical justification of the Christian faith – \"did it happen?\"", "– but to encourage faith – \"what happened, and what does it all mean?\"" ], [ "Structure and content", "===Structure===Following the author's preface addressed to his patron and the two birth narratives (John the Baptist and Jesus), the gospel opens in Galilee and moves gradually to its climax in Jerusalem:# A brief preface addressed to Theophilus stating the author's aims;# Birth and infancy narratives for both Jesus and John the Baptist, interpreted as the dawn of the promised era of Israel's salvation;# Preparation for Jesus' messianic mission: John's prophetic mission, his baptism of Jesus, and the testing of Jesus' vocation;# The beginning of Jesus' mission in Galilee, and the hostile reception there;# The central section: the journey to Jerusalem, where Jesus knows he must meet his destiny as God's prophet and Messiah;# His mission in Jerusalem, culminating in confrontation with the leaders of the Jewish Temple;# His last supper with his most intimate followers, followed by his arrest, interrogation, and crucifixion;# God's validation of Jesus as Christ: events from the first Easter to the Ascension, showing Jesus' death to be divinely ordained, in keeping with both scriptural promise and the nature of messiahship, and anticipating the story of Acts.===Parallel structure of Luke–Acts===The structure of Acts parallels the structure of the gospel, demonstrating the universality of the divine plan and the shift of authority from Jerusalem to Rome:*The gospel – the acts of Jesus:** The presentation of the child Jesus at the Temple in Jerusalem** Jesus' forty days in the desert** Jesus in Samaria/Judea** Jesus in the Decapolis** Jesus receives the Holy Spirit** Jesus preaches with power (the power of the spirit)** Jesus heals the sick** Death of Jesus** The apostles are sent to preach to all nations*The acts of the apostles:** Jerusalem** Forty days before the Ascension** Samaria** Asia Minor** Pentecost: Christ's followers receive the spirit** The apostles preach with the power of the spirit** The apostles heal the sick** Death of Stephen, the first martyr for Christ** Paul preaches in Rome" ], [ "Theology", "Parable of the Sower (Biserica Ortodoxă din Deal, Cluj-Napoca), Romania)===Luke's \"salvation history\"===Luke's theology is expressed primarily through his overarching plot, the way scenes, themes and characters combine to construct his specific worldview.", "His \"salvation history\" stretches from the Creation to the present time of his readers, in three ages: first, the time of \"the Law and the Prophets\", the period beginning with Genesis and ending with the appearance of John the Baptist; second, the epoch of Jesus, in which the Kingdom of God was preached; and finally the period of the Church, which began when the risen Christ was taken into Heaven, and would end with his second coming.===Christology===Luke's understanding of Jesus – his Christology – is central to his theology.", "One approach to this is through the titles Luke gives to Jesus: these include, but are not limited to, Christ (Messiah), Lord, Son of God, and Son of Man.", "Another is by reading Luke in the context of similar Greco-Roman divine saviour figures (Roman emperors are an example), references which would have made clear to Luke's readers that Jesus was the greatest of all saviours.", "A third is to approach Luke through his use of the Old Testament, those passages from Jewish scripture which he cites to establish that Jesus is the promised Messiah.", "While much of this is familiar, much also is missing: for example, Luke makes no clear reference to Christ's pre-existence or to the Christian's union with Christ, and makes relatively little reference to the concept of atonement: perhaps he felt no need to mention these ideas, or disagreed with them, or possibly he was simply unaware of them.Murillo)Even what Luke does say about Christ is ambiguous or even contradictory.", "For example, according to Luke 2:11 Jesus was the Christ at his birth, but in Acts 2:36 he becomes Christ at the resurrection, while in Acts 3:20 it seems his messiahship is active only at the parousia, the \"second coming\"; similarly, in Luke 2:11 he is the Saviour from birth, but in Acts 5:31 he is made Saviour at the resurrection; and he is born the Son of God in Luke 1:32–35, but becomes the Son of God at the resurrection according to Acts 13:33.Many of these differences may be due to scribal error, but others are argued to be deliberate alterations to doctrinally unacceptable passages, or the introduction by scribes of \"proofs\" for their favourite theological tenets.===The Holy Spirit, the Christian community, and the Kingdom of God===The Holy Spirit plays a more important role in Luke–Acts than in the other gospels.", "Some scholars have argued that the Spirit's involvement in the career of Jesus is paradigmatic of the universal Christian experience, others that Luke's intention was to stress Jesus' uniqueness as the Prophet of the final age.", "It is clear, however, that Luke understands the enabling power of the Spirit, expressed through non-discriminatory fellowship (\"All who believed were together and had all things in common\"), to be the basis of the Christian community.", "This community can also be understood as the Kingdom of God, although the kingdom's final consummation will not be seen till the Son of Man comes \"on a cloud\" at the end-time.===Christians vs. Rome and the Jews===Luke needed to define the position of Christians in relation to two political and social entities, the Roman Empire and Judaism.", "Regarding the Empire, Luke makes clear that, while Christians are not a threat to the established order, the rulers of this world hold their power from Satan, and the essential loyalty of Christ's followers is to God and this world will be the kingdom of God, ruled by Christ the King.", "Regarding the Jews, Luke emphasises the fact that Jesus and all his earliest followers were Jews, although by his time the majority of Christ-followers were gentiles; nevertheless, the Jews had rejected and killed the Messiah, and the Christian mission now lay with the gentiles." ], [ "Comparison with other writings", "Supper at Emmaus'' (1601), Caravaggio, National Gallery===Synoptics===The gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke share so much in common that they are called the Synoptics, as they frequently cover the same events in similar and sometimes identical language.", "The majority opinion among scholars is that Mark was the earliest of the three (about 70 AD) and that Matthew and Luke both used this work and the \"sayings gospel\" known as Q as their basic sources.", "Luke has both expanded Mark and refined his grammar and syntax, as Mark's Greek writing is less elegant.", "Some passages from Mark he has eliminated, notably most of chapters 6 and 7, which he apparently felt reflected poorly on the disciples and painted Jesus too much like a magician.", "Despite this, he follows Mark's narrative more faithfully than does Matthew.===The Gospel of John===Despite being grouped with Matthew and Mark, the Gospel of Luke has a number of parallels with the Gospel of John which are not shared by the other synoptics:* Luke uses the terms \"Jews\" and \"Israelites\" in a way unlike Mark, but like John.", "* Both gospels have characters named Mary of Bethany, Martha, and Lazarus, although John's Lazarus is portrayed as a real person, while Luke's is a figure in a parable.", "* There are several points where Luke's passion narrative resembles that of John.", "At Jesus' arrest, only Luke and John state that the servant's ear was cut off.There are also several other parallels that scholars have identified.", "Recently, some scholars have proposed that the author of John's gospel may have specifically redacted and responded to the Gospel of Luke.===The Gospel of Marcion===Some time in the 2nd century, the Christian thinker Marcion of Sinope began using a gospel that was very similar to, but shorter than, canonical Luke.", "Marcion was well known for preaching that the god who sent Jesus into the world was a different, higher deity than the creator god of Judaism.While no manuscript copies of Marcion's gospel survive, reconstructions of his text have been published by Adolf von Harnack and Dieter T. Roth, based on quotations in the anti-Marcionite treatises of orthodox Christian apologists, such as Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Epiphanius.", "These early apologists accused Marcion of having \"mutilated\" canonical Luke by removing material that contradicted his unorthodox theological views.", "According to Tertullian, Marcion also accused his orthodox opponents of having \"falsified\" canonical Luke.Like the Gospel of Mark, Marcion's gospel lacked any nativity story, and Luke's account of the baptism of Jesus was absent.", "The Gospel of Marcion also omitted Luke's parables of the Good Samaritan and the Prodigal Son." ], [ "See also", "* Authorship of Luke–Acts* List of Gospels* List of omitted Bible verses* Marcion* Order of St. Luke* Synoptic Gospels* Synoptic problem* Textual variants in the Gospel of Luke" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * ** * * * * * * *** * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", " * ''Bible Gateway 35 languages/50 versions'' at GospelCom.net* ''Unbound Bible 100+ languages/versions'' at Biola University* ''Online Bible'' at gospelhall.org* Early Christian Writings; ''Gospel of Luke: introductions and e-texts''* French; English translation* Various versions* A Brief Introduction to Luke–Acts is available online.", "* B.H.", "Streeter, The Four Gospels: A study of origins 1924.", "* Willker, W (2007), ''A textual commentary on the Gospel of Luke'', Pub.", "on-line A very detailed text-critical discussion of the 300 most important variants of the Greek text (PDF, 467 pages)" ] ]
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[ [ "Gospel of Matthew" ], [ "Introduction", "Matthew 21:34–37 on Papyrus 104 ()The '''Gospel of Matthew''' is the first book of the New Testament of the Bible and one of the three synoptic Gospels.", "It tells how Israel's Messiah, Jesus, comes to his people (the Jews) but is rejected by them and how, after his resurrection, he sends the disciples to the gentiles instead.", "Matthew wishes to emphasize that the Jewish tradition should not be lost in a church that was increasingly becoming gentile.", "The gospel reflects the struggles and conflicts between the evangelist's community and the other Jews, particularly with its sharp criticism of the scribes and Pharisees with the position that through their rejection of Christ, the Kingdom of God has been taken away from them and given instead to the church.", "The gospel is traditionally attributed to the Apostle Matthew.", "According to predominant scholarly views, it was written in the last quarter of the first century by an anonymous Jew familiar with technical legal aspects of scripture." ], [ "Composition", "===Author and date===Papyrus , fragment of a flyleaf with the title of the Gospel of Matthew, .", "Dated to late 2nd or early 3rd century, it is the earliest manuscript title for Matthew.According to early church tradition, originating with Papias of Hierapolis (), the gospel was written by Matthew the companion of Jesus, but this presents numerous problems.", "Most modern scholars hold that it was written anonymously in the last quarter of the first century by a male Jew who stood on the margin between traditional and nontraditional Jewish values and who was familiar with technical legal aspects of scripture being debated in his time.", "However, scholars such as N. T. Wright and John Wenham have noted problems with dating Matthew late in the first century, and argue that it was written in the 40s-50s AD.The majority of scholars believe that Mark was the first gospel to be composed and that Matthew and Luke both drew upon it as a major source for their works.", "The author did not simply copy Mark but used it as a base, emphasizing Jesus's place in the Jewish tradition and including details not found in Mark.", "Writing in a polished Semitic \"synagogue Greek\", he drew on the Gospel of Mark as a source, plus a hypothetical collection of sayings known as the Q source (material shared with Luke but not with Mark) and hypothetical material unique to his own community, called the M source or \"Special Matthew.\"", "Matthew has 600 verses in common with Mark, which is a book of only 661 verses.", "There is approximately an additional 220 verses shared by Matthew and Luke but not found in Mark, from a second source, a hypothetical collection of sayings to which scholars give the name ('source' in the German language), or the Q source.", "This view, known as the two-source hypothesis (Mark and Q), allows for a further body of tradition known as \"Special Matthew\", or the M source, meaning material unique to Matthew.", "This may represent a separate source, or it may come from the author's church, or he may have composed these verses himself.", "The author also had the Greek scriptures at his disposal, both as book-scrolls (Greek translations of Isaiah, the Psalms etc.)", "and in the form of \"testimony collections\" (collections of excerpts), and the oral stories of his community.=== Setting ===Most scholars view the gospel of Matthew as a work of the second generation of Christians, for whom the defining event was the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple by the Romans in 70 AD in the course of the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 AD).", "From this point on, what had begun with Jesus of Nazareth as a Jewish messianic movement became an increasingly gentile phenomenon evolving in time into a separate religion.", "They hold that the author wrote for a community of Greek-speaking Jewish Christians located probably in Syria.", "Antioch, the largest city in Roman Syria and the third largest city in the empire, is often proposed.The community to which Matthew belonged, like many 1st-century Christians, was still part of the larger Jewish community.", "The relationship of Matthew to this wider world of Judaism remains a subject of study and contention, the principal question being to what extent, if any, Matthew's community had cut itself off from its Jewish roots.", "It is evident from the gospel that there was conflict between Matthew's group and other Jewish groups, and it is generally agreed that the root of the conflict was the Matthew community's belief in Jesus as the Messiah and authoritative interpreter of the law, as one risen from the dead and uniquely endowed with divine authority.The divine nature of Jesus was a major issue for the Matthaean community, the crucial element separating the early Christians from their Jewish neighbors; while Mark begins with Jesus's baptism and temptations, Matthew goes back to Jesus's origins, showing him as the Son of God from his birth, the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament.", "The title Son of David, used exclusively in relation to miracles, identifies Jesus as the healing and miracle-working Messiah of Israel sent to Israel alone.", "As Son of Man he will return to judge the world, an expectation which his disciples recognize but of which his enemies are unaware.", "As Son of God, God is revealing himself through his son, and Jesus proving his sonship through his obedience and example.Unlike Mark, Matthew never bothers to explain Jewish customs, since his intended audience was a Jewish one; unlike Luke, who traces Jesus's ancestry back to Adam, father of the human race, he traces it only to Abraham, father of the Jews.", "Of his three presumed sources only \"M\", the material from his own community, refers to a \"church\" (''ecclesia''), an organized group with rules for keeping order; and the content of \"M\" suggests that this community was strict in keeping the Jewish law, holding that they must exceed the scribes and the Pharisees in \"righteousness\" (adherence to Jewish law).", "Writing from within a Jewish-Christian community growing increasingly distant from other Jews and becoming increasingly gentile in its membership and outlook, Matthew put down in his gospel his vision \"of an assembly or church in which both Jew and Gentile would flourish together\"." ], [ "Structure and content", "===Structure: narrative and discourses===Matthew, alone among the gospels, alternates five blocks of narrative with five of discourse, marking each off with the phrase \"When Jesus had finished\" (see Five Discourses of Matthew).", "Some scholars see in this a deliberate plan to create a parallel to the first five books of the Old Testament; others see a three-part structure based around the idea of Jesus as Messiah, a set of weekly readings spread out over the year, or no plan at all.", "Davies and Allison, in their widely used commentary, draw attention to the use of \"triads\" (the gospel groups things in threes), and R. T. France, in another influential commentary, notes the geographic movement from Galilee to Jerusalem and back, with the post-resurrection appearances in Galilee as the culmination of the whole story.=== Prologue: genealogy, Nativity and infancy (Matthew 1–2) ===The Gospel of Matthew begins with the words \"The Book of Genealogy in Greek, 'Genesis' of Jesus Christ\", deliberately echoing the words of Genesis 2:4 in the Septuagint.", "The genealogy tells of Jesus's descent from Abraham and King David and the miraculous events surrounding his virgin birth, and the infancy narrative tells of the massacre of the innocents, the flight into Egypt, and eventual journey to Nazareth.===First narrative and Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 3:1–8:1)===Following the genealogy, birth and infancy of Jesus, the first narrative section begins.", "John the Baptist baptizes Jesus, and the Holy Spirit descends upon him.", "Jesus prays and meditates in the wilderness for forty days, and is tempted by Satan.", "His early ministry by word and deed in Galilee meets with much success, and leads to the Sermon on the Mount, the first of the discourses.", "The sermon presents the ethics of the kingdom of God, introduced by the Beatitudes (\"Blessed are...\").", "It concludes with a reminder that the response to the kingdom will have eternal consequences, and the crowd's amazed response leads into the next narrative block.===Second narrative and discourse (Matthew 8:2–11:1)===From the authoritative words of Jesus, the gospel turns to three sets of three miracles interwoven with two sets of two discipleship stories (the second narrative), followed by a discourse on mission and suffering.", "Jesus commissions the Twelve Disciples and sends them to preach to the Jews, perform miracles, and prophesy the imminent coming of the Kingdom, commanding them to travel lightly, without staff or sandals.===Third narrative and discourse (Matthew 11:2–13:53)===Opposition to Jesus comes to a head with accusations that his deeds are done through the power of Satan.", "Jesus in turn accuses his opponents of blaspheming the Holy Spirit.", "The discourse is a set of parables emphasizing the sovereignty of God, and concluding with a challenge to the disciples to understand the teachings as scribes of the Kingdom of Heaven.", "(Matthew avoids using the holy word God in the expression \"Kingdom of God\"; instead he prefers the term \"Kingdom of Heaven\", reflecting the Jewish tradition of not speaking the name of God).===Fourth narrative and discourse (Matthew 13:54–19:1)===The fourth narrative section reveals that the increasing opposition to Jesus will result in his crucifixion in Jerusalem, and that his disciples must therefore prepare for his absence.", "The instructions for the post-crucifixion church emphasize responsibility and humility.", "This section contains the two feedings of the multitude (Matthew 14:13–21 and 15:32–39) along with the narrative in which Simon, newly renamed Peter (), calls Jesus \"the Christ, the son of the living God\", and Jesus states that on this \"bedrock\" () he will build his church (Matthew 16:13–19).Matthew 16:13–19 forms the foundation for the papacy's claim of authority.===Fifth narrative and discourse (Matthew 19:2–26:1)===Jesus travels toward Jerusalem, and the opposition intensifies: he is tested by Pharisees as soon as he begins to move toward the city, and when he arrives he is soon in conflict with the Temple's traders and religious leaders.", "He teaches in the Temple, debating with the chief priests and religious leaders and speaking in parables about the Kingdom of God and the failings of the chief priests and the Pharisees.", "The Herodian caucus also become involved in a scheme to entangle Jesus, but Jesus's careful response to their enquiry, \"Render therefore to Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and to God the things that are God's\", leaves them marveling at his words.The disciples ask about the future, and in his final discourse (the Olivet Discourse) Jesus speaks of the coming end.", "There will be false Messiahs, earthquakes, and persecutions, the sun, moon, and stars will fail, but \"this generation\" will not pass away before all the prophecies are fulfilled.", "The disciples must steel themselves for ministry to all the nations.", "At the end of the discourse, Matthew notes that Jesus has finished all his words, and attention turns to the crucifixion.===Conclusion: Passion, Resurrection and Great Commission (Matthew 26:2–28:20)===The events of Jesus's last week occupy a third of the content of all four gospels.", "Jesus enters Jerusalem in triumph and drives the money changers from the Temple, holds a last supper, prays to be spared the coming agony (but concludes \"if this cup may not pass away from me, except I drink it, thy will be done\"), and is betrayed.", "He is tried by the Jewish leaders (the Sanhedrin) and before Pontius Pilate, and Pilate washes his hands to indicate that he does not assume responsibility.", "Jesus is crucified as king of the Jews, mocked by all.", "On his death there is an earthquake, the veil of the Temple is rent, and saints rise from their tombs.", "Mary Magdalene and another Mary discover the empty tomb, guarded by an angel, and Jesus himself tells them to tell the disciples to meet him in Galilee.After the resurrection the remaining disciples return to Galilee, \"to the mountain that Jesus had appointed\", where he comes to them and tells them that he has been given \"all authority in heaven and on Earth.\"", "He gives the Great Commission: \"Therefore go and make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to obey everything that I have commanded you\".", "Jesus will be with them \"to the very end of the age\"." ], [ "Theology", "=== Christology ===Christology is the theological doctrine of Christ, \"the affirmations and definitions of Christ's humanity and deity\".", "There are a variety of Christologies in the New Testament, albeit with a single centre—Jesus is the figure in whom God has acted for mankind's salvation.Matthew has taken key Christological texts from Mark, but has sometimes changed the stories found in Mark, giving evidence of his own concerns.", "The title Son of David identifies Jesus as the healing and miracle-working Messiah of Israel (it is used exclusively in relation to miracles), and the Jewish messiah is sent to Israel alone.", "As Son of Man he will return to judge the world, a fact his disciples recognize but of which his enemies are unaware.", "As Son of God he is named Immanuel ('God with us'), God revealing himself through his son, and Jesus proving his sonship through his obedience and example.=== Relationship with the Jews ===Matthew's prime concern was that the Jewish tradition should not be lost in a church that was increasingly becoming gentile.", "This concern lies behind the frequent citations of Jewish scripture, the evocation of Jesus as the new Moses along with other events from Jewish history, and the concern to present Jesus as fulfilling, not destroying, the Law.", "Matthew must have been aware of the tendency to distort Paul's teaching of the law no longer having power over the New Testament Christian into antinomianism, and addressed Christ's fulfilling of what the Israelites expected from the \"Law and the Prophets\" in an eschatological sense, in that he was all that the Old Testament had predicted in the Messiah.The gospel has been interpreted as reflecting the struggles and conflicts between the evangelist's community and the other Jews, particularly with its sharp criticism of the scribes and Pharisees.", "It tells how Israel's Messiah, rejected and executed in Israel, pronounces judgment on Israel and its leaders and becomes the salvation of the gentiles.", "Prior to the crucifixion of Jesus, the Jews are referred to as Israelites—the honorific title of God's chosen people.", "After it, they are called (Jews), a sign that—due to their rejection of the Christ—the \"Kingdom of Heaven\" has been taken away from them and given instead to the church." ], [ "Comparison with other writings", "=== Christological development ===The divine nature of Jesus was a major issue for the community of Matthew, the crucial element marking them from their Jewish neighbors.", "Early understandings of this nature grew as the gospels were being written.", "Before the gospels, that understanding was focused on the revelation of Jesus as God in his resurrection, but the gospels reflect a broadened focus extended backwards in time.===Mark===Matthew is a creative reinterpretation of Mark, stressing Jesus's teachings as much as his acts, and making subtle changes in order to stress his divine nature: for example, Mark's \"young man\" who appears at Jesus's tomb becomes \"a radiant angel\" in Matthew.", "The miracle stories in Mark do not demonstrate the divinity of Jesus, but rather confirm his status as an emissary of God (which was Mark's understanding of the Messiah).=== Chronology ===There is a broad disagreement over chronology between Matthew, Mark and Luke on one hand and John on the other: all four agree that Jesus's public ministry began with an encounter with John the Baptist, but Matthew, Mark and Luke follow this with an account of teaching and healing in Galilee, then a trip to Jerusalem where there is an incident in the Temple, climaxing with the crucifixion on the day of the Passover holiday.", "John, by contrast, puts the Temple incident very early in Jesus's ministry, has several trips to Jerusalem, and puts the crucifixion immediately before the Passover holiday, on the day when the lambs for the Passover meal were being sacrificed in Temple.===Canonical positioning===The early patristic scholars regarded Matthew as the earliest of the gospels and placed it first in the canon, and the early Church mostly quoted from Matthew, secondarily from John, and only distantly from Mark." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * , in * * , in" ], [ "External links", "* Biblegateway.com (opens at Matt.1:1, NIV)* A textual commentary on the Gospel of Matthew – detailed text-critical discussion of the 300 most important variants of the Greek text (PDF, 438 pages)* Early Christian Writings ''Gospel of Matthew:'' introductions and e-texts.", "* Various versions" ] ]
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[ [ "Gospel of John" ], [ "Introduction", "Papyrus 52 (''recto''; ).The '''Gospel of John''' () is the fourth of the four canonical gospels in the New Testament.", "It contains a highly schematic account of the ministry of Jesus, with seven \"signs\" culminating in the raising of Lazarus (foreshadowing the resurrection of Jesus) and seven \"I am\" discourses (concerned with issues of the church–synagogue debate at the time of composition) culminating in Thomas' proclamation of the risen Jesus as \"my Lord and my God\".", "The gospel's concluding verses set out its purpose, \"that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing you may have life in his name.", "\"John reached its final form around AD 90–110, although it contains signs of origins dating back to AD 70 and possibly even earlier.", "Like the three other gospels, it is anonymous, although it identifies an unnamed \"disciple whom Jesus loved\" as the source of its traditions.", "It most likely arose within a \"Johannine community\", and – as it is closely related in style and content to the three Johannine epistles – most scholars treat the four books, along with the Book of Revelation, as a single corpus of Johannine literature, albeit not from the same author." ], [ "Authorship", "===Composition===The Gospel of John, like all the gospels, is anonymous.", "John 21:22 references a disciple whom Jesus loved and John 21:24–25 says: \"This is the disciple who is testifying to these things and has written them, and we know that his testimony is true...\" Early Christian tradition, first found in Irenaeus ( AD), identified this disciple with John the Apostle, but most scholars have abandoned this hypothesis or hold it only tenuously – there are multiple reasons for this conclusion, including, for example, the fact that the gospel is written in good Greek and displays sophisticated theology, and is therefore unlikely to have been the work of a simple fisherman.", "These verses imply rather that the core of the gospel relies on the testimony (perhaps written) of the \"disciple who is testifying\", as collected, preserved and reshaped by a community of followers (the \"we\" of the passage), and that a single follower (the \"I\") rearranged this material and perhaps added the final chapter and other passages to produce the final gospel.", "Most scholars estimate the final form of the text to be around AD 90–110.Given its complex history there may have been more than one place of composition, and while the author was familiar with Jewish customs and traditions, his frequent clarification of these implies that he wrote for a mixed Jewish/Gentile or Jewish context outside Palestine.The author may have drawn on a \"signs source\" (a collection of miracles) for chapters 1–12, a \"passion source\" for the story of Jesus's arrest and crucifixion, and a \"sayings source\" for the discourses, but these hypotheses are much debated.", "He seems to have known some version of Mark and Luke, as he shares with them some items of vocabulary and clusters of incidents arranged in the same order, but key terms from those gospels are absent or nearly so, implying that if he did know them he felt free to write independently.", "The Hebrew scriptures were an important source, with 14 direct quotations (versus 27 in Mark, 54 in Matthew, 24 in Luke), and their influence is vastly increased when allusions and echoes are included, but the majority of John's direct quotations do not agree exactly with any known version of the Jewish scriptures.", "Recent arguments by Richard Bauckham and others that the Gospel of John preserves eyewitness testimony have not won general acceptance.===Setting: the Johannine community debate===For much of the 20th century, scholars interpreted the Gospel of John within the paradigm of a hypothetical \"Johannine community\", meaning that the gospel sprang from a late-1st-century Christian community excommunicated from the Jewish synagogue (probably meaning the Jewish community) on account of its belief in Jesus as the promised Jewish messiah.", "This interpretation, which saw the community as essentially sectarian and standing outside the mainstream of early Christianity, has been increasingly challenged in the first decades of the 21st century, and there is currently considerable debate over the social, religious and historical context of the gospel.", "Nevertheless, the Johannine literature as a whole (made up of the gospel, the three Johannine epistles, and Revelation), points to a community holding itself distinct from the Jewish culture from which it arose while cultivating an intense devotion to Jesus as the definitive revelation of a God with whom they were in close contact through the Paraclete." ], [ "Structure and content<!--'Book of Glory' and 'Book of glory' redirect here-->", "Jesus giving the Farewell Discourse to his 11 remaining disciples, from the Maestà of Duccio, 1308–1311The majority of scholars see four sections in the Gospel of John: a prologue (1:1–18); an account of the ministry, often called the \"Book of Signs\" (1:19–12:50); the account of Jesus' final night with his disciples and the passion and resurrection, sometimes called the '''Book of Glory''' or '''Book of Exaltation''' (13:1–20:31); and a conclusion (20:30–31); to these is added an epilogue which most scholars believe did not form part of the original text (Chapter 21).", "Disagreement does exist; some scholars such as Richard Bauckham argue that John 21 was part of the original work, for example.", "*The prologue informs readers of the true identity of Jesus, the Word of God through whom the world was created and who took on human form; he came to the Jews and the Jews rejected him, but \"to all who received him (the circle of Christian believers), who believed in his name, he gave power to become children of God.\"", "*Book of Signs (ministry of Jesus): Jesus calls his disciples and begins his earthly ministry.", "He travels from place to place informing his hearers about God the Father in long discourses, offering eternal life to all who will believe, and performing miracles which are signs of the authenticity of his teachings, but this creates tensions with the religious authorities (manifested as early as 5:17–18), who decide that he must be eliminated.", "*The Book of Glory tells of Jesus's return to his heavenly father: it tells how he prepares his disciples for their coming lives without his physical presence and his prayer for himself and for them, followed by his betrayal, arrest, trial, crucifixion and post-resurrection appearances.", "*The conclusion sets out the purpose of the gospel, which is \"that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing you may have life in his name.", "\"*Chapter 21, the addendum, tells of Jesus' post-resurrection appearances in Galilee, the miraculous catch of fish, the prophecy of the crucifixion of Peter, and the fate of the Beloved Disciple.The structure is highly schematic: there are seven \"signs\" culminating in the raising of Lazarus (foreshadowing the resurrection of Jesus), and seven \"I am\" sayings and discourses, culminating in Thomas's proclamation of the risen Jesus as \"my Lord and my God\" (the same title, , claimed by the Emperor Domitian, an indication of the date of composition)." ], [ "Theology", "Rylands Papyrus is the oldest known New Testament fragment, dated to about 125-175 AD.===Christology===Scholars agree that while John clearly regards Jesus as divine, he just as clearly subordinates him to the one God.", "According to James Dunn, this Christology view in John, does not describe a subordinationist relation, but rather the authority and validity of the Son's \"revelation\" of the Father, the continuity between the Father and the Son.", "Dunn sees this view as intended to serve the Logos Christology, while others (e.g., Andrew Loke) see it as connected to the incarnation theme in John.", "The idea of the Trinity developed only slowly through the merger of Hebrew monotheism and the idea of the messiah, Greek ideas of the relationship between God, the world, and the mediating Saviour, and the Egyptian concept of the three-part divinity.", "However, while the developed doctrine of the Trinity is not explicit in the books that constitute the New Testament, the New Testament possesses a triadic understanding of God and contains a number of Trinitarian formulas.", "John's \"high Christology\" depicts Jesus as divine and pre-existent, defends him against Jewish claims that he was \"making himself equal to God\", and talks openly about his divine role and echoing Yahweh's \"I Am that I Am\" with seven \"I Am\" declarations of his own.", "At the same time there is a similar stress as in Luke on the physical continuity on Jesus’ resurrected body, as Jesus asks Thomas to \"Put your finger here; see my hands.", "Reach out your hand and put it into my side.", "Stop doubting and believe.", "\"===Logos===In the prologue, the gospel identifies Jesus as the Logos or Word.", "In Ancient Greek philosophy, the term meant the principle of cosmic reason.", "In this sense, it was similar to the Hebrew concept of Wisdom, God's companion and intimate helper in creation.", "The Hellenistic Jewish philosopher Philo merged these two themes when he described the Logos as God's creator of and mediator with the material world.", "According to Stephen Harris, the gospel adapted Philo's description of the Logos, applying it to Jesus, the incarnation of the Logos.Another possibility is that the title is based on the concept of the divine Word found in the Targums (Aramaic translation/interpretations recited in the synagogue after the reading of the Hebrew Scriptures).", "In the Targums (which all post-date the first century but which give evidence of preserving early material), the concept of the divine Word was used in a manner similar to Philo, namely, for God's interaction with the world (starting from creation) and especially with his people, e.g.", "Israel, was saved from Egypt by action of \"the Word of the ,\" both Philo and the Targums envision the Word as being manifested between the cherubim and the Holy of Holies, etc.===Cross===The portrayal of Jesus' death in John is unique among the four Gospels.", "It does not appear to rely on the kinds of atonement theology indicative of vicarious sacrifice but rather presents the death of Jesus as his glorification and return to the Father.", "Likewise, the three \"passion predictions\" of the Synoptic Gospels are replaced instead in John with three instances of Jesus explaining how he will be exalted or \"lifted up\".", "The verb for \"lifted up\" (, ) reflects the double entendre at work in John's theology of the cross, for Jesus is both physically elevated from the earth at the crucifixion but also, at the same time, exalted and glorified.===Sacraments===Scholars disagree both on whether and how frequently John refers to sacraments, but current scholarly opinion is that there are very few such possible references, and that if they exist they are limited to baptism and the Eucharist.", "In fact, there is no institution of the Eucharist in John's account of the Last Supper (it is replaced with Jesus washing the feet of his disciples), and no New Testament text that unambiguously links baptism with rebirth.===Individualism===In comparison to the synoptic gospels, the fourth gospel is markedly individualistic, in the sense that it places emphasis more on the individual's relation to Jesus than on the corporate nature of the Church.", "This is largely accomplished through the consistently singular grammatical structure of various aphoristic sayings of Jesus throughout the gospel.", "Emphasis on believers coming into a new group upon their conversion is conspicuously absent from John, and there is a theme of \"personal coinherence\", that is, the intimate personal relationship between the believer and Jesus in which the believer \"abides\" in Jesus and Jesus in the believer.", "The individualistic tendencies of John could potentially give rise to a realized eschatology achieved on the level of the individual believer; this realized eschatology is not, however, to replace \"orthodox\", futurist eschatological expectations, but is to be \"only their correlative.", "\"===John the Baptist===John's account of John the Baptist is different from that of the synoptic gospels.", "In this gospel, John is not called \"the Baptist.\"", "The Baptist's ministry overlaps with that of Jesus; his baptism of Jesus is not explicitly mentioned, but his witness to Jesus is unambiguous.", "The evangelist almost certainly knew the story of John's baptism of Jesus and he makes a vital theological use of it.", "He subordinates the Baptist to Jesus, perhaps in response to members of the Baptist's sect who regarded the Jesus movement as an offshoot of their movement.In the Gospel of John, Jesus and his disciples go to Judea early in Jesus' ministry before John the Baptist was imprisoned and executed by Herod Antipas.", "He leads a ministry of baptism larger than John's own.", "The Jesus Seminar rated this account as black, containing no historically accurate information.", "According to the biblical historians at the Jesus Seminar, John likely had a larger presence in the public mind than Jesus.===Gnosticism===In the first half of the 20th century, many scholars, primarily including Rudolph Bultmann, forcefully argued that the Gospel of John has elements in common with Gnosticism.", "Christian Gnosticism did not fully develop until the mid-2nd century, and so 2nd-century Proto-Orthodox Christians concentrated much effort in examining and refuting it.", "To say the Gospel of John contained elements of Gnosticism is to assume that Gnosticism had developed to a level that required the author to respond to it.", "Bultmann, for example, argued that the opening theme of the Gospel of John, the pre-existing Logos, along with John's duality of light versus darkness in the Gospel were originally Gnostic themes that John adopted.", "Other scholars (e.g., Raymond E. Brown) have argued that the pre-existing Logos theme arises from the more ancient Jewish writings in the eighth chapter of the Book of Proverbs, and was fully developed as a theme in Hellenistic Judaism by Philo Judaeus.", "The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran verified the Jewish nature of these concepts.", "April DeConick has suggested reading John 8:56 in support of a Gnostic theology, however recent scholarship has cast doubt on her reading.Gnostics read John but interpreted it differently from the way non-Gnostics did.", "Gnosticism taught that salvation came from ''gnosis'', secret knowledge, and Gnostics did not see Jesus as a savior but a revealer of knowledge.", "The gospel teaches that salvation can only be achieved through revealed wisdom, specifically belief in (literally belief ) Jesus.", "John's picture of a supernatural savior who promised to return to take those who believed in him to a heavenly dwelling could be fitted into Gnostic view.", "It has been suggested that similarities between the Gospel of John and Gnosticism may spring from common roots in Jewish Apocalyptic literature." ], [ "Comparison with other writings", "Syriac Christian rendition of St. John the Evangelist, from the Rabbula Gospels.===Synoptic gospels and Pauline literature===The Gospel of John is significantly different from the synoptic gospels in the selection of its material, its theological emphasis, its chronology, and literary style, with some of its discrepancies amounting to contradictions.", "The following are some examples of their differences in just one area, that of the material they include in their narratives: Material unique to the synoptic gospels Material unique to the fourth gospel Narrative parables Symbolic discourses Logia and Chreia Dialogues and Monologues Messianic Secret Overt messianism Sadducees, elders, lawyers \"The Jews\" Lord's Supper Washing of the Feet Gospel of the Kingdom Spiritual rebirth Consistent eschatology of Olivet Discourse Realized eschatology of Farewell Discourse John baptizing Jesus John witnessing Jesus Exorcism of demons Raising of Lazarus Hades and Gehenna No concept or mention of hell Nativity of Jesus \"Hymn to the Word\" prologue Genealogy of Jesus \"The only-begotten god\" Temptation of Jesus Lamb of God Sermon on the Mount Seven \"I Am\" declarations Transfiguration of Jesus Promise of the Paraclete Ascension of Jesus Doubting ThomasIn the Synoptics, the ministry of Jesus takes a single year, but in John it takes three, as evidenced by references to three Passovers.", "Events are not all in the same order: the date of the crucifixion is different, as is the time of Jesus' anointing in Bethany and the cleansing of the Temple, which occurs in the beginning of Jesus' ministry rather than near its end.Many incidents from John, such as the wedding in Cana, the encounter of Jesus with the Samaritan woman at the well, and the raising of Lazarus, are not paralleled in the synoptics, and most scholars believe the author drew these from an independent source called the \"signs gospel\", the speeches of Jesus from a second \"discourse\" source, and the prologue from an early hymn.", "The gospel makes extensive use of the Jewish scriptures: John quotes from them directly, references important figures from them, and uses narratives from them as the basis for several of the discourses.", "The author was also familiar with non-Jewish sources: the Logos of the prologue (the Word that is with God from the beginning of creation), for example, was derived from both the Jewish concept of Lady Wisdom and from the Greek philosophers, John 6 alludes not only to the exodus but also to Greco-Roman mystery cults, and John 4 alludes to Samaritan messianic beliefs.John lacks scenes from the Synoptics such as Jesus' baptism, the calling of the Twelve, exorcisms, parables, and the Transfiguration.", "Conversely, it includes scenes not found in the Synoptics, including Jesus turning water into wine at the wedding at Cana, the resurrection of Lazarus, Jesus washing the feet of his disciples, and multiple visits to Jerusalem.In the fourth gospel, Jesus' mother Mary is mentioned in three passages, but not named.", "John does assert that Jesus was known as the \"son of Joseph\" in 6:42.For John, Jesus' town of origin is irrelevant, for he comes from beyond this world, from God the Father.While John makes no direct mention of Jesus' baptism, he does quote John the Baptist's description of the descent of the Holy Spirit as a dove, as happens at Jesus' baptism in the Synoptics.", "Major synoptic speeches of Jesus are absent, including the Sermon on the Mount and the Olivet Discourse, and the exorcisms of demons are never mentioned as in the Synoptics.", "John never lists all of the Twelve Disciples and names at least one disciple, Nathanael, whose name is not found in the Synoptics.", "Thomas is given a personality beyond a mere name, described as \"Doubting Thomas\".Jesus is identified with the Word (\"Logos\"), and the Word is identified with (\"god\" in Greek); no such identification is made in the Synoptics.", "In Mark, Jesus urges his disciples to keep his divinity secret, but in John he is very open in discussing it, even referring to himself as \"I AM\", the title God gives himself in Exodus at his self-revelation to Moses.", "In the Synoptics, the chief theme is the Kingdom of God and the Kingdom of Heaven (the latter specifically in Matthew), while John's theme is Jesus as the source of eternal life and the Kingdom is only mentioned twice.", "In contrast to the synoptic expectation of the Kingdom (using the term , meaning \"coming\"), John presents a more individualistic, realized eschatology.In the Synoptics, quotations from Jesus are usually in the form of short, pithy sayings; in John, longer quotations are often given.", "The vocabulary is also different, and filled with theological import: in John, Jesus does not work \"miracles\", but \"signs\" which unveil his divine identity.", "Most scholars consider John not to contain any parables.", "Rather it contains metaphorical stories or allegories, such as those of the Good Shepherd and of the True Vine, in which each individual element corresponds to a specific person, group, or thing.", "Other scholars consider stories like the childbearing woman or the dying grain to be parables.According to the Synoptics, the arrest of Jesus was a reaction to the cleansing of the temple, while according to John it was triggered by the raising of Lazarus.", "The Pharisees, portrayed as more uniformly legalistic and opposed to Jesus in the synoptic gospels, are instead portrayed as sharply divided; they debate frequently in John's accounts.", "Some, such as Nicodemus, even go so far as to be at least partially sympathetic to Jesus.", "This is believed to be a more accurate historical depiction of the Pharisees, who made debate one of the tenets of their system of belief.In place of the communal emphasis of the Pauline literature, John stresses the personal relationship of the individual to God.===Johannine literature===The Gospel of John and the three Johannine epistles exhibit strong resemblances in theology and style; the Book of Revelation has also been traditionally linked with these, but differs from the gospel and letters in style and even theology.", "The letters were written later than the gospel, and while the gospel reflects the break between the Johannine Christians and the Jewish synagogue, in the letters the Johannine community itself is disintegrating (\"They went out from us, but they were not of us; for if they had been of us, they would have continued with us; but they went out...\" - 1 John 2:19).", "This secession was over Christology, the \"knowledge of Christ\", or more accurately the understanding of Christ's nature, for the ones who \"went out\" hesitated to identify Jesus with Christ, minimising the significance of the earthly ministry and denying the salvific importance of Jesus's death on the cross.", "The epistles argue against this view, stressing the eternal existence of the Son of God, the salvific nature of his life and death, and the other elements of the gospel's \"high\" Christology.===Historical reliability===Jesus' teachings in the Synoptics greatly differ from those in the fourth gospel.", "Since the 19th century, scholars have almost unanimously accepted that the Johannine discourses are less likely to be historical than the synoptic parables, and were likely written for theological purposes.", "Nevertheless, scholars generally agree that the fourth gospel is not without historical value.", "Some potential points of value include early provenance for some Johannine material, topographical references for Jerusalem and Judea, Jesus' crucifixion occurring prior to the Feast of Unleavened Bread, and Jesus' arrest in the garden occurring after the accompanying deliberation of Jewish authorities." ], [ "Representations", "''Bede translating the Gospel of John on his deathbed'', by James Doyle Penrose, 1902|alt=Bede translating the Gospel of John on his deathbed, by James Doyle Penrose, 1902.Depicts the Venerable Bede as an elderly man with a long, white beard, sitting in a darkened room and dictating his translation of the Bible, as a younger scribe, sitting across from him, writes down his words.", "Two monks, standing together in the corner of the room, look on.The gospel has been depicted in live narrations and dramatized in productions, skits, plays, and Passion Plays, as well as in film.", "The most recent such portrayal is the 2014 film ''The Gospel of John'', directed by David Batty and narrated by David Harewood and Brian Cox, with Selva Rasalingam as Jesus.", "The 2003 film ''The Gospel of John'' was directed by Philip Saville and narrated by Christopher Plummer, with Henry Ian Cusick as Jesus.Parts of the gospel have been set to music.", "One such setting is Steve Warner's power anthem \"Come and See\", written for the 20th anniversary of the Alliance for Catholic Education and including lyrical fragments taken from the Book of Signs.", "Additionally, some composers have made settings of the Passion as portrayed in the gospel, most notably ''St John Passion'' composed by Johann Sebastian Bach, although some verses are borrowed from Matthew." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * * ** * ** * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * **** * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * *" ], [ "External links", "Online translations of the Gospel of John:* Over 200 versions in over 70 languages at '' Bible Gateway''* The '' Unbound Bible'' from Biola University* David Robert Palmer, Translation from the Greek* Text of the Gospel with textual variants* The Egerton Gospel text; compare with ''Gospel of John''* Online version of Book of John, KJV" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grover Cleveland" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Stephen Grover Cleveland''' (March 18, 1837June 24, 1908) was an American politician who served as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States from 1885 to 1889 and from 1893 to 1897.He is the only president in U.S. history to serve non-consecutive presidential terms.", "In the years before his presidency, he served as a mayor and governor of New York state, winning fame as an anti-corruption crusader.", "Cleveland was the first Democrat to win the presidency after the Civil War, and was one of two Democrat presidents, followed by Woodrow Wilson in 1912, in an era when Republicans dominated the presidency between 1861 and 1933.He won the popular vote in three presidential elections—1884, 1888, and 1892.Benjamin Harrison won the electoral college vote, and thus the presidency, in 1888.Cleveland was elected mayor of Buffalo in 1881 and governor of New York in 1882.While governor, he closely cooperated with state assembly minority leader Theodore Roosevelt to pass reform measures, winning national attention.", "He led the Bourbon Democrats, a pro-business movement opposed to high tariffs, free silver, inflation, imperialism, and subsidies to business, farmers, or veterans.", "His crusade for political reform and fiscal conservatism made him an icon for American conservatives of the time.", "Cleveland also won praise for honesty, self-reliance, integrity, and commitment to the principles of classical liberalism.", "His fight against political corruption, patronage, and bossism convinced many like-minded Republicans, called \"Mugwumps\", to cross party lines and support him in the 1884 election.", "Fifteen months into his first presidential term, he married Frances Folsom on June 2, 1886.After losing the 1888 election to Harrison, he moved to New York City with his wife and joined a law firm.", "At the 1892 Democratic National Convention, he won the nomination on the first ballot.", "The 1892 election restored him to the White House.", "As his second administration began, the Panic of 1893 sparked a severe national depression.", "Many voters blamed the Democrats, opening the way for a Republican landslide in 1894 and for the agrarian and silverite seizure of the Democratic Party in 1896.The result was a political realignment that started the Fourth Party System and the Progressive Era.", "An anti-imperialist, Cleveland opposed the push to annex Hawaii, launched an investigation into the 1893 coup against the Hawaiian queen, and called for her to be restored; the House of Representatives adopted a resolution against annexation.Cleveland was a formidable policymaker, but also garnered criticism.", "He intervened in the 1894 Pullman Strike to keep the railroads moving, angering both Illinois Democrats and labor unions nationwide; his support of the gold standard and opposition to free silver alienated the agrarian wing of the Democratic Party.", "Critics complained that Cleveland had little imagination and seemed overwhelmed by the nation's economic disasters—depressions and strikes—in his second term.", "In his memoirs, future president Harry S. Truman expressed criticism of Cleveland's handling of labor strikes in his second term, arguing that \"Cleveland had a lot of trouble with strikes and riots, but the Democratic Party, as usual, was on the liberal side during his second administration.", "But the President was not.", "He became an ultra-conservative.”Even so, his reputation for probity and good character survived the troubles of his second term.", "Biographer Allan Nevins wrote, \"In Grover Cleveland, the greatness lies in typical rather than unusual qualities.", "He had no endowments that thousands of men do not have.", "He possessed honesty, courage, firmness, independence, and common sense.", "But he possessed them to a degree other men do not.\"", "By the end of his second term, he was severely unpopular, even among Democrats.", "After leaving the White House, Cleveland lived in retirement at his estate, Westland Mansion, and served as a trustee of Princeton University.", "He continued to voice his political views, but fell seriously ill during the autumn of 1907.He died in 1908, aged 71.Today, Cleveland is praised for honesty, integrity, adherence to his morals, defying party boundaries, and effective leadership and is typically ranked in the middle to upper tier of U.S. presidents." ], [ "Early life", "===Childhood and family history===birthplace of Grover Cleveland in Caldwell, New Jersey|leftStephen Grover Cleveland was born on March 18, 1837, in Caldwell, New Jersey, to Ann (née Neal) and Richard Falley Cleveland.", "Cleveland's father was a Congregational and Presbyterian minister who was originally from Connecticut.", "His mother was from Baltimore and was the daughter of a bookseller.", "On his father's side, Cleveland was descended from English ancestors, the first of the family having emigrated to Massachusetts from Cleveland, England, in 1635.His father's maternal grandfather, Richard Falley Jr., fought at the Battle of Bunker Hill, and was the son of an immigrant from Guernsey.", "On his mother's side, Cleveland was descended from Anglo-Irish Protestants and German Quakers from Philadelphia.", "Cleveland was distantly related to General Moses Cleaveland, after whom the city of Cleveland, Ohio, was named.Cleveland, the fifth of nine children, was named Stephen Grover in honor of the first pastor of the First Presbyterian Church of Caldwell, where his father was pastor at the time.", "He became known as Grover in his adult life.", "In 1841, the Cleveland family moved to Fayetteville, New York, where Grover spent much of his childhood.", "Neighbors later described him as \"full of fun and inclined to play pranks\", and fond of outdoor sports.In 1850, Cleveland's father Richard moved his family to Clinton, New York, accepting a job there as district secretary for the American Home Missionary Society.", "Despite his father's dedication to his missionary work, his income was insufficient for the large family.", "Financial conditions forced him to remove Grover from school and place him in a two-year mercantile apprenticeship in Fayetteville.", "The experience was valuable and brief, and the living conditions quite austere.", "Grover returned to Clinton and his schooling at the completion of the apprentice contract.", "In 1853, missionary work began to take a toll on Richard's health.", "He took a new work assignment in Holland Patent, New York (near Utica) and moved his family once again.", "Shortly after, Richard Cleveland died from a gastric ulcer.", "Grover was said to have learned about his father's death from a boy selling newspapers.===Education and moving west===An early, undated photograph of Grover ClevelandCleveland received his elementary education at the Fayetteville Academy and the Clinton Grammar School (not the Clinton Liberal Institute).", "After his father died in 1853, he again left school to help support his family.", "Later that year, Cleveland's brother William was hired as a teacher at the New York Institute for the Blind in New York City, and William obtained a place for Cleveland as an assistant teacher.", "Cleveland returned home to Holland Patent at the end of 1854, where an elder in his church offered to pay for his college education if he promised to become a minister.", "Cleveland declined, and in 1855 he decided to move west.He stopped first in Buffalo, New York, where his uncle-in-law Lewis F. Allen, gave him a clerical job.", "Allen was an important man in Buffalo, and he introduced his nephew-in-law to influential men there, including the partners in the law firm of Rogers, Bowen, and Rogers.", "Millard Fillmore, the 13th president of the United States, had previously worked for the partnership.", "Cleveland later took a clerkship with the firm, began to read the law with them, and was admitted to the New York bar in 1859.===Early career and the Civil War===Cleveland worked for the Rogers firm for three years before leaving in 1862 to start his own practice.", "In January 1863, he was appointed assistant district attorney of Erie County.", "With the American Civil War raging, Congress passed the Conscription Act of 1863, requiring able-bodied men to serve in the army if called upon, or else to hire a substitute.", "Cleveland chose the latter course, paying $150, , to George Benninsky, a thirty-two-year-old Polish immigrant, to serve in his place.", "Benninsky survived the war.As a lawyer, Cleveland became known for his single-minded concentration and dedication to hard work.", "In 1866, he successfully defended some participants in the Fenian raid, working on a ''pro bono'' basis (free of charge).", "In 1868, Cleveland attracted professional attention for his winning defense of a libel suit against the editor of Buffalo's ''Commercial Advertiser''.", "During this time, Cleveland assumed a lifestyle of simplicity, taking residence in a plain boarding house.", "He devoted his growing income to the support of his mother and younger sisters.", "While his personal quarters were austere, Cleveland enjoyed an active social life and \"the easy-going sociability of hotel-lobbies and saloons\".", "He shunned the circles of higher society of Buffalo in which his uncle-in-law's family traveled." ], [ "Political career in New York", "===Sheriff of Erie County===A statue of Grover Cleveland outside City Hall in Buffalo, New YorkFrom his earliest involvement in politics, Cleveland aligned with the Democratic Party.", "He had a decided aversion to Republicans John Fremont and Abraham Lincoln, and the heads of the Rogers law firm were solid Democrats.", "In 1865, he ran for District Attorney, losing narrowly to his friend and roommate, Lyman K. Bass, the Republican nominee.In 1870, with the help of friend Oscar Folsom, Cleveland secured the Democratic nomination for sheriff of Erie County, New York.", "He won the election by a 303-vote margin and took office on January 1, 1871, at age 33.While this new career took him away from the practice of law, it was rewarding in other ways: the fees were said to yield up to $40,000, , over the two-year term.Cleveland's service as sheriff was unremarkable.", "Biographer Rexford Tugwell described the time in office as a waste for Cleveland politically.", "Cleveland was aware of graft in the sheriff's office during his tenure and chose not to confront it.", "A notable incident of his term took place on September 6, 1872, when Patrick Morrissey was executed.", "He had been convicted of murdering his mother.", "As sheriff, Cleveland was responsible for either personally carrying out the execution or paying a deputy $10 to perform the task.", "In spite of reservations about the hanging, Cleveland executed Morrissey himself.", "He hanged another murderer, John Gaffney, on February 14, 1873.After his term as sheriff ended, Cleveland returned to his law practice, opening a firm with his friends Lyman K. Bass and Wilson S. Bissell.", "Bass was later replaced by George J. Sicard.", "Elected to Congress in 1872, Bass did not spend much time at the firm, but Cleveland and Bissell soon rose to the top of Buffalo's legal community.", "Up to that point, Cleveland's political career had been honorable and unexceptional.", "As biographer Allan Nevins wrote, \"Probably no man in the country, on March 4, 1881, had less thought than this limited, simple, sturdy attorney of Buffalo that four years later he would be standing in Washington and taking the oath as President of the United States.", "\"It was during this period that Cleveland began courting a widow, Maria Halpin.", "She later accused him of raping her.", "It is unclear if Halpin was actually raped by Cleveland as some early reports stated or if their relationship was consensual.", "In March 1876, Cleveland accused Halpin of being an alcoholic and had the child removed from her custody.", "The child was taken to the Protestant Orphan Asylum, and Cleveland paid for his stay there.", "Cleveland had Halpin admitted to the Providence Asylum.", "Halpin was only kept at the asylum for five days because she was deemed to not be insane.", "Cleveland later provided financial support for her to begin her own business outside of Buffalo.", "Although lacking irrefutable evidence that Cleveland was the father, the illegitimate child became a campaign issue for the Republican Party in Cleveland's first presidential campaign, where they smeared him by claiming that he was \"immoral\" and for allegedly acting cruelly by not raising the child himself.===Mayor of Buffalo===In the 1870s, the municipal government in Buffalo had grown increasingly corrupt, with Democratic and Republican political machines cooperating to share the spoils of political office.", "When the Republicans nominated a slate of particularly disreputable machine politicians for the 1881 election, Democrats saw an opportunity to gain the votes of disaffected Republicans by nominating a more honest candidate.", "Party leaders approached Cleveland, who agreed to run for Mayor of Buffalo provided the party's slate of candidates for other offices was to his liking.", "More notorious politicians were left off the Democratic ticket and he accepted the nomination.", "Cleveland was elected mayor that November with 15,120 votes, while his Republican opponent Milton Earl Beebe received 11,528 votes.", "He took office on January 2, 1882.Cleveland's term as mayor was spent fighting the entrenched interests of the party machines.", "Among the acts that established his reputation was a veto of the street-cleaning bill passed by the Common Council.", "The street-cleaning contract had been competed for bidding, and the Council selected the highest bidder at $422,000, rather than the lowest of $100,000 less, because of the political connections of the bidder.", "While this sort of bipartisan graft had previously been tolerated in Buffalo, Mayor Cleveland would have none of it.", "His veto message said, \"I regard it as the culmination of a most bare-faced, impudent, and shameless scheme to betray the interests of the people, and to worse than squander the public money.\"", "The Council reversed itself and awarded the contract to the lowest bidder.", "Cleveland also asked the state legislature to form a Commission to develop a plan to improve the sewer system in Buffalo at a much lower cost than previously proposed locally; this plan was successfully adopted.", "For this, and other actions safeguarding public funds, Cleveland began to gain a reputation beyond Erie County as a leader willing to purge government corruption.===Governor of New York===Gubernatorial portrait of Grover ClevelandNew York Democratic party officials started to consider Cleveland a possible nominee for governor.", "Daniel Manning, a party insider who admired Cleveland's record, was instrumental in his candidacy.", "With a split in the state Republican party in 1882, the Democratic party was considered to be at an advantage; several men contended for that party's nomination.", "The two leading Democratic candidates were Roswell P. Flower and Henry W. Slocum.", "Their factions deadlocked and the convention could not agree on a nominee.", "Cleveland, who came in third place on the first ballot, picked up support in subsequent votes and emerged as the compromise choice.", "With Republicans still divided heading into the general election, Cleveland emerged the victor, receiving 535,318 votes to Republican nominee Charles J. Folger's 342,464.Cleveland's margin of victory was, at the time, the largest in a contested New York election.", "The Democrats also picked up seats in both houses of the New York State Legislature.Cleveland brought his opposition to needless spending to the governor's office.", "He promptly sent the legislature eight vetoes in his first two months in office.", "The first to attract attention was his veto of a bill to reduce the fares on New York City elevated trains to five cents.", "The bill had broad support because the trains' owner, Jay Gould, was unpopular, and his fare increases were widely denounced.", "Cleveland saw the bill as unjust—Gould had taken over the railroads when they were failing and had made the system solvent again.", "Cleveland believed that altering Gould's franchise would violate the Contract Clause of the federal Constitution.", "Despite the initial popularity of the fare-reduction bill, the newspapers praised Cleveland's veto.", "Theodore Roosevelt, then a member of the Assembly, had reluctantly voted for the bill with the intention of holding railroad barons accountable.", "After the veto, Roosevelt and other legislators reversed their position, and Cleveland's veto was sustained.Cleveland's defiance of political corruption won him popular acclaim.", "Yet it also brought the enmity of New York City's influential Tammany Hall organization and its boss, John Kelly.", "Tammany Hall and Kelly had disapproved of Cleveland's nomination for governor, and their resistance intensified after Cleveland openly opposed and prevented the re-election of Thomas F. Grady, their point man in the State Senate.", "Cleveland also steadfastly opposed other Tammany nominees, as well as bills passed as a result of their deal-making.", "The loss of Tammany's support was offset by the support of Theodore Roosevelt and other reform-minded Republicans, who helped Cleveland pass several laws to reform municipal governments.", "Cleveland closely worked with Roosevelt, who served as assembly minority leader in 1883; the municipal legislation they cooperated on gained Cleveland national recognition." ], [ "Election of 1884", "===Nomination for president===An anti-Blaine cartoon presents him as the \"tattooed man\", with many indelible scandals.An anti-Cleveland cartoon highlights the Halpin scandal.In June 1884, the Republican Party convened their nomination convention in Chicago, selecting former U.S. House Speaker James G. Blaine of Maine as their nominee for president.", "Blaine's nomination alienated many Republicans, including the Mugwumps, who viewed Blaine as ambitious and immoral.", "The Republican standard-bearer was further weakened when the Conkling faction and President Chester Arthur refused to give Blaine their strong support.", "Democratic party leaders believed the Republicans' choice gave them an opportunity to win the White House for the first time since 1856 if the right candidate could be found.Among the Democrats, Samuel J. Tilden was the initial front-runner, having been the party's nominee in the contested election of 1876.After Tilden declined a nomination due to his poor health, his supporters shifted to several other contenders.", "Cleveland was among the leaders in early support, and Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware, Allen G. Thurman of Ohio, Samuel Freeman Miller of Iowa, and Benjamin Butler of Massachusetts also had considerable followings, along with various favorite sons.", "Each of the other candidates had hindrances to his nomination: Bayard had spoken in favor of secession in 1861, making him unacceptable to Northerners; Butler, conversely, was reviled throughout the Southern United States for his actions during the Civil War; Thurman was generally well-liked, but was growing old and infirm, and his views on the silver question were uncertain.Cleveland, too, had detractors—Tammany remained opposed to him—but the nature of his enemies made him still more friends.", "Cleveland led on the first ballot, with 392 votes out of 820.On the second ballot, Tammany threw its support behind Butler, but the rest of the delegates shifted to Cleveland, who won.", "Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana was selected as his running mate.===Campaign against Blaine===Corruption in politics was the central issue in 1884; Blaine had over the span of his career been involved in several questionable deals.", "Cleveland's reputation as an opponent of corruption proved the Democrats' strongest asset.", "William C. Hudson created Cleveland's contextual campaign slogan \"A public office is a public trust.\"", "Reform-minded Republicans called \"Mugwumps\" denounced Blaine as corrupt and flocked to Cleveland.", "The Mugwumps, including such men as Carl Schurz and Henry Ward Beecher, were more concerned with morality than with party, and felt Cleveland was a kindred soul who would promote civil service reform and fight for efficiency in government.", "At the same time that the Democrats gained support from the Mugwumps, they lost some blue-collar workers to the Greenback-Labor party, led by ex-Democrat Benjamin Butler.", "In general, Cleveland abided by the precedent of minimizing presidential campaign travel and speechmaking; Blaine became one of the first to break with that tradition.The campaign focused on the candidates' moral standards, as each side cast aspersions on their opponents.", "Cleveland's supporters rehashed the old allegations that Blaine had corruptly influenced legislation in favor of the Little Rock and Fort Smith Railroad and the Union Pacific Railway, later profiting on the sale of bonds he owned in both companies.", "Although the stories of Blaine's favors to the railroads had made the rounds eight years earlier, this time Blaine's correspondence was discovered, making his earlier denials less plausible.", "On some of the most damaging correspondence, Blaine had written \"Burn this letter\", giving Democrats the last line to their rallying cry: \"Blaine, Blaine, James G. Blaine, the continental liar from the state of Maine, 'Burn this letter!Regarding Cleveland, commentator Jeff Jacoby notes that, \"Not since George Washington had a candidate for President been so renowned for his rectitude.\"", "But the Republicans found a refutation buried in Cleveland's past.", "Aided by the sermons of Reverend George H. Ball, a minister from Buffalo, they made public the allegation that Cleveland had fathered an illegitimate child while he was a lawyer there, and their rallies soon included the chant \"Ma, Ma, where's my Pa?\".", "When confronted with the scandal, Cleveland immediately instructed his supporters to \"Above all, tell the truth.\"", "Cleveland admitted to paying child support in 1874 to Maria Crofts Halpin, the woman who asserted he had fathered her son Oscar Folsom Cleveland and he assumed responsibility.", "Shortly before the 1884 election, the Republican media published an affidavit from Halpin in which she stated that until she met Cleveland, her \"life was pure and spotless\", and \"there is not, and never was, a doubt as to the paternity of our child, and the attempt of Grover Cleveland, or his friends, to couple the name of Oscar Folsom, or any one else, with that boy, for that purpose is simply infamous and false.", "\"the 1884 electionThe electoral votes of closely contested New York, New Jersey, Indiana, and Connecticut would determine the election.", "In New York, the Tammany Democrats decided that they would gain more from supporting a Democrat they disliked than a Republican who would do nothing for them.", "Blaine hoped that he would have more support from Irish Americans than Republicans typically did; while the Irish were mainly a Democratic constituency in the 19th century, Blaine's mother was Irish Catholic, and he had been supportive of the Irish National Land League while he was Secretary of State.", "The Irish, a significant group in three of the swing states, did appear inclined to support Blaine until a Republican, Samuel D. Burchard, gave a speech pivotal for the Democrats, denouncing them as the party of \"Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion\".", "The Democrats spread the word of this implied Catholic insult on the eve of the election.", "They also blistered Blaine for attending a banquet with some of New York City's wealthiest men.After the votes were counted, Cleveland narrowly won all four of the swing states, including New York by 1,200 votes.", "While the popular vote total was close, with Cleveland winning by just one-quarter of a percent, the electoral votes gave Cleveland a majority of 219–182.Following the electoral victory, the \"Ma, Ma ...\" attack phrase gained a classic riposte: \"Gone to the White House.", "Ha!", "Ha!", "Ha!\"" ], [ "First presidency (1885–1889)", "===Reform===Cleveland portrayed as a tariff reformerSoon after taking office, Cleveland was faced with the task of filling all the government jobs for which the president had the power of appointment.", "These jobs were typically filled under the spoils system, but Cleveland announced that he would not fire any Republican who was doing his job well, and would not appoint anyone solely on the basis of party service.", "He also used his appointment powers to reduce the number of federal employees, as many departments had become bloated with political time-servers.", "Later in his term, as his fellow Democrats chafed at being excluded from the spoils, Cleveland began to replace more of the partisan Republican officeholders with Democrats; this was especially the case with policymaking positions.", "While some of his decisions were influenced by party concerns, more of Cleveland's appointments were decided by merit alone than was the case in his predecessors' administrations.Cleveland also reformed other parts of the government.", "In 1887, he signed an act creating the Interstate Commerce Commission.", "He and Secretary of the Navy William C. Whitney undertook to modernize the Navy and canceled construction contracts that had resulted in inferior ships.", "Cleveland angered railroad investors by ordering an investigation of Western lands they held by government grant.", "Secretary of the Interior Lucius Q. C. Lamar charged that the rights of way for this land must be returned to the public because the railroads failed to extend their lines according to agreements.", "The lands were forfeited, resulting in the return of approximately .Cleveland was the first Democratic president subject to the Tenure of Office Act which originated in 1867; the act purported to require the Senate to approve the dismissal of any presidential appointee who was originally subject to its advice and consent.", "Cleveland objected to the act in principle and his steadfast refusal to abide by it prompted its fall into disfavor and led to its ultimate repeal in 1887.===Vetoes===As Congress and its Republican-led Senate sent Cleveland legislation he opposed, he often resorted to using his veto power.", "He vetoed hundreds of private pension bills for American Civil War veterans, believing that if their pensions requests had already been rejected by the Pension Bureau, Congress should not attempt to override that decision.", "When Congress, pressured by the Grand Army of the Republic, passed a bill granting pensions for disabilities not caused by military service, Cleveland also vetoed that.", "In his first term alone, Cleveland used the veto 414 times, which was more than four times more often than any previous president had used it.", "In 1887, Cleveland issued his most well-known veto, that of the Texas Seed Bill.", "After a drought had ruined crops in several Texas counties, Congress appropriated $100,000 () to purchase seed grain for farmers there.", "Cleveland vetoed the expenditure.", "In his veto message, he espoused a theory of limited government:===Silver===One of the most volatile issues of the 1880s was whether the currency should be backed by gold and silver, or by gold alone.", "The issue cut across party lines, with Western Republicans and Southern Democrats joining in the call for the free coinage of silver, and both parties' representatives in the northeast holding firm for the gold standard.", "Because silver was worth less than its legal equivalent in gold, taxpayers paid their government bills in silver, while international creditors demanded payment in gold, resulting in a depletion of the nation's gold supply.Cleveland and Treasury Secretary Daniel Manning stood firmly on the side of the gold standard, and tried to reduce the amount of silver that the government was required to coin under the Bland–Allison Act of 1878.Cleveland unsuccessfully appealed to Congress to repeal this law before he was inaugurated.", "Angered Westerners and Southerners advocated for cheap money to help their poorer constituents.", "In reply, one of the foremost silverites, Richard P. Bland, introduced a bill in 1886 that would require the government to coin unlimited amounts of silver, inflating the then-deflating currency.", "While Bland's bill was defeated, so was a bill the administration favored that would repeal any silver coinage requirement.", "The result was a retention of the ''status quo'', and a postponement of the resolution of the free-silver issue.===Tariffs===\"When we consider that the theory of our institutions guarantees to every citizen the full enjoyment of all the fruits of his industry and enterprise, with only such deduction as may be his share toward the careful and economical maintenance of the Government which protects him, it is plain that the exaction of more than this is indefensible extortion and a culpable betrayal of American fairness and justice ...", "The public Treasury, which should only exist as a conduit conveying the people's tribute to its legitimate objects of expenditure, becomes a hoarding place for money needlessly withdrawn from trade and the people's use, thus crippling our national energies, suspending our country's development, preventing investment in productive enterprise, threatening financial disturbance, and inviting schemes of public plunder.\"", "'''''Cleveland's third annual message to Congress''',December 6, 1887.", "''Another contentious financial issue at the time was the protective tariff.", "These tariffs had been implemented as a temporary measure during the civil war to protect American industrial interests but remained in place after the war.", "While it had not been a central point in his campaign, Cleveland's opinion on the tariff was that of most Democrats: that the tariff ought to be reduced.", "Republicans generally favored a high tariff to protect American industries.", "American tariffs had been high since the Civil War, and by the 1880s the tariff brought in so much revenue that the government was running a surplus.In 1886, a bill to reduce the tariff was narrowly defeated in the House.", "The tariff issue was emphasized in the Congressional elections that year, and the forces of protectionism increased their numbers in the Congress, but Cleveland continued to advocate tariff reform.", "As the surplus grew, Cleveland and the reformers called for a tariff for revenue only.", "His message to Congress in 1887 (quoted at right) highlighted the injustice of taking more money from the people than the government needed to pay its operating expenses.", "Republicans, as well as protectionist northern Democrats like Samuel J. Randall, believed that American industries would fail without high tariffs, and they continued to fight reform efforts.", "Roger Q.", "Mills, chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, proposed a bill to reduce the tariff from about 47% to about 40%.", "After significant exertions by Cleveland and his allies, the bill passed the House.", "The Republican Senate failed to come to an agreement with the Democratic House, and the bill died in the conference committee.", "Dispute over the tariff persisted into the 1888 presidential election.===Foreign policy, 1885–1889===Cleveland was a committed non-interventionist who had campaigned in opposition to expansion and imperialism.", "He refused to promote the previous administration's Nicaragua canal treaty, and generally was less of an expansionist in foreign relations.", "Cleveland's Secretary of State, Thomas F. Bayard, negotiated with Joseph Chamberlain of the United Kingdom over fishing rights in the waters off Canada, and struck a conciliatory note, despite the opposition of New England's Republican Senators.", "Cleveland also withdrew from Senate consideration of the Berlin Conference treaty which guaranteed an open door for U.S. interests in the Congo.===Military policy, 1885–1889===Cleveland's military policy emphasized self-defense and modernization.", "In 1885 Cleveland appointed the Board of Fortifications under Secretary of War William C. Endicott to recommend a new coastal fortification system for the United States.", "No improvements to US coastal defenses had been made since the late 1870s.", "The Board's 1886 report recommended a massive $127 million construction program (equivalent to $ billion in ) at 29 harbors and river estuaries, to include new breech-loading rifled guns, mortars, and naval minefields.", "The Board and the program are usually called the Endicott Board and the Endicott Program.", "Most of the Board's recommendations were implemented, and by 1910, 27 locations were defended by over 70 forts.", "Many of the weapons remained in place until scrapped in World War II as they were replaced with new defenses.", "Endicott also proposed to Congress a system of examinations for Army officer promotions.", "For the Navy, the Cleveland administration, spearheaded by Secretary of the Navy William Collins Whitney, moved towards modernization, although no ships were constructed that could match the best European warships.", "Although completion of the four steel-hulled warships begun under the previous administration was delayed due to a corruption investigation and subsequent bankruptcy of their building yard, these ships were completed in a timely manner in naval shipyards once the investigation was over.", "Sixteen additional steel-hulled warships were ordered by the end of 1888; these ships later proved vital in the Spanish–American War of 1898, and many served in World War I.", "These ships included the \"second-class battleships\" and , designed to match modern armored ships recently acquired by South American countries from Europe, such as the Brazilian battleship ''Riachuelo''.", "Eleven protected cruisers (including the famous ), one armored cruiser, and one monitor were also ordered, along with the experimental cruiser .===Civil rights and immigration===Cleveland, like a growing number of Northerners and nearly all white Southerners, saw Reconstruction as a failed experiment, and was reluctant to use federal power to enforce the 15th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, which guaranteed voting rights to African Americans.", "Though Cleveland appointed no black Americans to patronage jobs, he allowed Frederick Douglass to continue in his post as recorder of deeds in Washington, D.C., and appointed another black man (James Campbell Matthews, a former New York judge) to replace Douglass upon his resignation.", "His decision to replace Douglass with a black man was met with outrage, but Cleveland claimed to have known Matthews personally.Although Cleveland had condemned the \"outrages\" against Chinese immigrants, he believed that Chinese immigrants were unwilling to assimilate into white society.", "Secretary of State Thomas F. Bayard negotiated an extension to the Chinese Exclusion Act, and Cleveland lobbied the Congress to pass the Scott Act, written by Congressman William Lawrence Scott, which prevented the return of Chinese immigrants who left the United States.", "The Scott Act easily passed both houses of Congress, and Cleveland signed it into law on October 1, 1888.===Native American policy===Henry L. Dawes wrote the Dawes Act, which Cleveland signed into law.Cleveland viewed Native Americans as wards of the state, saying in his first inaugural address that \"this guardianship involves, on our part, efforts for the improvement of their condition and enforcement of their rights.\"", "He encouraged the idea of cultural assimilation, pushing for the passage of the Dawes Act, which provided for the distribution of Indian lands to individual members of tribes, rather than having them continued to be held in trust for the tribes by the federal government.", "While a conference of Native leaders endorsed the act, in practice the majority of Native Americans disapproved of it.", "Cleveland believed the Dawes Act would lift Native Americans out of poverty and encourage their assimilation into white society.", "It ultimately weakened the tribal governments and allowed individual Indians to sell land and keep the money.In the month before Cleveland's 1885 inauguration, President Arthur opened four million acres of Winnebago and Crow Creek Indian lands in the Dakota Territory to white settlement by executive order.", "Tens of thousands of settlers gathered at the border of these lands and prepared to take possession of them.", "Cleveland believed Arthur's order to be in violation of treaties with the tribes, and rescinded it on April 17 of that year, ordering the settlers out of the territory.", "Cleveland sent in eighteen companies of Army troops to enforce the treaties and ordered General Philip Sheridan, at the time Commanding General of the U.S. Army, to investigate the matter.===Marriage and children===Frances Folsom Cleveland Cleveland was 47 years old when he entered the White House as a bachelor.", "His sister Rose Cleveland joined him, acting as hostess for the first 15 months of his administration.", "Unlike the previous bachelor president James Buchanan, Cleveland did not remain a bachelor for long.", "In 1885, the daughter of Cleveland's friend Oscar Folsom visited him in Washington.", "Frances Folsom was a student at Wells College.", "When she returned to school, President Cleveland received her mother's permission to correspond with her, and they were soon engaged to be married.", "The wedding occurred on June 2, 1886, in the Blue Room at the White House.", "Cleveland was 49 years old at the time; Frances was 21.He was the second president to wed while in office and remains the only president to marry in the White House.", "This marriage was unusual because Cleveland was the executor of Oscar Folsom's estate and had supervised Frances's upbringing after her father's death; nevertheless, the public took no exception to the match.", "At 21 years, Frances Folsom Cleveland was and remains the youngest First Lady in history, and soon became popular for her warm personality.The Clevelands had five children: Ruth (1891–1904), Esther (1893–1980), Marion (1895–1977), Richard (1897–1974), and Francis (1903–1995).", "British philosopher Philippa Foot (1920–2010) was their granddaughter.", "Ruth contracted diphtheria on January 2, 1904, and died five days after her diagnosis.", "The Curtiss Candy Company would later assert that the \"Baby Ruth\" candy bar was named after her.Cleveland also claimed paternity of a child with Maria Crofts Halpin, Oscar Folsom Cleveland, who was born in 1874.===Administration and Cabinet===Cleveland's first Cabinet.", "Front row, left to right: Thomas F. Bayard, '''Cleveland''', Daniel Manning, Lucius Q. C. Lamar Back row, left to right: William F. Vilas, William C. Whitney, William C. Endicott, Augustus H. Garland ===Judicial appointments===Chief Justice Melville FullerDuring his first term, Cleveland successfully nominated two justices to the Supreme Court of the United States.", "The first, Lucius Q. C. Lamar, was a former Mississippi senator who served in Cleveland's Cabinet as Interior Secretary.", "When William Burnham Woods died, Cleveland nominated Lamar to his seat in late 1887.While Lamar had been well-liked as a senator, his service under the Confederacy two decades earlier caused many Republicans to vote against him.", "Lamar's nomination was confirmed by the narrow margin of 32 to 28.Chief Justice Morrison Waite died a few months later, and Cleveland nominated Melville Fuller to fill his seat on April 30, 1888.Fuller accepted.", "He had previously declined Cleveland's nomination to the Civil Service Commission, preferring his Chicago law practice.", "The Senate Judiciary Committee spent several months examining the little-known nominee, before the Senate confirmed the nomination 41 to 20.Cleveland nominated 41 lower federal court judges in addition to his four Supreme Court justices.", "These included two judges to the United States circuit courts, nine judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 30 judges to the United States district courts.", "Because Cleveland served terms both before and after Congress eliminated the circuit courts in favor of the Courts of Appeals, he is one of only two presidents to have appointed judges to both bodies.", "The other, Benjamin Harrison, was in office at the time that the change was made.", "Thus, all of Cleveland's appointments to the circuit courts were made in his first term, and all of his appointments to the Courts of Appeals were made in his second." ], [ "Election of 1888 and return to private life (1889–1893)", "===Defeated by Harrison===Poster President Cleveland and Allen G. Thurman of Ohio (1888).Results of the 1888 ElectionThe Republicans nominated Benjamin Harrison, the former U.S.", "Senator from Indiana for president and Levi P. Morton of New York for vice president.", "Cleveland was renominated at the Democratic convention in St. Louis.", "Following Vice President Thomas A. Hendricks' death in 1885, the Democrats chose Allen G. Thurman of Ohio to be Cleveland's new running mate.The Republicans gained the upper hand in the campaign, as Cleveland's campaign was poorly managed by Calvin S. Brice and William H. Barnum, whereas Harrison had engaged more aggressive fundraisers and tacticians in Matt Quay and John Wanamaker.The Republicans campaigned heavily on the tariff issue, turning out protectionist voters in the important industrial states of the North.", "Further, the Democrats in New York were divided over the gubernatorial candidacy of David B. Hill, weakening Cleveland's support in that swing state.", "A letter from the British ambassador supporting Cleveland caused a scandal that cost Cleveland votes in New York.As in 1884, the election focused on the swing states of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Indiana.", "But unlike that year, when Cleveland had triumphed in all four, in 1888 he won only two, losing his home state of New York by 14,373 votes.", "Cleveland won a plurality of the popular vote – 48.6 percent vs. 47.8 percent for Harrison – but Harrison won the Electoral College vote easily, 233–168.The Republicans won Indiana, largely as the result of a fraudulent voting practice known as Blocks of Five.", "Cleveland continued his duties diligently until the end of the term and began to look forward to returning to private life.===Private citizen for four years===As Frances Cleveland left the White House, she told a staff member, \"Now, Jerry, I want you to take good care of all the furniture and ornaments in the house, for I want to find everything just as it is now, when we come back again.\"", "When asked when she would return, she responded, \"We are coming back four years from today.\"", "In the meantime, the Clevelands moved to New York City, where Cleveland took a position with the law firm of Bangs, Stetson, Tracy, and MacVeigh.", "This affiliation was more of an office-sharing arrangement, though quite compatible.", "Cleveland's law practice brought only a moderate income, perhaps because Cleveland spent considerable time at the couple's vacation home Gray Gables at Buzzard Bay, where fishing became his obsession.", "While they lived in New York, the Clevelands' first child, Ruth, was born in 1891.The Harrison administration worked with Congress to pass the McKinley Tariff, an aggressively protectionist measure, and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, which increased money backed by silver; these were among policies Cleveland deplored as dangerous to the nation's financial health.", "At first he refrained from criticizing his successor, but by 1891 Cleveland felt compelled to speak out, addressing his concerns in an open letter to a meeting of reformers in New York.", "The \"silver letter\" thrust Cleveland's name back into the spotlight just as the 1892 election was approaching." ], [ "Election of 1892", "===Nomination for president===Cleveland's enduring reputation as chief executive and his recent pronouncements on the monetary issues made him a leading contender for the Democratic nomination.", "His leading opponent was David B. Hill, a Senator for New York.", "Hill united the anti-Cleveland elements of the Democratic party—silverites, protectionists, and Tammany Hall—but was unable to create a coalition large enough to deny Cleveland the nomination.", "Despite some desperate maneuvering by Hill, Cleveland was nominated on the first ballot at the party convention in Chicago.For vice president, the Democrats chose to balance the ticket with Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois, a silverite.", "Although the Cleveland forces preferred Isaac P. Gray of Indiana for vice president, they accepted the convention favorite.", "As a supporter of greenbacks and free silver to inflate the currency and alleviate economic distress in the rural districts, Stevenson balanced the otherwise hard-money, gold-standard ticket headed by Cleveland.===Campaign against Harrison===Results of the 1892 electionThe Republicans re-nominated President Harrison, making the 1892 election a rematch of the one four years earlier.", "Unlike the turbulent and controversial elections of 1876, 1884, and 1888, the 1892 election was, according to Cleveland biographer Allan Nevins, \"the cleanest, quietest, and most creditable in the memory of the post-war generation\", in part because Harrison's wife, Caroline, was dying of tuberculosis.", "Harrison did not personally campaign at all.", "Following Caroline Harrison's death on October 25, two weeks before the national election, Cleveland and all of the other candidates stopped campaigning, thus making Election Day a somber and quiet event for the whole country as well as the candidates.The issue of the tariff had worked to the Republicans' advantage in 1888.Now, however, the legislative revisions of the past four years had made imported goods so expensive that by 1892 many voters favored tariff reform and were skeptical of big business.", "Many Westerners (traditionally Republican voters), defected to James B. Weaver, the candidate of the new Populist Party.", "Weaver promised free silver, generous veterans' pensions, and an eight-hour day.", "The Tammany Hall Democrats adhered to the national ticket, allowing a united Democratic party to carry New York.", "At the campaign's end, many Populists and labor supporters endorsed Cleveland after an attempt by the Carnegie Corporation to break the union during the Homestead strike in Pittsburgh and after a similar conflict between big business and labor at the Tennessee Coal and Iron Co.", "The final result was a victory for Cleveland by wide margins in both the popular and electoral votes, and it was Cleveland's third consecutive popular vote plurality." ], [ "Second presidency (1893–1897)", "===Economic panic and the silver issue===Caricature of Cleveland as anti-silverShortly after Cleveland's second term began, the Panic of 1893 struck the stock market, leaving Cleveland and the nation to face an economic depression.", "The panic was worsened by the acute shortage of gold that resulted from the increased coinage of silver, and Cleveland called Congress into special session to deal with the problem.", "The debate over the coinage was as heated as ever, and the effects of the panic had driven more moderates to support repealing the coinage provisions of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act.", "Even so, the silverites rallied their following at a convention in Chicago, and the House of Representatives debated for fifteen weeks before passing the repeal by a considerable margin.", "In the Senate, the repeal of silver coinage was equally contentious.", "Cleveland, forced against his better judgment to lobby the Congress for repeal, convinced enough Democrats—and along with eastern Republicans, they formed a 48–37 majority for repeal.", "Depletion of the Treasury's gold reserves continued, at a lesser rate, and subsequent bond issues replenished supplies of gold.", "At the time the repeal seemed a minor setback to silverites, but it marked the beginning of the end of silver as a basis for American currency.===Tariff reform===Cleveland's humiliation by Gorman and the sugar trustHaving succeeded in reversing the Harrison administration's silver policy, Cleveland sought next to reverse the effects of the McKinley Tariff.", "The Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act was introduced by West Virginian Representative William L. Wilson in December 1893.After lengthy debate, the bill passed the House by a considerable margin.", "The bill proposed moderate downward revisions in the tariff, especially on raw materials.", "The shortfall in revenue was to be made up by an income tax of two percent on income above $4,000 ().The bill was next considered in the Senate, where it faced stronger opposition from key Democrats led by Arthur Pue Gorman of Maryland, who insisted on more protection for their states' industries than the Wilson bill allowed.", "The bill passed the Senate with more than 600 amendments attached that nullified most of the reforms.", "The Sugar Trust in particular lobbied for changes that favored it at the expense of the consumer.", "Cleveland was outraged with the final bill, and denounced it as a disgraceful product of the control of the Senate by trusts and business interests.", "Even so, he believed it was an improvement over the McKinley tariff and allowed it to become law without his signature.===Voting rights===In 1892, Cleveland had campaigned against the Lodge Bill, which would have strengthened voting rights protections through the appointing of federal supervisors of congressional elections upon a petition from the citizens of any district.", "The Enforcement Act of 1871 had provided for a detailed federal overseeing of the electoral process, from registration to the certification of returns.", "Cleveland succeeded in ushering in the 1894 repeal of this law (ch.", "25, 28 Stat.", "36).", "The pendulum thus swung from stronger attempts to protect voting rights to the repealing of voting rights protections; this in turn led to unsuccessful attempts to have the federal courts protect voting rights in ''Giles v. Harris'', 189 U.S. 475 (1903), and ''Giles v. Teasley'', 193 U.S. 146 (1904).===Labor unrest===John Tyler Morgan, Senator from Alabama, opposed Cleveland on free silver, the tariff, and the Hawaii treaty, saying of Cleveland that \"I hate the ground that man walks on.", "\"The Panic of 1893 had damaged labor conditions across the United States, and the victory of anti-silver legislation worsened the mood of western laborers.", "A group of workingmen led by Jacob S. Coxey began to march east toward Washington, D.C., to protest Cleveland's policies.", "This group, known as Coxey's Army, agitated in favor of a national roads program to give jobs to workingmen, and a weakened currency to help farmers pay their debts.", "By the time they reached Washington, only a few hundred remained, and when they were arrested the next day for walking on the lawn of the United States Capitol, the group scattered.", "Even though Coxey's Army may not have been a threat to the government, it signaled a growing dissatisfaction in the West with Eastern monetary policies.===Pullman Strike===The Pullman Strike had a significantly greater impact than Coxey's Army.", "A strike began against the Pullman Company over low wages and twelve-hour workdays, and sympathy strikes, led by American Railway Union leader Eugene V. Debs, soon followed.", "By June 1894, 125,000 railroad workers were on strike, paralyzing the nation's commerce.", "Because the railroads carried the mail, and because several of the affected lines were in federal receivership, Cleveland believed a federal solution was appropriate.", "Cleveland obtained an injunction in federal court, and when the strikers refused to obey it, he sent federal troops into Chicago and 20 other rail centers.", "\"If it takes the entire army and navy of the United States to deliver a postcard in Chicago\", he proclaimed, \"that card will be delivered.\"", "Most governors supported Cleveland except Democrat John P. Altgeld of Illinois, who became his bitter foe in 1896.Leading newspapers of both parties applauded Cleveland's actions, but the use of troops hardened the attitude of organized labor toward his administration.Just before the 1894 election, Cleveland was warned by Francis Lynde Stetson, an advisor: \"We are on the eve of a very dark night, unless a return of commercial prosperity relieves popular discontent with what they believe is Democratic incompetence to make laws, and consequently discontent with Democratic Administrations anywhere and everywhere.\"", "The warning was appropriate, for in the Congressional elections, Republicans won their biggest landslide in decades, taking full control of the House, while the Populists lost most of their support.", "Cleveland's factional enemies gained control of the Democratic Party in state after state, including full control in Illinois and Michigan, and made major gains in Ohio, Indiana, Iowa and other states.", "Wisconsin and Massachusetts were two of the few states that remained under the control of Cleveland's allies.", "The Democratic opposition were close to controlling two-thirds of the vote at the 1896 national convention, which they needed to nominate their own candidate.", "They failed for lack of unity and a national leader, as Illinois governor John Peter Altgeld had been born in Germany and was ineligible to be nominated for president.===Foreign policy, 1893–1897===\"I suppose that right and justice should determine the path to be followed in treating this subject.", "If national honesty is to be disregarded and a desire for territorial expansion or dissatisfaction with a form of government not our own ought to regulate our conduct, I have entirely misapprehended the mission and character of our government and the behavior which the conscience of the people demands of their public servants.\"", "'''''Cleveland's message to Congress on the Hawaiian question''', December 18, 1893''.", "''His Little Hawaiian Game Checkmated'', 1894When Cleveland took office, he faced the question of Hawaiian annexation.", "In his first term, he had supported free trade with the Hawaiian Kingdom and accepted an amendment that gave the United States a coaling and naval station in Pearl Harbor.", "A treaty of peace and friendship existed between the United States and Hawai'i.", "In the intervening four years, however, Honolulu businessmen of European and American ancestry had denounced Queen Liliuokalani as a tyrant who rejected constitutional government.", "In January 1893 they overthrew her, set up a provisional government under Sanford B. Dole, and sought to join the United States.", "The Harrison administration had quickly agreed with representatives of the new government on a treaty of annexation and submitted it to the Senate for approval.", "However, the presence in Honolulu of U.S. Marines from the USS ''Boston'' while the coup unfolded, deployed at the request of U.S. Minister to Hawaii John L. Stevens, caused serious controversy.", "Five days after taking office on March 9, 1893, Cleveland withdrew the treaty from the Senate and sent former Congressman James Henderson Blount to Hawai'i to investigate the situation.Cleveland agreed with Blount's report, which found the native Hawaiians to be opposed to annexation; the report also found U.S. diplomatic and military involvement in the coup.", "It included over a thousand pages of documents.", "A firm anti-imperialist, Cleveland opposed American actions in Hawaii and called for the queen to be restored; he disapproved of the new provisional government under Dole.", "But matters stalled when Liliuokalani initially refused to grant amnesty as a condition for regaining her throne, saying she would either execute or banish the new leadership in Honolulu; Dole's government was in full control and rejected her demands.", "By December 1893, the matter was still unresolved, and Cleveland referred the issue to Congress.", "Cleveland delivered a December 18, 1893, message to Congress, rejecting annexation and encouraging Congress to continue the American tradition of non-intervention (see excerpt at right).", "He expressed himself in forceful terms, saying the presence of U.S. forces near the Hawaiian government building and royal palace during the coup was a \"substantial wrong\" and an \"act of war,\" and lambasted the actions of minister Stevens.", "Cleveland described the incident as the \"subversion of the constitutional Government of Hawaii,\" and argued \"it has been the settled policy of the United States to concede to people of foreign countries the same freedom and independence in the management of their domestic affairs that we have always claimed for ourselves.\"", "The House of Representatives adopted a resolution against annexation and voted to censure the U.S. minister.", "However the Senate, under Democratic control but opposed to Cleveland, commissioned and produced the Morgan Report, which contradicted Blount's findings and found the overthrow was a completely internal affair.", "Senator John Tyler Morgan of Alabama, chairman of the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, oversaw the report.", "It declared that the \"action of the Queen in an effort to overturn the constitution of 1887...amounted to an act of abdication on her part.\"", "The \"constitution of 1887\" mentioned in the report was the so-called Bayonet Constitution, which King Kalakaua had signed under pressure that year.", "The Morgan Report said that the troops landed on Oahu by the USS ''Boston'' gave \"no demonstration of actual hostilities,\" and described their conduct as \"quiet\" and \"respectful.\"", "The United States already had a presence in the region, and acquired exclusive rights to enter and establish a naval base at Pearl Harbor in 1887, when the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 was renewed during Cleveland's first term.", "Cleveland dropped his push to restore the queen, and went on to recognize and maintain diplomatic relations with the new Republic of Hawaii under President Dole, who took office in July 1894.Closer to home, Cleveland adopted a broad interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine that not only prohibited new European colonies, but also declared an American national interest in any matter of substance within the hemisphere.", "When Britain and Venezuela disagreed over the boundary between Venezuela and the colony of British Guiana, Cleveland and Secretary of State Richard Olney protested.", "British Prime Minister Lord Salisbury and the British ambassador to Washington, Julian Pauncefote, misjudged how important the dispute was to Washington, and to the anti-British Irish Catholic element in Cleveland's Democratic Party.", "They prolonged the crisis before accepting the American demand for arbitration.", "An international tribunal in 1899 awarded the bulk of the disputed territory to British Guiana.", "But by standing with a Latin American nation against the encroachment of a colonial power, Cleveland improved relations with Latin America.", "The cordial manner in which the arbitration was conducted also strengthened relations with Britain and encouraged the major powers to consider arbitration as a way to settle their disputes.===Military policy, 1893–1897===The second Cleveland administration was as committed to military modernization as the first, and ordered the first ships of a navy capable of offensive action.", "Construction continued on the Endicott program of coastal fortifications begun under Cleveland's first administration.", "The adoption of the Krag–Jørgensen rifle, the US Army's first bolt-action repeating rifle, was finalized.", "In 1895–1896 Secretary of the Navy Hilary A. Herbert, having recently adopted the aggressive naval strategy advocated by Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, successfully proposed ordering five battleships (the and es) and sixteen torpedo boats.", "Completion of these ships nearly doubled the Navy's battleships and created a new torpedo boat force, which previously had only two boats.", "The battleships and seven of the torpedo boats were not completed until 1899–1901, after the Spanish–American War.===Cancer===Official portrait of President Cleveland by Eastman Johnson, In the midst of the fight for repeal of free-silver coinage in 1893, Cleveland sought the advice of the White House doctor, Dr. O'Reilly, about soreness on the roof of his mouth and a crater-like edge ulcer with a granulated surface on the left side of Cleveland's hard palate.", "Clinical samples were sent anonymously to the Army Medical Museum; the diagnosis was an ''epithelioma'', rather than a malignant cancer.Cleveland decided to have surgery secretly, to avoid further panic that might worsen the financial depression.", "The surgery occurred on July 1, to give Cleveland time to make a full recovery in time for the upcoming Congressional session.", "Under the guise of a vacation cruise, Cleveland and his surgeon, Dr. Joseph Bryant, left for New York.", "The surgeons operated aboard the ''Oneida'', a yacht owned by Cleveland's friend E. C. Benedict, as it sailed off Long Island.", "The surgery was conducted through the President's mouth, to avoid any scars or other signs of surgery.", "The team, sedating Cleveland with nitrous oxide and ether, successfully removed parts of his upper left jaw and hard palate.", "The size of the tumor and the extent of the operation left Cleveland's mouth disfigured.", "During another surgery, Cleveland was fitted with a hard rubber dental prosthesis that corrected his speech and restored his appearance.", "A cover story about the removal of two bad teeth kept the suspicious press placated.", "Even when a newspaper story appeared giving details of the actual operation, the participating surgeons discounted the severity of what transpired during Cleveland's vacation.", "In 1917, one of the surgeons present on the ''Oneida'', Dr. William W. Keen, wrote an article detailing the operation.Cleveland enjoyed many years of life after the tumor was removed, and there was some debate as to whether it was actually malignant.", "Several doctors, including Dr.", "Keen, stated after Cleveland's death that the tumor was a carcinoma.Other suggestions included ameloblastoma or a benign salivary mixed tumor (also known as a pleomorphic adenoma).In the 1980s, analysis of the specimen finally confirmed the tumor to be verrucous carcinoma, a low-grade epithelial cancer with a low potential for metastasis.===Administration and cabinet===Cleveland's last Cabinet.", "Front row, left to right: Daniel S. Lamont, Richard Olney, Cleveland, John G. Carlisle, Judson Harmon Back row, left to right: David R. Francis, William Lyne Wilson, Hilary A. Herbert, Julius S. Morton ===Judicial appointments===Cleveland's trouble with the Senate hindered the success of his nominations to the Supreme Court in his second term.", "In 1893, after the death of Samuel Blatchford, Cleveland nominated William B. Hornblower to the Court.", "Hornblower, the head of a New York City law firm, was thought to be a qualified appointee, but his campaign against a New York machine politician had made Senator David B. Hill his enemy.", "Further, Cleveland had not consulted the Senators before naming his appointee, leaving many who were already opposed to Cleveland on other grounds even more aggrieved.", "The Senate rejected Hornblower's nomination on January 15, 1894, by a vote of 30 to 24.Cleveland continued to defy the Senate by next appointing Wheeler Hazard Peckham another New York attorney who had opposed Hill's machine in that state.", "Hill used all of his influence to block Peckham's confirmation, and on February 16, 1894, the Senate rejected the nomination by a vote of 32 to 41.Reformers urged Cleveland to continue the fight against Hill and to nominate Frederic R. Coudert, but Cleveland acquiesced in an inoffensive choice, that of Senator Edward Douglass White of Louisiana, whose nomination was accepted unanimously.", "Later, in 1895, another vacancy on the Court led Cleveland to consider Hornblower again, but he declined to be nominated.", "Instead, Cleveland nominated Rufus Wheeler Peckham, the brother of Wheeler Hazard Peckham, and the Senate confirmed the second Peckham easily.===States admitted to the Union===No new states were admitted to the Union during Cleveland's first term.", "On February 22, 1889, days before leaving office, the 50th Congress passed the Enabling Act of 1889, authorizing North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington to form state governments and to gain admission to the Union.", "All four officially became states in November 1889, during the first year of the Benjamin Harrison administration.", "During his second term, the 53rd United States Congress passed an Enabling Act that permitted Utah to apply for statehood.", "Cleveland signed it on July 16, 1894.Utah joined the Union as the 45th state on January 4, 1896." ], [ "1896 election and retirement (1897–1908)", "Cleveland in 1903 at age 66 by Frederick GutekunstCleveland's agrarian and silverite enemies gained control of the Democratic Party in 1896, repudiated his administration and the gold standard, and nominated William Jennings Bryan on a free-silver platform.", "Cleveland silently supported the Gold Democrats' third-party ticket that promised to defend the gold standard, limit government, and oppose high tariffs, but he declined their nomination for a third term.", "The party won only 100,000 votes in the general election, and William McKinley, the Republican nominee, triumphed easily over Bryan.", "Agrarians nominated Bryan again in 1900.In 1904, the conservatives, with Cleveland's support, regained control of the Democratic Party and nominated Alton B. Parker.Outgoing President Cleveland, at right, stands nearby as William McKinley is sworn in as president by Chief Justice Melville Fuller.After leaving the White House on March 4, 1897, Cleveland lived in retirement at his estate, Westland Mansion, in Princeton, New Jersey.", "For a time, he was a trustee of Princeton University, and was one of the majority of trustees who preferred the dean Andrew Fleming West's plans for the Graduate School and undergraduate living over those of Woodrow Wilson, then president of the university.", "Cleveland consulted occasionally with President Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909) but was financially unable to accept the chairmanship of the commission handling the Coal Strike of 1902.Cleveland still made his views known in political matters.", "In a 1905 article in ''The Ladies Home Journal'', Cleveland weighed in on the women's suffrage movement, writing that \"sensible and responsible women do not want to vote.", "The relative positions to be assumed by men and women in the working out of our civilization were assigned long ago by a higher intelligence.", "\"The last known photograph of Cleveland by Underwood & Underwood (1907)In 1906, a group of New Jersey Democrats promoted Cleveland as a possible candidate for the United States Senate.", "The incumbent, John F. Dryden, was not seeking re-election, and some Democrats felt that the former president could attract the votes of some disaffected Republican legislators who might be drawn to Cleveland's statesmanship and conservatism." ], [ "Death", "Cleveland's health had been declining for several years, and in the autumn of 1907 he fell seriously ill.", "In 1908, he suffered a heart attack and died on June 24 at age 71 in his Princeton residence.", "His last words were, \"I have tried so hard to do right.\"", "He is buried in the Princeton Cemetery of the Nassau Presbyterian Church." ], [ "Honors and memorials", "In his first term in office, Cleveland sought a summer house to escape the heat and smells of Washington, D.C., near enough the capital.", "He secretly bought a farmhouse, Oak View (or Oak Hill), in a rural upland part of the District of Columbia, in 1886, and remodeled it into a Queen Anne style summer estate.", "He sold Oak View upon losing his bid for re-election in 1888.Not long thereafter, suburban residential development reached the area, which came to be known as Oak View, and then Cleveland Heights, and eventually Cleveland Park.", "The Clevelands are depicted in local murals.Grover Cleveland Hall at Buffalo State College in Buffalo, New York is named after Cleveland.", "Cleveland Hall houses the offices of the college president, vice presidents, and other administrative functions and student services.", "Cleveland was a member of the first board of directors of the then Buffalo Normal School.", "Grover Cleveland Middle School in his birthplace, Caldwell, New Jersey, was named for him, as is Grover Cleveland High School in Buffalo, New York, and the town of Cleveland, Mississippi.", "Mount Cleveland, a volcano in Alaska, is also named after him.In 1895 he became the first U.S. president who was filmed.The first U.S. postage stamp to honor Cleveland appeared in 1923.This twelve-cent issue accompanied a thirteen-cent stamp in the same definitive series that depicted his old rival, Benjamin Harrison.", "Cleveland's only two subsequent stamp appearances have been in issues devoted to the full roster of U.S. Presidents, released, respectively, in 1938 and 1986.Cleveland's portrait was on the U.S. $1000 bill of series 1928 and series 1934.He also appeared on the first few issues of the $20 Federal Reserve Notes from 1914.Since he was both the 22nd and 24th president, he was featured on two separate dollar coins released in 2012 as part of the Presidential $1 Coin Act of 2005.In 2013, Cleveland was inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame.", "$1000 Gold Certificate (1934)   Grover Cleveland Postal Issues of 1931 & 1938" ], [ "See also", "* Grover Cleveland Birthplace* Presidencies of Grover Cleveland* Child with Maria Halpin* Children with Frances Cleveland" ], [ "References", "'''Informational notes''''''Citations'''===Further reading===* * Bard, Mitchell.", "\"Ideology and Depression Politics I: Grover Cleveland (1893–1897)\" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 1985 15(1): 77–88.", "* Beito, David T. and Beito, Linda Royster.", "\"Gold Democrats and the Decline of Classical Liberalism, 1896–1900\".", "''Independent Review'' 4 (Spring 2000), 555–575.", "* * * Blodgett, Geoffrey.", "\"Ethno-cultural Realities in Presidential Patronage: Grover Cleveland's Choices\" ''New York History'' 2000 81(2): 189–210.when a German American leader called for fewer appointments of Irish Americans, Cleveland instead appointed more Germans* Blodgett, Geoffrey.", "\"The Emergence of Grover Cleveland: a Fresh Appraisal\" ''New York History'' 1992 73(2): 132–168.covers Cleveland to 1884* Blum, John.", "''The National Experience'' (1993) * Brodsky, Alan.", "''Grover Cleveland: A Study in Character'', (2000).", "* * Cleaver, Nick.", "''Grover Cleveland's New Foreign Policy: Arbitration, Neutrality, and the Dawn of American Empire'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).", "* DeSantis, Vincent P. \"Grover Cleveland: Another Look\".", "''Hayes Historical Journal'' 1980 3(1–2): 41–50., argues his energy, honesty, and devotion to duty—much more than his actual accomplishments established his claim to greatness.", "* Dewey, Davis R. '' National Problems: 1880–1897'' (1907), online edition* Doenecke, Justus.", "\"Grover Cleveland and the Enforcement of the Civil Service Act\" ''Hayes Historical Journal'' 1984 4(3): 44–58.", "* Dunlap, Annette B.", "''Frank: The Story of Frances Folsom Cleveland, America's Youngest First Lady'' (2015) excerpt* Dupont, Brandon.", "\"'Henceforth, I Must Have No Friends': Evaluating the Economic Policies of Grover Cleveland\".", "''Independent Review'' 18.4 (2014): 559–579.online* Faulkner, Harold U.", "''Politics, Reform, and Expansion, 1890–1900'' (1959), online edition* Ford, Henry Jones.", "''The Cleveland Era: A Chronicle of the New Order in Politics'' (1921), short overview online* Gould, Lewis.", "''America in the Progressive Era, 1890–1914'' (2001) * Graff, Henry F. ''Grover Cleveland'' (2002).", ", short biography by scholar* Grossman, Mark, ''Political Corruption in America: An Encyclopedia of Scandals, Power, and Greed'' (2003) .", "* Haeffele-Balch, Stefanie, and Virgil Henry Storr.", "\"Grover Cleveland against the special interests\".", "''The Independent Review'' 18.4 (2014): 581–596.online* Hirsch, Mark D. ''William C. Whitney, Modern Warwick'' (1948), biography of key political associate* Hoffman, Karen S. \"'Going Public' in the Nineteenth Century: Grover Cleveland's Repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act\" ''Rhetoric and Public Affairs'' 2002 5(1): 57–77.in Project MUSE* * Hoffmann, Charles.", "''Depression of the nineties; an economic history'' (1970)* Jeffers, H. Paul, ''An Honest President: The Life and Presidencies of Grover Cleveland'' (2000), .", "* * Klinghard, Daniel P. \"Grover Cleveland, William McKinley, and the emergence of the president as party leader\".", "''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 35.4 (2005): 736–760.", "* Lambert, John R. ''Arthur Pue Gorman'' (1953)* Lynch, G. Patrick \"U.S. Presidential Elections in the Nineteenth Century: Why Culture and the Economy Both Mattered\".", "''Polity'' 35#1 (2002) pp.", "29–50.in JSTOR, focus on election of 1884* McElroy, Robert.", "''Grover Cleveland, the Man and the Statesman: An Authorized Biography'' (1923) Vol.", "I, Vol.", "II, old fashioned narrative* McFarland, Gerald W. ''Mugwumps, morals, & politics, 1884–1920'' (1975) * McWilliams, Tennant S., \"James H. Blount, the South, and Hawaiian Annexation\".", "''Pacific Historical Review'' 1988 57(1): 25–46.in JSTOR.", "* Merrill, Horace Samuel.", "''Bourbon Leader: Grover Cleveland and the Democratic Party'' (1957) 228 pp* Morgan, H. Wayne.", "''From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877–1896'' (1969).", "* Nevins, Allan.", "''Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage'' (1932) Pulitzer Prize-winning biography, the major resource on Cleveland.", "* Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson.", "''A History of the United States since the Civil War.", "Volume V, 1888–1901'' (Macmillan, 1937).", "791 pp; comprehensive old-fashioned political history* Pafford, John M. ''The Forgotten Conservative: Rediscovering Grover Cleveland'' (Simon and Schuster, 2013).", "excerpt** Dwight D. Murphey, \"The Forgotten Conservative: Rediscovering Grover Cleveland\" ''The Journal of Social, Political, and Economic Studies'' 38#4 (Winter 2013): 491–500.review* Reitano, Joanne R. ''The Tariff Question in the Gilded Age: The Great Debate of 1888'' (1994).", ".", "* Rhodes, James Ford.", "''History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850: 1877–1896'' (1919) online complete; old, factual and heavily political, by winner of Pulitzer Prize* Senik, Troy.", "''A Man of Iron: The Turbulent Life and Improbable Presidency of Grover Cleveland'' (Threshold Editions, 2022).", "* Sturgis, Amy H. ed.", "''Presidents from Hayes Through McKinley: Debating the Issues in Pro and Con Primary Documents'' (Greenwood, 2003).", "* Summers, Mark Wahlgren.", "''Rum, Romanism & Rebellion: The Making of a President, 1884'' (2000).", ".", "campaign techniques and issues online edition* Tugwell, Rexford Guy, ''Grover Cleveland'' Simon & Schuster, Inc.", "(1968).", "* Walters, Ryan S. ''Grover Cleveland: The Last Jeffersonian President'' (2021) excerpt* Welch, Richard E. Jr. ''The Presidencies of Grover Cleveland'' (1988) , scholarly study of the presidential years* Wilson, Woodrow, ''Mr.", "Cleveland as President'' ''Atlantic Monthly'' (March 1897): pp.", "289–301 online; Wilson later became president* Zakaria, Fareed ''From Wealth to Power'' (1999) Princeton University Press.", ".", "::'''Primary sources'''* Cleveland, Grover.", "''The Writings and Speeches of Grover Cleveland'' (1892) online edition* Cleveland, Grover.", "''Presidential Problems.''", "(1904) online edition* Nevins, Allan ed.", "''Letters of Grover Cleveland, 1850–1908'' (1933)* , handbook of the Gold Democrats, who admired Cleveland* Sturgis, Amy H. ed.", "''Presidents from Hayes through McKinley, 1877–1901: Debating the Issues in Pro and Con Primary Documents'' (2003) online edition* Wilson, William L. ''The Cabinet Diary of William L. Wilson, 1896–1897'' (1957) online edition" ], [ "External links", "'''Letters and speeches'''* Text of a number of Cleveland's speeches at the Miller Center of Public Affairs* Finding Aid to the Grover Cleveland Manuscripts, 1867–1908 at the New York State Library.", "Retrieved May 11, 2016* 10 letters written by Grover Cleveland in 1884–86* Grover Cleveland Personal Manuscripts'''Media coverage'''* '''Other'''* Grover Cleveland: A Resource Guide, Library of Congress* Grover Cleveland: A bibliography by the Buffalo History Museum* Grover Cleveland Sites in Buffalo, NY: A Google Map developed by The Buffalo History Museum* Top Five Urban Legends About Grover Cleveland in Buffalo: A slide deck by the Buffalo History Museum.", "* Index to the Grover Cleveland Papers at the Library of Congress* Essay on Cleveland and each member of his cabinet and First Lady, Miller Center of Public Affairs* \"Life Portrait of Grover Cleveland\", from C-SPAN's ''American Presidents: Life Portraits'', August 13, 1999* Interview with H. Paul Jeffers on ''An Honest President: The Life and Presidencies of Grover Cleveland'', ''Booknotes'' (2000)* * * *" ] ]
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[ [ "Gregorio Allegri" ], [ "Introduction", "Gregorio Allegri'''Gregorio Allegri''' (17 February 1652) was a Catholic priest and Italian composer of the Roman School and brother of Domenico Allegri; he was also a singer.", "He was born and died in Rome.", "He is chiefly known for his ''Miserere'' for two choirs." ], [ "Life", "He studied music as a ''puer'' (boy chorister) at San Luigi dei Francesi, under the ''maestro di cappella'' Giovanni Bernardino Nanino, brother of Giovanni Maria Nanino.", "Being intended for the Church, he obtained a benefice in the cathedral of Fermo.", "Here he composed a large number of motets and other sacred music, which, being brought to the notice of Pope Urban VIII, obtained for him an appointment in the choir of the Sistine Chapel at Rome as a contralto.", "He held this from 6 December 1629 until his death.", "Allegri is said to have been a virtuous man, as well as good-natured and generous to the poor and to prisoners.Among Allegri's musical compositions were two volumes of concerti for five voices published in 1618 and 1619; two volumes of motets for six voices published in 1621; an edition of a four-part sinfonia; five masses; two settings of the ''Lamentations of Jeremiah''; and numerous motets which were not published in his lifetime.", "He was one of the earliest composers for stringed instruments, and Athanasius Kircher has given one specimen of this class of his works in his ''Musurgia Universalis''.", "Most of Allegri's published music, especially the instrumental music, is in the progressive early Baroque concertato style.", "However, his work for the Sistine Chapel is descended from the Palestrina style, and in some cases strips even this refined, simple style of almost all localised ornamentation.", "He is credited with the earliest string quartet." ], [ "The ''Miserere''", "By far the best-known and regarded piece of music composed by Allegri is the ''Miserere mei, Deus'', a setting of Vulgate Psalm 50 (= Psalm 51).", "It is written for two choirs, the one of five and the other of four voices, and has obtained considerable celebrity.", "One of the choirs sings a simple ''fauxbordon'' based on the original plainsong chant for the ''Tonus peregrinus''; the other choir sings a similar ''fauxbordon'' with pre-existing elaborations and the use of cadenzas.", "The ''Miserere'' has for many years been sung annually during Holy Week in the Sistine Chapel.", "Many have cited this work as an example of the ''stile antico'' (old style) or ''prima pratica'' (first practice).", "However, its emphasis on polychoral techniques certainly put it out of the range of ''prima pratica.''", "A more accurate comparison would be to the works of Giovanni Gabrieli.The ''Miserere'' is one of the most often-recorded examples of late Renaissance music, although it was actually written during the chronological confines of the Baroque era; in this regard it is representative of the music of the Roman School of composers, who were stylistically conservative.", "The work acquired a considerable reputation for mystery and inaccessibility between the time of its composition and the era of modern recording; the Vatican, wanting to preserve its aura of mystery, forbade copies, threatening any publication or attempted copy with excommunication.", "They were not prepared, however, for a special visit in 1770 from a 14-year-old named Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who, on a trip to Rome with his father, heard it but twice and transcribed it faithfully from memory, thus creating the first known unauthorised copy.", "However, there is evidence that copies of the work that pre-date Mozart's visit to Rome in 1770 had already been circulating in Europe, and Mozart may have heard the piece performed in London in 1764 or 1765 as well.In 1771 Mozart's copy was procured and published in England by the famous traveler and music historian Dr Charles Burney.", "However, Burney's edition does not show the ornamentation for which the work was famous.The music as it is performed today includes a strange error by a copyist in the 1880s.", "The curious \"trucker's gear change\" from G minor to C minor is because the second half of the verse is the same as the first half, but transposed up a fourth.", "The original never had a Top C.The entire music performed at Rome in Holy Week, Allegri's ''Miserere'' included, has been issued at Leipzig by Breitkopf and Härtel.", "Interesting accounts of the impression produced by the performance at Rome may be found in the first volume of Felix Mendelssohn's letters and in Miss Taylor's ''Letters from Italy''." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* A Biography and detailed essay on his \"Miserere mei\"* Article on Gregorio Allegri's ''Misere'' on ClassicalNet**" ] ]
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[ [ "Goodness (band)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Goodness''' was an American rock band from Seattle, Washington, led by Carrie Akre, formerly of Hammerbox and now primarily a solo artist.", "Goodness featured Akre (vocals), Danny Newcomb (lead guitar), Garth Reeves (guitar), Fiia McGann (bass), and Chris Friel (drums).", "Akre, Friel, and Newcomb later joined Mike McCready of Pearl Jam and Rick Friel to form the rock band The Rockfords.Goodness recorded a version of \"Electricity, Electricity\" with Mike McCready using the pseudonym \"Petster\" on electric guitar for the ''Schoolhouse Rock!", "Rocks'' tribute disc on Lava/Atlantic.", "They released their self-titled debut album in 1995 on Y Records, followed in 1998 by Anthem on Immortal/Epic and later These Days on Good Ink.", "Two live albums were released via Kufala Recordings in 2004.Goodness toured extensively all over the world, supporting such acts as Pearl Jam, Cheap Trick, and Oasis.", "They co-headlined a tour with Candlebox." ], [ "Discography", "*''Goodness'' – 1995*''Anthem'' – 1998*''These Days'' – 1999*Live Seattle July 8, 2004–2005*Live Tacoma, WA 6/19/04 – 2005*Live Seattle 12/03/04 – 2005" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Goodness at AllMusic* Carrie Akre at Myspace" ] ]
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[ [ "Geoff Hurst" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir Geoffrey Charles Hurst''' (born 8 December 1941) is an English former professional footballer.", "A striker, he became the first player to ever score a hat-trick in a World Cup final.", "He scored that hat-trick when England recorded a 4–2 victory over West Germany at Wembley in 1966.With the death of Sir Bobby Charlton in October 2023, Hurst became the last living player from the team that won the 1966 final.Hurst began his career with West Ham United, where he scored 242 goals in 500 first team appearances.", "There he won the FA Cup in 1964 and the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1965.He was sold to Stoke City in 1972 for £80,000.After three seasons with Stoke, where he won the Watney Cup in 1973, he finished his Football League career with West Bromwich Albion in 1976.Hurst went to play football in Ireland (Cork Celtic) and the United States (Seattle Sounders), before returning to England to manage non-league Telford United.", "He also coached in the England set-up before a two-year stint as Chelsea manager from 1979 to 1981.He later coached Kuwait SC, before leaving the game to concentrate on his business commitments.In total, Hurst scored 24 goals in 49 England appearances, and as well as success in the 1966 World Cup he also appeared at UEFA Euro 1968 and the 1970 FIFA World Cup.", "He also had a brief cricket career, making one first-class appearance for Essex in 1962, before concentrating on football." ], [ "Early life", "Hurst was born in Ashton-under-Lyne, Lancashire, England, on 8 December 1941.He had two younger siblings: Diane and Robert.", "His family moved to Chelmsford, Essex when he was six years old.", "His father, Charlie Hurst, was a professional footballer who played at centre-half for Bristol Rovers, Oldham Athletic and Rochdale.", "His mother, Evelyn Hopkins, was from a Gloucestershire family, with her mother's side originally from Germany.", "As a teenager he was obsessed with football, and was once fined £1 for disturbing the peace after consistently kicking a football into his neighbour's garden.Hurst played one first-class cricket match for Essex, against Lancashire at Aigburth in 1962, although it was not a successful outing: he made 0 not out in the first innings, and was bowled by Colin Hilton, again for 0, in the second.", "However, he appeared 23 times in the Essex Second XI between 1962 and 1964, usually as a wicket-keeper, before concentrating entirely on football.Under his father's management of the club, Hurst played once for Halstead Town reserves at the age of \"about 14\"." ], [ "Club career", "===West Ham United===Hurst's football career began when he was apprenticed to West Ham United at the age of 15.He played alongside Bobby Moore in the 1959 FA Youth Cup final team that lost to Blackburn Rovers (1–2 on aggregate), but both were also in the team that won the Southern Junior Floodlit Cup (1–0 v Chelsea) later that year.", "Manager Ted Fenton first selected him for a senior game in a Southern Floodlit Cup tie with Fulham in December 1958.He turned professional at the club four months later, and was paid £7 a week with a £20 signing-on fee.", "His first competitive appearance came in February 1960 when injuries forced Fenton's hand; Hurst put in an indifferent performance and the team lost 3–1.He made only two further appearances in the 1959–60 season, and realised that Bobby Moore was making better progress in the same position than he was.", "He played six times in the 1960–61 campaign and seriously considered turning his main focus to cricket.", "In April 1961 Ron Greenwood took over as manager, and drastically changed team training by putting a focus on footballing skill rather than physical fitness.Hurst missed the start of 1961–62 pre-season training due to his cricketing commitments, but went on to make 24 appearances at left-half, and scored his first goal for the club in a 4–2 victory over Wolverhampton Wanderers in December 1961.However, he again missed pre-season training the following summer and was dropped after proving to be unfit during the opening game of the 1962–63 season.", "In September of that season Greenwood tried playing Hurst as a striker, after deciding that the defensive side of his game was a weakness for the young midfielder.", "He formed a successful partnership with Johnny Byrne and went on to score 13 goals in 27 First Division games whilst Byrne scored nine in 30 games in the 1962–63 season.", "In the summer of 1963 he joined the club on their pre-season tour of New York, and greatly benefited from playing against top-quality players from clubs across the world in the International Soccer League, a friendly tournament.Hurst and West Ham had a poor start to the 1963–64 season, and went on to finish in 14th place.", "However, it was in the FA Cup where the team impressed.", "A comfortable 3–0 home win over Second Division Charlton Athletic was followed by another 3–0 home win over East End rivals Leyton Orient – though only following a tough 1–1 draw at Brisbane Road.", "Greenwood named the same 11 players, including Hurst, in all the club's seven FA Cup fixtures as West Ham progressed to the final.", "Hurst scored one against Charlton and two against Orient, and claimed another goal in the fifth round as West Ham beat Second Division Swindon Town 3–1 at the County Ground.", "Burnley provided a stern test in the quarter-finals, but a 3–2 home win took West Ham into the semi-finals, where they faced Manchester United at Hillsborough.", "West Ham won 3–1, with Hurst scoring the final goal of the game after being set up by Bobby Moore.", "West Ham faced Second Division Preston North End at Wembley in the 1964 FA Cup Final, and had to come from behind twice to win the match 3–2.Hurst scored his side's second equaliser with a header that bounced under the crossbar and ended up just over the goal line.The club's success won them a place in the European Cup Winners Cup for the 1964–65 season.", "They defeated Belgian side K.A.A.", "Gent in the First Round after an unconvincing 2–1 aggregate victory.", "Czechoslovakian side AC Sparta Prague awaited in the second round, and West Ham progressed with a 3–2 aggregate victory despite the absence of Moore.", "Despite beating Swiss team FC Lausanne-Sport 6–4 on aggregate in the quarter-finals, Hurst had still not registered a goal in the competition as he was played in a withdrawn role behind Johnny Byrne so as to strengthen the midfield.", "In the semi-finals, West Ham defended a 2–1 home win over Spanish club Real Zaragoza with a 1–1 draw at La Romareda to claim a place in the 1965 European Cup Winners' Cup Final against TSV 1860 München at Wembley.", "West Ham won 2–0, Alan Sealey scoring both goals, to give the club their first European trophy.Having scored 40 goals in 59 competitive games in the 1965–66 season and then gone on to make himself a household name by winning the World Cup with England, Hurst was the subject of a £200,000 transfer offer by Manchester United manager Matt Busby – the offer was rejected by Greenwood.", "He was in the West Ham side which lost the League Cup final, 5–3 on aggregate to West Bromwich Albion.In the 1966–67 season, West Ham demonstrated the inconsistency that would deny them a realistic prospect of winning a league championship under Greenwood.", "Hurst scored a hat-trick as they defeated full-strength title challengers Leeds United 7–0 in the League Cup, but they exited the FA Cup with a 3–1 defeat to Third Division side Swindon Town.Hurst scored six goals in a First Division match against Sunderland at Upton Park on 19 October 1968, which West Ham won 8–0.However, he regretted admitting that he handled the ball in his first goal which led to the back page headlines focusing on the illegitimate goal rather than the rare feat of one player scoring six goals in one game.In 1972, West Ham reached the semi-finals of the League Cup when they played Stoke City over two legs.", "In the home leg at Upton Park, they were awarded a penalty after Harry Redknapp was fouled in the box.", "Hurst took the penalty and struck a powerful shot into the top corner which was saved by Gordon Banks, who succeeded in deflecting the ball over the bar.", "Stoke won the tie in the subsequent replay and denied Hurst one more final appearance at Wembley.===Stoke City===Hurst was sold to Stoke City for a £80,000 fee in August 1972.He was struck down with pneumonia early in 1973 and went to South Africa to recover, playing on loan for Roy Bailey's Cape Town City.", "He missed just four games for Stoke and upon his return he helped the side to maintain their First Division status.In January 1974, \"Potters\" manager Tony Waddington asked Hurst to take in new signing Alan Hudson as a lodger so as to provide the talented but troubled midfielder with a stable home during his Stoke career.", "Hudson adapted well to life in the Hurst household and Stoke recorded a fifth place in the 1973–74 season – a career high for Hurst.Hurst scored 11 goals in 41 games in the 1974–75 season and helped Stoke to finish in fifth place, just four points behind champions Derby County.===West Bromwich Albion===Hurst was sold to Johnny Giles's West Bromwich Albion in the summer of 1975 for a fee of £20,000.He played 12 times for the Baggies at the start of the 1975–76 season, scoring twice, before deciding to leave for America.", "Hurst later acknowledged that at the age of 34 he was too old to lead the line in the \"Baggies\" push for promotion out of the Second Division.===Later career===Hurst signed for Cork Celtic in January 1976, and remained in Ireland for one month.He signed for the Seattle Sounders of the NASL in 1976.Hurst rapidly proved his worth, and became a valuable member of the Sounders team.", "He was the team's second-leading scorer, helping the Sounders make it to the play-offs for the first time in their brief history, with eight goals and four assists in 23 regular season games, and one goal in the play-offs." ], [ "International career", "trading card from the Mexico 70 series issued by Panini.===1966 World Cup===Hurst made his senior England debut against West Germany on 23 February 1966.He played well, and further performances against Scotland and Yugoslavia secured him a place in the squad for the 1966 FIFA World Cup.", "However, he put in mediocre performances in warm-up games against Finland and Denmark, and so Jimmy Greaves and Roger Hunt were instead picked for the final friendly game against Poland.", "Greaves and Hunt were indeed picked for the three group games against Uruguay, Mexico and France, but in the latter game, Greaves suffered a deep gash to his leg which required stitches, and Hurst was called up to take his place in the quarter-final against Argentina.Argentina were talented but preferred a tougher approach to the game, which saw them reduced to ten men.", "The game was still tightly contested as it entered its final 15 minutes, but then Martin Peters swung over a curling cross from the left flank and Hurst, anticipating his clubmate's action, got in front of his marker to glance a near post header past the Argentine keeper.", "England won 1–0 and were in the semi-finals.Greaves was not fit for the game against Portugal so Hurst and Hunt continued up front, and England won 2–1 thanks to two goals by Bobby Charlton, the second of which was set up by Hurst.", "As the final against the Germans approached, the media learnt of Greaves' return to fitness and, while appreciating Hurst's contribution, started to call for the return of England's most prolific centre forward.", "Ramsey, however, would not be swayed and selected Hurst for the final.====World Cup Final====West Germany took the lead through Helmut Haller early on, but six minutes later Bobby Moore was fouled just inside the German half of the field.", "He quickly picked himself up and delivered the free kick to Hurst, who eluded his marker Horst-Dieter Höttges and headed the ball past goalkeeper Hans Tilkowski to level the scores at 1–1.With 12 minutes left to play of normal time, an Alan Ball corner left Hurst with a shooting opportunity on the edge of the penalty area; his shot deflected off Wolfgang Weber and fell kindly to Martin Peters, who put the ball into the net to give England the lead.", "However the Germans scored a very late goal through Weber to level the match at 2–2 at full-time.In the first period of extra-time, Ball crossed from the right to Hurst, who struck a strong shot towards goal with his right foot, falling backwards as he did so.", "The ball beat the goalkeeper, hit the crossbar and bounced down before Weber headed it out for a corner.", "England's players claimed a goal while the Germans were adamant that the ball had not fully crossed the line.", "Referee Gottfried Dienst consulted his linesman on the right flank, Tofiq Bahramov, who signalled that the ball had crossed the line, and the goal was given.", "The so-called Wembley Goal remained a subject for controversy and discussions.The Germans pushed forward in search of an equaliser as the full-time whistle approached, and Bobby Moore exploited their advanced position to send Hurst a long ball in the German half of the pitch.", "Hurst reached the German penalty box and scored to end the game at 4–2 to England.", "As Hurst collected the pass, BBC commentator Kenneth Wolstenholme delivered with one of the most famous pieces of football commentary:Hurst thus became the first player to score a hat-trick in the Men's World Cup final, a feat that remained unmatched until 2022, when Kylian Mbappé scored a hat-trick for France against Argentina.", "Geoff Hurst, however, remains the only man to score a hattrick in a World Cup Final and end up on the winning team.===Later international career===Hurst was selected for UEFA Euro 1968, but did not play as England lost 1–0 to Yugoslavia in the semi-final.", "He did play, and score, in the 2–0 third-place play-off victory over the Soviet Union at the Stadio Olimpico.Hurst scored his second international hat-trick on 12 March 1969, in a 5–0 victory over France, and was named in the Ramsey squad which played in Mexico to defend the World Cup in 1970.He scored the only goal of England's opening game against Romania after being sent through by a pass from Francis Lee.", "England progressed to the quarter-finals, where once again they faced West Germany.", "Hurst played a part in the Martin Peters goal that put England 2–0 up.", "With England up 2–1, Hurst's contested header trickled inches past the post.", "Later, at 2–2, Hurst had what many thought was a legitimate goal ruled out for offside.", "The West Germans scored in extra time and won 3–2.Hurst scored against Greece and Switzerland in qualification for UEFA Euro 1972, but played his last international match on 29 April 1972 as England were beaten 3–1 by West Germany – he was replaced by Rodney Marsh with 20 minutes left to play and did not take to the field in an England shirt again.", "He was named in the squad for the second leg against West Germany after Allan Clarke and Francis Lee picked up injuries, but had to pull out of the squad after picking up an injury himself." ], [ "Managerial career", "Upon his retirement from playing, Hurst moved into management and coaching.", "He spent three years as player-manager of Telford United in the Southern League before being recruited by Ron Greenwood in the England coaching set up in 1977.He travelled with England to help Greenwood at UEFA Euro 1980 and the 1982 FIFA World Cup, where England failed to make it past the group stages on both occasions.===Chelsea===Hurst joined Chelsea, then in the Second Division, before the 1979–80 season, initially as assistant manager to Danny Blanchflower.", "When Blanchflower was sacked, Hurst was appointed manager.", "He hired Bobby Gould as his assistant.", "Things initially went well, and for much of the season Chelsea were on course for promotion, but two wins from their final seven league games ensured the club finished fourth; missing out on third place and promotion on goal difference.", "He raised £250,000 through the sales of Eamonn Bannon, David Stride and Trevor Aylott.", "He then spent £300,000 on Colin Lee, Dennis Rofe and Colin Viljoen; he later acknowledged Viljoen as a mistake whilst bemoaning Lee's bad luck with injury.The following season again began well, with the \"Blues\" among the early promotion pace-setters before a dismal run set in, with Chelsea winning just three of their final 23 league matches, culminating in Hurst being sacked and Chelsea finished 12th in the league.===Kuwait SC===After being sacked from Chelsea on 23 April 1981, Hurst worked as an insurance salesman for Abbey Life.", "The next year he was tempted back into management after being offered a generous salary by Kuwait SC.", "He controversially disciplined and dropped club captain Saad Al-Houti, but was unable to challenge Dave Mackay's Al-Arabi for dominance of the Kuwaiti Premier League.", "After leaving Kuwait in April 1984 he returned to the insurance trade." ], [ "Legacy", "World Cup Sculpture – Hurst second from leftA model shirt bearing Hurst's name at the London StadiumIn 2003 Hurst was included in ''The Champions'', a statue of 1966 World Cup winning footballers, by sculptor Philip Jackson.", "It sits at the junctions of Barking Road and Central Park Road, Newham, London, near to the site of West Ham United's former home stadium, the Boleyn Ground and features Martin Peters, Hurst, Bobby Moore and Ray Wilson.Hurst's contribution to the English game was recognised in 2004 when he was inducted in the English Football Hall of Fame.", "Hurst is also one of the few footballers who have been knighted.A statue of Hurst was unveiled outside Curzon Ashton F.C.", "'s ground in 2010.He is shown alongside two other World Cup winners born in the area, fellow 1966 squad member Jimmy Armfield, and Simone Perrotta, who won it with Italy in 2006.In 2021, West Ham unveiled a statue outside their home ground, the London Stadium depicting Hurst with Bobby Moore and Martin Peters in tribute to the three and West Ham’s 1965 European Cup Winners’ Cup final victory.Following the death of Sir Bobby Charlton in October 2023, Hurst was left as the last surviving English player who played in the 1966 World Cup Final." ], [ "Personal life", "As of 2021, Hurst lived in Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, with his wife Judith.", "They have been married since 13 October 1964, having met three years previously at a youth centre; Eddie Presland was best man.", "They had three daughters but the eldest Claire died in 2010 after a ten-year long battle against a brain tumour.", "Hurst had one brother, Robert, who died by suicide in 1974.In November 2020, Hurst offered to donate his brain after his death for research into dementia.", "This followed the deaths of several of his 1966 World Cup winning colleagues, Jack Charlton, Martin Peters, Ray Wilson, Nobby Stiles after suffering with the disease (also Bobby Charlton who died later).While playing for Stoke City F.C.", "he owned the Royal Oak Inn, Eccleshall." ], [ "Career statistics", "===Club===+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competitionClubSeasonLeagueFA CupLeague CupOtherTotalDivisionAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsWest Ham United1959–60First Division300000—301960–61First Division600000—601961–62First Division2411020—2711962–63First Division27130022—29151963–64First Division37147765—50251964–65First Division4217121010154201965–66First Division39234410116259401966–67First Division41292369—49351967–68First Division38193135—44251968–69First Division42253234—48311969–70First Division39161022—42181970–71First Division39150020—41151971–72First Division34844104—4816Total41118026234742163500242Stoke City1971–72First Division00100000101972–73First Division381000322143131973–74First Division351210415245151974–75First Division358104310388Total10830301168313039Cape Town City (loan)1972–73NFL650000—65West Bromwich Albion1975–76Second Division1020020—122Cork Celtic1975–76League of Ireland3300——33Seattle Sounders1976NASL238———238Career total56122829236048246674299===International===+ Appearances and goals by national team and yearNational teamYearAppsGoalsEngland19661171967621968621969871970113197163197210Total4924:''Scores and results list England's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Hurst goal.", "''+ List of international goals scored by Geoff HurstNo.DateVenueOpponentScoreResultCompetition1 2 April 1966 Hampden Park, Glasgow, Scotland 1–0 4–3 1965–66 British Home Championship2 23 July 1966 Wembley Stadium, London, England 1–0 1–0 1966 FIFA World Cup3 30 July 1966 Wembley Stadium, London, England 1–1 4–2 (a.e.t) 1966 FIFA World Cup Final4 3–25 4–26 16 November 1966 Wembley Stadium, London, England 1–0 5–1 1966–67 British Home Championship7 2–08 15 April 1967 Wembley Stadium, London, England 2–3 2–3 1966–67 British Home Championship9 22 November 1967 Wembley Stadium, London, England 1–0 2–0 1967–68 British Home Championship10 8 June 1968 Stadio Olimpico, Rome, Italy 2–0 2–0 UEFA Euro 196811 11 December 1968 Wembley Stadium, London, England 1–1 1–1 Friendly12 12 March 1969 Wembley Stadium, London, England 2–0 5–0 Friendly13 3–014 5–015 3 May 1969 Windsor Park, Belfast, Northern Ireland 3–1 3–1 1968–69 British Home Championship16 10 May 1969 Wembley Stadium, London, England 2–0 4–1 1968–69 British Home Championship17 3–118 8 June 1969 Estadio Centenario, Montevideo, Uruguay 2–1 2–1 Friendly19 25 February 1970 Constant Vanden Stock Stadium, Brussels, Belgium 2–0 3–1 Friendly20 21 April 1970 Wembley Stadium, London, England 2–1 3–1 1969–70 British Home Championship21 2 June 1970 Estadio Jalisco, Guadalajara, Mexico 1–0 1–0 1970 FIFA World Cup22 21 April 1971 Wembley Stadium, London, England 2–0 3–0 UEFA Euro 1972 qualification23 13 October 1971 St. Jakob-Park, Basel, Switzerland 1–0 3–2 UEFA Euro 1972 qualification24 1 December 1971 Karaiskakis Stadium, Athens, Greece 1–0 2–0 UEFA Euro 1972 qualification" ], [ "Managerial statistics", "+ Managerial record by team and tenureTeamFromToRecordChelsea13 September 197923 April 1981Total" ], [ "Honours", "'''West Ham'''*FA Cup: 1963–64* FA Charity Shield: 1964 (shared)*European Cup Winners' Cup: 1964–65*Football League Cup runner-up: 1965–66'''England'''* FIFA World Cup: 1966* UEFA European Championship Bronze medal: 1968'''Individual'''* West Ham United Hammer of the Year: 1965–66, 1966–67, 1968–69* World Soccer World XI: 1967, 1968, 1969*UEFA Euro Team of the Tournament: 1968* Football League 100 Legends: 1998* FWA Tribute Award: 1998* English Football Hall of Fame: 2004'''Orders'''* Member of the Order of the British Empire: 1979* Knight Bachelor: 1998" ], [ "References", "'''General'''*'''Specific'''" ], [ "External links", "* The official website of Sir Geoff Hurst MBE geoffhurst.com* * Geoff Hurst at CSA Celebrity Speakers" ] ]
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[ [ "Giovanni d'Andrea" ], [ "Introduction", "Sepulchre of Giovanni d'Andrea'''Giovanni d'Andrea''' or '''Johannes Andreæ''' (1270  1275 – 1348) was an Italian expert in canon law, the most renowned and successful canonist of the later Middle Ages.", "His contemporaries referred to him as ''iuris canonici fons et tuba'' (\"the fount and trumpet of canon law\").", "Most important among his works were extensive commentaries on all of the official collections of papal decretals, papal judgments in the form of letters to delegated judges that were at the core of canon law." ], [ "Life", "Giovanni d'Andrea was born at Rifredo, near Florence, and studied Roman law and canon law at the University of Bologna, the great law school of the age, where he distinguished himself in this subject so much that he was made professor at Padua, and then at Pisa before returning to Bologna, where he remained from the season of 1301-02 until his death, save for brief seasons at Padua 1307-09 and 1319.He wrote the statutes by which the University was governed, in 1317.The 1911 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' related curious stories of him: that by way of self-mortification he lay every night for twenty years on the bare ground with only a bear's skin for a covering (yet it is known that he remained a layman, was married and had children); that in an audience he had with Pope Boniface VIII his extraordinary shortness of stature led the pope to believe he was kneeling, and to ask him three times to rise, to the immense merriment of the cardinals; and that he had a daughter, Novella, so accomplished in law as to be able to read her father's lectures in his absence, and so beautiful that she had to read behind a curtain lest her face should distract the attention of the students.", "He was also the father of Bettina d'Andrea.He is reported to have died at Bologna of the Black Death in 1348, and an epitaph in the church of the Dominicans in which he was buried (calling him ''Rabbi Doctorum, Lux, Censor, Normaque Morum'') testifies to the public estimation of his character.", "Johannes Calderinus (1300-1365) was his student and later his adoptive son.", "Paulus de Liazariis and Johannes de Sancto Georgio were among his students, and he counted the humanists Cino da Pistoia and Petrarch among his friends." ], [ "Works", "''Summa de sponsalibus et matrimoniis'', 1472-1474''Tractatus de Iohannis Andreae lectura arboris consanguinitatis et affinitatis'', manuscript, 15th centuryGiovanni d'Andrea's output was voluminous:* a gloss called (''Novella sive commentarius in decretales epistolas Gregorii IX'') on the ''Liber Extra'' (1234), compiled under the direction of Pope Gregory IX (see Decretals)* an encomium of Saint Jerome, the ''Hierominianum''* glosses on the ''Constitutiones Clementinae'' or Clementines of 1317 which became the standard gloss for this text* a commentary called the ''Mercuriales'' on the ''Regula iuris'' in the ''Liber Sextus'' (1298) of Boniface VIII.Among lesser works, his additions to the ''Speculum'' of Durandus are simply an adaptation from the ''Consilia'' of Oldradus de Ponte, as is also his ''De Sponsalibus et Matrimonio'', from Johannes Anguisciola.", "*" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*\"Giovanni Andrea\" in the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 9th Edition, Vol.", "II, p. 20.", "**" ], [ "External links", "* \"Giovanni d'Andrea\", ''New Catholic Dictionary''* Ken Pennington, \"Medieval Canonists ; A Bio-Bibliographical Listing compiled for the ''History of Medieval Canon Law''" ] ]
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[ [ "Galilean moons" ], [ "Introduction", "Montage of Jupiter's four Galilean moons, in a composite image depicting part of Jupiter and their relative sizes (positions are illustrative, not actual).", "From top to bottom: Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto.The '''Galilean moons''' (), or '''Galilean satellites''', are the four largest moons of Jupiter: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.", "They are the most readily visible Solar System objects after the unaided visible Saturn, the dimmest of the classical planets, allowing observation with common binoculars, even under night sky conditions of high light pollution.", "The invention of the telescope enabled the discovery of the moons in 1610.Through this, they became the first Solar System objects discovered since humans have started tracking the classical planets, and the first objects to be found to orbit any planet beyond Earth.They are planetary-mass moons and among the largest objects in the Solar System; Titan and Triton, together with the Moon, are larger than any of the Solar System's dwarf planets.", "The largest of the four is Ganymede, which is the largest moon in the Solar System, and Callisto, both of which are either larger or almost as large as the planet Mercury, though not nearly as massive.", "The smaller ones, Io and Europa, are about the size of the Moon.", "The three inner moons — Io, Europa, and Ganymede — are in a 4:2:1 orbital resonance with each other.", "While the Galilean moons are spherical, all of Jupiter's remaining moons have irregular forms because of their weaker self-gravitation, in addition to being much smaller.The Galilean moons are named after Galileo Galilei, who observed them in either December 1609 or January 1610, and recognized them as satellites of Jupiter in March 1610; they remained the only known moons of Jupiter until the discovery of the fifth largest moon of Jupiter Amalthea in 1892.Galileo initially named his discovery the '''Cosmica Sidera''' (\"Cosimo's stars\") or '''Medicean Stars''', but the names that eventually prevailed were chosen by Simon Marius.", "Marius discovered the moons independently at nearly the same time as Galileo, 8 January 1610, and gave them their present individual names, after mythological characters that Zeus seduced or abducted, which were suggested by Johannes Kepler in his ''Mundus Jovialis'', published in 1614.Their discovery showed the importance of the telescope as a tool for astronomers by proving that there were objects in space that cannot be seen by the naked eye.", "The discovery of celestial bodies orbiting something other than Earth dealt a serious blow to the then-accepted Ptolemaic world system, a geocentric theory in which everything orbits around Earth." ], [ "History", "=== Discovery ===Galileo Galilei, the discoverer of the four moonsAs a result of improvements Galileo Galilei made to the telescope, with a magnifying capability of 20×, he was able to see celestial bodies more distinctly than was previously possible.", "This allowed Galileo to observe in either December 1609 or January 1610 what came to be known as the Galilean moons.On 7 January 1610, Galileo wrote a letter containing the first mention of Jupiter's moons.", "At the time, he saw only three of them, and he believed them to be fixed stars near Jupiter.", "He continued to observe these celestial orbs from 8 January to 2 March 1610.In these observations, he discovered a fourth body, and also observed that the four were not fixed stars, but rather were orbiting Jupiter.Galileo's discovery proved the importance of the telescope as a tool for astronomers by showing that there were objects in space to be discovered that until then had remained unseen by the naked eye.", "More importantly, the discovery of celestial bodies orbiting something other than Earth dealt a blow to the then-accepted Ptolemaic world system, which held that Earth was at the center of the universe and all other celestial bodies revolved around it.", "Galileo's 13 March 1610, ''Sidereus Nuncius'' (''Starry Messenger''), which announced celestial observations through his telescope, does not explicitly mention Copernican heliocentrism, a theory that placed the Sun at the center of the universe.", "Nevertheless, Galileo accepted the Copernican theory.A Chinese historian of astronomy, Xi Zezong, has claimed that a \"small reddish star\" observed near Jupiter in 364 BCE by Chinese astronomer Gan De may have been Ganymede.", "If true, this might predate Galileo's discovery by around two millennia.", "The observations of Simon Marius are another noted example of observation, and he later reported observing the moons in 1609.However, because he did not publish these findings until after Galileo, there is a degree of uncertainty around his records.=== Names ===The Medician stars in the ''Sidereus Nuncius'' (the 'starry messenger'), 1610.The moons are drawn in changing positions.A ''Jovilabe'': an apparatus from the mid-18th century for demonstrating the orbits of Jupiter's satellitesIn 1605, Galileo had been employed as a mathematics tutor for Cosimo de' Medici.", "In 1609, Cosimo became Grand Duke Cosimo II of Tuscany.", "Galileo, seeking patronage from his now-wealthy former student and his powerful family, used the discovery of Jupiter's moons to gain it.", "On 13 February 1610, Galileo wrote to the Grand Duke's secretary:\"God graced me with being able, through such a singular sign, to reveal to my Lord my devotion and the desire I have that his glorious name live as equal among the stars, and since it is up to me, the first discoverer, to name these new planets, I wish, in imitation of the great sages who placed the most excellent heroes of that age among the stars, to inscribe these with the name of the Most Serene Grand Duke.", "\"Galileo initially called his discovery the '''Cosmica Sidera''' (\"Cosimo's stars\"), in honour of Cosimo alone, At Cosimo's secretary suggested to change the name to '''Medicea Sidera''' (\"the '''Medician stars'''\"), honouring all four Medici brothers (Cosimo, Francesco, Carlo, and Lorenzo).", "The discovery was announced in the ''Sidereus Nuncius'' (\"Starry Messenger\"), published in Venice in March 1610, less than two months after the first observations.On 12 March 1610, Galileo wrote his dedicatory letter to the Duke of Tuscany, and the next day sent a copy to the Grand Duke, hoping to obtain the Grand Duke's support as quickly as possible.", "On 19 March, he sent the telescope he had used to first view Jupiter's moons to the Grand Duke, along with an official copy of ''Sidereus Nuncius'' (''The Starry Messenger'') that, following the secretary's advice, named the four moons the Medician Stars.", "In his dedicatory introduction, Galileo wrote:Scarcely have the immortal graces of your soul begun to shine forth on earth than bright stars offer themselves in the heavens which, like tongues, will speak of and celebrate your most excellent virtues for all time.", "Behold, therefore, four stars reserved for your illustrious name ... which ... make their journeys and orbits with a marvelous speed around the star of Jupiter ... like children of the same family ...", "Indeed, it appears the Maker of the Stars himself, by clear arguments, admonished me to call these new planets by the illustrious name of Your Highness before all others.Other names put forward include:* I.", "''Principharus'' (for the \"prince\" of Tuscany), II.", "''Victripharus'' (after Vittoria della Rovere), III.", "''Cosmipharus'' (after Cosimo de' Medici) and IV.", "''Fernipharus'' (after Duke Ferdinando de' Medici) – by Giovanni Battista Hodierna, a disciple of Galileo and author of the first ephemerides (''Medicaeorum Ephemerides'', 1656);* ''Circulatores Jovis'', or ''Jovis Comites'' – by Johannes Hevelius;* ''Gardes'', or ''Satellites'' (from the Latin ''satelles, satellitis'', meaning \"escorts\") – by Jacques Ozanam.The names that eventually prevailed were chosen by Simon Marius, who discovered the moons independently at the same time as Galileo: he named them at the suggestion of Johannes Kepler after lovers of the god Zeus (the Greek equivalent of Jupiter), in his ''Mundus Jovialis'', published in 1614:Jupiter is much blamed by the poets on account of his irregular loves.", "Three maidens are especially mentioned as having been clandestinely courted by Jupiter with success.", "Io, daughter of the River Inachus, Callisto of Lycaon, Europa of Agenor.", "Then there was Ganymede, the handsome son of King Tros, whom Jupiter, having taken the form of an eagle, transported to heaven on his back, as poets fabulously tell...", "I think, therefore, that I shall not have done amiss if the First is called by me Io, the Second Europa, the Third, on account of its majesty of light, Ganymede, the Fourth Callisto...", "This fancy, and the particular names given, were suggested to me by Kepler, Imperial Astronomer, when we met at Ratisbon fair in October 1613.So if, as a jest, and in memory of our friendship then begun, I hail him as joint father of these four stars, again I shall not be doing wrong.Galileo steadfastly refused to use Marius' names and invented as a result the numbering scheme that is still used nowadays, in parallel with proper moon names.", "The numbers run from Jupiter outward, thus I, II, III and IV for Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto respectively.", "Galileo used this system in his notebooks but never actually published it.", "The numbered names (Jupiter ''x'') were used until the mid-20th century when other inner moons were discovered, and Marius' names became widely used.File:Io Argos MAN Napoli Inv9556.jpg|Io (left) watched by Argus Panoptes (right) on Hera's ordersFile:Wall painting - Europa and the bull - Pompeii (IX 5 18-21) - Napoli MAN 111475 - 02.jpg|Europa on the back of Zeus turned into a bullFile:Zeus abducts Ganymede, large terracotta, before 470 BC, AM Olympia, Olym26.jpg|Ganymede (left) abducted by Zeus (right)File:Wall painting - Artemis and Kallisto - Pompeii (VII 12 26) - Napoli MAN 111441.jpg|Callisto (leftmost) with Eros and other nymphs, with Artemis seated=== Determination of longitude ===Map of France presented in 1684, showing the outline of a previous map (Sanson, light outline) compared to the new survey by Cassini and Picard using the moons of Jupiter as timing reference (heavier, shaded outline).", "The King of France reportedly quipped that the astronomers had taken more territory from him than his enemies.Galileo's discovery had practical applications.", "Safe navigation required accurately determining a ship's position at sea.", "While latitude could be measured well enough by local astronomical observations, determining longitude required knowledge of the time of each observation synchronized to the time at a reference longitude.", "The longitude problem was so important that large prizes were offered for its solution at various times by Spain, Holland, and Britain.", "Galileo proposed determining longitude based on the timing of the orbits of the Galilean moons.", "The times of the eclipses of the moons could be precisely calculated in advance and compared with local observations on land or on ship to determine the local time and hence longitude.", "Galileo applied in 1616 for the Spanish prize of 6,000 gold ducats with a lifetime pension of 2,000 a year, and almost two decades later for the Dutch prize, but by then he was under house arrest for possible heresy.The main problem with the Jovian moon technique was that it was difficult to observe the Galilean moons through a telescope on a moving ship, a problem that Galileo tried to solve with the invention of the celatone.", "Others suggested improvements, but without success.Land mapping surveys had the same problem determining longitude, though with less severe observational conditions.", "The method proved practical and was used by Giovanni Domenico Cassini and Jean Picard to re-map France." ], [ "Members", "Some models predict that there may have been several generations of Galilean satellites in Jupiter's early history.", "Each generation of moons to have formed would have spiraled into Jupiter and been destroyed, due to tidal interactions with Jupiter's proto-satellite disk, with new moons forming from the remaining debris.", "By the time the present generation formed, the gas in the proto-satellite disk had thinned out to the point that it no longer greatly interfered with the moons' orbits.Other models suggest that Galilean satellites formed in a proto-satellite disk, in which formation timescales were comparable to or shorter than orbital migration timescales.", "Io is anhydrous and likely has an interior of rock and metal.", "Europa is thought to contain 8% ice and water by mass with the remainder rock.", "These moons are, in increasing order of distance from Jupiter:+ NameImageModel of interior Diameter(km) Mass(kg) Density(g/cm3) Semi-major axis(km) Orbital period (days) (relative to Io) Inclination(°) Eccentricity '''Io''' ''Jupiter I''175x175px121px 1.769 (1) 0.050 0.0041 '''Europa''' ''Jupiter II''175x175px104px 3.014 3.551 (2.0) 0.471 0.0094 '''Ganymede''' ''Jupiter III''175x175px175px 1.942 7.155 (4.0) 0.204 0.0011 '''Callisto''' ''Jupiter IV''165x165px160px 1.834 16.689 (9.4) 0.205 0.0074=== Io ===Tupan Patera on IoIo (Jupiter I) is the innermost of the four Galilean moons of Jupiter; with a diameter of 3642 kilometers, it is the fourth-largest moon in the Solar System, and is only marginally larger than Earth's moon.", "It was named after Io, a priestess of Hera who became one of the lovers of Zeus.", "It was referred to as \"Jupiter I\", or \"The first satellite of Jupiter\" until the mid-20th century.With over 400 active volcanos, Io is the most geologically active object in the Solar System.", "Its surface is dotted with more than 100 mountains, some of which are taller than Earth's Mount Everest.", "Unlike most satellites in the outer Solar System (which have a thick coating of ice), Io is primarily composed of silicate rock surrounding a molten iron or iron sulfide core.Although not proven, data from the Galileo orbiter indicates that Io might have its own magnetic field.", "Io has an extremely thin atmosphere made up mostly of sulfur dioxide (SO2).", "If a surface data or collection vessel were to land on Io in the future, it would have to be extremely tough (similar to the tank-like bodies of the Soviet Venera landers) to survive the radiation and magnetic fields that originate from Jupiter.=== Europa ===Closeup of Europan lineaeEuropa (Jupiter II), the second of the four Galilean moons, is the second closest to Jupiter and the smallest at 3121.6 kilometers in diameter, which is slightly smaller than Earth's Moon.", "The name comes from a mythical Phoenician noblewoman, Europa, who was courted by Zeus and became the queen of Crete, though the name did not become widely used until the mid-20th century.It has a smooth and bright surface, with a layer of water surrounding the mantle of the planet, thought to be 100 kilometers thick.", "The smooth surface includes a layer of ice, while the bottom of the ice is theorized to be liquid water.", "The apparent youth and smoothness of the surface have led to the hypothesis that a water ocean exists beneath it, which could conceivably serve as an abode for extraterrestrial life.", "Heat energy from tidal flexing ensures that the ocean remains liquid and drives geological activity.", "Life may exist in Europa's under-ice ocean.", "So far, there is no evidence that life exists on Europa, but the likely presence of liquid water has spurred calls to send a probe there.Recurring plume erupting from Europa.The prominent markings that criss-cross the moon seem to be mainly albedo features, which emphasize low topography.", "There are few craters on Europa because its surface is tectonically active and young.", "Some theories suggest that Jupiter's gravity is causing these markings, as one side of Europa is constantly facing Jupiter.", "Volcanic water eruptions splitting the surface of Europa, and even geysers have also been considered as a cause.", "The color of the markings, reddish-brown, is theorized to be caused by sulfur, but scientists cannot confirm that, because no data collection devices have been sent to Europa.", "Europa is primarily made of silicate rock and likely has an iron core.", "It has a tenuous atmosphere composed primarily of oxygen.=== Ganymede ===Ancient tectonic features on GanymedeGanymede (Jupiter III), the third Galilean moon, is named after the mythological Ganymede, cupbearer of the Greek gods and Zeus's beloved.", "Ganymede is the largest natural satellite in the Solar System at 5262.4 kilometers in diameter, which makes it larger than the planet Mercury – although only at about half of its mass since Ganymede is an icy world.", "It is the only satellite in the Solar System known to possess a magnetosphere, likely created through convection within the liquid iron core.Ganymede is composed primarily of silicate rock and water ice, and a salt-water ocean is believed to exist nearly 200 km below Ganymede's surface, sandwiched between layers of ice.", "The metallic core of Ganymede suggests a greater heat at some time in its past than had previously been proposed.", "The surface is a mix of two types of terrain—highly cratered dark regions and younger, but still ancient, regions with a large array of grooves and ridges.", "Ganymede has a high number of craters, but many are gone or barely visible due to its icy crust forming over them.", "The satellite has a thin oxygen atmosphere that includes O, O2, and possibly O3 (ozone), and some atomic hydrogen.=== Callisto ===Valhalla impact crater in enhanced color as seen by VoyagerCallisto (Jupiter IV) is the fourth and last Galilean moon, and is the second-largest of the four, and at 4820.6 kilometers in diameter, it is the third largest moon in the Solar System, and barely smaller than Mercury, though only a third of the latter's mass.", "It is named after the Greek mythological nymph Callisto, a lover of Zeus who was a daughter of the Arkadian King Lykaon and a hunting companion of the goddess Artemis.", "The moon does not form part of the orbital resonance that affects three inner Galilean satellites and thus does not experience appreciable tidal heating.", "Callisto is composed of approximately equal amounts of rock and ices, which makes it the least dense of the Galilean moons.", "It is one of the most heavily cratered satellites in the Solar System, and one major feature is a basin around 3000 km wide called Valhalla.Callisto is surrounded by an extremely thin atmosphere composed of carbon dioxide and probably molecular oxygen.", "Investigation revealed that Callisto may possibly have a subsurface ocean of liquid water at depths less than 300 kilometres.", "The likely presence of an ocean within Callisto indicates that it can or could harbour life.", "However, this is less likely than on nearby Europa.", "Callisto has long been considered the most suitable place for a human base for future exploration of the Jupiter system since it is furthest from the intense radiation of Jupiter's magnetic field." ], [ "Comparative structure", "Surface features of the four members at different levels of zoom in each row+ Jovian radiation Moon rem/day Io 3600 Europa 540Ganymede 8 Callisto 0.01Fluctuations in the orbits of the moons indicate that their mean density decreases with distance from Jupiter.", "Callisto, the outermost and least dense of the four, has a density intermediate between ice and rock whereas Io, the innermost and densest moon, has a density intermediate between rock and iron.", "Callisto has an ancient, heavily cratered and unaltered ice surface and the way it rotates indicates that its density is equally distributed, suggesting that it has no rocky or metallic core but consists of a homogeneous mix of rock and ice.", "This may well have been the original structure of all the moons.", "The rotation of the three inner moons, in contrast, indicates differentiation of their interiors with denser matter at the core and lighter matter above.", "They also reveal significant alteration of the surface.", "Ganymede reveals past tectonic movement of the ice surface which required partial melting of subsurface layers.", "Europa reveals more dynamic and recent movement of this nature, suggesting a thinner ice crust.", "Finally, Io, the innermost moon, has a sulfur surface, active volcanism and no sign of ice.", "All this evidence suggests that the nearer a moon is to Jupiter the hotter its interior.", "The current model is that the moons experience tidal heating as a result of the gravitational field of Jupiter in inverse proportion to the square of their distance from the giant planet.", "In all but Callisto this will have melted the interior ice, allowing rock and iron to sink to the interior and water to cover the surface.", "In Ganymede a thick and solid ice crust then formed.", "In warmer Europa a thinner more easily broken crust formed.", "In Io the heating is so extreme that all the rock has melted and water has long ago boiled out into space.===Size===Galilean moons compared with moons of other planets (and with Earth; the scale is changed to 1 pixel = 94 km at this resolution).===Latest flyby===" ], [ "Origin and evolution", "The relative masses of the Jovian moons.", "Those smaller than Europa are not visible at this scale, and combined would only be visible at 100× magnification.Jupiter's regular satellites are believed to have formed from a circumplanetary disk, a ring of accreting gas and solid debris analogous to a protoplanetary disk.", "They may be the remnants of a score of Galilean-mass satellites that formed early in Jupiter's history.Simulations suggest that, while the disk had a relatively high mass at any given moment, over time a substantial fraction (several tenths of a percent) of the mass of Jupiter captured from the Solar nebula was processed through it.", "However, the disk mass of only 2% that of Jupiter is required to explain the existing satellites.", "Thus there may have been several generations of Galilean-mass satellites in Jupiter's early history.", "Each generation of moons would have spiraled into Jupiter, due to drag from the disk, with new moons then forming from the new debris captured from the Solar nebula.", "By the time the present (possibly fifth) generation formed, the disk had thinned out to the point that it no longer greatly interfered with the moons' orbits.", "The current Galilean moons were still affected, falling into and being partially protected by an orbital resonance which still exists for Io, Europa, and Ganymede.", "Ganymede's larger mass means that it would have migrated inward at a faster rate than Europa or Io.", "Tidal dissipation in the Jovian system is still ongoing and Callisto will likely be captured into the resonance in about 1.5 billion years, creating a 1:2:4:8 chain." ], [ "Visibility", "All four Galilean moons are bright enough to be viewed from Earth without a telescope, if only they could appear farther away from Jupiter.", "(They are, however, easily distinguished with even low-powered binoculars.)", "They have apparent magnitudes between 4.6 and 5.6 when Jupiter is in opposition with the Sun, and are about one unit of magnitude dimmer when Jupiter is in conjunction.", "The main difficulty in observing the moons from Earth is their proximity to Jupiter, since they are obscured by its brightness.", "The maximum angular separations of the moons are between 2 and 10 arcminutes from Jupiter, which is close to the limit of human visual acuity.", "Ganymede and Callisto, at their maximum separation, are the likeliest targets for potential naked-eye observation.File:Jupiter-moons.jpg|Jupiter and all of the Galilean moons as seen through a amateur telescope (Meade LX200).File:Jupiter.mit.Io.Ganymed.Europa.Calisto.Vollmond.10.4.2017.jpg|Jupiter with the Galilean moons and the full Moon as seen around conjunction on 10 April 2017File:Galilean satellite triple conjunction 2015-01-24.jpg|Two Hubble Space Telescope views of a rare triple transit of Jupiter by Europa, Callisto and Io (24 January 2015)|alt=Small satellites visible against the vastness of the largest planet in the solar system" ], [ "Orbit animations", "GIF animations depicting the Galilean moon orbits and the resonance of Io, Europa, and Ganymede" ], [ "See also", "* Jupiter's moons in fiction*Colonization of the Jovian System" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Sky & Telescope utility for identifying Galilean moons* Interactive 3D visualisation of Jupiter and the Galilean moons* NASA's Stunning Discoveries on Jupiter's Largest Moons | Our Solar System's Moons* A Beginner's Guide to Jupiter's Moons*Dominic Ford: The Moons of Jupiter.", "With a chart of the current position of the Galilean moons." ] ]
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[ [ "Great Schism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Great Schism''' may refer to:* East–West Schism, between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church, beginning in 1054* Western Schism, a split within the Roman Catholic Church that lasted from 1378 to 1417" ], [ "See also", "* Schism, a division between people, usually belonging to an organization, movement, or religious denomination* Shia–Sunni relations, their division traces back to a Sunni–Shia schism" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gloria Gaynor" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gloria Gaynor''' (née '''Fowles'''; born September 7, 1943) is an American singer, best known for the disco era hits \"I Will Survive\" (1978), \"Let Me Know (I Have a Right)\" (1979), \"I Am What I Am\" (1983), and her version of \"Never Can Say Goodbye\" (1974)." ], [ "Early life", "Gaynor was born '''Gloria Fowles''' in Newark, New Jersey, to Daniel Fowles and Queenie Mae Proctor.", "Her grandmother lived nearby and was involved in her upbringing.", "\"There was always music in our house\", Gaynor wrote in her autobiography ''I Will Survive''.", "She enjoyed listening to the radio, and to records by Nat King Cole and Sarah Vaughan.", "Her father played the ukulele and guitar and sang professionally in nightclubs with a group called Step 'n' Fetchit.", "Gloria grew up as a tomboy; she had five brothers and one sister.", "Her brothers sang gospel and formed a quartet with a friend.Gaynor was not allowed to sing with the all-male group, nor was her younger brother Arthur, as Gloria was a girl and he was too young.", "Arthur later acted as a tour manager for Gaynor.", "The family was relatively poor, but Gaynor recalls the house being filled with laughter and happiness, and the dinner table being open to neighborhood friends.", "They moved to a housing project in 1960, where Gaynor attended South Side High School; she graduated in 1961.", "\"All through my young life I wanted to sing, although nobody in my family knew it\", Gaynor wrote in her autobiography.", "Gaynor began singing in a nightclub in Newark, where she was recommended to a local band by a neighbor.", "After several years of performing in local clubs and along the East Coast, Gaynor began her recording career in 1971 at Columbia Records." ], [ "Music career", "===Early years===Gaynor was a singer with '''The Soul Satisfiers''', a jazz and R&B music band of the 1960s.", "She recorded \"She'll Be Sorry/Let Me Go Baby\" (for the first time as '''Gloria Gaynor''') in 1965, for Johnny Nash's \"Jocida\" label.", "Her first real success came in 1973 when she was signed to Columbia Records by Clive Davis.", "The fruit of that was the release of the flop single \"Honey Bee\".Moving on to MGM Records she finally hit with the album ''Never Can Say Goodbye'', released in 1975.The first side of the album consisted of three songs (\"Honey Bee\", \"Never Can Say Goodbye\", and \"Reach Out, I'll Be There\"), with no break between the songs.", "This 19-minute dance marathon proved to be enormously popular, especially at dance clubs.", "All three songs were released as singles via radio edits and all of them became hits.", "The album was instrumental in introducing disco music to the public, \"Never Can Say Goodbye\" becoming the first song to top ''Billboard'' magazine's dance chart.", "It was also a hit on the mainstream Pop Charts, peaking at No.", "9, and on the R&B Charts, reaching No.", "34 (the original version by The Jackson 5 had been a No.", "2 hit on the Hot 100 in 1971).", "It also marked her first significant chart success internationally, making it into the Top 5 in Australia, Canada, Germany and the UK.", "The song would go on to be certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry, and subsequently gold in the US.Capitalizing on the success of her first album, Gaynor quickly released her follow-up, ''Experience Gloria Gaynor'', later that same year.", "Some of her lesser-known singles, due to lack of recurrent airplay—including \"Honey Bee\" (1974), \"Casanova Brown\" (1975), and \"Let's Make a Deal\" (1976), as well as her cover of the Four Tops' \"Reach Out, I'll Be There\"—became hits in nightclubs and reached the Top 5 on ''Billboard''s disco charts.", "Many charted on the Hot 100 and R&B charts as well, with songs like \"(If You Want It) Do It Yourself\"—a No.", "1 disco hit—peaking at No.", "98 on the Pop Charts and No.", "24 on the R&B Charts.", "Gaynor's cover of \"How High the Moon\" topped the US Dance Charts, and made the lower parts of both the pop and R&B charts, as well as achieving some international chart success.", "After her 1976 album ''I've Got You'', Gaynor shifted from her hit production team to work with other producers.", "She has recorded some 16 albums since, including one in England, one in Germany, and two in Italy.===Major mainstream breakthrough===Gaynor in 1976During the next few years, Gaynor released two albums ''Glorious'' and ''Gloria Gaynor's Park Avenue Sound'', but would only enjoy a few more moderate hits.", "However, in late 1978, with the release of her album ''Love Tracks'', she climbed the pop charts again with her smash hit single \"I Will Survive\".", "The lyrics of this song were written from the point of view of a woman, recently dumped, telling her former lover that she can cope without him and does not want anything more to do with him.", "The song has become something of an anthem of female emancipation.", "Originally, \"I Will Survive\" was a B-side when Polydor Records released it in late 1978.The A-side, a song called \"Substitute\", then a recent worldwide hit for South African girl-group Clout, was considered more \"radio friendly\".", "\"I Will Survive\" is ranked No.", "492 on ''Rolling Stone''s list of \"The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time\", and ranked at No.", "97 on Billboard magazine's \"All-Time Hot 100\".", "In 2000, the song was ranked No.", "1 in VH1's list of the \"100 Greatest Dance Songs of All Time\" and remains there to this day.As a disco number, the song was unique for its time by virtue of Gaynor's having no background singers or lush production.", "And, unlike her first disco hits, the track was not pitched up to make it faster and to render Gaynor's recorded voice in a higher register than that in which she actually sang.", "Most disco hits at the time were heavily produced, with multiple voices, orchestrations, overdubs, and adjustments to pitch and speed.", "\"I Will Survive\" had a much sparer and \"cleaner\" sound.", "Had it been originally planned and released as an A-side, it would almost certainly have undergone a substantially more heavy-handed remix.", "In late 1979, she released the album ''I Have a Right'' which contained her next disco hit, \"Let Me Know (I Have a Right)\", which featured Doc Severinsen of ''The Tonight Show'' fame, playing a trumpet solo.", "Gaynor also recorded a disco song called \"Love Is Just a Heartbeat Away\" in 1979 for the cult vampire film ''Nocturna: Granddaughter of Dracula'', which featured a number of disco songs.===Stateside career===In 1980 and again in 1981, Gaynor released two disco albums which were virtually ignored in the United States due to the backlash against disco, which began late in 1979.The album's singles barely registered on urban contemporary radio, where disco music remained popular.", "In 1982, having looked into a wide variety of faiths and religious movements, she became a Christian and began to distance herself from a past she considered to be sinful.", "That same year, she released an album of mid-tempo R&B and pop-style songs entitled ''Gloria Gaynor''.Gaynor would achieve her final success in the 1980s with the release of her album ''I Am Gloria Gaynor'' in 1984.This was mainly due to the song \"I Am What I Am\", which became a hit at dance clubs, and then on the Club Play chart in late 1983/early 1984.", "\"I Am What I Am\" became a gay anthem and made Gaynor a gay icon.", "Her 1986 album, ''The Power of Gloria Gaynor'', was almost entirely composed of cover versions of other songs that were popular at the time.===Career revival===Gaynor's career received a revitalizing spark in the early and mid 1990s with the worldwide disco revival movement.", "During the late 1990s, she dabbled in acting for a while, guest starring on ''The Wayans Bros'', ''That '70s Show'' (singing \"I Will Survive\"), and ''Ally McBeal,'' before doing a limited engagement performance in Broadway's ''Smokey Joe's Cafe''.", "In 2001, Gaynor performed \"I Will Survive\" at the 30th Anniversary concert for Michael Jackson.Gaynor returned to the recording studio in 2002, releasing her first album in over 15 years, ''I Wish You Love''.", "The two singles released from the album, \"Just Keep Thinking About You\" and \"I Never Knew\", both topped ''Billboard''s Hot Dance Music/Club Play.", "Both singles also secured moderate to heavy dance format radio airplay.", "The latter song also charted No.", "30 on ''Billboard''s Adult Contemporary chart.", "In 2004, Gaynor re-released her 1997 album ''The Answer'' (also released under the title ''What a Life'') as a follow-up to her successful album ''I Wish You Love''.", "The album includes her club hit \"Oh, What a Life\".In late 2002, Gaynor appeared with R&B stars on the \"Rhythm, Love, and Soul\" edition of the PBS series ''American Soundtrack''.", "Her performance of the disco hit \"I Will Survive\" and new single \"I Never Knew\" was included on the accompanying live album that was released in 2004.On September 19, 2005, Gaynor was honored twice when she and her music were inducted into the Dance Music Hall of Fame, in the \"Artist\" category, along with fellow disco artists Chic and Sylvester.", "Her classic anthem \"I Will Survive\" was inducted under the \"Records\" category.", "In January 2008, the American Diabetes Association named Gaynor the Honorary Spokesperson of the 2008 \"NYC Step Out to Fight Diabetes Walk\".More television appearances followed in the late 2000s with 2009 appearances on ''The John Kerwin Show'', ''The Wendy Williams Show'', and ''The View'' to promote the 30th anniversary of \"I Will Survive\".", "In 2010, she appeared on ''Last Comic Standing'' and ''The Tonight Show''.Forty years after its release, Gaynor continues to ride the success of \"I Will Survive\", touring the country and the world over and performing her signature song on dozens of TV shows.", "A few successful remixes of the song during the 1990s and 2000s along with new versions of the song by Lonnie Gordon, Diana Ross, Chantay Savage, rock group Cake and others, as well as constant recurrent airplay on nearly all soft AC and rhythmic format radio stations have helped to keep the song in the mainstream.", "Gaynor said of her biggest hit in a 2012 interview: \"It feels great to have such a song like that because I get kids five and six years old telling me they like the song, and then people seventy-five and eighty.", "It's quite an honor.\"", "The song was revived yet again in 2015 for the film ''The Martian'', where it is used at the end as the credits roll.Gaynor released a contemporary Christian album in late 2013.Gaynor performing in 2012On May 16, 2015, Gaynor was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of Music by Dowling College.", "In 2017, she made a cameo appearance as a flight attendant in a Capital One commercial, while Samuel L. Jackson, Charles Barkley, and Spike Lee sang \"I Will Survive\".In 2016, \"I Will Survive\" was selected for induction into the Library of Congress' National Recording Registry.On May 6, 2017, Gaynor performed with her band at the Library of Congress' celebration of disco music at Bibliodiscotheque, a disco dance party in the Great Hall of the Thomas Jefferson Building.Due to the devastation wreaked by Hurricane Harvey on the state of Texas in August 2017, Gaynor rewrote the lyrics to \"I Will Survive\", changing the title to \"Texas Will Survive\", and posted a video of herself singing the song on Twitter on August 30, 2017.In December 2019 \"I Will Survive\" trended on TikTok and Gaynor performed the dance at the LifeMinute TV studios in Times Square, NY.In January 2020, she won her second Grammy Award in her career, 40 years after her first, for her roots gospel album ''Testimony''.In 2021, Gaynor returned to disco music when she recorded \"Can't Stop Writing Songs About You\" with Australian singer Kylie Minogue for the reissue of Minogue's fifteenth studio album ''Disco'' entitled ''Disco: Guest List Edition''.", "The collaboration occurred following Gaynor praising Minogue for keeping Disco alive with her album of the same name.In April 2021, Gaynor recorded \"Brand New\" with the veteran Contemporary Christian band MercyMe.In 2022, Gaynor competed in season eight of ''The Masked Singer'' as \"Mermaid\" who rode on a giant clam-like vehicle that the Men in Black had to push around.", "After being eliminated on \"Andrew Lloyd Webber Night\" alongside Mario Cantone as \"Maize\", Gaynor did her performance of \"I Will Survive\"." ], [ "Personal life", "Gaynor married her manager Linwood Simon in 1979.The couple divorced in 2005.She has no children.", "According to Gaynor, while she always wanted children, her ex-husband never desired any." ], [ "Discography", "*''Never Can Say Goodbye'' (1975)*''Experience Gloria Gaynor'' (1975)*''I've Got You'' (1976)*''Glorious'' (1977)*''Gloria Gaynor's Park Avenue Sound'' (1978)*''Love Tracks'' (1978)*''I Have a Right'' (1979)*''Stories'' (1980)*''I Kinda Like Me'' (1981)*''Gloria Gaynor'' (1982)*''I Am Gloria Gaynor'' (1984)*''The Power of Gloria Gaynor'' (1986)*''Love Affair'' (1992)*''I'll Be There'' (1994)*''The Answer'' (1997)*''I Wish You Love'' (2003)*''I Will Survive'' (2013)*''Testimony'' (2019)" ], [ "See also", "* List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.)* List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart* List of number-one dance hits (United States)* List of number-one hits (United States)* List of best-selling singles" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Gloria Gaynor interview" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gerald Schroeder" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gerald Lawrence Schroeder''' is an Orthodox Jewish physicist, author, lecturer and teacher at College of Jewish Studies Aish HaTorah's Discovery Seminar, Essentials and Fellowships programs and Executive Learning Center, who focuses on what he perceives to be an inherent relationship between science and spirituality." ], [ "Education", "Schroeder received his BSc in 1959, his MSc in 1961, and his PhD in nuclear physics and earth and planetary sciences in 1965, from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).", "He worked seven years on the staff of the MIT physics department.", "He was a member of the United States Atomic Energy Commission." ], [ "Aliyah to Israel", "After immigrating to Israel in 1971, Schroeder was employed as a researcher at the Weizmann Institute of Science, the Volcani Research Institute, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.", "He currently teaches at Aish HaTorah College of Jewish Studies." ], [ "Religion and science", "His works frequently cite Talmudic, Midrashic and medieval commentaries on biblical creation accounts, such as commentaries written by the Jewish philosopher Nachmanides.", "Among other things, Schroeder attempts to reconcile a six-day creation as described in Genesis with the scientific evidence that the world is billions of years old using the idea that the perceived flow of time for a given event in an expanding universe varies with the observer's perspective of that event.", "He attempts to reconcile the two perspectives numerically, calculating the effect of the stretching of space-time, based on Albert Einstein's general relativity.Namely, he claims that from the perspective of the point of origin of the Big Bang, according to Einstein's equations of the 'stretching factor', time dilates by a factor of roughly 1,000,000,000,000, meaning one trillion days on earth would appear to pass as one day from that point, due to the stretching of space.", "When applied to the estimated age of the universe at 13.8 billion years, from the perspective of the point of origin, the universe today would appear to have just begun its sixth day of existence, or if the universe is 15 billion years old from the perspective of earth, it would appear to have just completed its sixth day.Antony Flew, an academic philosopher who promoted atheism for most of his adult life indicated that the arguments of Gerald Schroeder had influenced his decision to become a deist.His theories to reconcile faith and science have drawn some criticism from both religious and non-religious scientists, and his works remain controversial in scientific circles.", "Natan Slifkin argues that Schroeder's calculations do not fit the order of creation as presented in Genesis vs. the order of organism development as dictated by our current understanding of evolutionary biology." ], [ "Personal", "Schroeder's wife Barbara Sofer is a columnist for the English language Israeli newspaper ''Jerusalem Post''.", "The couple have five children." ], [ "Prizes", "In 2012, Schroeder was awarded the Trotter Prize by Texas A&M University's College of Science." ], [ "Works", "* ''Genesis and the Big Bang'' (1990), * ''The Science of God: The Convergence of Scientific and Biblical Wisdom'', (1997), * ''The Hidden Face of God: Science Reveals the Ultimate Truth'', (2002), .", "* ''God According to God: A Physicist Proves We've Been Wrong About God All Along'', (2009), ." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Gerald Schroeder (official website)* MIT Alumni Association.", "News and Views: Nuclear Scientist Sees No God-Science Conflict* Dr. Schroeder speaking on cosmology: a 30 min.", "clip from the documentary, \"Has Science Discovered God?", "\"* \"The Age of the Universe\", aish.com*Critiques of Schroeder's books by Mark Perakh at the site Talk Reason 1999, 2005, 2007* Critique of ''Genesis & the Big Bang'', authored by Rabbi Yoram Bogacz.===Articles by Gerald L. Schroeder===* God and the laws of natures* The Origins of Life* An Atheist Turns* Evolution: Rationality vs. Randomness* Age of the Universe" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ghost" ], [ "Introduction", "Hammersmith Ghost appears in Roger Kirby's ''Wonderful and Scientific Museum'', a magazine published in 1804.The \"ghost\" turned out to be an old local cobbler who used a white sheet to get back at his apprentice for scaring his grandchildren.In folklore, a '''ghost''' is the soul or spirit of a dead person or non-human animal that is believed to be able to appear to the living.", "In ghostlore, descriptions of ghosts vary widely, from an invisible presence to translucent or barely visible wispy shapes to realistic, lifelike forms.", "The deliberate attempt to contact the spirit of a deceased person is known as necromancy, or in spiritism as a ''séance''.", "Other terms associated with it are '''apparition''', '''haunt''', '''haint''', '''phantom''', '''poltergeist''', '''shade''', '''specter''', '''spirit''', '''spook''', '''wraith''', '''demon''', and '''ghoul'''.The belief in the existence of an afterlife, as well as manifestations of the spirits of the dead, is widespread, dating back to animism or ancestor worship in pre-literate cultures.", "Certain religious practices—funeral rites, exorcisms, and some practices of spiritualism and ritual magic—are specifically designed to rest the spirits of the dead.", "Ghosts are generally described as solitary, human-like essences, though stories of ghostly armies and the ghosts of animals other than humans have also been recounted.", "They are believed to haunt particular locations, objects, or people they were associated with in life.", "According to a 2009 study by the Pew Research Center, 18% of Americans say they have seen a ghost.The overwhelming consensus of science is that there is no proof that ghosts exist.", "Their existence is impossible to falsify, and ghost hunting has been classified as pseudoscience.", "Despite centuries of investigation, there is no scientific evidence that any location is inhabited by the spirits of the dead.", "Historically, certain toxic and psychoactive plants (such as ''datura'' and ''hyoscyamus niger''), whose use has long been associated with necromancy and the underworld, have been shown to contain anticholinergic compounds that are pharmacologically linked to dementia (specifically DLB) as well as histological patterns of neurodegeneration.", "Recent research has indicated that ghost sightings may be related to degenerative brain diseases such as Alzheimer's disease.", "Common prescription medication and over-the-counter drugs (such as sleep aids) may also, in rare instances, cause ghost-like hallucinations, particularly zolpidem and diphenhydramine.", "Older reports linked carbon monoxide poisoning to ghost-like hallucinations.In folklore studies, ghosts fall within the motif index designation E200–E599 (\"Ghosts and other revenants\")." ], [ "Terminology", "The English word ''ghost'' continues Old English ''gāst''.", "Stemming from Proto-Germanic ''*gaistaz'', it is cognate with Old Frisian ''gāst'', Old Saxon ''gēst'', Old Dutch ''gēst'', and Old High German ''geist''.", "Although this form is not attested in North Germanic and East Germanic languages (the equivalent word in Gothic is ''ahma'', Old Norse has ''andi'' m., ''önd'' f.), it appears to be a dental suffix derivative of pre-Germanic ''*ghois-d-oz'' ('fury, anger'), which is comparable to Sanskrit ''héḍas'' ('anger') and Avestan ''zōižda''- ('terrible, ugly').", "The prior Proto-Indo-European form is reconstructed as '''', from the root'' '', which is reflected in Old Norse ''geisa'' ('to rage') and ''*geiski'' ('fear'; cf.", "''geiskafullr'' 'full of fear'), in Gothic ''usgaisjan'' ('to terrify') and ''usgaisnan'' ('to be terrified'), as well as in Avestan ''zōiš-'' (cf.", "''zōišnu'' 'shivering, trembling').The Germanic word is recorded as masculine only, but likely continues a neuter ''s''-stem.", "The original meaning of the Germanic word would thus have been an animating principle of the mind, in particular capable of excitation and fury (compare ''óðr'').", "In Germanic paganism, \"Germanic Mercury\", and the later Odin, was at the same time the conductor of the dead and the \"lord of fury\" leading the Wild Hunt.Besides denoting the human spirit or soul, both of the living and the deceased, the Old English word is used as a synonym of Latin ''spiritus'' also in the meaning of \"breath\" or \"blast\" from the earliest attestations (9th century).", "It could also denote any good or evil spirit, such as angels and demons; the Anglo-Saxon gospel refers to the demonic possession of Matthew 12:43 as ''se unclæna gast''.", "Also from the Old English period, the word could denote the spirit of God, viz.", "the \"Holy Ghost\".The now-prevailing sense of \"the soul of a deceased person, spoken of as appearing in a visible form\" only emerges in Middle English (14th century).", "The modern noun does, however, retain a wider field of application, extending on one hand to \"soul\", \"spirit\", \"vital principle\", \"mind\", or \"psyche\", the seat of feeling, thought, and moral judgement; on the other hand used figuratively of any shadowy outline, or fuzzy or unsubstantial image; in optics, photography, and cinematography especially, a flare, secondary image, or spurious signal.The synonym ''spook'' is a Dutch loanword, akin to Low German ''spôk'' (of uncertain etymology); it entered the English language via American English in the 19th century.", "Alternative words in modern usage include ''spectre'' (altn.", "''specter''; from Latin ''spectrum''), the Scottish ''wraith'' (of obscure origin), ''phantom'' (via French ultimately from Greek ''phantasma'', compare ''fantasy'') and ''apparition''.", "The term ''shade'' in classical mythology translates Greek σκιά, or Latin ''umbra'', in reference to the notion of spirits in the Greek underworld.", "The term ''poltergeist'' is a German word, literally a \"noisy ghost\", for a spirit said to manifest itself by invisibly moving and influencing objects.", "''Wraith'' is a Scots word for ''ghost'', ''spectre'', or ''apparition''.", "It appeared in Scottish Romanticist literature, and acquired the more general or figurative sense of ''portent'' or ''omen''.", "In 18th- to 19th-century Scottish literature, it also applied to aquatic spirits.", "The word has no commonly accepted etymology; the ''OED'' notes \"of obscure origin\" only.", "An association with the verb ''writhe'' was the etymology favored by J. R. R. Tolkien.", "Tolkien's use of the word in the naming of the creatures known as the Ringwraiths has influenced later usage in fantasy literature.", "Bogey or ''bogy/bogie'' is a term for a ghost, and appears in Scottish poet John Mayne's ''Hallowe'en'' in 1780.A ''revenant'' is a deceased person returning from the dead to haunt the living, either as a disembodied ghost or alternatively as an animated (\"undead\") corpse.", "Also related is the concept of a fetch, the visible ghost or spirit of a person yet alive." ], [ "Typology", "Relief from a carved funerary ''lekythos'' at Athens showing Hermes as psychopomp conducting the soul of the deceased, ''Myrrhine'' into Hades (ca.", "430-420 B.C.", ")===Anthropological context===A notion of the transcendent, supernatural, or numinous, usually involving entities like ghosts, demons, or deities, is a cultural universal.", "In pre-literate folk religions, these beliefs are often summarized under animism and ancestor worship.", "Some people believe the ghost or spirit never leaves Earth until there is no-one left to remember the one who died.In many cultures, malignant, restless ghosts are distinguished from the more benign spirits involved in ancestor worship.Ancestor worship typically involves rites intended to prevent revenants, vengeful spirits of the dead, imagined as starving and envious of the living.", "Strategies for preventing revenants may either include sacrifice, i.e., giving the dead food and drink to pacify them, or magical banishment of the deceased to force them not to return.", "Ritual feeding of the dead is performed in traditions like the Chinese Ghost Festival or the Western All Souls' Day.", "Magical banishment of the dead is present in many of the world's burial customs.", "The bodies found in many tumuli (kurgan) had been ritually bound before burial, and the custom of binding the dead persists, for example, in rural Anatolia.Nineteenth-century anthropologist James Frazer stated in his classic work ''The Golden Bough'' that souls were seen as the creature within that animated the body.===Ghosts and the afterlife===Although the human soul was sometimes symbolically or literally depicted in ancient cultures as a bird or other animal, it appears to have been widely held that the soul was an exact reproduction of the body in every feature, even down to clothing the person wore.", "This is depicted in artwork from various ancient cultures, including such works as the Egyptian ''Book of the Dead'', which shows deceased people in the afterlife appearing much as they did before death, including the style of dress.===Fear of ghosts===Yūrei (Japanese ghost) from the Hyakkai Zukan, ca.", "1737While deceased ancestors are universally regarded as venerable, and often believed to have a continued presence in some form of afterlife, the spirit of a deceased person that persists in the material world (a ghost) is regarded as an unnatural or undesirable state of affairs and the idea of ghosts or revenants is associated with a reaction of fear.", "This is universally the case in pre-modern folk cultures, but fear of ghosts also remains an integral aspect of the modern ghost story, Gothic horror, and other horror fiction dealing with the supernatural.===Common attributes===Another widespread belief concerning ghosts is that they are composed of a misty, airy, or subtle material.", "Anthropologists link this idea to early beliefs that ghosts were the person within the person (the person's spirit), most noticeable in ancient cultures as a person's breath, which upon exhaling in colder climates appears visibly as a white mist.", "This belief may have also fostered the metaphorical meaning of \"breath\" in certain languages, such as the Latin ''spiritus'' and the Greek ''pneuma'', which by analogy became extended to mean the soul.", "In the Bible, God is depicted as synthesising Adam, as a living soul, from the dust of the Earth and the breath of God.In many traditional accounts, ghosts were often thought to be deceased people looking for vengeance (vengeful ghosts), or imprisoned on earth for bad things they did during life.", "The appearance of a ghost has often been regarded as an omen or portent of death.", "Seeing one's own ghostly double or \"fetch\" is a related omen of death.Union Cemetery in Easton, Connecticut is home to the legend of the White Lady.White ladies were reported to appear in many rural areas, and supposed to have died tragically or suffered trauma in life.", "White Lady legends are found around the world.", "Common to many of them is the theme of losing a child or husband and a sense of purity, as opposed to the Lady in Red ghost that is mostly attributed to a jilted lover or prostitute.", "The White Lady ghost is often associated with an individual family line or regarded as a harbinger of death similar to a banshee.Legends of ghost ships have existed since the 18th century; most notable of these is the ''Flying Dutchman''.", "This theme has been used in literature in ''The Rime of the Ancient Mariner'' by Coleridge.Ghosts are often depicted as being covered in a shroud and/or dragging chains.===Locale===A place where ghosts are reported is described as haunted, and often seen as being inhabited by spirits of deceased who may have been former residents or were familiar with the property.", "Supernatural activity inside homes is said to be mainly associated with violent or tragic events in the building's past such as murder, accidental death, or suicide—sometimes in the recent or ancient past.", "However, not all hauntings are at a place of a violent death, or even on violent grounds.", "Many cultures and religions believe the essence of a being, such as the 'soul', continues to exist.", "Some religious views argue that the 'spirits' of those who have died have not 'passed over' and are trapped inside the property where their memories and energy are strong." ], [ "History", "Ancient Sumerian cylinder seal impression showing the god Dumuzid being tortured in the Underworld by ''galla'' demons===Ancient Near East and Egypt===There are many references to ghosts in Mesopotamian religions – the religions of Sumer, Babylon, Assyria, and other early states in Mesopotamia.", "Traces of these beliefs survive in the later Abrahamic religions that came to dominate the region.Ghosts were thought to be created at time of death, taking on the memory and personality of the dead person.", "They traveled to the netherworld, where they were assigned a position, and led an existence similar in some ways to that of the living.Relatives of the dead were expected to make offerings of food and drink to the dead to ease their conditions.", "If they did not, the ghosts could inflict misfortune and illness on the living.", "Traditional healing practices ascribed a variety of illnesses to the action of ghosts, while others were caused by gods or demons.soul and spirit re-united after deathThere was widespread belief in ghosts in ancient Egyptian culture.The Hebrew Bible contains few references to ghosts, associating spiritism with forbidden occult activities cf.", "Deuteronomy 18:11.The most notable reference is in the First Book of Samuel (I Samuel 28:3–19 KJV), in which a disguised King Saul has the Witch of Endor summon the spirit or ghost of Samuel.The soul and spirit were believed to exist after death, with the ability to assist or harm the living, and the possibility of a second death.", "Over a period of more than 2,500 years, Egyptian beliefs about the nature of the afterlife evolved constantly.", "Many of these beliefs were recorded in hieroglyph inscriptions, papyrus scrolls and tomb paintings.", "The Egyptian ''Book of the Dead'' compiles some of the beliefs from different periods of ancient Egyptian history.In modern times, the fanciful concept of a mummy coming back to life and wreaking vengeance when disturbed has spawned a whole genre of horror stories and films.===Classical Antiquity=======Archaic and Classical Greece====Apulian red-figure bell krater depicting the ghost of Clytemnestra waking the Erinyes, date unknownGhosts appeared in Homer's ''Odyssey'' and ''Iliad'', in which they were described as vanishing \"as a vapor, gibbering and whining into the earth\".", "Homer's ghosts had little interaction with the world of the living.", "Periodically they were called upon to provide advice or prophecy, but they do not appear to be particularly feared.", "Ghosts in the classical world often appeared in the form of vapor or smoke, but at other times they were described as being substantial, appearing as they had been at the time of death, complete with the wounds that killed them.By the 5th century BC, classical Greek ghosts had become haunting, frightening creatures who could work to either good or evil purposes.", "The spirit of the dead was believed to hover near the resting place of the corpse, and cemeteries were places the living avoided.", "The dead were to be ritually mourned through public ceremony, sacrifice, and libations, or else they might return to haunt their families.", "The ancient Greeks held annual feasts to honor and placate the spirits of the dead, to which the family ghosts were invited, and after which they were \"firmly invited to leave until the same time next year.", "\"The 5th-century BC play ''Oresteia'' includes an appearance of the ghost of Clytemnestra, one of the first ghosts to appear in a work of fiction.====Roman Empire and Late Antiquity====Athenodorus and the Ghost'', by Henry Justice Ford, c.1900The ancient Romans believed a ghost could be used to exact revenge on an enemy by scratching a curse on a piece of lead or pottery and placing it into a grave.Plutarch, in the 1st century AD, described the haunting of the baths at Chaeronea by the ghost of a murdered man.", "The ghost's loud and frightful groans caused the people of the town to seal up the doors of the building.", "Another celebrated account of a haunted house from the ancient classical world is given by Pliny the Younger ( 50 AD).", "Pliny describes the haunting of a house in Athens, which was bought by the Stoic philosopher Athenodorus, who lived about 100 years before Pliny.", "Knowing that the house was supposedly haunted, Athenodorus intentionally set up his writing desk in the room where the apparition was said to appear and sat there writing until late at night when he was disturbed by a ghost bound in chains.", "He followed the ghost outside where it indicated a spot on the ground.", "When Athenodorus later excavated the area, a shackled skeleton was unearthed.", "The haunting ceased when the skeleton was given a proper reburial.", "The writers Plautus and Lucian also wrote stories about haunted houses.In the New Testament, according to Luke 24:37–39, following his resurrection, Jesus was forced to persuade the Disciples that he was not a ghost (some versions of the Bible, such as the KJV and NKJV, use the term \"spirit\").", "Similarly, Jesus' followers at first believed he was a ghost (spirit) when they saw him walking on water.One of the first persons to express disbelief in ghosts was Lucian of Samosata in the 2nd century AD.", "In his satirical novel ''The Lover of Lies'' (circa 150 AD), he relates how Democritus \"the learned man from Abdera in Thrace\" lived in a tomb outside the city gates to prove that cemeteries were not haunted by the spirits of the departed.", "Lucian relates how he persisted in his disbelief despite practical jokes perpetrated by \"some young men of Abdera\" who dressed up in black robes with skull masks to frighten him.", "This account by Lucian notes something about the popular classical expectation of how a ghost should look.In the 5th century AD, the Christian priest Constantius of Lyon recorded an instance of the recurring theme of the improperly buried dead who come back to haunt the living, and who can only cease their haunting when their bones have been discovered and properly reburied.===Middle Ages===Ghosts reported in medieval Europe tended to fall into two categories: the souls of the dead, or demons.", "The souls of the dead returned for a specific purpose.", "Demonic ghosts existed only to torment or tempt the living.", "The living could tell them apart by demanding their purpose in the name of Jesus Christ.", "The soul of a dead person would divulge its mission, while a demonic ghost would be banished at the sound of the Holy Name.Most ghosts were souls assigned to Purgatory, condemned for a specific period to atone for their transgressions in life.", "Their penance was generally related to their sin.", "For example, the ghost of a man who had been abusive to his servants was condemned to tear off and swallow bits of his own tongue; the ghost of another man, who had neglected to leave his cloak to the poor, was condemned to wear the cloak, now \"heavy as a church tower\".", "These ghosts appeared to the living to ask for prayers to end their suffering.", "Other dead souls returned to urge the living to confess their sins before their own deaths.Medieval European ghosts were more substantial than ghosts described in the Victorian age, and there are accounts of ghosts being wrestled with and physically restrained until a priest could arrive to hear its confession.", "Some were less solid, and could move through walls.", "Often they were described as paler and sadder versions of the person they had been while alive, and dressed in tattered gray rags.", "The vast majority of reported sightings were male.There were some reported cases of ghostly armies, fighting battles at night in the forest, or in the remains of an Iron Age hillfort, as at Wandlebury, near Cambridge, England.", "Living knights were sometimes challenged to single combat by phantom knights, which vanished when defeated.From the medieval period an apparition of a ghost is recorded from 1211, at the time of the Albigensian Crusade.", "Gervase of Tilbury, Marshal of Arles, wrote that the image of Guilhem, a boy recently murdered in the forest, appeared in his cousin's home in Beaucaire, near Avignon.", "This series of \"visits\" lasted all of the summer.", "Through his cousin, who spoke for him, the boy allegedly held conversations with anyone who wished, until the local priest requested to speak to the boy directly, leading to an extended disquisition on theology.", "The boy narrated the trauma of death and the unhappiness of his fellow souls in Purgatory, and reported that God was most pleased with the ongoing Crusade against the Cathar heretics, launched three years earlier.", "The time of the Albigensian Crusade in southern France was marked by intense and prolonged warfare, this constant bloodshed and dislocation of populations being the context for these reported visits by the murdered boy.Haunted houses are featured in the 9th-century ''Arabian Nights'' (such as the tale of ''Ali the Cairene and the Haunted House in Baghdad'').===European Renaissance to Romanticism===\"Hamlet and his father's ghost\" by Henry Fuseli (1796 drawing).", "The ghost is wearing stylized plate armor in 17th-century style, including a morion type helmet and tassets.", "Depicting ghosts as wearing armor, to suggest a sense of antiquity, was common in Elizabethan theater.Renaissance magic took a revived interest in the occult, including necromancy.", "In the era of the Reformation and Counter Reformation, there was frequently a backlash against unwholesome interest in the dark arts, typified by writers such as Thomas Erastus.", "The Swiss Reformed pastor Ludwig Lavater supplied one of the most frequently reprinted books of the period with his ''Of Ghosts and Spirits Walking By Night.", "''The Child Ballad \"Sweet William's Ghost\" (1868) recounts the story of a ghost returning to his fiancée begging her to free him from his promise to marry her.", "He cannot marry her because he is dead but her refusal would mean his damnation.", "This reflects a popular British belief that the dead haunted their lovers if they took up with a new love without some formal release.", "\"The Unquiet Grave\" expresses a belief even more widespread, found in various locations over Europe: ghosts can stem from the excessive grief of the living, whose mourning interferes with the dead's peaceful rest.", "In many folktales from around the world, the hero arranges for the burial of a dead man.", "Soon after, he gains a companion who aids him and, in the end, the hero's companion reveals that he is in fact the dead man.", "Instances of this include the Italian fairy tale \"Fair Brow\" and the Swedish \"The Bird 'Grip'\".===Modern period of western culture=======Spiritualist movement====By 1853, when the popular song ''Spirit Rappings'' was published, Spiritualism was an object of intense curiosity.Spiritualism is a monotheistic belief system or religion, postulating a belief in God, but with a distinguishing feature of belief that spirits of the dead residing in the spirit world can be contacted by \"mediums\", who can then provide information about the afterlife.Spiritualism developed in the United States and reached its peak growth in membership from the 1840s to the 1920s, especially in English-language countries.", "By 1897, it was said to have more than eight million followers in the United States and Europe, mostly drawn from the middle and upper classes, while the corresponding movement in continental Europe and Latin America is known as Spiritism.The religion flourished for a half century without canonical texts or formal organization, attaining cohesion by periodicals, tours by trance lecturers, camp meetings, and the missionary activities of accomplished mediums.", "Many prominent Spiritualists were women.", "Most followers supported causes such as the abolition of slavery and women's suffrage.", "By the late 1880s, credibility of the informal movement weakened, due to accusations of fraud among mediums, and formal Spiritualist organizations began to appear.", "Spiritualism is currently practiced primarily through various denominational Spiritualist churches in the United States and United Kingdom.====Spiritism====Spiritism, or French spiritualism, is based on the five books of the Spiritist Codification written by French educator Hypolite Léon Denizard Rivail under the pseudonym Allan Kardec reporting séances in which he observed a series of phenomena that he attributed to incorporeal intelligence (spirits).", "His assumption of spirit communication was validated by many contemporaries, among them many scientists and philosophers who attended séances and studied the phenomena.", "His work was later extended by writers like Leon Denis, Arthur Conan Doyle, Camille Flammarion, Ernesto Bozzano, Chico Xavier, Divaldo Pereira Franco, Waldo Vieira, Johannes Greber, and others.Spiritism has adherents in many countries throughout the world, including Spain, United States, Canada, Japan, Germany, France, England, Argentina, Portugal, and especially Brazil, which has the largest proportion and greatest number of followers.===Scientific view===The physician John Ferriar wrote \"An Essay Towards a Theory of Apparitions\" in 1813 in which he argued that sightings of ghosts were the result of optical illusions.", "Later the French physician Alexandre Jacques François Brière de Boismont published ''On Hallucinations: Or, the Rational History of Apparitions, Dreams, Ecstasy, Magnetism, and Somnambulism'' in 1845 in which he claimed sightings of ghosts were the result of hallucinations.A 1901 depiction of ball lightningDavid Turner, a retired physical chemist, suggested that ball lightning could cause inanimate objects to move erratically.Joe Nickell of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry wrote that there was no credible scientific evidence that any location was inhabited by spirits of the dead.", "Limitations of human perception and ordinary physical explanations can account for ghost sightings; for example, air pressure changes in a home causing doors to slam, humidity changes causing boards to creak, condensation in electrical connections causing intermittent behavior, or lights from a passing car reflected through a window at night.", "Pareidolia, an innate tendency to recognize patterns in random perceptions, is what some skeptics believe causes people to believe that they have 'seen ghosts'.", "Reports of ghosts \"seen out of the corner of the eye\" may be accounted for by the sensitivity of human peripheral vision.", "According to Nickell, peripheral vision can easily mislead, especially late at night when the brain is tired and more likely to misinterpret sights and sounds.", "Nickell further states, \"science cannot substantiate the existence of a 'life energy' that could survive death without dissipating or function at all without a brain... why would... clothes survive?'\"", "He asks, if ghosts glide, then why do people claim to hear them with \"heavy footfalls\"?", "Nickell says that ghosts act the same way as \"dreams, memories, and imaginings, because they too are mental creations.", "They are evidence - not of another world, but of this real and natural one.", "\"Benjamin Radford from the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry and author of the 2017 book ''Investigating Ghosts: The Scientific Search for Spirits'' writes that \"ghost hunting is the world's most popular paranormal pursuit\" yet, to date, ghost hunters cannot agree on what a ghost is, or offer proof that they exist; \"it's all speculation and guesswork\".", "He writes that it would be \"useful and important to distinguish between types of spirits and apparitions.", "Until then it's merely a parlor game distracting amateur ghost hunters from the task at hand.", "\"According to research in anomalistic psychology visions of ghosts may arise from hypnagogic hallucinations (\"waking dreams\" experienced in the transitional states to and from sleep).", "In a study of two experiments into alleged hauntings (Wiseman ''et al.''.", "2003) came to the conclusion \"that people consistently report unusual experiences in 'haunted' areas because of environmental factors, which may differ across locations.\"", "Some of these factors included \"the variance of local magnetic fields, size of location and lighting level stimuli of which witnesses may not be consciously aware\".Some researchers, such as Michael Persinger of Laurentian University, Canada, have speculated that changes in geomagnetic fields (created, e.g., by tectonic stresses in the Earth's crust or solar activity) could stimulate the brain's temporal lobes and produce many of the experiences associated with hauntings.", "Sound is thought to be another cause of supposed sightings.", "Richard Lord and Richard Wiseman have concluded that infrasound can cause humans to experience bizarre feelings in a room, such as anxiety, extreme sorrow, a feeling of being watched, or even the chills.", "Carbon monoxide poisoning, which can cause changes in perception of the visual and auditory systems, was speculated upon as a possible explanation for haunted houses as early as 1921.People who experience sleep paralysis often report seeing ghosts during their experiences.", "Neuroscientists Baland Jalal and V.S.", "Ramachandran have recently proposed neurological theories for why people hallucinate ghosts during sleep paralysis.", "Their theories emphasize the role of the parietal lobe and mirror neurons in triggering such ghostly hallucinations." ], [ "By religion", "===Judaism===''Witch of Endor'' by Nikolai Ge, depicting King Saul encountering the ghost of Samuel (1857)The Hebrew Bible contains several references to '' owb'' (), which are in a few places akin to shades of classical mythology but mostly describing mediums in connection with necromancy and spirit-consulting, which are grouped with witchcraft and other forms of divination under the category of forbidden occult activities.", "The most notable reference to a shade is in the First Book of Samuel, in which a disguised King Saul has the Witch of Endor conduct a seance to summon the dead prophet Samuel.", "A similar term appearing throughout the scriptures is '' repha'(im) '' (), which while describing the race of \"giants\" formerly inhabiting Canaan in many verses, also refer to (the spirits of) dead ancestors of Sheol (like shades) in many others such as in the Book of Isaiah.Jewish mythology and folkloric traditions describe dybbuks, malicious possessing spirits believed to be the dislocated soul of a dead person.", "However, the term does not appear in the Kabbalah or Talmudic literature, where it is rather called an \"evil spirit\" or ''ru'aḥ tezazit'' ().", "It supposedly leaves the host body once it has accomplished its goal, sometimes after being helped.=== Christianity ===In the New Testament, Jesus has to persuade the Disciples that he is not a ghost following the resurrection, Luke 24:37–39 (some versions of the Bible, such as the KJV and NKJV, use the term \"spirit\").", "Similarly, Jesus' followers at first believe he is a ghost (spirit) when they see him walking on water.Some Christian denominations consider ghosts as beings who while tied to earth, no longer live on the material plane and linger in an intermediate state before continuing their journey to heaven.", "On occasion, God would allow the souls in this state to return to earth to warn the living of the need for repentance.", "Christians are taught that it is sinful to attempt to conjure or control spirits in accordance with Deuteronomy XVIII: 9–12.Some ghosts are actually said to be demons in disguise, who the Church teaches, in accordance with I Timothy 4:1, that they \"come to deceive people and draw them away from God and into bondage.\"", "As a result, attempts to contact the dead may lead to unwanted contact with a demon or an unclean spirit, as was said to occur in the case of Robbie Mannheim, a fourteen-year-old Maryland youth.", "The Seventh-Day Adventist view is that a \"soul\" is not equivalent to \"spirit\" or \"ghost\" (depending on the Bible version), and that save for the Holy Spirit, all spirits or ghosts are demons in disguise.", "Furthermore, they teach that in accordance with (Genesis 2:7, Ecclesiastes 12:7), there are only two components to a \"soul\", neither of which survives death, with each returning to its respective source.Christadelphians and Jehovah's Witnesses reject the view of a living, conscious soul after death.===Islam===Muhammad ibn Muhammad Shakir Ruzmah-'i Nathani - A Soul Symbolized as an Angel''Rūḥ'' (; plural ''arwah'') is a person's immortal, essential self — pneuma, i.e.", "the \"spirit\" or \"soul\".", "The term is also used for ghosts.", "The souls of the deceased dwell in barzakh.", "Only a barrier in Quran, in Islamic tradition this refers to an entire intermediary world between the living and the afterlife.", "The world, especially cemeteries, are perforated with several gateways to the otherworld or barzakh.", "In rare occasions, the dead can appear to the living.", "Pure souls, such as the souls of saints, are commonly addressed as rūḥ, while impure souls seeking for revenge, are often addressed as afarit.", "An inappropriate burial can also cause a soul to stay in this world, whereupon roaming the earth as a ghost.", "Since the just souls remain close to their tomb, some people try to communicate with them in order to gain hidden knowledge.", "Contact with the dead is not the same as contact with jinn, who alike could provide knowledge concealed from living humans.", "Many encounters with ghosts are related to dreams supposed to occur in the realm of symbols.Belief in spirits have not ceased to exist in Muslim belief.", "Smile of new-born babies is sometimes used as a proof for sighting spirits, like ghosts.", "However, the connection to the other world fades during life on earth but is resumed after death.", "Once again, smiling of dying people is considered as evidence for recognizing the spirit of their beloved ones.", "Yet, Muslims who affirm the existence of ghosts, are carefully when interacting with spirits, as the ghosts of humans can be as bad as the jinn.", "Worst of all, however, are the devils.Muslim authors, like Ghazali, Ibn Qayyim and Suyuti wrote in more details about the life of ghosts.", "Ibn Qayyim and Suyuti assert, when a soul desires to turn back to earth long enough, it is gradually released from restrictions of Barzakh and able to move freely.", "Each spirit experiences afterlife in accordance with their deeds and condictions in the earthly life.", "Evil souls will find the afterlife as painful and punishment, imprisoned until God allows them to interact with other others.", "Good souls are not restricted.", "They are free to come visit other souls and even come down to lower regions.", "The higher planes (''ʿilliyyīn'') are considered to be broader than the lower ones, the lowest being the most narrow (''sijjīn'').", "The spiritual space is not thought as spatial, but reflects the capacity of the spirit.", "The more pure the spirit gets, the more it is able to interact with other souls and thus reaches a broader degree of freedom.The Ismailite Philosopher Nasir Khusraw conjectured that evil human souls turn into demons, when their bodies die, because of their intense attachment to the bodily world.", "They were worse than the jinn and fairies, who in turn could become devils, if they pursue evil.", "A similar thought is recorded by Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi.The ghosts of saints are thought to transmit blessings from God through the heavenly realm to whose who visit their graves.", "Therefore, visiting the graves of saints and prophets became a major ritual in Muslim spirituality.=== Indian Religions ===A bhoota is the ghost of a deceased being in Indian religions.", "Interpretations of how bhootas come into existence vary by region and community, but they are usually considered to be perturbed and restless due to some factor that prevents them from moving on (to transmigration, non-being, nirvana, or swarga or naraka, depending on tradition).", "This could be a violent death, unsettled matters in their lives, or simply the failure of their survivors to perform proper funerals.", "Belief in ghosts has been deeply ingrained in the minds of the people of the subcontinent for generations.", "There are many allegedly haunted places in the subcontinent, such as cremation grounds, dilapidated buildings, royal mansions, havelis, forts, forest bungalows, burning ghats, etc.", "Ghosts also occupy a significant place in the Bengali culture.", "Ghosts and various supernatural entities form an integral part of the socio-cultural beliefs of both the Muslim and Hindu communities of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal.The Bhutas (singular 'Bhuta'), spirits of deified heroes, of fierce and evil beings, of Hindu deities and of animals, etc., are wrongly referred to as \"ghosts\" or \"demons\" and, in fact, are protective and benevolent beings.", "Though it is true that they can cause harm in their violent forms, as they are extremely powerful, they can be pacified through worship or offerings referred to as Bhuta Aradhana.The Churel, also spelled as '''Charail''', '''Churreyl''', '''Chudail''', '''Chudel''', '''Chuṛail''', '''Cuḍail''' or '''Cuḍel''' (, ), is a mythical spirit of a woman who died during pregnancy or childbirth, which may be a demoniacal revenant said to occur in South Asia and Southeast Asia, particularly popular in India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan.", "The churel is typically described as \"the ghost of an unpurified living thing\", but because she is often said to latch on to trees, she is also called a tree-spirit.", "According to some legends, a woman who dies during childbirth or pregnancy or from suffering at the hands of her in-laws will come back as a revenant churel for revenge, particularly targeting the males in her family.The churel is mostly described as extremely ugly and hideous but is able to shape-shift and disguise herself as a beautiful woman to lure men into the woods or mountains where she either kills them or sucks up their life-force or virility, turning them into old men.", "Their feet are believed to be turned the other way around, so the toes face the direction of their back.", "The churel is called as Pichal Peri in Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.There are many folk remedies and folkloric sayings that elaborate on how to get rid of revenant, bhoot and churels, and a number measures that supposedly prevent churels from coming to life.", "The family of a woman who dies a traumatic, tragic, or unnatural death might perform special rituals fearing that the victimised woman might return as a churel.", "The corpses of suspected churels are also buried in a particular method and posture so as to prevent her from returning.==== Buddhism ====In Buddhism, there are a number of planes of existence into which a person can be reborn, one of which is the realm of hungry ghosts.", "Buddhist celebrate the Ghost Festival as an expression of compassion, one of Buddhist virtues.", "If the hungry ghosts are fed by non-relatives, they would not bother the community." ], [ "By culture", "===African folklore===For the Igbo people, a man is simultaneously a physical and spiritual entity.", "However, it is his spirited dimension that is eternal.", "In the Akan conception, we witness five parts of the human personality.", "We have the Nipadua (body), the Okra (soul), Sunsum (spirit), Ntoro (character from father), Mogya (character from mother).", "The Humr people of southwestern Kordofan, Sudan consume the drink Umm Nyolokh, which is prepared from the liver and bone marrow of giraffes.", "Richard Rudgley hypothesises that Umm Nyolokh may contain DMT and certain online websites further theorise that giraffe liver might owe its putative psychoactivity to substances derived from psychoactive plants, such as Acacia spp.", "consumed by the animal.", "The drink is said to cause hallucinations of giraffes, believed by the Humr to be the ghosts of giraffes.===European folklore===''Macbeth Seeing the Ghost of Banquo'' by Théodore ChassériauBelief in ghosts in European folklore is characterized by the recurring fear of \"returning\" or ''revenant'' deceased who may harm the living.", "This includes the Scandinavian ''gjenganger'', the Romanian ''strigoi'', the Serbian ''vampir'', the Greek ''vrykolakas'', etc.", "In Scandinavian and Finnish tradition, ghosts appear in corporeal form, and their supernatural nature is given away by behavior rather than appearance.", "In fact, in many stories they are first mistaken for the living.", "They may be mute, appear and disappear suddenly, or leave no footprints or other traces.English folklore is particularly notable for its numerous haunted locations.Belief in the soul and an afterlife remained near universal until the emergence of atheism in the 18th century.", "In the 19th century, spiritism resurrected \"belief in ghosts\" as the object of systematic inquiry, and popular opinion in Western culture remains divided.===South and Southeast Asia=======Indian subcontinent====A ''bhoot'' or ''bhut'' (, , , , ) is a supernatural creature, usually the ghost of a deceased person, in the popular culture, literature and some ancient texts of the Indian subcontinent.====North India====Interpretations of how ''bhoot''s come into existence vary by region and community, but they are usually considered to be perturbed and restless due to some factor that prevents them from moving on (to transmigration, non-being, nirvana, or heaven or hell, depending on tradition).", "This could be a violent death, unsettled matters in their lives, or simply the failure of their survivors to perform proper funerals.In Central and Northern India, ''ojha'' or spirit guides play a central role.", "It duly happens when in the night someone sleeps and decorates something on the wall, and they say that if one sees the spirit the next thing in the morning he will become a spirit too, and that to a headless spirit and the soul of the body will remain the dark with the dark lord from the spirits who reside in the body of every human in Central and Northern India.", "It is also believed that if someone calls one from behind, never turn back and see because the spirit may catch the human to make it a spirit.Other types of spirits in Hindu mythology include Baital, an evil spirit who haunts cemeteries and takes demonic possession of corpses, and Pishacha, a type of flesh-eating demon.====Bengal and East India====There are many kinds of ghosts and similar supernatural entities that frequently come up in Bengali culture, its folklores and form an important part in Bengali peoples' socio-cultural beliefs and superstitions.", "It is believed that the spirits of those who cannot find peace in the afterlife or die unnatural deaths remain on Earth.", "The word ''Pret'' (from Sanskrit) is also used in Bengali to mean ghost.", "In Bengal, ghosts are believed to be the spirit after death of an unsatisfied human being or a soul of a person who dies in unnatural or abnormal circumstances (like murder, suicide or accident).", "Even it is believed that other animals and creatures can also be turned into ghost after their death.====Thailand====''Krasue'', a Thai female ghost known as ''Ap'' in KhmerGhosts in Thailand are part of local folklore and have now become part of the popular culture of the country.", "Phraya Anuman Rajadhon was the first Thai scholar who seriously studied Thai folk beliefs and took notes on the nocturnal village spirits of Thailand.", "He established that, since such spirits were not represented in paintings or drawings, they were purely based on descriptions of popular orally transmitted traditional stories.", "Therefore, most of the contemporary iconography of ghosts such as Nang Tani, Nang Takian, Krasue, Krahang, Phi Hua Kat, Phi Pop, Phi Phong, Phi Phraya, and Mae Nak has its origins in Thai films that have now become classics.The most feared spirit in Thailand is Phi Tai Hong, the ghost of a person who has died suddenly of a violent death.", "The folklore of Thailand also includes the belief that sleep paralysis is caused by a ghost, Phi Am.====Tibet====There is widespread belief in ghosts in Tibetan culture.", "Ghosts are explicitly recognized in the Tibetan Buddhist religion as they were in Indian Buddhism, occupying a distinct but overlapping world to the human one, and feature in many traditional legends.", "When a human dies, after a period of uncertainty they may enter the ghost world.", "A hungry ghost (Tibetan: , ; ) has a tiny throat and huge stomach, and so can never be satisfied.", "Ghosts may be killed with a ritual dagger or caught in a spirit trap and burnt, thus releasing them to be reborn.", "Ghosts may also be exorcised, and an annual festival is held throughout Tibet for this purpose.", "Some say that Dorje Shugden, the ghost of a powerful 17th-century monk, is a deity, but the Dalai Lama asserts that he is an evil spirit, which has caused a split in the Tibetan exile community.====Austronesia====''Spirit of the Dead Watching'' by Paul Gauguin (1892)There are many Malay ghost myths, remnants of old animist beliefs that have been shaped by later Hindu, Buddhist, and Muslim influences in the modern states of Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei.", "Some ghost concepts such as the female vampires Pontianak and Penanggalan are shared throughout the region.Ghosts are a popular theme in modern Malaysian and Indonesian films.There are also many references to ghosts in Filipino culture, ranging from ancient legendary creatures such as the Manananggal and Tiyanak to more modern urban legends and horror films.", "The beliefs, legends and stories are as diverse as the people of the Philippines.There was widespread belief in ghosts in Polynesian culture, some of which persists today.After death, a person's ghost normally traveled to the sky world or the underworld, but some could stay on earth.", "In many Polynesian legends, ghosts were often actively involved in the affairs of the living.", "Ghosts might also cause sickness or even invade the body of ordinary people, to be driven out through strong medicines.===East and Central Asia=======China====An image of Zhong Kui, the vanquisher of ghosts and evil beings, painted sometime before 1304 A.D. by Gong KaiThere are many references to ghosts in Chinese culture.", "Even Confucius said, \"Respect ghosts and gods, but keep away from them.", "\"The ghosts take many forms, depending on how the person died, and are often harmful.", "Many Chinese ghost beliefs have been accepted by neighboring cultures, notably Japan and southeast Asia.", "Ghost beliefs are closely associated with traditional Chinese religion based on ancestor worship, many of which were incorporated in Taoism.", "Later beliefs were influenced by Buddhism, and in turn influenced and created uniquely Chinese Buddhist beliefs.Many Chinese today believe it possible to contact the spirits of their ancestors through a medium, and that ancestors can help descendants if properly respected and rewarded.", "The annual ghost festival is celebrated by Chinese around the world.", "On this day, ghosts and spirits, including those of the deceased ancestors, come out from the lower realm.", "Ghosts are described in classical Chinese texts as well as modern literature and films.An article in the China Post stated that nearly eighty-seven percent of Chinese office workers believe in ghosts, and some fifty-two percent of workers will wear hand art, necklaces, crosses, or even place a crystal ball on their desks to keep ghosts at bay, according to the poll.====Japan====Utagawa Kuniyoshi, ''The Ghosts'', c. 1850 are figures in Japanese folklore, analogous to Western legends of ghosts.", "The name consists of two kanji, 幽 (''yū''), meaning \"faint\" or \"dim\", and 霊 (''rei''), meaning \"soul\" or \"spirit\".", "Alternative names include 亡霊 (Bōrei) meaning ruined or departed spirit, 死霊 (Shiryō) meaning dead spirit, or the more encompassing 妖怪 (Yōkai) or お化け (Obake).Like their Chinese and Western counterparts, they are thought to be spirits kept from a peaceful afterlife.===Americas=======Mexico====Catrinas, one of the most popular figures of the ''Day of the Dead'' celebrations in MexicoThere is extensive and varied belief in ghosts in Mexican culture.", "The modern state of Mexico before the Spanish conquest was inhabited by diverse peoples such as the Maya and Aztec, and their beliefs have survived and evolved, combined with the beliefs of the Spanish colonists.", "The Day of the Dead incorporates pre-Columbian beliefs with Christian elements.", "Mexican literature and films include many stories of ghosts interacting with the living.====United States====According to the Gallup Poll News Service, belief in haunted houses, ghosts, communication with the dead, and witches had an especially steep increase over the 1990s.", "A 2005 Gallup poll found that about 32 percent of Americans believe in ghosts." ], [ "Depiction in the arts", "Ghosts are prominent in story-telling of various nations.", "The ghost story is ubiquitous across all cultures from oral folktales to works of literature.", "While ghost stories are often explicitly meant to be scary, they have been written to serve all sorts of purposes, from comedy to morality tales.", "Ghosts often appear in the narrative as sentinels or prophets of things to come.", "Belief in ghosts is found in all cultures around the world, and thus ghost stories may be passed down orally or in written form.Spirits of the dead appear in literature as early as Homer's ''Odyssey'', which features a journey to the underworld and the hero encountering the ghosts of the dead, and the Old Testament, in which the Witch of Endor summons the spirit of the prophet Samuel.===Renaissance to Romanticism (1500 to 1840)===One of the more recognizable ghosts in English literature is the shade of Hamlet's murdered father in Shakespeare's ''The Tragical History of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark''.", "In ''Hamlet'', it is the ghost who demands that Prince Hamlet investigate his \"murder most foul\" and seek revenge upon his usurping uncle, King Claudius.In English Renaissance theater, ghosts were often depicted in the garb of the living and even in armor, as with the ghost of Hamlet's father.", "Armor, being out-of-date by the time of the Renaissance, gave the stage ghost a sense of antiquity.", "But the sheeted ghost began to gain ground on stage in the 19th century because an armored ghost could not satisfactorily convey the requisite spookiness: it clanked and creaked, and had to be moved about by complicated pulley systems or elevators.", "These clanking ghosts being hoisted about the stage became objects of ridicule as they became clichéd stage elements.", "Ann Jones and Peter Stallybrass, in ''Renaissance Clothing and the Materials of Memory'', point out, \"In fact, it is as laughter increasingly threatens the Ghost that he starts to be staged not in armor but in some form of 'spirit drapery'.", "\"===Victorian/Edwardian (1840 to 1920)===The \"classic\" ghost story arose during the Victorian period, and included authors such as M. R. James, Sheridan Le Fanu, Violet Hunt, and Henry James.", "Classic ghost stories were influenced by the gothic fiction tradition, and contain elements of folklore and psychology.", "M. R. James summed up the essential elements of a ghost story as, \"Malevolence and terror, the glare of evil faces, ‘the stony grin of unearthly malice', pursuing forms in darkness, and 'long-drawn, distant screams', are all in place, and so is a modicum of blood, shed with deliberation and carefully husbanded...\".", "One of the key early appearances by ghosts was ''The Castle of Otranto'' by Horace Walpole in 1764, considered to be the first gothic novel.Famous literary apparitions from this period are the ghosts of ''A Christmas Carol'', in which Ebenezer Scrooge is helped to see the error of his ways by the ghost of his former colleague Jacob Marley, and the ghosts of Christmas Past, Christmas Present, and Christmas Yet to Come.===Modern era (1920 to 1970)===''Brown Lady of Raynham Hall'', a claimed ghost photograph by Captain Hubert C. Provand.", "First published in ''Country Life'' magazine, 1936Professional parapsychologists and \"ghosts hunters\", such as Harry Price, active in the 1920s and 1930s, and Peter Underwood, active in the 1940s and 1950s, published accounts of their experiences with ostensibly true ghost stories such as Price's ''The Most Haunted House in England'', and Underwood's ''Ghosts of Borley'' (both recounting experiences at Borley Rectory).", "The writer Frank Edwards delved into ghost stories in his books of his, like ''Stranger than Science''.Children's benevolent ghost stories became popular, such as Casper the Friendly Ghost, created in the 1930s and appearing in comics, animated cartoons, and eventually a 1995 feature film.With the advent of motion pictures and television, screen depictions of ghosts became common, and spanned a variety of genres; the works of Shakespeare, Dickens and Wilde have all been made into cinematic versions.", "Novel-length tales have been difficult to adapt to cinema, although that of ''The Haunting of Hill House'' to ''The Haunting'' in 1963 is an exception.Sentimental depictions during this period were more popular in cinema than horror, and include the 1947 film ''The Ghost and Mrs. Muir'', which was later adapted to television with a successful 1968–70 TV series.", "Genuine psychological horror films from this period include 1944's ''The Uninvited'', and 1945's ''Dead of Night''.===Post-modern (1970–present)===The 1970s saw screen depictions of ghosts diverge into distinct genres of the romantic and horror.", "A common theme in the romantic genre from this period is the ghost as a benign guide or messenger, often with unfinished business, such as 1989's ''Field of Dreams'', the 1990 film ''Ghost'', and the 1993 comedy ''Heart and Souls''.", "In the horror genre, 1980's ''The Fog'', and the ''A Nightmare on Elm Street'' series of films from the 1980s and 1990s are notable examples of the trend for the merging of ghost stories with scenes of physical violence.Popularised in such films as the 1984 comedy ''Ghostbusters'', ghost hunting became a hobby for many who formed ghost hunting societies to explore reportedly haunted places.", "The ghost hunting theme has been featured in reality television series, such as ''Ghost Adventures'', ''Ghost Hunters'', ''Ghost Hunters International'', ''Ghost Lab'', ''Most Haunted'', and ''A Haunting''.", "It is also represented in children's television by such programs as ''The Ghost Hunter'' and ''Ghost Trackers''.", "Ghost hunting also gave rise to multiple guidebooks to haunted locations, and ghost hunting \"how-to\" manuals.The 1990s saw a return to classic \"gothic\" ghosts, whose dangers were more psychological than physical.", "Examples of films from this period include 1999's ''The Sixth Sense'' and ''The Others''.Asian cinema has also produced horror films about ghosts, such as the 1998 Japanese film ''Ringu'' (remade in the US as ''The Ring'' in 2002), and the Pang brothers' 2002 film ''The Eye''.Indian ghost movies are popular not just in India, but in the Middle East, Africa, South East Asia, and other parts of the world.", "Some Indian ghost movies such as the comedy / horror film ''Chandramukhi'' have been commercial successes, dubbed into several languages.In fictional television programming, ghosts have been explored in series such as ''Supernatural'', ''Ghost Whisperer'', and ''Medium''.In animated fictional television programming, ghosts have served as the central element in series such as ''Casper the Friendly Ghost'', ''Danny Phantom'', and ''Scooby-Doo''.", "Various other television shows have depicted ghosts as well." ], [ "Metaphorical usages", "Nietzsche argued that people generally wear prudent masks in company, but that an alternative strategy for social interaction is to present oneself as an absence, as a social ghost – \"One reaches out for us but gets no hold of us\" – a sentiment later echoed (if in a less positive way) by Carl Jung.Nick Harkaway has considered that all people carry a host of ghosts in their heads in the form of impressions of past acquaintances – ghosts who represent mental maps of other people in the world and serve as philosophical reference points.Object relations theory sees human personalities as formed by splitting off aspects of the person that he or she deems incompatible, whereupon the person may be haunted in later life by such ghosts of his or her alternate selves.The sense of ghosts as invisible, mysterious entities is invoked in several terms that use the word metaphorically, such as ghostwriter (a writer who pens texts credited to another person without revealing the ghostwriter's role as an author); ghost singer (a vocalist who records songs whose vocals are credited to another person); and \"ghosting\" a date (when a person breaks off contact with a former romantic partner and disappears)." ], [ "See also", "* Hauntology* List of ghosts* Paranormal activity* ''Spiritism''* Spirit photography* Susulu (mythology)* La Llorona" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* Finucane, R. C., ''Appearances of the Dead: A Cultural History of Ghosts'', Prometheus Books, 1984, .", "* Hervey, Sheila, ''Some Canadian Ghosts'', in series, ''Original Canadian Pocket Books,'' Richmond Hill, Ont.", ": Pocket Books, 1973, SBN 671-78629-6* Hole, Christina, ''Haunted England'', Batsford: London, 1950.", "* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Fairly, John & Welfare, Simon, ''Arthur C. Clarke's World of Strange Powers'', Putnam: New York, 1985.", "* Felton, D., ''Haunted Greece and Rome: Ghost Stories From Classical Antiquity'', University of Texas Press, 1999.", "* Johnston, Sarah Iles, ''Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece'', University of California Press, 1999.", "* MacKenzie, Andrew, ''Apparitions and Ghosts'', Arthur Barker, 1971.", "* Moreman, Christopher, ''Beyond the Threshold: Afterlife Beliefs and Experiences in World Religions'', Rowman & Littlefield, 2008." ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geneva" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Geneva''' ( ; ) is the second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and the most populous of the French-speaking Romandy.", "Situated in the southwest of the country, where the Rhône exits Lake Geneva, it is the capital of the Republic and Canton of Geneva, and a centre for international diplomacy.", "Geneva hosts the highest number of international organizations in the world.The city of Geneva () had a population of 203,951 in January 2020 within its municipal territory of , but the larger Canton of Geneva had a population of 504,128 over .", "The Geneva metropolitan area as officially defined by Eurostat, including suburbs and exurbs in Vaud and the French departments of Ain and Haute-Savoie, extends over Land area of the 93 Swiss communes: 555.1 km² (source: ).Land area of the 158 French communes: 1737.1 km² (source: ).", "and had a population of 1,044,766 at the time.Population of the 93 Swiss communes in January 2020: 605,466 (source: ).Population of the 158 French communes in January 2020: 439,300 (source: ).Since 2013, the Canton of Geneva, the Nyon District (in the canton of Vaud), and the (, a federation of eight French intercommunal councils), have formed (\"Greater Geneva\"), a Local Grouping of Transnational Cooperation ( in French, a public entity under Swiss law) in charge of organizing cooperation within the cross-border metropolitan area of Geneva (in particular metropolitan transports).", "The extends over and had a population of 1,037,407 in Jan. 2020 (Swiss estimates and French census), 58.4% of them living on Swiss territory, and 41.6% on French territory.Geneva is a global city, a financial centre, and a worldwide centre for diplomacy due to the presence of numerous international organizations, including the headquarters of many agencies of the United Nations and the ICRC and IFRC of the Red Cross.", "In the aftermath of World War I, it hosted the League of Nations.", "It was where the Geneva Conventions on humanitarian treatment in war were signed.", "It shares a unique distinction with municipalities such as New York City (global headquarters of the UN), Basel (Bank for International Settlements), and Strasbourg (Council of Europe) as a city which serves as the headquarters of at least one critical international organization without being the capital of a country.The city has been referred to as the world's most compact metropolis and the \"Peace Capital\".", "In 2023, Geneva was ranked as the world's tenth most important financial centre by the Global Financial Centres Index, second in Europe behind London.", "In 2019, Geneva was ranked among the ten most liveable cities in the world by Mercer, alongside Zürich and Basel, as well as the thirteenth most expensive city in the world.", "In a UBS ranking of global cities in 2018, Geneva was ranked first for gross earnings, second most expensive, and fourth in purchasing power." ], [ "Name", "The city was mentioned in Latin texts, by Caesar, with the spelling ''Genava'', probably from the Celtic from the stem (\"mouth\"), in the sense of an estuary, an etymology shared with the Italian port city of Genoa (in Italian ''Genova'').The medieval county of Geneva in Middle Latin was known as ''pagus major Genevensis'' or ''Comitatus Genevensis'' (also ''Gebennensis'').", "After 1400 it became the ''Genevois'' province of Savoy (albeit not extending to the city proper, until the reformation of the seat of the Bishop of Geneva)." ], [ "History", "A view of Geneva by Frances Elizabeth Wynne, 4 August 1858Geneva was an Allobrogian border town, fortified against the Helvetii tribe, when the Romans took it in 121 BC.", "It became Christian under the Late Roman Empire, and acquired its first bishop in the 5th century, having been connected to the Bishopric of Vienne in the 4th.Aerial view (1966)In the Middle Ages, Geneva was ruled by a count under the Holy Roman Empire until the late 14th century, when it was granted a charter giving it a high degree of self-governance.", "Around this time, the House of Savoy came to at least nominally dominate the city.", "In the 15th century, an oligarchic republican government emerged with the creation of the Grand Council.", "In the first half of the 16th century, the Protestant Reformation reached the city, causing religious strife, during which Savoy rule was thrown off and Geneva allied itself with the Swiss Confederacy.In 1541, with Protestantism on the rise, John Calvin, the Protestant Reformer and proponent of Calvinism, became the spiritual leader of the city and established the Republic of Geneva.", "By the 18th century, Geneva had come under the influence of Catholic France, which cultivated the city as its own.", "France tended to be at odds with the ordinary townsfolk, which inspired the failed Geneva Revolution of 1782, an attempt to win representation in the government for men of modest means.", "In 1798, revolutionary France under the Directory annexed Geneva.", "At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, on 1June 1814, Geneva was admitted to the Swiss Confederation.", "In 1907, the separation of Church and State was adopted.", "Geneva flourished in the 19th and 20th centuries, becoming the seat of many international organizations." ], [ "Geography", "===Topography===Satellite view of Geneva; Cointrin Airport is centre left.", "The Salève (in France) is the large area of green at the bottom right.Map of Geneva, 1:50,000Geneva is located at 46°12' North, 6°09' East, at the south-western end of Lake Geneva, where the Rhône flows out.", "It is surrounded by three mountain chains, each belonging to the Jura: the Jura main range lies north-westward, the Vuache southward, and the Salève south-eastward.The Geneva area seen from above the Jura mountain chain, with the International airport in the foreground, and the Mont Blanc mountain range in the backgroundThe city covers an area of , while the area of the canton is , including the two small exclaves of Céligny in Vaud.", "The part of the lake that is attached to Geneva has an area of and is sometimes referred to as ''petit lac'' (small lake).", "The canton has only a border with the rest of Switzerland.", "Of of the border, 103 are shared with France, the Département de l'Ain to the north and west and the Département de la Haute-Savoie to the south and east.Of the land in the city, , or 1.5%, is used for agricultural purposes, while , or 3.1%, is forested.", "The rest of the land, , or 91.8%, is built up (buildings or roads), , or 3.1%, is either rivers or lakes and , or 0.1%, is wasteland.Of the built-up area, industrial buildings made up 3.4%, housing and buildings made up 46.2% and transportation infrastructure 25.8%, while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 15.7%.", "Of the agricultural land, 0.3% is used for growing crops.", "Of the water in the municipality, 0.2% is composed of lakes and 2.9% is rivers and streams.Confluence of the Rhône and the ArveThe altitude of Geneva is and corresponds to the altitude of the largest of the Pierres du Niton, two large rocks emerging from the lake which date from the last ice age.", "This rock was chosen by General Guillaume Henri Dufour as the reference point for surveying in Switzerland.", "The second main river of Geneva is the Arve, which flows into the Rhône just west of the city centre.", "Mont Blanc can be seen from Geneva and is an hour's drive from the city.===Climate===Average temperature and precipitation 1961–1990The climate of Geneva is a temperate climate, more specifically an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: '''Cfb''').", "Winters are cool, usually with light frosts at night and thawing conditions during the day.", "Summers are relatively warm.", "Precipitation is adequate and is relatively well-distributed throughout the year, although autumn is slightly wetter than other seasons.", "Ice storms near Lac Léman are normal in the winter: Geneva can be affected by the Bise, a north-easterly wind.", "This can lead to severe icing in winter.In summer, many people swim in the lake and patronise public beaches such as Genève Plage and the Bains des Pâquis.", "The city, in certain years, receives snow during colder months.", "The nearby mountains are subject to substantial snowfall and are suitable for skiing.", "Many world-renowned ski resorts such as Verbier and Crans-Montana are less than three hours away by car.", "Mont Salève (), just across the border in France, dominates the southerly view from the city centre, and Mont Blanc, the highest of the Alpine range, is visible from most of the city, towering high above Chamonix, which, along with Morzine, Le Grand Bornand, La Clusaz, and resorts of the Grand Massif such as Samoens, Morillon, and Flaine, are the closest French skiing destinations to Geneva.During the years 2000–2009, the mean yearly temperature was 11 °C and the mean number of sunshine-hours per year was 2003.The highest temperature recorded in Genève–Cointrin was in July 2015, and the lowest temperature recorded was −20.0 °C (−4.0 °F) in February 1956." ], [ "Politics", "===Coat of arms===Coat of arms of Geneva as part of the pavement in front of the Reformation Wall, 2013===Administrative divisions===The city is divided into eight ''quartiers'', or districts, sometimes composed of several neighbourhoods.", "On the left bank are: (1) Jonction, (2) Centre, Plainpalais, and Acacias; (3) Eaux-Vives; and (4) Champel.", "The right bank includes: (1) Saint-Jean and Charmilles; (2) Servette and Petit-Saconnex; (3) Grottes and Saint-Gervais; and (4) Paquis and Nations.===Government===The Administrative Council ('''Conseil administratif''') constitutes the executive government of the city of Geneva and operates as a collegiate authority.", "It is composed of five councilors (), each presiding over a department.", "The president of the executive department acts as mayor (''la maire/le maire'').", "In the governmental year 2021–2022, the Administrative Council is presided over by ''Madame la maire de Genève'' Frédérique Perler.", "Departmental tasks, coordination measures and implementation of laws decreed by the Municipal Council are carried out by the Administrative Council.", "Elections for the Administrative Council are held every five years.", "The current term of (''la législature'') is from 1June 2020 to 31May 2025.The delegates are elected by means of a system of Majorz.", "The mayor and vice change each year, while the heads of the other departments are assigned by the collegiate.", "The executive body holds its meetings in the Palais Eynard, near the Parc des Bastions., Geneva's Administrative Council is made up of two representatives each of the Social Democratic Party (PS) and the Green Party (PES), and one member of the Christian Democratic Party (PDC).", "This gives the left-wing parties four out of the five seats and, for the first time in history, a female majority.", "The last election was held on 15March/5April 2020.Except for the mayor, all other councillors have been elected for the first time.+ ''Le Conseil administratif'' of Geneva Councillor(''M.", "Conseiller administratif/ Mme Conseillère administrative'') Party Head of Office (''Département'', since) of elected in Frédérique Perler PES Planning, Construction, and Mobility (''de l'aménagement, des constructions et de la mobilité'', 2020) 2020 Marie Barbey-Chappuis PDC Security and Sport (''de la sécurité et des sports'', 2020) 2020 Sami Kanaan PS Culture and Digital Change (''de la culture et de la transition numérique'', 2020) 2011 Alfonso Gomez PES Finance, Environment and Housing (''des finances, de l'environnement et du logement'', 2020) 2020 Christina Kitsos PS Social Cohesion and Solidarity (''de la cohésion sociale et de la solidarité'', 2020) 2020===Parliament===The Municipal Council ('''Conseil municipal''') holds legislative power.", "It is made up of 80 members, with elections held every five years.", "The Municipal Council makes regulations and by-laws that are executed by the Administrative Council and the administration.", "The delegates are selected by means of a system of proportional representation with a seven percent threshold.The sessions of the Municipal Council are public.", "Unlike members of the Administrative Council, members of the Municipal Council are not politicians by profession, and they are paid a fee based on their attendance.", "Any resident of Geneva allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the Municipal Council.", "The Council holds its meetings in the Town Hall (''Hôtel de Ville''), in the old city.The last election of the Municipal Council was held on 15March 2020 for the (''législature'') of 2020–2025.Currently, the Municipal Council consists of: 19 members of the Social Democratic Party (PS), 18 Green Party (PES), 14 Les Libéraux-Radicaux (PLR), 8 Christian Democratic People's Party (PDC); 7 Geneva Citizens' Movement (MCG), 7 ''Ensemble à Gauche'' (an alliance of the left parties PST-POP (''Parti Suisse du Travail – Parti Ouvrier et Populaire'') and solidaritéS), 6 Swiss People's Party (UDC).===Elections=======National Council====In the 2019 federal election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the Green Party which received 26% (+14.6) of the vote.", "The next seven most popular parties were the PS (17.9%, -5.9), PLR (15.1%, -2.4), the UDC (12.6%, -3.7), the PdA/solidaritéS (10%, +1.3), the PDC (5.4%, -5.3), the pvl (5%, +2.9), and MCR (4.9%, -2.7).", "In the federal election a total of 34,319 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 39.6%.In the 2015 federal election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the PS which received 23.8% of the vote.", "The next five most popular parties were the PLR (17.6%), the UDC (16.3%), the Green Party (11.4%), the PDC (10.7%), and the solidaritéS (8.8%).", "In the federal election a total of 36,490 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 44.1%.===Metropolitan cooperation===The city centre of Geneva is located only from the border of France.", "As a result, the urban area and the metropolitan area largely extend across the border on French territory.", "Due to the small size of the municipality of Geneva () and extension of the urban area over an international border, official bodies of transnational cooperation were developed as early as the 1970s to manage the cross-border Greater Geneva area at a metropolitan level.In 1973, a Franco-Swiss agreement created the ''Comité régional franco-genevois'' (\"Franco-Genevan Regional Committee\", CRFG in French).", "In 1997 an 'Urban planning charter' of the CRFG defined for the first time a planning territory called ''agglomération franco-valdo-genevoise'' (\"Franco-Vaud-Genevan urban area\").", "2001 saw the creation of a ''Comité stratégique de développement des transports publics régionaux'' (\"Strategic Committee for the Development of Regional Public Transports\", DTPR in French), a committee which adopted in 2003 a 'Charter for Public Transports', first step in the development of a metropolitan, cross-border commuter rail network (see Léman Express).In 2004, a public transnational body called ''Projet d’agglomération franco-valdo-genevois'' (\"Franco-Vaud-Genevan urban area project\") was created to serve as the main body of metropolitan cooperation for the planning territory defined in 1997, with more local French councils taking part in this new public body than in the CRFG created in 1973.Finally in 2012 the ''Projet d’agglomération franco-valdo-genevois'' was renamed ''Grand Genève'' (\"Greater Geneva\"), and the following year it was transformed into a Local Grouping of Transnational Cooperation (GLCT in French), a public entity under Swiss law, which now serves as the executive body of the ''Grand Genève''.The ''Grand Genève'' GLCT is made up of the Canton of Geneva, the Nyon District (in the canton of Vaud), and the ''Pôle métropolitain du Genevois français'' (literally \"Metropolitan hub of the French Genevan territory\"), this last one a federation of eight French intercommunal councils in Ain and Haute-Savoie.", "The ''Grand Genève'' GLCT extends over and had a population of 1,025,316 in Jan. 2019 (Swiss estimates and French census), 58.5% of them living on Swiss territory, and 41.5% on French territory.===International relations===Geneva does not have any sister relationships with other cities.", "It declares itself related to the entire world." ], [ "Demographics", "===Population===The Flowered Clock at the Quai du Général-Guisan (English Garden), during the 2012 Geneva FestivalRue Pierre-Fatio in GenevaThe city of Geneva (''ville de Genève'') had a population 203,951 in 2020 (Jan. estimate) within its small municipal territory of .", "The city of Geneva is at the centre of the Geneva metropolitan area, a Functional Urban Area (as per Eurostat methodology) which extends over Swiss territory (entire Canton of Geneva and part of the canton of Vaud) and French territory (parts of the departments of Ain and Haute-Savoie).", "The Geneva Functional Urban Area covers a land area of (24.2% in Switzerland, 75.8% in France) and had 1,044,766 inhabitants in Jan. 2020 (Swiss estimates and French census), 58.0% of them on Swiss territory and 42.0% on French territory.The Geneva metropolitan area is one of the fastest growing in Europe.", "Its population rose from 888,651 in Jan. 2009Population of the 93 Swiss communes in January 2009: 532,484 (source: ).Population of the 158 French communes in January 2009: 356,167 (source: ).", "to 1,044,766 in Jan. 2020, which means the metropolitan area registered a population growth rate of +1.48% per year during those 11 years.", "Growth is higher in the French part of the metropolitan area (+1.93% per year between 2009 and 2020) than in the Swiss part (+1.17% per year between 2009 and 2020), as Geneva attracts many French commuters due to high Swiss salaries and a favourable Franco-Swiss tax regime for French residents working in Switzerland.The official language of Geneva (both the city and the canton) is French.", "English is also common due to a high number of Anglophone residents working in international institutions and the bank sector.", "In 2000 there were 128,622 residents, or 72.3% of the population, who spoke French as a first language.", "English was the second most common (7,853 or 4.4%), followed by Spanish (7,462 or 4.2%), Italian (7,320 or 4.1%), and German (7,050 or 4.0%); 113 spoke Romansh, an official language in Switzerland.", "In the city of Geneva, , 48% of the population are resident foreign nationals.", "For a list of the largest groups of foreign residents see the cantonal overview.", "Over the last 10 years (1999–2009), the population has changed at a rate of 7.2%; a rate of 3.4% due to migration and at a rate of 3.4% due to births and deaths., the gender distribution of the population was 47.8% male and 52.2% female.", "The population was made up of 46,284 Swiss men (24.2% of the population) and 45,127 (23.6%) non-Swiss men.", "There were 56,091 Swiss women (29.3%) and 43,735 (22.9%) non-Swiss women.", "approximately 24.3% of the population of the municipality were born in Geneva and lived there in 200043,296.A further 11,757 or 6.6% who were born in the same canton, while 27,359 or 15.4% were born elsewhere in Switzerland, and 77,893 or 43.8% were born outside of Switzerland.In , there were 1,147 live births to Swiss citizens and 893 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in the same time span there were 1,114 deaths of Swiss citizens and 274 non-Swiss citizen deaths.", "Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens increased by 33, while the foreign population increased by 619.There were 465 Swiss men and 498 Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland.", "At the same time, there were 2933 non-Swiss men and 2662 non-Swiss women who immigrated from another country to Switzerland.", "The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was an increase of 135 and the non-Swiss population increased by 3181 people.", "This represents a population growth rate of 1.8%., children and teenagers (0–19 years old) made up 18.2% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) made up 65.8% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 16%., there were 78,666 people who were single and never married in the municipality.", "There were 74,205 married individuals, 10,006 widows or widowers and 15,087 individuals who are divorced., there were 86,231 private households in the municipality, and an average of 1.9 persons per household.", "There were 44,373 households that consist of only one person and 2,549 households with five or more people.", "Out of a total of 89,269 households that answered this question, 49.7% were households made up of just one person and there were 471 adults who lived with their parents.", "Of the rest of the households, there are 17,429 married couples without children, 16,607 married couples with children.", "There were 5,499 single parents with a child or children.", "There were 1,852 households that were made up of unrelated people and 3,038 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.Apartment buildings in the Quartier des GrottesGeneva, with Lake Geneva in the background, there were 743 single family homes (or 10.6% of the total) out of a total of 6,990 inhabited buildings.", "There were 2,758 multi-family buildings (39.5%), along with 2,886 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (41.3%) and 603 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (8.6%).", "Of the single family homes, 197 were built before 1919, while 20 were built between 1990 and 2000.The greatest number of single family homes (277) were built between 1919 and 1945., there were 101,794 apartments in the municipality.", "The most common apartment size was 3 rooms of which there were 27,084.There were 21,889 single room apartments and 11,166 apartments with five or more rooms.", "Of these apartments, a total of 85,330 apartments (83.8% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 13,644 apartments (13.4%) were seasonally occupied and 2,820 apartments (2.8%) were empty.", ", the construction rate of new housing units was 1.3 new units per 1000 residents., the average price to rent an average apartment in Geneva was 1163.30 Swiss francs (CHF) per month (US$930, £520, €740 approx.", "exchange rate from 2003).", "The average rate for a one-room apartment was 641.60 CHF (US$510, £290, €410), a two-room apartment was about 874.46 CHF (US$700, £390, €560), a three-room apartment was about 1126.37 CHF (US$900, £510, €720) and a six or more room apartment cost an average of 2691.07 CHF (US$2150, £1210, €1720).", "The average apartment price in Geneva was 104.2% of the national average of 1116 CHF.", "The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0.25%.In June 2011, the average price of an apartment in and around Geneva was 13,681 CHF per square metre ().", "The average can be as high as 17,589 Swiss francs (CHF) per square metre () for a luxury apartment and as low as 9,847 Swiss francs (CHF) for an older or basic apartment.", "For houses in and around Geneva, the average price was 11,595 Swiss francs (CHF) per square metre () (June 2011), with a lowest price per square metre () of 4,874 Swiss francs (CHF), and a maximum price of 21,966 Swiss francs (CHF).=== Historical population ===William Monter calculates that the city's total population was 12,000–13,000 in 1550, doubling to over 25,000 by 1560.The historical population is given in the following chart:Colors= id:lightgrey value:gray(0.9) id:darkgrey value:gray(0.8)ImageSize = width:1100 height:500PlotArea = height:350 left: 100 bottom:90 right:100Legend = columns:3 left:220 top:70 columnwidth:160AlignBars = justifyDateFormat = x.yPeriod = from:0 till:180000TimeAxis = orientation:verticalAlignBars = justifyScaleMajor = gridcolor:darkgrey increment:20000 start:0ScaleMinor = gridcolor:lightgrey increment:5000 start:0Colors= id:TO value:yellowgreen legend:Total id:FR value:teal legend:French_Speaking id:GE value:green legend:German_Speaking id:CA value:lightpurple legend:Catholic id:PR value:oceanblue legend:Protestant id:SW value:red legend:SwissPlotData= color:yellowgreen width:40 mark:(line,white) align:center bar:1850 from:start till:37724 text:\"37,724\" color:TO bar:1870 from:start till:60004 text:\"60,004\" color:TO bar:1888 from:start till:75709 text:\"75,709\" color:TO bar:1900 from:start till:97359 text:\"97,359\" color:TO bar:1910 from:start till:115243 text:\"115,243\" color:TO bar:1930 from:start till:124121 text:\"124,121\" color:TO bar:1950 from:start till:145473 text:\"145,473\" color:TO bar:1970 from:start till:173618 text:\"173,618\" color:TO bar:1990 from:start till:171042 text:\"171,042\" color:TO bar:2000 from:start till:177964 text:\"177,964\" color:TOLineData = points:(300,111)(400,113) color:GE points:(400,113)(500,118) color:GE points:(500,118)(600,126) color:GE points:(600,126)(700,130) color:GE points:(700,130)(800,128) color:GE points:(800,128)(900,109) color:GE points:(900,109)(1000,104) color:GE points:(300,209)(400,241) color:FR points:(400,241)(500,259) color:FR points:(500,259)(600,271) color:FR points:(600,271)(700,306) color:FR points:(700,306)(800,307) color:FR points:(800,307)(900,309) color:FR points:(900,309)(1000,340) color:FR points:(100,112)(200,143) color:CA points:(200,143)(300,153) color:CA points:(300,153)(400,177) color:CA points:(400,177)(500,194) color:CA points:(500,194)(600,186) color:CA points:(600,186)(700,204) color:CA points:(700,204)(800,266) color:CA points:(800,266)(900,245) color:CA points:(900,245)(1000,219) color:CA points:(100,141)(200,158) color:PR points:(200,158)(300,171) color:PR points:(300,171)(400,187) color:PR points:(400,187)(500,198) color:PR points:(500,198)(600,218) color:PR points:(600,218)(700,236) color:PR points:(700,236)(800,217) color:PR points:(800,217)(900,157) color:PR points:(900,157)(1000,141) color:PR points:(100,147)(200,166) color:SW points:(200,166)(300,182) color:SW points:(300,182)(400,204) color:SW points:(400,204)(500,221) color:SW points:(500,221)(600,270) color:SW points:(600,270)(700,321) color:SW points:(700,321)(800,314) color:SW points:(800,314)(900,282) color:SW points:(900,282)(1000,284) color:SW Historic population data Year Total population German-speaking French-speaking Catholic Protestant Other Jewish Islamic No religion given Swiss Non-Swiss 1850 37,724 11,123 26,446 29,203 8,521 1870 60,004 27,092 35,064 39,012 24,507 1888 75,709 10,806 61,429 32,168 41,605 1,330 654 47,482 28,227 1900 97,359 11,703 77,611 44,958 49,875 1,918 1,055 58,376 38,983 1910 115,243 14,566 86,697 53,248 55,474 4,267 2,170 67,430 47,813 1930 124,121 18,717 93,058 49,531 66,016 4,584 2,224 92,693 31,428 1950 145,473 20,603 111,314 58,556 74,837 6,164 2,642 118,863 26,610 1970 173,618 19,657 111,553 90,555 65,393 22,591 3,128 959 6,164 115,107 58,511 1990 171,042 9,610 112,419 79,575 34,492 39,227 2,444 4,753 29,747 98,812 72,230 2000 177,964 7,050 128,622 66,491 26,020 34,972 2,601 8,698 41,289 99,935 78,029=== Religion ===The recorded 66,491 residents (37.4% of the population) as Catholic, while 41,289 people (23.20%) belonged to no church or were agnostic or atheist, 24,105 (13.5%) belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church, and 8,698 (4.89%) were Muslim.", "There were also 3,959 members of an Orthodox church (2.22%), 220 individuals (or about 0.12% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland, 2,422 (1.36%) who belonged to another Christian church, and 2,601 people (1.46%) who were Jewish.", "There were 707 individuals who were Buddhist, 474 who were Hindu and 423 who belonged to another church.", "26,575 respondents (14.93%) did not answer the question.According to 2012 statistics by Swiss Bundesamt für Statistik 49.2% of the population were Christian, (34.2% Catholic, 8.8% Swiss Reformed (organized in the Protestant Church of Geneva) and 6.2% other Christians, mostly other Protestants), 38% of Genevans were non-religious, 6.1% were Muslim and 1.6% were Jews.Geneva has historically been considered a Protestant city and was known as the ''Protestant Rome'' due to it being the base of John Calvin, William Farel, Theodore Beza and other Protestant reformers.", "Over the past century, substantial immigration from France and other predominantly Catholic countries, as well as general secularization, has changed its religious landscape.", "As a result, three times as many Roman Catholics as Protestants lived in the city in 2000, while a large number of residents were members of neither group.", "Geneva forms part of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Lausanne, Geneva and Fribourg.The World Council of Churches and the Lutheran World Federation both have their headquarters at the Ecumenical Centre in Grand-Saconnex, Geneva.", "The World Communion of Reformed Churches, a worldwide organization of Presbyterian, Continental Reformed, Congregational and other Calvinist churches gathering more than 80 million people around the world was based here from 1948 until 2013.The executive committee of the World Communion of Reformed Churches voted in 2012 to move its offices to Hanover, Germany, citing the high costs of running the ecumenical organization in Geneva, Switzerland.", "The move was completed in 2013.Likewise, the Conference of European Churches have moved their headquarters from Geneva to Brussels.====\"Protestant Rome\"====Reformation Wall in Geneva; from left to right: William Farel, John Calvin, Theodore Beza, and John KnoxPrior to the Protestant Reformation the city was ''de jure'' and ''de facto'' Catholic.", "Reaction to the new movement varied across Switzerland.", "John Calvin went to Geneva in 1536 after William Farel encouraged him to do so.", "In Geneva, the Catholic bishop had been obliged to seek exile in 1532.Geneva became a stronghold of Calvinism.", "Some of the tenets created there influenced Protestantism as a whole.", "St. Pierre Cathedral was where Calvin and his Protestant reformers preached.", "It constituted the epicentre of the newly developing Protestant thought that would later become known as the Reformed tradition.", "Many prominent Reformed theologians operated there, including William Farel and Theodore Beza, Calvin's successor who progressed Reformed thought after his death.Geneva was a haven for Calvinists, while Roman Catholics and others considered heretics were persecuted.", "The case of Michael Servetus, an early Nontrinitarian, is notable.", "Condemned by both Catholics and Protestants alike, he was arrested in Geneva and burnt at the stake as a heretic by order of the city's Protestant governing council.", "John Calvin and his followers denounced him, and possibly contributed to his sentence.In 1802, during its annexation to France under Napoleon I, the Diocese of Geneva was united with the Diocese of Chambéry, but the 1814 Congress of Vienna and the 1816 Treaty of Turin stipulated that in the territories transferred to a now considerably extended Geneva, the Catholic religion was to be protected and that no changes were to be made in existing conditions without an agreement with the Holy See.", "Napoleon's common policy granted civil rights to Catholics in Protestant-majority areas, as well as the reverse, and also emancipated Jews.", "In 1819, the city of Geneva and 20 parishes were united to the Diocese of Lausanne by Pope Pius VII and in 1822, the non-Swiss territory was made into the Diocese of Annecy.", "A variety of concord with the civil authorities came as a result of the separation of church and state, enacted with strong Catholic support in 1907.===Crime===In 2014 the incidence of crimes listed in the Swiss Criminal Code in Geneva was 143.9 per thousand residents.", "During the same period the rate of drug crimes was 33.6 per thousand residents.", "The rate of violations of immigration, visa and work permit laws was 35.7 per thousand residents." ], [ "Cityscape" ], [ "Heritage sites of national significance", "There are 82 buildings or sites in Geneva that are listed as Swiss heritage sites of national significance, and the entire old city of Geneva is part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.", "'''Religious buildings:''' Cathedral St-Pierre et Chapel des Macchabés, Notre-Dame Church, Russian church, St-Germain Church, Temple de la Fusterie, Temple de l'Auditoire'''Civic buildings:''' Former Arsenal and Archives of the City of Genève, Former Crédit Lyonnais, Former Hôtel Buisson, Former Hôtel du Résident de France et Bibliothèque de la Société de lecture de Genève, Former école des arts industriels, Archives d'État de Genève (Annexe), Bâtiment des forces motrices, Bibliothèque de Genève, Library juive de Genève «Gérard Nordmann», Cabinet des estampes, Centre d'Iconographie genevoise, Collège Calvin, École Geisendorf, University Hospital of Geneva (HUG), Hôtel de Ville et tour Baudet, Immeuble Clarté at Rue Saint-Laurent 2 and 4, Immeubles House Rotonde at Rue Charles-Giron 11–19, Immeubles at Rue Beauregard 2, 4, 6, 8, Immeubles at Rue de la Corraterie 10–26, Immeubles at Rue des Granges 2–6, Immeuble at Rue des Granges 8, Immeubles at Rue des Granges 10 and 12, Immeuble at Rue des Granges 14, Immeuble and Former Armory at Rue des Granges 16, Immeubles at Rue Pierre Fatio 7 and 9, House de Saussure at Rue de la Cité 24, House Des arts du Grütli at Rue du Général-Dufour 16, House Royale et les deux immeubles à côté at Quai Gustave Ador 44–50, Tavel House at Rue du Puits-St-Pierre 6, Turrettini House at Rue de l'Hôtel-de-Ville 8 and 10, Brunswick Monument, Palais de Justice, Palais de l'Athénée, Palais des Nations with library and archives of the SDN and ONU, Palais Eynard et Archives de la ville de Genève, Palais Wilson, Parc des Bastions avec Mur des Réformateurs, Place de Neuve et Monument du Général Dufour, Pont de la Machine, Pont sur l'Arve, Poste du Mont-Blanc, Quai du Mont-Blanc, Quai et Hôtel des Bergues, Quai Général Guisan and English Gardens, Quai Gustave-Ador and Jet d'eau, Télévision Suisse Romande, University of Geneva, Victoria Hall.", "'''Archeological sites:'''Foundation Baur and Museum of the arts d'Extrême-Orient, Parc et campagne de la Grange and Library (neolithic shore settlement/Roman villa), Bronze Age shore settlement of Plonjon, Temple de la Madeleine archeological site, Temple Saint-Gervais archeological site, Old City with Celtic, Roman and medieval villages.", "'''Museums, theaters, and other cultural sites:''' Conservatoire de musique at Place Neuve 5, Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques, Fonds cantonal d'art contemporain, Ile Rousseau and statue, Institut et Musée Voltaire with Library and Archives, Mallet House and Museum international de la Réforme, Musée Ariana, Museum of Art and History, Museum d'art moderne et contemporain, Museum d'ethnographie, Museum of the International Red Cross, Musée Rath, Natural History Museum, Plainpalais Commune Auditorium, Pitoëff Theatre, Villa Bartholoni at the Museum of History and Science.", "'''International organizations:''' CERN, International Labour Organization (ILO), International Committee of the Red Cross, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), World Meteorological Organization, World Trade Organization, International Telecommunication Union, World YMCA.Geneva saint peter.JPG|St.", "Pierre CathedralVue aile sud College Calvin.JPG|Collège CalvinIKRK Hauptquartier.jpg| International Committee of the Red Cross (CICR)Botanical Garden Geneva 2006 803.JPG| Conservatory and Botanical Garden of the City of GenevaBasilique Notre-Dame, Genève.jpg| Notre-Dame ChurchEglise Orthodoxe Russe de Geneve.jpg| Russian Orthodox ChurchGenf UNHCR.JPG|United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)Hotel de Ville Geneva.jpg|Hôtel de Ville and the Tour BaudetVoltaire Museum.JPG|Institut et Musée VoltaireMusee Reforme.JPG| Mallet House and Museum international de la RéformeTavel House.JPG|Tavel HouseBrunswick Monument.jpg| Brunswick MonumentMusée d'Art et d'Histoire (46745210785).jpg|Musée d'Art et d'HistoireVilla La Grange.jpg|The Villa La Grange" ], [ "Society and culture", "=== Media ===The city's main newspaper is the daily ''Tribune de Genève'', with a readership of about 187,000.", "''Le Courrier'' mainly focuses on Geneva.", "Both ''Le Temps'' (headquartered in Geneva) and ''Le Matin'' are widely read in Geneva, but cover the whole of the Romandy.Geneva is the main media center for French-speaking Switzerland.", "It is the headquarters for the numerous French language radio and television networks of the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation, known collectively as Radio Télévision Suisse.", "While both networks cover the whole Romandy, special programs related to Geneva are sometimes broadcast on some of the local radio frequencies.", "Other local radio stations broadcast from the city, including YesFM (FM 91.8 MHz), Radio Cité (non-commercial radio, FM 92.2 MHz), OneFM (FM 107.0 MHz, also broadcast in Vaud), and World Radio Switzerland (FM 88.4 MHz).", "Léman Bleu is a local TV channel, founded in 1996 and distributed by cable.", "Due to the proximity to France, many French television channels are also available.=== Traditions and customs ===Geneva observes ''Jeûne genevois'' on the first Thursday following the first Sunday in September.", "By local tradition, this commemorates the date news of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of Huguenots reached Geneva.Geneva celebrates ''L'Escalade'' on the weekend nearest 12 December, celebrating the defeat of the surprise attack of troops sent by Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy during the night of 11–12 December 1602.Festive traditions include chocolate cauldrons filled with vegetable-shaped marzipan treats and the Escalade procession on horseback in seventeenth century armour.", "Geneva has also been organizing a 'Course de l'Escalade', which means 'Climbing Race'.", "This race takes place in Geneva's Old Town, and has been popular across all ages.", "Non-competitive racers dress up in fancy costumes, while walking in the race.Since 1818, a particular chestnut tree has been used as the official \"herald of the spring\" in Geneva.", "The ''sautier'' (secretary of the Parliament of the Canton of Geneva) observes the tree and notes the day of arrival of the first bud.", "While this event has no practical effect, the sautier issues a formal press release and the local newspaper will usually mention the news.As this is one of the world's oldest records of a plant's reaction to climatic conditions, researchers have been interested to note that the first bud has been appearing earlier and earlier in the year.", "During the 19th century many dates were in March or April.", "In recent years, they have usually been in late February (sometimes earlier).", "In 2002, the first bud appeared unusually early, on 7 February, and then again on 29 December of the same year.", "The following year, one of the hottest years recorded in Europe, was a year with no bud.", "In 2008, the first bud also appeared early, on 19 February.=== Music and festivals ===Fireworks at the Fêtes de Genève, 2012The opera house, the Grand Théâtre de Genève, which officially opened in 1876, was partly destroyed by a fire in 1951 and reopened in 1962.It has the largest stage in Switzerland.", "It features opera and dance performances, recitals, concerts and, occasionally, theatre.", "The Victoria Hall is used for classical music concerts.", "It is the home of the Orchestre de la Suisse Romande.Every summer the Fêtes de Genève (Geneva Festival) are organised in Geneva.", "According to Radio Télévision Suisse in 2013 hundreds of thousands of people came to Geneva to see the annual hour-long grand firework display of the Fêtes de Genève.An annual music festival takes place in June.", "Groups of artists perform in different parts of the city.", "In 2016 the festival celebrated its 25th anniversary.Further annual festivals are the ''Fête de l'Olivier'', a festival of Arabic music, organized by the ICAM since 1980, and the ''Genevan Brass Festival'', founded by Christophe Sturzenegger in 2010." ], [ "Education", "Graduate Institute of International and Development StudiesThe Canton of Geneva's public school system has ''écoles primaires'' (ages 4–12) and ''cycles d'orientation'' (ages 12–15).", "Students can leave school at 15, but secondary education is provided by ''collèges'' (ages 15–19), the oldest of which is the Collège Calvin, which could be considered one of the oldest public schools in the world, ''écoles de culture générale'' (15–18/19) and the ''écoles professionnelles'' (15–18/19).", "The ''écoles professionnelles'' offer full-time courses and part-time study as part of an apprenticeship.", "Geneva also has a number of private schools.In 2011 89,244 (37.0%) of the population had completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 107,060 or (44.3%) had completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule).", "Of the 107,060 who completed tertiary schooling, 32.5% were Swiss men, 31.6% were Swiss women, 18.1% were non-Swiss men and 17.8% were non-Swiss women.During the 2011–2012 school year, there were a total of 92,311 students in the Geneva school system (primary to university).", "The education system in the Canton of Geneva has eight years of primary school, with 32,716 students.", "The secondary school program consists of three lower, obligatory years of schooling, followed by three to five years of optional, advanced study.", "There were 13,146 lower-secondary students who attended schools in Geneva.", "There were 10,486 upper-secondary students from the municipality along with 10,330 students who were in a professional, non-university track program.", "An additional 11,797 students were attending private schools.The University of Geneva.Geneva is home to the University of Geneva where approximately 16,500 students are regularly enrolled.", "In 1559 John Calvin founded the Geneva Academy, a theological and humanist seminary.", "In the 19th century the academy lost its ecclesiastic links and in 1873, with the addition of a medical faculty, it became the University of Geneva.", "In 2011 it was ranked European university.The Geneva Graduate Institute was among the first academic institutions in the world to teach international relations.", "It is one of Europe's most prestigious institutions, offering MA and PhD programmes in anthropology and sociology, law, political science, history, economics, international affairs, and development studies.Geneva is also home to more than a dozen private, for-profit universities whose activities have come under scrutiny for offering degrees that are not recognized in Switzerland and engaging in \"unscrupulous practices\".", "These schools include the Geneva School of Diplomacy and International Relations, the International University in Geneva, the Geneva Business School and IFM Business School.The oldest international school in the world is the International School of Geneva, founded in 1924 along with the League of Nations.", "CERN (the European Organization for Nuclear Research) is probably the best known of Geneva's educational and research facilities, most recently for the Large Hadron Collider.", "Founded in 1954, CERN was one of Europe's first joint ventures and has developed as the world's largest particle physics laboratory.", "Physicists from around the world travel to CERN to research matter and explore the fundamental forces and materials that form the universe.Geneva is home to five major libraries, the ''Bibliothèques municipales Genève'', the ''Haute école de travail social'', the ''Institut d'études sociales'', the ''Haute école de santé'', the ''École d'ingénieurs de Genève'' and the ''Haute école d'art et de design''.", "There were () 877,680 books or other media in the libraries, and in the same year 1,798,980 items were loaned." ], [ "Economy", "Geneva's economy is largely service-driven and closely linked to the rest of the canton.", "The city is one of the global leaders in financial centres.", "Three main sectors dominate the financial sector: commodity trading; trade finance, and wealth management.Around a third of the world's free traded oil, sugar, grains and oil seeds is traded in Geneva.", "Approximately 22% of the world's cotton is traded in the Lake Geneva region.", "Other major commodities traded in the canton include steel, electricity, or coffee.", "Large trading companies have their regional or global headquarters in the canton, such as Bunge, Cargill, Vitol, Gunvor, BNP Paribas, Trafigura or Mercuria Energy Group, in addition to being home to the world's largest shipping company, Mediterranean Shipping Company.", "Commodity trading is sustained by a strong trade finance sector, with large banks such as BCGE, BCP, BNP Paribas, BCV, Crédit Agricole, Credit Suisse, ING, Société Générale, and UBS, all having their headquarters in the area for this business.Wealth management is dominated by non-publicly listed banks and private banks, particularly Pictet, Lombard Odier, Edmond de Rothschild Group, Union Bancaire Privée, Mirabaud Group, Dukascopy Bank, Bordier & Cie, Banque SYZ, or REYL & Cie.", "In addition, the canton is home to the largest concentration of foreign-owned banks in Switzerland, such as HSBC Private Bank, JPMorgan Chase, or Arab Bank.Behind the financial sector, the next largest major economic sector is watchmaking, dominated by luxury firms Rolex, Richemont, Patek Philippe, Piaget, Roger Dubuis, and others, whose factories are concentrated in the Les Acacias neighbourhood, as well as the neighbouring municipalities of Plan-les-Ouates, Satigny, and Meyrin.Trade finance, wealth management, and watchmaking, approximately contribute two thirds of the corporate tax paid in the cantonOther large multinationals are also headquartered in the city and canton, such as Firmenich (in Satigny), and Givaudan (in Vernier), the world's two largest manufacturers of flavours, fragrances and active cosmetic ingredients; SGS, the world's largest inspection, verification, testing and certification services company; Temenos, a large banking software provider; or the local headquarters for Procter & Gamble, Japan Tobacco International, or L'Oréal (in Vernier).Although they do not directly contribute to the local economy, the city of Geneva is also host to the world's largest concentration of international organisations and UN agencies, such as the Red Cross, the World Health Organization, the World Trade Organization, the International Telecommunication Union, the World Intellectual Property Organization, the World Meteorological Organization, and the International Labour Organization, as well as the European headquarters of the United Nations.Its international mindedness, well-connected airport, and centrality in the continent, also make Geneva a good destination for congresses and trade fairs, of which the largest is the Geneva Motor Show held in Palexpo.Agriculture is commonplace in the hinterlands of Geneva, particularly wheat and wine.", "Despite its relatively small size, the canton produces around 10% of the Swiss wine and has the highest vineyard density in the country.", "The largest strains grown in Geneva are gamay, chasselas, pinot noir, gamaret, and chardonnay., Geneva had an unemployment rate of 3.9%.", ", there were five people employed in the primary economic sector and about three businesses involved in this sector.", "9,783 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 1,200 businesses in this sector.", "134,429 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 12,489 businesses in this sector.", "There were 91,880 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, with women making up 47.7% of the workforce., the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 124,185.The number of jobs in the primary sector was four, all of which were in agriculture.", "The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 9,363 of which 4,863 or (51.9%) were in manufacturing and 4,451 (47.5%) were in construction.", "The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 114,818.In the tertiary sector; 16,573 or 14.4% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 3,474 or 3.0% were in the movement and storage of goods, 9,484 or 8.3% were in a hotel or restaurant, 4,544 or 4.0% were in the information industry, 20,982 or 18.3% were the insurance or financial industry, 12,177 or 10.6% were technical professionals or scientists, 10,007 or 8.7% were in education and 15,029 or 13.1% were in health care., there were 95,190 workers who commuted into the municipality and 25,920 workers who commuted away.", "The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 3.7 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving.", "About 13.8% of the workforce coming into Geneva are coming from outside Switzerland, while 0.4% of the locals commute out of Switzerland for work.", "Of the working population, 38.2% used public transportation to get to work, and 30.6% used a private car." ], [ "Sport", "Ice hockey is one of the most popular sports in Geneva.", "Geneva is home to Genève-Servette HC, which plays in the National League (NL).", "They play their home games in the 7,135-seat Patinoire des Vernets.", "In 2008, 2010 and 2021 the team made it to the league finals but lost to the ZSC Lions, SC Bern and EV Zug respectively.", "The team was by far the most popular one in both the city and the canton of Geneva, drawing three times more spectators than the football team in 2017.Since the return of Servette FC in the Swiss Super League, however, both teams have similar attendance numbers.The town is home to Servette FC, a football club founded in 1890 and named after a borough on the right bank of the Rhône.", "It is the most successful football club in Romandy, and the third in Switzerland overall, with 17 league titles and 7 Swiss Cups.", "The home of Servette FC is the 30,000-seat Stade de Genève.", "Servette FC plays in the Credit Suisse Super League.", "Étoile Carouge FC and Urania Genève Sport also play in the city.Geneva is home to the basketball team Lions de Genève, 2013 and 2015 champions of the Swiss Basketball League.", "The team plays its home games in the ''Pavilion des Sports''.Geneva Jets Australian Football Club have been playing Australian Football in the AFL Switzerland league since 2019." ], [ "Infrastructure", "=== Transportation ===Geneva railway stationTCMC (Tramway Cornavin – Meyrin – CERN)The city is served by the Geneva Airport.", "It is connected by Geneva Airport railway station () to both the Swiss Federal Railways network and the French SNCF network, including links to Paris, Lyon, Marseille and Montpellier by TGV.", "Geneva is connected to the motorway systems of both Switzerland (A1 motorway) and France.Public transport by bus, trolleybus or tram is provided by ''Transports Publics Genevois''.", "In addition to an extensive coverage of the city centre, the network extends to most of the municipalities of the Canton, with a few lines reaching into France.", "Public transport by boat is provided by the Mouettes Genevoises, which link the two banks of the lake within the city, and by the which serves more distant destinations such as Nyon, Yvoire, Thonon, Évian, Lausanne and Montreux using both modern diesel vessels and vintage paddle steamers.Geneva Sécheron railway stationTrains operated by Swiss Federal Railways connect the airport to the main station of Cornavin in six minutes.", "Regional train services are being developed towards Coppet and Bellegarde.", "At the city limits two new railway stations have been opened since 2002: Genève-Sécheron (close to the UN and the Botanical Gardens) and Lancy-Pont-Rouge.In 2011 work started on the CEVA rail (Cornavin – Eaux-Vives – Annemasse) project, first planned in 1884, which will connect Cornavin with the Cantonal hospital, Eaux-Vives railway station and Annemasse, in France.", "The link between the main railway station and the classification yard of La Praille already exists; from there, the line runs mostly underground to the Hospital and Eaux-Vives, where it links to the existing line to France.", "The line fully opened in December 2019, as part of the Léman Express regional rail network.TOSA Bus at PALEXPO Flash bus stopsIn May 2013, the demonstrator electric bus system with a capacity of 133 passengers commenced between Geneva Airport and Palexpo.", "The project aims to introduce a new system of mass transport with electric \"flash\" recharging of the buses at selected stops while passengers are disembarking and embarking.Taxis in Geneva can be difficult to find, and may need to be booked in advance, especially in the early morning or at peak hours.", "Taxis can refuse to take babies and children because of seating legislation.An ambitious project to close 200 streets in the centre of Geneva to cars was approved by the Geneva cantonal authorities in 2010 and was planned to be implemented over a span of four years (2010–2014), though , work on the project has yet to be started.=== Utilities ===The SIG-owned incinerator of Cheneviers, Verbois dam, and the solar farmWater, natural gas and electricity are provided to the municipalities of the Canton of Geneva by the state-owned Services Industriels de Genève, known as SIG.", "Most of the drinking water (80%) is extracted from the lake; the remaining 20% is provided by groundwater, originally formed by infiltration from the Arve.", "30% of the Canton's electricity needs is locally produced, mainly by three hydroelectric dams on the Rhône (Seujet, Verbois and Chancy-Pougny).", "In addition, 13% of the electricity produced in the Canton is from the burning of waste at the waste incineration facility of Les Cheneviers.", "The remaining needs (57%) are covered by imports from other cantons in Switzerland or other European countries; SIG buys only electricity produced by renewable methods, and in particular does not use electricity produced using nuclear reactors or fossil fuels.", "Natural gas is available in the City of Geneva, as well as in about two-thirds of the municipalities of the canton, and is imported from Western Europe by the Swiss company Gaznat.", "SIG also provides telecommunication facilities to carriers, service providers and large enterprises.", "From 2003 to 2005, \"Voisin, voisine\" a fibre-to-the-home pilot project with a triple play offering was launched to test the end-user market in the Charmilles district." ], [ "International organisations", "The World Intellectual Property Organization.", "''Palais des nations''.Geneva is the European headquarters of the United Nations, in the Palace of Nations building, up the hill from the headquarters of the former League of Nations.", "Several agencies are headquartered in Geneva, including the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, the World Health Organization, the International Labour Organization, International Telecommunication Union, the International Baccalaureate Organization and the World Intellectual Property Organization.Apart from the UN agencies, Geneva hosts many inter-governmental organizations, such as the World Trade Organization, the South Centre, the World Meteorological Organization, the World Economic Forum, the International Organization for Migration, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and the International Committee of the Red Cross.The Maison de la Paix building hosts the three Geneva centres supported by the Swiss Confederation: the International Centre for Humanitarian Demining, the Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces and the Geneva Centre for Security Policy, as well as other organisations active in the field of peace, international affairs and sustainable development.Organizations on the European level include the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and CERN (the European Organization for Nuclear Research) which is the world's largest particle physics laboratory.The Geneva Environment Network (GEN) publishes the Geneva Green Guide, an extensive listing of Geneva-based global organisations working on environmental protection and sustainable development.", "A website, jointly run by the Swiss Government, the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, the United Nations Environment Programme and the International Union for Conservation of Nature, includes accounts of how NGOs, business, government and the UN cooperate.", "By doing so, it attempts to explain why Geneva has been picked by so many NGOs and UN bodies as their headquarters' location.The World Organization of the Scout Movement and the World Scout Bureau Central Office are headquartered in Geneva." ], [ "Notable people", "=== A–C ===Gustave AdorChristiane BrunnerJohn Calvin, c. 1550Isaac Casaubon* Alfredo Aceto (born 1991), a visual artist* Gustave Ador (1845–1928), statesman, President of the Red Cross (ICRC)* David Aebischer (born 1978), ice hockey goaltender, 2001 Stanley Cup champion* Jacques-Laurent Agasse (1767–1849), animal and landscape painter* Jeff Agoos (born 1968), retired American soccer defender, 134 caps for the US team* Henri-Frédéric Amiel (1821–1881), moral philosopher, poet and critic* Gustave Amoudruz (1885–1963), sports shooter, bronze medallist at the 1920 Summer Olympics * Adolphe Appia (1862–1928), architect and theorist of stage lighting and décor.", "* Philip Arditti (born c. 1980), British/Jewish Sephardic theatre and television actor* Aimé Argand (1750–1803), physicist and chemist, invented the Argand lamp* Jean-Robert Argand (1768–1822), amateur mathematician, published the Argand diagram* Martha Argerich (born 1941), an Argentine classical concert pianist* John Armleder (born 1948), performance artist, painter, sculptor, critic and curator* Germaine Aussey (1909–1979), née Agassiz, an actress of Swiss origin who settled in Geneva in 1960* Alexandre Bardinon (born 2002), racing driver* Pierre Bardinon (1931–2012), businessman and car collector* Mathias Beche (born 1986), racing driver* Jean-Luc Bideau (born 1940), film actor* Ernest Bloch (1880–1959), US composer of Swiss origin* Roger Bocquet (1921–1994), footballer who won 48 caps for Switzerland* Raoul Marie Joseph Count de Boigne (1862–1949), a French sports shooter, bronze medallist at the 1908 Summer Olympics* Caroline Boissier-Butini (1786–1836), pianist and composer* François Bonivard (1493–1570), Geneva ecclesiastic, historian and libertine* Charles Bonnet (1720–1793), naturalist and philosophical writer* Jorge Luis Borges (1899–1986), Argentine short-story writer, studied at the Collège de Genève* Marc-Théodore Bourrit (1739–1819), traveller and writer* Nicolas Bouvier (1929–1998), writer and photographer* Clotilde Bressler-Gianoli (1875–1912), an Italian opera singer* Christiane Brunner (born 1947), politician, lawyer and trade union champion * Mickaël Buffaz (born 1979), French cyclist* Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui (1694–1748), Genevan legal and political theorist* Cécile Butticaz (1884–1966), engineer* Kate Burton (born 1957), actress, the daughter of actor Richard Burton* John Calvin (1509–1564), influential theologian, reformer* Augustin Pyramus de Candolle (1778–1841), botanist, worked on plant classification* Clint Capela (born 1994), professional basketball player* Jean de Carro (1770–1857), Vienna-based physician, promoted vaccination against smallpox* Isaac Casaubon (1559–1614), a classical scholar and philologist* Méric Casaubon (1599–1671), son of Isaac Casaubon, a French-English classical scholar* Mike Castro de Maria (born 1972), electronic music composer* Jean-Jacques Challet-Venel (1811–1893), politician, on the Swiss Federal Council 1864–1872* Alfred Edward Chalon RA (1780–1860), portrait painter* John James Chalon RA (1778–1854), painter of landscapes, marine scenes and animal life* Marguerite Champendal (1870–1928), first Genevan to have obtained her doctorate in medicine at the University of Geneva (1900) * Henri Christiné (1867–1941), French composer of sparkling, witty, jazzy musical plays* Victor Cherbuliez (1829–1899), novelist and author* Étienne Clavière (1735–1793), banker and politician of the French revolution* Paulo Coelho (born 1947), Brazilian lyricist and novelist, author of ''The Alchemist'', residing in Geneva* Renée Colliard (1933–2022), former alpine skier, gold medallist at the 1956 Winter Olympics* Gabriel Cramer (1704–1752), Genevan mathematician=== D–G ===Michel Decastel, 2012Jean Henri Dunant, 1901Kat Graham, 2017* Maryam d'Abo (born 1960), English film and TV actress and Bond girl* Jacques-Antoine Dassier (1715–1759), a Genevan medallist, active in London* Michel Decastel (born 1955), football manager and midfielder, 314 club caps, 19 for Switzerland* Jean-Denis Delétraz (born 1963), racing driver* Louis Delétraz (born 1997), racing driver* Jean-Louis de Lolme (1740–1806), lawyer and constitutional writer* Jean-André Deluc (1727–1817), geologist, natural philosopher and meteorologist* Joël Dicker (born 1985), author and novelist * Giovanni Diodati (1576–1649), Italian Calvinist theologian and Bible translator* Élie Ducommun (1833–1906), peace activist, 1902 Nobel Peace Prize winner * Armand Dufaux (1833–1941), aviation pioneer, flew the length of Lake Geneva in 1910* Henri Dufaux (1879–1980), French-Swiss aviation pioneer, inventor, painter and politician* Pierre Étienne Louis Dumont (1759–1829), Genevan political writer* Henry Dunant (1828–1910), founded the Red Cross, first recipient of Nobel Peace Prize in 1901* Emmanuel-Étienne Duvillard (1775–1832), Swiss economist* Isabelle Eberhardt (1877–1904), Russian-Swiss explorer and travel writer* Empress Elisabeth of Austria (1837–1898), Empress of Austria and Queen of Hungary* Emanuele Filiberto of Savoy, Prince of Venice (born 1972), a member of the House of Savoy* Louis Favre (1826–1879), engineer, responsible for the construction of the Gotthard Tunnel* Philippe Favre (1961–2013), racing driver* Henri Fazy (1842–1920), politician and historian* Edmond Fleg, born Flegenheimer (1874–1963), a Swiss-French writer, thinker, novelist, essayist and playwright* Ian Fleming (1908–1964), author (James Bond), studied psychology briefly in Geneva in 1931* Sylvie Fleury (born 1961), a contemporary object artist of installation art and mixed media* Sir Augustus Wollaston Franks KCB FRS FSA (1826–1897), English antiquary and museum administrator* Pierre-Victor Galland (1822–1892), painter* Albert Gallatin (1761–1849), an American politician of Genevan origin, diplomat, ethnologist and linguist* Agénor de Gasparin (1810–1871), French statesman and author, also researched table-turning* Valérie de Gasparin (1813–1894), woman of letters, regards freedom, equality and creativity* François Gaussen (1790–1863), Protestant divine* Marcel Golay (1927–2015), astronomer* Claude Goretta (1929–2019), film director and television producer* Emilie Gourd (1879–1946), journalist and activist for Women's suffrage in Switzerland* Isabelle Graesslé (born 1959), theologian, feminist and former museum director, moderator of ministers and deacons at the Protestant Church of Geneva* Kat Graham (born 1989), actress, singer, and model, she plays ''Bonnie Bennett'' in ''The Vampire Diaries''* Cédric Grand (born 1976), bobsledder, competed in four Winter Olympics, bronze medallist at the 2006 Winter Olympics* Romain Grosjean (born 1986), former Formula 1 racing driver, currently racing for Andretti Autosport in the IndyCar Series.", "He is mainly known for his massive crash at the 2020 Bahrain Grand Prix.=== H–M ===Francois HuberPaul Lachenal, 1939Lenin in Switzerland, 1916Amelie Mauresmo, 2014* Admiral of the Fleet Lord John Hay GCB (1827–1916), Royal Navy officer and politician* Abraham Hermanjat (1862–1932), painter who worked in the Fauvist and Divisionist styles* Germain Henri Hess (1802–1850), a Swiss-Russian chemist and doctor, formulated Hess's law * Hector Hodler (1887–1920), Esperantist* Fulk Greville Howard (1773–1846), an English politician* Jean Huber (1721–1786), a painter, silhouettiste, soldier and author* François Huber (1750–1831), naturalist, studied the respiration of bees* Marie Huber (1695–1753), translator, editor and author of theological works* Pierre Jeanneret (1896–1967), architect, collaborated with his cousin Le Corbusier* Thomas Jouannet (born 1970), actor* Charles Journet (1891–1975), cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church* Louis Jurine (1751–1819), physician, surgeon, naturalist and entomologist* Sonia Kacem (born 1985), Swiss-born visual artist* Michael Krausz (born 1942), American philosopher, an artist and orchestral conductor* Adrien Lachenal (1849–1918), politician, Federal Council of Switzerland 1892–1899 * François Lachenal (1918–1997), a publisher and diplomat* Paul Lachenal (1884–1955), politician, co-founded Orchestre de la Suisse Romande* Marie Laforêt (1939–2019), a French singer and actress* Sarah Lahbati (born 1993), actress and singer* François Le Fort (1656–1699), first Russian Admiral* Georges-Louis Le Sage (1724–1803), physicist, Le Sage's theory of gravitation* Jean Leclerc (1657–1736), theologian and biblical scholar, promoted exegesis* Henri Leconte (born 1963), former French professional tennis player, men's singles finalist, French Open 1988* Philippe Le Royer (1816–1897), French and Swiss politician and lawyer, served France as the Minister of Justice and President of the Senate* Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924), lived in Geneva 1902–1905 as an exile from the Russian Empire* Jean-Étienne Liotard (1702–1789), painter, art connoisseur and dealer* Corinne Maier (born 1963), psychoanalyst, economist, and best-selling writer* Ella Maillart (1903–1997), adventurer, travel writer and photographer, as well as a sportswoman* Solomon Caesar Malan (1812–1894), oriental linguist and biblical scholar* Jacques Mallet du Pan (1749–1800), Genevan-French royalist journalist* Alexander Marcet FRS (1770–1822), physician who became a British citizen in 1800* Jane Marcet (1769–1858), an innovative writer of popular introductory science books* Sebastian Marka (born 1978), German film director and editor* Frank Martin (1890–1974), composer, editor of The Statesman's Year Book* Nicolas Maulini (born 1981), racing driver* Théodore Maunoir (1806–1869), co-founder of the International Committee of the Red Cross* Amélie Mauresmo (born 1979), former professional tennis player and former world No.1* Barthélemy Menn (1815–1893), a landscape painter, introduced painting en plein air* Alain Menu (born 1963), racing driver* Heinrich Menu von Minutoli (1772–1846), a Prussian Generalmajor, explorer and archaeologist* Jacques-Barthélemy Micheli du Crest (1690–1766), military engineer, physicist and cartographer* Giorgio Mondini (born 1980), racing driver* Stephanie Morgenstern (born 1965), Canadian actress, filmmaker and screenwriter* Edoardo Mortara (born 1987), Swiss-Italian racing driver* Thierry Moutinho (born 1991), Swiss-Portuguese footballer* Gustave Moynier (1826–1910), lawyer and co-founder of the Red Cross=== N–R ===Liliane Maury Pasquier, 2007Pierre PrévostJean-Jacques Rousseau* Jacques Necker (1732–1804), banker and finance minister for Louis XVI of France* Louis Albert Necker (1786–1861), a crystallographer and geographer, devised the Necker cube* Felix Neff (1798–1829), Protestant divine and philanthropist* Alfred Newton FRS HFRSE (1829–1907), English zoologist and ornithologist* Karim Ojjeh (born 1965), Saudi Arabian businessman and racing driver* Julie Ordon (born 1984), model and actress* Rémy Pagani (born 1954), politician, Mayor of Geneva 2009/10 and 2012/13* Liliane Maury Pasquier (born 1956), politician* PATjE (born 1970), birth name Patrice Jauffret, a singer, songwriter, and musician* Faule Petitot (1572–1629), sculptor, cabinetmaker and architect, citizen of Geneva since 1615* Jean Petitot (1607–1691), enamel painter, son of Faule* Carmen Perrin (born 1953), Bolivian-born Swiss visual artist, designer, and educator.", "* Jean Piaget (1896–1980), clinical psychologist, devised genetic epistemology* Robert Pinget (1919–1997), an avant-garde French modernist nouveau roman writer* George Pitt, 1st Baron Rivers (1721–1803), English diplomat and politician* Barbara Polla (born 1950), medical doctor, gallery owner, art curator and writer* James Pradier (1790–1852), Genevan and then Swiss sculptor, neoclassical style* Jean-Louis Prévost (1838–1927), neurologist and physiologist* Pierre Prévost (1751–1839), philosopher, physicist wrote the law of exchange in radiation* Tariq Ramadan (born 1962), a Swiss Muslim academic, philosopher and writer* Marcel Raymond (1897–1981), a literary critic of French literature of the \"Geneva School\"* Flore Revalles (1889–1966), singer, dancer and actress* Charles Pierre Henri Rieu (1820–1902), Orientalist and Professor of Arabic* Auguste Arthur de la Rive (1801–1873), a physicist, worked on the heat of gases* Charles-Gaspard de la Rive (1770–1834), physicist, psychiatrist and politician * François Jules Pictet de la Rive (1809–1872), zoologist and palaeontologist* Tibor Rosenbaum (1923–1980), rabbi and businessman* Marc Rosset (born 1970), former pro tennis player, gold medallist at the 1992 Olympic Games* Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), writer and philosopher* Jean Rousset (1910–2002), literary critic and early structuralism writer of the Geneva School * Xavier Ruiz (born 1970), film producer and director=== S–Z ===Ferdinand de SaussureMichael Schade, 2012Michel Simon, 1964Johann Vogel, 2006Voltaire* Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913), a linguist and semiotician* Horace Bénédict de Saussure (1740–1799), geologist, meteorologist, physicist, and Alpine explorer* Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure (1767–1845), chemist, studied plant physiology, advanced phytochemistry* Léon Savary (1895–1968), writer and journalist* Michael Schade (born 1965), a Canadian operatic tenor* Johann Jacob Schweppe (1740–1821), watchmaker developed Schweppes bottled carbonated water* Marguerite Sechehaye (1887–1965), a psychotherapist, treated people with schizophrenia* Louis Segond (1810–1885), theologian and translator, pastor in Chêne-Bougeries* Philippe Senderos (born 1985), footballer, over 200 club caps and 57 for Switzerland* Jean Senebier (1742–1809), pastor and voluminous writer on vegetable physiology*Liberato Firmino Sifonia (1917–1996), an Italian composer* Pierre Eugene du Simitiere (1737–1784), naturalist, American patriot and portrait painter.", "* Michel Simon (1895–1975), actor* Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi (1773–1842), historian and political economist* Edward Snowden (born 1983), lived in Geneva between 2007 and 2009, while working for the CIA* Pierre Soubeyran (1706–1775), engraver, etcher and Encyclopédiste* Terry Southern (1924–1995), American author, essayist and screenwriter; lived in Geneva 1956–59* Ezekiel Spanheim (1629–1710), Prussian diplomat* Friedrich Spanheim (1632–1701), a Calvinistic theology professor at the University of Leiden* Jacques Charles François Sturm (1803–1855), French mathematician* Émile Taddéoli (1879–1920), Swiss aviation pioneer* Alain Tanner (1929–2022), film director* Sigismund Thalberg (1812–1871), Austrian composer and pianist* Max Thurian (1921–1996), theologian, known as Frère Max* Pierre Tirard (1827–1893), French politician* Rodolphe Töpffer (1799–1846), teacher, author, painter, cartoonist and caricaturist* Wolfgang-Adam Töpffer (1766–1847), painter of landscapes and watercolors* Vico Torriani (1920–1998), singer, actor, show host* Georges Trombert (1874–1949), a French fencer, silver and bronze medallist at the 1920 Summer Olympics* Théodore Tronchin (1709–1781), a Genevan physician* François Turrettini (1623–1687), a Genevan-Italian Reformed scholastic theologian* Jean Alphonse Turrettini (1671–1737), reformed theologian* Princess Vittoria of Savoy (2003), heir to the Italian throne* François Vivares (1709–1780), French landscape-engraver, active in England* Johann Vogel (born 1977), former footballer, played 94 games for Switzerland* Prince Andrei Volkonsky (1933–2008), Russian composer of classical music and harpsichordist* Voltaire (1694–1778), French philosopher, historian, dramatist and man of letters; lived at Les Délices 1755–1760* Nedd Willard (1926–2018), writer* R. Norris Williams (1891–1968), American tennis player and RMS Titanic survivor* Pierre Wissmer (1915–1992), Swiss-French composer, pianist and music teacher* Jean Ziegler (born 1934), politician and sociologist* Reto Ziegler (born 1986), footballer, has played 35 games for Switzerland" ], [ "See also", "* Outline of Geneva* Bibliothèque Publique et Universitaire (Geneva)* Boule de Genève* Calvin Auditory, a chapel that played a significant role in the Reformation* Circuit des Nations, the historic racetrack* Franco-Provençal language* Geneva Freeport* Geneva Summit for Human Rights and Democracy" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * Joëlle Kuntz, ''Geneva and the call of internationalism.", "A history'', éditions Zoé, 2011, 96 pages ()." ], [ "External links", "* * Geneva Tourist Information Office* Geneva public transport *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gerard Manley Hopkins" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gerard Manley Hopkins''' (28 July 1844 – 8 June 1889) was an English poet and Jesuit priest, whose posthumous fame places him among leading English poets.", "His prosody – notably his concept of sprung rhythm – established him as an innovator, as did his praise of God through vivid use of imagery and nature.", "Only after his death did Robert Bridges publish a few of Hopkins's mature poems in anthologies, hoping to prepare for wider acceptance of his style.", "By 1930 Hopkins's work was seen as one of the most original literary advances of his century.", "It intrigued such leading 20th-century poets as T. S. Eliot, Dylan Thomas, W. H. Auden, Stephen Spender and Cecil Day-Lewis." ], [ "Early life and family", "Gerard Manley Hopkins was born in Stratford, Essex (now in Greater London), as the eldest of probably nine children to Manley and Catherine Hopkins, née Smith.", "He was christened at the Anglican church of St John's, Stratford.", "His father founded a marine insurance firm and at one time served as Hawaiian consul-general in London.", "He was also for a time churchwarden at St John-at-Hampstead.", "His grandfather was the physician John Simm Smith, a university colleague of John Keats, and close friend of the eccentric philanthropist Ann Thwaytes.", "One of his uncles was Charles Gordon Hopkins, a politician of the Hawaiian Kingdom.As a poet, Hopkins's father published works including ''A Philosopher's Stone and Other Poems'' (1843), ''Pietas Metrica'' (1849), and ''Spicelegium Poeticum, A Gathering of Verses by Manley Hopkins'' (1892).", "He reviewed poetry for ''The Times'' and wrote one novel.", "Catherine (Smith) Hopkins was the daughter of a London physician, particularly fond of music and of reading, especially German philosophy, literature and the novels of Dickens.", "Both parents were deeply religious high-church Anglicans.", "Catherine's sister, Maria Smith Giberne, taught her nephew Gerard to sketch.", "The interest was supported by his uncle, Edward Smith, his great-uncle Richard James Lane, a professional artist, and other family members.", "Hopkins's initial ambition was to be a painter – he would continue to sketch throughout his life and was inspired as an adult by the work of John Ruskin and the Pre-Raphaelites.Hopkins became a skilled draughtsman.", "He found his early training in visual art supported his later work as a poet.", "His siblings drew a lot of inspiration from literature, religion, and the arts.", "In 1878, Milicent (1849–1946) enrolled in an Anglican sisterhood.", "Kate (1856–1933) would help Hopkins publish the first edition of his poetry.", "Hopkins's youngest sister Grace (1857–1945) set many of his poems to music.", "Lionel (1854–1952) became a world-famous expert on archaic and colloquial Chinese.", "Arthur (1848–1930) and Everard (1860–1928) were highly successful artists.", "Cyril (1846–1932) would join his father's insurance firm.Hopkins, painted 24 July 1866Manley Hopkins moved his family to Hampstead in 1852, near where John Keats had lived 30 years before and close to the green spaces of Hampstead Heath.", "When he was ten years old, Gerard was sent to board at Highgate School (1854–1863).", "While studying Keats's poetry, he wrote \"The Escorial\" (1860), his earliest extant poem.", "Here he practised early attempts at asceticism.", "He once argued that most people drank more liquids than they really needed and bet that he could go without drinking for a week.", "He persisted until his tongue was black and he collapsed at drill.", "On another occasion he abstained from salt for a week.", "Among his teachers at Highgate was Richard Watson Dixon, who became an enduring friend and correspondent.", "Of the older pupils Hopkins recalls in his boarding house, the poet Philip Stanhope Worsley won the Newdigate Prize." ], [ "Oxford and priesthood", "Hopkins studied classics at Balliol College, Oxford (1863–1867).", "He began his time in Oxford as a keen socialite and prolific poet, but seems to have alarmed himself with resulting changes in his behaviour.", "There he forged a lifelong friendship with Robert Bridges (later Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom), which would be important to his development as a poet and in establishing his posthumous acclaim.", "Hopkins was deeply impressed with the work of Christina Rossetti, who became one of his great contemporary influences.", "The two met in 1864.During this time he studied with the writer and critic Walter Pater, who tutored him in 1866 and remained a friend until Hopkins left Oxford for the second time in October 1879.Alfred William Garrett, William Alexander Comyn Macfarlane and Hopkins (left to right), by Thomas C. Bayfield, 1866In a journal entry of 6 November 1865, Hopkins declared an ascetic intention for his life and work: \"On this day by God's grace I resolved to give up all beauty until I had His leave for it.\"", "On 18 January 1866, Hopkins composed his most ascetic poem, ''The Habit of Perfection''.", "On 23 January, he included poetry in a list of things to be given up for Lent.", "In July, he decided to become a Roman Catholic and travelled to Birmingham in September to consult the leader of the Oxford converts, John Henry Newman.", "Newman received him into the Roman Catholic Church on 21 October 1866.The decision to convert estranged Hopkins from his family and from a number of acquaintances.", "After graduating in 1867, he was provided by Newman with a teaching post at the Oratory in Birmingham.", "While there he began to study the violin.", "On 5 May 1868 Hopkins firmly \"resolved to be a religious.\"", "Less than a week later, he made a bonfire of his poetry and gave it up almost entirely for seven years.", "He also felt a call to enter the ministry and decided to become a Jesuit.", "He paused first to visit Switzerland, which officially forbade Jesuits to enter.In September 1868, Hopkins began his Jesuit novitiate at Manresa House, Roehampton, under the guidance of Alfred Weld.", "Two years later he moved to St Mary's Hall, Stonyhurst, for philosophical studies, taking vows of poverty, chastity and obedience on 8 September 1870.He felt that his interest in poetry had stopped him devoting himself wholly to religion.", "However, on reading Duns Scotus in 1872, he saw how the two need not conflict.", "He continued to write a detailed prose journal in 1868–1875.Unable to suppress a desire to describe the natural world, he also wrote music, sketched, and for church occasions, wrote \"verses\", as he called them.", "He later wrote sermons and other religious pieces.In 1874, Hopkins returned to Manresa House to teach classics.", "While studying in the Jesuit house of theological studies, St Beuno's College, near St Asaph in Wales, he was asked by his religious superior to write a poem to commemorate the foundering of a German ship in a storm.", "So in 1875 he took up poetry once more to write a lengthy piece, \"The Wreck of the Deutschland\", inspired by the ''Deutschland'' incident, a maritime disaster in which 157 people died, including five Franciscan nuns who had been leaving Germany due to harsh anti-Catholic laws (see Kulturkampf).", "The work displays both the religious concerns and some of the unusual metre and rhythms of his subsequent poetry not present in his few remaining early works.", "It not only depicts the dramatic events and heroic deeds, but tells of him reconciling the terrible events with God's higher purpose.", "The poem was accepted but not printed by a Jesuit publication.", "This rejection fed his ambivalence about his poetry, most of which remained unpublished until after his death.Blue plaque commemorating Hopkins in Roehampton, LondonHopkins chose the austere and restrictive life of a Jesuit and was gloomy at times.", "His biographer Robert Bernard Martin notes that \"the life expectancy of a man becoming a novice at twenty-one was twenty-three more years rather than the forty years of males of the same age in the general population.\"", "The brilliant student who had left Oxford with first-class honours failed his final theology exam.", "This almost certainly meant that despite his ordination in 1877, Hopkins would not progress in the order.", "In 1877 he wrote ''God's Grandeur'', an array of sonnets that included \"The Starlight Night\".", "He finished \"The Windhover\" only a few months before his ordination.", "His life as a Jesuit trainee, though rigorous, isolated and sometimes unpleasant, at least had some stability; the uncertain and varied work after ordination was even harder on his sensibilities.", "In October 1877, not long after completing \"The Sea and the Skylark\" and only a month after his ordination, Hopkins took up duties as sub-minister and teacher at Mount St Mary's College near Sheffield.", "In July 1878 he became curate at the Jesuit church in Mount Street, London, and in December that of St Aloysius's Church, Oxford, then moving to Manchester, Liverpool and Glasgow.", "While ministering in Oxford, he became a founding member of The Newman Society, established in 1878 for Catholic members of the University of Oxford.", "He taught Greek and Latin at Mount St Mary's College, Sheffield, and Stonyhurst College, Lancashire.In the late 1880s Hopkins met Matthew Russell of the ''Irish Monthly'', who introduced him to Katharine Tynan and W. B. Yeats.In 1884, Hopkins became a professor of Greek and Latin at University College Dublin.", "His English roots and disagreement with the Irish politics of the time, along with his small stature (), unprepossessing nature and personal oddities, reduced his effectiveness as a teacher.", "This and his isolation in Ireland deepened a gloom that was reflected in his poems of the time, such as \"I Wake and Feel the Fell of Dark, not Day\".", "They came to be known as the \"terrible sonnets\", not for their quality but according to Hopkins's friend Canon Richard Watson Dixon, because they reached the \"terrible crystal\", meaning they crystallised the melancholic dejection that plagued the latter part of Hopkins's life." ], [ "Final years", "Several influences led to a melancholic state and restricted his poetic inspiration in his last five years.", "His workload was heavy.", "He disliked living in Dublin, away from England and friends.", "He was disappointed at how far Dublin had fallen from its Georgian elegance of the previous century.", "His general health suffered and his eyesight began to fail.", "He felt confined and dejected.", "As a devout Jesuit, he found himself in an artistic dilemma.", "To subdue an egotism that he felt would violate the humility required by his religious position, he decided never to publish his poems but Hopkins realised that any true poet requires an audience for criticism and encouragement.", "This conflict between his religious obligations and his poetic talent made him feel he had failed at both.After several years' ill health and bouts of diarrhoea, Hopkins died of typhoid fever in 1889 at the age of 44 years and was buried in Glasnevin Cemetery, after a funeral in St Francis Xavier Church in Gardiner Street, located in Georgian Dublin.", "He is thought to have suffered throughout his life from what today might be labelled bipolar disorder or chronic unipolar depression, and battled a deep sense of melancholic anguish.", "However, his last words on his death bed were, \"I am so happy, I am so happy.\"" ], [ "Poetry", "===\"The sonnets of desolation\"===According to John Bayley, \"All his life Hopkins was haunted by the sense of personal bankruptcy and impotence, the straining of 'time's eunuch' with no more to 'spend'... \" a sense of inadequacy, graphically expressed in his last sonnets.", "Toward the end of his life, Hopkins suffered several long bouts of depression.", "His \"terrible sonnets\" struggle with problems of religious doubt.", "He described them to Bridges as \"the thin gleanings of a long weary while\".", "\"Thou Art Indeed Just, Lord\" (1889) echoes ''Jeremiah'' 12:1 in asking why the wicked prosper.", "It reflects the exasperation of a faithful servant who feels he has been neglected, and is addressed to a divine person (\"Sir\") capable of hearing the complaint, but seemingly unwilling to listen.", "Hopkins uses parched roots as a metaphor for despair.The image of the poet's estrangement from God figures in \"I wake and feel the fell of dark, not day\", in which he describes lying awake before dawn, likening his prayers to \"dead letters sent To dearest him that lives alas!", "away.\"", "The opening line recalls Lamentations 3:2: \"He hath led me, and brought me into darkness, but not into light.", "\"\"No Worst, There is None\" and \"Carrion Comfort\" are also counted among the \"terrible sonnets\".===Sprung rhythm===Much of Hopkins's historical importance has to do with the changes he brought to the form of poetry, which ran contrary to conventional ideas of metre.", "Prior to Hopkins, most Middle English and Modern English poetry was based on a rhythmic structure inherited from the Norman side of English literary heritage.", "This structure is based on repeating \"feet\" of two or three syllables, with the stressed syllable falling in the same place on each repetition.", "Hopkins called this structure \"running rhythm\", and although he wrote some of his early verse in running rhythm, he became fascinated with the older rhythmic structure of the Anglo-Saxon tradition, of which ''Beowulf'' is the most famous example.Hopkins called his own rhythmic structure sprung rhythm.", "Sprung rhythm is structured around feet with a variable number of syllables, generally between one and four syllables per foot, with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot.", "It is similar to the \"rolling stresses\" of Robinson Jeffers, another poet who rejected conventional metre.", "Hopkins saw sprung rhythm as a way to escape the constraints of running rhythm, which he said inevitably pushed poetry written in it to become \"same and tame\".", "In this way, Hopkins sprung rhythm can be seen as anticipating much of free verse.", "His work has no great affinity with either of the contemporary Pre-Raphaelite and neo-romanticism schools, although he does share their descriptive love of nature and he is often seen as a precursor to modernist poetry, or as a bridge between the two poetic eras.===Use of language===Hopkins was a supporter of linguistic purism in English.", "In an 1882 letter to Robert Bridges, Hopkins writes: \"It makes one weep to think what English might have been; for in spite of all that Shakespeare and Milton have done... no beauty in a language can make up for want of purity.\"", "He took time to learn Old English, which became a major influence on his writing.", "In the same letter to Bridges he calls Old English \"a vastly superior thing to what we have now.", "\"He uses many archaic and dialect words but also coins new words.", "One example of this is ''twindles'', which seems from its context in ''Inversnaid'' to mean a combination of ''twines'' and ''dwindles''.", "He often creates compound adjectives, sometimes with a hyphen (such as ''dapple-dawn-drawn falcon'') but often without, as in ''rolling level underneath him steady air''.", "This use of compound adjectives, similar to the Old English use of compound nouns via kennings, concentrates his images, communicating to his readers the instress of the poet's perceptions of an inscape.Added richness comes from Hopkins's extensive use of alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia and rhyme, both at the end of lines and internally as in:Hopkins was influenced by the Welsh language, which he had acquired while studying theology at St Beuno's near St Asaph.", "The poetic forms of Welsh literature and particularly cynghanedd, with its emphasis on repeating sounds, accorded with his own style and became a prominent feature of his work.", "This reliance on similar-sounding words with close or differing senses means that his poems are best understood if read aloud.", "An important element in his work is Hopkins's own concept of ''inscape'', which was derived in part from the medieval theologian Duns Scotus.", "Anthony Domestico explains,Inscape, for Hopkins, is the charged essence, the absolute singularity that gives each created thing its being; instress is both the energy that holds the inscape together and the process by which this inscape is perceived by an observer.", "We instress the inscape of a tulip, Hopkins would say, when we appreciate the particular delicacy of its petals, when we are enraptured by its specific, inimitable shade of pink.", "\"\"The Windhover\" aims to depict not the bird in general, but instead one instance and its relation to the breeze.", "This is just one interpretation of Hopkins's most famous poem, one which he felt was his best.During his lifetime, Hopkins published few poems.", "It was only through the efforts of Robert Bridges that his works were seen.", "Despite Hopkins burning all his poems on entering the Jesuit novitiate, he had already sent some to Bridges, who with some other friends, was one of the few people to see many of them for some years.", "After Hopkins's death they were distributed to a wider audience, mostly fellow poets, and in 1918 Bridges, by then poet laureate, published a collected edition; an expanded edition, prepared by Charles Williams, appeared in 1930, and a greatly expanded edition by William Henry Gardner appeared in 1948 (eventually reaching a fourth edition, 1967, with N. H. Mackenzie).Notable collections of Hopkins's manuscripts and publications are in Campion Hall, Oxford; the Bodleian Library, Oxford; and the Foley Library at Gonzaga University in Spokane, Washington.===Influences=======Erotic====In 1970, Timothy d'Arch Smith, antiquarian bookseller, ascribed to Hopkins suppressed homoerotic impulses which he views as taking on a degree of specificity after Hopkins met Robert Bridges's distant cousin, friend, and fellow Etonian Digby Mackworth Dolben, \"a Christian Uranian\".In 1991, Robert Bernard Martin wrote in his biography ''Gerard Manley Hopkins: A Very Private Life'', that when Hopkins first met Dolben, on Dolben's 17th birthday in Oxford in February 1865, it \"was, quite simply, the most momentous emotional event of his undergraduate years, probably of his entire life.\"", "According to Robert Martin, \"Hopkins was completely taken with Dolben, who was nearly four years his junior, and his private journal for confessions the following year proves how absorbed he was in imperfectly suppressed erotic thoughts of him.\"", "Martin considered it \"probable that Hopkins would have been deeply shocked at the reality of sexual intimacy with another person.", "\"Hopkins had composed two poems about Dolben, \"Where art thou friend\" and \"The Beginning of the End\".", "Robert Bridges, who edited the first edition of Dolben's poems as well as Hopkins's, cautioned that the second poem \"must never be printed\", though Bridges himself included it in the first edition (1918).Gerard Manley HopkinsAnother indication of the nature of his feelings for Dolben is that Hopkins's high Anglican confessor seems to have forbidden him to have any contact with Dolben except by letter.", "Hopkins never saw Dolben again, and any continuation of their relationship was abruptly ended by Dolben's drowning two years later in June 1867.Hopkins's feeling for Dolben seems to have cooled by that time, but he was nonetheless greatly affected by his death.", "\"Ironically, fate may have bestowed more through Dolben's death than it could ever have bestowed through longer life ... for many of Hopkins's best poems – impregnated with an elegiac longing for Dolben, his lost beloved and his muse – were the result.\"", "Hopkins's relationship with Dolben was explored in the 2017 novel ''The Hopkins Conundrum''.Some of Hopkins's poems, such as ''The Bugler's First Communion'' and ''Epithalamion'', arguably embody homoerotic themes, although the second poem was arranged by Robert Bridges from extant fragments.", "In 2006, M. M. Kaylor, argued for Hopkins's inclusion with the Uranian poets, a group whose writings derived, in many ways, from prose works of Walter Pater, Hopkins's academic coach for his Greats exams and later a lifelong friend.Some critics have argued that homoerotic readings are either highly tendentious, or that they can be classified under the broader category of \"homosociality\", over the gender, sexual-specific \"homosexual\" term.", "Hopkins's journal writings, they argue, offer a clear admiration for feminised beauty.", "In 2000, Justus George Lawler criticised Robert Martin's biography by suggesting that Martin \"cannot see the heterosexual beam... for the homosexual biographical mote in his own eye... it amounts to a slanted eisegesis\".", "The poems that elicit homoerotic readings can be read not merely as exercises in sublimation but as powerful renditions of religious conviction, a conviction that caused strain in his family and even led him to burn some poems that he felt were unnecessarily self-centred.", "In 2000, Julia Saville viewed the religious imagery in the poems as Hopkins's way of expressing the tension with homosexual identity and desire.Christopher Ricks noted that Hopkins engaged in a number of penitential practices, \"but all of these self-inflictions were not self-inflictions to him, and they are his business – or are his understanding of what it was for him to be about his Father's business.\"", "Ricks takes issue with Martin's apparent lack of appreciation of the importance of the role of Hopkins's religious commitment to his writing, and cautions against assigning a priority of influence to any sexual instincts over other factors such as Hopkins's estrangement from his family.", "In 2009, biographer Paul Mariani found in Hopkins poems \"an irreconcilable tension – on the one hand, the selflessness demanded by Jesuit discipline; on the other, the seeming self-indulgence of poetic creation.", "\"====Isolation====Hopkins spent the last five years of his life as a classics professor at University College Dublin.", "Hopkins's isolation in 1885 was multiple: a Jesuit distanced from his Anglican family and his homeland, an Englishman teaching in Dublin during a time of political strife, an unpublished poet striving to reconcile his artistic and religious callings.", "The poem \"To seem the stranger\" was written in Ireland between 1885 and 1886 and is a poem of isolation and loneliness." ], [ "Influence on others", "Ricks called Hopkins \"the most original poet of the Victorian age.\"", "Hopkins is considered as influential as T. S. Eliot in initiating the modernist movement in poetry.", "His experiments with elliptical phrasing and double meanings and quirky conversational rhythms turned out to be liberating to poets such as W. H. Auden and Dylan Thomas.", "Hopkins also had a direct influence on the Ghanaian poet and novelist Kojo Laing, whose poem \"No needle in the sky\" has been called an intercultural translation of Hopkins's \"The Windhover\".", "The American author Ron Hansen's novel, ''Exiles'', who held the Gerard Manley Hopkins, SJ, Professorship in English at Santa Clara University, dramatises Hopkins' composition of ''The Wreck of the Deutschland.", "''The Gerard Manley Hopkins Building in University College Dublin is named after him." ], [ "Selected poems", "Well-known works by Hopkins include:*\"Binsey Poplars\"*\"Pied Beauty\"*\"The Windhover: To Christ our Lord\"*''The Wreck of the Deutschland''===Recordings===*Richard Austin reads Hopkins's poetry in ''Back to Beauty's Giver''.", "*Jeremy Northam reads Hopkins's poetry in ''The Great Poets''.", "*American singer/songwriter Natalie Merchant set Hopkins's poem Spring and Fall: To a Young Child to music on her 2010 album ''Leave Your Sleep''.", "*Author Simon Edge reads ''The Wreck of The Deutschland'' in a recording to accompany his novel ''The Hopkins Conundrum''.", "*Paul Kelly (Australian musician) sings God's Grandeur on his 2018 album Nature." ], [ "See also", "*''Adoro te devote'' (translated by G. M. Hopkins)*Caudate sonnet*Curtal sonnet (invented by G. M. Hopkins)*Sprung rhythm*Inscape and instress*Inscape (visual art)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Abbott, Claude Colleer, ed., 1955.", "''The Correspondence of Gerard Manley Hopkins and Richard Watson Dixon'' (London: Oxford University Press)*Abbott, Claude Colleer, ed., 1955.", "''The Letters of Gerard Manley Hopkins to Robert Bridges'' (London: Oxford University Press)*Chakrabarti, Tapan Kumar, ''Gerard Manley Hopkins: His Experiments in Poetic Diction'' (manuscript Ph.", "D. dissertation approved by University of Calcutta)*Cohen, Edward H., ed., 1969.", "''Works and Criticism of Gerard Manley Hopkins: A Comprehensive Bibliography''.", "(Washington, D.C., The Catholic University of America Press)*Fiddes, Paul S., 2009.\"G.", "M. Hopkins\", in Rebecca Lemon, Emma Mason, Jonathan Roberts and Christopher Rowland, eds, ''The Blackwell companion to the Bible in English literature'' (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, pp.", "563–576)*Jackson, Timothy F., \"The Role of the Holy Spirit in Gerard Manley Hopkins's Poetry\", ''Logos: A Journal of Catholic Thought and Culture'' (Winter 2006), vol.", "9, no.", "1, pp.", "108–127)*MacKenzie, Norman H., ed., 1989.", "''The Early Poetic Manuscripts and Note-books of Gerard Manley Hopkins in Facsimile'' (New York and London: Garland Publishing)*MacKenzie, Norman H..", "ed., 1991.", "''The Later Poetic Manuscripts of Gerard Manley Hopkins in Facsimile'' (New York: Garland Publishing)*Martin, Robert Bernard, 1992.", "''Gerard Manley Hopkins – A Very Private Life'' (London: Flamingo/HarperCollins Publishers)*Pomplun, Trent, \"The Theology of Gerard Manley Hopkins: From John Duns Scotus to the Baroque\", ''Journal of Religion'' (January 2015, 95#1, pp: 1–34, DOI: 10.1086/678532)*Sagar, Keith, 2005.", "\"Hopkins and the Religion of the Diamond Body\", in ''Literature and the Crime Against Nature'', (London: Chaucer Press)*Stiles, Cheryl, 2010.", "\"Hopkins-Stricken: Gerard Manley Hopkins, a Selective Bibliography.\"", "(Berkeley Electronic Press)*Westover, Daniel and Thomas Alan Holmes, 2020.''", "The Fire that Breaks: Gerard Manley Hopkins's Poetic Legacies'' (Clemson University Press)*White, Norman, 1992.", "''Hopkins – A literary Biography'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press)" ], [ "External links", "* Gerard Manley Hopkins, S.J.", "Conference, Regis University* Profile and poems at the Poetry Foundation.", "Retrieved 2010-03-18* Profile and poems at Poets.org* Gerard Manley Hopkins at St Beuno's retreat.", "Retrieved 2010-03-18* Annual Literary Festival – Monasterevin Hopkins Society, Ireland.", "Retrieved 2015-05-12* The Hopkins Society United Kingdom* UCD Letters, including 43 letters and postcards written to Alexander William Mowbray, between 1863 and 1888.A UCD Digital Library Collection.", "***: solo recordings of his collected poems*: recordings of individual short poems* ''Poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins''.", "Ed.", "Robert Bridges.", "London: Humphrey Milford, 1918.Via HathiTrust" ] ]
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[ [ "Cis–trans isomerism" ], [ "Introduction", "''cis''-but-2-ene''trans''-but-2-ene'''''Cis''–''trans'' isomerism''', also known as '''geometric isomerism''', describes certain arrangements of atoms within molecules.", "The prefixes \"''cis''\" and \"''trans''\" are from Latin: \"this side of\" and \"the other side of\", respectively.", "In the context of chemistry, ''cis'' indicates that the functional groups (substituents) are on the same side of some plane, while ''trans'' conveys that they are on opposing (transverse) sides.", "''Cis''–''trans'' isomers are stereoisomers, that is, pairs of molecules which have the same formula but whose functional groups are in different orientations in three-dimensional space.", "''Cis'' and ''trans'' isomers occur both in organic molecules and in inorganic coordination complexes.", "''Cis'' and ''trans'' descriptors are not used for cases of conformational isomerism where the two geometric forms easily interconvert, such as most open-chain single-bonded structures; instead, the terms \"''syn''\" and \"''anti''\" are used.According to IUPAC, \"geometric isomerism\" is an obsolete synonym of \"''cis''–''trans'' isomerism\".", "''Cis–trans'' or geometric isomerism is classified as one type of '''configurational isomerism'''." ], [ "Organic chemistry", "In general, ''cis''–''trans'' stereoisomers contain double bonds or ring structures.", "In both cases the rotation of bonds is restricted or prevented.", "When the substituent groups are oriented in the same direction, the diastereomer is referred to as ''cis'', whereas when the substituents are oriented in opposing directions, the diastereomer is referred to as ''trans''.", "An example of a small hydrocarbon displaying ''cis''–''trans'' isomerism is but-2-ene.", "1,2-Dichlorocyclohexane is another example.100px 150px 100px 150px ''trans''-1,2-dichlorocyclohexane ''cis''-1,2-dichlorocyclohexane=== Comparison of physical properties ===''Cis'' and ''trans'' isomers have distinct physical properties.", "Their differing shapes influences the dipole moments, boiling, and especially melting points.150px150px''cis''-2-pentene''trans''-2-pentene110px110px''cis''-1,2-dichloroethene''trans''-1,2-dichloroetheneThese differences can be very small, as in the case of the boiling point of straight-chain alkenes, such as pent-2-ene, which is 37 °C in the ''cis'' isomer and 36 °C in the ''trans'' isomer.", "The differences between ''cis'' and ''trans'' isomers can be larger if polar bonds are present, as in the 1,2-dichloroethenes.", "The ''cis'' isomer in this case has a boiling point of 60.3 °C, while the ''trans'' isomer has a boiling point of 47.5 °C.", "In the ''cis'' isomer the two polar C–Cl bond dipole moments combine to give an overall molecular dipole, so that there are intermolecular dipole–dipole forces (or Keesom forces), which add to the London dispersion forces and raise the boiling point.", "In the ''trans'' isomer on the other hand, this does not occur because the two C−Cl bond moments cancel and the molecule has a net zero dipole moment (it does however have a non-zero quadrupole moment).150px150px''cis''-butenedioic acid (maleic acid) ''trans''-butenedioic acid (fumaric acid)270px270px''cis''-9-octadecenoic acid (oleic acid) ''trans''-9-octadecenoic acid (elaidic acid)The differing properties of the two isomers of butenedioic acid are often very different.", "+ Properties of isomers of ''cis''- and ''trans''- maleic acid fumaric acid color white white melting point, °C 130 286 water solubility, g/L 788 7 Acid dissociation constant, pKa1 1.90 3.03Polarity is key in determining relative boiling point as strong intermolecular forces raise the boiling point.", "In the same manner, symmetry is key in determining relative melting point as it allows for better packing in the solid state, even if it does not alter the polarity of the molecule.", "Another example of this is the relationship between oleic acid and elaidic acid; oleic acid, the ''cis'' isomer, has a melting point of 13.4 °C, making it a liquid at room temperature, while the ''trans'' isomer, elaidic acid, has the much higher melting point of 43 °C, due to the straighter ''trans'' isomer being able to pack more tightly, and is solid at room temperature.Thus, ''trans'' alkenes, which are less polar and more symmetrical, have lower boiling points and higher melting points, and ''cis'' alkenes, which are generally more polar and less symmetrical, have higher boiling points and lower melting points.In the case of geometric isomers that are a consequence of double bonds, and, in particular, when both substituents are the same, some general trends usually hold.", "These trends can be attributed to the fact that the dipoles of the substituents in a ''cis'' isomer will add up to give an overall molecular dipole.", "In a ''trans'' isomer, the dipoles of the substituents will cancel out due to being on opposite sides of the molecule.", "''Trans'' isomers also tend to have lower densities than their ''cis'' counterparts.As a general trend, ''trans'' alkenes tend to have higher melting points and lower solubility in inert solvents, as ''trans'' alkenes, in general, are more symmetrical than ''cis'' alkenes.Vicinal coupling constants (3''J''HH), measured by NMR spectroscopy, are larger for ''trans'' (range: 12–18 Hz; typical: 15 Hz) than for ''cis'' (range: 0–12 Hz; typical: 8 Hz) isomers.==== Stability ====Usually for acyclic systems ''trans'' isomers are more stable than ''cis'' isomers.", "This difference is attributed to the unfavorable steric interaction of the substituents in the ''cis'' isomer.", "Therefore, ''trans'' isomers have a less-exothermic heat of combustion, indicating higher thermochemical stability.", "In the Benson heat of formation group additivity dataset, ''cis'' isomers suffer a 1.10 kcal/mol stability penalty.", "Exceptions to this rule exist, such as 1,2-difluoroethylene, 1,2-difluorodiazene (FN=NF), and several other halogen- and oxygen-substituted ethylenes.", "In these cases, the ''cis'' isomer is more stable than the ''trans'' isomer.", "This phenomenon is called the ''cis effect''.=== ''E''–''Z'' notation ===CIP priority than chlorine, so this alkene is the ''Z'' isomerIn principle, ''cis''–''trans'' notation should not be used for alkenes with two or more different substituents.", "Instead the ''E''–''Z'' notation is used based on the priority of the substituents using the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog (CIP) priority rules for absolute configuration.", "The IUPAC standard designations ''E'' and ''Z'' are unambiguous in all cases, and therefore are especially useful for tri- and tetrasubstituted alkenes to avoid any confusion about which groups are being identified as ''cis'' or ''trans'' to each other.", "''Z'' (from the German ) means \"together\".", "''E'' (from the German ) means \"opposed\" in the sense of \"opposite\".", "That is, ''Z'' has the higher-priority groups ''cis'' to each other and ''E'' has the higher-priority groups ''trans'' to each other.", "Whether a molecular configuration is designated ''E'' or ''Z'' is determined by the CIP rules; higher atomic numbers are given higher priority.", "For each of the two atoms in the double bond, it is necessary to determine the priority of each substituent.", "If both the higher-priority substituents are on the same side, the arrangement is ''Z''; if on opposite sides, the arrangement is ''E''.Because the ''cis''–''trans'' and ''E''–''Z'' systems compare different groups on the alkene, it is not strictly true that ''Z'' corresponds to ''cis'' and ''E'' corresponds to ''trans''.", "For example, ''trans''-2-chlorobut-2-ene (the two methyl groups, C1 and C4, on the but-2-ene backbone are ''trans'' to each other) is (''Z'')-2-chlorobut-2-ene (the chlorine and C4 are together because C1 and C4 are opposite).==== Undefined alkene stereochemistry ====Wavy single bonds are the standard way to represent unknown or unspecified stereochemistry or a mixture of isomers (as with tetrahedral stereocenters).", "A crossed double-bond has been used sometimes; it is no longer considered an acceptable style for general use by IUPAC but may still be required by computer software.Alkene stereochemistry" ], [ "Inorganic chemistry", "''Cis''–''trans'' isomerism can also occur in inorganic compounds.=== Diazenes ===Diazenes (and the related diphosphenes) can also exhibit ''cis''–''trans'' isomerism.", "As with organic compounds, the ''cis'' isomer is generally the more reactive of the two, being the only isomer that can reduce alkenes and alkynes to alkanes, but for a different reason: the ''trans'' isomer cannot line its hydrogens up suitably to reduce the alkene, but the ''cis'' isomer, being shaped differently, can.150px 150px 150px 150px ''trans''-diazene ''cis''-diazene=== Coordination complexes ===Coordination complexes with octahedral or square planar geometries can also exhibit ''cis-trans'' isomerism.The two isomeric complexes, cisplatin and transplatinFor example, there are two isomers of square planar Pt(NH3)2Cl2, as explained by Alfred Werner in 1893.The ''cis'' isomer, whose full name is ''cis''-diamminedichloroplatinum(II), was shown in 1969 by Barnett Rosenberg to have antitumor activity, and is now a chemotherapy drug known by the short name cisplatin.", "In contrast, the ''trans'' isomer (transplatin) has no useful anticancer activity.", "Each isomer can be synthesized using the trans effect to control which isomer is produced.For octahedral complexes of formula MX4Y2, two isomers also exist.", "(Here M is a metal atom, and X and Y are two different types of ligands.)", "In the ''cis'' isomer, the two Y ligands are adjacent to each other at 90°, as is true for the two chlorine atoms shown in green in ''cis''-Co(NH3)4Cl2+, at left.", "In the ''trans'' isomer shown at right, the two Cl atoms are on opposite sides of the central Co atom.A related type of isomerism in octahedral MX3Y3 complexes isfacial–meridional (or ''fac''–''mer'') isomerism, in which different numbers of ligands are ''cis'' or ''trans'' to each other.", "Metal carbonyl compounds can be characterized as ''fac'' or ''mer'' using infrared spectroscopy." ], [ "See also", "* Chirality (chemistry)* Descriptor (chemistry)* ''E''–''Z'' notation* Isomer* Structural isomerism* Trans fat" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* IUPAC definition of \"stereoisomerism\"* IUPAC definition of \"geometric isomerism\"* IUPAC definition of \"''cis''–''trans'' isomers\"" ] ]
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[ [ "Grímnismál" ], [ "Introduction", "\"No one gave him a thought of pity save little Agnar\" by George Wright.", "The younger Agnarr offering the tortured Grímnir something to drink.", "'''''Grímnismál''''' (Old Norse: ; 'The Lay of Grímnir') is one of the mythological poems of the ''Poetic Edda''.", "It is preserved in the Codex Regius manuscript and the AM 748 I 4to fragment.", "It is spoken through the voice of ''Grímnir'', one of the many guises of the god Odin.", "The very name suggests guise, or mask or hood.", "Through an error, King Geirröth tortured Odin-as-Grímnir, a fatal mistake, since Odin caused him to fall upon his own sword.", "The poem is written mostly in the ljóðaháttr metre, typical for wisdom verse." ], [ "Structure and history", "The work starts out with a lengthy prose section describing the circumstances leading up to Grímnir's monologue.", "The monologue itself comprises 54 stanzas of poetic verse describing the worlds and Odin's many guises.", "The third and last part of the poem is also prose, a brief description of Geirröth's demise, his son's ascension, and Odin's disappearance.", "The prose sections were most likely not part of the original oral versions of Grímnismál.", "Henry Adams Bellows suggests that they were added in the 12th or 13th century and based on some sort of narrative tradition regarding the poem.", "This is not entirely certain.", "The poem itself was likely composed in the first half of the 10th century." ], [ "Synopsis", "Odin and his wife, Frigg, were sitting in Hlidskjalf, looking out on the worlds.", "They turned their eyes towards King Geirröth, who was reigning in the stead of his late father, King Hrauthung.", "Geirröth and his older brother Agnarr had been raised by Odin and Frigg, respectively.", "The god and goddess had disguised themselves as a peasant and his wife, and had taught the children wisdom.", "Geirröth returned to his father's kingdom where he became king upon his father's death, while Agnarr dwelt with a giantess in a cave.In Hliðskjálf, Odin remarked to Frigg that his foster-child Geirröth seemed to be prospering more so than her Agnarr.", "Frigg retorted that Geirröth was so parsimonious and inhospitable that he would torture his guests if he thought there were too many of them.", "Odin disputed this, and the couple entered into a wager in this respect.", "Frigg then sent her maid Fulla to Geirröth, advising him that a magician would soon enter his court to bewitch him, and saying that he could be recognised by the fact that no dog was fierce enough to attack him.Geirröth heeded Fulla's false warning.", "He ordered his men to capture the man the dogs wouldn't attack, which they did.", "Odin-as-Grímnir, dressed in a dark blue cloak, allowed himself to be captured.", "He stated that his name was Grímnir, but he would say nothing further of himself.Geirröth then had him tortured to force him to speak, putting him between two fires for eight nights.", "After this time, Geirröth's son, named Agnarr after the king's brother, came to Grímnir and gave him a full horn from which to drink, saying that his father, the king, was not right to torture him.Grímnir then spoke, saying that he had suffered eight days and nights, without succour from any save Agnarr, Geirröth's son, whom Grímnir prophesied would be Lord of the Goths.", "He then revealed himself for who he was, as the Highest One, promising Agnarr reward for the drink which he brought him.Shifting from prose to poetry for Odin-as-Grímnir's monologue, Grímnir describes at great length the cosmogony of the worlds, the dwelling places of its inhabitants, and himself and his many guises.Eventually, Grímnir turns to Geirröth and promises him misfortune, revealing his true identity.", "Geirröth then realized the magnitude of his mistake.", "Having learned that he is undone, he rose quickly to pull Odin from the fires, but the sword which he had lain upon his knee slipped and fell hilt down, so that when the king stumbled he impaled himself upon it.", "Odin then vanished, and Agnarr, son of the dead King Geirröth, ruled in his father's stead." ], [ "In popular culture", "The 12th album of the comic Valhalla is loosely based on the poem.In the 2017 Starz television adaptation of Neil Gaiman's ''American Gods'', the character Mad Sweeney refers to Mr. Wednesday as Grimnir.", "Mr. Wednesday later emulates Odin's reveal of his identity through his various names when revealing his own true nature." ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===*" ], [ "External links", "* Grímnismál in old Norse and Henry Adams Bellows' translation, at voluspa.org* MyNDIR (My Norse Digital Image Repository) Illustrations of Grímnismál from manuscripts and early print books." ] ]
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[ [ "George Peppard" ], [ "Introduction", "Linda Evans and Peppard in TV's ''Banacek'' (1974) '''George William Peppard''' (; October 1, 1928 – May 8, 1994) was an American actor.", "He secured a major role as struggling writer Paul Varjak when he starred alongside Audrey Hepburn in ''Breakfast at Tiffany's'' (1961), and later portrayed a character based on Howard Hughes in ''The Carpetbaggers'' (1964).", "On television, he played the title role of millionaire insurance investigator and sleuth Thomas Banacek in the early-1970s mystery series ''Banacek''.", "He played Col. John \"Hannibal\" Smith, the cigar-smoking leader of a renegade commando squad in the 1980s action television series ''The A-Team''." ], [ "Early life", "George William Peppard Jr. was born October 1, 1928, in Detroit, the son of building contractor George Peppard, Sr. and opera singer and voice teacher Vernelle Rohrer.", "His mother had five miscarriages before giving birth to George.", "His family lost all their money in the Depression, and his father had to leave George and his mother in Detroit while he went looking for work.", "He graduated from Dearborn High School in Dearborn, Michigan in 1946.Peppard enlisted in the United States Marine Corps on July 8, 1946, and rose to the rank of corporal, leaving the Corps at the end of his enlistment in January 1948.During 1948 and 1949, he studied civil engineering at Purdue University where he was a member of the Purdue Playmakers theatre troupe and Beta Theta Pi fraternity.", "He became interested in acting, being an admirer of Walter Huston in particular.", "\"I just decided I didn't want to be an engineer,\" he said later.", "\"It was the best decision I ever made.", "\"Peppard then transferred to Carnegie Institute of Technology (now Carnegie Mellon University) in Pittsburgh, where he earned his bachelor's degree in 1955.", "(It took longer than normal because he dropped out for a year when his father died in 1951 and he had to finish his father's jobs.)", "He also trained at the Pittsburgh Playhouse.", "While living in Pittsburgh, Peppard worked as a radio DJ at WLOA in Braddock, Pennsylvania.", "While giving a weather update, he famously called incoming snow flurries \"flow snurries\".", "This was an anecdote he repeated in several later interviews, including one with former NFL player Rocky Bleier for WPXI.In addition to acting, Peppard was a pilot.", "He spent a portion of his 1966 honeymoon training to fly his Learjet in Wichita, Kansas." ], [ "Acting", "===Theatre===Peppard made his stage debut in 1949 at the Pittsburgh Playhouse.", "After moving to New York City, Peppard enrolled in the Actors Studio, where he studied the Method with Lee Strasberg.", "He did a variety of jobs to pay his way during this time, such as working as a disc jockey, being a radio station engineer, teaching fencing, driving a taxi and being a mechanic in a motorcycle repair shop.He worked in summer stock in New England and appeared at the open air Oregon Shakespeare Festival in Ashland, Oregon for two seasons.In August 1955 he appeared in the play ''The Sun Dial''.===Television===He worked as a cab driver until getting his first part in \"Lamp Unto My Feet\".He appeared with Paul Newman, in ''The United States Steel Hour'' (1956), as the singing, guitar-playing baseball player Piney Woods in ''Bang the Drum Slowly'', directed by Daniel Petrie.He appeared in an episode of ''Kraft Theatre'', \"Flying Object at Three O'Clock High\" (1956).In March 1956 Peppard was on stage off Broadway in ''Beautiful Changes''.In April 1956, he appeared in a segment of an episode of \"Cameras Three\" performing from ''The Shoemaker's Holiday''; ''The New York Times'' called his performance \"beguiling\".In July 1956, he signed to make his film debut in ''The Strange One'' directed by Jack Garfein, based on the play ''End as a Man''.", "It was the first film from Garfein as director and Calder Willingham as producer, plus for Peppard, Ben Gazzara, Geoffrey Horne, Pat Hingle, Arthur Storch and Clifton James.", "Filming took place in Florida.", "\"I wouldn't say I was nervous,\" said Peppard, \"just excited.", "\"On his return to New York he performed in \"Out to Kill\" on TV for ''Kraft''.", "In September he joined the cast of ''Girls of Summer'' directed by Jack Garfein with Shelley Winters, Storch and Hingle, plus a title song by Stephen Sondheim.", "This reached Broadway in November.", "Brooks Atkinson said Peppard \"expertly plays a sly, malicious dance teacher.\"", "It had only a short run.The bulk of his work around this time was for television: ''The Kaiser Aluminum Hour'' (\"A Real Fine Cutting Edge\", directed by George Roy Hill), ''Studio One in Hollywood'' (\"A Walk in the Forest\"), ''The Alcoa Hour'' (\"The Big Build-Up\" with E.G.", "Marshall), ''Matinee Theatre'' (\"End of the Rope\" with John Drew Barrymore, \"Thread That Runs So True\", \"Aftermath\"), ''Kraft Theatre'' (\"The Long Flight\"), ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' (\"The Diplomatic Corpse\", with Peter Lorre directed by Paul Henreid), and ''Suspicion'' (\"The Eye of Truth\" with Joseph Cotten based on a script by Eric Ambler).", "''The Strange One'' came out in April 1957 but despite some strong reviews - ''The New York Times'' called Peppard \"resolute\".", "- it was not a financial success.In September 1957, he appeared in a trial run of a play by Robert Thom, ''The Minotaur'', directed by Sidney Lumet.Peppard played a key role in ''Little Moon of Alban'' (1958) alongside Christopher Plummer for the ''Hallmark Hall of Fame''.", "The ''Los Angeles Times'' called him \"excellent\".In May 1958, Peppard played his second film role, a support part in the Korean War movie ''Pork Chop Hill'' (1959) directed by Lewis Milestone.", "He was cast in part because he was unfamiliar to moviegoers.In May 1958 he appeared in stock in ''A Swim in the Sea''.===MGM===In October 1958 Peppard appeared on Broadway in ''The Pleasure of His Company'' (1958) starring Cyril Ritchard, who also directed.", "Peppard played the boyfriend who wants to marry Dolores Hart who was Ritchard's daughter; ''The New York Times'' called Peppard \"admirable\".", "The play was a hit and ran for a year.During the show's run Peppard auditioned successfully for MGM's ''Home from the Hill'' (1960) and the studio signed him to a long-term contract - which he had not wanted to do but was a condition for the film.", "In February 1959, Hedda Hopper announced Peppard would leave ''Company'' to make two films for MGM: ''Home from the Hill'' and ''The Subterraneans''.", "''Home from the Hill'' was a prestigious film directed by Vincente Minnelli and starring Robert Mitchum, who played Peppard's father.", "It featured several young actors MGM were hoping to develop, including Peppard, George Hamilton, and Luana Patten.", "During filming Peppard said \"Brando is a dead talent - I saw him in ''The Young Lions''” but said Peck is \"a man of integrity as a star and a person.", "Lee Strasberg is the only person I know who is brilliant.", "\"\"I want to be an actor and proud of my craft,\" said Peppard.", "\"I would like to be an actor who is starred but being a star is something you can't count on whereas acting is something I can work on.\"", "It was a success at the box office, although the film's high cost meant that it was not profitable.Peppard's next film for MGM was ''The Subterraneans'', an adaptation of the 1958 novel by Jack Kerouac co starring Leslie Caron.", "It flopped and Peppard said \"I couldn't get arrested\" afterwards.He had meant to follow ''The Subterraneans'' by returning to Broadway with Julie Harris in ''The Warm Peninsular'' but this did not happen.", "In April 1959 Hedda Hopper said he would be in ''Chatauqua'' but that was not made until a decade later, starring Elvis Presley, as ''The Trouble with Girls'' (1969).", "At the end of 1959 Hopper predicted Peppard would be a big star saying \"he has great emotional power, is a fine athlete, and does offbeat characters such as James Dean excelled in.\"", "Sol Siegel announced he would play the lead in ''Two Weeks in Another Town''.", "(Kirk Douglas ended up playing it.)", "He was also announced for the role of Arthur Blake in a film about the first Olympics called ''And Seven from America'' which was never made.Peppard returned to television to star in an episode of the anthology series ''Startime'', \"Incident at a Corner\" (1960) under the direction of Alfred Hitchcock alongside Vera Miles.", "He played Teddy Roosevelt on television in an episode of ''Our American Heritage'', \"The Invincible Teddy\" (1961)." ], [ "Film stardom", "Breakfast at Tiffany's'' (1961)His good looks, elegant manner and acting skills landed Peppard his most famous film role as Paul Varjak in ''Breakfast at Tiffany's'' with Audrey Hepburn, based on the novella of the same name by Truman Capote.", "Director Blake Edwards had not wanted Peppard, but was overruled by the producers.", "He was cast in July 1960.During filming Peppard did not get along with Hepburn or Patricia Neal, the latter calling him \"cold and conceited\".In November 1961, a newspaper article dubbed him \"the next big thing\".", "Peppard said he had turned down two TV series and was \"concentrating on big screen roles.\"", "His contract with MGM was for two pictures a year, allowing for one outside film and six TV appearances a year, plus the right to star in a play every second year.", "\"In a series you don't have time to develop a character,\" he said.", "\"There's no build up; in the first segment you're already established.", "\"He was meant to appear in ''Unarmed in Paradise'' which was not made.", "He bought a script by Robert Blees called ''Baby Talk'' but it was also unmade.Instead MGM cast him in the lead of their epic western ''How the West Was Won'' in 1962 (his character spanned three sections of the episodic Cinerama extravaganza).", "It was a massive hit.He followed this with a war story for Carl Foreman, ''The Victors'' (1963), made in Europe.", "He was offered $200,000 to appear in ''The Long Ships'' but did not want to go to Yugoslavia for six months.", "He was going to do ''Next Time We Love'' with Ross Hunter but it was never made.He starred in ''The Carpetbaggers'', a 150-minute saga of a ruthless, Hughes-like aviation and film mogul based on the best-selling novel of the same name by Harold Robbins.", "The cast included Elizabeth Ashley, who had an affair with Peppard during filming and later married him.", "She described him as \"some kind of Nordic god – six feet tall with beautiful blond hair, blue eyes and a body out of every high school cheerleader's teenage lust fantasy.\"", "Ashley claimed Peppard \"was never late on set and he had nothing but scorn for actors who weren't professional enough to keep that together.", "\"She added that Peppard:Never was one of those actors who believes his job is to take the money, hit the mark and say the lines and let it go at that.", "He felt that as an above-the-title star he had the responsibility to use his muscle and power to try and make it better and that has never stopped in him.", "He was unrelenting about it, to the point where a lot of executives and directors came to feel he was a pain in the ass.", "But the really talented people loved working with him because of all his wonderful creative energy.", "\"My performances bore me\", said Peppard in a 1964 interview, adding that his ambition was to deliver \"one great performance.", "And I must say I feel a little presumptuous to shoot for that.", "But that's the goal, like a hockey goal.", "I figure I've got a choice ... not of the outcome but of the objective.", "And my objective is that one performance.", "\"Peppard returned to television to do ''Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre'', \"The Game with Glass Pieces\".", "In March 1964 he tried to break his MGM contract to make ''The Great Adventure'' for Anthony Mann.For MGM he appeared in ''Operation Crossbow'' (1965), a war film with Sophia Loren.", "It was the first film he made under a new contract with MGM to do one movie a year for three years.He was meant to follow this with an adaptation of the play ''Merrily We Roll Along'' but it was never made.", "\"I'm an actor not a star,\" he said around this time, adding that he looked for \"three things\" in a film, \"a good director, a good part and a good script.", "If I get two out of three of those I'm satisfied.", "\"Peppard starred in a thriller, ''The Third Day'' (1965) with Ashley who had become his second wife.", "The film was directed by Jack Smight who claimed Warner Bros only agreed to finance it because they had a deal with Peppard.", "Peppard said when he made the film \"I wasn't just broke I was up to my ears in debt.", "\"He was announced for ''The Last Night of Don Juan'' for Michael Gordon but it was not made.", "He was cast as the lead in ''Sands of the Kalahari'' (1965) at a fee of $200,000 but walked off the set after only a few days of filming in March 1965 and had to be replaced by Stuart Whitman.", "Paramount sued Peppard for $930,555 in damages and he countersued.Ashley later wrote:What tormented George so badly was that he was caught between being an actor and a movie star.", "He did not start off as an untalented pretty nothing who had to be grateful for any piece of meat that was thrown his way.", "He was intelligent and talented but because he was six foot tall with blond hair and blue eyes he had been put in the slot of being a movie star at a time when the movie studios were still very powerful and expected you to play the game by their rules...", "I don't think it was possible to be a male movie star who looked like he did and got hot when he did and not be trapped by it.He had a huge hit with ''The Blue Max'' (1966), playing a German World War One ace, alongside James Mason and Ursula Andress, directed by John Guillermin.", "\"He could carry these big films,\" said ''Filmink''.Film critic David Shipman writes of this stage in his career:Peppard played a German Jew fighting for the Allies in ''Tobruk'' (1967) alongside Rock Hudson.", "\"It's a big mistake to think I'm making a lot of money and turning out a lot of crap,\" he said in a 1966 interview.===Decline===Seeking to ensure his financial security, Peppard bought a cattle ranch.", "The funding required by this venture prompted Peppard to sign a multi-million-dollar, five-picture contract with Universal in August 1966 – two films for the first year, then one each in the following three.", "Ashley claimed this ultimately hurt Peppard's career.The first two films under the contract were ''Rough Night in Jericho'' (1967), a Western with Dean Martin, and ''What's So Bad About Feeling Good?''", "(1968), a comedy directed by George Seaton with Mary Tyler Moore; these were followed by a detective film directed by Guillermin, ''P.J.''", "(1968), and ''House of Cards'' (1968), a thriller directed by Guillermin and shot in Europe.", "None of these films was particularly successful at the box office.", "Ashley says that doing these films caused Peppard to start drinking.", "She also claimed Peppard turned down ''The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter'' because he did not want to play a weak or possibly homosexual character.In 1967, he bought the script ''Midnight Fair'' by Sheridan Greenway, to produce.", "In 1968 he announced he had co-written a script ''Watch Them Die'', which he planned to direct, but not play a starring role.", "It was never made.", "Neither was a version of ''The Most Dangerous Game'' for MGM, announced in 1967.Peppard starred in the crime drama ''Pendulum'' (1969), directed by George Schaefer with Jean Seberg, and traveled to England to star in ''The Executioner'' (1970) opposite Joan Collins.In ''Cannon for Cordoba'' (1970), Peppard played the steely Captain Rod Douglas, who has been put in charge of gathering a group of soldiers on a dangerous mission into Mexico.", "It was not a success.", "Neither was ''One More Train to Rob'' (1971), another Western.", "Ashley wrote \"he became more and more frustrated and disillusioned from hating the kind of pictures he had to do.", "There were no good scripts, no good directors and at some point it became icily clear that there weren't going to be any.", "\"In September 1970, he toured Vietnam with a USO show." ], [ "Television", "In March 1971 Peppard announced that his company, Tradewind Productions, had optioned a novel by Stanley Ellin, ''The Eighth Circle'', but it was not made.Peppard starred in a Western TV movie ''The Bravos'' (1972) with Pernell Roberts.", "He returned to features with ''The Groundstar Conspiracy'' (1972) co starring Michael Sarrazin, shot in Canada for Universal; Peppard's fee was $400,000.In August 1971, Peppard signed to star in ''Banacek'' (1972–1974), part of ''The NBC Mystery Movie'' series, starring in 90-minute whodunits as a wealthy Boston playboy who solves thefts for insurance companies for a finder's fee.", "Sixteen regular episodes were produced over two seasons.", "Peppard also did some second unit directing.", "\"Ever since ''The Carpetbaggers'' I've played the iron-jawed cold-eyed killer and that gets to be a goddamned bore,\" he said in 1972.", "\"Acting is not the most creative thing in the world and when you play a man of action it gets to be a long day.", "Banacek is the best character I've played in a long time.", "\"In February 1972, Peppard stood trial in Boston, accused of attempting to rape a stripper in his hotel room.", "He was cleared of the charges.", "The same year, he and Ashley were divorced, with Peppard to pay her $2,000 per month alimony plus $350 per month child support for their son Christian.Peppard starred in ''Newman's Law'' (1974), an action film originally called ''Newman''.", "When ''Banacek'' ended Peppard wanted to take time off to focus on producing and directing, including a project called ''The Total Beast''.", "However alimony and child support obligations forced him back to acting.", "He made some TV movies ''One of Our Own'' (1975), a medical drama, and ''Guilty or Innocent: The Sam Sheppard Murder Case'' (1975), as Sam Sheppard, for which his fee was $100,000.", "''One of Our Own'' had been a pilot for a TV series which was picked up - ''Doctors' Hospital'' (1975) lasted 15 episodes.Peppard starred in the science-fiction film ''Damnation Alley'' (1977), which has gone on to attain a substantial cult following in the years since.", "Peppard's role in the film was reportedly turned down by Steve McQueen because of salary issues.", "The movie cost $8.5 million - Peppard said Jack Smight's original director's cut was \"wonderful\" but claimed many of the key scenes in the film were cut when it was re-edited by executives.With fewer interesting roles coming his way, he acted in, directed and produced the drama ''Five Days from Home'' in 1979.===''Five Days from Home''===Peppard later said the low point of his career came over a three-year period around the time of ''Five Days from Home''.", "\"It was a bad time\", he said in 1983.", "\"I was heavily in debt.", "My career seemed to be going nowhere.", "Not much work over a three-year period.", "Every morning I'd wake up and realize I was getting deeper and deeper into debt\".He had to sell his car and take out a second mortgage on his home to finance ''Five Days from Home''.", "Eventually, he got his money back and was able to concentrate on his career.", "\"I'm quite proud of it,\" he said in 1979.", "\"I sold many assets to help make it but I don't mind.", "It was the best time of my life.", "\"He had the lead in the TV movies ''Crisis in Mid-air'' (1979) and ''Torn Between Two Lovers'' (1979) and went to Europe for ''From Hell to Victory'' (1979).In a rare game show appearance, Peppard did a week of shows on ''Password Plus'' in 1979, in which he could often be seen smoking cigarettes while filming.", "Out of five shows, the first was never broadcast on NBC, but aired much later on GSN and Buzzr, because of on-camera comments made by Peppard regarding personal dissatisfaction he felt related to his treatment by the NBC officials who supervised the production of ''Password Plus''.", "As a result of this, Goodson-Todman banned Peppard from appearing on any of their game shows ever again for that incident, which cost them a lot since they had to film an extra episode two weeks later to make up for the pulled episode.In April 1979, Peppard said \"I want to act again - and I need a good role.", "The Sam Shepherd story I did for TV was the only good role I've had in the last seven to ten years.\"", "He added he was developing two movies and a TV drama series plus an educational series.===''Dynasty''===In 1980, Peppard was offered, and accepted, the role of Blake Carrington in the television series ''Dynasty''.", "During the filming of the pilot episode, which also featured Linda Evans and Bo Hopkins, Peppard repeatedly clashed with the show's producers, Richard and Esther Shapiro; among other things, he felt that his role was too similar to that of J. R. Ewing in the series ''Dallas''.", "Three weeks later, before filming of additional episodes was set to begin, Peppard was fired and the part was offered to John Forsythe; the scenes with Peppard were re-shot and Forsythe became the permanent star of the show.", "Joan Collins says she was pleased he didn't get the role as she \"hated him\" following a sexual assault incident.", "\"It was a big blow,\" Peppard noted subsequently, adding he felt Forsythe ultimately did \"a better job (as Blake Carrington) than I could have done.\"", "Ironically, this led to his being available to be cast in NBC's ''The A-Team'', the number one rated television show in its first season in 1982.", "\"I'm so glad I wasn't drinking,\" he said later, having stopped in 1979.", "\"I bet a lot of people thought when I did certain things, I had been drinking and now they found out it wasn't the booze at all.", "It was me.", "\"During that same period, Peppard also had a role as a cowboy in the science fiction film ''Battle Beyond the Stars'' (1980).", "He travelled to Canada to make ''Your Ticket Is No Longer Valid'' (1981) with Richard Harris, to New Zealand for ''Race for the Yankee Zephyr'' (1982) and Spain for ''Hit Man'' (1982).", "\"I almost disappeared for awhile, between ages 45 and 55,\" he later reflected.", "\"Nobody wants to work with someone who quits three series.", "They think you're insane to quit a series with all the millions of dollars to be made there.", "It gets to be like crossing the mob.", "You find out some people you thought were your friends aren't really.\"" ], [ "''The A-Team''", "In 1982, Peppard auditioned for and won the role of Colonel John \"Hannibal\" Smith in the television action adventure series ''The A-Team'', acting alongside Mr. T, Dirk Benedict and Dwight Schultz.", "In the series, the A-Team was a team of renegade commandos on the run from the military for \"a crime they did not commit\" while serving in the Vietnam War.", "The A-Team members made their collective living as soldiers of fortune, but they helped only people who came to them with justified grievances.As \"Hannibal\" Smith, Peppard played the leader of the A-Team, distinguished by his cigar smoking, confident smirk, black leather gloves, disguises, and distinctive catchphrase, \"I love it when a plan comes together.\"", "Peppard was attracted to the role partly because Smith was a master of disguise enabling Peppard to play a variety of characters.", "\"I love the character of Hannibal,\" he said.", "\"It inspires my fantasy.", "And, frankly, I need the money.", "\"\"I wanted to change from leading man to character actor for years now but have never been given the chance before,\" he added.The show started filming in late 1982 and premiered in January 1983.It was an instant ratings success, going straight into the top ten most watched shows in the country.", "The series, which ran for five seasons on NBC from 1983 to 1987, made Peppard known to a new generation and is arguably his best-known role.", "His fee was reportedly $50,000 an episode.", "This went up to $65,000, making him one of the best paid stars on television.Peppard said \"the first year of the show \"it was kind of like ''Monty Python'' - absolutely ridiculous.", "It was fresh, it was fun, it was silly - building an airplane out of a lawn-mower engine - fun stuff done very straight.\"", "After that, though \"it became very boring to me and not very good.", "\"It has been reported that the role was originally written with James Coburn in mind, but Coburn declined, and thus it went to Peppard.", "Peppard was reportedly annoyed by Mr. T upstaging him in his public image, and at one point in their relationship, refused to speak directly to Mr. T. Instead, he sent messages through intermediaries (including at times fellow cast members, particularly Dirk Benedict), and for this, Peppard was occasionally portrayed by the press as not a team player.", "Melinda Culea claimed it was Peppard who got her fired after the first season.", "\"It's the first time I ever had money in the bank,\" Peppard said later.", "\"Four California divorces and 25 years of alimony will see to it you have no money in the bank.", "It was a giant boost to my career, and made me a viable actor for other roles.", "\"During the series' run Peppard guest starred on the ''Tales of the Unexpected'' episode \"The Dirty Detail\" (1983).===Later career===Peppard's last series was intended to be several television movie features entitled ''Man Against the Mob'' (1988) and set in the 1940s.", "In these TV detective films, Peppard played Los Angeles Police Detective Sgt.", "Frank Doakey.", "The second film ''Man Against the Mob: The Chinatown Murders'' was broadcast in December 1989.A third film in this series was planned, but Peppard died before it was filmed.In his later years Peppard appeared in several stage productions.", "In 1988, he portrayed Ernest Hemingway in the play ''PAPA'', which played a number of cities including Boise, Idaho; Atlanta, Georgia; and San Francisco.", "Peppard financed it, and played in it.", "In 1988, he said, \"Once I saw this thing, I knew that if I was going to do it, I'd have to stick with it.", "I've got a couple bucks in the bank, so I'm not working on anything else.", "I got an adrenaline rush when I first read this play - part joy, part fear.\"", "Peppard said he understood Hemingway.", "\"We were both married four times; that's one similarity.", "Up until ten years ago I used to drink a lot, as he did.", "And then, he had to deal with living the life of a famous person.", "\"The play was well received.", "Peppard said of his image, \"There's a George Peppard out there that I don't know.", "He's been written about, and various people have interpreted him various ways.", "There are people who've made up stories, apocryphal, about me.", "There are people who didn't like me much.", "\"He appeared in ''Silence Like Glass'' (1989) and ''Night of the Fox'' (1990).", "In 1989, he said \"I'm afraid I'm typecast.", "It was discouraging when it first happened.", "I was sad.", "I had hoped to do lots of different kinds of roles.", "But fear and insecurity guides casting decisions.", "Movies and TV have to make money.", "And people get used to you playing a part and doing certain things.", "If you don't do it, they get disappointed and it shows up at the box office.", "\"In 1990, he was seeking financing for ''The Crystal Contract'', a film about an international cocaine cartel in which he would produce and star (but was never made).\"", "I would like to do another series because it would mean steady work - and because I would like one more hit.", "\"In 1992, he toured in ''The Lion in Winter'', in which he played Henry II to Susan Clark's Eleanor of Aquitaine.", "\"I haven't been as happy as I am for a long time,\" he said.", "\"When you find a part you are right for and you love, it's a source of happiness, believe me...", "If I could have my wish come true, I'd spend the next two years doing nothing but this play.", "\"His last television role was guest-starring in a 1994 episode of ''Matlock'' entitled \"The P.I\".", "The episode, co-starring Tracy Nelson, was meant to serve as a backdoor pilot for a series about a father and his estranged daughter both working as private investigators.", "The episode aired eight days before Peppard's death." ], [ "Personal life", "Peppard was married five times and was the father of three children.", "*Helen Davies (1954–1964): two children, Bradford and Julie.", "Ms. Davies never remarried.", "She appeared in one movie.", "*Elizabeth Ashley (1966–1972), his co-star in ''The Carpetbaggers'' and ''The Third Day'': one son, Christian.", "In accordance with their 1972 divorce settlement, Peppard paid Ashley $2,000 per month in alimony for four years, up to $400 per month for psychiatric care, and $350 per month in child support for their son Christian Peppard.", "Ashley's two awards were nullified in 1975 when she married James McCarthy, whom she divorced in 1981.", "*Sherry Boucher (1975–1979), a realtor from Springhill, Louisiana, who subsequently married John Lytle.", "*Alexis Adams (1984–1986), also known as Joyce Ann Furbee, a bit part TV actress, who never remarried.", "*Laura Taylor (1992–1994)In 1990 he said, \"Getting married and having a bad divorce is just like breaking your leg.", "The same leg, in the same place.", "I'm lucky I don't walk with a cane.", "\"Peppard resided in a Greek revival-style white cottage in Hollywood Hills, California, until the time of his death.", "His home featured elegant porches on three sides and a guest house in the back.", "Later owned by designer Brenda Antin, who spent a year renovating it, the small home was purchased by writer/actress Lena Dunham in 2015 for $2.7 million." ], [ "Later years and death", "Peppard overcame a serious alcohol problem in 1978, after which he became deeply involved in helping other alcoholics.", "\"I knew I had to stop and I did,\" he said in 1983.", "\"Looking back now I'm ashamed of some of the things I did when I was drinking.", "\"Peppard smoked three packs of cigarettes a day for most of his life.", "After a diagnosis of lung cancer in 1992 and an operation to remove part of one lung, he quit smoking.Despite health problems in his later years, he continued acting.", "In 1994, just before his death, Peppard completed a pilot with Tracy Nelson for a new series called ''The P.I.''", "It aired as an episode of ''Matlock'' and was to be spun off into a new television series with Peppard playing an aging detective and Nelson his daughter/sidekick.On May 8, 1994, while still battling lung cancer, Peppard died from pneumonia in Los Angeles.Peppard born and raised in Dearborn, a suburb of Detroit, and was one of Dearborn's most famous residents, after Ford Motor Company founder Henry Ford and legendary long-serving Congressman John Dingell." ], [ "Critical appraisal", "David Shipman published this appraisal of Peppard in 1972:In 1990, Peppard said, \"An enormous amount of my film work has been spent charging up a hill saying, 'Follow me, men!", "This way!'", "Even though I did ''Breakfast at Tiffany's'', nobody seemed to think I could do comedy.", "I always played the man of action.", "And men of action are not terribly deep characters, and not real vocal characters.", "\"He added, \"I trained for seven years before I started getting screen work as a stage actor.", "I love working for an audience.", "Aside from that, despite all the uniforms and the guns, I think I am at my base a character actor...", "Being a star has never interested me.", "Stars, , are a pain.", "Stars to me are in the sky.", "The important question is, \"How good an actor are you?\"", "And now I have some hope, because I'm of an age where I could be considered for character roles.", "\"Shortly before he died, he said, \"If you look at my movie list, you'll see some really good movies and then the start of ones that were not so good.", "But I was making enough money to send my children to good schools, have a house for them and give them a center in their lives.\"" ], [ "Awards", "*1960 NBR Award (National Board of Review of Motion Pictures) for ''Home from the Hill'' as Best Supporting Actor*1961 British Academy Film Award nomination, Category: Most Promising Newcomer To Leading Film Roles for ''Home From The Hill'' *Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame (Category Motion Pictures, 6675 Hollywood Blvd., Los Angeles)" ], [ "Filmography", " Year Title Role Notes 1956 ''The United States Steel Hour'' Piney Woods TV: ''Bang the Drum Slowly'' 1956–1957 ''Kraft Television Theatre'' TV: ''The Long Flight''''Flying Object at Three O'Clock High'' 1957 ''The Kaiser Aluminum Hour'' Lynch TV: ''A Real Fine Cutting Edge'' 1957 ''Studio One'' TV: ''A Walk in the Forest'' 1957 ''The Alcoa Hour'' Eddie Pierce TV: ''The Big Build-Up'' 1957 ''The Strange One'' Cadet Robert Marquales Film debut 1957 ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' Evan Wallace Season 3 Episode 10: ''The Diplomatic Corpse'' 1957–1958 ''Matinee Theatre'' TV: ''End of the Rope, Part 1''''End of the Rope, Part 2''''Aftermath'' 1958 ''Suspicion'' Lee TV: ''The Eye of Truth'' 1958 ''Hallmark Hall of Fame'' Dennis Walsh TV: ''Little Moon of Alban'' 1959 ''Pork Chop Hill'' Cpl.", "Chuck Fedderson 1960 ''Home from the Hill'' Raphael \"Rafe\" Copley 1960 ''Startime'' Pat Lawrence TV: ''Incident at a Corner'' 1960 ''The Subterraneans'' Leo Percepied 1961 ''Breakfast at Tiffany's'' Paul Varjak 1962 ''How the West Was Won'' Zeb Rawlings 1963 ''The Victors'' Cpl.", "Frank Chase 1964 ''The Carpetbaggers'' Jonas Cord 1964 ''Theatre of Stars'' Buddy Wren TV: ''The Game with Glass Pieces'' 1965 ''Operation Crossbow'' Lt. John Curtis 1965 ''The Third Day'' Steve Mallory 1966 ''The Blue Max'' Lt. Bruno Stachel 1967 ''Tobruk'' Capt.", "Kurt Bergman 1967 ''Rough Night in Jericho'' Dolan 1968 ''P.J.''", "P.J.", "Detweiler 1968 ''What's So Bad About Feeling Good?''", "Pete 1968 ''House of Cards'' Reno Davis 1969 ''Pendulum'' Capt.", "Frank Matthews 1970 ''The Executioner'' John Shay 1970 ''Cannon for Cordoba'' Capt.", "Red Douglas 1971 ''One More Train to Rob'' Harker Fleet 1972 ''The Bravos'' Major John David Harkness Television film 1972 ''The Groundstar Conspiracy'' Tuxan 1972–1974 ''Banacek'' Thomas Banacek TV series 1974 ''Newman's Law'' Vince Newman 1975 ''The Week of Fear'' Dr. Jake Goodwin Television film 1975 ''Guilty or Innocent: The Sam Sheppard Murder Case'' Dr. Samuel Sheppard Television film 1975–1976 ''Doctors' Hospital'' Dr. Jake Goodwin 1977 ''Damnation Alley'' Maj. Eugene Denton 1979 ''Five Days from Home'' T.M.", "Pryor also director and producer 1979 ''Crisis in Mid-Air'' Nick Culver Television film 1979 ''From Hell to Victory'' Brett Rosson 1979 ''Torn Between Two Lovers'' Paul Rasmussen Television film 1979 ''An Almost Perfect Affair'' Himself Uncredited 1980 ''Battle Beyond the Stars'' Cowboy 1981 ''Your Ticket Is No Longer Valid'' Jim Daley 1981 ''Race for the Yankee Zephyr'' Theo Brown 1982 ''Twilight Theatre'' Television film 1982 '''' McFadden 1983–1987 ''The A-Team'' Col. John \"Hannibal\" Smith TV series; 97 episodes 1984 ''Tales of the Unexpected'' Sgt.", "Guedo TV: ''The Dirty Detail'' 1988 ''Man Against the Mob'' Frank Doakey Television film 1989 ''Zwei Frauen'' Mr. Martin 1989 ''Man Against the Mob: The Chinatown Murders'' Frank Doakey Television film 1990 ''Night of the Fox'' Col. Harry Martineau/Max Vogel Television film 1992 ''The Tigress'' Sid Slaughter Final film role 1994 ''Matlock'' Max Morgan TV: ''The P.I.''", "(final appearance)" ], [ "Select theatre credits", "*''Girls of Summer'' (1956–1957)*''The Pleasure of His Company'' (1958–1959)*''The Sound of Music'' (1982)*''Papa'' (1988)*''The Lion in Winter'' (1991–1992)" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * George Peppard at the University of Wisconsin's Actors Studio audio collection* Ooh Yummy George Peppard Fan site*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geocaching" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Geocaching''' (, ) is an outdoor recreational activity, in which participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or mobile device and other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers, called ''geocaches'' or ''caches'', at specific locations marked by coordinates all over the world.", "As of 2023, there are over 3 million active caches worldwide.Geocaching can be considered a location-based game.", "A typical cache is a small waterproof container containing a logbook and sometimes a pen or pencil.", "The ''geocacher'' signs the log with their established code name/username and dates it, in order to prove that they found the cache.", "After signing the log, the cache must be placed back exactly where the person found it.", "Larger containers such as plastic storage containers (Tupperware or similar) or ammo boxes can also contain items for trading, such as toys or trinkets, usually of more sentimental worth than financial.", "Geocaching shares many aspects with benchmarking, trigpointing, orienteering, treasure hunting, letterboxing, trail blazing, and Munzee." ], [ "History", "225x225px\"Original Can of Beans\" at the 2012 Geocoinfest Mega Event in ColoradoGeocaching was originally similar to the game letterboxing (which originated in 1854), which uses clues and references to landmarks embedded in stories.", "Geocaching was conceived shortly after the removal of Selective Availability from the Global Positioning System on May 2, 2000 (Blue Switch Day), because the improved accuracy of the system allowed for a small container to be specifically placed and located.The first documented placement of a GPS-located cache took place on May 3, 2000, by Dave Ulmer of Beavercreek, Oregon.", "The location was posted on the Usenet newsgroup sci.geo.satellite-nav at .", "Within three days, the cache had been found twice, first by Mike Teague.", "According to Dave Ulmer's message, this cache was a black plastic bucket that was partially buried and contained software, videos, books, money, a can of beans, and a slingshot.", "The geocache and most of its contents were eventually destroyed by a lawn mower; the can of beans was the only item salvaged and was turned into a trackable item called the \"Original Can of Beans\".", "Another geocache and plaque, called the Original Stash Tribute Plaque, now sits at the site.Geocaching company Groundspeak allows extra-terrestrial caches, e.g.", "the Moon or Mars, although presently, the website provides only earthbound coordinates.", "The first published extra-terrestrial geocache was GC1BE91, which was on the International Space Station between 2008 and 2017.It used the Baikonur launch area in Kazakhstan as its position.", "The original cache contained a travel bug (the first geocaching trackable item in space), which stayed on the station until it was brought back to earth in 2013.Due to fire restrictions on board the station, the geocache contained no official paper logbook.", "As of February 2021, only one confirmed geocacher (in 2013) has actually found the geocache, although others have claimed to have found it providing varying amounts of evidence.", "To commemorate the occasion, Groundspeak allowed specialized geocaching events to be published across the world, allowing attendees to obtain a virtual souvenir on their profile.The second geocaching trackable in space is TB5EFXK which is attached to the SHERLOC calibration target on board the Mars Perseverance Rover, which landed on Mars on 18 February 2021.Geocachers were given the opportunity to virtually discover the trackable after the WATSON camera sent back its first photographs of the calibration target that contained the tracking code number.", "The code is printed on a prototype helmet visor material that will be used to test how well it can withstand the Martian environment.", "This will help scientists in creating a viable Martian spacesuit for future crewed missions to Mars.", "The activity was originally referred to as the ''GPS stash hunt'' or ''gpsstashing.''", "This was changed shortly after the original hide when it was suggested in the gpsstash eGroup that \"stash\" could have negative connotations and the term ''geocaching'' was adopted.Over time, a variety of different hide-and-seek-type activities have been created or abandoned, so that \"geocaching\" may now refer to hiding and seeking containers, or locations or information without containers.An independent accounting of the early history documents several controversial actions taken by Jeremy Irish and Grounded, Inc., a predecessor to Groundspeak, to increase \"commercialization and monopolistic control over the hobby\".", "More recently, other similar hobbies such as Munzee have attracted some geocachers by rapidly adopting smart-phone technology, which has caused \"some resistance from geocaching organizers about placing caches along with Munzees\"." ], [ "Geocaches", "225x225pxContents of a GeocacheFor the traditional geocache, a geocacher will place a waterproof container containing a log book, often also a pen and/or pencil and trade items or trackables, then record the cache's coordinates.", "These coordinates, along with other details of the location, are posted on a listing site (see list of some sites below).", "Other ''geocachers'' obtain the coordinates from that listing site and seek out the cache using their handheld GPS receivers.", "The finding geocachers record their exploits in the logbook and online, but then must return the cache to the same coordinates so that other geocachers may find it.", "''Geocachers'' are free to take objects (except the logbook, pencil, or stamp) from the cache in exchange for leaving something of similar or higher value.Typical cache \"treasures\", also known in the geocaching world as SWAG (a backronym of \"stuff we all get\"), are not high in monetary value but may hold personal value to the finder.", "Aside from the logbook, common cache contents are unusual coins or currency, small toys, ornamental buttons, CDs, or books.", "Although not required, many geocachers decide to leave behind signature items, such as personal geocoins, pins, or craft items, to mark their presence at the cache location.", "Disposable cameras are popular as they allow for anyone who found the cache to take a picture which can be developed and uploaded to a Geocaching web site listed below.", "Also common are objects that are moved from cache to cache called \"hitchhikers\", such as Travel Bugs or geocoins, whose travels may be logged and followed online.", "Cachers who initially place a Travel Bug or geocoin(s) often assign specific goals for their trackable items.", "Examples of goals are to be placed in a certain cache a long distance from home, or to travel to a certain country, or to travel faster and farther than other hitchhikers in a race.", "Less common trends are site-specific information pages about the historic significance of the site, types of trees, birds in the area or other such information.", "Higher-value items are occasionally included in geocaches as a reward for the First to Find (called \"FTF\"), or in locations which are harder to reach.Dangerous or illegal items, including weapons and drugs, are not allowed and are specifically against the rules of most geocache listing sites.", "Food is also disallowed, even if sealed, as it is considered unhygienic and can attract animals.If a geocache has been vandalized or stolen by a person who is not familiar with geocaching, it is said to have been \"muggled\".", "The term plays off the fact that those not familiar with geocaching are called \"muggles\", a word borrowed from the ''Harry Potter'' series of books which were rising in popularity at the same time geocaching started.===Variations===Called GeoArt, these geocaches are placed to form a picture of the Space Shuttle lying on the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas.Traditional geocaching gave birth to GeoCaching – an active urban game of the Encounter project.", "The game is quite similar to geocaching but has time limitations and hints.Geocaches vary in size, difficulty, and location.", "Simple caches that are placed near a roadside are often called \"drive-bys\", \"park 'n grabs\" (PNGs), or \"cache and dash\".", "Geocaches may also be complex, involving lengthy searches, significant travel, or use of specialist equipment such as SCUBA diving, kayaking, or abseiling.", "Different geocaching websites list different variations per their own policies.Geocaches come in a range of sizes.", "Top: a magnetic nano geocache in the City of London.Bottom: a large bucket geocache in the Czech Republic.Container sizes range from ''nano'', particularly ''magnetic nanos'', which can be smaller than the tip of a finger and have only enough room to store the log sheet, to 20-liter (5 gallon) buckets or even larger containers, such as entire trucks.", "The most common cache containers in rural areas are lunch-box-sized plastic storage containers or surplus military ammunition cans.", "Ammo cans are considered the gold standard of containers because they are very sturdy, waterproof, animal- and fire-resistant, and relatively cheap, and have plenty of room for trade items.", "Smaller containers are more common in urban areas because they can be more easily hidden.===Geocache types===Over time many variations of geocaches have developed.", "Different platforms often have their own rules on which types are allowed or how they are classified.", "The following cache types are supported by geocaching.com.", ";Traditional geocache: The most common type of geocache, consisting of a container with a logbook.", "Exact coordinates where the cache is located are provided.", ";Multi-cache: One or more stages, each of which containing the coordinates for the next one; the final stage contains a physical container with the logbook.", "Multi-caches can consist of physical stages (i.e.", "the first stage contains coordinates for the next stage and so forth) or virtual stages (i.e.", "the first stage is a historical marker where geocachers have to answer questions to calculate the coordinates to the final physical container).", ";Mystery or puzzle cache: This require users to solve a puzzle in order to get the exact coordinates for the geocache.", "The posted coordinates of mystery caches are usually bogus.", "Some puzzles can be easy and involve basic math operations or they can be quite difficult, with some of the more challenging ones requiring a firm understanding of computer programming.", "Geocaching Toolbox, a website dedicated to create and solve puzzle geocaches, provides a comprehensive list of common puzzle cache ciphers.====Mystery-type====Geocaches that do not fit into other categories are usually classified as mystery-type caches.", "Some examples listed below:;Challenge cache: This requires a geocacher to complete a reasonably attainable geocaching-related task before being able to log the cache as a find online.", "It does not restrict ''geocachers'' from finding the cache and signing the logbook at anytime.", "However a geocacher is not allowed to log a find on the geocaching website unless they qualify for the challenge specified in the cache description.", "Examples include finding a number of caches that meet a category, completing a number of cache finds within a period of time, or finding a cache for every calendar day.Since 2017, Groundspeak has required new challenges to have a ''geochecker'' in which users can put their name into an algorithm to see if they qualify without the need of physically checking all of one's previous finds.", "These ''geocheckers'' can be requested using the ProjectGC forums where volunteers can write and create scripts for specific challenges.", "Groundspeak also has been more strict into what types of challenges are published.", "For example, prior to 2017 it was possible to create a challenge cache to find 10 caches that have a food item in the title.", "Under current guidelines, this is no longer allowed because it restricts geocachers to find specific geocaches.", "Instead, Groundspeak has encouraged new challenges to be more creative.", "Acceptable challenges include finding caches in 10 states, finding 100 traditional geocaches, or finding 1000 geocaches with the \"wheelchair accessible\" attribute.", ";Moving or travelling cache: These are found at a listed set of coordinates.", "The finder hides the cache in a different location, and updates the listing, essentially becoming the hider, and the next finder continues the cycle.", "This cache has been discontinued at geocaching.com and those that have been grandfathered in are solely declining and are being archived.", ";Chirp cache: Also known as a '''wireless beacon cache'''.", "This is a Garmin-created innovative on multi-caches using wireless beacon technology.", "It is a physical game piece, about the size of a half dollar that can be hidden anywhere.", "Powered by a small battery, it is able to transmit a signal detectable on Garmin devices.", "The Chirp stores hints, multicache coordinates, counts visitors, and can confirms the cache is nearby.", "These caches caused considerable discussion and some controversy at Groundspeak, where they were ultimately given a new \"attribute\".", "These types of geocaches can also be listed as a traditional, multi-cache, or letterbox.", "It is up to the cache owner to designated the cache type for wireless beacon caches.", ";Night cache: These are multi-stage and intended to be found at night by following a series of reflectors with a flashlight to the final cache location.", "Considered a variant of the Mystery cache on ''geocaching.com''.", ";Geocaching HQ Geocache ( GCK25B): This is an official geocache located inside the Groundspeak headquarters office in Seattle, Washington.", "It is technically classified as a separate cache type under mystery caches, with its own unique icon both on the geocaching app and on one's profile statistics tab.", "Since publication in 2004, it has nearly 20,000 finds as of August 2023.;Wherigo cache: A multi-stage cache hunt that uses a Wherigo \"cartridge\" to guide players to find a physical cache sometime during cartridge play, usually at the end.", "However, not all Wherigo cartridges incorporate geocaches into gameplay.", "Wherigo caches are unique to the geocaching.com website.", "Wherigo is a GPS location-aware software platform initially released in January 2008.Authors can develop self-enclosed story files (called \"cartridges\") that are read by the Wherigo player software, installed on either a GPS unit or smartphone.", "The player and story take advantage of the location information provided by the GPS to trigger in-game events, such as using a virtual object or interacting with characters.", "Completing an adventure can require reaching different locations and solving puzzles.", "Cartridges are coded in Lua.", "Lua may be used directly, but a builder application is usually used.", "The Wherigo site offers a builder application and a database of adventures free for download, though the builder has remained in its Alpha version since its last release in May 2008.The official player is only available for Pocket PC.", "A built-in player is available on Garmin Colorado and Oregon GPS models.", "The Wherigo Foundation was organized in December 2012.The group is composed of all Wherigo application developers who, up until that time, had been acting and developing separately.", "Their goal is to provide a consistent Wherigo experience across platforms, connect Wherigo applications via an API, and add modern features to the Wherigo platform.", "While Groundspeak is aware of this project, the company has yet to take a position.", ";Reverse Wherigo: An RWIG provides three lines of code composed of 9 digits each that a player can type into the RWIG cartridge.", "Instead of following a story or interacting with characters, and RWIG gives you the distance to the final cache, but not direction.", "It requires geocachers to get closer to the final geocache by process of elimination.", "Once you are within 25 yards, the final coordinates are given to provide a more accurate location for the geocache.", ";Letterbox cache: (Also known as a '''letterbox hybrid cache''') This is a combination of a geocache and a letterbox in the same container.", "A letterbox has a rubber stamp and a logbook instead of tradable items.", "Letterboxers carry their own stamp with them, to stamp the letterbox's log book and inversely stamp their personal log book with the letterbox stamp.", "The hybrid cache contains the important materials for this and may or may not include trade items.", "Typically, letterboxes are not found at the given coordinates which only act as a starting location.", "Instead, a series of clues are given as to where to find the cache such as \"take a left past the bridge\" or \"about 25 paces past the big oak tree\".", ";Project A.P.E.", ": (Also simply '''Ape Caches''') These are a special type of traditional geocache that were hidden in conjunction with 20th Century Fox and Groundspeak to promote the 2001 remake of Planet of the Apes.", "There were 14 APE geocaches placed around the world and each one contained a prop from the film.", "As of 2023, only 2 APE caches are still active with one near Seattle, Washington ('Tunnel of Light', GC1169) and the other in Brazil ('Southern Bowl', GCC67).", "Of those two, the Brazil APE cache is the only surviving original APE cache because GC1169 was muggled in 2016.However, the original container was later found by a Groundspeak led survey in April of that year.", "What remains of \"Tunnel of Light\" is an \"official\" replacement of the original ammo can that was left in 2001.====Virtual Geocaches====A Geocacher finding a Virtual Cache at McMurdo Station, Antarctica.|225x225px The following cache types don't contain a physical logbook.", "Groundspeak created a waymarking website to handle all other non-physical caches.", ";Virtual cache: Coordinates for a rather interesting or unique location, usually with a described object such as an art sculpture or a scenic lookout.", "Validation for finding a virtual cache generally requires one to email the cache hider with information such as a date or a name on a plaque, or to post a picture of oneself at the site with a GPS receiver in hand.", "As of 2005, new virtual caches are no longer allowed by Groundspeak as it is considered a legacy cache.", "On August 24, 2017, Groundspeak announced \"Virtual Rewards\", allowing 4000 new virtual caches to be placed during the following year.", "Each year, eligible geocachers can opt-in to a drawing and some selected with the opportunity to submit a virtual cache for publication.", "From 2005 to 2017, the geocaching website no longer listed new caches without a physical container, including virtual and webcam caches (with the exception of earthcaches and events); however, older caches of these types have been grandfathered in (except for locationless or reverse, which are completely archived and transferred to Waymarking.com).", ";EarthCache: A type of virtual geocache that is published not by a local reviewer, but by a volunteer regional reviewer associated with the Geological Society of America.", "The cacher usually has to perform a task which teaches an education lesson about the geology of the cache area.", "Visitors must answer geological questions to complete the cache which can be as simple as describing the color and thickness of layers in an outcrop or can be as complicated as taking measurements of stream velocities or fault offsets.", "Earthcaches covers geologic topics such as: rock formation, mineralogy, earthquakes, fluvial processes, erosion, volcanology, and planetary science (among others).", ";Locationless (reverse) cache: Similar to a scavenger hunt.", "A description is given for something to find, such as a one-room schoolhouse, and the finder locates an example of this object.", "The finder records the location using their GPS receiver and often takes a picture at the location showing the named object with their GPS receiver.", "Typically others are not allowed to log that same location as a find.Since 2005, all locationless caches have been archived and locked, meaning they are unable to be logged.", "However, with geocaching's 20th anniversary in 2020 Groundspeak decided to publish a special locationless cache for geocachers to \"find\" at various Mega and Giga events around the world.", "The first locationless geocache in 15 years (GC8FR0G) required finders to take a picture of themselves with the geocaching mascot, Signal the Frog, at Mega and Giga Events during 2020.The cache was made available to log starting 1 January 2020.However, because of the COVID-19 pandemic, nearly all planned Mega and Giga events were canceled for the year, including the planned 20th anniversary celebration event in Seattle, Washington.", "Therefore, Groundspeak decided to extend the deadline to log this geocache through 1 January 2023.With 22,500 finds it is the second most logged geocache in history.The second published locationless cache since 2005 (GC8NEAT) required visitors to take a photo of them picking up trash and cleaning up their local area.", "Geocachers were able to log this cache from 6 February 2021 through 31 December 2022.It has been logged over 33,500 times and holds the title for the most \"found\" geocache.", "On 17 August 2022, Geocaching made available the 3rd locationless cache to be logged since 2005 (GC9FAVE).", "Instead of finding Signal or picking up trash, this cache encouraged geocachers from around the world to share their favorite geocaching story.", "This geocache will be archived and locked on 1 January 2024.;Webcam caches: A type of virtual cache whose coordinates provide the location to a public webcam.", "The finder is required to capture an image of themselves through the webcam for verification of the find.", "New webcam caches are no longer allowed by Groundspeak as it is a legacy cache.", "Webcam caches are a category at Waymarking.com.", ";Adventure Lab cache (AL): A type of virtual cache that typically consists of a set of 5 or 10 waypoints, with each waypoint counting as a \"cache find\".", "The waypoints usually have an overall theme such showcasing the history of a small town and are often created as a walking tour of a city or park.", "An example would be Route 66 or the Lincoln Highway, which are a nationwide series of AL sets of 10 that stretch the entire route across the United States.Adventure labs were first introduced in 2014 as a way to test market ideas through Groundspeak.", "Initially, geocachers would find a key word at a designated site where they could then enter it onto a website to claim \"credit\".", "Soon after, they were made available to \"find\" at select mega events.", "In 2020, Groundspeak released the \"Adventure Lab\" app, separate from the Geocaching app.", "The app made it possible to enter a geo-fence when, once inside, a question will appear that can be answered either in the form of a written answer or a multiple choice answer.", "This question can be answered at anytime once activated, however, some ALs must be completed sequentially implying that one must answer the question to move on to the next waypoint.Most, but not all, ALs have a physical bonus cache associated with them that are listed as a \"mystery cache\".", "Coordinates to the bonus cache, if applicable, can be seen in the journal entries once a user has correctly answered the question at a waypoint.Geocachers can create their own Adventure Lab, but must first opt-in to receive an \"adventure lab credit\" which allows for the creation of 1 set of 5 waypoints, with each of the 5 waypoints counting towards a cache find.", "If selected, ALs can be created using the Adventure Lab builder.", "Adventure Labs, unlike all other geocachers, are not subject to review and are published at will by the creator.", "However, ALs can at anytime be archived by Groundspeak if they are in violation of terms of use.", "For example, placing an adventure lab in a place that requires people to pay a fee to visit such as airports or theme parks may get the adventure permanently removed from the Adventure Lab app.", "Adventure Labs are created using the Adventure Lab builder.====Events====There are several kinds of events geocaches.", "While encouraged, events do not require visitors to sign their name a logbook to prove they attended an event.", "Attendees of event caches can log that they 'attended', which will increment their number of found caches.", ";Event Cache: A gathering organized and attended by geocachers.", "It is not a true cache, but is treated as such by geocaching platforms: it can be \"found\" upon attending the event.", "Event caches have to be longer than 30 minutes, and can publish no less than 14 days away from the planned event date.", "Event caches typically last from 1 to 2 hours.", ";Cache-In Trash-Out (CITO): Coordinated activities of trash pickup and other maintenance tasks (such as constructing footpaths, planting trees and removing invasive species) to improve the environment.", "CITO is an ongoing environmental initiative created by Groundspeak and encourages geocachers to clean up parks and other areas in which they frequently visit while geocaching.", "CITO events must be no less than 2 hours long.", "Just like event caches, CITOs have to be published no less than 14 days prior to the date of the CITO.", "CITO typically last from 2 to 4 hours.", ";Mega Event: A gathering that consists of 500 or more geocachers.", "Mega events are typically organized by a local geocache organizations in conjunction with local municipalities and promotion from Groundspeak.", "Often, mega events last an entire day and have various activities planned in the days before, during, and after the main mega event.", "These activities can range in raffles and silent auctions, of which funds help offset the costs of organizing such an event, photo ops with Signal the Frog, a plethora of new geocaches, and panels with local geocachers, lackeys (Groundspeak employees), and reviewers.", "Mega events often have vendors where people can purchase geocoins, cache containers, and food.", ";Giga Event: A gathering that consists of 5,000 or more geocachers.", "Like a Mega event, Giga Events offer a plethora of actives and are typically held in large areas to accommodate such crowds.", "Activities typically include a GPS Adventures Maze, panels, vendors, live music, and carnival rides.", "Usually the week before and after are filled with smaller gatherings which attracts geocachers from around the world who often make a vacation out of it.", ";GPS Adventures Maze Exhibit: An exhibit at various museums and science centers in which participants in the maze learn about geocaching.", "These \"events\" have their own cache type on geocaching.com and include many non-geocachers.", "These are considered one of the rarest cache icon types because only a handful of GPS Adventures Maze Exhibits have existed, and typically only in the US.", "Although they are becoming more popular at or near Giga events.", ";Community Celebration Event (CCE): A type of event that is meant to celebrate the 10th and 20th anniversary of geocaching.", "First issued in 2010 as \"Lost and Found\" events, geocachers could host one to celebrate the 10 year anniversary of geocaching.", "In preparation for the 20th anniversary in 2020, Lost and Found events were rebranded as Community Celebration Events.", "Geocachers could opt-in to receive a CCE credit to host.", "Due to the Covid-19 Pandemic Groundspeak allowed CCEs to be hosted until 31 December 2022.The next time CCEs will be available will be in 2030." ], [ "Technology", "===Obtaining data===GPX files containing information such as a cache description and information about recent visitors to the cache are available from various listing sites.", "Geocachers may upload geocache data (also known as waypoints) from various websites in various formats, most commonly in file-type GPX, which uses XML.", "Some websites allow geocachers to search (build queries) for multiple caches within a geographic area based on criteria such as ZIP code or coordinates, downloading the results as an email attachment on a schedule.", "In recent years, Android and iPhone users can download apps such as GeoBeagle that allow them to use their 3G and GPS-enabled devices to actively search for and download new caches.===Converting and filtering data===A variety of geocaching applications are available for geocache data management, file-type translation, and personalization.", "Geocaching software can assign special icons or search (filter) for caches based on certain criteria (e.g.", "distance from an assigned point, difficulty, date last found).Coordinates for a geocache can be downloaded onto a GPS receiver and found, without the need for a printout.", "'''Paperless geocaching''' means hunting a geocache without a physical printout of the cache description.", "Traditionally, this means that the seeker has an electronic means of viewing the cache information in the field, such as pre-downloading the information to a PDA or other electronic device.", "Various applications can directly upload and read GPX files without further conversion.", "Newer GPS devices released by Garmin, DeLorme, and Magellan have the ability to read GPX files directly, thus eliminating the need for a PDA.", "Other methods include viewing real-time information on a portable computer with internet access or with an Internet-enabled smart phone.", "The latest advancement of this practice involves installing dedicated applications on a smart phone with a built-in GPS receiver.", "Seekers can search for and download caches in their immediate vicinity directly to the application and use the on-board GPS receiver to find the cache.A more controversial version of paperless caching involves mass-downloading only the coordinates and cache names (or waypoint IDs) for hundreds of caches into older receivers.", "This is a common practice of some cachers and has been used successfully for years.", "In many cases, however, the cache description and hint are never read by the seeker before hunting the cache.", "This means they are unaware of potential restrictions such as limited hunt times, park open/close times, off-limit areas, and suggested parking locations.===Mobile devices===The website geocaching.com now sells mobile applications which allow users to view caches through a variety of different devices.", "Currently, the Android, iOS, and Windows Phone mobile platforms have applications in their respective stores.", "The apps also allow for a trial version with limited functionality.", "The site promotes mobile applications, and lists over two dozen applications (both mobile and browser/desktop based) that are using their proprietary but royalty-free public application programming interface (API).", "Developers at c:geo have criticised Groundspeak for being incompatible with open-source development.Additionally, \"c:geo - opensource\" is a free opensource full function application for Android phones that is very popular.", "This app includes similar features to the official Geocaching mobile application, such as: View caches on a live map (Google Maps or OpenStreetMap), navigation using a compass, map, or other applications, logging finds online and offline, etc.Geocaching enthusiasts have also made their own hand-held GPS devices using a Lego Mindstorms NXT GPS sensor." ], [ "Ethics", "Geocache listing websites have their own guidelines for acceptable geocache publications.", "Government agencies and others responsible for public use of land often publish guidelines for geocaching, and a \"Geocacher's Creed\" posted on the Internet asks participants to \"avoid causing disruptions or public alarm\".", "Generally accepted rules are to not endanger others, to minimize the impact on nature, to respect private property, and to avoid public alarm." ], [ "Reception", "The reception from authorities and the general public outside geocache participants has been mixed.The Shambles, a road in Wetherby, Yorkshire, England, was the site of a controlled explosion on a geocache container in 2011 which was mistakenly perceived to be a bomb.Cachers have been approached by police and questioned when they were seen as acting suspiciously.", "Other times, investigation of a cache location after suspicious activity was reported has resulted in police and bomb squad discovery of the geocache, such as the evacuation of a busy street in Wetherby, Yorkshire, England in 2011, and a street in Alvaston, Derby in 2020.Schools have been evacuated when a cache has been seen by teachers or police, such as the case of Fairview High School in Boulder, Colorado in 2009.A number of caches have been destroyed by bomb squads.", "Diverse locations, from rural cemeteries to Disneyland, have been locked down as a result of such scares.The placement of geocaches has occasional critics among some government personnel and the public at large, who consider it littering.", "Some geocachers act to mitigate this perception by picking up litter while they search for geocaches, a practice referred to in the community as \"Cache In Trash Out\".", "Events and caches are often organized revolving around this practice, with many areas seeing significant cleanup that would otherwise not take place, or would instead require federal, state, or local funds to accomplish.", "Geocachers are also encouraged to clean up after themselves by retrieving old containers once a cache has been removed from play.Geocaching is legal in most countries and is usually positively received when explained to law enforcement officials.", "However, certain types of placements can be problematic.", "Although generally disallowed, hiders could place caches on private property without adequate permission (intentionally or otherwise), which encourages cache finders to trespass.", "Historic buildings and structures have also been damaged by geocachers, who have wrongly believed the geocache can be/has been placed within, or on the roof of, the buildings.Caches might also be hidden in places where the act of searching can make a finder look suspicious (e.g., near schools, children's playgrounds, banks, courthouses, or in residential neighborhoods), or where the container placement could be mistaken for a drug stash or a bomb (especially in urban settings, under bridges, near banks, courthouses, or embassies).", "As a result, geocachers are strongly advised to label their geocaches when possible, so that they are not mistaken for a harmful object if discovered by non-geocachers.A geocache that has been clearly labeled, in order to clarify that the container is harmless, intending to reduce alarm if it is accidentally discoveredAs well as concerns about littering and bomb threats, some geocachers have hidden their caches in inappropriate locations, such as electrical boxes, which may encourage risky behavior, especially by children.", "Hides in these areas are discouraged, and cache listing websites enforce guidelines that disallow certain types of placements.", "However, as cache reviewers typically cannot see exactly where and how every cache is hidden, problematic hides can slip through.", "Ultimately it is also up to cache finders to use discretion when attempting to search for a cache, and report any problems.===Laws and legislation===Regional rules for placement of caches have become complex.", "For example, in Virginia, the Virginia Department of Transportation and the Wildlife Management Agency now forbids the placement of geocaches on all land controlled by those agencies.", "Some cities, towns, and recreation areas allow geocaches with few or no restrictions, but others require compliance with lengthy permitting procedures.The South Carolina House of Representatives passed Bill 3777 in 2005, stating, \"It is unlawful for a person to engage in the activity of geocaching or letterboxing in a cemetery or in a historic or archaeological site or property publicly identified by a historical marker without the express written consent of the owner or entity which oversees that cemetery site or property.\"", "The bill was referred to committee on first reading in the Senate and has been there ever since.The Illinois Department of Natural Resources requires geocachers who wish to place a geocache at any Illinois state park to submit the location on a USGS 7.5 minute topographical map, the name and contact information of the person(s) wishing to place the geocache, a list of the original items to be included in the geocache, and a picture of the container that is to be placed.In April 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the township of Highlands East, Ontario, Canada temporarily banned geocaching, over concerns that geocache containers cannot be properly disinfected between finds." ], [ "Notable incidents", "A 79-year-old man fell off a cliff in Dishman Hills, Washington, while geocaching in 2009.Several deaths have occurred during the course of caching.The death of a 21-year-old experienced cacher in December 2011 \"while attempting a Groundspeak cache that does not look all that dangerous\" led to discussions of whether changes should be made, and whether cache owners or Groundspeak could be held liable.", "Groundspeak has since updated their geocaching.com terms of use agreement to specify that geocachers find geocaches at their own risk.In 2008, two lost hikers on Mount Hood in Oregon, U.S. stumbled across a geocache and phoned this information out to rescuers, allowing crews to locate and rescue them.Three adult geocachers, a 24-year-old woman and her parents, were trapped in a cave and rescued by firefighters in Rochester, New York, U.S. while searching for a geocache in 2012.Rochester Fire Department spokesman Lt. Ted Kuppinger said, \"It's difficult, because you're invested in it, you want to find something like that, so people will probably try to push themselves more than they should, but you need to be prudent about what you're capable of doing.", "\"In 2015, members of the public called the British coastguard to check on a group of geocachers who were spotted walking into the Severn Estuary off the coast of Clevedon, England, in search of clues to locate a multi-cache.", "Although they felt they were safe and able to return to land, they were considered to be in danger and were airlifted back to the shore.In October 2016, four people discovered a crashed car at the bottom of a ravine in Benton, Washington, U.S., while out geocaching.", "They spotted the driver still trapped inside and alerted emergency services, who rescued the driver.On 9 June 2018, four people in Prague, Czech Republic were searching for a cache in a 4 km long tunnel when a storm surge carried them through the tunnel to its terminus at the Vltava river.", "Two of the geocachers died, while two others were rescued from the river." ], [ "Websites and data ownership", "Numerous websites list geocaches around the world.", "Geocaching websites vary in many ways, including control of data.===First page===The first website to list geocaches was announced by Mike Teague on May 8, 2000.On September 2, 2000, Jeremy Irish emailed the gpsstash mailing list that he had registered the domain name geocaching.com and had set up his own Web site.", "He copied the caches from Mike Teague's database into his own.", "On September 6, Mike Teague announced that Jeremy Irish was taking over cache listings.", ", Teague had logged only 5 caches.===Geocaching.com===Cauld Hill O' Fare''The largest site is Geocaching.com, owned by Groundspeak Inc., which began operating in late 2000.With a worldwide membership and a freemium business model, the website claims millions of caches and members in over 200 countries.", "Hides and events are reviewed by volunteer regional cache reviewers before publication.", "Free membership allows users access to coordinates, descriptions, and logs for some caches; for a subscription fee, users are allowed additional search tools, the ability to download large amounts of cache information onto their gps at once, instant email notifications about new caches, and access to premium-member-only caches.", "Geocaching Headquarters are located in the Fremont neighborhood of Seattle, Washington, United States.===Opencaching Network===A geocache hidden through the Opencaching websiteThe Opencaching Network provides independent, non-commercial listing sites based in the cacher's country or region.", "The Opencaching Network lists the most types of caches, including traditional, virtual, moving, multi, quiz, webcam, BIT, guest book, USB, event, and MP3.The Opencaching Network is less restrictive than many sites, and does not charge for the use of the sites, the service being community-driven.", "Some (or all) listings may or may not be required to be reviewed by community volunteers before being published and although cross-listing is permitted, it is discouraged.", "Some listings are listed on other sites, but there are many that are unique to the Opencaching Network.", "Features include the ability to organize one's favourite caches, build custom searches, be instantly notified of new caches in one's area, seek and create caches of all types, export GPX queries, statpics, etc.", "Each Opencaching Node provides the same API for free (called \"OKAPI\") for use by developers who want to create third-party applications which can use the Opencaching Network's content.Countries with associated opencaching websites include the United States at www.opencaching.us; Germany at www.opencaching.de; Sweden at www.opencaching.se; Poland at www.opencaching.pl; Czech Republic at www.opencaching.cz; The Netherlands at www.opencaching.nl; Romania at www.opencaching.ro; the United Kingdom at www.opencache.uk.The main difference between opencaching and traditional listing sites is that all services are open to the users at no cost.", "Generally, most geocaching services or websites offer some basic information for free, but users may have to pay for premium membership that allows access to more information or advanced searching capabilities.", "This is not the case with opencaching; every geocache is listed and accessible to everyone for free.Additionally, Opencaching sites allow users to rate and report on existing geocaches.", "This allows users to see what other cachers think of the cache and it encourages participants to place higher-quality caches.", "The rating system also greatly reduces the problem of abandoned or unsatisfactory caches still being listed after repeated negative comments or posts in the cache logs.===OpenCaching.com===OpenCaching.com (short: OX) was a site created and run by Garmin from 2010 to 2015, which had the stated aim of being as free and open as possible with no paid content.", "Caches were approved by a community process and coordinates were available without an account.", "The service closed on 14 August 2015.===Other sites===In many countries there are regional geocaching sites, but these mostly only compile lists of caches in the area from the three main sites.", "Many of them also accept unique listings of caches for their site; these listings tend to be less popular than the international sites, although occasionally the regional sites may have more caches than the international sites.", "There are some exceptions, such as how, in the territory of the former Soviet Union, the site Geocaching.su remains popular because it accepts listings in the Cyrillic script.", "Additional international sites include Geocaching.de, a German website, and Geocaching Australia, which accepts listings of cache types deprecated by geocaching.com, cache types such as TrigPoint and Moveable caches, as well as traditional geocache types.====GPSgames====GPSgames.org was an online community dedicated to all kinds of games involving Global Positioning System receivers.", "GPSgames.org allowed traditional geocaches as well as virtual, locationless, and traveler geocaches.", "The site's '''geodashing''' game generated a large number of randomly positioned \"dashpoints\", requiring players to reach as many as possible, competing as individuals or teams.Shutterspot, GeoVexilla, MinuteWar, GeoPoker, and GeoGolf were among the other GPS games available.GPSgames.org was 100% free since 2001, through donations.", "The site was retired on 30 June 2021.====NaviCache====Navicache.com started as a regional listing service in 2001.While many of the website's listings have been posted to other sites, it also offers unique listings.", "The website lists nearly any type of geocache and does not charge to access any of the caches listed in its database.", "All submissions are reviewed and approved.", "In 2012 it was announced that Navicache was under transition to new owners, who said they \"plan to develop a site that geocachers want, with rules that geocachers think are suitable.", "Geocaching.com and OX are both backed by large enterprises, and while that means they have more funding and people, we're a much smaller team – so our advantage is the ability to be dynamic and listen to the users.\"", "However, as of 2021 the site is mostly dormant, and the most recent cache listing is from 2014.====TerraCaching====Terracaching.com aims to provide high-quality caches made so by the difficulty of the hide or from the quality of the location.", "Membership is managed through a sponsorship system, and each cache is under continual peer review from other members.", "Terracaching.com embraces virtual caches alongside traditional or multi-stage caches and includes many locationless caches among the thousands of caches in its database.", "It is increasingly attracting members who like the point system.", "In Europe, TerraCaching is supported by Terracaching.eu.", "This site is translated in different European languages, has an extended FAQ and extra supporting tools for TerraCaching.", "TerraCaching strongly discourages caches that are listed on other sites (so-called double-listing).====Extremcaching====Extremcaching is a German private database for alternative geocaches with a focus on T5 / climbing caches, night caches, and lost place caches.====Geocaching Australia====Geocaching Australia is a community website for geocachers in Australia and New Zealand.", "Geocaching Australia also has many unique cache types such as Burke And Wills, Moveable_cache & Podcache geocaches." ], [ "See also", "* Augmented reality* Benchmarking* BookCrossing* Dead drop* Degree Confluence Project* Encounter* Geohashing* Geolocation-based video game* ''Ingress'' (video game)* Location-based game* Munzee* Orienteering* ''Pokémon Go''* Puzzle hunt* Questing* Transmitter hunting" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "** In Wisconsin: Geocaching Video produced by Wisconsin Public Television* FTF Geocacher Magazine Print Magazine devoted to geocaching* geocaching.com The official geocaching website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geographical mile" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''geographical mile''' is an international unit of length determined by 1 minute of arc ( degree) along the Earth's equator.", "For the international ellipsoid 1924 this equalled 1855.4 metres.", "''The American Practical Navigator'' 2017 defines the geographical mile as .", "Greater precision depends more on the choice of the Earth's radius of the used ellipsoid than on more careful measurement, since the radius of the geoid varies more than along the equator.", "In any ellipsoid, the length of a degree of longitude at the equator is exactly 60 geographical miles.", "The Earth's radius at the equator in the GRS80 ellipsoid is , which makes the geographical mile 1,855.3248 m. The rounding of the Earth's radius to metres in GRS80 has an effect of 0.0001 m.The shape of the Earth is a slightly flattened sphere, which results in the Earth's circumference being 0.168% larger when measured around the equator as compared to through the poles.", "The geographical mile is slightly larger than the nautical mile (which was historically linked to the circumference measured through both poles); one geographic mile is equivalent to approximately ." ], [ "Historical units", "Historically, certain nations used slightly different divisions to create their geographical miles.The Portuguese system derived their miles () as one third of their league of three separate values.", "When each equatorial degree was divided into 18 leagues, the geographical mile was equal to degree or about ; when divided into 20 leagues, the geographical mile was equal to degree, approximating the values provided above; and when divided into 25 leagues, the geographical mile was equal to degree or about .The geographical miles of the traditional Dutch (), German ( or ), and Danish systems () all approximated their much longer milesequivalent to English leaguesby using a larger division of the equatorial degree.", "Instead of using one minute of arc, they all used four degreeto produce a distance now notionally equal to but actually differing slightly depending on official measurements and computations.", "(For example, the Danish unit was computed as equivalent to about by the astronomer Ole Rømer.)" ], [ "Relationship with the nautical mile", "The geographical mile is closely related to the nautical mile, which was originally determined as 1 minute of arc along a great circle of the Earth but is nowadays defined by treaty as exactly 1,852 m. The US National Institute of Standards and Technology notes that \"The international nautical mile of 1,852 meters (6,076.115 49... feet) was adopted effective July 1, 1954, for use in the United States.", "The value formerly used in the United States was 6,080.20 feet = 1 nautical (geographical or sea) mile.\"", "This deprecated value of 6,080.2 feet is equivalent to .", "A separate reference identifies the geographic mile as being identical to the international nautical mile of 1,852 m and slightly shorter than the British nautical mile of .Scandinavians used their own version of the geographical mile as their nautical mile up to the beginning of the 20th century, causing it to be more well known as the '''sea mile''' in Danish (), Norwegian (), and Swedish ()." ], [ "Use", "The unit is not used much in English-speaking countries but is cited in some United States laws.", "For example, Section 1301(a) of the Submerged Lands Act defines state seaward boundaries in terms of geographic miles.", "While debating what became the Land Ordinance of 1785, Thomas Jefferson's committee wanted to divide the public lands in the west into \"hundreds of ten geographical miles square, each mile containing 6,086 and 4-10ths of a foot\" and \"sub-divided into lots of one mile square each, or 850 and 4-10ths of an acre\"." ], [ "See also", "*Conversion of units*Medieval weights and measures for details of the geographical league of France*Mile for the various other miles in use*Nautical mile" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Golden Heroes" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Golden Heroes''''' is a British superhero role-playing game that was originally written and published on an amateur basis in 1981, and then republished in a more complete and professional form by Games Workshop in 1984." ], [ "Description", "''Golden Heroes'' is a superhero game not affiliated with any line of comic books (unlike ''Marvel Super Heroes'', for example, which is based on the superheroes found in Marvel Comics.)", "Because of this, a player has to create their superhero from scratch, not based on a pre-existing superhero.", "The first step in character generation is to randomly determine via dice rolls the character's basic attributes of Ego, Strength, Dexterity and Vigor.", "The dice rolls also determine the character's superpowers.", "There is an opportunity for the player to modify abilities somewhat, but not to change the superpowers.", "A character can only keep their full set of powers if they can justify them all in a plausible origins story.", "During play, the player must keep track of the superhero's private life, what happens during leisure time and the work done while using the hero's secret identity.", "Characters are \"rated\" after each game and are more likely to succeed in future games if they behave in ways consistent with Comic Book tropes.Original mimeographed and self-published edition, 1981" ], [ "Publication history", "''Golden Heroes'' was developed at University of Birmingham by Simon Burley and Peter Haines in 1981, who self-published their manuscript as a 60-page mimeographed book.", "Burley and Haines shopped the book to Games Workshop, who expanded the material to include Marvel characters in the hopes of acquiring a role-playing game license from Marvel Comics.", "When Marvel awarded the license to TSR instead, Games Workshop expunged the Marvel content and published the result as ''Golden Heroes'' in 1984.The box cover art by Alan Craddock is meant look like the cover of an American comic book of the time, complete with a fake bar code and a fake Comics Code Authority approval badge.", "Interior art was by a plethora of British artists, including Brian Bolland, Kevin Bulmer, Mike Collins, Declan Considine, Alan Davis, Kirk Etienne, Brett Ewins, Jon Glentoran, David Hine, Gary Mayes, and Brendan McCarthy, several of whom were working for the British comic book ''2000 AD'' at the time.The following year, Games Workshop published two adventures and one supplement for ''Golden Heroes'': * ''Legacy of Eagles'' * ''Queen Victoria & The Holy Grail''* ''Supervisor's Kit''Games Workshop also published content for the game in their house magazine ''White Dwarf'', and produced a line of metal miniatures.", "Twenty years after Games Workshop let the ''Golden Heroes'' line of products lapse, one of the original creators, Simon Burley, resurrected the game as ''Squadron UK'' in 2006." ], [ "Reception", "Writing in Issue 62 of ''White Dwarf'' (February 1985), Marcus L. Rowland noted \"As a late contender in the super RPG field, ''Golden Heroes'' faces severe opposition from established games.", "However, its quality, scope, and the fact that it is orientated towards British players are bound to make it successful, if there is a steady flow of supplements and scenarios.\"", "Rowland concluded by giving the game an overall rating of 10 out of 10.Pete Tamlyn reviewed ''Golden Heroes'' for ''Imagine'' magazine, and stated that \"For younger players, and If you just want the Superhero game for light relief and one-off scenarios, then ''Marvel Superheroes'' is the best, but if you are planning to run an extended Superhero campaign then ''Golden Heroes'' wins hands down.", "\"In his 1990 book ''The Complete Guide to Role-Playing Games'', game critic Rick Swan was disappointed in the game, particularly the character generation system, pointing out \"basically the player is saddled with whatever powers the dice-rolls dictate, no matter how contradictory or silly.", "Because the random ability system freely mixes useless powers with god-like, there's only a remote chance that players will receive player characters of comparable talents.\"", "Swan was likewise dismayed by the combat system, calling it \"a hodge-podge of weapon classes, target ranges and power grades bordering on the incomprehensible.\"", "Swan also didn't like the extensive paperwork required to track a hero's private life.", "Swan concluded by giving the game a below average rating of 2 out of 4, saying, \"The rulebooks boast some nice artwork, and the thoughtful referee's tips are applicable to any comic-book RPG, but there's just not enough substance in ''Golden Heroes'' to recommend it over the competition.\"", "However, Swan found the two adventures released for ''Golden Heroes'' to be \"surprisingly good, particularly ''Queen Victoria & The Holy Grail'', an exciting adventure with supernatural overtones.\"", "More than ten years after its publication, Tony Johnston did a retrospective review of ''Golden Heroes'' for the British games magazine ''Arcane'', calling it \"A superb system, and one which some referees I know still use today, adapted for other games.\"", "That same year, ''Arcane'' held a reader poll to determine the fifty most popular role-playing games and ''Golden Heroes'' was ranked 41st.", "Editor Paul Pettengale commented: \"The gameplay reflects a refined approach to the superhero genre, and roleplaying tends to take priority over combat.\"" ], [ "Other reviews and commentary", "*''Different Worlds'' #43*''The V.I.P.", "of Gaming Magazine'' #3 (April/May, 1986)" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Guangzhou" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Guangzhou''', also known as '''Canton''' (; and alternatively romanized as '''Kwongchow''' or '''Kwangchow'''), is the capital and largest city of Guangdong province in southern China.", "Located on the Pearl River about north-northwest of Hong Kong and north of Macau, Guangzhou has a history of over 2,200 years and was a major terminus of the Silk Road.The port of Guangzhou serves as transportation hub and Guangzhou is one of China's three largest cities.", "For a long time it was the only Chinese port accessible to most foreign traders.", "Guangzhou was captured by the British during the First Opium War and no longer enjoyed a monopoly after the war; consequently it lost trade to other ports such as Hong Kong and Shanghai, but continued to serve as a major Entrepôt.", "Due to a high urban population and large volumes of port traffic, Guangzhou is classified as a Large-Port Megacity, the largest type of port city in the world.", "Following the Second Battle of Chuenpi in 1841, the Treaty of Nanking was signed between Sir Robert Peel on behalf of Queen Victoria and Lin Zexu on behalf of Emperor Xuanzong and has cede Hong Kong to the United Kingdom on 26 January 1841 after the agreement of the Convention of Chuenpi.", "Due to worldwide travel restrictions at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport, the major airport of Guangzhou, briefly became the world's busiest airport by passenger traffic in 2020.Guangzhou is at the heart of the Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macau Greater Bay Area, the most populous built-up metropolitan area in the world, which extends into the neighboring cities of Foshan, Dongguan, Zhongshan, Shenzhen and part of Jiangmen, Huizhou, Zhuhai and Macau, forming the largest urban agglomeration on Earth with approximately 65,594,622 residents and part of the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone.", "Administratively, the city holds subprovincial status and is one of China's nine National Central Cities.", "In the late 1990s and early 2000s, nationals of sub-Saharan Africa who had initially settled in the Middle East and Southeast Asia moved in unprecedented numbers to Guangzhou in response to the 1997/98 Asian financial crisis.", "The domestic migrant population from other provinces of China in Guangzhou was 40% of the city's total population in 2008.Guangzhou has one of the most expensive real estate markets in China.", "As of the 2020 census, the registered population of the city's expansive administrative area was 18,676,605 individuals (up 47 percent from the previous census in 2010), of whom 16,492,590 lived in 9 urban districts (all but Conghua and Zengcheng).", "Guangzhou is the fifth most populous city by urban resident population in China after Shanghai, Beijing, Shenzhen and Chongqing.In modern commerce, Guangzhou is best known for its annual Canton Fair, the oldest and largest trade fair in China.", "For three consecutive years (2013–2015), Forbes ranked Guangzhou as the best commercial city in mainland China.", "Guangzhou is highly ranked as an Alpha (global first-tier) city together with San Francisco and Stockholm.", "It is a leading financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region and ranks 21st globally in the 2020 Global Financial Centres Index.", "As an important international city, Guangzhou has hosted numerous international and national sporting events, the most notable being the 2010 Asian Games, the 2010 Asian Para Games, and the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup.", "The city hosts 65 foreign representatives, making it the major city hosting the third most foreign representatives in China, after Beijing and Shanghai.", "As of 2020, Guangzhou ranks 10th in the world and 5th in China (after Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong and Shenzhen) for the number of billionaire residents by the Hurun Global Rich List.Guangzhou is a major centre of research and innovation in the Asia-Pacific with a high level of scientific research output, ranking 8th globally and 4th in the Asia-Pacific, and is home to many of China's most prestigious universities, including Sun Yat-sen University, South China University of Technology, Jinan University, South China Normal University, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou University, Southern Medical University, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou Medical University, and Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine." ], [ "Toponymy", "Portrait of the Grotto of the Five Immortals, the Taoist temple around the five stones which gave Guangzhou its nickname \"The City of Rams\"''Guǎngzhōu'' is the official romanization of the Chinese name .", "The name of the city is taken from the ancient \"Guang Province\" after it had become the prefecture's seat of government.", "The character or means \"broad\" or \"expansive\".Before acquiring its current name, the town was known as Panyu (Punyü; ), a name still borne by one of Guangzhou's districts not far from the main city.", "The origin of the name is still uncertain, with 11 various explanations being offered, including that it may have referred to two local mountains.", "The city has also sometimes been known as Guangzhou Fu or Guangfu after its status as the capital of a prefecture.", "From this latter name, Guangzhou was known to medieval Persians such as Al-Masudi and Ibn Khordadbeh as Khanfu ().", "Under the Southern Han, the city was renamed Xingwang Fu ().The Chinese abbreviation for Guangzhou is \"\", pronounced Seoi6 in Cantonese and Suì in Mandarin (although the abbreviation on car license plates, as with the rest of the province, is ), after its nickname \"City of Rice\" ().", "The city has long borne the nickname () or () from the five stones at the old Temple of the Five Immortals said to have been the sheep or goats ridden by the Taoist culture heroes credited with introducing rice cultivation to the area around the time of the city's foundation.", "The former name \"City of the Immortals\" (/) came from the same story.", "The more recent () is usually taken as a simple reference to the area's fine greenery.The English name \"Canton\" derived from Portuguese , a blend of dialectal pronunciations of \"Guangdong\" (e.g., Cantonese ''Gwong2-dung1'').", "Although it originally and chiefly applied to the walled city, it was occasionally conflated with Guangdong by some authors.", "It was adopted as the Postal Map Romanization of Guangzhou, and remained the official name until its name change to \"Guangzhou\".", "As an adjective, it is still used in describing the people, language, cuisine and culture of Guangzhou and the surrounding Liangguang region.", "The 19th-century name was \"\"." ], [ "History", "=== Prehistory ===The jade burial suit of Zhao Mo in Guangzhou's Nanyue King MuseumA settlement now known as Nanwucheng was present in the area by 1100 BC.", "Some traditional Chinese histories placed Nanwucheng's founding during the reign of King Nan of Zhou, emperor of Zhou from 314 to 256 BC.", "It was said to have consisted of little more than a stockade of bamboo and mud.=== Nanyue===Guangzhou, then known as '''Panyu''', was founded on the eastern bank of the Pearl River in 214 BC.", "Ships commanded by tradespersons arrived on the South China coast in the late antiquity.", "Surviving records from the Tang dynasty confirm, that the residents of Panyu observed a range of trade missions.", "Records on foreign trade ships reach upon til the late 20th century.", "Panyu was the seat of Qin Empire's Nanhai Commandery, and served as a base for the first invasion of the Baiyue lands in southern China.", "Legendary accounts claimed that the soldiers at Panyu were so vigilant that they did not remove their armor for three years.", "Upon the fall of the Qin, General Zhao Tuo established the kingdom of Nanyue and made Panyu its capital in 204 BC.", "It remained independent throughout the Chu-Han Contention, although Zhao negotiated recognition of his independence in exchange for his nominal submission to the Han in 196 BC.", "Archeological evidence shows that Panyu was an expansive commercial center: in addition to items from central China, archeologists have found remains originating from Southeast Asia, India, and even Africa.", "Zhao Tuo was succeeded by Zhao Mo and then Zhao Yingqi.", "Upon Zhao Yingqi's death in 115 BC, his younger son Zhao Xing was named as his successor in violation of Chinese primogeniture.", "By 113 BC, his chinese mother, the Empress Dowager Jiu () had prevailed upon him to submit Nanyue as a formal part of the Han Empire.", "The native prime minister Lü Jia () launched a coup, killing Han ambassadors along with the king, his mother, and their supporters.", "A successful ambush then annihilated a Han force which had been sent to arrest him.", "Emperor Wu took offense and launched a massive river- and seaborne war: six armies under Lu Bode and Yang Pu took Panyu and annexed Nanyue by the end of 111 BC.=== Imperial China ===Canton in the early 1800sView of Pazhou in 1810Incorporated into the Han dynasty, Panyu became a provincial capital.", "In AD 226, it became the seat of Guang Prefecture, which gave it its modern name.", "The ''Old Book of Tang'' described Guangzhou as an important port in southern China.", "Direct routes connected the Middle East and China, as shown in the records of a Chinese prisoner returning home from Iraq twelve years after his capture at Talas.", "Relations were often strained: while China was undergoing the An Lushan Rebellion, Arab and Persian pirates sacked the city on 30 October 758 and in revenge thousands of Arabs and Persians were killed by Chinese rebels in the Yangzhou massacre (760).", "In the about 200,000 Arab, Persian and other foreigners were killed by Chinese rebel Huang Chao in 878, along with the city's Jews, Christians, and Parsis.", "The port was closed for fifty years after its destruction.Amid the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms that followed the collapse of the Tang dynasty, the Later Liang governor Liu Yan used his base at Panyu to establish a \"Great Yue\" or \"Southern Han\" empire, which lasted from 917 to 971.The region enjoyed considerable cultural and economic success in this period.", "From the 10th to 12th century, there are records that the large foreign communities were not exclusively men, but included \"Persian females\".", "According to Odoric of Pordenone, Guangzhou was as large as three Venices in terms of area, and rivaled all of Italy in the amount of crafts produced.", "He also noted the large amount of ginger available as well as large geese and snakes.", "Guangzhou was visited by the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta during his journey around the world in the 14th century.", "He detailed the process by which the Chinese constructed their large ships in the port's shipyards.Shortly after the Hongwu Emperor's declaration of the Ming dynasty, he reversed his earlier support of foreign trade and imposed the first of a series of sea bans ().", "These banned private foreign trade upon penalty of death for the merchant and exile for his family and neighbors.", "Previous maritime intendancies of Guangzhou, Quanzhou, and Ningbo were closed in 1384 and legal trade became limited to the tribute delegations sent to or by official representatives of foreign governments.Following the Portuguese conquest of the Melaka Sultanate, Rafael Perestrello traveled to Guangzhou as a passenger on a native junk in 1516.His report induced Fernão Pires de Andrade to sail to the city with eight ships the next year, but De Andrade's exploration was understood as spying and his brother Simão and others began attempting to monopolize trade, enslaving Chinese women and children, engaging in piracy, and fortifying the island of Tamão.", "Rumors even circulated that Portuguese were eating the children.", "The Guangzhou administration was charged with driving them off: they bested the Portuguese at the Battle of Tunmen and in Xicao Bay; held a diplomatic mission hostage in a failed attempt to pressure the restoration of the sultan of Malacca, who had been accounted a Ming vassal; and, after placing them in cangues and keeping them for most of a year, ultimately executed 23 by lingchi.", "With the help of local pirates, the \"Folangji\" then carried out smuggling at Macao, Lampacau, and Island (now Shangchuan), until Leonel de Sousa legalized their trade with bribes to Admiral Wang Bo () and the 1554 Luso-Chinese Accord.", "The Portuguese undertook not to raise fortifications and to pay customs dues; three years later, after providing the Chinese with assistance suppressing their former pirate allies, the Portuguese were permitted to warehouse their goods at Macau instead of Guangzhou itself.Nieuhof's imaginative 1665 map of \"Kanton\", made from secondhand accounts when Europeans were still forbidden from entering the walled cityIn October 1646 the Longwu Emperor's brother, Zhu Yuyue fled by sea to Guangzhou, the last stronghold of the Ming empire.", "On December 11, he declared himself the Shaowu Emperor, borrowing his imperial regalia from local theater troupes.", "He led a successful offense against his cousin Zhu Youlang but was deposed and executed on January 20, 1647, when the Ming turncoat Li Chengdong () sacked the city on behalf of the Qing.The Qing became somewhat more receptive to foreign trade after gaining control of Taiwan in 1683.The Portuguese from Macau and Spaniards from Manila returned, as did private Muslim, Armenian, and English traders.", "From 1699 to 1714, the French and British East India Companies sent a ship or two each year; the Austrian Ostend General India Co. arrived in 1717, the Dutch East India Co. in 1729, the Danish Asiatic Co. in 1731, and the Swedish East India Co. the next year.", "These were joined by the occasional Prussian or Trieste Company vessel.", "The first independent American ship arrived in 1784, and the first colonial Australian one in 1788.By that time, Guangzhou was one of the world's great ports, organized under the Canton System.", "The main exports were tea and porcelain.", "As a meeting place of merchants from all over the world, Guangzhou became a major contributor to the rise of the modern global economy.In the 19th century most of the city's buildings were still only one or two stories.", "However, there were notable exceptions such as the Flower Pagoda of the Temple of the Six Banyan Trees, and the guard tower known as the Five-Story Pagoda.", "The subsequently urbanized northern hills were bare and covered with traditional graves.", "The brick city walls were about in circumference, high, and wide.", "Its eight main gates and two water gates all held guards during the day and were closed at night.", "The wall rose to incorporate a hill on its northern side and was surrounded on the other three by a moat which, along with the canals, functioned as the city's sewer, emptied daily by the river's tides.", "A partition wall with four gates divided the northern \"old town\" from the southern \"new town\" closer to the river; the suburb of Xiguan (Saikwan; \"West Gate\") stretched beyond and the boats of fishers, traders, and Tanka (\"boat people\") almost entirely concealed the riverbank for about .", "It was common for homes to have a storefront facing the street and to treat their courtyards as a kind of warehouse.", "The city was part of a network of signal towers so effective that messages could be relayed to Beijing—about away—in less than 24 hours.Henan, Pazhou, Changzhou, and Xiaoguwei in 1841The Canton System was maintained until the outbreak of the First Opium War in 1839.Following a series of battles in the Pearl River Delta, the British captured Canton on March 18, 1841.The Second Battle of Canton was fought two months later.", "Following the Qing's 1842 treaty with Great Britain, Guangzhou lost its privileged trade status as more and more treaty ports were opened to more and more countries, usually including extraterritorial enclaves.", "Amid the decline of Qing prestige and the chaos of the Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856), the Punti and Hakka waged a series of clan wars from 1855 to 1867 in which one million people died.", "The foreign trade facilities were destroyed by local Chinese in the Arrow War (1856–1858).", "The international community relocated to the outskirts and most international trade moved through Shanghai.The concession for the Guangdong–Hankou Railway was awarded to the American China Development Co. in 1898.It completed its branch line west to Foshan and Sanshui before being engulfed in a diplomatic crisis after a Belgian consortium bought a controlling interest and the Qing subsequently canceled its concession.", "J.P. Morgan was awarded millions in damages and the line to Wuchang was not completed until 1936 and the completion of a unified Beijing–Guangzhou Railway waited until the completion of Wuhan's Yangtze River Bridge in 1957.=== Modern China======= Revolutions====During the late Qing dynasty, Guangzhou was the site of revolutionary attempts such as the Uprisings of 1895 and 1911 that were the predecessors of the successful Xinhai Revolution, which overthrew the Qing dynasty.", "The 72 revolutionaries whose bodies were found after the latter uprising are honored as the city's 72 Martyrs at the Huanghuagang (\"Yellow Flower Mound\") Mausoleum.==== Republic of China====After the assassination of Song Jiaorenn and Yuan Shikai's attempts to remove the Nationalist Party of China from power, the leader of Guangdong Hu Hanmin joined the 1913 Second Revolution against him but was forced to flee to Japan with Sun Yat-sen after its failure.", "The city came under national spotlight again in 1917, when Prime Minister Duan Qirui's abrogation of the constitution triggered the Constitutional Protection Movement.", "Sun Yat-sen came to head the Guangzhou Military Government supported by the members of the dissolved parliament and the Southwestern warlords.", "The Guangzhou government fell apart as the warlords withdrew their support.", "Sun fled to Shanghai in November 1918 until the Guangdong warlord Chen Jiongming restored him in October 1920 during the Yuegui Wars.", "On June 16, 1922, Sun was ousted in a coup and fled on the warship ''Yongfeng'' after Chen sided with the Zhili Clique's Beijing government.", "In the following months Sun mounted a counterattack into Guangdong by rallying supporters from Yunnan and Guangxi, and in January established a government in the city for the third time.From 1923 to 1926 Sun and the Kuomintang used the city as a base to prosecute a renewed revolution in China by conquering the warlords in the north.", "Although Sun was previously dependent on opportunistic warlords who hosted him in the city, with the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek, the KMT developed its own military power to serve its ambition.", "The Canton years saw the evolution of the KMT into a revolutionary movement with a strong military focus and ideological commitment, setting the tone of the KMT rule of China beyond 1927.In 1924, the KMT made the momentous decision to ally with the Communist Party and the USSR.", "With Soviet help, KMT reorganized itself along the Leninist line and adopted a pro-labor and pro-peasant stance.", "The Kuomintang-CCP cooperation was confirmed in the First Congress of the KMT and the communists were instructed to join the KMT.", "The allied government set up the Peasant Movement Training Institute in the city, of which Mao Zedong was a director for one term.", "Sun and his military commander Chiang used Soviet funds and weapons to build an armed force staffed by communist commissars, training its cadres in the Whampoa Military Academy.", "In August, the fledgling army suppressed the Canton Merchants' Corps Uprising.", "The next year the anti-imperialist May Thirtieth Movement swept the country, and the KMT government called for strikes in Canton and Hong Kong.", "The tensions of the massive strikes and protests led to the Shakee Massacre.After the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925 the mood was changing in the party toward the communists.", "In August the left-wing KMT leader Liao Zhongkai was assassinated and the right-wing leader Hu Hanmin, the suspected mastermind, was exiled to the Soviet Union, leaving the pro-communist Wang Jingwei in charge.", "Opposing communist encroachment, the right-wing Western Hills Group vowed to expel the communists from the KMT.", "The \"Canton Coup\" on March 20, 1926, saw Chiang solidify his control over the Nationalists and their army against Wang Jingwei, the party's left wing, its Communist allies, and its Soviet advisors.", "By May, he had ended civilian control of the military and begun his Northern Expedition against the warlords of the north.", "Its success led to the split of the KMT between Wuhan and Nanking and the purge of the communists in the April 12 Incident.", "Immediately afterwards Canton joined the purge under the auspice of Li Jishen, resulting in the arrest of communists and the suspension of left wing KMT apparatuses and labor groups.", "Later in 1927 when Zhang Fakui, a general supportive of the Wuhan faction seized Canton and installed Wang Jingwei's faction in the city, the communists saw an opening and launched the Guangzhou Uprising.", "Prominent communist military leaders Ye Ting and Ye Jianying led the failed defense of the city.", "Soon, control of the city reverted to Li Jishen.Li was deposed during a war between Chiang and the New Guangxi Clique.", "By 1929, Chen Jitang had established himself as the powerholder of Guangdong.", "In 1931 he threw his weight behind the anti-Chiang schism by hosting a separate Nationalist government in Guangzhou.", "The opposition to Chiang included KMT leaders like Wang Jingwei, Sun Fo and others from diverse factions.", "The peace negotiations amid the armed standoff led to the 4th National Congress of Kuomintang being held separately by three factions in Nanjing, Shanghai and Canton.", "Resigning all his posts, Chiang pulled off a political compromise that reunited all factions.", "While the intraparty division was resolved, Chen kept his power until he was defeated by Chiang in 1936.During the WW2, the \"Canton Operation\" subjected the city to Japanese occupation by the end of December 1938.==== People's Republic of China====Amid the closing months before total Communist victory, Guangzhou briefly served as the capital of the Republican government.", "Guangzhou was captured on October 14, 1949.Amid a massive exodus to Hong Kong and Macau, defeated Nationalist forces blew up the Haizhu Bridge across the Pearl River in retreat.", "The Cultural Revolution had a large effect on the city, with much of its temples, churches and other monuments destroyed during this chaotic period.The People's Republic of China initiated building projects including new housing on the banks of the Pearl River to adjust the city's boat people to life on land.", "Since the 1980s, the city's close proximity to Hong Kong and Shenzhen and its ties to overseas Chinese made it one of the first beneficiaries of China's opening up under Deng Xiaoping.", "Beneficial tax reforms in the 1990s also helped the city's industrialization and economic development.The municipality was expanded in the year 2000, with Huadu and Panyu joining the city as urban districts and Conghua and Zengcheng as more rural counties.", "The former districts of Dongshan and Fangcun were abolished in 2005, merged into Yuexiu and Liwan respectively.", "The city acquired Nansha and Luogang.", "The former was carved out of Panyu, the latter from parts of Baiyun, Tianhe, Zengcheng, and an exclave within Huangpu.", "The National People's Congress approved a development plan for the Pearl River Delta in January 2009; on March 19 the same year, the Guangzhou and Foshan municipal governments agreed to establish a framework to merge the two cities.", "In 2014, Luogang merged into Huangpu and both Conghua and Zengcheng counties were upgraded to districts.On 16 June 2022 an EF2 tornado struck the city, causing major power outages and knocking out power to the city's subway lines." ], [ "Geography", "AMS, 1954)Tiantang Peak, highest mountain in GuangzhouThe old town of Guangzhou was near Baiyun Mountain on the east bank of the Pearl River (Zhujiang) about from its junction with the South China Sea and about below its head of navigation.", "It commanded the rich alluvial plain of the Pearl River Delta, with its connection to the sea protected at the Humen Strait.", "The present city spans on both sides of the river from to longitude and to latitude in south-central Guangdong.", "The Pearl is the 4th-largest river of China.", "Intertidal ecosystems exist on the tidal flat lining the river estuary, however, many of the tidal flats have been reclaimed for agriculture.", "Baiyun Mountain is now locally referred to as the city's \"lung\" ().The elevation of the prefecture generally increases from southwest to northeast, with mountains forming the backbone of the city and the ocean comprising the front.", "Tiantang Peak (, \"Heavenly Peak\") is the highest point of elevation at above sea level.=== Natural resources===There are 47 different types of minerals and also 820 ore fields in Guangzhou, including 18 large and medium-sized oil deposits.", "The major minerals are granite, cement limestone, ceramic clay, potassium, albite, salt mine, mirabilite, nepheline, syenite, fluorite, marble, mineral water, and geothermal mineral water.", "Since Guangzhou is located in the water-rich area of southern China, it has a wide water area with many rivers and water systems, accounting for 10% of the total land area.", "The rivers and streams improve the landscape and keep the ecological environment of the city stable.=== Climate===Despite being located just south of the Tropic of Cancer, Guangzhou has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen ''Cwa'') influenced by the East Asian monsoon.", "Summers are wet with high temperatures, high humidity, and a high heat index.", "Winters are mild and comparatively dry.", "Guangzhou has a lengthy monsoon season, spanning from April through September.", "Monthly averages range from in January to in July, while the annual mean is .", "Autumn, from October to December, is very moderate, cool and windy, and is the best travel time.", "The relative humidity is approximately 76 percent, whereas annual rainfall in the metropolitan area is over .", "With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 17 percent in March to 51 percent in October, the city receives 1,559 hours of bright sunshine annually, considerably less than nearby Shenzhen and Hong Kong.", "Extreme temperatures have ranged from to .", "The last recorded snowfall in the city was on January 24, 2016, 87 years after the second last recorded snowfall." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Guangzhou is a sub-provincial city.", "It has direct jurisdiction over eleven districts:Administrative divisions of GuangzhouDivisioncodeDivisionAreaPopulationSeatPostalcodeSubdivisionsSubdistrictsTownsResidentialcommunitiesAdministrativevillages440100 Guangzhou 7,434.40 18,676,605 Yuexiu 510000 136 34 1533 1142440103 Liwan 59.10 1,238,305 Shiweitang Subdistrict 510000 22  195  440104 Yuexiu 33.80 1,038,643 Beijing Subdistrict 510000 18  267  440105 Haizhu 90.40 1,819,037 Jianghai Subdistrict 510000 18  257  440106 Tianhe 96.33 2,241,826 Tianyuan Subdistrict 510000 21  205  440111 Baiyun 795.79 3,742,991 Jingtai Subdistrict 510000 18 4 253 118440112 Huangpu 484.17 1,264,447 Luogang Subdistrict 510500 14 1 90 28440113 Panyu 529.94 2,658,397 Shiqiao Subdistrict 511400 11 5 87 177440114 Huadu 970.04 1,642,360 Huacheng Subdistrict 510800 4 6 50 188440115 Nansha 783.86 846,584 Huangge Town 511400 3 6 28 128440117 Conghua 1,974.50 717,684 Jiekou Subdistrict 510900 3 5 46 221440118 Zengcheng 1,616.47 1,466,331 Licheng Subdistrict 511300 4 7 55 282Administrative divisions in Chinese and varieties of romanizations English Chinese Pinyin GuangdongRomanization KejiahuaPinyin Fang'anLiwan District Lìwān Qū lei6 wan1 kêu1 lai4 van1 ki1Yuexiu District Yuèxiù Qū yud6 seo3 kêu1 yet6 siu4 ki1Haizhu District Hǎizhū Qū hoi2 ju1 kêu1 hoi2 zu1 ki1Tianhe District Tiānhé Qū tin6 ho4 kêu1 tien1 ho2 ki1Baiyun District Báiyún Qū bak6 wan4 kêu1 pak6 yun2 ki1Huangpu District Huángpǔ Qū wong4 bou3 kêu1 vong2 bu4 ki1Panyu District Pānyú Qū pun1 yu4 kêu1 pan1 ngi2 ki1Huadu District Huādū Qū fa1 dou1 kêu1 fa1 du1 ki1Nansha District Nánshā Qū nam4 sa1 kêu1 nam2/lam2 sa1 ki1Conghua District Cónghuà Qū cung4 fa3 kêu1 vung2 fa3 ki1Zengcheng District Zēngchéng Qū zeng1 xing4 kêu1 zen1 sang2 ki1 Guangzhou City Guǎngzhōu Shì guong2 zeo1 xi5 kong3 ziu1 si4" ], [ "Economy", "Guangzhou is the main manufacturing hub of the Pearl River Delta, one of mainland China's leading commercial and manufacturing regions.", "In 2021, its GDP reached ¥2,823 billion (US$444.37 billion in nominal), making it the 2nd largest economy in the South-Central China region after Shenzhen.", "Guangzhou's GDP (nominal) was $444.37 billion in 2021, exceeding that Guangzhou's per capita was ¥151,162 ($23,794 in nominal).", "Guangzhou is considered one of the most prosperous cities in China.", "Guangzhou ranks 10th in the world and 5th in China (after Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong and Shenzhen) in terms of the number of billionaires according to the Hurun Global Rich List 2020.Guangzhou is projected to be among the world top 10 largest cities in terms of nominal GDP in 2035 (together with Shanghai, Beijing and Shenzhen in China) according to a study by Oxford Economics, and its nominal GDP per capita will reach above $42,000 in 2030.Guangzhou also ranks 21st globally (between Washington, D.C., and Amsterdam) and 8th in the whole Asia & Oceania region (behind Shanghai, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Singapore, Beijing, Shenzhen and Dubai) in the 2020 Global Financial Centers Index (GFCI).", "Owing to rapid industrialization, it was once also considered a rather polluted city.", "After green urban planning was implemented, it is now one of the most livable cities in China.=== Zhujiang New Town ===Zhujiang New Town is the central business district of Guangzhou in the 21st century.", "It covers 6.44 km2 in Tianhe District.", "Multiple financial institutions are headquartered in this area.File:02540-Guangzhou.jpg|Zhujiang New TownFile:Pedestrian bridge across the river in Zhujiang New Town 20210516 163758.jpg|Skyscrapers in Zhujiang New TownFile:Zhujiang New Town at night 7.jpg|Skyscrapers in Zhujiang New TownFile:Canton Tower Pearl River TV Station 20210518.jpg|Haixin Bridge and Canton Tower near Zhujiang New TownFile:Zhujiang New Town 8.jpg|Zhujiang New Town at night=== Canton Fair===The Canton Fair, formally the \"China Import and Export Fair\", is held every year in April and October by the Ministry of Trade.", "Inaugurated in the spring of 1957, the fair is a major event for the city.", "It is the trade fair with the longest history, highest level, and largest scale in China.", "From the 104th session onwards, the fair moved to the new Guangzhou International Convention and Exhibition Center () in Pazhou, from the older complex in Liuhua.", "The GICEC is served by two stations on Line 8 and three stations on Tram Line THZ1.Since the 104th session, the Canton Fair has been arranged in three phases instead of two phases.File:1957 Canton Fair.jpg|The first Canton Fair (1957) at the Sino-Soviet Friendship BuildingFile:Canton Fair.jpg|The former Canton Fair site at Yuexiu's Liuhua ComplexFile:Aerial View, Zone B, Canton Fair Complex 20230701-C.jpg|The new Canton Fair ComplexFile:Zone D of Canton Fair Complex 20230103 Part 5.jpg|Interior of the Canton Fair Complex=== Local products===* Cantonese cuisine is one of China's most famous and popular regional cuisines, with a saying stating simply to \"Eat in Guangzhou\" ().", "* Cantonese sculpture includes work in jade, wood, and (controversially) ivory.", "* Canton porcelain developed over the past three centuries as one of the major forms of exportware.", "It is now known within China for its highly colorful style.", "* Cantonese embroidery is one of china's four main styles of the embroidery.", "* Zhujiang Beer, a pale lager, is one of China's most successful brands.=== Industry===Automobile manufacturer GAC Group headquartered in Guangzhou*GAC Group*Guangzhou Economic and Technological Development Zone*Guangzhou Nansha Export Processing Zone*: The Export Processing Zone was founded in 2005.Its total planned area is .", "It is located in Nansha District and it belongs to the provincial capital, Guangzhou.", "The major industries encouraged in the zone include automobile assembly, biotechnology and heavy industry.", "It is situated (a 70 minutes drive) south of Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport and close to Nansha Port.", "It also has the advantage of Guangzhou Metro line 4 which is being extended to Nansha Ferry Terminal.", "*Guangzhou Free Trade Zone*: The zone was founded in 1992.It is located in the east of Huangpu District and near to Guangzhou Economic and Technological Development Zone.", "It is also very close to Guangzhou Baiyun Airport.", "The major industries encouraged in the zone include international trade, logistics, processing and computer software.", "Recently the Area has been rebranded and is now being marketed under the name Huangpu District.", "Next to the industries above, new sectors are being introduced to the business environment, including new energy, AI, new mobility, new materials, information and communication technology and new transport.", "It is also Home to the Guangzhou IP Court.", "*Guangzhou Science City===Business Environment===Guangzhou is a hub for international businesses.", "According to an article by China Briefing, over 30,000 foreign-invested companies had settled in Guangzhou by 2018, including 297 Fortune Global 500 companies with projects and 120 Fortune Global 500 companies with headquarters or regional headquarters in the city." ], [ "Demographics", "The 2010 census found Guangzhou's population to be 12.78 million.", ", it was estimated at 13,080,500, with 11,264,800 urban residents.", "Its population density is thus around 1,800 people per km2.The built-up area of the Guangzhou proper connects directly to several other cities.", "The built-up area of the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone covers around and has been estimated to house 22 million people, including Guangzhou's nine urban districts, Shenzhen (5.36m), Dongguan (3.22m), Zhongshan (3.12m), most of Foshan (2.2m), Jiangmen (1.82m), Zhuhai (890k), and Huizhou's Huiyang District (760k).", "The total population of this agglomeration is over 28 million after including the population of the adjacent Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.", "The area's fast-growing economy and high demand for labor has produced a huge \"floating population\" of migrant workers; thus, up to 10 million migrants reside in the area least six months each year.", "In 2008, about five million of Guangzhou's permanent residents were hukouless migrants.=== Ethnicity and language===Most of Guangzhou's population is Han Chinese.", "Almost all Cantonese people speak Cantonese as their first language, while most migrants speak forms of Mandarin.", "In 2010, each language was the native tongue of roughly half of the city's population, although minor but substantial numbers speak other varieties as well.", "In 2018, He Huifeng of the ''South China Morning Post'' stated that younger residents have increasingly favored using Mandarin instead of Cantonese in their daily lives, causing their Cantonese-speaking grandparents and parents to use Mandarin to communicate with them.", "He Huifeng stated that factors included local authorities discouraging the use of Cantonese in schools and the rise in prestige of Mandarin-speaking Shenzhen.", "Jinan University released a survey result of the Guangzhou youths born in the year 2000 or after that were part of this educational study showed that 69% could still speak and understand Cantonese, 20% can understand Cantonese, but unable to speak it, and 11% completely had no knowledge of Cantonese.", "Jinan University's study of these Guangzhou youths also indicated when it came to the daily recreational use of Cantonese, roughly 40%-50% of them participated in these recreational functions with the usage of Cantonese with 51.4% of them in mobile games, 47% in Social Platforms, 44.1% in TV shows, and 39.8% in Books and Newspapers.", "Despite some decline in the use of Cantonese, it is faring better in survival, popularity, and prestige than other Chinese languages due to the historical pride in the language and culture, as well as the wide popularity and availability of mainstream Cantonese entertainment, which encourages locals to retain the Cantonese language.", "As of the 2020s, additional renewed efforts were introduced to preserve the local Cantonese language and culture with some limited Cantonese language classes now being taught in some schools as well as hosting Cantonese appreciation cultural events along with hosting activities that cater to the local Cantonese culture and language as well as many local Cantonese speaking families are now placing much stronger emphasis on their children to speak Cantonese to preserve the culture and language.", "In a 2018 report study by Shan Yunming and Li Sheng, the report showed that 90% of people living in Guangzhou are bilingual in both Cantonese and Mandarin, though fluency will vary depending on if they are locally born to the city and the surrounding Guangdong province or migrants from other provinces, which shows how much importance the Cantonese language still has in the city despite the strict policy rules from the government to be using Mandarin as the country's official language.", "Guangzhou has an even more unbalanced gender ratio than the rest of the country.", "While most areas of China have 112–120 boys per 100 girls, the Guangdong province that houses Guangzhou has more than 130 boys for every 100 girls.", "Recent years have seen a huge influx of migrants, with up to 30 million additional migrants living in the Guangzhou area for at least six months out of every year with the majority being female migrants and many becoming local Guangzhou people.", "This huge influx of people from other areas, called the floating population, is due to the city's fast-growing economy and high labor demands.", "Guangzhou Mayor Wan Qingliang told an urban planning seminar that Guangzhou is facing a very serious population problem stating that, while the city had 10.33 million registered residents at the time with targets and scales of land use based on this number, the city actually had a population with migrants of nearly 15 million.", "According to the Guangzhou Academy of Social Sciences researcher Peng Peng, the city is almost at its maximum capacity of just 15 million, which means the city is facing a great strain, mostly due to a high population of unregistered people.According to the 2000 National Census, marriage is one of the top two reasons for permanent migration and particular important for women as 29.3% of the permanent female migrants migrate for marriage Liang et al.,2004.Many of the female economic migrants marry men from Guangzhou in hopes of a better life.", "but like elsewhere in the People's Republic of China, the household registration system (''hukou'') limits migrants' access to residences, educational institutions and other public benefits.", "It has been noted that many women end up in prostitution.", "In May 2014, legally employed migrants in Guangzhou were permitted to receive a ''hukou'' card allowing them to marry and obtain permission for their pregnancies in the city, rather than having to return to their official hometowns as previously.Historically, the Cantonese people have made up a sizable part of the 19th- and 20th-century Chinese diaspora; in fact, many overseas Chinese have ties to Guangzhou.", "This is particularly true in the United States, Canada, and Australia.Demographically, the only significant immigration into China has been by overseas Chinese, but Guangzhou sees many foreign tourists, workers, and residents from the usual locations such as the United States.", "Notably, it is also home to thousands of African immigrants, including people from Nigeria, Somalia, Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo.=== Metropolitan area===The encompassing metropolitan area was estimated by the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) to have, , a population of 25 million.===Development of Guangzhou===ScienceDirect provided a report on their website of the development of Guangzhou from 1990 until 2020.Their map report showed in 1990, the developed residential districts were almost exclusively concentrated to a small part of western Guangzhou whereas other parts of Guangzhou had smaller limited amount of developed residential communities being overwhelmingly surrounded by agricultural and forest lands.", "However, from 2005 until 2020, other parts of the city eventually began to develop more so residential communities and in the 2020 map report, it showed fully developed residential communities going from west to east of the city whereas the very southern part and large portions of northern Guangzhou still remain mainly agricultural and forest lands with very limited developed residential communities." ], [ "Transportation", "=== Urban mass transit===Guangzhou MetroWhen the first line of the Guangzhou Metro opened in 1997, Guangzhou was the fourth city in Mainland China to have an underground railway system, behind Beijing, Tianjin, and Shanghai.", "Currently the metro network is made up of sixteen lines, covering a total length of .", "A long-term plan is to make the city's metro system expand to over by 2020 with 15 lines in operation.", "In addition to the metro system there is also the Haizhu Tram line which opened on December 31, 2014.The Guangzhou Bus Rapid Transit (GBRT) system which was introduced in 2010 along Zhongshan Road.", "It has several connections to the metro and is the world's 2nd-largest bus rapid transit system with 1,000,000 passenger trips daily.", "It handles 26,900 pphpd during the peak hour a capacity second only to the TransMilenio BRT system in Bogota.", "The system averages one bus every 10 seconds or 350 per hour in a single direction and contains the world's longest BRT stations—around including bridges.=== Motor transport===Buses in GuangzhouIn the 19th century, the city already had over 600 long, straight streets; these were mostly paved but still very narrow.", "In June 1919, work began on demolishing the city wall to make way for wider streets and the development of tramways.", "The demolition took three years in total.In 2009, it was reported that all 9,424 buses and 17,695 taxis in Guangzhou would be operating on LPG-fuel by 2010 to promote clean energy for transport and improve the environment ahead of the 2010 Asian Games which were held in the city.", "At present, Guangzhou is the city that uses the most LPG-fueled vehicles in the world, and at the end of 2006, 6,500 buses and 16,000 taxis were using LPG, taking up 85 percent of all buses and taxis.Effective January 1, 2007, the municipal government banned motorcycles in Guangdong's urban areas.", "Motorcycles found violating the ban are confiscated.", "The Guangzhou traffic bureau claimed to have reported reduced traffic problems and accidents in the downtown area since the ban.=== Airports===Baiyun International Airport Terminal 2Guangzhou's main airport is the Baiyun International Airport in Baiyun District; it opened on August 5, 2004.This airport is the second busiest airport in terms of traffic movements in China.", "It replaced the old Baiyun International Airport, which was very close to the city center but failed to meet the city's rapidly growing air traffic demand.", "The old Baiyun International Airport was in operation for 72 years.", "Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport now has three runways, with two more planned.", "Terminal 2 opened on April 26, 2018.Another airport located in Zengcheng District is under planning.Guangzhou is served by Hong Kong International Airport; ticketed passengers can take ferries from the Lianhuashan Ferry Terminal and Nansha Ferry Port in Nansha District to the HKIA Skypier.", "There are also coach bus services connecting Guangzhou with HKIA.=== Railways===Guangzhou is the terminus of the Beijing–Guangzhou, Guangzhou–Shenzhen, Guangzhou–Maoming and Guangzhou–Meizhou–Shantou conventional speed railways.", "In late 2009, the Wuhan–Guangzhou high-speed railway started service, with multiple unit trains covering at a top speed of .", "In December 2014, the Guiyang–Guangzhou high-speed railway and Nanning-Guangzhou railway began service with trains running at top speeds of and , respectively.", "The Guangdong Through Train departs from the Guangzhou East railway station and arrives at the Hung Hom station in Kowloon, Hong Kong.", "The route is approximately in length and the ride takes less than two hours.", "Frequent coach services are also provided with coaches departing every day from different locations (mostly major hotels) around the city.", "A number of regional railways radiating from Guangzhou started operating such as the Guangzhou–Zhuhai intercity railway and the Guangzhou-Foshan-Zhaoqing intercity railway.=== Water transport===There are daily high-speed catamaran services between Nansha Ferry Terminal and Lianhua Shan Ferry Terminal in Guangzhou and the Hong Kong China Ferry Terminal, as well as between Nansha Ferry Terminal and Macau Ferry Pier in Hong Kong.File:Panyu Square Station Line 18 & Line 22 Concourse 20210928 Part 1.jpg|Panyu Square station of the Guangzhou MetroFile:A1 Train (1x27-28) and B5 Train (07x011-012) at Guangzhou CRRC Base, Guangzhou Metro 20230626.jpg|Trains used by the Guangzhou MetroFile:GBRT Gangding Station at night 20131025.jpg|GBRT stationFile:Skystage of Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport Terminal 2.jpg|Baiyun International Airport in Huadu DistrictFile:CRH380A-0259@GZN (20180923094804).jpg|CRH380A at Guangzhou South Railway StationFile:Guangzhou Huangpu Tram Line 1 Train 102 20210127.jpg|Guangzhou Tram" ], [ "Culture", "Guangzhou Opera HouseWithin China, the culture of the Cantonese people is a subset of the larger \"Southern\" or \"Lingnan\" cultural areas.", "Notable aspects of Guangzhou's cultural heritage include:*Cantonese language, the local and prestige variant of Yue Chinese.", "*Cantonese cuisine, one of China's eight major culinary traditions*Cantonese opera, usually divided into martial and literary performances*Xiguan (Saikwan), the area west of the former walled cityThe Guangzhou Opera House & Symphony Orchestra also perform classical Western music and Chinese compositions in their style.", "Cantonese music is a traditional style of Chinese instrumental music, while Cantopop is the local form of pop music and rock-and-roll which developed from neighboring Hong Kong.=== Religions===Before the postmodern era, Guangzhou had about 124 religious pavilions, halls, and temples.", "Today, in addition to the Buddhist Association, Guangzhou also has a Taoist Association, a Jewish community, as well as a history with Christianity, reintroduced to China by colonial powers.==== Taoism====Taoism and Chinese folk religion are still represented at a few of the city's temples.", "Among the most important is the Temple of the Five Immortals, dedicated to the Five Immortals credited with introducing rice cultivation at the foundation of the city.", "The five rams they rode were supposed to have turned into stones upon their departure and gave the city several of its nicknames.", "However, the temple has not been restored as a Taoist temple status yet.", "Other famous temples include the City God Temple of Guangzhou and Sanyuan Palace.", "During the Cultural Revolution, all Taoist temples and shrines were practically destroyed or damaged by the red guards.", "Only handful of them like Sanyuan Palace were restored during 1980s.", "Guangzhou, like most of southern China, is also notably observant and continue the practice of Chinese ancestral worship during major festive occasions like the Qing Ming Festival and Zhong Yuan Festival.==== Buddhism====Buddhism is the most prominent religion in Guangzhou.", "The Zhizhi Temple was founded in AD 233 from the estate of a Wu official; it is said to comprise the residence of Zhao Jiande, the last of the Nanyue kings, and has been known as the Guangxiao Temple (\"Temple of Bright Filial Piety\") since the Ming dynasty.", "The Buddhist missionary monk, Bodhidharma is traditionally said to have visited Panyu during the Liu Song or Liang dynasty (5th or 6th century).", "Around AD 520, Emperor Wu of the Liang ordered the construction of the Baozhuangyan Temple and the Xilai Monastery to store the relics of Cambodian Buddhist saints which had been brought to the city and to house the monks beginning to assemble there.", "The Baozhuangyan is now known as the Temple of the Six Banyan Trees, after a famous poem composed by Su Shi after a visit during the Northern Song.", "The Xilai Monastery was renamed as the Hualin Temple (\"Flowery Forest Temple\") after its reconstruction during the Qing dynasty.The temples were badly damaged by both the Republican campaign to \"Promote Education with Temple Property\" () and the PRC's Cultural Revolution but have been renovated since the opening up that began in the 1980s.", "The Ocean Banner Temple on Henan Island, once famous in the west as the only tourist spot in Guangzhou accessible to foreigners, has been reopened as the Hoi Tong Monastery.==== Christianity====Nestorian Christians first arrived in China via the overland Silk Road, but suffered during Emperor Wuzong's 845 persecution and were essentially extinct by the year 1000.The Qing-era ban on foreigners limited missionaries until it was abolished following the First Opium War, although the Protestant Robert Morrison was able to perform some work through his service with the British factory.", "The Catholic archdiocese of Guangzhou is housed at Guangzhou's Sacred Heart Cathedral, known locally as the \"Stone House\".", "A Gothic Revival edifice which was built by hand from 1861 to 1888 under French direction, its original Latin and French stained-glass windows were destroyed during the wars and amid the Cultural Revolution; they have since been replaced by English ones.", "The Canton Christian College (1888) and Hackett Medical College for Women (1902) were both founded by missionaries and now form part of Guangzhou's Lingnan University.", "Since the opening up of China in the 1980s, there has been renewed interest in Christianity, but Guangzhou maintains pressure on underground churches which avoid registration with government officials.", "The Catholic archbishop Dominic Tang was imprisoned without trial for 22 years; however, his present successor is recognized by both the Vatican and China's Patriotic Church.==== Islam====Guangzhou has had ties with the Islamic world since the Tang dynasty.", "Relations were often strained: Arab and Persian pirates sacked the city on October 30, 758; the port was subsequently closed for fifty years.", "Their presence came to an end under the revenge of Chinese rebel Huang Chao in 878, along with that of the Jews, Christians, and Parsis.", "Nowadays, the city is home to halal restaurants.File:WuXianGuan-rams-0484.jpg|Guangzhou's Temple of the Five ImmortalsFile:John Thomson - Wah Lum Chu, Canton - cropped.jpg| at the (Hualin) in the 1870sFile:The Mahavira Palace of Guangxiaosi.jpg|File:Guangzhou Chenghuang Miao 2014.01.24 16-47-58.jpg|Guangzhou's City God TempleFile:The Sea-screen Temple at Honam Canton.png|The sacred pigs of the Ocean Banner Temple ( in the 1830sFile:Canton pagoda de las flores.JPG| at the Temple of the Six Banyan Trees (Liurong)File:Hoi Tong Monastery Pagoda.JPG|The Thousand Buddha Tower at the present-day File:Guangzhou Shishi Shengxin Dajiaotang 2012.11.15 10-46-30.jpg|Sacred Heart CathedralFile:廣州基督教天河堂.jpg|Tianhe Church, built in 2017" ], [ "Sport", "Guangdong Olympic StadiumThe 11,468 seat Guangzhou Gymnasium was one of the venues for the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup.From November 12 to 27, 2010, Guangzhou hosted the 16th Asian Games.", "The same year, it hosted the first Asian Para Games from December 12 to 19.Combined, these were the major sporting events the city ever hosted.Tianhe StadiumGuangzhou also hosted the following major sporting events:*1987 The 6th National Games of China*1991 The 1st FIFA Women's World Cup*2001 The 2001 National Games of China*2007 The 8th *2008 The 49th World Table Tennis Championships*2009 The 11th Sudirman Cup: the world badminton mixed team championshipsCurrent professional sports clubs based in Guangzhou include:SportLeagueTierClubStadiumFootballChina League One2ndGuangzhouYuexiushan StadiumEsports (Overwatch)Overwatch League1stGuangzhou ChargeTianhe GymnasiumBasketballChinese Basketball Association1stGuangzhou Loong LionsTianhe GymnasiumBaseballChina Baseball League1stGuangdong LeopardsTianhe Sports Center baseball fieldGuangzhou Baoneng Qoros ArenaIn the 2010s, Guangzhou has risen to be a football powerhouse of China, having won eight national titles between 2011 and 2019.The team has also won the AFC Champions League in 2013 and 2015.The club has competed at the 2013 and 2015 FIFA Club World Cup, where it lost 3–0 in the semifinal stage to the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League winners FC Bayern Munich and the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League winners FC Barcelona, respectively." ], [ "Restaurants", "In the 1990s the local press prolifically published reviews of restaurants in Guangzhou.", "The local newspapers introduced lifestyle pages and relied on infotainment to encourage the purchase of a daily newspaper." ], [ "Destinations", "=== Eight Views ===Canton TowerThe Eight Views of Ram City are Guangzhou's eight most famous tourist attractions.", "They have varied over time since the Song dynasty, with some being named or demoted by emperors.", "The following modern list was chosen through public appraisal in 2011:*\"Towers Shining through the New Town\"*\"The Pearl River Flowing and Shining\": The Pearl River from Bai'etan to Pazhou*\"Cloudy Mountain Green and Tidy\": Baiyun Mountain Scenic Area*\"Yuexiu's Grandeur\": Yuexiu Hill and Park*\"The Ancient Academy's Lingering Fame\": The Chen Clan Ancestral Hall and its folk art museum*\"Liwan's Wonderful Scenery\": Liwan Lake*\"Science City, Splendid as Brocade\"*\"Wetlands Singing at Night\": Nansha Wetlands Park''Bombax ceiba'', Guangzhou's official flower=== Parks and gardens===*Baiyun Mountain*Nansha Wetland Park*People's Park*South China Botanical Garden*Yuexiu Park* Guangdong Tree Park*Dongshanhu Park ()*Liuhuahu Park ()*Liwanhu Park ()*Luhu Park ()*Martyrs' Park ()*Pearl River Park ()*Yuntai Garden ()*Shimen National Forest Park()*Haizhu Lake Park()=== Tourist attractions===Sun Yat sen Memorial HallGuangzhou attracts more than 223 million visitors each year, and the total revenue of the tourism exceeded 400 billion in 2018.There are many tourist attractions, including:*Canton Tower*Chen Clan Ancestral Hall, housing Guangzhou's folk art museum*Chime-Long Paradise*Chime-Long Waterpark ()*Guangdong Provincial Museum* *Mulberry Park, public center which demonstrates mulberry growing and silk making*Museum of the Mausoleum of the Nanyue King*Peasant Movement Training Institute, an important Maoist site*Sacred Heart Cathedral (Stone House)*Temple of Bright Filial Piety (Guangxiao)*Temple of the Six Banyan Trees (Liurong), site of the Flowery Pagoda*Sanyuan Palace*Shamian or Shameen Island, the old trading compound*Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall, site of Guangzhou's former presidential palace*Xiguan (Saikwan), the western suburbs of the old city=== Pedestrian streets===In every district there are many shopping areas where people can walk on the sidewalks; however most of them are not set as pedestrian streets.Shangxiajiu Pedestrian StreetThe popular pedestrian streets are:*Beijing Road pedestrian street*Shangxiajiu Pedestrian Street*Huacheng Square (Flower City Square)=== Malls and shopping centers===There are many malls and shopping centers in Guangzhou.", "The majority of the new malls are located in the Tianhe district.Aerial view of Parc Central Mall*101 Dynamics*China Plaza*Liwan Plaza*Teem Plaza*Victory Plaza*Wanguo Plaza*Grandview Mall (Grandview Mall Aquarium)*Wanda square*Happy Valley*TaiKoo Hui*Parc Central*OneLinkWalk*Rock Square*Aeon Mall*GT Land Plaza*IFC Plaza*IGC Mall*Mall of the World*K11*Fashion Tianhe=== Major buildings=== *CITIC Plaza*Canton Tower*Guangzhou Circle Mansion*Guangdong Olympic Stadium*Guangzhou Opera House*Guangzhou TV Tower*Pearl River Tower*The Twin Towers:**Guangzhou International Finance Center (West)**The CTF Guangzhou (East)File:Guangzhou custom house.jpg|Canton Custom House (est.", "1916), one of the oldest surviving in ChinaFile:Ai Qun Hotel.JPG|Aiqun Hotel, Guangzhou's tallest building from 1937 to 1967File:Our Lady of Lourdes Chapel.jpg|Our Lady of Lourdes Chapel on ShamianFile:Dabenying (Generalissimo Sun Yat-sen%27s Mansion).jpg|The Canton Cement Factory (est.", "1907), which housed Sun Yat-sen from 1923 to 1925File:Guangzhou Guangdong Ziyi Ju Jiuzhi 2014.01.24 15-05-46.jpg|The old provincial capitol, now the Museum of Revolutionary HistoryFile:Guangzhou (6344321124).jpg|Guangzhou's CBD, including the IFC (''right'')" ], [ "Media", "Guangzhou has two local radio stations: the provincial Radio Guangdong and the municipal Radio Guangzhou.", "Together they broadcast in more than a dozen channels.", "The primary language of both stations is Cantonese.", "Traditionally only one channel of Radio Guangdong is dedicated to Mandarin Chinese.", "However, in recent years there has been an increase in Mandarin programs on most Cantonese channels.", "Radio stations from cities around Guangzhou mainly broadcast in Cantonese and can be received in different parts of the city, depending on the radio stations' locations and transmission power.", "The Beijing-based China National Radio also broadcasts Mandarin programs in the city.", "Radio Guangdong has a 30-minute weekly English programs, ''Guangdong Today'', which is broadcast globally through the World Radio Network.", "Daily English news programs are also broadcast by Radio Guangdong.Guangzhou has some of the most notable Chinese-language newspapers and magazines in mainland China, most of which are published by three major newspaper groups in the city, the Guangzhou Daily Press Group, Nanfang Press Corporation, and the Yangcheng Evening News Group.", "The two leading newspapers of the city are ''Guangzhou Daily'' and ''Southern Metropolis Daily''.", "The former, with a circulation of 1.8 million, has been China's most successful newspaper for 14 years in terms of advertising revenue, while ''Southern Metropolis Daily'' is considered one of the most liberal newspapers in mainland China.", "In addition to Guangzhou's Chinese-language publications, there are a few English magazines and newspapers.", "The most successful is ''That's Guangzhou'', which started more than a decade ago and has since blossomed into ''That's PRD'', producing expatriate magazines in Beijing and Shanghai as well.", "It also produces ''In the Red''." ], [ "Education and research", "Sun Yat-sen UniversitySouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou LibraryThe Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center, also known as Guangzhou University Town (), is a large tertiary education complex located in the southeast suburbs of Guangzhou.", "It occupies the entirety of Xiaoguwei Island in Panyu District, covering an area of about .", "The complex accommodates campuses from ten higher education institutions and can eventually accommodate up to 200,000 students, 20,000 teachers, and 50,000 staff.As of June 2023, Guangzhou hosts 84 institutions of higher education (excluding adult colleges), ranking 2nd nationwide after (Beijing) and 1st in South China region.", "The city has many highly-ranked educational institutions, with seven universities listed in 147 National Key Universities under the Double First-Class Construction, ranking fourth nationwide (after Beijing, Shanghai and Nanjing).", "Guangzhou is also an important hub for international students and it was ranked 110th globally by the QS Best Student Cities Rankings in 2023.Guangzhou is a major centre of research and innovation in the Asia-Pacific with a high level of scientific research output, ranking 8th globally, 4th in the Asia & Oceania regions after (Beijing, Shanghai and Nanjing) and 1st in South Central China region.", "The Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center's higher education campuses are as follows:*Guangdong Pharmaceutical University*Guangdong University of Foreign Studies*Guangdong University of Technology*Guangzhou Academy of Fine Arts*Guangzhou University*Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine*South China Normal University*South China University of Technology*Sun Yat-sen University*Xinghai Conservatory of MusicGuangzhou's other fully accredited and degree-granting universities and colleges include:*Guangdong Institute of Science and Technology*Guangdong Polytechnic Normal University*Guangdong University of Finance & Economics*Guangdong University of Finance*Guangzhou College of South China University of Technology*Guangzhou Medical University*Guangzhou Sports University*Jinan University*South China Agricultural University*Southern Medical University*Zhongkai University of Agriculture and EngineeringThe two main comprehensive libraries are Guangzhou Library and Sun Yat-sen Library of Guangdong Province.", "Guangzhou Library is a public library in Guangzhou.", "The library has moved to a new building in Zhujiang New Town, which fully opened on June 23, 2013.Sun Yat-sen Library of Guangdong Province has the largest collection of ancient books in Southern China." ], [ "Notable people", " *Choh Hao Li (1913–1987), American biochemist, expert on hormones*Zhi Cong Li (born 1993), racing driver*Xiao Ping Liang (born 1959), internationally exhibited calligrapher*Kuang Sunmou (1863–?", "), railway engineer, businessman, and bureaucrat*Bolo Yeung (born July 3, 1946), Hong Kong martial artist, competitive bodybuilder, and film actor*Qi Yuwu (born November 28, 1976), actor based in Singapore*Donnie Yen (born 27 July 1963), Hong Kong martial artist, action director and choreographer, and film director and actor" ], [ "International relations", "=== Twin towns and sister cities====== Consulates General/consulates===As of April 2023, Guangzhou hosts 68 foreign consulates-general/consulates, excluding the Hong Kong and Macao trade office, making it one of the major cities to host more than 50 foreign representatives in China after Beijing and Shanghai." ], [ "Honours", "Guangzhou Peninsula in Antarctica is named after the city, which was a major market and processing centre for the nineteenth-century Antarctic sealing industry." ], [ "See also", "*Canton System and Old China Trade*World's largest cities*Historical capitals of China*Mezitli Producer Women's Market#Guangzhou Innovation Award*2021 Guangzhou bombing" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Sources===*.**.******.", "*Fairbank, John King.", "''Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the treaty ports, 1842-1854'' (Cambridge, Harvard U. P, 1953) online.", "*Farris, Johnathan Andrew.", "''Enclave to Urbanity: Canton, Foreigners, and Architecture from the Late Eighteenth to the Early Twentieth Centuries'' (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2016) online review ***********.", "**" ], [ "External links", "* Guangzhou International : Official website of government of Guangzhou municipality* Guangzhou, China Network *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Genitive case" ], [ "Introduction", "Cuneiform inscription ''Lugal Kiengi Kiuri'' , \"King of Sumer and Akkad\", on a seal of Sumerian king Shulgi (r. –2047 BCE).", "The final ''ke4'' is the composite of -k (genitive case) and -e (ergative case).In grammar, the '''genitive case''' (abbreviated ) is the grammatical case that marks a word, usually a noun, as modifying another word, also usually a noun—thus indicating an attributive relationship of one noun to the other noun.", "A genitive can also serve purposes indicating other relationships.", "For example, some verbs may feature arguments in the genitive case; and the genitive case may also have adverbial uses (see adverbial genitive).The genitive construction includes the genitive case, but is a broader category.", "Placing a modifying noun in the genitive case is one way of indicating that it is related to a head noun, in a genitive construction.", "However, there are other ways to indicate a genitive construction.", "For example, many Afroasiatic languages place the head noun (rather than the modifying noun) in the construct state.Possessive grammatical constructions, including the possessive case, may be regarded as subsets of the genitive construction.", "For example, the genitive construction \"pack of dogs\" is similar, but not identical in meaning to the possessive case \"dogs' pack\" (and neither of these is entirely interchangeable with \"dog pack\", which is neither genitive nor possessive).", "Modern English is an example of a language that has a possessive case rather than a ''conventional'' genitive case.", "That is, Modern English indicates a genitive construction with either the possessive clitic suffix \"-\", or a prepositional genitive construction such as \"x of y\".", "However, some irregular English pronouns do have possessive forms which may more commonly be described as genitive (see English possessive).", "The names of the astronomical constellations have genitive forms which are used in star names, for example the star Mintaka in the constellation Orion (genitive Orionis) is also known as Delta Orionis or 34 Orionis.Many languages have a genitive case, including Albanian, Arabic, Armenian, Basque, Danish, Dutch, Estonian, Finnish, Georgian, German, Greek, Gothic, Hungarian, Icelandic, Irish, Latin, Latvian, Lithuanian, Romanian, Sanskrit, Scottish Gaelic, Swedish, Kannada, Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, Turkish and all Slavic languages except Macedonian." ], [ "Functions", "Depending on the language, specific varieties of genitive-noun–main-noun relationships may include:* possession (''see'' possessive case, possessed case):** inalienable possession (\"''Janet's'' height\", \"''Janet's'' existence\", \"''Janet's'' long fingers\")** alienable possession (\"''Janet's'' jacket\", \"''Janet's'' drink\")** relationship indicated by the noun being modified (\"''Janet's'' husband\")* composition (''see'' Partitive):** substance (\"a wheel ''of cheese''\")** elements (\"a group ''of men''\")** source (\"a portion ''of the food''\")* participation in an action:** as an agent (\"She benefited from ''her father's'' love\") – this is called the ''subjective genitive'' (Compare \"Her father loved her\", where ''Her father'' is the ''subject''.", ")** as a patient (\"the love ''of music''\")  – this is called the ''objective genitive'' (Compare \"She loves music\", where ''music'' is the ''object''.", ")* origin (\"men ''of Rome''\")* reference (\"the capital ''of the Republic''\" '''or''' \"''the Republic's'' capital\")* description (\"man ''of honour''\", \"day ''of reckoning''\")* compounds (\"''dooms''day\" (\"doom's day\"), Scottish Gaelic \"''ball coise''\" = \"football\", where \"''coise''\" = gen. of \"''cas''\", \"foot\")* apposition (e.g.", ")Depending on the language, some of the relationships mentioned above have their own distinct cases different from the genitive.Possessive pronouns are distinct pronouns, found in Indo-European languages such as English, that function like pronouns inflected in the genitive.", "They are considered separate pronouns if contrasting to languages where pronouns are regularly inflected in the genitive.", "For example, English ''my'' is either a separate possessive adjective or an irregular genitive of ''I'', while in Finnish, for example, ''minun'' is regularly agglutinated from ''minu-'' \"I\" and ''-n'' (genitive).In some languages, nouns in the genitive case also agree in case with the nouns they modify (that is, it is marked for two cases).", "This phenomenon is called suffixaufnahme.In some languages, nouns in the genitive case may be found in inclusio – that is, between the main noun's article and the noun itself." ], [ "English", "Old English had a genitive case, which has left its mark in modern English in the form of the possessive ending '''s'' (now sometimes referred to as the \"Saxon genitive\"), as well as possessive adjective forms such as ''his'', ''their'', etc., and in certain words derived from adverbial genitives such as ''once'' and ''afterwards''.", "(Other Old English case markers have generally disappeared completely.)", "The modern English possessive forms are not normally considered to represent a grammatical case, although they are sometimes referred to as genitives or as belonging to a possessive case.", "One of the reasons that the status of ''’s'' as a case ending is often rejected is that it does not behave as such, but rather as a clitic marking that indicates that a dependency relationship exists between phrases.", "One can say ''the King's war'', but also ''the King of France's war'', where the genitive marker is attached to the full noun phrase ''the King of France'', whereas case markers are normally attached to the head of a phrase.In languages having a true genitive case, such as Old English, this example may be expressed as ''þes cynges wyrre of France'', literally \"the King's war of France\", with the ''’s'' attaching to ''the King''." ], [ "Finnic genitives and accusatives", "Finnic languages (Finnish, Estonian, etc.)", "have genitive cases.In Finnish, prototypically the genitive is marked with ''-n'', e.g.", "''maa – maan'' \"country – of the country\".", "The stem may change, however, with consonant gradation and other reasons.", "For example, in certain words ending in consonants, ''-e-'' is added, e.g.", "''mies – miehen'' \"man – of the man\", and in some, but not all words ending in ''-i'', the ''-i'' is changed to an ''-e-'', to give ''-en'', e.g.", "''lumi – lumen'' \"snow – of the snow\".", "The genitive is used extensively, with animate and inanimate possessors.", "In addition to the genitive, there is also a partitive case (marked ''-ta/-tä'' or ''-a/-ä'') used for expressing that something is a part of a larger mass, e.g.", "''joukko miehiä'' \"a group of men\".In Estonian, the genitive marker ''-n'' has elided with respect to Finnish.", "Thus, the genitive always ends with a vowel, and the singular genitive is sometimes (in a subset of words ending with a vocal in nominative) identical in form to nominative.In Finnish, in addition to the uses mentioned above, there is a construct where the genitive is used to mark a surname.", "For example, ''Juhani Virtanen'' can be also expressed ''Virtasen Juhani'' (\"Juhani of the Virtanens\").A complication in Finnic languages is that the accusative case ''-(e)n'' is homophonic to the genitive case.", "This case does not indicate possession, but is a syntactic marker for the object, additionally indicating that the action is telic (completed).", "In Estonian, it is often said that only a \"genitive\" exists.", "However, the cases have completely different functions, and the form of the accusative has developed from *''-(e)m''.", "(The same sound change has developed into a synchronic mutation of a final ''m'' into ''n'' in Finnish, e.g.", "genitive ''sydämen'' vs. nominative ''sydän''.)", "This homophony has exceptions in Finnish, where a separate accusative ''-(e)t'' is found in pronouns, e.g.", "''kenet'' \"who (telic object)\", vs. ''kenen'' \"whose\".A difference is also observed in some of the related Sámi languages, where the pronouns and the plural of nouns in the genitive and accusative are easily distinguishable from each other, e.g., ''kuä'cǩǩmi'' \"eagles' (genitive plural)\" and ''kuä'cǩǩmid'' \"eagles (accusative plural)\" in Skolt Sami." ], [ "German", "=== Formation ======= Articles ====The genitive singular definite article for masculine and neuter nouns is , while the feminine and plural definite article is .", "The indefinite articles are for masculine and neuter nouns, and for feminine and plural nouns (although the bare form cannot be used in the plural, it manifests in , , etc.", ")==== Nouns ====Singular masculine and neuter nouns of the strong declension in the genitive case are marked with .", "Generally, one-syllable nouns favour the ending, and it is obligatory with nouns ending with a sibilant such as or .", "Otherwise, a simple ending is usual.", "Feminine and plural nouns remain uninflected:* (of the contribution) – masculine* (of the flower) – feminine* (of the country) – neuter* (of the trees) – pluralSingular masculine nouns (and one neuter noun) of the weak declension are marked with an (or rarely ) ending in the genitive case:* (of the raven) – masculine* (of the heart) – neuter==== Adjectives ====The declension of adjectives in the genitive case is as follows:Masculine & NeuterFeminine & PluralWith article With no article ==== Personal pronouns ====The genitive personal pronouns are quite rare and either very formal, literary or outdated.", "They are as follows (with comparison to the nominative pronouns):NominativeGenitive (I) (you sg.)", "(he) (it) (we) (you pl.)", "(you formal sg./pl.)", "(she/they)Some examples:* (Would you go instead ''of me''?", ")* (We are not worthy ''of her/them'')* (I will commemorate ''you'')==== Relative pronouns ====Unlike the personal ones, the genitive relative pronouns are in regular use and are as follows (with comparison to the nominative relative pronouns):NominativeGenitiveMasculine NeuterFeminine & PluralSome examples:* (Do you know the student ''whose'' mother is a witch?)", "– masculine* (She is the woman ''whose'' husband is a racer) – feminine=== Usage ======= Nouns ====The genitive case is often used to show possession or the relation between nouns:* (the colour ''of the'' ''sky'')* (Germany lies in the heart ''of Europe'')* (the death ''of his wife'')* (the development ''of these countries'')A simple is added to the end of a name:* (''Claudia's'' book)==== Prepositions ====The genitive case is also commonly found after certain prepositions:* (within ''a day'')* (instead ''of the shirt'')* (during ''our absence'')* (beyond ''the mountains'')==== Adjectives ====The genitive case can sometimes be found in connection with certain adjectives:* (We are aware ''of that'')* (He is guilty ''of theft'')* (The child is in need ''of calmness'')* (I am growing weary ''of this life'')==== Verbs ====The genitive case is occasionally found in connection with certain verbs (some of which require an accusative before the genitive); they are mostly either formal or legal:* (The city enjoys ''a favourable climate'')* (Remember ''those who died'' in (the) war)* (Who accused him ''of murder''?", ")* (Someone suspects you ''of (committing) fraud'')" ], [ "Greek", "The ablative case of Indo-European was absorbed into the genitive in Classical Greek.", "This added to the usages of the \"genitive proper\", the usages of the \"ablatival genitive\".", "The genitive occurs with verbs, adjectives, adverbs and prepositions.See also Genitive absolute." ], [ "Hungarian", "The Hungarian genitive is constructed using the suffix ''-é''.", "*''madár'' ('bird'); ''madáré'' ('bird's')The genitive ''-é'' suffix is only used with the predicate of a sentence: it serves the role of mine, yours, hers, etc.", "The possessed object is left in the nominative case.", "For example:*''A csőr a madáré'' ('The beak is the bird's').If the possessor is not the predicate of the sentence, the genitive is not used.", "Instead, the possessive suffixes (''-(j)e'' or ''-(j)a'' in the third person singular, depending on vowel harmony) mark the possessed object.", "The possessor is left in the nominative if it directly precedes the possessed object (otherwise it takes a dative ''-nak/-nek'' suffix).", "For example: *''csőr'' ('beak'); ''csőre'' ('its beak')*''a madár csőre''/''csőre a madárnak'' ('the bird's beak')In addition, the suffix ''-i'' ('of') is also used.", "For example:*''madár'' ('bird'); ''madári'' ('avian', 'of bird(s)')" ], [ "Japanese", "The Japanese possessive is constructed by using the grammatical particle ''no'' の to make the genitive case.", "For example::Nominative: 猫 ''neko'' ('cat'); 手 ''te'' ('hand, paw'):Genitive: 猫の手 ''neko-no te'' ('cat's paw')It also uses the suffix ''-na'' 〜な for adjectival noun; in some analyses adjectival nouns are simply nouns that take ''-na'' in the genitive, forming a complementary distribution (''-no'' and ''-na'' being allomorphs).The archaic genitive case particle ''-ga'' ～が is still retained in certain expressions, place names, and dialects.", "Possessive ''ga'' can also be written as a small ke (), for example in .Typically, languages have nominative case nouns converting into genitive case.", "It has been found, however, that the Kansai dialect of Japanese will in rare cases allow accusative case to convert to genitive, if specific conditions are met in the clause in which the conversion appears.", "This is referred to as \"Accusative-Genitive conversion.\"" ], [ "Latin", "The genitive is one of the cases of nouns and pronouns in Latin.", "Latin genitives still have certain modern scientific uses:*Scientific names of living things sometimes contain genitives, as in the plant name ''Buddleja davidii'', meaning \"David's buddleia\".", "Here ''davidii'' is the genitive of ''Davidius'', a Latinized version of the Hebrew name.", "It is not capitalized because it is the second part of a binomial name.", "*Names of astronomical constellations are Latin, and the genitives of their names are used in naming objects in those constellations, as in the Bayer designation of stars.", "For example, the brightest star in the constellation Virgo is called ''Alpha Virginis'', which is to say \"Alpha of Virgo\", as ''virginis'' is the genitive of ''virgō''.", "Plural forms and adjectives also decline accordingly: plural ''Alpha Piscium'' (Pisces) and ''Alpha Canum Venaticorum'' (Canes Venatici) versus singular ''Alpha Piscis Austrini'' (Piscis Austrinus) and ''Alpha Canis Majoris'' (Canis Major).", "Astronomy manuals often list the genitive forms, as some are easy to get wrong even with a basic knowledge of Latin, e.g.", "Vela, which is a neuter plural not a feminine singular: ''Delta Velorum'' not *''Delta Velae''.", "* ''Modus operandi'', which can be translated to English as \"mode of operation\", in which ''operandi'' is a singular genitive gerund (i.e.", "\"of operation\"), not a plural of ''operandus'' as is sometimes mistakenly assumed." ], [ "Irish", "The Irish language also uses a genitive case (''tuiseal ginideach'').", "For example, in the phrase ''bean an tí'' (woman of the house), ''tí'' is the genitive case of ''teach'', meaning \"house\".", "Another example is ''barr an chnoic'', \"top of the hill\", where ''cnoc'' means \"hill\", but is changed to ''chnoic'', which also incorporates lenition." ], [ "Mandarin", "In Mandarin Chinese, the genitive case is made by use of the particle 的 (de).However, about persons in relation to oneself, 的 is often dropped when the context allows for it to be easily understood." ], [ "Persian", "Old Persian had a true genitive case inherited from Proto-Indo-European.", "By the time of Middle Persian, the genitive case had been lost and replaced by an analytical construction which is now called Ezāfe.", "This construction was inherited by New Persian, and was also later borrowed into numerous other Iranic, Turkic and Indo-Aryan languages of Western and South Asia." ], [ "Semitic languages", "Genitive case marking existed in Proto-Semitic, Akkadian, and Ugaritic.", "It indicated possession, and it is preserved today only in Arabic.===Akkadian===:Nominative: ''šarrum'' (king):Genitive: ''aššat šarrim'' (wife of king = king's wife)===Arabic===Called المجرور ''al-majrūr'' (meaning \"dragged\") in Arabic, the genitive case functions both as an indication of ownership (ex.", "the door '''of the house''') and for nouns following a preposition.", ":Nominative: ٌبيت ''baytun'' (a house):Genitive: ٍبابُ بيت ''bābu baytin'' (door of a house) ِبابُ البيت ''bābu l-bayti'' (door of the house)The Arabic genitive marking also appears after prepositions.:e.g.", "ٍبابٌ لبيت ''bābun li-baytin'' (a door '''for''' a house)The Semitic genitive should not be confused with the pronominal possessive suffixes that exist in all the Semitic languages:e.g.", "Arabic بيتي ''bayt-ī'' (my house) َكتابُك ''kitābu-ka'' (your masc.", "book)." ], [ "Slavic languages", "With the exception of Bulgarian and Macedonian, all Slavic languages decline the nouns and adjectives in accordance with the genitive case using a variety of endings depending on the word's lexical category, its gender, number (singular or plural) and in some cases meaning.", "For instance, in Russian Broutona (lit.", "Broughton's) island name, its genitive/possessive case is created by adding ''a'' affix to the explorer's name.===Possessives===To indicate possession the ending of the noun indicating the possessor changes depending on the word's ending in the nominative case.", "For example, to ''a, u, i'', or ''y'' in Polish, ''а, я, ы'', or ''и'' in Russian, ''а, я, y, ю, і, и'' or ''ей'' in Ukrainian, and similar cases in other Slavic languages.", ":Nominative: (pol.)", "\"Oto Anton\" / (rus.)", "\"Вот Антон\" / (ukr.)", "\"Ось Антон\" (\"Here is Anton\").", ":Genitive: (pol.)", "\"Oto obiad Anton'''а'''\" / (rus.)", "\"Вот обед Антон'''а'''\" / (ukr.)", "\"Ось oбід Антон'''а'''\" (\"Here is Anton's lunch\").Possessives can also be formed by the construction (pol.)", "\"u subject jest object\" / (rus.)", "\"У subject есть object\"/ (ukr.)", "\"у(в) subject є object\":Nominative: (pol.)", "\"Oto Anton\" / (rus.)", "\"Вот Антон\" / (ukr.)", "\"Ось Антон\" (\"Here is Anton\").", ":Genitive: (pol.)", "\"u Anton'''а''' jest obiad / (rus.)", "\"У Антон'''а''' есть обед\" / (ukr.)", "\"У(В) Антон'''а''' є обід\" (\"Anton has a lunch\", literally: \"(There) is a lunch at Anton's\").In sentences where the possessor includes an associated pronoun, the pronoun also changes::Nominative: (pol.)", "Oto mój brat / (rus.)", "\"Вот мой брат\"/ (ukr.)", "\"От мій брат\" (\"Here is my brother\").", ":Genitive: (pol.)", "\"u moj'''ego''' brat'''а''' jest obiad / (rus.)", "\"У мо'''его''' брат'''а''' есть обед\" / (ukr.)", "\"У мо'''го''' брат'''а''' є обід\" (\"My brother has a lunch\", literally: \"(There) is a lunch at my_brother's\").And in sentences denoting negative possession, the ending of the object noun also changes::Nominative: (pol.)", "\"Oto Irena\" / (rus.)", "\"Вот Ирена\" / (ukr.)", "\"От Ірена\" (\"Here is Irene\").", ":Genitive: (pol.)", "\"Irena nie ma obiad'''u''' (\"Irene does not have a lunch\") or (pol.)", "\"u Iren'''y''' nie ma obiad'''u''' (\"(There) is no lunch at Irene's\") The Polish phrase \"nie ma object\" can work both as a negation of having object or a negation of an existence of object, but the meaning of the two sentences and its structure is different.", "(In the first case subject is Irene, and in the second case subject is virtual, it is \"the space\" at Irene's place, not Irene herself):Genitive: (rus.)", "\"У Ирен'''ы''' нет обед'''а'''\" (\"Irene does not have a lunch\", literally: \"(There) is no lunch at Irene's\").", "The Russian word \"нет\" is a contraction of \"не\" + \"есть\".", "In Russian there is no distinction between subject not having an object and object not being present at subject's.", ":Genitive: (ukr.)", "\"Ірена не має обід'''у''' (\"Irene does not have a lunch\") or (ukr.)", "\"y Ірен'''и''' нема(є) обід'''у''' (\"At Irene's does not have a lunch\") Note the difference between the spelling \"не має object\" and \"нема(є) object\" in both cases.===To express negation===The genitive case is also used in sentences expressing negation, even when no possessive relationship is involved.", "The ending of the subject noun changes just as it does in possessive sentences.", "The genitive, in this sense, can only be used to negate nominative, accusative and genitive sentences, and not other cases.", ":Nominative: (pol.)", "\"(Czy) Maria jest w domu?\"", "/ (rus.)", "\"Мария дома?\"", "/ (Чи) Марія (є) вдома?", "(\"Is Maria at home?\").", ":Genitive: (pol.)", "\"Mari'''i''' nie ma w domu\" (\"Maria is not at home\", literally: \"virtual subject has no Maria at home\"):Genitive: (rus.)", "\"Мари'''и''' нет дома\" (\"Maria is not at home\", literally: \"Of Maria there is none at home.\").", ":Genitive: (ukr.)", "\"Марі'''ї''' нема(є) вдома\" (\"Maria is not at home\", literally: \"virtual subject has no Maria at home.", "\"):Accusative: (pol.)", "\"Mogę rozczytać twoje pismo\" / (rus.)", "Могу (про)читать твой почерк / (ukr.)", "Можу (про)читати твій почерк (\"I can read your handwriting\"):Genitive: (pol.)", "\"Nie mogę rozczytać twoj'''ego''' pism'''a'''\" / (rus.)", "\"Не могу (про)читать тво'''его''' почерк'''а'''\" / (ukr.)", "\"Не можу (про)читати тво'''го''' почерк'''у'''\" (\"I can't read your handwriting\")Use of genitive for negation is obligatory in Slovene, Polish and Old Church Slavonic.", "Some East Slavic languages ( e.g.", "Russian and Belarusian) employ either the accusative or genitive for negation, although the genitive is more commonly used.", "In Czech, Slovak and Serbo-Croatian, negating with the genitive case is perceived as rather archaic and the accusative is preferred, but genitive negation in these languages is still not uncommon, especially in music and literature.===Partial direct object===The genitive case is used with some verbs and mass nouns to indicate that the action covers only a part of the direct object (having a function of non-existing partitive case), whereas similar constructions using the Accusative case denote full coverage.", "Compare the sentences::Genitive: (pol.)", "\"Napiłem się wod'''y'''\" / (rus.)", "\"Я напился вод'''ы'''\" / (ukr.)", "\"Я напився вод'''и'''\" (\"I drank water,\" i.e.", "\"I drank some water, part of the water available\"):Accusative: (pol.)", "\"Wypiłem wod'''ę'''\" / (rus.)", "\"Я выпил вод'''у''' / (ukr.)", "\"Я випив вод'''у''' (\"I drank '''the''' water,\" i.e.", "\"I drank all the water, all the water in question\")In Russian, special partitive case or sub-case is observed for some uncountable nouns which in some contexts have preferred alternative form on -у/ю instead of standard genitive on -а/я: выпил ча'''ю''' ('drank some tea'), but сорта ча'''я''' ('sorts of tea').===Prepositional constructions===The genitive case is also used in many prepositional constructions.", "(Usually when some movement or change of state is involved, and when describing the source / destination of the movement.", "Sometimes also when describing the manner of acting.)", "*Czech prepositions using genitive case: od (from), z, ze (from), do (into), bez (without), kromě (excepting), místo (instead of), podle (after, according to), podél (along), okolo (around), u (near, by), vedle (beside), během (during), pomocí (using, by the help of), stran (as regards) etc.", "*Polish prepositions using genitive case: od (from), z, ze (from), do, w (into), na (onto), bez (without), zamiast (instead of), wedle (after, according to), wzdłuż (along), około (around), u (near, by), koło (beside), podczas (during), etc.", "*Russian prepositions using genitive case: от (from), с, со (from), до (before, up to), без (without), кроме (excepting), вместо (instead of), после (after), вдоль (along), около (around), у (near, by), во время (during), насчёт (regarding), etc." ], [ "Turkish", "The Turkish genitive, formed with a genitive suffix for the possessor, is used in combination with a possessive for the possessed entity, formed with a possessive suffix.", "For example, in \"my mother's mother\", the possessor is \"my mother\", and the possessed entity is \"her mother\".", "In Turkish::Nominative: ''anne'' (\"mother\");:First-person possessive: ''annem'' (\"my mother\");:Third-person possessive: ''annesi'' (\"someone's mother\"); :Genitive of ''annem'': ''annemin'' (\"my mother's\");:Genitive and possessive combined: ''annemin annesi'' (\"my mother's mother\", i.e., \"my maternal grandmother\")." ], [ "Albanian", "The genitive in Albanian is formed with the help of clitics.", "For example::Nominative: ''libër'' ('book'); ''vajzë'' ('girl'); :Genitive: ''libri i vajzës'' (the girl's book)If the possessed object is masculine, the clitic is ''i''.", "If the possessed object is feminine, the clitic is ''e''.", "If the possessed object is plural, the clitic is ''e'' regardless of the gender.The genitive is used with some prepositions: ''me anë'' ('by means of'), ''nga ana'' ('on behalf of', 'from the side of'), ''për arsye'' ('due to'), ''për shkak'' ('because of'), ''me përjashtim'' ('with the exception of'), ''në vend'' ('instead of')." ], [ "Armenian", "The genitive in Armenian is generally formed by adding \"-ի\":Nominative: աղջիկ ('girl'); գիրք ('book');Genitive: աղջիկի գիրքը (\"the girl's book\").However, there are certain words that are not formed this way.", "For example, words with ուն change to ան:Nominative: տուն ('house'), Genitive: տան (\"house's\")." ], [ "Dravidian languages", "===Kannada===In Kannada, the genitive case-endings are:for masculine or feminine nouns ending in \"ಅ\" (a): ನ (na)* Examples: ''sūrya-na'' ('of the sun')for neuter nouns ending in \"ಅ\" (a): ದ (da)* Examples: ''mara-da'' ('of the tree')for all nouns ending in \"ಇ\" (i), \"ಈ\" (ī), \"ಎ\" (e), or \"ಏ\" (ē): ಅ (a)* Examples: ''mane-y-a'' ('of the house'; a linking \"y\" is added between the stem and the suffix)for all nouns ending in \"ಉ\" (u), \"ಊ\" (ū), \"ಋ\" (r̥), or \"ೠ\" (r̥̄): ಇನ (ina)* Examples; ''guru-v-ina'' ('of the teacher'; a linking \"v\" is added between the stem and the suffix)Most postpositions in Kannada take the genitive case.===Tamil===In Tamil, the genitive case ending is the word உடைய or இன், which signifies possession.", "Depending on the last letter of the noun, the genitive case endings may vary.If the last letter is a consonant (மெய் எழுத்து), like க், ங், ச், ஞ், ட், ண், த், ந், ப், ம், ய், ர், ல், வ், ழ், then the suffix உடைய/இன் gets added.", "*Examples: His: அவன் + உடைய = அவனுடைய, Doctor's: மருத்துவர் + உடைய = மருத்துவருடைய, மருத்துவர் + இன் = மருத்துவரின் Kumar's: குமார் + உடைய = குமாருடைய, குமார்+ இன் = குமாரின்" ], [ "See also", "*Genitive construction*Possessive case" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* German genitive case A lesson covering the genitive case in the German language*Russian genitive: , , * Genitive Case In Arabic" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gematria" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gematria''' (; or gimatria , plural or , ) is the practice of assigning a numerical value to a name, word or phrase by reading it as a number, or sometimes by using an alphanumerical cipher.", "The letters of the alphabets involved have standard numerical values, but a word can yield several values if a cipher is used.Table of correspondences from Carl Faulmann's (1880), showing glyph variants for Phoenician letters and numbers.According to Aristotle (384–322 BCE), isopsephy, based on the Milesian numbering of the Greek alphabet developed in the Greek city of Miletus, was part of the Pythagorean tradition, which originated in the 6th century BCE.", "The first evidence of use of Hebrew letters as numbers dates to 78 BCE; gematria is still used in Jewish culture.", "Similar systems have been used in other languages and cultures, derived from or inspired by either Greek isopsephy or Hebrew gematria, and include Arabic abjad numerals and English gematria.The most common form of Hebrew gematria is used in the Talmud and Midrash, and elaborately by many post-Talmudic commentators.", "It involves reading words and sentences as numbers, assigning numerical instead of phonetic value to each letter of the Hebrew alphabet.", "When read as numbers, they can be compared and contrasted with other words or phrases – cf.", "the Hebrew proverb (, , i.e.", ").", "The gematric value of ('wine') is 70 (=10; =10; =50) and this is also the gematric value of ('secret', =60; =6; =4)‎.Although a type of gematria system ('Aru') was employed by the ancient Babylonian culture, their writing script was logographic, and the numerical assignments they made were to whole words.", "Aru was very different from the Milesian systems used by Greek and Hebrew cultures, which used alphabetic writing scripts.", "The value of words with Aru were assigned in an entirely arbitrary manner and correspondences were made through tables, and so cannot be considered a true form of gematria.Gematria sums can involve single words, or a string of lengthy calculations.", "A short example of Hebrew numerology that uses gematria is the word (, ), which is composed of two letters that (using the assignments in the table shown below) add up to 18.This has made 18 a \"lucky number\" among the Jewish people.In early Jewish sources, the term can also refer to other forms of calculation or letter manipulation, for example atbash." ], [ "Etymology", "Classical scholars agree that the Hebrew word ''gematria'' was derived from the Greek word γεωμετρία ''geōmetriā'', \"geometry\", though some scholars believe it to derive from Greek γραμματεια ''grammateia'' \"knowledge of writing\".", "It is likely that both Greek words had an influence on the formation of the Hebrew word.", "Some hold it to derive from the order of the Greek alphabet, gamma being the third letter of the Greek alphabet (\"gamma tria\").The word has been extant in English since at least the 17th century from translations of works by Giovanni Pico della Mirandola.", "It is largely used in Jewish texts, notably in those associated with the Kabbalah.", "Neither the concept nor the term appears in the Hebrew Bible itself." ], [ "History", "The first documented use of gematria is from an Assyrian inscription dating to the 8th century BCE, commissioned by Sargon II.", "In this inscription, Sargon II states: \"the king built the wall of Khorsabad 16,283 cubits long to correspond with the numerical value of his name.", "\"The practice of using alphabetic letters to represent numbers developed in the Greek city of Miletus, and is thus known as the Milesian system.", "Early examples include vase graffiti dating to the 6th century BCE.", "Aristotle wrote that the Pythgoraean tradition, founded in the 6th century BCE by Pythagoras of Samos, practiced isopsephy, the Greek predecessor of gematria.", "Pythagoras was a contemporary of the philosophers Anaximander, Anaximenes, and the historian Hecataeus, all of whom lived in Miletus, across the sea from Samos.", "The Milesian system was in common use by the reign of Alexander the Great (336–323 BCE) and was adopted by other cultures during the subsequent Hellenistic period.", "It was officially adopted in Egypt during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (284–246 BCE).In early biblical texts, numbers were written out in full using Hebrew number words.", "The first evidence of the use of Hebrew letters as numerals appears during the late Hellenistic period, in 78 BCE.", "Scholars have identified gematria in the Hebrew Bible, the canon of which was fixed during the Hasmonean dynasty (c. 140 BCE to 37 BCE), though some scholars argue it was not fixed until the second century CE or even later.", "The Hasmonean king of Judea, Alexander Jannaeus (died 76 BCE) had coins inscribed in Aramaic with the Phoenician alphabet, marking the 20th and 25th years of his reign using the letters K and KE (למלכא אלכסנדרוס שנת כ and למלכא אלכסנדרוס שנת כה).Some old Mishnaic texts may preserve very early usage of this number system, but no surviving written documents exist, and some scholars believe these texts were passed down orally and during the early stages before the Bar Kochba rebellion were never written.", "Gematria is not known to be found in the Dead Sea scrolls, a vast body of texts from 100 BCE-100 CE, or in any of the documents found from the Bar-Kochba revolt circa 150 CE.According to Proclus in his commentary on the ''Timaeus'' of Plato written in the 5th century, the author Theodorus Asaeus from a century earlier interpreted the word \"soul\" (ψυχή) based on gematria and an inspection of the graphical aspects of the letters that make up the word.", "According to Proclus, Theodorus learned these methods from the writings of Numenius of Apamea and Amelius.", "Proclus rejects these methods by appealing to the arguments against them put forth by the Neoplatonic philosopher Iamblichus.", "The first argument was that some letters have the same numerical value but opposite meaning.", "His second argument was that the form of letters changes over the years, and so their graphical qualities cannot hold any deeper meaning.", "Finally, he puts forth the third argument that when you use all sorts of methods as addition, subtraction, division, multiplication, and even ratios, the sheer infinite ways to combine them will allow you to produce virtually every number for anything you are investigating.Some scholars propose that at least two cases of gematria appear in the New Testament.", "According to one theory, the reference to the miraculous \"catch of 153 fish\" in John 21:11 is an application of gematria derived from the name of the spring called 'EGLaIM in Ezekiel 47:10.The appearance of this gematria in John 21:11 has been connected to one of the Dead Sea Scrolls, namely 4Q252, which also applies the same gematria of 153 derived from Ezekiel 47 to state that Noah arrived at Mount Ararat on the 153rd day after the beginning of the flood.", "Some historians see gematria behind the reference to the number of the name of the Beast in Revelation as 666, which corresponds to the numerical value of the Hebrew transliteration of the Greek name \"Neron Kaisar\", referring to the 1st century Roman emperor who persecuted the early Christians.", "Another possible influence on the use of 666 in Revelation goes back to reference to Solomon's intake of 666 talents of gold in 1 Kings 10:14.Gematria makes several appearances in various Christian and Jewish texts written in the first centuries of the common era.", "One appearance of gematria in the early Christian period is in the Epistle of Barnabas 9:6–7, which dates to sometime between 70 and 132 CE.", "There, the 318 servants of Abraham in Genesis 14:14 is used to indicate that Abraham looked forward to the coming of Jesus as the numerical value of some of the letters in the Greek name for Jesus as well as the 't' representing a symbol for the cross also equaled 318.Another example is a Christian interpolation in the Sibylline Oracles, where the symbolic significance of the value of 888 (equal to the numerical value of ''Iesous'', the Latinized rendering of the Greek version of Jesus' name) is asserted.", "Irenaeus also heavily criticized the interpretation of letters by the Gnostic Marcus.", "Because of their association with Gnosticism and the criticisms of Irenaeus as well as Hippolytus of Rome and Epiphanius of Salamis, this form of interpretation never became popular in Christianity—though it does appear in at least some texts.", "Another two examples can be found in 3 Baruch, a text that may have either been composed by a Jew or a Christian sometime between the 1st and 3rd centuries.", "In the first example, a snake is stated to consume a cubit of ocean every day, but is unable to ever finish consuming it, because the oceans are also refilled by 360 rivers.", "The number 360 is given because the numerical value of the Greek word for snake, ''δράκων'', when transliterated to Hebrew (''דרקון'') is 360.In a second example, the number of giants stated to have died during the Deluge is 409,000.The Greek word for 'deluge', ''κατακλυσμός'', has a numerical value of 409 when transliterated in Hebrew characters, thus leading the author of 3 Baruch to use it for the number of perished giants.Gematria is often used in Rabbinic literature.", "One example is that the numerical value of \"''The Satan\"'' (השטן) in Hebrew is 364, and so it was said that the Satan had authority to prosecute Israel for 364 days before his reign ended on the Day of Atonement, an idea which appears in Yoma 20a and Peskita 7a.", "Yoma 20a states: \"Rami bar Ḥama said: The numerological value of the letters that constitute the word HaSatan is three hundred and sixty four: Heh has a value of five, sin has a value of three hundred, tet has a value of nine, and nun has a value of fifty.", "Three hundred and sixty-four days of the solar year, which is three hundred and sixty-five days long, Satan has license to prosecute.\"", "Genesis 14:14 states that Abraham took 318 of his servants to help him rescue some of his kinsmen, which was taken in Peskita 70b to be a reference to Eleazar, whose name has a numerical value of 318.The total value of the letters of the Islamic Basmala, i.e.", "the phrase ''Bismillah al-Rahman al-Rahim'' (\"In the name of God, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful\"), according to the standard Abjadi system of numerology, is 786.This number has therefore acquired a significance in folk Islam and Near Eastern folk magic and also appears in many instances of pop-culture, such as its appearance in the 2006 song '786 All is War' by the band Fun-Da-Mental.", "A recommendation of reciting the basmala 786 times in sequence is recorded in Al-Buni.", "Sündermann (2006) reports that a contemporary \"spiritual healer\" from Syria recommends the recitation of the basmala 786 times over a cup of water, which is then to be ingested as medicine.", "The use of gematria is still pervasive in many parts of Asia and Africa." ], [ "Methods of Hebrew gematria", "===Standard encoding===In standard gematria (''mispar hechrechi''), each letter is given a numerical value between 1 and 400, as shown in the following table.", "In ''mispar gadol'', the five final letters are given their own values, ranging from 500 to 900.It is possible that this well-known cipher was used to conceal other more hidden ciphers in Jewish texts.", "For instance, a scribe may discuss a sum using the 'standard gematria' cipher, but may intend the sum to be checked with a different secret cipher.", "Decimal Hebrew Glyph 1 ''Aleph'' 2 ''Bet'' 3 ''Gimel'' 4 ''Dalet'' 5 ''He'' 6 ''Vav'' 7 ''Zayin'' 8 ''Het'' 9 ''Tet'' Decimal Hebrew Glyph 10 ''Yod'' 20 ''Kaf'' 30 ''Lamed'' 40 ''Mem'' 50 ''Nun'' 60 ''Samekh'' 70 ''Ayin'' 80 ''Pe'' 90 ''Tsadi'' Decimal Hebrew Glyph 100 ''Kof'' 200 ''Resh'' 300 ''Shin'' 400 ''Tav'' 500 ''Kaf (final)'' 600 ''Mem (final)'' 700 ''Nun (final)'' 800 ''Pe (final)'' 900 ''Tsadi (final)'' A mathematical formula for finding a letter's corresponding number in ''mispar gadol'' is::where ''x'' is the position of the letter in the language letters index (regular order of letters), and the floor and modulo functions are used.===Vowels===The value of the Hebrew vowels is not usually counted, but some lesser-known methods include the vowels as well.", "The most common vowel values are as follows (a less common alternative value, based on the digit sum, is given in parentheses): Decimal Vowel Glyph 6 ''Patach'' 10 (1) ''Hiriq'' ''Holam'' ''Shuruk'' Decimal Vowel Glyph 16 (7) ''Kamatz'' 20 (2) ''Zeire'' ''Sh'va'' 26 (8) ''Reduced patach'' Decimal Vowel Glyph 30 (3) ''Segol'' ''Kubutz'' 36 (9) ''Reduced kamatz'' 50 (5) ''Reduced segol'' Sometimes, the names of the vowels are spelled out and their gematria is calculated using standard methods.===Other methods===There are many different methods used to calculate the numerical value for the individual Hebrew/Aramaic words, phrases or whole sentences.", "Gematria is the 29th of 32 hermeneutical rules countenanced by the Rabbis of the Talmud for valid aggadic interpretation of the Torah.", "More advanced methods are usually used for the most significant Biblical verses, prayers, names of God, etc.", "These methods include:* ''Mispar hechrachi'' (absolute value) is the standard method.", "It assigns the values 1–9, 10–90, 100–400 to the 22 Hebrew letters in order.", "Sometimes it is also called ''mispar ha-panim'' (face number), as opposed to the more complicated ''mispar ha-akhor'' (back number).", "* ''Mispar gadol'' (large value) counts the final forms (sofit) of the Hebrew letters as a continuation of the numerical sequence for the alphabet, with the final letters assigned values from 500 to 900.The name ''mispar gadol'' is sometimes used for a different method, ''Otiyot beMilui''.", "* The same name, ''mispar gadol'', is also used for another method, which spells the name of each letter and adds the standard values of the resulting string.", "For example, the letter ''aleph'' is spelled ''aleph lamed peh'', giving it a value of .", "* ''Mispar katan'' (small value) calculates the value of each letter, but truncates all of the zeros.", "It is also sometimes called ''mispar me'ugal''.", "* ''Mispar siduri'' (ordinal value) with each of the 22 letters given a value from 1 to 22.", "* ''Mispar bone'eh'' (building value, also ''revu'a'', square) is calculated by walking over each letter from the beginning to the end, adding the value of all previous letters and the value of the current letter to the running total.", "Therefore, the value of the word ''achad'' (one) is .", "* ''Mispar kidmi'' (preceding value) uses each letter as the sum of all the standard gematria letter values preceding it.", "Therefore, the value of ''aleph'' is 1, the value of ''bet'' is 1+2=3, the value of ''gimel'' is 1+2+3=6, etc.", "It is also known as ''mispar meshulash'' (triangular or tripled number).", "* ''Mispar p'rati'' calculates the value of each letter as the square of its standard gematria value.", "Therefore, the value of ''aleph'' is 1 × 1 = 1, the value of ''bet'' is 2 × 2 = 4, the value of ''gimel'' is 3 × 3 = 9, etc.", "It is also known as ''mispar ha-merubah ha-prati''.", "* ''Mispar ha-merubah ha-klali'' is the square of the standard absolute value of each word.", "* ''Mispar meshulash'' calculates the value of each letter as the cube of their standard value.", "The same term is more often used for ''mispar kidmi''.", "* ''Mispar ha-akhor'' – The value of each letter is its standard value multiplied by the position of the letter in a word or a phrase in either ascending or descending order.", "This method is particularly interesting, because the result is sensitive to the order of letters.", "It is also sometimes called ''mispar meshulash'' (triangular number).", "* ''Mispar mispari'' spells out the standard values of each letter by their Hebrew names (\"achad\" (one) is etc.", "), and then adds up the standard values of the resulting string.", "* ''Otiyot be-milui'' (\"filled letters\", also known as ''mispar gadol'' or ''mispar shemi''), uses the value of each letter as equal to the value of its name.", "For example, the value of the letter ''aleph'' is , ''bet'' is , etc.", "Sometimes the same operation is applied two or more times recursively.", "In a variation known as ''otiyot pnimiyot'' (inner letters), the initial letter in the spelled-out name is omitted, thus the value of ''aleph'' becomes 30+80=110.", "* ''Mispar ne'elam'' (hidden number) spells out the name of each letter without the letter itself (e.g., \"leph\" for ''aleph'') and adds up the value of the resulting string.", "* ''Mispar katan mispari'' (integral reduced value) is used where the total numerical value of a word is reduced to a single digit.", "If the sum of the value exceeds 9, the integer values of the total are repeatedly added to produce a single-digit number.", "The same value will be arrived at regardless of whether it is the absolute values, the ordinal values, or the reduced values that are being counted by methods above.", "For example, the value of word ''emet'' (truth - אֶמֶת) is ''aleph'' + ''mem'' + ''tav'': , ''Emet - Emet'' is , ''emet - emet - emet'' is , etc* ''Mispar musafi'' adds the number of the letters in the word or phrase to their gematria.", "* ''Kolel'' is the number of words, which is often added to the gematria.", "In case of one word, the standard value is incremented by one.===Related transformations===Within the wider topic of gematria are included the various alphabet transformations, where one letter is substituted by another based on a logical scheme:* ''Atbash'' exchanges each letter in a word or a phrase by ''opposite'' letters.", "Opposite letters are determined by substituting the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet (''aleph'') with the last letter (''tav''), the second letter (''bet'') with the next to last (''shin''), etc.", "The result can be interpreted as a secret message or calculated by the standard gematria methods.", "A few instances of ''atbash'' are found already in the Hebrew Bible.", "For example, see Jeremiah 25:26, and 51:41, with Targum and Rashi, in which the name ששך (\"Sheshek\") is thought to represent בבל (Babylon).", "* ''Albam'' – the alphabet is divided in half, eleven letters in each section.", "The first letter of the first series is exchanged for the first letter of the second series, the second letter of the first series for the second letter of the second series, and so forth.", "* ''Achbi'' divides the alphabet into two equal groups of 11 letters.", "Within each group, the first letter is replaced by the last, the second by the 10th, etc.", "* ''Ayak bakar'' replaces each letter by another one that has a 10-times-greater value.", "The final letters usually signify the numbers from 500 to 900.Thousands is reduced to ones (1,000 becomes 1, 2,000 becomes 2, etc.", ")* ''Ofanim'' replaces each letter by the last letter of its name (e.g.", "''peh'' for ''aleph'').", "* ''Akhas beta'' divides the alphabet into three groups of 7, 7 and 8 letters.", "Each letter is replaced cyclically by the corresponding letter of the next group.", "The letter Tav remains the same.", "* ''Avgad'' replaces each letter by the next one.", "''Tav'' becomes ''aleph''.", "The opposite operation is also used.Most of the above-mentioned methods and ciphers are listed by Rabbi Moshe Cordevero.Some authors provide lists of as many as 231 various replacement ciphers, related to the 231 mystical Gates of the ''Sefer Yetzirah''.Dozens of other far more advanced methods are used in Kabbalistic literature, without any particular names.", "In Ms. Oxford 1,822, one article lists 75 different forms of gematria.", "Some known methods are recursive in nature and are reminiscent of graph theory or make a lot of use of combinatorics.", "Rabbi Elazar Rokeach (born c. 1176 – died 1238) often used multiplication, instead of addition, for the above-mentioned methods.", "For example, spelling out the letters of a word and then multiplying the squares of each letter value in the resulting string produces very large numbers, in orders of trillions.", "The spelling process can be applied recursively, until a certain pattern (e.g., all the letters of the word \"Talmud\") is found; the gematria of the resulting string is then calculated.", "The same author also used the sums of all possible unique letter combinations, which add up to the value of a given letter.", "For example, the letter Hei, which has the standard value of 5, can be produced by combining , , , , , or , which adds up to .", "Sometimes combinations of repeating letters are not allowed (e.g., is valid, but is not).", "The original letter itself can also be viewed as a valid combination.Variant spellings of some letters can be used to produce sets of different numbers, which can be added up or analyzed separately.", "Many various complex formal systems and recursive algorithms, based on graph-like structural analysis of the letter names and their relations to each other, modular arithmetic, pattern search and other highly advanced techniques, are found in the \"Sefer ha-Malchut\" by Rabbi David ha-Levi of the Draa Valley, a Spanish-Moroccan Kabbalist of the 15th–16th century.", "Rabbi David ha-Levi's methods also consider the numerical values and other properties of the vowels.Kabbalistic astrology uses some specific methods to determine the astrological influences on a particular person.", "According to one method, the gematria of the person's name is added to the gematria of his or her mother's name; the result is then divided by 7 and 12.The remainders signify a particular planet and Zodiac sign.===Transliterated Hebrew===Historically, hermetic and esoteric groups of the 19th and 20th centuries in the UK and in France used a transliterated Hebrew cipher with the Latin alphabet.", "In particular, the transliterated cipher was taught to members of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.", "In 1887, S.L.", "MacGregor Mathers, who was one of the order's founders, published the transliterated cipher in ''The Kabbalah Unveiled'' in the Mathers table.", "TABLE OF HEBREW AND CHALDEE LETTERS Number Sound or Power Hebrew andChaldee Letters Numerical Values Roman character bywhich expressed Names Signification of Names 1.", "''a'' (soft breathing).", "א 1.(Thousands are denoted by a larger letter; thus an Aleph larger than the rest of the let- ters among which it is, signifies not 1, but 1000.)", "A.  Aleph.", "Ox.", "2.", "''b, bh (v)''.", "ב 2.B.", "Beth.", "House.", "3.", "''g'' (hard), ''gh''.", "ג 3.G.", "Gimel.", "Camel.", "4.", "''d, dh'' (flat ''th'').", "ד 4.D.", "Daleth.", "Door.", "5.", "''h'' (rough breathing).", "ה 5.H.", "He.", "Window.", "6.", "''v, u, o''.", "ו 6.V.", "Vau.", "Peg, nail.", "7.", "''z, dz''.", "ז 7.Z.", "Zayin.", "Weapon, sword.", "8.", "''ch'' (guttural).", "ח 8.CH.", "Cheth.", "Enclosure, fence.", "9.", "''t'' (strong).", "ט 9.T.", "Teth.", "Serpent.", "10.", "''i, y'' (as in ''yes'').", "י 10.I.", "Yod.", "Hand.", "11.", "''k, kh''.", "כ Final = ך 20.Final = 500 K.  Caph.", "Palm of the hand.", "12.''l''.", "ל 30.L.", "Lamed.", "Ox-goad.", "13.''m''.", "מ Final = ם 40.Final = 600 M.  Mem.", "Water.", "14.''n''.", "נ Final = ן 50.Final = 700 N.  Nun.", "Fish.", "15.''s''.", "ס 60.S.", "Samekh.", "Prop, support.", "16.", "''O, aa, ng'' (gutt.).", "ע 70.O.", "Ayin.", "Eye.", "17.", "''p, ph''.", "פ Final = ף 80.Final = 800 P.  Pe.", "Mouth.", "18.", "''ts, tz, j''.", "צ Final = ץ 90.Final = 900 TZ.", "Tzaddi.", "Fishing-hook.", "19.", "''q, qh'' (guttur.).", "ק 100.(The finals are not always considered as bearing an in- creased numeri- cal value.)", "Q.  Qoph.", "Back of the head.", "20.''r''.", "ר 200.R.", "Resh.", "Head.", "21.", "''sh, s''.", "ש 300.SH.", "Shin.", "Tooth.", "22.", "''th, t''.", "ת 400.TH.", "Tau.", "Sign of the cross.As a former member of the Golden Dawn, Aleister Crowley used the transliterated cipher extensively in his writings for his two magical orders the A∴A∴ and Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O).", "Many other occult authors belonging to various esoteric groups have either mentioned the cipher or published it in their books, including Paul Foster Case of the Builders of the Adytum (B.O.T.A)." ], [ "Use in non-Semitic languages", "===Greek===According to Aristotle (384–322 BCE), isopsephy, an early Milesian system using the Greek alphabet, was part of the Pythagorean tradition, which originated in the 6th century BCE.Plato (c. 427–347 BCE) offers a discussion in the ''Cratylus'', involving a view of words and names as referring (more or less accurately) to the \"essential nature\" of a person or object and that this view may have influenced — and is central to — isopsephy.A sample of graffiti at Pompeii (destroyed under volcanic ash in 79 CE) reads \"I love the girl whose name is phi mu epsilon (545)\".Other examples of use in Greek come primarily from the Christian literature.", "Davies and Allison state that, unlike rabbinic sources, isopsephy is always explicitly stated as being used.===Latin=== The Agrippa Cipher, pg.", "143 of De Occulta Philosophia 1533Final page of Johann Henning's Cabbalologia, 1683, showing a natural-order number alphabetDuring the Renaissance, systems of gematria were devised for the Classical Latin alphabet.", "There were a number of variations of these which were popular in Europe.In 1525, Christoph Rudolff included a Classical Latin gematria in his work ''Nimble and beautiful calculation via the artful rules of algebra which are so commonly called \"coss\"'': A=1 B=2 C=3 D=4 E=5 F=6 G=7 H=8 I=9 K=10 L=11 M=12 N=13 O=14 P=15 Q=16 R=17 S=18 T=19 U=20 W=21 X=22 Y=23 Z=24At the beginning of the ''Apocalypisis in Apocalypsin'' (1532), the German monk Michael Stifel (also known as Steifel) describes the natural order and trigonal number alphabets, claiming to have invented the latter.", "He used the trigonal alphabet to interpret the prophecy in the Biblical Book of Revelation, and predicted the world would end at 8am on October 19, 1533.The official Lutheran reaction to Steifel's prophecy shows that this type of activity was not welcome.", "Belief in the power of numbers was unacceptable in reformed circles, and gematria was not part of the reformation agenda.An analogue of the Greek system of isopsephy using the Latin alphabet appeared in 1583, in the works of the French poet Étienne Tabourot.", "This cipher and variations of it were published or referred to in the major work of Italian Pietro Bongo ''Numerorum Mysteria,'' and a 1651 work by Georg Philipp Harsdörffer, and by Athanasius Kircher in 1665, and in a 1683 volume of ''Cabbalologia'' by Johann Henning, where it was simply referred to as the ''1683 alphabet''.", "It was mentioned in the work of ''The European Helicon or Muse Mountain'', in 1704, and it was also called the ''Alphabetum Cabbalisticum Vulgare'' in ''Die verliebte und galante Welt'' by Christian Friedrich Hunold in 1707.It was used by Leo Tolstoy in his 1865 work ''War and Peace'' to identify Napoleon with the number of the Beast.===English===English Qabalah refers to several different systems of mysticism related to Hermetic Qabalah that interpret the letters of the English alphabet via an assigned set of numerological significances.", "The first system of English gematria was used by the poet John Skelton in 1523 in his poem \"The Garland of Laurel\".The Agrippa Cipher, pg.", "143 of De Occulta Philosophia 1533The Agrippa code was used with English as well as Latin.", "It was defined by Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa in 1532, in his work ''De Occulta Philosopha''.", "Agrippa based his system on the order of the Classical Latin alphabet using a ranked valuation as in isopsephy, appending the four additional letters in use at the time after Z, including J (600) and U (700), which were still considered letter variants.", "Agrippa was the mentor of Welsh magician John Dee, who makes reference to the Agrippa code in Theorem XVI of his 1564 book, ''Monas Hieroglyphica''.Since the death of Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), a number of people have proposed numerical correspondences for English gematria in order to achieve a deeper understanding of Crowley's ''The Book of the Law'' (1904).", "One such system, the English Qaballa, was discovered by English magician James Lees on November 26, 1976.The founding of Lees' magical order (O∴A∴A∴) in 1974 and his discovery of EQ are chronicled in ''All This and a Book'' by Cath Thompson." ], [ "See also", "* ''About the Mystery of the Letters''* Bible code* Chinese numerology* Chronogram* Goroawase* Hurufism* 'Ilm al-huruf* Katapayadi system* Notarikon* Numbers in Germanic paganism* Roman numerals* Significance of numbers in Judaism* Temurah (Kabbalah)* Theomatics* Untranslatability" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grateful Dead" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Grateful Dead''' was an American rock band formed in 1965 in Palo Alto, California.", "The band is known for its eclectic style, which fused elements of rock, blues, jazz, folk, country, bluegrass, rock and roll, gospel, reggae, and world music with psychedelia, the improvisation of their live performances, and its devoted fan base, known as \"Deadheads\".", "According to the musician and writer Lenny Kaye, the band's music \"touches on ground that most other groups don't even know exists.\"", "For the range of their influences and the structure of their live performances, Grateful Dead are considered \"the pioneering godfathers of the jam band world\".Grateful Dead was founded in the San Francisco Bay Area during the rise of the counterculture of the 1960s.", "The band's founding members were Jerry Garcia (lead guitar and vocals), Bob Weir (rhythm guitar and vocals), Ron \"Pigpen\" McKernan (keyboards, harmonica, and vocals), Phil Lesh (bass guitar and vocals), and Bill Kreutzmann (drums).", "Members of Grateful Dead, originally known as the Warlocks, had played together in various Bay Area ensembles, including the traditional jug band Mother McCree's Uptown Jug Champions.", "Lesh was the last member to join the Warlocks before they changed their name to Grateful Dead, replacing Dana Morgan Jr., who had played bass for a few gigs.", "Drummer Mickey Hart and non-performing lyricist Robert Hunter joined in 1967.With the exception of McKernan, who died in 1973, and Hart, who took time off from 1971 to 1974, the core of the band stayed together for its entire 30-year history.", "Other official members of the band included Tom Constanten (keyboards from 1968 to 1970), John Perry Barlow (non-performing lyricist from 1971 to 1995), Keith Godchaux (keyboards and occasional vocals from 1971 to 1979), Donna Godchaux (vocals from 1972 to 1979), Brent Mydland (keyboards and vocals from 1979 to 1990), and Vince Welnick (keyboards and vocals from 1990 to 1995).", "Bruce Hornsby (accordion, piano, vocals) was a touring member from 1990 to 1992, as well as a guest with the band on occasion before and after the tours.After Garcia's death in 1995, former members of the band, along with other musicians, toured as The Other Ones in 1998, 2000, and 2002, and as The Dead in 2003, 2004, and 2009.In 2015, the four surviving core members marked the band's 50th anniversary in a series of concerts that were billed as their last performances together.", "There have also been several spin-offs featuring one or more core members, such as Dead & Company, Furthur, the Rhythm Devils, Phil Lesh and Friends, RatDog, and Billy & the Kids.Despite having only one top-40 single in their 30-year career, \"Touch of Grey\", Grateful Dead remained among the highest-grossing American touring acts for decades.", "They gained a committed fanbase by word of mouth and through the free exchange of their live recordings, encouraged by the band's allowance of taping.", "In 2024, they broke the record for most top-40 albums on the ''Billboard'' 200 chart.", "''Rolling Stone'' named Grateful Dead number 57 on its 2011 list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of all Time\".", "The band was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994 and a recording of their May 8, 1977 performance at Cornell University's Barton Hall was added to the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress in 2012." ], [ "Formation (1965–1966)", "Grateful Dead in 1980.Left to right: Jerry Garcia, Bill Kreutzmann, Bob Weir, Mickey Hart, Phil Lesh.", "Not pictured: Brent Mydland.Grateful Dead began its career as the Warlocks, a group formed in early 1965 from the remnants of a Palo Alto, California jug band called Mother McCree's Uptown Jug Champions and members of The Wildwood Boys (Jerry Garcia, Ron \"Pigpen\" McKernan, David Nelson, Robert Hunter, and Norm Van Maastricht).", "As The Wildwood Boys they played regularly at The Tangent, a folk music coffeehouse operated by Stanford Medical Center doctors Stuart \"Stu\" Goldstein and David \"Dave\" Shoenstadt on University Avenue in Palo Alto (1963).", "As the Warlocks, the band's first show was at Magoo's Pizza Parlor, at 639 Santa Cruz Avenue in suburban Menlo Park, on May 5, 1965, now a Harvest furniture store.", "It continued playing bar shows, like Frenchy's Bikini-A-Go-Go in Hayward and, importantly, five sets a night, five nights a week, for six weeks, at the ''In Room'' in Belmont as the Warlocks, but quickly changed the band's name after finding out that a different band known as the Warlocks had put out a record under that name.", "(The Velvet Underground also had to change its name from the Warlocks.)", "The first show under the name Grateful Dead was in San Jose on December 4, 1965, at one of Ken Kesey's Acid Tests.", "Scholar Michael Kaler has written that the Dead's participation in the Acid Tests was crucial both to the development of their improvisational vocabulary and to their bonding as a band, with the group having set out to foster an intra-band musical telepathy.", "Kaler has further pointed out that the Dead's pursuit of a new improvisatory rock language in 1965 chronologically coincided with that same goal's adoption by Jefferson Airplane, Pink Floyd and the Velvet Underground.Earlier demo tapes have survived, but the first of over 2,000 concerts known to have been recorded by the band's fans was a show at the Fillmore Auditorium in San Francisco on January 8, 1966.Later that month, Grateful Dead played at the Trips Festival, a three-day psychedelic rock weekend party and event produced by Ken Kesey, Stewart Brand, and Ramon Sender, that, in conjunction with the Merry Pranksters, brought the nascent hippie movement together for the first time.The name \"Grateful Dead\" was chosen from a dictionary.", "According to Lesh, Garcia \"picked up an old ''Britannica World Language Dictionary'' ... and ...", "In that silvery elf-voice he said to me, 'Hey, man, how about the Grateful Dead?'\"", "The definition there was \"the soul of a dead person, or his angel, showing gratitude to someone who, as an act of charity, arranged their burial\".", "According to Alan Trist, director of Grateful Dead's music publisher company Ice Nine, Garcia found the name in the Funk & Wagnalls ''Folklore Dictionary'', when his finger landed on that phrase while playing a game of Fictionary.", "In the Garcia biography ''Captain Trips'', author Sandy Troy states that the band was smoking the psychedelic DMT at the time.", "The term \"grateful dead\" appears in folktales from a variety of cultures.Other supporting personnel who signed on early included Rock Scully, who heard of the band from Kesey and signed on as manager after meeting them at the Big Beat Acid Test; Stewart Brand, \"with his side show of taped music and slides of Indian life, a multimedia presentation\" at the Big Beat and then, expanded, at the Trips Festival; and Owsley Stanley, the \"Acid King\" whose LSD supplied the tests and who, in early 1966, became the band's financial backer, renting them a house on the fringes of Watts, Los Angeles, and buying them sound equipment.", "\"We were living solely off of Owsley's good graces at that time.", "... His trip was he wanted to design equipment for us, and we were going to have to be in sort of a lab situation for him to do it\", said Garcia." ], [ "Main career (1967–1995)", "===Pigpen era (1967–1972)===The Mantra-Rock Dance promotional poster featuring Grateful DeadOne of the group's earliest major performances in 1967 was the Mantra-Rock Dance—a musical event held on January 29, 1967, at the Avalon Ballroom by the San Francisco Hare Krishna temple.", "Grateful Dead performed at the event along with the Hare Krishna founder Bhaktivedanta Swami, poet Allen Ginsberg, bands Moby Grape and Big Brother and the Holding Company with Janis Joplin, donating proceeds to the temple.", "The band's first LP, ''The Grateful Dead'', was released on Warner Brothers in 1967.Classically trained trumpeter Phil Lesh performed on bass guitar.", "Bob Weir, the youngest original member of the group, played rhythm guitar.", "Ron \"Pigpen\" McKernan played keyboards, percussion, and harmonica until shortly before his death in 1973 at the age of 27.Garcia, Weir, and McKernan shared the lead vocal duties more or less equally; Lesh sang only a few leads, but his tenor was a key part of the band's three-part vocal harmonies.", "Bill Kreutzmann played drums, and in September 1967 was joined by a second drummer, New York City native Mickey Hart, who also played a wide variety of other percussion instruments.1970 included tour dates in New Orleans, Louisiana, where the band performed at The Warehouse for two nights.", "On January 31, 1970, the local police raided their hotel on Bourbon Street, and arrested and charged 19 people with possession of various drugs.", "The second night's concert was performed as scheduled after bail was posted.", "Eventually, the charges were dismissed, except those against sound engineer Owsley Stanley, who was already facing charges in California for manufacturing LSD.", "This event was later memorialized in the lyrics of the song \"Truckin'\", a single from ''American Beauty'' that reached number 64 on the charts.Hart took time off from the band in February 1971, owing to his father, an accountant, having absconded with the band's money, leaving Kreutzmann once again as the sole percussionist.", "Hart rejoined the Grateful Dead for good in October 1974.Tom \"TC\" Constanten was added as a second keyboardist from 1968 to 1970, to help Pigpen keep up with an increasingly psychedelic sound, while Pigpen transitioned more into playing various percussion instruments and sang.After Constanten's departure, Pigpen reclaimed his position as sole keyboardist.", "Less than two years later, in late 1971, Pigpen was joined by another keyboardist, Keith Godchaux, who played grand piano alongside Pigpen's Hammond B-3 organ.", "In early 1972, Keith's wife, Donna Jean Godchaux, joined Grateful Dead as a backing vocalist.Following Grateful Dead's \"Europe '72\" tour, Pigpen's health had deteriorated to the point that he could no longer tour with the band.", "His final concert appearance was June 17, 1972, at the Hollywood Bowl, in Los Angeles; he died on March 8, 1973, of complications from liver damage.=== Godchaux era (1972–1979) ===Pigpen's death did not slow the band down, and it continued with its new members.", "With the help of its manager Ron Rakow, it soon formed its own record label, Grateful Dead Records.", "Later that year, it released its next studio album, the jazz-influenced ''Wake of the Flood''.", "It became their biggest commercial success thus far.", "Meanwhile, capitalizing on ''Flood'''s success, the band soon went back to the studio, and the next year, 1974, released another album, ''From the Mars Hotel''.", "Not long after that album's release, the Dead decided to take a hiatus from live touring.", "Before embarking on the hiatus, the band performed a series of five concerts at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco in October 1974.The concerts were filmed, and Garcia compiled the footage into ''The Grateful Dead Movie'', a feature-length concert film released in 1977.In September 1975, the Dead released its eighth studio album, ''Blues for Allah''.", "It resumed touring in June 1976.That same year, it signed with Arista Records.", "Its new contract produced ''Terrapin Station'' in 1977.The band's tour in the spring of that year is held in high regard by its fans, and its concert of May 8 at Cornell University is often considered one of the best performances of its career.Keith and Donna Jean Godchaux left the band in February 1979.=== Mydland/Welnick era (1979–1995) ===Grateful Dead performing at Red Rocks Amphitheatre in 1987Following the Godchauxs' departure, Brent Mydland joined as keyboardist and vocalist and was considered \"the perfect fit\".", "The Godchauxs then formed the Heart of Gold Band before Keith died in a car accident in 1980.Mydland was the keyboardist for the Grateful Dead for 11 years until his death by narcotics overdose in July 1990, becoming the third keyboardist to die.Shortly after Mydland found his place in the early 1980s, Garcia's health began to decline.", "His drug habits caused him to lose his liveliness on stage.", "After beginning to curtail his opiate usage in 1985 gradually, Garcia slipped into a diabetic coma for several days in July 1986.After he recovered, the band released ''In the Dark'' in July 1987, which became its best-selling studio album and produced its only top-40 single, \"Touch of Grey\".", "Also that year, the group toured with Bob Dylan, as heard on the album ''Dylan & the Dead''.Mydland died after the summer tour in 1990 and Vince Welnick, former keyboardist for the Tubes, joined as a band member, while Bruce Hornsby, who had a successful career with his band the Range, joined as a touring member.", "Both performed on keyboards and vocals—Welnick until the band's end, and Hornsby mainly from 1990 to 1992.The Grateful Dead performed its final concert on July 9, 1995, at Soldier Field in Chicago." ], [ "Aftermath (1995–present)", "Bob Weir playing his Modulus G3FH guitar in 2007Mickey Hart leading a drum circle in February 2005Obama Inaugural in January 2009Jerry Garcia died on August 9, 1995.A few months after Garcia's death, the remaining members of the Grateful Dead decided to disband.", "Since that time, there have been a number of reunions by the surviving members involving various combinations of musicians.", "Additionally, the former members have also begun or continued individual projects.In 1998, Bob Weir, Phil Lesh, and Mickey Hart, along with several other musicians, formed a band called the Other Ones, and performed a number of concerts that year, releasing a live album, ''The Strange Remain'', the following year.", "In 2000, the Other Ones toured again, this time with Kreutzmann but without Lesh.", "After taking another year off, the band toured again in 2002 with Lesh.", "That year, the Other Ones then included all four living former Grateful Dead members who had been in the band for most or all of its history.", "At different times the shifting lineup of the Other Ones also included guitarists Mark Karan, Steve Kimock, and Jimmy Herring, keyboardists Bruce Hornsby, Jeff Chimenti, and Rob Barraco, saxophonist Dave Ellis, drummer John Molo, bassist Alphonso Johnson, and vocalist Susan Tedeschi.In 2003, the Other Ones, still including Weir, Lesh, Hart, and Kreutzmann, changed their name to the Dead.", "The Dead toured the United States in 2003, 2004 and 2009.The band's lineups included Jimmy Herring and Warren Haynes on guitar, Jeff Chimenti and Rob Barraco on keyboards, and Joan Osborne on vocals.", "In 2008, members of the Dead played two concerts, called \"Deadheads for Obama\" and \"Change Rocks\".Following the 2009 Dead tour, Lesh and Weir formed the band Furthur, which debuted in September 2009.Joining Lesh and Weir in Furthur were John Kadlecik (guitar), Jeff Chimenti (keyboards), Joe Russo (drums), Jay Lane (drums), Sunshine Becker (vocals), and Zoe Ellis (vocals).", "Lane and Ellis left the band in 2010, and vocalist Jeff Pehrson joined later that year.", "Furthur disbanded in 2014.In 2010, Hart and Kreutzmann re-formed the Rhythm Devils, and played a summer concert tour.Since 1995, the former members of the Grateful Dead have also pursued solo music careers.", "Both Bob Weir & RatDog and Phil Lesh and Friends have performed many concerts and released several albums.", "Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann have also each released a few albums.", "Hart has toured with his world music percussion ensemble Planet Drum as well as the Mickey Hart Band.", "Kreutzmann has led several different bands, including BK3, 7 Walkers (with Papa Mali), and Billy & the Kids.", "Donna Godchaux has returned to the music scene, with the Donna Jean Godchaux Band, and Tom Constanten also continues to write and perform music.", "All of these groups continue to play Grateful Dead music.In October 2014, it was announced that Martin Scorsese would produce a documentary film about the Grateful Dead, to be directed by Amir Bar-Lev.", "David Lemieux supervised the musical selection, and Weir, Hart, Kreutzmann, and Lesh agreed to new interviews for the film.", "Bar-Lev's four-hour documentary, titled ''Long Strange Trip'', was released in 2017.===\"Fare Thee Well\"===In 2015, Weir, Lesh, Kreutzmann, and Hart reunited for five concerts called \"Fare Thee Well: Celebrating 50 Years of the Grateful Dead\".", "The shows were performed on June 27 and 28 at Levi's Stadium in Santa Clara, California, and on July 3, 4 and 5 at Soldier Field in Chicago.", "The band stated that this would be the final time that Weir, Lesh, Hart, and Kreutzmann would perform together.", "They were joined by Trey Anastasio of Phish on guitar, Jeff Chimenti on keyboards, and Bruce Hornsby on piano.", "Demand for tickets was very high.", "The concerts were simulcast via various media.", "The Chicago shows have been released as a box set of CDs and DVDs.===Dead & Company===In the fall of 2015, Mickey Hart, Bill Kreutzmann and Bob Weir joined with guitarist John Mayer, keyboardist Jeff Chimenti, and bassist Oteil Burbridge to tour in a band called Dead & Company.", "Mayer recounts that in 2011 he was listening to Pandora and happened upon the Grateful Dead song \"Althea\", and that soon Grateful Dead music was all he would listen to.", "The band played six tours: October–December 2015, June–July 2016, May–July 2017., May–August 2018, and May–July 2019.On October–November 2019 they played 6 dates on the \"2019 Fall Fun Run\".", "On December 27 and 28, they played at The Forum in Inglewood (Los Angeles), California as part of their \"2019 New Year's Run\" tour.", "On December 30 and 31, they played in their hometown of San Francisco at the Chase Center, featuring a bi-plane that descended from the ceiling of the Chase Center carrying the daughters of Jerry Garcia, Trixie Garcia and her half-sister, Ken Kesey's daughter Sunshine Kesey, dropping rose petals on the audience as they toured the arena.Barlow died in 2018 and Hunter in 2019.In 2022, John Mayer announced that Dead & Company's summer 2023 tour will be their last." ], [ "Musical style and legacy", "acoustic performance at the Warfield Theatre in San Francisco in 1980.Left to right: Garcia, Lesh, Kreutzmann, Weir, Hart, Mydland.The Grateful Dead formed during the era when bands such as the Beatles, the Beach Boys and the Rolling Stones were dominating the airwaves.", "\"The Beatles were why we turned from a jug band into a rock 'n' roll band\", said Bob Weir.", "\"What we saw them doing was impossibly attractive.", "I couldn't think of anything else more worth doing.\"", "Former folk-scene star Bob Dylan had recently put out a couple of records featuring electric instrumentation.", "Grateful Dead members have said that it was after attending a concert by the touring New York City band the Lovin' Spoonful that they decided to \"go electric\" and look for a \"dirtier\" sound.", "Jerry Garcia and Bob Weir (both of whom had been immersed in the American folk music revival of the late 1950s and early 1960s), were open-minded about the use of electric guitars.The Grateful Dead's early music (in the mid-1960s) was part of the process of establishing what \"psychedelic music\" was, but theirs was essentially a \"street party\" form of it.", "They developed their \"psychedelic\" playing as a result of meeting Ken Kesey in Palo Alto, California, and subsequently becoming the house band for the Acid Tests he staged.", "They did not fit their music to an established category such as pop rock, blues, folk rock, or country & western.", "Individual tunes within their repertoire could be identified under one of these stylistic labels, but overall their music drew on all of these genres and, more frequently, melded several of them.", "Bill Graham said of the Grateful Dead, \"They're not the best at what they do, they're the only ones that do what they do.\"", "Academics Paul Hegarty and Martin Halliwell argued that the Grateful Dead were \"not merely as precursors of prog but as essential developments of progressiveness in its early days\".", "Often (both in performance and on recording) the Dead left room for exploratory, spacey soundscapes.Their live shows, fed by an improvisational approach to music, were different from most touring bands.", "While rock and roll bands often rehearse a standard set, played with minor variations, the Grateful Dead did not prepare in this way.", "Garcia stated in a 1966 interview, \"We don't make up our sets beforehand.", "We'd rather work off the tops of our heads than off a piece of paper.\"", "They maintained this approach throughout their career.", "For each performance, the band drew material from an active list of a hundred or so songs.The 1969 live album ''Live/Dead'' did capture the band in-form, but commercial success did not come until ''Workingman's Dead'' and ''American Beauty'', both released in 1970.These records largely featured the band's laid-back acoustic musicianship and more traditional song structures.", "With their rootsy, eclectic stylings, particularly evident on the latter two albums, the band pioneered the hybrid Americana genre.Beginning in the early 1990s, a new generation of bands became inspired by the Grateful Dead's improvisational ethos and marketing strategy, and began to incorporate elements of the Grateful Dead's live performances into their own shows.", "These include the nightly alteration of setlists, frequent improvisation, the blending of genres, and the allowance of taping, which would often contribute to the development of a dedicated fanbase.", "Bands associated with the expansion of the \"jam scene\" include Phish, The String Cheese Incident, Widespread Panic, Blues Traveler, moe., and the Disco Biscuits.", "Many of these groups began to look past the American roots music that the Grateful Dead drew inspiration from, and incorporated elements of progressive rock, hard rock, and electronica.", "At the same time, the Internet gained popularity and provided a medium for fans to discuss these bands and their performances and download MP3s.", "The Grateful Dead, as well as Phish, were one of the first bands to have a Usenet newsgroup.=== Musicianship ===Phil Lesh (left) performing with TelStar in 2008As the band and its sound matured over thirty years of touring, playing, and recording, each member's stylistic contribution became more defined, consistent, and identifiable.", "Garcia's lead lines were fluid, supple and spare, owing a great deal of their character to his experience playing Scruggs style banjo, an approach which often makes use of note syncopation, accenting, arpeggios, staccato chromatic runs, and the anticipation of the downbeat.", "Garcia had a distinctive sense of timing, often weaving in and out of the groove established by the rest of the band as if he were pushing the beat.", "His lead lines were also immensely influenced by jazz soloists: Garcia cited Miles Davis, Ornette Coleman, Bill Evans, Pat Martino, George Benson, Al Di Meola, Art Tatum, Duke Ellington, and Django Reinhardt as primary influences, and frequently utilized techniques common to country and blues music in songs that called back to those traditions.", "Garcia often switched scales in the midst of a solo depending upon the chord changes played underneath, though he nearly always finished phrases by landing on the chord-tones.", "Jerry most frequently played in the Mixolydian mode, though his solos and phrases often incorporated notes from the Dorian and major/minor pentatonic scales.", "Particularly in the late 1960s, Garcia occasionally incorporated melodic lines derived from Indian ragas into the band's extended, psychedelic improvisation, likely inspired by John Coltrane and other jazz artists' interest in the sitar music of Ravi Shankar.Lesh was originally a classically trained trumpet player with an extensive background in music theory, but did not tend to play traditional blues-based bass forms.", "He often played more melodic, symphonic and complex lines, often sounding like a second lead guitar.", "In contrast to most bassists in popular music, Lesh often avoids playing the root of a chord on the downbeat, instead withholding as a means to build tension.", "Lesh also rarely repeats the same bassline, even from performance to performance of the same song, and often plays off of or around the other instruments with a syncopated, staccato bounce that contributes to the Dead's unique rhythmic character.Weir, too, was not a traditional rhythm guitarist, but tended to play unique inversions at the upper end of the Dead's sound.", "Weir modeled his style of playing after jazz pianist McCoy Tyner and attempted to replicate the interplay between John Coltrane and Tyner in his support, and occasional subversion, of the harmonic structure of Garcia's voice leadings.", "This would often influence the direction the band's improvisation would take on a given night.", "Weir and Garcia's respective positions as rhythm and lead guitarist were not always strictly adhered to, as Weir would often incorporate short melodic phrases into his playing to support Garcia and occasionally took solos, often played with a slide.", "Weir's playing is characterized by a \"spiky, staccato\" sound.The band's two drummers, Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann, developed a unique, complex interplay, balancing Kreutzmann's steady shuffle beat with Hart's interest in percussion styles outside the rock tradition.", "Kreuzmann has said, \"I like to establish a feeling and then add radical or oblique juxtapositions to that feeling.\"", "Hart incorporated an 11-count measure to his drumming, bringing a dimension to the band's sound that became an important part of its style.", "He had studied tabla drumming and incorporated rhythms and instruments from world music, and later electronic music, into the band's live performances.The Dead's live performances featured multiple types of improvisation derived from a vast array of musical traditions.", "Not unlike many rock bands of their time, the majority of the Dead's songs feature a designated section in which an instrumental break occurs over the chord changes.", "These sections typically feature solos by Garcia that often originate as variations on the song's melody, but go on to create dynamic phrases that resolve by returning to the chord-tones.", "Not unlike traditional improvisational jazz, they may occasionally feature several solos by multiple instruments within an undecided number of bars, such as a keyboardist, before returning to the melody.", "At the same time, Dead shows almost always feature a more collective, modal approach to improvisation that typically occurs during segues between songs before the band modulates to a new tonal center.", "Some of the Dead's more extended jam vehicles, such as \"The Other One\", \"Dark Star\", and \"Playing in the Band\" almost exclusively make use of modulation between modes to accompany simple two-chord progressions.=== Lyrical themes ===Following the songwriting renaissance that defined the band's early 1970s period, as reflected in the albums ''Workingman's Dead'' and ''American Beauty,'' Robert Hunter, Jerry Garcia's primary lyrical partner, frequently made use of motifs common to American folklore including trains, guns, elements, traditional musical instruments, gambling, murder, animals, alcohol, descriptions of American geography, and religious symbolism to illustrate themes involving love and loss, life and death, beauty and horror, and chaos and order.", "Following in the footsteps of several American musical traditions, these songs are often confessional and feature narration from the perspective of an antihero.", "Critic Robert Christgau described them as \"American myths\" that later gave way to \"the old karma-go-round\".", "An extremely common feature in both Robert Hunter's lyrics, as well as the band's visual iconography, is the presence of dualistic and opposing imagery illustrating the dynamic range of the human experience (Heaven and hell, law and crime, dark and light, etc.).", "Hunter and Garcia's earlier, more directly psychedelic-influenced compositions often make use of surreal imagery, nonsense, and whimsey reflective of traditions in English poetry.", "In a retrospective, ''The New Yorker'' described Hunter's verses as \"elliptical, by turns vivid and gnomic\", which were often \"hippie poetry about roses and bells and dew\".", "Grateful Dead biographer Dennis McNally has described Hunter's lyrics as creating \"a non-literal hyper-Americana\" weaving a psychedelic, kaleidoscopic tapestry in the hopes of elucidating America's national character.", "At least one of Hunter and Bob Weir's collaborations, \"Jack Straw\", was inspired by the work of John Steinbeck." ], [ "Merchandising and representation", "Hal Kant was an entertainment industry attorney who specialized in representing musical groups.", "He spent 35 years as principal lawyer and general counsel for the Grateful Dead, a position in the group that was so strong that his business cards with the band identified his role as \"Czar\".Kant brought the band millions of dollars in revenue through his management of the band's intellectual property and merchandising rights.", "At Kant's recommendation, the group was one of the few rock 'n roll pioneers to retain ownership of their music masters and publishing rights.In 2006, the Grateful Dead signed a ten-year licensing agreement with Rhino Entertainment to manage the band's business interests including the release of musical recordings, merchandising, and marketing.", "The band retained creative control and kept ownership of its music catalog.A Grateful Dead video game titled ''Grateful Dead Game – The Epic Tour'' was released in April 2012 and was created by Curious Sense.In November 2022, the children's book ''The ABCs of The Grateful Dead'' was released.", "Authorized by the group, it was written by Howie Abrams, illustrated by Michael \"Kaves\" McLeer, and published by Simon & Schuster.===Sponsorship of 1992 Lithuanian Olympic Basketball Team===The \"Skully\" tie-dyed T-shirt, designed by New York City artist Greg Speirs became a symbol of Lithuanian basketballAfter Lithuania gained its independence from the USSR, the country announced its withdrawal from the 1992 Olympics due to the lack of any money to sponsor participants.", "But NBA star Šarūnas Marčiulionis, a native Lithuanian basketball star, wanted to help his native team to compete.", "His efforts resulted in a call from representatives of the Grateful Dead who set up a meeting with the band members.", "The band agreed to fund transportation costs for the team (about five thousand dollars) along with Grateful Dead designs for the team's jerseys and shorts.", "The Lithuanian basketball team won the bronze medal and the Lithuanian basketball/Grateful Dead T-shirts became part of pop culture, especially in Lithuania.", "The incident was covered by the documentary ''The Other Dream Team''." ], [ "Live performances", "Grateful Dead members in the early 1980s: Brent Mydland, Bob Weir, and Jerry Garcia watch Bill Kreutzmann play the drums.", "Not pictured: Phil Lesh and Mickey Hart.Mail-ordered Grateful Dead concert tickets for their concerts at Nassau Coliseum on Long Island in March 1994The Grateful Dead toured constantly throughout their career, playing more than 2,300 concerts.", "They promoted a sense of community among their fans, who became known as \"Deadheads\", many of whom followed their tours for months or years on end.", "Around concert venues, an impromptu communal marketplace known as 'Shakedown Street' was created by Deadheads to serve as centers of activity where fans could buy and sell anything from grilled cheese sandwiches to home-made t-shirts and recordings of Grateful Dead concerts.In their early career, the band also dedicated their time and talents to their community, the Haight-Ashbury area of San Francisco, making available free food, lodging, music, and health care to all.", "It has been said that the band performed \"more free concerts than any band in the history of music\".With the exception of 1975, when the band was on hiatus and played only four concerts, Grateful Dead performed many concerts every year, from their formation in April 1965, until July 9, 1995.Initially all their shows were in California, principally in the San Francisco Bay Area and in or near Los Angeles.", "They also performed, in 1965 and 1966, with Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters, as the house band for the Acid Tests.", "In 1967, they toured nationally, including their first performance in New York City.", "They appeared at the Monterey Pop Festival in 1967, the Woodstock Festival in 1969 and the Festival Express train tour across Canada in 1970.They were scheduled to appear as the final act at the infamous Altamont Free Concert on December 6, 1969, after the Rolling Stones but withdrew after security concerns.", "\"That's the way things went at Altamont—so badly that the Grateful Dead, prime organizers and movers of the festival, didn't even get to play\", staff at ''Rolling Stone'' magazine wrote in a detailed narrative on the event.Their first UK performance was at the Hollywood Music Festival in 1970.Their largest concert audience came in 1973 when they played, along with the Allman Brothers Band and the Band, before an estimated 600,000 people at the Summer Jam at Watkins Glen.", "They played to an estimated total of 25 million people, more than any other band, with audiences of up to 80,000 attending a single show.", "Many of these concerts were preserved in the band's tape vault, and several dozen have since been released on CD and as downloads.", "The Dead were known for the tremendous variation in their setlists from night to night—the list of songs documented to have been played by the band exceeds 500.The band has released four concert videos under the name ''View from the Vault''.", "In 1978, they played three nights at the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt.", "In the 1990s, the Grateful Dead earned a total of $285 million in revenue from their concert tours, the second-highest during the 1990s, with the Rolling Stones earning the most.", "This figure is representative of tour revenue through 1995, as touring stopped after the death of Jerry Garcia.", "In a 1991 PBS documentary, segment host Buck Henry attended an August 1991 concert at Shoreline Amphitheatre and gleaned some information from some band members about the Grateful Dead phenomenon and its success.", "At the time, Jerry Garcia stated, \"We didn't really invent the Grateful Dead, the crowd invented the Grateful Dead, you know what I mean?", "We were sort of standing in line, and uh, it's gone way past our expectations, way past, so it's, we've been going along with it to see what it's gonna do next.\"", "Mickey Hart said, \"This is one of the last places in America that you can really have this kind of fun, you know, considering the political climate and so forth.\"", "Hart also stated that \"the transformative power of the Grateful Dead is really the essence of it; it's what it can do to your consciousness.", "We're more into ''transportation'' than we are into music, ''per se'', I mean, the business of the Grateful Dead is transportation.\"", "One of the band's largest concerts took place just months before Garcia's death — at their outdoor show with Bob Dylan in Highgate, Vermont, on June 15, 1995.The crowd was estimated to be over 90,000; overnight camping was allowed and about a third of the audience got in without having purchased a ticket.Their numerous studio albums were generally collections of new songs that they had first played in concert.", "The band was also famous for its extended musical improvisations, having been described as having never played the same song the same way twice.", "Their concert sets often blended songs, one into the next, often for more than three songs at a time.===Concert sound systems===The Wall of Sound was a large sound system designed specifically for the band.", "The band was never satisfied with the house system anywhere they played.", "After the Monterey Pop Festival, the band's crew 'borrowed' some of the other performers' sound equipment and used it to host some free shows in San Francisco.", "In their early days, soundman Owsley \"Bear\" Stanley designed a public address (PA) and monitor system for them.", "Stanley was the Grateful Dead's soundman for many years; he was also one of the largest suppliers of LSD.", "Stanley's sound systems were delicate and finicky, and frequently brought shows to a halt with technical breakdowns.", "After Stanley went to jail for manufacturing LSD in 1970, the group briefly used house PAs, but found them to be even less reliable than those built by their former soundman.", "On February 2, 1970, the group contacted Bob Heil to use his system.", "In 1971, the band purchased their first solid-state sound system from Alembic Studios.", "Because of this, Alembic would play an integral role in the research, development, and production of the Wall of Sound.", "The band also welcomed Dan Healy into the fold on a permanent basis that year.", "Healy would mix the Grateful Dead's live sound until 1993.Following Jerry Garcia's death and the band's breakup in 1995, their current sound system was inherited by Dave Matthews Band.", "Dave Matthews Band debuted the sound system April 30, 1996, at the first show of their 1996 tour in Richmond, Virginia.===Tapes===Like several other bands at the time, the Grateful Dead allowed their fans to record their shows.", "For many years the tapers set up their microphones wherever they could, and the eventual forest of microphones became a problem for the sound crew.", "Eventually, this was solved by having a dedicated taping section located behind the soundboard, which required a special \"tapers\" ticket.", "The band allowed sharing of their shows, as long as no profits were made on the sale of the tapes.Of the approximately 2,350 shows the Grateful Dead played, almost 2,200 were taped, and most of these are available online.", "The band began collecting and cataloging tapes early on and Dick Latvala was their keeper.", "\"Dick's Picks\" is named after Latvala.", "After his death in 1999, David Lemieux gradually took the post.", "Concert set lists from a subset of 1,590 Grateful Dead shows were used to perform a comparative analysis between how songs were played in concert and how they are listened online by Last.fm members.", "In their book ''Marketing Lessons from the Grateful Dead: What Every Business Can Learn From the Most Iconic Band in History'', David Meerman Scott and Brian Halligan identify the taper section as a crucial contributor to increasing the Grateful Dead's fan base." ], [ "Iconography", "Over the years, a number of iconic images have come to be associated with the Grateful Dead.", "Many of these images originated as artwork for concert posters or album covers.", ";Skull and Roses:The skull and roses design was composed by Alton Kelley and Stanley Mouse, who added lettering and color, respectively, to a black and white drawing by Edmund Joseph Sullivan.", "Sullivan's drawing was an illustration for a 1913 edition of the ''Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam''.", "Earlier antecedents include the custom of exhibiting the relic skulls of Christian martyrs decorated with roses on their feast days.", "The rose is an attribute of Saint Valentine, who according to one legend, was martyred by decapitation.", "Accordingly, in Rome, at the church dedicated to him, the observance of his feast day included the display of his skull surrounded by roses.", "Kelley and Mouse's design originally appeared on a poster for the September 16 and 17, 1966, Dead shows at the Avalon Ballroom.", "Later, it was used as the cover for the album ''Grateful Dead'' (1971).", "The album is sometimes referred to as ''Skull and Roses''.", ";Jester:Another icon of the Dead is a skeleton dressed as a jester and holding a lute.", "This image was an airbrush painting, created by Stanley Mouse in 1972.It was originally used for the cover of ''The Grateful Dead Songbook''.", ";\"Dancing\" Bears:A series of stylized bears who appear to be dancing was drawn by Bob Thomas as part of the back cover for the album ''History of the Grateful Dead, Volume One (Bear's Choice)'' (1973).", "Thomas reported that he based the bears on a lead sort from an unknown font.", "The bear is a reference to Owsley \"Bear\" Stanley, who recorded and produced the album.", "Bear himself wrote, \"the bears on the album cover are not really 'dancing'.", "I don't know why people think they are; their positions are quite obviously those of a high-stepping march.", "\";''Steal Your Face'' Skull:Perhaps the best-known Grateful Dead art icon is a red, white, and blue skull with a lightning bolt through it.", "The lightning bolt skull can be found on the cover of the album ''Steal Your Face'' (1976), and the image is sometimes known by that name.", "It was designed by Owsley Stanley and artist Bob Thomas, and was originally used as a logo to mark the band's equipment.", ";Dancing Terrapins:The two dancing terrapins first appeared on the cover of the album ''Terrapin Station'' (1977).", "They were drawn by Kelley and Mouse, based on a drawing by Heinrich Kley.", "Since then these turtles have become one of the Grateful Dead's most recognizable logos.", ";Uncle Sam Skeleton:The Uncle Sam skeleton was devised by Gary Gutierrez as part of the animation for ''The Grateful Dead Movie'' (1977).", "The image combines the Grateful Dead skeleton motif with the character of Uncle Sam, a reference to the then-recently written song \"U.S. Blues\", which plays during the animation." ], [ "Deadheads", "Fans and enthusiasts of the band are commonly referred to as Deadheads.", "While the origin of the term may be unclear, ''Dead Heads'' were made canon by the notice placed inside the ''Skull and Roses'' (1971) album by manager Jon McIntire:As each show featured a new setlist and a great deal of improvisation, Deadheads would often follow the band from city to city, attending many shows on a given tour.", "Many Deadheads speak of being drawn to the culture due to the sense of community that the band's shows tended to foster.", "Though Deadheads came from a wide array of demographics, many attempted to reproduce the aesthetics and values of the 1960s counterculture and were often stigmatized in the media.", "Because of the stereotyping of Deadheads as hippies, the band's shows became a common target for officials in the DEA and arrests at shows became common.", "As a group, the Deadheads were considered very mellow.", "\"I'd rather work nine Grateful Dead concerts than one Oregon football game,\" Police Det.", "Rick Raynor said.", "\"They don't get belligerent like they do at the games.\"", "Despite this reputation, in the mid-1990s, as the band's popularity grew, there were a series of minor scuffles occurring at shows that peaked with a large scale riot at the Deer Creek Music Center near Indianapolis in July 1995.This gate crashing incident caused the band to cancel the following night's show.", "Deadheads who appeared on the scene after the band's 1987 hit single \"Touch of Grey\", were often disparagingly referred to by older fans as \"Touchheads.\"", "Beginning in the 1980s, a number of definable sects of Deadheads began to appear on the scene.", "These included the Wharf Rats, as well as the \"spinners\", named for whirling-style of dancing and their use of the band's music to facilitate mystical experiences.Deadheads, particularly those who collected tapes, were known for keeping close records of the band's setlists and for comparing various live versions of the band's songs, as reflected in publications such as the various editions of \"Deadbase\" and \"The Deadhead's Taping Compendium.\"", "This practice continues into the 21st century on digital forums and websites such as the Internet Archive, which features live recordings of nearly every available Grateful Dead show and allows users to discuss and review the site's shows.The band has a number of influential and celebrity fans, including politicians, businesspeople, journalists, and other musicians.", "Among these are conservative political figures who have called themselves Deadheads, including Tucker Carlson and Ann Coulter." ], [ "Donation of archives to UC Santa Cruz", "On April 24, 2008, members Bob Weir and Mickey Hart, along with Nion McEvoy, CEO of Chronicle Books, UC Santa Cruz chancellor George Blumenthal, and UC Santa Cruz librarian Virginia Steel, held a press conference announcing UCSC's McHenry Library would be the permanent home of the Grateful Dead Archive, which includes a complete archival history from 1965 to the present.", "The archive includes correspondence, photographs, fliers, posters, and several other forms of memorabilia and records of the band.", "Also included are unreleased videos of interviews and TV appearances that will be installed for visitors to view, as well as stage backdrops and other props from the band's concerts.Blumenthal stated at the event, \"The Grateful Dead Archive represents one of the most significant popular cultural collections of the 20th century; UC Santa Cruz is honored to receive this invaluable gift.", "The Grateful Dead and UC Santa Cruz are both highly innovative institutions—born the same year—that continue to make a major, positive impact on the world.\"", "Guitarist Bob Weir stated \"We looked around, and UC Santa Cruz seems the best possible home.", "If you ever wrote the Grateful Dead a letter, you'll probably find it there!", "\"Professor of music Fredric Lieberman was the key contact between the band and the university, who let the university know about the search for a home for the archive, and who had collaborated with Mickey Hart on three books in the past, ''Planet Drum'' (1990), ''Drumming at the Edge of Magic'' (1991), and ''Spirit into Sound'' (2006).The first large-scale exhibition of materials from the Grateful Dead Archive was mounted at the New-York Historical Society in 2010." ], [ "Awards", "In 2004, ''Rolling Stone'' ranked the Grateful Dead No.", "57 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time.On February 10, 2007, the Grateful Dead received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.", "The award was accepted on behalf of the band by Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann.In 2011, a recording of the Grateful Dead's May 8, 1977, concert at Cornell University's Barton Hall was selected for induction into the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress.Twelve members of the Grateful Dead (the eleven official performing members plus Robert Hunter) were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994, and Bruce Hornsby was their presenter." ], [ "Members", "Mickey Hart and Bob Weir at the 200th celebration of the founding of the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., in 2000Lead guitarist Jerry Garcia was often viewed both by the public and the media as the leader or primary spokesperson for the Grateful Dead, but was reluctant to be perceived that way, especially since he and the other group members saw themselves as equal participants and contributors to their collective musical and creative output.", "Garcia, a native of San Francisco, grew up in the Excelsior District.", "One of his main influences was bluegrass music, and he also performed—on banjo, one of his other great instrumental loves, along with the pedal steel guitar—in bluegrass bands, notably Old & In the Way with mandolinist David Grisman.Ned Lagin, a young MIT student and friend of the band, guested with them many times from 1970 through 1975, providing a second keyboard as well as synthesizers.", "Upon graduating from MIT, he began touring with the band fulltime in 1974, performing sets of electronic music with Phil Lesh, occasionally with Garcia and Kreutzmann, during the band's intermission.", "The \"Ned and Phil\" set became a regular fixture of that era, and was featured nearly every night during their Summer '74 and Europe '74 tours, as well as their five-night residency at the Winterland Ballroom during October 1974.Lagin is also featured in ''The Grateful Dead Movie''.", "During 1974 and 1975, he would also occasionally play entire sets with the band, usually on Garcia's side of the stage, before ending his touring relationship with the band and focusing on his solo music projects, such as his album ''Seastones'', which features several members of the Dead.Bruce Hornsby never officially joined the band full-time because of his other commitments, but he did play keyboards at most Dead shows between September 1990 and March 1992, and sat in with the band over 100 times in all between 1988 and 1995.He added several Dead songs to his own live shows and Jerry Garcia referred to him as a \"floating member\" who could come and go as he pleased.Robert Hunter and John Perry Barlow were the band's primary lyricists, starting in 1967 and 1971, respectively, and continuing until the band's dissolution.", "Hunter collaborated mostly with Garcia and Barlow mostly with Weir, though each wrote with other band members as well.", "Both are listed as official members at Dead.net, the band's website, alongside the performing members.", "Barlow was the only member not inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.===Timeline===" ], [ "Discography", "*''The Grateful Dead'' (1967)*''Anthem of the Sun'' (1968)*''Aoxomoxoa'' (1969)*''Live/Dead'' (1969)*''Workingman's Dead'' (1970)*''American Beauty'' (1970)*''Grateful Dead (Skull & Roses)'' (1971)*''Europe '72'' (1972)*''History of the Grateful Dead, Volume One (Bear's Choice)'' (1973)*''Wake of the Flood'' (1973)*''From the Mars Hotel'' (1974)*''Blues for Allah'' (1975)*''Steal Your Face'' (1976)*''Terrapin Station'' (1977)*''Shakedown Street'' (1978)*''Go to Heaven'' (1980)*''Reckoning'' (1981)*''Dead Set'' (1981)*''In the Dark'' (1987)*''Dylan & the Dead'' (1989)*''Built to Last'' (1989)*''Without a Net'' (1990)" ], [ "See also", "* Internet Archive#Copyright takedowns* List of Grateful Dead cover versions" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * FBI Records: The Vault – The Grateful Dead at vault.fbi.gov" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Groupoid" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, especially in category theory and homotopy theory, a '''groupoid''' (less often '''Brandt groupoid''' or '''virtual group''') generalises the notion of group in several equivalent ways.", "A groupoid can be seen as a:*''Group'' with a partial function replacing the binary operation;*''Category'' in which every morphism is invertible.", "A category of this sort can be viewed as augmented with a unary operation on the morphisms, called ''inverse'' by analogy with group theory.", "A groupoid where there is only one object is a usual group.In the presence of dependent typing, a category in general can be viewed as a typed monoid, and similarly, a groupoid can be viewed as simply a typed group.", "The morphisms take one from one object to another, and form a dependent family of types, thus morphisms might be typed , , say.", "Composition is then a total function: , so that .Special cases include:*''Setoids'': sets that come with an equivalence relation,*''G-sets'': sets equipped with an action of a group .Groupoids are often used to reason about geometrical objects such as manifolds.", "introduced groupoids implicitly via Brandt semigroups." ], [ "Definitions", "=== Algebraic ===A groupoid can be viewed as an algebraic structure consisting of a set with a binary partial function.Precisely, it is a non-empty set with a unary operation and a partial function .", "Here * is not a binary operation because it is not necessarily defined for all pairs of elements of .", "The precise conditions under which is defined are not articulated here and vary by situation.The operations and −1 have the following axiomatic properties: For all , , and in ,# ''Associativity'': If and are defined, then and are defined and are equal.", "Conversely, if one of or is defined, then they are both defined (and they are equal to each other), and and are also defined.# ''Inverse'': and are always defined.# ''Identity'': If is defined, then , and .", "(The previous two axioms already show that these expressions are defined and unambiguous.", ")Two easy and convenient properties follow from these axioms:* ,* If is defined, then .Proof of second property: since ''a'' * ''b'' is defined, so is (''a'' * ''b'')−1 * ''a'' * ''b''.", "Therefore (''a'' * ''b'')−1 * ''a'' * ''b'' * ''b''−1 = (''a'' * ''b'')−1 * ''a'' is also defined.", "Moreover since ''a'' * ''b'' is defined, so is ''a'' * ''b'' * ''b''−1 = ''a''.", "Therefore ''a'' * ''b'' * ''b''−1 * ''a''−1 is also defined.", "From 3.we obtain (''a'' * ''b'')−1 = (''a'' * ''b'')−1 * ''a'' * ''a''−1 = (''a'' * ''b'')−1 * ''a'' * ''b'' * ''b''−1 * ''a''−1 = ''b''−1 * ''a''−1.✓===Category theoretic===A groupoid is a small category in which every morphism is an isomorphism, i.e., invertible.", "More explicitly, a groupoid ''G'' is a set ''G''0 of ''objects'' with* for each pair of objects ''x'' and ''y'' a (possibly empty) set ''G''(''x'',''y'') of ''morphisms'' (or ''arrows'') from ''x'' to ''y''; we write ''f'' : ''x'' → ''y'' to indicate that ''f'' is an element of ''G''(''x'',''y'');* for every object ''x'' a designated element of ''G''(''x'',''x'');* for each triple of objects ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'' a function ;* for each pair of objects ''x'', ''y'' a function satisfying, for any ''f'' : ''x'' → ''y'', ''g'' : ''y'' → ''z'', and ''h'' : ''z'' → ''w'':** and ;** ;** and .If ''f'' is an element of ''G''(''x'',''y'') then ''x'' is called the '''source''' of ''f'', written ''s''(''f''), and ''y'' is called the '''target''' of ''f'', written ''t''(''f'').", "A groupoid ''G'' is sometimes denoted as , where is the set of all morphisms, and the two arrows represent the source and the target.More generally, one can consider a groupoid object in an arbitrary category admitting finite fiber products.===Comparing the definitions===The algebraic and category-theoretic definitions are equivalent, as we now show.", "Given a groupoid in the category-theoretic sense, let ''G'' be the disjoint union of all of the sets ''G''(''x'',''y'') (i.e.", "the sets of morphisms from ''x'' to ''y'').", "Then and become partial operations on ''G'', and will in fact be defined everywhere.", "We define ∗ to be and −1 to be , which gives a groupoid in the algebraic sense.", "Explicit reference to ''G''0 (and hence to ) can be dropped.Conversely, given a groupoid ''G'' in the algebraic sense, define an equivalence relation on its elements by iff ''a'' ∗ ''a''−1 = ''b'' ∗ ''b''−1.Let ''G''0 be the set of equivalence classes of , i.e.", ".", "Denote ''a'' ∗ ''a''−1 by if with .Now define as the set of all elements ''f'' such that exists.", "Given and their composite is defined as .", "To see that this is well defined, observe that since and exist, so does .", "The identity morphism on ''x'' is then , and the category-theoretic inverse of ''f'' is ''f''−1.Sets in the definitions above may be replaced with classes, as is generally the case in category theory.===Vertex groups and orbits===Given a groupoid ''G'', the '''vertex groups''' or '''isotropy groups''' or '''object groups''' in ''G'' are the subsets of the form ''G''(''x'',''x''), where ''x'' is any object of ''G''.", "It follows easily from the axioms above that these are indeed groups, as every pair of elements is composable and inverses are in the same vertex group.The '''orbit''' of a groupoid ''G'' at a point is given by the set containing every point that can be joined to x by a morphism in G. If two points and are in the same orbits, their vertex groups and are isomorphic: if is any morphism from to , then the isomorphism is given by the mapping .Orbits form a partition of the set X, and a groupoid is called '''transitive''' if it has only one orbit (equivalently, if it is connected as a category).", "In that case, all the vertex groups are isomorphic (on the other hand, this is not a sufficient condition for transitivity; see the section below for counterexamples).===Subgroupoids and morphisms===A '''subgroupoid''' of is a subcategory that is itself a groupoid.", "It is called '''wide''' or '''full''' if it is wide or full as a subcategory, i.e., respectively, if or for every .A '''groupoid morphism''' is simply a functor between two (category-theoretic) groupoids.Particular kinds of morphisms of groupoids are of interest.", "A morphism of groupoids is called a fibration if for each object of and each morphism of starting at there is a morphism of starting at such that .", "A fibration is called a covering morphism or covering of groupoids if further such an is unique.", "The covering morphisms of groupoids are especially useful because they can be used to model covering maps of spaces.It is also true that the category of covering morphisms of a given groupoid is equivalent to the category of actions of the groupoid on sets." ], [ "Examples", "===Topology===Given a topological space , let be the set .", "The morphisms from the point to the point are equivalence classes of continuous paths from to , with two paths being equivalent if they are homotopic.Two such morphisms are composed by first following the first path, then the second; the homotopy equivalence guarantees that this composition is associative.", "This groupoid is called the fundamental groupoid of , denoted (or sometimes, ).", "The usual fundamental group is then the vertex group for the point .The orbits of the fundamental groupoid are the path-connected components of .", "Accordingly, the fundamental groupoid of a path-connected space is transitive, and we recover the known fact that the fundamental groups at any base point are isomorphic.", "Moreover, in this case, the fundamental groupoid and the fundamental groups are equivalent as categories (see the section below for the general theory).An important extension of this idea is to consider the fundamental groupoid where is a chosen set of \"base points\".", "Here is a (wide) subgroupoid of , where one considers only paths whose endpoints belong to .", "The set may be chosen according to the geometry of the situation at hand.===Equivalence relation===If is a setoid, i.e.", "a set with an equivalence relation , then a groupoid \"representing\" this equivalence relation can be formed as follows:* The objects of the groupoid are the elements of ;*For any two elements and in , there is a single morphism from to (denote by ) if and only if ;*The composition of and is .The vertex groups of this groupoid are always trivial; moreover, this groupoid is in general not transitive and its orbits are precisely the equivalence classes.", "There are two extreme examples:* If every element of is in relation with every other element of , we obtain the '''pair groupoid''' of , which has the entire as set of arrows, and which is transitive.", "* If every element of is only in relation with itself, one obtains the '''unit groupoid''', which has as set of arrows, , and which is completely intransitive (every singleton is an orbit).==== Examples ====*If is a smooth surjective submersion of smooth manifolds, then is an equivalence relation since has a topology isomorphic to the quotient topology of under the surjective map of topological spaces.", "If we write, then we get a groupoidwhich is sometimes called the '''banal groupoid''' of a surjective submersion of smooth manifolds.", "*If we relax the reflexivity requirement and consider ''partial equivalence relations'', then it becomes possible to consider semidecidable notions of equivalence on computable realisers for sets.", "This allows groupoids to be used as a computable approximation to set theory, called ''PER models''.", "Considered as a category, PER models are a cartesian closed category with natural numbers object and subobject classifier, giving rise to the effective topos introduced by Martin Hyland.=== Čech groupoid ===A Čech groupoidp.", "5 is a special kind of groupoid associated to an equivalence relation given by an open cover of some manifold .", "Its objects are given by the disjoint union,and its arrows are the intersections.The source and target maps are then given by the induced mapsand the inclusion mapgiving the structure of a groupoid.", "In fact, this can be further extended by settingas the -iterated fiber product where the represents -tuples of composable arrows.", "The structure map of the fiber product is implicitly the target map, sinceis a cartesian diagram where the maps to are the target maps.", "This construction can be seen as a model for some ∞-groupoids.", "Also, another artifact of this construction is k-cocyclesfor some constant sheaf of abelian groups can be represented as a functiongiving an explicit representation of cohomology classes.===Group action===If the group acts on the set , then we can form the '''action groupoid''' (or '''transformation groupoid''') representing this group action as follows:*The objects are the elements of ;*For any two elements and in , the morphisms from to correspond to the elements of such that ;*Composition of morphisms interprets the binary operation of .More explicitly, the ''action groupoid'' is a small category with and and with source and target maps and .", "It is often denoted (or for a right action).", "Multiplication (or composition) in the groupoid is then which is defined provided .For in , the vertex group consists of those with , which is just the isotropy subgroup at for the given action (which is why vertex groups are also called isotropy groups).", "Similarly, the orbits of the action groupoid are the orbit of the group action, and the groupoid is transitive if and only if the group action is transitive.Another way to describe -sets is the functor category , where is the groupoid (category) with one element and isomorphic to the group .", "Indeed, every functor of this category defines a set and for every in (i.e.", "for every morphism in ) induces a bijection : .", "The categorical structure of the functor assures us that defines a -action on the set .", "The (unique) representable functor : is the Cayley representation of .", "In fact, this functor is isomorphic to and so sends to the set which is by definition the \"set\" and the morphism of (i.e.", "the element of ) to the permutation of the set .", "We deduce from the Yoneda embedding that the group is isomorphic to the group , a subgroup of the group of permutations of .====Finite set====Consider the group action of on the finite set which takes each number to its negative, so and .", "The quotient groupoid is the set of equivalence classes from this group action , and has a group action of on it.==== Quotient variety ====Any finite group that maps to gives a group action on the affine space (since this is the group of automorphisms).", "Then, a quotient groupoid can be of the form , which has one point with stabilizer at the origin.", "Examples like these form the basis for the theory of orbifolds.", "Another commonly studied family of orbifolds are weighted projective spaces and subspaces of them, such as Calabi–Yau orbifolds.===Fiber product of groupoids===Given a diagram of groupoids with groupoid morphisms:where and , we can form the groupoid whose objects are triples , where , , and in .", "Morphisms can be defined as a pair of morphisms where and such that for triples , there is a commutative diagram in of , and the .===Homological algebra===A two term complex:of objects in a concrete Abelian category can be used to form a groupoid.", "It has as objects the set and as arrows the set ; the source morphism is just the projection onto while the target morphism is the addition of projection onto composed with and projection onto .", "That is, given , we have:Of course, if the abelian category is the category of coherent sheaves on a scheme, then this construction can be used to form a presheaf of groupoids.=== Puzzles ===While puzzles such as the Rubik's Cube can be modeled using group theory (see Rubik's Cube group), certain puzzles are better modeled as groupoids.The transformations of the fifteen puzzle form a groupoid (not a group, as not all moves can be composed).", "This groupoid acts on configurations.===Mathieu groupoid===The Mathieu groupoid is a groupoid introduced by John Horton Conway acting on 13 points such that the elements fixing a point form a copy of the Mathieu group M12." ], [ "Relation to groups", "If a groupoid has only one object, then the set of its morphisms forms a group.", "Using the algebraic definition, such a groupoid is literally just a group.", "Many concepts of group theory generalize to groupoids, with the notion of functor replacing that of group homomorphism.Every transitive/connected groupoid - that is, as explained above, one in which any two objects are connected by at least one morphism - is isomorphic to an action groupoid (as defined above) .", "By transitivity, there will only be one orbit under the action.Note that the isomorphism just mentioned is not unique, and there is no natural choice.", "Choosing such an isomorphism for a transitive groupoid essentially amounts to picking one object , a group isomorphism from to , and for each other than , a morphism in from to .If a groupoid is not transitive, then it is isomorphic to a disjoint union of groupoids of the above type, also called its '''connected components''' (possibly with different groups and sets for each connected component).In category-theoretic terms, each connected component of a groupoid is equivalent (but not isomorphic) to a groupoid with a single object, that is, a single group.", "Thus any groupoid is equivalent to a multiset of unrelated groups.", "In other words, for equivalence instead of isomorphism, one does not need to specify the sets , but only the groups For example,*The fundamental groupoid of is equivalent to the collection of the fundamental groups of each path-connected component of , but an isomorphism requires specifying the set of points in each component;*The set with the equivalence relation is equivalent (as a groupoid) to one copy of the trivial group for each equivalence class, but an isomorphism requires specifying what each equivalence class is:*The set equipped with an action of the group is equivalent (as a groupoid) to one copy of for each orbit of the action, but an isomorphism requires specifying what set each orbit is.The collapse of a groupoid into a mere collection of groups loses some information, even from a category-theoretic point of view, because it is not natural.", "Thus when groupoids arise in terms of other structures, as in the above examples, it can be helpful to maintain the entire groupoid.", "Otherwise, one must choose a way to view each in terms of a single group, and this choice can be arbitrary.", "In the example from topology, one would have to make a coherent choice of paths (or equivalence classes of paths) from each point to each point in the same path-connected component.As a more illuminating example, the classification of groupoids with one endomorphism does not reduce to purely group theoretic considerations.", "This is analogous to the fact that the classification of vector spaces with one endomorphism is nontrivial.Morphisms of groupoids come in more kinds than those of groups: we have, for example, fibrations, covering morphisms, universal morphisms, and quotient morphisms.", "Thus a subgroup of a group yields an action of on the set of cosets of in and hence a covering morphism from, say, to , where is a groupoid with vertex groups isomorphic to .", "In this way, presentations of the group can be \"lifted\" to presentations of the groupoid , and this is a useful way of obtaining information about presentations of the subgroup .", "For further information, see the books by Higgins and by Brown in the References." ], [ "Category of groupoids", "The category whose objects are groupoids and whose morphisms are groupoid morphisms is called the '''groupoid category''', or the '''category of groupoids''', and is denoted by '''Grpd'''.The category '''Grpd''' is, like the category of small categories, Cartesian closed: for any groupoids we can construct a groupoid whose objects are the morphisms and whose arrows are the natural equivalences of morphisms.", "Thus if are just groups, then such arrows are the conjugacies of morphisms.", "The main result is that for any groupoids there is a natural bijectionThis result is of interest even if all the groupoids are just groups.Another important property of '''Grpd''' is that it is both complete and cocomplete.=== Relation to Cat ===The inclusion has both a left and a right adjoint:::Here, denotes the localization of a category that inverts every morphism, and denotes the subcategory of all isomorphisms.=== Relation to sSet ===The nerve functor embeds '''Grpd''' as a full subcategory of the category of simplicial sets.", "The nerve of a groupoid is always a Kan complex.The nerve has a left adjoint:Here, denotes the fundamental groupoid of the simplicial set X.=== Groupoids in Grpd ===There is an additional structure which can be derived from groupoids internal to the category of groupoids, '''double-groupoids'''.", "Because '''Grpd''' is a 2-category, these objects form a 2-category instead of a 1-category since there is extra structure.", "Essentially, these are groupoids with functorsand an embedding given by an identity functorOne way to think about these 2-groupoids is they contain objects, morphisms, and squares which can compose together vertically and horizontally.", "For example, given squares and with the same morphism, they can be vertically conjoined giving a diagramwhich can be converted into another square by composing the vertical arrows.", "There is a similar composition law for horizontal attachments of squares." ], [ "Groupoids with geometric structures", "When studying geometrical objects, the arising groupoids often carry a topology, turning them into topological groupoids, or even some differentiable structure, turning them into Lie groupoids.", "These last objects can be also studied in terms of their associated Lie algebroids, in analogy to the relation between Lie groups and Lie algebras.Groupoids arising from geometry often possess further structures which interact with the groupoid multiplication.", "For instance, in Poisson geometry one has the notion of a symplectic groupoid, which is a Lie groupoid endowed with a compatible symplectic form.", "Similarly, one can have groupoids with a compatible Riemannian metric, or complex structure, etc." ], [ "See also", "*∞-groupoid*2-group*Homotopy type theory*Inverse category*Groupoid algebra (not to be confused with algebraic groupoid)*R-algebroid" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "**Brown, Ronald, 1987, \" From groups to groupoids: a brief survey,\" ''Bull.", "London Math.", "Soc.''", "'''19''': 113–34.Reviews the history of groupoids up to 1987, starting with the work of Brandt on quadratic forms.", "The downloadable version updates the many references.", "* —, 2006.''", "Topology and groupoids.''", "Booksurge.", "Revised and extended edition of a book previously published in 1968 and 1988.Groupoids are introduced in the context of their topological application.", "* —, Higher dimensional group theory.", "Explains how the groupoid concept has led to higher-dimensional homotopy groupoids, having applications in homotopy theory and in group cohomology.", "Many references.", "* * *F. Borceux, G. Janelidze, 2001, '' Galois theories.''", "Cambridge Univ.", "Press.", "Shows how generalisations of Galois theory lead to Galois groupoids.", "* Cannas da Silva, A., and A. Weinstein, '' Geometric Models for Noncommutative Algebras.''", "Especially Part VI.", "*Golubitsky, M., Ian Stewart, 2006, \" Nonlinear dynamics of networks: the groupoid formalism\", ''Bull.", "Amer.", "Math.", "Soc.''", "'''43''': 305-64* * Higgins, P. J., \"The fundamental groupoid of a graph of groups\", J. London Math.", "Soc.", "(2) 13 (1976) 145–149.", "* Higgins, P. J. and Taylor, J., \"The fundamental groupoid and the homotopy crossed complex of an orbit space\", in Category theory (Gummersbach, 1981), Lecture Notes in Math., Volume 962.Springer, Berlin (1982), 115–122.", "*Higgins, P. J., 1971.", "''Categories and groupoids.''", "Van Nostrand Notes in Mathematics.", "Republished in ''Reprints in Theory and Applications of Categories'', No.", "7 (2005) pp.", "1–195; freely downloadable.", "Substantial introduction to category theory with special emphasis on groupoids.", "Presents applications of groupoids in group theory, for example to a generalisation of Grushko's theorem, and in topology, e.g.", "fundamental groupoid.", "*Mackenzie, K. C. H., 2005.''", "General theory of Lie groupoids and Lie algebroids.''", "Cambridge Univ.", "Press.", "*Weinstein, Alan, \" Groupoids: unifying internal and external symmetry — A tour through some examples.\"", "Also available in Postscript., Notices of the AMS, July 1996, pp. 744–752.", "* Weinstein, Alan, \" The Geometry of Momentum\" (2002)* R.T. Zivaljevic.", "\"Groupoids in combinatorics—applications of a theory of local symmetries\".", "In ''Algebraic and geometric combinatorics'', volume 423 of ''Contemp.", "Math''., 305–324.Amer.", "Math.", "Soc., Providence, RI (2006)* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Galliard" ], [ "Introduction", " Galliard in Siena, Italy, 15th centuryThe '''''galliard''''' (; ; ) was a form of Renaissance dance and music popular all over Europe in the 16th century.", "It is mentioned in dance manuals from England, Portugal, France, Spain, Germany, and Italy." ], [ "Dance form", "The ''galliard'' is not an improvised dance, but rather, it consists of choreographed patterns of steps, which occupy one or more measures of music.", "In one measure, a galliard typically has five steps; in French such a basic step is called a ''cinq pas'' and in Italy, ''cinque passi''.", "This is sometimes written in English sources as ''sinkapace''.", "These steps are: right, left, right, left, cadence.The galliard is an athletic dance, characterised by leaps, jumps, hops and other similar figures.", "The main feature that defines a galliard step is a large jump, after which the dancer lands with one leg ahead of the other.", "This jump is called a ''cadence,'' and the final landing is called the ''posture.''", "The cadence is typically preceded by three quick hops with alternating feet.", "The sources generally describe movement patterns starting on the left foot, then repeating it starting with the right foot.", "A galliard pattern may also last twice as long, or more, which would involve 11 steps, or 17 steps.Unknown dancers performing lavolta.", "The painting is currently in Penshurst Place in Kent.The galliard was a favourite dance of Queen Elizabeth I of England, and although it is a relatively vigorous dance, in 1589 when the Queen was aged in her mid-fifties, John Stanhope of the Privy Chamber reported, \"the Queen is so well as I assure you, six or seven galliards in a morning, besides music and singing, is her ordinary exercise.", "\"While most commonly being an entire dance, the galliard's steps are used within many other forms of dance.", "For example, 16th-century Italian dances in Fabritio Caroso's (1581) and Cesare Negri's (1602) dance manuals often have a galliard section.One special step used during a galliard is lavolta, a step which involves an intimate, close hold between a couple, with the woman being lifted into the air and the couple turning 270 degrees, within one six-beat measure.", "Lavolta was considered by some dancing masters as an inappropriate dance.Another special step used during a galliard is the tassel kick (\"salto del fiocco\").", "These steps are found in Negri's manual and involve a galliard step usually (though not always) ending with a spin.", "The easier steps involve single spins of 180 or 360 degrees; later, more difficult steps involve multiple sequential spins and spins of up to at least 540 degrees.", "During the spin, the dancer kicks out to touch a tassel suspended between knee and waist height." ], [ "Musical form", "Galliard rhythmMusical compositions in the galliard form appear to have been written and performed after the dance fell out of popular use.", "In musical compositions, the galliard often filled the role of an ''after dance'' written in 6, which followed and mimicked another piece (sometimes a pavane) written in 4.The distinctive 6 beats to the phrase can still be heard today in songs such as \"God Save the King\"." ], [ "See also", "* List of dances* Saltarello" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General sources", "* Caroso, Fabritio (1581).", "''Il ballarino''.", "2 volumes.", "Venice: Francesco Ziletti.", "Facsimile reprint in one volume, Monuments of Music and Music Literature in Facsimile.", "second series: Music Literature, 46, New York: Broude Brothers, 1967.", "* Negri, Cesare (1602).", "''Le Gratie d'amore''.", "Milan.", "Facsimile reprints, (1) Bibliotheca musica Bononiensis, Sez.", "2, n. 104, Bologna: Forni Editore, 1969; (2) Monuments of Music and Music Literature in Facsimile.", "second series: Music Literature, no.", "141, New York: Broude Bros., 1969." ], [ "External links", "* Renaissance Dance article and video clips (US Library of Congress)* Reconstruction of Tassel Kicks* Galliard performed by students of Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance.", "Music by Jeremy Barlow and The Broadside Band." ] ]
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[ [ "General surgery" ], [ "Introduction", "A surgeon operating.", "'''General surgery''' is a surgical specialty that focuses on alimentary canal and abdominal contents including the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, appendix and bile ducts, and often the thyroid gland.", "They also deal with diseases involving the skin, breast, soft tissue, trauma, peripheral artery disease and hernias and perform endoscopic as such as gastroscopy, colonoscopy and laparoscopic procedures." ], [ "Scope", "General surgeons may sub-specialize into one or more of the following disciplines:===Trauma surgery===In many parts of the world including North America, Australia and the United Kingdom, the overall responsibility for trauma care falls under the auspices of general surgery.", "Some general surgeons obtain advanced training in this field (most commonly surgical critical care) and specialty certification surgical critical care.", "General surgeons must be able to deal initially with almost any surgical emergency.", "Often, they are the first port of call to critically ill or gravely injured patients, and must perform a variety of procedures to stabilize such patients, such as thoracostomy, cricothyroidotomy, compartment fasciotomies and emergency laparotomy or thoracotomy to stanch bleeding.", "They are also called upon to staff surgical intensive care units or trauma intensive care units.All general surgeons are trained in emergency surgery.", "Bleeding, infections, bowel obstructions and organ perforations are the main problems they deal with.", "Cholecystectomy, the surgical removal of the gallbladder, is one of the most common surgical procedures done worldwide.", "This is most often done electively, but the gallbladder can become acutely inflamed and require an emergency operation.", "Infections and rupture of the appendix and small bowel obstructions are other common emergencies.===Laparoscopic surgery===This is a relatively new specialty dealing with minimal access techniques using cameras and small instruments inserted through 3- to 15-mm incisions.", "Robotic surgery is now evolving from this concept (see below).", "Gallbladders, appendices, and colons can all be removed with this technique.", "Hernias are also able to be repaired laparoscopically.", "Bariatric surgery can be performed laparoscopically and there a benefits of doing so to reduce wound complications in obese patients.", "General surgeons that are trained today are expected to be proficient in laparoscopic procedures.===Colorectal surgery===General surgeons treat a wide variety of major and minor colon and rectal diseases including inflammatory bowel diseases (such as ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease), diverticulitis, colon and rectal cancer, gastrointestinal bleeding and hemorrhoids.===Breast surgery===General surgeons perform a majority of all non-cosmetic breast surgery from lumpectomy to mastectomy, especially pertaining to the evaluation, diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer.===Vascular surgery===General surgeons can perform vascular surgery if they receive special training and certification in vascular surgery.", "Otherwise, these procedures are typically performed by vascular surgery specialists.", "However, general surgeons are capable of treating minor vascular disorders.===Endocrine surgery===General surgeons are trained to remove all or part of the thyroid and parathyroid glands in the neck and the adrenal glands just above each kidney in the abdomen.", "In many communities, they are the only surgeon trained to do this.", "In communities that have a number of subspecialists, other subspecialty surgeons may assume responsibility for these procedures.===Transplant surgery===Responsible for all aspects of pre-operative, operative, and post-operative care of abdominal organ transplant patients.", "Transplanted organs include liver, kidney, pancreas, and more rarely small bowel.===Surgical oncology===Surgical oncologist refers to a general surgical oncologist (a specialty of a general surgeon), but thoracic surgical oncologists, gynecologist and so forth can all be considered surgeons who specialize in treating cancer patients.", "The importance of training surgeons who sub-specialize in cancer surgery lies in evidence, supported by a number of clinical trials, that outcomes in surgical cancer care are positively associated to surgeon volume (i.e., the more cancer cases a surgeon treats, the more proficient he or she becomes, and his or her patients experience improved survival rates as a result).", "This is another controversial point, but it is generally accepted, even as common sense, that a surgeon who performs a given operation more often, will achieve superior results when compared with a surgeon who rarely performs the same procedure.", "This is particularly true of complex cancer resections such as pancreaticoduodenectomy for pancreatic cancer, and gastrectomy with extended (D2) lymphadenectomy for gastric cancer.", "Surgical oncology is generally a 2-year fellowship following completion of a general surgery residency (5–7 years).===Cardiothoracic surgery===Most cardiothoracic surgeons in the U.S. (D.O.", "or M.D.)", "first complete a general surgery residency (typically 5–7 years), followed by a cardiothoracic surgery fellowship (typically 2–3 years).", "However, new programmes are currently offering cardiothoracic surgery as a residency (6–8 years).===Pediatric surgery=== Pediatric surgery is a subspecialty of general surgery.", "Pediatric surgeons do surgery on patients under age 18.Pediatric surgery is 5–7 years of residency and a 2-3 year fellowship." ], [ "Trends", "In the 2000s, minimally invasive surgery became more prevalent.", "Considerable enthusiasm has been built around robot-assisted surgery (also known as ''robotic surgery''), despite a lack of data suggesting it has significant benefits that justify its cost." ], [ "Training", "In Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the United States general surgery is a five to seven year residency and follows completion of medical school, either MD, MBBS, MBChB, or DO degrees.", "In Australia and New Zealand, a residency leads to eligibility for Fellowship of the Royal Australasian College of Surgeons.", "In Canada, residency leads to eligibility for certification by and Fellowship of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, while in the United States, completion of a residency in general surgery leads to eligibility for board certification by the American Board of Surgery or the American Osteopathic Board of Surgery which is also required upon completion of training for a general surgeon to have operating privileges at most hospitals in the United States.In the United Kingdom, surgical trainees enter training after five years of medical school and two years of the Foundation Programme.", "During the two to three-year core training programme, doctors will sit the Membership of the Royal College of Surgeons (MRCS) examination.", "On award of the MRCS examination, surgeons may hold the title 'Mister' or 'Miss/Ms./Mrs' rather than doctor.", "This is a tradition dating back hundreds of years in the United Kingdom from when only physicians attended medical school and surgeons did not, but were rather associated with barbers in the Barber Surgeon's Guild.", "The tradition is also present in many Commonwealth countries including New Zealand and some states of Australia.", "Trainees will then go onto Higher Surgical Training (HST), lasting a further five to six years.", "During this time they may choose to subspecialise.", "Before the end of HST, the examination of Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons (FRCS) must be taken in general surgery plus the subspeciality.", "Upon completion of training, the surgeon will become a consultant surgeon and will be eligible for entry on the GMC Specialist Register and may work both in the NHS and independent sector as a consultant general surgeon.", "The implementation of the European Working Time Directive limited UK surgical residents to a 48-hour working week.", "The introduction of a sub-consultant grade to enable those who have recently received a UK Certificate of Completion of Training may be necessary." ], [ "See also", "*Abdominal surgery*Physician*Reconstructive surgery*Surgeon*Surgery*Traumatology" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* American College of Surgeons* Association of Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland* General Surgeons Australia* Canadian Association of General Surgeons" ] ]
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[ [ "Gorilla" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gorillas''' are herbivorous, predominantly ground-dwelling great apes that inhabit the tropical forests of equatorial Africa.", "The genus '''''Gorilla''''' is divided into two species: the eastern gorilla and the western gorilla, and either four or five subspecies.", "The DNA of gorillas is highly similar to that of humans, from 95 to 99% depending on what is included, and they are the next closest living relatives to humans after chimpanzees and bonobos.Gorillas are the largest living primates, reaching heights between 1.25 and 1.8 metres, weights between 100 and 270 kg, and arm spans up to 2.6 metres, depending on species and sex.", "They tend to live in troops, with the leader being called a silverback.", "The eastern gorilla is distinguished from the western by darker fur colour and some other minor morphological differences.", "Gorillas tend to live 35–40 years in the wild.", "Gorillas' natural habitats cover tropical or subtropical forest in Sub-Saharan Africa.", "Although their range covers a small percentage of Sub-Saharan Africa, gorillas cover a wide range of elevations.", "The mountain gorilla inhabits the Albertine Rift montane cloud forests of the Virunga Volcanoes, ranging in altitude from .", "Lowland gorillas live in dense forests and lowland swamps and marshes as low as sea level, with western lowland gorillas living in Central West African countries and eastern lowland gorillas living in the Democratic Republic of the Congo near its border with Rwanda.There are thought to be around 316,000 western gorillas in the wild, and 5,000 eastern gorillas.", "Both species are classified as Critically Endangered by the IUCN; all subspecies are classified as Critically Endangered with the exception of the mountain gorilla, which is classified as Endangered.", "There are many threats to their survival, such as poaching, habitat destruction, and disease, which threaten the survival of the species.", "However, conservation efforts have been successful in some areas where they live." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''gorilla'' comes from the history of Hanno the Navigator ( 500 BC), a Carthaginian explorer on an expedition to the west African coast to the area that later became Sierra Leone.", "Members of the expedition encountered \"savage people, the greater part of whom were women, whose bodies were hairy, and whom our interpreters called Gorillae\".", "It is unknown whether what the explorers encountered were what we now call gorillas, another species of ape or monkeys, or humans.", "Skins of gorillai women, brought back by Hanno, are reputed to have been kept at Carthage until Rome destroyed the city 350 years later at the end of the Punic Wars, 146 BC.The American physician and missionary Thomas Staughton Savage and naturalist Jeffries Wyman first described the western gorilla in 1847 from specimens obtained in Liberia.", "They called it ''Troglodytes gorilla'', using the then-current name of the chimpanzee genus.", "The species name was derived , as described by Hanno." ], [ "Evolution and classification", "The closest relatives of gorillas are the other two Homininae genera, chimpanzees and humans, all of them having diverged from a common ancestor about 7 million years ago.", "Human gene sequences differ only 1.6% on average from the sequences of corresponding gorilla genes, but there is further difference in how many copies each gene has.", "Phylogeny of superfamily HominoideaUntil recently, gorillas were considered to be a single species, with three subspecies: the western lowland gorilla, the eastern lowland gorilla and the mountain gorilla.", "There is now agreement that there are two species, each with two subspecies.", "More recently, a third subspecies has been claimed to exist in one of the species.", "The separate species and subspecies developed from a single type of gorilla during the Ice Age, when their forest habitats shrank and became isolated from each other.", "Primatologists continue to explore the relationships between various gorilla populations.", "The species and subspecies listed here are the ones upon which most scientists agree.The proposed third subspecies of ''Gorilla beringei'', which has not yet received a trinomen, is the Bwindi population of the mountain gorilla, sometimes called the Bwindi gorilla.Some variations that distinguish the classifications of gorilla include varying density, size, hair colour, length, culture, and facial widths.", "Population genetics of the lowland gorillas suggest that the western and eastern lowland populations diverged around 261 thousand years ago." ], [ "Characteristics", "Male gorilla skullWild male gorillas weigh , while adult females weigh .", "Adult males are tall, with an arm span that stretches from .", "Female gorillas are shorter at , with smaller arm spans.", "Colin Groves (1970) calculated the average weight of 42 wild adult male gorillas at 144 kg, while Smith and Jungers (1997) found the average weight of 19 wild adult male gorillas to be 169 kg.", "Adult male gorillas are known as silverbacks due to the characteristic silver hair on their backs reaching to the hips.", "The tallest gorilla recorded was a silverback with an arm span of , a chest of , and a weight of , shot in Alimbongo, northern Kivu in May 1938.The heaviest gorilla recorded was a silverback shot in Ambam, Cameroon, which weighed .", "Males in captivity can be overweight and reach weights up to .Western gorilla (''Gorilla gorilla'') and eastern gorilla (''Gorilla beringei'')The eastern gorilla is more darkly coloured than the western gorilla, with the mountain gorilla being the darkest of all.", "The mountain gorilla also has the thickest hair.", "The western lowland gorilla can be brown or greyish with a reddish forehead.", "In addition, gorillas that live in lowland forest are more slender and agile than the more bulky mountain gorillas.", "The eastern gorilla also has a longer face and broader chest than the western gorilla.", "Like humans, gorillas have individual fingerprints.Their eye colour is dark brown, framed by a black ring around the iris.", "Gorilla facial structure is described as mandibular prognathism, that is, the mandible protrudes farther out than the maxilla.", "Adult males also have a prominent sagittal crest.Gorillas move around by knuckle-walking, although they sometimes walk upright for short distances, typically while carrying food or in defensive situations.", "A 2018 study investigating the hand posture of 77 mountain gorillas at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (8% of the population) found that knuckle walking was done only 60% of the time, and they also supported their weight on their fists, the backs of their hands/feet, and on their palms/soles (with the digits flexed).", "Such a range of hand postures was previously thought to have been used by only orangutans.", "Studies of gorilla handedness have yielded varying results, with some arguing for no preference for either hand, and others right-hand dominance for the general population.Studies have shown gorilla blood is not reactive to anti-A and anti-B monoclonal antibodies, which would, in humans, indicate type O blood.", "Due to novel sequences, though, it is different enough to not conform with the human ABO blood group system, into which the other great apes fit.A gorilla's lifespan is normally between 35 and 40 years, although zoo gorillas may live for 50 years or more.", "Colo, a female western gorilla at the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium, was the oldest known gorilla at 60 years of age when she died on 17 January 2017.Another gorilla, Ozzie, was 61 years old at the time of his death in January 2022." ], [ "Distribution and habitat", "Young gorilla climbingGorillas have a patchy distribution.", "The range of the two species is separated by the Congo River and its tributaries.", "The western gorilla lives in west central Africa, while the eastern gorilla lives in east central Africa.", "Between the species, and even within the species, gorillas live in a variety of habitats and elevations.", "Gorilla habitat ranges from montane forest to swampland.", "Eastern gorillas inhabit montane and submontane forests between above sea level.Mountain gorillas live in montane forests at the higher end of the elevation range, while eastern lowland gorillas live in submontane forests at the lower end.", "In addition, eastern lowland gorillas live in montane bamboo forests, as well as lowland forests ranging from in elevation.", "Western gorillas live in both lowland swamp forests and montane forests, at elevations ranging from sea level to .", "Western lowland gorillas live in swamp and lowland forests ranging up to , and Cross River gorillas live in low-lying and submontane forests ranging from ." ], [ "Ecology", "===Diet and foraging===Gorillas moving in habitatA gorilla's day is divided between rest periods and travel or feeding periods.", "Diets differ between and within species.", "Mountain gorillas mostly eat foliage, such as leaves, stems, pith, and shoots, while fruit makes up a very small part of their diets.", "Mountain gorilla food is widely distributed and neither individuals nor groups have to compete with one another.", "Their home ranges vary from , and their movements range around or less on an average day.", "Despite eating a few species in each habitat, mountain gorillas have flexible diets and can live in a variety of habitats.Gorilla foragingEastern lowland gorillas have more diverse diets, which vary seasonally.", "Leaves and pith are commonly eaten, but fruits can make up as much as 25% of their diets.", "Since fruit is less available, lowland gorillas must travel farther each day, and their home ranges vary from , with day ranges .", "Eastern lowland gorillas will also eat insects, preferably ants.", "Western lowland gorillas depend on fruits more than the others and they are more dispersed across their range.", "They travel even farther than the other gorilla subspecies, at per day on average, and have larger home ranges of .", "Western lowland gorillas have less access to terrestrial herbs, although they can access aquatic herbs in some areas.", "Termites and ants are also eaten.Gorillas rarely drink water \"because they consume succulent vegetation that is almost half water as well as morning dew\", although both mountain and lowland gorillas have been observed drinking.=== Nesting ===Gorilla night nest constructed in a treeGorillas construct nests for daytime and night use.", "Nests tend to be simple aggregations of branches and leaves about in diameter and are constructed by individuals.", "Gorillas, unlike chimpanzees or orangutans, tend to sleep in nests on the ground.", "The young nest with their mothers, but construct nests after three years of age, initially close to those of their mothers.", "Gorilla nests are distributed arbitrarily and use of tree species for site and construction appears to be opportunistic.", "Nest-building by great apes is now considered to be not just animal architecture, but as an important instance of tool use.Gorillas make a new nest to sleep on daily and do not use the previous one.", "This even if remaining in the same place.", "Usually, they are made an hour before dusk, to be ready to sleep when night falls.", "Gorillas sleep longer than humans, an average of 12 hours per day.=== Interspecies interactions ===One possible predator of gorillas is the leopard.", "Gorilla remains have been found in leopard scat, but this may be the result of scavenging.", "When the group is attacked by humans, leopards, or other gorillas, an individual silverback will protect the group, even at the cost of his own life.", "Gorillas do not appear to directly compete with chimpanzees in areas where they overlap.", "When fruit is abundant, gorilla and chimpanzee diets converge, but when fruit is scarce gorillas resort to vegetation.", "The two apes may also feed on different species, whether fruit or insects.", "Gorillas and chimpanzees may ignore or avoid each other when feeding on the same tree, but they have also been documented to form social bonds.", "Conversely, coalitions of chimpanzees have been observed attacking families of gorillas including silverbacks and killing infants." ], [ "Behaviour", "=== Social structure ===Silverback with femaleGorillas live in groups called troops.", "Troops tend to be made of one adult male or silverback, with a harem of multiple adult females and their offspring.", "However, multiple-male troops also exist.", "A silverback is typically more than 12 years of age, and is named for the distinctive patch of silver hair on his back, which comes with maturity.", "Silverbacks have large canine teeth that also come with maturity.", "Both males and females tend to emigrate from their natal groups.", "For mountain gorillas, females disperse from their natal troops more than males.", "Mountain gorillas and western lowland gorillas also commonly transfer to second new groups.Mature males also tend to leave their groups and establish their own troops by attracting emigrating females.", "However, male mountain gorillas sometimes stay in their natal troops and become subordinate to the silverback.", "If the silverback dies, these males may be able to become dominant or mate with the females.", "This behaviour has not been observed in eastern lowland gorillas.", "In a single male group, when the silverback dies, the females and their offspring disperse and find a new troop.", "Without a silverback to protect them, the infants will likely fall victim to infanticide.", "Joining a new group is likely to be a tactic against this.", "However, while gorilla troops usually disband after the silverback dies, female eastern lowlands gorillas and their offspring have been recorded staying together until a new silverback transfers into the group.", "This likely serves as protection from leopards.Silverback gorillaThe silverback is the centre of the troop's attention, making all the decisions, mediating conflicts, determining the movements of the group, leading the others to feeding sites, and taking responsibility for the safety and well-being of the troop.", "Younger males subordinate to the silverback, known as blackbacks, may serve as backup protection.", "Blackbacks are aged between 8 and 12 years and lack the silver back hair.", "The bond that a silverback has with his females forms the core of gorilla social life.", "Bonds between them are maintained by grooming and staying close together.", "Females form strong relationships with males to gain mating opportunities and protection from predators and infanticidal outside males.", "However, aggressive behaviours between males and females do occur, but rarely lead to serious injury.", "Relationships between females may vary.", "Maternally related females in a troop tend to be friendly towards each other and associate closely.", "Otherwise, females have few friendly encounters and commonly act aggressively towards each other.Females may fight for social access to males and a male may intervene.", "Male gorillas have weak social bonds, particularly in multiple-male groups with apparent dominance hierarchies and strong competition for mates.", "Males in all-male groups, though, tend to have friendly interactions and socialise through play, grooming, and staying together, and occasionally they even engage in homosexual interactions.", "Severe aggression is rare in stable groups, but when two mountain gorilla groups meet the two silverbacks can sometimes engage in a fight to the death, using their canines to cause deep, gaping injuries.=== Reproduction and parenting ===Young gorilla riding on motherFemales mature at 10–12 years (earlier in captivity), and males at 11–13 years.", "A female's first ovulatory cycle occurs when she is six years of age, and is followed by a two-year period of adolescent infertility.", "The estrous cycle lasts 30–33 days, with outward ovulation signs subtle compared to those of chimpanzees.", "The gestation period lasts 8.5 months.", "Female mountain gorillas first give birth at 10 years of age and have four-year interbirth intervals.", "Males can be fertile before reaching adulthood.", "Gorillas mate year round.Females will purse their lips and slowly approach a male while making eye contact.", "This serves to urge the male to mount her.", "If the male does not respond, then she will try to attract his attention by reaching towards him or slapping the ground.", "In multiple-male groups, solicitation indicates female preference, but females can be forced to mate with multiple males.", "Males incite copulation by approaching a female and displaying at her or touching her and giving a \"train grunt\".", "Recently, gorillas have been observed engaging in face-to-face sex, a trait once considered unique to humans and bonobos.Mother gorilla with 10-day-old infantGorilla infants are vulnerable and dependent, thus mothers, their primary caregivers, are important to their survival.", "Male gorillas are not active in caring for the young, but they do play a role in socialising them to other youngsters.", "The silverback has a largely supportive relationship with the infants in his troop and shields them from aggression within the group.", "Infants remain in contact with their mothers for the first five months and mothers stay near the silverback for protection.", "Infants suckle at least once per hour and sleep with their mothers in the same nest.Infants begin to break contact with their mothers after five months, but only for a brief period each time.", "By 12 months old, infants move up to from their mothers.", "At around 18–21 months, the distance between mother and offspring increases and they regularly spend time away from each other.", "In addition, nursing decreases to once every two hours.", "Infants spend only half of their time with their mothers by 30 months.", "They enter their juvenile period at their third year, and this lasts until their sixth year.", "At this time, gorillas are weaned and they sleep in a separate nest from their mothers.", "After their offspring are weaned, females begin to ovulate and soon become pregnant again.", "The presence of play partners, including the silverback, minimizes conflicts in weaning between mother and offspring.=== Communication ===Twenty-five distinct vocalisations are recognised, many of which are used primarily for group communication within dense vegetation.", "Sounds classified as grunts and barks are heard most frequently while traveling, and indicate the whereabouts of individual group members.", "They may also be used during social interactions when discipline is required.", "Screams and roars signal alarm or warning, and are produced most often by silverbacks.", "Deep, rumbling belches suggest contentment and are heard frequently during feeding and resting periods.", "They are the most common form of intragroup communication.For this reason, conflicts are most often resolved by displays and other threat behaviours that are intended to intimidate without becoming physical.", "As a result, fights do not occur very frequently.", "The ritualized charge display is unique to gorillas.", "The entire sequence has nine steps: (1) progressively quickening hooting, (2) symbolic feeding, (3) rising bipedally, (4) throwing vegetation, (5) chest-beating with cupped hands, (6) one leg kick, (7) sideways running, two-legged to four-legged, (8) slapping and tearing vegetation, and (9) thumping the ground with palms to end display.A gorilla's chest-beat may vary in frequency depending on its size.", "Smaller ones tend to have higher frequencies, while larger ones tend to be lower.", "They also do it the most when females are ready to mate." ], [ "Intelligence", "A female gorilla exhibiting tool use by using a tree trunk as a support whilst fishing herbsGorillas are considered highly intelligent.", "A few individuals in captivity, such as Koko, have been taught a subset of sign language.", "Like the other great apes, gorillas can laugh, grieve, have \"rich emotional lives\", develop strong family bonds, make and use tools, and think about the past and future.", "Some researchers believe gorillas have spiritual feelings or religious sentiments.", "They have been shown to have cultures in different areas revolving around different methods of food preparation, and will show individual colour preferences.===Tool use===The following observations were made by a team led by Thomas Breuer of the Wildlife Conservation Society in September 2005.Gorillas are now known to use tools in the wild.", "A female gorilla in the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park in the Republic of Congo was recorded using a stick as if to gauge the depth of water whilst crossing a swamp.", "A second female was seen using a tree stump as a bridge and also as a support whilst fishing in the swamp.", "This means all of the great apes are now known to use tools.In September 2005, a two-and-a-half-year-old gorilla in the Republic of Congo was discovered using rocks to smash open palm nuts inside a game sanctuary.", "While this was the first such observation for a gorilla, over 40 years previously, chimpanzees had been seen using tools in the wild 'fishing' for termites.", "Nonhuman great apes are endowed with semiprecision grips, and have been able to use both simple tools and even weapons, such as improvising a club from a convenient fallen branch." ], [ "Scientific study", "American physician and missionary Thomas Staughton Savage obtained the first specimens (the skull and other bones) during his time in Liberia.", "The first scientific description of gorillas dates back to an article by Savage and the naturalist Jeffries Wyman in 1847 in ''Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History'', where ''Troglodytes gorilla'' is described, now known as the western gorilla.", "Other species of gorilla were described in the next few years.Drawing of French explorer Paul Du Chaillu at close quarters with a gorillaThe explorer Paul Du Chaillu was the first westerner to see a live gorilla during his travel through western equatorial Africa from 1856 to 1859.He brought dead specimens to the UK in 1861.The first systematic study was not conducted until the 1920s, when Carl Akeley of the American Museum of Natural History traveled to Africa to hunt for an animal to be shot and stuffed.", "On his first trip, he was accompanied by his friends Mary Bradley, a mystery writer, her husband, and their young daughter Alice, who would later write science fiction under the pseudonym James Tiptree Jr. After their trip, Mary Bradley wrote ''On the Gorilla Trail''.", "She later became an advocate for the conservation of gorillas, and wrote several more books (mainly for children).", "In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Robert Yerkes and his wife Ava helped further the study of gorillas when they sent Harold Bigham to Africa.", "Yerkes also wrote a book in 1929 about the great apes.After World War II, George Schaller was one of the first researchers to go into the field and study primates.", "In 1959, he conducted a systematic study of the mountain gorilla in the wild and published his work.", "Years later, at the behest of Louis Leakey and the ''National Geographic'', Dian Fossey conducted a much longer and more comprehensive study of the mountain gorilla.", "When she published her work, many misconceptions and myths about gorillas were finally disproved, including the myth that gorillas are violent.Western lowland gorillas (''G.", "g. gorilla'') are believed to be one of the zoonotic origins of HIV/AIDS.", "The SIVgor Simian immunodeficiency virus that infects them is similar to a certain strain of HIV-1.=== Genome sequencing ===The gorilla became the next-to-last great ape genus to have its genome sequenced.", "The first gorilla genome was generated with short read and Sanger sequencing using DNA from a female western lowland gorilla named Kamilah.", "This gave scientists further insight into the evolution and origin of humans.", "Despite the chimpanzees being the closest extant relatives of humans, 15% of the human genome was found to be more like that of the gorilla.", "In addition, 30% of the gorilla genome \"is closer to human or chimpanzee than the latter are to each other; this is rarer around coding genes, indicating pervasive selection throughout great ape evolution, and has functional consequences in gene expression.\"", "Analysis of the gorilla genome has cast doubt on the idea that the rapid evolution of hearing genes gave rise to language in humans, as it also occurred in gorillas." ], [ "Captivity", "Gorilla at the Basel ZooGorillas became highly prized by western zoos since the 19th century, though the earliest attempts to keep them in captive facilities ended in their early death.", "In the late 1920s the care of captive gorillas significantly improved.", "Colo (December 22, 1956 – January 17, 2017) of the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium was the first gorilla to be born in captivity.Captive gorillas exhibit stereotypic behaviors, including eating such as regurgitation, reingestion and self-injurious or conspecific aggression, pacing, rocking, sucking of fingers or lip smacking, and overgrooming.", "Negative vigilance of visitor behaviors have been identified as starting, posturing and charging at visitors.", "Groups of bachelor gorillas containing young silverbacks have significantly higher levels of aggression and wounding rates than mixed age and sex groups.The use of both internal and external privacy screens on exhibit windows has been shown to alleviate stresses from visual effects of high crowd densities, leading to decreased stereotypic behaviors in the gorillas.", "Playing naturalistic auditory stimuli as opposed to classical music, rock music, or no auditory enrichment (which allows for crowd noise, machinery, etc.", "to be heard) has been noted to reduce stress behavior as well.", "Enrichment modifications to feed and foraging, where clover-hay is added to an exhibit floor, decrease stereotypic activities while simultaneously increasing positive food-related behaviors.Recent research on captive gorilla welfare emphasizes a need to shift to individual assessments instead of a one-size-fits-all group approach to understanding how welfare increases or decreases based on a variety of factors.", "Individual characteristics such as age, sex, personality and individual histories are essential in understanding that stressors will affect each individual gorilla and their welfare differently." ], [ "Conservation status", "Eastern lowland gorilla in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Democratic Republic of the CongoAll species (and subspecies) of gorilla are listed as endangered or critically endangered on the IUCN Red List.", "All gorillas are listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), meaning that international export/import of the species, including in parts and derivatives, is regulated.", "Around 316,000 western lowland gorillas are thought to exist in the wild, 4,000 in zoos, thanks to conservation; eastern lowland gorillas have a population of under 5,000 in the wild and 24 in zoos.", "Mountain gorillas are the most severely endangered, with an estimated population of about 880 left in the wild and none in zoos.", "Threats to gorilla survival include habitat destruction and poaching for the bushmeat trade.", "Gorillas are closely related to humans, and are susceptible to diseases that humans also get infected by.", "In 2004, a population of several hundred gorillas in the Odzala National Park, Republic of Congo was essentially wiped out by the Ebola virus.", "A 2006 study published in ''Science'' concluded more than 5,000 gorillas may have died in recent outbreaks of the Ebola virus in central Africa.", "The researchers indicated in conjunction with commercial hunting of these apes, the virus creates \"a recipe for rapid ecological extinction\".", "In captivity, it has also been observed that gorillas can also be infected with COVID-19.Conservation efforts include the Great Apes Survival Project, a partnership between the United Nations Environment Programme and the UNESCO, and also an international treaty, the Agreement on the Conservation of Gorillas and Their Habitats, concluded under UNEP-administered Convention on Migratory Species.", "The Gorilla Agreement is the first legally binding instrument exclusively targeting gorilla conservation; it came into effect on 1 June 2008.Governments of countries where gorillas live placed a ban on their killing and trading, but weak law enforcement still poses a threat to them, since the governments rarely apprehend poachers, traders and consumers that rely on gorillas for profit." ], [ "Cultural significance", "Drawing of a gorilla who has killed a hunter and destroyed his shotgun, as narrated by Paul Du Chaillu, 1861In Cameroon's Lebialem highlands, folk stories connect people and gorillas via totems; a gorilla's death means the connected person will die also.", "This creates a local conservation ethic.", "Many different indigenous peoples interact with wild gorillas.", "Some have detailed knowledge; the Baka have words to distinguish at least ten types of gorilla individuals, by sex, age, and relationships.", "In 1861, alongside tales of hunting enormous gorillas, the traveller and anthropologist Paul Du Chaillu reported the Cameroonian story that a pregnant woman who sees a gorilla will give birth to one.In 1911, the anthropologist Albert Jenks noted the Bulu people's knowledge of gorilla behaviour and ecology, and their gorilla stories.", "In one such story, \"The Gorilla and the Child\", a gorilla speaks to people, seeking help and trust, and stealing a baby; a man accidentally kills the baby while attacking the gorilla.", "Even far from where gorillas live, savannah tribes pursue \"cult-like worship\" of the apes.", "Some beliefs are widespread among indigenous peoples.", "The Fang name for gorilla is ''ngi'' while the Bulu name is ''njamong''; the root ''ngi'' means fire, denoting a positive energy.", "From the Central African Republic to Cameroon and Gabon, stories of reincarnations as gorillas, totems, and transformations similar to those recorded by Du Chaillu are still told in the 21st century.Since gaining international attention, gorillas have been a recurring element of many aspects of popular culture and media.", "They were usually portrayed as murderous and aggressive.", "Inspired by Emmanuel Frémiet's ''Gorilla Carrying off a Woman'', gorillas have been depicted kidnapping human women.", "This theme was used in films such as ''Ingagi'' (1930) and most notably ''King Kong'' (1933).", "The comedic play ''The Gorilla'', which debuted in 1925, featured an escaped gorilla taking a woman from her house.", "Several films would use the \"escaped gorilla\" trope including ''The Strange Case of Doctor Rx'' (1942), ''The Gorilla Man'' (1943), ''Gorilla at Large'' (1954) and the Disney cartoons ''The Gorilla Mystery'' (1930) and ''Donald Duck and the Gorilla'' (1944).Gorillas have been used as opponents to jungle-themed heroes such as Tarzan and Sheena, Queen of the Jungle, as well as superheroes.", "The DC comics supervillain Gorilla Grodd is an enemy of the Flash.", "Gorillas also serve as antagonists in the 1968 film ''Planet of the Apes''.", "More positive and sympathetic portrayals of gorillas include the films ''Son of Kong'' (1933), ''Mighty Joe Young'' (1949), ''Gorillas in the Mist'' (1988) and ''Instinct'' (1999) and the 1992 novel ''Ishmael''.", "Gorillas have been featured in video games as well, notably ''Donkey Kong''." ], [ "See also", "* Bili ape* Gorilla (advertisement)* Gorilla suit* Great Ape Project* Harambe – a captive gorilla, shot while interacting with a child who fell into his zoo enclosure, who became a popular internet meme* International Primate Day* List of individual apes* List of fictional apes* Monkey Day" ], [ "References", "=== Literature cited ===* * ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** *" ], [ "External links", "* Animal Diversity Web – includes photos, artwork, and skull specimens of ''Gorilla gorilla''* Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting International Gorilla Conservation Programme (Video) (archived 5 September 2007)* Primate Info Net ''Gorilla'' Factsheet – taxonomy, ecology, behavior and conservation* San Diego Zoo Gorilla Factsheet – features a video and photos* World Wildlife Fund: Gorillas – conservation, facts and photos (archived 16 October 2004)* Gorilla protection – Gorilla conservation (archived 29 November 2010)* Welcome to the Year of the Gorilla 2009 * Virunga National Park – The Official Website for Virunga National Park, the Last Refuge for Congo's Mountain Gorillas (archived 22 September 2010)* Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).", "* Genome of ''Gorilla gorilla'', via Ensembl* Genome of ''Gorilla gorilla'' (version Kamilah_GGO_v0/gorGor6), via UCSC Genome Browser* Data of the genome of ''Gorilla gorilla'', via NCBI* Data of the genome assembly of ''Gorilla gorilla'' (version Kamilah_GGO_v0/gorGor6), via NCBI" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "GURPS Supers" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''GURPS Supers''''' is a superhero roleplaying game written by Loyd Blankenship and published by Steve Jackson Games.", "The first edition was published in 1989." ], [ "Contents", "''GURPS Supers'' is a supplement of rules for comic-book superhero characters and campaigns for ''GURPS''.", "The first edition book includes new combat rules, 24 superpowers, bionic superlimbs, gadgets and equipment, and rules for creating new powers, sample heroes and villains, and a briefly described campaign world.", "The second edition book is revised and corrected.", "''GURPS Supers'' deals with super-powered characters in a modern-day setting, and contains all the necessary rules to create superheroes for the ''GURPS'' basic system.", "The book also contains suggestions for running a superhero campaign, and a detailed background setting with the UN controlling most superheroes." ], [ "Setting", "The official \"house setting\" for ''GURPS Supers'' is the \"IST World\", described briefly in chapter 7 of ''GURPS Supers'' and later appearing in its own full-length supplement, ''GURPS International Super Teams''." ], [ "System", "''GURPS Supers'' is a supplement for the GURPS roleplaying game and uses that basic rule system.", "The supplement offers additional rules and options for characters with superpowers.Players can choose from several different basic types of superhero characters that influence how the character's powers are selected.", "Players can select from a wide variety of powers and their modifications given in ''GURPS Supers'', augmented by those in the ''GURPS Basic'', plus any other GURPS book included by the campaign.", "The rules book included advice on creating superhero campaigns, and ways for the game master to customize the style of the campaign.As part of the GURPS system, ''GURPS Supers'' allows the exchange of a player's characters between any of the numerous other genres supported by GURPS.", "''GURPS Supers'' favors lower-powered heroes over higher-powered ones.", "Many of the superpowers unique to ''GURPS Supers'' appear as Advantages and Disadvantages in the GURPS 4e Basic Set." ], [ "History", "''GURPS Supers'' was written by Loyd Blankenship, with a cover by Alan Gutierrez and Charlie Weidman, and was first published by Steve Jackson Games in 1988 as a 112-page book.", "''GURPS Space'' was one of the broad genre books that was published after the ''GURPS Basic Set''.The 2nd edition of ''GURPS Supers'' was published in 1990 and featured a cover by John Zeleznik.===Earlier editions and supplements===The first edition of ''GURPS Supers'' was printed in 1989, and the second edition was published in 1990.The first edition had groupings of character powers that were not used in the second edition.", "Both were based on the Third Edition of ''GURPS Basic''.There were various aids, supplements and ready-made adventures available, including:* ''GURPS Supers Adventures''* ''GURPS Supers: Death Wish''* ''GURPS Supers: Mixed Doubles''* ''GURPS Supers: School of Hard Knocks''* ''GURPS Supers: Superscum''* ''GURPS Supers: Supertemps''* ''Hellboy Sourcebook and Roleplaying Game'' (based on the ''Hellboy'' series)* ''GURPS Wild Cards'' (based on ''Wild Cards'' series) * ''GURPS Wild Cards: Aces Abroad''===4th Edition===''GURPS Supers'' for 4e was published in 2007, one of several genre books published by Steve Jackson Games for the new edition.For the 4th edition of GURPS, the majority of rules governing the creation of superhero characters are covered in the more generic ''GURPS Powers''.", "A PDF release by William H. Stoddard covers the genre specific information in a similar style to ''GURPS Fantasy'' and ''GURPS Space'' books for the fourth edition of GURPS." ], [ "Reception", "In the August 1989 edition of ''Games International'' (Issue #8), James Wallis liked the design and layout of the book, but pointed out that \"the rewriting of a large number of rules ... shows that ''GURPS'' is not a truly generic rolegame and makes ''GURPS Supers'' substantially harder to learn\".", "He disliked the additional complexities around character generation, and was disturbed that the book did not spend much time on the creation of character background, saying this was a failure of the system to properly engage with the nature of comic books.", "He also commented that ''GURPS'' combat was frequently deadly, whereas in comic books combat is not usually lethal.", "Wallis concluded by giving this book a below average rating of only 2 out of 5: \"For my money, ''GURPS Supers'' is flawed ...", "There is too much emphasis on rules changes; it fails as a superhero rolegame because of the overrealism of the ''GURPS'' rules, and it fails as a generic sourcebook because it is not generic\".", "In the September 1996 edition of ''Dragon'' (Issue #233), Rick Swan compared the second edition of ''GURPS Supers'' to ''Champions'', and commented that \"''GURPS Super'' takes a more realistic route, stressing personality over punch-outs.", "That's not to say it's stodgy; a typical chapter is titled 'Unnatural Multiple Limbs from Another World'.", "The Second Edition streamlines the occasionally awkward mechanics of the First Edition and adds some nifty new powers\".", "In the May 1996 edition of ''Arcane'' (issue #6), Steve Faragher gave the second edition of ''GURPS Supers'' a below-average rating of only 6 out of 10, and called the background setting \"rather dull\", saying it is \"fine if you want to recreate a Saturday afternoon TV show, but not so great for a more fantastic, underground campaign of the ''Watchmen'' variety\".", "Faragher concluded that \"it's a competent enough set of rules - and one that's well presented - but ''GURPS Supers'' is not exactly compulsive playing material\"." ], [ "Other reviews", "* ''Games Review'', vol.", "2 #1* ''Dragão Brasil'' (issue #4 - Jul 1995) (Portuguese)* ''Dragão Brasil'' (issue #41 - Aug 1998) (Portuguese)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official site" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gallifrey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gallifrey''' (; sometimes, in the classic series, ), is a fictional planet in the long-running British science fiction television series ''Doctor Who''.", "It is the original home world of the Time Lords, the civilisation to which the protagonist, the Doctor belongs.", "It is located in a binary star system 250 million light years from Earth.It was first shown in ''The War Games'' (1969) during the Second Doctor's trial, though it was not identified by name until ''The Time Warrior'' (1973–74).In the revived series (2005 onwards), Gallifrey was originally referred to as having been destroyed in the Time War, which was fought between the Time Lords and the Daleks.", "It was depicted in a flashback in \"The Sound of Drums\" (2007) and appeared prominently in \"The End of Time\" (2009–10).", "At the conclusion of \"The Day of the Doctor\" (2013), Gallifrey is revealed to have actually survived the Time War, though it was frozen in time and transported into a bubble universe, before being unfrozen and arriving at the end of the universe at a chronological point before \"Hell Bent\" (2015).", "By \"Spyfall\" (2020), it had been reduced to ruin by The Master who described the planet as hiding in its bubble universe again.", "At the end of \"The Timeless Children\" (2020), one of the Doctor's allies, Ko Sharmus, detonates the \"Death Particle\" on Gallifrey, wiping out all organic life on the planet.The points in time when Gallifrey appears are never definitively stated.", "As the planet is often reached by means of time travel, its relative present could conceivably exist almost anywhere in the Earth's past or future, as well as anywhere in the conceivable universe." ], [ "Geography and appearances", "A spaceship approaches Gallifrey from space (from ''The Invasion of Time'')From space, Gallifrey is seen as a yellow-orange planet and was close enough to central space lanes for spacecraft to require clearance from Gallifreyan Space Traffic Control as they pass through its system.", "The planet was protected from physical attack by an impenetrable barrier called the quantum force field, and from teleportation incursions by the transduction barrier—which could be reinforced to repel most levels of this type of technological attack.The Time Lords' principal city, named The Capitol, consists of shining towers protected by a mighty glass dome.", "Outside The Capitol is a wilderness with plains of red grass, as mentioned by the Doctor in ''Gridlock'' as well as \"The End of Time\".", "The planet's so-called \"second city\" is Arcadia, and is seen falling to the Daleks in the 2013 minisode \"The Last Day.", "\"The Doctor's granddaughter Susan first describes her home world (not named as \"Gallifrey\" at the time) as having bright, silver-leafed trees and a burnt orange sky at night in the serial ''The Sensorites'' (1964).", "This casts an amber tint on anything outside the city, as seen in ''The Invasion of Time''.", "However, Gallifrey's sky appears blue and Earth-like in ''The Five Doctors'' (1983) within the isolated Death Zone.In ''The Time Monster'', the Third Doctor says that \"When I was a little boy, we used to live in a house that was perched halfway up the top of a mountain\", explaining, \"I ran down that mountain and I found that the rocks weren't grey at all—but they were red, brown and purple and gold.", "And those pathetic little patches of sludgy snow were shining white.", "Shining white in the sunlight.\"", "In \"Gridlock\", the Tenth Doctor echoes Susan's description of the world now named as Gallifrey and goes further by mentioning the vast mountain ranges \"with fields of deep red grass, capped with snow\".", "He then elaborates how Gallifrey's second sun would \"rise in the south and the mountains would shine\", with the silver-leafed trees looking like \"a forest on fire\" in the mornings.Outer Gallifrey's wastelands are where the \"Outsiders\" reside, The Doctor Who Role Playing Game released by FASA equates the Outsiders with the \"Shobogans\", who are briefly mentioned in the serial ''The Deadly Assassin''.", "The wastes of Gallifrey include the Death Zone, an area that was used as a gladiatorial arena by the first Time Lords, pitting various species kidnapped from their respective time zones against each other (although Daleks and Cybermen were considered too dangerous to use).", "Inside the Death Zone stands the Tomb of Rassilon, the founder of Time Lord society.Somewhere on Gallifrey there is also an institute called the Academy, which the Doctor and various other Time Lords have attended.", "\"The Last Day\" mentions birds as something expected in Gallifrey's skies.", "Gallifrey appeared in the ''Doctor Who'' 50th anniversary special, \"The Day of the Doctor\" which aired on 23 November 2013.===Spin-off material===Several of the spin-off novels have further information about Gallifrey.", "It is said to have at least two moons, one being the copper-coloured Pazithi Gallifreya (first named in ''Cat's Cradle: Time's Crucible''); the novel ''Lungbarrow'' also places Karn (setting of ''The Brain of Morbius'', 1976) in Gallifrey's solar system, along with a frozen gas giant named Polarfrey and an \"astrological figure\" of \"Kasterborous the Fibster\".", "''Cat's Cradle: Time's Crucible'' also mentions edible rodent-like mammals called tafelshrews.===Relative time===''The Three Doctors'' (1972–73) seemed to set Gallifrey's relative present contemporary with the events of the story set on Earth, with its sequel ''Arc of Infinity'' (1983) setting it in the 1980s.", "Alternatively, ''The Trial of a Time Lord'' (1986) seems to imply that the planet's relative present is in the Earth's far future.", "This is also the position taken by ''The Doctor Who Role Playing Game'' released by FASA, although the information in it is not usually considered canon.", "In the episode \"Utopia\" (2007), the Tenth Doctor describes the year 100 trillion as a time period not even the Time Lords travelled to.", "The present of Gallifrey from after it returns to the universe from another dimension is stated to be around the end of the universe, \"several billion years in the future\", in \"Hell Bent\" (2015).", "Both the Virgin New Adventures and the BBC Books ''Doctor Who'' novels seem to take the stance that Gallifrey's relative present is far in the Earth's relative past.", "In \"Spyfall,\" the Master states that Gallifrey is once again in the bubble universe it was sent to in \"The Day of the Doctor.\"", "The Master causes a wormhole called \"The Boundary\" to connect to Gallifrey from the far future in \"Ascension of the Cybermen\" and \"The Timeless Children\" though he refuses to answer the Doctor's questions about how he accomplished this.===Race of Gallifrey===The television series and people involved in its production repeatedly refer to the Time Lords, interchangeably, as a species or race.In ''The War Games'' (1969), the Second Doctor says the Time Lords are \"an immensely civilised race\".", "Writer Malcolm Hulke and writer and script editor Terrance Dicks repeat this description in their 1972 book ''The Making of Doctor Who''.In ''The Time Warrior'' (1973–74), Commander Linx quotes Sontaran military intelligence as describing the Time Lords as \"A race of great technical achievement, but lacking the morale to withstand a determined assault.", "\"In ''Pyramids of Mars'' (1975), Sutekh calls the Time Lords \"a perfidious species\".In \"School Reunion\" (2006), the alien Krillitane Mr Finch calls the Time Lords \"such a pompous race\".In \"Smith and Jones\" (2007), the Tenth Doctor answers \"what sort of species he is\" with \"I'm a Time Lord.", "\"In \"Human Nature\" (2007), Tim Latimer hears a voice saying, \"Last of the Time Lords, the last of that wise and ancient race.", "\"In \"Utopia\" (2007), the Tenth Doctor answers \"what species are you\" with \"Time Lord, last of.", "\"In \"The Sound of Drums\" (2007), the Tenth Doctor calls the Time Lords \"the oldest and most mighty race in the universe\".In \"Planet of the Dead\" (2009), the Tenth Doctor says, \"I come from a race of people called Time Lords.", "\"About sixteen minutes into \"Let's Kill Hitler\" (2011), a computer readout describes the \"Pilot Species\" of the Doctor's ship the TARDIS as \"Time Lord\".In \"The Witch's Familiar\" (2015), Davros describes a prophecy that spoke of a \"hybrid creature of two great warrior races forced together to create a warrior greater than either,\" and believes that the creature being referred to was \"half Dalek, half Time Lord.", "\"In \"Before the Flood\" (2015), the Fisher King describes the Time Lords as \"the most warlike race in the galaxy\".In \"Hell Bent\" (2015), the General describes the Hybrid as being \"crossbred between two warrior races\".", "He says it is supposed that these races are \"the Daleks and the Time Lords\".In \"Knock Knock\" (2017), the Twelfth Doctor tells Bill Potts the Time Lords are \"my species\".Writing in issue No.", "356 of ''Doctor Who Magazine'', head writer and executive producer Russell T Davies describes the Time Lords as \"the Doctor's race\".In a special feature on the DVD set of ''The Invasion of Time'', script editor Anthony Read called the Time Lords \"an interesting species to somebody coming in\".In a special feature on the DVD and Blu-ray set of series 8, actor Peter Capaldi said the Doctor belongs to \"a race called the Time Lords\".Terrance Dicks recalled in a 2016 interview in ''The Essential Doctor Who'' magazine that during a discussion of ''The War Games'', producer Derrick Sherwin said the Doctor belongs to \"this mysterious race called Time Lords\".The Time Lords are also referred to as a race by media outlets including the ''Radio Times'' and ''The New York Times'', while a correction in a 2014 NPR article claims that \"not all Gallifreyans are Time Lords\".", "\"The Stolen Tardis\" (1979), a spin-off comic printed in issue No.", "9 of ''Doctor Who Weekly'' (the original name of ''Doctor Who Magazine'') also claims that \"not everyone on Gallifrey is a Time Lord\", while a feature in issue No.", "21 instead states that the Doctor is \"a member of a race called the Time Lords\"." ], [ "History", "===On screen===The End of Time\" by the side of the Earth.Few details on the history of the planet itself emerge from the original series run from 1963 to 1989.In \"The End of the World\" (2005), the Ninth Doctor states that his home planet has been destroyed in a war and the Time Lords with it.", "The episode also indicates that the Time Lords are remembered in the far future.Subsequently, in \"Dalek\" (2005), it is revealed that the last great Time War was fought between the Time Lords and the Daleks, ending in the obliteration of both sides and with only two apparent survivors; the Doctor and a lone Dalek that had somehow fallen through time and crashed on Earth.", "At the conclusion of that episode, that surviving Dalek self-destructs, leaving the Ninth Doctor believing that he was the sole survivor of the Time War.", "However, the Daleks return in \"Bad Wolf\"/\"The Parting of the Ways\" (2005), and subsequently in several other stories.The Tenth Doctor's reference to Gallifrey in \"The Runaway Bride\" (2006) is the first time the name of his homeworld has been given onscreen since the new series began.", "The Doctor's revelation that he is from Gallifrey elicits terror from the Empress of the Racnoss.", "The Tenth Doctor in human form (as \"John Smith\") mentions Gallifrey in \"Human Nature\" (2007) and is asked if it was in Ireland; this is the same question asked in the 1970s stories ''The Hand of Fear'' and ''The Invisible Enemy''.The planet makes its first appearance in the revived series in \"The Sound of Drums\" (2007), where the Citadel, enclosed in a glass dome (as described by the Doctor in \"Gridlock\", 2007), is seen in flashback as the Doctor describes it.", "Also seen is a ceremony initiating 8-year-old Gallifreyans – in particular the Master – into the Time Lord Academy.", "\"The End of Time\" (2009–10) once again featured Gallifrey.", "By the end of the war, Gallifrey is depicted in ruins.", "The dome of the main city, the Time Lord capital, the Citadel, is shattered and dozens of Dalek saucers have crashed on the plains below.", "The Master releases Gallifrey from its time lock.", "However, Gallifrey's reemergence is eventually stopped and reversed after it is made clear that the release of Gallifrey would lead to the Time Lords destroying time – in effect destroying the universe – to defeat the Daleks and ultimately to preserve the Time Lords at the expense of all creation.", "Lord President Rassilon also believes that this action would elevate them to a higher form of existence, becoming \"creatures of consciousness\".", "Upon realising the scope of Rassilon's plan for self-preservation, the Tenth Doctor recalls that the Doctor that fought in the Time War had attempted to stop them during the war.", "Eventually, the Master comes to the aid of the Tenth Doctor and prevents Rassilon and the rest of Gallifrey from coming through, breaking the link that held Gallifrey in relative time to 21st-century Earth.It is stated by the Tenth Doctor in \"The End of Time\" that Gallifrey is not how he and the Master knew it in their youth.", "Implying that the Time Lords had resorted to desperate and deplorable measures to fight the Daleks, the Doctor is willing to break his code of non-violence to stop the return of the Time Lords.", "This is reinforced within a short feature that discloses the hitherto unknown circumstances of the Eighth Doctor's regeneration into the War Doctor, entitled \"The Night of the Doctor\" (2013).", "A young pilot rejects assistance from the Eighth Doctor due to her fear of the Time Lords.In the series seven finale, \"The Name of the Doctor\", two Gallifreyan mechanics were seen on Gallifrey watching the First Doctor and Susan steal a TARDIS.In the 50th anniversary special of the television series, \"The Day of the Doctor\" (2013), scenes are shown during the fall of Arcadia, Gallifrey's second city.", "Subsequently, it is shown that Gallifrey wasn't actually destroyed.", "The final scenes depict three of the Doctor's incarnations—the Tenth Doctor, the Eleventh Doctor and the War Doctor; the interface of the weapon, the Moment, that was supposed to destroy the planet; and the Eleventh Doctor's companion Clara Oswald decide against destroying it.", "Instead, they freeze the planet in time within a parallel pocket universe.", "This occurs with the help of the other Doctors, including the Twelfth Doctor, whose eyes alone are seen at this point.", "Instead of destroying Gallifrey, the Dalek fleet echelons open fire on and destroy each other.In \"The Time of the Doctor\" (2013), the Time Lords are depicted as trying to re-enter the universe through a crack in the Universe on the planet Trenzalore.", "They broadcast a message throughout space and time, the question \"Doctor Who?", "\", a question which only the Doctor could answer.", "When the Doctor answers, they will know that it is safe to leave.", "However, this message inadvertently attracts various races, including the Daleks and Cybermen, to lay siege to Trenzalore; the Eleventh Doctor remaining to protect the inhabitants, but not wanting to release the Time Lords as this would mean the destruction of Trenzalore and the initiation of another Time War.", "Hundreds of years later, Clara convinces the Time Lords to help the Doctor, dying from old age in his final regeneration, and the crack closes, before reopening in the sky above Trenzalore.", "The Time Lords give the Doctor a new regeneration cycle, before the crack seals for good with the Time Lords still lost, but a newly regenerated Twelfth Doctor ready to find them.", "In \"Death in Heaven\" (2014), Missy tells the Twelfth Doctor that Gallifrey is located at its original coordinates.", "These claims prove to be false, leaving the Doctor distraught.The Twelfth Doctor returns to Gallifrey in \"Heaven Sent\" (2015), having taken the \"long way around\" through breaking a wall of azbantium after he is teleported inside his confession dial.", "In \"Hell Bent\" (2015), Gallifrey is revealed to have indeed returned to its original coordinates as described by Missy, but that it is now situated \"several billion years in the future, and when the universe is pretty much over\" for its own protection.", "After Rassilon is deposed and exiled by the Twelfth Doctor, Gallifrey is seen in a much later period in the episode abandoned apart from the human immortal Ashildr, who is protected in the Cloisters beneath the Citadel by a reality bubble.", "The Thirteenth Doctor returns to Gallifrey at the end of the events of \"Spyfall\" to find everything on it destroyed and a recording of the Master revealing that he orchestrated the planet's destruction.", "Gallifrey is revealed to have moved to a hitherto unknown wormhole called the Boundary, guarded by Ko Sharmus, at the end of the episode \"Ascension of the Cybermen\" with the Master reappearing from the planet as well.", "The Doctor goes through to Gallifrey where she is captured by the Master and through the Matrix the Master shows her she is really the Timeless Child, a figure from Gallifrey's past from whom the secret of regeneration was gained.", "The Master converts the corpses of Time Lords into Cybermasters, with the power to regenerate.", "The Doctor threatens him with the Death Particle, a weapon created by the Cyberium capable of destroying all organic life.", "She was unable to press it but Ko Sharmus did so for her, apparently destroying all life on the planet.===Novels===Various spin-off novels have expanded on the history and nature of Gallifrey.Marc Platt's novels ''Cat's Cradle: Time's Crucible'' and ''Lungbarrow'', provide a detailed backstory for the civilisation seen in the main series.", "In the Dark Times (occasionally mentioned in the televised serials such as ''The Five Doctors''), Gallifrey was at the centre of an empire covering dozens of worlds and continually being extended by heroes such as Prydonius (after whom the Time Lord chapter is named).", "Ancient Gallifreyans are all telepathic and were ruled by a female cult centred on a figure called the Pythia, who controlled the population through mysticism and prophecies.", "When the prophetic powers of the last of the Pythias failed her, Rassilion, Omega and a shadowy figure known as The Other seized power in the name of science and rationality.", "Seeing this, the Pythia committed suicide and cursed Gallifrey, killing all children in their wombs and making the world sterile.", "To combat this, Rassilion restructured society and used genetic looms to create new generations of Gallifreyans, who emerge from the looms as fully grown adults.", "Each of the Great Houses is allotted a total of forty-five cousins and given a regeneration cycle of thirteen lives.", "The Houses themselves are to some degree alive, in the same way TARDISes are, and the furniture can move about, occasionally growing into 'Drudges' who function as servants for the family.", "The Doctor was loomed in the House of Lungbarrow in the mountains of South Gallifrey, but unique among the house's cousins, he has a belly button.", "This sterility backstory is contradicted by on screen depictions and descriptions of the Master and the Doctor as children, the Eleventh Doctor stating he slept in the cot he brings out of his TARDIS and references made to the Doctor and the Master having parents, the Doctor himself being a father and the Master having a daughter.The Virgin New Adventuresestablish a religion on Gallifrey centred around the three main gods, Time, Death and Pain.", "The Time Lords use these figures to understand the concepts they represent and in some cases make deals with them and become their chosen champions.", "The Seventh Doctor is Time's Champion (as well as someone who makes frequent deals with or wages against Death to save his friends) and the audio play ''Master'' states that the Master is Death's champion.", "It's also briefly implied in ''Vampire Science'', that the Eighth Doctor is Life's champion, implying the existence of another unseen figure.", "''Happy Endings'' and other books imply that these gods are Eternals as seen in the serial ''Enlightenment''.In the Eighth Doctor Adventures novel ''The Ancestor Cell'' by Peter Anghelides and Stephen Cole, Gallifrey is destroyed as a result of the Eighth Doctor's desire to prevent the voodoo cult Faction Paradox from starting a war between the Time Lords and an unnamed Enemy.", "Hints about this future war are dropped in several books earlier in the series beginning with Lawrence Miles' ''Alien Bodies''.", "To have boltholes or decoys in case of attack, the Time Lords have created nine separate planet Gallifreys (it even hinted that the original Gallifrey may at some point be reduced to ruins) and special looms to constantly produce new soldiers.", "By this time TARDISes have evolved to point where they appear human and reproduce sexually (the Doctor's companion Compassion is the first such TARDIS).", "It is also hinted that the Celestial Intervention Agency will evolve into the beings of pure thought known as the Celestis, who observe the war from outside this dimension (the Last Parliament in which they sit resembles the Panopticon on Gallifrey and the closest anyone gets to describing them is similar to the Time Lords' robes).", "Faction Paradox itself is a counter to Time Lord society, dedicated to creating time-travel paradoxes, in contrast to the Time Lords' web of time.", "It was founded by a mysterious figure Grandfather Paradox, who it is believed was once a Time Lord from the House of Lungbarrow.", "''The Ancestor Cell'' suggests that he is a future version of the Doctor, but this is retconned in ''The Gallifrey Chronicles'', to him being everyone's potential future self.", "When the Doctor destroys Gallifrey the war no longer happens and his actions also apparently (and retroactively) wipe the Time Lords from history.In the last regular Eighth Doctor novel, ''The Gallifrey Chronicles'' by Lance Parkin, it is revealed that while Gallifrey was destroyed, the Time Lords were not erased from history.", "However, the cataclysm sets up an event horizon in time that prevents anyone from entering Gallifrey's relative past or travelling from it to the present or future.", "The Time Lords also survive within the Matrix, which has been downloaded into the Eighth Doctor's mind, but their reconstruction requires a sufficiently advanced computer.", "At the novel's end, the question of whether or not the Time Lords will be restored remains unanswered.Television series executive producer Russell T Davies wrote in ''Doctor Who Magazine'' No.", "356 that there is no connection between the War of the books and the Time War of the television series.", "In the same ''Doctor Who Magazine'' column, Davies compared Gallifrey being destroyed twice with Earth's two World Wars.", "He also said that he was \"usually happy for old and new fans to invent the Complete History of the Doctor in their heads, completely free of the production team's hot and heavy hands\"." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gymnastics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gymnastics''' is a type of sport that includes physical exercises requiring balance, strength, flexibility, agility, coordination, artistry and endurance.", "The movements involved in gymnastics contribute to the development of the arms, legs, shoulders, back, chest, and abdominal muscle groups.", "Gymnastics evolved from exercises used by the ancient Greeks that included skills for mounting and dismounting a horse, and from circus performance skills.The most common form of competitive gymnastics is artistic gymnastics (AG), which consists of, for women (WAG), the events floor, vault, uneven bars, and beam; and for men (MAG), the events floor, vault, rings, pommel horse, parallel bars, and horizontal bar.The governing body for competition in gymnastics throughout the world is the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG).", "Eight sports are governed by the FIG, including gymnastics for all, men's and women's artistic gymnastics, rhythmic gymnastics, trampolining (including double mini-trampoline), tumbling, acrobatic, aerobic, and parkour.", "Disciplines not recognized by FIG include wheel gymnastics, aesthetic group gymnastics, TeamGym, and mallakhamba.Participants in gymnastics-related sports include young children, recreational-level athletes, and competitive athletes at all levels of skill." ], [ "Etymology", "The word gymnastics derives from the common Greek adjective γυμνός (), by way of the related verb γυμνάζω (''gymnazo''), whose meaning is to \"train naked\", \"train in gymnastic exercise\", generally \"to train, to exercise\".", "The verb had this meaning because athletes in ancient times exercised and competed without clothing." ], [ "History", "Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, the \"father of gymnastics\"Gymnastics can be traced to exercise to ancient Greece specifically to Sparta and Athens.", "Exercise of that time was documented by Philostratus' work ''Gymnastics: The Ethics of an Athletic Aesthetic''.", "The original term for the practice of gymnastics is from the related Greek verb γυμνάζω (''gumnázō''), which translates as \"to train naked or nude\" because young men exercising trained without clothing.", "In ancient Greece, physical fitness was a highly valued attribute in both men and women.", "It was not until after the Romans conquered Greece in 146BC that gymnastics became more formalized and used to train men in warfare.", "Based on Philostratus' claim that gymnastics is a form of wisdom, comparable to philosophy, poetry, music, geometry, and astronomy, Athens combined this more physical training with the education of the mind.", "At the Palestra, a physical education training center, the discipline of educating the body and the mind were combined allowing for a form of gymnastics that was more aesthetic and individual and that left behind the focus on strictness, discipline, the emphasis on defeating records, and a focus on strength.Don Francisco Amorós y Ondeano, a Spanish colonel, born on February 19, 1770, in Valencia and who died on August 8, 1848, in Paris, was the first person to introduce educative gymnastics in France.", "The German Friedrich Ludwig Jahn began the German gymnastics movement 1811 in Berlin which led to the invention of the parallel bars, rings, high bar, the pommel horse and the vault horse.Germans Charles Beck and Charles Follen and American John Neal brought the first wave of gymnastics to the United States in the 1820s.", "Beck opened the first gymnasium in the US in 1825 at the Round Hill School in Northampton, Massachusetts.", "Follen opened the first college gymnasium and the first public gymnasium in the US in 1826 at Harvard College and in Boston, Massachusetts, respectively.", "Neal was the first American to open a public gymnasium in the US in Portland, Maine in 1827.He also documented and promoted these early efforts in the ''American Journal of Education'' and ''The Yankee'', helping to establish the American branch of the movement.Early 20th-century gymnastics in Stockholm, SwedenThe Federation of International Gymnastics (FIG) was founded in Liege in 1881.By the end of the nineteenth century, men's gymnastics competition was popular enough to be included in the first modern Olympic Games in 1896.From then on until the early 1950s, both national and international competitions involved a changing variety of exercises gathered under the rubric, ''gymnastics'', that included, for example, synchronized team floor calisthenics, rope climbing, high jumping, running, and horizontal ladder.", "During the 1920s, women organized and participated in gymnastics events.", "The first women's Olympic competition was limited, only involving synchronized calisthenics and track and field.", "These games were held in 1928 in Amsterdam.", "By 1954, Olympic Games apparatus and events for both men and women had been standardized in modern format, and uniform grading structures (including a point system from 1 to 15) had been agreed upon.", "In 1930, the first UK mass movement organisation of women in gymnastics, the '''Women's League of Health and Beauty''', was founded by Mary Bagot Stack in London.", "At this time, Soviet gymnasts astounded the world with highly disciplined and difficult performances, setting a precedent that continues.", "Television has helped publicize and initiate a modern age of gymnastics.", "Both men's and women's gymnastics now attract considerable international interest, and excellent gymnasts can be found on every continent.In 2006, a new points system for Artistic gymnastics was put into play.", "With an A Score (or D score) being the difficulty score, which as of 2009 is based on the top 8 high scoring elements in a routine (excluding Vault).", "The B Score (or E Score), is the score for execution and is given for how well the skills are performed." ], [ "<span id=\"International competitive gymnastics\"></span>FIG-recognized disciplines", "The following disciplines are governed by FIG.===Artistic gymnastics===Nadia Comăneci in 1976.The artistry and grace of Comăneci and Soviet gymnast Olga Korbut gave the sport global popularity.Artistic Gymnastics is usually divided into Men's and Women's Gymnastics.", "Men compete on six events: Floor Exercise, Pommel Horse, Still Rings, Vault, Parallel Bars, and Horizontal Bar, while women compete on four: Vault, Uneven Bars, Balance Beam, and Floor Exercise.", "In some countries, women at one time competed on the rings, high bar, and parallel bars (for example, in the 1950s in the USSR).In 2006, FIG introduced a new point system for Artistic gymnastics in which scores are no longer limited to 10 points.", "The system is used in the US for elite level competition.", "Unlike the old code of points, there are two separate scores, an execution score and a difficulty score.", "In the previous system, the execution score was the only score.", "It was and still is out of 10.00, except for short exercises.", "During the gymnast's performance, the judges deduct this score only.", "A fall, on or off the event, is a 1.00 deduction, in elite level gymnastics.", "The introduction of the difficulty score is a significant change.", "The gymnast's difficulty score is based on what elements they perform and is subject to change if they do not perform or complete all the skills, or they do not connect a skill meant to be connected to another.", "Connection bonuses are where deviation happens most commonly between the intended and actual difficulty scores, as it can be difficult to connect multiple flight elements.", "It is very hard to connect skills if the first skill is not performed correctly.", "The new code of points allows the gymnasts to gain higher scores based on the difficulty of the skills they perform as well as their execution.", "There is no maximum score for difficulty, as it can keep increasing as the difficulty of the skills increase.====Competitive events for women in artistic gymnastics====Tsukahara vault===== Vault =====In the vaulting events, gymnasts sprint down a runway, to take off onto a vault board (or perform a roundoff or handspring entry onto a vault board), to land momentarily inverted on the hands on the vaulting horse or vaulting table (pre-flight segment), then propel themselves forward or backward off that platform to a two-footed landing (post-flight segment).", "Every gymnast starts at a different point on the vault runway depending on their height and strength.", "The post-flight segment may include one or more multiple saltos, or twisting movements.", "A round-off entry vault, called a Yurchenko, is a commonly performed vault in the higher levels in gymnastics.", "When performing a Yurchenko, gymnasts round-off so their hands are on the runway while their feet land on the vault board.", "From the round-off position, the gymnast travels backward so that the hands land on the vaulting table.", "The gymnast then blocks off the vaulting platform into various twisting and/or somersaulting combinations.", "The post-flight segment brings the gymnast to her feet.", "Less difficult vaults include taking off from the vault board with both feet at the same time and either doing a front handspring or round-off onto the vaulting table.In 2001, the traditional vaulting horse was replaced with a new apparatus, sometimes known as a tongue, horse, or vaulting table.", "The new apparatus is more stable, wider, and longer than the older vaulting horse, approximately 1 m in length and 1 m in width, giving gymnasts a larger blocking surface.", "This apparatus is thus considered safer than the vaulting horse used in the past.", "With the addition of this new, safer vaulting table, gymnasts are attempting more difficult vaults.Gymnast on uneven bars===== Uneven bars =====On the uneven bars, the gymnast performs a timed routine on two parallel horizontal bars set at different heights.", "These bars are made of fiberglass covered in wood laminate, to prevent them from breaking.", "In the past, bars were made of wood, but the bars were prone to breaking, providing an incentive to switch to newer technologies.", "The height of the bars may be adjusted by 5 cm to the size needed by individual gymnasts, although the distance between bars cannot be changed for individual gymnasts in elite competition.", "In the past, the uneven parallel bars were closer together.", "The bars have been moved increasingly further apart, allowing gymnasts to perform swinging, circling, transitional, and release moves that may pass over, under, and between the two bars.", "At the Elite level, movements must pass through the handstand.", "Gymnasts often mount the uneven bars using a springboard or a small mat.", "Gymnasts may use chalk (MgCO3) and grips (a leather strip with holes for fingers to protect hands and improve performance) when performing this event.", "The chalk helps take the moisture out of gymnasts' hands to decrease friction and prevent rips (tears to the skin of the hands); dowel grips help gymnasts grip the bar.===== Balance beam =====Dorina Böczögő performing a one-arm press hold during her balance beam mount, 2013The gymnast performs a choreographed routine of up to 90 seconds in length consisting of leaps, acrobatic skills, somersaults, turns and dance elements on a padded beam.", "The beam is from the ground, long, and wide.", "This stationary object can also be adjusted, to be raised higher or lower.", "The gymnast begins the 70-90 seconds exercise by mounting the beam by either a vault or a jump.", "The event requires balance, flexibility, grace, poise, and strength.===== Floor =====Gymnast doing a stag leap on floor exerciseThe event in gymnastics performed on the floor is called floor exercise.", "The English abbreviation for the event in gymnastics scoring is FX.", "In the past, the floor exercise event was executed on the bare floor or mats such as wrestling mats.", "The floor event now occurs on a carpeted 12m × 12m square, usually consisting of hard foam over a layer of plywood, which is supported by springs generally called a spring floor.", "This provides a firm surface that provides extra bounce or spring when compressed, allowing gymnasts to achieve greater height and a softer landing after the composed skill.", "Gymnasts perform a choreographed routine for up to 90 seconds in the floor exercise event.", "Depending on the level, the gymnast may choose their own routine; however some levels have compulsory routines, where default music must be played.", "Levels three to six the music is the same for each levels along with the skills within the routine.", "However, recently, the levels have switched.", "Now, levels 6–10 are optional levels and they get to have custom routines made.", "In the optional levels (levels six to ten) there are skill requirements for the routine but the athlete is able to pick her own music without any words.", "The routine should consist of tumbling passes, series of jumps, leaps, dance elements, acrobatic skills, and turns, or pivots, on one foot.", "A gymnast can perform up to four tumbling passes, each of which usually includes at least one flight element without hand support.", "Each level of gymnastics requires the athlete to perform a different number of tumbling passes.", "In level 7 in the United States, a gymnast is required to do 2–3, and in levels 8–10, at least 3–4 tumbling passes are required.===== Scoring =====Scoring for both Junior Olympic and NCAA level gymnastics uses a 10.0 scale.", "Levels below Level 9 start from a 10.0 automatically if all requirements for an event are met.", "Levels 9 and 10, and NCAA gymnastics all start below a 10.0 and require gymnastics to acquire bonus points through connections and skills to increase their start value to a 10.0.During a routine, deductions will be made by the judges for flaws in the form of the technique of a skill.", "For example, steps on landings or flexed feet can range from .05-.1 off, depending on the severity of the mistake.==== Competitive events for men in artistic gymnastics ========= Floor =====Male gymnasts also perform on a 12meter x 12meter spring floor.", "A series of tumbling passes are performed to demonstrate flexibility, strength, and balance.", "Strength skills include circles, scales, and press handstands.", "Men's floor routines usually have multiple passes that have to total between 60–70 seconds and are performed without music, unlike the women's event.", "Rules require that male gymnasts touch each corner of the floor at least once during their routine.Chris Cameron on the pommel horse===== Pommel horse =====A typical pommel horse exercise involves both single leg and double leg work.", "Single leg skills are generally found in the form of scissors, an element often done on the pommels.", "Double leg work, however, is the main staple of this event.", "The gymnast swings both legs in a circular motion (clockwise or counterclockwise depending on preference) and performs such skills on all parts of the apparatus.", "To make the exercise more challenging, gymnasts will often include variations on a typical circling skill by turning (moores and spindles) or by straddling their legs (Flares).", "Routines end when the gymnast performs a dismount, either by swinging his body over the horse or landing after a handstand variation.===== Still rings =====The rings are suspended on wire cable from a point 5.75 meters from the floor.", "The gymnasts must perform a routine demonstrating balance, strength, power, and dynamic motion while preventing the rings themselves from swinging.", "At least one static strength move is required, but some gymnasts may include two or three.", "A routine ends with a dismount.===== Vault =====Gymnasts sprint down a runway, which is a maximum of 25 meters in length, before hurdling onto a springboard.", "The gymnast is allowed to choose where they start on the runway.", "The body position is maintained while punching (blocking using only a shoulder movement) the vaulting platform.", "The gymnast then rotates to a standing position.", "In advanced gymnastics, multiple twists and somersaults may be added before landing.", "Successful vaults depend on the speed of the run, the length of the hurdle, the power the gymnast generates from the legs and shoulder girdle, the kinesthetic awareness in the air, how well they stuck the landing, and the speed of rotation in the case of more difficult and complex vaults.===== Parallel bars =====Men perform on two bars executing a series of swings, balances, and releases that require great strength and coordination.", "The width between the bars is adjustable depending upon the actual needs of the gymnasts and usually 2m high.===== Horizontal bar =====A 2.8  cm thick steel or fiberglass bar raised 2.5 m above the landing area is all the gymnast has to hold onto as he performs giant swings or ''giants'' (forward or backward revolutions around the bar in the handstand position), release skills, twists, and changes of direction.", "By using all of the momentum from giants and then releasing at the proper point, enough height can be achieved for spectacular dismounts, such as a triple-back salto.", "Leather grips are usually used to help maintain a grip on the bar, and to prevent rips.", "While training for this event, straps are often used to ensure that the gymnast does not fall off the bar as they are learning new skills.As with women, male gymnasts are also judged on all of their events including their execution, degree of difficulty, and overall presentation skills.===Rhythmic gymnastics===rhythmic gymnast Irina Tchachina stretching in her warm-up before practiceAccording to FIG rules, only women compete in rhythmic gymnastics.", "This is a sport that combines elements of ballet, gymnastics, dance, and apparatus manipulation.", "The sport involves the performance of five separate routines with the use of five apparatus; ball, ribbon, hoop, clubs, rope—on a floor area, with a much greater emphasis on the aesthetic rather than the acrobatic.", "There are also group routines consisting of 5 gymnasts and 5 apparatuses of their choice.", "Rhythmic routines are scored out of a possible 30 points; the score for artistry (choreography and music) is averaged with the score for the difficulty of the moves and then added to the score for execution.International competitions are split between Juniors, under sixteen by their year of birth; and Seniors, for women sixteen and over again by their year of birth.", "Gymnasts in Russia and Europe typically start training at a very young age and those at their peak are typically in their late teens (15–19) or early twenties.", "The largest events in the sport are the Olympic Games, World Championships, European Championships, World Cup and Grand-Prix Series.", "The first World Championships were held in 1963 with its first appearance at the Olympics in 1984.====Rhythmic gymnastics apparatus====Evgenia Kanaeva doing a Split leap in her hoop routineGalina Shugurova performing an Attitude balance in her ball apparatus; Ball:The ball is made of either rubber or synthetic material (pliable plastic) provided it possesses the same elasticity as rubber.", "It is from 18 to 20  cm in diameter and must have a minimum weight of 400g.", "The ball can be of any color and should rest in the gymnast's hand, not the wrist.", "Fundamental elements of a ball routine include throwing, bouncing, and rolling.", "The gymnast must use both hands and work on the whole floor area while showing continuous flowing movement.", "The ball is to emphasize the gymnast's flowing lines and body difficulty.", "; Hoop: A hoop is an apparatus in rhythmic gymnastics and may be made of plastic or wood, provided that it retains its shape during the routine.", "The interior diameter is from 51 to 90  cm and the hoop must weigh a minimum of 300g.", "The hoop may be of natural color or be part of fully covered by one or several colors, and it may be covered with adhesive tape either of the same or different colors as the hoop.", "Fundamental requirements of a hoop routine include rotation around the hand or body and rolling, as well as swings, circles, throws, and passes through and over the hoop.", "The routines in hoop involve mastery in both apparatus handling and body difficulties like leaps, jumps, and pivots.", "; Ribbon: The ribbon is made of satin or another similar material cloth of any color and may be multi-colored as well as have designs on it.", "The ribbon itself must be at least 35g (1 oz), 4–6 cm (1.6–2.4\") in width and for senior category a minimum length of 6m (20') (5m (16.25') for juniors).", "The ribbon must be in one piece.", "The end that is attached to the stick is doubled for a maximum length of 1m (3').", "This is stitched down both sides.", "At the top, a very thin reinforcement or rows of machine stitching for a maximum length of 5  cm is authorized.", "This extremity may end in a strap, or have an eyelet (a small hole, edged with buttonhole stitch or a metal circle), to permit attaching the ribbon.", "The ribbon is fixed to the stick by means of a supple attachment such as thread, nylon cord, or a series of articulated rings.", "The attachment has a maximum length of 7 cm (2.8\"), not counting the strap or metal ring at the end of the stick where it will be fastened.", "Compulsory elements for the ribbon include flicks, circles, snakes and spirals, and throws.", "It requires a high degree of co-ordination to form the spirals and circles as any knots which may accidentally form in the ribbon are penalised.", "During a ribbon routine, large, smooth and flowing movements are looked for.", "; Clubs: Multi-piece clubs are the most popular clubs.", "The club is built along an internal rod, providing a base on which a handle made of polyolefin plastic is wrapped, providing an airspace between it and the internal rod.", "This airspace provides flex, cushioning impact, making the club softer on the hands.", "Foam ends and knobs further cushion the club.", "Multi-piece clubs are made in both a thin European style or larger bodied American style and in various lengths, generally ranging from 19 to 21 inches (480 to 530 mm).", "The handles and bodies are typically wrapped with decorative plastics and tapes.", "The skills involved are apparatus mastery and body elements, Clubs are thrown from alternate hands; each passes underneath the other clubs and is caught in the opposite hand to the one from which it was thrown.", "At its simplest, each club rotates once per throw, the handle moving down and away from the throwing hand at first.", "However, double and triple spins are frequently performed, allowing the club to be thrown higher for more advanced patterns and to allow tricks such as 360s to be performed underneath.", "; Rope: This apparatus may be made of hemp or a synthetic material which retains the qualities of lightness and suppleness.", "Its length is in proportion to the size of the gymnast.", "The rope should, when held down by the feet, reach both of the gymnasts' armpits.", "One or two knots at each end are for keeping hold of the rope while doing the routine.", "At the ends (to the exclusion of all other parts of the rope) an anti-slip material, either coloured or neutral may cover a maximum of 10 cm (3.94 in).", "The rope must be coloured, either all or partially and may either be of a uniform diameter or be progressively thicker in the center provided that this thickening is of the same material as the rope.", "The fundamental requirements of a rope routine include leaps and skipping.", "Other elements include swings, throws, circles, rotations and figures of eight.", "In 2011, the FIG decided to remove the use of rope from the program of senior individual competitions.", "It is still used in junior competitions and occasionally on the program for senior group competitions (eg.", "2017–2018).====Men's rhythmic gymnastics====Men's rhythmic gymnastics is related to both men's artistic gymnastics and wushu martial arts.", "It emerged in Japan from stick gymnastics.", "Stick gymnastics has been taught and performed for many years with the aim of improving physical strength and health.", "Male athletes are judged on some of the same physical abilities and skills as their female counterparts, such as hand/body-eye co-ordination, but tumbling, strength, power, and martial arts skills are the main focus, as opposed to flexibility and dance in women's rhythmic gymnastics.", "There are a growing number of participants, competing alone and on a team; it is most popular in Asia, especially in Japan where high school and university teams compete fiercely.", ", there were 1000 men's rhythmic gymnasts in Japan.The technical rules for the Japanese version of men's rhythmic gymnastics came around the 1970s.", "For individuals, only four types of apparatus are used: the double rings, the stick, the rope, and the clubs.", "Groups do not use any apparatus.", "The Japanese version includes tumbling performed on a spring floor.", "Points are awarded based a 10-point scale that measures the level of difficulty of the tumbling and apparatus handling.", "On November 27–29, 2003, Japan hosted first edition of the Men's Rhythmic Gymnastics World Championship.The events consist of:*Stick*Clubs*Rope*Double Rings*GroupAlong with the Japanese version of Men's Rhythmic there is a Spanish version which uses the same format and rules as the FIG recognized form of Women's Rhythmic Gymnastics.===Trampolining===Double mini-trampoline competitor====Trampolining====Trampolining and tumbling consists of four events, individual and synchronized trampoline, double mini trampoline, and tumbling (also known as power tumbling or rod floor).", "Since 2000, individual trampoline has been included in the Olympic Games.", "The first World Championships were held in 1964.=====Individual trampoline=====Individual routines in trampolining involve a build-up phase during which the gymnast jumps repeatedly to achieve height, followed by a sequence of ten bounces without pause during which the gymnast performs a sequence of aerial skills.", "Routines are marked out of a maximum score of 10 points.", "Additional points (with no maximum at the highest levels of competition) can be earned depending on the difficulty of the moves and the length of time taken to complete the ten skills which is an indication of the average height of the jumps.", "In high level competitions, there are two preliminary routines, one which has only two moves scored for difficulty and one where the athlete is free to perform any routine.", "This is followed by a final routine which is optional.", "Some competitions restart the score from zero for the finals, other add the final score to the preliminary results.=====Synchronized trampoline=====Synchronized trampoline is similar except that both competitors must perform the routine together and marks are awarded for synchronization as well as the form and difficulty of the moves.=====Double-mini trampoline=====Double mini trampoline involves a smaller trampoline with a run-up, two scoring moves are performed per routine.", "Moves cannot be repeated in the same order on the double-mini during a competition.", "Skills can be repeated if a skill is competed as a mounter in one routine and a dismount in another.", "The scores are marked in a similar manner to individual trampoline.===Tumbling===In Tumbling, athletes perform an explosive series of flips and twists down a sprung tumbling track.", "Scoring is similar to trampolining.", "Tumbling was originally contested as one of the events in Men's Artistic Gymnastics at the 1932 Summer Olympics, and in 1955 and 1959 at the Pan American Games.", "From 1974 to 1998 it was included as an event for both genders at the Acrobatic Gymnastics World Championships.", "The event has also been contested since 1976 at the Trampoline and Tumbling World Championships.Tumbling is competed along a 25 metre sprung tack with a 10 metre run up.", "A tumbling pass or run is a combination of 8 skills, with an entry skill, normally a round-off, to whips and into an end skill.", "Usually the end skill is the hardest skill of the pass.", "At the highest level, gymnasts perform transitional skills.", "These are skills which are not whips, but are double or triple somersaults (usually competed at the end of the run), but now competed in the middle of the run connected before and after by either a whip or a flick.+Common Types of Skills in Tumbling Skill Explained Round-off A common entry skill seen in every type of gymnastics to turn horizontal speed into vertical speed.", "A round-off will most commonly be connected with a back tumbling skill, such as a backflip / back twist, or back handspring.DismountThe skill competed at the end of a routine, this is either a double/triple somersault, a twisting somersault or a combination somersault.Back Handspring A long somersault where a gymnast moves from feet to hands to feet again in a backwards motion.Whip A long, low and fast somersault done without the hands.", "This move is unique to tumbling and the trademark of the discipline.", "Double Somersault The tumbler launches into the air and rotates twice vertically around before landing on their feet.", "This skill is done in a tuck, pike or straight position.", "Triple SomersaultThe gymnasts launches into the air and rotates three times vertically before landing on their feet.", "This skill is done in a tuck or pike position and has yet to be competed in the straight position Twisting Somersault A single somersault in which the tumbler rotates horizontally.", "This is can be done as a single 'full' twist, a double twist or a triple twist.", "Combination Somersault A somersault that is a combination of double/triple and twisting skills.", "For example in a double twisting double straight, the gymnast will rotate twice vertically and twice horizontally before landing.", "The hardest combination somersaults performed would be either the full in triple pike in which a gymnasts rotates vertically three times in a pike position with a full twist in the first rotation or 'the miller' in which a gymnast rotates horizontally four times and vertically twice.", "Transition SkillThis is where a gymnast performs either a double somersault or a combination somersault in the middle of their run as opposed to doing it as an end skill.", "No triple somersaults or combination somersaults involving a triple vertically rotation has yet to be competed.", "Competition is made up of a qualifying round and a finals round.", "There are two different types of competition in tumbling, individual and team.", "In the team event three gymnasts out of a team of four compete one run each, if one run fails the final member of the team is allowed to compete with the three highest scores being counted.", "In the individual event qualification, the competitor will compete two runs, one a straight pass (including double and triple somersaults) and a twisting pass (including full twisting whips and combination skills such as a full twisting double straight ’full in back’).", "In the final of the individual event, the competitor must compete two different runs which can be either twisting or straight but each run normally uses both types (using transition skills).===Acrobatic gymnastics===Acrobatic women's pair performing a skillAcrobatic gymnastics (formerly Sport Acrobatics), often referred to as acro if involved with the sport, acrobatic sports or simply sports acro, is a group gymnastic discipline for both men and women.", "Acrobats in groups of two, three and four perform routines with the heads, hands and feet of their partners.", "They may, subject to regulations (e.g.", "no lyrics), pick their own music.There are four international age categories: 11–16, 12–18, 13–19, and Senior (15+), which are used in the World Championships and many other events around the world, including the European Championships and the World Games.All levels require a balance and dynamic routine; 12–18, 13–19, and Seniors are also required to perform a final (combined) routine.Currently, acrobatic gymnastics score is marked out of 30.00 for juniors, and can be higher at Senior FIG level based on difficulty:* Difficulty – An open score, which is the sum of the difficulty values of elements (valued from the tables of difficulties) successfully performed in an exercise, divided by 100.This score is unlimited in senior competitions.", "* Execution – Judges give a score out of 10.00 for technical performance (how well the skills are executed), which is then doubled to emphasize its importance.", "* Artistic – Judges give a score out of 10.00 for artistry (the overall performance of the routine, namely choreography)There are five competitive event categories:* Women's Pairs* Mixed Pairs* Men's Pairs* Women's Groups (3 Woman) * Men's Groups (4 Men)The World Championships have been held since 1974.===Aerobic gymnastics===Aerobic gymnastics (formally Sport Aerobics) involves the performance of routines by individuals, pairs, trios, groups with 5 people, and aerobic dance and aerobic step(8 people).", "Strength, flexibility, and aerobic fitness rather than acrobatic or balance skills are emphasized.", "Routines are performed for all individuals on a 7x7m floor and also for 12–14 and 15–17 trios and mixed pairs.", "From 2009, all senior trios and mixed pairs were required to be on the larger floor (10x10m), all groups also perform on this floor.", "Routines generally last 60–90 seconds depending on age of participant and routine category.", "The World Championships have been held since 1995.The events consist of:*Individual Women*Individual Men*Mixed Pairs*Trios*Groups*Dance*Step===Parkour===On January 28, 2018 Parkour, also known as freerunning, was given the go ahead to begin development as a FIG sport.", "The FIG is planning to run World Cup competitions from 2018 onwards and will hold the first Parkour World Championships in 2020.The events consist of:*Speedrun*Freestyle" ], [ "Notable Gymnasts", "=== Women's Gymnastics ===* '''Nadia Comăneci''' - The first gymnast to score a perfect 10 in the Olympics (1976).", "* '''Simone Biles''' - American gymnast known for her incredible difficulty and execution, multiple-time World and Olympic champion.", "* '''Olga Korbut''' - Known as the \"Sparrow from Minsk,\" she gained international fame at the 1972 Munich Olympics.", "* '''Mary Lou Retton''' - The first American woman to win an Olympic all-around title (1984).", "* '''Svetlana Khorkina''' - Russian gymnast known for her artistry and numerous World titles.", "* '''Gabby Douglas''' - American gymnast who won the individual all-around champion at the 2012 Olympics.", "* '''Aly Raisman''' - American gymnast, two-time Olympian, and multiple-time medalist.", "* '''Catalina Ponor''' - Romanian gymnast, multiple-time Olympic champion.", "=== Men's Gymnastics ===* '''Kohei Uchimura''' - Japanese gymnast, often considered the greatest male gymnast of all time.", "* '''Vitaly Scherbo''' - Belarusian gymnast who won six gold medals at the 1992 Olympics.", "* '''Alexei Nemov''' - Russian gymnast known for his charisma and 12 Olympic medals.", "* '''Bart Conner''' - American gymnast, two-time Olympic gold medalist.", "* '''Paul Hamm''' - First American male gymnast to win the Olympic all-around title.", "* '''Li Xiaopeng''' - Chinese gymnast, multiple-time World and Olympic champion.", "* '''Yuri Chechi''' - Italian gymnast, known as the \"Lord of the Rings\" for his success in the rings event.", "* '''Sawao Kato''' - Japanese gymnast, one of the most successful athletes in the history of the Olympics." ], [ "Other disciplines", "The following disciplines are not currently recognized by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique.===Aesthetic group gymnastics===Aesthetic Group Gymnastics (AGG) was developed from the Finnish \"naisvoimistelu\".", "It differs from Rhythmic Gymnastics in that body movement is large and continuous and teams are larger.", "Athletes do not use apparatus in international AGG competitions compared to Rhythmic Gymnastics where ball, ribbon, hoop and clubs are used on the floor area.", "The sport requires physical qualities such as flexibility, balance, speed, strength, coordination and sense of rhythm where movements of the body are emphasized through the flow, expression and aesthetic appeal.", "A good performance is characterized by uniformity and simultaneity.", "The competition program consists of versatile and varied body movements, such as body waves, swings, balances, pivots, jumps and leaps, dance steps, and lifts.", "The International Federation of Aesthetic Group Gymnastics (IFAGG) was established in 2003.The first Aesthetic Group Gymnastics World Championships was held in 2000.===TeamGym===TeamGym is a form of competition created by the European Union of Gymnastics, named originally '''EuroTeam'''.", "The first official competition was held in Finland in 1996.TeamGym events consist of three sections: women, men and mixed teams.", "Athletes compete in three different disciplines: floor, tumbling and trampette.", "In common for the performance is effective teamwork, good technique in the elements and spectacular acrobatic skills.", "There is no World Championships however there has been a European Championships held since 2010.===Wheel gymnastics===Wheel gymnasts do exercises in a large wheel known as the '''Rhönrad''', '''gymnastics wheel''', '''gym wheel''', or '''German wheel''', in the beginning also known as '''ayro wheel''', '''aero wheel''', and '''Rhon rod'''.There are four core categories of exercise: straight line, spiral, vault and cyr wheel.", "The first World Championships was held in 1995.===Mallakhamba==='''Mallakhamba''' (Marathi: मल्लखम्ब) is a traditional Indian sport in which a gymnast performs feats and poses in concert with a vertical wooden pole or rope.", "The word also refers to the pole used in the sport.Mallakhamba derives from the terms ''malla'' which denotes a wrestler and ''khamba'' which means a pole.", "Mallakhamba can therefore be translated to English as \"pole gymnastics\".", "On April 9, 2013, the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh declared mallakhamba as the state sport.", "In February 2019 the first Mallahkhamb World Championship was held in Mumbai" ], [ "Non-competitive gymnastics", "General gymnastics also known as Gymnastics for All enables people of all ages and abilities to participate in performance groups of 6 to more than 150 athletes.", "They can perform synchronized, choreographed routines.", "Troupes may consist of both genders and are separated into age divisions.", "The largest general gymnastics exhibition is the quadrennial World Gymnaestrada which was first held in 1939.In 1984 Gymnastics for All was officially recognized first as a Sport Program by the FIG (International Gymnastic Federation), and subsequently by national gymnastic federations worldwide with participants that now number 30 million.", "Non-competitive gymnastics is considered useful for its health benefits." ], [ "Levels", "In the US, gymnastics levels for women called the Junior Olympic (JO) Program begins at 1 and goes to 10.The two kinds of levels are Compulsory (levels 1-5) and Optional (levels 6-10).", "Each level (1-10) has its own set of unique rules that ascend in difficulty level to level.", "Elite can follow 10 and is generally considered Olympic level.", "Men's gymnastics or The Junior Olympic Program consists of ten levels of training or competition with multiple age groups at each level creating opportunities for athletes and coaches to participate and or compete.Since 2015, Canada has adopted the women’s JO Program, with some modifications, for use in the Provinces and Territories." ], [ "Scoring (code of points)", "An artistic gymnast's score comes from deductions taken from the start value of a routine's elements.", "The start value of a routine is based on the difficulty of the elements the gymnast attempts and whether or not the gymnast meets composition requirements.", "The composition requirements are different for each apparatus.", "This score is called the D score.", "Deductions in execution and artistry are taken from a maximum of 10.0.This score is called the E score.", "The final score is calculated by adding the D and E score.The current method of scoring, by adding D and E score to give the final score has been in place since 2006.The current method is called \"open-end\" scoring because there is no theoretical cap (although there is practical cap) to the D-score and hence the total possible score for a routine.", "Before 2006, a gymnast's final score is deducted from a possible maximum of 10 for a routine.A Code of Points or guidelines of scoring a routine's difficulty and execution is slightly revised for each quadrennium, or period of four years culminating in the Olympics year.=== Landing ===In a tumbling pass, dismount, or vault, landing is the final phase, following take-off and flight This is a critical skill in terms of execution in competition scores, general performance, and injury occurrence.", "Without the necessary magnitude of energy dissipation during impact, the risk of sustaining injuries during somersaulting increases.", "These injuries commonly occur at the lower extremities such as cartilage lesions, ligament tears, and bone bruises/fractures.", "To avoid such injuries, and to receive a high-performance score, proper technique must be used by the gymnast.", "\"The subsequent ground contact or impact landing phase must be achieved using a safe, aesthetic, and well-executed double foot landing.\"", "A successful landing in gymnastics is classified as soft, meaning the knee and hip joints are at greater than 63 degrees of flexion.A higher flight phase results in a higher vertical ground reaction force.", "Vertical ground reaction force (vGRF) represents an external force which the gymnasts have to overcome with their muscle force and affects the gymnasts' linear and angular momentum.", "Another important variable that affects linear and angular momentum is the time the landing takes.", "Gymnasts can decrease the impact force by increasing the time taken to perform the landing.", "Gymnasts can achieve this by increasing hip, knee and ankle amplitude." ], [ "Former apparatus and events", "===Rope climbing===Generally, competitors climbed either a 6m (6.1m = 20  ft in the US) or an 8m (7.6m = 25  ft in the US), 38  mm diameter (1.5-inch) natural fiber rope for speed, starting from a seated position on the floor and using only the hands and arms.", "Kicking the legs in a kind of \"tride\" was normally permitted.", "Many gymnasts can do this in the straddle or pike position, which eliminates the help generated from the legs though it can be done with legs as well.===Flying rings===Flying rings was an event similar to still rings, but with the performer executing a series of stunts while swinging.", "It was a gymnastic event sanctioned by both the NCAA and the AAU until the early 1960s.===Club swinging===Club swinging, a.k.a.", "Indian clubs, was an event in Men's Artistic Gymnastics sometime up until the 1950s.", "It was similar to the clubs in both Women's and Men's Rhythmic Gymnastics but much simpler with few throws allowed.", "It was practice.", "It was included in the 1904 and 1932 Summer Olympic Games.===Other (men's artistic)===*Team horizontal bar and parallel bar in the 1896 Summer Olympics*Team free and Swedish system in the 1912 and 1920 Summer Olympics*Combined and triathlon in the 1904 Summer Olympics*Side horse vault in 1924 Summer Olympics*Tumbling in the 1932 Summer Olympics===Other (women's artistic)===*Team exercise at the 1928, 1936, and 1948 Summer Olympics*Parallel bars at the 1938 World Championships*Team portable apparatus at the 1952 and 1956 Summer Olympics" ], [ "Health and safety", "Gymnastics is one of the most dangerous sports, with a very high injury rate seen in girls age 11 to 18.Some gymnastic movements which were allowed in past competitions are now banned for safety reasons.===Physical injuries===Compared to athletes who play other sports, gymnasts are at higher than average risk of overuse injuries and injuries caused by early sports specialization among children and young adults.", "Gymnasts are at particular risk of foot and wrist injuries.", "Strength training can help prevent injuries.===Abuse===There have also been recorded cases of emotional and sexual abuse.===Height concerns===Gymnasts tend to have short stature, but it is unlikely that the sport affects their growth.", "Parents of gymnasts tend also to be shorter than average." ], [ "See also", "* Acro dance* Acrobatics* Cheerleading* Glossary of gymnastics terms* Gymnasium (ancient Greece)* International Gymnastics Hall of Fame* List of acrobatic activities* List of gymnastics competitions* List of gymnastics terms* List of gymnasts* Major achievements in gymnastics by nation* Majorettes* NCAA Men's Gymnastics championship (US)* NCAA Women's Gymnastics championship (US)* Trampolining* Tricking* Turners* Uniform (gymnastics)* Wheel gymnastics* World Gymnastics Championships" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===*" ], [ "External links", "* International Federation of Gymnastics (FIG) official website* International Federation of Aesthetic Group Gymnastics official website* USA Gymnastics, the governing body for gymnastics in the US* British Gymnastics, the governing body for gymnastics in the UK* Brazilian Gymnastics, the governing body for gymnastics in the Brazil*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Great auk" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''great auk''' ('''''Pinguinus impennis''''') is a species of flightless alcid that became extinct in the mid-19th century.", "It was the only modern species in the genus '''''Pinguinus'''''.", "It is not closely related to the Southern Hemisphere birds now known as penguins, which were discovered later by Europeans and so named by sailors because of their physical resemblance to the great auk, which were called penguins.It bred on rocky, remote islands with easy access to the ocean and a plentiful food supply, a rarity in nature that provided only a few breeding sites for the great auks.", "When not breeding, they spent their time foraging in the waters of the North Atlantic, ranging as far south as northern Spain and along the coastlines of Canada, Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Norway, Ireland, and Great Britain.The bird was tall and weighed about , making it the largest alcid to survive into the modern era, and the second-largest member of the alcid family overall (the prehistoric ''Miomancalla'' was larger).", "It had a black back and a white belly.", "The black beak was heavy and hooked, with grooves on its surface.", "During summer, great auk plumage showed a white patch over each eye.", "During winter, the great auk lost these patches, instead developing a white band stretching between the eyes.", "The wings were only long, rendering the bird flightless.", "Instead, the great auk was a powerful swimmer, a trait that it used in hunting.", "Its favourite prey were fish, including Atlantic menhaden and capelin, and crustaceans.", "Although agile in the water, it was clumsy on land.", "Great auk pairs mated for life.", "They nested in extremely dense and social colonies, laying one egg on bare rock.", "The egg was white with variable brown marbling.", "Both parents participated in the incubation of the egg for around six weeks before the young hatched.", "The young left the nest site after two to three weeks, although the parents continued to care for it.The great auk was an important part of many Native American cultures, both as a food source and as a symbolic item.", "Many Maritime Archaic people were buried with great auk bones.", "One burial discovered included someone covered by more than 200 great auk beaks, which are presumed to be the remnants of a cloak made of great auks' skins.", "Early European explorers to the Americas used the great auk as a convenient food source or as fishing bait, reducing its numbers.", "The bird's down was in high demand in Europe, a factor that largely eliminated the European populations by the mid-16th century.", "Scientists soon began to realize that the great auk was disappearing and it became the beneficiary of many early environmental laws, but these proved ineffectual.Its growing rarity increased interest from European museums and private collectors in obtaining skins and eggs of the bird.", "On 3 June 1844, the last two confirmed specimens were killed on Eldey, off the coast of Iceland, ending the last known breeding attempt.", "Later reports of roaming individuals being seen or caught are unconfirmed.", "A record of one great auk in 1852 is considered by some to be the last sighting of a member of the species.", "The great auk is mentioned in several novels, and the scientific journal of the American Ornithological Society was named ''The Auk'' (now ''Ornithology'') in honour of the bird until 2021." ], [ "Taxonomy and evolution", "Fossil humerus of the Miocene relative ''Pinguinus alfrednewtoni''Analysis of mtDNA sequences has confirmed morphological and biogeographical studies suggesting that the razorbill is the closest living relative of the great auk.", "The great auk also was related closely to the little auk or dovekie, which underwent a radically different evolution compared to ''Pinguinus''.", "Due to its outward similarity to the razorbill (apart from flightlessness and size), the great auk often was placed in the genus ''Alca'', following Linnaeus.The fossil record (especially the sister species, ''Pinguinus alfrednewtoni'') and molecular evidence show that the three closely related genera diverged soon after their common ancestor, a bird probably similar to a stout Xantus's murrelet, had spread to the coasts of the Atlantic.", "Apparently, by that time, the murres, or Atlantic guillemots, already had split from the other Atlantic alcids.", "Razorbill-like birds were common in the Atlantic during the Pliocene, but the evolution of the little auk is sparsely documented.", "The molecular data are compatible with either possibility, but the weight of evidence suggests placing the great auk in a distinct genus.", "Some ornithologists still believe it is more appropriate to retain the species in the genus ''Alca''.", "It is the only recorded British bird made extinct in historic times.Turnaround video of Specimen No.", "57 and a razorbill, Naturalis Biodiversity CenterThe following cladogram shows the placement of the great auk among its closest relatives, based on a 2004 genetic study:''Pinguinus alfrednewtoni'' was a larger, and also flightless, member of the genus ''Pinguinus'' that lived during the Early Pliocene.", "Known from bones found in the Yorktown Formation of the Lee Creek Mine in North Carolina, it is believed to have split, along with the great auk, from a common ancestor.", "''Pinguinus alfrednewtoni'' lived in the western Atlantic, while the great auk lived in the eastern Atlantic.", "After the former died out following the Pliocene, the great auk took over its territory.", "The great auk was not related closely to the other extinct genera of flightless alcids, ''Mancalla'', ''Praemancalla'', and ''Alcodes''.===Etymology===The \"Great Auk, Northern Penguin, or Gair-Fowl\", wood engraving by Thomas Bewick in ''A History of British Birds'', 1804The great auk was one of the 4,400 animal species formally described by Carl Linnaeus in his eighteenth-century work ''Systema Naturae'', in which it was given the binomial ''Alca impennis''.", "The name ''Alca'' is a Latin derivative of the Scandinavian word for razorbills and their relatives.", "The bird was known in literature even before this and was described by Charles d'Ecluse in 1605 as ''Mergus Americanus.''", "This also included a woodcut which represents the oldest unambiguous visual depictions of the bird.The species was not placed in its own scientific genus, ''Pinguinus'', until 1791.The generic name is derived from the Spanish, Portuguese and French name for the species, in turn from Latin meaning \"plump\", and the specific name, ''impennis'', is from Latin and refers to the lack of flight feathers, or ''pennae''.The Irish name for the great auk is , meaning \"big seabird/auk\".", "The Basque name is '''', meaning \"spearbill\".", "Its early French name was ''apponatz'', while modern French uses ''''.", "The Norse called the great auk ''geirfugl'', which means \"spearbird\".", "This has led to an alternative English common name for the bird, ''garefowl'' or ''gairfowl''.", "The Inuit name for the great auk was ''isarukitsok'', which meant \"little wing\".The word \"penguin\" first appears in the sixteenth century as a synonym for \"great auk\".", "Although the etymology is debated, the generic name \"penguin\" may be derived from the Welsh ''pen gwyn'' \"white head\", either because the birds lived in Newfoundland on White Head Island (Pen Gwyn in Welsh) or because the great auk had such large white circles on its head.", "When European explorers discovered what today are known as penguins in the Southern Hemisphere, they noticed their similar appearance to the great auk and named them after this bird, although biologically, they are not closely related.", "Whalers also lumped the northern and southern birds together under the common name \"woggins\"." ], [ "Description", "Summer (standing) and winter (swimming) plumage, by John Gerrard KeulemansStanding about tall and weighing approximately as adult birds, the flightless great auk was the second-largest member of both its family and the order Charadriiformes overall, surpassed only by the mancalline ''Miomancalla''.", "It is, however, the largest species to survive into modern times.", "The great auks that lived farther north averaged larger in size than the more southerly members of the species.", "Males and females were similar in plumage, although there is evidence for differences in size, particularly in the bill and femur length.", "The back was primarily a glossy black, and the belly was white.", "The neck and legs were short, and the head and wings small.", "During summer, it developed a wide white eye patch over each eye, which had a hazel or chestnut iris.", "Auks are known for their close resemblance to penguins, their webbed feet and countershading are a result of convergent evolution in the water.", "During winter the great auk moulted and lost this eye patch, which was replaced with a wide white band and a gray line of feathers that stretched from the eye to the ear.", "During the summer, its chin and throat were blackish-brown and the inside of the mouth was yellow.", "In winter, the throat became white.", "Some individuals reportedly had grey plumage on their flanks, but the purpose, seasonal duration, and frequency of this variation is unknown.", "The bill was large at long and curved downward at the top; the bill also had deep white grooves in both the upper and lower mandibles, up to seven on the upper mandible and twelve on the lower mandible in summer, although there were fewer in winter.", "The wings were only in length and the longest wing feathers were only long.", "Its feet and short claws were black, while the webbed skin between the toes was brownish black.", "The legs were far back on the bird's body, which gave it powerful swimming and diving abilities.Paintings showing variation in egg markings, as well as seasonal and ontogenic differences in plumageHatchlings were described as grey and downy, but their exact appearance is unknown, since no skins exist today.", "Juvenile birds had fewer prominent grooves in their beaks than adults and they had mottled white and black necks, while the eye spot found in adults was not present; instead, a grey line ran through the eyes (which still had white eye rings) to just below the ears.Great Auk calls included low croaking and a hoarse scream.", "A captive great auk was observed making a gurgling noise when anxious.", "It is not known what its other vocalizations were, but it is believed that they were similar to those of the razorbill, only louder and deeper." ], [ "Distribution and habitat", "Stac an Armin, St. Kilda, Scotland, one locality where the great auk used to breedThe great auk was found in the cold North Atlantic coastal waters along the coasts of Canada, the northeastern United States, Norway, Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Ireland, Great Britain, France, and the Iberian Peninsula.", "Pleistocene fossils indicate the great auk also inhabited Southern France, Italy, and other coasts of the Mediterranean basin.", "It was common on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland.", "In recorded history, the great auk typically did not go farther south than Massachusetts Bay in the winter.", "Great auk bones have been found as far south as Florida, where it may have been present during four periods: approximately 1000 BC and 1000 AD, as well as, during the fifteenth century and the seventeenth century.", "It has been suggested that some of the bones discovered in Florida may be the result of aboriginal trading.", "In the eastern Atlantic, the southernmost records of this species are two isolated bones, one from Madeira and another from the Neolithic site of El Harhoura 2 in Morocco.The great auk left the North Atlantic waters for land only to breed, even roosting at sea when not breeding.", "The rookeries of the great auk were found from Baffin Bay to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, across the far northern Atlantic, including Iceland, and in Norway and the British Isles in Europe.", "For their nesting colonies the great auks required rocky islands with sloping shorelines that provided access to the sea.", "These were very limiting requirements and it is believed that the great auk never had more than 20 breeding colonies.", "The nesting sites also needed to be close to rich feeding areas and to be far enough from the mainland to discourage visitation by predators such as humans and polar bears.", "The localities of only seven former breeding colonies are known: Papa Westray in the Orkney Islands, St. Kilda off Scotland, Grimsey Island, Eldey Island, Geirfuglasker near Iceland, Funk Island near Newfoundland, and the Bird Rocks (Rochers-aux-Oiseaux) in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.", "Records suggest that this species may have bred on Cape Cod in Massachusetts.", "By the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the breeding range of the great auk was restricted to Funk Island, Grimsey Island, Eldey Island, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the St. Kilda islands.", "Funk Island was the largest known breeding colony.", "After the chicks fledged, the great auk migrated north and south away from the breeding colonies and they tended to go southward during late autumn and winter." ], [ "Ecology and behaviour", "Great Auks by John James Audubon, from ''The Birds of America'' (1827–1838)The great auk was never observed and described by modern scientists during its existence and is only known from the accounts of laymen, such as sailors, so its behaviour is not well known and difficult to reconstruct.", "Much may be inferred from its close, living relative, the razorbill, as well as from remaining soft tissue.Great auks walked slowly and sometimes used their wings to help them traverse rough terrain.", "When they did run, it was awkwardly and with short steps in a straight line.", "They had few natural predators, mainly large marine mammals, such as the orca, and white-tailed eagles.", "Polar bears preyed on nesting colonies of the great auk.", "Reportedly, this species had no innate fear of human beings, and their flightlessness and awkwardness on land compounded their vulnerability.", "Humans preyed upon them as food, for feathers, and as specimens for museums and private collections.", "Great auks reacted to noises, but were rarely frightened by the sight of something.", "They used their bills aggressively both in the dense nesting sites and when threatened or captured by humans.", "These birds are believed to have had a life span of approximately 20 to 25 years.", "During the winter, the great auk migrated south, either in pairs or in small groups, but never with the entire nesting colony.The great auk was generally an excellent swimmer, using its wings to propel itself underwater.", "While swimming, the head was held up but the neck was drawn in.", "This species was capable of banking, veering, and turning underwater.", "The great auk was known to dive to depths of and it has been claimed that the species was able to dive to depths of .", "To conserve energy, most dives were shallow.", "It also could hold its breath for 15 minutes, longer than a seal.", "Its ability to dive so deeply reduced competition with other alcid species.", "The great auk was capable of accelerating underwater, then shooting out of the water to land on a rocky ledge above the ocean's surface.===Diet===Great auk eating a fish, by John GouldThis alcid typically fed in shoaling waters that were shallower than those frequented by other alcids, although after the breeding season, they had been sighted as far as from land.", "They are believed to have fed cooperatively in flocks.", "Their main food was fish, usually in length and weighing , but occasionally their prey was up to half the bird's own length.", "Based on remains associated with great auk bones found on Funk Island and on ecological and morphological considerations, it seems that Atlantic menhaden and capelin were their favoured prey.", "Other fish suggested as potential prey include lumpsuckers, shorthorn sculpins, cod, sand lance, as well as crustaceans.", "The young of the great auk are believed to have eaten plankton and, possibly, fish and crustaceans regurgitated by adults.===Reproduction===Nesting ground with juveniles and eggs, by KeulemansHistorical descriptions of the great auk breeding behaviour are somewhat unreliable.", "Great Auks began pairing in early and mid-May.", "They are believed to have mated for life (although some theorize that great auks could have mated outside their pair, a trait seen in the razorbill).", "Once paired, they nested at the base of cliffs in colonies, likely where they copulated.", "Mated pairs had a social display in which they bobbed their heads and displayed their white eye patch, bill markings, and yellow mouth.", "These colonies were extremely crowded and dense, with some estimates stating that there was a nesting great auk for every of land.", "These colonies were very social.", "When the colonies included other species of alcid, the great auks were dominant due to their size.Cast of an egg, Museum WiesbadenFemale great auks would lay only one egg each year, between late May and early June, although they could lay a replacement egg if the first one was lost.", "In years when there was a shortage of food, the great auks did not breed.", "A single egg was laid on bare ground up to from shore.", "The egg was ovate and elongate in shape, and it averaged in length and across at the widest point.", "The egg was yellowish white to light ochre with a varying pattern of black, brown, or greyish spots and lines that often were congregated on the large end.", "It is believed that the variation in the egg streaks enabled the parents to recognize their egg among those in the vast colony.", "The pair took turns incubating the egg in an upright position for the 39 to 44 days before the egg hatched, typically in June, although eggs could be present at the colonies as late as August.The parents also took turns feeding their chick.", "According to one account, the chick was covered with grey down.", "The young bird took only two or three weeks to mature enough to abandon the nest and land for the water, typically around the middle of July.", "The parents cared for their young after they fledged, and adults would be seen swimming with their young perched on their backs.", "Great auks matured sexually when they were four to seven years old." ], [ "Relationship with humans", "humeri (1) and two tibiae (2), bones of the great auk uncovered by archaeologists in an ancient kitchen midden in CaithnessThe great auk was a food source for Neanderthals more than 100,000 years ago, as evidenced by well-cleaned bones found by their campfires.", "Images believed to depict the great auk also were carved into the walls of the El Pendo Cave in Camargo, Spain, and Paglicci, Italy, more than 35,000 years ago, and cave paintings 20,000 years old have been found in France's Grotte Cosquer.Native Americans valued the great auk as a food source during the winter and as an important cultural symbol.", "Images of the great auk have been found in bone necklaces.", "A person buried at the Maritime Archaic site at Port au Choix, Newfoundland, dating to about 2000 BC, was found surrounded by more than 200 great auk beaks, which are believed to have been part of a suit made from their skins, with the heads left attached as decoration.", "Nearly half of the bird bones found in graves at this site were of the great auk, suggesting that it had great cultural significance for the Maritime Archaic people.", "The extinct Beothuks of Newfoundland made pudding out of the eggs of the great auk.", "The Dorset Eskimos also hunted it.", "The Saqqaq in Greenland overhunted the species, causing a local reduction in range.The only known illustration of a great auk drawn from life, Ole Worm's pet, received from the Faroe Islands, 1655Later, European sailors used the great auks as a navigational beacon, as the presence of these birds signalled that the Grand Banks of Newfoundland were near.This species is estimated to have had a maximum population in the millions.", "The great auk was hunted on a significant scale for food, eggs, and its down feathers from at least the eighth century.", "Prior to that, hunting by local natives may be documented from Late Stone Age Scandinavia and eastern North America, as well as from early fifth century Labrador, where the bird seems to have occurred only as stragglers.", "Early explorers, including Jacques Cartier, and numerous ships attempting to find gold on Baffin Island were not provisioned with food for the journey home, and therefore, used great auks as both a convenient food source and bait for fishing.", "Reportedly, some of the later vessels anchored next to a colony and ran out planks to the land.", "The sailors then herded hundreds of great auks onto the ships, where they were slaughtered.", "Some authors have questioned the reports of this hunting method and whether it was successful.", "Great auk eggs were also a valued food source, as the eggs were three times the size of a murre's and had a large yolk.", "These sailors also introduced rats onto the islands which preyed upon nests.===Extinction===The Little Ice Age may have reduced the population of the great auk by exposing more of their breeding islands to predation by polar bears, but massive exploitation by humans for their down drastically reduced the population, with recent evidence indicating the latter alone is likely the primary driver of its extinction.", "By the mid-sixteenth century, the nesting colonies along the European side of the Atlantic were nearly all eliminated by humans killing this bird for its down, which was used to make pillows.", "In 1553, the great auk received its first official protection.", "In 1794, Great Britain banned the killing of this species for its feathers.", "In St. John's, those violating a 1775 law banning hunting the great auk for its feathers or eggs were publicly flogged, though hunting for use as fishing bait was still permitted.", "On the North American side, eider down initially was preferred, but once the eiders were nearly driven to extinction in the 1770s, down collectors switched to the great auk at the same time that hunting for food, fishing bait, and oil decreased.The great auk had disappeared from Funk Island by 1800.An account by Aaron Thomas of HMS ''Boston'' from 1794 described how the bird had been slaughtered systematically until then:Eldey, last refuge of the great aukWith its increasing rarity, specimens of the great auk and its eggs became collectible and highly prized by rich Europeans, and the loss of a large number of its eggs to collection contributed to the demise of the species.", "Eggers, individuals who visited the nesting sites of the great auk to collect their eggs, quickly realized that the birds did not all lay their eggs on the same day, so they could make return visits to the same breeding colony.", "Eggers only collected the eggs without embryos and typically, discarded the eggs with embryos growing inside of them.On the islet of Stac an Armin, St. Kilda, Scotland, in July 1840, the last great auk seen in Britain was caught and killed.", "Three men from St. Kilda caught a single \"garefowl\", noticing its little wings and the large white spot on its head.", "They tied it up and kept it alive for three days, until a large storm arose.", "Believing that the bird was a witch and was causing the storm, they then killed it by beating it with a stick.Specimen No.", "3 in the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, one of the two last birds killed on Eldey in 1844The last colony of great auks lived on Geirfuglasker (the \"Great Auk Rock\") off Iceland.", "This islet was a volcanic rock surrounded by cliffs that made it inaccessible to humans, but in 1830, the islet submerged after a volcanic eruption, and the birds moved to the nearby island of Eldey, which was accessible from a single side.", "When the colony initially was discovered in 1835, nearly fifty birds were present.", "Museums, desiring the skins of the great auk for preservation and display, quickly began collecting birds from the colony.", "The last pair, found incubating an egg, was killed there on 3 June 1844, on request from a merchant who wanted specimens, with Jón Brandsson and Sigurður Ísleifsson strangling the adults and Ketill Ketilsson smashing the egg with his boot.Great auk specialist John Wolley interviewed the two men who killed the last birds, and Sigurður described the act as follows:A later claim of a live individual sighted in 1852 on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland has been accepted by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN).There is an ongoing discussion about the possibilities for reviving the great auk using its DNA from specimens collected.", "This possibility is controversial.===Preserved specimens===Specimen No.", "39, skeleton, and replica egg at Senckenberg MuseumToday, 78 skins of the great auk remain, mostly in museum collections, along with approximately 75 eggs and 24 complete skeletons.", "All but four of the surviving skins are in summer plumage, and only two of these are immature.", "No hatchling specimens exist.", "Each egg and skin has been assigned a number by specialists.", "Although thousands of isolated bones were collected from nineteenth century Funk Island to Neolithic middens, only a few complete skeletons exist.", "Natural mummies also are known from Funk Island, and the eyes and internal organs of the last two birds from 1844 are stored in the Zoological Museum, Copenhagen.", "The whereabouts of the skins from the last two individuals has been unknown for more than a hundred years, but that mystery has been partly resolved using DNA extracted from the organs of the last individuals and the skins of the candidate specimens suggested by Errol Fuller (those in Übersee-Museum Bremen, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Zoological Museum of Kiel University, Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History, and Landesmuseum Natur und Mensch Oldenburg).", "A positive match was found between the organs from the male individual and the skin now in the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences in Brussels.", "No match was found between the female organs and a specimen from Fuller's list, but authors speculate that the skin in Cincinnati Museum of Natural History and Science may be a potential candidate due to a common history with the L.A. specimen.Internal organs of the last two great auks, Zoological Museum of CopenhagenFollowing the bird's extinction, remains of the great auk increased dramatically in value, and auctions of specimens created intense interest in Victorian Britain, where 15 specimens are now located, the largest number of any country.", "A specimen was bought in 1971 by the Icelandic Museum of National History for £9000, which placed it in the Guinness Book of Records as the most expensive stuffed bird ever sold.", "The price of its eggs sometimes reached up to 11 times the amount earned by a skilled worker in a year.", "The present whereabouts of six of the eggs are unknown.", "Several other eggs have been destroyed accidentally.", "Two mounted skins were destroyed in the twentieth century, one in the Mainz Museum during the Second World War, and one in the Museu Bocage, Lisbon that was destroyed by a fire in 1978.===Cultural depictions=======Children's books====The great auk is one of the more frequently referenced extinct birds in literature, much like the famous dodo.", "It appears in many works of children's literature.Charles Kingsley's ''The Water-Babies, A Fairy Tale for a Land Baby'' includes a great auk telling the tale of the extinction of its species.Enid Blyton's ''The Island of Adventure'' sends one of the protagonists on a failed search for what he believes is a lost colony of the species.====Literature====The great auk also is present in a wide variety of other works of fiction.In the short story ''The Harbor-Master'' by Robert W. Chambers, the discovery and attempted recovery of the last known pair of great auks is central to the plot (which also involves a proto-Lovecraftian element of suspense).", "The story first appeared in ''Ainslee's Magazine'' (August 1898) and was slightly revised to become the first five chapters of Chambers' episodic novel ''In Search of the Unknown'', (Harper and Brothers Publishers, New York, 1904).In his novel ''Ulysses'', James Joyce mentions the bird while the novel's main character is drifting into sleep.", "He associates the great auk with the mythical roc as a method of formally returning the main character to a sleepy land of fantasy and memory.", "''Penguin Island'', a 1908 French satirical novel by the Nobel Prize winning author Anatole France, narrates the fictional history of a great auk population that is mistakenly baptized by a nearsighted missionary.A great auk is collected by fictional naturalist Stephen Maturin in the Patrick O'Brian historical novel ''The Surgeon's Mate''.", "This work also details the harvesting of a colony of auks.The great auk is the subject of ''The Last Great Auk'', a novel by Allen Eckert, which tells of the events leading to the extinction of the great auk as seen from the perspective of the last one alive.", "Farley Mowat devotes the first section, \"Spearbill\", of his book ''Sea of Slaughter'' to the history of the great auk.Ogden Nash warns that humans could suffer the same fate as the great auk in his short poem \"A Caution to Everybody\".W.", "S. Merwin mentions the great auk in a short litany of extinct animals in his poem \"For a Coming Extinction\", one of the seminal poems from his 1967 collection, \"The Lice\".", "''Night of the Auk'', a 1956 Broadway drama by Arch Oboler, depicts a group of astronauts returning from the Moon to discover that a full-blown nuclear war has broken out.", "Obeler draws a parallel between the anthropogenic extinction of the great auk and of the story's nuclear extinction of humankind.File:Geirfugl (great auk) monument.jpg|Monument on Reykjanes Peninsula, IcelandFile:Awk Walk (42820792915).jpg|Monument on Fogo Island, CanadaFile:Great Auk monument.jpg|Monument to the last British great auk at Fowl Craig, Orkney====Audio drama====The Doctor Who audio drama ''Last Chance'', produced by Big Finish Productions, depicts the killing of the final breeding pair in 1844.====Performing arts====This bird also is featured in a variety of other media.It is the subject of a ballet, ''Still Life at the Penguin Café'', and a song, \"A Dream Too Far\", in the ecological musical Rockford's Rock Opera.A great auk appears as a prized possession of Baba the Turk in Igor Stravinsky's opera ''The Rake's Progress'' (libretto by W. H. Auden and Chester Kallman).====Mascots====The great auk is the mascot of the Archmere Academy in Claymont, Delaware, and the Adelaide University Choral Society (AUCS) in Australia.The great auk was formerly the mascot of the Lindsay Frost campus of Sir Sandford Fleming College in Ontario.", "In 2012, the two separate sports programs of Fleming College were combined and the great auk mascot went extinct.", "The Lindsay Frost campus student owned bar, student center, and lounge is still known as the Auk's Lodge.It was also the mascot of the now ended Knowledge Masters educational competition.====Names====The scientific journal of the American Ornithologists' Union, ''Ornithology '', was named ''The Auk'' until 2021 in honor of this bird.According to Homer Hickam's memoir, ''Rocket Boys'', and its film production, ''October Sky'', the early rockets he and his friends built, ironically were named \"Auk\".A cigarette company, the British Great Auk Cigarettes, was named after this bird.====Fine arts====Walton Ford, the American painter, has featured great auks in two paintings: ''The Witch of St. Kilda'' and ''Funk Island''.The English painter and writer Errol Fuller produced ''Last Stand'' for his monograph on the species.The great auk also appeared on one stamp in a set of five depicting extinct birds issued by Cuba in 1974." ], [ "See also", "*List of recently extinct bird species" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Glorantha" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Glorantha''' is a fantasy world created by Greg Stafford." ], [ "Overview", "It was first introduced in the board game ''White Bear and Red Moon'' (1975) by Chaosium and then in a number of other board, roleplaying and computer games, including ''RuneQuest'' and ''HeroQuest'', as well as several works of fiction and the computer strategy game ''King of Dragon Pass''.", "The Gloranthan world is characterised by its complex use of mythology, heavily influenced by the universalist approaches of Joseph Campbell and Mircea Eliade, its sword and sorcery ethos, its long and distinctive history as a setting for role-playing games, its community development and expansion, and its relative lack of Tolkienesque influence, which is uncommon among early American fantasy role-playing games.Stafford first wrote about in Glorantha in 1966 as a way to deepen his own understanding of mythology.", "He founded the company Chaosium to publish the board wargame ''White Bear and Red Moon'' in 1975, which was set in Glorantha.", "Chaosium later published other games in the setting, including the critically acclaimed ''RuneQuest''.", "Various later editions of ''RuneQuest'', the narrative role-playing game ''HeroQuest'' (the first edition of which was published as ''Hero Wars''), and the video game ''King of Dragon Pass'' were also set in Glorantha, as were several prominent fan efforts.", "Stafford has also explored the Gloranthan setting in the fantasy novel ''King of Sartar'' and a number of unfinished works published under the collective name of \"the Stafford Library\".In Glorantha, magic operates from the everyday level of prayers and charms to the creation and maintenance of the world.", "Heroes make their way in the world, and may also venture into metaphysical realms to gain knowledge and power, at the risk of body and soul.", "In the more recent material, competing magical outlooks (such as theism, shamanism and mysticism) exist to explain the world.", "Within each metaphysical system, adherents may also compete, such as when theistic worshipers of rival gods battle each other.", "The world is flat, with a dome-like sky, and it has been shaped in large and small ways by the mythic actions of the gods.", "The 'historical' world of Glorantha is in a more or less fallen state, having recovered only partially from a universal battle against Chaos in the mythic Godtime.Humans are the dominant race, but other sentient beings abound.", "Some, such as the mystic dragonewts, are unique to Glorantha.", "Familiar nonhuman races, such as elves and dwarves, are distinct from their common, Tolkienesque portrayals." ], [ "History of the Gloranthan game world", "=== Early development (1960s-1970s)===Glorantha's origins lie in experiments with mythology, storytelling, recreation, and the blending of ancient societies.", "It is unlike its contemporary, ''Dungeons & Dragons'' which has its roots in wargaming.Stafford's first imaginings of Glorantha date back to 1966, when he began his studies at Beloit College, as a vehicle for him to deepen his own understanding of mythology by creating his own mythology.", "Stafford was greatly influenced by the ideas on the mythology of Joseph Campbell, and echoes of Campbell's work are to be found in many aspects of Glorantha; for instance, the story of the \"God Learners\" can be seen as an exercise on the implications of Campbell's idea of a unifying monomyth, and the story of Prince Argrath an exploration of Campbell's ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' (1949).", "More abstractly, Campbell's idea that myths are how we shape our lives deeply informs the picture of life in Glorantha throughout the game world's publication history.The first game set in Glorantha was the board game ''White Bear and Red Moon''.", "The game details a time of constant war between the land of Sartar and the Lunar Empire during the reign of Argrath Dragontooth.", "Its board details an area called Dragon Pass, while the rulebook provides details of the warring factions, their lands, and leaders.", "In addition, it provides a large-scale map titled the Greater Lunar Empire, showing a larger world in which Dragon Pass is placed.", "The ''White Bear and Red Moon'' does not disclose the name of the world.", "''Nomad Gods'', a second board game, published by Chaosium in 1978, and based on the raids and wars between the beast-riding, spirit-worshiping tribes of Prax, a cursed land located east of Dragon Pass.", "It also did not mention the world by name.In 1978, after the publication of ''Nomad Gods'', and prior to the publication of RuneQuest, the name Glorantha appeared in print for the first time.", "''Wyrm's Footnotes'' #4 contained three articles on Glorantha and a map of the world itself.=== In role-playing games (late 1970s – 1990s)===The first edition of the role-playing game ''RuneQuest'' was released in 1978.Here, the world was referred to as \"''Glorontha''\".", "Several later editions were made; the second edition (\"RuneQuest 2\") in 1979 introduced many sophisticated game aids, such as ''Cults of Prax'' and ''Cults of Terror'', and polished campaign packs such as ''Griffin Mountain''.", "Using materials such as ''Cults of Prax'', players aligned their characters with any of a number of religions, grounding those characters in the political, cultural, and metaphysical conflicts of the setting.", "Each religion offered a distinct worldview and cultural outlook, none of which considered objectively correct out-of-chacter.", "This approach of offering competing mythical histories and value systems continues in current Glorantha material.", "''Cults of Terror'' focused on the worship of evil gods and adversaries, such as Vivamort, a vampire cult, and Lunar and Chaos cults.In 1993, Stafford published his first major expansion of Gloranthan mythology, the novel ''King of Sartar''.", "This was a departure from previous Gloranthan material, which had all been targeted at a tabletop role-playing game audience.In an attempt to leverage the power of a much bigger gaming company, a third edition of ''RuneQuest'', was published with Avalon Hill in 1984.The default setting for this edition was given as the \"Dark Ages of fantasy Europe\", but it also included a booklet allowing use in Glorantha.", "Later supplements such as ''Gods of Glorantha'' expanded religious aspects, while ''Glorantha: Genertela, Crucible of the Hero Wars'' did the same for culture and geography.In the mid 1990s, Avalon Hill began work on a fourth edition of ''RuneQuest'', subtitled ''Adventures in Glorantha';.", "Stafford did not approve of the project and it was canceled.", "''RuneQuest'' did not prosper with its association with Avalon Hill, and the relationship between Chaosium, who held the rights to Glorantha, and Avalon Hill, who held the rights to ''RuneQuest'', broke down completely in 1995.Following the break with Chaosium, Avalon Hill began to assert their trademark to the RuneQuest name, began work on ''RuneQuest: Slayers''.", "This was unrelated to Glorantha and the third edition rules.", "The project was canceled just before printing in 1998.During this period of breakdown, Glorantha continued to evolve.", "The advent of the Internet caused a boom in fan creations for Glorantha.", "This was supported by several unofficial business ventures, such as Reaching Moon Megacorp, and a lively convention scene.", "Loren Miller proposed his Maximum Game Fun principle as a basis for gaming in Glorantha; this soon became a game system in its own right.", "David Dunham proposed his ''PenDragon Pass'' system, a nearly freeform game system, and several ambitious freeform games were played at conventions.", "One such game, ''Home of the Bold'', hosted up to eighty participants.The video game ''King of Dragon Pass'' was released by A Sharp in 1999.The player assumes the role of an Orlanthi hero who seeks to unite the clans and tribes of Dragon Pass into a single kingdom.", "The game features exceptional depth of coverage of the area of Dragon Pass, and featured the first compelling public view of Stafford's ideas about the hero's quest.", "Stafford was also self publishing additional material at this time about the history and mythology of Glorantha in non-game form in ''The Glorious (Re)Ascent of Yelm''.=== 21st century ===In 2000, Issaries, Inc. published ''Hero Wars'', a new Gloranthan role-playing game unrelated to RuneQuest.", "Its next iteration in 2003 was named ''HeroQuest'' and later in 2008, Moon Design Publications published an updated second edition.", "2016 saw Moon Design publish ''HeroQuest Glorantha'', completely integrating Glorantha into the rules.", "2006 saw ''RuneQuest'' licensed from Issaries by Mongoose Publishing with a second edition in 2010.In 2012, The Design Mechanism published the sixth edition of RuneQuest, with no Gloranthan content.", "Glorantha returned in 2018 with Chaosium publishing ''RuneQuest - Roleplaying in Glorantha''.====''Hero Wars'' and ''HeroQuest''====The ''HeroQuest'' game system, written by Robin Laws in collaboration with Greg Stafford, is a complete departure from ''RuneQuest''.", "The former skews to the narrativist aspects of role-playing.", "In contrast, ''RuneQuest'' emphasizedsimulationist princples.", "Owing to this approach, in approach some ''RuneQuest'' fans found it difficult to adjust to ''HeroQuest''.", "Other long-term fans felt that the game fit Glorantha far better than ''RuneQuest''.", "A rewritten second edition was published in Spring 2009 by Moon Design Publications.", "It was supported with comprehensive Gloranthan sourcebooks ''Sartar: Kingdom of Heroes'' (2009), ''Sartar Companion'' (2010) and ''Pavis: Gateway to Adventure'' (2012).====RuneQuest====In 2006, ''RuneQuest'' was licensed to Mongoose Publishing by Issaries.", "Their new edition of the rules, were not set in Glorantha, and required a further supplemement, ''Glorantha – The Second Age'' to play.", "Written by Robin Laws, it was set in the Second Age of Gloratha's history against the backdrop of The God Learner empire and the Empire of Wyrm's Friend.", "In this edition, Mongoose produced 17 supplements and adventures based in Glorantha, alongside their generic fantasy background.A second edition ''Mongoose RuneQuest II'' was published in January 2010, but Mongoose Publishing's licence for Gloranthan material lapsed in May 2011.The ''RuneQuest II'' game system has been retitled \"Legend\", and contains no Gloranthan material.", "A new company, The Design Mechanism, was formed by the authors of ''RuneQuest II'', and ownership of the Gloranthan supplements produced for the \"RuneQuest II\" line was transferred to them (PDF versions continued to be sold).", "There are close links between The Design Mechanism and Moon Design Publications, with The Design Mechanism founders writing material for both companies.", "Their new edition of the RuneQuest rules, ''RuneQuest: Sixth Edition'', did not have a Gloranthan setting.In 2018 Chaosium published RuneQuest - Roleplaying in Glorantha.", "Wholly set in Glorantha, it advanced the in-game date to 1625, and focuses once again on Dragon Pass.", "Along with its two slipcase companions, it provides a complete overview of this region.", "Again the village of Apple Lane in the homeland of Sartar is used as a starting adventure setting, but updated to the year 1625.Two further supplements concentrate on specific areas within Dragon Pass." ], [ "The World of Glorantha", "The various culturs Glorantha that have strikingly different perceptions of their world, the magic that pervades it and the major events that have shaped it.The Glorantha website introduces Glorantha as follows:Glorantha is an action-packed world of adventure.", "Gods and Goddesses struggle here, with nations of people nothing but their pawns.", "The stormy barbarians with their brutal but honest Storm God struggle against the Lunar Empire, led by the imperial Sun God and devious Moon Goddess.Glorantha is an exciting world of heroes.", "Legends are being made by great individuals, many who are not even human beings.", "Some work with the deities, other heroes and heroines fight against them.Glorantha is colorful and full of magic.", "Supernatural animals are found, ranging from unicorns to seven types of merfolk and the Goddess of Lions.Glorantha is immense.", "If explored, it has different worlds and dimensions, whole realms where Gods, spirits and sorcerous powers come from.", "Unlike many fantasy settings, Glorantha emphasises religion, myth and belief to a level rarely seen in role-playing or fantasy fiction elsewhere.Glorantha shares some fantasy tropes such as dwarves, elves, trolls, giants, but has developed them differently to the more conventional versions based on the work of Tolkien.", "Dwarves are literally made of stone and exist as manifest rigid inflexible laws of creation, while elves are intelligent, mobile plants.", "Glorantha is full of surprises.Glorantha is as deep as you want it to be, or not.", "Hackers and choppers have what they want, while scholars and mythologists have a vast playground of new stories, legends and myths to enjoy.It has various cultures analogous to Earth spread over two major landmasses and a wide archipelago.", "The northern continent of Genertela has a caste society of roughly Vedic type to the west, an autocratic Oriental society to the east and a classical-style Bronze Age culture in the center.", "The southern continent of Pamaltela is analogous to Africa/" ], [ "Creatures of Glorantha", "'''Broos''' are creatures of chaos.", "As they can fruitfully mate with anything, they have the body of a man and features of their animal parent, often deer, goats, antelope, cattle, and sheep.", "The animal parent normally dies when the child eats its way out of the host at full gestation.", "They worship Malia, the Mother of Disease, and Thed, the goddess of rape and mother of Chaos.", "'''Scorpionmen''' are belligerent and resemble scorpion-human centaur.", "They are stupid, vicious and live in violent matriarchies with a religious emphasis on devouring.", "They are chaotic in nature.", "'''Ducks''' or ''Durulz'' are flightless humanoid duck-like creatures who have arms rather than wings (or men cursed with feathers and webbed feet.", "They have unknown ancestry and may descend from cursed humans or cursed ducks.", "They reside around rivers, mainly in Sartar, and have an unexplained mystical affinity with Death.", "'''Aldryami''' or Gloranthan elves, are plant people.", "They worship nature and the sun and Aldrya, deity of plants, specifically.", "In contrast to Tolkienesque elves, they are alien, physically plant-like and unfriendly to \"meat men\" (humans).", "Like many other fantasy fictional elf races, they are excellent archers.", "'''Mostali''' are machine-like dwarves.", "They are xenophobic, orthodox and insular.", "They have invented iron, which has many extraordinary magical properties in Glorantha, contrasting to the primary metal used bronze.", "'''Uz''', the trolls, are the race of darkness, large, intelligent, astoundingly omnivorous, with a very developed sonar-like sense (''darksense'').", "Their societies are matriarchal, and they worship, among others, a goddess of darkness called Kyger Litor, mother of the Trolls, and the more violent and sinister Zorak Zoran.", "'''Dragonewts''' are a magical race made up of forms of neotenic dragons.", "They are engaged in a cycle of self-improving reincarnation.", "They are alien, with an incomprehensible mindset.", "They must have oral surgery in order to speak human languages." ], [ "Multimedia Glorantha", "Glorantha has been the background for a number of different media, and numerous pieces of myth and fiction created by the Glorantha community, featured in magazines such as ''Tales of the Reaching Moon''.", "Several hundred gaming miniatures by various licensees and about a dozen plush toys have also been produced at various times.===Board games===* ''White Bear and Red Moon''/''Dragon Pass''* ''Nomad Gods''* ''Khan of Khans''* ''Glorantha: The Gods War''===Tabletop role-playing games===* ''RuneQuest''* ''HeroQuest''* ''13th Age Glorantha''===Video games===* ''King of Dragon Pass'' by A Sharp* ''Six Ages: Ride Like The Wind'' by A Sharp* ''Six Ages 2: Lights Going Out'' by A Sharp===Prose fiction and comics===* ''King of Sartar'' by Greg Stafford* ''The Collected/Complete Griselda'' by Oliver Dickinson* ''Gloranthan Visions'' by various authors* ''The Widow's Tale'' and ''Eurhol's Vale and Other Tales'' by Penelope Love* ''Path of the Damned'', a comic book series===Fanzines===* ''Tales of the Reaching Moon''* ''Hearts in Glorantha''" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "* Astinus, 1998.History of Role-playing: Part III - A golden age emerges.", "* Peter Maranci, 2001.History of RuneQuest.", "* * Greg Stafford and Jeff Richard (2012).", "Sartar Companion 2nd Ed.", "Moon Design Publications." ], [ "External links", "* - The publisher's website containing links to their Gloranthan roleplaying systems: RuneQuest, 13th Age Glorantha and QuestWorlds.", "* PenDragon Pass, the rules for David Dunham's system, which puts the Gloranthan world into the Pendragon Arthurian role-playing system." ] ]
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[ [ "Gram (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gram''' is a unit of mass.", "'''Gram''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Mythology and fiction", "* Gram (mythology), a sword in Norse mythology* Gram of Denmark, a legendary king* Mount Gram (Middle-earth), a fictional place in Tolkien's writings* The lance of Gallantmon in the Japanese anime television series ''Digimon Tamers''" ], [ "People", "* Gram (surname), a list of people* Gram Parsons (1946–1973), American singer and musician* Short for grandmother" ], [ "Places", "* Gram, Denmark, a town* Gram Municipality, a former municipality in Denmark* Gram panchayat, a local government division in India" ], [ "Plants", "* Gram, a type of chickpea* Gram, an abbreviation of ''Grammatophyllum'', an orchid genus" ], [ "Science and technology", "* Gram, a Hewlett Packard subsidiary formed from their acquisition of Palm, Inc.* Grand River Aseptic Manufacturing, a sterile pharmaceutical contract manufacturer* Gram stain" ], [ "Other uses", "* Grand Rapids Art Museum (GRAM), Michigan* Gramin Agriculture Markets (GrAM), in India* Slang term for Instagram, a social media photo-sharing service" ], [ "See also", "* ''Vigna mungo'', a bean also known as black gram* Mung bean, also called green gram* ''Macrotyloma uniflorum'', a legume also known as horse gram and Madras gram* Pigeon pea, also called red gram* ''Vigna aconitifolia'', also known as moth gram and Turkish gram* Gramm (disambiguation)* Grams (disambiguation)* Grama (disambiguation)* Gamma (disambiguation)* Gam (disambiguation)* Gama (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "Garnet Bailey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Garnet Edward '''\"'''Ace'''\"''' Bailey''' (June 13, 1948 – September 11, 2001) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player and scout who was a member of Stanley Cup and Memorial Cup-winning teams.", "He died at the age of 53 while aboard United Airlines Flight 175, which crashed into the South Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City during the September 11 attacks." ], [ "Career", "At the time of his death, Bailey was the Los Angeles Kings' director of pro scouting." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Bailey's name is located on Panel S-3 of the National September 11 Memorial's South Pool, along with those of other passengers of Flight 175.Bailey died when the plane in which he was travelling, United Airlines Flight 175, was hijacked and deliberately crashed into the South Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City during the September 11 attacks.", "Bailey and amateur scout Mark Bavis were travelling from Boston to Los Angeles when the flight was hijacked.", "They had been in Manchester visiting the Los Angeles Kings' AHL affiliate, the Monarchs.Bailey and Bavis are mentioned in the Boston-based Dropkick Murphys song \"Your Spirit's Alive.\"", "Denis Leary wore a Bailey memorial T-shirt as the character Tommy Gavin in the season 1 episode \"Immortal\" and the fourth-season episode \"Pussified\" in the TV series ''Rescue Me''.", "In his memory, the Los Angeles Kings named their new mascot \"Bailey\".Bailey's family founded the Ace Bailey Children's Foundation in his memory.", "The foundation raises funds to benefit hospitalized children, infants and their families.At the National September 11 Memorial, Bailey and Bavis are memorialized at the South Pool, on Panel S-3.On October 14, 2012, the Kings brought the Stanley Cup, which the team had just won in June, to the memorial and placed it on panels featuring Bailey and Bavis's names so that the families of Bailey and Bavis could \"have their day with the Stanley Cup\", continuing a hockey tradition whereby players and personnel of the reigning Cup champion team each get a personal day with the trophy.", "The Kings' general manager Dean Lombardi was also in attendance." ], [ "Career statistics", "===Regular season and playoffs===Regular seasonPlayoffs Season Team League GP G A Pts PIM GP G A Pts PIM 1966–67 Edmonton Oil Kings CMJHL 56 47 46 93 177 — — — — — 1967–68 Oklahoma City Blazers CHL 34 8 13 21 67 7 0 5 5 36 1968–69 Hershey Bears AHL 60 24 32 56 104 9 4 10 14 10 1968–69 Boston Bruins NHL 8 3 3 6 10 1 0 0 0 2 1969–70 Boston Bruins NHL 58 11 11 22 82 — — — — — 1970–71 Oklahoma City Blazers CHL 11 3 8 11 28 — — — — — 1970–71 Boston Bruins NHL 36 0 6 6 44 1 0 0 0 10 1971–72 Boston Bruins NHL 73 9 13 22 64 13 2 4 6 16 1972–73 Boston Bruins NHL 57 8 13 21 89 — — — — — 1972–73 Detroit Red Wings NHL 13 2 11 13 16 — — — — — 1973–74 Detroit Red Wings NHL 45 9 14 23 33 — — — — — 1973–74 St. Louis Blues NHL 22 7 3 10 20 — — — — — 1974–75 St. Louis Blues NHL 49 15 26 41 113 — — — — — 1974–75 Washington Capitals NHL 22 4 13 17 8 — — — — — 1975–76 Washington Capitals NHL 67 13 19 32 75 — — — — — 1976–77 Washington Capitals NHL 78 19 27 46 51 — — — — — 1977–78 Washington Capitals NHL 40 7 12 19 28 — — — — — 1978–79 Edmonton Oilers WHA 38 5 4 9 22 2 0 0 0 4 1979–80 Houston Apollos CHL 7 1 0 1 0 — — — — — 1980–81 Wichita Wind CHL 1 0 0 0 2 — — — — — NHL totals 568 107 171 278 633 15 2 4 6 28*Source: NHL.com" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Gilles Deleuze" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gilles Louis René Deleuze''' ( , ; 18 January 1925 – 4 November 1995) was a French philosopher who, from the early 1950s until his death in 1995, wrote on philosophy, literature, film, and fine art.", "His most popular works were the two volumes of ''Capitalism and Schizophrenia'': ''Anti-Oedipus'' (1972) and ''A Thousand Plateaus'' (1980), both co-written with psychoanalyst Félix Guattari.", "His metaphysical treatise ''Difference and Repetition'' (1968) is considered by many scholars to be his magnum opus.An important part of Deleuze's oeuvre is devoted to the reading of other philosophers: the Stoics, Leibniz, Hume, Kant, Nietzsche, and Bergson, with particular influence derived from Spinoza.", "A. W. Moore, citing Bernard Williams's criteria for a great thinker, ranks Deleuze among the \"greatest philosophers\".", "Although he once characterized himself as a \"pure metaphysician\", his work has influenced a variety of disciplines across the humanities, including philosophy, art, and literary theory, as well as movements such as post-structuralism and postmodernism." ], [ "Life", "=== Early life ===Gilles Deleuze was born into a middle-class family in Paris and lived there for most of his life.", "His mother was Odette Camaüer and his father, Louis, was an engineer.", "His initial schooling was undertaken during World War II, during which time he attended the Lycée Carnot.", "He also spent a year in ''khâgne'' at the Lycée Henri IV.", "During the Nazi occupation of France, Deleuze's brother, three years his senior, Georges, was arrested for his participation in the French Resistance, and died while in transit to a concentration camp.", "In 1944, Deleuze went to study at the Sorbonne.", "His teachers there included several noted specialists in the history of philosophy, such as Georges Canguilhem, Jean Hyppolite, Ferdinand Alquié, and Maurice de Gandillac.", "Deleuze's lifelong interest in the canonical figures of modern philosophy owed much to these teachers.=== Career ===Deleuze passed the agrégation in philosophy in 1948, and taught at various lycées (Amiens, Orléans, Louis le Grand) until 1957, when he took up a position at the University of Paris.", "In 1953, he published his first monograph, ''Empiricism and Subjectivity'', on David Hume.", "This monograph was based on his 1947 DES ('''') thesis, roughly equivalent to an M.A.", "thesis, which was conducted under the direction of Jean Hyppolite and Georges Canguilhem.", "From 1960 to 1964, he held a position at the Centre National de Recherche Scientifique.", "During this time he published the seminal ''Nietzsche and Philosophy'' (1962) and befriended Michel Foucault.", "From 1964 to 1969, he was a professor at the University of Lyon.", "In 1968, Deleuze defended his two DrE dissertations amid the ongoing May 68 demonstrations; he later published his two dissertations under the titles ''Difference and Repetition'' (supervised by Gandillac) and ''Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza'' (supervised by Alquié).In 1969, he was appointed to the University of Paris VIII at Vincennes/St.", "Denis, an experimental school organized to implement educational reform.", "This new university drew a number of well-known academics, including Foucault (who suggested Deleuze's hiring) and the psychoanalyst Félix Guattari.", "Deleuze taught at Paris VIII until his retirement in 1987.===Personal life===Deleuze's outlook on life was sympathetic to transcendental ideas, \"nature as god\" ethics, and the monist experience.", "Some of the important ideas he advocated for and found inspiration in include his personally coined expression pluralism = monism, as well as the concepts of Being and Univocity.", "His thoughts were shaped by Spinoza's leanings and inclinations; for Deleuze, Spinoza was the \"prince\" or even the “Christ” of philosophers.He married Denise Paul \"Fanny\" Grandjouan in 1956 and they had two children.According to James Miller, Deleuze portrayed little visible interest in actually ''doing'' many of the risky things he so vividly conjured up in his lectures and writing.", "Married, with two children, he outwardly lived the life of a conventional French professor.", "He kept his fingernails untrimmed because, as he once explained, he lacked \"normal protective fingerprints\", and therefore could not \"touch an object, particularly a piece of cloth, with the pads of my fingers without sharp pain\".When once asked to talk about his life, he replied: \"Academics' lives are seldom interesting.\"", "Deleuze concludes his reply to this critic thus:===Death===Deleuze, who had suffered from respiratory ailments from a young age, developed tuberculosis in 1968 and underwent lung removal.", "He suffered increasingly severe respiratory symptoms for the rest of his life.", "In the last years of his life, simple tasks such as writing required laborious effort.", "Overwhelmed by his respiratory problems, he died by suicide on 4 November 1995, throwing himself from the window of his apartment.Before his death, Deleuze had announced his intention to write a book entitled ''La Grandeur de Marx'' (''The Greatness of Marx''), and left behind two chapters of an unfinished project entitled ''Ensembles and Multiplicities'' (these chapters have been published as the essays \"Immanence: A Life\" and \"The Actual and the Virtual\").", "He is buried in the cemetery of the village of Saint-Léonard-de-Noblat." ], [ "Philosophy", "Deleuze's works fall into two groups: on the one hand, monographs interpreting the work of other philosophers (Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Nietzsche, Henri Bergson, Michel Foucault) and artists (Marcel Proust, Franz Kafka, Francis Bacon); on the other, eclectic philosophical tomes organized by concept (e.g., difference, sense, events, schizophrenia, economy, cinema, desire, philosophy).", "However, both of these aspects are seen by his critics and analysts as often overlapping, in particular, due to his prose and the unique mapping of his books that allow for multifaceted readings.=== Metaphysics ===Deleuze's main philosophical project in the works he wrote prior to his collaborations with Guattari can be summarized as an inversion of the traditional metaphysical relationship between identity and difference.", "Traditionally, difference is seen as derivative from identity: e.g., to say that \"X is different from Y\" assumes some X and Y with at least relatively stable identities (as in Plato's forms).", "On the contrary, Deleuze claims that all identities are effects of difference.", "Identities are neither logically nor metaphysically prior to difference, Deleuze argues, \"given that there exist differences of nature between things of the same genus.\"", "That is, not only are no two things ever the same, the categories used to identify individuals in the first place derive from differences.", "Apparent identities such as \"X\" are composed of endless series of differences, where \"X\" = \"the difference between x and x\", and \"x\" = \"the difference between...\", and so forth.", "Difference, in other words, goes all the way down.", "To confront reality honestly, Deleuze argues, beings must be grasped exactly as they are, and concepts of identity (forms, categories, resemblances, unities of apperception, predicates, etc.)", "fail to attain what he calls \"difference in itself.\"", "\"If philosophy has a positive and direct relation to things, it is only insofar as philosophy claims to grasp the thing itself, according to what it is, in its difference from everything it is not, in other words, in its ''internal difference''.", "\"Like Kant, Deleuze considers traditional notions of space and time as unifying forms imposed by the subject.", "He, therefore, concludes that pure difference is non-spatiotemporal; it is an idea, what Deleuze calls \"the virtual\".", "(The coinage refers to Proust's definition of what is constant in both the past and the present: \"real without being actual, ideal without being abstract.\")", "While Deleuze's virtual ideas superficially resemble Plato's forms and Kant's ideas of pure reason, they are not originals or models, nor do they transcend possible experience; instead they are the conditions of actual experience, the internal difference in itself.", "\"The concept they the conditions form is identical to its object.\"", "A Deleuzean idea or concept of difference is therefore not a wraith-like abstraction of an experienced thing, it is a real system of differential relations that creates actual spaces, times, and sensations.Thus, Deleuze at times refers to his philosophy as a '''transcendental empiricism''' (), alluding to Kant.", "In Kant's transcendental idealism, experience only makes sense when organized by intuitions (namely, space and time) and concepts (such as causality).", "Assuming the content of these intuitions and concepts to be qualities of the world as it exists independently of human perceptual access, according to Kant, spawns seductive but senseless metaphysical beliefs (for example, extending the concept of causality beyond possible experience results in unverifiable speculation about a first cause).", "Deleuze inverts the Kantian arrangement: experience exceeds human concepts by presenting novelty, and this raw experience of difference actualizes an idea, unfettered by prior categories, forcing the invention of new ways of thinking (see ''Epistemology'').Simultaneously, Deleuze claims that being is univocal, i.e., that all of its senses are affirmed in one voice.", "Deleuze borrows the doctrine of ''ontological univocity'' from the medieval philosopher John Duns Scotus.", "In medieval disputes over the nature of God, many eminent theologians and philosophers (such as Thomas Aquinas) held that when one says that \"God is good\", God's goodness is only analogous to human goodness.", "Scotus argued to the contrary that when one says that \"God is good\", the goodness in question is exactly the same sort of goodness that is meant when one says \"Jane is good\".", "That is, God only differs from humans in degree, and properties such as goodness, power, reason, and so forth are univocally applied, regardless of whether one is talking about God, a person, or a flea.Deleuze adapts the doctrine of univocity to claim that being is, univocally, difference.", "\"With univocity, however, it is not the differences which are and must be: it is being which is Difference, in the sense that it is said of difference.", "Moreover, it is not we who are univocal in a Being which is not; it is we and our individuality which remains equivocal in and for a univocal Being.\"", "Here Deleuze at once echoes and inverts Spinoza, who maintained that everything that exists is a modification of the one substance, God or Nature.", "For Deleuze, there is no one substance, only an always-differentiating process, an origami cosmos, always folding, unfolding, refolding.", "Deleuze summarizes this ontology in the paradoxical formula \"pluralism = monism\".", "''Difference and Repetition'' (1968) is Deleuze's most sustained and systematic attempt to work out the details of such a metaphysics, but his other works develop similar ideas.", "In ''Nietzsche and Philosophy'' (1962), for example, reality is a play of forces; in ''Anti-Oedipus'' (1972), a \"body without organs\"; in ''What is Philosophy?''", "(1991), a \"plane of immanence\" or \"chaosmos\".=== Epistemology ===Deleuze's unusual metaphysics entails an equally atypical epistemology, or what he calls a transformation of \"the image of thought\".", "According to Deleuze, the traditional image of thought, found in philosophers such as Aristotle, René Descartes, and Edmund Husserl, misconceives thinking as a mostly unproblematic business.", "Truth may be hard to discover—it may require a life of pure theorizing, or rigorous computation, or systematic doubt—but thinking is able, at least in principle, to correctly grasp facts, forms, ideas, etc.", "It may be practically impossible to attain a God's-eye, neutral point of view, but that is the ideal to approximate: a disinterested pursuit that results in a determinate, fixed truth; an orderly extension of common sense.", "Deleuze rejects this view as papering over the metaphysical flux, instead claiming that genuine thinking is a violent confrontation with reality, an involuntary rupture of established categories.", "Truth changes thought; it alters what people think is possible.", "By setting aside the assumption that thinking has a natural ability to recognize the truth, Deleuze says, people attain a \"thought without image\", a thought always determined by problems rather than solving them.", "\"All this, however, presupposes codes or axioms which do not result by chance, but which do not have an intrinsic rationality either.", "It's just like theology: everything about it is quite rational if you accept sin, the immaculate conception, and the incarnation.", "Reason is always a region carved out of the irrational—not sheltered from the irrational at all, but traversed by it and only defined by a particular kind of relationship among irrational factors.", "Underneath all reason lies delirium, and drift.", "\"''The Logic of Sense'', published in 1969, is one of Deleuze's most peculiar works in the field of epistemology.", "Michel Foucault, in his essay \"Theatrum Philosophicum\" about the book, attributed this to how he begins with his metaphysics but approaches it through language and truth; the book is focused on \"the simple condition that instead of denouncing metaphysics as the neglect of being, we force it to speak of extrabeing\".", "In it, he refers to epistemological paradoxes: in the first series, as he analyzes Lewis Carroll's ''Alice in Wonderland'', he remarks that \"the personal self requires God and the world in general.", "But when substantives and adjectives begin to dissolve, when the names of pause and rest are carried away by the verbs of pure becoming and slide into the language of events, all identity disappears from the self, the world, and God.", "\"Deleuze's peculiar readings of the history of philosophy stem from this unusual epistemological perspective.", "To read a philosopher is no longer to aim at finding a single, correct interpretation, but is instead to present a philosopher's attempt to grapple with the problematic nature of reality.", "\"Philosophers introduce new concepts, they explain them, but they don't tell us, not completely anyway, the problems to which those concepts are a response.", "...", "The history of philosophy, rather than repeating what a philosopher says, has to say what he must have taken for granted, what he didn't say but is nonetheless present in what he did say.", "\"Likewise, rather than seeing philosophy as a timeless pursuit of truth, reason, or universals, Deleuze defines philosophy as the creation of concepts.", "For Deleuze, concepts are not identity conditions or propositions, but metaphysical constructions that define a range of thinking, such as Plato's ideas, Descartes's ''cogito'', or Kant's doctrine of the faculties.", "A philosophical concept \"posits itself and its object at the same time as it is created.\"", "In Deleuze's view, then, philosophy more closely resembles practical or artistic production than it does an adjunct to a definitive scientific description of a pre-existing world (as in the tradition of John Locke or Willard Van Orman Quine).In his later work (from roughly 1981 onward), Deleuze sharply distinguishes art, philosophy, and science as three distinct disciplines, each relating to reality in different ways.", "While philosophy creates concepts, the arts create novel qualitative combinations of sensation and feeling (what Deleuze calls \"percepts\" and \"affects\"), and the sciences create quantitative theories based on fixed points of reference such as the speed of light or absolute zero (which Deleuze calls \"functives\").", "According to Deleuze, none of these disciplines enjoy primacy over the others: they are different ways of organizing the metaphysical flux, \"separate melodic lines in constant interplay with one another.\"", "For example, Deleuze does not treat cinema as an art representing an external reality, but as an ontological practice that creates different ways of organizing movement and time.", "Philosophy, science, and art are equally, and essentially, creative and practical.", "Hence, instead of asking traditional questions of identity such as \"is it true?\"", "or \"what is it?", "\", Deleuze proposes that inquiries should be functional or practical: \"what does it do?\"", "or \"how does it work?", "\"=== Values ===In ethics and politics Deleuze again echoes Spinoza, albeit in a sharply Nietzschean key.", "Following his rejection of any metaphysics based on identity, Deleuze criticizes the notion of an individual as an arresting or halting of differentiation (as the etymology of the word \"individual\" suggestshow so?differentiation is not not dividing: citation needed).", "Guided by the naturalistic ethics of Spinoza and Nietzsche, Deleuze instead seeks to understand individuals and their moralities as products of the organization of pre-individual desires and powers.", "In the two volumes of ''Capitalism and Schizophrenia'', ''Anti-Oedipus'' (1972) and ''A Thousand Plateaus'' (1980), Deleuze and Guattari describe history as a congealing and regimentation of \"desiring-production\" (a concept combining features of Freudian drives and Marxist labor) into the modern individual (typically neurotic and repressed), the nation-state (a society of continuous control), and capitalism (an anarchy domesticated into infantilizing commodification).", "Deleuze, following Karl Marx, welcomes capitalism's destruction of traditional social hierarchies as liberating but inveighs against its homogenization of all values to the aims of the market.The first part of ''Capitalism and Schizophrenia'' undertakes a universal history and posits the existence of a separate '''socius''' (the social body that takes credit for production) for each mode of production: the earth for the tribe, the body of the despot for the empire, and capital for capitalism.", "\"In his 1990 essay \"Postscript on the Societies of Control\" (\"Post-scriptum sur les sociétés de contrôle\"), Deleuze builds on Foucault's notion of the society of discipline to argue that society is undergoing a shift in structure and control.", "Where societies of discipline were characterized by discrete physical enclosures (such as schools, factories, prisons, office buildings, etc.", "), institutions and technologies introduced since World War II have dissolved the boundaries between these enclosures.", "As a result, social coercion and discipline have moved into the lives of individuals considered as \"masses, samples, data, markets, or 'banks'.\"", "The mechanisms of modern '''societies of control''' are described as continuous, following and tracking individuals throughout their existence via transaction records, mobile location tracking, and other personally identifiable information.But how does Deleuze square his pessimistic diagnoses with his ethical naturalism?", "Deleuze claims that standards of value are internal or immanent: to live well is to fully express one's power, to go to the limits of one's potential, rather than to judge what exists by non-empirical, transcendent standards.", "Modern society still suppresses difference and alienates people from what they can do.", "To affirm reality, which is a flux of change and difference, established identities must be overturned and so become all that they can become—though exactly what cannot be known in advance.", "The pinnacle of Deleuzean practice, then, is creativity.", "\"Herein, perhaps, lies the secret: to bring into existence and not to judge.", "If it is so disgusting to judge, it is not because everything is of equal value, but on the contrary, because what has value can be made or distinguished only by defying judgment.", "What expert judgment, in art, could ever bear on the work to come?", "\"=== Deleuze's interpretations ===Deleuze's studies of individual philosophers and artists are purposely heterodox.", "In ''Nietzsche and Philosophy'', for example, Deleuze claims that Nietzsche's ''On the Genealogy of Morality'' (1887) is an attempt to rewrite Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason'' (1781), even though Nietzsche nowhere mentions the First Critique in the ''Genealogy'', and the ''Genealogy'''s moral topics are far removed from the epistemological focus of Kant's book.", "Likewise, Deleuze claims that univocity is the organizing principle of Spinoza's philosophy, despite the total absence of the term from any of Spinoza's works.", "Deleuze once famously described his method of interpreting philosophers as \"buggery (''enculage'')\", as sneaking behind an author and producing an offspring which is recognizably his, yet also monstrous and different.The various monographs thus are not attempts to present what Nietzsche or Spinoza strictly intended, but re-stagings of their ideas in different and unexpected ways.", "Deleuze's peculiar readings aim to enact the creativity he believes is the acme of philosophical practice.", "A parallel in painting Deleuze points to is Francis Bacon's ''Study after Velázquez''—it is quite beside the point to say that Bacon \"gets Velasquez wrong\".", "Similar considerations apply, in Deleuze's view, to his own uses of mathematical and scientific terms, ''pace'' critics such as Alan Sokal: \"I'm not saying that Resnais and Prigogine, or Godard and Thom, are doing the same thing.", "I'm pointing out, rather, that there are remarkable similarities between scientific creators of functions and cinematic creators of images.", "And the same goes for philosophical concepts, since there are distinct concepts of these spaces.", "\"Along with several French and Italian Marxist-inspired thinkers like Louis Althusser, Étienne Balibar, and Antonio Negri, he was one of the central figures in a great flowering of Spinoza studies in the late 20th and early 21st centuries continental philosophy (or the rise of French-inspired post-structuralist Neo-Spinozism) that was the second remarkable Spinoza revival in history, after highly significant Neo-Spinozism in German philosophy and literature of approximately the late 18th and early 19th centuries.", "A fervent Spinozist in many respects, Deleuze's preoccupation with and reverence for Spinoza are well known in contemporary philosophy.=== Similarities with Heidegger ===From the 1930s onward, German philosopher Martin Heidegger wrote in a series of manuscripts and books on concepts of Difference, Identity, Representation, and Event; notably among these the ''Beiträge zur Philosophie'' ''(Vom Ereignis)'' (Written 1936-38; published posthumously 1989); none of the relevant texts were translated into French by Deleuze's death in 1995, excluding any strong possibility of appropriation.", "However, Heidegger's early work can be traced through mathematician Albert Lautman, who drew heavily from Heidegger's ''Sein und Zeit'' and ''Vom Wesen des Grundes'' (1928), which James Bahoh describes as having \"...decisive influence on the twentieth century mathematician and philosopher ... whose theory of dialectical Ideas Deleuze appropriated and modified for his own use.\"", "The similarities between Heidegger's later, post-turn, 1930-1976 thought and Deleuze's early works in the 60s and 70s are generally described by Deleuze-scholar Daniel W. Smith in the following way: \"''Difference and Repetition'' could be read as a response to ''Being and Time'' (for Deleuze, Being is difference, and time is repetition).", "\"Bahoh continues in saying that: \"...then ''Beiträge'' could be read as ''Difference and Repetition'''s unknowing and anachronistic doppelgänger.\"", "Deleuze and Heidegger's philosophy is considered to converge on the topics of Difference and the Event.", "Where, for Heidegger, an evental being is constituted in part by difference as \"...an essential dimension of the concept of event\"; for Deleuze, being is difference, and difference \"differentiates by way of events.\"", "In contrast to this, however, Jussi Backman argues that, for Heidegger, being is united only insofar as it consists of and ''is'' difference, or rather as the movement of difference, not too dissimilar to Deleuze's later claims:\"...the unity and univocity of being (in the sense of being), its 'selfsameness,' paradoxically consists exclusively in difference.", "\"This mutual apprehension of a differential, Evental ontology lead both thinkers into an extended critique of the representation characteristic to Platonic, Aristotelian, and Cartesian thought; as Joe Hughes states: \"''Difference and Repetition'' is a detective novel.", "It tells the story of what some readers of Deleuze might consider a horrendous crime ...: the birth of representation.\"", "Heidegger formed his critiques most decisively in the concept of the fourfold ''German: das Geviert'', a non-metaphysical grounding for the thing (as opposed to \"object\") as \"ungrounded, mediated, meaningful, and shared\" united in an \"event of appropriation\" ''Ereignis''.", "This evental ontology continues in ''Identität und Differenz'', where the fundamental concept expressed in ''Difference and Repetition'', of dethroning the primacy of identity, can be seen throughout the text.", "Even in earlier Heideggerian texts such as ''Sein und Zeit'', however, the critique of representation is \"...cast in terms of the being of truth, or the processes of uncovering and covering (grounded in Dasein's existence) whereby beings come into and withdraw from phenomenal presence.\"", "In parallel, Deleuze's extended critique of representation (in the sense of detailing a \"genealogy\" of the antiquated beliefs as well) is given \"...in terms of being or becoming as difference and repetition, together with genetic processes of individuation whereby beings come to exist and pass out of existence.\"", "Time and space, for both thinkers, is also constituted in nearly identical ways.", "Time-space in the ''Beiträge'' and the three syntheses in ''Difference and Repetition'' both apprehend time as grounded in difference, whilst the distinction between the time-space of the world Welt and the time-space as the evental production of such a time-space is mirrored by Deleuze's categorization between the temporality of what is actual and temporality of the virtual in the first and the second/third syntheses respectively.", "Another parallel can be found in their utilization of so-called \"generative paradoxes,\" or rather problems whose fundamental problematic element is constantly outside the categorical grasp fond of formal, natural, and human sciences.", "For Heidegger, this is the Earth in the fourfold, something which has as one of its traits the behaviour of \"resisting articulation,\" what he characterizes as a \"strife\"; for Deleuze, a similar example can be spotted in the paradox of regress, or of indefinite proliferation in the ''Logic of Sense''." ], [ "Reception", "In the 1960s, Deleuze's portrayal of Nietzsche as a metaphysician of difference rather than a reactionary mystic contributed greatly to the plausibility and popularity of \"left-wing Nietzscheanism\" as an intellectual stance.", "His books ''Difference and Repetition'' (1968) and ''The Logic of Sense'' (1969) led Michel Foucault to declare that \"one day, perhaps, this century will be called Deleuzian.\"", "(Deleuze, for his part, said Foucault's comment was \"a joke meant to make people who like us laugh, and make everyone else livid.\")", "In the 1970s, the ''Anti-Oedipus'', written in a style by turns vulgar and esoteric, offering a sweeping analysis of the family, language, capitalism, and history via eclectic borrowings from Freud, Marx, Nietzsche, and dozens of other writers, was received as a theoretical embodiment of the anarchic spirit of May 1968.In 1994 and 1995, ''L'Abécédaire de Gilles Deleuze'', an eight-hour series of interviews between Deleuze and Claire Parnet, aired on France's Arte Channel.In the 1980s and 1990s, almost all of Deleuze's books were translated into English.", "Deleuze's work is frequently cited in English-speaking academia (in 2007, e.g., he was the 11th most frequently cited author in English-speaking publications in the humanities, between Freud and Kant).", "Like his contemporaries Foucault, Jacques Derrida, and Jean-François Lyotard, Deleuze's influence has been most strongly felt in North American humanities departments, particularly in literary theory, where ''Anti-Oedipus'' and ''A Thousand Plateaus'' are oft regarded as major statements of post-structuralism and postmodernism, though neither Deleuze nor Guattari described their work in those terms.", "Likewise in the English-speaking academy, Deleuze's work is typically classified as continental philosophy.However, some French and some Anglophone philosophers criticised Deleuze's work.According to Pascal Engel, Deleuze's metaphilosophical approach makes it impossible to reasonably disagree with a philosophical system, and so destroys meaning, truth, and philosophy itself.", "Engel summarizes Deleuze's metaphilosophy thus: \"When faced with a beautiful philosophical concept you should just sit back and admire it.", "You should not question it.", "\"American philosopher Stanley Rosen objects to Deleuze's interpretation of Nietzsche's eternal return.Vincent Descombes argues that Deleuze's account of a difference that is not derived from identity (in ''Nietzsche and Philosophy'') is incoherent.Slavoj Žižek states that the Deleuze of ''Anti-Oedipus'' (\"arguably Deleuze's worst book\"), the \"political\" Deleuze under the \"'bad' influence\" of Guattari, ends up, despite protestations to the contrary, as \"the ideologist of late capitalism\".=== Allegations of idealism and negligence of material conditions ===Peter Hallward argues that Deleuze's insistence that being is necessarily creative and always-differentiating entails that his philosophy can offer no insight into, and is supremely indifferent to, the material, actual conditions of existence.", "Thus Hallward claims that Deleuze's thought is literally other-worldly, aiming only at a passive contemplation of the dissolution of all identity into the theophanic self-creation of nature.Descombes argues that his analysis of history in ''Anti-Oedipus'' is 'utter idealism', criticizing reality for falling short of a non-existent ideal of schizophrenic becoming.", "Žižek claims that Deleuze's ontology oscillates between materialism and idealism.=== Relation with monism ===Alain Badiou claims that Deleuze's metaphysics only apparently embraces plurality and diversity, remaining at bottom monist.", "Badiou further argues that, in practical matters, Deleuze's monism entails an ascetic, aristocratic fatalism akin to ancient Stoicism.American philosopher Todd May argues that Deleuze's claim that difference is ontologically primary ultimately contradicts his embrace of immanence, i.e., his monism.", "However, May believes that Deleuze can discard the primacy-of-difference thesis, and accept a Wittgensteinian holism without significantly altering his practical philosophy.=== Subjectivity and individuality ===Other European philosophers have criticized Deleuze's theory of subjectivity.", "For example, Manfred Frank claims that Deleuze's theory of individuation as a process of bottomless differentiation fails to explain the unity of consciousness.", "Žižek also calls Deleuze to task for allegedly reducing the subject to \"just another\" substance and thereby failing to grasp the nothingness that, according to Lacan and Žižek, defines subjectivity.", "What remains worthwhile in Deleuze's oeuvre, Žižek finds, are precisely Deleuze's engagements with virtuality as the product of negativity.=== Science wars ===In ''Fashionable Nonsense'' (1997), physicists Alan Sokal and Jean Bricmont accuse Deleuze of abusing mathematical and scientific terms, particularly by sliding between accepted technical meanings and his own idiosyncratic use of those terms in his works.", "Sokal and Bricmont state that they don't object to metaphorical reasoning, including with mathematical concepts, but mathematical and scientific terms are useful only insofar as they are precise.", "They give examples of mathematical concepts being \"abused\" by taking them out of their intended meaning, rendering the idea into normal language reduces it to truism or nonsense.", "In their opinion, Deleuze used mathematical concepts about which the typical reader might be not knowledgeable, and thus served to display erudition rather than enlightening the reader.", "Sokal and Bricmont state that they only deal with the \"abuse\" of mathematical and scientific concepts and explicitly suspend judgment about Deleuze's wider contributions." ], [ "Influence", "Other scholars in continental philosophy, feminist studies and sexuality studies have taken Deleuze's analysis of the sexual dynamics of sadism and masochism with a level of uncritical celebration following the 1989 Zone Books translation of the 1967 booklet on Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, ''Le froid et le cruel'' (Coldness and Cruelty).", "As sexuality historian Alison M. Moore notes, Deleuze's own value placed on difference is poorly reflected in this booklet which fails to differentiate between Masoch's own view of his desire and that imposed upon him by the pathologizing forms of psychiatric thought prevailing in the late nineteenth century which produced the concept of 'masochism' (a term Masoch himself emphatically rejected).Smith, Protevi and Voss note \"Sokal and Bricmont’s 1999 intimations\" underestimated Deleuze's awareness of mathematics and pointed out several \"positive views of Deleuze’s use of mathematics as provocations for ... his philosophical concepts\", and that Deleuze's epistemology and ontology can be \"brought together\" with dynamical systems theory, chaos theory, biology, and geography." ], [ "Bibliography", ";Single-authored Original French English Translation''Empirisme et subjectivité'' (1953)''Empiricism and Subjectivity'' (1991)''Nietzsche et la philosophie'' (1962)''Nietzsche and Philosophy'' (1983)''La philosophie critique de Kant'' (1963)''Kant's Critical Philosophy'' (1983)''Proust et les signes'' (1964, 3rd exp.", "ed.", "1976)''Proust and Signs'' (1973, 2nd exp.", "ed.", "2000)''Nietzsche'' (1965)''Pure Immanence'' (2001)''Le Bergsonisme'' (1966)''Bergsonism'' (1988)''Présentation de Sacher-Masoch'' (1967)''Masochism: Coldness and Cruelty'' (1989)''Différence et répétition'' (1968)''Difference and Repetition'' (1994)''Spinoza et le problème de l'expression'' (Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1968 & 1985)''Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza'' (1990)''Logique du sens'' (1969)''The Logic of Sense'' (1990)''Dialogues'' (1977, 2nd exp.", "ed.", "1996, with Claire Parnet)''Dialogues II'' (1987, 2nd exp.", "ed.", "2002)''One Less Manifesto'' (1978) In ''Superpositions'' (with Carmelo Bene)''Spinoza – Philosophie pratique'', 2nd ed.", "(Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1981)''Spinoza: Practical Philosophy'' (1988)''Francis Bacon – Logique de la sensation'' (1981)''Francis Bacon: The Logic of Sensation'' (2003)''Cinéma I: L'image-mouvement'' (1983)''Cinema 1: The Movement-Image'' (1986)''Cinéma II: L'image-temps'' (1985)''Cinema 2: The Time-Image'' (1989)''Foucault'' (1986)''Foucault'' (1988)''Le pli – Leibniz et le baroque'' (1988)''The Fold: Leibniz and the Baroque'' (1993)''Périclès et Verdi: La philosophie de Francois Châtelet'' (1988) In ''Dialogues II'', revised ed.", "(2007)''Pourparlers'' (1990)''Negotiations'' (1995).", "''Critique et clinique'' (1993)''Essays Critical and Clinical'' (1997)''L'île déserte et autres textes'' (2002)''Desert Islands and Other Texts 1953–1974'' (2003)''Deux régimes de fous et autres textes'' (2004)''Two Regimes of Madness: Texts and Interviews 1975–1995'' (2006);;In collaboration with Félix Guattari* ''Capitalisme et Schizophrénie 1.L'Anti-Œdipe'' (1972).", "Trans.", "''Anti-Oedipus'' (1977).", "* ''On the Line'', New York: Semiotext(e), translated by John Johnson (1983).", "* ''Kafka: Pour une Littérature Mineure'' (1975).", "Trans.", "''Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature'' (1986).", "* ''Rhizome'' (1976).", "Trans., in revised form, in ''A Thousand Plateaus'' (1987).", "* ''Nomadology: The War Machine'' (1986).", "Trans.", "in ''A Thousand Plateaus'' (1987).", "* ''Capitalisme et Schizophrénie 2.Mille Plateaux'' (1980).", "Trans.", "''A Thousand Plateaus'' (1987).", "* ''Qu'est-ce que la philosophie?''", "(1991).", "Trans.", "''What is Philosophy?''", "(1994).", "* ''Part I: Deleuze and Guattari on Anti-Oedipus'' of ''Chaosophy: Texts and Interviews 1972–77'' (2009) Edited by Sylvere Lotringer.", "(pp. 35–118).", ";;In collaboration with Michel Foucault* \"Intellectuals and Power: A Discussion Between Gilles Deleuze and Michel Foucault\".", "''Telos'' 16 (Summer 1973).", "New York: Telos Press (reprinted in ''L'île déserte et autres textes'' / ''Desert Islands and Other Texts''; see above)" ], [ "Documentaries", "* ''L'Abécédaire de Gilles Deleuze'', with Claire Parnet, produced by Pierre-André Boutang.", "Éditions Montparnasse." ], [ "Audio (lectures)", "* Deleuze, Gilles: ''Spinoza: Immortalité et éternité'' double CD.", "(Paris: Éditions Gallimard, 2001)* Deleuze, Gilles: ''Spinoza: The Velocities of Thought: Lecture 1'', 2 December 1980.", "(Purdue University Research Repository, 2017) \t* Deleuze, Gilles: ''Spinoza: The Velocities of Thought: Lecture 2'', 9 December 1980.", "(Purdue University Research Repository, 2017) \t* Deleuze, Gilles: ''Spinoza: The Velocities of Thought: Lecture 3'', 16 December 1980.", "(Purdue University Research Repository, 2017) * Deleuze, Gilles: ''Spinoza: The Velocities of Thought: Lecture 4'', 6 January 1981.", "(Purdue University Research Repository, 2017) * Deleuze, Gilles: ''Spinoza: The Velocities of Thought: Lecture 5'', 13 January 1981.", "(Purdue University Research Repository, 2017) * Deleuze, Gilles: ''Spinoza: The Velocities of Thought: Lecture 6'', 20 January 1981.", "(Purdue University Research Repository, 2017) \t* Deleuze, Gilles: ''Spinoza: The Velocities of Thought: Lecture 7'', 27 January 1981.", "(Purdue University Research Repository, 2017) \t* Deleuze, Gilles: ''Spinoza: The Velocities of Thought: Lecture 8'', 3 February 1981.", "(Purdue University Research Repository, 2017) \t* Deleuze, Gilles: ''Spinoza: The Velocities of Thought: Lecture 9'', 10 February 1981.", "(Purdue University Research Repository, 2017) \t* Deleuze, Gilles: ''Spinoza: The Velocities of Thought: Lecture 10'', 17 February 1981.", "(Purdue University Research Repository, 2017) \t* Deleuze, Gilles: ''Spinoza: The Velocities of Thought: Lecture 11'', 10 March 1981.", "(Purdue University Research Repository, 2017) * Deleuze, Gilles: ''Spinoza: The Velocities of Thought: Lecture 12'', 17 March 1981.", "(Purdue University Research Repository, 2017) \t* Deleuze, Gilles: ''Spinoza: The Velocities of Thought: Lecture 13'', 24 March 1981.", "(Purdue University Research Repository, 2017) \t* Deleuze, Gilles: ''Spinoza: The Velocities of Thought: Lecture 14'', 31 March 1981.", "(Purdue University Research Repository, 2017) .", "«''Spinoza: The Velocities of Thought''» («''Spinoza: Des vitesses de la pensée''») was a 14-lecture seminar given by Deleuze at the University of Paris 8 from December 1980 to March 1981.Deleuze had previously published two books on Spinoza, including ''Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza'' (''Spinoza et le problème de l'expression'', 1968), and ''Spinoza: Practical Philosophy'' (''Spinoza: Philosophie pratique'', 1970, 2nd ed.", "1981).", "The majority of these lectures were given the same year as the publication of the second edition of the latter title." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Webdeleuze – Courses & audio , etc.", "* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: \" Gilles Deleuze\", by Daniel Smith & John Protevi.", "* Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Gilles Deleuze\", by Jon Roffe.", "* Near complete bibliography including various translations* Alain Badiou, \" The Event in Deleuze.\"", "(English translation).", "* Lectures and notes on work by Deleuze and Guattari.", "* Rhizomes.", "Online journal inspired by Deleuzian thought.", "* Web resources from Wayne State University.", "* Capitalism: A Very Special Delirium (1995).", "* Institute of Art and Ideas: \" Deleuze and the Time for Non-Reason\", by James R. Williams." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Galaxy" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''galaxy''' is a system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter bound together by gravity.", "The word is derived from the Greek '''' (), literally 'milky', a reference to the Milky Way galaxy that contains the Solar System.", "Galaxies, averaging an estimated 100 billion stars, range in size from dwarfs with less than a hundred million stars, to the largest galaxies known – supergiants with one hundred trillion stars, each orbiting its galaxy's center of mass.", "Most of the mass in a typical galaxy is in the form of dark matter, with only a few percent of that mass visible in the form of stars and nebulae.", "Supermassive black holes are a common feature at the centres of galaxies.Galaxies are categorized according to their visual morphology as elliptical, spiral, or irregular.", "Many are thought to have supermassive black holes at their centers.", "The Milky Way's central black hole, known as Sagittarius A*, has a mass four million times greater than the Sun.It is estimated that there are between 200 billion () to 2 trillion galaxies in the observable universe.", "Most galaxies are 1,000 to 100,000 parsecs in diameter (approximately 3,000 to 300,000 light years) and are separated by distances on the order of millions of parsecs (or megaparsecs).", "For comparison, the Milky Way has a diameter of at least 26,800 parsecs (87,400 ly) and is separated from the Andromeda Galaxy (with diameter of about 152,000 ly), its nearest large neighbor, by 780,000 parsecs (2.5 million ly.", ")The space between galaxies is filled with a tenuous gas (the intergalactic medium) with an average density of less than one atom per cubic meter.", "Most galaxies are gravitationally organized into groups, clusters and superclusters.", "The Milky Way is part of the Local Group, which it dominates along with the Andromeda Galaxy.", "The group is part of the Virgo Supercluster.", "At the largest scale, these associations are generally arranged into sheets and filaments surrounded by immense voids.", "Both the Local Group and the Virgo Supercluster are contained in a much larger cosmic structure named Laniakea." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''galaxy'' was borrowed via French and Medieval Latin from the Greek term for the Milky Way, '''' () 'milky (circle)', named after its appearance as a milky band of light in the sky.", "In Greek mythology, Zeus places his son born by a mortal woman, the infant Heracles, on Hera's breast while she is asleep so the baby will drink her divine milk and thus become immortal.", "Hera wakes up while breastfeeding and then realizes she is nursing an unknown baby: she pushes the baby away, some of her milk spills, and it produces the band of light known as the Milky Way.In the astronomical literature, the capitalized word \"Galaxy\" is often used to refer to the Milky Way galaxy, to distinguish it from the other galaxies in the observable universe.", "The English term ''Milky Way'' can be traced back to a story by Geoffrey Chaucer :Galaxies were initially discovered telescopically and were known as ''spiral nebulae''.", "Most 18th- to 19th-century astronomers considered them as either unresolved star clusters or anagalactic nebulae, and were just thought of as a part of the Milky Way, but their true composition and natures remained a mystery.", "Observations using larger telescopes of a few nearby bright galaxies, like the Andromeda Galaxy, began resolving them into huge conglomerations of stars, but based simply on the apparent faintness and sheer population of stars, the true distances of these objects placed them well beyond the Milky Way.", "For this reason they were popularly called ''island universes'', but this term quickly fell into disuse, as the word ''universe'' implied the entirety of existence.", "Instead, they became known simply as galaxies." ], [ "Nomenclature", "Galaxy cluster SDSS J1152+3313.SDSS stands for Sloan Digital Sky Survey, J for Julian epoch, and 1152+3313 for right ascension and declination respectively.Millions of galaxies have been catalogued, but only a few have well-established names, such as the Andromeda Galaxy, the Magellanic Clouds, the Whirlpool Galaxy, and the Sombrero Galaxy.", "Astronomers work with numbers from certain catalogues, such as the Messier catalogue, the NGC (New General Catalogue), the IC (Index Catalogue), the CGCG (Catalogue of Galaxies and of Clusters of Galaxies), the MCG (Morphological Catalogue of Galaxies), the UGC (Uppsala General Catalogue of Galaxies), and the PGC (Catalogue of Principal Galaxies, also known as LEDA).", "All the well-known galaxies appear in one or more of these catalogs but each time under a different number.", "For example, Messier 109 (or \"M109\") is a spiral galaxy having the number 109 in the catalog of Messier.", "It also has the designations NGC 3992, UGC 6937, CGCG 269–023, MCG +09-20-044, and PGC 37617 (or LEDA 37617), among others.", "Millions of fainter galaxies are known by their identifiers in sky surveys such as the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, in which M109 is cataloged as SDSS J115735.97+532228.9." ], [ "Observation history", "The realization that ''we live in a galaxy that is one among many'' parallels major discoveries about the Milky Way and other nebulae.=== Milky Way ===Greek philosopher Democritus (450–370 BCE) proposed that the bright band on the night sky known as the Milky Way might consist of distant stars.Aristotle (384–322 BCE), however, believed the Milky Way was caused by \"the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars that were large, numerous and close together\" and that the \"ignition takes place in the upper part of the atmosphere, in the region of the World that is continuous with the heavenly motions.\"", "Neoplatonist philosopher Olympiodorus the Younger (–570 CE) was critical of this view, arguing that if the Milky Way was sublunary (situated between Earth and the Moon) it should appear different at different times and places on Earth, and that it should have parallax, which it did not.", "In his view, the Milky Way was celestial.According to Mohani Mohamed, Arabian astronomer Ibn al-Haytham (965–1037) made the first attempt at observing and measuring the Milky Way's parallax, and he thus \"determined that because the Milky Way had no parallax, it must be remote from the Earth, not belonging to the atmosphere.\"", "Persian astronomer al-Biruni (973–1048) proposed the Milky Way galaxy was \"a collection of countless fragments of the nature of nebulous stars.\"", "Andalusian astronomer Avempace ( 1138) proposed that it was composed of many stars that almost touched one another, and appeared to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction from sublunary material, citing his observation of the conjunction of Jupiter and Mars as evidence of this occurring when two objects were near.", "In the 14th century, Syrian-born Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya proposed the Milky Way galaxy was \"a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars.", "\"Actual proof of the Milky Way consisting of many stars came in 1610 when the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei used a telescope to study it and discovered it was composed of a huge number of faint stars.", "In 1750, English astronomer Thomas Wright, in his ''An Original Theory or New Hypothesis of the Universe'', correctly speculated that it might be a rotating body of a huge number of stars held together by gravitational forces, akin to the Solar System but on a much larger scale, and that the resulting disk of stars could be seen as a band on the sky from a perspective inside it.", "In his 1755 treatise, Immanuel Kant elaborated on Wright's idea about the Milky Way's structure.", "The shape of the Milky Way as estimated from star counts by William Herschel in 1785; the Solar System was assumed to be near the center.The first project to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of the Sun was undertaken by William Herschel in 1785 by counting the number of stars in different regions of the sky.", "He produced a diagram of the shape of the galaxy with the Solar System close to the center.", "Using a refined approach, Kapteyn in 1920 arrived at the picture of a small (diameter about 15 kiloparsecs) ellipsoid galaxy with the Sun close to the center.", "A different method by Harlow Shapley based on the cataloguing of globular clusters led to a radically different picture: a flat disk with diameter approximately 70 kiloparsecs and the Sun far from the center.", "Both analyses failed to take into account the absorption of light by interstellar dust present in the galactic plane; but after Robert Julius Trumpler quantified this effect in 1930 by studying open clusters, the present picture of the Milky Way galaxy emerged.=== Distinction from other nebulae ===A few galaxies outside the Milky Way are visible on a dark night to the unaided eye, including the Andromeda Galaxy, Large Magellanic Cloud, Small Magellanic Cloud, and the Triangulum Galaxy.", "In the 10th century, Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi made the earliest recorded identification of the Andromeda Galaxy, describing it as a \"small cloud\".", "In 964, he probably mentioned the Large Magellanic Cloud in his ''Book of Fixed Stars'' (referring to \"Al Bakr of the southern Arabs\", since at a declination of about 70° south it was not visible where he lived); it was not well known to Europeans until Magellan's voyage in the 16th century.", "The Andromeda Galaxy was later independently noted by Simon Marius in 1612.In 1734, philosopher Emanuel Swedenborg in his ''Principia'' speculated that there might be other galaxies outside that were formed into galactic clusters that were minuscule parts of the universe that extended far beyond what could be seen.", "These views \"are remarkably close to the present-day views of the cosmos.", "\"In 1745, Pierre Louis Maupertuis conjectured that some nebula-like objects were collections of stars with unique properties, including a glow exceeding the light its stars produced on their own, and repeated Johannes Hevelius's view that the bright spots were massive and flattened due to their rotation.In 1750, Thomas Wright correctly speculated that the Milky Way was a flattened disk of stars, and that some of the nebulae visible in the night sky might be separate Milky Ways.Photograph of the \"Great Andromeda Nebula\" by Isaac Roberts, 1899, later identified as the Andromeda GalaxyToward the end of the 18th century, Charles Messier compiled a catalog containing the 109 brightest celestial objects having nebulous appearance.", "Subsequently, William Herschel assembled a catalog of 5,000 nebulae.", "In 1845, Lord Rosse constructed a new telescope and was able to distinguish between elliptical and spiral nebulae.", "He also managed to make out individual point sources in some of these nebulae, lending credence to Kant's earlier conjecture.In 1912, Vesto M. Slipher made spectrographic studies of the brightest spiral nebulae to determine their composition.", "Slipher discovered that the spiral nebulae have high Doppler shifts, indicating that they are moving at a rate exceeding the velocity of the stars he had measured.", "He found that the majority of these nebulae are moving away from us.In 1917, Heber Doust Curtis observed nova S Andromedae within the \"Great Andromeda Nebula\" (as the Andromeda Galaxy, Messier object M31, was then known).", "Searching the photographic record, he found 11 more novae.", "Curtis noticed that these novae were, on average, 10 magnitudes fainter than those that occurred within this galaxy.", "As a result, he was able to come up with a distance estimate of 150,000 parsecs.", "He became a proponent of the so-called \"island universes\" hypothesis, which holds that spiral nebulae are actually independent galaxies.In 1920 a debate took place between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis (the Great Debate), concerning the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the universe.", "To support his claim that the Great Andromeda Nebula is an external galaxy, Curtis noted the appearance of dark lanes resembling the dust clouds in the Milky Way, as well as the significant Doppler shift.In 1922, the Estonian astronomer Ernst Öpik gave a distance determination that supported the theory that the Andromeda Nebula is indeed a distant extra-galactic object.", "Using the new 100-inch Mt.", "Wilson telescope, Edwin Hubble was able to resolve the outer parts of some spiral nebulae as collections of individual stars and identified some Cepheid variables, thus allowing him to estimate the distance to the nebulae: they were far too distant to be part of the Milky Way.", "In 1926 Hubble produced a classification of galactic morphology that is used to this day.=== Modern research ===Rotation curve of spiral galaxy Messier 33 (yellow and blue points with error bars), and a predicted one from distribution of the visible matter (gray line).", "The discrepancy between the two curves can be accounted for by adding a dark matter halo surrounding the galaxy.In 1944, Hendrik van de Hulst predicted that microwave radiation with wavelength of 21 cm would be detectable from interstellar atomic hydrogen gas; and in 1951 it was observed.", "This radiation is not affected by dust absorption, and so its Doppler shift can be used to map the motion of the gas in this galaxy.", "These observations led to the hypothesis of a rotating bar structure in the center of this galaxy.", "With improved radio telescopes, hydrogen gas could also be traced in other galaxies.In the 1970s, Vera Rubin uncovered a discrepancy between observed galactic rotation speed and that predicted by the visible mass of stars and gas.", "Today, the galaxy rotation problem is thought to be explained by the presence of large quantities of unseen dark matter.Beginning in the 1990s, the Hubble Space Telescope yielded improved observations.", "Among other things, its data helped establish that the missing dark matter in this galaxy could not consist solely of inherently faint and small stars.", "The Hubble Deep Field, an extremely long exposure of a relatively empty part of the sky, provided evidence that there are about 125 billion () galaxies in the observable universe.", "Improved technology in detecting the spectra invisible to humans (radio telescopes, infrared cameras, and x-ray telescopes) allows detection of other galaxies that are not detected by Hubble.", "Particularly, surveys in the Zone of Avoidance (the region of sky blocked at visible-light wavelengths by the Milky Way) have revealed a number of new galaxies.A 2016 study published in ''The Astrophysical Journal,'' led by Christopher Conselice of the University of Nottingham, used 20 years of Hubble images to estimate that the observable universe contained at least two trillion () galaxies.", "However, later observations with the New Horizons space probe from outside the zodiacal light reduced this to roughly 200 billion ()." ], [ "Types and morphology", "Hubble classification scheme: an ''E'' indicates a type of elliptical galaxy; an ''S'' is a spiral; and ''SB'' is a barred spiral galaxy.Galaxies come in three main types: ellipticals, spirals, and irregulars.", "A slightly more extensive description of galaxy types based on their appearance is given by the Hubble sequence.", "Since the Hubble sequence is entirely based upon visual morphological type (shape), it may miss certain important characteristics of galaxies such as star formation rate in starburst galaxies and activity in the cores of active galaxies.Many galaxies are thought to contain a supermassive black hole at their center.", "This includes the Milky Way, whose core region is called the ''Galactic Center''.=== Ellipticals ===The Hubble classification system rates elliptical galaxies on the basis of their ellipticity, ranging from E0, being nearly spherical, up to E7, which is highly elongated.", "These galaxies have an ellipsoidal profile, giving them an elliptical appearance regardless of the viewing angle.", "Their appearance shows little structure and they typically have relatively little interstellar matter.", "Consequently, these galaxies also have a low portion of open clusters and a reduced rate of new star formation.", "Instead, they are dominated by generally older, more evolved stars that are orbiting the common center of gravity in random directions.", "The stars contain low abundances of heavy elements because star formation ceases after the initial burst.", "In this sense they have some similarity to the much smaller globular clusters.====Type-cD galaxies====The galaxy cluster Abell 1413 is dominated by this cD elliptical galaxy designated Abell 1413 BCG.", "It has an isophotal diameter of over 800,000 light-years across.", "Note the gravitational lensing.The largest galaxies are the type-cD galaxies.First described in 1964 by a paper by Thomas A. Matthews and others, they are a subtype of the more general class of D galaxies, which are giant elliptical galaxies, except that they are much larger.", "They are popularly known as the '''supergiant elliptical galaxies''' and constitute the largest and most luminous galaxies known.", "These galaxies feature a central elliptical nucleus with an extensive, faint halo of stars extending to megaparsec scales.", "The profile of their surface brightnesses as a function of their radius (or distance from their cores) falls off more slowly than their smaller counterparts.The formation of these cD galaxies remains an active area of research, but the leading model is that they are the result of the mergers of smaller galaxies in the environments of dense clusters, or even those outside of clusters with random overdensities.", "These processes are the mechanisms that drive the formation of fossil groups or fossil clusters, where a large, relatively isolated, supergiant elliptical resides in the middle of the cluster and are surrounded by an extensive cloud of X-rays as the residue of these galactic collisions.", "Another older model posits the phenomenon of cooling flow, where the heated gases in clusters collapses towards their centers as they cool, forming stars in the process, a phenomenon observed in clusters such as Perseus, and more recently in the Phoenix Cluster.==== Shell galaxy ====NGC 3923 Elliptical Shell Galaxy (Hubble photograph)A shell galaxy is a type of elliptical galaxy where the stars in its halo are arranged in concentric shells.", "About one-tenth of elliptical galaxies have a shell-like structure, which has never been observed in spiral galaxies.", "These structures are thought to develop when a larger galaxy absorbs a smaller companion galaxy—that as the two galaxy centers approach, they start to oscillate around a center point, and the oscillation creates gravitational ripples forming the shells of stars, similar to ripples spreading on water.", "For example, galaxy NGC 3923 has over 20 shells.=== Spirals ===The Pinwheel Galaxy, NGC 5457Spiral galaxies resemble spiraling pinwheels.", "Though the stars and other visible material contained in such a galaxy lie mostly on a plane, the majority of mass in spiral galaxies exists in a roughly spherical halo of dark matter which extends beyond the visible component, as demonstrated by the universal rotation curve concept.Spiral galaxies consist of a rotating disk of stars and interstellar medium, along with a central bulge of generally older stars.", "Extending outward from the bulge are relatively bright arms.", "In the Hubble classification scheme, spiral galaxies are listed as type ''S'', followed by a letter (''a'', ''b'', or ''c'') which indicates the degree of tightness of the spiral arms and the size of the central bulge.", "An ''Sa'' galaxy has tightly wound, poorly defined arms and possesses a relatively large core region.", "At the other extreme, an ''Sc'' galaxy has open, well-defined arms and a small core region.", "A galaxy with poorly defined arms is sometimes referred to as a flocculent spiral galaxy; in contrast to the grand design spiral galaxy that has prominent and well-defined spiral arms.", "The speed in which a galaxy rotates is thought to correlate with the flatness of the disc as some spiral galaxies have thick bulges, while others are thin and dense.NGC 1300, an example of a barred spiral galaxyIn spiral galaxies, the spiral arms do have the shape of approximate logarithmic spirals, a pattern that can be theoretically shown to result from a disturbance in a uniformly rotating mass of stars.", "Like the stars, the spiral arms rotate around the center, but they do so with constant angular velocity.", "The spiral arms are thought to be areas of high-density matter, or \"density waves\".", "As stars move through an arm, the space velocity of each stellar system is modified by the gravitational force of the higher density.", "(The velocity returns to normal after the stars depart on the other side of the arm.)", "This effect is akin to a \"wave\" of slowdowns moving along a highway full of moving cars.", "The arms are visible because the high density facilitates star formation, and therefore they harbor many bright and young stars.Hoag's Object, an example of a ring galaxy==== Barred spiral galaxy ====A majority of spiral galaxies, including the Milky Way galaxy, have a linear, bar-shaped band of stars that extends outward to either side of the core, then merges into the spiral arm structure.", "In the Hubble classification scheme, these are designated by an ''SB'', followed by a lower-case letter (''a'', ''b'' or ''c'') which indicates the form of the spiral arms (in the same manner as the categorization of normal spiral galaxies).", "Bars are thought to be temporary structures that can occur as a result of a density wave radiating outward from the core, or else due to a tidal interaction with another galaxy.", "Many barred spiral galaxies are active, possibly as a result of gas being channeled into the core along the arms.Our own galaxy, the Milky Way, is a large disk-shaped barred-spiral galaxy about 30 kiloparsecs in diameter and a kiloparsec thick.", "It contains about two hundred billion (2×1011) stars and has a total mass of about six hundred billion (6×1011) times the mass of the Sun.==== Super-luminous spiral ====Recently, researchers described galaxies called super-luminous spirals.", "They are very large with an upward diameter of 437,000 light-years (compared to the Milky Way's 87,400 light-year diameter).", "With a mass of 340 billion solar masses, they generate a significant amount of ultraviolet and mid-infrared light.", "They are thought to have an increased star formation rate around 30 times faster than the Milky Way.=== Other morphologies ===* Peculiar galaxies are galactic formations that develop unusual properties due to tidal interactions with other galaxies.", "** A ring galaxy has a ring-like structure of stars and interstellar medium surrounding a bare core.", "A ring galaxy is thought to occur when a smaller galaxy passes through the core of a spiral galaxy.", "Such an event may have affected the Andromeda Galaxy, as it displays a multi-ring-like structure when viewed in infrared radiation.", "* A lenticular galaxy is an intermediate form that has properties of both elliptical and spiral galaxies.", "These are categorized as Hubble type S0, and they possess ill-defined spiral arms with an elliptical halo of stars (barred lenticular galaxies receive Hubble classification SB0).", "* Irregular galaxies are galaxies that can not be readily classified into an elliptical or spiral morphology.", "** An Irr-I galaxy has some structure but does not align cleanly with the Hubble classification scheme.", "** Irr-II galaxies do not possess any structure that resembles a Hubble classification, and may have been disrupted.", "Nearby examples of (dwarf) irregular galaxies include the Magellanic Clouds.", "* A dark or \"ultra diffuse\" galaxy is an extremely-low-luminosity galaxy.", "It may be the same size as the Milky Way, but have a visible star count only one percent of the Milky Way's.", "Multiple mechanisms for producing this type of galaxy have been proposed, and it is possible that different dark galaxies formed by different means.", "One candidate explanation for the low luminosity is that the galaxy lost its star-forming gas at an early stage, resulting in old stellar populations.=== Dwarfs ===Despite the prominence of large elliptical and spiral galaxies, most galaxies are dwarf galaxies.", "They are relatively small when compared with other galactic formations, being about one hundredth the size of the Milky Way, with only a few billion stars.", "Ultra-compact dwarf galaxies have recently been discovered that are only 100 parsecs across.Many dwarf galaxies may orbit a single larger galaxy; the Milky Way has at least a dozen such satellites, with an estimated 300–500 yet to be discovered.", "Dwarf galaxies may also be classified as elliptical, spiral, or irregular.", "Since small dwarf ellipticals bear little resemblance to large ellipticals, they are often called dwarf spheroidal galaxies instead.A study of 27 Milky Way neighbors found that in all dwarf galaxies, the central mass is approximately 10 million solar masses, regardless of whether it has thousands or millions of stars.", "This suggests that galaxies are largely formed by dark matter, and that the minimum size may indicate a form of warm dark matter incapable of gravitational coalescence on a smaller scale." ], [ "Variants", "=== Interacting ===The Antennae Galaxies are undergoing a collision that will result in their eventual merger.Interactions between galaxies are relatively frequent, and they can play an important role in galactic evolution.", "Near misses between galaxies result in warping distortions due to tidal interactions, and may cause some exchange of gas and dust.Collisions occur when two galaxies pass directly through each other and have sufficient relative momentum not to merge.", "The stars of interacting galaxies usually do not collide, but the gas and dust within the two forms interacts, sometimes triggering star formation.", "A collision can severely distort the galaxies' shapes, forming bars, rings or tail-like structures.At the extreme of interactions are galactic mergers, where the galaxies' relative momentums are insufficient to allow them to pass through each other.", "Instead, they gradually merge to form a single, larger galaxy.", "Mergers can result in significant changes to the galaxies' original morphology.", "If one of the galaxies is much more massive than the other, the result is known as cannibalism, where the more massive larger galaxy remains relatively undisturbed, and the smaller one is torn apart.", "The Milky Way galaxy is currently in the process of cannibalizing the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy and the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy.=== Starburst ===M82, a starburst galaxy that has ten times the star formation of a \"normal\" galaxyStars are created within galaxies from a reserve of cold gas that forms giant molecular clouds.", "Some galaxies have been observed to form stars at an exceptional rate, which is known as a ''starburst''.", "If they continue to do so, they would consume their reserve of gas in a time span less than the galaxy's lifespan.", "Hence starburst activity usually lasts only about ten million years, a relatively brief period in a galaxy's history.", "Starburst galaxies were more common during the universe's early history, but still contribute an estimated 15% to total star production.Starburst galaxies are characterized by dusty concentrations of gas and the appearance of newly formed stars, including massive stars that ionize the surrounding clouds to create H II regions.", "These stars produce supernova explosions, creating expanding remnants that interact powerfully with the surrounding gas.", "These outbursts trigger a chain reaction of star-building that spreads throughout the gaseous region.", "Only when the available gas is nearly consumed or dispersed does the activity end.Starbursts are often associated with merging or interacting galaxies.", "The prototype example of such a starburst-forming interaction is M82, which experienced a close encounter with the larger M81.Irregular galaxies often exhibit spaced knots of starburst activity.=== Radio galaxy ===Hercules A, supergiant elliptical radio galaxyA radio galaxy is a galaxy with giant regions of radio emission extending well beyond its visible structure.", "These energetic radio lobes are powered by jets from its active galactic nucleus.", "Radio galaxies are classified according to their Fanaroff–Riley classification.", "The '''FR I''' class have lower radio luminosity and exhibit structures which are more elongated; the '''FR II''' class are higher radio luminosity.", "The correlation of radio luminosity and structure suggests that the sources in these two types of galaxies may differ.Radio galaxies can also be classified as giant radio galaxies (GRGs), whose radio emissions can extend to scales of megaparsecs (3.26 million light-years).", "Alcyoneus is an FR II class low-excitation radio galaxy which has the largest observed radio emission, with lobed structures spanning 5 megaparsecs (16×106 ly).", "For comparison, another similarly sized giant radio galaxy is 3C 236, with lobes 15 million light-years across.", "It should however be noted that radio emissions are ''not'' always considered part of the main galaxy itself, and is usually not used as a standard in measuring the physical diameter of a galaxy.", "For insight on how physical diameters of galaxies are measured, see section ''Physical diameters'' below.A giant radio galaxy is a special class of objects characterized by the presence of radio lobes generated by relativistic jets powered by the central galaxy's supermassive black hole.", "Giant radio galaxies are different from ordinary radio galaxies in that they can extend to much larger scales, reaching upwards to several megaparsecs across, far larger than the diameters of their host galaxies.=== Active galaxy ===M87.Some observable galaxies are classified as \"active\" if they contain an active galactic nucleus (AGN).", "A significant portion of the galaxy's total energy output is emitted by the active nucleus instead of its stars, dust and interstellar medium.", "There are multiple classification and naming schemes for AGNs, but those in the lower ranges of luminosity are called Seyfert galaxies, while those with luminosities much greater than that of the host galaxy are known as quasi-stellar objects or quasars.", "AGNs emit radiation throughout the electromagnetic spectrum from radio wavelengths to X-rays, though some of it may be absorbed by dust or gas associated with the AGN itself or with the host galaxy.The standard model for an active galactic nucleus is based on an accretion disc that forms around a supermassive black hole (SMBH) at the galaxy's core region.", "The radiation from an active galactic nucleus results from the gravitational energy of matter as it falls toward the black hole from the disc.", "The AGN's luminosity depends on the SMBH's mass and the rate at which matter falls onto it.In about 10% of these galaxies, a diametrically opposed pair of energetic jets ejects particles from the galaxy core at velocities close to the speed of light.", "The mechanism for producing these jets is not well understood.==== Blazars ====Blazars are believed to be active galaxies with a relativistic jet pointed in the direction of Earth.", "A radio galaxy emits radio frequencies from relativistic jets.", "A unified model of these types of active galaxies explains their differences based on the observer's position.==== LINERs ====Possibly related to active galactic nuclei (as well as starburst regions) are low-ionization nuclear emission-line regions (LINERs).", "The emission from LINER-type galaxies is dominated by weakly ionized elements.", "The excitation sources for the weakly ionized lines include post-AGB stars, AGN, and shocks.", "Approximately one-third of nearby galaxies are classified as containing LINER nuclei.==== Seyfert galaxy ====Seyfert galaxies are one of the two largest groups of active galaxies, along with quasars.", "They have quasar-like nuclei (very luminous, distant and bright sources of electromagnetic radiation) with very high surface brightnesses; but unlike quasars, their host galaxies are clearly detectable.", "Seen through a telescope, a Seyfert galaxy appears like an ordinary galaxy with a bright star superimposed atop the core.", "Seyfert galaxies are divided into two principal subtypes based on the frequencies observed in their spectra.==== Quasar ====Quasars are the most energetic and distant members of active galactic nuclei.", "Extremely luminous, they were first identified as high redshift sources of electromagnetic energy, including radio waves and visible light, that appeared more similar to stars than to extended sources similar to galaxies.", "Their luminosity can be 100 times that of the Milky Way.", "The nearest known quasar, Markarian 231, is about 581 million light-years from Earth, while others have been discovered as far away as UHZ1, roughly 13.2 billion light-years distant.", "Quasars are noteworthy for providing the first demonstration of the phenomenon that gravity can act as a lens for light.=== Luminous infrared galaxy ===Luminous infrared galaxies (LIRGs) are galaxies with luminosities—the measurement of electromagnetic power output—above 1011 L☉ (solar luminosities).", "In most cases, most of their energy comes from large numbers of young stars which heat surrounding dust, which reradiates the energy in the infrared.", "Luminosity high enough to be a LIRG requires a star formation rate of at least 18 M☉ yr−1.Ultra-luminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs) are at least ten times more luminous still and form stars at rates >180 M☉ yr−1.Many LIRGs also emit radiation from an AGN.", "Infrared galaxies emit more energy in the infrared than all other wavelengths combined, with peak emission typically at wavelengths of 60 to 100 microns.", "LIRGs are believed to be created from the strong interaction and merger of molecular-gas-rich spiral galaxies.", "While uncommon in the local universe, LIRGs and ULIRGS were more prevalent when the universe was younger." ], [ "Physical diameters", "Galaxies do not have a definite boundary by their nature, and are characterized by a gradually decreasing stellar density as a function of increasing distance from their center, making measurements of their true extents difficult.", "Nevertheless, astronomers over the past few decades have made several criteria in defining the sizes of galaxies.", "As early as the time of Edwin Hubble in 1936, there have been attempts to characterize the diameters of galaxies.", "With the advent of large sky surveys in the second half of the 20th century, the need for a standard for accurate determination of galaxy sizes has been in greater demand due to its enormous implications in astrophysics, such as the accurate determination of the Hubble constant.", "Various standards have been adapted over the decades, some more preferred than others.", "Below are some of these examples.===Isophotal diameter===The ''isophotal diameter'' is introduced as a conventional way of measuring a galaxy's size based on its apparent surface brightness.", "Isophotes are curves in a diagram - such as a picture of a galaxy - that adjoins points of equal brightnesses, and are useful in defining the extent of the galaxy.", "The apparent brightness flux of a galaxy is measured in units of magnitudes per square arcsecond (mag/arcsec2; sometimes expressed as ''mag arcsec−2''), which defines the brightness depth of the isophote.", "To illustrate how this unit works, a typical galaxy has a brightness flux of 18 mag/arcsec2 at its central region.", "This brightness is equivalent to the light of an 18th magnitude hypothetical point object (like a star) being spread out evenly in a one square arcsecond area of the sky.", "For the purposes of objectivity, the spectrum of light being used is sometimes also given in figures.", "As an example, the Milky Way has an average surface brightness of 22.1 B-mag/arcsec−2, where ''B-mag'' refers to the brightness at the B-band (445 nm wavelength of light, in the blue part of the visible spectrum).Roderick Oliver Redman in 1936 suggested that the diameters of galaxies (then referred to as \"elliptical nebulae\") should be defined at the 25.0 mag/arcsec2 isophote at the B-band, which is expected to cover much of the galaxy's light profile.", "This isophote then became known simply as D25 (short for \"diameter 25\"), and corresponds to at least 10% of the normal brightness of the night sky, which is very near the limitations of blue filters at that time.", "This method was particularly used during the creation of the Uppsala General Catalogue using blue filters from the Palomar Observatory Sky Survey in 1972.This conventional standard, however, is not universally agreed upon.", "Erik Holmberg in 1958 measured the diameters of at least 300 galaxies at the isophote of about 26.5 mag/arcsec2 (originally defined as where the photographic brightness density with respect to plate background is 0.5%).", "Various other surveys such that of the ESO in 1989 use isophotes as faint as 27.0 mag/arcsec2.Nevertheless, corrections of these diameters were introduced by both the Second and Third Reference Catalogue of Galaxies (RC2 and RC3), at least to those galaxies being covered by the two catalogues.", "'''Examples of isophotal diameter measurements:'''* Large Magellanic Cloud - at the 25.0 B-mag/arcsec2 isophote.", "* Milky Way - has a diameter at the 25.0 B-mag/arcsec2 isophote of .", "* Messier 87 - has a diameter at the 25.0 B-mag/arcsec2 isophote of .", "* Andromeda Galaxy - has a diameter at the 25.0 B-mag/arcsec2 isophote of .===Effective radius (half-light) and its variations===The half-light radius (also known as ''effective radius''; R''e'') is a measure that is based on the galaxy's overall brightness flux.", "This is the radius upon which half, or 50%, of the total brightness flux of the galaxy was emitted.", "This was first proposed by Gérard de Vaucouleurs in 1948.The choice of using 50% was arbitrary, but proved to be useful in further works by R. A.", "Fish in 1963, where he established a luminosity concentration law that relates the brightnesses of elliptical galaxies and their respective R''e'', and by J.L.", "Sérsic in 1968 that defined a mass-radius relation in galaxies.In defining R''e'', it is necessary that the overall brightness flux galaxy should be captured, with a method employed by Bershady in 2000 suggesting to measure twice the size where the brightness flux of an arbitrarily chosen radius, defined as the local flux, divided by the overall average flux equals to 0.2.Using half-light radius allows a rough estimate of a galaxy's size, but is not particularly helpful in determining its morphology.Variations of this method exist.", "In particular, in the ESO-Uppsala Catalogue of Galaxies values of 50%, 70%, and 90% of the total blue light (the light detected through a B-band specific filter) had been used to calculate a galaxy's diameter.=== Petrosian magnitude ===First described by V. Petrosian in 1976, a modified version of this method has been used by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS).", "This method employs a mathematical model on a galaxy whose radius is determined by the azimuthally (horizontal) averaged profile of its brightness flux.", "In particular, the SDSS employed the Petrosian magnitude in the R-band (658 nm, in the red part of the visible spectrum) to ensure that the brightness flux of a galaxy would be captured as much as possible while counteracting the effects of background noise.", "For a galaxy whose brightness profile is exponential, it is expected to capture all of its brightness flux, and 80% for galaxies that follow a profile that follows de Vaucouleurs's law.Petrosian magnitudes have the advantage that it is redshift and distance independent, allowing the measurement of the galaxy's apparent size since the Petrosian radius is defined in terms of the galaxy's overall luminous flux.A critique of an earlier version of this method has been issued by IPAC, with the method causing a magnitude of error (upwards to 10%) of the values than using isophotal diameter.", "The use of Petrosian magnitudes also have the disadvantage of missing most of the light outside the Petrosian aperture, which is defined relative to the galaxy's overall brightness profile, especially for elliptical galaxies, with higher signal-to-noise ratios on higher distances and redshifts.", "A correction for this method has been issued by Graham ''et al.''", "in 2005, based on the assumption that galaxies follow Sersic's law.===Near-infrared method===This method has been used by 2MASS as an adaptation from the previously used methods of isophotal measurement.", "Since 2MASS operates in the near infrared, which has the advantage of being able to recognize dimmer, cooler, and older stars, it has a different form of approach compared to other methods that normally use B-filter.", "The detail of the method used by 2MASS has been described thoroughly in a document by Jarrett ''et al.", "'', with the survey measuring several parameters.The standard aperture ellipse (area of detection) is defined by the infrared isophote at the Ks band (roughly 2.2 μm wavelength) of 20 mag/arcsec2.Gathering the overall luminous flux of the galaxy has been employed by at least four methods: the first being a circular aperture extending 7 arcseconds from the center, an isophote at 20 mag/arcsec2, a \"total\" aperture defined by the radial light distribution that covers the supposed extent of the galaxy, and the Kron aperture (defined as 2.5 times the first-moment radius, an integration of the flux of the \"total\" aperture)." ], [ "Magnetic fields", "Galaxies have magnetic fields of their own.", "A galaxy's magnetic field influences its dynamics in multiple ways, including affecting the formation of spiral arms and transporting angular momentum in gas clouds.", "The latter effect is particularly important, as it is a necessary factor for the gravitational collapse of those clouds, and thus for star formation.The typical average equipartition strength for spiral galaxies is about 10 μG (microgauss) or 1nT (nanotesla).", "By comparison, the Earth's magnetic field has an average strength of about 0.3 G (Gauss) or 30 μT (microtesla).", "Radio-faint galaxies like M 31 and M33, the Milky Way's neighbors, have weaker fields (about 5μG), while gas-rich galaxies with high star-formation rates, like M 51, M 83 and NGC 6946, have 15 μG on average.", "In prominent spiral arms, the field strength can be up to 25 μG, in regions where cold gas and dust are also concentrated.", "The strongest total equipartition fields (50–100 μG) were found in starburst galaxies—for example, in M 82 and the Antennae; and in nuclear starburst regions, such as the centers of NGC 1097 and other barred galaxies." ], [ "Formation and evolution", "Galactic formation and evolution is an active area of research in astrophysics.=== Formation ===Artist's impression of a protocluster forming in the early universeCurrent models of the formation of galaxies in the early universe are based on the ΛCDM model.", "About 300,000 years after the big bang, atoms of hydrogen and helium began to form, in an event called recombination.", "Nearly all the hydrogen was neutral (non-ionized) and readily absorbed light, and no stars had yet formed.", "As a result, this period has been called the \"dark ages\".", "It was from density fluctuations (or anisotropic irregularities) in this primordial matter that larger structures began to appear.", "As a result, masses of baryonic matter started to condense within cold dark matter halos.", "These primordial structures eventually became the galaxies we see today.Artist's impression of a young galaxy accreting material==== Early galaxy formation ====Evidence for the appearance of galaxies very early in the Universe's history was found in 2006, when it was discovered that the galaxy IOK-1 has an unusually high redshift of 6.96, corresponding to just 750 million years after the Big Bang and making it the most distant and earliest-to-form galaxy seen at that time.While some scientists have claimed other objects (such as Abell 1835 IR1916) have higher redshifts (and therefore are seen in an earlier stage of the universe's evolution), IOK-1's age and composition have been more reliably established.", "In December 2012, astronomers reported that UDFj-39546284 is the most distant object known and has a redshift value of 11.9.The object, estimated to have existed around 380 million years after the Big Bang (which was about 13.8 billion years ago), is about 13.42 billion light travel distance years away.", "The existence of galaxies so soon after the Big Bang suggests that protogalaxies must have grown in the so-called \"dark ages\".", "As of May 5, 2015, the galaxy EGS-zs8-1 is the most distant and earliest galaxy measured, forming 670 million years after the Big Bang.", "The light from EGS-zs8-1 has taken 13 billion years to reach Earth, and is now 30 billion light-years away, because of the expansion of the universe during 13 billion years.", "On 17 August 2022, NASA released a large mosaic image of 690 individual frames taken by the Near Infrared Camera (NIRCam) on the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) of numerous very early galaxies.In May 2023, a study in the journal ''Nature'' identified an ultra-faint galaxy named JD1.Galaxy JD1 was observed by the JWST using the near-infrared spectrograph instrument NIRSpec and was found to have a distance value of redshift z=9.79.This means that JD1 was observed at 480 million years after the Big Bang when the universe was only about 4% of its present age.", "Observations of this ultra-faint galaxy were aided by the effect of a gravitational lens in the galaxy cluster Abell 2744 which helped make the image of JD1 larger and 13 times brighter than it otherwise would be.", "This effect and the use of the JWST's NIRCam showed JD1's structure to be three starforming clumps of dust and gas.Different components of near-infrared background light detected by the Hubble Space Telescope in deep-sky surveysThe detailed process by which the earliest galaxies formed is an open question in astrophysics.", "Theories can be divided into two categories: top-down and bottom-up.", "In top-down correlations (such as the Eggen–Lynden-Bell–Sandage ELS model), protogalaxies form in a large-scale simultaneous collapse lasting about one hundred million years.", "In bottom-up theories (such as the Searle-Zinn SZ model), small structures such as globular clusters form first, and then a number of such bodies accrete to form a larger galaxy.Once protogalaxies began to form and contract, the first halo stars (called Population III stars) appeared within them.", "These were composed almost entirely of hydrogen and helium and may have been more massive than 100 times the Sun's mass.", "If so, these huge stars would have quickly consumed their supply of fuel and became supernovae, releasing heavy elements into the interstellar medium.", "This first generation of stars re-ionized the surrounding neutral hydrogen, creating expanding bubbles of space through which light could readily travel.In June 2015, astronomers reported evidence for Population III stars in the Cosmos Redshift 7 galaxy at .", "Such stars are likely to have existed in the very early universe (i.e., at high redshift), and may have started the production of chemical elements heavier than hydrogen that are needed for the later formation of planets and life as we know it.In late 2023, scientists reported results suggesting that newborn galaxies in the very early universe were \"banana\"-shaped, much to the surprise of researchers.=== Evolution ===Within a billion years of a galaxy's formation, key structures begin to appear.", "Globular clusters, the central supermassive black hole, and a galactic bulge of metal-poor Population II stars form.", "The creation of a supermassive black hole appears to play a key role in actively regulating the growth of galaxies by limiting the total amount of additional matter added.", "During this early epoch, galaxies undergo a major burst of star formation.During the following two billion years, the accumulated matter settles into a galactic disc.", "A galaxy will continue to absorb infalling material from high-velocity clouds and dwarf galaxies throughout its life.", "This matter is mostly hydrogen and helium.", "The cycle of stellar birth and death slowly increases the abundance of heavy elements, eventually allowing the formation of planets.The evolution of galaxies can be significantly affected by interactions and collisions.", "Mergers of galaxies were common during the early epoch, and the majority of galaxies were peculiar in morphology.", "Given the distances between the stars, the great majority of stellar systems in colliding galaxies will be unaffected.", "However, gravitational stripping of the interstellar gas and dust that makes up the spiral arms produces a long train of stars known as tidal tails.", "Examples of these formations can be seen in NGC 4676 or the Antennae Galaxies.The Milky Way galaxy and the nearby Andromeda Galaxy are moving toward each other at about 130 km/s, and—depending upon the lateral movements—the two might collide in about five to six billion years.", "Although the Milky Way has never collided with a galaxy as large as Andromeda before, it has collided and merged with other galaxies in the past.", "Cosmological simulations indicate that, 11 billion years ago, it merged with a particularly large galaxy that has been labeled the Kraken.Such large-scale interactions are rare.", "As time passes, mergers of two systems of equal size become less common.", "Most bright galaxies have remained fundamentally unchanged for the last few billion years, and the net rate of star formation probably also peaked about ten billion years ago.=== Future trends ===Spiral galaxies, like the Milky Way, produce new generations of stars as long as they have dense molecular clouds of interstellar hydrogen in their spiral arms.", "Elliptical galaxies are largely devoid of this gas, and so form few new stars.", "The supply of star-forming material is finite; once stars have converted the available supply of hydrogen into heavier elements, new star formation will come to an end.The current era of star formation is expected to continue for up to one hundred billion years, and then the \"stellar age\" will wind down after about ten trillion to one hundred trillion years (1013–1014 years), as the smallest, longest-lived stars in the visible universe, tiny red dwarfs, begin to fade.", "At the end of the stellar age, galaxies will be composed of compact objects: brown dwarfs, white dwarfs that are cooling or cold (\"black dwarfs\"), neutron stars, and black holes.", "Eventually, as a result of gravitational relaxation, all stars will either fall into central supermassive black holes or be flung into intergalactic space as a result of collisions." ], [ "Larger-scale structures", "Deep-sky surveys show that galaxies are often found in groups and clusters.", "Solitary galaxies that have not significantly interacted with other galaxies of comparable mass in the past billion years are relatively scarce.", "Only about 5% of the galaxies surveyed are truly isolated; however, they may have interacted and even merged with other galaxies in the past, and may still be orbited by smaller satellite galaxies.", "Isolated galaxies can produce stars at a higher rate than normal, as their gas is not being stripped by other nearby galaxies.On the largest scale, the universe is continually expanding, resulting in an average increase in the separation between individual galaxies (see Hubble's law).", "Associations of galaxies can overcome this expansion on a local scale through their mutual gravitational attraction.", "These associations formed early, as clumps of dark matter pulled their respective galaxies together.", "Nearby groups later merged to form larger-scale clusters.", "This ongoing merging process (as well as an influx of infalling gas) heats the intergalactic gas in a cluster to very high temperatures of 30–100 megakelvins.", "About 70–80% of a cluster's mass is in the form of dark matter, with 10–30% consisting of this heated gas and the remaining few percent in the form of galaxies.Most galaxies are gravitationally bound to a number of other galaxies.", "These form a fractal-like hierarchical distribution of clustered structures, with the smallest such associations being termed groups.", "A group of galaxies is the most common type of galactic cluster; these formations contain the majority of galaxies (as well as most of the baryonic mass) in the universe.", "To remain gravitationally bound to such a group, each member galaxy must have a sufficiently low velocity to prevent it from escaping (see Virial theorem).", "If there is insufficient kinetic energy, however, the group may evolve into a smaller number of galaxies through mergers.Clusters of galaxies consist of hundreds to thousands of galaxies bound together by gravity.", "Clusters of galaxies are often dominated by a single giant elliptical galaxy, known as the brightest cluster galaxy, which, over time, tidally destroys its satellite galaxies and adds their mass to its own.Southern plane of the Milky Way from submillimeter wavelengthsSuperclusters contain tens of thousands of galaxies, which are found in clusters, groups and sometimes individually.", "At the supercluster scale, galaxies are arranged into sheets and filaments surrounding vast empty voids.", "Above this scale, the universe appears to be the same in all directions (isotropic and homogeneous), though this notion has been challenged in recent years by numerous findings of large-scale structures that appear to be exceeding this scale.", "The Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, currently the largest structure in the universe found so far, is 10 billion light-years (three gigaparsecs) in length.The Milky Way galaxy is a member of an association named the Local Group, a relatively small group of galaxies that has a diameter of approximately one megaparsec.", "The Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are the two brightest galaxies within the group; many of the other member galaxies are dwarf companions of these two.", "The Local Group itself is a part of a cloud-like structure within the Virgo Supercluster, a large, extended structure of groups and clusters of galaxies centered on the Virgo Cluster.", "And the Virgo Supercluster itself is a part of the Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex, a giant galaxy filament." ], [ "Multi-wavelength observation", "The peak radiation of most stars lies in the visible spectrum, so the observation of the stars that form galaxies has been a major component of optical astronomy.", "It is also a favorable portion of the spectrum for observing ionized H II regions, and for examining the distribution of dusty arms.The dust present in the interstellar medium is opaque to visual light.", "It is more transparent to far-infrared, which can be used to observe the interior regions of giant molecular clouds and galactic cores in great detail.", "Infrared is also used to observe distant, red-shifted galaxies that were formed much earlier.", "Water vapor and carbon dioxide absorb a number of useful portions of the infrared spectrum, so high-altitude or space-based telescopes are used for infrared astronomy.The first non-visual study of galaxies, particularly active galaxies, was made using radio frequencies.", "The Earth's atmosphere is nearly transparent to radio between 5 MHz and 30 GHz.", "(The ionosphere blocks signals below this range.)", "Large radio interferometers have been used to map the active jets emitted from active nuclei.", "Radio telescopes can also be used to observe neutral hydrogen (via 21 cm radiation), including, potentially, the non-ionized matter in the early universe that later collapsed to form galaxies.Ultraviolet and X-ray telescopes can observe highly energetic galactic phenomena.", "Ultraviolet flares are sometimes observed when a star in a distant galaxy is torn apart from the tidal forces of a nearby black hole.", "The distribution of hot gas in galactic clusters can be mapped by X-rays.", "The existence of supermassive black holes at the cores of galaxies was confirmed through X-ray astronomy." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Hubble-Space-Telescope-Galaxy-Collection.jpg|Galaxies (left/top, right/bottom): File:PHANGS image mosaic.jpg|19 face-on spiral galaxies from the James Webb Space Telescope in near- and mid-infrared light.", "Older stars appear blue here, and are clustered at the galaxies’ cores.", "Glowing dust, showing where it exists around and between stars – appearing in shades of red and orange.", "Stars that haven't yet fully formed and are encased in gas and dust appear bright red." ], [ "See also", "* Bright early galaxies* Dark galaxy* Galactic orientation* Galaxy formation and evolution* Illustris project* List of galaxies* List of nearest galaxies* List of largest galaxies* Low surface brightness galaxy* Outline of galaxies* Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure* UniverseMachine" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) ( NED-Distances)* * An Atlas of The Universe* Galaxies – Information and amateur observations* Galaxy classification project, harnessing the power of the internet and the human brain* How many galaxies are in our universe?", "* 3-D Video (01:46) – Over a Million Galaxies of Billions of Stars each – BerkeleyLab/animated." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gene Hackman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eugene Allen Hackman''' (born January 30, 1930) is an American retired actor.", "In a career that spanned more than six decades, he received two Academy Awards, two BAFTA Awards, four Golden Globes, a Screen Actors Guild Award, and the Silver Bear.", "Hackman's two Academy Award wins included one for Best Actor for his role as Jimmy \"Popeye\" Doyle in William Friedkin's acclaimed thriller ''The French Connection'' (1971) and the other for Best Supporting Actor for his role as \"Little\" Bill Daggett in Clint Eastwood's Western film ''Unforgiven'' (1992).", "His other Oscar-nominated roles were in ''Bonnie and Clyde'' (1967), ''I Never Sang for My Father'' (1970), and ''Mississippi Burning'' (1988).Hackman gained further fame for his portrayal as Lex Luthor in ''Superman'' (1978) and its sequels ''Superman II'' (1980) and ''Superman IV: The Quest for Peace'' (1987).", "He also acted in ''The Poseidon Adventure'' (1972), ''The Conversation'' (1974), ''Reds'' (1981), ''Hoosiers'' (1986), ''No Way Out'' (1987), ''Get Shorty'' (1995), ''Crimson Tide'' (1995), ''The Birdcage'' (1996), ''Absolute Power'' (1997), and ''The Royal Tenenbaums'' (2001)." ], [ "Early life and education", "Eugene Allen Hackman was born in San Bernardino, California, the son of Eugene Ezra Hackman and Anna Lyda Elizabeth (née Gray).", "He has one brother, Richard.", "He has Pennsylvania Dutch, English, and Scottish ancestry; his mother was Canadian, and was born in Sarnia, Ontario.", "His family moved frequently, finally settling in Danville, Illinois, where they lived in the house of his English-born maternal grandmother, Beatrice.", "Hackman's father operated the printing press for the ''Commercial-News'', a local paper.", "His parents divorced when he was 13 and his father subsequently left the family.", "Hackman decided that he wanted to become an actor when he was ten years old.Hackman lived briefly in Storm Lake, Iowa, and spent his sophomore year at Storm Lake High School.", "He left home at age 16 and lied about his age to enlist in the United States Marine Corps.", "He served four and a half years as a field radio operator.", "He was stationed in China (Qingdao and later in Shanghai).", "When the Communist Revolution conquered the mainland in 1949, Hackman was assigned to Hawaii and Japan.", "Following his discharge in 1951, he moved to New York City and had several jobs.", "His mother died in 1962 as a result of a fire she accidentally started while smoking.", "He began a study of journalism and television production at the University of Illinois under the G.I.", "Bill, but left and moved back to California." ], [ "Career", "Hackman in the U.S. Marine Corps===Beginnings to the 1960s===In 1956, Hackman began pursuing an acting career.", "He joined the Pasadena Playhouse in California, where he befriended another aspiring actor, Dustin Hoffman.", "Already seen as outsiders by their classmates, Hackman and Hoffman were voted \"The Least Likely To Succeed\", and Hackman got the lowest score the Pasadena Playhouse had yet given.", "Determined to prove them wrong, Hackman moved to New York City.", "A 2004 article in ''Vanity Fair'' described Hackman, Hoffman, and Robert Duvall as struggling California-born actors and close friends, sharing NYC apartments in various two-person combinations in the 1960s.", "To support himself between acting jobs, Hackman was working at a Howard Johnson's restaurant when he encountered an instructor from the Pasadena Playhouse, who said that his job proved that Hackman \"wouldn't amount to anything\".", "A Marine officer who saw him as a doorman said \"Hackman, you're a sorry son of a bitch\".", "Rejection motivated Hackman, who said,Hackman got various bit roles, for example in the film ''Mad Dog Coll'' and on the TV series ''Tallahassee 7000'', ''The United States Steel Hour'', ''Route 66'', ''Naked City'', ''The Defenders'', ''The Dupont Show of the Week'', ''East Side/West Side'', and ''Brenner''.Hackman began performing in several Off-Broadway plays, starting with ''The Saintliness of Margery Kempe'' in 1959 and including ''Come to the Palace of Sin'' in 1963.In 1963 he made his Broadway debut in ''Children From Their Games'' which only had a short run as did ''A Rainy Day in Newark''.", "However ''Any Wednesday'' with actress Sandy Dennis was a huge Broadway success in 1964.This opened the door to film work.", "His first credited role was in ''Lilith'', with Jean Seberg and Warren Beatty in the leading roles.Hackman returned to Broadway in ''Poor Richard'' (1964–65) by Jean Kerr, which ran for over a hundred performances.", "He continued to do television - ''The Trials of O'Brien'', ''Hawk'', ''The F.B.I.''", "- and had a small part as Dr. John Whipple in the epic film ''Hawaii.''", "He had small roles in features like ''First to Fight'' (1967), ''A Covenant with Death'' (1967) and ''Banning'' (1967).Hackman was originally cast as Mr. Robinson in the 1967 Mike Nichols film ''The Graduate'', but Nichols fired him three weeks into rehearsal for being \"too young\" for the role; he was replaced by Murray Hamilton.In 1967 he appeared in an episode of the television series ''The Invaders'' entitled \"The Spores\".====''Bonnie and Clyde''====Another supporting role, Buck Barrow in 1967's ''Bonnie and Clyde'', earned him an Academy Award nomination as Best Supporting Actor.A return to Broadway, ''The Natural Look'' (1967) only ran for one performance.", "He did ''Fragments and The Basement'' Off Broadway the same year.Hackman was in episodes of ''Iron Horse'' (\"Leopards Try, But Leopards Can't\") and ''Insight'' (\"Confrontation\"), In 1968, he appeared in an episode of ''I Spy'', in the role of \"Hunter\", in the episode \"Happy Birthday... Everybody\".", "That same year he starred in the ''CBS Playhouse'' episode \"My Father and My Mother\" and the dystopian television film ''Shadow on the Land''.In 1969 he played a ski coach in ''Downhill Racer'' and an astronaut in ''Marooned''.", "Also that year, he played a member of a barnstorming skydiving team that entertained mostly at county fairs, a film which also inspired many to pursue skydiving and has a cult-like status amongst skydivers as a result: ''The Gypsy Moths''.", "Hackman supported Jim Brown in two films, ''The Split'' (1968) and ''Riot'' (1969),Hackman nearly accepted the role of Mike Brady for the TV series ''The Brady Bunch'', but his agent advised that he decline it in exchange for a more promising role, which he did.===1970s and stardom===Hackman in 1972Hackman was nominated for a second Best Supporting Actor Academy Award for his role in ''I Never Sang for My Father'' (1970).", "He starred in ''Doctors' Wives'' (1971), ''The Hunting Party'' (1971) then won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance as New York City Detective Jimmy \"Popeye\" Doyle in ''The French Connection'' (1971), marking his graduation to stardom.After ''The French Connection'', Hackman starred in ten films (not including his cameo in ''Young Frankenstein'') over the next three years, making him the most prolific actor in Hollywood during that time frame.", "He followed ''The French Connection'' with leading roles in ''Cisco Pike'' (1972), and ''Prime Cut'' (1972) then was in the disaster film ''The Poseidon Adventure'' (1972) and Francis Ford Coppola's ''The Conversation'' (1974), which was nominated for several Oscars, and won the Palme d'Or in Cannes.", "That same year, Hackman appeared in what would become one of his most famous comedic roles, as Harold the Blind Man in ''Young Frankenstein''.", "Hackman also appeared in ''Scarecrow'' (1973) alongside Al Pacino, ''Zandy's Bride'' (1974) and ''Night Moves'' (1975) for director Arthur Penn.Hackman played one of Teddy Roosevelt's former Rough Riders in the Western horse-race saga ''Bite the Bullet'' (1975).", "He reprised his Oscar-winning role as Doyle in the sequel ''French Connection II'' (1975), and co-starred with Burt Reynolds and Liza Minnelli in ''Lucky Lady'' (1975), a notorious flop.", "After making ''The Domino Principle'' (1977) for Stanley Kramer, Hackman was part of an all-star cast in the war film ''A Bridge Too Far'' (1977), playing Polish General Stanisław Sosabowski, and was an officer in the French Foreign Legion in ''March or Die'' (1977.", ")Hackman showed a talent for both comedy and the \"slow burn\" as criminal mastermind Lex Luthor in ''Superman: The Movie'' (1978), a role he would reprise in its 1980 and 1987 sequels.===1980s===Hackman (right) with President Ronald Reagan in 1987Hackman alternated between leading and supporting roles during the 1980s.", "He appeared opposite Barbra Streisand in ''All Night Long'' (1981) and supported Warren Beatty in ''Reds'' (1981).", "He played the lead in ''Eureka'' (1983) and a support in ''Under Fire'' (1983).", "Hackman provided the voice of God in ''Two of a Kind'' (1983) and starred in ''Uncommon Valor'' (1983), ''Misunderstood'' (1984), ''Twice in a Lifetime'' (1985), ''Target'' (1985) for Arthur Penn, and ''Power'' (1986).", "Between 1985 and 1988, he starred in nine films, making him the busiest actor, alongside Steve Guttenberg.Hackman played a high school basketball coach in ''Hoosiers'' (1986), which a 2008 American Film Institute poll named the fourth-greatest sports film of all time.", "After ''Superman IV: The Quest for Peace'' (1987) Hackman was in ''No Way Out'' (1987), ''Split Decisions'' (1988), ''Bat*21'' (1988), ''Full Moon in Blue Water'' (1988), and ''Another Woman'' (1988) from Woody Allen.Hackman starred in ''Mississippi Burning'' (1988), where he was nominated for a second Best Actor Oscar.", "After this he was in ''The Package'' (1989).===1990s===Hackman starred in ''Loose Cannons'' (1990) with Dan Aykroyd, and he had a supporting role in ''Postcards from the Edge'' (1990).", "He appeared with Anne Archer in ''Narrow Margin'' (1990), a remake of the 1952 film ''The Narrow Margin''.After ''Class Action'' (1991) and ''Company Business'' (1991) Hackman played the sadistic sheriff \"Little Bill\" Daggett in the Western ''Unforgiven'' directed by Clint Eastwood and written by David Webb Peoples.", "Hackman had pledged to avoid violent roles, but Eastwood convinced him to take the part, which earned him a second Oscar, this time for Best Supporting Actor.", "The film also won Best Picture.In 1993, he appeared in ''Geronimo: An American Legend'' as Brigadier General George Crook, and co-starred with Tom Cruise as a corrupt lawyer in ''The Firm'', a legal thriller based on the John Grisham novel of the same name.", "Hackman would appear in two other films based on John Grisham novels, playing convict Sam Cayhall on death row in ''The Chamber'' (1996), and jury consultant Rankin Fitch in ''Runaway Jury'' (2003).Other notable films Hackman appeared in during the 1990s include ''Wyatt Earp'' (1994) (as Nicholas Porter Earp, Wyatt Earp's father), ''The Quick and the Dead'' (1995) opposite Sharon Stone, Leonardo DiCaprio and Russell Crowe, and as submarine Captain Frank Ramsey alongside Denzel Washington in ''Crimson Tide'' (1995).Hackman played film director Harry Zimm with John Travolta in the comedy-drama ''Get Shorty'' (1995).", "In 1996, he took a comedic turn as conservative Senator Kevin Keeley in ''The Birdcage'' with Robin Williams and Nathan Lane.", "He co-starred with Hugh Grant in ''Extreme Measures'' (1996) and reunited with Clint Eastwood in ''Absolute Power'' (1997).", "Hackman did ''Twilight'' (1998) with Paul Newman for director Robert Benton, did one of the voices for ''Antz'' (1998) and co-starred with Will Smith in ''Enemy of the State'' (1998), his character reminiscent of the one he had portrayed in ''The Conversation''.===2000s===Hackman co-starred with Morgan Freeman in ''Under Suspicion'' (2000), Keanu Reeves in ''The Replacements'' (2000), Owen Wilson in ''Behind Enemy Lines'' (2001), Sigourney Weaver in ''Heartbreakers'' (2001) and appeared in the David Mamet crime thriller ''Heist'' (2001), as an aging professional thief of considerable skill who is forced into one final job.", "He made a cameo in ''The Mexican'' (2001).Hackman gained much critical acclaim playing against type as the head of an eccentric family in Wes Anderson's comedy film ''The Royal Tenenbaums'' (2001), for which he received the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture Musical or Comedy.", "In 2003, he also starred in another John Grisham legal drama, ''Runaway Jury'', at long last getting to make a picture with his long-time friend Dustin Hoffman.In 2004, Hackman appeared alongside Ray Romano in the comedy ''Welcome to Mooseport'', his final film acting role to date.Hackman was honored with the Cecil B. DeMille Award from the Golden Globe Awards for his \"outstanding contribution to the entertainment field\" in 2003.===Retirement from acting===On July 7, 2004, Hackman gave a rare interview to Larry King, where he announced that he had no future film projects lined up and believed his acting career was over.", "In 2008, while promoting his third novel, he confirmed that he had retired from acting.", "When asked during a ''GQ'' interview in 2011 if he would ever come out of retirement to do one more film, he said he might consider it \"if I could do it in my own house, maybe, without them disturbing anything and just one or two people.\"", "He briefly came out of retirement to narrate two documentaries related to the Marine Corps: ''The Unknown Flag Raiser of Iwo Jima'' (2016)'''' and ''We, the Marines'' (2017)''.", "''===Writing===Hackman at a book signing in 2008Together with undersea archaeologist Daniel Lenihan, Hackman has written three historical fiction novels: ''Wake of the Perdido Star'' (1999), a sea adventure of the 19th century; ''Justice for None'' (2004), a Depression-era tale of murder; and ''Escape from Andersonville'' (2008) about a prison escape during the American Civil War.", "His first solo effort, a story of love and revenge set in the Old West titled ''Payback at Morning Peak'', was released in 2011.His most recent novel ''Pursuit'', a police thriller, followed in 2013.In 2011, Hackman appeared on the Fox Sports Radio show ''The Loose Cannons'', where he discussed his career and his novels with Pat O'Brien, Steve Hartman, and Vic \"The Brick\" Jacobs." ], [ "Personal life", "=== Marriages and family ===Hackman has been married twice.", "He has three children from his first marriage.In 1956, Hackman married Faye Maltese (1929–2017), with whom he had one son and two daughters: Christopher Allen, Elizabeth Jean, and Leslie Anne Hackman.", "He was often out on location making films while the children were growing up.", "The couple divorced in 1986, after three decades of marriage.In 1991, he married classical pianist Betsy Arakawa (b.", "1961).", "They share a Santa Fe, New Mexico home, which ''Architectural Digest'' featured in 1990.At the time, the home blended Southwestern styles and crested a twelve-acre hilltop, with a 360-degree view that stretched to the Colorado mountains.", ", Hackman continues to attend Santa Fe cultural events.=== Political views ===Hackman is a supporter of the Democratic Party, and was \"proud\" to be included on Nixon's Enemies List.", "However, he has spoken fondly of Republican president Ronald Reagan.=== Interests ===In the late 1970s, Hackman competed in Sports Car Club of America races, driving an open-wheeled Formula Ford.", "In 1983, he drove a Dan Gurney Team Toyota in the 24 Hours of Daytona Endurance Race.", "He also won the Long Beach Grand Prix Celebrity Race.Hackman is a fan of the Jacksonville Jaguars and regularly attended Jaguars games as a guest of former head coach Jack Del Rio.", "Their friendship goes back to Del Rio's playing days at the University of Southern California.Architecture and design are another of Hackman's interests.", "As of 1990, he had created ten homes, two of which were featured in ''Architectural Digest''.", "After a period of time, he moves onto another house restoration.", "\"I don't know what's wrong with me,\" he remarked, \"I guess I like the process, and when it's over, it's over.", "\"As of 2018, Hackman remains an active cyclist.=== Health ===In 1990, Hackman underwent an angioplasty.", "In 2012, 82-year-old Hackman was struck by a pickup truck while bicycling in the Florida Keys.", "Although it was initially reported that he had suffered serious head trauma, his publicist stated that his injury was nothing more than \"bumps and bruises\"." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film=== Year Title Role Notes 1961 ''Mad Dog Coll'' Policeman Uncredited 1964 ''Lilith'' Norman 1966 ''Hawaii'' John Whipple 1967 ''Banning'' Tommy Del Gaddo ''Community Shelter Planning'' Donald Ross, Regional Civil Defense Officer Short film '''' Alfred Harmsworth ''First to Fight'' Sergeant Tweed ''Bonnie and Clyde'' Buck Barrow 1968 '''' Lieutenant Walter Brill 1969 ''Riot'' 'Red' Fraker '''' Joe Browdy ''Downhill Racer'' Eugene Claire ''Marooned'' 'Buzz' Lloyd 1970 ''I Never Sang for My Father'' Gene Garrison 1971 ''Doctors' Wives'' Dave Randolph '''' Brandt Ruger '''' NYPD Detective Jimmy 'Popeye' Doyle 1972 ''Prime Cut'' Mary Ann '''' Reverend Frank Scott ''Cisco Pike'' Sergeant Leo Holland 1973 ''Scarecrow'' Max Millan 1974 '''' Harry Caul ''Young Frankenstein'' Harold, The Blind Man ''Zandy's Bride'' Zandy Allan 1975 ''French Connection II'' NYPD Detective Jimmy 'Popeye' Doyle ''Lucky Lady'' Kibby Womack ''Night Moves'' Harry Moseby ''Bite the Bullet'' Sam Clayton 1977 '''' Roy Tucker '''' Major General Stanisław Sosabowski ''March or Die'' Major William Sherman Foster 1978 ''Superman'' Lex Luthor 1980 ''Superman II'' 1981 ''All Night Long'' George Dupler ''Reds'' Pete Van Wherry 1983 ''Under Fire'' Alex Grazier ''Two of a Kind'' God Voice, uncredited ''Uncommon Valor'' Colonel Jason Rhodes, USMC (Ret.)", "''Eureka'' Jack McCann 1984 ''Misunderstood'' Ned Rawley 1985 ''Twice in a Lifetime'' Harry MacKenzie ''Target'' Walter Lloyd / Duncan 'Duke' Potter 1986 ''Power'' Wilfred Buckley ''Hoosiers'' Coach Norman Dale 1987 ''No Way Out'' Defense Secretary David Brice ''Superman IV: The Quest for Peace'' Lex Luthor, Nuclear Man 1988 ''Bat*21'' Lieutenant Colonel Iceal Hambleton, USAF ''Split Decisions'' Danny McGuinn ''Another Woman'' Larry Lewis ''Full Moon in Blue Water'' Floyd ''Mississippi Burning'' FBI Special Agent Rupert Anderson 1989 '''' Sergeant Johnny Gallagher 1990 ''Loose Cannons'' Detective MacArthur 'Mac' Stern ''Postcards from the Edge'' Lowell Kolchek ''Narrow Margin'' Robert Caulfield 1991 ''Class Action'' Jedediah Tucker Ward ''Company Business'' Sam Boyd 1992 ''Unforgiven'' Sheriff Bill 'Little Bill' Daggett 1993 '''' Avery Tolar ''Geronimo: An American Legend'' Brigadier General George Crook 1994 ''Wyatt Earp'' Nicholas Earp 1995 '''' John Herod ''Crimson Tide'' Captain Frank Ramsey ''Get Shorty'' Harry Zimm 1996 '''' Senator Kevin Keeley ''Extreme Measures'' Dr. Lawrence Myrick '''' Sam Cayhall 1997 ''Absolute Power'' President Allen Richmond 1998 ''Twilight'' Jack Ames ''Antz'' General Mandible Voice ''Enemy of the State'' Edward 'Brill' Lyle 2000 ''Under Suspicion'' Henry Hearst Also executive producer '''' Coach Jimmy McGinty 2001 '''' Arnold Margolese ''Heartbreakers'' William B. Tensy ''Heist'' Joe Moore ''Behind Enemy Lines'' Admiral Leslie Reigart '''' Royal Tenenbaum 2003 ''Runaway Jury'' Rankin Fitch 2004 ''Welcome to Mooseport'' Monroe 'Eagle' Cole ===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1961 ''Tallahassee 7000'' Joe Lawson Episode: \"The Fugitive\" 1963 ''Route 66'' Motorist Episode: \"Who Will Cheer My Bonny Bride?\"", "1967 ''The F.B.I.''", "Herb Kenyon Episode: \"The Courier\" ''The Invaders'' Tom Jessup Episode: \"The Spores\" 1968 ''Shadow on the Land'' Reverend Thomas Davis Television film 2008''Diners, Drive-Ins and Dives'' Self Episode: \"Big Breakfast\" 2016 ''The Unknown Flag Raiser of Iwo Jima''NarratorVoice, documentary 2017 ''We, the Marines''===Theatre=== Year Title Role Notes1960–1961 ''The Premise'' Various roles The Premise, Bleecker Street1963 ''Children From Their Games'' Charles Widgin Rochambeau Morosco Theatre, Broadway1963 ''A Rainy Day in Newark'' Sidney Rice Belasco Theatre, Broadway1963 ''Come to the Palace of Sin'' Performer Lucille Lortel Theatre, Off-Broadway 1964–1965 ''Any Wednesday'' Cass Henderson Music Box Theatre / George Abbott Theatre 1964–1965 ''Poor Richard'' Sydney Caroll Helen Hayes Theatre, Broadway1967 ''The Natural Look'' Dr. Barney Harris Longacre Theatre, Broadway1967 ''Fragments'' / ''The Basement'' Baxter / Zach Cherry Lane Theatre, Off-Broadway1992 ''Death and the Maiden'' Roberto Miranda Brooks Atkinson Theatre, Broadway" ], [ "Accolades", "Asteroid 55397 Hackman, discovered by Roy Tucker in 2001, was named in his honor.", "The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on May 18, 2019 ()." ], [ "Publications", "* Hackman, Gene, and Daniel Lenihan.", "''Wake of the Perdido Star''.", "New York: Newmarket Press, 1999..", ".", "* Hackman, Gene, and Daniel Lenihan.", "''Justice for None''.", "New York: St. Martins Press, 2004..", ".", "* Hackman, Gene, and Daniel Lenihan.", "''Escape from Andersonville: A Novel of the Civil War''.", "New York: St. Martin's Press, 2008..", ".", "* Hackman, Gene.", "''Payback at Morning Peak: A Novel of the American West''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster Inc, 2011..", ".", "* Hackman, Gene.", "''Pursuit''.", "New York: Pocket Books, 2013.. ." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * *" ] ]
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